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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORN:
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OIFT OF
HENRY DOUGLASS BACON.
1877.
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CONTENTS.
PART I.
ON THE ANNULOSA GENERALLY.
CHAPTER I.
On the Annulose Animals in general, with a short Account of the three
aberrant Classes of Annelides, Vermes, and Cirrhipedes - Page 1
PART II.
ON THE WINGED INSECTS.
CHAPTER I.
On the Ptilota, or four-winged Insects in general, the Characters of
the five Orders, and their mutual Relations to other Animals. The
Metamorphoses of Insects - - -47
CHAP. II.
The LEPIDOPTERA ... 81
CHAP. III.
TheHEMIPTERA ... . 110'
CHAP. IV.
The HYMENOPTERA . 150
CHAP. V.
The COLEOFFERA generally ... 190
A
CONTENTS.
CHAP. VI
COLEOPTERA, continued.
The Lamellicornes - - Pa S e ^
CHAP VII.
COLEOPTERA, continued.
The Freda tores ------
CHAP VIII.
COLEOPTERA, continued.
The Capricornes ----- 274
CHAP. IX.
COLEOPTERA, continued.
The Monilicornes - 308
v
CHAP. X.
COLEOPTERA, continued.
OntheMalacodermes ...
CHAP. XL
On the NEUROPTERA - - 335
PART III.
ON THE APTEROUS INSECTS.
CHAP. I.
On the APTERA generally - - 359
CHAP. II.
On the DIPTERA, ARACHNIDS, MYRIAPODA, CRUSTACEA, and Suc-
Those paragraphs in this volume with the initials
W. E. Sh. are written by Mr. SHUCKARD, and where
several of these follow each other they are affixed
to the last only ; but the system of classification is
exclusively Mr. SWAINSON'S.
Robert Street, Chelsea,
Nov. 1840.
ON
THE HISTORY
AND
NATURAL ARRANGEMENT
INSECT
nVERSITT)
ON THE ANNULOSAN^ENERALLY.
CHAPTER I.
ON THE ANNULOSE ANIMALS IN GENERAL, WITH A SHORT AC-
COUNT OF THE THREE ABERRANT CLASSES OF ANNELIDES
VERMES, AND CIRRHIPEDES.
(1.) THE great characteristic of the vast assemblage of
animals to which we devote this volume, is the total
absence of internal bones : hence their hardest parts are
always external, and the muscles are usually attached
to the under side of the substance which forms the
covering of the animal. The body is always divided
into rings or transverse joints ; from which circum-
stance naturalists have agreed to call them annulose,
or ringed animals. This name is peculiarly aj^plicable,
since it expresses a marked distinction from such as
have an internal skeleton, analogous to that of man,,
and thence called vertebrate (vertebratd). We need
not, in this place, touch further upon the internal
structure of these creatures ; but we shall notice those
external peculiarities which are most obvious, and there-
fore most likely to be understood by the generality of
our readers. So diversified, indeed, are the different
B
2 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
groups of this immense assemblage, or sub-kingdom of
the animal world, that it is impossible to assign to them
any other character, as a whole, than that just men-
tioned.
(2.) There are, however, certain prominent pecu-
liarities, belonging to annulose animals, which deserve
the attention of every reader. The Annulosa contain
both the most intelligent and the minutest objects in
the animal creation ; for, excepting the Infusoria, there
are none smaller ; and among winged insects we find
those with the most highly developed instincts. It
certainly appears strange, that beings whose form so
widely differs from that of man, should neverthe-
less make a much nearer approach to his intellec-
tual superiority than any of the vertebrate animals.
Not one of the latter, in fact, can be compared, in this
respect, with the bee or the ant. Insects, again, are re-
markable for their tenacity of life. It is a well known
fact, that in proportion to the complexity of animal
structure, so does its sense of pain increase, and its
capability to Support injury diminish. Now as insects,
from supplying food to so many others, are more de-
fenceless and exposed than vertebrate animals, so do we
find that they are particularly tenacious of life ; we con-
clude therefore, that their organisation, although perfect
in itself, is much less complicated than in animals of a
larger size. Being thus exposed to so many casualties,
they are gifted with great activity and powers of locomo-
tion. They command two of the elements, and some-
times a third, for all inhabit the earth as much as the
air, and several are likewise aquatic.
(3.) The typical examples of the Annulosa are pro-
vided with two or four wings, and with six feet; but in
receding from this perfection, nature proceeds by the
most graduated steps. At first, if the wings disappear,
we find them compensated for by an additional number
of feet, as in spiders and crabs. On tracing the chain
further, we see these latter members gradually disappear,
GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE ANNULOSA. 8
until, on arriving at the furthest limits of the class, there
is nothing to remind us of the typical annulose structure
but a long slender body, pointed at both ends, like the
common earth-worm, moving about by the action of the
circular rings or joints (often very obscure), of which it
is composed. Some of the remote Annulosa externally
resemble shellfish, and live in the water : others are
parasitic, like the Cirrhipedes, or, like the worms, are
destitute of limbs; while another large group, in addition
to the most eccentric shapes, differ from all the preced-
ing by having red blood, and by living either in the ocean
or in moist earth. All these, however widely they differ
from the pre-eminent types of this assemblage, are clearly
formed upon the same general model : their body is di-
vided into joints, more or less conspicuous, nor do they
differ more among themselves than do the various classes
of the vertebrate circle. Annulose animals are not only
the most diminutive in size of all creeping things, but
they are, beyond all comparison, more numerous than
the vertebrate class. When we consider the surprising
habits of the insect world in general, the high develop-
ment of instinct which is found among whole families,
the activity of motion, the beauty of form, and the re-
splendent colours which nature has so lavishly bestowed
upon these pigmy creatures, we cannot for a moment
hesitate to place them next in the scale of creation to the
vertebrate animals, a station which we shall presently
show they are entitled to hold on other and more weighty
considerations.
(4.) Independent, however, of the foregoing characters,
which stamp *a peculiarity upon the insect world, there
is yet another nearly as important, which equally sepa-
rates them. This is found in the extraordinary meta-
morphosis, or change of form, which all the typical, and
some of the aberrant, groups undergo previous to arriving
at their perfect state. The only other animals in crea-
tion which are known to participate in this character are
the frogs, among the reptiles, arid these are the most im-
B 2
4 NATURA'L ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
perfect of all vertebrate animals. The metamorphosis
of insects,, however, has heen invested with so much im-
portance by some writers, that we shall hereafter return
to it more fully, when treating of those divisions in
which it is most strikingly developed.
(5.) The rank of the Annulosa, in the great circle
of the animal creation, has more than once been ad-
verted to in our former volumes : they are inferior
only to the vertebrate animals in being, as a whole,
less highly organised, or rather by having a less com-
plicated structure. These distinctions, on the other
hand, place them far above the three other great di-
visions of animals,, namely, the Testacea, the Radiata,
and the Acrita. Their superiority over these is so self-
evident, that it seems impossible to conceive how any
naturalist who takes nature for his guide, could think of
placing the headless and almost inanimate oyster higher
in the scale of creation than the bee and the ant, be-
cause the former happens to have a heart, while the
latter have none. This outrage upon natural clas-
sification is one of the many instances which result
from making internal structure the sole basis of scien-
tific arrangement. It has originated, not from the
legitimate use, but the abuse of our increased acquaint-
ance with internal structure. There are professors of
comparative anatomy, able but mistaken men, who are
now striving to overthrow all received notions on na-
tural affinities, and to substitute in their room certain
dogmas of their own, founded on minute peculiarities
of internal structure which they hold superior to all
others. Against these speculative modes of classification
we have frequently been obliged to enter our protest:
it tends to render that which nature has made plain to
every one, comprehensible to none but the closet pro-
fessor. It increases rather than lessens the difficulties
which already beset the study of zoology, and renders
it a dry, repulsive study of bones and muscles. In re-
ference to that theory, more particularly, which places
UNION OF THE ANNULOSA AND VEBTEBRATA. 5
the shellfish above insects, we may strengthen what
we have here said by the sentiments of others whose
writings have exhibited entomology in its most attractive
garb. c What unsophisticated mind, not entangled in
the trammels of system, when it surveys the industry,
the various proceedings, and the almost miraculous
works of insects, the waxen palaces of the bee, the
paper cottages of the wasp and hornet, the crowded me-
tropolis of the white ants, the arts, the manufactures, the
stratagems of other insects, the associations and labours
for the common good of those which are gregarious, will
not at once conclude that they must be a superior race
to the slug, the snail, and others, which live only to eat
and propagate their kind ! " * Again, it has been well
observed that the station which any particular group
of animals holds in the scale of creation must be judged
of, not by a fancied and often forced resemblance to the
human structure as the only standard, but according to
the ingenuity displayed in their organisation, and the
variety of effects which may depend on it. t The most
careless observer, indeed, is well aware that many of the
vertebrate animals are far inferior to insects, both in
their instincts and the complexity of their structure.
(6.) The vertebrate and the annulose divisions
being thus the two most perfect classes in the animal
kingdom, it necessarily results that they follow and
blend into each other. We accordingly find, that the
two circles touch at those points where the eel- shaped
fishes come into contact with the Annelides, or red-
blooded worms ; the affinity of these groups being now
so universally admitted, that we need not defend the
theory of their union. On the other hand, the Annulosa
are connected to the Radiata by means of the barna-
cles, whose long stems, rendered pliable by innumerable
articulations, at once place them within the definition
* Kirby and Spence, Introduction to Entomology, iv. 364.
t Hor. Ent. 206.
6 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
of annulose animals,, while in many other respects they
show such a strong affinity to the radiated class (Ra-
diata). To understand the perfection of structure in
any given group, we must always draw our definition
of that group from its pre-eminent types ; but,, if we
wish to know how it blends into other groups, the ab-
errant examples, or such as are furthest removed from
the typical structure, must be alone regarded. No ani-
mals can be more unlike each other than a monkey and
a butterfly, each of which are the types of their own
class ; but when we look to an eel (Myxme) without
eyes or fins, or even a firm skeleton, we can have no
great difficulty in comparing it with the leech or the
earth-worm: the Myxine, in fact, is the last of the ver-
tebrate circle, while the Annelides are the first which
present themselves, on quitting the Vertebrata, and en-
tering the Annulosa.
(7.) Our next question, regarding the PRIMARY
DIVISIONS of the annulose animals, is not so easily dis-
posed. Were we to lay before the reader all the con-
flicting opinions that have been promulgated on this
subject, we fear, even did our space admit of such de-
tails, we should probably perplex and certainly weary
him. It has been customary, indeed, for authors to
state the reasons which may lead them to reject the
theories of others ; and this, to a certain extent, is both
necessary and useful. But in the present case, it would
lead to so much discussion, that it must from necessity
be avoided. Our object is, not to criticise the opinions
of others, but make good, so far as we can, our own
theory upon the natural arrangement of all animals.
The plan, therefore, which we have hitherto pursued in
other classes will be continued to this : and the results
must be our apology for rejecting all former arrange-
ments of the Annulosa. We shall therefore first in-
timate what appear to be the five great divisions or
classes of the insect world, and then point out their
analogies to all other animals. The Annelides, as already
PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF ANNULOSA. 7
intimated, constitute one : they are all aquatic, worm-
like animals, known by having usually red instead of white
blood : while their bodies, from being articulated, at
once prevent them from being confounded either with
the slug-like Mollusca or the Polypes. The next great
division which shows an evident resemblance to the last,
is the intestinal worms ; being of the most simple struc-
ture, but the greatest part of which exhibit, although
but faintly, the annulose jointed body, which at once
decides that their structure is truly annulose. The
types of these are chiefly composed of the Tcenio'idea
of Cuvier, but there are several other forms among the
Entozoa of Rudolphi, which will ultimately be referred
to this type, an assemblage which appears to us in very
great confusion. The third aberrant division is dis-
tinguished from the two last, by having five pair of
feet, branching off into articulated fringed cirrhi : these
are the Cirrhipedes, or barnacles. It was reserved for
a countryman of our own, Mr. Thompson, to make
known the extraordinary fact, that these animals undergo
a metamorphosis ; a discovery which at once removes all
doubt on their natural station. These appear to us
the three great aberrant groups of the Annulosa. The
general reader will have a very good idea of them, by
looking to an earth-worm as an example of the Anne-
lides; a tape-worm as representing the class Vermes ;
and a barnacle as representing that of the Cirrhipedes.
