ist UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORN: T| OIFT OF HENRY DOUGLASS BACON. 1877. "1 Accessions No. ___ //A-erf< ctly organised} VERMES. < of their respective circles ; des-> AMPHIBIANS. C ,-titute of teeth. 3 CIRRHIPEDES. { B S cIle S . Vered WUh ^ ****' ^ j FlSHES. Among authe different arrangements that have yet ap- peared of the annulose animals, there is not one which 10 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. attempts to establish any sort of relationship between them and the Vertebrata. This has originated from two causes : firstly, from considering the Annulosa as an isolated group, whose divisions were not subject to any general or comprehensive principles ; and secondly, from adopting as the basis of their arrangement a prin- ciple of classification which, as will be shown in the sequel, appears absolutely artificial. Vague,, therefore, N as one or two of the above analogies may appear, it is yet some satisfaction to see how strong and singularly beautiful they are in others. Of all insects, for instance, none are so perfectly organised for walking as the Ap- tera,) since here we find the centipede, the lulus, and many other creatures, whose legs may be almost termed innumerable. The quadrupeds, which they thus re- present, are precisely in the same position, since they are the most perfect walkers of all the Vertebrata. The four-winged insects forming the class Ptilota, and at the head of which stand the butterflies, may truly be called the birds of annulose animals, which they further represent by the feathery down with which their wings are covered and the brilliant colours with which both are ornamented. The resemblance between the serpents and the Annelides will be admitted by every one not blinded by system ; for who that looks upon an earth- worm will not be reminded of a snake ? The least or- ganised of ah 1 the Annulosa are the intestinal worms, some of which are so low in the scale that no articulations of their body can be discerned. In this imperfection they resemble the amphibians, the most imperfect of the Vertebrata, and where the naked skin is entirely unprotected. Lastly, the Cirrhipedes, without hav- ing the least resemblance in external form to fishes, nevertheless resemble them in having the body covered with hard plates, and always living in the water. These are only the most prominent analogies, but they are such as will strike a common observer ; and however they may be extended hereafter, are at least sufficient to TYPICAL GROUPS OF THE ANNULOSA. 11 show a mutual relationship between these two great divisions of animals hitherto undiscovered. (10.) Before taking leave of these analogies, it will be as well to make a few additional observations relative to the two typical groups. As we wish to meet difficulties rather than to avoid them, we may here anticipate an objection that may be urged against the theory of the Ptilota being the pre-eminently typical group of the An- nulosa. If, it may be argued, the annular rings of which their body is composed be the chief characteristic of in- sects, then it would reasonably follow, that those which have the greatest number of these rings are the most ty- pical. The consequence of this admission would be, that the Apterafa the head of which stands thelulidce') would become the most typical Annulosa. This theory appears to receive additional support from the fact that the Ap- tera in our table stand in a parallel line of analogy to the quadrupeds, which, in many other respects, they certainly represent. The Ptilota, or winged insects, having fewer segments to their body, thus become the sub-typical group, holding the same rank among Annulosa as birds do among Vertebrata. These arguments, which are cer- tainly entitled to much consideration, for a long time ex- cited strong doubts in our mind as to which of these we should apply the term typical. On the other hand, if we embrace the received opinion that metamorphosis is the great characteristic of these animals, then the dif- ficulty is solved, since this peculiarity is only seen in its full development among the Ptilota, which would thus become pre-eminently typical. Besides, in all the groups of the animal kingdom which we have investigated, and our readers are now aware that the number is not small, we have invariably found that the most perfect ani- mals, that is, those whose organisation or instincts were most superior, were invariably the typical. In this way Vertebrata are superior to Annulosa, quadrupeds to birds, the Quadrumana and the Insessores to the Ferce and the Raptores, and so on. When, therefore, we find this 12 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. principle so general, we have every reason to believe it must be also true in the present instance. What person, in fact,, whether naturalist or not, who knows any thing of the bee or the ant, would ever think of classing them as inferior in the scale of creation to a spider, a wood- louse, or a scorpion ? Now the group which contains these two highly-gifted families is that of Ptilota, which we consequently infer is the typical class of the Annulosa. This question, after all, is purely speculative, for whether we reverse our original position, and adopt the op- posite opinion before mentioned, it will have no effect whatever in altering that progression of affinity which results from analysis. Affinities must be traced in de- tail, and therefore analysis is the only sure road which the investigator of the natural system should venture upon in his first advances. Analogies must be discovered after : they are, indeed, indispensable, but they are not to supersede the facts resulting from analysis. It will frequently happen that from ignorance, either of habits or structure, we are at one time unable to trace the analogies of two groups, which subsequent information has proved to be analogous. (11.) The analogies now shown to exist between the primary groups of the vertebrate animals, and those in which we have distributed the Annulosa, leads to se- veral conclusions, not at first apparent, yet intimately bearing on several questions of the highest importance. In the first place, presuming this exposition is correct, we arrive at a definite conclusion on the rank or value of the groups thus brought into comparison. Those, indeed, of the Vertebrata have been long ago settled, not only by the common consent of the most eminent modern zoologists, but by the searching analysis to which they have been submitted in our former volumes. We know, moreover, that as the Annulosa form one of the primary divisions of the animal kingdom, its con- tents cannot be correctly distributed, unless they cor- respond, in some measure, with the contents of the REMARKS ON THE PRIMARY DIVISIONS. 13 vertebrate circle. Without this there could be no mutual relationship, no harmony of parts; and all that has been written on the analogies of the animal creation would fall to the ground. Either the natural arrange- ment of the Annulo-ta coincides with those principles which regulate the variation of the Vertebrata and all other animals, or we must adopt the preposterous sup- position that they have been formed upon a totally different plan. Now this idea, improbable in itself, is falsified by the comparison we have just laid before the reader. It therefore follows, that no arrangement of the Annulosa can,, by any possibility, be a natural one, unless it developes analogies to the Vertebrata equally strong with those we have just stated. We are not now speaking of the details, for an arrangement may be substantially true in its outlines, it may even be based on the foundation of truth, and yet may be defective or erroneous in some parts of its superstructure. This, however, is an after- con si deration. The primary groups, still less the general principles, will never be affected by such inaccuracies ; and in the meantime we get what is of the highest importance to the philosophic zoologist a definite notion on the value of those groups employed in the comparison, groups which have been acknow- ledged by all writers, but upon whose value not any two have hitherto agreed. The Crustacea, for instance, were considered by the fathers of entomology as an order equivalent in value to the Coleoptera. But Cuvier, at- taching an undue importance, as he frequently did, to these animals, breathing by a different set of organs to winged insects, made them into a class. This innova- tion was soon followed up by another, and Lamarck on similar grounds elevated the spiders to the same rank. This mistaken principle, once sanctioned by such names, induced almost every succeeding author to make fresh classes and orders ; until the apterous insects, one of the most natural in the whole animal kingdom, have at length been thrown unto the greatest confusion : all the 14 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. leading and natural divisions have been frittered away, and almost every writer brings out a new arrangement, founded upon nothing better than arbitrary opinion. Now it is quite obvious, that if entomologists had looked beyond those animals more immediately studied, little or nothing of this confusion would have arisen. They would have discovered that the Crustacea by no means constituted a class, for then there would have been six classes among the Annulosa, while the Vertebrata had but five. It appears to us, in short, that the rank of groups can only be determined by analogical comparison, a process which implies a much more general acquaint- ance with zoology than is usually bestowed upon it by those who merely study one of its branches. What faith or dependence could possibly be placed on the opinions of an entomologist, who proceeded to make an arrangement of the annulose division, founded en- tirely upon his knowledge of such only as are possessed of wings ? Taken abstractedly, such an arrangement car- ries upon its face the certainty of error. And yet more than one of those systems for the Annulosa, which have obtained some degree of notoriety, have every appear- ance of being the offspring of such partial and contracted views, v . We hope not to be mistaken in this : we desire to do ample justice to the zeal and ability of all who have gone before us in the path we are now pursuing ; but it is absolutely necessary to inculcate, in the rising generation, sound principles of studying nature, and to combat the idea that because an entomologist is emi- nent in his own walk, he is therefore competent to judge of those laws which regulate the whole of the animal creation, of which he is only acquainted with a small part. (12.) Another inference to be drawn from the fore- going table is scarcely of less importance than that we have just mentioned. As the primary groups of the Annulosa are thus found to represent those of the Fer- tebrata, it follows, as a necessary consequence, that they UNIVERSAL CONSISTENCY OP ANALOGIES. 15 equally represent all other groups, large or small, which agree in having analogies with the vertebrate series. This is one of the consequences of the law of universal representation, which, while it saves a world of expla- natory details, reduces all the variations of animal forms to one and the same uniform law. One such table as the last, if correctly drawn up, does away with the necessity of testing the Annulosa by comparing them with any other circular group ; although such additional compa- risons would certainly tend very much to elucidate the subject, and confirm the correctness of our theory. The reader of our former volumes will perfectly understand this when he remembers that in each of those secondary divisions of the Vertebrata, named in our table, there is found representations of those in which the entire class is first divided; so that the different races of quadrupeds have their counterparts in the different races of birds, of fish, and so on. Hence, if one is correct, the others, theoretically, must be correct also. The student, with our former volumes before him, is thus enabled to trace the analogies of the Annulosa through the whole of the vertebrate circle.* But he need not stop even here. If the basis of an arrangement is natural, it will stand any test ; we shall, therefore, devote one more paragraph to the analogies of the annulose animals, and then proceed to treat them in further detail. So many curious points of coincidence will thus come to light, that we trust the general reader, no less than the professed entomologist, will feel interested in our exposition. (13.) Few classes of animals can be more different than insects and shellfish. Yet if our proposition, that each forms a circular group, is true, then it will necessa- rily follow that the contents of one represent the contents of the other. How far this is really the case will be judged of by the following table and the explanations which follow : * See the Treatise on MALACOLOGY, or Shells and Shellfish, where the analogies they bear to the vertebrate animals and to the Annulosa are stated at ch. ii. p. 49. 16 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. Analogies of the ANNULOSA to the TESTACEA. Analogical Characters. rPre-minently typical; head dis-} 1 tinct, with long antenna? or ten- > GASI C tacula 3 Classes of the Analogical Characters. Annulosa. f Mouth surrounded with long ten- ns ; .soft parts of DlTHYRA. ( a shell. Oe most simple in their organ-} T% gf&JuSrf S- [ PATA. :hiae. . 3 rDisk of the belly flattened, and} ANiNELiDES. < often performing the office of a V NUDIBRANCHIA. t foot. 3 The high development of the head and of the antennse are not the least remarkable characters of the Ptilota, or typical insects ; while, at the same time, it is all but universal in the Gasteropoda to find the head distinct, and the tentacula, representing antennse, more or less developed. The reverse of this, however, takes place in the apterous insects (Aptera), and the bivalve shell- fish (Dithyra) : the whole of the spiders and scorpions are familiar examples, setting aside the crabs, where the whole body at first sight appears turned into a head, without, however, its limits being at all defined. The Dithyra, or bivalve shellfish, are absolutely headless, and live, like their prototypes, entirely by suction. The analogies between the barnacles (jCirrhipedes) and the cuttlefish (Cephalopoda) are even more striking to an ordinary observer than the former instances. Both have the mouth surrounded by long flexible arms, with which they seize their prey and convey it to their mouth, placed like that of the radiated animals, in the centre; and in both are numerous animals whose body is protected by shells. The strong analogy, as was formerly observed *, between the Parenchymata and the annulose Vermes has induced * Malacology, p. 52. ARRANGEMENT OF THE ANNELIDES. 17 all writers to blend them together, even to this day; the one being the most imperfect of all the Testacea, as the other is of the Annulosa. Leaving these, we arrive at the annulose Annelids* and the testaceous Nudibranchia. Even a naturalist, looking to the outward appearance of these creatures, might readily be deceived in mistaking one for the other: their bodies, generally naked, are often ornamented with tufts of plumed or branched ap- pendages, assuming the aspect of horns, filaments, or tentacula ; they are in truth the very prototypes of each other. No wonder, therefore, that the older naturalists, and even Linnaeus, mixed them together, since the fact of one having red and the other white blood was not in those days, considered of much consequence. It is seldom that analogies, so striking as these, run through all the component parts of two series of animals ; for it generally happens that some are much more remote or obscure than others. The completeness, therefore, of this comparison is an additional evidence in favour of our theory on the primary types of the annulose circle. Leaving the ty- pical groups for the present, we shall now take a rapid glance at the three aberrant classes belonging to this division of animals. (14.) The general characters of the ANNELIDES, or at least of the animals arranged by M. Savigny in this group, may be thus stated. They are soft, worm-like animals, mostly aquatic *, either naked, or protected by an ex- ternal shelly or agglutinated tube. The body is wrinkled transversely, or composed of annular segments. Their forms are very singular, and many are ornamented with beautiful colours, but these fade almost immediately after death. Their body being annular, brings them within the circle of the Annulosa ; but their blood is red; they have usually one or more hearts, and, with very few exceptions, are destitute of a distinct head: the sexes, moreover, are not always separate, but the majority are hermaphrodites. They are without any articulated members for locomotion; although some * Hor. Ent. 280. 18 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. possess processes or setse, which can be protruded or withdrawn at pleasure, placed on each side of the body, which serve the animal as feet. The construc- tion of the mouth is excessively variable. In some (Nereidce), it is lengthened into a proboscis furnished with jaws : in the Serpulidte, or worm-shelfs, which have a testaceous covering, there is an appearance of two lips ; while in the leeches (Hirudmidce), there is a prehensile cavity, supplied with parts which perform the office of jaws. The vertical movements of these parts, which so eminently distinguish vertebrate ani- mals, is still observable in many of the Annelides; but what particularly distinguishes the two groups from each other, is the nervous system of these worms, which, according to Cuvier and Savigny, is longitudinal, double, and knotted, or ganglionic, like that of insects. In the leeches, this similitude extends to the same number of ganglions.* The connection of this group with the Verte- brata and annulose animals has been before demonstrated. We shall, however, in this place, cite the opinion of Mr. MacLeay, who writes as follows : " That the Annelides, thus lying between the two most perfect forms in zoology, should be so inferior in the senses and powers of locomotion to both, is certainly surprising ; " but, on further reflection, we shall cease to think this anomalous, and may in some measure even expect that the vital powers of these beings ought to be influenced by the circumstance, that Nature in them is leaving one plan of construction, in order to adopt another which is totally different. (15.) The affinity between these animals and the fishes, through the medium of Gastrobranchus, is thus stated by our author. u The common leech is a red- blooded aquatic animal, which swims, like the lam- preys, in an undulatory motion. Like those animals, it has a circulation composed of veins and arteries : it breathes, like them, by two rows of holes, which * Hor. Ent. 278. ARRANGEMENT OP THE ANNELIDES. 19 communicate with branchial pouches. The mouth is still surrounded by a lip proper for suction, and contains three maxillae, one answering to the soli- tary upper tooth of the Gastrobranchus, and the other to the lateral teeth of its tongue. These maxillae are minute, compressed, and serrated with very small teeth. The affinity of the leech to the cyclostomous fishes seems to have been first perceived by Linneeus, as appears by the place which he gave to his genus Myxine. When, moreover, we find their habits to be so similar, it may be said that nothing more is wanted to complete the resemblance, than that the wrinkled membranaceous skeleton of Ammocostus should, in the leech, be supposed to form the envelope of the whole animal." Our author, nevertheless, remarks, that " a great alteration, however, has now taken place in the internal structure, notwithstanding the above very evi- dent affinities." That the Annelides, on the other hand, approach to true insects, through the medium of the JVereidte, or sea- worms, is highly probable. These latter are more complicated in their structure than any others, from possessing a head, antennae, and blackish points resembling eyes : these eyes, however,' are so imperfect, that Latreille compares them to the rudimentary ocelli visible in caterpillars and other in- sect larvae. From the Nereida, moreover, agreeing in certain particulars, relating to their organs of reproduc- tion, with the Myriapoda, Mr. MacLeay considers that there is an affinity between them. He observes, " If to these considerations be added their vermicular motion, the form and disposition of their feet, the two last of which are sometimes, as in Nereis margaritacea, trans- formed into filiform appendages, exactly similar to those which terminate the body of several Myriapoda, we can have no doubt," concludes our author, " of our having at length reached truly the annulose animals, which are white-blooded, and are externally articulated." * All * HoraeEnt. p.282. C 2 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. these relations indeed exist, and yet may be accounted for upon the simple principle, that the Nereida, in their own circle,, represent the Myriapoda, hut without having any affinity to them. As we have had no opportunity of studying these animals, we shall depart somewhat from our usual practice., and, instead of venturing upon any arrangement of our own, shall here lay before the reader the views entertained of their natural classifi- cation by others. (l6.) Cuvier, who first discriminated this class by the name of Fers a sang rouge, has arranged them into three orders, founded upon their different modes of respiration. These are named Tubicoles, Dorsibranches, and Abranches. The first have their branchiae in the form of a plume of feathers, attached to the head or to the anterior part of the body ; which latter is always protected by a tubular sheath. The second have the branchiae disposed on the sides of the body, where they assume the form of little ramified branches, tufts, plates, or tubercles : the greatest number live in the mud or freely swim in the ocean ; but some few inhabit tubes, like the former division. The third class comprehends such as have no apparent branchiae, and which respire from the surface of the skin, or, as it is supposed, by interior cavities. The greatest part of these animals live at the bottom of the sea, but a few reside in humid ground, like the earth-worm. The learned Savigny divides the Annelides into five orders, three of which are furnished with those bristly appendages on the sides of the body which perform the office of feet, and which are wanting in the other two.* Lamarck's ar- rangement of the Annelides is founded upon the facts disclosed by Savigny. He divides the whole group under the three following orders : 1 . Annelides apodes, or footless Annelides ; 2. Annelides antennees, or such * Mentioned in Horce Entomologies, p. 281. The recent arrangement of MacLeay, hereafter noticed, seems to be precisely the same as Savigny 's, - at least, in the primary divisions. ARRANGEMENT OP THE ANNELIDES. 21 as are furnished with antennae ; 3. Annelides seden- taires, or such as are fixed to other substances. (17.) The arrangement of Milne Edwards is the most recent ; and, although leading to no general re- sults connected with the other classes of the Annulosa, may here be inserted, as disclosing some important facts relative to structure, which may hereafter be turned to good account: although, where no general principles are aimed at, we seldom notice these isolated arrangements. (18.) The author in question divides the Anne- lides into two groups: 1. The ANNELIDES APODES, or footless Annelides ; and, 2. The ANNELIDES CHE- TOPODES, which are assisted in their locomotion by setae placed upon pediform tubercles. The former, or ANNELIDES APODES, are very inferior in point of num- bers to the latter, and are distinguished by having a sucker at both their extremities. They constitute two families ; viz. the Hirudimda, or leeches, the body of which is wholly unfurnished with appendages, and these form two tribes ; the Albionnides, in which the oral sucker is but of one piece, and is separated from the body by a constriction, its orifice being evidently longitudinal. Here he places the genus Pontobdella, the species of which are natives of the ocean, and attach them- selves chiefly to the chondropterygeous fishes, as the rays and sharks ; and Piscicola, which inhabits fresh waters, and frequents carps and tench. The second tribe are the Bdelleoides, in which the sucker consists of several pieces, and is scarcely separate from the rest of the body. It has its aperture transverse, forming, as it were, two lips, the interior of which is drawn back. This tribe contains B delta, Hirudo, Erpobdella, Ne- phelys, &c. the most celebrated of which is the medi- cinal leech (Hirudo). They are all inhabitants of fresh water, and some die almost instantly on being with- drawn from it, whilst others will live out of it for a considerable time. Many of them are great enemies to c 3 22 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. the earth-worm (Lumbricus) ; whilst they themselves are preyed on hy birds, fishes,, and the aquatic larvae of hexapod insects. The second family,, or Branchellio- nidce, which have the hody furnished above with a double series of membranous foliaceous appendages, is formed by the single genus Branchellion, the typical species of which attaches itself to the Torpedo in the Mediterranean. (19.) The second large division of the group, the ANNELIDES CHETOPODES, is considerably the most nu- merous, and may be further separated into two sub- divisions ; viz. the Annelides Cephalobranchice, or Tubi- coles, and the Annelides Mesobranchice. The former are without a head, eyes, or maxillae, and the body is terminated anteriorly by a mouth. It is usually furnished with appendages, the whole or the majority of which are collected in front. It is also supplied with hooked or subulated setae, which emanate from pediform tuber- cles, and which enable them to ascend or descend within their tubes. The majority can neither swim nor walk ; and those which crawl upon the ground, do so by the aid of their tentacula. These animals always reside in tubes, which are affixed to other substances, and which but few quit. Lamarck styled them sedentary, from this circumstance; but very many which he arranged in this division, from the animal being imperfectly known, have, with the progress of research, been discovered to belong to the gasteropodous mollusks, as Magilis, Ver- metuSy Dentalium, Siliquaria, &c. : the habitations of many of these animals are, consequently, very simi- lar to those of the latter. The impervious nature of their tubular residences required that their respiratory apparatus should be collected at its orifice ; and we therefore thus find their structure accommodating itself to their natural economy. Several of these creatures are gregarious, and their tubes then assume very much the appearance of honeycombs. The animals them- selves are elongate and vermiform. They consist of ARRANGEMENT OF THE ANNELIDES. 23 several families ; viz. the Serpulidce, the Amphitritidce, and the Terebellidce, &c. : the latter reside in slight tubes, which are buried in the sand or concealed beneath stones. The Amphitritidce are readily recognised by the golden setae, arranged like the teeth of a comb, at their anterior extremity. The tube of the Serpulidce is cal- careous and convoluted ; and the anterior extremity of their body is ornamented with a coronet of appendages resembling plumes disposed in the shape of a funnel. They contain many genera, as Serpula, Sabella, Her- mella, Pectinaria y &c. (20.) The ANNELIDES MESOBRANCHI^, which con- stitute the second subdivision of the Annelides Cheto- podes, are distinguished by the body extending beyond the oral aperture ; and it is usually terminated by a dis- tinct head, frequently furnished with eyes and maxillae ; and they have either no appendages, or these are placed along the whole course of the body. They are separated into three families ; viz. the Terricoles, the Arcnicoks, and the Errantes, or Cephalota. The first of these have no dermal appendages ; and have neither a very distinct head, eyes, antennae, nor maxillae ; their body is cylin- drical, attenuated at both extremities, and furnished with several rows of setae, which serve them instead of legs ; and they live either in humid earth, or in the mud. The Lumbricus, or earth-worm, is the best known example of this group, which consists of three tribes, the Thalassamenida, the LumbricidcB, and the Clymenidce. The first contains the genera Thalassema and Sternapsis ; the second, Nctts, Tubifex and Lumbri- cus ; and the third contains Clymene ; which last makes an approach to the Tubicoles, on account of its fragile tube, formed of grains of sand and particles of shells, although its structural peculiarities agree better with this family. (21.) The second family, the Arenicoles, consisting of the genera Arenicola and Chetoptera, have many characters in common with the preceding : these have, c 4 24 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. however, their branchiae placed only on the middle of the body. Their structure is more simple than that of the Errantes,to which, through the medium of the Aricida, consisting of the genera Cirratulus, Ophelia, Aricia, &c., they form the passage. They inhabit the sands of the ocean, at the depth of one or two feet ; and they betray their retreat by the small convoluted threads of sand formed on the surface. Fishermen make great use of them to bait their hooks ; and, when caught, they stain the fingers with a yellow liquid. (22.) The third and last family, the Errantes, is the largest of all ; they form several tribes, and consist of a multitude of genera. They are the most highly or- ganised of the whole of this group ; having a very dis- tinct head, furnished with antennae, eyes, and almost always a protractile proboscis armed with maxillae : each ring of their body bears a pair of feet, the structure of which varies considerably, sometimes placed on the back and the belly, and each consisting of two tubercles ; yet both are occasionally united, and their extremity is furnished with a pencil of setae. When the feet are united, and form but one organ, they are generally fur- nished with a pair of cirrhi, or fleshy filiform append- ages, at the base of which the branchiae are seated. The setae themselves, which decorate the feet, are usu- ally rigid and retractile, and they then serve for loco- motion and the defence of the animal; but they are also often very long and flexible, and cannot then be withdrawn into the body, but cover it like a dense fur. They walk and swim well ; but usually dwell beneath stones, among shells, or buried in the sand. A mucus that exudes from them, frequently forms around them a sort of tubular case, which they inhabit, but which is of a less compact and solid structure than that observed in the Tubicoles; and besides, the animal has the power of quitting it to seek its food and prey. They are all marine animals. We will briefly enumerate the tribes they constitute, and the more conspicuous genera. > (23.) Those without cirrhi at the base of their feet ARRANGEMENT OF THE ANNELIDES. 25 form two tribes, each consisting of a single genus, Pe- repates and Campontia. Those which have their feet furnished with cirrhi, are the NEREID^E, which are very abundant upon our coasts. They have a slender elon- gate body, their legs are furnished with tubercles, and the proboscis is armed with two very strong mandibles. They comprise many genera; viz. Glycera, Nephtys, Alciope, Nereis, Syllis, Phyllis, Hesione, &c. The Eu- NICID^E resemble the latter in their general form ; but their feet are furnished with long filaments springing from one stem, like the teeth of a comb. They com- prise the genera CEnone and Aglaura, which have eight mandibles, and conceal the head beneath the first segment of the body : Lycidice and Leodice have seven man- dibles, with the head free and porrect; and further, Dio- patra, Eunice, &c. The AMPHYNOMID^E are those whose branchiae are very complicated, being tufted or ramose, and they are spread all over the body. They have no maxillae. The genera they consist of are Hiponoe, Euphrosyne, Amphynoma, Chloe'ia. And, lastly, the ApimoiHTiDuE, which are the most conspicuous of all : their body is oval, and fringed with long setae glittering with the most brilliant metallic splendour ; their back is furnished with large membranous plates like elytra, dis- posed alternately, and hidden beneath an arch of fur formed by a dense multitude of hairs, which spring, like the before-mentioned setae, from the feet of the animal, and are placed alternately as far as the twenty-fifth pair. They comprise Sigalion, Palmyra, Aphrodita, c. Polynoe closely approaches the Aphroditce in their struc- ture, but the latter are destitute of setae. [(1823.) W.E. Sh.] (24.) Mr. MacLeay's is the last arrangement of the Annelides we shall notice : his definition of the whole class and of the chief groups will here be given in nearly his own words. These animals, he observes, differ from true (or rather typical) Annulosa, in being hermaphrodite, and in general red-blooded. They are soft, vermiform animals, of an articulated structure^ 26 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. and which form the immediate connection between such vertebrate animals as Amphioocus and Myxine among fish, and such annulose animals as Porocephalus^ and other white-blooded Fermes as have the sexes distinct. He divides the whole into five principal groups : . 1. The Nereidina, or such as are free, having a distinct head, provided either with eyes, or antennae, or with both. 2. Serpulina, the animals of which are se- dentary, destitute of a head, but provided with eyes or antennae. These two are considered the typical groups, and are distinguished by having their body provided with distinct feet. 3. The Lumbricina are animals without eyes or antennae, having the body setigerous for locomotion, and the articulations distinct. 4. The Nemertina, which are aquatic animals, without eyes or antennae, the body not externally setigerous, and the articulations indistinct. 5. and lastly, the Hirudina are animals provided generally with eyes, but not with antennae : the body is not externally setigerous, but the articulations are distinct. To these definitions Mr. MacLeay has added the following observations on three of these groups, which are too valuable to be omitted. The Nereidina he considers as the most perfect in their structure of all the class, as they possess numerous organs, and have a distinct head, which is generally provided with eyes and antennae : some of them, after the manner of the Serpulina, inhabit tubes, which tubes are membranaceous, and formed by a transudation from their body ; but in general the Nereidina are naked, and they are always agile animals, freely moving about in search of their prey. In general appearance they are wonderfully like centipedes. 2. The Serpulina of our author are sedentary animals, without eyes or an- tennae : they live in tubes, which are either a natural transudation of their body, of a membranaceous or cal- careous substance, or their tubes are semifactitious, or, in other words, composed of an agglutination of particles of sand, or other small substances. The calcareous nature of the tube in some Serpulina is very advantageous for REMARKS ON THE VERMES. 27 their preservation in a fossil state. 3. The Nemertina are white-blooded worms, like some of the Hirudina, or leeches : in this group, however, the character of ar- ticulation becomes most indistinct. Rudolphi has placed Gordius along with Nemertes ; and if Gordius goes into the group of Nemertina, it is possible that lularia may also. Nemertes Borlasii is a long black sea-wornr, which is said to suck shellfish ; and the articulations of its body become visible when it is contracted.* (25.) Respecting the VERMES, or annulose worms, all we can state in this place is matter rather of opinion than of investigation. In a former volumef, we have felt no hesitation in considering a large portion of Cuvier's Pa- renchymata as belonging to the class of Testacea. We have been led to this determination from the analogy of Guilding's genus Herpa to that of Planaria; and from the latter animals crawling upon a disk -shaped belly, per- fectly like the Nudibranchia, or the dories and tritons, ah 1 of which are universally considered as naked Mollusca. On the other hand, we should be disposed to place among the true Fermes all those in which the body, from being cylindrical, presents no vestige of a disk. Probably the greater part of the Entozoa of Rudolphi come under this head ; they all live and propagate in the interior of others, and they are so various that al- most every animal has its own particular parasite. In some of these, particularly in the order Nemato'idea, there are no perceptible joints, but the external skin is striated transversely: but as we ascend higher in the scale, these incipient indications of the annulose struc- ture disappear, and the body, as in the whole family of the T&nio'idea, or tape-worms, is composed, as Cuvier justly says, of joints more or less distinctly marked ; the whole being terminated at one extremity by a square head, hollowed by four small suckers, while the other is attenuated to a narrow point. True it is, that both * Note on the Annelida ; Annals of Natural History, No. xvi. p. 385. f Malacology, p. 37. 28 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. Rudolph! and Cuvier place the latter among the Paren- chymaia, simply because the body has slight indications of viscera ; but the distinction is too vague, and we are by no means disposed to adopt the views of arrange- ment proposed by these two eminent zoologists. Of all the true Vermes, the Filaria is perhaps the most simple,, and the genus Tcenia the most complicated. It has been said by some writer, that the tape- worm should more properly be considered a compound animal ; since, if the true head be severed from the body, another would spring up in its place : this may possibly be true, but it is doubtful, and the fact does not touch the case in question ; the remaining portion is still divided into segments or flattened rings, and the animal, to all intents and purposes, is annulose. That beings so simply constructed, are in- timately related to the Annelides, may be inferred from the fact that most authors include the Gordius, or hair- worm, with the latter, and the Filaria, or Guinea worm, with the former, or the Nemato'idea. This pest of hot climates is said to be very common, particularly on the African coast, where it insinuates itself under the skin of the natives, and is reputed to acquire the length of more than ten feet. In this manner it will continue to grow for several years, sometimes causing such intense agony as to produce convulsions in the unhappy sufferer. Its body is of the thickness of a very small quill ; and when it shows itself externally, the whole must be gently drawn out, otherwise it breaks, and excruciating suffering is produced. The most typical of all the true Vermes are probably found in Cuvier's family of Tanio'idea, which includes all those intestinal animals in which the head is furnished with two or more suckers placed round its middle, the centre of which is either marked by a pore, or sometimes furnished with a little proboscis, which is either naked or armed with spines. It has been ge- nerally asserted, that the pores of the head are connected by canals or nerves which creep along the margin of the joints of the body : each of these joints has one or two REMARKS O> T THE CIRRHIPEDES. 29 pores, differently situated,, which appear to be the orifices of ovaries ; a clear proof; should such he the fact, that every tape- worm is not a compound, hut a single animal. The common, or hest known species, Tcenia lata, is one of the most cruel enemies to mankind; it occasions ex- cruciating agonies, and frequently produces death : it has been said to attain the incredible length of upwards of a hundred feet; but that of twenty appears much more likely. We need not dwell further on this class of animals, which appear to have been created as afflictions to the human race, and whose natural arrangement, although so much has been written upon their structure, appears to us to be involved in considerable obscurity. They form, indeed, a part of that varied chain in cre- ation, which unites, by imperceptible and graduated links, the lovely and the disgusting the inviting and the repulsive. But where there is so much to admire and to fascinate, the general reader, for whom our pages are chiefly intended, will turn from those creatures which prey upon his perishable body, that he may be- stow more admiration on the varied hues and elegant forms of the butterfly a fitting emblem of his own immortal soul. (26.) The CIRRHIPEDES, better known by the familiar name of Barnacles, are, in many respects, the most im- perfect of all the annulose animals. They are all marine, living in the ocean, and are attached to other bodies, as rocks, pieces of floating timber, the bottoms of vessels, and even to the backs of marine animals. Their num- ber is but few, and their geographical range very wide. In general appearance, they have some resemblance both to limpets and to bivalve shells; and this probably induced Linnaeus, in the infancy of science, to place them with the Mollusca, or shellfish, where they will still be found, even in modern Introductions to Con- chology, under the division of multivalve shells ! The resemblances, however, here alluded to, are but very slight, even in external appearance ; while the true 30 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. nature of the animal of a barnacle and of a shellfish, as M. Cuvier well observes, is " very different." The Cirrhipedes, in fact, are the testaceous or shelly Annulosa ; that is,, they represent the Mollusca in the circle of an- nulose animals. Hence the error of M. Cuvier (who so frequently confounded analogy and affinity), in placing them immediately after the true shellfish, although he justly observes that they have a sort of intermediate station between them and the Articulata ; in other words, they are analogous to the former, and connected with the latter. The body and all the most vital parts of the barnacles are protected by shelly pieces or valves, which fit close to each other, with a single opening at the top, through which the animal protrudes its feet, and imbibes its nourishment ; we say its feet, for such they really are, although they cannot be used as such for locomotion the animal itself being fixed either by its shell, or by a flexible peduncle immoveable at the base. It was long imagined that the barnacles were produced either from eggs, which were glutinous, and so adhered to the substance on which the full-grown animal was afterwards found, or that they were vivi- parous, the female bringing forth the young alive, and depositing them in suitable situations. Very recently, however, a naturalist of our own country, Dr. Thomp- son, has made known the extraordinary fact, that these creatures undergo a metamorphosis no less surprising than that of perfect insects. This, of course, removes all doubts of the true station which the Cirrhipedes oc- cupy in the natural system, and at once places them in the circle of Annulosa, even if the possession of articu- lated limbs were not sufficient to place them strictly within that circle. (27.) The anatomical structure of these animals may be thus briefly stated : The vital parts are enveloped in a mantle or tunic, which is covered externally by shelly plates, varying in number and shape ; thus bearing a strong analogy to the Dithyra, or bivalve shell. That ARRANGEMENT OF THE CIRRHIPEDES. 31 part which is called the head is merely a slight eminence, beneath which is a mouth furnished with lateral jaws. Unlike all other annulose animals, this part is not at one of the extremities ; for those organs which are called the feet, are placed above the mouth, so that the latter, properly speaking, is placed nearly beneath the body: there are six of these feet-like organs on each side, each consisting of a short stem, which is then divided into two very long, jointed filaments, resembling the an- tennae of insects, and fringed, especially at the end, with fine hairs : in front of these is another, much longer and thicker, which Poli calls a species of proboscis, and which there is every reason to consider as analogous to that organ in quadrupeds. M. Cuvier, indeed, objects to this term, but leaves us quite in the dark as to its real use. Poli, whose authority is of the greatest weight, observes that the motion of the heart is dis- tinctly visible.* To his invaluable work, and the me- moirs of M. Cuvier, we must refer the scientific reader for further details ; but the paper by sir Everard Home upon these animals f scarcely deserves his attention, being replete with errors. To Mr. Thompson's essay we shall presently return. (28.) We shall not here attempt any natural ar- rangement of these animals, but merely notice them as they stand at present arranged in systems. The chief divisions which have been made are two ; and these have been called families. The first contains those which are elevated upon a fleshy, flexible peduncle, and are the true barnacles ; while the second is composed of such as are attached by their shells only, and are conse- quently sessile. Collectors generally call them acorn- shells. These primary divisions, however, are arbitrary. Among the true barnacles, or those provided with pe- duncles, we find some entirely covered by shelly plates; while others are either wholly destitute of such pro- * Test. Sic. i. 18. .t Phil. Trans. Ixxv. 410. 32 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. tection, or have them so small that they can scarcely be perceived. Others, again, have the peduncle entirely covered with shelly granules, so that the membranaceous skin can scarcely be seen; while a few, possessing the compressed shelly structure of this division, are com- pletely sessile. In the second great division of sessile barnacles, we find modifications of form still more re- markable. Some are found affixed indiscriminately to marine objects, whether living or dead; others take up their habitation only upon corals ; a few seem confined to the backs of turtle, while the genera Tubicinella and Coronula imbed themselves in the flesh on the back of whales. To Dr. Leach, more than to any other natu- ralist, are we indebted for the definitions of all these various groups which he has proposed as genera. Mr. Gray, we believe, has also illustrated their affinities; and Mr. G. B. Sowerby has figured very many in his Genera of Shells. On the Continent, Audouin, Wagner, and Burmeister have investigated them ; and the latter in- defatigable entomologist has confirmed the discoveries of Dr. Thompson. (29.) In regard to the habits of the Cirrhipedes ge- nerally, very little can be said. Destined to live in an element different from that assigned to man, they are seldom seen in their native haunts by the closet natu- ralist. With many opportunities, in early life, for studying them in a living state, we regret that other avo- cations prevented this from being more than partially done. There can be no doubt, however, that the Cir- rhipedes are carnivorous animals, feeding upon those minute polypes which swarm in all parts of the ocean, although frequently invisible to the naked eye. During the leisure of a voyage across the Atlantic, we had once the opportunity of watching a bunch of pedun- culated barnacles, taken from a piece of floating timber and placed in a bucket of sea water. After a short time, as if they wished to reconnoitre their new habita- tion, they gradually opened the orifice in front, and pro- ANALOGIES OF THE CIHRHIPEDES. 33 traded their fringed arms about half way ; and finding that no injury resulted, they projected the other half. In this position they were really beautiful, for the cirrhi formed the rays of an oblong flower-shaped cup, each filament being slightly curved inwards at the tip. We observed some little moving particles in the tub of sea water; and " ever and anon" our captive barnacles would instantaneously draw themselves into their shelly co- vering, as if they had captured their minute prey, and had retired to eat it. Now, this is precisely the mode of life pursued by all those sessile polypes, called animal flowers (Actinince) ; nor can there be the least doubt that the feet of the Cirrhipedes are, in fact, used as their arms, wherewith to seize all those small marine animals which come within their reach. (30.) The analogies of the Cirrhipedes are remark- ably interesting. We have already shown that they represent the apodal reptiles. But it is truly wonderful how Nature, in this group of Annulosa, has contrived to represent the fissirostral type among birds, of which the flycatchers are well known examples. These birds, in fact, are the most sedentary of their class ; that is, they make little or no use of their feet, but as mere supports to their body, for they neither climb, run, nor even walk. It is the peculiar property, also, of these birds, to sit for hours upon the same twig, almost im- moveable, watching for such passing insects as come within the reach of a sudden dart : while thus sta- tioned, they are, in fact, as sedentary as the Cirrhipedes, and for the time may be said to be fixed to the station they have selected. The proof of an analogy being natural, is by comparing the two circles of which the particular groups under consideration form a part : thus, if we look to the order Insessores, or perching birds, and to the circle of the Annulosa, we find they re- present each other in the following manner: NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. Analogies of the CIRRHIPEDES to the FISSIROSTRAL BIRDS. Piasepo of thp Tribes of C Annufosa Analo ^ es ' Perching Birds. APTERA. Em ^ nentl y carnivorous ; sub-typi- 7 DENTIROSTRES. PTILOTA ( The most typical in P erfection of I CONIROSTRES. I structure. 3 ANNEUDES. [ 1 J3 cntal a PP enda ^ es to the ] SCANSORES. VERMES. Feed upon juices. TENUIROSTRES. r Carnivorous ; watch for their } CIRRHIPEDES. s prey ; locomotion imperfect, or > FISSIROSTRES. C none. j The regularity with which the groups in each of these columns follow each other in absolute affinity, and thereby form two circles, is always one of the proofs that analogies are founded in nature. Perhaps the most singular representation which this table elicits, is that by which the worms (Vehnes) typify the hum- ming-birds (Tenuirostres}. It is among the vermiform or tenuirostral types of the Vertebrata, that we always find those animals which have an unusually long and pointed snout whether it is modified into the muzzle of a quadruped, or the bill of a bird ; the mouth, also, is invariably small. Now, this character, under a new appearance, shows itself among the intestinal worms, which are the most pointed at their extremity of all the others; the mouth being so small as sometimes not to be visible. The suctorial birds, in like manner, have the longest bills, but the smallest mouth, in pro- portion to their size, of all the Insessores ; and they live chiefly upon vegetable juices, while the worms live upon those of animals. It is the beauty of the theory of representation, that if once the natural series has been discovered, it receives new strength and demon- st$ation from all other natural groups in the animal kingdom : so that the foregoing table is but a clue to a hundred others, which may be taken from those por- ANALOGIES OF THE ANNULOSA. 35 tions of the vertebrate and annulose kingdoms, which have been illustrated in this manner in our former vo- lumes. (31.) The resemblance of the barnacles to marine shellfish is so strong, that to this day they are confounded with them by collectors; while even Linnaeus, from not being acquainted with the true structure of the animal, fell into the same error, and classed them with the Mol- lusca. Here, then, we have a strong instance of that principle which nature invariably acts upon in the con- struction of all her productions : we have one group of animals representing another ; and this so completely, as to deceive both the learned and the ignorant. Now, the only way in which this popular association of the barnacles with the shelly Testacea can be clearly de- monstrated, is, by comparing the two groups together, and applying to their component parts the test of ana- logy. Unfortunately, the natural series of the Cirrhi- pedes among themselves is unknown. There can be little doubt, however, that the sessile and the peduncu- lated divisions form the two typical groups ; and these furnish us, of course, with the chief characters of the whole class. We can thus compare the primary divi- sions of the Annulosa, one of which is the Cirrhipedes, with the five great divisions of the animal kingdom, the Mottusca being unlike any one of the latter. The following table shows these two series, with their divi- sions and analogies : Analogies of the ANIMAL KINGDOM to the ANNULOSA. Series of the A . . Series of the Animal Kingdom. Analogies. Annulosa. VERTEBRATA. Metamorphosis imperfect, or none. APTERA. ANNULOSA. Metamorphosis perfect. PTILOTA. RAIMATA ("Head indistinct, or none; body 7 Aluv i with radiating appendages. j ANNELIDES. ACRITA Body sim P le > without members or 7 VPRMFS i appendages. 3 MOLLUSCA. pody protected by a shelly cover- j CIHRHJPEDES. 36 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. The most perfect vertebrate animals are, of course, the quadrupeds ; and these, like the most perfect apte- rous insects,, are destitute of wings. The possession, however, of those members, together with a complete metamorphosis, are the grand characteristics of the An- nulosa ; and more especially of the Ptilota, or winged insects. The analogy between the Annelides and the Radiata is remarkably strong ; for the greater part of the former have their limbs or members radiating as from a common centre ; they have all the outward ap- pearance, in fact, of the Radiata, although their internal structure is widely different. The most simply con- structed animals in creation are the Acrita, and the most simple of all Annulosa are the Fermes. So closely, indeed, do these two groups represent each other, that, in the present ignorance which pervades their history, we hardly know to which of these groups certain genera belong. Last of all we have the Cirrhipedes, with their shelly covering, representing the Mollusca, or shellfish; the grand characteristic of that class being the testa- ceous cohering with which the whole body of the animal is protected. We allude, of course, to those groups of the Mollusca which stand at the head of the class, as the Gasteropoda and the Dithyra, and which take prer- cedence above all the diversified animals which form the aberrant groups, scarcely any of which are testaceous. We have already shown how erroneous are those con- clusions which some writers have come to, respecting the little dependence that can be placed on characters drawn from empty shells; and we shall now venture to make the assertion, that, if these coverings did not exist in the typical groups of the Mollusca, in other words, if no molluscous animals had shells, we should at once pronounce the group to be artificial, because every analogy in nature shows that one of the aberrant types lives under the covering of some substance, generally harder than itself. (32.) The metamorphosis of the Cirrhipedes, as we have before intimated, was first made known by Dr. METAMORPHOSIS OF THE CIRRHIPEDES. 37 Thompson. It is unquestionably one of the most im- portant discoveries in modern science, and, in the " flood of light" which it has thrown on the whole natural arrangement of invertebrate animals, is fully equal to that made by Trembley on the nature of the polype. As we have had no opportunity, ourselves, of verifying the facts disclosed by our author, we shall give them to the reader in his own words. On the evening of April 28. 1823, on the coast of Ireland, near Cork, Mr. Thompson captured, in a small muslin towing-net, a number of minute marine animals, among which was one which he considered as a nondescript. " This was a small translucent animal, -y^th of an inch long, of a somewhat elliptical form, but very slightly compressed laterally, and of a brownish tint. When in a state of perfect repose, it resembles a very minute muscle, and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea water in which it is placed : at this time all the members of the animal are withdrawn within the shell, which appears to be composed of two valves united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable of opening from one end to the other along the front, to give occasional exit to the limbs. These limbs are of two descriptions ; viz., anteriorly, a large and very strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks, serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &c. ; and posteriorly, a pair of natatory members, articulated in such a manner as to act in concert, and to give a very forcible stroke to the water, so as to cause the animal, when swimming, to advance by a succession of bounds, after the same manner as the water-flea (Daphnia) and other Monoculi, but particularly Cyclops, whose swimming feet are extremely analogous. The tail, which is usually bent up under the belly, is ex- tremely short, composed of two joints, and terminates in four setae ; and it is employed to assist in progression, and in changing the position from a state of repose. The greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this animal, is its eyes, which, although constantly shielded D 3 38 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. by the valves of the shell, are pedunculated, as in the crab and lobster, and placed anteriorly at the sides of the body. Any naturalist acquainted with the Crustacea , on reading this short description, will readily assent to what has been advanced as to the very extraordinary and anomalous character of this little animal, and to the dislocations it seems calculated to produce in our classifications. But for its pair of pedunculated eyes, it would find place as a new genus of the bivalve Mo- noculi ( Ostracoda) ; its members approximate it to Ar- gulus on the one hand, and to Cyclops on the other, genera which are widely separated ; while its eyes show its relation to the crabs, lobsters, and other decapodous Crustacea. Reflecting upon these circumstances, on their great abundance during the early part of spring alone, and their presenting no variation indicative of a difference of sex, induced a belief that they were the larvae of some crustaceous animal/' With these impres- sions, our author procured some more of these creatures in the spring of 1826; " and in order to see what changes they might undergo, they were kept in a glass vessel, covered by such a depth of sea water, that they could be examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass. They were taken May 1st; and on the night of the 8th, the author had the satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their exuvia, and, wonderful to say, were firmly adhering to the bottom of the vessel, changed into young barnacles ! such as are usually seen, of Balanus pusillus Pen., intermixed with grown spe- cimens on rocks and stones at this season. In this stage^ the sutures between the valves of the shell and of the operculum were visible, and the movements of the arms of the animal within, although these last were not yet completely developed : the eyes, also, were still per- ceptible, although the principal part of the black colour- ing matter appeared to have been thrown off with the exuvium. On the tenth day, another individual was seen in the very act of throwing off its shell, and attaching itself, like the others, to the bottom of the glass. It METAMORPHOSIS OF THE CIRRHIPEDES. 39 only remains to state, that as the secretion of calcareous matter goes on in the compartments destined for the valves of the shelly covering, the eyes gradually disap- pear, from the increased opacity thence produced, and the visual ray is extinguished for the remainder of the animal's life : the arms at the same time acquire their usual ciliated appearance. Thus then/' continues our author, " an animal originally natatory and locomotive, provided at the same time with a distinct organ for sight, becomes permanently and immoveably fixed, and its optic apparatus obliterated." * The relation which the above extraordinary discovery establishes between the Cirrhipedes and the Crustacea is so intimate, that Mr. Thompson, as will subsequently appear, considers both as belonging to one class. We trust this indefa- tigable and acute naturalist will himself prosecute the interesting discovery here detailed, where he now re- sides t : he has opened a vast field for research, as new as it is important. We have yet to learn the metamor- phosis of the pedunculated and diadem barnacles, the larvae of which must have many peculiarities. The few numbers of this gentleman's Zoological Researches, which have yet appeared, are filled with new and im- portant facts regarding the minute inhabitants of the ocean, scarcely inferior in importance to that which we have here detailed. J (33.) To illustrate the foregoing facts, we must refer to Mr. Thompson's figures and explanations, which will make the reader better acquainted with the above de- scription of the young barnacle. The natural size is not larger than a grain of cress seed. When mag- nified, and viewed from above, the turgid appear- * Zool. Researches, No. iii. p. 76. f Dr. Thompson holds a high medical appointment in New South Wales. j Mr. Westwood, on the strength of his observations upon the " Egg of one of the West India Land Crabs," calls in question the whole theory.of Mr. Thompson ; as if " the egg of a land crab " was sufficient to set aside Classif. of Insects, Addenda to vol. i. D 4 40 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. ance of the valves is seen, and also an elbow of the anterior members of the animal, the tail part being the narrowest. When the animal is very highly mag- nified,, and all its parts seen, its limbs are protruded from the anterior opening of the valves : these consist of the two fore feet, which have a peculiar position when they are extended by the animal, in order to fix itself by means of the sucker and claw at the end : a fourth large basal joint remains concealed by the shell; towards the other extremity of which, and placed beneath, are six pairs of swimming legs, used in the manner of oars to propel the animal forward. At the extremity of the tail are two, short, setiform appendages, which no doubt act as a rudder. The appearance of the eye, as seen through the shell, gives an inaccurate idea of its form; but, when highly magnified, its pedunculated shape clearly appears. There is an appearance on the back of the shell, which Mr. Thompson considers as the presumed nucleus of future attachment. The tail, when highly magnified, is seen to consist of two articulations, from which spring four setae, or bristles, two being shorter than the others : the swimming feet, also, when very highly magnified, are then seen to consist of two divi- sions, the shortest of which is that which comes nearest the body : these are the organs, in fact, which are changed into the cirrhi of the barnacle. The natural size of the animal, after its metamorphosis into a bar- nacle, is not larger than that of the larva state. When highly magnified, the rudiments of the eyes can still be traced through the large valves of the operculum, and the enclosed animal is still seen through the central opening of the operculum. The valves of the body of the shell are marked, as before observed, by distinct sutures. When viewed in profile, the arms, or cirrhi, if protruded, become more conspicuous. One of these cirrhi, upon being very highly magnified, although much jointed, did not at first exhibit any appearance of fringed hairs. The full-grown barnacle is seldom more than half an inch long : when viewed in front, SYSTEMS OF ENTOMOLOGY. 41 the six pieces composing the shell are distinctly seen ; but in profile, there appear only four. Besides the meta- morphosis above described, the Cirrhipedes cast or moult the outer covering of their soft parts, in the manner of the crabs. One of these exuvia, with its various de- tails, will be found on the tenth plate of Mr. Thomp- son's Memoirs, to which we must refer the reader. (34.) Having now given the reader a general outline of those annulose classes, which lead from the typical groups to other and more distant forms of the animal world, we shall here introduce a few observations on the arrangement of true insects, previous to commencing their survey. By this plan, the grounds of our dissent from all preceding arrangements will be concentrated in one part of the volume, and much repetition of the same opinions will be prevented. If the principles upon which a classification is based are unsound, the su- perstructure of course must be erroneous, and need not be objected to in detail ; and we shall arrange our re- marks under two heads : 1 . Regarding such systems as are merely framed upon the arbitrary opinion of their authors, who have attached a value to certain cha- racters ; and, 2. Such as have been founded upon a supposed mutual relation of their parts. The former are artificial, the latter natural, methods. (35.) So much has been said upon these two modes of arrangement, under which all existing systems of Entomology will arrange themselves, that we shall merely in this place condense their definitions, as introductory to our subsequent remarks. On a former occasion *, we have considered all systems to be artificial, which are not grounded upon any universal principles of arrange- ment, which exhibit the animal series without plan or harmonious relation, and which disregard analogies and affinities. On the other hand, we shall consider those as natural systems, which involve any one or more of these considerations, and which, looking beyond the in- dividual, attempts to ascertain its station in the scale of * Geography and Classification of Animals, p. 131. 42 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. being, by pointing out the various relations which it holds to other objects. (36.) Every system which arranges insects upon principles which have no reference or application to other parts of the animal kingdom, is not only artificial,, but viciously false ; inasmuch as it is contrary to what we know of nature. There is, or there is not, some plan in the creation. None but a disbeliever in the in- finite perfections of the DEITY would deny the first ; for, where there is no plan, there can be no perfection : besides, such a denial would be disproved by the in- numerable traces of a system of co-relationship in the different tribes of animals, manifest to all observing minds. To take one of these tribes, therefore, arrange it without any reference to the others, and then to pro- claim that our arrangement is founded upon nature, is a manifest absurdity. It is not merely a violation of the first principles of philosophical reasoning, but is an out- rage upon common sense. Such a system, in one sense, indeed, may be defended as natural, on the plea that its foundation is laid upon anatomical structure, or on other peculiarities either of organisation or habits. But this is nothing to the purpose ; it reaches not our argu- ment : for every system must, in the nature of things, be so founded. The question is, whether any arrange- ment of animals can possibly be natural, which is. not based upon a comprehensive view of all. The answer to this is obvious. It is morally impossible it should be so. Applying this axiom to the various systems of Entomology which come under our present head, and which may be termed isolated systems, we should, upon no other grounds, reject them all, otherwise than as temporary substitutes for some other, however im- perfect, which aimed at arranging all animals on a few general principles of classification. "VVe should admit them to be useful ; but deny that, by any possibility, they could be natural. (37.) The consequences of naturalists forming sys- tems for that portion* of nature only to which they con- ARTIFICIAL SYSTEMS. 43 fine their studies, have b*n precisely what might he anticipated. Having little or no acquaintance with the innumerable groups of animals lying beyond the con- fines of those they study, they have not the knowledge requisite for enlarged generalisation. Destitute, there- fore, of a solid foundation upon which their theories should be built, they lay a partial, and therefore an er- roneous, one, founded only upon the objects immediately before them. Each, therefore, selects what he conceives to be the most important character, and makes it the corner stone of his system. In Entomology, for instance, one attaches a primary importance to the wings, and makes them the foundation of his theory ; another ob- jects to this, and chooses the legs ; a third, differing from both, considers metamorphosis as the master key to the natural arrangement, and founds his arrangement thereon. No proofs, drawn from a general survey of all other animals, is required, or even thought of, to sub- stantiate any of these theories : they merely rest on the individual opinion of their founders ; and they are adopted or rejected according to the estimation in which their judgment may be held. Hence has originated the in- numerable systems of Entomology which perplex the at- tention of the student, heap obstacles in the way of his advancement, and burthen our Introductions with com- plicated theories, and useless references. The judgment, or the imagination, of their authors being unshackled by any restraints, almost every one, ambitious of improving on his predecessor, makes some new change of his own. New denominations are given to old groups, and new foundations are laid for orders and classes. Every year brings forth a new theory, not of all animals, but of in- sects only, until entomological classification, having no foundation in inductive philosophy, is now become a quicksand, shifting with every tide that flows. (38.) Independent, however, of the foregoing con- siderations, we should reject the systems just spoken of upon other equally strong grounds. The most obvious characteristic of the animal world is its interminable 44 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. variation. A system, therefore, which is chiefly or ex- clusively built upon any one set of organs, must neces- sarily be artificial ; since it presumes that to be fixed and determinate, which is not so in nature.* Who is to de- termine, a priori, whether the natural arrangement of insects rests on their metamorphosis, the presence or absence of wings, or the construction of their mouth ? Each and all may be pronounced good and natural cha- racters ; but what reason is there that we should prefer one before the other, when we are altogether ignorant how these characters can be traced in other animals ? The distinctions of the Annulom rest not upon one, but upon many peculiarities of structure. And if we have no analogous instances or co-relations to guide our choice, that choice, to say the least, is liable to error. All, therefore, that can be said in defence of artificial sys- tems is this, that they are useful helps for the deter- mination of species, and served the purposes of arrange- ment so long as no better methods of exhibiting nature existed. They have now lasted their time; and after doing ample justice to their authors for contributing to call forth better views, their systems, in modern classifi- cations, may be fairly dismissed. (39-) We now turn to natural systems, or those which have been framed on the admission that the different tribes of insects possess direct relations of analogy among themselves. There are more than one of these, all originating, however, in the philosophic re- searches of the author of the Horce Entomologies. We are obliged, however, to dissent from all these, not from objecting to the abstract principles upon which they are founded, but because they have not been extended suf- ficiently wide to carry a conviction of their accuracy: they stop short at that point, which, if carried, would * Of this description are those called the Metamorphotic, the Cibarian, and the Alary systems. The theory of the Eclectic system, which pro- fesses to be founded on the entire characters of insects in all their stages, is sound, did it not contemplate insects as unrelated to other animals. Those who wish to understand these and numerous other systems, may consult the fourth volume of Kirby and Spence, or Mr. Westwood's Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects. TRIVIAL OBJECTIONS IDLE. 45 insure demonstrative certainty. It is not to the prin- ciples themselves, but to the application of those prin- ciples, that we object. If the system of Clairville which owes all its celebrity to the use it has been turned to is really the foundation of the natural ar- rangement of insects, and is that by which the primary groups are to be regulated, why have not their ana- logies in other classes been pointed out ? If the two typical classes of Mandibulata and Haustellata are really natural, then they would exhibit not merely mutual re- lations to each other, but equally so with all the ver- tebrate animals nay, with all the primary groups of the animal kingdom. Hitherto, no one has attempted to do this. Neither these, nor the other supposed groups in the Annulosa, have ever been brought to this test, a test, however, which is imperatively demanded for all groups supposed to be natural. Looking, therefore, to this deficiency of proof, and to the admission by the ad- vocates of this system, that they are not even prepared to state which is the typical form of the Annulosa, we trust, upon these grounds only, that we may be pardoned for not adopting it. Gladly should we have done so, for we should then have been saved an immensity of research, and have been spared the necessity of dis- turbing those ideas on the higher groups of entomology, which are now so prevalent. (40.) It is an easy matter, indeed, to raise innume- rable small objections against every natural system, whe- ther founded upon the theory we have just been speaking of, or upon that which we here promulgate ; but these will always occur, while natural classification, as at present, is in its infancy. On these, therefore, we have not touched ; we have directed our remarks, not to such comparatively trivial matters, but to the ground-work of the system itself. We have long held and expressed the opinion, that the comparative rank of circular groups is just as definite, and is just as real, in nature, as the difference between species and species. In such groups, indeed, there will always be gradations, 46 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. by which Nature glides from one into the other; and this change is almost so imperceptible, that it is nearly impossible to say where one terminates and the other begins. Nevertheless,, in the most intricate cases,, we hold the distinction to be definite,, and therefore ab- solute. According to the predominance of characters, having relation to two different groups, which an in- sect exhibits, so are we to determine its relative station in the scale of being. It may, indeed, sometimes hap- pen, that the balance turns on almost an incalculably minute excess of the preponderating quality; but even that is quite sufficient to serve our purpose: on the other hand, if the balance is absolutely equal, we re- gard the subject as presenting that point of union which connects one group to the other : each, then, is definite ; for, so soon as we arrive at that point of the series where its distinguishing marks disappear, we quit its limits, and enter those of another. (41.) We may conclude this chapter by answering an interrogation, which the student may fairly put to us. What is an insect ? To this we would reply, Any creeping thing which has jointed legs. This question, which the modern changes for we cannot call them im- provements have involved in much technical obscurity (unintelligible to all but the initiated), is thus simply answered, because it really and truly expresses the very essence of our theory. In proportion, however, to the diversity of objects contained in all aberrant groups, so will be the difficulty of a precise definition. Thus, if the question related to annulose animals generally, the answer of Every animal having joints to its body must be received under a few limitations ; since, in the very lowest of these, as in the hair-worms, and some others, no joints are to be distinguished. In respect to the two typical groups, we should term the Aptera or wingless the sub-typical, and the typical the true or four- winged insects; although the Diptera, which enter .within the confines of the Aptera, are really possessed of two wings. PART II. ON THE WINGED INSECTS. CHAP. I. ON THE PTILOTA, OR FOUR-WINGED INSECTS IN GENERAL, THE CHARACTERS OF THE FIVE ORDERS, AND THEIR MUTUAL RE- LATIONS TO OTHER ANIMALS. THE METAMORPHOSES OF IN- SECTS. (42.) ALL insects, without any exception, possessing four wings, enter into one or other of the orders com- posing the Ptilota, a class first instituted by Aristotle, and adopted by us, as the first and foremost of the an- nulose animals. We have already shown, that as the possession of wings is the primary distinction of one of the great divisions of the vertebrate animals, so the highest development of these members among the Ptilota points them out as the pre-eminent types of the Annnlosa. This is their primary distinction ; and it pervades nearly every genus. Sometimes, indeed, we meet with a few examples of apterous insects ; but these are only instances of those exceptions which occur in every natural group, and are hardly worth mention- ing in a general definition. The Ptilota possess some other characters, not indeed altogether peculiar to them- selves, but yet more striking and universal among them than in the apterous orders. They exhibit, collectively, the most perfect instances of metamorphosis ; their legs are never more than six, and the head is always distinct from the body. Were we to descend to other definitions of the class, we should be so encumbered with excep- tions, that the student would be perplexed, and the 48 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. general reader wearied. We shall, therefore,, at once proceed to define the orders, and explain their analogies, and adduce proofs in support of this theory of their arrangement. (43.) The following are the five primary divisions, or orders, composing the class before us ; these were all well known to the Ancients, and were adopted from them hy the great naturalist of Sweden. 1. The Le- pidoptera, having the four wings highly developed and covered with imbricated scales, as in the butterfly and moth ; the metamorphosis is complete, since the pupa is quiescent; the perfect insect is without jaws, and lives by suction, the rostrum or proboscis being spirally coiled. 2. The Hemiptera, where the upper wings are harder than the lower, generally coriaceous and folded ; the metamorphosis is incomplete, because the pupa is active ; the perfect insect, as in the last order, is with- out jaws, and lives by suction only ; but the rostrum is not spiral. 3. The Hymenoptera, in which the wings are never coriaceous, but usually hyaline, and marked with strong nerves; the mouth is furnished with strong jaws, and with a sheathed proboscis ; and the tail is usually armed with a sting. 4. The Coleo- ptera, or beetles, where the upper wings are metamor- phosed, as it were, into two hard cases, protecting the under pair, which are alone organised for flight; the mouth is furnished with jaws, but destitute of any pro- boscis. 5. The Neuroptera, wherein the wings are reticulated ; the mouth furnished with jaws, but no pro- boscis ; and the body, as in the dragon fly > without any sting. (44.) It will be our object, hereafter, to show that these five orders constitute a circular group ; in the mean time, we shall at once throw them into the fol- lowing table : ANALOGIES OF THE PTILOTA. 49 Analogies of the Five Orders of the PTILOTA. Orders of the A , . Classes of the Ptilota. Analogies. Vertebrate. LEPIUOPTERA. Wings highly developed. BIRDS. HEMIPTERA. Wings imperfect, or none. QUADRUPEDS. HYMENOPTERA. Tail often armed with a sting. REPTILES. COLEOPTERA. posUmperfect of their respective j AMPHIBIANS . NEUROPTERA. Pre-eminently aquatic. FISHES. (45.) When groups so widely dissimilar as these are brought into comparison,, their analogies, of neces- sity, are proportion ably faint. Nevertheless, as they strictly follow each other in the order of affinity, some degree of interest attaches to them. The type of im- perfection among the Ptilota, in reference to flight, is certainly the coleopterous order, just as the amphibians are the most imperfect of the vertebrate series. The dragon flies, again, which stand at the head of the Neuro- ptera, are universally aquatic in their larva state, when they are as great lovers of water as fishes are among the Fertebrata. The poisonous stings of the typical Hy men o- ptera are analogous to those of several serpents, which not only have poisonous fangs, but actual stings at the extremity of their tail. The analogies of the Henri- ptera to quadrupeds are altogether obscure, at least so far as we can discover : but this is amply made up by the striking relation of butterflies to birds. The reader of our former volumes is, by this time, fully aware that these tables of analogies are never equally striking in all their parts, some being strong, while others are faint. In such cases, we either fall back upon our affinities, or bring the series to other tests. This latter plan we shall subsequently have recourse to, when comparing these orders with those of the apterous class. (46.) The position we have assigned to the order Hymenoptera is that, however, of the greatest interest, not merely as regards its situation among the Ptilota, but its analogies to other animals. Singular as it may ap- pear, there is no tribe of insects which like the ox, E 50 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. sheep, and other hoofed quadrupeds can be termed absolutely domestic, or capable of administering, in a direct way, to the wants of man. And yet a little con- sideration will show us there are many strong points of analogy between the ruminating quadrupeds and the bees : both are the most gregarious of their respective classes : the elephant in one, and the hive bee in the other, show us the highest development of instinct in the animal creation ; and if the latter does not sponta- neously yield us its honey, it will yet inhabit those ar- tificial mansions we prepare for securing its sweets ; so that, in some degree, it may be said to be not only a social, but a somewhat domesticated, insect. Now, to show that these facts have an immediate reference to our theory of representation, we shall here place the two series of these animals in juxtaposition. Analogies of the PTILOTA to the Orders of QUADRUPEDS. Classes of the ., , . Orders of Ptilota. Analogies. Quadrupeds. LEPIDOPTERA. {^J^ 6 " 11 * typicaL Herbi 'j QUADBUMANA. HEMIPTERA. Sub-typical. Carnivorous. .FERJE. HYMENOPTERA. Gregarious ; social and intelligent. UNGULATA. COLEOPTERA. Pre-eminently gnawers. % GLIRES. NEUROPTERA. Aquatic. Head very large. CETACEA. It is not a little singular, that this set of analogies is actually more determinate than that we have just no- ticed. The peculiar character of the Hemiptera, which is, that of being the raptorial type of the Ptilota, did not there appear ; here, however, it comes into play, and makes up for the obscurity of the analogy in the last table. Our chief object, however, on the present occasion, is to confirm what has just been said on the relations of the Hymenoptera to the Ungulata; the bees being in one, and the elephant and horned cattle in the other. Beetles and mice, again, are the most gnawing of all the groups here named, and they are likewise the most aberrant of their respective circles. The dispro- METAMORPHOSIS GENERALLY. 51 portionately large head of the dragon flies, which are the types of the Neuroptera, find their counterparts in the whales and other Cetacea; both also are eminently aquatic. We shall not, for the present, pursue the subject further, since enough has now been said on the exter- nal * analogies of the Ptilota, to establish their relations to the vertebrate groups. How far these will be mani- fested among the apterous class will appear in the sequel. (47.) Metamorphosis , as we have already shown, may be termed the chief philosophic distinction of the annulose animals; although, as it is a peculiarity which is neither permanent, nor can be detected at all times by the eye, it is not so convenient for popular use as those characters drawn from the external structure of the body. Now, this, metamorphosis, or change of form, is produced by exactly the same general process as that which is usually termed ecdysis, or moulting ; that is, the external skin or covering, at certain seasons or periods of growth, is thrown off, and the animal appears in a new one, which has been forming beneath. In both cases, a change in the outward covering is effected ; but here the similarity ceases. When a quadruped, at the approach of summer, casts off by degrees the thick coat of hair or wool which Nature had given it to resist the cold of winter, the change, to a superficial observer, is scarcely perceptible ; the new hairs are of the same colour, and nearly of the same texture, as the old ; still less do we see any change in the outward form : the same may be said of the generality of birds ; although, in this class, nature evidently proceeds a step further in her transformations. Among the water fowl, for in- stance, particularly in the wading order, we see the summer plumage much more gay than that of the winter ; and, in many cases, so very different, that the same species has not unfrequently been described under two different names. It is a most singular fact, also, that nearly all the families and genera which represent * By external analogies, we mean such as relate to groups out of the circle of the Annulosa. v. 9 52 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. the wading birds, that is, which are of the grallatorial type, are distinguished by the very remarkable difference they present in their summer and winter dress.