These three classes unite themselves, in all probability,
into a circle of their own ; for it is a remarkable fact,
that Cuvier places the Cirrhipedes immediately conti-
guous to the Annelides, thereby tacitly confirming the
position we have so frequently advanced, that there is a
tendency in all aberrant groups to unite into one circle.
Leaving, however, these imperfect Annulosa, we next
come to those whose bodies are provided with distinctly
formed legs and jointed feet, and of whose annulose
structure there can be no doubt. These, we consider,
after the example of Aristotle and Linnaeus, as naturally
8 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
arranged under two great groups or classes ; the first
comprising the Aptera, or wingless insects, further dis-
tinguished by undergoing that particular metamorphosis
which tends to give an increased number of legs to the
perfect insect. The second is the Ptilota of the phi-
losopher of Stagira, or the winged insects, whose meta-
morphosis tends to give wings to the adult. These we
place as the typical and the sub-typical groups of the
Annulosa. Thus it may be said that in a leech, a tape-
worm,, a barnacle, a spider, and a butterfly,, we have the
respective types of the five great divisions of annulose
animals,, in the order here mentioned.
(8.) Our next proposition is, that this assemblage or
sub-kingdom (equal in rank to the vertebrated division)
forms a circle of affinity more or less complete,, the only
hiatus being in that part which intervenes between the
Annelides and the Ptilota. It will be seen, however,
that this hiatus is of no great consequence in reference
to our present purpose ; because as the Annelides come
next to fishes, and there is no other break in the chain
from them to the Ptilota, we establish the series of the
five types, and can readily suppose an intervening form
yet undiscovered among the thousands that still remain
unknown, which may unite the aquatic Annelides to
the aquatic Neuroptera, the most aberrant class of the
Ptilota. Commencing, then, with the Annelides, the
resemblance between the earth-worms and many of the
Termes is sufficient to satisfy the ordinary observer of
their close resemblance; while the fact of Lamarck
having had no hesitation in placing them together, on
account of their general similarity of structure, will
have due weight with the scientific naturalist. So little
is yet known of the genuine annulose Vermes, that it
would be premature to say in what manner they are
connected to the Cirrhipedesj but the precise station of
these latter in the circle of the Annulosa is rendered
certain: first by their forming the passage to the
Radiata, and, secondly, by their absolute union to the
ANALOGIES OP THE ANNULOSA. * 9
Crustacea. This latter affinity brings us at once into
the great class of Aptera, which we quit by means of
the dipterous order, the only one of its divisions where
the perfect insect is provided with wings : this order, in
fact, connects the Aptera with the typical class of Pti-
lota, the first division of which is the Hymenoptera.
We have now arrived among four-winged insects, and,
after following the chain of connection from the Hymeno-
ptera to the Hemiptera and the Lepidoptera, pass, by
the latter, to the Neuroptera. The circle of the Ptilota
is closed by the Coleoptera, and thus the Neuroptera, by
standing at the furthest extremity, comes nearest to the
Annelides, or that point from whence we began. With-
out attempting, for the present, to combat the many
objections which a first view of this theory, so different
from all received arrangements, might easily suggest, we
must crave the patience of our entomological readers
for a short time, until, by seeing the result in all its
bearings and ramifications, the whole theory becomes
understood.
(9-) Assembling these primary groups of the Annu-
losa in a tabular form, we shall at once perceive that
they turn out to be representatives of the five great
divisions of the vertebrate circle.
Analogies of the ANNULOSA to the VEBTEBBATA.
Classes of the , , Classes of the
Annulosa. Analogies. Vertebrata.
A or, 5" Destitute of wings and crawling ;7 /\ ITAnilfT1
APTERA. J feet highly developed, and walk, j QUADRUPEDS.
PTILOTA. Furnished with wings, and fly. BIRDS.
ANNELIDES. Body excessively lengthened. REPTILES.
TThe most imj>erf< ctly organised}
VERMES. < of their respective circles ; des-> AMPHIBIANS.
C ,-titute of teeth. 3
CIRRHIPEDES. { B S cIle S . Vered WUh ^ ****' ^ j FlSHES.
Among authe different arrangements that have yet ap-
peared of the annulose animals, there is not one which
10 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
attempts to establish any sort of relationship between
them and the Vertebrata. This has originated from
two causes : firstly, from considering the Annulosa as
an isolated group, whose divisions were not subject to
any general or comprehensive principles ; and secondly,
from adopting as the basis of their arrangement a prin-
ciple of classification which, as will be shown in the
sequel, appears absolutely artificial. Vague,, therefore, N
as one or two of the above analogies may appear, it is
yet some satisfaction to see how strong and singularly
beautiful they are in others. Of all insects, for instance,
none are so perfectly organised for walking as the Ap-
tera,) since here we find the centipede, the lulus, and
many other creatures, whose legs may be almost termed
innumerable. The quadrupeds, which they thus re-
present, are precisely in the same position, since they
are the most perfect walkers of all the Vertebrata. The
four-winged insects forming the class Ptilota, and at
the head of which stand the butterflies, may truly be
called the birds of annulose animals, which they further
represent by the feathery down with which their wings
are covered and the brilliant colours with which both
are ornamented. The resemblance between the serpents
and the Annelides will be admitted by every one not
blinded by system ; for who that looks upon an earth-
worm will not be reminded of a snake ? The least or-
ganised of ah 1 the Annulosa are the intestinal worms, some
of which are so low in the scale that no articulations
of their body can be discerned. In this imperfection
they resemble the amphibians, the most imperfect of
the Vertebrata, and where the naked skin is entirely
unprotected. Lastly, the Cirrhipedes, without hav-
ing the least resemblance in external form to fishes,
nevertheless resemble them in having the body covered
with hard plates, and always living in the water.
These are only the most prominent analogies, but they
are such as will strike a common observer ; and however
they may be extended hereafter, are at least sufficient to
TYPICAL GROUPS OF THE ANNULOSA. 11
show a mutual relationship between these two great
divisions of animals hitherto undiscovered.
(10.) Before taking leave of these analogies, it will be
as well to make a few additional observations relative to
the two typical groups. As we wish to meet difficulties
rather than to avoid them, we may here anticipate an
objection that may be urged against the theory of the
Ptilota being the pre-eminently typical group of the An-
nulosa. If, it may be argued, the annular rings of which
their body is composed be the chief characteristic of in-
sects, then it would reasonably follow, that those which
have the greatest number of these rings are the most ty-
pical. The consequence of this admission would be, that
the Apterafa the head of which stands thelulidce') would
become the most typical Annulosa. This theory appears
to receive additional support from the fact that the Ap-
tera in our table stand in a parallel line of analogy to the
quadrupeds, which, in many other respects, they certainly
represent. The Ptilota, or winged insects, having fewer
segments to their body, thus become the sub-typical
group, holding the same rank among Annulosa as birds
do among Vertebrata. These arguments, which are cer-
tainly entitled to much consideration, for a long time ex-
cited strong doubts in our mind as to which of these we
should apply the term typical. On the other hand, if
we embrace the received opinion that metamorphosis is
the great characteristic of these animals, then the dif-
ficulty is solved, since this peculiarity is only seen in its
full development among the Ptilota, which would thus
become pre-eminently typical. Besides, in all the groups
of the animal kingdom which we have investigated, and
our readers are now aware that the number is not small,
we have invariably found that the most perfect ani-
mals, that is, those whose organisation or instincts were
most superior, were invariably the typical. In this way
Vertebrata are superior to Annulosa, quadrupeds to birds,
the Quadrumana and the Insessores to the Ferce and the
Raptores, and so on. When, therefore, we find this
12 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
principle so general, we have every reason to believe it
must be also true in the present instance. What person,
in fact,, whether naturalist or not, who knows any thing
of the bee or the ant, would ever think of classing them
as inferior in the scale of creation to a spider, a wood-
louse, or a scorpion ? Now the group which contains
these two highly-gifted families is that of Ptilota, which
we consequently infer is the typical class of the Annulosa.
This question, after all, is purely speculative, for whether
we reverse our original position, and adopt the op-
posite opinion before mentioned, it will have no effect
whatever in altering that progression of affinity which
results from analysis. Affinities must be traced in de-
tail, and therefore analysis is the only sure road which
the investigator of the natural system should venture
upon in his first advances. Analogies must be discovered
after : they are, indeed, indispensable, but they are not
to supersede the facts resulting from analysis. It will
frequently happen that from ignorance, either of habits or
structure, we are at one time unable to trace the analogies
of two groups, which subsequent information has proved
to be analogous.
(11.) The analogies now shown to exist between the
primary groups of the vertebrate animals, and those
in which we have distributed the Annulosa, leads to se-
veral conclusions, not at first apparent, yet intimately
bearing on several questions of the highest importance.
In the first place, presuming this exposition is correct,
we arrive at a definite conclusion on the rank or value
of the groups thus brought into comparison. Those,
indeed, of the Vertebrata have been long ago settled,
not only by the common consent of the most eminent
modern zoologists, but by the searching analysis to which
they have been submitted in our former volumes.
We know, moreover, that as the Annulosa form one of
the primary divisions of the animal kingdom, its con-
tents cannot be correctly distributed, unless they cor-
respond, in some measure, with the contents of the
REMARKS ON THE PRIMARY DIVISIONS. 13
vertebrate circle. Without this there could be no
mutual relationship, no harmony of parts; and all that
has been written on the analogies of the animal creation
would fall to the ground. Either the natural arrange-
ment of the Annulo-ta coincides with those principles
which regulate the variation of the Vertebrata and all
other animals, or we must adopt the preposterous sup-
position that they have been formed upon a totally
different plan. Now this idea, improbable in itself, is
falsified by the comparison we have just laid before the
reader. It therefore follows, that no arrangement of
the Annulosa can,, by any possibility, be a natural one,
unless it developes analogies to the Vertebrata equally
strong with those we have just stated. We are not
now speaking of the details, for an arrangement may be
substantially true in its outlines, it may even be based
on the foundation of truth, and yet may be defective
or erroneous in some parts of its superstructure. This,
however, is an after- con si deration. The primary groups,
still less the general principles, will never be affected
by such inaccuracies ; and in the meantime we get what
is of the highest importance to the philosophic zoologist
a definite notion on the value of those groups employed
in the comparison, groups which have been acknow-
ledged by all writers, but upon whose value not any two
have hitherto agreed. The Crustacea, for instance, were
considered by the fathers of entomology as an order
equivalent in value to the Coleoptera. But Cuvier, at-
taching an undue importance, as he frequently did, to
these animals, breathing by a different set of organs to
winged insects, made them into a class. This innova-
tion was soon followed up by another, and Lamarck on
similar grounds elevated the spiders to the same rank.
This mistaken principle, once sanctioned by such names,
induced almost every succeeding author to make fresh
classes and orders ; until the apterous insects, one of
the most natural in the whole animal kingdom, have at
length been thrown unto the greatest confusion : all the
14 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
leading and natural divisions have been frittered away,
and almost every writer brings out a new arrangement,
founded upon nothing better than arbitrary opinion.
Now it is quite obvious, that if entomologists had
looked beyond those animals more immediately studied,
little or nothing of this confusion would have arisen.
They would have discovered that the Crustacea by no
means constituted a class, for then there would have been
six classes among the Annulosa, while the Vertebrata had
but five. It appears to us, in short, that the rank of
groups can only be determined by analogical comparison,
a process which implies a much more general acquaint-
ance with zoology than is usually bestowed upon it by
those who merely study one of its branches. What
faith or dependence could possibly be placed on the
opinions of an entomologist, who proceeded to make
an arrangement of the annulose division, founded en-
tirely upon his knowledge of such only as are possessed
of wings ? Taken abstractedly, such an arrangement car-
ries upon its face the certainty of error. And yet more
than one of those systems for the Annulosa, which have
obtained some degree of notoriety, have every appear-
ance of being the offspring of such partial and contracted
views, v . We hope not to be mistaken in this : we desire
to do ample justice to the zeal and ability of all who
have gone before us in the path we are now pursuing ;
but it is absolutely necessary to inculcate, in the rising
generation, sound principles of studying nature, and to
combat the idea that because an entomologist is emi-
nent in his own walk, he is therefore competent to
judge of those laws which regulate the whole of the
animal creation, of which he is only acquainted with
a small part.
(12.) Another inference to be drawn from the fore-
going table is scarcely of less importance than that we
have just mentioned. As the primary groups of the
Annulosa are thus found to represent those of the Fer-
tebrata, it follows, as a necessary consequence, that they
UNIVERSAL CONSISTENCY OP ANALOGIES. 15
equally represent all other groups, large or small, which
agree in having analogies with the vertebrate series.
This is one of the consequences of the law of universal
representation, which, while it saves a world of expla-
natory details, reduces all the variations of animal forms
to one and the same uniform law. One such table as the
last, if correctly drawn up, does away with the necessity
of testing the Annulosa by comparing them with any
other circular group ; although such additional compa-
risons would certainly tend very much to elucidate the
subject, and confirm the correctness of our theory. The
reader of our former volumes will perfectly understand
this when he remembers that in each of those secondary
divisions of the Vertebrata, named in our table, there is
found representations of those in which the entire class
is first divided; so that the different races of quadrupeds
have their counterparts in the different races of birds,
of fish, and so on. Hence, if one is correct, the others,
theoretically, must be correct also. The student, with
our former volumes before him, is thus enabled to trace
the analogies of the Annulosa through the whole of the
vertebrate circle.* But he need not stop even here. If
the basis of an arrangement is natural, it will stand any
test ; we shall, therefore, devote one more paragraph to
the analogies of the annulose animals, and then proceed
to treat them in further detail. So many curious points
of coincidence will thus come to light, that we trust the
general reader, no less than the professed entomologist,
will feel interested in our exposition.
(13.) Few classes of animals can be more different
than insects and shellfish. Yet if our proposition, that
each forms a circular group, is true, then it will necessa-
rily follow that the contents of one represent the contents
of the other. How far this is really the case will be
judged of by the following table and the explanations
which follow :
* See the Treatise on MALACOLOGY, or Shells and Shellfish, where the
analogies they bear to the vertebrate animals and to the Annulosa are
stated at ch. ii. p. 49.
16 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
Analogies of the ANNULOSA to the TESTACEA.
Analogical Characters.
rPre-minently typical; head dis-}
1 tinct, with long antenna? or ten- > GASI
C tacula 3
Classes of the Analogical Characters.
Annulosa.
f Mouth surrounded with long ten-
ns ; .soft parts of
DlTHYRA.
( a shell.
Oe most simple in their organ-}
T% gf&JuSrf S- [ PATA.
:hiae. . 3
rDisk of the belly flattened, and}
ANiNELiDES. < often performing the office of a V NUDIBRANCHIA.
t foot. 3
The high development of the head and of the antennse
are not the least remarkable characters of the Ptilota, or
typical insects ; while, at the same time, it is all but
universal in the Gasteropoda to find the head distinct,
and the tentacula, representing antennse, more or less
developed. The reverse of this, however, takes place
in the apterous insects (Aptera), and the bivalve shell-
fish (Dithyra) : the whole of the spiders and scorpions
are familiar examples, setting aside the crabs, where the
whole body at first sight appears turned into a head,
without, however, its limits being at all defined. The
Dithyra, or bivalve shellfish, are absolutely headless,
and live, like their prototypes, entirely by suction. The
analogies between the barnacles (jCirrhipedes) and the
cuttlefish (Cephalopoda) are even more striking to an
ordinary observer than the former instances. Both have
the mouth surrounded by long flexible arms, with which
they seize their prey and convey it to their mouth, placed
like that of the radiated animals, in the centre; and in both
are numerous animals whose body is protected by shells.
The strong analogy, as was formerly observed *, between
the Parenchymata and the annulose Vermes has induced
* Malacology, p. 52.
ARRANGEMENT OF THE ANNELIDES. 17
all writers to blend them together, even to this day; the
one being the most imperfect of all the Testacea, as the
other is of the Annulosa. Leaving these, we arrive at
the annulose Annelids* and the testaceous Nudibranchia.
Even a naturalist, looking to the outward appearance of
these creatures, might readily be deceived in mistaking
one for the other: their bodies, generally naked, are
often ornamented with tufts of plumed or branched ap-
pendages, assuming the aspect of horns, filaments, or
tentacula ; they are in truth the very prototypes of each
other. No wonder, therefore, that the older naturalists,
and even Linnaeus, mixed them together, since the fact
of one having red and the other white blood was not in
those days, considered of much consequence. It is seldom
that analogies, so striking as these, run through all the
component parts of two series of animals ; for it generally
happens that some are much more remote or obscure than
others. The completeness, therefore, of this comparison
is an additional evidence in favour of our theory on the
primary types of the annulose circle. Leaving the ty-
pical groups for the present, we shall now take a rapid
glance at the three aberrant classes belonging to this
division of animals.
(14.) The general characters of the ANNELIDES, or at
least of the animals arranged by M. Savigny in this group,
may be thus stated. They are soft, worm-like animals,
mostly aquatic *, either naked, or protected by an ex-
ternal shelly or agglutinated tube. The body is wrinkled
transversely, or composed of annular segments. Their
forms are very singular, and many are ornamented with
beautiful colours, but these fade almost immediately
after death. Their body being annular, brings them
within the circle of the Annulosa ; but their blood is
red; they have usually one or more hearts, and, with
very few exceptions, are destitute of a distinct head:
the sexes, moreover, are not always separate, but the
majority are hermaphrodites. They are without any
articulated members for locomotion; although some
* Hor. Ent. 280.
18 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
possess processes or setse, which can be protruded or
withdrawn at pleasure, placed on each side of the
body, which serve the animal as feet. The construc-
tion of the mouth is excessively variable. In some
(Nereidce), it is lengthened into a proboscis furnished
with jaws : in the Serpulidte, or worm-shelfs, which
have a testaceous covering, there is an appearance of
two lips ; while in the leeches (Hirudmidce), there is
a prehensile cavity, supplied with parts which perform
the office of jaws. The vertical movements of these
parts, which so eminently distinguish vertebrate ani-
mals, is still observable in many of the Annelides; but
what particularly distinguishes the two groups from
each other, is the nervous system of these worms, which,
according to Cuvier and Savigny, is longitudinal, double,
and knotted, or ganglionic, like that of insects. In the
leeches, this similitude extends to the same number of
ganglions.* The connection of this group with the Verte-
brata and annulose animals has been before demonstrated.
We shall, however, in this place, cite the opinion of Mr.
MacLeay, who writes as follows : " That the Annelides,
thus lying between the two most perfect forms in
zoology, should be so inferior in the senses and powers
of locomotion to both, is certainly surprising ; " but, on
further reflection, we shall cease to think this anomalous,
and may in some measure even expect that the vital
powers of these beings ought to be influenced by the
circumstance, that Nature in them is leaving one plan of
construction, in order to adopt another which is totally
different.
(15.) The affinity between these animals and the
fishes, through the medium of Gastrobranchus, is thus
stated by our author. u The common leech is a red-
blooded aquatic animal, which swims, like the lam-
preys, in an undulatory motion. Like those animals,
it has a circulation composed of veins and arteries :
it breathes, like them, by two rows of holes, which
* Hor. Ent. 278.
ARRANGEMENT OP THE ANNELIDES. 19
communicate with branchial pouches. The mouth
is still surrounded by a lip proper for suction, and
contains three maxillae, one answering to the soli-
tary upper tooth of the Gastrobranchus, and the other
to the lateral teeth of its tongue. These maxillae
are minute, compressed, and serrated with very small
teeth. The affinity of the leech to the cyclostomous
fishes seems to have been first perceived by Linneeus,
as appears by the place which he gave to his genus
Myxine. When, moreover, we find their habits to be
so similar, it may be said that nothing more is wanted
to complete the resemblance, than that the wrinkled
membranaceous skeleton of Ammocostus should, in the
leech, be supposed to form the envelope of the whole
animal." Our author, nevertheless, remarks, that " a
great alteration, however, has now taken place in the
internal structure, notwithstanding the above very evi-
dent affinities." That the Annelides, on the other
hand, approach to true insects, through the medium
of the JVereidte, or sea- worms, is highly probable.
These latter are more complicated in their structure
than any others, from possessing a head, antennae, and
blackish points resembling eyes : these eyes, however,'
are so imperfect, that Latreille compares them to the
rudimentary ocelli visible in caterpillars and other in-
sect larvae. From the Nereida, moreover, agreeing in
certain particulars, relating to their organs of reproduc-
tion, with the Myriapoda, Mr. MacLeay considers that
there is an affinity between them. He observes, " If to
these considerations be added their vermicular motion,
the form and disposition of their feet, the two last of
which are sometimes, as in Nereis margaritacea, trans-
formed into filiform appendages, exactly similar to those
which terminate the body of several Myriapoda, we can
have no doubt," concludes our author, " of our having
at length reached truly the annulose animals, which are
white-blooded, and are externally articulated." * All
* HoraeEnt. p.282.
C 2
NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
these relations indeed exist, and yet may be accounted
for upon the simple principle, that the Nereida, in their
own circle,, represent the Myriapoda, hut without having
any affinity to them. As we have had no opportunity
of studying these animals, we shall depart somewhat
from our usual practice., and, instead of venturing upon
any arrangement of our own, shall here lay before the
reader the views entertained of their natural classifi-
cation by others.
(l6.) Cuvier, who first discriminated this class by
the name of Fers a sang rouge, has arranged them into
three orders, founded upon their different modes of
respiration. These are named Tubicoles, Dorsibranches,
and Abranches. The first have their branchiae in the
form of a plume of feathers, attached to the head or
to the anterior part of the body ; which latter is always
protected by a tubular sheath. The second have the
branchiae disposed on the sides of the body, where they
assume the form of little ramified branches, tufts, plates,
or tubercles : the greatest number live in the mud or
freely swim in the ocean ; but some few inhabit tubes,
like the former division. The third class comprehends
such as have no apparent branchiae, and which respire
from the surface of the skin, or, as it is supposed, by
interior cavities. The greatest part of these animals
live at the bottom of the sea, but a few reside in humid
ground, like the earth-worm. The learned Savigny
divides the Annelides into five orders, three of which
are furnished with those bristly appendages on the
sides of the body which perform the office of feet, and
which are wanting in the other two.* Lamarck's ar-
rangement of the Annelides is founded upon the facts
disclosed by Savigny. He divides the whole group
under the three following orders : 1 . Annelides apodes,
or footless Annelides ; 2. Annelides antennees, or such
* Mentioned in Horce Entomologies, p. 281. The recent arrangement
of MacLeay, hereafter noticed, seems to be precisely the same as Savigny 's,
- at least, in the primary divisions.