* Cor- rectly speaking, there are scarcely any birds which assume, at first, the plumage of maturity. The young of both sexes, in the first year, are invariably clothed in the colours of the female ; and should those of the mature male differ greatly from the other sex, the dis- tinction does not begin sooner than after the first moult- ing. The further we recede from the quadrupeds, or, in other words, from the typical perfection of ver- tebrate animals, the greater is the change produced by this surprising process of nature, until, upon coming to the amphibian reptiles, we find animals which, in their young state are fish, and in their adult state frogs. Seeing, then, that Nature has contrived so many modes of performing, or rather modifying, the same process, it becomes absolutely necessary to draw a distinction between ecdysis, or simple moulting, and metamor- phosis, or transformation. The former change is almost exclusively confined to vertebrate animals, while the latter is as strongly characteristic of those which are annulose. Our own views of the difference between ecdysis and metamorphosis are, therefore, as follows : The first is a simple casting off of the old skin, un- accompanied by the developement of any new members, or by any variation of form ; these latter being always the consequence of metamorphosis, or transformation. (48.) Of metamorphosis, however, there are various kinds, or modifications ; and these may be arranged under the heads of complete, or perfect, and incomplete, or imperfect. Without entering on the abstruse and ingenious disquisitions that have been written by others on this subject, we shall consider all transformations or metamorphoses as incomplete, where the animal is active in ah 1 its changes. Instances of this are innumerable among the annulose animals ; and, as we have just men- * The typical chatterers, or the Ampelidce^ are striking instances of this fact. METAMORPHOSIS GENERALLY. 53 tioned, is apparent in the amphibious reptiles, which are the lowest of the vertebrate class. Incomplete metamorphosis, again, is shown under various modifica- tions. In some, it is confined to a simple increase in the number of the feet, as in the apterous Myriapoda, or Centipedes ; in others, the whole appearance of the ani- mal is changed, as in the frogs. In all these cases, however, the changes appear to be but two in number ; namely, the perfect form being assumed immediately after that is lost, in which the animal emerged to life. The tadpole changes to the frog, without any inter- mediate stage of existence, or any intervening change of form : this is, therefore, the lowest, or most incomplete, sort of transformation ; since the first, or larva state, merges immediately into the perfect creature, without the intermediate change of the pupa, or chrysalis. The extraordinary facts regarding the metamorphosis of the crabs, disclosed by Mr. Thompson, show that these ani- mals, also, never undergo the pupa transformation, although their change is much more remarkable for the complete alteration effected in their external appearance. (49.) So soon, however, as we approach the wingetl insects, among which, as being the typical perfection of annulose animals, we should expect to find metamorpho- sis in its highest developement, then we see a third stage of existence added to the other two. The larva, before it becomes a perfect insect, changes into a pupa, or chrysalis ; and we have thus a threefold transform- ation. Here, again, we find those minor variations by which that gradual progression which Nature delights in can be traced. At first, as among the grasshoppers, the larva and pupa are only to be known from the per- fect insect by their want of wings ; next, the pupa be- comes inactive, but still retains something of the external form of the state it had previously lived in. It is here, then, that we may draw our imaginary line of demarc- ation between an incomplete and a complete transform* ation. When the several stages of an insect's life are marked by such a striking difference in their form, that E 3 4 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. they would not be recognised by an inexperienced ob- server as one and the same creature ; when, moreover, there are three of these distinct changes, totally differing from each other, and the pupa becomes inactive ; then the metamorphosis is complete. This, indeed, is ob- vious ; for what change can possibly be greater than that of an active, voracious caterpillar, to a quiescent, almost inanimate chrysalis? or can the imagination conceive any thing more dissimilar than are these two, from the aerial butterfly, fluttering from flower to flower upon fc rainbow-coloured wings," and living upon the nectar they contain? Assuredly, this is the most wonderful and the most complete transformation that the mind can conceive: did it rest upon evidence which could for a moment be questioned, it is so utterly repugnant to the course pursued by Nature in her other works, that human reason would reject the belief with disdain, as totally incredible, and only equalled by the Eastern fable of the transmigration of souls, or the metamorphosis of the an- cient poets. (50.) Naturalists have given names to all the vari- ations and degrees of metamorphosis hitherto observed ; and these we shall subsequently notice. Some writers have assigned four states to the insect world ; but no egg can be stated to possess life, until its contents are quickened. The period that the egg or embryo is con- cealed in the matrix of the mother, may just as well be termed one of the stages of existence of an animal, as that in which it lies unformed and inert in the shape of an egg. These considerations appear to confirm our pro- position, that metamorphosis is the grand characteristic of the annulose animals ; for, while very few others are subject to such transformation, we find this property Almost universal among them. This truth could not fail to.be perceived by nearly all the great naturalists of the last and present century ; but, contenting themselves with the simple fact, they seem to have neglected to draw from it the first and most natural inference, namely, that those animals which exhibited these trans* VARIATIONS OF METAMORPHOSIS. 55 formations most conspicuously, should, from that very circumstance, be considered the most typical group of the whole. Now., we have already seen that the highest developement of metamorphosis is chiefly,, although, per- haps, not exclusively, found among lepidopterous insects; hence it follows, if our premises are correct, that this order is unquestionably the type of the whole of the Annulosa. This conclusion, however, does not appear to have struck even the acute entomologist, who has laid so much stress upon metamorphosis as to have declared it the keystone of the natural system. Such, indeed, it really is ; but, like every other character, it may, and has been, repeatedly converted into the fabrication of artificial systems. Jt has been well and justly remarked, that ' e there is no principle of arrangement so good as not to become worse than useless by being applied im- properly." * The systems of Swammerdam, Lister, and Ray in former periods, and of Latreille and others in our own days, may be cited as proofs of this assertion. Mr. MacLeay, perceiving this, has endeavoured to discover the theory of variation in the metamorphosis of the An- nulosa; and having, as he imagined, succeeded in his research, he proceeded to make it the corner stone of his system. It is singular, however, that he should have overlooked one of the first objections which his ingenious results lie open to ; for, after all his study, he confesses, with the candour of a truly great mind, the impossibility he finds in determining what insects constitute the per- fection of the annulose circle. This difficulty, we think, has originated from his adopting the two great divisions of Clairville's Haustellata and Mandibulata as the basis of his theory. (51.) On the variation of metamorphosis there is much to be said, and more to be discovered. The subject, how- ever, is so abstruse, and encumbered with so many dif- ficulties, that we must touch upon it very briefly. It has been well observed, that the variation of metamor- phosis is only an index of the series of affinity, and not * Hor. Ent. a 4 56 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. a principle by which the orders have been strictly cir- cumscribed.* Our author, in another place f, proceeds to designate the orders of the masticating insects by that which he considers the natural principle of this variation: the different kinds of metamorphosis he enumerates, are four, viz. 1 . Obtect, or what we have termed perfect or complete, as in butterflies, c., or the Lepidoptera and Trichoptera. 2. Coarctate, as in bees and flies (Hymeno- ptera and Diptera). 3. Incomplete , as in beetles and fleas (Coleoptera and Aptera) ; and 4. Semicomplete, as in bugs and grasshoppers (Orthoptera and Hemiptera). In his fifth groups, jVeuroptera and Homoptera, he can discover no particularly prevalent sort of metamorphosis ; he there- fore considers it to be " various." Now, even upon this theory, if metamorphosis is the basis of the natural ar- rangement, it follows that the Lepidoptera and the Trichoptera are the types of the Mandibulata and Haustellata: since these are the only masticating and suctorial insects whose metamorphosis is obtect, that is, thoroughly complete and perfect. To the first of these propositions we may readily subscribe; but what ento- mologist would ever think of placing the Trichoptera at the head of the Mandibulata, when, in fact, they are obviously at the very bottom of the scale. (52.) Let us now proceed to a more particular in- quiry on the different changes produced by this principle of transformation. The larva state is, therefore, clearly to be considered the first stage in the life of an insect. Lin- naeus, with happy application, adopted this name from the Latin word signifying a mask; justly considering that the real form of the insect, while it remained under this covering, was disguised, or masked. We have two vernacular terms corresponding to this, although by no means so expressive, and in themselves indefinite. The larvae of butterflies, moths, and of lepidopterous insects generally, are called caterpillars ; while those which are white, somewhat inactive, and are found either in the ground, or enclosed in other substances, bear the common * Hor. Ent. p. 450. f Ib, p. 440. PRIMARY TYPES OF LARVAE. 5? name of grubs or maggots. The vulgar, also,, some- times call these latter worms; but as this name implies an affinity (of which there is none) to the common earth-worm, and is likely., on other accounts, to lead to error, we shall not introduce it. In this period of their life, during which they eat voraciously, and cast their skins several times, they continue a longer or shorter period ; some only a few days or weeks others, several months or years. In very many instances, particularly among the Cokoptera and the Neuroptera, the period passed in the larva state is much longer than that which the insect enjoys when in adolescence. The food, also, which it then consumes, is much more substantial in its nature, and more abundant in quantity; nay, in some instances, this is the only period when food of any description is taken ; or, at least, the mouth of some perfect insects are so small as to appear obsolete, and we may thence infer they take little or no nourishment. Every one knows how ravenously the common cabbage butterfly devours the leaves of our garden vegetables ; and the appetite of the silkworm is equally voracious: but when these in- sects arrive at their perfect state, and are furnished with wings, the first is merely supported by a little honey sucked from a few flowers, while the silkworm moth will live for weeks in confinement, without food, and appear to die rather from the want of air and exercise than from starvation. (53.) On the primary types of larva, that is, the chief forms to which all their variations may be re- ferred, a good deal has been written, and much more remains for discovery. But we hear the student ex- claim can it be possible that the system of repre- sentation, of which so much has been said, should be so universal, that vertebrate types can be traced among the larvae of insects? and is it true that they follow each other in the same succession ? The fact, however novel, we venture to affirm, is perfectly true. Besides, it is very clear that, unless such was actually the case, or, in other wordsj unless all the groups of the Vertebraia 58 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. found their representatives among the Annulosa, our theory on the natural system would be but an idle spe- culation; and our first proposition that one uniform plan reigned throughout nature would be denied. That the reader, however, may have this remarkable fact brought before him, we shall first proceed to describe what, in our opinion, are the primary forms of larvae, and the series in which they naturally stand; and we shall then test the whole by comparing them with the vertebrate series of forms as defined in our former volumes. As the larvae of many natural groups in this class of animals are either unknown or imperfectly un- derstood, we shall select those belonging to the diurnal butterflies (Papiliones Sw.) ; because they have more especiallly engaged the attention of entomologists; and because their forms, with a few exceptions, are the best known. At the same time, we wish it to be understood that the following remarks, so far as our own investi- gations have extended, are more or less applicable to the chief groups of the Annulosa. (54.) It appears to us that nearly all larvae may be referred to some one or other of the following types, we shall designate by these names : 1 . The luliform, or pre-eminently typical, 2. The Raptorial, or sub-ty- pical. 3. The Natatorial, or Anopluriform. 4. The Suctorial, or Vermiform, called also the Onisciform: and, 5. The Rasorial, or Thysanuriform. The first two of these belong to the two typical groups, and the last three to the aberrant group. Let us now proceed to notice them more particularly in the same order. (55.) The luliform type of larva stands at the head : it is so called because of its resemblance to those insects which constitute the perfection of apterous in- sects, and of which the common ringworm (lulus), so frequent under stones and bark in this country, is a good example. Caterpillars of this type are always smooth; they have no horns or excrescences either upon their head or their skin: they possess no noxious qua- lity; nor do they assume, when disturbed, any threatening RAPTORIAL TYPE OF LARVAE. 59 attitude. The head is never immoderately large nor dis- proportionably small, but of a just proportion to the rest of their body. Their shape is invariably long, as- similating to the form of an lulus; and they are always provided with feet, the body being cylindrical. Some- times there is a little down upon their skin, but other- wise this part is invariably smooth. They never conceal themselves under any natural or artificial shelter when feeding, but roam about; yet they do not leap, nor do they ever frequent the water. It will be perceived that, in many respects, the distinctions of this type of larva are negative; yet such characters are just as good, and in many cases better, than those which are drawn from positive circumstances. The best examples we can name of the larva we have now described, will be those of the garden or cabbage butterflies: the swallow-tailed cater- pillars also belong to this type, but are not so charac- teristic as the former. (56.) The Raptorial type, in most groups, may be at once known by having its body covered either with pun- gent spines, or warty tubercles assuming the same shape. Although unable to inflict injury by their bite, these spines upon the surface of these caterpillars are almost always sharp, and very frequenly have the property of inflicting a pain and irritation much more severe than we experience in the sting of a nettle. They are, in fact, the type of evil ; and they show this in a remark- able manner : if, as in some lepidopterous groups, al- though not in the diurnal butterflies, the body is unde- fended either by spines or tubercles, they have yet the extraordinary habit of assuming various threatening or terrific attitudes, in such a way as to intimidate the spectator, and make him believe that they have the power of inflicting upon him grievous bodily injury. Nay, still further to show that particular reference they bear to the noxious and ferocious among animals, and to the evil and reprobate part of mankind, when they change into chrysalis, they either bury themselves in the earth, as if that was their final home, or, if the 60 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. change is effected in the open air, their heads are sus- pended downwards; whereas, in the pre-eminent or iuliform type, the metamorphosis is invariably per- formed in the open air; and in the typical diurnal but- terflies, the head of the chrysalis is always pointed towards the skies, as intimating a joyful and happy change in its next transformation. But this wonderful analogy does not cease here ; it is among the caterpillars of this type, and of this type only, that we find all those which feed upon noxious or deadly plants, on hemlock, nightshade, nettles, and all such as, either for their poisonous or hurtful qualities, are shunned by mankind, as fit emblems of evil and of mischief. It is almost needless to recapitulate the negative characters of this type : the body is always lengthened and cylin- drical, the head without any particular horns, spines, or excrescences, and of a moderate proportionable size : the other extremity of the animal, although obtuse, is never suddenly thickened ; neither are there any tails, filaments, or pointed appendages at the end. All the caterpillars of the diurnal Lepidoptera belonging to this type, are spined or tuberculated ; but in the next tribe, which includes the hawk-moths, or crepuscular Lepi- doptera (Sphingides Sw.), the threatening attitudes are developed in lieu of the armed spines : in both, how- ever, we find a large proportion feeding upon poisonous or noxious plants. The common white admirable but- terfly, which lives upon the nettle ; the painted lady, which, as a larva, devours thistles ; and the splendid peacock butterfly, which feeds with the former ; are all familiar examples of the type we have here indicated. (57.) The third is the Natatorial, or Anopluriform type, so named because, in the higher and larger groups, the animals belonging to it either live in the water or frequent its vicinity : such aquatic creatures may there- fore be said to be enclosed or covered, as it were, from the atmosphere, and live under shelter of another sub- stance. Now, although none of the diurnal butterflies are either natatorial, or in any degree aquatic, Nature SUCTORIAL TYPE OF LARVAE. 6l has nevertheless preserved, in such as belong to this type, the strongest and most beautiful analogy to animals of such habits. The Hesperidce, or skipper butterflies, unlike all others of the tribe, are enclosed and covered, in their larva state, from the air; not, indeed, in water, but within the folds of a leafy case, fabricated by the animal itself, and which it never quits except as a winged insect. The name of anopluriform had better, perhaps, be retained to the examples of this type among the diurnal Lepidoptera ; this epithet having been be- stowed upon it from the resemblance borne by the cater- pillars to the anopluriform apterous insects, or bird lice, of Dr. Leach. But let us enumerate more par- ticularly the character of these larvae. First, then, the head, which in the two former is of moderate size, in this type is always disproportionably large, thick, and obtuse, yet it is never decorated with horns or append- ages : the body is not long, but rather inclined to shortness ; the hinder extremity, however, is always much thicker than the fore part, so that it frequently seems to end very abruptly : the surface is generally smooth and naked, nor is their any appearance of spines, tubercles, or other appendages. These caterpillars, more than any other, resemble the fat maggots of flies ; while their bodies, being sufficiently protected by the covered habitation they fabricate, are usually soft : the legs are small and weak, because there is little use for them; the caterpillar being, as it were, sedentary. In the natatorial or anopluriform type of other animals, the legs are generally wanting. (58.) The Suctorial) or Vermiform type, is one of the most remarkable types, in the variation of its struc- ture, and in the apparently contradictory forms under which it appears. There is one peculiar distinction, however, by which it may generally be recognised ; this is, in the smallness of the heads of these caterpil- lars, destitute, at the same time, of any thing like ex- traneous appendages. It follows, from this circum- stance, that the mouth is particularly small ; while the 62 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS, hinder extremity of the body is invariably narrow and pointed. These peculiarities are the very reverse of those of the larvae belonging to the last type, and render this of very easy detection. It might be in- ferred from the term vermiform, that these larvse are always of the lengthened shape of a worm, and that in the mode of taking their food they are suctorial; but neither of these inferences would be correct. These caterpillars are likened to the true earth-worms, because both their extremities are pointed, and because they are the representatives of those creatures among the diurnal Lepidoptera. Again, they are termed suctorial, because most of their corresponding types or representatives among other animals derive their food from suction alone, and are the most toothless of their respective groups. The different shapes which belong to the suc- torial type among the diurnal butterflies, is the onisci- form, or chelonian : in other words, its shape is inter- mediate between that of a wood-louse (Oniscus Lin.) and a chelonian reptile, or tortoise : the head and tail, indeed, are small and narrow ; but the body is dispro- portionably broad, much depressed, and appears as if divided into plates like the shell on the back of a tortoise. Most of the butterflies belonging to this type are natives of the Tropics ; but there is one division which is more particularly European, and which con- stitutes the genus Polyommatus* , or, the Blues and Coppers, of English collectors. (59.) The Rasorial, or Thy sanuri form, caterpillars belong to the last type we have to notice ; and they differ, in many striking peculiarities, from all that we have yet spoken of. In the general shape of their body, and in the proportionate size of their head, they as- similate to the iuliform and the raptorial types; but from both these they may be known by two characters. Either the head itself is armed with distinct spines, forming a sort of crest round the back part ; or it seems divided into two parts by a deep notch, each portion * Zool. 111. ii. pi. 134. THYSANURIFORM TYPE OF LARV.E. 63 being pointed : sometimes these points are so long as to resemble horns ; in other examples they are very short, and hardly conspicuous; while in some few, although the hinder part of the head is pointed,, it is not divided. The extremity of the body gives us another pecu- liarity : this part, also, terminates in two pointed pro- cesses., which, according to their length in different examples, either assume the appearance of tails, or of two little short spines. We have no very striking in- stances of these horned caterpillars among those of the European butterflies ; but if the student meet with the larvae of any of the brown meadow butterflies, forming the modern genus Hipparchia, he will have a very good idea of the general character of thysanuriforin larvae, the great developement of which is seen only in the large butterflies of Tropical America. A few words may be necessary in explanation of the names given to these caterpillars. They have been called Thysanuri- form, under a belief (and we think the supposition is correct) that they represent the Lepisma or Thysanura of Dr. Leach ; while, by terming them also Rasorial, we point out at once their unquestionable analogy to the rasorial birds. (60.) Let us now compare these types of lepido- pterous larvae with the five great groups of birds and quadrupeds : the test of their accuracy will consist, of course, on the analogy by which each should mutually represent the other. We commence, then, with the iuliform type. The butterflies which proceed from caterpillars bearing this form, are well known to be the most perfect of the whole tribe. This is manifested by their possessing six perfect feet adapted for walking. Linnaeus was well aware that the swallow- tailed butter- flies were the princes of the diurnal Lepidoptera, for he places them at the head as the NoUles, and names the species after the heroes of Greece and Troy. They are, in short, the most perfect of all butterflies, whether we regard their general structure, or the unrivalled beauty of their form and colouring. Now, this perfection, in O4< NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. like manner, belongs to the typical order of perchers among birds, and the Quadrumana or Primates among quadrupeds. In each of these, the power of locomotion is most developed and complete ; and the feet are con- sequently more perfectly formed for such purposes than in any other. If we look to the metamorphoses of the iuliform butterflies, the analogy is further strengthened. Their transformation is not merely complete, but nearly all change into chrysalis with the head directed upwards. To this remarkable fact, which is an essential part of the sublime instruction conveyed to us by these em- blems of our own resurrection, we attach the greatest importance ; and we accordingly find it to be one of the leading features of the most perfect sort of meta- morphosis. The iuliform, or pre-eminent type of larva thus agrees with the pre-eminent orders of qua- drupeds and of birds ; all agreeing in being the most perfect of their kind. The raptorial type (called by some the Scolopendriform) is the next in succession. We have seen that there is a character of evil belonging to this type, even under the apparently harmless form of a caterpillar ; and if any one should be inclined to term this fanciful, he would soon change his opinion upon handling one of the spined caterpillars of Brazil, the pain of which (caused by its poisonous spines) would cripple his fingers for many hours. Now, one of the great characters of all the examples of this type throughout nature, is to be less perfect in their con- struction than the last, but to be endowed with one advantage, that of strength. Such a power, in fact, is inseparable from their nature. The falcons and vul- tures among birds, and the carnivorous beasts among the quadrupeds, being the most cruel and ferocious, are consequently stronger than any others. The same ob- servation is applicable to the butterflies of this type ; they are well known to be the strongest in make, and the most powerful in flight, of all the diurnal lepido- ptera ; while they show a marked inferiority to the iuli- form butterflies, by having the two fore feet so short ABERRANT TYPES OF LARVAE. 65 as to be incapable of being used in walking. The meta- morphosis of these caterpillars has been already adverted to, and its peculiarity forms a part of the inferiority of their station when compared to that of the pre-eminent type : the head of the chrysalis is pointed downwards to the earth, symbolical that all types of evil (C are of the earth earthly ; " in contradistinction to the up- ward direction of those pupse of the last type, which are the symbols of perfection. Upon these grounds do we maintain, that, in all the stages of their existence, the two principal types of the diurnal butterflies are strictly analogous to those of the vertebrate animals : if any other proof was wanting, we need only rest our argu- ment upon this. In quadrupeds and iuliform butter- flies we have the greatest perfection of the feet; whereas in raptorial or scolopendriform butterflies, and in birds, Nature has evidently rendered these organs imperfect, and made their perfection to consist in superior powers of flight. (6l.) If we turn to the aberrant types of larvae, or those which have been named the Anopluriforth, the Vermiform, and the Thysanuriform, we shall find their analogies equally strong among the vertebrate animals. The enormous head of the Hesperian caterpillars, and their thick obtuse body, are strikingly conspicuous in the anopluriform quadrupeds, or the whales ( Cetacea) ; in which order, the head is so disproportionably large as frequently to exceed the circumference of the body : the aquatic birds, in like manner, represent both ; and although their bodies do not end so abruptly, yet they have the shortest tails of all the birds in existence. Next let us take the vermiform or onisciform larvae ; how strikingly do the caterpillars of the blue and copper butterflies (Polyommatus Lat.) resemble a little tortoise, with their small pointed head and tail, and their wide depressed body marked by lines resembling plates ! If, again, we compare them to armadillos, the analogy is equally just and capable of demonstration ; for the genus 66* NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. Dasypus is a vermiform type., while it is almost the only one among quadrupeds, which,, from being covered with bony plates, can be compared to the tortoises or chelonian reptiles. The smallness of the head and mouth in the vermiform caterpillars is very remarkable ; and upon looking to quadrupeds and birds, we find that the GlireSy or mice, the armadillos, and the wading tribes (Grallatores), have the smallest and most pointed muz- zle,, the narrowest gape, and the least mouth of all ver- tebrate animals. Now, the only difference between the general form of these tortoise-like caterpillars, and that of the common earth-worm, is this, that in the former the body is excessively contracted, whereas in the latter it is excessively lengthened : the pointed extremities of the head and of the tail, in both animals, is a common character, which, as we have already seen, belongs to no other type of larvae of insects or of vertebrate animals ; this at once accounts for the excessive length of body possessed by all the gnawing quadrupeds (Glires Linn.), and by all the birds in the order of waders (Gralla- tores). (62.) There now only remain the Rasorial or Thy- sanuriform caterpillars; and these, if the preceding views are correct, must of necessity represent the Gallinacece, or Rasores, among birds, and the horned cattle, or ruminants (Ungulata), among quadrupeds. Now, both of these groups of vertebrate animals, in their respec- tive classes, are the only ones which have horns, crests, or pointed appendages on their heads. Look to the whole of the order Ungulata, and you will find the rhinoceros, with its horned snout, and the numerous families of deer and antelopes and oxen, all decorated in this manner : turn to the gallinaceous birds, and you will find nearly all the peacocks and pheasants ornamented either with conspicuous crests, or with little ear-like egrets ; the different fowls with fleshy combs cresting their heads, and the front of the different Guinea hens armed with bony protuberances. These COMPARISON OF LARVAE WITH UNGULATA. 67 are but so many representations of rasorial or thysa- nuriform larvae, the chief characteristic of which, as every experienced entomologist well knows, is the horn- like spines which crest the head, and give to them the aspect of ruminant caterpillars. But this is not the only mode by which Nature has clearly pointed out to us the harmony and simplicity of her fundamental laws. Thysanuriform larvae are those only which have the body either terminating in two long filaments resem- bling tails *, or in two fleshy points, as in the caterpillars of our common meadow brown butterflies, t Now, if it be inquired, what are the birds which have the greatest developement of tail ? the merest tyro will name the peacocks, the pheasants, and all the typical gallinaceous birds, as possessing this member in its highest state of developement. The analogy of this order of birds, with that composed of the domesticated quadrupeds, long ago pointed out by Linnaeus, is unquestionable ; and we accordingly find that the horse, which stands at their head, has the most beautiful tail among quadru- peds. But an arrangement, it has well been said, it really natural, will stand any test : the most trivial, as well as what appears to be the most important circum- stances, must be taken into consideration. Now, it is notorious, that the most bulky of true quadrupeds are found in the class Ungulata ; there we have the ele- phant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, and the whole family of antelopes and oxen : the largest birds, on the same principle, occur in the rasorial order ; and in like manner the giants of the diurnal butterflies all proceed from the thysanuriform caterpillars. To pursue these beautiful and astonishing representations further, for many others might be pointed out, is surely needless. Enough has been said to establish our proposition, that the types of lepidopterous larvae are only so many re- presentations of the primary types among the most * Merian's Ins. pi. 19. fig. 1. ; Stoll, pi. 3. figs. 3, 4. f See Lewin's Brit. Ins. pi. 17. to 24. F 2 68 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. perfect of the vertebrate animals. This fact being demonstrated, it follows that all the larvae of annulose animals must hear as true analogies to those of the diurnal Lepidoptera, as these latter do to the primary divisions of quadrupeds and of birds. (63.) If, again, we look for analogies between the classes of the Annulosa and the typical forms of larvse already explained, we shall not be altogether disappointed. It becomes, indeed, of the first importance to illustrate this subject, because, having abandoned all the arrange- ments and theories of our predecessors, the entomo- logical world in general will expect that good and sufficient reasons should be urged for this venturous proceeding. We begin, then, with the iuliform type of caterpillars, which, as we have already seen, are the pre-eminent ; and they accordingly produce the most perfectly organised of all the diurnal butterflies : it is consequently this type which represents and stands at the head of the class Ptilota. Next come the Aptera, and the raptorial larvae. In the former we find all the different races of those noxious or disgusting insects which excite so much terror in vulgar minds, and whose very appearance is repulsive. Among these it is only necessary to mention the different races of spiders, wood lice, scorpions, centipedes, harvest bugs, bird lice, and those detestable parasites the Acari, which are the pest of man in tropical countries. Surely, if any assem- blage of insects may be called types of evil, those in the list now before us are universally felt and known as such. They compose, consequently, the sub- typical group, whose hideous aspect and hurtful qualities are aptly represented by the forbidding appearance and the stinging qualities of the raptorial or scolopendriform type of caterpillars. These latter, among the diurnal Lepi- doptera, produce the NymphalidcR, the sub- typical group of the butterflies; and are again represented by the threat- ening rampant caterpillars of the sphinxes, which are also the sub-typical group of the lepidopterous order. Be- COMPARISON OP LARVAE WITH THE ANNULOSA. 69 tween all these, therefore, it is not possible to conceive a more beautiful series of representations. Now pass to the Rasorial or Thysanuriform type, the caterpillars of which, as Dr. Horsfield well observes, have their heads beset with horn-like processes ; but " their chief cha- racteristic," as he could not fail to observe, " consists in two very strongly marked lengthened or filiform ap- pendages " at the end of the abdomen. We have already seen that these tail-like processes represent the long tails of the rasorial birds ; and we shall find that Nature again employs this favourite device to designate the rasorial type of the Annulosa. It is among the Annelides alone, of all the aberrant classes of annulose animals, that we find not a few, but the greatest portion, ornamented with fringed crests on the fore part of their body, and long tail-like processes at the other. Among the Annelides, also, we have the largest Annulosa ; while the thysa- nuriform larvae produce the largest of all butterflies. Other analogies might be pointed out ; but the above are so strong, that there cannot be a doubt of the Annelides representing the thysarmriform caterpillars. Let us next compare the class of Vermes, comprising the intestinal worms, with the vermiform type of caterpillars. Here the analogy is no less interesting. The entomologist will recollect that the great distinction of these cater- pillars is the attenuated or pointed form of its two ex- tremities, so that at first sight it is not readily seen which is the head and which is the tail. Now, this is precisely the description of an intestinal worm, where the mouth, if it exists, is so small as to become obso- lete : even minute inspection is necessary before we can determine at which end it is situated ; so completely pointed and uniform are the two extremities. If it be urged, that the shape of the vermiform caterpillars of the diurnal Lepidoptera are broad and flat in the middle of their body, we have only to look to several of the Vermes for an exact representation of this shape. And if it be said, again, that there are no vermiform cater- F 3 / NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. pillars having the long cylindrical body of the intestinal worms, the entomologist must be reminded of the larvae of the Linnaean Geometria, now called the true moths {Phalanides), where we find the longest caterpillars in the whole order of Lepidoptera ; just as the Vermes, and their representatives, are the longest of all annulose animals. There now remains but one division in each group to be compared,, and these are the Anopluriform caterpillars and the Cirrhipedes, or barnacles. These, it will be remembered, stand at the extreme confines of their own superior groups; the Hesperian butterflies being the last of the Papiliones, and the barnacles the last of the Annulosa. In such extreme groups, the analogies, also, are always the most remote ; nor can we expect to trace any thing in common, as regards absolute struc- ture, between the form of an anopluriform caterpillar and barnacle : but when we reflect upon the habits of these two very dissimilar tribes, we are immediately struck with the beautiful method by which Nature has intended that they should represent each other. The " truly natural character," as Mr. MacLeay observes of the Cirrhipedes, " is that vegetative quality by which they are rendered incapable of locomotion ; " while it may with equal truth be said, that the most striking and universal peculiarity of anopluriform caterpillars consists in their always remaining, as it were, sedentary : they spin themselves up in a leaf, which (apparently at least) they never quit; and in which they change into the pupa. So far, therefore, they have nearly as much of that " vegetative quality/' when we compare them with all the other types of larvae, as have the Cirrhipedes. Both, in short, are modifications of the apodal larvae, and may be described as truly sedentary, or living in one place. We have intimated, that it would be almost impossible to discover the most remote analogy between the form of a barnacle and an anopluriform larva ; but there is a very curious coincidence in the general ap- pearance of the two animals, which may be here men- FORMS ALWAYS SYMBOLICAL. 71 tioned. Any one who looks at an anopluriform cater- pillar, must be struck by the excessive size of the head, often broader than the body, from which it is so far removed, as to appear attached to it by a peduncle. Dr. Horsfield, therefore, justly characterised these larvae as having ef a very large head, attached to the body by a long neck." Now, the Cirrhipedes, properly speaking, have no head ; but that part of the animal which corre- sponds thereto, and where the mouth is situated, is ele- vated on a long fleshy slender peduncle ; so that the thickest part of the creature is that where the mouth is situated. Such, in fact, is an anopluriform larva ; the head, where the mouth is placed, is the thickest part of the animal ; so that the figure of a pedunculated bar- nacle may be termed a rude sketch of that form which Nature developes more accurately in the larva of a Hesperia, and brings to the highest perfection in the quadrupeds, under the form of the whale, that is, in the most perfect of all her groups. We make no apo- logy to the reader for this apparent digression ; for what can be more delightful than to trace the varied yet consistent operations of Nature through the endless diversity of forms she spreads before us. We have shown that the primary types of caterpillars represent the primary divisions of quadrupeds and of birds, and that these three important groups are again represented by the great divisions of Annulosa. It is impossible to believe that results, so uniformly consistent with each other, can be founded but on the true symbolical system of Nature. We hope, therefore, to have now demon- strated our original proposition ; namely, that the groups of the Annulosa represent those of the Fertebrata, and that the principles of variation, in one and the other, are precisely the same. The following table, therefore, concentrates all we have said in this paragraph : - 72 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. Analogies of the LARVAE of the LEPIDOPTERA to the AN- NULOSA. P<- p^'s'LoSr 1 ' innox -} **/<* APTERA. Hairy or spinous ; often poisonous. Scolopendriform. CIERIPBPES. [ H ^ ro TLc a k ge> attaChed ^ a ] Jnophrtfbrm. v f Both extremities pointed ; head} Vermiform^ or very small. 3 Onisciform. (64.) Let us now inquire into the principle of variation that pervades each of the types of larvae herein described. This demands our particular attention, because, as it ap- pears to us, some erroneous ideas have been entertained on this subject. We have seen that, in one large group of insects, containing many hundreds, perhaps thousands, of species, there are five leading types or forms of cater- pillars ; and that these correspond, and follow each other, in the same order of succession as do the classes and orders of quadrupeds and of birds. But the student, any more than the professed entomologist, must not be- lieve that all tha thy sanuri form larvae, for instance, go in one of these five divisions ; or that he is to class all the scolopendriform caterpillars together under another di- vision. True it is, that by such an arrangement he would get a uniformity of the same-shaped caterpillars, and he might flatter himself with having discovered the true arrangement of the Lepidoptera; but when he looked to/ the butterflies which proceeded from his thysanuriform or his scolopendriform larvae, he would find that, so far from exhibiting the regularity and affinity with each other, which, from looking only to their caterpillars, he had expected, he will be perfectly disappointed. But, to render this clear, let us state a case ; let us suppose, for instance, he had in his possession the five cater- pillars here represented : he sees that they answer to our description of the thysanuriform type; and, as they TRANSFORMATIONS OF THYSANURIFORM LARVAE. 73 have a very close resemblance to each other, he conse- quently concludes, with every show of reason, that they will produce pupae and butterflies equally near, and equally resembling each other. He accordingly feeds them, and watches their transformation with great anx- iety. The first, we will suppose, which changes into chrysalis, is that of Podalirius Pompilius*, or the Ja- vanese swallow-tail : he sees with surprise, that the chrysalis, instead of having its head suspended down- wards, as in all the true thysariuriform types, has it in an erect position; while the butterfly, into which it is subsequently transformed, has six perfect legs, and turns out to be of the iuliform, or pre-eminent, type. Sadly perplexed at this, he traces the progress of another ; this he conceives, from the length of its horns, to be more typical, and he consequently expects that it will pro- duce him a perfect thysanuriform butterfly. But he is again baffled; it becomes transformed into the purple emperor, a butterfly which belongs to the raptorial, or scolopendriform, division. Of two green caterpillars, which, from their similarity, seemed to belong to species of the same genus, one only becomes a true thysanuri- form butterfly, the other changing to one of the scolo- pendriform types. Finally, he gets from a fifth, which closely resembles the last two, a decided species of Hes- peria, & butterfly totally different from all those which his collection of thysanuriform larvae had produced. How, then, it may be asked, can we maintain that each of the great divisions of butterflies has a peculiarly shaped ca- terpillar; when we see, as in the foregoing instance, those which are called thysanuriform are scattered in every one of these divisions ? This question brings us to the point we are to explain, namely, the principle of their va- riation. It is, theoretically, as follows : Every natural group of butterflie's, either in their caterpillar or perfect state, contains representations of the primary types of larvae, modified, however, in such a manner, as to indi- cate the real type to which they actually belong. Sup- * Zool. 111. ii. pi. 105, 74 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. pose, for instance, we take the iuliform butterflies, the most perfect of the diurnal Lepidoptera; now, although the types of this division perfectly agree with our de- finition, we nevertheless discover, as we proceed to the aberrant examples, that Nature so modifies them, that some assume the aspect and character of scolopendriform larvae, others have the thysanuriform shape, and so on. So that, although the butterflies which stand at the head of the iuliform division, as being typical, have iuliform larvae, yet that the group, taken as a whole, will contain analogical representations of all the other types of larvae we have described. The scolopendriform butterflies (Nymphalides Sw.), in the very same manner, contain representations of iuliform, thysanuriform, vermiform, and anopluriform caterpillars, besides their own proper type, which is scolopendriform. This fact, which none of the modern lepidopterous writers appear to have perceived, has been so fully illustrated in a series of plates *, as to be placed beyond all reasonable doubt. No better argument, indeed, than this, can be urged against the prevalent but erroneous idea, that the natural ar- rangement of the Lepidoptera, or, in fact, of insects generally, entirely depends upon the form of their ca- terpillars. Our belief is, therefore, that, without a knowledge of the perfect insect, we should never be able to explain whether it was allied to any one particular type by affinity, or whether it only analogically repre- sented it. (65.) Most of the modifications under which the primary types of larvae are in a manner disguised, will be easily comprehended by the foregoing remarks. lull- form larvae, as we have already said, are smooth; but sometimes they are covered with fleshy tubercles, as in the instance of that beautiful butterfly, Polydorus Thoas. Now, the whole structure of the perfect insect shows that it belongs to the iuliform butterfly ; and the reason of its larva being disguised in the form of another type (for the spine-like tubercles on its body are merely soft * Zool. 111. Sdseries. SUCCESSION OF REPRESENTATION CONSTANT. 7 3 processes) is, to show that the genus Polydorus represents t\\eNymphalides, or scolopendriform butterflies. Another iuliform larva has the body terminated by two little points,, thereby denoting its representation of the thysa- nuriform caterpillars. Thus every natural group, not only of the diurnal butter flies, but so far as we yet know of the whole order Lepidoptera, contains repre- sentations of the primary forms of larvae, following each other in a uniform series, and producing perfect insects whose structure harmonises with this theory. Where natural groups are comparatively small, and pre-emi- nently typical, it sometimes occurs that all the larvae are uniform, without any of the above modifications. We see a strong instance of this in the old genus Pieris, the most typical, according to our views, of all annulose animals. It is to this very circumstance we must attribute the fact of all the Pierian larvae being iuliform. But, when groups are very extensive, we consequently find a greater variety of shape, of colour, and even of struc- ture, in the perfect insects ; and this extends also to their larvae. The genus Papilis of Latreille, the very next after that of his Pieris, is a case in point. We ventured, some years ago, to break up this most natural group into minor subdivisions, because we found it contained iuli- form, scolopendriform, thysanuriform, vermiform, and anopluriform larvae, while the perfect insects produced from them imitated, in some way or other, each of the great divisions of the lepidopterous circle. (66.) In orders where the metamorphosis is imper- fect or incomplete, and the larvae more or less represent the perfect insect, the analogies we have already detailed can nevertheless be traced. Thus, while the lepidopterous caterpillars live upon vegetables, the Hemiptera, in their typical example (Reduviida), are carnivorous : like all the raptorial types, these insects live by rapine, and suck the blood or juices of their victims. The aquatic, or anopluriform, type is seen in the active larvae of the dragon-flies, in the neuropterous order. (6*7.) We shall now briefly notice the shape and 76 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. peculiarities of the perfect pupa, or chrysalis. It is without limbs, inactive, and so sluggish as to show no other signs of life than a slight degree of motion upon being disturbed. An insect in this state exhibits little or no indication either of the form it originally had, or that which it is destined to assume. Among the typical Lepidoptera, or, more properly, the butterflies, we find three distinct types of pupae, all of which change into that state above the ground. The first of these chiefly belong to the iuliform division : its form is angulated, with both extremities pointed; the tail is fastened to some other substance, generally the tree upon which it fed as a caterpillar; while the body is kept in an erect position, with the head pointing upwards, by means of a transverse thread, which loops it across its breast. The second form is generally more angulated than the former, and not unfrequently ornamented with golden and other metallic colours ; but it is attached in a very different manner ; it has no transverse brace, because it hangs suspended in the air by the tail, so that the head is consequently directed downwards to the earth. The third kind of pupa is attached, like the first, both by the tail and by a transverse thread; but its position is generally horizontal, and it is always enclosed within a convoluted leaf, similar to the habitation which it lived in as a caterpillar. The skippers (Hesperidce*) are the only family of butterflies, at present known, which change into pupae of this description. There is reason to think, however, that, even in this family, some considerable de- viations from the above mode of attachment will here- after be detected. Lewin* figures the pupa of the spotted skipper as enclosed in a slight web, " under cover of a leaf," but without the transverse brace or thread. With the metamorphoses, also, of the extensive family of Erycinidce, we are but imperfectly acquainted, except so far as regards one solitary species, figured by Stoll. The pupa of the Apollo butterfly is also described as being enveloped within a leaf; but whether it be simply * Brit. Ins. pi. 46. fig. 7. MODES OF CHANGE INTO PUPJE. 77 enclosed in a thin web,, without a brace, similar to that of the spotted skipper, is uncertain. Should the figures of Lewin be correct, it follows that such unbraced pupae will present us with a. fourth variation among the butter- flies; and this will be analogous to the pupae of the spinning moths, or silkworms (Bomby tides), subse- quently noticed. (68.) But the typical forms of perfect Pupce are not all to be found among the butterflies ; and this shows us, by the way, that a system built upon this stage of an insect is not a whit more valuable than another which rests solely upon the caterpillar. Hitherto we have seen that these creatures perform their transformations in the same element as that in which they were born ; but on entering among the crepuscular or twilight flying tribe (Sphingides Sw.), we find that the larvae quit the air and hide themselves in the bowels of the earth, as if they " loved darkness better than light, be- cause their type was evil." At the head of this tribe stands the death's-head moth (Sphinx Atropos}, car- rying upon him the " sign and seal" of the symbol which Nature has designed him to be. Upon the thorax of this extraordinary insect, which is the largest moth found in Europe, the figure of a human skull, the em- blem of death and of the grave, is so distinctly stamped, that a casual observer might easily imagine it was the work of some cunning limner desirous to give an un- natural terror to the aspect of a really harmless insect. Now, the caterpillar of this forbidding creature, when it is about to undergo its transformation, penetrates to more than a foot deep into the earth; and all the true sphinges do the same ; but Nature does not pass to these subterranean pupae without many gradual modi- fications. Some of the hawk moths spin themselves a web on the surface of the ground, which is covered by leaves : others proceed a step further, and make use of particles of dirt in preference : next come a few who repose themselves in a little hollow grave, so that they hardly lie beneath the surface : succeeding species dig 78 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. deeper and deeper, until we have the Sphinx Atropos as the type and perfection of subterranean pupae. The greatest part of the night-moths (Noctuides) possess this metamorphosis, which may also be found in the aberrant examples of the other tribes of moths ; but in the two first mentioned, the Sphingides and the Noc- tuides, it is most prevalent and typical. The most complicated sort of pupa,, however, is that into which the silkworm tribe are changed ; for here we have a surprising display of preparatory caution and indus- trious skill. It seems hardly necessary to describe in this place the pupa or cocoon of the common silk- worm, or rather caterpillar, except to notice its general structure. There is a provident care in the prepa- rations made by all insects of this tribe, which is very remarkable; they envelope themselves in an oval com- pact ball of the most delicate threads of silk ; these are drawn from their own bodies; and they contrive, in some unexplained stage of the operation, to affix the whole, externally, to a firm object. Now, this is evi- dently a very near approach to the same form of pupa as that which is so slightly developed in the skipper butterfly before alluded to ; but the difference is this, that in the silk-spinning caterpillars, the web or cocoon is so firm and compact as to resist the weather ; whereas, in the other insect, the web is so thin that it can be seen through, and consequently requires the additional protection of a leaf or of some other substance. We may add, also, that in the former, the chrysalis is always thick, cylindrical, and obtuse, particularly at the head; while, in the latter, it always exhibits some appearance of angles, and the head is more or less pointed. The pupae of the true moths (Pkalanide*) are mostly of this latter description; that is, they spin a thin and often almost transparent web, within the folds of a leaf, al- though the form of the chrysalis itself is like that of the silkworm. This, in fact, is the typical form of the pupae among the true moths; but in this tribe we have representations of the terrestrial and several other TRANSFORMATIONS OP IMPERFECT PUP^E. 79 types, although we find none of those which are so common among the diurnal butterflies. Such are the leading variations or the most remarkable differences at present known among the inactive pupae of the typical order of annulose animals. But there is another modi- fication which must here be noticed, because it comes under our definition of a perfect chrysalis : this is called coarctate; and is when the larva changes into a pupa so entirely covered with a thick crustaceous shell, as to assume the appearance of an oval egg, the surface of which is smooth and glossy, without, in most in- stances, exhibiting more than a slight indication of those joints, segments, or angles, which are seen in all the types before-mentioned. This sort of pupa is chiefly, if not exclusively, found in the order of Diptera, or of two- winged insects, and in that of the Hymenoptera, which includes the bees and wasps. MM. Kirby and Spence consider this as a ' ( fifth kind of pupae, which are not, as in other instances, excluded from the skin of the larvae, but remain concealed under it, and were hence called by Linnaeus coarctate pupce : they may be termed, in common language, cased nymphs. The envelope of these is formed of the skin of the larva considerably altered in form and texture/' * (69.) Of imperfect pupa?, or such as are active, and resemble either the larva or the adult insect, there are various kinds. The name given by Linnaeus to these semi-transformations, appears to us particularly objec- tionable : he called them complete, thereby leading us to the erroneous supposition that they are the most com- plete or perfect examples of the pupa transformation ; the fact being, that they are, in this respect, precisely the contrary : they not only greatly resemble the mature insect in form, but are equally capable of eating and moving. As these insects, however, cast their skins at stated periods, and undergo changes, though slight, in their external and internal conformation, they are justly regarded by all authors as undergoing metamorphosis,, * Int. to Ent. i. 69. 80 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. although of an imperfect kind. Now, these belong to two very different groups of annulose animals. In the one, composing the apterous division of Linnseus, there is no appearance of wings : these are his complete pupae. The rest belong to the Ptilota, or winged group, and resemble the perfect insect in every thing but pos- sessing wings, the rudiments of which only appear : these latter are called by some writers semi-complete pupae ; and this name may be retained, because it im- plies an intermediate state of metamorphosis, between the imperfect transformation of an apterous insect, and the perfect or complete one of a butterfly. The period during which insects remain in this state depends upon the species ; some quit it in a few hours, others after some months, while not a few continue in it one or even two years. (70.) Let us now look to the third and last state of an insect. We have traced this singular little being through the two preparatory stages of his existence : in the first, he is an inhabitant of the earth, in the second of the grave, and in the third he becomes a denizen of the air. Such, at least, is the life of those perfect, or winged, insects, which are typical of the grand division of animals now before us. The connection between these, and apterous or wingless tribes, is ren- dered gradual by the intervention of the dipterous flies, where the organs of flight are but two ; whereas, in the perfect Ptilota, the wings are almost universally four. When an insect assumes its adult or perfect state, Linnseus termed it an imago. " because, having laid aside its mask, and cast off its swaddling bands, being no longer disguised or confined, or in any respect im- perfect, it is now become a true representative or image, of its species, and is qualified to fulfil the laws of nature in perpetuating its kind. As the power of flying constitutes the perfection of true insects, we accordingly find this in its highest state of developement in the lepi- dopterous order, where the wings are the largest, and the most adapted for rapidity of flight. From this UNIVERSAL HARMONV OF NATURE'S LAWS. 81 point of perfection,, Nature recedes on each side, as from a land-mark ; until, by two different routes, she reaches the order Coleoptera, where she presents us with an immense assemblage of insects, having, indeed, four wings, but of which two are converted into cases or shells (elytra), which principally serve as mere pro- tectors or shields to the single pair which are alone formed for flight. Hence it follows, that the beetles are the most imperfect fliers of the Ptilota, or true insects ; while, to compensate for such a loss, they are the most expert runners of all the orders. On looking to the vertebrate animals, we find the same plan in their creation. No birds run so swiftly as the waders ( Grallatores) ; and no quadrupeds, in reference to their size, pass over an extent of ground so swiftly as do the rabbits, the hares, and other types of the order Glires. How beautifully does Nature thus adhere to her primary laws, while she modifies them in the most surprising manner. We shall now terminate our remarks on the metamorphoses of insects, or rather, of those two great divisions which constitute the types of the Annulosa. CHAP. II. THE LEPIDOPTERA. (71.) THE order Lepidoptera, as being the most per- fect of all insects, is that with which we commence our survey. It comprises the butterflies, the hawk moths, and the moths. The wonderful metamorphosis under- gone by these insects, would be almost incredible, were it not familiarised to us from early childhood. That a crawling worm, ravenous of gross food, should volun- tarily seek a retreat in the earth, or spin its own shroud, 82 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. that then a change should come over it, so complete, as that not a lineament of its first form was retained., that in this state, after remaining a misshaped lump, to all appearance inanimate,, it should suddenly burst forth, full of life and joy, and with many -coloured wings ascend into mid air, and derive its only sustenance from the nectar of flowers ; all this, we say, is one of those miracles of nature, which, were it told of an in- sect that had never yet been seen, the world would not believe. But the world, alas ! is absorbed in its own concerns ; the things of time, in the minds of the mil- lion, exclude those of eternity. And although in this, as in numberless other instances, , Jjlf ^ blance which may be traced in the profile of their heads to that of a hawk ; in general,, they fly only during morning and evening. The third, which is by far the largest division, comprehends the moths (Phal&nides) : these fly only in the dusk of evening, or during the night ; and their antennae gra- duate from the base to a fine point (c). These, as Linnaeus long ago perceived, are the primary divisions, corresponding to our primary circles of the whole order. But as one of these, or the aberrant, is always resolvable into three others, we find that the nocturnal moths ar- range themselves into three great groups, composed of the Bomby tides, or silk moths; the Geometrides, orloopers; and the Noctuides, or night moths. Thus we have three aberrant and two typical groups or tribes, corre- sponding to the quinary divisions of all the other orders. (76.) Commencing with the PAPILIONIDES, or first tribe we shall merely observe, that they comprehend all the diurnal butterflies with clavate antennae, or such as were included by Linnaeus under his genus Papilio. These we arrange under five distinct families, which, under the following names, we shall briefly notice ; namely, 1. the Papilionidce ; 2. the Nymphalida ; 3. the SatyridcB ; 4, the Erycinidce ; and, 5. the Hesperidte* The first have six perfect feet, and iuliform larvae ; the second have the anterior feet abortive, and the larvae are scolopendriform : these two being typical ; while the three following are aberrant. (77.) The arrangement of the Papilionida into their minor families or divisions has not yet been attempted ARRANGEMENT OF THE PAPILIONID^. 87 at least, with any reference to their complete circular affinities. We shall not, therefore, at present, offer any other opinion as to their true affinities, than that which we formerly intimated ; namely, that the old genera Papilio, Pieris, Colias, and Dorites followed each other in a na- tural order : but analysis has brought to light another group, which we were the first to characterise, under the name of Licinia (Licinia Amphione ? fig. 3.) : it repre- sents the HeliconincBy and is unquestionably connected to Colias. Latreille has mistaken the type of this genus for a Heliconia, in which he has been followed by Dr. Horsfield, who cites the larva, of which the only repre- sentation is that in Stoll. The general sketch of these groups, which will now follow, is sufficient for our pre- sent purpose: they are composed of 1. the Papilionince, or true butterflies ; 2. the Pierince, or whites ; 3. the Coliance, or yellows ; 4. the Lyccenince, or large under- wings ; and, 5. the Parnassince, or Apollo butterflies. (78.) The PapllionincB are generally termed swallow- tails, from the lower wings being dilated into twospatulate lengthened lobes ; but this form is by no means general, since near one third of the species have the lower wings rounded. They comprise some of the largest lepido- pterous insects, and are at once known by the extreme shortness of their palpi; these parts, in fact, are so G 4 88 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. small, that they appear, even in the perfect insect, to have been broken off : the antennse are long, the club very slender, cylindrical, and slightly curved; and the anterior thighs armed with a short acute process in the middle. The sides of the lower wings are cut out, to give a free passage to the body ; and all the feet are strong and lengthened. Their colours are not brilliant, but rich and imposing: black or brown is the general ground colour ; this being varied with spotted bands of yellow, red, or sometimes green : in some, the wings are striped with black upon a yellow ground. Their flight is not very rapid or strong, and much resembles that of the garden whites. Their geographic distribution is very wide; for although but two species occur in Eu- rope, both of which have been found in England, those of America and India are numerous, while others of much beauty occur in the remote regions of Australia. The group, however, is most abundant between the tropics ; yet, like all others strictly typical, it is, in its general range, almost universal. (79- ) The Pierince, or garden white butterflies, imme- diately succeed. They comprise several distinct genera. In these butterflies, the club of the antennae is always sud- denly enlarged at the top, and much compressed ; while the palpi are clothed with long straggling hairs, and the last joint obviously projects beyond the head. All this will be apparent, on examining one of the common white species found in our gardens. The legs are per- fect: the caterpillars are nearly smooth, merely pro- vided with short downy hairs, thinly scattered over the body : the retractile horns, so general in the last group, are entirely wanting. The ground colour of the perfect insect is generally white ; but in that group which passes into the Papilioninos, there is nearly an equal propor- tion of black; in others (Euterpe Sw.), a similar variation takes place; in all, however, the angles or corners of the wings are much rounded, and they offer no example of tails on the inferior wings : hence en- sues a weaker flight, while their size is moderate : the DEFINITION OF THE COLIAN^. 89 under wings have no groove for the body. Their geo- graphic distribution is similar to that of the last family, except that the genera of the Old World are in most cases different from those of the New, and there are as many species in temperate as in tropical latitudes. (80.) The Coliance, or yellows, exhibit a uniformity of colour seldom met with so decidedly prevalent in all the species. They are of a rich straw colour or bright yellow, entirely destitute of bands or spots ; but the under surface is variegated with minute dots, and gene- rally marked by one or two small central silver spots. From the great similarity which prevails, the species are not readily distinguished. The form of the perfect in- sect, however, is very peculiar : its structure is thick and robust ; the wings triangular, with the angles either very slightly rounded or decidedly acute : no other but- terflies in this family possess these characters, which all indicate that boldness and vigour of flight belonging to the group. The antennae also are peculiar ; they are very gradually thickened towards the tip, where they end abruptly and without any compression : the ante- rior feet, although provided with claws, are much shorter than usual; and the lower wings form an imperfect groove for the body. Several species belonging to the genera Gonepteryx and Eurymus occur throughout Europe, and some of these inhabit Britain ; but the ty- pical form is chiefly confined to the tropical latitudes of both hemispheres, where they are found in prodigious numbers: they are, in fact, migratory insects, and re- present the swallows in their own tribe. (81.) Of the Lyccsnince we can say but little, since we know not the exact extent of the group : they are, how- ever, immediately distinguished by their large under wings, which are as long, and always much broader, than the upper : the sexes differ so materially, that closet naturalists have not only described them as separate species, but have imagined they belonged to different genera. In structure and appearance they resemble the Heliconidce ; but their anterior feet are 90 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. perfect, while their long wings and very slender shape equally separate them from the Pierince. The club of the antennse is long, not abrupt, and greatly compressed ; while the head exhibits the peculiar appearance of being porrect, or placed upon a long neck. The larva of one Species (Z,. Amphione) is furnished with two solid spines near the head, as in the Erycinida ; but we know nothing of its habits. We first became acquainted with this remarkable group of insects in South America ; where, during the autumn of 1816, we captured eight or ten species.* The general appearance of the genus Leu- cophasia induces us to place it at the confines of this group. (82.) Under the Parnassince we place the genera Parnassius and Thais of Latreille, two remarkable and apparently isolated groups, peculiar to the conti- nent of Europe. Parnassius, in its larva state, is pro- vided with the forked retractile horns of the genuine Papilios ; and its chrysalis appears to be hid within a leaf. In Thais, which evidently borders upon the next division, the caterpillar is armed with a row of fleshy spines, and the chrysalis is obtuse at its anterior part. (83.) The family of the NYMPHALID^E, or brush- footed butterflies, next succeed. These are eminently distinguished from the last, both in their larva, their pupa, and their perfect state. In the first, the caterpillar is more or less covered with sharp spines ; which gives it, as has been well observed, a terrific or threatening as- pect. These spines are often surmounted or accompanied by hairs possessing such a stinging or irritating quality, as to cause the most intolerable pain to those who handle them. This we have unluckily experienced in Tropical America; but no such quality belongs to the British species. The pupa is for the most part angulated, but it is sometimes smooth ; in either case, however, it is adorned with rich metallic colours, sometimes disposed in the shape of spots, at others covering the entire * The genus was defined and published in Zool. Illustrations, vol. i. pL!5. THE NYMPH ALID^E. 9* chrysalis, which thus seems cut out of a solid piece of metal. Unlike that of the true butterflies, the pupa is always suspended with its head downwards, and is en- tirely destitute of a transverse thread : some few, repre- senting the silk moths (Bombycid(K\ live and undergo their metamorphosis within a leaf; these exceptions, however, are very rare. The perfect insect presents us with many peculiar characters. Its whole structure is more robust and vigorous, resembling, in this respect, the Coliance ; the anterior feet are short, almost always imperfect, and generally covered by long hairs ; whence their popular name of Brush-feet. No general defi- nition will serve to characterise the shape of the wings, as these, no less than the palpi and antennae, vary in each of the lesser families ; but, in general, the under pair are so dilated, as to form a groove for the recep. tion of the body. As illustrations of the more typical 92 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. forms of the larva and pupa in this family, we may cite that of the peacock butterfly (a), which agrees with the general structure above described; but those of the purple emperor (&) are seen to be totally different ; al- though the two species, in their perfect state, obviously belong to the same division. In the genus Acrea, again, the larva (c) resembles that of the peacock, while the perfect insects are totally dissimilar. In the American genus Euplosa (cC), which we place, without doubt, in this family, the caterpillar is furnished with two pair of fleshy processes, one towards the head, and another near the tail ; sometimes the back is furnished with another pair : these processes obviously represent the tufts of hair upon the clear-winged Zyganidce of Brazil, and indicate a very close affinity with them. The pupa, which is smooth, is suspended downwards, and clearly belongs to this division.* (84.) The NYMPHALID^:, as a whole, have been considered the typical or most perfect family of diurnal butterflies. On this subject, we had long ago remarked, ce If strength of body, rapidity of flight, or brilliancy of colouring, were sufficient to constitute the typical perfections of the diurnal Lepidoptera, the award of su- periority would undoubtedly be conferred upon this group, did they not show a decided inferiority to the last family, in their less perfect construction. The an- terior legs are destitute of claws, and are so short, as to appear at first sight perfectly useless." f Now, this peculiar structure of the feet, although, no doubt, admir- ably adapted to some unknown habits of the insects, is nevertheless, in one sense, an imperfection, when com- * Dr. Horsfield's illustration of his system, from placing full confidence in the nomenclature of M. Latreille, is unfortunately defective. The larva he has figured at pi. 3. fig. 18. of his beautiful work, taken from Stoll, as an example of Beliconto, is that of an Erycina. Again, fig. 20. on the same plate, copied from the same work, is not a Heliconia, but is that of Acrea Thalia, an insect we have seen by thousands in Brazil ; while that at fig. 19. called by Latreille a Heliconia, is that of our Licinia Amphione already given in this chapter. (Zoo/. III. ii. pi. 91.) The truth is, that we are perfectly unacquainted with the larva of a single species of Heliconia. It is entirely an American group, and altogether tropical. We have fre- quently met with the chrysalis (e) t but never with the larva. t Phil. Mag. March, 1827. THE SATYRID^E, 93 pared with those of the true Papllionidce. We see no reason,, therefore, to change the above opinion. (85.) The family of SATYRIIX&, or Argus butterflies, was originally comprised by us in the last division ; but more matured reflection, and the analogies they bear to other groups of higher value,, induce us to consider them as entitled to a distinct station. They have many pecu- liarities in their habits, independent of all such as have been pointed out in their metamorphosis. Here we find the largest butterflies in existence ; the whole group being analogous to that of the ruminating animals among Quadrupeds. Nearly all the typical species are confined to Tropical America. Their colours are distri- buted on the upper surface, in large masses of shining blue, upon a brown or dark ground. The genus Ama- thusa represents these noble insects in India ; but their size is smaller, and they are destitute of brilliant colours. The smaller groups of this family are those only which are distributed over Europe ; we have many species in England, known by the familiar name of meadow browns (ffipparchia F.). The strong peculiarity which runs through all these groups, is, that the under surface of the wings is invariably ornamented with beautiful ocellate spots : these spots, in the large American spe- cies, resemble in form, but not in brilliancy of colour, those on the tail of the peacock ; but in the European examples they are smaller, more numerous, and often silvery. The general structure of all these insects, even those of the largest, is weak. The typical groups live only in the dark primeval forests, resting on the trunks of trees during the meridian heat, and show a decided par- , tiality for shade ; some, indeed, fly only towards the dusk of the evening. These habits, strikingly contrast- ing with those of the Papilionidce and the Nymphalidce, show that we have reached an aberrant group of these diurnal Lepidoptera; and illustrates that general habit and structure must have more weight than partial con- siderations, drawn either from the larva, the pupa, or the perfect insect. The natural divisions of this group Q4< NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. have never been investigated, and we shall not attempt their definitions. The general structure of the cater- pillar in this family is termed by Mr. MacLeay, Thysa- nuriform, or, in other words, bearing a close analogy to the Lepisma, and similar apterous insects of the same division. It may be described, typically, as much lengthened, narrow at the end, having two long setae, or caudal appendages resembling tails; the head being armed with spines, or greatly widened in its form, like a shield : in the less typical groups, the end of the body terminates in two points, and the head is frequently divided in a similar way. The ringlet (Hipparchia Hyperanthus), in the larva and all its other stages^ is a native and familiar example of the Argus butterflies. The pupa is more or less smooth; and is suspended with the head downwards, similar to the last family. The anterior part is sometimes much pointed ; but in the European examples it is generally obtuse. Green is the prevalent colour ; but no instances are known of these pupae being ornamented with metallic colours. (86.) The SATYRID^E, in their perfect or imago state, differ very little in general structure from the Nympha- lidce. The anterior feet have the same shortness and brush-formed appearance ; the palpi are equally perfect ; but the antennae are more slender. All these circum- stances confirm the justness of our observations, that if any one set of characters are made the key-stone of a system, that system is sure to end in being thoroughly artificial. (87.) We retain the name of ERYCINID^E to the next group, because there are many reasons for supposing the genus Erycina of Fabricius constitutes the type, rather than that of Lyccena or Polyommatus, as sup- posed by some writers.* As the Satyridce contain the largest butterflies, so do the Erycinida comprehend the smallest. Their forms, however, are singularly diversi- * See the subgenera of Polyommatus, illustrated and defined in Zoo/. ///. 2d series. THE ERYCINID^E. 9^ fied ; and show how impossible it is to frame a compre- hensive character for an extensive group, which is nevertheless strictly natural. The three most prominent groups contained in this family, seem to be represented by the genera Erycina, Polyommatus, and Thecla. All these, however dissimilar in their perfect stage of exist- ence, preserve a strong resemblance in their larva state. The colours and the habits of these butterflies are parti- cularly varied. The Erycinince are chiefly found in Tro- pical America : their form is delicate, and they rest with all the wings expanded. Representations of all the groups among the diurnal Lepidoptera are found in this small- sized but singularly beautiful sub-family, of which no true example occurs in Europe. That of Polyomma- tus, on the contrary, containing the blue Argus butterflies, is nearly unknown in South America, while it abounds in temperate regions : they are denominated, by our collectors, Blues ; a rich shining blue being the preva- lent colour of the upper surface of their wings, while the under is thickly sprinkled with small ocellated spots. The Theclince are likewise remarkable for the brilliant azure of their upper surface, but the under is generally marked with slender delicate lines crossing both wings ; hence their familiar name of hair- streaks. The genus Lyccena, or coppers, on the contrary, are known by their rich fire or copper colour. The former are found in Europe ; but by far the largest proportion occur in Tro- pical America and India. Brazil alone furnished us with more than one hundred species of Thecla. The copper butterflies are restricted to the Old World. Both groups, however, bear a strong resemblance to each other in all points of general structure and habit. The cater- pillars of this family are of very peculiar make, and stamp the group with every appearance of being a perfectly natural one. By some it is denominated vermiform ; but as the term onisciform, in this instance, is much more expressive, we adopted the latter upon a former oc- casion, as we shall now do upon this. The larva is short, broad, flattened, and usually naked : the head is very small, 96 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. and its general aspect immediately reminds us of an Onis- cus, or wood louse. In general it is naked (fig. 5. c) ; but in some of the Oriental species ( Theda Jurbus Hors.) it is hairy, and in others (T. longinus Hors. fig. 5.) the sur- face is much wrinkled. In Erycina, the hairs sometimes assume the appearance of tufts ; and in the only species (e) of which the larva has been figured, there are two horns near the head (a). Much, however, remains to be discovered respecting the transformations of this diversified group. (88.) The pupa differs essentially from that form so generally prevalent in the last family: it is short, thick, and obtuse, attached by the tail, and, in all the European and American groups, braced by a transverse thread (fig. 5. d). It seems, however, from the figures in the Javanese Catalogue (pi. 4. figs. 1. 