ARRANGEMENT OP THE ANNELIDES. 21
as are furnished with antennae ; 3. Annelides seden-
taires, or such as are fixed to other substances.
(17.) The arrangement of Milne Edwards is the
most recent ; and, although leading to no general re-
sults connected with the other classes of the Annulosa,
may here be inserted, as disclosing some important
facts relative to structure, which may hereafter be
turned to good account: although, where no general
principles are aimed at, we seldom notice these isolated
arrangements.
(18.) The author in question divides the Anne-
lides into two groups: 1. The ANNELIDES APODES,
or footless Annelides ; and, 2. The ANNELIDES CHE-
TOPODES, which are assisted in their locomotion by
setae placed upon pediform tubercles. The former, or
ANNELIDES APODES, are very inferior in point of num-
bers to the latter, and are distinguished by having a
sucker at both their extremities. They constitute two
families ; viz. the Hirudimda, or leeches, the body of
which is wholly unfurnished with appendages, and
these form two tribes ; the Albionnides, in which the
oral sucker is but of one piece, and is separated from
the body by a constriction, its orifice being evidently
longitudinal. Here he places the genus Pontobdella, the
species of which are natives of the ocean, and attach them-
selves chiefly to the chondropterygeous fishes, as the rays
and sharks ; and Piscicola, which inhabits fresh waters,
and frequents carps and tench. The second tribe are
the Bdelleoides, in which the sucker consists of several
pieces, and is scarcely separate from the rest of the
body. It has its aperture transverse, forming, as it
were, two lips, the interior of which is drawn back.
This tribe contains B delta, Hirudo, Erpobdella, Ne-
phelys, &c. the most celebrated of which is the medi-
cinal leech (Hirudo). They are all inhabitants of fresh
water, and some die almost instantly on being with-
drawn from it, whilst others will live out of it for a
considerable time. Many of them are great enemies to
c 3
22 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
the earth-worm (Lumbricus) ; whilst they themselves
are preyed on hy birds, fishes,, and the aquatic larvae of
hexapod insects. The second family,, or Branchellio-
nidce, which have the hody furnished above with a
double series of membranous foliaceous appendages, is
formed by the single genus Branchellion, the typical
species of which attaches itself to the Torpedo in the
Mediterranean.
(19.) The second large division of the group, the
ANNELIDES CHETOPODES, is considerably the most nu-
merous, and may be further separated into two sub-
divisions ; viz. the Annelides Cephalobranchice, or Tubi-
coles, and the Annelides Mesobranchice. The former
are without a head, eyes, or maxillae, and the body is
terminated anteriorly by a mouth. It is usually furnished
with appendages, the whole or the majority of which
are collected in front. It is also supplied with hooked
or subulated setae, which emanate from pediform tuber-
cles, and which enable them to ascend or descend within
their tubes. The majority can neither swim nor walk ;
and those which crawl upon the ground, do so by the
aid of their tentacula. These animals always reside in
tubes, which are affixed to other substances, and which
but few quit. Lamarck styled them sedentary, from
this circumstance; but very many which he arranged in
this division, from the animal being imperfectly known,
have, with the progress of research, been discovered to
belong to the gasteropodous mollusks, as Magilis, Ver-
metuSy Dentalium, Siliquaria, &c. : the habitations of
many of these animals are, consequently, very simi-
lar to those of the latter. The impervious nature of
their tubular residences required that their respiratory
apparatus should be collected at its orifice ; and we
therefore thus find their structure accommodating itself
to their natural economy. Several of these creatures
are gregarious, and their tubes then assume very much
the appearance of honeycombs. The animals them-
selves are elongate and vermiform. They consist of
ARRANGEMENT OF THE ANNELIDES. 23
several families ; viz. the Serpulidce, the Amphitritidce,
and the Terebellidce, &c. : the latter reside in slight
tubes, which are buried in the sand or concealed beneath
stones. The Amphitritidce are readily recognised by the
golden setae, arranged like the teeth of a comb, at their
anterior extremity. The tube of the Serpulidce is cal-
careous and convoluted ; and the anterior extremity of
their body is ornamented with a coronet of appendages
resembling plumes disposed in the shape of a funnel.
They contain many genera, as Serpula, Sabella, Her-
mella, Pectinaria y &c.
(20.) The ANNELIDES MESOBRANCHI^, which con-
stitute the second subdivision of the Annelides Cheto-
podes, are distinguished by the body extending beyond
the oral aperture ; and it is usually terminated by a dis-
tinct head, frequently furnished with eyes and maxillae ;
and they have either no appendages, or these are placed
along the whole course of the body. They are separated
into three families ; viz. the Terricoles, the Arcnicoks,
and the Errantes, or Cephalota. The first of these have
no dermal appendages ; and have neither a very distinct
head, eyes, antennae, nor maxillae ; their body is cylin-
drical, attenuated at both extremities, and furnished
with several rows of setae, which serve them instead of
legs ; and they live either in humid earth, or in the
mud. The Lumbricus, or earth-worm, is the best
known example of this group, which consists of three
tribes, the Thalassamenida, the LumbricidcB, and the
Clymenidce. The first contains the genera Thalassema
and Sternapsis ; the second, Nctts, Tubifex and Lumbri-
cus ; and the third contains Clymene ; which last makes
an approach to the Tubicoles, on account of its fragile
tube, formed of grains of sand and particles of shells,
although its structural peculiarities agree better with
this family.
(21.) The second family, the Arenicoles, consisting
of the genera Arenicola and Chetoptera, have many
characters in common with the preceding : these have,
c 4
24 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
however, their branchiae placed only on the middle of
the body. Their structure is more simple than that of
the Errantes,to which, through the medium of the
Aricida, consisting of the genera Cirratulus, Ophelia,
Aricia, &c., they form the passage. They inhabit the
sands of the ocean, at the depth of one or two feet ; and
they betray their retreat by the small convoluted threads
of sand formed on the surface. Fishermen make great
use of them to bait their hooks ; and, when caught, they
stain the fingers with a yellow liquid.
(22.) The third and last family, the Errantes, is the
largest of all ; they form several tribes, and consist of
a multitude of genera. They are the most highly or-
ganised of the whole of this group ; having a very dis-
tinct head, furnished with antennae, eyes, and almost
always a protractile proboscis armed with maxillae :
each ring of their body bears a pair of feet, the structure
of which varies considerably, sometimes placed on the
back and the belly, and each consisting of two tubercles ;
yet both are occasionally united, and their extremity is
furnished with a pencil of setae. When the feet are
united, and form but one organ, they are generally fur-
nished with a pair of cirrhi, or fleshy filiform append-
ages, at the base of which the branchiae are seated.
The setae themselves, which decorate the feet, are usu-
ally rigid and retractile, and they then serve for loco-
motion and the defence of the animal; but they are
also often very long and flexible, and cannot then be
withdrawn into the body, but cover it like a dense fur.
They walk and swim well ; but usually dwell beneath
stones, among shells, or buried in the sand. A mucus
that exudes from them, frequently forms around them
a sort of tubular case, which they inhabit, but which is
of a less compact and solid structure than that observed
in the Tubicoles; and besides, the animal has the power
of quitting it to seek its food and prey. They are all
marine animals. We will briefly enumerate the tribes
they constitute, and the more conspicuous genera. >
(23.) Those without cirrhi at the base of their feet
ARRANGEMENT OF THE ANNELIDES. 25
form two tribes, each consisting of a single genus, Pe-
repates and Campontia. Those which have their feet
furnished with cirrhi, are the NEREID^E, which are very
abundant upon our coasts. They have a slender elon-
gate body, their legs are furnished with tubercles, and
the proboscis is armed with two very strong mandibles.
They comprise many genera; viz. Glycera, Nephtys,
Alciope, Nereis, Syllis, Phyllis, Hesione, &c. The Eu-
NICID^E resemble the latter in their general form ; but
their feet are furnished with long filaments springing
from one stem, like the teeth of a comb. They com-
prise the genera CEnone and Aglaura, which have eight
mandibles, and conceal the head beneath the first segment
of the body : Lycidice and Leodice have seven man-
dibles, with the head free and porrect; and further, Dio-
patra, Eunice, &c. The AMPHYNOMID^E are those whose
branchiae are very complicated, being tufted or ramose,
and they are spread all over the body. They have no
maxillae. The genera they consist of are Hiponoe,
Euphrosyne, Amphynoma, Chloe'ia. And, lastly, the
ApimoiHTiDuE, which are the most conspicuous of all :
their body is oval, and fringed with long setae glittering
with the most brilliant metallic splendour ; their back is
furnished with large membranous plates like elytra, dis-
posed alternately, and hidden beneath an arch of fur
formed by a dense multitude of hairs, which spring, like
the before-mentioned setae, from the feet of the animal,
and are placed alternately as far as the twenty-fifth
pair. They comprise Sigalion, Palmyra, Aphrodita, c.
Polynoe closely approaches the Aphroditce in their struc-
ture, but the latter are destitute of setae. [(1823.)
W.E. Sh.]
(24.) Mr. MacLeay's is the last arrangement of the
Annelides we shall notice : his definition of the whole
class and of the chief groups will here be given in
nearly his own words. These animals, he observes,
differ from true (or rather typical) Annulosa, in being
hermaphrodite, and in general red-blooded. They are
soft, vermiform animals, of an articulated structure^
26 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
and which form the immediate connection between such
vertebrate animals as Amphioocus and Myxine among
fish, and such annulose animals as Porocephalus^ and
other white-blooded Fermes as have the sexes distinct.
He divides the whole into five principal groups : .
1. The Nereidina, or such as are free, having a distinct
head, provided either with eyes, or antennae, or with
both. 2. Serpulina, the animals of which are se-
dentary, destitute of a head, but provided with eyes or
antennae. These two are considered the typical groups,
and are distinguished by having their body provided
with distinct feet. 3. The Lumbricina are animals
without eyes or antennae, having the body setigerous
for locomotion, and the articulations distinct. 4. The
Nemertina, which are aquatic animals, without eyes or
antennae, the body not externally setigerous, and the
articulations indistinct. 5. and lastly, the Hirudina
are animals provided generally with eyes, but not with
antennae : the body is not externally setigerous, but the
articulations are distinct. To these definitions Mr.
MacLeay has added the following observations on three
of these groups, which are too valuable to be omitted.
The Nereidina he considers as the most perfect in their
structure of all the class, as they possess numerous
organs, and have a distinct head, which is generally
provided with eyes and antennae : some of them, after
the manner of the Serpulina, inhabit tubes, which tubes
are membranaceous, and formed by a transudation from
their body ; but in general the Nereidina are naked,
and they are always agile animals, freely moving about
in search of their prey. In general appearance they
are wonderfully like centipedes. 2. The Serpulina of
our author are sedentary animals, without eyes or an-
tennae : they live in tubes, which are either a natural
transudation of their body, of a membranaceous or cal-
careous substance, or their tubes are semifactitious, or, in
other words, composed of an agglutination of particles of
sand, or other small substances. The calcareous nature
of the tube in some Serpulina is very advantageous for
REMARKS ON THE VERMES. 27
their preservation in a fossil state. 3. The Nemertina
are white-blooded worms, like some of the Hirudina,
or leeches : in this group, however, the character of ar-
ticulation becomes most indistinct. Rudolphi has placed
Gordius along with Nemertes ; and if Gordius goes
into the group of Nemertina, it is possible that lularia
may also. Nemertes Borlasii is a long black sea-wornr,
which is said to suck shellfish ; and the articulations
of its body become visible when it is contracted.*
(25.) Respecting the VERMES, or annulose worms, all
we can state in this place is matter rather of opinion than
of investigation. In a former volumef, we have felt no
hesitation in considering a large portion of Cuvier's Pa-
renchymata as belonging to the class of Testacea. We
have been led to this determination from the analogy of
Guilding's genus Herpa to that of Planaria; and from
the latter animals crawling upon a disk -shaped belly, per-
fectly like the Nudibranchia, or the dories and tritons,
ah 1 of which are universally considered as naked Mollusca.