3, 4, 5.), that several of the Oriental species are merely suspended with the head downwards, without any transverse brace. Is not this an error of the engraver ? (89.) The separation of the Erycinidce from this family, merely because the larva of the only species whose transformation is known, is furnished with two horns like some of the thysanuriform caterpillars, ap- pears to us highly objectionable, because it is in no degree sanctioned by the structure of the perfect insect. It is almost impossible to bring into contact two more THE HESPERID^E. 97 different forms than an Erycina and a Hesperia, whether we look to them in their larva or their perfect state ; and for this, and other reasons, we adhere to the arrangement we formerly proposed. (90.) The HESPERID^E constitute the last family of diurnal Lepidoptera. These insects have neither size nor brilliancy to recommend them; while their long, abruptly hooked antennae give them such an isolated cha- racter, that the family can never he mistaken. Nor are their distinguishing characters confined to outward struc- ture. Their flight is even more rapid than that of the Nymphalidce, and, in the more typical species, is per- formed with such celerity that the eye can scarcely follow the insect. They may, indeed, be compared to the fissirostral or swallow tribe among birds, which, in fact, they truly represent ; while their palpable affinity to the hawk moths (Sphingides), has induced almost every writer to place them as the connecting link be- tween the diurnal and crepuscular Lepidoptera. Tro- pical America is the great metropolis of this family, where the species are so numerous that we found near 300 in Brazil alone : many occur both in India and in Australia; a few in Southern Africa; but we have as yet seen none from the Pacific Islands. In Europe and Britain there are but few, and these are but thinly scat- tered. Much misconception and many errors exist re- garding the habits of these insects, such as the mode of carrying their wings, &c. Some of these we have al- ready rectified. * There are several important divisions in this family, but our present rapid survey will not admit of their particular enumeration. (91.) The larvae of the Hesperida (fig. 6. a, d) are so strikingly distinguished from those of the Poty- ommatidcB) and the only one known of the Erycinidce, that it is really surprising how entomologists still con- tinue to arrange them in the same group. The larva, in general shape, closely resembles that of the common cabbage butterfly, but with these differences ; the * Zool. 111., 2d series H. 98 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. head is very large ; and, from the slenderness of the anterior joints,, it seems,, as Dr. Horsfield remarks, as if pedunculated : the posterior part is always obtuse, and the surface of the body smooth : it is, moreover, always concealed within a leaf, which it converts into a cylin- drical tube ; herein the caterpillar resides, and performs its chrysalis transformation. A similar mode of life is observed in the family of Tortrices, comprehending those little moths so destructive to our fruit trees in spring, and which disfigure the leaves of the rose at the same period. These, in fact, are the representatives of the HesperidcB in their own tribe ; although, from ignorance of the principle of variation, an erroneous idea has been entertained that the circle of the Lepi- doptera is closed by the union of the Hesperida with the PhalcpnidcB or moths. (92.) The pupa retains many of those characters seen in the last family, blended with others which more properly belong to the true butterflies (Papilionida). It is in general smooth (/), but sometimes angulated (e) : its form is lengthened; and it is attached at one ffr" THE SPHINGID^E. 99 ^end., and braced by a transverse thread at the other (d) : this change, as we have already observed,, is always effected under the cover and protection of a leaf. The examples here figured, of this group, are taken from Stoll, and indicate tfiree remarkable variations both of the larva and pupa. (93.) The perfect insects are conspicuous for the great thickness of their head and thorax, no less than for muscular strength : many fly in the same manner as the common humming-bird hawk moth of Europe, and are most active during the morning and evening, resting with their wings erect : others prefer the meri- dian heat, and repose with all the four wings expanded ; Others, again, are never seen to take nourishment, but are found in the forests, sheltered under leaves : there is, in short, such a great diversity of habit in this fa- mily, that it cannot be defined in precise terms ; but in all, as showing their immediate connection to the hawk moths, the eyes are remarkably large and prominent : this affinity is further manifested by the feet, the palpi, &c. (94.) The SPHJNGID^I, or hawk moths, compose the second great division of the Lepidoptera. They form a tribe, or a group of equal value (although not of extent) to the Papiliones, or butterflies, from which they are distinguished both by the form of their antennae and by the period of their flight. Such, at least, are their popular distinctions, and by which the two groups may be understood by common observers. The typical peculiarities of this tribe are shown in all stages of their existence. The larva, in the principal groups, is very large, thick, and furnished with an incurved horn at the end of the body (fig. 7- c, d} : in some, which resemble the Hesperian larva(fr), the head is very large; while in others (d) it is proportionally small. The chrysalis is never suspended by the tail, or braced by a thread ; and the antennae, unlike those of the diurnal butterflies, are never terminated by a club. The whole structure of the perfect insects denotes great strength and muscular 100 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. powers of flight ; and the wings,, when the insect is at rest, are never raised perpendicularly. (95.) The natural arrangement of this tribe has never been attempted; nor have the primary groups been yet explained. Dr. Horsfield makes five divisions, according to the variation in the larvae ; but he excludes several aberrant groups, which appear to us to belong strictly to this tribe. We shall, therefore, merely indi- cate what appear to us as primary divisions, leaving the analysis of the whole for further investigation. (96.) The SPHINGIDES may be contemplated under three great divisions. The first comprises all those which perform their chrysalis transformation deep in the earth ; the second spin themselves up in a thin web THE ORTHID^E. 101 (fig- 7 d), and pass this period of their existence near or upon the surface of the ground ; while the pupa of the third is entirely enclosed in a thick web, as in Agarista (fig. 7 ., 9\ or cocoon, attached to vegeta- bles. All the insects of this latter division fly during the middle of the day ; it contains, however, insects so very dissimilar in appearance, that we shall divide them into the three subordinate groups. 1. The Sphingidce Sw., or true hawk moths, which constitute a group equi- valent to the Nymphalidffi; which they also represent. Of these, the typical genus is the well-known death's head (the Sphinx atropus Linn.) concerning which there are so many tales of superstition and of terror. This insect, which we have already said is the type of the whole tribe, has been very properly detached from its allies ; but the change has been attended with this dis- advantage, that the family name has been left with the others, which are not typical, and a new one proposed for this, which is strictly and naturally so. The larva has an ovate truncated head; and the horn at the end of the body is lengthened, naked, and covered with tubercles : when disturbed, it draws itself up in a threatening attitude (c); and its whole appearance is then so formidable, that most persons view it with fear. There are, nevertheless, many deviations from this typical structure. In Smerinthus (exemplified by our beautiful Poplar sphinx), the head is pointed above, and almost triangular ; while in another group the horn is nearly wanting. The pupa is terrestrial; and presents a striking peculiarity in the proboscis being detached, as it were, from the body, and protected by a covering of its own (e). The perfect insect is generally marked with transverse bands on each side the body ; and the end of the abdomen is neither attenuated to a point, nor tufted with hair, but is thick, and comparatively ob- tuse. (97.) The ORTHIDJE, or spinning hawk moths, are smaller and more beautiful than the last. The number of species, and, consequently, of forms, is also much H 3 102' NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. greater. All these, however, are more or less distin- guished by a lengthened, pointed body, terminated by a tuft of hairs : in some, these tufts are very small ; while in others, particularly the clear- winged Sesia, or bee- like family, they are very conspicuous. The larvte pre- sent us with more instances of variation than the last ; but, so far as we have discovered, the pupa (A) is always enclosed in some substance, either as a protection or as a defence; and this stage of its life is passed at, or very near, the surface of the ground : the proboscis is hid under the common fold enveloping the body of the pupa; and is not protruded, as in the last division. So little has been effected towards the discrimination of this very natural group, that we shall not attempt a na- tural disposition of the few genera that have yet been defined. (98.) The aberrant division of the tribe appears to be composed of three families : 1. The Agaristida, or Hesperian sphinxes. 2. The Zyganidce, or clear- winged sphinxes : and, 3. the Castniada, or moth sphinxes. The first, in its typical perfection, is almost confined to India and New Holland. The perfect insect more re- sembles a Hesperia than a Sphinx, or rather, seems in- termediate between a Bombyx and a Hesperia. The antennae are sometimes thickest in the middle, in unison with the general character of the whole tribe ; yet the tips are slightly but abruptly hooked, as in the Hes~ peridce. These curious and apparently anomalous cir- cumstances appear to have much perplexed some writers. Dr. Leach seems inclined to place the Agaristidce with the moths, near to Noctua Sponsa, but he confesses his doubts on the subject; while Donovan brings them in with the Hesperidce. The larva of the only species yet known, very much resembles that of a full-bodied Sesia deprived of its horn ( fig. 7. ) ; while the pupa (b) is enclosed in a slight web, Cf spun on the stem of its food under the leaves *;" and the perfect insect flies by day- * Lewin's Ins. of New South Wales, pi. 1. THE CASTNIAD^E. 103 Of the aberrant forms nothing can here be said, since the group itself has hitherto received but little attention. (99-) The Zyganidce, or more properly the Athero- ceridce (since the former name has long ago been em- ployed in Ichthyology,) is the most extensive and varied family of the whole tribe. Like the last, they are day flying insects, small in size, but richly coloured ; with fusiform, but generally pectinated, antennae, and very small posterior wings : their structure is altogether weak, and their flight slow and feeble. A few ex- amples of one of the minor groups occur both in Europe and Britain, but the major part inhabit the tropical latitudes of America and India. The typical groups are distinguished by their clear and transparent wings; but they are readily known from the brush- tailed Sesice of Europe, by having no tufts at the end of their abdomen ; and this part is also much thicker. The metamorphosis of this family has been admirably illustrated by Stoll, in his supplementary volume to Cramer. The larva is onisciform ; but is either covered with tufts of long hairs disposed in bunches or fas- ciculi, or by elevated soft protuberances. The pupa is always enclosed either in a cocoon, or in a fusiform strong web, attached to plants. The resemblance be- tween many of these insects and the Australian family of Agaristidce * is so close, that nothing but a close in- vestigation will determine the genera respectively be- longing to each. This is, perhaps, the most interesting group in the whole tribe ; since we find representations of every order, and of nearly every family, of lepido- pterous insects : many put on the appearance of wasps, bees, beetles, moths, butterflies, flies, &c. ; and the resemblance is so exact, that even an experienced eye will not at first detect the difference. (100.) The Castniadce, or moth sphinxes, conclude x)ur sketch of this tribe. This is a very peculiar family, which, from their economy being entirely unknown, has * Some few American insects, however, enter into this group. H 4 104 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. long perplexed entomologists, and some strange loca- tions have recently been assigned to them. We were fortunate in observing many of this family in their native regions,, and thus obtained a clue to their natural affinities. The perfect insects fly with great rapidity during the heat of the day, and much in the same man- ner as the typical Hesperidtf, yet we never saw them settle upon flowers ; and when they rest, it is generally on the shady stem of a large tree, having the wings invariably deflexed or incumbent, similar to the noc- turnal moths (Noctuides Sw.). The transformation of one species (Castnia Licus) is imperfectly figured on the thirty-sixth plate of Merian : the larva is repre- sented as long, thick, smooth, and much resembles that of a Pieris : the pupa, according to this figure, appears suspended from a plant by the posterior extremity.* The perfect insects are the largest of the whole tribe : the wings are broad, powerful, and the farinaceous scales so large, as to be distinguished, in many species, by the naked eye. The head is very small ; and the antennae are intermediate in form between a Sphinx and a Hesperia. Dr. Horsfield, in his general survey of the Lepidoptera, has altogether omitted this group, the characters of which we illustrated several years ago. *t* (101.) The third primary division of the order comprises the Phalcence of Linnaeus, better known by the name of moths. These insects, with a few exceptions, are completely nocturnal ; concealing themselves in the day, and flying abroad during the dusk. Their size, in general, is small; although some few are among the largest Lepidoptera yet discovered. They undergo the same three-fold transformation of aU lepidopterous insects ; and, like them, feed upon the nectar of flowers. Several, however, by a singular provision of Providence, seem to take all the nourishment necessary for their support, in the caterpillar state ; since, when they become moths, they never have a proboscis. * Merian's figures, however, are not always to be depended upoa. fr Zool. 111., pi. 1*3. THE BOMBYCID^E. 105 (102.) As we believe that the three aberrant groups of every circle form one, we shall, with Mr. Kirby, consider the nocturnal moths as one group, resolvable into three subordinate divisions; namely, 1. the Bom- bycides, or spinners ; 2. the Phalcenides, or loopers ; 3. the Noctuides, or night moths. So little has been done towards the philosophic investigation of these groups, that, while their genera have been multiplied, and are daily multiplying, in the artificial systems of the day, the study of their affinities has been of late years much neglected. We shall, therefore, merely touch upon the general characteristics of these tribes, and leave most of the families for future investigation. (103.) The BOMBYCID^E, or silk-spinning moths, comprise some of the largest Lepidoptera in existence. Although not a very extensive tribe, it is one of much interest, as containing those insects most serviceable to man ; and the only ones, excepting the bees, which can be said to be cultivated or domesticated. When we recollect the innumerable purposes to which silk, the produce of these wonderful insects, is applied in Eu- rope, and that the greatest portion of the Asiatics abso- lutely depend upon its fabric for their own clothing, we see that, like the ruminating quadrupeds, Providence has more especially ordained them to furnish comfort and convenience to man. Nor is this power confined to a single species. The silkworm of Europe, although originally imported from Asia, is only one out of several inhabiting the Eastern world ; each producing a silk of some peculiar quality, and distinguished either by its fineness, colour, or durability. The most marked dis- tinction, indeed, of the whole group, is their enclosure, during the pupa state, in an egg-shaped case, or cocoon, rendered impervious to wet or other injury by the in- numerable folds of silk which the caterpillar spins around it ; the whole being attached to trees or plants. In the pupa itself, there is nothing peculiar ; it lies within the case, unattached either by the tail or by a transverse thread. The perfect insect is remarkable for the very 106 NATURAL ARRANGE3IENT OF INSECTS. small size of the head : this part projects so little be- yond the thorax., that, in the typical species, it would scarcely he perceived, but for the broad and highly pectinated antennae, most conspicuous in the male sex : the palpi are very minute, hairy, and lie close to the head ; while the wings are broad, large, and ornamented, in all the typical examples, with transparent ocellate spots. (104.) The natural divisions of the Bombycides are completely unknown ; but as, for the purpose of refer- ence, and the more easy detection of species, it is es- sential to make some rude assortment of the genera, we shall place them under the following heads, until a better acquaintance with the whole has been obtained by analysis : 1. Hepialidce, or ghost moths; 2. Bom- bycidce, or silk spinners ; 3. Arctiadce, or tiger moths ; 4. LithosiadcB, or day-moths ; 5. Cryptophasidce, or hermit moths. (105.) These divisions maybe thus slightly character- ized. The first are chiefly composed of large, full-bodied insects, with long narrow wings ; and feed, during the caterpillar state, within the trunks of trees. The larva is either entirely naked, or thinly covered with scat- tered hairs. The second, or true silk worms, has been already noticed: the larva is generally covered with stellate tufts of short hairs, very stiff, and sometimes en- dowed with a poisonous, or, at least, a highly irritating quality. The third comprises all those usually deno- minated tiger moths, from the black spots which orna- ment their red or orange under wings : the larva is covered with long hairs in every part of the body, and merely spins a thin transparent web enclosing the chry- salis. The fourth seems to be typically distinguished by flying during the day. The larva is generally or- namented with tufts of long silky hairs, of which there are two more conspicuous than the others near the tail^ two more near the head, and two towards the middle of the body. It is very clear that this family represents the j or clear- winged sphinxes of South America; THE PHAL^ENID^E. 107 but, although we can readily distinguish the typical forms., it is very difficult to determine which are the aberrant. The fifth and last division seems closely al- lied, both to the Tortricidce in the next family, and to the HepiaUdce in this ; they are, however, distinguished by an economy so remarkable, that we shall view them, for the present, as a separate group. The larva, in shape, much resembles that of the goat moth; the head is large, and on the body are a few scattered hairs : the chrysalis is not enclosed in any web, but lies within the chamber, or habitation, previously made by the cater- pillar in the solid trunk of the tree. The perfect insect differs from all the families we have here noticed, in having the palpi curved up before the eyes, and di- verging : the antennae, also, are very long; and the wings possess a peculiar glossiness. We are indebted to the late J. W. Lewin for a knowledge of these extraordinary moths, hitherto found only in New Holland, and which he has admirably illustrated in his " Prodromus" of As- tralian Entomology. It is, perhaps, owing to the rarity of this book, that modern systematists appear but little acquainted with these singular insects. (106.) The Phalanidce, properly so called, constitute the second division of the nocturnal Lepidoptera. With- out attempting to define this great and diversified group by characters applicable only to a small portion, we shall merely premise that they are, as a whole, the smallest and the most delicately constructed insects in the whole order. The thorax is small, the body thin, and the an- tennae resemble a filiform thread, rather thickest at the base : they are thus distinguished from the thick bodied Bombycides, with their pectinated antennae; and from the strong and full bodied Noctuides, by their slender and delicate shape. The popular name of Loopers has been given to the first or typical division of these insects, from the movement of the caterpillar when walking, the body being then raised in the middle in the shape of a loop : in this group, also, the larva has only ten feet : the per- fect insects constitute the Geometrce of the Linngean 108 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. school. The Tortrices, however, should first he noticed, as they show, in many respects, a close approximation to the last family of the Bomby tides: they are "beautiful little moths, having the habit, in their larva state, of rolling up the leaves on which they feed, and in which habitation they pass the chrysalis state : excepting in size, these caterpillars closely resemble those of the New Holland group above mentioned ; and we have no doubt but that analysis will fully establish this singular and unexpected affinity. The third family is composed of the Tineidce, the smallest of the whole order; some are, indeed, so minute, that the collector finds it difficult to insert a fine pin through their thorax : most of the species are ornamented with spots of silver or of gold, so as to exhibit, under a high magnifying glass, some of the most beautiful combinations of colours in nature : the antennae are often very long, and the wings fringed with delicate hairs : the larvae are singularly diversified ; and this group, which all entomologists agree is a natural one, offers the strongest argument against all systems built exclusively upon the larvae : some of the caterpillars have eight feet, some fourteen, and some sixteen. The true PhalcenidfB are the largest insects in the tribe, and in the shape of their wings they very often resemble the di- urnal butterflies ; the larva has twelve feet ; and in every stage of its existence we see an obvious affinity to the succeeding division of night moths (Noctuides). Fi- nally, we should notice the PyraUdce, remarkable for their long legs, for their aquatic habits, and for the propensity of many of the species to fly during the day. (107.) A few remarks on the Noctuides, the third and last division of the moths, will conclude our rapid survey of this order. This natural and very numerous tribe may be immediately distinguished from the two former, by their simple setiform antennae, their short but stout body, their large eyes, and their projecting palpi, usually naked at their tip. The caterpillars are greatly diversi- fied, but the pupa is almost universally terrestrial, THE NOCTUID^E. 109 that is, neither suspending itself in the air, nor en- closed in a cocoon, but buried deep in the ground. The habits of the perfect insects themselves are usually, as their name indicates, nocturnal, although not exclusively so, as many of them flit about in the sunshine, especially towards the time of its setting, and as the shades of evening fall ; but this is doubt- lessly preludatory to their nocturnal gambols. We consequently find their apparel in the strictest accord- ance with these peculiarities ; and nature here again ex- hibits its rigid rule of strict economy, for it will not even waste a shade of colour that has not its specific object and purpose. The majority of these insects are either sombre or very plain in their clothing, browns, drabs, and greys, being the predominant tints ; yet, although so obscure, these tints are elegantly diversified by spots and markings, which amply compensate for greater and gayer varieties of colour, and thus evince a further corroboration of the favouritism of Nature which is every where so prominently exhibited towards this large and beautiful order of insects. In those, however, which are more diurnal in their habits, we observe oc- casionally a departure from this sobriety, which has acquired for many of the former the name of quakers. Thus, in the Plusice, we see the wings studded with drops of gold and silver. In the Xanthice, the colours are shades of yellow, orange, straw, and lemon ; in Ca~ tacola, the under -wings are of rich crimsons and reds, contrasted with a bar of intense black ; in Bryophila and Diphthera, the superior wings are elegantly variegated with green. There is so much diversity in the structure of the larvae of this group, that we may almost assume this to be its typical characteristic ; and this would point to Acronycta, as the most typical genus, from the great differences it exhibits within itself in this preliminary stage of developement : and it is a remarkable fact, that even the most experienced entomologists are sometimes baffled in determining the specific differences of perfect insects in this group, which have their larvae extremely 110 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. dissimilar. The position we thus assume for Acronycta is probably supported by its colouring, which seems central, in the group of those which are least diversified by varieties of tint, and associating with them we ob- serve Folia, Hadena, Celcena, Miana, Mamestra, Rhi* xolitha, Xylina, Orthosia, and Agrotis, if the latter, however, might not dispute position with Acronycta. We have just alluded to the difficulty that even skilful entomologists have in determining the differences be- tween closely allied species ; but to the young entomo- logist, this entire group will form an admirable exercise for his sagacity, and the gradual decrease of the diffi- culties it presents will be a sure test of the progressive developement of that peculiar tact, so essential, especi- ally to the entomologist, yet which is more difficult to acquire than knowledge, although, when once thoroughly possessed, it is invaluable to the naturalist, from the universality of its application. [W. E. S.] ;CHAP. in. THE HEMIPTERA, (108.) THE order HEMIPTERA is the second, or sub- typical, division of the Ptilota. Its rank in the circle of that class, and its integrity, has been already demon- strated; we therefore think it unnecessary to combat the opinion which some have entertained, that the Hemiptera of Linnaeus, or rather of Latreille, is not of itself a natural group ; still less to discuss the fancy (for we can call it nothing else) of a few modern sys- tematists, that they are composed of two distinct orders ! One would almost think that these pseudo-orders were DEFINITION OF THE HEMIPTERA. Ill intended to break up every tangible distinction, and fritter away all the comprehensive views of the great fathers of science. (109.) The characters of the Hemiptera are of the most simple and obvious description : they are the only four-winged insects, besides the Lepidoptera, that are altogether destitute of mandibles and maxillae ; hence these two great orders are the most perfectly suctorial, and, therefore, the most perfectly typical, of true in- sects. Adhering to the admirable views of Latreille, we shall define the order nearly in his own words. In place of the mandibulae and maxillae of other insects, not suctorial, the mouth is composed of a tubular arti- culated proboscis, or rostrum, which assumes various shapes, but is always bent, more or less, beneath the head, and generally reposes upon the pectus, or breast, along its upper surface ; and reposing in a groove, are three stiff and fine bristles, the base of which is covered by a tongue ; these bristles, when united, form a sucker, which often performs the office of a sting or barb, with which the animal pierces other insects, or sucks the nectar of flowers. The mouth, in short, is formed en- tirely for suction ; and it is only in the genus Thrips, which unites this order to the Hymenoptera, that there is any appearance either of jaws or of palpi. The second character in importance, is that furnished by the wings ; but this is much more variable than the last. In the typical tribe, the upper wings are horizontal, slightly coriaceous, and are crossed at their extremities ; at which part they are, like the lower wings, membra, naceous. In the sub-typical tribe, the upper wings do not fold over each other at their ends, but lie com- pactly on the sides of the body, as in most of the noc- turnal moths, their -substance being very little thicker than the under wings ; and both are generally trans- parent, or nearly so. The metamorphosis is imperfect ; that is to say, very slightly developed : the Hemiptera undergo, it is true, the changes of larva and pupa, pre- vious to becoming perfect insects ; but, in these two 112 NATURAL ARKANGEME!S 7 T OP INSECTS. rudimentary states, they are as active as their parents, from which they are alone to be distinguished by the absence of their wings. The larvae rapidly increase in size ; and, after casting their skin, become pupae. It is in this latter state only that the rudiments of wings, in the shape of scale-like processes or tubercles, are first perceptible; the developement of these into perfect wings constitutes the adult insects. Thus, although the Hemiptera are so intimately connected to the Le- pidoptera, that there are insects in each which render their division by no means easy, they are yet strikingly inferior to them in point of metamorphosis. On the nature of the connection between these orders, we shall subsequently enlarge, as well as upon that between the Hemiptera and Hymenoptera. We shall, there- fore, at once proceed to notice the primary groups or tribes, and endeavour to trace their analogies in other orders. (110.) We arrange all hemipterous insects under the five following tribes : I. The CIMICIDES, or bugs, where the upper wings are more or less horizontal, and fold over each other at their extremities. II. The CICADES, or cicadas, having the upper wings deflexed, or incumbent on the sides, and of a subtransparent nature through- out : the rostrum is placed on the lowest portion of the head, and is used only to feed on the juices of vegeta- bles : the antennae are very short, and resemble fine bristles : the females are furnished with an ovipositor, which is used as a saw to effect openings in plants, for the reception of the eggs. III. The APHIDES, or plant lice, in some respects resembling the last, but immediately distinguished by their long filiform an- tennae, their very minute head, the absence of an ovi- positor, and by having only two joints to their tarsi. IV. The COCCIDES, or blight insects, where the tarsal joints are five ; the wings, where they exist, are only two, and lie horizontally on the body, one over the other : the females are apterous, and onisciform, and are alone furnished with a rostrum. V. We place, as ANALOGIES OF THE HEMIPTERA. 113 the type of the last tribe, the genus ALEYRODES of La- treille ; distinguished from all others, by undergoing a complete metamorphosis ; and in other respects so much of a lepidopterous insect, that both Linnaeus and Reaumur placed it within that order. The whole may be arranged in the following manner : Analogies of the HEMIPTERA. ClCADIDES. APHIDES, COCCIDES. ALEYRODIDES. 5 Wings with distinct nerves ;} often covered with afarinaceous > substance. 3 r Gregarious; furnished with cau-1 ^ dal appendages ; and secreting > C honey. 3 CTrue wings only two; the most 7 L imperfect flyers. j ? LEPIDOPTERA. HYMENOPTERA. COLEOPTERA. NEUROPTERA. (ill.) It is a remarkable fact, that all the orders of the Ptilota exhibit one primary division which is rapacious, that is, preying upon other insects, as the lions and tigers among quadrupeds, and the falcons among birds. The universality of this law is manifest in every order above named ; and the Hemiptera, as a whole, being the raptorial order of the circle of the Ptilota, so the Cimicides are the pre-eminent types, standing at the head of their own order, and consequently representing it. The Cicades have such an acknowledged resem- blance to the Lepidoptera, that many authors have ac- tually thought they passed into each other, without the intervention of any other group ; so that, were it not for the remarkable structure and metamorphosis ofAfeyrodes, we should be disposed to place some of the aberrant Cicades in that rank we now assign to Aleyrodes. The whole of the Lepidoptera, and the Cicadides also, are herbivorous; or, at least, never touch animal substances; for both live on the juices or nectar of plants, in their i 114- NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. adult state.* The analogies, therefore, of these two orders are not only placed beyond all doubt, but find their corresponding representatives in vertebrate as well as annulose animals. The Aphides, or plant lice, are the bees of the Hemiptera ; for these two groups contain the only insects which secrete honey. This resemblance, however, is not a mere analogy, but an affinity. Latreille, without any scruple, places Thrips in the same division as Aphis, 'from which, however, it differs so remarkably as to possess jaws j and he alludes to a fact, what every one may verify, viz. that when these insects (Thrips) are irritated, they turn up their body in the manner of the Staphylini. The resemblance which the onisciform shape, and often the coriaceous covering, of the Coccides bears to Coleoptera, exactly accords with every thing we have said on the analogies of the latter group. They have the hardest covering of all insects ; just as the armadillos among quadrupeds, and the chelonians, or tortoises, among reptiles. Pur- suing the especial analogy apparent in our table, we find, also, that the Coccides and the Coleoptera are the most imperfect flyers in their own groups : the females of the former are apterous ; while the wings of the males are only two, and these fold over each other, horizontally, on the body. The reader will remember what we have said on the wings of the Coleoptera, which, in effect, are but two-winged insects ; the upper pair, or elytra, being almost useless as organs of flight. With such striking and even beautiful representations of four out of the five orders of the Ptilota, as this table substantiates, we may very well leave the last for future investigation. The truth is, that, until the ab- errant tribes of the Hemiptera, and perhaps even those which are typical, are properly analysed, it will be manifestly impossible to determine what other insects enter into that group where at present we place only Aleyrodes. We should not be surprised, however, if * The raptorial feet of the larva? of the cicadas may possibly be used to dress out the juices of leaves, &c. ANALOGIES OF THE COLEOPTEBA. 115 some aquatic or sub-aquatic form may eventually be added to it ; and this alone would be quite sufficient to establish an analogy to the Neuroptera. (112.) The analogies of the Hemiptera to all other groups, whether of vertebrate or annulose animals, may be traced through the foregoing exposition; for, if this is substantially true, it follows, as a matter of course, that the Hemiptera, like the Ptilota, have their prototypes among all circular series of animals : one only of these will, therefore, be noticed, since every experienced 1 entomologist can now pursue this line of inquiry. This comparison will bring the Hemiptera into junction with the Coleoptera. Analogies of the HEMIPTERA to the COLEOPTERA. Families Tribes Tribes of the of the Analogies. . of the Predatores. Hemiptera. Coleoptera. CicindelidcE. CIMICIDES. {^helTnVe^f ^^ UP n ] PREDATORES ' Caramce. dcADinEs. DyticidcB. ALEYRODES. ? MALACODERMES. ("Body short, oval ; antennae} Silphidce. COCCIDES. < moniliformj frequently >MONILICORNES. t apterous. 3 Staphylinidtf. APHIDES. {Render ^^ 10ng &nd j CAPRICORNES. We have merely added the first column, or that of Predatores, to show the analogy between Thrips and the StaphylinidcB, as noticed by Latreille. - Indeed, it is so deceptive, that when these minute insects are seen running upon paper (for they frequently fly into our study at the very time we are writing), they look just like their minute prototypes so common in summer. The analogy between the cicadas and the lammellicorn beetles is very strong, for the types of each feed upon vegetable juices ; but this, of course, is not applicable to the CarabidcB, whose only relation to the Cicadides consists in both being in the sub typical groups of their 11 6 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. own circles. The tortoise beetles (Cassidfe) are the types of the Monillcornes ; and who that looks at a Coccus can doubt of one being intended, by Nature, to represent the other ? The Aphides, like the Capricorn beetles, are remarkable for the great length of their antennae ; a remote resemblance, indeed, but still a re- semblance altogether in unison with the natural series in which these groups are here placed. (113.) The typical tribe of the order before us is that to which we give the name of CJMICIDES, as cor- responding, with a little variation, to the genus Cimex of Linnaeus. It comprises a very large assemblage of insects, at once known by the upper wings being crossed at their tips, one over the other, where they are thin and membranaceous, the rest of the wing being of a thicker and more opake substance : the rostrum or mouth arises in front of the head ; and the thorax (ac- cording to the modern theory) is formed by the first segment of the trunk : the scutellum is almost always conspicuous, and is sometimes so enlarged as to cover the whole body, and give the insect an appearance, at first sight, of being coleopterous ; the antennae, in the typical groups, are linear, nearly of equal thickness, and generally much longer than the head ; the joints being very few, and distinctly seen, so as to produce angles : the tarsi are of three joints, in such genera as are cur- sorial, while those which are aquatic have but one or two joints. Thus characterised, as a whole, we are dis- posed to arrange the great majority of these insects into the following primary groups : 1. The Pentatomida, or wood bugs, having the rostrum long, slender, con- cealed, and reposing upon the breast : the body is short, oval, and generally half as broad as it is long: they live for the most part upon vegetable juices ; but appear to prey upon such smaller insects as come in their way, probably at certain seasons. 2. The Reduviidce, or ra- pacious bugs, where the rostrum is very short, much resembling the thick but curved and sharp bill of a bird ; it is very acute, and capable of inflicting severe THE PENTATOMID^E. 117 wounds : the last joint of the antennae is often very slender, and even setaceous ; the body more lengthened and narrow than in the former family ; the head re- markably small; the neck contracted and exserted, and the eyes very prominent. The whole of this family are raptorial, feeding entirely upon other insects which they capture and suck: some are terrestrial, while others are sub-aquatic_, and appear to lead to the next, 3. The Nepidce, or water scorpions : these comprehend the largest of all the tribe, and are immediately known by the extreme shortness of the antennae, which are in- serted and nearly concealed under the eyes. Like the last family, they are carnivorous, and seize their prey by their raptorial fore-feet. The tarsi have never more than two joints; and the hind legs, in general, are cili- ated for the purpose of swimming. The two remaining families, in the absence of the requisite analysis, we shall not venture to characterise. One may probably be represented by the common bed bug, which, from its general structure, and from being apterous in all its stages, seems to form a family type, particularly from its analogy to the Coccidte in the next tribe. But on the 5th, which, from theory, we suppose would repre- sent the Centrono tides, we are confessedly ignorant ; nor can this deficiency be supplied until the natural station of such genera as Telia, Gerris, and some others has been worked out. Under these circumstances, the slight notice of the principal genera which seem to belong to the three primary groups first mentioned, is all that can be at present attempted; after which we shall enter more at large into the remaining tribes of the order. (114.) lihePentatomidce, as we apply the term in pre- ference to creating a new one, must not be considered so exclusively and restrictively as its usual application would imply. Its definition, given above, shows that it comprises many insects not before included in it. It consists of three large families of the more recent sys- tematists, namely, the Scutati, Corel, and Lygcei. It is thus seen to embrace many interesting forms, which are i 3 118 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF I?x 7 SECTS. usually very beautiful insects, gaily decorated with 2 variety of colours and markings, and occasionally enli- vened with metallic brilliancy. The Scutati are at once characterised by their name ; for in this family, which is of considerable extent, we observe, in the more typical division of it, the scutellum so largely developed as fre- quently to cover the abdomen. In these insects we de- tect also many which greatly resemble the Coleoptera: some, in the elongation of their form, and metallic co- lour, are remarkably like Buprestis, instanced in Calidea, Peltophora, and their allies. Sphcerocoris, again, is a completely mimicking representation of , the Coceinellida, both in form and markings ; and in Scaptocoris, in which the scutellum is less developed, we have the re- presentation of a lamellicorn beetle, wanting its poste- rior tarsi. A convincing proof that these resemblances are exceedingly strong, is shown by the circumstance that describers have frequently given them specific names in allusion to the particular analogy the insect offered. We have Linnaeus, even, leacling the way with his Ci- mex ScarabcBO'ides. These resemblances, also, are not confined to this group only, but they likewise extend into the two following. The genus Podops, of which we possess a species in this country, is remarkable for its pedunculated eyes. The reputed British Coptosoma globus presents a unique instance in the Hemiptera, of the folding of the hemelytra in repose ; for these organs, being considerably longer than the body, could not other- wise be brought, under the protection of the large scutel- lum. Solenosthedium Spin., and Coleotichus White, are conspicuous for having a deep channel, for the reception of the rostrum, in the pectus, the sides of which have singularly elevated ridges. The genera which have an enlarged scutellum, from the protection this affords to the hemelytra, or superior wings, of course dispense with the coriaceous texture observable in those which are not so formed; for otherwise it is only where these organs lap over each other, that the membranaceous substance pre- vails ; but in the Reduvii we frequently observe a nearly THE PENTATOMID.rE. 119 entirely membranaceous texture of the superior wings. In this family, the latter structure occurs in all the true Pentatomce. Very little is actually known of the habits of these insects; it is presumable, however, that the majority feed upon other insects ; and a friend of ours has observed Pentatoma bidens preying upon Vanessa /o, which implies a degree of skill in the capture of its prey we were scarcely prepared to expect in any of this group. If there be no mistake in the account given us by Westermann, of the destruction caused by Thyreo- coris silpho'ides in rice fields, in Hindostan, the family evidently feeds upon a variety of substances ; although may it not be that these insects are found in profusion amongst those crops, themselves seeking the true de- stroyer? We can here give but a very general idea of the group, which is so large, that the space we can allot to it would scarcely suffice to record their generic names. In the next family, the Corei, which, from their great variety, will scarcely yield to a collective character, we observe insects in which the sides of the abdomen are frequently considerably and angularly dilated; the wings, when closed, having their sides always parallel, and leaving those lateral portions of the abdomen uncovered; but this dilatation is not always found in them. It is observed chiefly in Coreus itself, and remarkably so in Phyllomorphus paradoxus and hystrix, in which these appendages are dilated into thin lobated plates, and ex- tend also from the sides of the prothorax. In Anisocelis we observe the posterior tibise laterally dilated into a thin foliaceous appendage, as are the antennae in Pachylis, which besides contains the largest species of the family ; one, the P. gigas Kirby, being more than an inch and a half long. In Physomerus, Jlferocoris, and Meropachys, we find very largely swollen posterior femora. Some of these insects still present a moderately large scutellum, which, although less than in the preceding family, is always larger than in the next ; and in Menenotus, which seems to connect the Cord with the Pentatomce, we find the thorax produced laterally forwards,, giving it the i 4 120 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. appearance of a crescent, whence one species has heen named lunatus. The prettiest species we possess, in this country, of the family, is the Corizm Hyoscyami, which is not uncommon ; it is of a brilliant vermilion, spotted with black. We may also notice here the very slender and elongated form of Berytus Fab. (Neides Latr.), of which the B. Tipularius is frequently found in our fields, and the delicate antennas of which are acutely an- gulated at the apex of the basal joint. By means of this form, the transition is easily made to the third family, the Lygai, which consists of elongated insects. As in the preceding families (with but two or three excep- tions, viz. in Pyrrhocoris, Largus, and Mycrophysd), we observe the usual ocelli, found, with rare exceptions, and the total exclusion of one family, the Capsini, throughout the heteropterous Hemiptera. This family, compared with the former, is of very limited extent, and the insects are generally much smaller. The very beau- tiful I,ygceus equestris is a British insect, although ex- tremely rare, for we believe only two specimens have yet been discovered, one of which we are lucky enough to possess : it is about six lines long ; of a brilliant vermilion colour, varied with black, and having a limpid white spot in the centre of the junction of the hemely- tra. Pyrrhocoris apterus (also a British insect) is grega- rious, and offers an uncommon anomaly in frequently existing only in a wingless state, but exercising, even thus, all the functions of the imago. Its apterous con- dition must not, therefore, lead us rashly to conclude that it is an imperfect insect; it may have, and evidently, from the results, has, undergone all the completing in- ternal developements, which from some cause, not yet understood, have been thwarted in their external exhi- bition. This circumstance, however, is not peculiar to this insect only among the Hemiptera,, and we observe it in the orthopterous portion of our Neuroptera. In the Hemiptera, it displays itself in Myrmus miriformis, and Actorus popularum Fab. of the preceding family ; and we shall find it again occurring in the Redumidce. THE REDUVIID^. 121 The most remarkable form, perhaps, among the Lygai, is the Microphysa pselapho'ides Burm. which has only abbreviated elytra, and is totally deficient in its interior wings. (115.) Our second circle, the REDUVIID^E, consists, we expect, of the following three families : 1 . the Cap- sini; 2. the Tingi; and, 3. the Reduvii. Possibly, Cimex lectularius may form a fourth family belonging to this group. All these insects we shall find considerably more rapacious than those of the preceding circle ; and although in Capsus, and its immediate affinities, it is not quite so strongly instanced, so do they, doubtlessly, on this account, form the connecting link between the two. In the Capsini, we observe throughout the total absence of ocelli ; and, although there are but few dis- tinct generic forms in this family, their deficiency is fully compensated by an overwhelming preponderance in species. The insects are small, and have long and slender antenna and legs, which, in Miris, are longer than the body. The Harpocera Burmeixteri Curt., in the male, is remarkable for the apical contortion of the second joint of the antennse. In Heterotoma, the second joint of the antennae is much enlarged, and very much compressed : and in the little plump Orthonotus, the posterior femora are considerably thickened, and the tibire and tarsi exceedingly slender, and twice the length of the femora ; and this last genus possesses the faculty of leaping. From the Capsini we pass to the Tingi, the second family of this group ; and here we observe remarkable differences of form ; the most typical being exceedingly depressed, their whole external integument and hemelytra frequently consisting of a closely reti- culated semitransparent substance, which, in Gakatus Curt,, is extremely pellucid. Although the antennae differ from the description given above in the definition of the group, it is very evident, from the structure of the rostrum and of the head, that these insects have a close affinity to the Reduvii. It will admit of sub- division into those which have simple anterior legs,. 122 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. which constitute the true Tingi, comprising also Aradus, which is a sub-cortical genus ; Aneurus, another sub- cortical form, in which the superior wings are wholly membranaceous ; and other allied insects. In these, the wings usually cover the abdomen ; but in the second division, in Syrtis, we observe the sides of the abdomen dilated, as we had occasion to notice in Coreus ; and in Macrocephalus there is an enlargement of the scutellum, as in the Scutati, equally covering the superior wings, and which likewise corroborates the observations we there made ; for we find these wings also, in this genus, membranaceous, excepting their slight lateral portion ; all the rest being wholly protected by the scutellum. These two genera present us also with a character and structure ; viz. their raptorial anterior legs, which, as far as habits can confirm, substantiates their position as being very proximate to the raptorial Reduvii. These legs consist of a largely swollen femur, into a groove beneath which the curved tibia fits. The object of the enlargement of the femur is to give room for the exer- cise of the powerful muscles that contract and close the limb, whereby the insect is enabled to seize and retain its comparatively strong prey, and which it then feeds on at leisure. If the Cimex lectularius enters this group, it is probably in this vicinity that it should be inserted. To Aneurus it is allied by its very depressed form, although amply distinguished from its antennae being attenuated at their apex. There are few persons who are not acquainted with the bed bug, which is the insect we are now speaking of. It excites, perhaps, too much disgust to interest any but zealous entomologists ; and yet it would be found, upon examination, to be a curious insect. Like some few other Hemiptera we have previously mentioned, it is always deficient in wings ; although Londoners, in particular, can well at- test, that this does not, in the slightest degree, impair its powers of propagation. The family of the Reduvii will now occupy us. This very numerous concourse, being the typical family of the group, are consequently THE REDUVllDvE. 123 the most rapacious. Their very aspect seems to indi- cate predatory instincts: their small head, prominent eyes, frequently short, robust,, and raptorial anterior legs, and lengthened posterior ones, combined with a compact but long body, convey an idea of agility and strength, which seem, in some respects, analogous to the concurrent structure in the feline Mammalia ; and many of them are equally nocturnal in their habits. In one genus, in particular, the South American Cono- rhinus, there is as strong a disposition as in Cimex to feed upon blood ; for we find that it frequents houses, and attacks sleeping persons. This genus also exhibits, perhaps, the largest species of the family, the C. me- gistuSj being frequently more than an inch and a half long : indeed, this family contains generally large in- sects. Although, perhaps, the normal number of joints to the antenna? throughout the heteropterous division of the Hemiptera is not to exceed five, we here frequently find a divergence from it, in some extending to eight ; and in one in particular, the Hammatocerus, the num- ber reaches thirty, the usual second joint being sub- divided into these numerous articulations. Some species are remarkable for producing, under irritation, a chirp- ing noise, like several of the Longicorn Coleoptera ; and one, the Prionotus serratus, has been observed to give an electric shock. The accuracy of this, Burmeister doubts ; and, indeed, it does appear very startling ; yet Messrs. Kirby and Spence mention it upon such high authority, that its veracity it would be temerity to impugn. Their words are*, f plants, which they pierce in the same way ; such, at least, is the case with nearly all those found in Great Britain : but there are very many (more especially those which may be considered typical), which have the fore legs raptorial ; that is, formed for seizing, similar to the JSdantida, and other families which are known to live upon smaller insects : in all such groups, these legs are very thick and robust, and are armed with sharp spines, which serve to secure and even to kill their prey. The common Italian cicada shows a full developement of 128 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. this structure ; and unless it be supposed that the insect uses these feet to press out the juices of plants, we may fairly suspect that they are employed in seizing and wounding smaller insects, There can be no doubt that these vegetable suckers tend, in general, to the healthiness of the plant they feed upon, although their numbers frequently cause much injury. They are, in fact, the phlebotomists of vegetables; attacking them when in the full vigour of their growth, and feasting upon that superabundance of sap with which they then abound. The plant lice, or Aphides, are the most expert suckers of any of their tribe. The little family of Mem- bracina, which represent these insects in Tropical Ame- rica, are found clustered on the rich luxuriant shoots of the Guava and other fruit trees, busily employed in tapping the stem and sucking the juice.* As to the geographic distribution of the tribe, we have very few in Europe, and these are mostly of a small size : the rest are distributed in the hot latitudes of the Old, but chiefly in those of the New World. The pre-eminent types (Cicadida)) as is usual throughout nature, are universal, and one has been discovered of late years in the New Forest in Hampshire. Many family groups, and nearly all the natural sub-genera, are restricted to certain geographic limits. Several of these are interest- ing, either from the singularity of their form, or their habits, the chief of which will be subsequently noticed. (1 20.) The affinities of the Cicades to the Cimicides on one hand, and to the lepidopterous order on the other, have already been intimated ; but so much of error, of late years, has been introduced about f Borders" in the reigning systems, that we shall here again return to the subject, by quoting the opinion of others. The union of this tribe to the typical Hemiptera is so obvious, that it has been well observed, " the affinity cannot be disputed, without a distortion of some of the most evi- * Mr. Westwood attributes the first announcement of this fact to an author who mentions it ten years after it fell under our own observation in Brazil ; and then flippantly says, I was ignorant of the circumstance. THEIR AFFINITIES. 129 dent facts in natural history, being accompanied with an utter disregard to the authority of all entomologists/' * The same author also states that " the transition is effected through the medium of the Notonectidce (or boat flies), and other Hydrocorisa of Latreille ; which coincide with the Cicadides, in the small developement of their antennae and conical rostrum ; and with the true (or typical) Hemiptera, in their rostrum being frontal, their elytra coriaceous, and their body generally de- pressed. With proper caution, however, the same learned author, not having entered upon the necessary analysis, observes, " it would at present be very blama- ble in me to pretend to determine whether these insects (the Notonectidci) come nearest to the hemipterous or homopterous (or Cicades) type ; but I may observe that the probability is on the side of the latter supposition, since the genus Ranatra bears a strong analogy to the Ephemerae. We perceive, however, the wings of the HydrocoristB becoming gradually more coriaceous, or rather corneous, and opake; we perceive them crossing one another more and more, in order to make room for the enlargement of the scutellum, which, with the true ocelli, and quadri-articulate rostrum, is the typical cha- racter of the true Hemiptera (or our Cityicidei)"^ Our analysis of this group has, in a great measure, confirmed these views : we consider the Notonectida as one of the aberrant divisions of the order ; and, from its obvious analogy to the natatorial birds and quadrupeds, we should term this division the natatorial family of the deader. Now, as the Nepidce are obviously the corresponding group among the Cimicides, it follows that this is the point of junction between the two ; although the precise sub-genus by which this passage is effected, has not yet been ascertained. The second affinity regards the con- nection of the Cicades (the Homoptera of some authors) to the Lepidoptera ; and here, again, we shall make use of the same authority in support of own decided opinions * Hor. Ent., p. 376. t Hor. Ent., p. 377. ISO NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS, on this point. " The immediate means of transition from homopterous insects to the lepidopterous, is probably exemplified in the genus Aleyrodes of Latreille, the Tinea proletetta of Linnaeus, and the Phalene culiciforme of Geoifroy. The history of this minute insect is the sub- ject of one of Reaumur's most interesting Memoires; and when we learn that it undergoes an obtect" (or com- plete) f{ metamorphosis; that in its pupa state it is inactive^ and in its adult is covered with a farinaceous powder ; we are as little surprised that this great physiologist should have considered it to be lepidopterous, as that Latreille, reasoning from its articulated rostrum, should have pronounced it to be homopterous. We are only asto- nished that the latter should have adopted any arrange- ment which would lead us to fancy that he believed his observations on Aleyrodes contradicted those of Reau- mur." It is thus, as our author truly observes, "that the greatest naturalists, in every department of nature, are often right and wrong at the same time, with respect to the same animal; and that a person in search of natural affinities, has generally reason to conclude himself to be perfectly correct, when he has combined all their posi- tive observations, and rejected their negative inferences/' The farinaceous wings of the Flatida, subsequently no- ticed, induced our author to pronounce them as ff mani- festly bearing a distant affinity to certain extreme Lepi- doptera." These insects, indeed, so completely resemble moths, that they may be justly called the moth cicadas. (121.) The primary groups under which we shall now arrange the cicadas, will be considered in the light of families, and may be thus concisely enumerated: 1. The true Cicadidtf, or singing insects ; so named from their musical powers. 2. The Flatidce, or moth-like cicadas, having their wings generally covered with a white farinaceous powder. 3. The CentronotidcE, or spined cicadas, remarkable for their small size, and the spines upon their bodies. 4. The Notonectidce, or water cicadas, vulgarly called boat flies : these are few in number, and, as their name denotes, are aquatic. The THE CICADIN^E. 131 5th type is uncertain, and may possibly be represented by such insects as have the greatest resemblance to the Coctida. (122.) The true cicadas (Cicadidce) stand at the head of the tribe, as the pre-eminent typical family : they vary considerably in size ; and comprise, with but two or three exceptions, the largest insects in the whole tribe yet discovered, as well as some of the smallest. Amid this diversity, there is one character, however, by which nearly the whole may be recognised, that of having the antennae placed directly in front of, or before, the eyes. The front of the head is always swollen as if inflated ; and these inflated parts are always crossed by very fine transverse or horizontal lines, not unlike the plaiting of a shirt frill. Of what use this singular structure is to the insect, we know not ; but it is so generally prevalent, that we may attach some weight to its variation. There is a considerable variation in the neuration or nerves of the wings : some groups have these members transparent ; while in others, the upper or larger pair are opake, and ornamented with bands, spots, and other markings : these differences give rise to further separations or sub-families, each of which seem to possess some peculiarity of economy; hence we can easily discriminate two leading divisions ; 1 . the Ci- cadince, or singing group ; and, 2. the Cercopince, or hopping cicadas. (123.) The singing cicadas (Cicadince) are conspi- cuous for their bulk, and have been long celebrated for their economy. Many of the exotic species, when their wings are expanded, measure six inches in extreme length, a size superior to that of many of the humming birds. The body is remarkably thick and robust ; and they fly with such rapidity, that the eye cannot follow them. With the exception of one species, Cicada An- glica, these insects are unknown in our misty islands, are children of the sun, and love to bask in more genial climates. As this power of rapid flight is one of the great peculiarities of these creatures, so the members 132 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. by which this is effected deserve attention. The wings are long, and pointed towards the end, a form pecu- liarly adapted for swiftness : in general, they are clear and transparent, but some few from India and Africa have the anterior or largest pair opake and coloured ; in both, however, they are marked by regular distinct nerves, which are divided into large cells towards the thorax, and into numerous smaller ones at the edges. But what more especially distinguishes these insects, when alive, is their faculty of emitting a very loud, and according to some authors a not unmusical noise. It may be readily supposed that a power so very unusual among insects, would excite great attention; and we ac- cordingly find that the cicada was one of the most celebrated insects of antiquity. Philosophers did not disdain to write upon it; while the fictions of the early poets invested it with perpetual youth, and exalted it to the rank of a demigod. We find the cicada perpe- tually extolled as an emblem of constant gaiety and uninterrupted happiness, as little cheerful beings, " be- loved by gods and men." Anacreon, in his celebrated Ode to the Cicada, describes in glowing colours the un- interrupted felicity of this creature. The Athenian patricians wore golden ornaments representing the ci. cada in their hair, to denote their national antiquity, or to intimate that, like these insects, they were the first-born of the earth. It has been ingeniously remarked, that, in the infant state of music, man seems to have preferred the natural sounds of some animals to those of their uncouth instruments, and that hence arose the extra- vagant praise bestowed upon the cicada. The ancient Locri, a people of Greece, are related to have been so charmed with its song, that they erected a statue to its honour. The following fable, relative to the same people, is too poetic to be passed over. A certain mu- sician of Locris, contesting with another, would have lost the chance of victory, by the breaking of two strings of his lyre, but at this critical moment a cicada flew to his aid, and resting on the broken instrument, HABITS OF THE CICADINvE. 133 sang so 'well, that the Locrian was declared victor.' His countrymen, in testimony of their gratitude, erected a statue to the insect. There is a beautiful antique gem, which we saw either at Rome or Florence, commemo- rating this supposed event : it represents the figure of the player, with the insect perched upon his lyre. No author we have met with has given a better idea of the singing of a cicada, than old Marcgrave, who says its tune begins with gir, guir, and continues with sis, sis, sis. This, we can affirm from experience, exactly expresses their long-continued and monotonous chirp. In the olive plantations of Italy and of Sicily, and those which cover the beautiful plain of Athens, we have heard innumerable hosts of these merry creatures during summer ; and the noise is so loud, that it may be heard at the distance of half a mile. Strange to say, however, the traveller is not able to see one of these creatures, although hundreds surround him on all sides : while thus recreating themselves, they invariably perch on the branches or stems of trees, some dis- tance from the ground ; while their plain dusky colours assimilate so closely to that of the bark, that the most practised eye can scarcely detect them. It generally happens that the concert is begun by one, who seems to have more power than the rest : he commences with all his might ; and in a minute or two, all the surround- ing trees seem to join in full chorus. Many fables among the ancients, and much erroneous matter by the moderns, has been published regarding the means by which this singing is produced. Reaumur, however, with his usual patience and accuracy, solved the diffi- culty : he discovered two large muscles, which at their point of union formed a space almost square ; by moving these backwards and forwards, he discovered, to his no small astonishment, that he could make a cicada sing that had been dead some weeks ! The sound is emitted through two large apertures, one on each side of the body, which are partly covered by valves: in some species from Brazil, these apertures K 3 134 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. are extended to the upper side of the abdomen, where they have a considerable resemblance to those in the pipes of an organ. The female cicada., however, is entirely without this apparatus ; hence the old Greek adage that the CicadcB were particularly happy, because they had silent wives. Aristotle mentions them as de- licious food ; but maccaroni has long supplanted them in the estimation both of the modern Greeks and the Italians. (124.) The second division of this family is composed of the CiRcopiNjE, or jumping cicadas. They are all of a very small size ; and very different, in their exter- nal appearance, to the last: they have no musical powers; and their long hinder legs are saltatorial, or adapted for leaping. These little creatures are abundant in all verdant situations during summer, particularly among the foliage of trees, and high grass. The larva or grub, as before observed, has the singular property of producing a frothy liquid, precisely like human saliva, in which its soft tender body is secure, and in the middle of which it constantly resides : hence the vulgar names of cuckow spit given to the larva, and frog- hopper to the adult or perfect insect : the ocelli, or simple eyes, in this group, are only two ; and the supe- rior wings, called by some the elytra (we think im- properly so), are nerved in a very different manner to those of the true cicada. The genus Ledra is the only one wherein the thorax is ornamented with horns or other excrescences ; and this appears to represent, in its own circles, the Cent fonot idee. The foreign jumping cicadas are innumerable, and are so little known, that out of more than seventy species we discovered in South America, we believe that not one half have been described. (125.) The moth cicadas, or the FLATID^, compose the second great division or family of the tribe. ' As the Cicadidce form the typical, so this constitutes the sub- typical group ; and every one can perceive how beauti- fully it represents the order of Lepidoptera. They are 3 DEFINITION OF THE FLATINjE. 135 in fact, cicadas disguised as butterflies and moths : like these latter, their wings are very broad, obtuse, and, in many genera, covered with minute scales, which appear to the eye like a fine powder. Even in such as have not their wings so covered, this powdery substance is found upon the body, or on other parts : here, however, the resemblance ceases, so far as the structure of the two orders are concerned. The moth cicadas are nearly all confined to the tropics of the Old and New World : their representatives in Britain are the small aberrant genera of Issus Fab., and Ciocius Leach ; these live in thickets, and may be found by beating the hedges in summer. The form of the head, and the position of the antennae, joined to the shape of the wings just alluded to, offer the best and most prevalent characters for this family. We have seen that the front of the head, in the Cicadidee, is swollen, or at least convex; but in these insects it is either perfectly flat, as if cut off, or divided into two concave hollows, at the bottom of which, immediately beneath the eye, is placed their very small antennae : the front is also destitute of those fine horizontal lines so prevalent in the first great division (CicadiadcR)* A remarkable exception occurs to the generally truncate shape of the head, in the genus Ful- gora, where this part is lengthened and swollen to an enormous size, more analogous to the snout of an ele- phant, or the horn of a rhinoceros, than any thing else. This structure, however strange, is in strict accordance with one of the most prevalent laws of nature. The FulgorincB, in the circle of the Flatidce, seems to be the rasorial type in regard to birds, and the thysanuri- form with reference to insects ; both of which, as is well known, are remarkable for -the appendages which adorn their heads, which are frequently so strange as to give them the most grotesque appearance. But the analogies of the Fulgora do not rest here : on its lower * It may be as well to observe here, that Dr. Leach has mistaken the mode of insertion of the antennas in his genus Cercopis, and has thus made bis third stirps both erroneous and artificial. K 4 136 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. wings we have the eye-like iridescent spot of the raso- rial peacocks, as if Nature intended to show how beauti- fully she could make a bird and an insect represent each other. Gallinaceous birds,, pachydermatous quadrupeds (like the elephant), stag beetles (Lucanidce) among Co- leoptera,axe always the largest of their respective groups; and consequently FuZgora, which represents all these, is not only the largest of the moth cicadas, but is equal in size to the most bulky of its own tribe. We had no intention of touching upon this analogy, beautiful as it is, but we recollected that some explanation was neces- sary for deviating so much from the usual arrangement of this group. The Fulgora are called lantern flies; and, if what has been said of them be correct, the name is peculiarly appropriate. Madame Merian, well known for her work upon Surinam insects, relates an amusing anecdote about the great lantern fly of that country. It seems that she had caught several of these insects during the day, when they emit no light; and being ignorant of their possessing this property, she put them, with some leaves, into a box, which was laid upon her bed- room table. In the middle of the night, her captives, finding themselves debarred from their usual nocturnal excursions (for these insects repose during the day), began to buzz about and made every effort to escape. The noise thus produced awoke Mad. Merian, who, find- ing it impossible to sleep with all this fluttering, got up and opened the box to release her prisoners. What was her surprise at seeing it filled, as she thought, with large sparks of fire ! in her momentary fright, she let the whole fall to the ground : the insects, thus released, be- gan flying about the room in all directions, like so many moving candles. Our authoress goes on to state, that by the aid of two of these living lights, she was able to read the smallest print. Another conspicuous species, F. Candelaria, although much inferior in size, is found in India; but Europe possesses no such wonders. There is, indeed, a small insect called Fulgora Europ&a, but which is of a different genus to the true lantern flies, THE CENTRONOTID^E, 13? these latter being exclusively tropical. Two or three small but curiously shaped genera, as Delphax, &c., are placed at the end of this family, although their affini- ties are at present uncertain. (126). The horned cicadas, or the CENTRONOTID^E, constitute our third great division. The whole insect world cannot produce such extraordinary and eccentric shapes as are exhibited among these little creatures : were they of a moderately large size, any one might be exhibited as a monster, and the most fanciful imagin- ation would be sorely taxed to invent any thing more grotesque than Nature herself has produced. The Cen- tronotidce, with very few exceptions, are exclusively found in the forests of Tropical America, where they live, fre- quently in little societies of their own, upon the young shoots of plants, which they probe and suck as the Aphides do in Europe; for these latter insects, so far as our own personal observations have gone, are not found in these regions. This fact affords an additional rea- son in support of our belief that these two families are. analogous, and that both are types of the ruminating quadrupeds, in other words, rasorial. How little the Cen- tronotidcB are known, may be gathered from the fact, that out of near a hundred species found by us in Tropical America, not more than one half are described in books. Yet, abundant as those insects are in those regions, which may be termed their metropolis, only two species appear to inhabit England. One of these, however, Centronotus cornutus, is not uncommon, and gives a very good idea of the whole family. Its head and breast are larger than all the rest of the body ; the former is thick, broad, and truncate, but of a very different form to any among the Cicadidce or the Flatldce. The chief singularity, however, lies in the thorax, which is enormously deve- loped : on each side arises an acute spine, pointing outwards, so as to resemble the horns of a bull, or rumi- nating quadruped; while the hinder part is prolonged into another spine parallel with the body, and which it is obviously intended to protect : the wings are transparent^ 138 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. and, both in their form and neuration, much more resem- ble the typical cicadas than they do the Flatidce. Who that looks upon this singular little creature, will not be immediately reminded of a bull ? The truth is, that the mind of man is instinctively prone to comparison ; for the imagination will frequently associate together two or more things, having not a single property in common, yet so shaped as to suggest the same ideas. No better proof of this can be mentioned, than the resemblance which people very often imagine they can trace in the faces of animals (particularly sheep) to those of their acquaintances. Now there is as much diversity of phy- siognomy in one race as in the other ; yet the analogy between them is so remote,, that, although it may strike the imagination with irresistible force, it would fre- quently be difficult to state the reason of the similitude. Now, this is precisely the case with those remote analo- gies, or representations. In the present case, however, we have more certain grounds to go upon. A glance at some of the Brazilian types of this extraordinary family may here be taken. The largest species yet discovered (Membra- cis spinosa Fab.), in its general shape, exactly resembles a very large thorn from the stem of a rose tree; and the spine upon its thorax is so formidable, that we have had our fingers severely wounded in attempting to capture it. Another (Bocidium globulare) has a little fanciful diadem of round balls and spines rising from the thorax; and this is so spread over the insect, that every part of its body is protected. In another group (Polyglypta), all these spines disappear, and the thorax is lengthened out in front into a snout-shaped process, as long as the whole body; thus giving to them all the aspect of lan- tern flies. Another genus (Darnis) might at first be taken for a coleopterous insect; for it is entirely cased over with a hard shell, without any external appearance of wings, which lie concealed beneath, as in Scutel- lera. In these cicadas, also, the head, although broad, is particularly short, and is so bent down as to be almost hid : the antennae are shaped like those of Cercopis; THE NOTONECTID^E. 139 but instead of being in front of the eye, they are placed in a hollow beneath it, similar to the Flatidce. Such are the primary, or typical, characters of this family ; but to attempt the definition of all those intervening links by which it is connected with the preceding, would far exceed our limits. There are several small groups, peculiar to India and Australia, to which Nature has obviously assigned an intervening station ; for all her paces are slow and measured : if they appear otherwise, as they certainly do in some few instances, we must set it down to our own ignorance of her productions, rather than to her departure from her usual principle of gra- dual developement. (127.) The fourth family of this tribe appears com- posed of the NOTONECTID^E, or boat flies, constituting the natatorial or swimming type of the whole group. Our reasons for including these insects in this tribe, rather than in the last, cannot be entered upon in this place. It will be sufficient if the reader is made acquainted with the general form of these insects, and their peculiar ha- bits. For this purpose, let him fancy that a minute insect, whose shape immediately reminds him of the British Centronotus Genista, but whose hinder feet are formed for swimming, he will thus have a very good idea of the general form of the boat flies ; and more especially of the genus Ploa, or the minute Sigara of Dr. Leach. Without touching upon their other pecu- liarities, it will be sufficient to state that the Notonec- tidce are immediately known by their long hinder legs, the tarsi of which are so compressed and fringed as to resemble oars; these enable the insect to swim with great rapidity. The shape of the body is thick and tri- angular ; and the outer half of the superior wings fold over each other. Dr. Leach very properly divides this family into two groups ; one (Notonecta) having the shield (scutettum) large ; the other, as in Corioca, being entirely without this part. On aflfine summer's day, they may be observed basking in the sun, close to the surface of the water, in clear ponds or ditches; here 14*0 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. they will continue immovable for several minutes,, with their hinder legs stretched out, in the same attitude which a boat's crew assume when ready for a sudden start. The Notonectidce, like the Nepidce among the bugs,, are rapacious., living upon small insects, whose juices they suck. The attitude we have just described, although apparently one of listlessness, is really that of extreme watchfulness : the insect is lying in wait for its prey ; and the moment a luckless wanderer passes within reach, it darts upon it with the utmost rapidity, and is out of sight in a moment. Another singular habit belongs to these insects: they not only swim, but repose, upon their backs ; that is, with the under side of their body turned uppermost : this is a wise provision of Nature, and admirably suited to the nature of their pursuits ; by resting in this position, their eyes are directed fully to that quarter where they are to look for their prey ; while, if they assumed the usual position of other insects, they would gaze upon objects either upon the surface, or above it. (128.) Let us now look to the analogies which these insects possess to other classes of beings. The JVoto- nectidce are clearly an aquatic type, and offer an imme- diate point of union with the typical Hemiptera; their close affinity with the Nepadce is admitted by all writers ; and we have frequently observed, both among annulose and vertebrate animals, that one of the transitions of nature is made by an aquatic group. All natatorial types, among birds, represent the shrikes and the fly- catchers, who have the peculiar habit of watching for their prey from a fixed station, and seizing it, not by pursuit, but by surprise, just as the insects now be- fore us. Natatorial types, moreover, have always the largest heads ; witness the hippopotamus among the pachydermatous quadrupeds, the whale among the Ceta- cea. and theHesperida in the circle of diurnal butterflies. (129.) Inregarcfto the remaining family of the pre- sent tribe, we can say but little. If we merely looked to those genera which showed the greatest deviation THE APHID^E. 141 from the families already enumerated, we might sup- pose that Asiraca or Lima would probably form part of another great division, or that some of the lanigerous genera, resembling Coccus, would here intervene ; but we do not, at present, venture to act upon such vague suspicion, and shall therefore leave this part of the series for future investigation. (130.) Having now gone through the two typical groups of the order Hemiptera, we shall at once proceed to the three others, which appear to form the aberrant divisions, namely, 1. the Aphides, or plant suckers ; 2. the Coccides, or meal bugs ; and, 3. the Aleyrodes. (131.) The APHIDES, or plant lice, as we have already observed, are all of a very small, and often minute, size, and live for the most part in societies. Three of these families are represented by the Linnsean genera Chermes, Aphis, and Thrips; while that of Leach's Eriosoma is a type of the fourth. Of the Chermes, we possess, comparatively, but few species ; they are found on the leaves, young shoots, and bark of different plants : in their larva state, they seem to ex- hibit a considerable affinity to the Coccides, or plant bugs ; and we think it is to that family, rather than to this, that some of them really belong : like the Coccides, many of them are coated, particularly towards the tail, with a flocculent or cottony substance of a white colour, and. of a clammy tenacious nature, which exudes from the pores of the animal. These flocculent cotton-like fila- ments are very conspicuous in the Chermes Alni 3 which may be found, during summer, on the leaves and shoots of the alder tree. The larva, as described by Dr. Shaw, is entirely covered about the hinder part by thickly fasciculated heaps of viscid down or cotton, which, if purposely rubbed off, are quickly reproduced by the ani- mal, which secretes the white fibres from large pores placed in a circle at some distance from the vent. These larvae, or grubs, are gregarious; often appearing in such numbers on the tree, that the whole of the shoot they 142 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. are upon appears covered with white cotton, which, if touched by the finger, separates into distinct tufts, an effect produced by the animals being suddenly disturbed, and then moving in all directions. When this cotton is brushed off, the larva appears of a pale green colour, varied with black spots. When arrived at its complete or perfect state, by casting its pupa skin, it is entirely green, with transparent wings. If disturbed, it leaps with great agility, frequently flying at the same time.* (132.) The true APHIDES, or plant lice, are well known to infest the early buds of the rose tree and other plants, upon which they continue to multiply during the whole of summer. The habits and economy of these singular insects are so well known, that we shall here chiefly confine our remarks to their external cha- racters, and their general history. The body is thick, fat, and round, having, towards the end, three horn -like bristles, one of which is on each side, the other at the vent ; these terminate in a little knob, and are move- able ; their use, however, does not appear to have been detected : the head and eyes are very small, the latter prominent; while the antennae, unlike those of all the other families, are as long as the body, slender, filiform, and composed of seven joints : the wings also differ greatly from all other hemipterous insects ; they are perfectly transparent, and distinctly veined, assimi- lating, in short, to those of the hymenopterous order. Like those insects, they have likewise the power of forming a honey-like secretion from the vegetable juices upon which they subsist, although by a totally different process. In most species of the Aphides, both males and females acquire wings at certain seasons ; but in this respect they are subject to great variation, there being some males and some females that never have wings ; again, there are some females that become winged, while others of the same species do not. The Aphides are the most defenceless of all insects, for they can nei- * Shaw, Gen. Zool., vi. 1187, HABITS OF THE APHID^E. 143 ther fly nor run sufficiently fast to avoid danger : they seem never to make use of their wings, but for the pur- pose of finally leaving the little society in which they were born,, and establishing for themselves a distinct colony ; while the feet, although perfect, are remarkably slender, and only enable the animal to walk very slow. (133.) The honey-dew, according to the observations of the late Mr. Curtis, is chiefly, if not entirely, occa- sioned by these insects. s( Were a person," observes our ingenious author, t( to take up a book in which it was gravely asserted that in some countries there were certain animals which voided liquid sugar, he would soon lay it down, regarding it as a fabulous tale, calculated to impose on the credulity of the ignorant ; and yet such is literally the truth. The superior size of the Aphis Salicis, or willow plant-sucker, will enable the most in- credulous observer to satisfy himself on this head. On looking stedfastly for a few minutes on a group of these insects, while feeding on the bark of the willow, a few of them will be perceived to elevate their bodies, and a transparent substance evidently drop from them; which is immediately followed by a similar motion, and a dis- charge like a small shower, from a great number of others. On placing a piece of writing paper under a mass of these insects, it soon became thickly spotted; holding it a longer time, the spots became united from the addition of others, and the whole surface assumed a glossy appearance. I tasted it, and found it as sweet as sugar. I had the less hesitation in doing this, having observed that wasps, flies, ants, and insects without number, devoured it as quickly as it was produced. In the height of summer, when the weather is hot and dry, and the Aphides are most abundant, the foliage of the trees and plants upon which they reside, is found covered by this substancej generally known by the name of honey-dew." After combating the opinions that this was either exuded from the plants, or had fallen from the atmosphere, Mr. Curtis observes: LEPIDOPTERA. rous. 3 SPHECIDES. { Su b b o1 c y i P s i sh 1 ort nd rapt rial; pr "} HEMIFTERA. ICHNEUMONIDES. [ c *^ appendages highly deve- j HYMENOPTERA. CYNIPSIDES. The most aberrant of their circles. COLEOPTERA. TENTHREDINES. [ H ^ y sS! portionidly large; j NEUROPTERA. We ground the correctness of the first two analo- gies upon the unquestionable facts, that the bees are the most typical, and that the Sphecides are the rapto- rial, tribes of the order. This arrangement coincides not merely with the corresponding tribes of the Ptilota, but with every tribe in the vertebrate and other circles contained in our preceding volumes. The superior length of the tongue in the typical bees and butterflies is well worth remarking, and is strongly contrasted with the universal shortness of this organ in the raptorial He- miptera (ReduviusFaib.