On the other hand, we should be disposed to place
among the true Fermes all those in which the body,
from being cylindrical, presents no vestige of a disk.
Probably the greater part of the Entozoa of Rudolphi
come under this head ; they all live and propagate in
the interior of others, and they are so various that al-
most every animal has its own particular parasite. In
some of these, particularly in the order Nemato'idea,
there are no perceptible joints, but the external skin is
striated transversely: but as we ascend higher in the
scale, these incipient indications of the annulose struc-
ture disappear, and the body, as in the whole family of
the T&nio'idea, or tape-worms, is composed, as Cuvier
justly says, of joints more or less distinctly marked ;
the whole being terminated at one extremity by a square
head, hollowed by four small suckers, while the other
is attenuated to a narrow point. True it is, that both
* Note on the Annelida ; Annals of Natural History, No. xvi. p. 385.
f Malacology, p. 37.
28 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
Rudolph! and Cuvier place the latter among the Paren-
chymaia, simply because the body has slight indications
of viscera ; but the distinction is too vague, and we are
by no means disposed to adopt the views of arrange-
ment proposed by these two eminent zoologists. Of all
the true Vermes, the Filaria is perhaps the most simple,,
and the genus Tcenia the most complicated. It has
been said by some writer, that the tape- worm should
more properly be considered a compound animal ; since,
if the true head be severed from the body, another would
spring up in its place : this may possibly be true, but it is
doubtful, and the fact does not touch the case in question ;
the remaining portion is still divided into segments or
flattened rings, and the animal, to all intents and purposes,
is annulose. That beings so simply constructed, are in-
timately related to the Annelides, may be inferred from
the fact that most authors include the Gordius, or hair-
worm, with the latter, and the Filaria, or Guinea worm,
with the former, or the Nemato'idea. This pest of hot
climates is said to be very common, particularly on the
African coast, where it insinuates itself under the skin of
the natives, and is reputed to acquire the length of more
than ten feet. In this manner it will continue to grow
for several years, sometimes causing such intense agony
as to produce convulsions in the unhappy sufferer. Its
body is of the thickness of a very small quill ; and when
it shows itself externally, the whole must be gently drawn
out, otherwise it breaks, and excruciating suffering is
produced. The most typical of all the true Vermes are
probably found in Cuvier's family of Tanio'idea, which
includes all those intestinal animals in which the head
is furnished with two or more suckers placed round its
middle, the centre of which is either marked by a pore,
or sometimes furnished with a little proboscis, which is
either naked or armed with spines. It has been ge-
nerally asserted, that the pores of the head are connected
by canals or nerves which creep along the margin of the
joints of the body : each of these joints has one or two
REMARKS O> T THE CIRRHIPEDES. 29
pores, differently situated,, which appear to be the orifices
of ovaries ; a clear proof; should such he the fact, that
every tape- worm is not a compound, hut a single animal.
The common, or hest known species, Tcenia lata, is one
of the most cruel enemies to mankind; it occasions ex-
cruciating agonies, and frequently produces death : it
has been said to attain the incredible length of upwards
of a hundred feet; but that of twenty appears much more
likely. We need not dwell further on this class of
animals, which appear to have been created as afflictions
to the human race, and whose natural arrangement,
although so much has been written upon their structure,
appears to us to be involved in considerable obscurity.
They form, indeed, a part of that varied chain in cre-
ation, which unites, by imperceptible and graduated
links, the lovely and the disgusting the inviting and
the repulsive. But where there is so much to admire
and to fascinate, the general reader, for whom our pages
are chiefly intended, will turn from those creatures
which prey upon his perishable body, that he may be-
stow more admiration on the varied hues and elegant
forms of the butterfly a fitting emblem of his own
immortal soul.
(26.) The CIRRHIPEDES, better known by the familiar
name of Barnacles, are, in many respects, the most im-
perfect of all the annulose animals. They are all marine,
living in the ocean, and are attached to other bodies, as
rocks, pieces of floating timber, the bottoms of vessels,
and even to the backs of marine animals. Their num-
ber is but few, and their geographical range very wide.
In general appearance, they have some resemblance both
to limpets and to bivalve shells; and this probably
induced Linnaeus, in the infancy of science, to place
them with the Mollusca, or shellfish, where they will
still be found, even in modern Introductions to Con-
chology, under the division of multivalve shells ! The
resemblances, however, here alluded to, are but very
slight, even in external appearance ; while the true
30 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
nature of the animal of a barnacle and of a shellfish,
as M. Cuvier well observes, is " very different." The
Cirrhipedes, in fact, are the testaceous or shelly Annulosa ;
that is,, they represent the Mollusca in the circle of an-
nulose animals. Hence the error of M. Cuvier (who so
frequently confounded analogy and affinity), in placing
them immediately after the true shellfish, although he
justly observes that they have a sort of intermediate
station between them and the Articulata ; in other
words, they are analogous to the former, and connected
with the latter. The body and all the most vital parts
of the barnacles are protected by shelly pieces or valves,
which fit close to each other, with a single opening at
the top, through which the animal protrudes its feet,
and imbibes its nourishment ; we say its feet, for such
they really are, although they cannot be used as such
for locomotion the animal itself being fixed either by
its shell, or by a flexible peduncle immoveable at the
base. It was long imagined that the barnacles were
produced either from eggs, which were glutinous, and so
adhered to the substance on which the full-grown
animal was afterwards found, or that they were vivi-
parous, the female bringing forth the young alive, and
depositing them in suitable situations. Very recently,
however, a naturalist of our own country, Dr. Thomp-
son, has made known the extraordinary fact, that these
creatures undergo a metamorphosis no less surprising
than that of perfect insects. This, of course, removes
all doubts of the true station which the Cirrhipedes oc-
cupy in the natural system, and at once places them in
the circle of Annulosa, even if the possession of articu-
lated limbs were not sufficient to place them strictly
within that circle.
(27.) The anatomical structure of these animals may
be thus briefly stated : The vital parts are enveloped
in a mantle or tunic, which is covered externally by shelly
plates, varying in number and shape ; thus bearing a
strong analogy to the Dithyra, or bivalve shell. That
ARRANGEMENT OF THE CIRRHIPEDES. 31
part which is called the head is merely a slight eminence,
beneath which is a mouth furnished with lateral jaws.
Unlike all other annulose animals, this part is not at one
of the extremities ; for those organs which are called
the feet, are placed above the mouth, so that the latter,
properly speaking, is placed nearly beneath the body:
there are six of these feet-like organs on each side, each
consisting of a short stem, which is then divided into
two very long, jointed filaments, resembling the an-
tennae of insects, and fringed, especially at the end, with
fine hairs : in front of these is another, much longer
and thicker, which Poli calls a species of proboscis, and
which there is every reason to consider as analogous to
that organ in quadrupeds. M. Cuvier, indeed, objects
to this term, but leaves us quite in the dark as to its
real use. Poli, whose authority is of the greatest
weight, observes that the motion of the heart is dis-
tinctly visible.* To his invaluable work, and the me-
moirs of M. Cuvier, we must refer the scientific reader
for further details ; but the paper by sir Everard Home
upon these animals f scarcely deserves his attention, being
replete with errors. To Mr. Thompson's essay we shall
presently return.
(28.) We shall not here attempt any natural ar-
rangement of these animals, but merely notice them as
they stand at present arranged in systems. The chief
divisions which have been made are two ; and these
have been called families. The first contains those
which are elevated upon a fleshy, flexible peduncle, and
are the true barnacles ; while the second is composed of
such as are attached by their shells only, and are conse-
quently sessile. Collectors generally call them acorn-
shells. These primary divisions, however, are arbitrary.
Among the true barnacles, or those provided with pe-
duncles, we find some entirely covered by shelly plates;
while others are either wholly destitute of such pro-
* Test. Sic. i. 18. .t Phil. Trans. Ixxv. 410.
32 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
tection, or have them so small that they can scarcely be
perceived. Others, again, have the peduncle entirely
covered with shelly granules, so that the membranaceous
skin can scarcely be seen; while a few, possessing the
compressed shelly structure of this division, are com-
pletely sessile. In the second great division of sessile
barnacles, we find modifications of form still more re-
markable. Some are found affixed indiscriminately to
marine objects, whether living or dead; others take up
their habitation only upon corals ; a few seem confined
to the backs of turtle, while the genera Tubicinella and
Coronula imbed themselves in the flesh on the back of
whales. To Dr. Leach, more than to any other natu-
ralist, are we indebted for the definitions of all these
various groups which he has proposed as genera. Mr.
Gray, we believe, has also illustrated their affinities; and
Mr. G. B. Sowerby has figured very many in his Genera
of Shells. On the Continent, Audouin, Wagner, and
Burmeister have investigated them ; and the latter in-
defatigable entomologist has confirmed the discoveries
of Dr. Thompson.
(29.) In regard to the habits of the Cirrhipedes ge-
nerally, very little can be said. Destined to live in an
element different from that assigned to man, they are
seldom seen in their native haunts by the closet natu-
ralist. With many opportunities, in early life, for
studying them in a living state, we regret that other avo-
cations prevented this from being more than partially
done. There can be no doubt, however, that the Cir-
rhipedes are carnivorous animals, feeding upon those
minute polypes which swarm in all parts of the ocean,
although frequently invisible to the naked eye. During
the leisure of a voyage across the Atlantic, we had
once the opportunity of watching a bunch of pedun-
culated barnacles, taken from a piece of floating timber
and placed in a bucket of sea water. After a short
time, as if they wished to reconnoitre their new habita-
tion, they gradually opened the orifice in front, and pro-
ANALOGIES OF THE CIHRHIPEDES. 33
traded their fringed arms about half way ; and finding
that no injury resulted, they projected the other half.
In this position they were really beautiful, for the cirrhi
formed the rays of an oblong flower-shaped cup, each
filament being slightly curved inwards at the tip. We
observed some little moving particles in the tub of sea
water; and " ever and anon" our captive barnacles would
instantaneously draw themselves into their shelly co-
vering, as if they had captured their minute prey, and
had retired to eat it. Now, this is precisely the mode
of life pursued by all those sessile polypes, called animal
flowers (Actinince) ; nor can there be the least doubt
that the feet of the Cirrhipedes are, in fact, used as their
arms, wherewith to seize all those small marine animals
which come within their reach.
(30.) The analogies of the Cirrhipedes are remark-
ably interesting. We have already shown that they
represent the apodal reptiles. But it is truly wonderful
how Nature, in this group of Annulosa, has contrived
to represent the fissirostral type among birds, of which
the flycatchers are well known examples. These birds,
in fact, are the most sedentary of their class ; that is,
they make little or no use of their feet, but as mere
supports to their body, for they neither climb, run, nor
even walk. It is the peculiar property, also, of these
birds, to sit for hours upon the same twig, almost im-
moveable, watching for such passing insects as come
within the reach of a sudden dart : while thus sta-
tioned, they are, in fact, as sedentary as the Cirrhipedes,
and for the time may be said to be fixed to the station
they have selected. The proof of an analogy being
natural, is by comparing the two circles of which the
particular groups under consideration form a part : thus,
if we look to the order Insessores, or perching birds,
and to the circle of the Annulosa, we find they re-
present each other in the following manner:
NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
Analogies of the CIRRHIPEDES to the FISSIROSTRAL
BIRDS.
Piasepo of thp Tribes of
C Annufosa Analo ^ es ' Perching Birds.
APTERA. Em ^ nentl y carnivorous ; sub-typi- 7 DENTIROSTRES.
PTILOTA ( The most typical in P erfection of I CONIROSTRES.
I structure. 3
ANNEUDES. [ 1 J3 cntal a PP enda ^ es to the ] SCANSORES.
VERMES. Feed upon juices. TENUIROSTRES.
r Carnivorous ; watch for their }
CIRRHIPEDES. s prey ; locomotion imperfect, or > FISSIROSTRES.
C none. j
The regularity with which the groups in each of these
columns follow each other in absolute affinity, and
thereby form two circles, is always one of the proofs
that analogies are founded in nature. Perhaps the
most singular representation which this table elicits, is
that by which the worms (Vehnes) typify the hum-
ming-birds (Tenuirostres}. It is among the vermiform
or tenuirostral types of the Vertebrata, that we always
find those animals which have an unusually long and
pointed snout whether it is modified into the muzzle
of a quadruped, or the bill of a bird ; the mouth, also,
is invariably small. Now, this character, under a new
appearance, shows itself among the intestinal worms,
which are the most pointed at their extremity of all
the others; the mouth being so small as sometimes
not to be visible. The suctorial birds, in like manner,
have the longest bills, but the smallest mouth, in pro-
portion to their size, of all the Insessores ; and they live
chiefly upon vegetable juices, while the worms live
upon those of animals. It is the beauty of the theory
of representation, that if once the natural series has
been discovered, it receives new strength and demon-
st$ation from all other natural groups in the animal
kingdom : so that the foregoing table is but a clue to
a hundred others, which may be taken from those por-
ANALOGIES OF THE ANNULOSA. 35
tions of the vertebrate and annulose kingdoms, which
have been illustrated in this manner in our former vo-
lumes.
(31.) The resemblance of the barnacles to marine
shellfish is so strong, that to this day they are confounded
with them by collectors; while even Linnaeus, from not
being acquainted with the true structure of the animal,
fell into the same error, and classed them with the Mol-
lusca. Here, then, we have a strong instance of that
principle which nature invariably acts upon in the con-
struction of all her productions : we have one group of
animals representing another ; and this so completely,
as to deceive both the learned and the ignorant. Now,
the only way in which this popular association of the
barnacles with the shelly Testacea can be clearly de-
monstrated, is, by comparing the two groups together,
and applying to their component parts the test of ana-
logy. Unfortunately, the natural series of the Cirrhi-
pedes among themselves is unknown. There can be
little doubt, however, that the sessile and the peduncu-
lated divisions form the two typical groups ; and these
furnish us, of course, with the chief characters of the
whole class. We can thus compare the primary divi-
sions of the Annulosa, one of which is the Cirrhipedes,
with the five great divisions of the animal kingdom,
the Mottusca being unlike any one of the latter. The
following table shows these two series, with their divi-
sions and analogies :
Analogies of the ANIMAL KINGDOM to the ANNULOSA.
Series of the A . . Series of the
Animal Kingdom. Analogies. Annulosa.
VERTEBRATA. Metamorphosis imperfect, or none. APTERA.
ANNULOSA. Metamorphosis perfect. PTILOTA.
RAIMATA ("Head indistinct, or none; body 7 Aluv
i with radiating appendages. j ANNELIDES.
ACRITA Body sim P le > without members or 7 VPRMFS
i appendages. 3
MOLLUSCA. pody protected by a shelly cover- j CIHRHJPEDES.
36 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
The most perfect vertebrate animals are, of course,
the quadrupeds ; and these, like the most perfect apte-
rous insects,, are destitute of wings. The possession,
however, of those members, together with a complete
metamorphosis, are the grand characteristics of the An-
nulosa ; and more especially of the Ptilota, or winged
insects. The analogy between the Annelides and the
Radiata is remarkably strong ; for the greater part of
the former have their limbs or members radiating as
from a common centre ; they have all the outward ap-
pearance, in fact, of the Radiata, although their internal
structure is widely different. The most simply con-
structed animals in creation are the Acrita, and the
most simple of all Annulosa are the Fermes. So closely,
indeed, do these two groups represent each other, that,
in the present ignorance which pervades their history,
we hardly know to which of these groups certain genera
belong. Last of all we have the Cirrhipedes, with their
shelly covering, representing the Mollusca, or shellfish;
the grand characteristic of that class being the testa-
ceous cohering with which the whole body of the animal
is protected. We allude, of course, to those groups of
the Mollusca which stand at the head of the class, as
the Gasteropoda and the Dithyra, and which take prer-
cedence above all the diversified animals which form the
aberrant groups, scarcely any of which are testaceous.
We have already shown how erroneous are those con-
clusions which some writers have come to, respecting
the little dependence that can be placed on characters
drawn from empty shells; and we shall now venture to
make the assertion, that, if these coverings did not exist in
the typical groups of the Mollusca, in other words, if
no molluscous animals had shells, we should at once
pronounce the group to be artificial, because every analogy
in nature shows that one of the aberrant types lives under
the covering of some substance, generally harder than
itself.
(32.) The metamorphosis of the Cirrhipedes, as we
have before intimated, was first made known by Dr.
METAMORPHOSIS OF THE CIRRHIPEDES. 37
Thompson. It is unquestionably one of the most im-
portant discoveries in modern science, and, in the " flood
of light" which it has thrown on the whole natural
arrangement of invertebrate animals, is fully equal to
that made by Trembley on the nature of the polype.
As we have had no opportunity, ourselves, of verifying
the facts disclosed by our author, we shall give them to
the reader in his own words. On the evening of
April 28. 1823, on the coast of Ireland, near Cork,
Mr. Thompson captured, in a small muslin towing-net,
a number of minute marine animals, among which was
one which he considered as a nondescript. " This was
a small translucent animal, -y^th of an inch long, of a
somewhat elliptical form, but very slightly compressed
laterally, and of a brownish tint. When in a state of
perfect repose, it resembles a very minute muscle, and
lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of
sea water in which it is placed : at this time all the
members of the animal are withdrawn within the shell,
which appears to be composed of two valves united by
a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable
of opening from one end to the other along the front,
to give occasional exit to the limbs. These limbs are
of two descriptions ; viz., anteriorly, a large and very
strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks,
serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &c. ;
and posteriorly, a pair of natatory members, articulated
in such a manner as to act in concert, and to give a
very forcible stroke to the water, so as to cause the
animal, when swimming, to advance by a succession
of bounds, after the same manner as the water-flea
(Daphnia) and other Monoculi, but particularly Cyclops,
whose swimming feet are extremely analogous. The
tail, which is usually bent up under the belly, is ex-
tremely short, composed of two joints, and terminates in
four setae ; and it is employed to assist in progression,
and in changing the position from a state of repose. The
greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this
animal, is its eyes, which, although constantly shielded
D 3
38 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
by the valves of the shell, are pedunculated, as in the
crab and lobster, and placed anteriorly at the sides of
the body. Any naturalist acquainted with the Crustacea ,
on reading this short description, will readily assent to
what has been advanced as to the very extraordinary
and anomalous character of this little animal, and to
the dislocations it seems calculated to produce in our
classifications. But for its pair of pedunculated eyes,
it would find place as a new genus of the bivalve Mo-
noculi ( Ostracoda) ; its members approximate it to Ar-
gulus on the one hand, and to Cyclops on the other,
genera which are widely separated ; while its eyes show
its relation to the crabs, lobsters, and other decapodous
Crustacea. Reflecting upon these circumstances, on
their great abundance during the early part of spring
alone, and their presenting no variation indicative of a
difference of sex, induced a belief that they were the
larvae of some crustaceous animal/' With these impres-
sions, our author procured some more of these creatures
in the spring of 1826; " and in order to see what changes
they might undergo, they were kept in a glass vessel,
covered by such a depth of sea water, that they could be
examined at any time by means of a common magnifying
glass. They were taken May 1st; and on the night of the
8th, the author had the satisfaction to find that two of
them had thrown off their exuvia, and, wonderful to say,
were firmly adhering to the bottom of the vessel,
changed into young barnacles ! such as are usually seen,
of Balanus pusillus Pen., intermixed with grown spe-
cimens on rocks and stones at this season. In this stage^
the sutures between the valves of the shell and of
the operculum were visible, and the movements of the
arms of the animal within, although these last were not
yet completely developed : the eyes, also, were still per-
ceptible, although the principal part of the black colour-
ing matter appeared to have been thrown off with the
exuvium. On the tenth day, another individual was seen
in the very act of throwing off its shell, and attaching
itself, like the others, to the bottom of the glass. It
METAMORPHOSIS OF THE CIRRHIPEDES. 39
only remains to state, that as the secretion of calcareous
matter goes on in the compartments destined for the
valves of the shelly covering, the eyes gradually disap-
pear, from the increased opacity thence produced, and
the visual ray is extinguished for the remainder of the
animal's life : the arms at the same time acquire their
usual ciliated appearance. Thus then/' continues our
author, " an animal originally natatory and locomotive,
provided at the same time with a distinct organ for
sight, becomes permanently and immoveably fixed, and
its optic apparatus obliterated." * The relation which
the above extraordinary discovery establishes between
the Cirrhipedes and the Crustacea is so intimate, that
Mr. Thompson, as will subsequently appear, considers
both as belonging to one class. We trust this indefa-
tigable and acute naturalist will himself prosecute the
interesting discovery here detailed, where he now re-
sides t : he has opened a vast field for research, as new
as it is important. We have yet to learn the metamor-
phosis of the pedunculated and diadem barnacles, the
larvae of which must have many peculiarities. The
few numbers of this gentleman's Zoological Researches,
which have yet appeared, are filled with new and im-
portant facts regarding the minute inhabitants of the
ocean, scarcely inferior in importance to that which
we have here detailed. J
(33.) To illustrate the foregoing facts, we must refer
to Mr. Thompson's figures and explanations, which will
make the reader better acquainted with the above de-
scription of the young barnacle. The natural size
is not larger than a grain of cress seed. When mag-
nified, and viewed from above, the turgid appear-
* Zool. Researches, No. iii. p. 76.
f Dr. Thompson holds a high medical appointment in New South Wales.
j Mr. Westwood, on the strength of his observations upon the " Egg of
one of the West India Land Crabs," calls in question the whole theory.of
Mr. Thompson ; as if " the egg of a land crab " was sufficient to set aside
Classif. of Insects, Addenda to vol. i.