},2Lud the equally raptorial wasps. The ichneumons, corresponding to the greater part of the Pupivora of Latreille, as representatives of the order in the entire circle, possesses one and only one of the typical characters in the highest state of develope- ment, a circumstance which we have frequently had occasion to point out is universal in all natural groups; and thus we consider the first three series of our table to be substantially natural. Respecting the fourth, in which we place the Cynipsides (including the Chalci- didce) as a tribe distinct from the ichneumons, we are not sufficiently clear. For a long time we were dis- posed to adopt Mr. MacLeay's opinion, that the ants (Formitidce) constituted one of the primary types of the order; in which case they would have stood in the most aberrant position, as types of the Coleoptera; but 154 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. their strong affinity to the more perfect and social Hy- menoptera, and the impossibility of discovering the least relation between them and the Tenthredines, has induced us to doubt the correctness of this opinion, and to substi- tute, for the present, the Cynipsides including the Chalci- dites. The singular prolongation of the scutellum in some of these insects, which Latreille very justly compares to Scutellera, gives them, at first sight, a closer resemblance to Coleoptera than any other insects of this order yet dis- covered: this, at least, we can say, that two or three species found by us in Brazil have this aspect so strongly, that we mistook them, at first, for Mordella. The pe- culiarity also mentioned by Latreille, of most of the Fabrician Chalcidida enjoying the faculty of leaping, is another point wherein they resemble the most aberrant tribe of the Coleoptera, no less than the Syphonostoma, or fleas, the acknowledged representatives of the beetles among apterous insects. Families, again, in which me- tallic colours run through the great majority of the species, are invariably the most aberrant in their own circles. We find this true in the humming birds, the tanagrine genus Agla'ia, the. metallic pheasants of India, and the prismatic mouse of the same region. It is again seen in the ChrysomelidcB in the circle of the Coleoptera, in the Buprestida, in that of the Lamellicornes, and in the Curculionida among the Capricornes. However unprepared we may therefore be, to offer any opinion worth adopting on the rank of the Chalcidites and of the ants, we have not a doubt that both they and the genus Chrysis, together with the Mutillidce, are all repre- sentatives of the Coleoptera, wherever their actual lo- cation in nature may be. As for the latter group, the Mutillidce, we look upon them as more related to the true ants by analogy than by affinity: they agree only in being apterous, a circumstance so common in widely different groups of this order, that it is by no means sufficient to constitute an affinity. The analogies of the saw flies (Tenthrddines) to the aberrant Neuroptera, (or the Pkryganida), although not so apparent, perhaps, PARASITISM OP THE HYMENOPTEBA. 155 in the perfect insects, are yet sufficiently strong to cor- roborate the idea of their being related to each other; for both have their larvae cruciform. But in what manner, if any, the Tenthredines are connected to the more typical bees, must be determined by analysis. Characters founded upon any one single organ are ge- nerally artificial : yet it is very remarkable that, in the two typical groups of our arrangement of this order, the caudal appendage performs the office of a sting, while in the three aberrant divisions it assumes the functions of an ovipositor. Should our theory of the primary types be correct, no better characteristic of them can be giveno (142.) Preliminary to our special treatment of the habits., economy, distribution, and peculiarities of struc- ture of the successive groups into which the Hymeno- ptera have thus resolved themselves, we propose making a few observations upon the order collectively. In the first place, we may remark that sexual discrepancies are as perplexing to the entomologist here, as in the other or- ders, and there is as frequently a difficulty in associating together the partners of a species : this is conspicuously the case among the bees. In the aculeated division of the Hymenoptera, there is, however, a tangible cha- racter whereby the sex of the individual may be discri- minated ; for the males have one joint more to the antennae and the abdomen than the females. In the preceding orders of which we have treated, we have had occasion to observe the parasitical habits of many of the species, which o^cur more or less considerably throughout all insects. VHere, however, although it is found very extensively amongst the Diptera also, it reaches its maximum; for one group, the Ichneumonides, as we here consider them, are almost exclusively para- sites. The term will receive its explanation by our ex- hibiting the characteristic and discriminating features whereby it distinguishes itself in the several tribes in which it occurs. The Ichneumonides , or, as they were named by Latreille, Pupivora, from the peculiarity in*. 156* NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. cidental to their mode of parasitism, deposit their eggs either upon or within the egg or larva of the insect upon which they are parasitical. The young, when dis- closed,, if deposited upon the surface, eats its way into the insect upon which it preys ; but yet, guided by its instinct, it feeds so cautiously as not to interrupt the vital functions, and the creature progresses to the ma- turity of the pupa state, but, of course, in a sickly con- dition. Having undergone this change, its insidious enemy still lurking within it, its existence then draws to a close, for the parasite, becoming less restricted in its diet, consumes all before it; and having by that time acquired its full growth, it transforms either within the husk of the insect upon which it had preyed, or it pierces through this and spins its cocoon, and therein takes its metamorphosis upon the surface of this case. Sometimes a larva feeds but one of these parasites, when it consists of the larger normal Ichneumones; but myriads at other times inhabit it, when these are com- posed of Chalcidites. In these last instances, more than one species frequently prey at the same time upon the devoted victim, as we have repeatedly had occasion to observe, and much to our vexation; for, after having used every precaution to rear some rare lepidopterous larva, we have found all our assidous exertions thwarted by these tiny foes. It is not, however, the Lepidoptera alone that are subjected to these attacks, but some prey likewise on the Coleoptera ; and it is not improbable that all the orders may be infested by them, they having so little fellow feeling as to be destructive even to their own order. The second kind of parasites are those which occur in our group of Sphecides : these deposit their eggs within the nests of other Spheces, frequently of the same genus as themselves, for the purpose of being nurtured at the expense of the young, by consuming the food laid up in store by the provident parent; and, doubtlessly, these insects, being predatorial and carni- vorous, feed upon the unhappy larva itself. An awk- ward collision must of course sometimes occur, where PARASITISM OF THE HY3JENOPTERA. 157 the developement of the parasitic larva is less rapid than that of its intended victim, and this, by acquiring early sufficient strength, neutralises the object of the parents, and turns " the tables " upon its progeny. A subdivision of this parasitical mode of breeding we observe among the bees, which more resemble that of the cuckoo than either of the other; and from this ^circumstance, those genera of bees wherein it occurs have been called cuckoo bees. Here it is merely the food that is laid up in store, that has been preyed upon by the larva of the parasite; for the bee not being at all carnivorous, the genuine inhabitant for whom the provi- sion was made is starved by its abstraction by this intruder. In the bees that possess this habit, it is always an entire genus, and not a portion of a genus, as we have ob- served among the Sphecides; although the same object of resemblance is frequently obtained, by these parasitic bees belonging very generally, from structural character, to a cognate division of the group, as we shall have oc- casion to instance below. With regard to structure, we may here remark, that it occurs in a less fully developed state throughout this second division of parasites ; but this is compensated by the superior instinct with which they are endowed, to enable them to evade the sagacity of the insects upon which they prey. Instances, how- ever, of fearful retribution we shall record below, when we treat specially of the groups; and where we shall show that severe punishment has followed the heedless temerity of the parasite, when it has too rashly exposed itself to the indignation of the enraged parent. Al- though we have already observed that there are apparent deficiencies in the analogical structure of these latter parasites, we are not to note these as defects, but as a further exemplification of the universal economy exhi- bited every where in nature, which, fitting every thing to its end, is never lavish in superfluous, and consequently useless, implements. (143.) In speaking here of the parasitic habits of the Hymenoptera, we may notice, that they are them- 158 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. selves exposed to the parasitical propensities of indi- viduals belonging to other orders. This we here merely glance at, as we shall have further occasion to notice it ; and it therefore remains for us to observe, in these general remarks, that we think it very probable that this order of the Hymenoptera will, eventually, when it shall have obtained all the attention from entomologists that it so well merits, prove numerically as extensive, or perhaps more extensive, than any other. In cor- roboration of the plausibility of this supposition, we have only to advert to the hosts of minute Hymenoptera discovered throughout the small area of our own country, and described by Messrs. Walker and Haliday ; and when we reflect upon the prolific exuberance of more genial climates, exemplified in the multitudes of insects of the favourite orders of Lepidoptera and C0- leoptera which the zeal of collectors have brought together, we may rationally expect that an assiduity equivalent to Mr. Darwin's would speedily advance the species of Hymenoptera to a triumphant competition in number with the most numerous of the recorded orders. (144.) The Apides, or bees, compose our first large group. These insects are well known, from the uni- versal reputation of the typical genus Apis, the do- mestic bee, which, from its social habits, has ever been esteemed emblematical of the monarchical government ; whilst its steady industry, in storing up provision for the contingencies of a barren period, have been the admired theme of sages and moralists, who have con- stantly referred to it to rouse the inertness of indolence, and have cited it as an example of prudential foresight. These have thus given a name to a large group of insects, which, upon the progress of systematic ento- mology, were found to possess certain analogous pecu- liarities of structure. It must not, however, be inferred, because the bee most extensively known is social in its habits, and has been domesticated by man to con- tribute to his luxuries and comforts,, that all bees par- GENERAL HABITS OF THE BEES. 159 ticipate in these instincts, and are equally fitted for a similar subjugation. This opinion would be erroneous, for it is among the social bees only that we find those thus serviceable; and, although a few other genera of bees are also social, we are not aware that any have been domesticated like our common hive bee, or its congeners, although the nests of the other social species are constantly plundered by the natives and inhabitants of the countries where they are found. The large ma- jority of bees are, indeed, solitary in their habits, form- ing either cylindrical burrows in a variety of substances according to the species, or a cluster of small oval cells, placed usually within a cavity, either found or formed by the insect ; and these cells are constructed sometimes of small particles of earth, or of a moulded clay.* They then deposit wiihin them a store of food, con- sisting of a paste, formed by a mixture of pollen and honey, to serve as provision for the young. Having laid up this magazine, in the due proportions of which the mother insect is guided by an unerring instinct, she then deposits her egg upon it, and encloses an adequate space for the developement of her larva, and of its transformation. As we observed above, the several genera and species select different substances, wherein they nidificate ; and they also follow different modes in the occupation of these burrows, for some line them with various substances, and others occupy them bare as they occur, but perfectly smooth within. Some, also, make them suit a succession of cells ; and others deposit but one egg, and food but for one young one, in each; but we shall have further opportunity below to notice these different habitations, wherever they present any remarkable peculiarity of structure. These insects themselves are frequently very hairy, although many are completely smooth ; and they are * An exotic genus, closely allied to Osmia, appears to form its cells of a rude kind of wax. This is a remarkable instance of any but a social bee using wax. We should not, however, thence infer, that, as in the other cases, it was a secretion of the insect, but possibly a vegetable production* or perhaps the result of plunder from one of the social kinds. 160 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. generally of sombre and uniform colours : but some are adorned with the gayest metallic and party-coloured vestments ; yet it is chiefly among the parasitic tribes that a gaudy costume is conspicuous. The purpose which bees have to fulfil in the economy of nature, is to collect the superfluous pollen of flowers, and whilst collecting it, to convey it from plant to plant, whereby the impregnation of these is more securely effected than if it were left to the accidental agency of the wind ; and, although this object is partially concealed beneath the instinctive propensity to collect nutriment for their young, yet is it so conspicuous, and has been so fully proved by the careful researches and observations of Sprengel and Kohlenreuter, that it must excite universal admiration at the comparatively simple, yet certain, means, Nature so frequently adopts to obtain important results, one process accomplishing manifold purposes. To effect this end, they are of course furnished with adequate organs; and they are assisted to convey it, whilst collecting it from flower to flower, usually by means of a dense brush of hair, sometimes surrounding the posterior tibiae and basal joint of the tarsus, but which is placed occasionally merely externally upon those members : in conjunction with this brush, there is frequently a long curled lock of hair at the base of the femur beneath ; and where this occurs, the whole of that member is fringed, or the sides of the metathorax behind are very hairy. In others, the clothing of the legs is superseded by a very thick brush, occupying the under side of the abdomen ; but, in the social genera, in lieu of the brush upon the posterior tibiae, these, as well as the basal tarsal joint, are considerably dilated, and hollowed or flattened externally, and the margin fringed with hair, which thus forms a receptacle called a corbiculum, or basket, for the clodded masses of pollen and honey made into a paste by these social insects, or for the other stores of different materials that they may require in their domestic economy. Having thus briefly noticed these generalities, we will SUBDIVISION OF THE BEKS. l6l now proceed to the investigation of the contents of this group of insects. (145.) It has been found convenient by systematists to subdivide the bees into two large groups, which are determined by the mode in which the tongue or probos- cis is folded in repose, and the comparative length of that organ. Of course, it was to be expected that a lengthy organ, as this usually is, must be folded, to en- able it to be brought within the protection of the horny parts of the mouth. Thus, in the Andrenid2 NATUSAI* ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. large concourse of insects ; for,, by omitting to do it, k has unfortunately happened that names have been ap- plied to them by Illiger, Latreille, and other continental authors, whereby our countryman has partly been de- prived of the well-earned universal record of his labours. We must not; however, complain of the candour of these authors, for they have done ample justice to the originality and merits of Mr. Kirby's treatise, which we cannot too strongly recommend to the diligent and careful study of young entomologists. They will find that it will teach them to digest thoroughly their plans ; and it will enlarge their views beyond the feverish expectancy of a precocious and questionable celebrity, so easily and unworthily attainable, by the establish- ment of insulated remarkable genera ; for it is only by taking up groups, and thoroughly discussing them, that the progress of the science can be at all promoted. (146.) We find that it is by Colletesiu theANDRENiD^E that the bees are most intimately connected with the Spheces and wasps ; its bilobated tongue exhibits the point of contact with some of the extreme genera of fossorial aculeates. This genus is also remarkable from its mode of nidification, and the silken cells it forms ; and by its possessing two parasites, one the beautifully variegated Epeolus, a cuckoo bee, and the other the dipterous genus Miltogramma. The peculiarities of the other genera of the Andrenida are, the wood bur- rowing parasitic Hyl&us, which, when caught, emits a delightful and powerful fragrance of lemons ; and Sphecodes: the insects upon which these are parasitical, the most careful research has not yet discovered. We next have the extensive genus Hallctus, which is pecu- liar for the caudal vertical incision in the females, and the cylindrical body and length of antennae in the males. We here find another exemplification of the divergence of extensive genera from their types ; for we observe forms in this genus which seem to point in a variety of directions. Although the genus occurs throughout the world, it is found most extensively in GENERA OP ANDRENIDJE. l63 America and Europe; but it is in the former that its most eccentric species occur. The approximate genus JVomia, which is also found throughout the world, ap- pears to represent Hatictus in India, where possibly it is of similar extent, if we may judge analogically from the diversities of form that occur in the species we have seen. This genus is distinguished by the usually very enormously enlarged and curiously spined posterior femora and tibise, and elongated tarsi of the males, and the frequently very large tegulse of both sexes. A re- markable species of this genus we are acquainted with from the Cape, which has the anterior tarsi dilated like the first section of Megachile. In this division we will only further allude to the extremely elegant Dasypoda, which derives its name from its densely hairy posterior tibiae and tarsi, and which are furnished with an in- creased facility for retaining the large masses of pollen they enable the insect to convey, by each hair giving off' on each side, throughout its whole length, other in- numerable very short and slender hairs.* The re- markable genus Macropis Klug (the Meg ilia labiata of Fabricius) has recently been added to the British fauna ; and we owe the possession of this unique insect to the liberality of the captor, Mr. Walton, who took it in the New Forest ; but we introduce the notice of it here, only to observe that it distinctly points in many peculiarities to the fourth division of the solitary bees (the Scopuli- pedes). The typical genus Andrena is perhaps of still greater extent than Halictus; but its range, both struc- tural and geographical, is more confined, indeed, it rarely presents abnormal species. It was upon one of this genus (A. nigrocenea) that Mr. Kirby made the inter- esting discovery of the very singular parasite Stylops, * Various kinds of this peculiar structure occur in different genera, and none of which have before been noticed : it has also modifications which accomplish the same purpose; thus, in Panurgus, instead of the hairs being pilose, they are crenulated towards their extremity. That it only accom- panies certain peculiarities of economy is proved by many of the very hairy- legged divisions of the bees (the Scopulipedes) having these hairs entirely simple. I am preparing a paper on the subject, in which all these peculi- arities will be shown. W. E. Sh. M 2 164 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. the peculiarities of the natural history of which we shall give in its proper place ; and it is also upon An~ drena that the little hexapod creatures occur,, called, we think very correctly, Pediculi by Mr. Kirby, but which have been asserted to be the larvae of Meloe : the correctness of this opinion we dispute ; but shall leave the notice of our reasons for doing so until we arrive at the Coleoptera. We are farther acquainted with many undescribed exotic forms among the Andrenida, some of which are highly interesting. (147-) We now enter the division of the APID^E, or genuine bees, where the diversities of form and struc- ture are greater than in the preceding division, and which consequently has given rise to a more extensive subdivision into genera. It is, however, very probable, judging from the contents of the collections which we possess and have seen, that the species are not nume- rically greater than in the Andrenidce. The Apidce re- solve themselves very naturally into two subdivisions, the solitary bees and social bees. The first of these sub- divisions, the solitary bees, may be conveniently grouped according to very obvious structural peculiarities, and which, as usual, concur with the habits of the insects. (14-8.) We have, Firstly, the ANDRENOIDES, or those approaching, both in structure and habits, to the Andre- nidte. These make their burrows in a similar way to the typical portion of that group, and have their posterior tarsi formed upon the same structural model : they also, like those insects, generally frequent syngenesious plants. The most remarkable genera are Rophites, which has the apex of the abdomen in the male denticulated be- neath ; and Systropha, which in that sex has the ex- tremity of the antennae very singularly curved. The general structure of Nomada includes it better within this group than with the other cuckoo bees, with which, from habits, it might otherwise be associated. These gay and wasplike insects are parasitical upon various species of Andrena and Halictus, but one infests Eucera. SUBDIVISIONS OF THE APID^E. 165 (149-) The second subdivision of the solitary bees, the Dasygastrcs, are thus named from the hirsute clothing of their venter, by which they carry their provisions, and never by their legs, which is the case in all other bees. They constitute a large group, some of the genera of which are very extensive in species, and many of these have received vernacular names. Thus, we have the LEAF-CUTTER BEES, Megachile, for instance, a very nu- merous genus, extending all over the known world, and tolerably equally distributed. The males of some of the species have the anterior tarsi considerably dilated. It is upon these insects that the coleopterous genus Clerus is probably parasitical. They derive their name from the habit many of them possess of cutting semicircular pieces of leaves from different plants, and with which they line their burrows, usually formed in soft and de- caying wood, whence they have sometimes been called carpenter bees, which is perhaps better restricted to Xy- locopa. It is upon the cognate genus Chelostoma that Mr. Marsham observed the Ichneumon, Pimpla Manifes- tator, which has so largely a developed ovipositor, to be parasitical. In this group there is no genus, excepting only Lithurgus, which does not occur in Great Britain. (150.) We have next the MASON BEES, Osmice^ the majority of this group form their nests in the third mode we have described above ; and Anthidium, insects gaily marked with yellow bands and spots. In this genus the males are greatly larger than the females, and under the impulse of passion convey her off into the upper air. This genus is further remarkable for the habit it has of lining its nests with the downy coating of plants. It does not, in this country, make its appearance much before the summer solstice. (151.) Upon these follow the CUCKOO BEES, which are all parasites ; but although it is convenient to group together a certain number of these on structural accounts, yet shall we find some genera of parasitic bees strag- gling into the following subdivisions that we have to notice. Here we have Melecta, that infests the grega- M 3 166 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. rious Anthophora and Eucera; the very gay Crocisa, distinguished for its beautiful white and caerulean mark- ings ; the pretty little Ammobates, Phileremus, and Epeolus, parasitical upon Colletes, and Calioxys whose young is reared at the expense of that of Megachile. We further observe the exotic respleridently metallic Aglae^esoriychia, and Mesocheira; Ischnocera,v?lth its exceedingly attenuated and nodose antennae in the males. The three last of these are conspicuous for the structure of the calcar of the intermediate legs, which are furcated towards the apex, and one of the branches multidentate, resembling an expanded hand with its thumb and fingers. It is very probable, also, that the beautiful and large genus Acanthopus belongs to this group, for the female is not known, and it has a similarly constructed inter- mediate spur : the furcation of this organ probably su- persedes the possession of the usual pair. With the exception of Melecta and Crocisa, which are cosmopo- litans, we have detected these parasitic genera to be natives only of Europe and America ; and the richly metallic species being, as far as we are yet acquainted with them, restricted to Tropical America and the West Indian islands. ( 1 52.) The last large subdivision of the solitary bees, the Scopulipedes, or HAIRY-LEGS, collectively present the most assiduous collectors of pollen among the bees : the posterior tibia and basal joint of the tarsus are densely hirsute in all ; and in many it is difficult to detect the form of the limb for the hair : the thickened and dis- torted structure of the legs of the males of many of them is very remarkable. The habits of a few only are known, the majority being exotic; and the collectors of exotic insects have rarely cared to notice or record the habits of their captures. Our native genera consist of Eucera,, named from the length of the antennae of its male; Saropoda, and the gregarious Anthophora, the tones of the hum of the different species of which are so peculiar and distinctive. Here also should be placed the small Southern African genus Allodapa; and our HABITS OP XYLOCOPA. 167 pTetty little Ceratina may be inserted contiguous to the continental and exotic Xylocopa. The latter constitute a very numerous genus, for we are acquainted with more than a hundred species, and they are the largest and most bulky of all known bees ; the female of the oriental X. latipes being more than an inch in length, and two inches in expansion. These are most truly carpenter bees ; and as they occur numerously in countries fertile in timber, and of an exuberant vegetation, one purpose of their economy may be to hasten its decomposition when dead, by exposing it to the internal access of wet and fungi, by the large lengthy longitudinal perforations they make to deposit their young in security. They are subjected in the West Indies to the parasitical attacks of the cole- opterous genus Horia ; and probably, in other countries, other parasites prey on them. This genus presents some difficulties in its study, arising from the uniform in- tensely black colour of the greatest number of the species : their wings, which are of a brilliantly metallic steely blue or coppery colour, have been referred to as affording safe specific diagnostics ; but we think incorrectly, for they are liable to all the contingencies of age and use : the sculpture of the clypeus we consider presents a safer clue. In the great majority of this genus, nothing but direct observation can bring together the genuine partners of the same species, as in very many instances the males are yellow or fulvous, and the females black or metallic. Here, as in Nomia and Halictus, we ob- serve the species diverging in structure from the type. In some males we detect a dilatation of the anterior tarsi, as in Megachile; but these appear linked to the more normal form by means of the fulvous species, which have the anterior tarsi densely ciliated. Another diver- gent form from Western Africa, which has the inter- mediate legs very long and spined, and with curled locks of hair, has been raised, unduly we think, to the rank of a genus, by the name of Mesotrichia, and has been con- sidered as linking Xylocopa to Anthophora, by means of those species of the latter which also have males with M 4 1 63 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. elongated intermediate legs : these are, however, also, abnormal species, and ought not to be considered typical. This subdivision contains very many more genera, such as JEpicharis, Centris, Oxaa, c. ; the mere names of which, as they convey neither information nor amusement, we will pass over : we may, however, state that it is in this subdivision that bees with the longest and most highly organised tongues are found. (153.) The last division of the bees, the social tribe, are doubtlessly the most interesting of all, from their habits, economy, and uses. Our space will not admit of our going particularly into these circumstances ; and it is the less necessary, as there is no treatise on Ento- mology but what abounds with details upon them ; and we shall therefore only speak of those particulars that have been hitherto least noticed. The genera of these insects consist of Bombus Linn., and its parasite Psi~ thyrus St. Farg., Euglossa Fab., and the identical Cne- midium Pty., and Eulaima St. Farg., with their parasite Chrysantheda Pty.: Mellipona and Trigona of Latreille, and lastly Apis itself. The species of the genus Bombus form or seek cavities in the ground, which some line with a warm coating of moss interwoven together, and within which they build a series of irregularly clustered oval cells constructed of a very coarse kind of wax: others do not form this mossy lining, but instinctively seek a very sheltered situation. Bombus appears to be a northern and chiefly European and American genus: there are very few intertropical species ; and we only know two oriental. The genus Psithyrus so closely resembles the insects upon which they are parasitical, that they readily escape detection, and are not uncom- monly confounded with them by naturalists. It is still uncertain if Euglossa is social, and if their communities consist of three kinds of individuals. This has been assumed, upon the analogous structure of their posterior legs, which much resemble those of Mellipona and Tri- gona: the majority of the species are splendidly me- tallic ; and we think both Cnemidium and Eulaima too THE SOCIAL BEES. 169 closely like them to admit of generic subdivision. Chry- santheda, we have not the least doubt, is parasitical upon the metallic Euglossce. These insects belong exclusively to the western hemisphere, and it has been stated that such is the case also with Mellipona and Trigona ; but we are acquainted with species of the latter, which were brought from Java by Dr. Horsfield, and from Sumatra by sir Stamford Raffles, and St. Fargeau has also de- scribed one from Timor. From the vicinity of the latter island to New Holland, it is, therefore, not impro- bable that this genus may be discovered there; for we have yet seen no genuine bee from that country, ex- cepting such as have been imported by colonists, nor do we know any insect that does there represent it. These insects, Mellipona and Trigona, are likewise frequently found in gum anime and copal. The occurrence of bees without stings is an anomaly that we are scarcely prepared to expect, especially where there are such rich stores to defend as these insects form ; and yet this is reputed to be the case with the indigenous social and honey-making bees of America. Those of the genus Apis which are found there were originally introduced by colonists; but they have now permanently naturalised themselves, and occur at large in the woods. Much obscurity still hangs over the natural history of Mel- lipona and Trigona, and we are yet insufficiently ac- quainted with their sexes. The marquis Spinola has recently helped to clear away some of the difficulties involving these insects, and has shown that we are scarcely to expect here those great sexual discre- pancies that we meet with in the genuine Apis. These insects are usually very small ; and all that we know of their natural history is, that their nests consist of large assemblies of individuals, which form their waxen hives within hollow trees or the cavities of rocks. They make large quantities of wax, and are not, apparently, so economical in its use as Apis; for, from the figure given of a portion of one of their nests by Huber, in the Transactions of the Society of Natural History of Ge~ 170 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. neva, it appears more carelessly and less ingeniously formed, although the hexagonal structure of the cells still predominates in it. Some, it is said, form nests of irregularly attached oval cells, like our Bombi. It is quite impossible to think of giving here, where we are so cramped for space, any thing like a suitable account of the economy of the hive bee (Apis domcstica) and its congeners; but as this is dwelt upon in every book treating upon insects, we shall merely mention the extent of its distribution. Thirteen have hitherto been described, and others we know: two species only seem to occur in Europe, one confined to the North (our do- mestic bee), and the other to the South. Others, we surmise, might possibly be found in Spain, from its proximity to Africa, were that fine country diligently searched. Western Africa and India appear to produce the greatest number of species ; but we believe they are not as diligently cultivated in those countries as in Europe and Egypt, although this might be supposed to be the case in Western Africa, from the large quantities of wax that are imported thence, and which are brought from the interior. It would be trite to remark upon the uses of these industrious little insects to man, prior to the discovery of the sugar-cane. They must also have abounded in Judea that land flowing with milk and honey; and the allusions of the oriental poets show the extent of their appropriation throughout the east. The enormous consumption of wax in catholic countries, both now, and when Europe was wholly catholic, and before it could be substituted by a vegetable extract, and the produce of a whale, exhibits the little insect in another light, that of contributing to the religious rites of man ; and this further shows what extensive employment they must have afforded to multitudes of individuals : but we will close the subject with ex- pressing our gratitude for its adaptation to the wants and the comforts of man, and our great admiration of the wonders of its economy and instincts. We have dwelt purposely longer upon this group of insects, from ECONOMY OF THE FORMICID^. 171 the universal interest that attaches to them, than we shall be able to do with the other groups of the Hymen- optera, or than otherwise our prescribed and limited space would have authorised. (154.) The FORMICID^E, or ants, are the next large group of which we shall treat ; but the connection be- tween them and the bees is any thing but apparent, as they seem allied only by their social habits. These habits present us with very many interesting peculiar- ities, which, however, have been studied only in a few European species. To judge from the eccentricities of form presented by the majority of exotic species, we may rationally conclude that their diversities of structure run parallel with differences in their economy and manners. Wherever Nature presents a peculiarity of workmanship, it is not a merely futile display of power, but it has a direct tendency to a specific purpose, which, although not always obvious, is necessarily to be inferred from the unvarying evidence we already possess wherever we can trace it to its object. All the species of this group comprise three individuals ; or sometimes four, if the fourth, where it occurs, may be considered otherwise than as a modification of the third. These consist of males, females, and neuters, or workers ; to which, in some species, another class that of soldiers appears to be added. Whether these neuters, as in the social bees, are to be considered as abortive females; and whether the ants possess the means, like the bees, of supplying any accidental contingency in the nest, by developing the sexual inertness of these neuters, through any par- ticular course of nurture, has not yet been ascertained. There seems to be no 'uniformity, even amongst congeners, in their habits or architecture, for we observe species of the same genus following different modes of life. As amongst the social bees, some possess stings, and some are without these formidable weapons, which are, how- ever, supplied by a very powerful acid secreted by them, and ejected in defence, and which is doubtlessly quite as effectual in protecting them from their natural enemies. 172 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. It is within the tropics that these insects chiefly abound,, and where they are excessively destructive ; and nothing seems efficiently protective against their incursions. The group has been divided according to the structure of the abdomen; which in some has but one node only to its peduncle, but in others it has two. It is in the first division that we find the stingless genera, namely, For- mica Linn., Formicina Shkd., Polyergus Latr., Polyrha- chis Shkd.j and Dolichoderus Lund, besides several other yetun characterised genera, which we shall shortly publish. (155.) The Formicina rufa, or horse ant, forms those large nests of dry leaves and sticks we so frequently ob- serve in the woods ; and within these nests two genera of Staphylini appear to be parasitical Lomechusa and Pella; and in their deepest recesses innumerable wood- lice (Onisci} are constantly found. The nature of the connection between these insects has not yet been ascer- tained, but perhaps it may be analogous to what has been observed between other species and the Aphides. It has been said that the larva of Cistela lepturo'ides also lives in the nest of this species. Another singular Sta- phylinus (the minute Claviger\ which is totally blind, and otherwise remarkable in structure, inhabits the nests of the Formicina Jiava, where it has once been dis- covered in this country. Some of the species and genera of this tribe, it is said, exclusively of the Formicidfe, seek in the nests of other species, but always of the same tribe, the auxiliaries, upon which they impose all the " out-door " labours of the community ; but it is the genus Polyergus which is most distinguished for its sub- jugation of " helots," or " slaves/' Cercopis and Mem- brads, two genera of Hemiptera, supply the place of the in America, been called the mud-chick. The next family, the Bembecida, are remarkable for the anal den ti dilations of the males; and the venter beneath in this sex has frequently a large curved tooth, and some one or other of the apical j oints of their antennae are hooked. It is upon species of these insects that Parnopes of the Chrysidid(B is parasitical, and which offers the remarkable circumstance of an elongated proboscis, thus resembling the insect upon which it is parasitical. In several of the genera of the Larridce, we observe the two posterior of the three usual stemmata becoming obsolete. Mono- matium presents us with a petiolated submarginal cell ; in Dicranorhina we observe the abdomen pedunculated. The excessively active and numerous genus Tachytes is found every where but in New Holland, where it seems to be supplanted by Pison, which has reniform eyes. In the Crabronidtz we are acquainted with several yet undescribed forms, for instance, Spalagia, closely allied to Nysson; Sericophorus to Oxybelus', Nephritomma to Trypoxylon; Megalommus to Gorytes; Miscothyris connecting the latter with Alyson; and Aspidion, appa- rently intervening between Gorytes and Philanthus. An observation or two upon the latter and Cerceris will close our rapid survey of the fossorial Hymenoptera. The former, although of general distribution, appears to have its metropolis in Africa; as far as it habits are known, it has been observed to prey upon the genus Apis. The gay Cerceris is, perhaps, of more extensive distribution than Phila,nihus, and certainly extends fur- ther north ; and the food it stores up as provision for its young consists of small Curculios. N 3 182 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. (159.) We enter the group of Fespidte by means of Ceramius. This group appears to contain a well- defined assemblage of insects, held together chiefly by its tongue, furnished at the apex with glands, and the lateral sweep of its prothorax. Other characters are common to the normal genera, such as to the folding of the superior wings longitudinally and the reniform eyes ; but which are lost in some of the aberrant genera, such as Ceramius, Masaris, and Paragia. The Fespides re- solve themselves into solitary and social tribes, both ex- hibiting a great variety of structure, and many genera : we can only briefly notice the most conspicuous. The majority of the males of these insects have the antennae terminating in a recurved hook ; in others, this is re- placed by that portion curling round ; and in others, there are no means of distinguishing it from the same organs of the female, but by the number of its articulations. The typical Synagris exhibits a large horn affixed to the base of the mandible of its male; and the same sex of another species has two large curved spines placed be- neath the second ventral segment. Abispa is apparently the largest of the solitary wasps, and comes from New Holland, whence we have yet seen no genuine Fespa, the place of which, Mr. MacLeay says, is supplied by this Abispa, the type of which is the Fespa Ephippium of Fabricius, synonymous with the Ab. Australiana of MacL. : the genus appears to consist of several species. The resembling and numerous Rhynchium is very widely distributed, as is also Odynerus, which is nearly related to it. Eumenes, a solitary and numerous genus, con- sists of large and usually gaily coloured insects ; it has a very long petiole and pyriform abdomen. Zethus has a long and exceedingly slender petiole. There is but a slight distinction between Eumenes and some of the exotic social genera, such as Epipona and other closely allied insects. The distinction consists chiefly in the form of the mandibles, which in Eumenes are very elongate, slender, and forcipate ; whereas in the social kinds they are more robust and dilated, and dentieu* ECONOMY OF THE VESPID.E. 183 iated at the extremity. This structure is required to enable them to collect and manufacture the material of which their densely populated nests are constructed, and which are protected by a covering thicker than, but closely resembling, coarse vellum or card-board, which is totally impervious to the vicissitudes of the weather. Within this, the cells are affixed to the un- der side of horizontal or downwardly curved and parallel layers, which are sometimes formed of a substance similar to the external envelope, but frequently less substantial. Others form their nests of a kind of pale clay intermixed with small particles of the fibre of straw : these nests are of various forms ; some conical, with truncated extremities ; others rounded, generally ventricose, but sometimes with their sides parallel ; but the envelope is always in a continuous sheet, whereby they differ from the genus Vespa itself, the envelope of which consists of a succession of layers placed in superposition, that which is most external being the last finished. They are variously situated according to specific pecu- liarities ; sometimes high on trees, or upon low shrubs near the ground. Re'aumur has described all the pecu- liarities of several of these nests ; and we are in expect- ation of having a memoir upon them by Mr. White, who, having all the ample materials at his command which the British Museum affords, will have every op- portunity of duly treating the subject, which is one of considerable interest. It has long been known that a species of wasp, the Vespa Lecheguana, collects honey in store within its nest. This appeared at first so start- ling a fact that naturalists would not credit it, until it became confirmed by the testimony of a duly qua- lified scientific observer, Geoffroy de St. Hilaire, who brought with him to Europe specimens of the in- sect, as well as of their nest and its contents. The insect itself is identical with the Brachygastra * analis of * The name Brachygaster having been applied, many years ago, by Leach to the Evania minuta Oliv., it is requisite to change the name of the present genus; we therefore propose in lieu of it, NECTABINA, N 4 184 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. Perty. We were, therefore, not so much surprised the other day, at finding, upon the section being made of a large nest at the British Museum, that all the inner cells of the intermediate layers were filled with a store of honey. The inhabitant of this nest is a small wasp, its first segment forming a long eumeniform petiole; and it is entirely of a deep black, excepting only its scutel- lum, and post-dorsolum, which are of a bright yellow. This insect, accordingly, differs considerably from the Vespa Lecheguana, in which the first segment is very short, the second exceedingly large and globose, en- closing within it the succeeding segments. The cells wherein this honey is deposited are, of course, of the usual papyraceous material of which wasps' cells are formed ; for it is not to be supposed that, because these insects collect honey, they also necessarily secrete wax, for they have no organ whereby the pollen could be collected, and whence, by feeding upon it, wax is se- creted ; whereas the honey, as in the bees, is congested in their stomachs, and, when it has undergone its proper process, it is regurgitated into the cells which receive it. Polistes, a social genus of extensive distribution, but composing very small communities, forms an exposed nest, which consists of a layer of cells attached by a peduncle to either a plant, tree, or wall. It is strange that the genus Vespa, which contains the largest and most robust of the social wasps, should form nests of a much more delicate and fragile substance than any of the others. These, as in the others, consist of a suc- cession of parallel and horizontal layers, covered over with a series of envelopes, which give a perfect nest very much of the appearance of a reversed close cabbage. All of these insects are of a courageous character, bold in the resentment of an injury, and which they will not allow to pass with impunity ; and their sting, as is well known, inflicts severe pain. There appear to be three different forms of aberrant VespidcB, each of which have but two submarginal cells. In the Masarides, which are distinguished by their short THE 1CHNEUMONIDES. 18,5 knobbed antenna?, the eyes are reniform, and the wings ibid longitudinally : this latter character is lost in Ce- ramius; and in a species we possess from New Holland, the eyes become ovate : and in the genus Paragia Shkd., which is so like a true Vespa as to be easily mistaken for one until closely examined, the wings are never folded^ and the eyes are ovate ; but it has the glandular tongue, peculiar prothorax, and pulvillulated under side of the tarsal joints, found in Vespa; whence we have inferred that it may possibly be the representative of Vespa in New Holland. But, if social, the communities will scarcely be large, as but two specimens, each a distinct species, have yet come under our observation; the second differing from the first, formerly described, in being spotted with white. (lb'0.) The ICHNEUMONIDES constitute the next group of the circle of the Hymenoptera. These, as we before remarked, are all parasites, and they form the most nu- merous division of the order. Amongst them we observe, in their lower divisions, a departure from the typical neuration of the wings; these organs in many becoming entirely destitute of those distinguishing characters. Among the Chalcidites we also detect a further depar- ture from the normal, and all but universal, pentamerous structure in the tarsi of the Hymenoptera. This group offers, besides, considerable differences of form, the most conspicuous peculiarities of which we shall notice, as it evinces itself in the larger divisions. The tribe of Ich- neumones are distinguished from all the rest by the con- fluence of the second discoidal and first submarginal cells of the superior wings ; and where there is an in- tervenient submarginal cell, by that being very small : they also have always two recurrent nerves, and they present varieties of form which we will rapidly survey. 1st. The IchneumonidcR proper have the body elongate, ovate, and depressed ; with the ovipositor, which in the whole of this group supplants the sting, not, or scarcely, exserted. It is in this family that the splendid exotic Joppa occurs, which in one sex has the antennae sud- 186 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. denly dilated at its apex, and compressed. 2dly. The Tryphonidce, in which the abdomen is generally clavated, and either subsessile or petiolated, with also a scarcely exserted ovipositor. Two species,, the Tryphon vari- tarsus and pinguis, carry their eggs attached beneath the apex of the venter. 3dly. In the Cryptida, the ab- domen is always petiolated, and the ovipositor exserted, and usually as long as the body. It is in this family that the genus Pezomachus occurs, all of which are ap- terous. 4thly. The Pimplidce succeed ; and in these the abdomen is subsessile and depressed, and usually very elongate, and with an elongated ovipositor, parti- cularly conspicuous in the typical genera Pimpla and Rhyssa; and Glypta exhibits its abdomen marked above on each segment with two convergent depressions. Eu- ceros, in this family, exhibits, like Joppa in the Ichneu- monides, a suddenly compressed enlargement of the antenna?. In the 5th family, the OphionidcB, the ab- domen is laterally compressed, and shaped like a scimitar, especially in the typical genera. In Pristomerus, in this family, the femora are armed beneath with long spines, a structure found also in Odontomerus, in the next family, the 6th, or Xorididce, which are chiefly distinguished by their globose heads. This tribe is suc- ceeded by the Ichneumones adsciti, or Bracones. These are distinguishable from the former, by having but one recurrent nervure, and by the second submarginal cell, when extant, being frequently larger than the first. These have been separated into two primary divisions, according to the structure of the mandibles : into, 1st, the Endodonttes, in which these organs close as usual ; and, 2dly, the Exodontees, in which they are apparently distorted, curving outwards when closed, and never meet- ing. The first division have been subdivided into Po- lymorphi, consisting, as their name implies, of insects of a variety of forms, and which seem a convenient recep- tacle for such as will not associate with the other sub- divisions ; and here Streblocera is conspicuous for its remarkably distorted antennae. The second division is THE CIIALCIDITES. ] 87 the Cryptogastri, in which the external integument of the abdomen is not usually separated into distinct segments, but consists of one entire piece. 3d, the Areolarii, which have a small second submarginal cell, and in the typical genus the mouth is produced into a proboscis ; and, lastly, the Cyclostomi, in which the clypeus has a deep excision, which, when the mandibles are closed, give it the appearance of a circular cavity. The Exodontees we have above sufficiently characterised. They form a very small assemblage of genera, but amongst which Chasmodon is remarkable for being ap- terous, and Alysia is the type. Throughout both these large divisions of the Ichneumonides, the normal and abnormal, we are acquainted with very many exotic forms which have not yet been characterised. It is, doubtlessly, contiguous to these groups that the eccentric and extraordinary family Evaniada, comprising within it Aulacus and Fcenus, are to be inserted. Somewhere in this vicinity, also, those anomalous forms, Stephanus and Pelecinus, must, of course, come ; and in a proxi- mate situation to the Adsciti must, we expect, be the place for Trigonalis, of which a second form has comae under our notice. But time and subsequent discoveries will determine these points. (l6l.) We now enter upon the large group of CHAL- CIDITES, which, in the majority, are minute insects. They comprise an enormous host, the most of which are splendid little creatures gaudily arrayed in the most brilliant metallic colours. It is in this country chiefly that attention has been paid to them, and we must be grateful to Mr. Walker for his elaborate investigation of the tribe. The more typical forms are the least me- tallic, and are distinguished by their enlarged and elon- gated posterior femora. Leucospis is singular for the recurving of its ovipositor over the abdomen, and from resembing the Vespida in the superior wings being lon- gitudinally folded. The group exhibits, besides, many peculiarities not the least of which is the reduced number of the joints of the tarsi in the Eulophi ; and 188 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. the whole of them have but an obsolete neuration of the wings. We have already referred to the remarkable Thoracantha. Our space admits of no more than alluding to the ProctotrupidcE, and the interesting genera they include; and, among others, the ant- like form of Gona- topuSj with its extraordinarily chelated anterior tarsi; Inostemma, with its recurved abdominal spine ; and the elegant little Mymar, with its pedunculated and beau- tifully ciliated wings. (162.) We must spare a few words for the Chrysi- dida, which present the only instance throughout the Hymenoptera of a tubuliferous ovipositor: their bodies, also, are formed in a singular manner, being more or less fornicate ; and their abdominal segments are more or less reduced in number, from what we observe else- where ; and we are acquainted with an African species in which only two are apparent. Parnopes, of which we know three species, presents a sexual difference in the number of these segments, the male having one more than the female. It has also an elongated rostrum, like Bembex, upon which it is parasitical. These insects are all richly metallic, and they are all parasites; and amongst them Cleptes appears to lead off to Meria in the circle of the fossorial aculeates. (163.) The remainder of the Hymenoptera are all, in their larva state, vegetable feeders. The Cynipsidce, or gall flies, form a marked and distinct group, although of but limited extent. Their young are reared within the galls which the parent insect produces by the punc- ture it makes upon the different parts of plants : the juice it instils, and what is secreted by the larva, causes the plant to throw out excrescences, which all differ ac- cording to the species which excites them. We cannot here go into their particulars. This group seems to pass, by means of Oryssus, through the Siricidce, into our last large group, the aberrant Tenthredines. The preceding have all been internal feeders in their larva state ; the Siricidce feeding within trees generally of the fir tribe. They are large and conspicuous insects, and THE TENTHREDINES. 189 present a formidable appearance with their exserted ovi- positor. The majority of the larvae of the Tenthredines, however, feed externally upon the leaves of plants, re- sembling much the caterpillars of the Lepidoptera; and, in some cases, they are very destructive to our crops, instanced in the devastation among turnips, caused by what is technically called the blacks, which is the larva of Athalia centifolia. Some of these insects show an in- direct connection with the Cynipsidce, for they form and reside in galls ; but the paramount distinction of the Tenthredines, from all the rest of the Hymenoptera, consists in their possessing, in lieu of an ovipositor, a serrated apparatus formed of two parallel plates, and retractile, when not in use, within a sheath at the apex of the abdomen. When in use, they have an alternate motion, whereby their serrated edge perforates the ve- getable substance to which it is applied, with a longi- tudinal incision, wherein they deposit their eggs. The bodies of these insects are always sessile, and generally robust. Their first division, with knobbed antennse, the Cimbicidce, do not possess the emarginated spine at the apex of the anterior tibiae, which corresponds with a similar excision in the basal joint of the tarsus, and with which the rest of the Hymenoptera cleanse their antennae : in lieu of this, this division has two spurs at the apex of that limb. Many of the species of this group possess also a couple of articulated spurs, placed half way up the tibia : the apex of all these spurs, and the underside of their tarsi, are very frequently also vesi- cular : and, when we take into consideration the greater expansion of their wings, and its more elaborate reticu- lation, and view in conjunction their pedated larvae, we shall no longer cause surprise at considering them aberrant. The more remarkable genera are, Perga, which is exclusively from New Holland, and which broods over its young like a hen over her chickens ; Schizocerus, with its furcated antennae ; Lophyrus and Pterygophorus, which have those organs elegantly pec- tinated in their males; Tarpa and Lyda, with their IQO NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. enormous heads, and beautifully coloured bodies. Prox- imate to this group,, but where is doubtful, should be placed the interesting but perplexing genus Xyela Dalm. The abnormal structure in the neuration of its wings, its singular antennae, with their third joint very much elongated, and its lengthy exserted ovipositor, tend in combination to perplex us, but it appears to be probably the transition from the securiform ovipositor to the valvular one. Having thus finished our rapid survey of the Hymenoptera, we can only regret that we could not spare more room for the investigation of so interesting an order. All that we have been able to do in this limited space has been to notice the most remarkable forms, and loosely generalise their most striking peculiarities ; and, in doing so, we have pre- ferred dwelling upon those groups which offered the most extensive interest. [(142 163.) W. E. Sh/] CHAP. V. THE COLEOPTERA. ON THE COLEOPTERA GENERALLY. (164.) THE coleopterous order of insects is composed entirely of those which, in popular language, are called Beetles ; that is, of insects covered by a hard crust or shell analogous to that of the tortoise, and which, in both, protects the soft parts of the body from external injury. This is manifestly a wise and a merciful pro- vision for their safety, because these insects are not only the most terrestrial of all others of the Ptilota, but they are also the most imperfect fliers. From these circumstances, it follows that the Coleoptera are more exposed to injury than are any of this class; but, to counterbalance these disadvantages, and to give them a defence which no others enjoy, Nature has clothed them FLIGHT OF THE COLEOPTERA. 19^ in a complete suit of natural armour ; diversified, indeed, in the most astonishing manner, according to the differ- ent tribes and families, but adapted,, with infinite skill, to the great object of their preservation. A beetle, in fact, is an insect cased in armour of proof. Let us take a chafer, for instance, or one of those dors, whose " drowsy hum " breaks the stillness of a summer's eve, and examine it closely ; with what admirable precision does all the parts of its armour join and fit into each other ! It will be almost impossible, in fact, to insert the head of a pin between any of the joints j and yet the insect moves about without the slightest embarrassment. Not only is every joint, the most minute, either of the an- tennae or the palpi, completely cased, but even the eyes are often defended in the same manner. This remark- able structure, joined to the circumstance of the wings being protected by two of these pieces, is sufficient to characterise the insects now before us. It may be fur- ther remarked, that the name of the order, devised by Aristotle (/coXeoc? irrepov), happily alludes to the wings being protected or covered by a sheath. (l6'5.) The power of flight enjoyed by coleopterous insects, as before remarked, is much more limited than in any other of the Ptilota; while the Lepidoptera soar in mid air, and use their feet only as rests to support the body: and, while the Hymenoptera transport themselves by flight alone, a coleopterous insect appears to use the limited power of its wings as a last resource, or only upon great emergency. Touch a beetle, and, instead of spreading his wings, he either counterfeits death, or he quickens his pace ; but do the same to a moth, a bee, or nearly any other winged insect, and he flies away in a mo- ment. Flight, among the Coleoptera, appears, in short, a subordinate faculty. A casual observer would not suspect that a beetle had wings; for they are completely hidden by the two convex plates, or elytra, beneath which they lie folded, first longitudinally, and then transversely. These members, among all the other Pti- lota, are four ; but in these insects they are only two in 192 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. number ; their cases, or covers, occupying the situation of the larger or superior wings of the other orders. Every thing, in short, points out to us that the Coleo- ptera, in regard to flight, are the most imperfect of four- winged insects ; and it therefore follows that they are the most aberrant. (166.) On the other hand, when we look to the strength and structure of their legs, we perceive that the defi- ciency of flight has been amply made up to them in the power of walking. No insects run with such swiftness, or retain their hold with so much security. The whole race of predaceous beetles (Predatores) are remarkable for their swiftness, a quality which seems to be one of their typical perfections. The tiger beetles (Cicindeli- dae) fully illustrate this fact j and every one may have witnessed the rapidity with which the small shining CarabidcB course along the footpaths of our fields on a bright spring day. How suddenly again do the water beetles (Dytiscida) dart down to the bottom of a pool, by the aid of their powerful oar-like legs. In those fa- milies, again, which live among foliage, the same strength of foot, and tenacity of grasp, is equally ap- parent. Whoever has handled a chafer (Melolontha vulgaris Linn.) knows how difficult it is to take the in- sect from the leaf or spray to which, with its long and acutely hooked claws, it tenaciously holds. So admir- ably, indeed, are the feet of arboreal beetles constructed for grasping, that they will cling to the naked hand with as much ease as to a leaf or a twig. The Coleoptera, in short, seem conscious of their superiority in this re- spect ; for, upon all occasions of attack, there are very few which do not depend more upon their feet for es- caping harm than upon their wings. These latter mem- bers, however, are of great and essential use ; though not employed for removing to every short distance, they are always used upon long excursions. When the food upon one tree is exhausted, or the flowers of one plant have been visited, a coleopterous insect crawls to the edge of a slight eminence, and, after a moment's consi- NUMERICAL EXTENT OP THE COLEOPTERA. 1Q3 deration, begins to throw up his elytra, expands his wings, and slowly and steadily mounts into the air. Some few, indeed, of the predaceous tribe, particularly the Cicindelida, increase the natural speed of their course by alternately flying and running ; while others, slow in their motions, counterfeit death, and seem to fall to the ground : this latter, however, is usually but a second deception ; for these crafty little creatures generally con- trive, by means of their hooked claws, to grasp hold of a leaf, or spray, in their fall, and thus save themselves the toil of again ascending to their former station, when the cause of alarm has subsided : these latter habits be- long to the greatest part of the Curculionidfs y or snout beetles a family containing several thousands of species. All these circumstances, connected with the use of the feet, lead us to infer that the Coleoptera, as a whole, is the most ambulating among the Ptilota, and hence pe- culiarly deserve the name of terrestrial insects. (167.) The beetles are, perhaps, the most numerous of all the orders, M. Latreille expresses an opinion, that there are probably not fewer than twenty-five thousand already existing in European cabinets ; and this number, great as it is, is perhaps not more than one third, or at most one half, of those yet to be discovered. When we consider that each species of this immense assemblage has its own peculiar economy, and its especial task to perform, in the great scheme of creation, the mind is scarcely able to conceive how the form and structure of fifty thousand beetles can be so varied, that no two are alike ; still more impossible is it to imagine those deli- cate shades of difference in their habits and economy, which experience has shown invariably to accompany a difference of species. We should remember, also, that this vast multitude all belong but to one order of insects ; which order forms but a small portion of the countless myriads of animated beings, which live and move, and do the work of HIM who made them. The astonishing variety of differently formed creatures which swarm o 194 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. upon the earth, strikes the mind of every reflecting man ; although the number of those which he has seen, are but as a unit to the thousands which he has not seen. This interminable diversity of differently formed agents seems,, in part, to be explained by one of the fundamental laws of nature, by which it is ordained that the same effect shall be produced by different means and different agents. This truth is too apparent to need illustration, and a slight notice on the economy of the order will confirm the fact. (168.) In regard to the food of the Coleoptera, we find them devouring every thing each confining itself to some peculiar substance ; but if there is any one de- scription of nourishment more especially assigned to beetles, it appears to be that derived from living and decayed vegetable matter, but particularly such as is of a hard and solid texture. The great family of Capricornes, or Capricorn beetles, not only feed, in their grub state, on the pith, fibres, and internal substance of trees, but many actually saw off, with their strong jaws, the ex- terior branches, as if to hasten the removal of the de- caying tree. Thousands of a more puny race (Bostrichi}, unable to penetrate the solid wood, take up then: resi- dence in the bark, which they perforate in all directions, so that the elements soon effect decomposition, or thus prepare caverns of shelter for other tribes : many, again, have a different office assigned them ; their business is to loosen the external bark from the internal wood ; and, accordingly, they are only found in such situations. These habits, so essential to facilitate the removal of su- perabundant vegetation, are almost peculiar to coleopte- rous insects. But foliage is a more abundant nutriment than wood ; and hence we find that thousands and tens of thousands of the smaller tribes live entirely upon the leaves of trees and plants. Flowers appear assigned more particularly to the Hymenoptera, the Lepidoptera^ and theDiptera; but several families of beetles are known to partake of this delicate food, and their structure is HABITS OF THE COLEOPTEBA. 1$5 accordingly fashioned for this purpose : of these, we need only mention the petalocerous or lamellicorn beetles, of which our green rose chafer (Cetonia aurata)is a beau- tiful example. The Curculionida, a large and very sin- gularly shaped family, live upon the internal juices of vegetables, without encasing themselves in the substance from which they draw their nourishment. All these, however diversified their operations, are phytophagous, or feeders upon vegetables ; but, as in every natural group there is a type of evil, or in other words, a pecu- liar division whose habits are rapacious, cruel, and blood- thirsty, so we find, in the order before us, one tribe answering to this description. The predaceous beetles live entirely upon other insects, which they pursue and capture in a living state, or devour when hastening to decay. By far the greater part of these lions and tigers of the beetle world roam about the ground, " seeking whom they may devour," and are hence called Geodephagous. Some few, as the Dytiscidce, habitually live in fresh water ; from which circumstance they have been named Hydrodephagous. It seems, indeed, certain, that a portion of nearly every substance in the animal and vegetable world is assigned as food to coleopterous insects ; for not only do they feed upon such things as are produced naturally, but they evince a decided relish for such as are artificially prepared by man. Those fa- milies of the predaceous beetles, which are furthest re- moved from the perfection of their tribe, greedily devour bacon, lard, cheese, and other stores of our kitchen : some show a partiality for leather, even after it has been prepared by the tanner and manufactured by the book- binder. This is, perhaps, the last indication of the car- nivorous habit ; and, as natural transitions are always gradual, we find that many of these very insects feed on other substances wholly vegetable. (169). The structure of beetles is in every way adapted to the various functions we have just enumerated. As their food is of a much more solid nature than that o 2 19 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. assigned to any other order,, we find that they have the strongest and the most complicated jaws, or organs of mastication ; thus showing another great departure from the typical structure of the Ptilota. They are, in short, of all insects, the most perfect masticators ; and had Nature really divided the insect world into two primary groups (Mand&bulata and Haustellata), as some have imagined, the Coleoptera would stand at the head of the former. Their actions and habits require great mus- cular power, and they are consequently endowed with a degree of strength perfectly surprising for creatures so small. If any of our readers wish to verify this fact, let him confine a chafer, or any other beetle, in his clenched hand for a few minutes, and it is ten to one but that the little prisoner, by main force, will effect his escape between the fingers, or, by striking the spines of his legs against the skin, oblige his tormentor to open his hand. Beetles have no stings j but some bite furiously and effectually with their upper jaws, which are pointed at the tips, and serrated or toothed inside: with these they seize their food; which is then masti- cated by the help of a pair of under jaws (maxilla)^ and the upper lip (labrum\ which protects the other organs. The situation of all these is analogous to those in the mouth of a vertebrate animal ; and they are accompanied by the feelers (palpi)) which are either two or four. (170.) We have said that coleopterous insects are known by the two elytra, or sheaths, which cover the wings and body, and which meet in a straight suture down the back ; but if every insect in the whole order really exhibited this character, Nature would then have made a sudden halt, and would have passed, by an ab- rupt transition, from a bee to a beetle, or from the Co- leoptera to the Neuroptera. On this, as on every other occasion, the chain of affinity is therefore graduated, and one order of beings is not suffered to stand isolated and unconnected. Hence it is, that, at the confines of THE COLEOPTERA ABERRANT. 197 this order, we find the coleopterous structure so modi- fied,, that some of its distinguishing characteristics hegin to disappear. Thus, in the Malacodermi, or soft Coleo- ptera, the wing-cases, as the name of the tribe implies, are so thin as to be pliable. In the genus Meloe, and several others, they are so small as scarcely to cover one half of the body, nor do they form a straight suture : others, having their wing-cases perfect, are destitute of wings. In Baprestis, again, these latter members are so short as not to require a transverse fold; while the females of the glowworms have not the least vestige either of wings or sheaths. It is by these deviations, few, indeed, in comparison to the bulk of the order, but definitely and strongly marked, that the graduated scale of nature is preserved in harmony, and the symbols of the animal world are shown. All these deviations either show the passage to the Hymenoptera on one side, or to the Neuroptera on the other ; or they will evince clear and strongly marked types of analogy, by which the other orders of the Annulosa and the Vertebrata are represented. (171.) Having now stated the leading distinctions of the Coleoptera as an order, and touched upon those par- ticular functions they appear intended to perform, we may inquire what other tribes in the animal creation these insects are intended to represent, or, in other words, what are their true analogies in the scale of animal life. If, in the class of Ptilota, we find an order agreeing with the rest in most of their characters, yet possessing only two effective wings, instead of four, we cannot hesitate in pronouncing it the most aberrant, or least typical, division of its class. Now, this is pre- cisely the station in nature which the Coleoptera appear to hold. Hence it follows, that they should represent all of the most aberrant groups in the animal kingdom. This is not merely a theoretical conclusion, but, as we shall subsequently show, is the result of analysis. We have said that the Cokoptera, in their external aspect, o 3 198 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. have a greater resemblance to the tortoises than to any other vertebrate animals ; it must follow, therefore, if this analogy is not a mere fancy, that, on the circle of Ptilota (of which this order forms a part) being compared with that of the Reptilia, the Coleoptera and the Chelonia stand opposite to, and represent, each other: this they accordingly do, as seen in the following table: Analogies of the PTILOTA and the REPTILIA. Orders of Reptilia ' 1. Typical. LEPIDOPTERA. OPHIDES. Serpents. 2. Sub-typical. HEMIPTERA. SAURES. Lizards. 3. Aberrant. HYMENOPTERA. CHAMSLIONES. Chametions* COLEOPTERA. CHELONIA. Tortoises. NEUROPTERA. ELANIOSAURI. Fish Lizards. The fact, therefore, of the beetles being really in- tended by Nature to represent the tortoises among winged insects, may be safely inferred, because these two groups 'stand opposite to each other in their re- spective series; which series, it must be remembered, being founded upon affinity, is entirely independent of all analogous considerations. (172.) Let us now make another comparison. Every entomologist knows that the Coleoptera are the most gnawing of all insects : they have the strongest jaws ; and both in the larva and perfect state, thousands employ these organs in gnawing solid woods. Where, therefore, do we find, among vertebrate animals, a si- milar faculty displayed? Obviously in the order Glires, or mice-like quadrupeds, named by M. Cuvier, from this very circumstance, Rodentia. On placing the se- ries of quadrupeds, therefore, opposite to that of the Ptilota., we find these two particular groups come into parallel relations. ANALOGIES OF THE COLEOPTEBA. 199 Analogies of the COLEOPTEBA to the Orders 0/*QuA- DBUPEDS. Orders of the Ptilota. Analogies. Orders of the Mammalia. LGPIDOPTERA. Typical. QUADRUMANA CUV* HEMIPTERA. Raptorial. FER.E. HYMENOPTERA. Social. UNGULATA. COLEOPTERA. Gnawers. GLIRES. NEUROPTERA. Aquatic. CETACEA. It will be curious to see in what manner the armour-like covering of the Coleoptera is represented among other animals. The tortoises are covered with horny plates; and if we look among quadrupeds for a similar structure, we have the Indian ant-eaters, and the armadillos of the New World, both protected in pre- cisely the same manner. These latter animals are at the head of the tribe Edentata, which is the most aberrant division of the hoofed quadrupeds (Unguktta). By bringing these into comparison, we shall here see that the armadillos represent both the tortoises and the beetles, as we have formerly shown. * Analogies of the COLEOPTEBA to QUADBTJPEDS and REPTILES. Orders of the Ptilota. Orders of Tribes of the REPTILES. UNGULATED QUADRUPEDS. LEPIDOPTERA. Serpents. Ruminantes. HEMIPTERA. Lizards. Solipedes. HYMENOPTERA. Chamcelions. Pachydermata. COLEOPTERA. Tortoises. Edentata. NEUROPTERA. Fish Lizards. Anoplotheres. (174.) Our former volumes will have sufficiently es- tablished the different circles of the vertebrate animals with which we have now compared the orders of the * Classification of Quadrupeds, p. 180. o 4 200 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. Ptilota, and to those we must refer the reader who is desirous of further details. It would he highly inter- esting, did our limits permit us to dwell upon all the analogies indicated in these tables; hut our present bu- siness is with the order Coleoptera, and to that only must our remarks be confined. It appears, then, that the three most striking peculiarities of these insects are explained by the most simple process of analogical rea- soning. They are covered with natural armour, because Nature intends them to represent the reptile tortoises, and the quadruped ant-eaters and armadillos : they have the strongest jaws of all perfect annulose* animals, because they typify the most gnawing of all perfect qua- drupeds, namely, the Glires ; and they have two real wings only, because they are the most imperfect ex- amples of the Ptilota. If these analogies are true, they may he extended to hundreds of groups : thus, the Vermes are the most tough-skinned class of the Annu- losa, and are the most aberrant of all the annu- lose divisions : just so are Coleoptera among winged insects. (175.) The station of the coleopterous order is con- sequently between those of the Hymenoptera and the Neuroptera. This conclusion, verified in the foregoing tables, reconciles many of the contradictory opinions entertained by some of our first entomologists. Mr. MacLeay, for instance, has not failed to remark the close resemblance which many ants bear to the beetles; and yet it is probable that the true passage between the orders is made by means of the small parasitical ich- neumons and gall-flies, forming our tribe Chalcides. Some of these have the thorax prolonged into a plate or spine, which extends the whole length of the body; so that they put on the very form of a Mordetta. Among the many singular insects discovered by us in Brazil, is a species of this group, which is so completely disguised in this way, that most persons would consider it, at first sight, as anew sub-genus of Mordella, having the antennae pectinated. On the other hand, Nature COMPONENT DIVISIONS OF THE OOLEOPTERA. 201 leaves the Coleoptera for the Neuroptera, by means of the earwigs (Forficulidoe), a passage so apparent, that it has been recognised by almost every writer since the days of Linnaeus. (176.) Having now sufficiently treated of the Coleo- ptera as an order, we may look to its component parts. On examining the structure of the feet of these insects, several remarkable differences will be perceived. In some, the tarsi, which may be said to represent the human finger, consist of four distinct cylindrical joints, terminated by a forked hook or claws ; while in others, these joints, apparently*, are only three or two, and,, instead of being rounded and simple, are flattened, and two-lobed. Now, it is obvious that insects which belong to the first of these groups, that is, having the tarsus altogether composed of five distinct joints, are the most perfect in the construction of their feet ; just as insessorial birds (Insessores), and four-handed quadrupeds (Quadrumana), are the most perfect of their respective classes. All the great systematists of the present day tacitly concur in this opinion, by placing the pentamerous, or five-jointed beetles, at the head of their systems. Yet among these, again, we find two very different races ; one composed of insects living upon vegetables ; while the other comprehends all such as subsist by pursuing and devouring their weaker brethren, just as do the feline tribe of quadrupeds, or the falcons among birds. Here, then, we see the two great divisions of the pentamerous Coleoptera. The first, pre- eminently typical, herbivorous, and harmless, constitute the tribe of Lamdlicornes : so called from the shape of their antennae, which are short, clavate, and lamellar. The second, which is the sub-typical tribe, are predaceous, or live upon animal substances : these form our tribe of Predatores; and have their antennae longer, filiform, and composed of lengthened joints. All other Coleoptera * We say apparently, because there is reason to think that most insects have the lull number, but that some are in a rudimentary state. 202 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. come under the aberrant division of the order, composed of those tribes whose tarsi have almost always less than five joints,, all of which, excepting the last, are gene- rally flattened and lobed. Among these, again, we find three natural subdivisions or tribes. The first are the Capricornes, or lignivorous beetles; the most striking character of the perfect insect being the great length of their antennae, which are unusually robust, and gene- rally curved, like those of goat or sheep. The second tribe are the Malacodermes, or soft-winged beetles; whose elytrae are soft, flexible, and often very short. The third and last we shall name the Monilicornes: they are to be known by a short, thick, oval, or hemi- spherical body, with the antennas moniliform. Such are the most prominent or typical distinctions of the five great tribes of coleopterous insects, under which we shall arrange the whole order. Before, however, we proceed to enter more fully into details, it may be as well to throw these characters into a tabular form, and designate the groups in a more scientific manner. Primary Divisions and Analogies of the Order COLEOPTERA. 1. Typical. T MPT T Trmmpq 5" Tarsi five-jointed ; antennas cla- 7 LEPIDOPTERA.! * ES ' I vate ; herbivorous. j Papilio. 2. Sub-typical. f Tarsi five-jointed; antennae fill- 7 HEMIPTERA. I form; carnivorous. J Pent atoma Latr. S. Aberrant. MALACODERMES. Body particularly soft. {^LibelMa*' TVTnvu TrnnxF* 5" Bod y short > ovate > frequently hid. 7 COLEOPTERA. MONILICORNES. J den beneath the shell. j Cassida. C APRICORNES Antenn vef y lon & i larva a P d ] HYMENOPTERA. (. enclosed in other substances. 5 Apis Ichneumon. (177-) The Monilicornes, which include the tor- toise and ladybird beetles (or the genera Cassida and THE MONILICORNES. 2 03 Coccinella of Linnaeus), are more protected than any others,, by that hard covering which is peculiar to the Cokoptera. It might, therefore, be supposed that they should stand at the head of the order ; but this infer- ence by no means follows. Superior perfection of structure is the only true and certain distinction of typical pre-eminence : this we consider as one of the first aphorisms in the Natural System ; for it is that which places the Quadrumana at the head of the Mam- malia, the Insessores as the type of birds, and the Ptilota as the first of the Annulosa : it is equally mani- fest in the least of Nature's groups, as in the greatest ; for it is by this rule that the animal kingdom takes precedence both of the vegetable and the mineral. This perfection of structure in typical groups implies the possession of a greater number of faculties, and, there- fore, a more complicated organisation, than is enjoyed by the rest ; but, in aberrant groups, this perfection is confined only to some one property, which is always accompanied by a diminution of others. Of this latter fact, a familiar example, out of hundreds which might be adduced, will suffice. The Scansores, or climbing order of birds, is an aberrant group : the perfection, therefore, of this group is confined to one particular quality, that of climbing; and this quality, being most conspicuous in the parrots and the woodpeckers, places these birds at the head of their own order. In like manner are we to judge of the rank of the moni- licorn beetles. That they may represent the Cokoptera, when the contents of the whole order are compared with the other Ptilota, Nature has developed in them one of the leading distinctions in a most extraordinary man- ner; for, in the Cassida, we find the members of the body concealed beneath the shield of the head and the wing-cases ; and they thus so closely resemble a che- lonian reptile, that, in all countries, they have acquired the name of tortoise beetles. Yet, notwithstanding this great developement of this one character, we find a pro* 204 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. portionate diminution of others; particularly in the feet, which have only four apparent joints ; and one of these, in a true neighbouring genus, Coccinella, is eva- nescent. We see, therefore, in both the instances here produced, an illustration of the same law. The scan- sorial birds, except in climbing, are as inferior to the perchers (Inaessores), in all other points of general organisation, just as the monilicorn beetles are inferior to the tribes of Lamellicornes and Predatores. (178.) Nothing is, perhaps, more instructive, or more interesting, than to trace the extraordinary man- ner in which the natural arrangement of one order of beings harmonises with another, from which, in point of general appearance, it appears, toto ccelo, to differ. Who would imagine, that, among coleopterous insects, we should find a perfect representation, not only of the leading groups of the Lepidoptera, but also of those of the diurnal butterflies ? Yet such is truly the case : the latter set of analogies, in fact, are dependent upon the former, as will be seen by the following comparison : Analogies of the COLEOPTERA to the LEPIDOPTERA. Tribes of the COLEOPTERA Lamellicornes. Predatores. Malacodermes. Monilicornes. Capricornes. Typical Characters. 1. Typical. Antennae clavate. 2. Sub-typical. Antenna* attenuated. 3. Aberrant. f Body, either in the larva or imago 7 C state, particularly soft. J f Larva vermiform, or onisciform; 7 i leap entirely or partially. j Antennas greatly developed. Tribes of the LEPIDOPTERA. Papiliones. Sphingides. Noctuides. Phalcenides. The soft-bodied Coleoptera thus find their repre- sentatives among the larvae of the Noctuides ; which, COLEOPTERA AND LEPIDOPTEBA COMPARED. 205 as a whole, are the most soft and naked of all the lepidopterous caterpillars. The looper moths, as they are called, or the Geometria of Linnaeus, are well known to move by a sort of leap ; and almost the only Co- leoptera, which really possess this property, belong to the Monilicornes, where we have the whole family of HalticidcB, with their thickened thighs. The largest beetles are among the Capricornes ; and the largest Lepidoptera are types of the Bomby tides. In both these groups, also, we find the antennae more developed than in any other insects : in some of the Capricorn beetles, they are five times the length of the body; while, in the silk moths, or Bornbycides, their structure is parti- cularly complicated. (179-) We must not be surprised, however, in sub- mitting a natural group to many and diversified tests, that some analogies are more remote than others ; and that others can be traced only in one stage of the insect, and not in another. To show this more clearly, as an inevitable consequence of general analogies, we shall next compare the tribes of the Coleoptera with the families of the Diurnes, or true butterflies. Analogies of the COLEOPTERA to the DIURNAL LEPIDO- PTERA. Tribes Families Tribes of the General Analogies. of the of the Coleoptera. DIURNES. Lepidoptera, PAP,U. PREDATORES. { t e re t 3 h '. eminent for j Nymphalidx. SPHINGIDES. MALACODERMES. Body soft. Hesperidte. NOCTUIDES. MONILICORNES. Larva onisciform. Erycinida. PHAL^ENIDES. CAPRICORNES. Antennae very long. Satyridte. BOMBYCIDES. Every entomologist knows that the body of the Hes- perian caterpillars are so soft, and the skin so thin, that the vessels can be seen through it ; and that the insect 206 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. itself, being so little adapted to resist external injury, protects its body by artificial means, and lives concealed within a rolled leaf: the Hesperidce, in fact, are the soft-skinned butterflies, just as are the Malacodermes among the Coleoptera. The next analogy or that between the Monilicornes and the Erycimdce is, perhaps, one of the strongest that can be found. The caterpillar of a Cassida, or tortoise beetle, so completely resembles that of an Erycinian butterfly that they might both be taken for examples of the same tribe of insects. Great developement of the appendages to the head invariably accompanies all those animals which represent the Capricorn beetles ; whether these appendages are horns, as in quadrupeds ; crests, as in birds ; or antennae, as in winged insects. Hence it is, that the antennae of the Satyr idee, or wood butterflies, are longer in proportion to their body, than those of any other Lepidoptera in existence. Our own cabinet, peculiarly rich in this splendid tribe, enables us to state this fact with confidence; and the analogy receives still greater confirmation, by the larvae of these butterflies being provided, in almost every instance, with spines on their heads, or appendages to their tails. It thus appears that the arrangement we now propose, for the first leading tribes of the Coleoptera, is in perfect unison with that system upon which we have arranged the animal creation, throughout which it cannot be doubted that one uniform plan, perfect in all its parts, must prevail. THE LAMELLICORNES. 207 CHAP. VI. COLEOPTERA, continued. THE LAMELLICORNES. (180.) WE may now take a more particular survey of these tribes ; and endeavour to resolve these, also, into their respective families. The LAMELLICORNES, or beetles with clavate and lamellate antennae, and five- jointed tarsi, stand as the pre-eminent tribe of the coleopterous order : they may be further recognised by the compression of the tibiae, or shanks, which are more or less toothed on their exterior edge. The antennae are remarkably short ; and so much bent, either towards the middle (as in the Lucanida'), or at the club (as in Cetonia), that the two portions form an angle more or less acute. No general characters can be more definite ; and it is only in the most aberrant divisions that we find any material exceptions. The habits of all this tribe are herbivorous ; that is, they feed entirely upon vegetable matter, either in a green or decomposed state ; while, amid great diversity of form, size, and colour, we find some of the most splendid as well as the most bulky Coleoptera yet discovered. The Cetonia aurata, or the common rose beetle, may be taken as the type of the whole. A glance at this beautiful, although com- mon insect, will convey a better idea of the general shape of the lamellicorn beetles, than the most laboured description. As to their history and natural arrangement, we owe all that is of permanent value to the admi- rable work of Mr. MacLeay. Assisted by his arrange- ment of a part of this tribe, but adhering to those general laws we have traced so extensively in other portions of the animal world, we shall now lay before the reader the result of our own researches in this most 208 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. interesting group of insects. It may be as well to mention,, that the Lametticornes compose the (C Chi- lognathiform Stirps " of Mr. MacLeay, as detailed in the work above mentioned. (181.) The two families of CETONIAD.E and SCARA- BJEID^E, as it has long ago been demonstrated, compose the typical and sub-typical families of the lamellicoru beetles. They consequently possess, in their full deve- lopement, all the characters here assigned to the tribe. The Cetoniadcp, from living on the fresh sap of plants,, have been termed T hater ophagous.* Their colours,, in harmony with the delicacy and pureness of their food, with few exceptions, are elegantly varied, or uncommonly splendid. As a further distinction, Mr. MacLeay men- tions that the elytra do not, as in the, Scarabaida, en- tirely cover the abdomen : this, however, although a useful, is but a secondary, and very uncertain character; inasmuch as we are entirely ignorant how far this devi- ation of structure is connected with the habits of the insects in question. As the Cetoniadce feed upon living vegetables, and the Scarab&ida upon such as are de- composed, the student may naturally inquire how these distinctions are to be traced in the cabinet of the ento- mologist who may be altogether ignorant of this differ- ence? and what are the external characters which accom- pany such a dissimilarity of habit ? These, at least, were the first questions that occurred to us, many years ago, upon commencing the study of the lamellicorn tribe. We cannot discover, however, in the valuable pages of the Horce Entomologies, any information which supplies this knowledge. Nevertheless, it may be safely stated, that Nature has marked these two families, in their ex- ternal structure, in as remarkable a manner as she has done in their economy. This difference is manifested * As this group, however, seems to correspond with such as we have termed families in other divisions of the animal kingdom, and as uniformity of nomenclature is so highly desirable in all branches, we shall on this, and all other occasions, take the family name from that division which is the most typical. See our remarks on the rank of groups, in Classification of Animals t p. 373. DISTINCTIONS OF CETONIAD^K AND SCARAB.ETD^. 209 in the construction of their tarsi. The Cetoniadce are arboreal beetles ; that is, living and moving among those trees, plants, and flowers, which are their natural food. Their feet are accordingly constructed for clinging to objects which afford them such an uncertain footing. The terminal joint of the tarsi, on which are the claws, is that in which the greatest strength is necessary ; and it is therefore invariably longer and stronger than any of the others. Hence these insects cling with the greatest pertinacity, frequently by only two or three of their feet, to any object they catch hold of. The more equal ar- ticulation, also, of all their legs, gives to these members a freedom of motion which is denied to all other of their affinities. In the genera Cetonia and Rutila (which, as being types of the family, possess this structure in the greatest perfection), the claw joint is sometimes as long as the total length of all the others ; and even in the more aberrant groups, the united length of all the tarsi is fully equal to that of the shank. Now, all these characters, in the Scarabaidce, are completely reversed. Hence it is, that the two families admit of the most simple, as well as natural, definition. The entomologist, in short, has only to remember, that in the arboreal, or Thalerophagous Cetoniadce, the tarsi are as long, and generally longer, than the shank ; while in the terres- trial, or Saprophagous Scarabceidce, the tarsi are invari- ably much shorter than the shank : in other words, that they are long in one, and short in the other. Having now sufficiently defined the present family by its typical peculiarities, we may proceed to its next subordinate divisions, or sub-families. These, with but one excep- tion, we shall distribute according to the arrangement developed by Mr. MacLeay ; not that the groups them- selves have yet been studied with that precision which they require, but because, so far as we have verified this theory, we find it, with but one exception, to har- monise with the general plan upon which all the great divisions of the animal kingdom are founded. (182.) The five principal groups, or sub-families, 210 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. of the Cetoniada are as follows : 1 . the Cetoniana, or floral beetles ; 2. the Rutilince, or metallic beetles ; 3. the Megasomince, or horned beetles ; 4. the Melo- lonthincE, or tree beetles (chafers) ; and, 5. the Gla- phyrincE, or wasp beetles. The error, as we conceive., which has caused the substitution of the Anoplognathidce (MacLeay) for the Megasomince (Sw.), will be sub- sequently noticed. It may safely be asserted, that the arrangement of this and the subsequent family is the only portion of systematic entomology which has been founded on an imperishable basis. Enlarged concep- tions, indeed, of the general laws of nature are fast gaining ground ; but it is not among those; who yet tread in the beaten path of isolated classifications, and dis- connected nomenclature. It is the rising generation of naturalists, who begin to study the philosophy of their science, and who, in a few years, will make a complete revolution in entomological science. The stream of ob- livion has already passed over the entomological systems we ourselves once cherished ; and the time is fast ap- proaching, when no system, whatever it may be, which is not founded on the general harmonies of nature, will be regarded by any but mere nomenclators. In this mighty revolution of zoological science, we venture to predict, that the arrangement of the typical Lamelli- cornes, above alluded to, will remain, in all its distin- guishing features, the same, simply because it is natural. For this reason, we shall devote as much space as possible to the developement of these families. Be- sides, the theory of their arrangement is equally appli- cable to all other natural groups ; so that when once fully understood, the entomologist, in a great measure, will be prepared to investigate any other on the same principles. With this object, we shall now briefly notice, in further detail, the sub-families of the Cetoniadce ; giving to them those names which point out what we consider their relative value with other groups. (183.) The CETONIAN^E, or floral beetles, on account of the very wide geographic surface over which they are THE CETONIADJE. 211 distributed, joined to other considerations, appear to be more typical than the sub-family Rutilince, whose limits are almost entirely restricted to the New World. The CetoniancB, on the contrary, are common in Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia. They are at once dis- tinguished by the membranaceous texture of the man- dibles and maxillae ; a structure which proves that these insects, in the perfect state, are intended to live on vegetable juices. The Cetonia Morio, and probably many others of the darker coloured species, regale on the sap which flows from the wounds of trees ; while the rose beetle (C. auratd), and its more brilliant com- panions, are only to be found on flowers.* Mr. Mac- Leay is of opinion that Trichius may with safety be regarded as a natural group in this division, although the larvae of these beetles live in putrescent wood. The CetoniadcB may be distinguished, anatomically, from the Glaphyridce (MacLeay), by having their labrum con- cealed under the clypeus ; whereas these last have it ex- serted, and very prominent. The larvae live in the richest vegetable soils ; and the perfect insects, as before re- marked, are gaily and elegantly coloured, although rarely possessing that metallic brilliancy which belongs to the next sub-family. (184.) Although we have just said that this family presents a less metallic appearance than the following, it must be applied only as regards its genera ; for many of the species, certainly, cannot be exceeded in beauty, and, indeed, vie with any in the resplendency of their decorations, especially in the genus Cetonia, as also in some of the Goliathi. Among the anomalies of form in this group, we may mention the cornuted thorax of Cetonia (Ischnostoma) cornuta Fab., which Mr. Mac- Leay considers as esculent between the two genera; besides which relation, we may observe that it points certainly very strongly to Pachycnemus, by its thickened posterior legs. A tuberculated thorax we also find in * Hor. Ent., 74. * F 2 212 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. Osmoderma Eremita, which is the largest European in-* sect in the group ; and which emits, we are informed^ when handled, a powerful scent of Russia leather.* A greatly produced clypeus is not an uncommon cha- racteristic, and is conspicuous in Goliathus, Ischnostoma, Inca, &c. : this is usually a falcated process, with basal ramifications, or it assumes the form of a cross ; it is, however, exclusively restricted to the male insect. The genus Cryptodus, which MacLeay originally placed among the Trogidte, he has latterly been induced to move into this group, proximate to Cremastocheilus ; the habits of the latter of which, he says, from personal observation on the banks of the Delaware, are to fly, like Cicindela, over the sand which there (opposite Phi- ladelphia) lines the bank of that noble river. They are certainly not flower- frequenting insects ; and what they find in the sand to their taste, I do not know.f It thus appears not improbable, from the affinity of Cryptodus with this genus, and from the analogy of the structure of the mouth of Cryptodus to the Trogida, that the habits of the latter genus may be identical with those of Cremastocheilus. The excessively flattened and broad form of Platygenia (MacLeay) presents another re- markable aberration from the typical structure of the group, wherein also, we see a curvature of the legs, per- haps only in the male ; and in Campulipus (Kirby) this male characteristic increases so much, that the inter- mediate tibia is bent into an obtuse angle. The other most remarkable genera are Lepitritr, for its mimicking resemblance of that section of the gigantic Goliathi to which the G. giganteus serves as type ; and Anisonyoc, for its extreme hairiness, which makes it completely the bear among the Cetoniadce. It is a genus peculiar to the Cape of Good Hope. We have above alluded to the enormous developement of the posterior legs in Pachy- cnemus ; but we may here further remark, that they are, * A circumstance very unusual in the lamellicorn Coleoptera. f MacLeay's Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa, " Annulosa" 4to. Lond. 1838. p. 17. THE RUTILIN^E. 213 perhaps, quite as large in proportion, as those of Rep- simus among the AnoplognathidfE, a family distin- guished for that peculiarity. We can now 6nly further notice the extraordinary abridgement of the elytra in Valgus, the females of which possess an elongate slender exserted ovipositor ; and the parallelism of Inca, in America,, to the genus Goliathus in the Old World ; but upon this last gigantic genus we shall have further occa- sion to say a few words below. W. E. Sh.] (185.) The Rutilina, in their general aspect, have much resemblance to the insects of the last division ; but their mandibles are not only, in most instances, prominent, but much stronger, while their texture is horny, and not membranaceous : this latter, as it has been observed, is " an obvious and easily seized character of separation ; " but it is one, unfortunately, which requires not only great anatomical skill in the detection, but inevitably leads to the mutilation and injury of the specimen. In our opinion, a more easy, and therefore a preferable, distinction can be drawn between the two groups, by attending to the structure of the feet. In the Cetoniance, the tarsi are comparatively slender, and the claw joint is always shorter than the length oc- cupied by the four preceding ones. In the RutUince, on the contrary, the tarsi are remarkably thick, the basal articulations very short, and the claw joint so large and long as to be equal in length to all the others. We, of course, include the genus Anoplognathus in this definition of the Rutilince ; for, so intimately is it connected to this group, that even Mr. Mac Leay admits cc we shall experience no trifling difficulty in the at- tempt to separate them/' The typical Anoplognathi are almost exclusively found in New Holland, and are among the most splendid metallic insects of this family, shining with green and golden reflections, changeable in every position. We know little of their history ; but we have heard that the most common species, round Sydney, fly during the dusk of the evening. The Anoplognathi, indeed, have the mandibles concealed p 3 14 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. beneath the clypeus, and the tips of the maxillae more obtuse. But the general aspect of these insects, and more especially the construction of their feet, are so much in unison with the Rutilince, that they carry the appearance of belonging to the same natural division, rather than of being types of a distinct sub- family. This, at least, is the opinion acted upon in all the modern works wherein these insects are mentioned. True it is, that such opinions, unsupported by demonstration, can- not possess a paramount authority ; and it unfortu- nately happens, that every one of the sub-families of the Cetoniadcs require to be analysed, their minor divisions or genera defined, and their analogies worked out. That there is, in many points of structure, a resem- blance between the Anoplognathi and the Dynastidce, cannot, for a moment, be questioned ; but this resem- blance, as we shall subsequently endeavour to demon- strate, is of a subordinate nature. (186.) The most conspicuous genera in this exceed- ingly elegant family are, in the first place, Chrysina, distinguished for its golden green vivacity, whence it has derived its name; and to which genus the celebrated ScarabcBus Macropus is to be referred as the male. This name Mr. Francillon applied to it, in consequence of its greatly thickened and elongated posterior legs; thus exhibiting a strong analogy to the kangaroo, but certainly in developement only, and not in function, as the insect does not leap. This insect, which was so long considered an inestimable treasure, has recently become comparatively common, from the importation of a great quantity from Mexico. The whole of this family is, however, distinguished by the enlargement of the posterior legs in the males, which is especially the case in Repsimus, Anoplognathus, and Chrysochlora. Anoplognathus, Mr. MacLeay surmises, may constitute, in its larva state, a considerable article of food to the barbaric natives of New Holland, where the type of it must occur in great profusion. Geniates, which has been referred to this family, we consider as belonging rather to the Melolonthidce ; and where, consequently, we THE MEGASOMIN^E. 215 shall notice it. Macraspis and Chasmodia offer us, here, the greatest developement of the scutellum ob- servable among the Petalocem, and the large Peruvian Chrysophora Chrysochlora may vie with all in external beauty. It is of a deep rich coppery green, which takes a golden tinge upon the upper surface of the body, agreeably deadened by the innumerable punctures with which the insect is covered. Further, the very remarkable Heterosternus, which, divested of its an- tennae, upon a superficial glance, might pass for a Buprestis, and whence it has its specific name ; and the anomalous genus Hexodon the country of which has only recently become known to be Madagascar one metropolis of extraordinary forms. Three species we are now acquainted with, and they are found in tolerable plenty upon the sandy coasts of that island. [W. E. Sh.] (187.) The Megasomince are the largest beetles of this family ; and, both from their size and shape, are in no danger of being confounded with either of the preceding. The species, comparatively, are few, at least, of such as exhibit the typical characters. They are all natives of hot countries, chiefly those in the New World ; and, from what little is yet known of their economy, feed, in the larva state, within the hollows of decayed trees., and in putrescent wood. The perfect insects are clearly arboreal, for their tarsi are all constructed for clinging to vegetables : the articu- lations are cylindrical ; and the first joint, as in all the preceding divisions, is much shorter than the last. In nearly all these gigantic beetles, either the males only, or both the sexes, have singular horn-shaped processes, rising from the head and thorax, giving to them a very grotesque and even formidable appearance. In this respect, they so closely resemble the genuine Dynastidce, belonging to the corresponding sub-family of the Sca- rabceidce, that, to this day, all entomologists have over- looked those positive distinctions manifested in the different construction of their tarsi. It may be further p 4 21 6 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. remarked, that the colours of the Megasomma are sombre, being generally of a dull or livid green. (188.) This family is remarkably distinguished by. besides their gigantic bulk, the processes which almost universally, and with but rare exceptions, arm the head and thorax of their males. The use of these append- ages has not been ascertained, if use they have beyond the sexual distinction, which we may scarcely doubt. A similarity of structure in these frequently grotesque excrescences is but rarely found to be identical, even in cognate species ; and this circumstance has led to the investigation of the character of the trophi, where as remarkable differences have been discovered, as in their external and more obvious distinctions. These, conse- quently, have led to their subdivision into genera ; perhaps upon quite as good grounds for separation, as what are now so extensively adopted throughout the animal kingdom. Nature, in her variety, has always an object ; empty exhibition we should no where find, could we follow her into her laboratory, and there observe the recondite uses which mould form ; for she, like the ancient philosophy, has her esoteric and her exoteric doctrines ; and until we shall have become the hierophants of her temple_, the mysteries of the former will remain inexplicable to us. This family is still called Scarabceus by the majority of Continental ento- mologists; but the application of this name, Mr. MacLeay very consistently restricted to those insects which truly represented the Scarabs of the Ancients, the object of worship to the Egyptians. He then gave to the present the name of Dynastes, thus electing them RULERS of the insect world ; as it was customary for nations, before the sophistication of hereditary primo- geniture, to select their princes from their most gigantic and powerful compeers. To this name we have, how- ever, given a still further restriction, beyond what it receives by the separation of the following genera, and many others into which it has recently been divided. XylotrupeS; type Sc. Centaur us * Golopha, type So.. THE MELOLONTHIN^. 217 Claviger ; Megasoma, type Sc. Action; Megaceras, type Sc. Chorinceus ; Chalcosoma, type Sc. Atlas ; Strategus, type Sc, Alaus ; Temnorynchus, type Sc. Coronatus, &e. &c. We may further notice the excessive elongation of the anterior tibiae and tarsi in the genus Eucheirus Kirby, the type of which is the Sc. longimanus, and the semi-metallic Agacephala with its deeply furcated head. [W. E. Sh.] (189.) The Melolonthin CAPRICORNES. C ruminating quadrupeds. j MBLOLONTH,^. {**$? " ' *] Bfanuoo, GLAPHYRIN.E. Elytra short, thin, flexible. MALACODERMES. It is scarcely possible to conceive greater harmony than that which subsists between these two series. The experienced naturalist, if he wishes to detect innume- rable analogies which result from this exposition, has only to compare the contents of the first circle with all those mentioned in this work, and he will find, in every instance, the same results, however differently varied. They may not, indeed, be striking, because analogies are strong or faint, according to the dissimilarity of the groups compared ; but each comparison will throw light upon the other : we may trace, for instance, the convex body of the Mdolonthina through their corresponding type of annulose and vertebrate animals, down to tortoises, or chelonian reptiles, until we arrive at the perfectly cylindrical body of the intestinal worm ; ex- tended, as the latter is, to such a disproportionate length. By this disposition, also, of the thaler ophagous groups, we at once perceive that Nature really has intended the G/aphyrince to represent the Hymenoptera; and the Ce- 222 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. toniance to feed upon the same parts of a plant as nourish the Lepidoptera, namely, the flower. And here another obscure glimpse of interminable relations opens upon us ; for as these two latter groups are pre-eminently typical, so do they draw nourishment from the most perfect part of a plant, which every one knows to be its flowers. The unusual length of limb, again, possessed by the chafers, and (if the fact be true) their partiality for sandy coun- tries, is at once explained by their being the grallatorial beetles, that is, by their representing the order of wading birds (Gr allator es), which course the sands of all ma- ritime countries, and sometimes congregate, like these beetles, in migratory hordes of countless numbers : both groups are remarkably deficient in bright colouring, for both assume the tint of the naked ground. But we must pause ; for, although analogies equally beautiful crowd upon the mind, we are limited to a mere sketch of this inviting subject. Let it be remembered, how- ever, that " natural groups will stand any test;" and that, unless those of the insect world will bear a comparison with such as belong to all other animals, we may be sa- tisfied that there is, in one or the other, some great error to be detected. (194.) We must now turn to the other great divi- sion of the lamellicorn beetles, the Scarabceida, or the Petalocera saprophaga of MacLeay. The first or most pervading character which strikes the general ob- server, on looking to this assemblage, is the thick and ungraceful form they possess : this, joined to their dark and sombre hue, and the repulsive aspect which many of them possess, give them, altogether, a most uninviting appearance. Their manners and habits are quite in unison with their general aspect : instead of sporting on flowers, living upon pure and uncorrupted food, and enjoying the brightness of day, the whole of these insects live only upon the ground, where they seek out the decayed and corrupting remains of vege- tables, more especially the excrement of herbivorous animals, in which disgusting food they seem to revel THE SCARAB^IN^E. 223 with the greatest delight ; within this, or in little sub- terranean caves immediately beneath, which they exca- vate with their fore-feet, do these impure creatures pass the day, only quitting their retreats to fly abroad after the sun has run its course, and the night has begun. These nocturnal habits, however, are not universal ; for some, as the true SCABAB^EIN^E of warm countries, and the Aphodince of this country, may be seen abroad in the heat of the day ; but they are always in search of the same disgusting food, shunning the sweets of Flora, as if they were, to them, poison. A few, however, prefer nourishment of a less offensive nature : the large Dynastince subsist entirely upon rotten wood, and take up their stations in the hollows of decayed trees, where both the larva and perfect insect may be found. But these are only slight modifications of the same habits ; for the whole family live entirely upon decayed vege- table matter, in different stages of decomposition: and although some few, as certain Anthophagi, and several of the foreign Scarab&ina, are partially ornamented with metallic colours, yet the general hue of the whole of these insects is different shades of black, and dark brown. (195.) The structure of these insects is as peculiar as their general appearance and habits. The body is short, thick, and clumsy ; the thorax so large, as gene- rally to be of the same size; while the legs are much more spinous than those of the CetoniadcB. Their great characteristic, however, is to be found in the construc- tion of their feet. As the legs of the Cetoniadce are so admirably adapted for clinging to plants and branches, so are those of the ScarabceidtB for walking upon the ground ; although their motion and progress, on such occasions, is neither graceful nor active. The tarsi are universally very short and slender, often, indeed, nearly obsolete ; and although, in some of the divisions, the five joints are of the same shape, and even present much of the same relative proportion to each other as those of the Cetoniadce, yet they are, collectively, inva- 22 4< NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. riably shorter than the shank of the leg, or that part which forms the middle joint. The different modifi- cations of the tarsi will be found, also, of the greatest use in determining the different sub-families : let the entomologist, for instance, examine those of the true ScarabfBUS and of the common Geotrupes stercorarius, whose drowsy hum is so familiar to us in summer ; he will then perceive that, while the first exhibits the greatest possible deviation from the Cetoniada, by having the first joint of the tarsus larger than any of the others, and the last hardly thicker than that which precedes it, the latter has a miniature resemblance to the long thickened claw joint so prevalent among the floral beetles, with this difference, however, that the preceding joints gradually become smaller from the first, as in all this family, and are defended by strong bristles, which are, no doubt, highly useful in assisting the animal to walk upon the ground. In proportion, also, as we leave this family, and approach the confines of the last, we observe a gradual approximation in the structure of their tarsi, until, upon reaching the bulky Dynastince, the two families insensibly blend into each other; so that much more refined characters must be used to de- termine their respective limits, than has yet been em- ployed by any author who has written upon the lamel- licorn genera. (196.) On looking to the anatomical construction of the ScarabceidcB, we find they exhibit, in the nature of their jaws, the same primary divisions as are observable in the last family. In one (the Cetoniadce), these organs, from being membranaceous, plainly show that the insects live upon juices, and, " as it were, by lick- ing their food ; " while the second, composed of insects which have corneous or crustaceous maxillae, live on more solid species of food, and by mastication.* But without entering further into these analogies, we must at once proceed to enumerate the five leading divisions, * Hor. Ent., 27. THE SCARAB^EIN^E. 225 or, as we consider them, sub-families, into which the learned author, just quoted, has divided the whole: these are 1. the Scarabceince ; 2. the Geotrupince ; 3. the DynastincB ; 4. the Trogince ; and, 5. the Apho- (197-) The ScarabcBincB, or true scarabs*, are by far the most numerous, and, consequently, the most varied of the whole : in this respect they resemble not only their prototypes, the Cetoniana, but nearly all other pre-eminently typical groups in the animal kingdom. Few, however, are found in Britain ; and these, chiefly belonging to the genus Onthophagus, are of a small size : the rest are chiefly inhabitants of tropical, or, at least, of warm latitudes. According to the arrangement we are now chiefly following, the insects placed in this division have all membranaceous mandibles, which are fimbriated at their tip and on their inner side : the mouth is also invariably concealed beneath the clypeus, or shield, which advances in front of the head; and this, according to MacLeay, is the most constant cha- racter, as well as the most certain, by which the true scarabs may be distinguished from such genera of the next division as make the nearest approach to them. This latter character, therefore, is confessedly of more importance than the first, even in a scientific point of view ; while it is, also, much more adapted for general use. The form of these insects will also materially aid us in distinguishing them: the body is particularly short in comparison to the thorax ; it is also greatly depressed in the majority, although very convex in the genus Copris, which, from other circumstances, does not appear to be typical : the head is large, owing to the great developement of the clypeus, or shield, which projects all round it often so much as to conceal the largest portion of the eyes and the antennae : the differ- ent modifications of this part of the insect are all very remarkable, and deserve much more attention than they * See the relative rank of these groups in Classification of Animals t p. 273. 226 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. have yet received. In the typical genus, Scarabou*; the clypeus is semicircular in front, but deeply marked by obtuse tooth-like divisions, as in S. Sacer, varying in number according to the sub-genera, and even, sometimes, in the species. None of these, however, have any horns or erect spines, either upon the head or thorax ; and a very few, like the Ateuchus Eyyptiorum, are more or less glossed with metallic green. In Copris, however, the clypeus, although slightly emarginate or notched in front, has the margin otherwise undivided : but in Onthophagus it is almost always entire, and even sometimes pointed, as in the well-known O. Taurus., a species which is a rare example in this country of this genus possessing well-defined horns upon the head. (198.) The tarsi of this family are very remark- able ; and although little, if any, attention has yet been paid to these organs among the Lamellicornes, we feel persuaded they will furnish some of the strongest characters for indicating natural groups. We have al- ready described the hinder tarsus of the typical genus, ScarabcBus ; and this will also suffice for that of Copris; but the anterior tarsi of the former are obsolete, while those of the latter, although small, are sufficiently obvious : there is scarcely one natural group, in short, which does not present some modification of the joints, either in shape or proportion, by which such group could be characterised. We do not mean to intimate, by this, an approval of the tarsal system, as it is over- strained by some entomologists ; still less that these characters should take precedence, in all cases, of others. But, as the organs of prehension or of motion are con- fessedly among those of paramount importance among vertebrate animals, so do we conceive they may be, from the nature of the case, equally so in the annulose groups ; and experience has confirmed this supposition. There requires no examination or dissection of the organs of manducation, to determine the two great divi- sions of the typical lamellicorn beetles ; their feet at once determines the point to the most inexperienced GENERA OP SCARAB.EIN^J. 227 observer ; and, although these characters have actually been overlooked, yet they are the only ones of a tan- gible nature which can establish the differences in question. (199-) This division comprises considerably the greatest number of forms exhibited by the circle of which they constitute a chief component. We have here the de- pressed Scarabceus, Gymopleurus, and Pachysoma, the latter resembling a couple of conjoined semicircles, and further curious from its very hairy legs. Then we have, next, the very convex Circellium, Chalconotus, Coprobis y Copris, and Phan&us, the last distinguished for the armature of their head and thorax ; the latter usually retuse in front : we have then the irregularly gibbous Sisyphus andHyboma, which form merges in the flatter Onthophagus and Coprobices; and this passes through the more elongated Onites and Oniticellus, which terminates in the elongate, parallel, and completely flattened surface of Eurysternus. There is as much diversity in the proportion and structure of the legs of these insects, as in their general form. Thus, the convex forms are the most essentially fossorial in the structure of these limbs, exhibited in the dilatation, concavo-convex, and ex- ternally considerably denticulated edge of their anterior tibiae ; and in all the legs of these, there is a greater uniformity of size and length. The depressed series makes an easy transition in the comparative slenderness of these limbs, and the increasing length of the posterior pair to the gibbous group, where the latter are very lengthy and considerably curved. In the Onthophagi and their allies, we find a great resemblance to the pre-eminently fossorial structure ; but in Eurysternus we have a third type of structure, where the intermediate legs are the longest. Considering the substances that these creatures frequent, and whence they have been termed the " scavengers of nature," we, of course, ex- pect to see obscurity -of tint prevail ; but when we ob- serve the metallic brilliancy of many of the Coprobii, Onthophagi, and Phan&i, the splendour of whose co- 228 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. lours will frequently rival any throughout the Coleoptera, we are tempted to exclaim at the caprice of Nature, which has clothed the inhabitants of such nauseous sub- stances in such gay habiliments. It is a striking cir- cumstance, and exhibits an anomalous condition of many of this group as compared with the majority of the Co- leoptera, that their males are dispossessed of anterior tarsi ; but this deficiency is supplied by an elongation of the tibia, which is curved at its extremity. The ob- ject of the elongation of the posterior legs in these in- sects is deduced from the observation of their habits; whence we find that they use them to propel the balls of dung, wherein they have deposited their egg, to the receptacle they have formed for it ; and they thus pro- pel it, walking backwards. Perty *, whose notice of the habits of these insects is the most complete we possess, informs us, that some species of Scarabceus frequent ants' nests during the winter. Hyboma (if he be right in the genus, which is somewhat doubtful) frequents dung, is not fossorial, and rarely flies. The Coprobii are found in fallen leaves, dung, and also frequenting the exuding sap of wounded trees. The Eurysterni are also not burrowers, but are active on the wing during the day. The conformity of habit in genera is con- firmed by the intertropical Coprides burrowing like our native species. The Phancei are not very different in habits to Copris, and fly during evening with a loud noise and considerable velocity : they are extremely abundant, even the largest species, the P. Principalis, which is more than two inches long, and an inch and a half broad. It must present an extraordinary appear- ance to an European collector, to witness, for the first time, the air and the earth, in intertropical regions, teeming with their hosts of insects, and these large Coprophagi sweeping through the sky with the velocity we observe in our native species. Many of them are diurnal flyers, but the majority, as here, are crepuscular, * Delectus Animalium Articulat. Pref. p. 7. &c. THE GEOTRUPIN-ffi. 229 and boom around, during dusk, with their sonorous hum. [W.E.Sh.] (200.) The next division is composed of the Geo- trupina, or drone scarabs. " Concisely describing these insects/' observes Mr. MacLeay, MEGASOMIN^:. C horn-like processes. 3 It will thus be seen, that if the difference in their food, and the opposite construction of their tarsi, are not considered, these ten groups would, in the con- struction of their mouth, be almost exactly alike. It has been stated, as an additional analogy between the Trogina and the Melolonthince, that they both frequent, in preference, sandy soils : we must not, however, attach too much importance to this alleged fact ; for we have not found that our common chafer is more abundant in such tracts, than in others ; and if the remark were general, Africa, the most sandy region in the globe, should therefore be the metropolis of this race, which it certainly is not. (213.) In further proof that the Megasomince are naturally allied to the RutilincB by the nature of their maxillae, and their sub-porrect mandibles, the opinion of Latreille may be quoted ; for this celebrated ento- mologist has considered these relations as establishing an affinity between the two groups. This remark is in complete unison with the disposition we have here made ; for, by removing the Dynastince into the circle of the Cetoniadce, and reducing Anoplognathus into a compo- nent part of the Rutilince, there is no intervening group to disturb the evident connection. (214.) Having so fully illustrated the analogies of 240 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. the five primary divisions of the Cetoniadae, by com- paring them with the higher orders of insects, and the more remote groups of the vertebrate circle, we need not repeat the same details in this place. If the above comparison between the Cetoniadce and the Sea- rabcBidce is really natural, it follows that the latter possess precisely the same analogies to all other groups, as do the former. Hence it is only necessary, in this place, to assemble the names of the different groups which have been thus compared, that the eye may at once embrace the whole. Analogies of the TYPICAL LAMELLICORNES with other Groups. Sub-families Sub-families Tribes Orders Tribes of the of the of the of the of CETONIAD.E. SCARABJSIDJE. Coleoptera. Ptilota. QUADRUPEDS. Cetoniants. Scarabcein<&. LAMELLICORNES. LEPIDOPTERA. Quadrumana. Rutilince. Geolrupince. PKEDATORES. HEMIPTERA. Ferce. Megasomirue. Dynastince. CAPRICORNES. HYMENOPTERA. Ungulata. Melolonthince. Troginee. MONILICORNES. COLEOPTERA. Glires. Glaphyrinte. Aphodince. MALACODERMES. NEUROPTERA. Ceta* It thus appears that the Cetoniance pre-eminently re- present the most typical of the coleopterous tribes, the most perfect of the orders of winged insects, and the most highly organised of vertebrate animals : the Rutilince, by their large jaws, find their representatives not only in the Geotrupinae, but in the voracious Cicin- delidcBythe -predatoriidHemiptera, and the beasts of prey: the gigantic Dynastince and Megasomince stand as pro- totypes of the great Capricorn beetles, and the bulky ruminating quadrupeds. The most striking analogies are merely glanced at, that the philosophic entomologist may elaborate innumerable others which result from this table. (215.) On the three aberrant families of this tribe, the Lucanidce, the Buprestida, and the Hydrophilidce, our notices must be brief: they are greatly inferior in point of numbers to the typical groups, and no THE ABERRANT FAMILIES. 241 attempt has yet been made towards determining their circular arrangement. The LUCANID^, or stag beetles, evidently follow next in the series, from which they are to be distinguished by several characters: the tarsi are invariably five-jointed,, of that structure, developed in a greater or less degree, which belongs to the CetoniadcB: the antennae are of the lamelliform structure, but are more developed than in the two former families, that is, in regard to their length, and the acute angle which distinguishes the typical genera, of which the common stag beetle of Europe is a familiar example : the tarsi are particularly lengthened in the types, but very short in the aberrant genera. The whole appear to be herbivorous or lignivorous that is to say, feeding on vegetable substances either in a living or decayed state. Several genera may be safely included in this family, however, which depart very considerably from most of these characters. Their large exserted jaws, and general affinity to others of a more decided character, fully justify us in bringing them in here. The excessive developement of the jaws, indeed, constitute the most typical, or, at least, the most obvious, character of the Lucanidce ; and yet, in the aberrant groups, these organs are not very prominent. The greater part seem to be naturally ar- ranged in the following sub-families : The Lucanince and the Lamprlmince are obviously the two typical; while the genera Hister, Ptinus, and probably that of Byrrhus, seem to lay the foundation of the three aber- rant sub-families : around each of these may be as- sembled several other modern genera of minute ligni- vorous insects, now scattered as small families, in our systems, under different heads. However this may be, it is perfectly clear that, in the Lucanince, we have that point of junction between the typical pentamerous in- sects of this family, and those which, by their frequently dilated tarsi, become analogous, and pass into the Tetra- mera. The Lucanince, also, are highly interesting in another point of view : they form, beyond doubt, the B 24-2 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. true passage between the lamellicorn and the Capricorn tribes, an affinity, indeed,, that has been more than once remarked by several writers, but which has never yet been acted upon, that we are aware of, in any of the modern systems. The very change of food, of struc- ture, and consequently of habit, from those families which subsist on living, and those which delight, in dead trees, may all be traced within this circle; so that in several of the smaller groups we have the jaws of a Lucanus, with the antennae and the tarsi of a Capricorn beetle. There is a strong analogy between the two ty- pical groups of this family, and those of the scarabs. In the vivid and highly beautiful colours of the Lam- primintv, we have a symbolical representation of the Cetoniadce, while the dark and sombre Lucanince cor- respond in the same manner to the Scarabtfida. The analogy, again, of this family to the Megasomidce, the Dynastince, and all the rasorial types, is too obvious to be dwelt upon ; and may, indeed, be gathered both from their common name of stag beetles, as representing the horned quadrupeds, as well as by their habit of licking up their food, just as an ox licks the grass. (216.) The Lucanidtz, as we above consider them, comprise a group of insects of much greater diversification of structure and habits than either of the typical circles that we have just gone through. The genuine Lucanidce constitute our two first families ; and of these, the first contains the most normal insects. The variety of shape in these is very considerable. From nearly the paral- lelopipedal form of Lucanus. Dorcus, and Platycerus, it becomes almost hemispherical, as in Colophon; or cylin- drical, as in Nigidius, Sinodendron, Figulus, Cardanus, and particularly so in Chiron; which latter takes a form and fossorial appearance which seems to point in the direction of Scarites, whilst Sinodendron as distinctly points towards the Bostricliida. The family terminates with the elongate, linear, and depressed Passalus and Paxillus. In size, the Lucanidce, especially Lucanus itself, is very imposing ; this is most conspicuous in THE LUCANID.E. 243 some of the Indian species, in which they are some- times three inches long. The Passalus tridens, also,, from Java, is two inches and a half long. The ma- jority, however, are of moderate or even small dimen- sions. We have already said that the distinguishing feature of the group is the great developement of their mandibles, which are frequently angulated or toothed in a remarkable manner: in the present family, this occurs most conspicuously in Lucanus itself ; in which genus, and in Dorcus, if they do not curve downwards, they are horizontal ; but their most characteristic form, or that which is most prevalent, is to curve upwards. We also find their head frequently sculptured or tuber- culated in a peculiar manner; but it is rarely that we observe this feature occurring in the thorax: in the male Sinodendron, however, it is particularly retuse. Very few of the present family exhibit a metallic or coloured clothing, but we still observe it in Platycerus. Their natural history is very unvaried : we have above re- corded their habits, which are possibly incidental to both the typical families. Passalus and its affinities are said to commit great devastation in sugar plantations in South America and the West Indies. The larvae are formed, as far as they are accurately known, upon the usual lamelliform type. \~W. E. Sh.] (217.) The second group are all more or less dis- tinguished for their metallic splendour, which is most brilliant in Lamprima itself, and in Chiasognathus, a superb insect both for size and colour, and in which the mandibles of the tribe attain their greatest develope- ment ; they are, however, slender, and, as well as in Pholidotus, curve downwards: they have, beneath, a mo- derately long horn at their base. There is less diver- sity in the geographical distribution of the present family, than in the preceding. Thus, Lamprima and Rhyssonotus are confined to the Australian group, where the former sometimes appear in excessive pro- fusion, and seems to replace there the occurrence of Lu- canus. Pholidotus is South American, where it has a 244* NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. wider range than the equally American Chiasognathus, which appears to be restricted to the little island of Chiloe, on the western coast of Northern Patagonia. In the former family, the majority of the genera have a wide diffusion : although Colophon is exclusively African, and Syndesus Australian : but the island of Java exhibits the largest forms throughout the Lucanidce : with this exception only, we observe in these insects the reverse of what we have noticed in the other Lamellicornes, namely, that inter tropical countries produce compara- tively the smallest species. QW. E. Sh.] (218.) The Histeridce, the third family of this group, are more exclusively saprophagous than the pre- ceding insects. They present equally curious modifi- cations of general form. Thus, in Hister, the typical structure is quadrate, and almost cubical : the elytra are always shorter than the abdomen in Hololepta, and Phylloma is excessively flattened; whence, probably, these insects live beneath the bark of trees : but the most remarkable form in the family is that of Trypa- nceus., which is completely cylindrical, and which as dis- tinctly, perhaps, indicates a remote affinity again with the Bostrichidce, and such genera of the Lucanida as Sinodendron and Chiron, as Onthophilus does a proxi- mate one to the Staphylinidcz, through Micropeplus ; if, however, the latter genus be not more correctly in its place in the present family. Their generic separation has been founded upon the mode of insertion of their antennae, conjunctively with the reflection of their tarsi, and the channel receiving them ; and the form of the prosternum; and the most satisfactory specific diagnostics are deduced from the sculpture of their integument. Their geographical distribution is very wide : Try-panceus is, however, Brazilian; and Abrteus European. Being still uncertain as to what exactly constitute the other families of the group of the Lucanid Sh.] CHAP. VIL COLEOPTERA, continued. PREDATORES. (223.) THE most rapacious of all beetles are com- prised in the tribe of Predatores, which, in the fore- going arrangement, we place as the sub- typical, or car- nivorous, group of the Coleoptera, a rank and station which is established by the analogy subsisting between 250 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. them and the rapacious tribes of quadrupeds and birds. As among the Lamellicornes there are none of a car- nivorous nature, so in the tribe before us there are none which do not either wholly, or in part, live upon animal substances,, whether in a living or a decayed state, This, therefore, is their primary distinction, difficult, indeed, to be traced in the aberrant groups, from the great vari- ation of their structure, but decidedly marked in the great majority, whether we regard their natural economy, or their peculiar organisation. (224.) That this is a natural group, will be further apparent by the arrangement of MacLeay : this acute entomologist, looking to the formation of their larvse alone, designates the genera Carabus and Dytiscus as examples of his chilopodiform type ; so that, without founding our arrangement upon isolated principles, ap- plicable only to the annulose animals, we yet see that, in this instance, it is in perfect conformity with his general views. (225.) In order to give intelligible characters of this or any other natural group, it is necessary to look chiefly at the typical examples., where the pre-eminent charac- ters are most developed. This remark is particularly applicable to the group before us, which, although pal- pable in three of its minor divisions, has not been suf- ficiently studied in regard to the two others. Confining our attention, therefore, to the typical predacious beetles represented by the Cicindelida and the Carabida, they may be known at once by the length of their legs, and the perfect developement of their tarsi, both of which are formed for running upon the ground ; they are, in fact, eminently cursorial : the mouth is armed with strong jaws, and the antennae are linear or setaceous. On looking to the aberrant groups, however, nearly all these external characteristics disappear. The Dytiscida or water beetles, have a large depressed body, and short thick feet, the hinder pair being somewhat oar-shaped, and calculated for swimming; in their setaceous antennae, THE PREDATORES. 251 they still resemble the typical forms ; and although they inhabit a different element, they are equally rapacious, subsisting only upon smaller water insects. This family, composing the aquatic division of the tribe, constitutes the true point of junction between the predacious and the lamellicorn beetles, an affinity which entirely con- tradicts the supposition that the Hydrodephagce MacL. is one of the " normal/' or, more properly, typical groups. The very few genera of the Dytiscidce here occasions an interruption in the series, which leaves much uncertainty as to the precise point of junction between them and the Silphidce : nevertheless, as some authors insist upon an affinity between these latter in- sects, and such genera as Leiodes, Agathidium, Catops, and Choleva*, we have no great hesitation in adopting their views, and placing the Necrophaga Latr. as part of the most aberrant family of the present tribe, under the more appropriate name of Silphidce. Judging from analogy, however, we have an impression that Pimelia is the true type of this family: its analogy to the Ckrysomelidte, in its thick and globose body, is quite obvious ; while its affinity, on one side to Blaps, and on the other to Silpha, are further inducements to our belief that this is their true station. All these insects, in fact, are in some degree carnivorous, although their animal food is only derived from dead or decomposed substances ; they are the only Predatores which, in ay degree, derive nourishment from vegetable substances. How far the Engidce MacL., and such genera as Ero- really enter into this assemblage, or are merely * Latreille considered the Parnidce so allied to Gt/rinus, that he once included them in the same family ; and, as both are more or less aquatic, they would seem to offer, with the above, additional links in the chain. f " It is perhaps by the Erotyli that the opposite points of the circle of Coleoptera meet." Ann. Jav. p. 40. And again, the same author ob- serves, " As to the Erotyli being tetramerous, it is a circumstance to which little importance ought to be attached, since the five articulations of the tarsi are visible in several species ; and other insects, which are close to the genus, such as Mr. Kirby's Sphem'scus, are heteromerous. 252 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. its representatives in the circle of the Monilicornes, are questions of minor importance, which analysis can alone determine ; the latter supposition,, however, appears to us the most prohable. Leaving these, we concur in the opinion of others as to the affinity of Silpha with the Stapliylinidce (BrachelytraLatr.), which we accordingly place as the last family of the predatorial tribe. That this is its true situation in nature, is manifested by the close resemblance of some of these genera, as Stenus, &c., to the Cicindelidce. The circle of the Predatores, under this view, no less than that of MacLeay, would be thus closed ; and the relations of the whole to the primary divisions of the Coleoptera may be thus stated : Analogies of the PREDATORES to the Tribes of COLEOPTERA. Families of the Predatores. Tribes of the Analogies. Coleoptera. {^ m ^S. y typical in their ] LAMELLICORNES. JSiJ-g^^cuiwridsIvhi^J PREDATORES . { Leg* short, and greatly compress- j MALACODERMES< p~|y. a Often globose jtani very j MONI CARABID*. DYTISCID*. SILPHID*. STAPHYLINIOE. Jaws exserted ; head large. NILICORNES. CAPRICORNES. (226.) Between groups which stand at the head of their respective circles, there can be but faint analogies of actual structure ; but their very typical pre-eminence is in itself a point of strong analogy as in the present instance. Every one is aware, again, that the Cicinde- lidce are the most cruel tyrants of the predaceous beetles, and are much higher organised than the Cardbidae; since they not only run with greater agility, but add to their speed by short flights. On the other hand, we have seen that the lamellicorn insects are the most typical of ANALOGIES OP THE PREDATORES. 253 the whole order, corresponding to the Insessores among birds, and to the quadrumanous Mammalia, by their power of grasping. It is a remarkable circumstance, that in such a vast assemblage of animals as the Coleo- ptera there is no primary group, which is aquatic, such as the natatorial order among birds, and the Cetce among quadrupeds. Hence it is that, at first sight, there seems no sort of relationship between the soft-winged tribe of Malacodermes, and the aquatic Dyticidce : nevertheless,, we have no doubt that this is a true analogy ; for these are the only groups where the legs in the great majority are decidedly compressed, and we might also say the least developed for either running or grasping. The un- certainty, already hinted at, as to the true type of the Silphidce, leaves us in much doubt as to their direct analogy to the Monilicornes. But if, as we suspect, the Pimelidcefill this situation, the difficulty of detecting their analogy is not very great ; for every entomologist must confess that they are the Chrysomelce, as it were, of the Predatores, having moniliform antenna?; short,, thick, and round bodies ; and tarsi not much unlike each other. Lastly, the Staphylinidtf, dissimilar in every respect to the Capricorn beetles, nevertheless possess that great protrusion of the jaws, which belong to all such types as represent the ruminating animals, and their re- presentatives (like the toucans and hornbills) among birds. So far, therefore, we have proved this disposi- tion of the predatorial beetles, which differs but slightly from that of MacLeay, to be strictly natural, not only from the affinities which connect each of their families, but by bringing this series to a test which has never yet been attempted. (227.) The above comparison, however, is made be- tween groups widely dissimilar both in rank and affinity : we shall, therefore, compare the predaceous tribe with that to which it is immediately connected ; where, the relations being nearer, the analogies, of course, will be stronger. NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. Analogies of the PREDATORES to the Families of LAMELLICORNES. Families of the Analnme* Families of the Predatores. Analogies. Lamellicornes. 5 Pre-eminently typical in theirs own circles; colours brilliant j ? CETONIAD&. fly by day only. 3 rARAmna? C Sub-typical ; flychiefly bynight ; ? ^ i colours dark. J oc DYTISCID^E. Aquatic. HYDROPHILID^E. CMost aberrant from their ownl SIIPHIDJF os ara ro r own B J. types ; tarsi variable. j STAPHYLINIDJE. Jaws considerably projecting. LUCANIDJE. The rank of the Cetoniada, as the most typical of all the lamellicorn families, here receives additional confirmation ; since these beautiful insects,, in which white spots and lines upon a green ground are so very prevalent, fall in, as it were, exactly opposite the splendid Cicindelida, whose colours and markings are so remarkably similar. Two of the most common in- sects in this country, the Cetonia aurata, and the Cicindela campestris, will bring this analogy home to the conviction of the most ordinary observer. It is no less remarkable, that nearly all the insects of these groups fly only during the day, and delight to bask in the sun. The greater part, however, both of the Carabidce and the Scarabceidce, are nocturnal insects, and still more resemble each other by their black and sombre colours. Such, at least, are the majority ; for some few in each partake of the metallic green reflec- tions of the chief types ; but these are among those exceptions, and not the general character. The most satisfactory analogy, perhaps, in the table, is that which shows that the predaceous Dytiscidte, although intimately connected to the Hydrophilidce, are also their repre- sentatives. The connection of Hydrophilus, which, in PREDATORES AND LAMELLICORNES COMPARED. 255 fact,, is a true lamellicorn insect, to the Scardbceidce, by means of Sphceridium in one group,, and Aphodius in the other, is,, in our estimation at least, indisputable ; although we are not prepared to offer any opinion, worth recording, how these aquatic lamellicorn insects are connected to the Buprestidce. Our present busi- ness, however, is with analogies, not affinities. If our main groups are naturally located, we may leave their contents for future analysis. Passing, therefore, to the SilpliidcB, we should have been at some loss to have detected their analogy to the Euprestidce, but for that extraordinary insect, the Helota Vigor sii of MacLeay *, a type which presents such a singular deviation from the rest of its congeners, that it would be perfectly anomalous, but for the direct relation of analogy it is now seen to possess with those insects it so strongly resembles. The analogies of the Stapliylinidas to the Lucanidcp. are shown in the same characters of exserted jaws, which shows that both are prototypes of the Capricorn tribe. It is also well worth observing, that the gigantic Prionidce, among the latter, have their wing-cases very thin, and sometimes abbreviated, so that it is not improbable they represent the Malaco- dermes in their own circle. (228.) After these expositions, it might be tedious to test the analogies of this tribe, by bringing its con- tents into comparison with others of the annulose circle : those we have now reviewed, appear quite sufficient to establish the existence of mutual relationships ; but a few incidental references to the general principles upon which all insects seem to be constructed, will not be misplaced. The Coleoptera, as a whole, are the most imperfect flyers of all the Ptilota ; and, therefore, it might naturally be expected that many would be ap- terous, that is, unprovided with the pair of real wings usually concealed beneath the elytra ; and these, there- * Annulosa Javanica, pi. 1. fig. 9. 256 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. fore,, would be the most aberrant of their congeners. Now, on looking to the most aberrant groups in the circles of the Predatores and the Lamellicornes, we find in one the Pimelidce, and in the other the Buprestidce ; and in both these, the real organs of flight are very often either totally absent,, or very slightly developed. A large proportion of the Pimelidce are apterous, having no wings beneath their elytra ; while these organs in the Buprestidce are so short, that they require not to be folded when the insect is at rest, being riot longer than the elytra. It is singular, also, that this absence of wings takes place also among many of the Trogida ; which, as being the most aberrant group of. the Scara-l bteidce, corresponds to the Pimelidce and the Buprestidce. Many apterous insects occur, indeed, both in the families of the Cicindelidce and Carabidce ; and these, without doubt, will hereafter prove to be naturally located in similar positions in their own circles. Nevertheless, this cha- racter is obviously only of secondary consequence ; and is here adverted to more for the purpose of showing its indication of extreme aberrant groups, than of laying on it a primary stress. Many of the African Pimelida, again, put on, as it were, the very aspect of the Tro- gid(B ; so that an inexperienced observer might readily suppose they were of the same genus. Looking to the Lamellicornes ; which represent the Lepidoptera, we see they are the most perfect flyers of all the Coleoptera : hence the apterous species are remarkably few ; while in the Predatores, equally conspicuous for their run- ning, the true wings are often wanting, as their absence is amply made up by the cursorial structure of their feet. (229.) We may conclude this sketch of the natural arrangement of the predatorial groups with the follow- ing table, wherein the analogies, although remote, art still in unison with the last. ANALOGIES OP THE PREDATORES. 257 Analogies of the PREDATORES and the Orders of the PTILOTA. Families of the Arudoeifi Orders of the Predatores. Analogies. . ptiiota. rirmnFi IDK Typical of their own circles ; co- 1 T EpinoiyrERA DELIDJ!. J lourg bright . fly - n the gum j LOPI B - dark; fly H EM ^ ER SlLPHID*. y s OS aerran an mPereC COLEOPTERA. STAPHYLINID,E. Jaws more or less exserted. HYMENOPTERA. That celerity of motion, which is produced by flying, is certainly more developed among the Cicindelidce than in any tribe of coleopterous insects ; and as the Lepido- ptera are the most perfect flyers of all the Ptiiota ; both these facts not only render these groups analogous, but tend to corroborate our theory, that perfection of flight is one, if not the very first, character of the annulose circle, just as it is of birds in that of the Vertvbrata. On the other hand, there is an important difference to be remarked, if we look, not to the Cicindelidce only, but to the whole order in general ; for then it is obvious that the Coleoptera, with regard to motion, are the most im- perfect flyers of the whole of the Ptiiota, although they are the swiftest runners or rather, are more terrestrial in their habits than all other winged insects. These are the chief points in the above table which it seems ne- cessary to touch upon ; and these remarkable analogies will be still further confirmed by placing the Ptiiota in comparison with the orders of birds. 258 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. Analogies of the COLEOPTERA to the PERCHING BIRDS. Orders of the Annlneip* Orders of Ptitota. Analogies. Perching Birds. 1. Typical. LEPIDOPTERA. {^J^gj" 51 * ^ f tbeir j INSESSORES. 2. Sub-typical. HEMIPTERA. Sub-typical and rasorial. .RAPTORES. 3. Aberrant. HYMENOPTERA. [ E *J socia1 ' and beneficial }RAsoREs. COTEOPTERA f The most Perfect walkers, and)- COLEOPTERA. swiftest runners. j (TRALLATORES. NEUROPTERA. The most aquatic in their habits. NATATORES. Every ornithologist is perfectly aware that the sand- pipers, curlews, plovers, &c., all being types of the gral- latorial order, are the swiftest runners among birds *, just as we find the hares and mice to be among quadru- peds : thus do they represent the coleopterous order of insects, the types of which are the Cicindelidce and the Carabida. An equally strong analogy, although not brought out in the above exposition, can be traced be- tween the lamellicorn insects and the insessorial birds, in both of which the power, not of running, but of grasping, is at its maximum. Take a Carabus in the hand, and so soon as it feels itself at liberty, it runs away; but a chafer (Melolontha), although released, will absolutely cling to the fingers of its captor : such is the power of instinct. The philosophic reader will not fail to perceive, in all these analogous comparisons, addi- tional evidence in support of our views, that, however the Coleoptera may be regarded as favourites among entomologists, they are, without exception, the most imperfect of all the Ptilota ; and that, instead of being * The half-flying half-running progress of the. whole family of sand- pipers is a precise counterpart of the progress made by the Cicindelida, when hunting for their prey. THE CICINDELIDJE. 259 placed the first in a natural system, they really should come in as the last. (230.) We will now make a rapid survey of these families, and give a succinct view T of their contents. The three first are distinguished from all other coleo- pterous insects by their possessing six articulated palpi, two labial, and four maxillary; the external lobe of the maxilla being here converted into a palpus. The Cicin- delidce will first occupy us. We have already given a very general idea of a peculiarity in their habits ; we may, however, further remark, that many of the tropical forms are not ground insects, but occur on plants, doubtlessly in search of prey. The distinguishing cha- racter that separates them from the large family of the Car abides, is one not readily detected without the micro- scopic inspection of the mouth, as it consists in the claw of the maxilla being articulated, and not anchylosed, as in the latter ; but in the Ctenostoma this is not the case, thus showing that rules are not absolute. There is, however, a general facies, which, when these insects are once known in their normal types, will readily guide a speedily acquired tact easily to distinguish them. They are generally of a slender, agile form, with long legs, and very prominent eyes. Larvae of the typical Cicin- dela, only, we believe, are yet known ; but should the habits of these be confirmed, it would help to give a determinate character to the group. Thus, the larva of Cicindela campestris forms a burrow, within which it lurks on the watch for any unwary insect that may in- cautiously come within the grasp of its capacious and prompt jaws. It is so formed, that it easily supports itself at the top of its cylindrical and vertical cell ; for it has a couple of hooks upon a swollen segment, to- wards the apex of its body, whereby it is suspended ; whilst its largely dilated prothorax completely fills the orifice of its den ; and its formidable jaws being bent down, and concealed beneath, are thrown suddenly up when its unhappy prey is within itsreach, and which, like the tiger, it rarely misses. It then retires with it 260 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. into the recesses of its cave, and devours it at leisure* Although it possesses long legs, it rarely uses these for the purposes of transportation; and, we believe, never, unless inconvenienced in its abode : whereas the larvae of the CaraMdos roam about in search of their food, with the exception, only, of a very few genera, which, also form burrows, although they occupy them only as re- treats, and not as domiciles. The series of insects con- tained in the family of the Cicindelidce are evidently very numerous, and of course exhibit very great varieties of form, which has led to their being subdivided into smaller families or sub-families,, named in allusion to the preeminent genus, around which some few others are collocated; but we here regard them as a body, and cannot, in the small space we are enabled to devote to them, go into these minute particulars. The majority are not large insects, although some few are very conspicu- ous, and comparatively large ; but not so when placed parallel to the Carabidce. Many are apterous ; which is the case with Manticora, a second species of which has been recently described by Mr. Waterhouse ; andPlatychile, which is so rare, that we believe a half a dozen specimens are not known in Europe. Both of these are from South Africa. Dromica is also another apterous African genus. The Brazilian Ctenostomce are remarkable for assuming the girdled figure of hymenopterous insects, whence some of them derive their specific names ; and Colliurus is distinguished for its elongated and slender form. Therates has a very large labrum, and occasionally spined elytra. The large Omus appears to be the North American representative of the South AfricanManticora, which insects are the largest in their family. Upon the habits of Megacephala, M. Lacordaire, who observed them in Cayenne., thus speaks: " They are frequently observed running on sandy spots in woods; they rarely make use of their wings." Of the M. Chalybea he says, " Upon endeavouring to catch them, they retreat beneath dry dung, into the large deep holes made by the Phancei and Coprides^nd. they try to defend the entrance BBACHINID^E. 26 1 when attacked ; but finding this useless, they retire to the bottom of their hiding place; and the only means to extract them then is to introduce a long straw, which they seize with their powerful mandibles, and allow themselves to be dragged out without quitting hold. They are all usually beautifully decorated with metallic splendour, and are certainly the gayest of the predatory Coleoptera. To give an idea of their numbers, Cicindela alone is recorded to contain more than two hundred and fifty species. (231.) Our second family consists of the CaraUdce, which will admit of subdivision into five very natural sub-families, thus to be distinguished : 1. The Brachinince, named from the typical genus Brachinus. The distinguishing characteristic of these insects consists in the abridgement of their elytra, which do not entirely cover the abdomen behind. They also, in common with the two next sub-families, have a deep notch within the anterior tibiae. Both in form, and the general fragility of their structure, they greatly resemble the aberrant genera of the preceding family ; and are, like them, frequently found upon plants where Lebia, Dromius, Odocantha, and Demetrius constantly occur. Some are so remarkable for an elongation of the neck, namely, Casnonia, that Linnaeus associated them with the genus Attelabus, in the vicinity of the Curculios. There cannot well be a greater contrast than that pre- sented by Trigonodactyla and Lebia, the one very elongate and slender, the other broad and depressed. But the most extraordinary form throughout the circle is certainly that of Mormolyce, the true position of which is doubtlessly in the vicinity of Agra. It is a Javanese insect, and is distinguished for its excessively flattened form : it has an elongate neck ; lengthy an- tennae and elytra, which, although truncated at their apex, have their sides dilated into a thin leaf, and ex- tending beyond this apex ; and the legs very slender. It is said to live upon trees. In elegance, perhaps, all are exceeded by the beautiful Drypta of the Old s 3 262 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. or Agra of the New World. Srachinus' possesses the peculiar property of crepitating when irritated or captured, and the noise is accompanied with a bluish smoke ; these insects have thence obtained the name of bombardier beetles. The Indian Catosco- pus is reputed to have the same means of defence. These insects are less absolutely predatory in their disposition than the other sub-families of the Carabidte; and many of them are gregarious, associating in large troops beneath stones, or under the bark of trees. They are universally distributed, and appear more numerous than the Cicindelidce. The second sub-family are the ScaritincB ; these are essentially fossorial insects. They are elongate and depressed, and the abdomen is affixed to the thorax by means of a short peduncle, whereby the latter acquires a degree of motion which greatly facilitates its burrowing habits ; their antennae are short and moriiliform ; and the legs also are short, the anterior tibiae being dilated into a broad, palmated, externally denticulated burrowing implement. It is a small group, very widely distributed ; few genera of these consisting of nearly solitary species being peculiar to any country, for instance, Acanthoscelis to the Cape, Scapterus and Oxygnaihus to India, Oxystomus and Camptodontus to the Brazils, Carenum to New Holland, and Pasimachus to North America ; species of the latter frequently come over in raw turpentine. (232.) The third sub-family is the Harpalince, the distinctive characters of which consist primarily in the enlargement of the four anterior tarsi of the males ; they have moderately long antennae ; and, in common with the preceding, possess a deep notch in the inside of the anterior tibise. They are generally robust insects, and perhaps, with the Carabines, are the most voracious of the entire circle. But we have the extraordinary apparition of vegetable feeders in the midst of them. Thus, Zabrus is said to feed exclusively upon corn ; and many of the Amarce, upon the tender shoots of grass and plants, as also upon their roots. This is a very, THE CARABID^E. 263 extensive sub- family, containing many genera, and dis- tributed throughout the known world. They have been broken up into named sections; and the genera are constructed upon peculiarities in the form and structure of the palpi and mentum, conjointly with the external shape. The most voracious are probably Broscus and its allies, and the type Harpalus ; and the most conspi- cuous forms are doubtlessly Hyperion Schrceteri and Catadromus, both New Holland genera, and the giants of the tribe. (233.) The fourth sub-family consists of the normal Carabines, and from which, if Cychrus and its affinities may be associated with them, we certainly cannot agree to separate Elaphrus and its allies. The prominent character of this fine sub-family is to want the notch in the anterior tibiae. They are also, viewing them in their types chiefly, more bulky insects than any in the family, and also more convex ; and amongst them are certainly some of the most elegant. None of the whole of this circle can compare with Procerus in size, or with Pamborus and Tefflus in form and size combined ; whereas Cara- bus presents us with many brilliantly metallic insects for instance, the Regalis, splendens, and rutilans. Cychrus, and its affinities, are evidently considerably more aberrant from the whole of this group, than any other form : in its apterous condition, connate elytra, securiform terminal joint of the palpi, and in the ex- ternal lobe of the maxilla being not palpiform, it seems to point directly towards the Heteromera. To this anomalous group belong Sphceroderus and Scaphinotus, both American genera. Elaphrus, and its sub-aquatic cognates, appear to depart widely, also, from the normal features of the sub-family : in the prominency of their eyes, and active ferocity, they evidently have an affinity to the Cicindelidce, with which Linnaeus associated them ; and it is through them, from the affinity of habits, that we most conveniently pass into the fifth sub-family, the Bembediince, the whole of which, as their characteristic signature, have subulated maxillary palpi. As the pre- s 4 20* NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. ceding sub-family were the giants of the Car abides, so> are these the dwarfs, for amongst them we have some of the smallest Carabideous insects. They all frequent humid situations ; and many, when captured, exhale offensive odours : they are exceedingly active, as their names frequently indicate, for instance, Tachys, Ocys, Tacky pus, which have all reference to this peculiarity ; and from this, in combination with their habitat, they might not inaptly be styled coleopterous Wills o' the wisp. By means of the little gibbous genus Omophron, the present family merges into the next, for it has a most remarkable resemblance to Haliplus and One- midotus. (234.) The ffydrodephaga, or Dytiscidce, constitute our third family. This group, compared with the former, is of very small extent. They retain all the prominent characters of the preceding family; for, being aquatic Carabidce, their structure is only so far modified as to suit the different element they are intended to in- habit ; and the reason of the smaller diversity of form observable in them throughout all latitudes, is the limit- ation and uniformity of the functions they have to execute. The only peculiarity we remark in their dis- tribution is, that Cybister is evidently tropical, for of it we have but one representative in this country, and only three species occur to the north of 35 of northern latitude; whereas Dytiscus, which here takes its place, does not occur to the south of the Tropic of Cancer. The males of all the larger genera of these insects are remarkable for the scutellated enlargement of their an- terior tarsi, which form frequently a circular disk sup- plied beneath with a cluster of small sucking cups for the purposes of sexual adhesion ; and a peculiarity in the majority of the females of males so furnished, is to have their elytra deeply furrowed longitudinally. They are exceedingly voracious insects in all their stages, but es- pecially in the larva state; for all that their strength or dexterity can overcome do they prey upon, and small fish and the fry of larger ones are not free from theis; THE HYDRODEPHAGA. 