D 4
40 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
ance of the valves is seen, and also an elbow of the
anterior members of the animal, the tail part being
the narrowest. When the animal is very highly mag-
nified,, and all its parts seen, its limbs are protruded
from the anterior opening of the valves : these consist
of the two fore feet, which have a peculiar position when
they are extended by the animal, in order to fix itself
by means of the sucker and claw at the end : a fourth
large basal joint remains concealed by the shell; towards
the other extremity of which, and placed beneath, are
six pairs of swimming legs, used in the manner of oars
to propel the animal forward. At the extremity of the
tail are two, short, setiform appendages, which no doubt
act as a rudder. The appearance of the eye, as seen
through the shell, gives an inaccurate idea of its form;
but, when highly magnified, its pedunculated shape
clearly appears. There is an appearance on the back of the
shell, which Mr. Thompson considers as the presumed
nucleus of future attachment. The tail, when highly
magnified, is seen to consist of two articulations, from
which spring four setae, or bristles, two being shorter
than the others : the swimming feet, also, when very
highly magnified, are then seen to consist of two divi-
sions, the shortest of which is that which comes
nearest the body : these are the organs, in fact, which
are changed into the cirrhi of the barnacle. The natural
size of the animal, after its metamorphosis into a bar-
nacle, is not larger than that of the larva state. When
highly magnified, the rudiments of the eyes can still
be traced through the large valves of the operculum,
and the enclosed animal is still seen through the central
opening of the operculum. The valves of the body of
the shell are marked, as before observed, by distinct
sutures. When viewed in profile, the arms, or cirrhi,
if protruded, become more conspicuous. One of these
cirrhi, upon being very highly magnified, although
much jointed, did not at first exhibit any appearance
of fringed hairs. The full-grown barnacle is seldom
more than half an inch long : when viewed in front,
SYSTEMS OF ENTOMOLOGY. 41
the six pieces composing the shell are distinctly seen ;
but in profile, there appear only four. Besides the meta-
morphosis above described, the Cirrhipedes cast or moult
the outer covering of their soft parts, in the manner of
the crabs. One of these exuvia, with its various de-
tails, will be found on the tenth plate of Mr. Thomp-
son's Memoirs, to which we must refer the reader.
(34.) Having now given the reader a general outline
of those annulose classes, which lead from the typical
groups to other and more distant forms of the animal
world, we shall here introduce a few observations on the
arrangement of true insects, previous to commencing
their survey. By this plan, the grounds of our dissent
from all preceding arrangements will be concentrated
in one part of the volume, and much repetition of the
same opinions will be prevented. If the principles
upon which a classification is based are unsound, the su-
perstructure of course must be erroneous, and need not
be objected to in detail ; and we shall arrange our re-
marks under two heads : 1 . Regarding such systems
as are merely framed upon the arbitrary opinion of their
authors, who have attached a value to certain cha-
racters ; and, 2. Such as have been founded upon a
supposed mutual relation of their parts. The former
are artificial, the latter natural, methods.
(35.) So much has been said upon these two modes
of arrangement, under which all existing systems of
Entomology will arrange themselves, that we shall merely
in this place condense their definitions, as introductory
to our subsequent remarks. On a former occasion *, we
have considered all systems to be artificial, which are
not grounded upon any universal principles of arrange-
ment, which exhibit the animal series without plan or
harmonious relation, and which disregard analogies and
affinities. On the other hand, we shall consider those
as natural systems, which involve any one or more of
these considerations, and which, looking beyond the in-
dividual, attempts to ascertain its station in the scale of
* Geography and Classification of Animals, p. 131.
42 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
being, by pointing out the various relations which it
holds to other objects.
(36.) Every system which arranges insects upon
principles which have no reference or application to
other parts of the animal kingdom, is not only artificial,,
but viciously false ; inasmuch as it is contrary to what
we know of nature. There is, or there is not, some
plan in the creation. None but a disbeliever in the in-
finite perfections of the DEITY would deny the first ;
for, where there is no plan, there can be no perfection :
besides, such a denial would be disproved by the in-
numerable traces of a system of co-relationship in the
different tribes of animals, manifest to all observing
minds. To take one of these tribes, therefore, arrange
it without any reference to the others, and then to pro-
claim that our arrangement is founded upon nature, is a
manifest absurdity. It is not merely a violation of the
first principles of philosophical reasoning, but is an out-
rage upon common sense. Such a system, in one sense,
indeed, may be defended as natural, on the plea that
its foundation is laid upon anatomical structure, or on
other peculiarities either of organisation or habits. But
this is nothing to the purpose ; it reaches not our argu-
ment : for every system must, in the nature of things,
be so founded. The question is, whether any arrange-
ment of animals can possibly be natural, which is. not
based upon a comprehensive view of all. The answer
to this is obvious. It is morally impossible it should
be so. Applying this axiom to the various systems of
Entomology which come under our present head, and
which may be termed isolated systems, we should,
upon no other grounds, reject them all, otherwise than
as temporary substitutes for some other, however im-
perfect, which aimed at arranging all animals on a few
general principles of classification. "VVe should admit
them to be useful ; but deny that, by any possibility,
they could be natural.
(37.) The consequences of naturalists forming sys-
tems for that portion* of nature only to which they con-
ARTIFICIAL SYSTEMS. 43
fine their studies, have b*n precisely what might he
anticipated. Having little or no acquaintance with the
innumerable groups of animals lying beyond the con-
fines of those they study, they have not the knowledge
requisite for enlarged generalisation. Destitute, there-
fore, of a solid foundation upon which their theories
should be built, they lay a partial, and therefore an er-
roneous, one, founded only upon the objects immediately
before them. Each, therefore, selects what he conceives
to be the most important character, and makes it the
corner stone of his system. In Entomology, for instance,
one attaches a primary importance to the wings, and
makes them the foundation of his theory ; another ob-
jects to this, and chooses the legs ; a third, differing
from both, considers metamorphosis as the master key
to the natural arrangement, and founds his arrangement
thereon. No proofs, drawn from a general survey of all
other animals, is required, or even thought of, to sub-
stantiate any of these theories : they merely rest on the
individual opinion of their founders ; and they are adopted
or rejected according to the estimation in which their
judgment may be held. Hence has originated the in-
numerable systems of Entomology which perplex the at-
tention of the student, heap obstacles in the way of his
advancement, and burthen our Introductions with com-
plicated theories, and useless references. The judgment,
or the imagination, of their authors being unshackled by
any restraints, almost every one, ambitious of improving
on his predecessor, makes some new change of his own.
New denominations are given to old groups, and new
foundations are laid for orders and classes. Every year
brings forth a new theory, not of all animals, but of in-
sects only, until entomological classification, having no
foundation in inductive philosophy, is now become a
quicksand, shifting with every tide that flows.
(38.) Independent, however, of the foregoing con-
siderations, we should reject the systems just spoken of
upon other equally strong grounds. The most obvious
characteristic of the animal world is its interminable
44 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
variation. A system, therefore, which is chiefly or ex-
clusively built upon any one set of organs, must neces-
sarily be artificial ; since it presumes that to be fixed and
determinate, which is not so in nature.* Who is to de-
termine, a priori, whether the natural arrangement of
insects rests on their metamorphosis, the presence or
absence of wings, or the construction of their mouth ?
Each and all may be pronounced good and natural cha-
racters ; but what reason is there that we should prefer
one before the other, when we are altogether ignorant
how these characters can be traced in other animals ?
The distinctions of the Annulom rest not upon one, but
upon many peculiarities of structure. And if we have
no analogous instances or co-relations to guide our choice,
that choice, to say the least, is liable to error. All,
therefore, that can be said in defence of artificial sys-
tems is this, that they are useful helps for the deter-
mination of species, and served the purposes of arrange-
ment so long as no better methods of exhibiting nature
existed. They have now lasted their time; and after
doing ample justice to their authors for contributing to
call forth better views, their systems, in modern classifi-
cations, may be fairly dismissed.
(39-) We now turn to natural systems, or those
which have been framed on the admission that the
different tribes of insects possess direct relations of
analogy among themselves. There are more than one
of these, all originating, however, in the philosophic re-
searches of the author of the Horce Entomologies. We
are obliged, however, to dissent from all these, not from
objecting to the abstract principles upon which they are
founded, but because they have not been extended suf-
ficiently wide to carry a conviction of their accuracy:
they stop short at that point, which, if carried, would
* Of this description are those called the Metamorphotic, the Cibarian,
and the Alary systems. The theory of the Eclectic system, which pro-
fesses to be founded on the entire characters of insects in all their stages, is
sound, did it not contemplate insects as unrelated to other animals. Those
who wish to understand these and numerous other systems, may consult the
fourth volume of Kirby and Spence, or Mr. Westwood's Introduction to
the Modern Classification of Insects.
TRIVIAL OBJECTIONS IDLE. 45
insure demonstrative certainty. It is not to the prin-
ciples themselves, but to the application of those prin-
ciples, that we object. If the system of Clairville
which owes all its celebrity to the use it has been
turned to is really the foundation of the natural ar-
rangement of insects, and is that by which the primary
groups are to be regulated, why have not their ana-
logies in other classes been pointed out ? If the two
typical classes of Mandibulata and Haustellata are really
natural, then they would exhibit not merely mutual re-
lations to each other, but equally so with all the ver-
tebrate animals nay, with all the primary groups of
the animal kingdom. Hitherto, no one has attempted
to do this. Neither these, nor the other supposed groups
in the Annulosa, have ever been brought to this test,
a test, however, which is imperatively demanded for all
groups supposed to be natural. Looking, therefore, to
this deficiency of proof, and to the admission by the ad-
vocates of this system, that they are not even prepared
to state which is the typical form of the Annulosa, we
trust, upon these grounds only, that we may be pardoned
for not adopting it. Gladly should we have done so,
for we should then have been saved an immensity of
research, and have been spared the necessity of dis-
turbing those ideas on the higher groups of entomology,
which are now so prevalent.
(40.) It is an easy matter, indeed, to raise innume-
rable small objections against every natural system, whe-
ther founded upon the theory we have just been speaking
of, or upon that which we here promulgate ; but these
will always occur, while natural classification, as at
present, is in its infancy. On these, therefore, we have
not touched ; we have directed our remarks, not to such
comparatively trivial matters, but to the ground-work
of the system itself. We have long held and expressed
the opinion, that the comparative rank of circular
groups is just as definite, and is just as real, in
nature, as the difference between species and species.
In such groups, indeed, there will always be gradations,
46 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
by which Nature glides from one into the other; and
this change is almost so imperceptible, that it is nearly
impossible to say where one terminates and the other
begins. Nevertheless,, in the most intricate cases,, we
hold the distinction to be definite,, and therefore ab-
solute. According to the predominance of characters,
having relation to two different groups, which an in-
sect exhibits, so are we to determine its relative station
in the scale of being. It may, indeed, sometimes hap-
pen, that the balance turns on almost an incalculably
minute excess of the preponderating quality; but even
that is quite sufficient to serve our purpose: on the
other hand, if the balance is absolutely equal, we re-
gard the subject as presenting that point of union which
connects one group to the other : each, then, is definite ;
for, so soon as we arrive at that point of the series
where its distinguishing marks disappear, we quit its
limits, and enter those of another.
(41.) We may conclude this chapter by answering
an interrogation, which the student may fairly put to
us. What is an insect ? To this we would reply, Any
creeping thing which has jointed legs. This question,
which the modern changes for we cannot call them im-
provements have involved in much technical obscurity
(unintelligible to all but the initiated), is thus simply
answered, because it really and truly expresses the very
essence of our theory. In proportion, however, to the
diversity of objects contained in all aberrant groups, so
will be the difficulty of a precise definition. Thus, if
the question related to annulose animals generally, the
answer of Every animal having joints to its body
must be received under a few limitations ; since, in the
very lowest of these, as in the hair-worms, and some
others, no joints are to be distinguished. In respect to
the two typical groups, we should term the Aptera or
wingless the sub-typical, and the typical the true or four-
winged insects; although the Diptera, which enter
.within the confines of the Aptera, are really possessed
of two wings.
PART II.
ON THE WINGED INSECTS.
CHAP. I.
ON THE PTILOTA, OR FOUR-WINGED INSECTS IN GENERAL, THE
CHARACTERS OF THE FIVE ORDERS, AND THEIR MUTUAL RE-
LATIONS TO OTHER ANIMALS. THE METAMORPHOSES OF IN-
SECTS.