265 attacks. They possess this peculiarity in their larva state, that, although furnished with capacious jaws, they do not masticate their food; for these jaws are merely prehensile organs, and are tubular and perforated towards the extremity : their acuteness wounds the prey caught, which is then sucked dry through this tube. Their progression in the water is effected in jerks or springs, caused by the sudden expansion of their bent tapering tails; and they direct it with that precision, as to pounce as readily upon their prey as a cat does on a mouse. The perfect insect, if not alarmed, is stately in its motions, proceeding always in an oblique direction through the water, to the top of which it frequently comes for the purpose of inhaling fresh atmospheric air ; this it does by protruding the apex of the elytra above the surface, and thus receives beneath them a quantity sufficient for the supply of the spiracles which are situated there. The small genera, such as Haliplus, Cnemidotus, ffydroporus, PceloUus, &c., are much more active than the larger ones, and move about with the greatest velocity in every direction, sporting with each other in the merriest gambols. Cnemidotus presents a remarkable singularity in the structure of the posterior coxae, which are dilated externally into a thin plate, be- neath which they receive and conceal the posterior legs. We have associated with this family, the Gyrini, or whirlwigs; thus named from their habit of swimming in circles upon the surface of the water. Their acti- vity is excessive and incessant ; and the structure and combination of their muscular fibre must be remarkable, to admit of such interminable and rapid motion. The whole structure of the larva and imago, also, is very dif- ferent to that of the preceding section of the family: thu-s, in the perfect insect, the antennse are thick and fusiform, with a large auriculated joint at their base; their legs are considerably dilated and compressed, the anterior being the longest and most slender, evidently for prehension; and the posterior tarsi consist of laminae folding apparently upon one joint. Their larva is 266 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. elongate and depressed ; and each segment, beyond the three thoracic ones which bear the slender legs, is fur- nished laterally with an elongate,, inarticulated, ciliated fila- ment; and the thirteenth with four articulated,, very pilose appendages, of about the same length as the lateral fila- ments. When it has acquired its perfect size,, this larva creeps up some aquatic plant,, where it spins a cocoon wherein it undergoes its transformation; thus,, also differing from the Dytiscince, which undergo theirs beneath the earth, and do not spin a cocoon. Of the many water beetles collected by Mr. Darwin during his voyage with the Beagle, the majority were minute and well known forms resembling those occurring in our own country. (235.) Being uncertain whether the SilphidtB orPime- lidcK should occupy the situation of our fourth family, we will give a brief description of the most remarkable contents of each. The relation between the Dytiscida and them, it is at present impossible to trace without straining affinities ; and the Silphidce, in particular, of which we will first treat, are considerably different, both in habits and structure, from all that have preceded them in this circle ; although connected, by means of both, with the Staphylinidce. Their antennae are clavate, the club being perfoliated ; their elytra usually abbre- viated ; and in the aberrant forms of the family, there is much divarication, and even sexual disparity, in the number of the joints of the tarsi, although, typically, they are pentamerous. The chief types, consisting of the genera Necrophagus, JVecrodes, and Silpha, and feed- ing as they do upon carrion, are, like the vulture, endowed with the sense of winding it from afar; and upon a bright spring day they will come soaring along, sweeping with the velocity of a bee around the object of their solicitude, and fall directly upon it. The species of Necrophagm are called burying beetles, from the habit they have of associating together for the purpose of excavating the earth from beneath the dead animal (if not too bulky) with which they are engaged, which sinks gradually THE SILPHIDJE. 267 into the ground, and they then cover it over with loose soil and deposit their eggs in it. The larva is speedily developed, grows rapidly to its full size, and then buries itself to undergo its subsequent transformation. Nature, universally, carefully conceals these changes ; she will not, voluntarily, admit a spectator in her tiring room ; and if we wish to witness these transmutations, it must be done by subterfuge, and even when exercising all that we are capable of, she will frequently evade us. Hence it is, that we know so little of the transformations of insects, a subject, however, replete with the greatest interest, and one, the careful notice of the progressive stages of which we cannot too strongly inculcate the due observation of, when those fleeting and rare oppor- tunities present themselves. These insects frequently emit a sort of musky odour, which would be far from disagreeable were it exhaled by a flower ; but proceeding, as we assume it does, by secretion, from the nauseous substances they inhabit and feed on, our imagination makes it loathsome, and thus evinces how much we are the slaves of that faculty. In some, which are most approximate to the typical Necrophori, namely, Ne erodes, the posterior thighs are frequently thickened: Silpha itself, and its closest allies, are flat or hemispheri- cal ; and the Nitidulce are distinguished by the enlarged basal joint of the antennae : the various forms this takes, and the various relative proportions of the following joints, and of the club, which is sometimes solid, with merely transverse sutures, or consists of three successive joints, or sometimes four or more are incrassated, have divided this group into a multitude of small genera, the habits of which present some diversity, although they frequent resembling substances. Thus, some occur with the types in carrion, as Nitidala proper, which is the most numerous genus of all ; others are found in fungi, as Atomaria, Triphyllus, Mycetophagus, Phloiophilus, and Strongylus ; others occur only in flowers, as Bytu- rus, Cater etes } Meligethes y and Antherophagus ; many beneath the bark of trees, as Ips, Engis, Tetratoma, and 268 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. Thymalus; others are found by sweeping in low herb- age, as Typhcea, Mycet&a, and many Cryptophagi; and many occur in heating heaps of garden rejectamenta,, as Anisarthria and Trichopteryx, the latter is distinguished by being the most minute of all Coleoptera, and having their delicate wings fringed with fine hair, which, when folded beneath their closed elytra, protrude like a couple of pencils. As aberrant forms in this family, we may view such genera as Choleva > Scaphidium, arid Leiodes, and their allies, all distinguished by the club of their antennae consisting of five joints, the eighth of the organ, the second of the club, being disproportionally minute. With these associates also Agathidium, that rolls itself up like a ball, yet less spherical than we have observed in Acanthocerus among the Trogince; and here, conti- guously, must be placed the still more remarkable Clam- bus, which, under the apprehension of danger, closes its large broad head upon its four anterior legs ; whilst the protection of the posterior pair is referred to the broad enveloping plate, formed, as in Cnemidotus among the Dytiscidae, by the dilatation of the posterior coxae. All of these, like the majority of the Nitidulince, are fun- givorous ; and the Leiodes Cinnamomea feeds upon the truffle. Of course, we here can enumerate only the most conspicuous forms, and must refer the location of the rest to the determination of their affinities. The exotic forms are comparatively few, probably from their being minute, and not having yet had sufficient atten- tion bestowed upon them ; but some among them are sufficiently remarkable; for instance, the very extraor- dinary Hypocephalus armatus is referred to this group, and placed near the Necrophori. This is, perhaps, one of the most grotesque forms the Coleoptera can exhibit. It is a large insect, more than two inches long, with a greatly developed thorax, not unlike that of a Calandra; its head is small and deflexed ; antennae short and moni- liform, as are also its palpi ; the mandibles are somewhat distorted and curved; the maxillae large, prominent, and triangular; it has the elytra of a Carabus; the THE PIMELID^E. 2$ four anterior legs very robust ; and the two posterior incrassated like those of Sagra ; with largely developed coxae; and the apex of their tibiae flat and vesicular beneath^ like the anterior ones of Pirates among the Reduviince, in the Hemiptera. This incongruous com- pound of anomalies is of a dark chestnut colour, and is a native of the interior of the Brazils, whence it was first brought by prince Maximilian of Neuwied, and was ori- ginally scarcely believed to be more than the unskilful workmanship of some cozening dealer, so complete a burlesque did it seem upon Nature's general harmony of structure : but others have since been brought, and the authenticity of the monster is confirmed. We possess an undescribed extraordinary Brazilian Nitidula, in which the anterior tibiae are bent inwards, at right angles, at their middle, the lower half being considerably dilated, and the tarsi inserted before their termination. It is excessively flat; and being a very distinct genus, we pro- pose for it the name Place adunca. We have before spoken of the very singular Helota, of which several species are now known. (236.) The PimelidcB, which may perhaps fill the place of the Silphidfs in this circle of Predatores, form a group of insects of a most extraordinary and repulsive aspect. They are all heteromerous, that is to say, the posterior pair of tarsi have one joint less than the four anterior; but this is a peculiarity which extends over a large mass of the Coleoptera, many of which we shall have to consider when we treat of the Malacodermata. For the present, we may state, that an additional cha- racteristic of these insects is, to have the third joint of the antennae the longest ; their elytra soldered together, and frequently hispid with innumerable spines, teeth, or tubercles; and they are, besides, usually of ungainly gib- bous forms. They are pre-eminently the inhabitants of deserts, wastes, and arid sandy tracts, especially Northern and Southern Africa, and Patagonia, where Nature is most inhospitable and cheerless ; and they thus partici- pate in the features of the districts they occupy. Their 270 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. colour harmonises with their form, to make them hideous, for they are invariably of a deep black or dirty brown. Epiphysa offers us the most gibbous form amongst them. In Cryptocheile and Adesmia, this form is covered with short spines or tubercles, placed either irregularly over the whole surface, or arranged in rows between which there are furrows. In Pimelia proper, and Moluris, we have the gibbous form also greatly developed, but with a deep strangulation between the thorax and abdomen : and in Prionotheca, the same general form is somewhat flattened, and the lateral su- perior edges of the elytra are armed with a coronet of protruding spines. In others, we observe them taking the more general figure of Carabida, as in Scaurus and Trachynotus ; and in others again they become exceed- ingly flattened with dilated edges, as in Eurychora; and which, in Steira, is furnished above with longitudinal carinse. Among the aberrant forms, we may notice the extraordinary Helens, which is very like a black Cassida, with a perforation through the dilated margin of the thorax, for the head to exhibit itself; and in one species the whole of the central convex portion of the insect is covered with erect rigid setae ; and amongst the most he- terogeneous of these forms, Machla claims a place. The affinities of this group to the circle are obscure, and difficult to trace; their position is suggested for the ana. lytical examination of entomologists. (237.) The Staphylinida, or rove beetles, constitute our fifth group of predatorial insects : their distinguish- ing characteristic, as we have above said, is to have considerably abridged elytra, beneath which their ex- pansive wings are folded up ; and thus there are almost always more, and never fewer, than four segments ex- posed. As in the Coleoptem generally, their antennae consist of eleven joints, rarely of ten, and the apex of their abdomen is usually furnished with a couple of retractile vesicles. There is great diversity in the number of the joints of their tarsi, but the typical number may be considered as five. They are exces- THE STAPHYLINID^E. 271 sively active insects, promptly take wing, and fly with considerable velocity. They frequent coprophagous substances of all kinds, and in which they associate sometimes in considerable multitudes, so much so, that the very surface of it is sometimes wholly alive with them, and by them it appears transformed into a living mass. They have been subdivided into seven distinct sub- families ; the structure of which differs considerably in minute points of a highly interesting nature, in its in- vestigation, to the systematist. The largest majority of these consist of minute insects, comparatively few of which exceed half an inch in length, and the major part are under a line. They appear to be, with very few exceptions, a northern group, replaced within the tro- pics, in the exercise of the peculiar function awarded to them by the ants ; although some few also occur there. These, especially the Brazilian ones, like the prevailing character of its entomology, are of brilliant metallic splendour. (238.) They consist, first, of the Staphylini proper, which contain the largest species of the whole family, and are chiefly distinguished from the rest by their fissile labrum, and tarsi always pentamerous. They are courageous insects, and resist aggression, and endeavour to intimidate by opening their powerful jaws; with which, indeed, they can pinch severely. They also have the habit of erecting their tails, to produce inti- midation; and it is by the flexibility of this part of the body that they are enabled promptly to fold their wings beneath the elytra; and the activity with which this is done, is highly interesting. Their larvae are depressed, and have similar habits of life to the perfect insects, and, like them, occur most abundantly during the spring and autumn. The most interesting genera are Velleius, which has serrated antennae, and is said to frequent the nests of hornets, whether as a parasite, or in quest of prey, is not determined. Creophilus is the common black large-headed species, mottled with grey, that occurs so frequently in our walks. Emus is a beautiful 2?2 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. insect, densely pubescent, its clothing being party-co- loured, black and bright yellow ; and the Devil's coach- horse,, the common Goerius, is the frequent occupant of our gardens. Oxyporus is remarkable for its moon- shaped palpi ; and a modification of this form occurs in AstrapfBuSy Tasgius, and Pelecyphorus. Achenium and Siagonium, lastly, have porrected horns upon the head and thorax. (239.) The second family, the StenidcE y liSL\e greatly the appearance of Elaphri, and, indeed, participate with them in their attachment to humid situations. They are nearly cylindrical ; have very prominent eyes, long exserted palpi, and antenna subclavate at the tip. They are very active insects, and seem very predaceous. (240.) The third family are the Oocytelidce : these are depressed, have very large heads, very serrated tibise, and usually but three joints to their tarsi, the terminal one being longer than the rest together. There is nothing peculiar in their natural history, beyond the circumstance of their being, perhaps, the most gre- garious of the group, associating in the multitudes we have instanced above, and occurring in dung and putrid substances. (241.) The fourth family are formed by the Oma- lidce, which, as their name indicates, are exceed- ingly depressed; their tarsi are pentamerous; and the terminal joint of their palpi is frequently subulated. These insects are often found in flowers, and are in- teresting, from presenting instances of the rare occur- rence of ocelli in the Coleoptera. (242.) The Tachynidce form the fifth family, and are distinguished by their convex tapering forms ; their tarsi are also pentamerous ; and they have, likewise, the habit of frequenting flowers. They are excessively agile, and readily escape capture by the velocity of their motions. There is nothing strikingly distinguishing in them to require notice in a work thus general. (243.) The Aleocharidcs constitute the sixth fa- mily : their antennae are inserted below their eyes, THE PSELAPHID^, 2?3 which is the only general character which seems to pervade them ; for they present numberless diversities of form, and remarkable anomalies in the numerical relations of the joints of their tarsi. The knowledge of these particulars must, of course, be referred to other works. They comprise the greatest number of insects of any of the families of Staphylinidce, and differ as much in their habits as their forms. Thus, some, as Pella, Dinar da, Lomechusa, occur only in ants' nests ; Deinopsis, Diglossa, Oxypoda, amoiigst rejectamenta; Falagria and Astilbus, in moss ; Homalota and Calo- dera, beneath the bark of trees. Deinopsis, Diglossa, and Mi/llana, are remarkable for the protrusion of their labial palpi as setee; and Callicerus has beautifully formed antennas. (244.) The Pselapliida form the last family, if pro- perly they be a constituent of the Staphytinida ; for they differ so considerably in many particulars, and agree in so few, that we think they should compose a distinct group. They are the smallest and the most elegant of the series, and are distinguished by their clavate and frequently nodose antennae ; elongate clavate palpi ; three-jointed tarsi, which terminate in a single claw. The only character they have in common with the Sta- phylinidce, is the abbreviation of their elytra; for their abdomen is usually bulky, and incapable of reflexion. They occur in the nests of ants, at the roots of grass, and in moss in damp situations. They are very voracious, and feed upon living insects. In the observations on the Hymenoptera, we have already al- luded to the remarkable Claviger; and, by so singular a form, we may quit the Predatores. (2,30 244.) W.E.Sh.] 274 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. CHAP. VIII. COLEOPTERA, continued. CAPRICORNES. (245.) FROM the close affinity, already remarked, be- tween the LucanidcB and the Prionidce, there can he no doubt that the lamellicorn arid Capricorn tribes are united. This union, which has long been admitted by modern writers, will now be confirmed by additional evidence, founded on those general laws of natural ar- rangement upon which our entire theory reposes. Mr. Maeleay, looking only to the formation of the larvae, or more properly to the metamorphosis, hesitates not to place the Capricorn beetles between the Lametticornes and the Monilicornes. This conclusion we have also come to, from studying the perfect insects, and by test- ing the theory by our own impression of the laws of representation. (246.) The chief or typical characteristic of this tribe, presented by the adult insect, is the great length of their antennae, their large and vertical head, and the unusual strength of their jaws : the construction of their tarsi is also peculiar, and they are all, while in their larva state, lignivorous, or, at least, living in the internal substance of vegetables ; chiefly, however, in solid wood. Hence it is, that although many of the groups, which we shall here consider aberrant, are very dif- ferent, in their adult state, to the pre-eminent types, they agree with them much more closely in the general shape of their larvae. This form of larva, by Macleay, is termed Apod, and is defined as ' ' having scarcely the rudiments of antennae, and furnished, instead of feet, with flat fleshy tubercles, which, when continued along CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CAPRICORNES. 275 the back and belly, give the animal a facility of moving in whatever way it may be placed." Our author cites Curculio or Cerambyx as examples. It may be observed, however, that these larvae are not completely apodal, since they have the rudiments of six scaly minute legs with joints, yet so small as to be useless for locomotion. We thus find that considerations, drawn from the larva state of an insect, are often of the highest importance, and that in certain cases they may be employed with great advantage, without elevating them too high in the scale of primary and absolute distinctions. Under the impres- sion, therefore, that this tribe contains within itself all such lignivorous insects as have apod larvae, we have no hesitation in adopting the above views, more espe- cially as they will be subsequently developed more in detail. (247.) The above definition of the perfect insects of this order is entirely drawn from the two typical families, the Cerambycidce and the Lepturidtf, with which, however, the group connecting it to the Lamellicornes (the Prionidce) is intimately allied. Of the two others, one (the Curcu- lionidcB) is remarkably unlike either of the preceding, and the other is involved in some doubt. Without at- tempting, therefore, to find any more general characters for the Capricornes than those already glanced at, we may at once proceed to characterise with much brevity the primary groups or families into which we divide the tribe. 1. The Prionidce, at once distinguished by their depressed form, their protruding or exserted jaws, di- rected forwards, and the comparative softness of their wing cases. 2. The Cerambycidce, having their head large and vertical, the jaws short and sharp, the tarsi prehensile, and the thorax nearly as broad as the body : these, like the last, feed both in their larva and perfect state, upon solid or decayed wood, and are strictly lig- nivorous. 3. The Lepturidce, or floral capricorns, of a much more delicate and slender form, having the jaws or mandibles more lengthened and straight, the tip T 2 2J NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. hooked,, the legs cursorial,, and the first joint of the tarsi long ; the thorax is always narrower than the body, and is generally either spined or wrinkled : the perfect insect is floral; that is, feeds upon living vegetables and flowers. Of the extent of the 4th family we feel very uncertain ; but we are disposed to consider the major part of the Xylophagi of Latreille as forming a part, at least, of the group, regarding Bostrichus, or Tomicus, as the type of a family of lignivorous insects to which Clerus is unquestionably related either by affinity or analogy. The 5th and last family is the Curculio- nidee, or snout beetles, connected to the former by means of Bruchus and the Anthribides, through Hylurgus, &c. Nearly the whole are distinguished by the prolongation of their snout, which forms a rostrum, at the extremity of which is a very minute mouth. The antennae, which in the first three families is usually as long as the body, and generally much longer, is here comparatively short, and is almost always bent into an angle in the middle, as if broken. (248.) The above arrangement of the primary divi- sions is founded partly upon synthesis, and partly from analysis. The situation of the Prionidce cannot be questioned ; because, being united in the most intimate manner to the Lucanidce, it necessarily follows they must be placed in that part of their own circle which brings them into immediate contact with their proto- types among the Lamellicornes. The difficulty respect- ing these insects, does not lie in their station, but in ascertaining what other lignivorous genera are naturally associated with them. It is quite clear that the old genus Prionus contains merely the typical examples ; so that we have no scruple in placing Latreille's Platysoma (in- cluding Cucujus), and perhaps most of his Trogosita, excepting Trogosita itself, as aberrant forms : but how many others, among the host of small or minute ligni- vorous genera (now broken up and elevated to the rank of small genera), are naturally associated with them, it is, THE CEBAMBYCID^B AND LEPTURIDJE. 277 at present, utterly impossible to say. The whole of the LucanidcB and the Bostrichidce, no less than the Prionidce, require a thorough analysis ; and until that is done, individual opinion, founded only on conjecture, can alone be offered. The nature of the food, and the form of the larva, indeed, may materially assist us in unravelling the confusion which now involves all these groups. Details like these, however, belong not to our present plan. We merely seek to establish the primary groups, and to show they exhibit as strong relations of analogy among themselves, as are found in other parts of the animal kingdom. It can hardly be disputed, for instance, that there is a strong relation between Pas- salus and Trogosita, as well as between Cucujus and Hister ; but these, we suspect, will eventually prove merely analogical. (249.) In respect to the two typical families, the Cerambycidce and the Lepturidce^ we feel much more confident, not, indeed, as to their specific contents, but as to the fundamental principles upon which we should base them. As we prefer, upon all occasions, the retention of Linnaean names, when they can be preserved with- out injury to science, we call the first of these the Ceram- bycidce, although, strictly speaking, the genus Lamia of Fabricius is the pre-eminent type. The natural history of the L. amputator, so beautifully illustrated by Guild- ing, one of the most accomplished zoologists of the age, completely establishes the fact, if such evidence were wanting, that these insects are lignivorous, both in their larva and perfect state : they feed, in fact, upon hard wood ; and even amputate branches, without paying any regard to the leaves ; and their thick, strong, and com- pact structure are in unison with such habits. The Lepturidce, on the other hand, although internal feeders in their larva state, are yet totally incapable of gnawing hard substances when arrived at maturity. Whether they occasionally feed upon leaves, we know not, but their common resort is flowers, upon which the most inexpe- T 3 278 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. rienced studenthas, no doubt, often captured them. Their light and elegant shape, cursorial feet, and small head, offer a contrast to the Cerambycidce. With regard to the fourth type, we have already expressed our doubts, chiefly arising from a deficiency of analysis. We were long disposed to think that this part of the series was naturally occupied by such genera as Sagra and Crioceris, parti- cularly as Latreille places them immediately in conjunc- tion withLeptura, a station, after all, they may possibly hold ; but their still closer affinity, as we conceive, to the Chrysomelidfe, prevents us from following such high authority. Satisfied, for reasons that will presently ap- pear, that the Curculionidce were the most aberrant family of tjie Capricornes, our next object was to find what group was most likely to connect these, in some degree, with the Lepturidce, by means of Attelabus, which Latreille very judiciously arranges close to the Curculio- nida>. On these grounds have we formed the conjecture that most of the Bostrichi intervene between these two families more particularly as we do not think they form a part either of the LucanidcB or the Prionida. By this means, also, the evident affinity between Bostrichus and Clerus may be preserved, if we consider the latter as leading to the Coccinellidce and ChrysomelidcB, the former of which they resemble by the carnivorous habits of their larvae, All this, however, as we stated before, must be considered a mere matter of opinion, until the groups to which these several insects are in any way related are thoroughly analysed. (250.) We may now turn to the analogies resulting from the above arrangement of the whole tribe ; and as the most difficult of these will regard the CurculionidcZ) we shall commence by the following comparison. ANALOGIES OF THE CAPRICORNES. 279 Analogies of the CAPRICORN ES to the TYPICAL VERTE- BRATA. Tribes of the COLEOPTERA. Lamellicornes. Predatores. Malacodermes. Monilicornes. Capricornes. Analogies. Orders of the MAMMALIA. Orders of BIRDS. Legs formed for grasping. Quadrumana. Insessores. Eaptores. Natatores. Grallatores. Easores. f Carnivorous ; and rapa-7 i cious. 3 f Feet shorter none j much \ rtftnp \ compressed. j <- etac Most aberrant. Glires. r Appendages to the head} S highly developed, eit ) in the shape of ho [, crests, or antenna?. e head} , either f horns, f a?. 3 Without, detaining the reader by additional explan- ations on the first four of these resemblances, we shall merely premise that the two last columns are arranged strictly according to their affinities as explained in former volumes, and that the analogies are expressed horizontally. We thus find the Capricorn beetles fall in a line with the ungulated quadrupeds (or the oxen, antelopes, and all other horned genera), the represent- ations, as every zoologist knows, of the peacock, turkey, and other rasorial birds. As this comparison, therefore, establishes the analogy of the two groups in a general way, we may now proceed a step further, and ascertain how far this theory holds good when we come to ex- amine the contents of each. Analogies of the CAPRICORN TRIBE and the UNGU- LATED QUADRUPEDS. Families of the Capricornes. PRIONID^S. CERAMBYCIDJE. LEPTURID2E. BOSTRICHID.E. CURCULIONID.SE. Analogies. Tribes of the Ungulata. PACHYDERMATA, SOLIPEDES. Size gigantic; body thick, heavy. Strong j robust. C Slender ; graceful ; horns or an- 7 \ tenme very long. 5 CThick obtuse snouts; prone as-7 i pect; antennas short. j Head produced into a long snout rostrum ; mouth terminal, EDENTATA. .mall. RUMINANTES. ANOPLOTHERES. r Head pr j or ros C very s ut} S,] 280 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. (251.) We may here intimate to such of our readers as are unacquainted with the animals composing the Eden- tata, that the long-snouted ant-eaters and the armadillos are here designated ; and so perfectly do the first of these represent, in their long snout, the attenuated rostrum of the CurculionidcBy that it is almost inconceivable how a quadruped and an insect can be such prototypes of each other. The Pachyd&rmata, or the elephant, the rhino- ceros,, &c., are as truly the giants of the ungulated qua- drupeds^ as the bulky Prionldce are of the Capricorn tribe. The inferior developement of the foot in the Ce- rambycidte and of the Solipedes, the tarsi of one cor- responding to the hoof of the other, is not a little remarkable; while the Lepturidce, with their long and slender legs and their agile movements, find their ap- propriate representatives in the graceful antelopes. The uncertainty that hangs over the Bostrichidce prevents us from offering any conjectures on their analogy to the Anoplotheres ; and this latter group, also, from being chiefly known by its fossil remains, contains but very few types. Upon the whole, however, this is not a matter of much consequence, seeing that the analogies of the other four groups are as perfect as the great distance between the groups themselves, in point of af- finity, will admit. Our main object, in fact, was to draw the reader's attention to the analogy of the snout beetles and the ant-eaters; in doing which, the other resemblances, which previously we had never thought about, came suddenly to light while drawing up the table. That the analogies of the Curculionidce should be more apparent among quadrupeds and birds, than among annulose animals, or even insects of the same order, is not a little singular ; but such is undoubtedly the fact, for there are few other beetles possessingan elongated rostrum. This is additional proof that analogies can never be fully traced or even understood without a general knowledge of all the classes of animals, and that they may be altoge- ther obscure in one group, while they become perfectly apparent when sought for in another. COMPARISON OF THE ABERRANT TRIBES. 281 (252.) The Curculionida being, therefore, the most aberrant family of the Capricorn circle, we may glance at those other groups, which are similarly situated among the lamellicorn and predaceous divisions : these are, the Buprestidce in the first, and the Silphidce in the second. Buprestis, indeed, offers two points of analogy with CurculiOy in being, like them, internal feeders upon wood, and in the dilatation of their tarsi ; but in all other respects the two groups are widely different, and, in their perfect state, have not the least similarity to each other. On turning, however, to the Silphida, or rather to their possible representatives the Pimelidce, the analogy between certain groups is very remarkable : thus, for instance, the large apterous forms among the African Brachyceri, with their globose black bodies, immediately remind us of certain Pimelice, more es- pecially of the Fabrician Pimelia and Latreille's Mol- luris ; and in all these are shadowed out the typical form of the Chrysomelida ?, and other Monilicornes, obscurely, indeed, yet still sufficiently to add additional evidence to that already adduced. (253.) The analogies of this tribe to the Lamellicor- nes, again, is not without interest ; for although the relations, to all appearance, are remote, there is nothing to militate against the supposition that the primary groups represent each other. Analogies of the CAPRICORNES to the LAMELLICOHN and the PREDATORIAL BEETLES. Families of the A . Families of the Families of the LameUicornes. Analogies Capricornes. Predatores. r Form thick, heavy ; co- ^ C stances. 3 r Jaws unusually exsert- ^ LUCANIOE. 3 ed; elytra sometimes PRIONID;E. STAPHYLINID^. L abbreviated. 3 BUPRESTIDJE. i Larva concealed in 7 CURCULTONID^E. SILPHIDJE. HYDROPHILIDJE. ? BOSTRICHIDJS. DTTisciD2E 282 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. As the Capricorn and the lamellicorn tribes live upon vegetables, they are of course more analogous to each other, than either of them are to the Predatores, where the food is so totally different. We shall, therefore, say nothing of this last column in our table, but confine our- selves to illustrating the tribe we are now more particu- larly engaged upon. While rejecting the tarsal system, adopted by our modern nomenclators, as totally at va- riance with all natural classification, we yet attach no small importance to the different construction of the foot, whenever we find it is accompanied by other decided and general characters, whether of economy or of structure. When used with caution, it will assuredly lead to most satisfactory results, of which the arrangement of the two chief lamellicorn families (the Cetoniadce and the Scara- bfeida) is a striking instance. Now, it is very obvious that each of these find their prototypes among the Capri- corn beetles. The elegant and highly ornamented Ceto- niadce correspond with the Lepturidce, in having their tarsi long, linear, or cylindrical : both live also upon nearly the same food, and may be even seen upon the same flowers. The Scarabceida and the Cerambycidce, on the other hand, have a form and an economy very different. They are both more bulky and inactive, and have the tarsal j oints short, broad, and more or less di- lated on their sides. We look upon these organs, in fact, as only extreme modifications of the same primary structure, just as that which we see in the tarsi of a Leptura and a Cicindela; these latter being both cur- sorial, or adapted for running. Many of the Ceram- bycidce, again, live on decomposed or dead wood, either iu their larva or perfect state, or in both ; and all the ScarabfBidcB subsist upon decayed or decomposed vege- table matter : the colours of both are dull or dark, and they are equally tardy and heavy in their motions. In short, the parallels between these two typical divisions are as strong as the nature of the case can possibly ad- mit ; nor are there wanting instances where the lamelli- form antennoe of one is seen in a much greater degree of THE PRIONID^E. 283 developement than in the tribe where this structure is universally prevalent. On the analogy, or rather the affinity, between the Prionidce and the Lucanida we have already stated quite sufficient; as well as on those reasons which makes the Buprestida, however obscurely, the representatives of the Curculionidce. As for the last in our series, wherein the Bostrichidcp stand opposite to the Hydrophilidce, the same uncertainty exists in this as in the preceding table. If Latreille's Sagrides really fill this station, our difficulty would be removed,, since those insects present two tangible points of analogy both to the Hydropliilidce and the Dyticidce; one, in the great developement of their posterior legs, and the other in their aquatic habits. Latreille remarks that the Donacice, in their larva state, live on the internal parts of the roots of those aquatic plants upon which the perfect insect feeds ; so that in their larva state they are as decidedly aquatic as any of the true water beetles. On the other hand, these analogies may be all perfectly true, and yet the Sagrides may hereafter prove to be no other than some aquatic type within the circle of the Monilicornes, and as such, also, we shall subsequently treat them. (254.) Our first family, the PRIONIDCE, contains, as we have before observed, many of the most gigantic of the Coleoptera. As the term is rather indefinite, a dis- tinct idea will be conveyed, when we say that the Ti- tanus gigas is frequently eight inches long, exclusive of the antennae ; and the Prionus Hayesii of Mr. Hope, evidently closely allied to the genus Macrotoma, is four and a half inches in body, but, including its antennae, it is nearly a foot long. There is considerable variation in the structure of these organs in the family before us : that which is most typical, and which occurs chiefly in the genus Prionus itself, is to have them pectinated; although in the larger genera, as Titanus, Enoplocerus, Ctenoscelis, &c., they are filiform : but it must be ob- served, that what is technically called serrated arises from the gradual enlargement from base to apex of each successive joint of the organ, and not from the 284 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. armature of the joints themselves ; in which case Enoplo- cerus, Macrotoma, and others,, would also have serrated antennae, as each joint is thickly set with minute teeth. In Polyarthron they are flabellated, and consist of forty- seven joints ; whereas, as we have before had occasion to observe,, the typical number,, as that which most con- stantly occurs, is for the organ to consist of but eleven. We however find in this family frequent aberrations in this particular, as very many exceed the usual number. Its most elegant form is that, perhaps, which occurs in the imbricated antennae of the males of Prionus; and the family has received its name from this serrated struc- ture, prion signifying a saw. Other parts, besides the antennae, are likewise thus singularly furnished, espe- cially the legs and sides of the thorax ; the latter being always armed, laterally, with one or more spines, and frequently with a row of very minute and sharp teeth ; and it is from the variation in the number and arrange- ment of these spines and teeth, that Serville has founded his distribution of the large mass they constitute, and has thence broken them into genera. We have adverted to the characteristic of their being usually dark and sombre insects. This must not, however, be adopted with a rigorous application ; nor can, indeed, any cha- racter universally in any group in nature ; for here, even in JHfegopis, Anacantha, and Ccelodon, the thorax is not denticulated ; in Mallodon, and many others, the legs are not serrated ; in Anacolus and Pcecilosoma, the body is gaily coloured; and in Pyrodes, Psalidognathus, and Clieloderus, it is brilliantly metallic : the latter is remarkable for its concave, small thorax, and is an ex- tremely rare insect from Mexico, whence also Psali- dognathus comes. There is considerable difference in the sexes of the latter ; and, as in most metallic insects, differences of colour, some being of a deep blue, and others of a bright green ; whereas Cheloderus is of a rich vinous tint. The leading instance of analogy to the Luca- nidaK is found in the deflexed, elongated, forcipate man- dibles of the former ; but the largest developement of AFFINITIES OF THE PRIONIDyE. 285 this structure is in Macrodontia, where they are greatly porrected, and more than twice as long as the head. These insects fly usually at night, and during the day they are lazily affixed to the trunks of trees. The power of flight,, of course,, implies the possession of wings ; but one genus (Prionapteron) is remarkable for being apte- rous, and having its elytra soldered together. InAnacolus these organs are shorter than the body and the true wings ; and, although the tetramerous tarsal structure is universal among them, yet in Trictenotoma they are heteromerous ; whence M. Solier has combined it with PhrenopateSy another anomalous, genus, but belonging certainly to a different group ; and he has formed with them an introductory section to his distribution of the Heteromera. We, however, think Trictenotoma appears to have a strong affinity to the Lucanidcz, into the circle of which, as an aberrant form, it ought possibly to enter ; of which we have a double indication in the structure of the antennae, which present a very elongate basal joint, and an indication of a lamellated form at the apex. A similar situation might also, possibly, be assigned to Parandra, which the majority of sys- tematists have placed contiguous to the Prionidce ; in their general form, however, particularly in that of the clypeus and labrum, and the thorax, and in the posses- sion of the tarsal plantula and pseudonychia, they are closely related to the Lucanidce, and only want pec- tinated antennae to belong absolutely to that family. But leaving this for future investigation, we have not the least doubt that, by means of the extraordinary Torneutes, a South American insect, nearly three inches long, and not more than half an inch broad, we have a direct intimation of the proximity of Cucujus and its affinities, as Spondylis equally points to the sub-family of the Bostrichidce. The excessively flattened forms of Cucujus, Brontes, Dendrophagus, &c., is admirably adapted for their peculiar economy, living, as they do, beneath the bark of trees. The allied Palcestes and Passandra follow naturally here^ where we think it 286 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. probable that Clinidium, Khysodes, and Cupes, also as- sociate ; indicating another affinity, in the direction of JBrenthus, amongst the Curculios. Within this circle, possibly, also, but certainly its most aberrant sub- family, may we place the remarkable Paussidce, in- sects that sport with the integrity of all previous sys- tems, and present a problem, as to their relations, never yet satisfactorily solved. Indeed, the small lignivorous and fungivorous genera of coleopterous insects are far from having yet been lucidly investigated, or even an approximation made to their affinities and analogies. The Paussidce not only exhibit a very heterogeneous structure in their antennae, all the species differing con- siderably inter se in their form ; but they present, like- wise, an extraordinary difference in the number of the joints of these organs, in the several genera of which the sub-family is formed: thus, in Cerapterus there are ten, in Pentaplatarthrus there are six ; in Paussus two, the terminal joint being usually variously swollen and denticulated ; but, as if Nature took here a par- ticular pleasure in extraordinary freaks, we have even one in which this joint is perfectly cylindrical. Their legs present similar anomalies, for some are much com- pressed and dilated, and others are likewise cylin- drical. [W , E. Sh.] (255.) The Cerambycida, according to the views already explained, form a family group, in which the front of the head, when viewed in profile, is always more or less vertical. This singular formation, which, as a general character, is found in no other family of the capricorns, is almost essential to the economy which belongs to the whole of this group. Sufficient evi- dence is before us, that the manners of Lamia am putatory first made known by Guilding, are more or less similar to its numerous congeners : for some pur- pose, which is not yet sufficiently cleared up, these beetles are in the habit of gnawing off the branches of trees; and this is done in such a manner that they /V 0* ^X THE CERAMBYCIDL% ' T^ T? ftS^S T fp *J\ Vv X*fc *** JL 4 / appear to be cut off, in an abruptly transverse direction, as if by the strokes of an axe or hatchet. Now, to accomplish this, it is evident that the heaiUQf the ift^J^.-^ sect should be considerably bent downwards, that~the jaws may cut transversely instead of obliquely. Hence we find, that as stooping the head during this long and toilsome occupation would have been exceedingly wearying to the insect, nature has given to that part a permanent position most suited to the office it has to perform. By this, also, we see the necessity of great muscular power being placed in the jaws, and the con- sequent enlargement of the head : the compact manner, also, in which this part is joined to the thorax, which, by encasing a considerable portion of its base, gives it still greater strength, is likewise in unison with the economy belonging to the family before us ; and is strikingly opposed to the small exserted heads of the Prionidce, and the feeble structure so characteristic of the Lepturidce. We select this, therefore, as the pri- mary character of the Cerambycidce ; for it not only per- vades the typical, but, with a very slight diminution, all the aberrant groups. When to this we add the equal breadth of the thorax and the head, the shortness and breadth of the tarsal joints, and the slight degree in which the hinder legs exceed the others, we enable the most unpractised student to determine at once, with- out minute anatomical investigation, the insects be- fore us. (256.) Our analysis of this family has not proceeded sufficiently far to allow of our designating more than the five sub-families, and to offer some remarks upon what appear the typical genera. We arrange the whole in the following divisions : 1. The Acrocinintf, which, as representatives of the Prionidce^ with which, indeed, they were once placed), are of a very large size ; having the body considerably depressed, the anterior feet much lengthened, and the elytra spined at their tips : the tarsi in this group are very peculiar, and depart con- 288 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. siderably from the typical structure; the first joint is nearly as long as all the others, and the third only is lobed, or heart-shaped * : nor is there any " knob or swelling like an articulation, at the origin of the last/ 1 or cla vv -joint; hence we infer that these insects are much more cursorial than any of their congeners, since their tarsi have a close resemblance to those of the Lepturidce. 2. The Lamiince, where the typical cha- racters of the family are most conspicuous, appear to follow the last. Their body is narrower, more cylin- drical, and does not much exceed the breadth of the head and thorax ; the front of the former is so broad and flattened, that it is almost square ; and the latter is almost always armed with spines or tubercles. As they walk very slowly, but cling tenaciously, their feet are very different from the last : in the great majority, the two first joints are very short and heart-shaped, and the third, as usual, deeply lobed. In some, approach- ing to Acrocinus 111., the anterior tarsi are greatly dilated in one sex, and conspicuously fringed with hairs : few are ornamented with any bright colours, and none that we know of are metallic. 3. The Cerambycinfe have a general resemblance to the La- miina, in their cylindrical body being nearly of equal breadth throughout; but their thorax and head are somewhat narrower, their legs more slender, and the first tarsal joint rather longer than the next : the ap- pearance of these insects, also, is quite different; their elytra are smooth or glossy, and often ornamented with a beautiful admixture of colours. One (Lophonocerus), from Brazil, covered with bright yellow spots upon a black velvet-like ground, is one of the most elegant capri- corns of this family. As a type of the 4th division, we place the genus Lissonotus, which seems to intervene * This is one of the innumerable instances of abuse of primary charac- ters drawn from these organs. Authors begin their definition of this fa- inily by stating that the second and third tarsal joints are heart-shaped, and the last with a knob at the base; whereas all the three are diversified in almost every leading group. THE FIFTH TYPE DOUBTFUL. 289 between this sub-family and the next. These insects are remarkable for their large frequently tuberculated,, and wrinkled thorax, and the comparative smallness of their head, which is scarcely vertical. The antennae are very long, and the joints in one sex considerably compressed and widened as they approach their termi- nation. Thus, with the robust form and general structure of the feet of the Lamiina, they begin to put on the characters of the Lepturida ; and here, therefore, do we consider the two are united. On the 5th type we feel incompetent to speak with any degree of con- fidence. The SaperdcB Fab. are too closely allied to the LamiintB to be separated as a distinct sub-family. We have seen in museums certain South American Ceramby- cidcB having flabelliform or laminated antennae (Phcenico- cerus) ; but without the power of examining them at this moment, we dare not venture to say how far they are re- lated to Lissonotus, or whether they form a distinct group which would come in as the most aberrant division of this family. Judging theoretically, we should consider this latter supposition more than probable; since such a form is obviously analogous to Mefofantha, Elater, and several other types, filling the most aberrant stations in their own circles. Their shape, also, assimilates very much to certain pubescent Prionidce from South Africa ; and thus they may connect the Lissonotince with the Prionida?. These, however, are mere conjectures, useful perhaps in directing the attention of others to the sub- ject, but by no means sufficient to influence their decision on so intricate a point, yet, for the present,, we shall consider Dorcadion, Parmena, and their affinities,, as occupying this situation. (257.) Hasty arid imperfect as the foregoing sketch of this family may be, it is quite sufficient to show there is a mutual relation between those divisions we have characterised, and those belonging to other assem- blages. This will be apparent on looking to the 290 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. Analogies of the CERAMBYCID^E and the CAPRICORN FAMILIES. Sub-families of the . r . Families of the CERAMBYCID*. Analogies. Capricornes. Laniin*. {^&>^^'} CERAMBYC^ Ceramtycin*. j*^^^^^] I- ("Thorax very large and much de-7 T> Ussonohn*. veloped; head small, j BoOTWCHIDJ* Dorcadionm*. pn^ remarkably short; often j CURCULIONID ^ Acrocinints. Size large ; tarsi sub-cursorial. PRIONID^E. Without dwelling upon all these resemblances., it may be sufficient to remark that Lissonotus offers a striking analogy to Bostrichus, in the enlargement of its thorax, the comparatively diminutive size of its head, and its short feet, circumstances which appear to favour our idea, not only that the two groups are analogous (for that is sufficiently obvious), but that they naturally stand in the situation of affinity we have assigned them. A few details on each of these sub-families, and of the general principle which appears to enter into each, will conclude our remarks on this division of the capricorns. (258.) The Acrocinince, although mostly large, are few in number, and are chiefly, if not exclusively, confined to Tropical America. The Acrocinus longimanus, Lacor- daire informs us, is usually found upon the trunks of trees or near them, and that it rarely occurs beneath their bark ; it has an awkward gait, and drags itself along rather than walks. It sometimes takes flight about nightfall, and this it accomplishes heavily, but with a considerable noise. It seems scarcely capable of directing its pro- gress, as it frequently strikes against trees, and then falls to the ground. It possesses the power, like many other Coleoptera, especially Capricornes, of producing aloud and sharp noise by the friction of its thorax ; and this can be THE DORCADIONINJi:. 29 1 heard at a considerable distance. It is asserted that the umbones, or movable spines upon the thorax of these in- sects, have no use ; this is merely a confession of igno- rance, for is it at all probable that such an apparatus should be formed for no purpose ? We strongly incline to the opinion of Messrs. Kirby and Spence *, who fc hazard the conjecture, that these organs were given to this animal by an all-provident Creator, to enable it to push itself forward, when, in the heart of some tree, it emerges from the pupa, that it may escape from its confinement/' The great length of its legs, and from their being folded beneath it, and the confined position it is in, render a provision of this kind essentially requi- site. Macropus, Qreodera, Microplia y &c., enter into this sub-family. (259.) The Dorcadionina are apterous insects, which sometimes have the elytra soldered together. They chiefly occur upon the ground in sandy districts, and are abundant in the South of Europe, especially on the coasts of the Mediterranean ; others occur at the Cape, and a very few come from the Brazils. These insects have usually an elliptical body and short antennae, and are slow and heavy in their motion : they are usually also of small size. Parmena, Dorcadion, and Morimus constitute the most typical forms, and Phrissoma and Cercegidion appear more aberrant : the latter are peculiar to the southern hemisphere. The Lissonotince comprise Megaderus, Trachyderes, and other allied genera. They are generally gaily marked insects, and are chiefly natives of South America : their elytra are usually smooth and shining ; and frequently their thorax is very considerably tuber culated, and the body somewhat depressed and at- tenuated posteriorly. A common characteristic of the Capricornes, the elongation of the male antennae, is found considerably developed amongst them. The ge- nuine Cerambycince constitute but a small group, and the typical genus is confined to the old world, where, however, it has a wide distribution, occurring as far * Int. to Ent, iv. 587. u 2 292 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. eastward as the Philippine islands. The Lamiina; form a very large group, and range all over the world. They possess great variety of form,, and amongst them are found some of the most eccentric of the entire circle. They are rarely metallic, and their prevalent colours are greys and drabs ; their anterior tarsi are frequently considerably dilated, and their antennae have occasionally a horny hook at the extremity. Some of the most re- markable genera are Gnoma, with its greatly elongated neck, and the terminal joints of its antenna?, forming seg- ments of a circle ; these are natives of the larger islands of the South Pacific Ocean : then Tapeina, in which the head is considerably flattened in front, and produced into a lateral plate, behind which the antennae are in- serted ; TracJiysoma, with its humped camel-like back ; and Xylorhiza, which has all the appearance of a piece of dead stick. [(258, 259.) W. E. Sh.] (260.) The third, or sub-typical, family of the Capri- corn beetles ara the Irtpturidtf, known at once by their slender form, their small and slightly exserted head, which is triangular in front, and by their cursorial legs ; the hinder pair of which are more or less lengthened. The most universal character, probably, among these insects, is the prolongation of the first tarsal joint, which is equal in length to all the others, particularly in the hind legs ; the second joint, also, is not heart-shaped or dilated, but more properly resembles the sides of a wedge : the head is narrower than the thorax ; and the eyes are generally oval, instead of kidney-shaped. The profile of the head, no longer vertical, is directed obliquely forward. Under this family we include most of Latreille's restricted genus Cerambyx, together with all the other floral capricorns, as Leptura, Clytus, Necy- dalis, &c. (26l.) The great majority of these elegant insects, remarkable for their vivid colours and slender form, may be naturally arranged under the following sub- families: 1. The Stenocorince ; where the body is cylindrical, convex, and of equal breadth throughout; ANALOGIES OF THE LEPTTJR1DJE. 293 the thorax ventricose, and the elytra abruptly termi~ nated by two acute spines, similar to those of Acrocina. 2. The Callichromince, where the body and elytra are narrowed from the base. 3. The Lepturince, greatly resembling the last, but head narrow and por- rect at the base: the thorax, also, is narrow in front, and is only spined in one or two types. 4. The Necydalince. And, 5. The Dasycerince, where the general form is not unlike that of Stenocorus ; but the elytra are not spined ; the thorax and head are of equal breadth with the body, and the former, in the typical genera, is con- siderably lengthened ; the thighs or shanks are nearly all clavate, or suddenly thickened at their outer extremity : and the aspect of very many immediately reminds us of the Saperda among the Lamiidce. Looking to them as forming a circle, we shall at once arrange them in the following series, for the purpose of determining their analogies in other groups. Analogies of the LEPTURIDJE and the Sub-families of A ma i nn ; a * Subfamilies of Lepturida. Analogies. Lamiid*. CALLICHROMIN^. Sub-typical. CERAMBYCIN.E. T f Pre-eminently typical ; destitute 7 T . LEPTURIN*. J of metallic bolours. j LAMIINJS. NBCYDAHH*. pho^ax considerably enlarged,and | LISSONOTIN ^. DASYCERIN*. ph^axcyHndrical, unarmed, and j DoRCAmoNIN ^ SxENOCORiNwE. Elytras terminating inacute spines. ACROCINJE. (262.) The only confidence we feel in this table, re- sults from the analogies which appear to exist between the respective groups ; and in a conviction that the two series are naturally distinct. But our analysis has not proceeded sufficiently far to determine the rank either of the Dasycerincp or the Dorcadionlnce : we believe they are representatives of each other ; and as such we have .placed them, provisionally, as sub-families. This ana- u 3 294 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. logy may yet hold good ; even if the groups themselves turn out, upon further examination, to be of different or subordinate ranks. (263.) The Stenochorince present us with some, very interesting genera. In addition to the spines of the elytra, the apex of the joints of the antennae are frequently prolonged into acute spines, as are also in some the extremity of the femora. Uracanthus is dis- tinguished for its narrow very linear form, and Scole- cobrotus for the series of small spines occupying the whole length of each joint of the antennae externally; and Eburia and Elaphidion are gay insects with ivory- coloured spots ; but Chlorida is distinguished for its pale green elytra. (264.) The CallichromincB are very elegant insects, usually of brilliant greens and blues, and are frequently of very conspicuous size, especially in the genus Callichroma itself, in which the posterior tibiae are always compressed into a dilated plate. The type of the sub-family is a British insect, namely, the Aromia moschata, which, like its congeners, as also the species of Callichroma, exhale a rich fragrance much resembling the odour of the otto of roses. This is pro- duced by a white milky secretion more liquid than what we have observed in speaking of the exuding secretion of Meloe. Possibly here, the fluid is a sexual lure instead of a means of defence., as it is always found to be strongest prior to their intercourse. lonthodes and Rosalia are also elegant insects, and the latter is ex- tremely abundant in various parts of Switzerland : the majority of these occur in humid situations, and chiefly inhabit soft wood like the willow. (26,5.) The LEPTURINJE are distinguished from all the rest of the Longicornes by their very distinct neck, which in some, as in Nemotrogus, a large linear Cape insect, is extremely long, as are also the an- tennae, the latter being very slender. The thorax attenuated in front, amply characterises this sub- family, and, together with their porrect mouth, gives THE NECYDALIN^E. 5295 them a peculiarly inquisitive appearance. They are usually very agile, and frequently gaily coloured : this is conspicuous in Leptura, Toxotus, and Strangalia; whereas in Rhamnusium, Rhagium, and Cometes, the legs are short and their gait is heavy. They are fre- quently found upon flowers and the trunks of trees, and many species are natives of this country. The other sub-families are noticed below. (263 265.) W.E. Sh.] (266. ) On the sub-family Necydalina we sh all venture more at large. After our first theoretical arrangement of the Capricornes , we selected this group for minute ana- lysis, with the object of ascertaining how far the result would demonstrate the accuracy of our general distri- bution of the whole tribe. As we have already ex- plained the distinguishing characters of this group, it will be only necessary to impress upon the reader its true typical perfection. The Necydalince represent the Malacodermes, or soft- winged beetles, in the family of floral Capricornes, precisely the same as do the Sta- phylinidcB in the tribe of Predator es, with which, in fact, it is naturally analogous. Now, the great peculi- arity of the Malacodermes and the Staphylinidce is this, that the elytra are soft, and much less developed than in any other type : hence it follows that, as the Necy- dalin^e represent these two groups, those forms which have the most imperfect elytra become the most typical. They are, in short, pre-eminently imperfect in that particular structure, which distinguishes the Coleoptera. The genus Necydalis of Linnaeus accordingly stands at the head of this sub-family, because, of all those forms which compose it, these have the shortest and the most imperfect elytra. (2670 The general aspect of these insects, particularly when alive, and running upon flowers, so closely re- sembles that of the hymenopterous sand-flies [Sphecidce) that even an entomologist is often deceived at the first glance. The wing-cases are so short that the true wings are exposed ; and these, unlike most other beetles, have u 4 29 NATURAL ARRANGE3IENT OF INSECTS'* no transverse fold, but lie upon the long, somewhat pedunculated, body, at their full length. The true Necydali and the Sphecidce frequent the same situations ; both are fond of basking in the sun, and feeding upon the nectar of umbelliferous flowers ; and they may often be captured from the very same plant. Their active gait shows that their structure, like that of all the floral Lamellicornes, is adapted for running. We consequently find the hinder legs remarkably long, while the basal tarsal joint is double the length of the two next. The most remarkable developement of this singular form of beetle, is seen in the Necydalis major Linn., the European type of the genus, at once dis- tinguished by its very short and abruptly truncated elytra. Other sub-genera occur in Tropical America ; one having the thorax globose, the hinder legs hairy, and the elytra more lengthened and pointed: the other has the thorax cylindrical (Odontocera), more like the European type, but the tapering elytra are nearly as long as the body : in both these American types, the thighs are considerably and suddenly swollen. We pass on to the next or sub-typical genus, Vespisoma (^Ves- per us of the French catalogues), where we have the general form of a Necydalis, but with the body shorter, and almost entirely covered by two very narrow elytra, so narrow, indeed, that the whole body does not exceed the breadth of the thorax. Nature seems to have a pecu- liar pleasure in representing her forms under appropriate disguises ; for here ( Clytus} we have beetles clothed in the very colours of bees and wasps, that is, banded and spotted with bright yellow upon a dark ground : the head is short, broad, and abrupt ; and is so much encased in the large globose thorax, as to appear con- founded with it. These, like the Necydali, are fre- quently found upon umbelliferous flowers ; and, under several sub-generic forms, are common both to temperate and tropical countries. The three aberrant genera ap- pear to be represented by Distichocera Kirby , Euryptera, and Cleonia. In regard to the Australian ANALOGIES OF THE NECYDALIN^. 297 however, we cannot speak from personal observation. Mr. Kirby, whose idea we have adopted, expressly mentions its affinity with Necydalis, and its analogy to Rhagium ; and it will be found that both these opinions are verified by the attempt we shall now make to illus- trate their analogies. Analogies of the NECYDALINLE with the CAPRICORN FAMILIES, Genera of the A*j n Families of the Necydalin*. Analogies. Capricornes. NECYDALIS. Head prominent, porrect. LEPTURID.E. Prx ._ CHead obtuse, the base incased? T AMTIfll , 1 within the thorax,front vertical.] J^ 1 ""^ DISTICHOCERA. Thorax large, globose. BOSTRICHIDJE. CLEONIA. Body lengthened, cylindrical. CURCULIONID^. EURYPTERA. Mouth and jaws prominent. PRIONID^E. (268.) It is a remarkable circumstance, that one of the most universal distinctions between the floral and the lignivorous Capricorn beetles, namely, the different insertion of the head, is likewise conspicuous in the smaller group. Necydalis and the Lepturidce feed upon flowers : they are, in their respective stations, pre- eminently typical; and both have the head distinctly projecting beyond the thorax. On the other hand, we see, that as Clytus represents the Lamiidce, it accords with these latter insects in several respects : it is more fond of wood than of flowers ; its structure is more ro- bust ; and the head, like that of a Lamia, is so much sunk in the thorax, that there is no indenture between the two parts. Compare the remaining three genera, again, with the aberrant families of the tribe, and the series of analogies follow in the same order. Disti- chocera is remarkable for its large globose thorax; so also is Boatrichus. The most lengthened and slender beetles in existence are found among the Curculionidce ; while Cleonia, in just the same manner, is the most lengthened and cylindrical of all the aberrant Necyda- lince. But still we want another genus to complete the 298 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. circle ; and this, from all we know of the natural series in other groups, should have exserted jaws, in order to represent the Lucanidcp, the Prionidce, the Staphylinidce, and their corresponding types : no genus of modern systems appears to possess these characters more than Euryptera, a very curious insect we found in Brazil ; its jaws are not, indeed, very decidedly exserted, but the mouth is considerably produced : we are further dis- posed to assign it this station, because it clearly repre- sents Hispa and Lema, which seem to occupy the same station among their congeners as Euryptera here falls into in the sub-family of Necydalince. On looking among the other Lepturidce, for representations of Euryptera, we are immediately struck with its outward similarity to Stenoderus, in the shape of its elytra ; while the beautiful parallel between Distichocera arid Lissonotus is one of those resemblances all can perceive. So far as our analysis has yet extended, the sub-genera of Clytus and Necydalis are in unison with this series of the ge- nera of Necydalince. (269.) We have frequently called the attention of zoologists to a singular fact, which the structure of Distichocera fully confirms. In the rasorial type (or that which corresponds to it among insects), the antennae are either greatly developed, or are of an unusually complicated structure. The tribe of the Capricornes, which represents the rasorial tribe of birds, are accord- ingly remarkable for the excessive length of these mem- bers. In like manner, as Distichocera represents these tribes in the little circle of the Necydalince, so do we find it is distinguished from all the remaining genera by the very same circumstance, namely, the peculiar developement of its antennae. The great prevalence of this structure is again seen in the tribe of Bombyci- dee, or the silk-worm moths, where the antennae are very highly developed; while, in the very smallest group in nature, we have a sub-genus of Necydalis where the antennae appear as if borrowed from a Bombyx. It by ao means follows, however, that all rasorial types possess THE CAPRICORN ES FORM THE RASORIAL TYPE. 2$9 pectinated, or very long antennae ; because,, if so, the bulky Dynastidce should have longer antennae than any of the other Lamellicornes, which they have not : but here we find the same analogy manifested under another character. Rasorial types are pre-eminently horned, or furnished with crests or tubercles, representing the real horns of ruminating quadrupeds. It is therefore under this form that nature shows us which is the rasorial type among the Cetoniadce; and nearly every entomologist who has mentioned these singular and unwieldy beetles, has com- pared them to horned cattle. All the leading types of nature are to be known by some three or four peculiar characters ; but as we recede from the highest point of perfection, some one or more of these will gradually dis- appear : it therefore inevitably follows, that there are comparatively few instances which show a combination of all the typical characters ; because, in every group, the typical examples are much fewer than the aberrant. Hence a rasorial type may be indicated by the possession of horns, without any unusual developement of the an- tennae, as is the case with the Dynastince and the Mega-, sorri'lnce. If both these characters are wanting, nature confers upon the type some other of the rasorial cha- racters, namely, an unusually long neck, as in the Ca- melopardalis, the swan and ostrich among birds, and Agra and Casnonia among the predaceous beetles. If none of these indications of the rasorial type are seen, nature is still consistent ; for she ornaments her type with ocel- lated or rounded spots, in imitation of the peacock that bird which stands at the head of the Rasores, and in which she has consequently concentrated all the rasorial characters in the highest perfection. These remarks, although introduced to illustrate the genus Distichocera, must be considered as applying to all natural groups throughout the animal kingdom. (270.) We shall conclude with a few remarks on the genus Euryptera. Most entomologists, upon a hasty glance, may be tempted to look upon this as a very ano- .malous form, whose admission among the Necydalin 300 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. appears extremely doubtful. A more attentive examin- ation, however, will weaken, if not entirely remove, the doubts. In the first place, the very peculiar structure of the antennae is a strong indication of this affinity ; secondly, it is the only form yet discovered in this sub- family, wherein the mouth and jaws are lengthened and prominent. Theoretically, we have abundant evidence that such a form is to be found in every natural genus; because, without it, we should have no representation of the PrionidcB and their corresponding types. Now, the mouth of Euryptera assumes all the lengthened pointed appearance of that of a bee; while the proximity of the antennae, and the wide termination of the elytra, remind us immediately of Hispa and of Lycus, two groups which, in their own circles, occupy exactly the same station as that we have assigned to Euryptera among the Necyda- lince: these reasons appear to us much more weighty than others, by which it may be urged that Eurypterus, from its lengthened muzzle, is more likely to be the type of the Curculionidfs. If we had to look only to this con- sideration, the analogy is certainly strong ; but how then are we to account for the depressed form of the body, and the dilatation of the elytra? The Curculionidce, and all their representations, the Trogidcs and the Melo- lonthidte, are eminently thick and convex ; the resem- blance, therefore, does not seem sufficiently strong. If an analogy is true, the whole structure of an insect can be illustrated ; for, by comparing it to numerous others, all holding the same station in their respective circles, we get an insight, by every fresh comparison, explana- tory of some one or other of its peculiarities. What other sub-genera helong to Euryptera, we know not ; but a very remarkable type, which we here delineate, appears to connect it with the LepturincB. (271.) In thus attempting, in some measure, to in- dicate those principles upon which the two typical families of the Capricornes, as we conceive, are natu- rally distributed, we feel how much remains to be ac- complished. Our views, as it will be readily perceived, THE DASYCERA. 301 are completely at variance with those who have gone before us ; and yet they have every appearance of coin- ciding with every thing that we have hitherto written upon the natural system. Thus encouraged, we have had less scruple in giving them to the public ; and we hope it may be instrumental in breaking up the present disjointed and empirical mode of studying animals,, and more particularly insects : our great object will then be accomplished. (272.) A few remarks upon the group we have provisionally called Dasycera will close our present sketch of these capricorns. They (Cosmi&oma, Core- mia, Disaulax, &c.) are commonly termed, by collectors, bottle brushes, from the circumstance of a considerable number having fascicles, or tufts of hairs, situated about halfway on their antennae, and sometimes, though rarely, on their hinder feet. These appendages, however, are sometimes found in certain insects, which in all other respects belong to the Lamiida ; while in many of those which seem naturally situated among the Lepturidt, there are great differences in all other parts of their structure. Nothing but analysis, therefore, will de- termine whether these resemblances . are relations of analogy or of affinity. In the mean time, however, we cannot resist the belief that, between the Stenocorince on one side, and the Necydalince on the other, a large portion of these insects will intervene, and constitute the most aberrant sub-family of the floral capricorns. Those which appear to us the most typical, have the thorax cylindrical, nearly half as long as the body, and always smooth ; the head small, truncate, and sunk ; and all these three parts are nearly of equal breadth throughout. In this respect, they considerably resemble the Saperda, but in all other points are totally different. The legs are slender, thighs very clavate, and the first tarsal joint lengthened : the elytra are truncated and unarmed; but, in such as show an affinity to the Stenocorince, they are spined ; while in others, which remind us of the Necy- dalinee, the thorax is short, broadest in the middle, and 302 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. the short antennae much resemble those of Necydalis. It is upon these considerations we ground our helief that the Lepturida form a natural circle of affinity; and that the Dasycerce correspond, in their own group, to the Saperdce, whatever their respective ranks may be. There is an objection, however, against this location of theDasy- cerce, on the score of analogy, which, as few will antici- pate, we shall ourselves mention. If the thorax of insects be urged by some as representing the neck of quadrupeds (a position we cannot admit), then it may be said there is no analogy between the Dasycerce and the swan, the giraffe, and other long-necked Vertebrata, be- cause these are rasorial types, and not the most aberrant. But even admitting this, the long thorax of these insects find their representatives in Brentus, among the Curcu- lionida, and even in a whole order of birds ; for the Grallatores, or waders, have the longest necks, as an order, of all others. However this may be, apparent affinities must not be disturbed for the sake of such ab- struse questions as these, which may be safely put aside until natural affinities are better understood at least, among the Annulosa. (273.) Our fourth family, the Bostrichidce, although of comparatively limited extent, is of a very marked character ; and also, although possessing considerable habitual resemblance, especially between the typical and least aberrant forms, yet in particulars differ much from each other. The most typical structure is for the head to be retractile within the thorax, which is large, sub- globose, and forms a ventricose hood : the body itself is cylindrical. In the most normal forms, the antennae are geniculated and clavate at their extremity, the knob being sometimes solid. In some genera, as in Hylurgus, Hylastes, Scolytus, the head is prolonged, anteriorly, into a truncated snout ; but in Tomicus, Platypus, &c. it is obtuse; in the latter genus, the tarsi are very long and slender, exceeding the tibiae in length. In the closely allied genus Tesserocerus, the basal joint of the antennae is continued, in the male, considerably beyond THE BOSTRICHID^E. 303 the geniculation of the organ, and this process is dilated at its apex into a fornicate appendage with a long fringe,, and, in repose, the two combined meet over the forehead and cover it like a cap. In Tomicus, the elytra are fre- quently retuse at their apex. The little Scolytus is no- torious for the devastation it has caused among the elms in the vicinity of the metropolis, but it is a point not yet quite satisfactorily decided, if it is the insect which is the original depredator, or whether, from some other cause, the tree having fallen into a sickly condition, these insects then visit it, and greatly accelerate its total destruction. The majority of this family are sub-cor- tical dwellers, comparatively few of them piercing into the solid wood. Almost every species has a different mode of forming its gangways, arid in some cases the channels they elaborate are extremely elegant. Between these, which have the closest affinity to our next family, and Bostrichus, Apate, &c., the chief and most marked differences consist in the clava of the antennae being formed of three distinct and separate joints : there is a great difference also in their larvse; those of the latter, where, indeed, the structure of the 1 antennae has a la- mellated indication, being considerably like those of the LamellicorneSj and have long legs, whereas the former are apods, or have but warty tubercles. Those of Apate, &c.also more frequently bore into the solid wood of trees. In AnoUum, and its immediate allies, we observe the an- tennae becoming filiform, the only intimation of its preced- ing structure consisting in the elongation of the three ter- minal joints, which sometimes, &$ii\.Dryophilus > exceed the length of the remainder of the organ. We thus detect an indication of the proximity of Ptinus, in which, however, there is a departure from the xylophagous habits of the group, pointing evidently towards Dermestes, whence we doubtlessly come into close contact with the circle of the Silphidce. By means of Nemosoma, and from it through Trogosita (for it is here we expect the latter must come, proved by that affinity), we find col- lateral affinities impinging clearly upon the Cucujida in 304< NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. the circle of the Prionidce. We have not space here to analyse these relations, and can only hint at them to guide the student's further research. As aberrant con- stituents of this circle, we shall, of course,, find many of the small xylophagous genera,, as Lyctus, Bitoma, &c. &c. (274.) Our fifth family consists of the Curculionidce. It cannot be expected that we can give more than a very general idea of this enormous concourse of insects, which, in Schonherr's monograph, already occupies five octavo volumes of nearly a thousand pages each, and will possibly require as many more to complete it. The described species considerably exceed 5000 in number. The most striking peculiarity in their economy is their being very extensively carpophagous, or feeders upon seeds and fruits: we have already noticed some of their most prominent features, and thence we may assume that those which have the longest rostra, and most strongly geniculated antennae, must, of course, be the most typi- cal in their own circle ; we therefore find them in the genus Balaninusj our common nut weevil, and its affini- ties. Megarhinus and Antliarhinus also offer us striking instances of this characteristic; in the latter, this rostrum is several times longer than the body, and as slender as a stout bristle. Schonherr, in his very arti ficial arrangement of these insects, has widely separated these genera ; he has, however, suggested a new arrangement at the com- mencement of his fifth volume, in which he has turned the whole mass, of what he calls the spurious Curcu- lios, round, to follow the Orthoceri, or those which have not the antennae geniculated, but which are usually long-snouted insects. By this means we have them im- mediately succeeding the Cossoni and Rhyncophora, insects, also, which have long rostra. The filiform Brenthides, as also the Rhinomacerides, Anthribides, and Bruchides, as abnormal forms, are excluded from the genuine series. The most typical Gonatoceri, or those with geniculated antennee, are evidently con- tained in the first division of his Mecorliynchi, namely, THE CURCULTONII)^. 305 the Erirhinides, two forms of which we have already noticed. The position of the legs, the structure and number of the joints of the flagellum of the antennae, the form of the pectus, of the rostrum, and of the lateral channel in the latter, into which the insect can with- draw its antennae, supply the leading characters in the generic distribution of this host of insects. Thus, in some, as in the Cryptorhynchi, the insect has the power of burying its long rostrum in a groove in the breast. Zygops, in this same group, is remarkable for the size and contiguity of its eyes, as also for the com- pression of its legs, and Mononychus for the single claw at the apex of its tarsi. In Mecopus the anterior legs of the male are exceedingly lengthy. We also find lengthy anterior legs among the Rhynchophora, which have not the power of concealing their long ros- trum in the breast. In the latter, the tarsi are con- siderably developed, and they contain the largest genuine weevils, all being truly carpophagous. Protocerius colossum is more than two inches long, and of a pro- portionate bulk ; in length, however, as compared with bulk, the Brenthides are the most conspicuous, for Brenthus barbicornis, a New Zealand insect, is usually two inches and three quarters long, and at its widest part it is not more than two lines wide : but the most bulky of this group are to be found in the short-snouted division, in the genus Brachycerus, wherein we have a species more than an inch and three quarters long, and an inch broad, and all its limbs of a proportionate ro- bustness. These latter insects, which are apterous, occur in sandy deserts, and we have already had occasion to compare them with some of the Pimelias, with which, in habits, they completely agree : they occur in abundance in Southern Africa, Patagonia, and the French coast of the Mediterranean. Apterous insects are very frequent in this group, which also, although it presents very many obscure and black insects, is chiefly remarkable for the brilliant splendour of the majority of its members. A well-known instance of this splendid clothing, and one 306 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. not easily surpassed,, is to be found in the common dia- mond beetle, Entimus imperialis, and its neighbour E. splendidus, insects usually so abundant in the Brazils, that the trees which they inhabit a species of Acacia are more densely covered with them than with their leaves, and which would thus happily prefigurate the gardens of the Hesperides with their golden fruit, here refulgent with the most delicate and varied tints of gems and metals. Cyphus also is very rich in its vestments, yet few surpass the elegant little Coniates Tamarisci, which, upon a golden green ground, has a couple of oblique bands of a bright coppery hue. The colour of these insects, for which we have significantly used the term clothing above, is produced by the imbrication of a multitude of minute scales of a variety of forms, and which under the microscope, for which they prove ad- mirable test objects, exhibit differences of sculpture; and this, from its various reflection of the rays of light, produces all their diversities of tint. Although the colour of the majority of these insects is usually produced by the scales, yet some of intensely brilliant hues are to- tally without them, as in the genus Eurhinus, where we have greens, blues, and purples the colouring of the integument itself unsurpassed in the whole cir- cle of the Coleoptera : these are smooth insects ; but in Rhyncliites, a softened tone is given to their tints by a multiplicity of minute punctures, whence a lengthy pubescence envelopes the creature. One of the most splendid of the latter is the Rhynchites Bacchus, an insect which has derived its specific name from its attachment to the vine, which unfortunately, however, it "loves to destroy/' for in the vineyards of the Continent it is frequently very detrimental. We are prepared to expect many eccentricities of structure in so large a group of insects, and of which we witness on all sides remarkable exemplifications : the thickened snout of Hipporhinus; the two curved spines of the propectus of Diorymerus, as also its humped thorax ; the remarkable obesity of Guioperus ; the conspicuous THE CURCULIONID.E. 307 central strangulation of Hyphantus ; the tabular flat- ness of Homalonotus ; the spinose and tuberculated backs of many Hipporhini and Amycteri, and the very obtuse snouts of the latter ; as also the gibbous forms of Byrsops ; the thickened antennae of Ulocerus and Episus ; the remarkably slender antennae of a small new genus from Van Diemen's Land, in which these organs are longer than the body ; and Eurhamphus, one of the largest of this group, which has its body covered with scattered tufts of erect brown and white hair, all offer striking instances. Being chiefly phy- tophagous insects, for Brachycerus, and some few others, form remarkable exceptions they are, of course, the natives of all countries; and the more luxuriant vegetation becomes, the greater is their population, which is strongly confirmed by their abundance in the Brazils. It is chiefly from the aberrant portions of this large group, that we trace their more direct affinities; thus, by means of Rhinomacer, we have a passage marked towards Mycterus and Salpingus, in the heteromerous division of our Malacodermata, and through Rhinotia to JLycus, in its pentamerous division. In Bruchus^ they direct, by their flabellated antennae, to the Lamellicornes, and by their enlarged posterior thighs to Sagra, in the monilicorn circle; but it is by Mecocerus and Ptychoderes, among the Anthribides, that we have the most evident affinity indicated with the normal Capricornes. Here, also, in the broad short snout of Euparius, Platyrhinus, and Lagopezus, we have an affinity shown with the Scoly tides, in the circle of the Bostrichidce, which is further con- firmed in a different part, namely, to Anobium, &c., by the serrated clava of Ar&cerus. If we may venture an analogy with the Predator es, we have it hinted at in the lengthened neck of Apoderus, which much resembles Casnonia; whence Linnaeus mistook one of the latter for an Attelabus, with which he considered Apoderus as congenerical. [(2?3, 2?4.) W. E. Sh.] SOS NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. CHAP. IX. COLEOPTERA, continued. THE MONILICORNES. (275.) THE MONILICORNES appear a most natural tribe of the Coleoptera, when we look only to the chief types ; but until those, which we shall here term the aberrant forms, are better studied, their precise situ- ation in the series is rather surmised than asserted. This division is eminently distinguished from the Ca- pricorneSy both by the habits and form of the larvae, no less than of the perfect insects. In one sense they are the most typical of all Coleoptera, while in another they are the most aberrant; a paradox which may be thus explained : The whole tenour of our remarks upon this order, when looked at as a whole, goes far to prove that the developement of the superior wings, under the form of hard cases, and great powers of walking, are two of the principal characters of the order. Now, the first of these are more conspicuous among the mo- nilicorn beetles, than in any other tribe; the elytra not merely cover the body in the ordinary manner, but actually, in the typical families, are so much dilated as to project beyond the body, so as to protect the legs; while the thorax, in a similar manner, forms a shield which encircles the head, and completely hides it when viewed from above. These, in fact, are the universal characters of the numerous family of the Cassidce, standing at the head of the tribe ; and which, from thus being concealed, as it were, by a buckler over their bodies and joints, are called tor- toise beetles. Their inferiority, again, to all other THE MONILICORNES. 309 Coleoptera, is shown in a different way. They have the shortest tarsi of all others, and composed of the fewest joints * ; they are consequently the slowest walkers. We thus verify our second proposition, of their being the most aberrant of all Coleoptera, when viewed in op- position to the Cicindelida, the most pre-eminently typical of the order in the powers of locomotion. (276'.) Looking, therefore, to the Cassida, and their near neighbours, the Coccinellida, or ladybirds, and the Chrysomelidte, we see a numerous assemblage of small, thick, globose beetles, with the body very convex on the upper part ; the thorax nearly as broad as the elytra : the head is always small, either sunk in front of the thorax, or concealed beneath it : the antennae are moni- liform, or resembling a string of beads : the legs are short and thick, with the tarsi dilated and heart-shaped; the first joint of the tarsus, in the typical group, being scarcely longer than the second. Primary characters, however, taken from these organs, in the present group, are ab- solutely of no value whatever, for they vary in the most remarkable manner in almost every family ; nay, some- times, in the most natural genera. Among these insects, the Cassida are most remarkable for the singularity of their forms, and the Chrysomelida for the brilliancy of their metallic colours. MacLeay, looking also to other characters, perceived it was one of the most natural groups in the whole order. He defines it as having ' ' a hexapod and distinctly antenniferous larva, with a sub- ovate, rather conical body, of which the second segment is longer, and of a different form from the others, so as to give the appearance of a thorax." This definition is more especially taken from the larva? of Cassida and Coccinella, the two typical families of the tribe. Among , exploded system taken up again, and called " Modern Classification," be- cause " it is in general use, and of easy application : " so is the binary 310 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. the aberrant groups, however, there are several modifi- cations, more or less influenced by their affinity to in- sects beyond their own circle,, and by the analogies they bear to others. The great majority of the Monilicornes live upon the leaves of plants ; but there is an extraor- dinary exception in regard to the Coccinellin&, or lady- birds, whose larvae are carnivorous, feeding most vora- ciously, as is well known, upon the Aphides, or plant lice. This is another marked instance, within this order, of herbivorous and raptorial insects being actually as- sociated in the same group ; and yet, that they follow each other in a natural series, there can be no doubt. This carnivorous propensity seems to be shared also by the Hispidae, but is quite unknown among the larvae of the other families. Did our space permit, it would not be difficult to show that the ladybirds correspond in their own circle to the predatorial tribe, just as the Cassidce represent the Lamellicornes. (277.) The three aberrant families which we consider as more or less connected with the two preceding, are the Clythridce, \heErotylidce, and the Hispidce, each differ- ing, in a striking manner, from the other, both in their larva and perfect state, yet all possessing certain cha- racters by which they approximate to the typical structure. In regard to Cryptocephalus, it is impossible to determine, without analysis, whether the insects form a part of the Chrysomelidce, or of a distinct family. The nature of their larvae, which is stated to be unknown*, might help us to determine this question. However this may be, we have no doubt that the genus Clythra is the type of a dis- tinct family, analogous to theAcrocinince by the elongated fore-legs of the perfect insect, and to the Hesperidce by their larvae : the species are few, and are remarkable for the large size of their heads. The Erotylidce are the largest insects contained in this tribe, and differ so much among themselves, that, from not having been properly analysed, we cannot separate the true from the false * Griff. Cuv., p. 146. ANALOGIES OF THE MOXILICORNES. 311 affinities. We consider the types, however, to be per- fectly distinct from, although strongly resembling in outward appearance, the Silphidce or Pimelidce (the cor- responding group in the tribe of Predatores) ; and that the Stenochice enter herein. Finally comes the genus Hispa, as the type of a family, alike distinguished in its larva and its perfect state. By this form, and Alurnus, we again reach the Cassid&, and complete the circle of the Monilicornes which are here epitomised. Analogies of the MONILICOBN Families. Families of the Anaimri^ Tribes of the MonUicorns. lalogtes. Coleoptera. CASSIDJE. Pre-eminently typical LAMELLICORNES. CHRYSOMELIDJE. Sub-typical. PREDATORES. CLYTHRID.E. Elytra soft. MALACODERMES. EROTYLIDJS. Most aberrant ; tarsi variable, MONILICORNES. HISPIDJE. Larva feeding internally. CAPRICORNES. Every principle of analogy drawn from various groups of vertebrate animals, no less than of insects, shows that Cassida is the pre-eminent type of the whole tribe ; and we have seen that such is also the station of the lamelli- corn beetles. Coccinella, in fact, although raptorial in its larva, is but a sub-family of the Cassidcz; and this station, confirmed by analysis, shows it to be the raptorial division. In what manner the Chrysomelida represent the Predatores, otherwise than in holding the second sta- tion in its own circle, does not appear; but the soft elytra of the ClythridcB seem to represent the Malacodermes. The resemblance, again, of such genera as Erotylus and Stenochia to Blaps and many of the Silphidce, is so close, that it is difficult to distinguish one from the other ; while the larva of Hispa is stated to be so like that of the capricorns, that we cannot be very far wrong in assimilating them : nevertheless, until the true station of Sagra and Donacia have been worked out, we look upon the station here assigned to Hispa as more than x 4 312 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. doubtful. However this may eventually be decided, it is quite clear that Hispa is a representation of Lycus, with which, but for its obvious affinity, as we think, to Alurnus, we should have placed it. Hattica appears a subordinate division,, or sub-family, among the Chryso- melidce ; but that which is held by the Cleri of La- treille must also be left for future investigation.* A rapid survey of the chief groups, which probably enter into each of these families, will now be given. (278.) This is doubtlessly the least elegantly diver- sified, in the forms of its contents, of any of the divisions of the Coleoptera : a great number of genera yet uncha- racterised exist in it ; and it also contains many very abundant in the species. A more than adequate com- pensation, however, for this uniformity and inelegance of shape, is made by the remarkable brilliancy of the insects incorporated in this group, which contains some, perhaps, more dazzling than any in the whole circle of beetles. In confirmation of this assertion, we need but mention the single genus Lamprosoma, some of the species of which sparkle more vividly than even the most lustrous gems, and are equally fitted, as they have also been used, for personal decoration. We will first treat conjunctively the Cassidida and Hispida, the first and last members of our circle, and, consequently, where it is confluent. The structural differences between the two families are but slight, and consist chiefly in the form of the thorax and the developement of the head, which, in the Cassididee, is concealed by the enlargement of the anterior portion of the thorax ; whereas, in the Hispidce, it is entirely exposed. The South American genus Imatidmm appears to connect the two forms, in which the head is less exposed than in Hispa, and the thorax less developed than in Cassida. The insects of the latter group are usually of small size, and the typical genus itself is of universal distribution : they are much * Mr. MacLeay conjectures they belong to the same tribe as Meloe and Mordella,tha,t is, to the Malacodermes ,- a supposition which scenes to sn* highly probable. GENERA OF MONILICORNES, 313 more brilliant in their colours when alive than dead, which then fade ; although they may he renovated for a short time by immersion in boiling water. Some have the disk of the elytra elongated perpendicularly into a tall spine, presenting a convenient hold for removing them from plants ; others have it elevated pyramidically : they present a good deal of difference in the outline of their form ; some being quadrate, but the most regular and usual figure is a perfect oval. Their larvae possess the singular habit of covering themselves with their ex- crement, which is held suspended over the body by means of a furcated process originating from the apex of the abdomen ; and this crust they have the power of raising or depressing to suit their convenience. They feed upon the leaves of plants, upon the surface of which they take their transformations. The CoccineL lidce, which we have above associated with them, have, as we have there also shown, totally different habits, being carnivorous. The perfect insects are very convex, frequently completely hemispherical : their tarsi have but three distinct joints ; and their antennae are short and gradually clavated, the articulations of the club being transverse. They are very numerous, and occur in all countries ; and are sometimes so prolific in individuals, that upon our coasts we have, in some years, seen the cliffs and shores densely covered with them. Such appa- ritions are welcome to hop growers, who may then expect redundant harvests, as the Coccinella, or ladybird, feeds vo- raciously upon his chief enemy, the Aphis. Chilocorusand Scymnus, in the same sub-family, have the same habits. In this group we must also associate the Endomychi, the majority of which feed upon funguses. These insects are ovate, convex, with the thorax usually much nar- rower than the abdomen, and either quadrate or trape- ziform. Our solitary British species of the genus is of bright pale vermilion, studded with black spots; and occurs, sometimes, beneath the bark of trees, in consider- able profusion. The exotic Eumorphus has the sides of the elytra, in some species, dilated like Cassida, and 314* NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. extending considerably beyond the abdomen : their an- tennae are dilated into an abrupt, compressed, three- jointed clava ; and in some the inside of the anterior tibia of the male has, towards its apex, a long decumbent spine. Other cognate genera have not the sides of the elytra enlarged. (279-) Our next sub-family, the Chrysomelidce, are convex insects, generally ovate: they differ from our second section of the preceding, in having four obvious joints to the tarsi; antennae not clavate; and their larvae, at least those of the type, are naked, and feed upon the leaves of plants, leaving nothing but the fibrous skeleton. The Galerucidce, which contain also Halticdy but we think very incorrectly, considering the different structure and habits both of larva and imago, are a component portion of the present family: the latter are remarkable for the great enlargement of their posterior legs, which gives them the power of leaping ; and they are the only insects, throughout the phyto- phagous division of the Coleoptera, that possess this power. Their larvae and themselves are exceedingly destructive to plants ; and our farmers have frequent occasion to execrate their existence, on account of their spoliation of turnip crops, one of these little skipping insects being the well-known and formidable turnip fly ; their larvae feed between the membrane of leaves, upon the parenchyma. Tritoma and Triplax, which British entomologists have usually associated with the Engidce, evidently come into this group somewhere ad- jacent to Chrysomela : they are fungi vorous insects; and some of the exotic species are very conspicuous for size. The types of the sub-family Galeruca are formed like the preceding, but they do not jump, and occur chiefly in humid situations. (280.) Our next family, the Clythrida, are all insects of a heavy obtuse form ; sometimes, as in Chlamys, of a rough and very unequal surface, more resembling a cluster of irregular crystals than an insect : it is exclusively American. Clythra itself is more THE EROTYLID^E, SI 5 elongate, nearly cylindrical, and very obtuse at both extremities ; it has short serrated antennae. Cryptoce- phalus is of a somewhat similar form ; but its antennae are usually very long, especially in the males, and slightly clavate at the apex. Its head, also, is retractile within the thorax, whence its name ; whereas in Clythra it is deflexed, and has very prominent mandibles. The latter appears confined to the Old World; whereas Cryptocephalus, w r hich is a very numerous genus, nearly 200 species being known, has a universal range. The larvae of the insects of this family have a peculiar ap- pearance, very unlike the neighbouring families, and more like those of the Lamellicornes, being consider- ably swollen at the posterior extremity, and frequently curved. Like the Cassidce, these insects use their ex- crement as a protection, forming a case of it, into which they retire, protruding only their heads and legs. Many other genera as the beautiful Colaspis, Eumol- pus, and Lamprosoma belong to this group ; the latter exclusively American, and of considerable refulgence, as we have before observed, and whence Mr. Kirby named it generically. (281.) The ErotylidcB are our next family, and have, like the Eumorphi, an enlarged compressed club to the antennae ; the body very gibbous, the gibbosity almost angulated; and they have also longer legs than the cognate families: they are fungivorous insects. It is exceedingly remarkable, that several truly heteromerous genera find their complete analogies within this circular group of insects ; for we cannot consider them close affinities, although the resemblance is frequently so great, that any but a skilled entomologist would, from their appearance, place them with the genera they re- semble. This shows how important it is to divest ourselves of the influence of appearance, and to examine carefully ; for it is particulars only that can confirm identity. As instances of these deceptive forms, I need mention but a few; namely, Spheniscus, Nilio, Cossy- phus, and Helceus. Although the structure of parts 31 6 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. would justify our placing Languria in this sub-family, yet its general form is so dissimilar, it being very elon- gate and linear, that we consider systematists ought to find a more appropriate place for it. We cannot think that, like Tritoma and Triplax, it is fungivorous. (282.) The Hispida are our fifth family, and, from their close affinity to the Cassidce, thus complete, as we have before observed, the circle. They are depressed insects, with short legs, and porrect moniliform an- tennae. The typical genus is usually surrounded by spines, which give it a formidable appearance, as well as a name. Although the structure of the perfect in- sect associates it very closely with our first family, yet the form and habits of its larva as widely separate them ; for the larva of the present feeds, like that of Haltica, between the membranes of leaves, upon their parenchyma. This larva is robust and of a tapering form, and undergoes all its transformations within the leaves ; different species frequenting different plants. The largest insect of the group is contained in this family, in the Brazilian genus Alurnus^ which seems to replace there the Hispa of the Old World ; and yet this insect is only comparatively large ; and the character of the whole group is to contain insects of small dimensions. (283.) There being no greater difference between Hispa and Cassida than we find between Haltica and Galeruca, we may still hesitate whether we might not introduce Sayra, and its affinities, into the place of the Hispida, and transpose these into the circle of the Cassida; but whether this be their confirmed position or not, we cannot have a better opportunity to notice the few conspicuous genera that would otherwise want a locality. Sagra is eminently distinguished for the enormous size of its posterior femora, and its long curved posterior tibiae, thus greatly resembling the structure of Leucospis and Chalcis among the Hymenoptera ; for as, in them, this structure is unaccompanied with the power ,of leaping, a similar incapacity and structure we observe HABITS OF DONACIA. 31? also in Bruchus. The Sagree are beautifully coloured insects, of a green, blue, or a rich purple vinous tint. We find this family containing other genera of a similar form, as Megamerus, a rare New Holland genus ; and Megalopus, from South America ; and we know other African forms yet undescribed. A closely allied genus, Donacia, is, perhaps, one of the most beautiful of the Coleoptera; they are metallic, and of every variety of tint : their larvse feed within sub- aquatic plants ; and it is upon these that the perfect insect is found, for a short time, about midsummer : these may be termed, also, sub-aquatic, for they have the power of walking down water plants considerably beneath the surface it is presumed, to deposit their eggs; and to enable them to retain their hold, we find them furnished with very powerful claws, by which they tenaciously adhere. This is a structure evidently appropriated to this purpose ; for we find it again, but with increased developement, in Macroplea, which has similar habits, and belongs to the same family ; and in Macronychus, which has the habit of clinging to floating wood in strong currents, and be- longs to a group closely allied to Parnus and Dryops. The genus Lema, or Crioceris, will terminate our notice of the monilicorn Coleoptera. These insects seem a con- necting link between Galeruca and the Sagridce; like the former, they are frequently very destructive : the little black larva of one species especially, the C. Asparagi, de- stroying the crops of asparagus, and the C. Merdigera being equally obnoxious to the white lily ; here, however, less detrimental to the results of men's industry and ex- pectations, than in the preceding case. They are elegant and gaily coloured insects. [(278283.) W. E. Sh.] 318 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. CHAP. X. COLEOPTERA, continued. ON THE MALACODERMES. (284.) THE MALACODERMES, or winged tribe of beetles, is composed of those genera, where the elytra are either remarkably soft, or much abbreviated : of these, the ge- nera following, mostly representing sub-families, seem to be the chiefly typical: Lampyris, Meloe, Cantharis, Lytta, Lycus, Dictyoptera, &c. We adopt the expressive name given to the majority of these insects by Latreille ; but we by no means include all he has arranged among his Malacodermes, and we incorporate others, as is ap- parent even in the foregoing list, which he has placed in widely different situations. Mr. MacLeay seems to be the only naturalist who has had any clear conception of this group, one of the most natural in the whole order, to a philosophic mind, but altogether incomprehensible to a mere methodist, who is guided by methods built on the form of the palpi or the joints of the tarsi. True it is, that soft-bodied insects, with imperfectly formed elytra, are scattered in many other tribes, as the Staphy- UnidcB among the Predator es, several forms belonging to Prionidce, and many others in the Lepturidce, as Necy- dalis, &c. ; but as, in other parts of their structure, they retain all the characters of the groups to which they severally belong, there is no danger of their being mistaken or confounded with the true Malacodermes, they are merely representatives, not congeners. In the slight sketch we are now employed upon, any attempt to define a group so varied, by precise characters appli- cable to the whole, would be altogether premature, even THE LAMPYRID^E. 319 were it practicable. It is sufficient to state, therefore, that not merely the elytra, but the whole body and limbs, of these beetles are soft ; that nearly all are very much depressed ; that the elytra do not embrace the body, as in ordinary beetles ; and that the head is never sunk in the thorax. Whether any subordinate characters may be furnished by the larvae, it is impossible to say. It seems, however, that in more than one instance, among the typical forms, these are furnished with cau- dal appendages, a circumstance which tends, in this in- stance also, to corroborate MacLeay's impression of this being the thysanuriform type of the Coleoptera; in which case it would be perfectly analogous to Podura by its larva, to Staphylinus by the perfect insect, and to all others related by analogy to these groups. (285.) As we are now proceeding by synthesis, we shall make no attempt to throw these insects into a circular series, a process which might rather tend to retard the investigation they require, than to strengthen our present theory. Nevertheless, as some mode of ar- rangement becomes absolutely necessary, we shall inti- mate what appear to us for reasons subsequently stated the primary types or families of the whole. These may be represented by the following five genera : 1. Lampyris ; 2. Meloe ; 3. Lymexilon ; 4. Mor- della; and, 5. Lycus. (286.) The Lampyridce, or glowworms, if not the most typical, are certainly the sub-typical family, of the whole order. Its most predominating character is to have the thorax dilated into a shield, the margins of which project on every side, and very often entirely con- ceal the head ; the legs are short, with all the joints un- usually compressed, the tarsi of nearly equal thickness throughout, and the apparent joints only four. The an- tennae are variable in the different genera : in some, they are remarkably pectinated ; in others serrated ; many are merely compressed; while, in the aberrant divisions, they are almost filiform. The body is always long, generally narrow, and remarkably soft. The genus Amydetes, 320 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. where the antennae are remarkably developed, and the head completely hidden under the dilated margin of the thorax, is probably the most typical form : it contains, no doubt, its own sub-genera ; but the variations of the antennae are so numerous, differing in almost every spe- cies, that no reliance must be placed upon these mo- difications, for sub-generic characters.* It is generally imagined, that the great majority of the typical Lampy- ridcB, like those of the South of Europe, are luminous : this supposition, however, is against our personal expe- rience. We have seen, on a summer's night, in the suburbs of Genoa, the air perfectly illuminated with millions of one of these species ; but this we never wit- nessed in Brazil. We do not remember, indeed, to have remarked the luminosity of any one of the numerous Lampyrida found in that country, during any part of our travels in Tropical America. Several other forms, more or less related to these insects, enter within the family : those, for instance, having theexserted head of Latreille's Pyrochroides, as our Pyrochroa rubens, where the tho- rax is still nearly orbicular, but reduced to the ordinary dimensions, serves to indicate the passage between this family and the Cantharidce; while the approach, on the other side, to Lycus, is still more evident. Latieille, indeed, includes the latter insects as a part of the Lam- pyridoe; and the analogies of both may, possibly, show he is quite correct in this, particularly as we should then have but little scruple in raising his Cleri to the rank of one of the aberrant families : but at present we are chiefly guided by synthesis ; and when we see so strong a resemblance between many of the Brazilian species of Lycus and of Hispa, we cannot but suspect that these two groups, standing at the confines of their respective circles, connect the Monilicornes with the Malaco- dermes y in other words, that this is a relation of affi- nity, rather than of analogy. (287.) The next typical family, or the Cantharidce, * See figures 4, 5, and 6. on plate 39. of Griffith's Cuvier, vol. xiv. STRUCTURE OF THE MALACODERMES. 321 may be represented either by Lytta Fab., or Meloe. These insects differ most materially from the former; the thorax, instead of being large, dilated, and flattened, is small, very narrow, and convex ; while the head is broader than the thorax, large, cordiform, and bent considerably downwards ; it is so much exserted, or de- tached from the thorax, that the neck is seen externally : the tarsi are unlike all other insects out of this tribe ; they are rather compressed than depressed, and are so nearly of the same thickness, that their slightly cu- neated shape is not at first perceived; such, at least, is the case with Meloe, Mylabris, and certain forms more allied to the typical Cantharidce ; but in others, these parts are considerably modified : in Lytta, for instance, they are much more lengthened, often very slender, and the claws on the joint appear as if double. The great enlargement of the head, in comparison to the thorax, appears to us the most prevalent character running through this family, and is more especially developed in Horia. (288.) We have seen that, in Meloe, the elytra are more abbreviated than in any other group yet noticed; but in some of the Lymexylonid(Z y \he$e organs are generally re- duced so much as merely to resemble a small scale, almost precisely like those of many of the Staphylinidce. Like them, also, they have the thorax square, and the body greatly depressed, particularly seen in the individuals of the genus Atractocerus. Many of these singular forms so much resemble the Cantliaridce, that Linnaeus included them in that and the genus Meloe. Upon these grounds, we consider the Lymexylomda as forming a distinct family, which, by means of the Pselaphi and the StaphylinidcB, connect the two extremes of the entire order of Coleoptera, and unite the five tribes into one great circle. (289-) The two remaining groups, which appear to form aberrant families in this tribe, are represented by the genera Mordella, and either Lycus or Clerus : the former appears to us to be almost certain ; but, as we Y 322 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. have before observed, some difficulty arises in deciding which of the two latter should stand in this situation. The short obtuse head of the Mordellidce, of equal breadth, and almost sunk in the fore part of the thorax, is without parallel in this tribe, and immediately re- minds us of the E later idee and other analogous forms, a resemblance rendered doubly evident by the enlarge- ment of the thorax. If the Cleri do not form a sub- ordinate group in the family of the Cantharidce, then it will take the place, in all probability, of Lycus, and thus present a direct analogy to its prototype Bostrichus, in the Capricorn circle. If, on the other hand, Lycus intervenes between Mordella and Lampyrus, there are not wanting species of the former, which, in their pec- tinated and nearly serrated antennae, the rugosity of their elytra, and the form of their thorax, render such a passage in some degree probable. It is obvious, how- ever, that, in the rapid manner we are now proceeding (imposed upon us from the vastness of the subject), all such minor difficulties must be left for analysis. If, in constructing the tribe before us, we have brought together the elements of a natural group, and thereby placed, under one head, a multitude of insects now scat- tered over the whole of the Coleoptera, our chief object will be gained. The next step will be to analyse these groups, and appropriate to each its respective genera and sub-genera. This task must be undertaken by those who confine their attention to small divisions, without embracing, as we have done, the whole animal kingdom. Although we shall not attempt, under these circum- stances, to construct a regular table of analogies for this tribe, there are, nevertheless, some resemblances which are too striking to be passed over. Setting aside the obvious similarity between Hispa and Lycus, which we deem, for the present, an affinity, it is not a little singular how strongly the Cassidce are represented by the Lampyrida : in both, the elytra project considerably over the sides of the body, without embracing it ; and in both, the margins of the thorax are dilated so much THE HABITS OF THE MALACODERMES. 323 as to hide the head either partially or entirely. Thus we find the two typical families, at least,, have their direct analogies in the neighbouring circle of the Moni- licornes; and this fact, although insufficient to com- pensate for the absence of the other analogies, tends to show that, in the typical groups, at least, we cannot greatly err. (290.) The habits of the insects are of a mixed cha- racter : many are exclusively carnivorous, for instance, those which are parasitical ; others are only carnivorous in their larva state ; whereas, in others, in this state, they are herbivorous, and their taste for flesh is acquired only on assuming their perfect condition. We find in this group, likewise, structural peculiarities of a very marked character, for we have here both heteromerous and pentamerous insects. We have already mentioned some of the chief distinctions of our first family, the Lampyrida, for instance, namely, their phosphorescent luminosity, which we are assured is the beacon of love, the females being frequently apterous ; and as a seem- ing corroboration of this, it is the female which is the most brilliant. They appear to possess a control over its exhibition, and which is evidently a wise provision ; for this " beaming lamp " would attract their enemies as well as their friends ; and what was intended for their preservation and continuance, would otherwise be the guide to their destruction. It is the under side of the terminal segments of the abdomen which display this brilliancy ; and although we have stated above, that we never observed this phosphorescence in the Brazils, we do not mean to say that it is improbable, for the Brazil- ian species equally possess the analogous pale spots and segments, whence the light issues in those European species we are acquainted with. This family is very numerous, and contains many very natural genera : the most remarkable are those with greatly developed an- tennae, as Amydetes, in which they consist of at least twenty joints, each of which throws off a long curving plume ; Phengodes, also, where, however, the antennae Y 2 324 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. retain the normal number of eleven joints, are not outvied in their beauty by the last, for here each joint emits a double convoluted feather. In Lamprocera, which also throws out from each joint a double branch, these are porrect and divergent ; but in others, the antennae are simple. In the typical Lampyris, the females are apterous ; and in the proximate Phosphcenes the elytra are abbreviated : in Luciola, they are entire ; and the species of the latter are sometimes so prolific, that on a summer's night they completely fill the air, and sparkle about in their erratic vagaries, presenting an agreeable spectacle, and one which the Luciola Italica constantly exhibits to our absentee countrymen. Species of the three last are those which chiefly occur in Europe ; the type, only, ranging as far north as our island. Tropical countries, and especially South Ame- rica, seems to exuberate in them ; thus compensating in an additional instance, in those regions, by the prolific energy of physical phenomena and powers, for the debasement and enervation of intellectual and moral characteristics. Like the neighbouring genus Drilus, Lampyris feeds upon snails ; and the former genus is remarkable for its fleshy larva-form female, which, we believe, wholly lives within the shells of snails. (291.) Passing to the next family, we appear to enter it by its pentamerous division, or those insects which have the greatest affinity to the preceding. We thus proceed by means of Telephorus, a genus of universal distribution : Malthinus is distinguished for its abbre- viated elytra and prominent eyes ; and in the next sub-family, the MelyrinfB^ we observe Malachius, which has the power of projecting from various parts of its thorax, under excitement and irritation, large fleshy ve- sicular appendages, the uses of which are not correctly known. By means of the next sub- family, the Dasytes, we have an intimation of the proximity of the Cleri to this circle, if not constituting a family of it : a very easy transition is effected from the Tekpkorina to the typical heteromerous Cantharidce ; for ia general habit THE CLAIMS OF INSECTS TO ATTENTION. 325 the insects are remarkably similar, especially to an in- experienced eye. It is from this sub-family that we obtain the officinal Cantharides, so extensively used as s^ vesicatory. Insects here, again, put forth a claim to our consideration and notice, and are not such trivial objects, or so despicable, as it pleases many to consider them. For, thus having with the silkworm clothed us, and this clothing then gaily coloured and decorated by the cochineal insect (Coccus Cacti), the bee lights up our houses with its wax, and with its honey it furnishes our tables with a luscious luxury ; and when the intem- perate enjoyment of this produces repletion and inflam- mation, another insect is offered us, in the blister beetle, to cool our fever, and to restore us to health. Nor are the uses of insects confined to these few ; and perhaps the indirect benefits we derive from them are more sub- stantial than those which are more obvious: yet these necessarily involve the reflection of how many thousands of our fellow creatures are daily occupied in, and derive their whole means of living from, the cultivation and produce, and the manufacture of the produce, of these creatures. If we view their study, even merely with the eyes of the political economist, all this must strike us; and besides, who can say that an insect may not be discovered, which shall surpass all yet known in confer- ring benefit on the human race : and surely, when we reflect on the devastation and injury caused by others, the study ought to be promoted upon the principle of self-defence. With all these, and the additional and superior object to be obtained from their study, by its opening to us a large chapter of the wisdom and good- ness of God in the creation, pray let us hear no more of entomology being talked of as an idle and frivolous pur- suit. To return from this digression : the insect called " the Spanish fly," is a beetle of a richly brilliant green colour ; it is found throughout Europe; and within the last few years, it has occurred in great abundance in various parts of the South of England. Whether our native species would be as efficient for medicinal pur- Y 3 326 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. poses, as those coming from a hotter climate, we are un- prepared, in the absence of the requisite experiments/ to say; but it is certainly to be regretted that such have not been made, and that, in lieu of it, paupers were employed in Suffolk and Essex to collect them and to burn them. In the East, various species of Mylabris and Lytta seem equally well known to possess, and are used for similar purposes. We may here, again, further remark, that almost the whole of this family is excessively prolific in the produce of individuals; for, of the majority, in their proper season, their peculiar habitats literally swarm with them. In this sub-family we observe very many striking structural peculiarities, notwithstanding a tolerably general uniformity of ap- pearance, excepting only in a few instances. Thus, in this type, we have moniliform antennae ; in Hy~ cleus, MylabriSy &c., these organs are considerably enlarged at their apex, differing generally in the num- ber of their joints. (Enas has them fusiform; and in Lytta they are attenuated towards their apex. They are all more or less peculiar for the structure of the claws of their tarsi : thus, in Lydus these are strongly serrated beneath, and in Tetraonyx they are bifid, as well also in other genera, and particularly so in Meloe, which presents, perhaps, the greatest divergence from typical characters, if we except only some apterous females, of any insects throughout the Cokoptera. They are soft, swollen insects, apterous, but having abbre- viated elytra, which are rounded at their extremity, and lap over each other. They possess the property of exuding, when captured, a yellow, oleaginous liquid, which stains the fingers, and has a somewhat foetid or faint smell, not unlike that ejected by Coccinella; whereas that of Timarcha, among the Chrysomelida, is of a sanguineous hue, and more watery and profuse. Much obscurity still envelopes the natural history of the flfetoe : it has been assumed that those little Pediculi, found so frequently upon many species of bees, espe- cially Andrence, whence Mr. Kirbygave them a specific DISCUSSION RELATIVE TO MELOE. 327 name, is the larva of this insect ; and that it resorts to the bees for the purpose of being conveyed into their nests, to feed there upon the provision collected for the larva bee. Some degree of plausibility is given to these statements, from the circumstance of very similarly con- structed and equally active creatures being bred from the yellow masses of eggs deposited in excavated holes by the Meloe ; and thus these statements have received the sanction, and grown into the belief, of many emi- nent entomologists. Having thus had the seal of au- thority stamped upon them by such men as De Geer, Latreille, St. Fargeau, and Erichson, it might be con- sidered rash to question their accuracy ; for this opinion would, of course, be the result of careful and rigorous inquiry. There is, however, drawn out opposite this formidable array, a phalanx of great men, whose pa- tient accuracy of investigation is not to be impugned, or their judgment questioned; for here we have Swam- merdam, Kirby, Walckenaer, and Leon Dufour, who all treat it as an error ; and the strongest probability of correctness consorts itself with them. The first cir- cumstance that strikes us in the inquiry, is, the appa- rently infirm footing that the science stands upon ; for here we have a dispute between men competent in every respect for the investigation, whether a certain creature is a perfect insect, for if it be a Pediculus it must be so, or the larva of another in its first stage of develope- ment ! Upon the very threshold, we have the strongest presumptive evidence that it cannot be the latter ; for success has never accompanied even the greatest care to breed these supposed larvse, although many individuals have tried ; and they have still remained the same little active, hexapod, double- tailed creatures they originally were, neither increasing in size, nor altering in shape, and have thus continued until they have at last dispersed or died. The arguers pro have attributed this to their not having proper food, or some particular in their mysterious economy, insoluble even to the most anxious wish to elucidate the whole difficulty of the question ; Y 4 328 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. and, of course, the arguers con have availed themselves of it to strengthen their views. It must not, however, be inferred, that the point has been canvassed for the sake of disputing only, for this would be beneath the great men whose names occur in the discussion ; but it is the circumstance of a fact being withheld from our knowledge, and continuing involved in its original ob- scurity, even after the researches of two centuries, that gives a permanent interest to it. Curiosity has for a characteristic an inveterate dislike to be thwarted in its pursuit, and satisfaction ; and an incentive stimulus is here given to it, by the assumed peculiarity of the case contradicting what we know of all analogical develope- ment. Our view is, that there is a strong resemblance between the two creatures, but that they are not iden- tical ; and the probability of this is somewhat strength- ened, by the larva of the neighbouring Cantkaris being also much like these hexapods. A further corrobora- tion of our view is derived from a statement made by Frisch, which appears to have been altogether over- looked in the discussion : whether this has proceeded from later entomologists feeling satisfied with the luminous statement made by Latreille, of all that he knew of the history, derived chiefly from De Geer, he not knowing German, and the description of De Geer ; or whether the subsequent inquirers have been uncon- versant with the German language, and therefore could not test De Geer's accuracy, in whom the important omission must have been accidental, we know not ; but the fact is, that Frisch, who wrote before 1730, for it is in his 6th Treatise, and we have an edition of the 7th, dated 1728, explicitly says, " After numerous successive changes of skin, in the last of which they acquire their wing-shaped cases, they remain during the winter in the clayey earth, where no humidity can reach them, until the following year, about the month of May." Here is a positive statement made by an accurate observer, clearly from the observation of factSj and certainly without bias, as his remarks were DOUBTS UPON THE ASSUMED LARVA OF MELOE. 329 made more than thirty years before the subject was first mooted. It is to be regretted that Frisch is not more ample in his particulars ; for we are still left uncertain at what stage of the developement, or at what change of the skin, these very active creatures are transformed into the heavy,, dull larvae they become when they have ac- quired their full size, in which state they are well known. The change, we conceive, must be made early, or these larva? must early bury themselves, and thus avoid detection ; otherwise their increased size and ac- tivity would not so entirely have escaped all accidental discovery as they seem to have done. We have given more space to this subject, from its being one of the most interesting inquiries connected with entomology, than our limits would otherwise have justified ; for, in point of interest, it is certainly not exceeded by the obscurity that hangs over the natural history of the Stylops, in connection with which we may here mention incident- ally, although it bears upon the point we have been al- luding to, that these Stylops* have been observed to have a hexapod parasite, which were detected creeping out of the head of its larva, protruding through the segments of an Andrena. May not this be the larva of the Pediculus? which is thus necessarily found upon bees, and occasionally upon bee-like flies, Eristalis, Syrphus, &c. ; their instinct being deluded by the resem- blance, when these Diptera have alighted upon flowers, where these Pediculi have found themselves, having strayed from the bee when it visited the blossom. We throw this out as a suggestion. (292.) To pass on from this interesting subject, we observe some curious particulars of structure in this family, in* the greatly enlarged head of Horia, a species of which, according to Lansdown Guilding, is parasiti- cal upon the bee Xylocopa teredo; and another species is distinguished by its enormously developed mandibles. The closely allied Cissites has largely incrassated poste- * Westwood, Trans. Ent. Soc. ii. 186. 330 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. rior femora, a structure observable in other genera of this family group, as we see in Oncomera, Nothus, and (Edemera : these are, however, as is usually the case with anomalous structural features, a characteristic of the male insect only; an observation still further exem- plified in the most extraordinary antennae of the male Cerocomce, the description of which would scarcely convey a distinct idea of the confusion of so heteroclite an organ. The same sex of the same insect has an equally re- markable developement of the maxillary palpi ; but some of the most striking instances of curious palpigerous structure, we shall find in the next family. In Nemo* gnathusandGnathium, cognate genera, we find the max- illae elongated into two slender filaments, half as long as the body. This circle seems to present several con- necting points with other groups ; thus, we have at once an instance of it, by means of Notoxus, which, by the way, is remarkable for its produced thorax suspended over the head, through Scydmcenus and the Pselaphidce, to the Predatores. We have also, from the vicinity of this point, in the attenuated elytra of Sitaris, a genus- parasitical upon Osmia, one of the mason bees, an in- timate link of connection with the fourth family of this circle, the Mordellida ; but it is evidently through Py- rochroa that we approach our next family : (293.) The Lymexylonidce, the name of which ex- presses at once their economy and habits, for in their larva state they are excessively destructive to timber. Indeed, one of them, the Lymexylon navale, was found so injurious to the ship timber in store in the dock- yards of Sweden, that Linnaeus was consulted upon the best mode of checking the ravage ; and upon ascertain- ing the true cause, he suggested a very effective one, by the immersion of the timber under water during the breeding period of the insect. The most striking feature in this small group of insects, all of which are pentamerous, (consisting, as yet, of only three genera ; for we doubt if Cupes and Rhyssodes belong naturally here,) is the remarkable maxillary palpi in their males: AGENCY OP INSECTS IN THE ECONOMY OF NATURE. 331 these organs,, in Hyleccctus, are strongly pectinated, like a hand with many fingers, the joint representing the thumb setting off in opposition to the others : in Ly- mexylon, they consist of several ramose branches, spring- ing out of a large basal cup-like joint : in Atractocerus, they are more regularly pectinated ; and this last has its eyes nearly meeting on the face, and very minute elytra, the body excessively long, the wings themselves expansive, and folding in repose merely longitudinally, and, of course, wholly exposed. We surmise, from the structure, that it must be a most active insect, al- though nothing is known of its natural history, it being exclusively inter tropical, where it is, doubtlessly, the representative of the two other typically northern forms, and exercises there similar functions, which are certainly to accelerate the decomposition of dead trees, by perforating them in all directions. This agency we have had occasion to notice in the Bostrichidce and else- where. Nature thus operates by various means to ac- complish one end, to clear away that which has become dead, which we cannot, however, here say has run its course, but has consequently become useless, to make room for that which has to live ; and to produce this result the more rapidly, for otherwise dead vegetation would stifle the living, and choke its growth, she in- troduces these little agents ; thus every where exhibit- ing her prolific energy of vitality, by making all her purposes subservient to the extension of life and living beings in every possible form and organisation ; for so varied are her plans and purposes, and her means of accomplishing them so interminable, that the imagina- tion cannot conceive a new form that has not been, or does not now exist, and its own combinations of old ones are so monstrous, that Nature's monsters are symmetrical in the comparison. The insect world, throughout, extensively exhibits these wonder-working phenomena, and displays conspicuously the gigantic effects of such seemingly insignificant and inefficient agencies. 332 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. (294.) Our next family, the Mordellidce, is also of imited extent,, although more numerous than the pre- ceding. They are usually small gibbous or humped insects, their longitudinal section exhibiting the segment of a circle. They are frequently large and thick in front, and much attenuated behind ; and in many, as in the genuine Mordella, that extremity terminating in an exserted ovipositor. They are all very active creatures, flying with great velocity and promptitude, and to facilitate this, in many genera, the elytra are attenuated and abbreviated, as in Rhipiphorus, Emenadia, Myo- dites, &c., the former of which is parasitical in the nests of wasps, and all, in the males, have flabellated antenna* ; and the last is so active in its motions, and its elytra are so abbreviated, that it has received its name in allusion to these circumstances. It is with these insects that Sundeval's extraordinary genus Symbius, which is parasitical upon the Blattee, must be associated, the females of which, like those of Drilus, are destitute of wings and elytra, or even their indica- tion. The species of Mordella are gaily decorated with markings, usually white upon a black silky ground ; Orchesia has the power of jumping j and Pelecotoma contains the largest in the family, which excessively rarely reach an inch in length ; the majority are minute, varying from two to four lines. The most of them have spurs at the extremity of their long legs ; and they are found almost exclusively upon flowers. (295.) Our next family, Lycus and its affinities, if it should really form a distinct family, or, rather, a constituent of our first family, the Lampyridce, consists, also, of but few insects. This circumstance strengthens our supposition that the requisite analysis will place the CleridcB here, and remove these to where we have just suggested. They are very flat insects ; and some, especially the African genus Lycus, have the elytra in the males enlarged, and circularly developed on each side. In Catopteron, these organs are not wider than the thorax at the base, but gradually enlarge towards THE CLERID^E. 333 the apex, where they are considerably wider than the body. The legs and the elytra are usually considerably compressed, the latter dilated and serrated, and inserted closely together upon the face or forehead ; but in the Nepaul Tylocerus, their basal and terminal joints are greatly enlarged. In Dictyoptera, the body is linear, as also in Omalisus ; and in Lyons the thighs are con- siderably thickened, and the head prolonged in front into a porrected snout, with the palpi very conspi- cuously exposed. Many of these insects are sub-cortical feeders, and almost all are gaily coloured. (296.) We have already hazarded the suggestion that the Cleridce should occupy the present situation of the preceding family, and those be transposed into the circle of the Lampyridce ; in which case we should have another direct connection with the Predatores in this group. They have also a very close and intimate con- nection with Dasytes, in our second family. This is, perhaps, one of the prettiest families of the Coleoptera. They are tolerably uniform in figure, but present con- siderable differences in the structure of their antenna, palpi, and tarsi : their most typical forms exhibit the former clavate the clava being constructed of the three last joints, the palpi securiform, and the tarsi penta- merous. But we have here, perhaps, the greatest suc- cession of changes and differences of combination in these organs, of any extant, in so small a family, through- out the Coleoptera. They are very gaily diversified in their markings, presenting us with rich blues and purples, agreeable greens, vivid carmines, and pale vermilions, in all kinds of combinations and spots, with bars of white or yellow, and very generally considerable metallic brilliancy. In those which have distinctly five joints to the tarsi, Priocera has serrated antennae, with the labial palpi securiform; Cylidrus has the seven terminal joints only serrated; Aocina and Tillus, with the antennae gradually enlarging to the apex, but the latter differing from the former, in all the palpi terminating in a securiform joint; and Eurypus, 334" NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. with a similar structure, has the four first joints of the tarsi with a long membranous appendage ; and in Tillus, the sexes of one have heen considered generally distinct species. In those which have but four dis- tinct joints to the tarsi, there is a greater uniformity in the general structure of the antennae,, although Eno- plium has its three terminal joints separated and ser- rated. Some of the species of Clerus are parasites in the nests of certain mason bees ; and the genus Thana- simus occurs upon felled trees and timber, its larva preying upon those of many of the wood-feeding ge- nera, as Apate, Bostrichus, Anobium, &c. They are all very active insects ; and some of the latter, in the distribution of their colours, and general form, have a remarkable resemblance to the hymenopterous Mutilla, and whence they have derived their specific names. All these insects have the head rather wider than the thorax ; the latter cylindrical, and constricted at its base, or swoln about the centre ; although some, as Co- vynetes and Necrobia, have the sides of the latter slightly margined. These are found, usually, among heaps of bones, or upon dry carrion ; and one of the latter is celebrated for being the cause of saving Latreille's life during the sanguinary period of the French revolution ; in as far as the circumstance of its capture, in his pri- son cell, interested, through the medium of the surgeon that attended him, some influential scientific men, who stayed his debarkation to the colonies in a ship that . was atrociously foredoomed to perish, with its cargo of transports, almost within sight of their native land. The largest species occur in the Mexican genus Cymatodera, and the universal Opilus. Europe is rich in species of the family ; but New Holland appears to be their me- tropolis, if we may judge from the numbers, and the forms, we have seen recently imported thence. Very many genera are still uncharacterised in this interesting group. [(290296.) W. E. Sh.] THE NEUROPTERA, THE AQUATIC TYPE. 335 CHAP. XI. ON THE NEUROPTEA. (297.) ON this, the last order of the Ptikta, our survey must be very brief, since our allotted space is drawing rapidly to a close. The general construction of the insects we arrange under this head, has been more than once adverted to, and their ranks among the other tribes of winged insects sufficiently demonstrated. The character of having four reticulated wings, as- signed to the order by the great fathers of Science, and by which all its typical families are distinguished, is that to which we adhere ; and which, in our estima- tion, is its leading distinction. Nothing definite can be drawn from its metamorphosis, which both Latreille and MacLeay are obliged to confess is " varied." With the exception of the Phryganidce, which can scarcely be termed masticating insects, the whole of our neuropte- rous families are provided with jaws, and many, like the Gryllidce, bite very hard. By our former diagrams, it will have been seen how perfectly this ordet coincides with all we have said of the AQUATIC TYPE of Nature, where the head is of unusual size, and the animal itself lives habitually in the water. Popular opinion, in this instance, has fortunately proved correct ; for the dragon flies (Libellulidce) are unquestionably the pre-eminent division of the order, and thus preserve their analogy to the fissirostral types in ornithology. Like the swallows and flycatchers, they seize their prey on the wing, and watch for it from a fixed station. In their larva and pupa state, they live entirely in the water ; and even when they become winged, haunt the precincts of that element on all occasions : they have the largest heads of 336 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. any insects in existence; and, like nearly all aquatic tribes, have great swiftness of motion. Next to these we place the Gryllidce, or grasshoppers and locusts, whose heads are less developed ; and whose upper wings, as typical of the Hemiptcra, are thicker, and more in- clined to become coriaceous than the under : the under wings, also, in both, are semitransparent, and are folded when at rest : they are all herbivorous, and thus again imitate the sub- typical division of the Hemiptera. Fol- lowing these two families, we place the Forficulidce, or earwigs, which thus enter in that part of the neuropte- rous circle which touches the Coleoptera. That this is their true station, may be proved by analysis ; and is further confirmed by the opinions of several writers un- acquainted with the theory we now maintain. " The Forficulidce," as MacLeay truly observes, " are, in fact, coleopterous insects, with the metamorphosis and caudal appendages of true Orthoptera;" to which we may fur- ther add, they are the thysanuriform type of the whole of this circle. The insects forming the supposed order Strepsiptera, we place as the next, and the most aber- rant family : they are representatives of the Coleoptera, and find their prototypes in several families of beetles, as well as in many of the parasitic genera in the hyme- nopterous and hemipterous circles. The affinities of these extraordinary insects, until the discovery of their most aberrant types, must ever remain a subject of doubt or dispute. Our own opinions have resulted from the utter impossibility of locating them elsewhere, the absence of any other distinct group sufficient to fill up this part of the neuropterous circle, and the opinion that some writers hold on their relation to the Forficulidce. The whole question, as it now stands, is a matter of inductive reasoning, and of the synthetic principles of arrangement, and as such we leave it. On the fifth and last division, there can be no doubt. The Phryganidce are partly neuropterous and partly lepi- dopterous insects ; thus blending the characters of the two orders, and bringing them into juxtaposition. Our AFFINITIES OF THE NEXJROPTERA. 337 space will not permit us to state those reasons which make us decline to view these five groups as orders, a rank to which many excellent entomologists have elevated them. The system of representation, of itself, totally forbids this : the contents of the class Ptilota must agree with those of the Aptera, and both must have their definite number of prototypes in the classes of the vertebrate animals. (298.) The affinities by which the order is united into a circle of its own, may be thus briefly stated. The LibellulidcR comprise, beside the sub -family of that name, the Mymeleonince, the Panorpina, the Termince, and the genus Mantispa; which latter appears to be only a representation of the Maritime . We leave these families for the Gryllidce ; of which the genera Mantis, Gryllus, Locusta, Acridium, and Blatta, form the types of the sub-families, and represent those in the LibellulidcB. The crickets seem to open a passage to the ForJiculidcB, which, with the Stylopidce, contain so few genera, that we shall not venture to designate their rank. Finally come the Phryganidce, the leading divi- sions or sub-families of which are the genera Ephemera, Phryganea, Hemerobius, Perla, and Psocus. Each of these correspond analogically, and in precisely the same order, with the primary types, already enumerated, of the Libellulidce and the Gryllida. We look upon these latter as the typical and sub-typical groups ; and the other three as aberrant. A brief notice on the principal genera, in each of these, is all that our limited space will now admit of. (299) The large group of insects, here treated col- lectively as Neuropiera, present considerable differences in their structure, transformations, and economy; indeed, so much so, that modern systematists have concurred in treating several of the subdivisions, of which they are here constituted, as distinct orders. Without reference to these views, we shall give some few particulars of their natural history in the order of succession above laid down ; and, in consequence of the difficulty of finding 338 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. general characters to combine the successive groups, we shall treat the sub-families independently of each other. (300.) The insects constituting the LibellulincB are well known to all persons who knowany thing of the coun- try, as dragon flies. They are essentially flying insects; and the four powerful organs whereby they accomplish this faculty, consist of usually a pellucid glassy mem- brane, which is closely and thickly covered with a reti- culation of nervures ; whence, KGLT et&xfir, as the most typical members, they give a name to the entire group called from them Neuroptera. In velocity of flight, and the power of its protracted continuance, they doubt- lessly exceed all other insects; and Leeuwenhoek re- cords an instance of a swallow being unable to overtake one, which it continued in pursuit of for some time. They have been divided into two groups, of which Li- bellula and Agrion form the respective types, a sub- division supported, in some degree, by differences in the structure of their larvae. The characters, upon which it is founded in the perfect insect, are, that in the former the head is globose, and, in repose, the wings have a hori- zontal distended position ; whereas, in Agrion, they are united vertically over the body, like the butterflies, and their head is transverse. Several exotic species of the latter genus are remarkable for the length and slender- ness of their bodies: thus, the Agrion Lucretia from the Brazils is 5 inches long, and its body scarcely more than the eighth of an inch thick. These gay insects may be observed sporting in every variety of evolution over ponds and brooks, to which they give considerable animation; and it is here that their entirely aquatic larvae pass their lives. These, which undergo an incomplete metamorphosis, progressively acquire the rudiments of wings; and when they have attained their full growth, they creep up the stem of some water plant, and fixing firmly by their legs, the skin splits down the back, and the perfect insect creeps out. A very short time suf- fices to expand its wings, and it then sweeps forth a denizen of the air. In this state it is remarkable for its THE MYRMECOLEONTIN^E. 33$ very powerful mandibles, organs which it possessed of fearful capacity in its preliminary stages, but which then had the adjunctive assistance of a singular appa- ratus, which, in repose, covers the lower portion of the face like a mask ; but which, possessing a lengthy joint, the insect has the power of projecting forwards; and it thus forms a prehensile organ, by means of its lateral articulated hooks, whereby the creature seizes its prey, and conveys it to the mouth ; and this is doubtless to compensate for its imperfect means of progression through the water. The eyes of the larger genera of the perfect insects for instance, of (Eshna and Libellula occupy nearly the whole of the head ; whilst Calepteryx and Lestes are distinguished for the brilliant metallic colours of their wings and bodies. They are all natives of all parts of the world, throughout which they are tolerably equally distributed. (301.) The MYRMECOLEONTIN^E differ considerably from the preceding insects ; thus although they have equally prominent eyes, they have never ocelli ; their mandibles are comparatively small ; they have lengthy palpi, organs wholly deficient in the preceding ; and their antennae, instead of being subulated, as in those insects, are here, although short, considerably clavated, and the club is compressed and curved. These characters are sufficient to distinguish them from the preceding, did not their larvae totally disunite them. Their economy, in this stage of their existence, is exceedingly interest- ing. This larva, even more unlike the former, than is the perfect insect, inhabits dry sandy situations : here it forms a funnel-shaped hollow, the superior edges of which, when the larva is approximate to its full growth, are' about a foot in diameter ; and the sides are formed of such loose sand, that any insect approaching the edge, inevitably slides down ; where, at the inverted conical bottom, this creature lies with merely its large man- dibles protruding, ready to seize the unfortunate crea- ture that comes within its grasp, which is sucked com- pletely dry. Having thus exhausted its juices, the z 2 340 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. husk is placed upon its head and legs, and a sudden jerk casts it heyond the outer circle of this pitfall. It forms these cavities by shuffling backwards with its pointed abdomen in a spiral direction,, rejecting, as it proceeds, the superfluous sand, by a jerk similar to that by which it throws off the cases of the insects it has devoured. It is a short plump creature, with the head flat above, but convex beneath ; and the mandibles are slender, forcipate at their extremity, and nearly one third the length of the body. It has six short slender legs ; the posterior pair being distorted in position, to facilitate the peculiar regressive motion by which it forms its burrow. When arrived at maturity, it forms a circular cocoon of silk, by means of the spinneret at the apex of its abdomen ; and, after a short period, the insect itself comes forth, and is disproportionately large compared with its pupa ; for, after quitting the case of the latter, it rapidly expands until it has acquired its full size ; when its parts harden, and it sails forth to revel upon the nectar of flowers, for it has now lost its carnivorous propensities, and its life henceforth is a (i perpetual feast of nectar'd sweets." Reaumur has observed, that they will feed upon fruits, especially plums. A fur- ther confirmation of the striking differences between the preceding and the present families is, that the latter rarely fly during the day, but chiefly towards evening ; and, in repose, their wings are roofed over them like those of moths ; whereas the former fly only during the brightest sunshine, and the position of their wings has before been shown. Closely allied to Myrmecoleon is the genus Ascalaphus. Their larva? are considerably alike, but they do not, like those of the former, make conical traps; and, besides, their progression is for- wards, and not backwards. The perfect insect is ex- tremely like a butterfly ; it has antennae as long as the body, which are suddenly knobbed at their extremity ; their wings are more or less triangular, and variously spotted or marked ; but they have a slow and heavy flight. THE PANORPINJE. 341 (302.) Our next sub-family, the PANORPIN^E, are peculiar for the possession of an elongated rostrum, at the apex of which is the mouth ; and in the typical genus Panorpa itself, the abdomen is lengthy, attenu- ated, and recurved, the terminal segment being con- siderably swollen, and having prehensile chelae at its extremity in the male. From the resemblance of this appendage to the tail of a scorpion, they are called scorpion flies: they occur abundantly in meadows^ about the summer solstice ; and, although so common, they are unknown in their larva state. In this same family, we observe the apterous small Northern genus JBoreus, in which the ovipositor of the female is formed not unlike that of a Gryllus, and their males only have the indication of wings. This genus occurs in the northern parts of this island, usually during the winter, and it has even been caught tripping along upon the snow, at a period when complete torpidity suspends the animation of the rest of the insect world ; excepting only, also, the little apterous Chionece, another Northern genus, but belonging to the circle of the Diptera, which is found almost exclusively upon the snow. We here, in this sub-family, further observe the long-legged genus Bittacus, and the long- winged Nemoptera; the former resembling a Tipula, but having four wings of equal size. In Nemoptera, the anterior wings are large, and nearly circular ; and the posterior pair very long and filiform, being usually at least three times the length of the body : in the form of its proboscis, this genus makes the transition to Chorista, and thus con- veniently associates here instead of in connection with Myrmecoleon ; for Chorista, although in all the other particulars of structure it resembles Panorpa, has not the prolonged rostrum of the latter. It is a native of New Holland, that world of wonders in its animal and vegetable forms. (303.) Passing to our next family, the TERBIITIN^J, we come to the only tribe of insects out of the circle of Hymenoptera, which exhibit social habits. Man mea- z 3 342 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. sures every thing with direct reference to himself; and as it promotes his good or ill, so does he pronounce upon its worth or worthlessness. We admire the eco- nomy of the bees, and speak with rapture of the indus- try of the little chemists which gather those stores of the fields, that, hut for them, would evade our acquisi- tion, and we then fraudulently rob them of their hard- earned treasures ; but we execrate the devastations of the Termes, although it is the self-same impulse which directs the energies of each. Man, in his tyranny aver Nature and Nature's free denizens, forgets the justice of the retribution, and exclaims against it as an evil, heedless of the multitudinous evils which his own pra- vity scatters around, and which frequently have no ob- ject beyond their wilfulness. But he must here submit, and with patience suffer what his sagacity can rarely avoid ; and to prompt this, he must see in it but another .instance of that general law which imbues all creatures with the instinct of self-preservation and the ardent love and protection of their young, that universal crropyj) which overcomes all obstacles, and is resistless in its effects. These insects form very large communities, consisting of individuals of four different kinds of winged males and females, and of soldiers and neuters which are apterous. In the former, the four wings are equal, with the neuration of the disk obsolete, a charac- ter not found elsewhere among the Neuroptera; and the apterous individuals have strong mandibles. There is some diversity of opinion respecting the latter; and na- turalists are not decided whether they are the prelimi- nary stages of the insect, or independent and perfect states of existence : they, however, constitute the major part of the community, and execute all its labours. The information that we possess upon their internal economy is very imperfect. All that we know as certain is, that the different species construct different nests made of a kind of hard mortar; consisting of earth or sand agglu- tinated together, some of which are like a cluster of sugar-loaves of different sizes, the largest being eight THE TERMITJNvE. 343 or ten feet high ; the nests of others are cylindrical, and are not more than two feet above the ground, with a roof extending on all sides beyond the lateral walls ; others, again, build in the upper branches of trees, sixty or eighty feet from the ground; and in countries where trees abound, they excavate and occupy their in- terior. These insects always work under cover, and, unless by accident, they are never exposed to sight ; and they thus construct subterranean galleries from their nests, wherever their destructive propensities incline them to wander; and in attacking houses, they eat into its timbers, gnawing their galleries longitudinally in its centre, leaving only the external crust ; and thus, when their depredations have been extensive, not an article of furniture in a house is free from this dilapidation, and upon the least forcible touch, or first wind, all falls to pieces. The fecundity of the females is truly astonish- ing; and she is as much an object of solicitude to the workers, as is the queen among the bees. She and her partner are incarcerated in a cell by the neuters, and they are there regularly supplied with food ; and after impregnation, upon the enlargement of the ovaries, her abdomen swells to the enormous size of 1500 or 2000 times the rest of the body; and as soon as she begins to lay eggs, these are conveyed away by the neuters to their prepared cells, which, in conjunction with their maga- zines of provisions, occupy the interior of these nests. It is said that she lays as many as 80,000 of these eggs in the course of twenty-four hours, a fecundity that would speedily overwhelm the earth, were it not pro- vided that but comparatively few reach maturity, and the great majority serve as food to birds_, and beasts, and fishes; and the natives, also, of the tropical regions where they occur, cook them and eat them as a delicacy. From the great resemblance of their manners to those of ants, they have been called " White Ants." But the true ants are their mortal enemies, and prey upon them with the greatest voracity, especially at the period of their swarming, at the commencement of the tro- z 4 34<4< NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. pical rains, the only time when they voluntarily make their appearance abroad. Although,, probably,, all are of tropical origin, a few species have located themselves in the South of Europe ; but it is to be hoped that the tem- perature of our climate is too variable and cold to suit the constitution of these insects ; and although commerce has imported many evils in concurrence with its bene- fits, we heartily deprecate the possible introduction of such unwelcome guests. Other allied forms, but which are not social in their habits, are found in Embia and Olyniha. (304.) The last sub-family of this first circle, the Rhaphidiince, have, in the structure of some of its con- stituents, a direct intimation of the proximity of the next circle ; for the genus Mantispa, with its lengthened neck, and raptorial anterior legs, is a complete resem- blance of Mantis itself. It has short clavate antennae ; but the elongated neck is also the characteristic of the family, for the genus Rhaphidia, of which it is besides formed, likewise possesses it in a remarkable degree. The latter insect, in its larva state, is very voracious, preying upon every other insect it can seize upon ; it occurs chiefly in woods, upon the stems of oaks. The genus is as yet known only as European, and all the recorded species we possess in this country. Of Man- tispa, the greatest number of species appears to occur in America, although it is found all over the world ex- cepting New Holland. Some of the species seem to indicate a strong affinity, in the structure of their wings, to the genuine Orthoptera, the anterior half of those organs being occasionally semi-coriaceous, which is a departure from the otherwise exclusively membrana- ceous structure of these limbs throughout the circle before us. (305.) We now enter the family of the GRYLLID^E ; the first sub-family of which, the Mantinte, contains two very different types of form, namely, Mantis and Phasma. Their habits differ as much as their structure : the latter being herbivorous _; whereas th$ THE MANTIN^E. 345 former are carnivorous, and of a very sanguinary and rapacious disposition. They are long and slender : the head transverse and small, with a pair of long, slender, setaceous antennae at the junction of the head and thorax : the latter is attenuated, but dilates immediately, forming a linear, parallel, somewhat flattened tube, with its sides margined ; and which has an articulated flexi- bility at its junction with the meso thorax, and is more than a third the length of the body. Attached to this in front, and approximate to the head, are a pair of comparatively stout legs, the peculiar construction of which, adapted for the seizure and retention of prey, has acquired for them the name of raptorial. The insect itself being slow, and without much muscular energy, and its nature requiring a large supply of food, it is furnished with this organisation, that, when lurking insidiously about, its purpose is disguised under its form, which considerably resembles the parts of a plant, although not so much so as we shall observe in the Phasmince; and when arrived within a convenient dis- tance of its prey, it darts forth these limbs and captures it. To give them the power of greater expansion, the coxae are elongated, being nearly as long as the femur; and the trochanters are so articulated, that they admit of great variety of motion. The tibiae, which are half the length of the femora, fold back upon them, which admits of the two latter acting in concert as prehen- sorial organs; and that they may effectually secure their prey, they are densely serrated longitudinally with a double row of short and acute teeth ; and the tibia is furnished, besides, at its extremity, with a long curved hook, and, together with the long tarsus, which is at- tached externally to the latter, thus acquiring additional and wider range of action, draw conjunctively within the scope of the raptorial apparatus their destined victims. A striking illustration of how easily man is deluded by hypocrisy and false appearances, is afforded by the variety of names and religious character this blood-thirsty creature has acquired in all countries 346 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. that it inhabits. By the attitude it assumes when lurking for its prey, or advancing upon it which is done by the support of the four posterior slender legs only, whilst the head and prothorax are raised perpendicularly from the body, and the anterior raptorial organs are folded in front, it greatly resembles a person praying; whence in France it is called le Precheur ; in Provence, Prego-Diou; and in other countries it has similar names. The Turk says it points to Mecca ; and the Hottentot pays it religious observances. Burmeister acquaints us, from the information of Zimmerman, with some singular facts connected with the North American species, the J\f. Carolina. He says, a specimen he possessed "was caught on the 2d of October; on the 3d, it laid its eggs : this was noted down. I was now prepared to expect the death of my Mantis. This, however, did not take place ; for she continued to devour daily some dozens of flies, and occasionally large grasshoppers and young frogs; and it even consumed lizards three times its own length, as well as many large fat cater-K pillars. By this abundant fare, its abdomen began to swell considerably ; and on the 24th of October, it laid eggs a second time ; and after this business was over, which occupied several hours, it recommenced feeding upon every living thing that was put in its way : its abdomen swelled up again, and I fully expected to see it lay eggs a third time; but this was doubtlessly pre- vented by the increasing cold of the November nights ; and in December, I observed that the tarsi of the crea- ture had dried up and become useless. Its death now evidently approached, and this took place on the 27th of the same month. Whether it was impregnated before it came into my possession, I do not know ; but from the beginning of October to the end of December, it lived solitary in a glass. The eggs of the first gene- ration were hatched upon the 26th of May of the fol- lowing year. An interval of three weeks had elapsed between the laying of the first and the second lots : I therefore thought a similar time would intervene THE PHASMIN^. 347 between their hatching; but in this I was deceived, for the second brood left their shells three days after the first, viz. on the 29th of May. I now had my room full of young Mantes. I fed some with small flies, and their actions and mode of feeding were precisely like those of the older ones." The antennae of the males of some are bipectinated, as in Empusa, Blcpharis, and Harpasc ; and the resemblance to vegetables is considerably in- creased in others, by the foliaceous appendages of their legs and prothorax, as inHymenopus, Phyllocrania, &c.; and this resemblance is enhanced by their usually green or grey colours, and it is rarely that they exhibit a me- tallic brilliancy ; the genus Metalleutica, however, displays this peculiarity, especially in a species we possess from New Holland, although the genus is usually Indian. These insects have a wide geographical range, being found in all the hotter regions of the earth : the extra- ordinary little Eremophila, with its abbreviated elytra, appears, however, confined to Northern Africa, and the contiguous parts of Asia, where they are the inhabitants of the most arid sandy wastes, skipping about upon the surface of the burning sands, as the Hydrometrce do upon the water. (306.) In the extraordinary peculiarities of personal appearance, the Mantince are far surpassed by their near neighbours, the Phasmince, in which vegetable re- semblances are quite complete ; for their wings and their elytra are frequently perfect leaves, as in Phyllium sic- cifolium ; and where this is not the case, the body is lengthy and cylindrical, like a dry stick or straw. The latter form is strongly exhibited in Diura Chronos, a native of Van Diemen's land, an insect in which the body is eight inches long, and which has very small wings ; others are totally apterous, as in Bacteria and Bacillus. In Ectatosoma tiaratum, and Eurycanthus, monstrosity reaches its acme ; the former has dilated spined legs, a swollen body, with foliaceous appendages also spined. In others, again, the male is winged, and the female apterous. Cyphocrania exhibits species with the 348 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. largest wings, and also the longest insects; and their wings are usually of a delicate rosy tint : but we must hasten on to the Gryllince, which, although forming a small group,, are of a very marked character. They are usually robust. In Schizodactylus, a native of China, the tarsi are elegantly lameilated laterally; the tibiae are very spinose ; and the extremity of their hemelytra are beau- tifully convoluted. The domestic cricket belongs to this group, whose cheerful chirp enlivens the farmhouse hearth. Here we have also the remarkable Xya, which, like Gryllotalpa, is a burrowing insect : but in the latter, the extraordinary palmated anterior tibiae, very like a dilated hand and fingers, the structure requisite, as in that of the mole, for its burrowing habits, reaches its highest perfection, and to which w r e find a sort of ana- logical resemblance in the anterior tibise of the burrow- ing Carabidce, and in the structure of the prothorax in the genus Chiron. The little Sphcerium acervorum is an inhabitant of ants' nests : its four anterior legs are slender; it is quite apterous; and has, perhaps, the most largely developed posterior femora throughout the circle. It is supposed that it feeds exclusively upon the roots of plants. Equally apterous is the genus Cylindrodes, an elongate cylindrical insect, and one of the most ex- traordinary forms throughout the group. (307.) In the LocustincB, we find in the genus Ptero- chroza, a remarkable similitude to many of the Phas- mince, in the resemblance of its elytra and wings to leaves, but from which group its saltatorial legs remove it. It is difficult to draw the strict line of separation be- tween these and the preceding group, excepting, perhaps, in the number of the joints of the tarsi, which are here four; their antennae are equally setaceous, which separates them from the Acridince : they are usually more com- pressed in form, and less robust; their tarsi, besides, have a vesicular sole. In some, as Bradyporus and its allies, the head is exceedingly large, and in Anostostoma, in- sects from New Holland, there is a remarkable develop- ment of the mandibles. In the division with smaller THE ACBIDINyE. 349 heads,, we observe the remarkable Acridopeza, also from New Holland, in which the female is short,, convex, and ovate, and the male elongate and slender. It is in the genus Decticus, belonging to this group, that we find the species called verrucivorus ; which has its name from being used as a specific to eat away warts: pos- sibly this is effected by the acrid secretion it instils into the wound it makes with its mandibles : and it is the closely allied typical genus Locusta which offers us, in the viridissima, our largest native species. (308.) The next family, the Acridince, constitute the true grasshoppers, insects whose song and vivacity give cheerfulness to the noontide languor of a summer's day. They are distinguished chiefly by their antennae being shorter than half the length of the body, and dis- tinctly articulated; the posterior legs being always salta- torial; their tarsi three- jointed, and all the tarsi alike. Some are apterous, as Batrachotetrix and Proscopia, the latter very much resembling one of the stick-like Phasmina. There is greater uniformity in the struc- ture of their wings than throughout the rest of the circle, and these organs in repose form a very com- pressed roof over it; and the four are always of the same length ; the true wings having frequently considerable expansion, and are often gaily or gaudily coloured, - sometimes being of a bright scarlet, or of a rich purple, as are the insects themselves, although greens are the prevalent tints. A leading characteristic in these in- sects is doubtlessly the diversities of structure observ- able in their prothorax, which, in Acridium, is usually produced, posteriorly, as long as the body. In Trux- alis, the antenna are fusiform, and the head is remark- ably formed, having the forehead considerably produced; and in Pneumora. the abdomen is inflated into a large semitransparent bladder: but the (Edipoda mi- gratoria is the species which has obtained the widest celebrity, from its assumed migratorial and destructive habits. The narrative, as regards their flying to con- siderable distances, is possibly fabulous ; but there is 350 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. no question that in some years, in which they have acquired excessive prolificness, they may make de- structive excursions. All hooks on entomology are redundant with its history : we shall, therefore, on ac- count of our limited space, proceed to the Blattinai, which, probably, would more properly come into our third family. These are distinguished by their elytra lapping one over the other, and being entirely coriaceous, beneath which the wings are folded longitudinally: their antennae are setaceous, and their legs all cursorial, with pentamerous tarsi. Some genera, as usual, are entirely apterous, at least, winged individuals have not yet been seen belonging to them ; and this is the case in the New Holland Polyzosteria, one of the largest insects of the sub-family, and which is of a bronzy metallic tint. In Perysphceria and Heterogamia, the male is winged, and the female apterous. The majority, however, are winged insects in their final condition. They are lu- cifugous, and feed chiefly at night. Commerce has introduced many species to our sea-ports, some of which have gradually spread all over the country; two of which especially, the common black beetles, the Peri- planeta Americana and Orientalis, are found in kitchens and warm cupboards where provisions are kept : when at large, they generally occur in obscure places or be- neath stones, and sally forth, after night-fall, in search of their prey. They are usually of a bright or dark brown colour: some are livid or testaceous, as, for instance, Blabera gigantea, which is the largest in the circle; and a few are gaily coloured, as in Corydia and Phoraspis. We find at large, in our woods, and beneath stones, the Blatta Laponica and Germanica. The remarkable cap- sule which contains their eggs, is a phenomenon oc- curring no where else in the insect world, as it is formed within the abdomen of the female : it is an oblong, flattened brown sheath, within which the eggs are de- posited in two rows ; and the female carries this attached to her abdomen until the eggs are nearly mature, when she lets it fall, and the compressed edge bursts open, THE FORFICULID^J AND STREPS1PTERA. 351 and the young creep forth with the shell of the egg still adhering to them. (S09-) Our next family, the FORFICULID^, is a group of still smaller extent, which are known by the name of earwigs, and are distinguished by their abbreviated pa- rallel elytra, thus resembling the Staphylinidce, and whereby the Coleoptera and Orthoptera seem in some measure connected; and also by their elegant delicate and expansive wings, which in repose fold in radii diverging from a nearly central spot. Their tarsi are trimerous ; and the apex of the abdomen is furnished with a couple of elongate curved horny processes, which are usually forcipate and capable of being used as prehensile organs, being articulated at the base : the antennae are setaceous, and variable in the number of the joints. Some, like some of the Blattince, are apterous. These peculiarities and differences of structure have led to generic sub- division. The female covers her eggs as assiduously as a hen; and a similar instance of this brooding we have already observed in the Hymenoptera, in the genus Perya. The Forficulce are very destructive in gardens, to flowers and fruits, which they much deface; but the bad reputation they have acquired, and which their ver- nacular name implies, is not merited, and the circum- stance totally fabulous. It is unfortunate that such reprehensible mistakes should exist, as those which attach to very many insects; for they tend to foster prejudices which necessarily obstruct the progress of knowledge, by making objects abhorrent to inspection, which, when investigated, present as large, but a more readily acces- sible, field for instruction, delight, and amusement, as any throughout nature; none of which, however, surpass, perhaps, the extraordinary little parasites which form the contents of our next sub-family, (310.) The STYLOPID.E, or Strepsiptera. The situ- ation of these insects is one of perplexing interest. They are parasites upon some of the genera of bees and wasps ; and the peculiarities of their structure and eco- nomy have made them a problem which entomologists 352 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. have not yet solved. The first discovery of one of these insects was made by Rossi, who found it upon the Po- listes Gallica, and established for it the genus Xenos ; and Mr. Kirby subsequently observed a Stylops emerg- ing from its obtected pupa-case between the abdominal segments of an Andrena. The whole structure of these insects is very remarkable: their antennae are either au- riculated, as in Sty lops; furcated,, as in Xenos; or flabel- lated, as in Halictophagus ; and robust, compared with the insects : their head transverse, with sub-pedunculated eyes, consisting of comparatively few and separated hex- agons. The mouth is of singular structure : the man- dibles are apparently obsolete; it has no obvious labrum; the labium and mentum are invisible ; and its trophi are reduced to apparently a couple of setiform maxillae, with an enormously large two-jointed maxillary palpus af- fixed externally at their base ; the prothorax is trans- verse and narrow ; the mesothorax also narrow, with a couple of lateral distorted articulated appendages, the analogues of elytra ; and the metathorax is very largely developed, occupying more than one half of the insect; and this gives room for the exercise of the large muscles required for the movement of its expansive semicircular wings, which fold longitudinally in repose, and rest upon the body. These are without nervures, although there is a slight indication of something like them, some- what analogous to the irregularity of neuration we find in the wings of the Coleoptera; and we strongly incline to the opinion, that they have considerable analogy to the eccentric genus Atractocerus, where we have also a greatly enlarged metathorax, wings folding longitudi- nally, and minute and all but obsolete wing-cases. The tarsi of these insects vary in the number of their joints, from two to four, and these are all furnished beneath with a vesicular cushion, and they are without terminal claws. These insects fly with a sort of undulating motion, and are very conspicuous objects in the clear sunshine. Their sexual differences are unknown ; and it is assumed that those hitherto described are all males, and that possibly the females are apterous: THE EPHEMERIN^E. 353 this point, and many other particulars relative to them, are still involved in deep mystery, which time and care- ful observation only will elucidate. We place them in this circle, as its most aberrant group. (311.) We now enter our fifth circle, comprising the group of the PHRYGANID.E, the majority of which, in their preliminary stages, inhabit the water ; and throughout the whole of which we find a uniformity of texture in their four or two wings, which peculiarity we quitted in leaving our first circle, the Libellulidce. The first sub-family of these constitute the Epheme- rince; the brevity of the lives of which, in their perfect state, have furnished moralists with a comparison for the shortness and vanity of the life of man. In many particulars of structure, these insects bear a strong af- finity to the first sub-family of our first typical circle of the Neuroptera, viz. the Libellulince. Like them, these are destitute of palpi ; and they have short, subulated antenna, and they likewise exhibit a large developement of the eyes : in their wings, however, we observe a con- siderable difference j for in the present sub-family, the secondary wings are considerably the least in size ; and, as a necessary consequence, there is a smaller develope- ment of the meta thorax, the reverse of what we find in the Libellulinte; but these wings are always expanded, and never folded. In the Ephemerince, we observe con- sider able sexual discrepancies in the length of the anterior elongated legs, which are protruded forwards, and evi- dently serve, as in some of the gnats, for organs of touch ; and the apex of their abdomen is furnished with two or three lengthy and articulated setae. There is much resemblance between the larva and the perfect insect. These larvae breathe by branchiae, and they oc- cupy burrows formed in the mud of the banks of the streams wherein they dwell : they feed upon the larvae of other insects, or animalcule, which they bring within their reach through the motion given by their branchiae to the water : they possess very large mandibles, which, besides assisting them in the capture of their prey, 354 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. enable them to make their burrows. They possess three long legs attached to their large thorax, all of which are bent forwards : their branchiae are affixed on each side of the abdomen ; and of these there are usually seven pairs, which occupy the place subsequently held by the stigmata in the perfect insect ; there are varieties of structure in these organs in the several genera of which the sub-family is composed. Swammerdam in- forms us that they are three years in acquiring their full growth ; this is a remarkable circumstance, considering the shortness of their lives afterwards. Having grown to maturity, in which state anglers make use of them as a bait, they quit their burrows, swim to the surface, where their enveloping case splits, and from which the insect extracts itself with expanded wings, and flying to some neighbouring object on the shore, again uncases itself; for, although it has already acquired its wings, and the power of flight, a delicate membrane still clothes it, of which, however, it speedily divests itself. The insects sometimes abound in such profusion, that the air is completely filled with them, and their dead bodies have been strewed over the land as a rich manure; for their life terminates with the execution of the function for which they were solely transformed, that of perpetuating the species, which is almost instantly accomplished. The chief genera are Oxycypha y with only two wings ; Cloe, with four, but the posterior ex- tremely minute. Bactis and Ephemera have the in- ferior wings larger ; but the former have three ocelli, and the latter but two. (312.) Our second sub-family, the Phryganin(z, is of much larger extent than the preceding, and they are known as " May flies." They constitute the order Trichoptera of Kirby. Of all insects, they approach the closest in resemblance to the Lepidoptera, their wings being covered with hairs, or narrow scales ; and in their transformations, also, they have a considerable resemblance to that order ; from which, however, they are sufficiently distinct in having a mandibulated mouth. THE PHRYGANJN^E. 355 They have long setaceous antennae ; their wings are of an unequal size, and are laid in repose, like those of a moth, over their back ; their legs are usually long, and their tibiae are variously furnished with spurs half way up its shank. In their larva state, they reside in cylindrical cases, but which, in Hydroptila, are kidney- shaped, which are composed of a variety of substances, as bits of stick or straw, or of small shells, or sometimes of small stones, which are attached together by a silky substance spun by the larva. The majority are con- veyed about, either by the motion they can themselves give to their case, or by the current of the water ; and other cases are permanently affixed to stones beneath the water ; and it is probable that^ upon each change of skin, a fresh case is made. Like most aquatic larvae., they breathe by branchiae. Unlike the majority of the rest of the Neuroptera, these larvae are very dissimilar to the perfect insect, and which, extracted from its case, is a soft worm-like creature, with the anterior segments somewhat horny. Their branchiae are placed along each side of the abdomen ; they are setiform, and are usually arranged in stars, radiating from a centre. Their anal segment has appendages which, as their cases are open at each extremity, admit of their being^ used as feet, but which vary in structure in the genera. They are indifferent in their diet, feeding as willingly upon aquatic plants as upon other insects, and they are excessively voracious. They are but one year under- going their transformations, and to effect this, they close both the apertures of their cases. They undergo a complete metamorphosis ; and the perfect insect then flies forth to feed upon the juices of flowers ; and when impregnation has taken place, the female deposits upon some water plant a mass of eggs enveloped in a thick jelly-like substance. The most remarkable genera are Acentropus and Hydroptila, in which, possibly, the resemblance to the Lepidoptera is the strongest. In Mystacides, the antennae are excessively long; in Barypenthus, and in Sericostoma. the middle spurs of A A 2 356 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS. the tibiae are wanting ; and Phryganea itself exhibits the largest species. (313.) Our next sub-family, the Hemerobiince, offer less harmony of general structure, either in the per- fect insect or the larva. These insects are usually called lace- wing flies, from the elegant reticulation of those organs, which are of comparatively considerably larger dimensions; and they differ from the last in having the trophi free. They have rarely ocelli, and their eyes have considerable metallic brilliancy : their legs are short and slight, and their tarsi pentamerous. Their larvae are not aquatic, but they are very ferocious devourers of small insects ; this we have particularly observed in that of Chrysopa perla ; and we have further observed, in the transformations of this insect, that the pupa creeps to some distance out of its cocoon when ready to undergo its final change, and then casts off its pellucid skin, and emerges as the perfect insect. HemeroUus has usually its wings covered with minute hairs, and Osmylus has them beautifully spotted : the latter is remarkable, also, for the possession of ocelli, - a circumstance of rare occurrence in this sub-family. Although possessing large wings, they fly heavily, by slowly flapping them, and their flights are very short. They occur usually in hedges skirting brooks. Their transformations approach closer to those of insects with a complete metamorphosis ; and there is less resemblance between the larva and the imago, than in any of the preceding sub-families, excepting only the last. It is in this same sub-family that we arrange Sialis and its allies, Chauliodes and Corydalis : of these, the larva of the first only has been observed, and which is aquatic ; it is a common native. This larva is furnished with branchiae, as in the Phryganince, and which are arranged somewhat similarly to those insects, being attached to the seven or eight first segments of the abdomen, but ciliated ; it is gradually attenuated posteriorly, and has a single caudal appendage ; and, like those insects, it is probably carnivorous. Chauliodes and Corydalis are THE PERLIN.E AND PSOCIN^E. 357 both North American genera, and are of conspicuous size compared with the rest of the sub-family ; all that are yet known exceeding an inch in dimensions. The former is distinguished for its pectinated antennae ; and one species of the latter, the C. cornuta, has, in the male, largely developed mandibles, whence it has de- rived its specific name. (314.) The PerlincR are our next sub- family. These insects possess four narrow naked wings, of which the inferior, in repose, are folded ; the nervures are wider apart than in the majority of the preceding sub- families ; they are almost always obscurely coloured : the insects are of a depressed form, with a large qua- drate head. They fly rarely, and are very inert, allow- ing themselves to be readily captured. Their larvae inhabit the water, where they move by the rowing of their legs ; and they feed upon other small insects : they are more than a year undergoing their changes ; and when they have attained their maturity, they creep up the stem of some water plant, and there quietly await the bursting of their skin, which speedily takes place down the centre of the head and thorax ; and the perfect insect then creeps forth, and flies off as soon as its wings are thoroughly expanded. It is remarkable, that the males are incapable of flight, owing to the frequent shortness of their wings ; thus reversing what is usually the case in insects, of the females being the least pro- vided with these organs, when such a sexual disparity exists. Nemura, Perla, and Eusthenia are the chief genera. The last is a native of New Holland. (3 1 5.) Our next, and the last sub- family, the Psocince, is of equally limited extent. They are minute insects : when winged, the wings are unequal in size, the an- terior being considerably the largest, and they are loosely covered with nervures. The typical genus, Psocus, occurs about the stems of trees and on palings, and is said to feed upon lichens. It is contiguous to these insects that the genus Atropos is placed, and which con- tains the so celebrated book-louse, famous for its reputed A A 3 358 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSERTS. ticking, whence it has also been called the death-watch which is doubtlessly a fable, as it is more than probable that the noise is produced by an Anobium; for it is scarcely possible that so small and delicate an insect as the Atropos should cause so loud a sound. These in- sects are apterous, and are very destructive in neglected collections of insects or plants ; but they are readily de- stroyed by the smell of camphor. Although it occurs frequently in old books, especially those which have been exposed to damp, it either seeks their paste, or the minute fungi developed by the moisture j and those holes, so frequently found in such books, must be attributed to the larvae of the Anobia, and other beetles of similar habits. Only one exotic genus ( Thyrsophorus) of this sub-family is known.- It is peculiar to the Brazils; whereas the others are all natives of our own country, [(299315.) W.E. Sh.] 359 PART III. ON THE CLASS OF APTEROUS INSECTS. CHAP. I. ON THE APTERA GENERALLT. (31 6.) THE second, or sub- typical, class of anmilose animals is the APTERA of Aristotle; which is connected to the Ptilota of the same immortal zoologist by the order of Diptera. The general reader will readily understand this class, on being told it contains the different families of the spiders, centipedes, scorpions, crabs, and other wingless groups, together with the flies; which, as stand- ing at the confines of the whole, connect the apterous orders with such as are provided with four wings. (317-) Our definition of this group, in its primary or typical characters, is in accordance with those of Aristotle, Linnaeus, and Fabricius, three names quite sufficient, if science reposed upon mere authority, to counterbalance all those of modern times who hold op- posite opinions. As we have simply defined an insect to be a creature which moves on the earth by means of jointed legs, so do we comprehend under the name of Aptera y all such as are either destitute of wings in every stage of their existence, or which have, in their adult state, only two. Like the typical insects, they are all more or less subject to metamorphosis, but in different ways ; 'for this change is a primary character of the typical Annulosa, and is even extended to one of the aberrant classes, namely, the Cirrhipedes, or barnacles. (318.) Before we enter further into this subject, it A A 4 360 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. may be as well to examine the validity of the grounds upon which the moderns have ventured to break up the Aptera of Aristotle, and thus to render their definition of an " insect " perfectly unintelligible to the world at large. We will first endeavour to meet their arguments upon general principles, and then to oppose them upon other grounds. The French naturalists, Cuvier and Latreille, upon discovering that the Crustacea breathed by branchiae, at once separated them from insects, pro- perly so called ; thereby assuming, that the mode by which an animal breathes was, among the Annulosa, the primary character to be looked to, and upon which we were to decide what was, or was not, an insect. Now, it is against this assumption, which is the very root of all the modern changes introduced in the arrangement of the annulose circle, that we take our stand. We deny it is either logical in itself, or borne out by facts, It is illogical, because it sets aside all the most pro- minent distinctions by which insects are characterised from other classes ; and makes that a primary principle of separation, which does not even enter into the de- finition of an annulose animal. If it be true, that the Annulosa are characterised by their body and limbs being articulated, by being provided with distinct feet, and by undergoing a metamorphosis ; which, in the pre- eminent types, gives to the adult insect the powers of flight ; how, let us ask, can their mode of respiration be placed higher than all these ? How can it be brought in for the construction of primary divisions, when it forms no part of the primary characters of the Annu- losa ? The natural divisions of a group, such as this, are indicated by the modifications of those characters which are applicable to the whole ; and this we see is actually the case, not merely with regard to insects, but to all classes of animals. Thus, in the Ptilota. they are all developed; in the Aptera, the metamorphosis is im- perfect, and the wings disappear ; in the Cirrhipedes, there are no true legs, as in the former ; and finally, there remains, in the Verities and the Annelides, only FORMER DIVISION OF THE APTERA UNNATURAL. 36l the annulose body (and this often very obscurely ), to indicate their connection to the annulose circle. The very principle, therefore,, of introducing the mode of respiration as a ground for founding classes and orders, is radically vicious and unphilosophical. (319-) The effect of attaching this imaginary im- portance to the respiratory organs of insects, has led to all that confusion and opposition of opinion, which might naturally have been expected. The integrity of the Aptera being once destroyed by the separation of the Crustacea, and the principle being unthinkingly ad- mitted, innumerable other dislocations followed. New classes and new orders were proposed, and attempted to be defined, by all who built their systems upon respir- ation; and this was pushed so far, that the entire dis- tribution of the Annulosa has actually been made to hinge upon this single circumstance.* In proportion to the multiplication of these new " classes," so was the disunion of sentiment among those who advocated the respiratory system ; they neither agreed, in fact, with each other, nor with themselves. Dr. Leach changed his System of the apterous groups two or three times ; La- treille has done the same ; and ultimately we find Messrs. Kirby and Spence rejecting all these, and pro- posing a division called Aptera, which they themselves are dissatisfied with, as not a natural, but a provisional order. No wonder, therefore, that all these conflicting theories "have much perplexed systematists," who really seem to have become bewildered by their own refine- ments. (320.) Now, it would be well to ask, whether the respiratory theory of entomologists is supported by any analogous instances in other classes of animals ? and whether the possession of gills, or sacs, or tracheae, have been looked upon, by zoologists in general, of sufficient importance to create distinct classes or orders ? No * See Dr. Leach's arrangement, as given in Samouelle, Entom. Com- pend. 75. 362 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. such instance, in fact, can be cited. Cuvier, indeed, has done this in the case of the Syngnathida among fishes, a single genus, which, because its branchiae are in tufts, instead of being pectinated, as in most of the other osseous fishes, he detaches as the type of a distinct order; and yet the genus Heterobranchus, which has two sorts of branchiae*, (a structure unexampled among the whole class of Pisces,) is left with its natural allies, and is only distinguished as a genus in the fa- mily of Siluridat. Among the testaceous Mollusca, again, the variations in the mode of breathing are still more remarkable; and yet they are considered but of very inferior moment, when compared with other points of structure. Still more is it apparent in the class of Amphibia^ where we find the branchiae external in one group, internal in another, and absent in a third ; while, among the salamanders (Urodela), the young have ex- ternal branchiae, and the adult is furnished with cellular lungs. The frogs (Anoura), when tadpoles, have ex- ternal branchiae, which disappear in the perfect animal, and become internal. The whole of the Animal King- dom, in short, exhibits instances of this. It has been observed by a well-known writer, that Cuvier never made a more palpable mistake, than when he attempted to arrange the Mollusca according to their several systems of generation and respiration. (321.) Reverting, then, to the enlarged views of the early writers relative to the Aptera, we shall at once look to the class before us as composed of the five following orders, whose relations to the corresponding group of Ptilota will be subsequently noticed : I. The ARACH- NIDA, or spiders, consisting of insects whose head is confounded with the thorax, and whose mandibles assume the appearance of fangs, or hooks, from which they are capable of ejecting a poisonous liquor : the body is ge- nerally short, oval, and pedunculated ; and the legs are eight. II. The MYRIAPODA, or centipedes, having the * Classification of Fishes, i. 359. THE SUCTORIA. 363 body greatly lengthened, the head distinct, and a great number of feet. III. The CRUSTACEA, or crabs, which are enveloped by a hard or crustaceous covering ; live in the water, and breathe by branchiae ; the head being apparently confounded with the thorax. IV. The SUC- TORIA, or fleas : the body is compressed, and covered transversely with hard and. polished plates, and with four minute scales, which indicate the position of the wings of flying insects. V. The DIPTERA, or two-winged insects, which, like the last order, imbibe their nourish- ment by suction. (322.) The isolated position which belongs to the fourth of these orders, is, we apprehend, entirely caused by the fact of its containing not more individual species than would form a sub-genus, while, in itself, it ranks as an order : this rank has been assigned to it ever since the days of De Geer, who was the first writer that thus detached it; arid whose name of Suctoria we shall retain, in common justice to so great a man. We shall not enter into the conflicting opinions of the moderns re- lative to the situation of these singular insects ; for a chapter might be so filled, and the reader, in the end, left pretty nearly in the same state of uncertainty as at first. We would simply call the attention, even of the most unscientific, to those little crustaceous insects so common among sea- weed on sandy shores, and then ask him what insects can possibly be more like, in habits and appearance, than these are to fleas ? their very name of sand fleas at once shows that this resemblance is so strong that every body perceives it ; and however the two may differ, when we come to anatomical details and technical refinements, these will never alter the similitude, or persuade an unscientific person that they do not come wonderfully near to each other. We consider, therefore, that the order Suctoria is more clearly related, by affi- nity, to the Crustacea than to any other ; but this being admitted, we confess our entire ignorance of what re- semblance it has to the Diptera, beyond the fact of both being perfectly suctorial orders. The only great hiatus., 364 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. or interruption,, therefore, of the circular succession of the Aptera, as here arranged, appears to be at this point ; since the resemblance which certain extreme Crustacea possess to such forms as Oniscus, renders the union of both sufficiently clear. From the Diptera, therefore, to the Arachnida, the passage is at once opened by Nyc- teribia ; from the spiders to the centipedes, and from these to the Crustacea, the line of affinity is preserved; while what has been said of the resemblance between the marine and the land fleas, is all but demonstra- tive that the whole form a circle, since the situations of Diptera and Suctoria are established, not by their own union, but by their connection to the orders which either precede or follow them. (323.) We now come to the analogies, which may be thus exhibited as referring to the Ptilota. Analogies of the APTERA to the PTILOTA. Orders of the ,*../;,. Orders of the Aptera. Analogies. Ptilota. C Sub-typical : feet the same in their 7 ARACHNIDA. \ larva and perfect state. j rPre-e < circl C. larv r Pre-eminently typical of their own T. MYRIAPODA. -J circles ; feet variable in their > LEPIDOPTERA. " irva and perfect state. J CRUSTACEA. Head large. Aquatic. NEUROPTERA. SUCTORIA. Body encased in hard plates. COLEOPTERA. DIPTERA. Winged in their adult state. HYMENOPTERA. (324.) In our former volumes, we have had frequent occasion to notice the occasional transportation, as it were, of the analogies of the typical groups in two dif- ferent circles ; as a consequence of some variation in the dispositions of the groups, thus brought into parallel comparison, for which we were unable to account. We have before observed that the tendency of metamor- phosis in the Ptilota is to give wings to the perfect in- sect ; while, in that of our Aptera, it is to give an increase in the number of feet. Now, if this theo- retically be true, the philosophical inference will be, that the Myriapoda are the types of the Ptilota ; ANALOGIES OF THE APTERA. 365 for the first have the greatest developement of the feet, just as the other has of the wings. It is not a little extraordinary, indeed, that the first have the fewest, and the latter have the most, feet, in their larva state : here, then, is certainly an analogy, although it cannot be expressed succinctly in words. On the other hand, the lulidfB, again, which are certainly the types of the Myriapoda, agree with the Lepidoptera in not being carnivorous ; and this is a material point of similitude ; so that we see the two pre-eminently typical groups agree in many important particulars : on the other hand, when we consider that the spiders and the lepido- pterous larvae, are the only insects having the power of spinning, we are tempted to believe, that they are true representations of each other ; and that the Myriapoda represent the Hemiptera not the Lepidoptera. We state all these circumstances, leaving the question to be decided by others, although we ourselves believe the former to be the correct mode of viewing the subject. The analogy which many authors, particularly MacLeay, conceive the Suctoria to have with the Coleoptera, is strengthened by the foregoing table; and it is quite clear they represent each other, just as the Crustacea typify the aquatic Neuroptera : as for the resemblance between the Diptera and the Hymenoptera, it is not merely an analogy, but an affinity, and this so close as to be ob- vious to every one. The analogies, in fact, between the two great typical classes of insects, are so complete, as to leave no doubt that they are founded in nature. (325.) The use of these comparisons, however, is not merely confined to the developement of analogies. They prove, if any thing can prove, the rank of the divisions belonging to each ; and show, in the clearest manner, that if those in which the Ptilota are at first divided, are really orders, those of the Aptera are nothing higher. The Neuroptera, in fact, are as much entitled to be termed a class, in the usual acceptation of the term, as are the Crustacea; for structure, and not numerical amount, is to be looked to in all questions of this sort ; and if the 366 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. groups in equivalent circles correspond in some one or more characters, peculiar to them alone, they must be inevitably of the same value. (326.) Having now endeavoured to place the primary divisions of apterous insects upon a more determinate footing than has hitherto been done, we shall not attempt to indicate, even by synthesis, the natural division of fa- milies which must belong to each. Our object is to indi- cate the road to natural arrangement, not to follow it up in detail. The groups of the Aptera we have adopted, are those of our predecessors : the only novelty consists in an attempt to determine their relative value, and to establish their relations to other groups. This done, we shall, in the following pages, merely give the general reader an idea of the insects contained in each, without any attempt at determining their limits, or the system- atic order in which the families should stand. CHAP. II. APTERA, continued. ON THE DIPTERA, ARACHNIDA, CRUSTACEA, MYRIAPODA, AND SUCTORIA. (327.) NOT having thoroughly analysed the families of which our circle of APTERA consist, we prefer giving a rapid sketch of its contents, as investigated by the latest and best systematists, to leaving the scheme im- perfect by the omission. The first family comprised within this circle are the Diptera ; and, although it may appear a contradiction to speak of so large an order of insects as the Diptera, under the general denomina- tion of Aptera, yet, as they form the most aberrant sub- family in the circle, this difficulty is removed, as they constitute the direct point of contact with the pre- ceding circle of the Ptilota. The Diptera comprise a STRUCTURE OF THE DIPTERA. 3&J host of insects, the most general character of which is to possess two membranous wings, with their disk variously occupied with longitudinal nervures and com- paratively few transverse ones, these wings are affixed to the mesothorax, and are thus analogous to the superior wings of those insects which have four genuine wings, or to the elytra or heme]ytra of those in which the superior wings are supplanted by such appendages. In addition to these two wings, and attached behind them, are a couple of usually clavated organs, having a moderate peduncle ; these are called halteres, or poisers ; they are articulated organs, but the uses of which are not known, although they may not be considered as analogous to the secondary wings of the other orders. In addition to these organs, very many possess a con- cavo-convex scale, which covers the halteres, and which is called the alula, or winglet. Being exclusively suc- torial insects, and feeding upon liquids, their trophi, or organs whereby they take their food, consist of a flexible proboscis, modified in a variety of ways in the different families, but always analogous to the structure we have before described in mandibulated insects : thus, we find the theca, or sheath, which represents the labiunr, and which encases the proboscis ; further, the haustellum, which consists most generally of two pieces analogous to the labrum ; occasionally of two others, which are called the cultelli, or knives, which possibly represent the mandibles ; and there are rarely two others, called the scalpella, which may remind us of the maxillae ; and there are, in addition to these, two palpi. It thus amply differs from the trophi of all other haustellate insects. These are the most general characters, whereby the entire order is distinguished. Within themselves, the modifications of structure which they exhibit, furnish the characters upon which their distribution is founded. The most prominent of these are supplied by their antennae, which, considered typically, consist of but three joints j but, attached to the third, we frequently detect a setaceous appendage. In the first division, 368 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. however, they have never less than six joints, and usually more than twelve. The eyes of the Diptera exhibit some remarkable peculiarities, and frequently sexual discrepancies : these organs, in the male, often occupying nearly the whole of the head ; and they are often densely ciothed with hair, a structure that would almost seem to impede vision ; and another singular circumstance is, that, although the hexagonal structure of the facets of which the composite eyes are composed is universal, yet the several families, genera, species, and sexes exhibit peculiar arrangements of different sizes of these facets in the same eyes ; a fact, which, although exhibited by Hook in his enlarged eye of TabanuSj was left unnoticed by himself, and never, subsequently, observed or heeded by systematists or anatomists, although it displays such striking pecu- liarities. (328.) The general integument of these insects is of as fragile a texture as in many of the Neuroptera y and the rest of their structure is perfectly analogous to the parts of other insects. All these structural particulars, however, undergo an infinity of modifications which are nowhere stationary; and the forms of their bodies are as variously different. These insects are usually ovi- parous, but they present two remarkable exceptions ; for in Sarcophaga they are viviparous, or produce their larvae hatched ; and in the terminal division, the Pupi- para, they are pupiparous, and bring forth their young advanced to the stage of pupae, and thus form a re- mote analogy to the marsupial animals. Under the several families, we shall observe other peculiarities incidental to the preliminary stages of their existence. The transformation of the majority into the pupa state is also very peculiar ; for, instead of spinning a co- coon, or forming a cell, the skin of the larva hardens, and thus makes a case, within which the changes take place. In their perfect state, they are possibly not inferior to any order in the multiplicity of forms which they exhibit; whereas, in the abundance of SUBDIVISIONS OF THE DIPTEBA. S6$ individuals, they certainly surpass all ; no place or time is unfurnished with them, and usually in enormous pro- fusion. Life thus multiplies life; for the multitudes of birds that they support, contributes to vary its exten- sion over the earth; but the chief function that they exercise in the economy of nature, is to contribute to- wards the destruction of those substances which, in a state of corruption, would tend otherwise, by poisoning the air, to produce disease and mortality. Further pe- culiarities in their economy we shall briefly notice as we pass rapidly through the families ; and we shall now, therefore, quit this generalisation, and proceed to the investigation of the contents of the order, and their dis- tribution. (S29-) The two primary groups, the NEMOCEBA and BBACHOCERA, into which they have been divided, ac- cording to the number of the joints of their antennae, are of very unequal extent. The first, or NEMOCEBA, are those which possess more than six joints to the organ, and comprises the Cullces and Tipulce. The former are perhaps the most highly organised, in every respect, of all the Diptera; and to the perfection of their suctorial apparatus the majority of us can attest, from our individual experience of what is. called the sting of a gnat. Their larvse are aquatic, and are those singular little red worms, large at one extremity, that we frequently observe in stagnant waters ; they move by a sort of jump ; and, breathing by means of anal tracheae, they frequently resort to the surface, to imbibe a fresh supply of air. These are all small insects, and all the genera are natives of this country, but Cu lea? is the most abundant in species. The Tlpulce } which form the second group, are less highly organised in the structure of their mouths only. The typical genera are well known as " Father long-legs ; " and, in their larva state, many of them are very injurious to the roots of grass. They form a large tribe, subdivided by struc- ture, but named from the places or substances they B B 370 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. frequent. Thus we have Culiciform Tipulce, terricole Tipulce, fungicole Tipulce, gallicole Tipulce, and floral Tipulce. They have been very aptly compared, from the multitude of tribes,, genera, and species occurring in them, to the large coleopterous families of Curculi- onidce and Car abides, wherein Nature exhibits an inex- haustible diversity, combined with a typical unity : but we must hasten on, with merely observing, that in the Tipulce they exhibit to us the largest native Diptera; and in Ctenophora we find the most elegant structure of the antennae, which are bipectinated, in the males, with alternate long and short branches. And in Chironomus we have the extraordinary instance of larvae living in a social community at the bottom of ponds and brooks. We also find amongst them the remarkable little Chio- nea, which, as its name signifies, occurs only on the snow; and which, from its being apterous, has very much the appearance of a spider : and the North American Bittacomorpha is remarkable for the excessive incrassation of its tarsi. Among the fungivorous Ti- pulce, the genus Gnorista has a singular elongation of its head and front ; this produced portion being half as long again as the head itself. Cecidomya and Lasi- optera are the representatives of the gallicole Tipulce; and, like the Cynipidce amongst the Hymenoptera, their larvae live in the galls of plants, which the puncture of the parent insect forms : and it is amongst the former that the terrific destroyer of wheat is found, which is known in America by the name of the " Hessian fly ;" as also in the tribe of floral Tipulce, we find the genus Simulium, which use their anterior tarsi as feelers; and the number of the individuals of which, in some coun- tries, is so great, that they become an oppressive pest to man and animals. (330.) The second division, or BBACHOCERA, have never more than three joints to the antennae, the last of which, however, undergoes a multitude of forms, and is usually accompanied with a style, or seta : they are sub- divided into three smaller divisions, depending upon the THE TETRACH^ET^E. 371 number of setae that accompany the oral apparatus ; thus, the HexaclicetcB have six., the Tetrachcetce four, and the Dichcetce two. (331.) The first of these subdivisions, or HEXA- CHIETJE,, comprises insects which, as their very name im- plies, possess a highly organised mouth ; and consequently we observe amongst them those which feed upon the blood of the Mammalia, and for which purpose they were furnished with the apparatus of lancets their mouth contains. They are usually insects of a very ro- bust form; and, by the subdivision of the third joint of their antennae, they appear to indicate their proximity to the Nemocera. Their tarsi are furnished with three vesicles ; and the reticulation of nervures of their wings exhibit high organisation. Amongst these are the Tabaniy and their allies, Hcematopota and Chrysops, all blood-thirsty creatures, and which, in the woods, in summer, constantly alight upon the entomologist's face and hands, and put him to considerable pain. Indeed, it is related that Messrs Kirby and MacLeay were frus- trated in an entomological excursion by the prevalence of these insects, against the severe punctures of which they could find no protection. These are all more or less distinguished for the excessive brilliancy of their eyes whilst alive, which surpass the most vivid gems in lustre, especially the latter genus, which deduces its name from the circumstance. Raphiorhynchus, named from its curved and produced clypeus, and Acanthome- rus, which has spined femora, are large exotic genera peculiar to the Brazils ; and Pangonia longirostris y in which the proboscis is several times longer than the body, is a native of India. (332.) The second subdivision, the TETRACH^ET^E, which are deficient in one pair of setae to the mouth, have usually the terminal joint of their antennae simple, or with an apical seta consisting of three divisions, which seem an obsolete indication of its previously de- veloped structure. They have, further, but two vesi- cular soles to their tarsi, and their wings have less com- B B 2 3J2 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS, plication in their neuration than the preceding. They form a large host, and are divided into three families, viz. the Notacantha, the Tanystoma, and the Brachy- stoma. The first family,, or JVotacantha, are distin- guished by having the third joint of their antennae annulated, thus somewhat resembling the Hexachcetce. They are all more or less characterised by the spines of their scutellum. whence their name ; and they form three tribes the Sicarii, the Xylophaga, and the Stra- tiomycB. The larvae of the second of these have been observed to live in putrescent wood. The Brazilian genus, Hermetia, in the same tribe, is peculiar for the pellucid spots at the base of the abdomen. Xylophaga is an extremely rare British genus. The third tribe, the Stratiomyce. are all more or less attached to the water or its vicinity. Thus, Stratiomya is found only in such situations, and its larva occurs in stagnant pools; this is elongate,, and depressed, and attenuated at the posterior extremity ; and these insects are constantly found upon aquatic flowers; whereas the brilliantly me- tallic Sargus settles only upon foliage. The bodies of all these insects are considerably depressed, and their wings have a central, rather large, cell. Ephippium is of very rare occurrence as a British insect ; and is of an intense black, with a bright red thorax : none of the family are of large dimensions. (333.) The second family, or Tanystoma, contains the giants among the Diptera, and includes insects of great variety of habits and of forms. Their combining character is, however, to have the third joint of their antennae simple, with a terminal seta ; a coriaceous ros- trum, which is usually slender and lengthy. The Asi- HdcB are probably the most typical; and are very rapa- cious insects, feeding upon every thing else that they can conquer. Megapoda is remarkable for its lengthy slender legs and large size, and is peculiar to the Brazils; whence also Mallophora, with its hairy body, comes, and which, thus much, resemble, the Bombi. Dasypogori, Dioctria, and Asilus are native genera, and the latter THE VESICULOSA. 373 appears to be of universal distribution. But the most gigantic in the tribe are found in the genus Mydas, which are likewise insects of prey, and sometimes nearly two inches long. The third and fourth tribes, the Hybo- tidae and Empidte, still retain the sanguinary habits of the preceding; but they are much smaller insects; and the latter, especially, have usually very elongated rostra, and seize their prey in flight, although they do not dis- dain the nectar of flowers. In this same tribe, the Hi- lar& are peculiar for the dilatation of their anterior tarsi in the males ; and they have the habit of dancing upon the surface of the water in brooks and ponds without any fear of submersion. The present is a large tribe, consisting of many genera of small insects. (334.) The fifth tribe, or the Vesiculosa, are re- markably gibbous insects, with very minute heads, which are nearly lost in comparison with the rest of the body, and almost wholly occupied by their eyes ; and they have also lengthy rostra, although in some it is nearly obsolete. Their wings, in repose, are placed in a sort of roof over the body. These insects are all attached to flowers, and their preliminary stages are unknown. The sixth tribe, or Nemestrinida, have a considerable resemblance to the Bombylii, from which, however, the peculiar neuration of their wings estranges them ; for in these organs they closely resemble Mydas: the two genera known are exotic and rare insects. The seventh tribe comprises the Bornbyliida, which are distinguished for their short hairy body and lengthy proboscis, which is sometimes considerably longer than the insect. They have usually great power of flight, and accomplish it with remarkable velocity ; and many of them take their food, like some of the sphinges and humming-birds, whilst hovering over the flower which contains it. They consist of several genera, the most of which are exotic. The eighth and last tribe of the TETRACH^ET^ TANYSTOMA,, consists of the Anthracidce, insects almost wholly remarkable for their intensely black colour, and beautiful wings, variegated with B B 3 3j4f NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS. black markings,, especially in the type Anthrax itself) and which is likewise distinguished for its reniform eggs, a structure rarely occurring among the Diptera. As an elegant contrast to their deep mourning garb, they are frequently decorated with bands of bright silvery hair, which gives them an extremely beautiful appearance. They are chiefly inhabitants of the warmer climates, where they appear to abound. (835.) The third family of the TETRACH^T^, and the sixth of the entire order, is occupied by the Brachy- stoma. These have a short and membranous proboscis, the terminal lobes of which are considerably thickened : the third joint of their antennae is simple, with its seta usually dorsal. They consist of insects of great variety of form, and are separated into four tribes ; 1 . The Xylotomidce ; 2. Leptidce ; 3. Dolichopido} ; and, 4. Syr- phidce. The three first are distinguished by their lengthy and slender legs, and frequently gay metallic colouring. The majority are floral insects. In the Leptidce, we find the remarkable genus Vermileo, the larva of which forms a pitfall for its prey, very similar to that we have described in giving the habits of the Myrmecoleon among the Neuroptera ; and among the Dolychopidce, the male legs of Medeterus are curiously distorted. The last tribe of this family we find occupied by the Syr- phidce, which certainly exhibit the most elegant insects throughout the Diptera. They are usually depressed and ornamented with beautiful colours. It forms a very large group, embracing more than forty genera ; and in which, consequently, the typical organisation undergoes considerable variety of modification. In Ceria and Callicera, the antennae are much developed, and very elegant : in Volucella we find a mimicking resemblance of the bee ; and which, also, in the larva state, inhabit their nests : the Helophili are gay in- sects, residing in the vicinity of water, especially where there is an abundance of reeds and rushes : Merodon, Tropidia, and Xylota have greatly enlarged posterior thighs : Rhingia has an elongated clypeus and pro- SUBDIVISION OF THE ATHERICERA. 3?5 fooscis ; but it is in Syrphus, Milesia, and Cheilosia, that perhaps the most elegant species occur : and Baccha, lastly,, is remarkable for its lengthy and slender body. (336.) The third general subdivision consists of the T)icnjTJ the characters of which are to have two setae to the proboscis ; the antennae usually patelliform, with a dorsal seta, or tuberculiform. In these insects, also,, we find a gradual obliteration of the nervures of the wings, which speedily become considerably reduced in quantity. These form two families the Athericera and the Pupipara ; the first of which is distinguished by the sucking tube being contained within the pro- boscis, and the terminal joint of the antenna? usually patelliform. These are subdivided into eight tribes ; 1. The Scenopinidae ; 2. The Cephalopsida ; 3. TheLon- chopteridce; 4. The Platypezidce ; 5 The Conopsidce ; 6. TheMyopidsidaa, tortoise beetles, 116. 202. Analogy with the Coccides, 149. Castnia Licus, 104. Castniadae, moth sphinxes, 103. Catacola, 109. Catadromus, 263. Caterpillars, of, 54. 5961. 68, 69, 70. 73. 92. Types of, 60. 65. 93. Ruminant, 67. 93. Catops, 251. Cells of bees, &c., of the, 159. 169, 170. 183. Centipedes, 10. 53. 68. Centronotidae, 117 Spined cicadas, 130 134. Horned cicadas, 137. Centronotus cornutus, 137. C. ge- nistoe,139. Cephalopsidae, the, 375. Cephalotaa, or Errantes, 23, 24. Cephalotrichia, 218. Cerambycida?, the, 275. 290. Cerambyx, 275. Cerceris, 181. CercoDinae, the hopping cicadas, 131/134. Cercopis, conformation of, 138. 172. Cetacea, allusions to, 51. 65. 71. Cetonia, the genus, 207. 209. C. aurata, 207. 254. C. cornuta, or Ichnostoma, 211. C. Morio, 211. Cetoniadae, the, or floral beetles, 208. 210. 254. Sub-families, 220. Analogies of, to Coleoptera, 221 . Analogies of Scarabaaidze and Cetoniida?, 237. 239. Cetoniidaa, circle of the, 239, 240. Cetoniinae, the, represent the most typical Coleoptera, 240. Chafers, of, 192. 196. 210. 217. Chalcides, and gall-fnes. 151, 152. 154. 156. Chalcididae, the, 153. Chalcidites, structure of the, 185. Large group of, 187, et seq. Chalconotus, 227. Chasmodia, 215. Chasmodon, apterous, 187. Ch el on an urn, 247. Chelostoma, the genus, 165. Chermes Alni, 141. Chetoptera, genus, 23, 24. C hiasognathus, 243. Chigo, attacks the feet of negroes, 393. Chilognatha, the, 586. " Chilognathiform stirps," 208. Chilopoda, the, 386. Chionew, apterous, 341. Chiton, 242. Chloeia, 25. Chlorion, metallic colour of, 180. Chorista, 341. INDEX. Chrysalis of insects, notices of, 48. 53, 54. 79. With head pointed upwards, 60. With head pointed downwards, 65. Perfect, 76. Chrysididae, ovipositor of, 188. Chrysina, 214. Chrysis, the genus, 154- Chrysomelas, the, 253. Chrysomelida?, the, 154. 314. Chrysophora chrysochora, 215. Cicada Anglica, 131. Cicades, or Cicadas, conformation of the, 112. Singing insects, 126, et seq. Aberrant species of. 113. The true, or Cicadiadse, 131. Anacreon's eulogy of the, 132. Cicadides, 113. 129. . Cicadinje, singing, 131. Cicindela, the typical, 259. C. cam- pestris, 254. Its larva, 259. 261. Cicindelidse, or tiger beetles, 115. 192. 250259, &c. Cimex, genus, 116. Conformation of, 116. C. lectularius, 121. C. scarabseoides, 118. Cimicides, or bugs, 112, 116. 126. Circellium, convex, 227. Circopinee, jumping cicadas, 134. Cirratulus, 24. Cirrhipedes, parasitic, 3. Covered with scales and hard plates, 9, 10. 16. Are marine animals, known as barnacles, 29. Families of, 31. 70. Analogies of, with the Aves fissirostres, 33, 34. Metamor- phosis of, 36. Relation with the Crustacea, 38. Cissites, 329. Cixius, the genus, 135. Claviger, remarkable form of, 273. Cleri, the, 322. Cleridae, the, 333. Clerus, 165. 276. 321. 334. Cloe, the ephemeral genus, 354. Clymene, fragile tube of, 23. Clythrida?, family, 314. Cnemidotus, 265. 268. Coccides, or Blight Insects, 112. 148, et seq. Coccinella, 149. 203. Coccinellida?, 118. 278. Coccus, 116. C. adonidum, 150. cacti, 149. 325. Cataphractus, 149. Cochineal, produce of the cocci, 149. 325. Cocoon of the silkworm, 78. Colax, 376. Coleoptera, 9. 57. Wings, hard cases, and shards of, 48. Analogy of, with Amphibians, 49. With Glires, 50. Imperfection as to flight, 49. Analogies with Hemi- ptera, 115 With quadrupeds and reptiles, 199. The natatorial, 125. General view of this order, chap. vi., 190. ; vii., 207. ; viii., 249. ; ix., 274. ; x., 308.; xi., 318. Ana. logics of, 202. 204. 252. 258. Coleotichus, 118. Colianse, yellow butterflies, 87. 89. Colias, a butterfly, 87. Colletes, its bilobated tongue, 162. Colophon, 244. Condylodon, 173. Coniates Tamarisci, 306. Copper butterflies, the, 95. Coprides, habits of the, 260. Copris, 227. Coprobii, the, 227. Coprobis, 227- Coptosoma globus, 118. Corei, family of the, 117. 119. Coreus, 119. Coriacea?, the, 379. Corixa, the group, 139. Corizus Hyosciami, 120. Coronula, 32. Crabronida?, 178. Crabs, allusions to the feet of, 2. To their eyes, 38. To the alter- ation of external appearance of, 53. Type of the group of, 389. land, 389. Crayfish, 391. Creophilus, black-headed beetle, common in our walks, 271. Crickets, of, 348, Crocisa, white and cerulean mark- ings of, 166. Crustacea, 13, 14. 38. 387393. Cryptidse, the, 186. Cryptodus, genus, 212. Cryptophasida?, hermit moths, 106. Ctenicerus pectinicornis, 247. Ctenostoma, 259. Cuckoo bees, 157. 162. 165. Cuckoo spit, 127. 134. Cucujus, 276, 277. Curculio, 181, 275. Curculionidse, the, 154. 193. 276. 278. 297. Species of, 304. Cybister, 264. Cychrus, and its affinities, 263. Cyclops, swimming feet of, 37. 392. Cyclostomi, clypeus and mandibles of the, 187. Cylidrus, 333. Cylendrodes, apterous, 348. Cylindrical cases of May.flies, 354. Cynipedes, the, 153. Cynipsidas, gall-flies, 188. Cyphus, rich vestment of, 306. D. Daphnia, the water-flea, 37. Darnis, the genus, 138. Dasygastraj, hirsute, 165. Dasypoda, the elegant, 163. Dasypus, genus, 65. Dasytes, 324. Death's-head moth, 77. Death-watch, the, 358. Decticus, the genus, 349. Deinopsis, and Diglossa, 273. Dendrophagus, 285. Delphax, curious shape of, 137. Demetrius, 261. Dentalium, 22. Devil's coach-horse, 272. Dichaetae, families of the, 375. Diopatra, 25. Diphtera, moths named, 109. Diphucephalae, 218. Diptera, two-winged insects, 9. 46. 56. 79. 366, et seq. Diura Chronos, 347. Dolichoderus of Brazil, 172. Donaciae, and their larva, 283. Dorcadion, 289. Dorcus, the genus, 243. Dorites, 87. Dorsibranches, 20. Dorylida?, the, 175. Dorylus, 175. Dragon-fly, stingless, 48. Aquatic in the larva state, 49. Drilus, 332. Dromius, 261. Drones. See Bees. Drypta, 261. Dynastes, 216. D. Actseon, 233. Dynastidae, 215. 231, 232. Dynastina?, 224. 233. 240. Dytiscidaa, 115. 192. 195. 250. 254. 264. 266. Dytiscus, the genus, 250, 264. E. Earwigs, or Forficulida?, 201. 336. Ecdysis distinguished from meta- morphosis, 52. Edriophthalma, 391. Eggs of insects, of, 54. 79. 112. 132. 156. 159. 186. 343. 355, et passim. Elaphrus and its sub-aquatic cog- nates, 263. Elater, highly luminous, 245, 246. E. sanguineus, 247. Elaterinse, the, 245. Electrical shock from insects,! 23,1 24. Elophorus, genus of water beetles, 240. Elytra, or sheaths, of the, of insects, 81. 191. 196. 255. 321, et passim. Embryo, of the insect tribes, 54. Emus, the beautiful, 271. Engidae, of MacLeay, 251. Engis, 267. Entomostraca, the, 392. Entozoa, intestinal worms, 7. 27. Epeolus, variegated cuckoo-bee, 162. *. 399 Ephemera, wings of these insects, 353, 351. Ephemenna?, their brief life, 353. P^pomediopteron, 179. Erotylida?, family, 315. Erotylus, 251. Erpobdella, 21. Errantes,the largest family of Anel- lides mesobranchiae, 24. Their animal economy, 24. Erycina, of Fabricius, 94. 96. Erycinida?, 94. 96. Eucera, genus, 166. Euglossa, 168. Eulaima, 168. Eulophi, tarsi of the, 187. Eumenes, a solitary wasp, 182. Eunicidae, comprise CEnone and Aglaura, also Lycidice, Eunice, &c., 25. Euphrosyne, 25. Euploea, 92. Eurymus, 89. Eurysternus, legs of the, 227, 22a Euterpe, 89. Evaniadae, family of, 187. Eyes of insects, some notices of the, 118. 126. 134. 185. 324. 339. 353. 380, et passim. F. Feet of insects, the, 2. 10. 90. 94. 124. 380. Swimming feet of, 37. Filaments, certain, of insects, 141. Filaria, the most simple of the Vermes, 28. Flata limbata, of Africa, 84. Flatiria>, family of, 127. Moth-like cicadas, 130. 134. Fleas, of, 56. 154. 393. Fleshy processes, 92. Flies, of, 375, et passim. Floral beetles, the, 210. 254. Flowers, list of insects inhabiting, 267. Forficulidze, the earwigs, 201. 336. Formica, stingless, 172. Formicidae, or the Ants, 151. 171. Are pugnacious, 172. Formicina, 172. Formicina rufa, 172. Fossores, aculeated, 176-181. Fresh-water insects, 21. Froghopper, the, 127. 134. ^ Fulgora?, analogies of, 135. 136. Fulgorana?, in the circle of the Fla- tida;, 135. G. Galeatus, 121. Galgulini, the, 125. 400 IN Gall flies, 151, 152. 188. Gastrobrauchus, allusion to, 18. Geographic distribution of insects, b8. 93. 95. 97. 103. 107. 119. 124. 128. 132. 154. 166. 169. 173. 175. 181. 218. 246. 263. 269. 346, 347. 384. Geometna, of Linnaeus, 69. 205. Geometrides, or loopers, 86. 107. Geotrupes stercorarius, 224. Geotrupinae, or drone scarabs, 229. Gerris, 117. 125. Ghost-moths, the, 106. Glow-worms, of the, 319. Glaphyri, green and yellow, 219. Glaphyridae, 211. Glaphyrinae, 219. Glaphyrinse, or wasp beetles, 10. Glycera, appertains to Nereida?, 25. Goerius, 272. Goliathus, the genus, 238. Goliathus, beetle, 211, 212. Gonepteryx, 89. Gradual developement, 139. Grasshoppers, of, 53. 56. Their ha- bits and economy, 126, et scq. Allusions by various authors to the tribes of cicadas, 132, 133. The Gryllidae, or grasshoppers, 336, 337. The Acridinse, their song and vivacity, 349. Grubs, of, 54, 57. 60. 141. Gryllinae, and crickets, 348. Gryllotalpa, the burrowing, 348. Guinea worm, or Filaria, a pest of hot climates, 28. Gymnopleurus, 227. Gymnotus electricus, 124. Gyrini, the, 265. H. Habitat, ordinary, of many ento- mological tribes, 267, 2b8, 386. Hair-worm, or Gordius, 28. Halictus, genus, 162, 163. 176. Haliplus, 265. Halobates, marine, 126. Haltica, the genus, 152. Harpalidae, the, 262. Harpalus, the type, 263. Harpocera Burmeisteri, 121. Harvest bugs, 68. Haustellata, 45. 55. 196. Hawk-Moth, the, 60. 86. 99. Spin- ning^r Orthidse, 101. Heleus, structure of, 270. Heliconia, 87. Heliconinae, 87. Helota, 269. H. Vigorsii, 255. Hemerobiina?, the, 356. Hemiptera, 9. &c. Chap, iv., 110, et seq. Their wings generally coriaceous and folded, 48. Ana- logy with certain quadrupeds, 49. With Ferae, 50. Are carnivorous, 75. Analogies with the Coleop- tera, 115. With Cicades, 128. Hepialiriae, or'ghost-moths, 106, 107. i Hercules beetle, the, 232. | Hermella, 23. Hermit moths, 106. Herpa, Guilding's, alluded to, 27. Hesione, 25. Hesperia, 73. 97. Hesperian caterpillar, its large head, 65. The butterfly, 70. Hesperia?, skipper butterflies, 61. 76. 97, 98. 102. 205. Heterogyna, solitary, 176. Ht-teromera, the, 263. Heterosternus, 215. Heterotoma, antennas of, 121 Hexapod insecta, the, 47 380, et passim. Hexodon, 215. Hipparchia, meadow brown butter- fly, 63. 93. Hipparchia Hyperantus, 94. Hipponoe, 25. Hirudina, 26. Hirudinidas, leeches, 18. 21. Hirudo, the medicinal, 21. Hispidae, the, 316. Hister, the genus, 241. 244. Histeridaa, the, 244. Hive bees, 170. Hives, of the, 169, 170. Hololepta, 244. Holoptilus, the typical, 124 Honey, 160. 170. 183. 325. Honey dew, 143. Hoplias, metallic tints of, 218. Horia, genus, 167. 329. Horn-like processes of insects, 69. Horned beetles, 210, et passim. Horned cicadas, 137. Horns of insects, 73. 90. 137. Horse-fly, the hippobosca, 379. Humming birds, 34. 154. Hydrena, 249. Hydrocorisae, structure of the, 129. Hydrodephagaa, the, 251. Hydrodephagpus beetles, 195. 264. Hydroessa, minute, 125, 126. Hydrophilida?, the, 240. 248. Hydrophilii, aquatic beetles, 248, Hydrophilus, the genus, 254. H. piceus, 248. Hydroporus, 265. Hydroptila, kidney-shaped cases of the larvae of, 355. Hylseus, the wood burrowing, 162. Hymerioptera, 9. 1^3. Wings of, never coriaceous, 48. Their ana- logy to Ileptilia, 49. Poisonous stings of the typical, 49. Analogy with Ungulatii, of quadrupeds, 50. Inclusive of bees and wasps, 79. Of the order Hymenoptcra, \ INDEX. 401 chap, iv., 150. Analogies with Ptilota, 153. Fossorial, 176. 181. Hypocephalus armatus, 268. Hypoderma, 376. Hystrix, 119. Ichneumons, the, or Ichneumo- nides, 151, 152. 155. 165. 185, et seq. Proper, 185. Imago, the term, 80. Inca, 212, 213. Infusoria, are minute, 2. Insects, natural arrangement and characters of, 1, et seq. 41, et seq. Industry, and almost miraculous works of, 5. Gregarious com- munities of, 5. Five great divi- sions of, 69. Typical classes of, 45. Definition of an insect, 46. On the winged insects, 47, et seq. No tribe of insects absolutely do- mestic, 50. Systems of entomo- logy, 41, et seq. 55. The singing insects, 126132 Of aculeated insects, 155. 158. 171. 176. Pulmo- nary apparatus of certain apte- rous, 380, 381. Intestinal worms, simple structure of this class, 7. Their varieties and habitation, 27. Ips, and other tribes, of which the bark of trees is the habitat, 267. Ischnocera, antenna? of, 166. Ischnostoma, 211. Issus, the genus, 135. luliform caterpillars. 64. 68. 72. lulodis, of Africa, 246. lulus, 10. 58. Java, insects of, 85. 96. Joppa, the genus, 185. Ladybird, the, Coccinella, 149. 202. Lamellicornes, family of Coleop- tera, 115.201- i ; 07, et seq. Ana- logies of the typical with other groups, 240. 254. 281. Lamia, the genus, 277. Lamiada?, analogies of the, 293. Lamprima, splendour of, 243. Lamprimina?, the, 241. Lampyrida?, the glow-worms, 319. Land crabs, 389. Languria, 316: Lantern -flies, orFulgora?, 135, 136. Larrida?, genera of, 181. Larva? of insects, notices of the,49. 58. 63. 67. 94. 97. 106. 141. 151. 156. 204. 211. 334. 339. 355. Pri- mary types of larva, 5764. lu- hform type, pre-eminent, 58. 63, 64. Aberrant types of, 65, et seq. Analogies of the larva? of the Lepidoptera to the Annulosa, 72. Representations of, 73 Lebia, 261. Ledra, the genus, 134. Leech, the medicinal, 21. Leeches, 6. 18. Leiodes, 268. L. cinnamomea, 268. Leodice, head free and porrect. 25. Lepidoptera, 9. 56. 80. Characters of, and metamorphosis, 48. Pupa active, 48. &c. Analogy of, with birds, 49. With quadrumana or quadrupeds, 5(1. Crepuscular Lepidoptera, 60. The diurnal, 63. 92. 205. &c. Have the longest caterpillars, 69. Analogy of to the Annulosa, 72. Chap, iii., of the Lepidoptera, 82. et seq. Aberrant group of, 93. Affinity of Cicades to, 12P. Analogies of, Lepisma, 63. 94. Lepitrix, a remarkable beetle, 212. Leptura, 278. Lepturida?, the, 275. Lepturina?, analogies of, to tb Lamiada?, 293. Lestes, its brilliant wings, 339. Lethrus, its food the vine, 230. Leucophasia, the genus, 85. 90. Leucospis, ovipositor of, 187. Libellula, its large eyes, 339. Libellulida?, the, 337. Libellulina?, the, 338. Lice, of, 379. Bird-lice, 61. Plant- lice, 112. 114. 128. 141. Licinia amphione, 87. 90. Licinina?, butterflies, 89. Limulus, extraordinary form of, 392. Lissonotinse, the, 289. Lithosiada?, day moths, 106. Lobster, the, 391. Locusta, the genus, 337- Locustina?. the, 348. Longicorn coleoptera, 123. Looper moths, 86. 107. 204. Lucanidae, 136. 207. 240. 274. 276. Lucanus, parallelopipedal, 242,243. Ludius fulgens, 247. Lumbricina, 26. Lumbricus, or earth-worm, 22, 23. Lyca?na, 94. Lycidice, a genus of Eunicida?, 25. Lycus, 321, 322. 332. Lyga?i, the, 117. 120. Lygseus equestris, 120. D D 402 INDEX. Lymexylonidae, the, 330. Lytta, description of, 321. 326. M. Machla, heterogeneous form of, 270. Macraspis, 215. Macrocephalus, 122. Magilis, 22. Maggots, of, 57. 61. Malachius, 324. Malacodermes, or soft Coleoptera, 115.197.202. Circle of the, 255. Account of this winged tribe of beetles, chap, xi., 318. Malthinus, elytra and eyes of, 324. Mamestra, 110. Man, lessons to be derived by him from the evidences of nature, 82. 342.353.393. Mandibulata, typical class of Co- leoptera, 45. 55. 56. 146. 196. Manticora, 260. Mantidee, the, 127. Mantinse, the, 344347. Mantis, 344. 378. M. Carolina, de- scribed, 346. Sea Mantises, 391. Mantispa, 344. Mask of insects, 56. 339. Mason bees, the, 165. May flies, 354. Megacephala, 260. Chalybea, 260. Megachil,a universality of, 165, Megasomina, Hercules, 232. Megasominae, or horned beetles, 210. 215. 231. Arboreal, 232. Melecta, 165, 166. Mellipona, 169. Meloe, elytra of, 321. doubt upon its larva, 327. Melolontha alopex, 218. M. vul- garis, 192. 217. Melolonthidas, or tree beetles, 210. Meloldnthinie, 217, 18. Meiyrinae, the sub-family, 324. Membracis spinosa, 138. 172. Menenotus, 119. Merocoris, 119. Meropachys, 119. Mesotrichia, of Africa, 167. Metamorphosis : Of Ptiiota, 811. 36, 47. Of Cirrhipedes, 36. Of moths, 103. Of annulose ani- mals, their chief distinction, 51. Variations of obtect, coarctate, incomplete, semi-complete, 52. 55, 56. Three stages of, 64-74. &c. Reflections on the nature and wonders of entomological, chap, iii., 82. Other instances of ento- mological, 113. 151. 336. Miana, 110. Microphysa pselaphoides, 121, Millipedes, of,'53. 150. Miltogramma, 162. Miris, 121. Mites, or Acaridae, 385. Molluris, 281. Mollusca, certain insects that bear affinity to the, 7, 22. 27.30. Ana- logies with, 35, 36. Monilicornes, tribe of Coleoptera, 115. 202206. General view of, chap, x., 309. Analogies 'of the families of, 311. Monoculos, 392. Monocuh, tribes of, 37. Bivalve, or Ostracoda, 38. Mordella, account of, 321323. Mordellidaa,ofthe,332. Mormolyce, 261. Moth cicadas, the, 127. 130. 134. Moths, of, 60. 77, 78. 86. 108. De- nominations of, 77. 105, 106. Muscidae, comprehensive tribe of the, 375, 376. Museum, the British, 183, 184. Mutilla, typical genus, 176. Mutillida?; the, 152. 154. 175. Mygale, 382. Mygnimia, 179. Mylabris, of the East, 326. Myriapoda, 19. 53. 386. Myrmecia, of New Holland, 173. Myrmecoleontina?, the, 339. Myrmus miriformis, 120. Mystacides, 355. Myxine, 5, 6. 19. 26. My/ine, 179. . N. Nabis lividus, 124. Nais, 23. Natorial, or natatorial conforma- tion, 60. 140., &c. Naucoris, 125. Necrodes, 266. Necrophagus, burying beetles, 266. Necrophori, the typical, 267. Necydalina?, sub-family of, 295. Analogies of the, 297. Necydalis, 295. N. major, 296. Neides, of Latreille, 120. Nematoidea, this order without perceptible joints, 27. Nemoptera, the long-winged, 341. Nepa, 125. Nepadae, the, 129. Nephelys, 21. Nephritomma, 181. Nephtys, 25. Nepidse, group of, 125. 140. Nereida?, 18. The feet furnished with cirrhi, 25. Nereidina, head distinct, 26. Nereis margaritacea, 19. 403 Nests, of insects, 151. 156. 159. 165. 169. 183, 184. 273. 343. Neuroptera, aberrant class of Ptl- lota, 8, 9. Have no sting, the wings reticulated, 48. Analogy of with fishes, 49, 50. Larva* of, 49.339. Description of, chap, xii., 335. A circle of its own, 337. Night moths, 78. 86. Nitidulse, 267. 269. N. proper, 269. Nitidulinee, the, 268. Nobiles, swallow-tailed, 63. Noctua sponsa, 102. Noctuides, 78. 86. 104. 108. 204. Notnada, general structure of, 164. Nomia, the genus, 163. Notonecta, large shield of, 139. Notonectida?, 129, 130. 139. 140. Nymphalidaa, sub-typical group of the butterflies, 68. 75. 90. 92. O. Ochthebius, 249. Odocantha, 261. (Edesmagena, 376. CEnorie, 25. OEshna, large eyes of the, 339. (Estrida?, parasitic, 375. (Estrus, 376. Omalidaa, family of the, 272. Omophron, gibbous, 264. Omus, the large, 260. Onisciform larvse, 65. 72. 95. Onisciform type, 149, et passim. Oniscus, 62. 96. 149. 387. 392. Onitis, 227. Oniticellus, 227. Onthophagus, the genus, 225. 227. Opatrum, 236. Ophelia, 24. Ophionida?, the, 186. Orthidae, spinninghawk-mothSjlOl Orthonotus, structure of, 121. Orthoptera, 56. Oryctes nasicornis, 230. 233. Osmiae, or mason bees, 16.3. Ostracoda, bivalve monoculi, 38. Ovipositor, the, in entomology, 152. 186188, et passim. Oxycypha, the genus, 354. Oxytelidae, beetles, 272. p. Pachycnemus, 211. Pachylis, 119. P.giga?, H9. Pachypus of Fabricius, 218, 219. Pachysoma, 227. Paecilopoda, truly suctorial, among the Crustacea, 392. Palastes, 285. Palmyra, 25. Pamborus, 263. Panorpa, the genus, 341. Panorpinae, the, 341. Papilio of Latreille, 75. Papilio of Linnaeus, 86, 87. Papiliones, the, 10. 5470. Papilionidaa, arrangement of the, 87. True butterflies, 98. Papilionides, tribe, 86, et seq. Papilipninaa, the, 87, 88. Paragia, the genus, 185. Parasitic insects, of, 68. 162. 164, 165. 168. 177. 181. 329. 332. 334. 352, 379. 392. 393. Parenchymata, Cuvier's, 27, 28. Parnassinae, the, 76. 87. 90. Parnassius, 90. Parnopes, parasite, 181. Parnus, 249. Passalus, devastations by, 243. Passandra, 285. Paussi, genera of the, 124. Paussus, 124. P. armatus, 124. Peacock butterfly, the, 60. 91. Pectinaria, 23. Peduncles of barnacles, 30. 71. Pelecotoma, 332. Pella, beetles, 273. Pelopaaus, range of, 181. Peltophora, 118. Pentatomaa, the true, 119. P. bi- dens, 119. Pentatomi dae, or wood bugs, 116. Pepsis, typical wasp, 151. 179. Perepates, 25. Perga of New Holland, 189. Perlinae, the, 357. Genus Perla, 357. Petalocera, 230. 236. Phalaena, 86. Phalaena? of Linnaeus, 104. Phalaanides, 69. 78. 86. 107. Phalangidae, the, 385. Phalangium, 392. Phanaei, the, 227, 228. 260. Phasma, description of, 344. 347. Phasminae, 345. 347. Philanthidse, the, 178. Philanthus, 181. Phileurus, 233. Phloitribus Olese, 236. Pholidotus, 243. Phosphoric light in insects, 246. 323. Phryganida?, the, 154. Fifth circle of Neuroptera, 353. 354 Phryganina?, sub- family, 354. The largest species is Phryganea, 356. Phryneidae, pulmonary Arachnidae, 384. Phrynus, 384. Phthiromyae, the, 379. Phyllis, 25. Phyllomorphus paradoxus, 119. D D 2 404 INDEX. Physomerus, 119. Pierinae, the, 87. Garden white butterflies, 88. Pieris, 75. 87. Pimelia,251.281. P. Africa, 256. Pimelidae, 256. 269. Pimelinae, the, 266. Pimpla, a remarkable ichneumon, 152. P. manifestator, 165. Pirates, structure of, 121. 269. Piscicola, 21. Pison of New Holland, 181. Planiceps, 179. Plant bugs, Coccides, 112. J16. 148. Plant lice, the, 112. 114. 128. 141, &c. Platycerus, 243. Plax adunca, 269. Plea, the genus, 139. Plusiae, 109. Podalirius Pompolius, 73. Podops, pedunculated eyes of, 118. Polia, 110. Polyarthron, 284. Polydorus Thoas, 74. Polyergus, slaves of this ant, 172. Polyglypta, group of, 138. Polynoe, 25. Polyomatus, 62. 94. Polypes, allusions to the, 7. Pomonae Elater, 247. Pompilidaa, the, 178, 179. Pompilus, characteristics of, 179. Ponera, the genus, 173. Pontobdella, 21. Porocephalus, white-blooded,26. Prawn, the, Paltcmon, 391. Predatores, coleopterous, 115. 192. 249. 333. Their analogies to the coleopterous tribes, 252. To the families of Lamellicornes, 254. To the orders of Ptilota, 257. To the Capricornes, 281. Priocera, antenna? of, 333. Prionidaa, gigantic, 255. 274. 276. Prionotheca, 270. Prionotus serratus, electric, 123. Prionus, the genus, 276284. Proboscis, or rostrum, tubular arti- culated, described, 111. 161. Procerus, 263. Prona?us, mandibles of, 180. Psammotherma, 176. Pselaphinae, the, 273. Psithyrus, parasite genus, 168. Psocinje the typical genus is Pso- cus minute insects, 357. Ptilota, receive wings in the period of metamorphosis, 8, 9. 11. 36. 110. Their sub-divisions and circle of, 9. 80. Analogies of, 16. 34, 35. Characters of the five orders of, their relations to other animals, and their metamor- phoses, Part II. Chap, ii., 47, et seq. Analogies of the five orders of, 49, 50. The primary divisions of these are rapacious, and prey on other insects, 113. Analogies with Hymenoptera, 153. With the reptilia, 198. With the coleopterous Predatores, 257. Ptinus, 241 . Pupa? of insects, references to cer- tain of our notices of the, 48. 53. 91. Peculiarities and perfect shape of, 76, 77. Varieties of structure of pupae, 78. 96. 104;. Of perfect, imperfect, and coarc- tate, 79. 98. Pulex, or flea, 393. Pupipara, the, 375. 379. Pupivora, of Latreille, 153. 155. Pycnogonida?, description of the,392, Pycnogonon, 393. Pyralidae, aquatic habits of, 108. Pyrrhocoris apterus, 120. Q. Quadrupeds, analogies with, 49, 50 64. 93. 136. 199. 240. 252. 279. R. Radiata, 4, 5. Analogies with, 35. Ranatra, 125. 129. Raptorial larvae, 64. 68. Insects, 153. Rasorial type, 62. 66. Reduviidae, the typical hemiptera, carnivorous, 75. 116. 120. Reduvii, 118. 121, 122. 125. 269. Reduvius, 15a Rhyssonotus, 243. Rhyzolitha, 110. K ingworm of trees and stones, 58. Ringed animals, 1. See Annulosa. Rophites, genus of bees, 164. Rutila, the beetle genus of, 209. Rutilinje, the, 210, 211. 213. S. Sabella, 23. Sagra, 269. Sagrides of Latreille, 283. Salius, large protothorax of, 179. Satyridae. the Argus, 92. 94. Saw flies, the, 154. Scale-like processes, 112. Scaphinotus, 263. Scarabs, of the ancients, 216. The true scarabs, or Scarabaeina?, 225. 229. The Geotrupinae, or drone scarabs, 229. Scarabaaidaj, of the, 208, 209. Gene- ral description of, 222, et seq. Mu- tual analogy of the Scarabaeidae and Cetoniidae (diagram), 237, 239. Scarabaeinffi, the, 235. Scarabaeus macropus, 214. S. ster- corarius, 229. Scarites, 242. Scarlet dye, cochineal, 149. 325. Scaurus, 270. Scenopinidae, the, 375. Schizodactylus, of China, 348. Scoliada?, 177, 178. Scopuhpedes, solitary bees, 163. With hairy legs, 166. Scorpions, of, 68. 384. Scutati, 117, 118. 122. Scutellera, 138, 154. Serica, 218. Sericophorus, 181. Sericostoma, 355. Serpula, 23. Serpulida?, 18. Tube calcareous and convoluted, 23. Serpulina, sedentary, 26. Sesise, the brush-tailed, 103. Sexes, characteristics of the, and neuters, 171. 173. 179. 182. 264. 330. 349. 352, et passim. Shells of certain insects, 81. Shrimp, the, Crangon, 391. Siagonium, horns of the, 272. SigaJion, 25. Sigara, minute, of Leach, 139. Siliquaria, 22. Silk moths, the, 86. Silkworm, the, 57. 77. Cocoon of the, 78. Silpha, 266, et passim. Silphidae, 115. 251. 266. Sinodendron, 244. Skipper butterfly, 61. 76. Smerinthus, 101. Solenosthedium, 118. Solipedes, 280. Solpugida?, tracheal Arachnidae,385. Spalagia, 181. Spanish flies, of, 320326. Spercheus, 249. Sphanridium, 248, 249. S. scara- baaoides, 249. Spha?rocosis, a representation of the Coccinellida?, 118. Sphaeroderus, 263. Spheces, a winged group, 177. Nests and eggs of, 1-56. Spbecidaa, the, 180. Sphecides, group of the, 79. 151. 153 . 156. 175. Sphecodes, 162. Sphex, is cosmopolitan, 181. Sphingides, or hawk-moths, 60. 77. 97. 99. Great divisions of, 100. Sphinx, genus characterised, 86. Sphinx Atropos, 77,78. 101. Sphinxes, rampant caterpillars of the, 68. Spiders, of, 68. 380, etseg. Number of legs of, 2. 13. Spined caterpillar of Brazil, 64. The spines poisonous, 64. :x. 405 Spined cicades, 117. 130137. Other insects, thus armed, 270. Spondylis, 285. Squilla, 391. Stag-beetles, 136.207. 241. Staphylini, the proper, 271. Staphylinidas, or rove beetles, 115. 252. 255. 270. Stenida, beetles, 272. Sternapsis, 23. Stings of insects, some of the notices of the, 49. 155.178. Stomapoda, or sea-mantises, 391. Streblocera, distorted antenna? of, 186. Strepsiptera, 336. Strongylus, 267. Stylops, parasite, 163. 352. Suctorial process, 126. Suctorial type, the, 61, 62. 137. 393. Swallow- tailed butterflies, 63. 73. 88. Syllis, 25. Symbius, a parasitic insect, 332. Synagris, typical, 182. Syphonostoma, 154. Syrtis, 122. Systropha, antennae of, 614. T. Tachynidae, the, 272. Tachytes, the genus, 181. Tadpoles, of the, 53. Ta?nia, 28. Taenioidea of Cuvier, 7- 27. 28. Tape-worms, represent the class Vermes, 7. 27. Said to be a com- pound animal, 28. Tarantula spider, 384. Tefflus, 263. Telephorus, universal, 324. Tenthredines, the, 154. Tenthredo, of tinnasus, 150. Terebellidae, 23. Termitinae, social habits of the, 341. Their economy, 342, 343. Terricoles, belong to Annelides me- sobranchiae, 23. Testacea 4. 16. 27. 35, 36. Tetratoma, 267. Thais, 90. Thalassema, Thalassamenidae, 23. Thalerophaga, of MacLeay, 237. Thalerophagous group, the, 221. Thanasimus, on felled trees 334. Thecla, 95. T. jurbus, 96. T. lon- ginus, 96. Thelyphonus, 384. Thrips, the genus, 111. Possesses jaws, 114. Details of these mi- nute insects, 145, et seq. Thynnidae, structure of the, 176. Thynnus, and its genera, 176. Thyreocoris silphoides, 119. Thysanura, 63. 393, 406 Thysanuriform type, in caterpil- lars, 62. 65, 66, 67, 68. 72. 93. Tiger beetles, 192, et passim. Tiger moths, 106. Tillus, form of, 333. Tineidae, 108. Tingi, family of the, 121. Tiphia, 268. Titanus gigas, 283. Tomicus, 276. Tortoise beetles, 116. 149. 202. Tort-rices, 98. 108. Tortricidae, 107. Trachy notes, 270. Trichius, group of beetles, 211. Trichius fasciatus, 219. Trichoptera, order of, 56. 354. Trigona, 169. Trigonalis, 187. Trigonodactyla, 261. Trigonopsis, a rare genus, 181. Trilobites, 392. Trogidze, the, 212. A division of terrestrial Scarabs, 234. Uni- versal distribution of, 236. 256. Trogosita, 276. Trox luridus. 234. Tubicinella, 32. Tubicoles, 20. 22, 23. Tubifex, 23. V. Vanessa lo, 119. Velia 117. 125. Velleius, serrated antennae of, 271. Vermes, the class, 7. 9. 69. The genuine annulose, 8. Naked, 16. 27. White-blooded, 26. Body cylindrical, presenting no sem- blance of a disc, 27. Filaria the most simple, and Taenia the most complicated, 28. The family Tae- nioidea typical of the Vermes, 28. Analogy of Vermes to the humming-birds, 34. Simplicity of formation in, 36. Vermetus, 22. Vermiform type, 61. 65. 69. 72. Verrucivorus Decticus, 349. Vertebrata, 1. Analogies of, 9. 12. 34. 65. 279. Vespa, the genus, 183185, V. Ephippium, 182. V. Lechegua. na, 183. Vespida?, social, 180. The group described, 182. The Solitary Ves- pidae, 182. Aberrant, 184. W. Wasp beetles, 210. Wasps, of, 79. 151. 177. 182185. Water beetles, 115. 192. 248. Water cicadas, 129, 130. Water flea, the, 37. Wax, production of, 169. 325. Webs, insects', 78. 102. 380. Wing cases of insects, 197. See Elytra. Wood-louse, the, 62, 68. 392. "Worms, general character of, 3. The red-blooded, or Annelides, 5, 6. 20. The intestinal Tamioi- dea, Entozoa, &c., 7. 69. Earth- worms represent the Annelides; fape-worms the class Vermes ; barnacles the Cirrhipedes, 7. The Lumbricus, 23. Vermes, oran- nuloseworms,26, 27. Glow-worms 319. X. Xanthiae, moths, 109. Xenos, the genus, 352. Xya, a burrowing insect, 348. Xylina, 110. Xylocopa, genus, 167. X. latipes, 167. X. teredo, 129. Xylophagi, 276. Xylotrupes, 216. Z. Zethus, long slender petiole of, 182. Zoe, 392. " Zoological Researches" by Mr. Thompson, 39. Zyganidae, the clear-winged, of Brazil, 92. 102. THE END. LONDON : SPOTTISWOODES and SHAW, New-street- Square. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. JAN 24 1965 INTER-LIBRARY LD 21-100m-6,'56 (B9311slO)476 General Library University of California Berkeley fey f\ 5[ JN ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 "