(42.) ALL insects, without any exception, possessing
four wings, enter into one or other of the orders com-
posing the Ptilota, a class first instituted by Aristotle,
and adopted by us, as the first and foremost of the an-
nulose animals. We have already shown, that as the
possession of wings is the primary distinction of one of
the great divisions of the vertebrate animals, so the
highest development of these members among the
Ptilota points them out as the pre-eminent types of
the Annnlosa. This is their primary distinction ; and
it pervades nearly every genus. Sometimes, indeed,
we meet with a few examples of apterous insects ; but
these are only instances of those exceptions which occur
in every natural group, and are hardly worth mention-
ing in a general definition. The Ptilota possess some
other characters, not indeed altogether peculiar to them-
selves, but yet more striking and universal among them
than in the apterous orders. They exhibit, collectively,
the most perfect instances of metamorphosis ; their legs
are never more than six, and the head is always distinct
from the body. Were we to descend to other definitions
of the class, we should be so encumbered with excep-
tions, that the student would be perplexed, and the
48 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
general reader wearied. We shall, therefore,, at once
proceed to define the orders, and explain their analogies,
and adduce proofs in support of this theory of their
arrangement.
(43.) The following are the five primary divisions,
or orders, composing the class before us ; these were all
well known to the Ancients, and were adopted from
them hy the great naturalist of Sweden. 1. The Le-
pidoptera, having the four wings highly developed and
covered with imbricated scales, as in the butterfly and
moth ; the metamorphosis is complete, since the pupa
is quiescent; the perfect insect is without jaws, and
lives by suction, the rostrum or proboscis being spirally
coiled. 2. The Hemiptera, where the upper wings are
harder than the lower, generally coriaceous and folded ;
the metamorphosis is incomplete, because the pupa is
active ; the perfect insect, as in the last order, is with-
out jaws, and lives by suction only ; but the rostrum
is not spiral. 3. The Hymenoptera, in which the
wings are never coriaceous, but usually hyaline, and
marked with strong nerves; the mouth is furnished
with strong jaws, and with a sheathed proboscis ; and
the tail is usually armed with a sting. 4. The Coleo-
ptera, or beetles, where the upper wings are metamor-
phosed, as it were, into two hard cases, protecting the
under pair, which are alone organised for flight; the
mouth is furnished with jaws, but destitute of any pro-
boscis. 5. The Neuroptera, wherein the wings are
reticulated ; the mouth furnished with jaws, but no pro-
boscis ; and the body, as in the dragon fly > without any
sting.
(44.) It will be our object, hereafter, to show that
these five orders constitute a circular group ; in the
mean time, we shall at once throw them into the fol-
lowing table :
ANALOGIES OF THE PTILOTA. 49
Analogies of the Five Orders of the PTILOTA.
Orders of the A , . Classes of the
Ptilota. Analogies. Vertebrate.
LEPIUOPTERA. Wings highly developed. BIRDS.
HEMIPTERA. Wings imperfect, or none. QUADRUPEDS.
HYMENOPTERA. Tail often armed with a sting. REPTILES.
COLEOPTERA. posUmperfect of their respective j AMPHIBIANS .
NEUROPTERA. Pre-eminently aquatic. FISHES.
(45.) When groups so widely dissimilar as these
are brought into comparison,, their analogies, of neces-
sity, are proportion ably faint. Nevertheless, as they
strictly follow each other in the order of affinity, some
degree of interest attaches to them. The type of im-
perfection among the Ptilota, in reference to flight, is
certainly the coleopterous order, just as the amphibians
are the most imperfect of the vertebrate series. The
dragon flies, again, which stand at the head of the Neuro-
ptera, are universally aquatic in their larva state, when
they are as great lovers of water as fishes are among the
Fertebrata. The poisonous stings of the typical Hy men o-
ptera are analogous to those of several serpents, which
not only have poisonous fangs, but actual stings at the
extremity of their tail. The analogies of the Henri-
ptera to quadrupeds are altogether obscure, at least so far
as we can discover : but this is amply made up by the
striking relation of butterflies to birds. The reader of
our former volumes is, by this time, fully aware that
these tables of analogies are never equally striking in all
their parts, some being strong, while others are faint.
In such cases, we either fall back upon our affinities, or
bring the series to other tests. This latter plan we shall
subsequently have recourse to, when comparing these
orders with those of the apterous class.
(46.) The position we have assigned to the order
Hymenoptera is that, however, of the greatest interest,
not merely as regards its situation among the Ptilota, but
its analogies to other animals. Singular as it may ap-
pear, there is no tribe of insects which like the ox,
E
50 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
sheep, and other hoofed quadrupeds can be termed
absolutely domestic, or capable of administering, in a
direct way, to the wants of man. And yet a little con-
sideration will show us there are many strong points of
analogy between the ruminating quadrupeds and the
bees : both are the most gregarious of their respective
classes : the elephant in one, and the hive bee in the
other, show us the highest development of instinct in
the animal creation ; and if the latter does not sponta-
neously yield us its honey, it will yet inhabit those ar-
tificial mansions we prepare for securing its sweets ; so
that, in some degree, it may be said to be not only a
social, but a somewhat domesticated, insect. Now, to
show that these facts have an immediate reference to
our theory of representation, we shall here place the two
series of these animals in juxtaposition.
Analogies of the PTILOTA to the Orders of QUADRUPEDS.
Classes of the ., , . Orders of
Ptilota. Analogies. Quadrupeds.
LEPIDOPTERA. {^J^ 6 " 11 * typicaL Herbi 'j QUADBUMANA.
HEMIPTERA. Sub-typical. Carnivorous. .FERJE.
HYMENOPTERA. Gregarious ; social and intelligent. UNGULATA.
COLEOPTERA. Pre-eminently gnawers. % GLIRES.
NEUROPTERA. Aquatic. Head very large. CETACEA.
It is not a little singular, that this set of analogies is
actually more determinate than that we have just no-
ticed. The peculiar character of the Hemiptera, which
is, that of being the raptorial type of the Ptilota, did
not there appear ; here, however, it comes into play,
and makes up for the obscurity of the analogy in the
last table. Our chief object, however, on the present
occasion, is to confirm what has just been said on the
relations of the Hymenoptera to the Ungulata; the bees
being in one, and the elephant and horned cattle in the
other. Beetles and mice, again, are the most gnawing
of all the groups here named, and they are likewise the
most aberrant of their respective circles. The dispro-
METAMORPHOSIS GENERALLY. 51
portionately large head of the dragon flies, which are
the types of the Neuroptera, find their counterparts in
the whales and other Cetacea; both also are eminently
aquatic. We shall not, for the present, pursue the subject
further, since enough has now been said on the exter-
nal * analogies of the Ptilota, to establish their relations
to the vertebrate groups. How far these will be mani-
fested among the apterous class will appear in the sequel.
(47.) Metamorphosis , as we have already shown,
may be termed the chief philosophic distinction of the
annulose animals; although, as it is a peculiarity which
is neither permanent, nor can be detected at all times by
the eye, it is not so convenient for popular use as those
characters drawn from the external structure of the
body. Now, this, metamorphosis, or change of form, is
produced by exactly the same general process as that
which is usually termed ecdysis, or moulting ; that is,
the external skin or covering, at certain seasons or
periods of growth, is thrown off, and the animal appears
in a new one, which has been forming beneath. In
both cases, a change in the outward covering is effected ;
but here the similarity ceases. When a quadruped, at
the approach of summer, casts off by degrees the thick
coat of hair or wool which Nature had given it to resist
the cold of winter, the change, to a superficial observer,
is scarcely perceptible ; the new hairs are of the same
colour, and nearly of the same texture, as the old ; still
less do we see any change in the outward form : the
same may be said of the generality of birds ; although,
in this class, nature evidently proceeds a step further in
her transformations. Among the water fowl, for in-
stance, particularly in the wading order, we see the
summer plumage much more gay than that of the
winter ; and, in many cases, so very different, that the
same species has not unfrequently been described under
two different names. It is a most singular fact, also,
that nearly all the families and genera which represent
* By external analogies, we mean such as relate to groups out of the
circle of the Annulosa.
v. 9
52 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
the wading birds, that is, which are of the grallatorial
type, are distinguished by the very remarkable difference
they present in their summer and winter dress.* Cor-
rectly speaking, there are scarcely any birds which
assume, at first, the plumage of maturity. The young
of both sexes, in the first year, are invariably clothed
in the colours of the female ; and should those of the
mature male differ greatly from the other sex, the dis-
tinction does not begin sooner than after the first moult-
ing. The further we recede from the quadrupeds, or,
in other words, from the typical perfection of ver-
tebrate animals, the greater is the change produced by
this surprising process of nature, until, upon coming to
the amphibian reptiles, we find animals which, in their
young state are fish, and in their adult state frogs.
Seeing, then, that Nature has contrived so many modes
of performing, or rather modifying, the same process,
it becomes absolutely necessary to draw a distinction
between ecdysis, or simple moulting, and metamor-
phosis, or transformation. The former change is almost
exclusively confined to vertebrate animals, while the
latter is as strongly characteristic of those which are
annulose. Our own views of the difference between
ecdysis and metamorphosis are, therefore, as follows :
The first is a simple casting off of the old skin, un-
accompanied by the developement of any new members,
or by any variation of form ; these latter being always
the consequence of metamorphosis, or transformation.
(48.) Of metamorphosis, however, there are various
kinds, or modifications ; and these may be arranged
under the heads of complete, or perfect, and incomplete,
or imperfect. Without entering on the abstruse and
ingenious disquisitions that have been written by others
on this subject, we shall consider all transformations or
metamorphoses as incomplete, where the animal is active
in ah 1 its changes. Instances of this are innumerable
among the annulose animals ; and, as we have just men-
* The typical chatterers, or the Ampelidce^ are striking instances of this
fact.
METAMORPHOSIS GENERALLY. 53
tioned, is apparent in the amphibious reptiles, which
are the lowest of the vertebrate class. Incomplete
metamorphosis, again, is shown under various modifica-
tions. In some, it is confined to a simple increase in
the number of the feet, as in the apterous Myriapoda, or
Centipedes ; in others, the whole appearance of the ani-
mal is changed, as in the frogs. In all these cases,
however, the changes appear to be but two in number ;
namely, the perfect form being assumed immediately
after that is lost, in which the animal emerged to life.
The tadpole changes to the frog, without any inter-
mediate stage of existence, or any intervening change of
form : this is, therefore, the lowest, or most incomplete,
sort of transformation ; since the first, or larva state,
merges immediately into the perfect creature, without
the intermediate change of the pupa, or chrysalis. The
extraordinary facts regarding the metamorphosis of the
crabs, disclosed by Mr. Thompson, show that these ani-
mals, also, never undergo the pupa transformation,
although their change is much more remarkable for the
complete alteration effected in their external appearance.
(49.) So soon, however, as we approach the wingetl
insects, among which, as being the typical perfection of
annulose animals, we should expect to find metamorpho-
sis in its highest developement, then we see a third
stage of existence added to the other two. The larva,
before it becomes a perfect insect, changes into a pupa,
or chrysalis ; and we have thus a threefold transform-
ation. Here, again, we find those minor variations by
which that gradual progression which Nature delights
in can be traced. At first, as among the grasshoppers,
the larva and pupa are only to be known from the per-
fect insect by their want of wings ; next, the pupa be-
comes inactive, but still retains something of the external
form of the state it had previously lived in. It is here,
then, that we may draw our imaginary line of demarc-
ation between an incomplete and a complete transform*
ation. When the several stages of an insect's life are
marked by such a striking difference in their form, that
E 3
4 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
they would not be recognised by an inexperienced ob-
server as one and the same creature ; when, moreover,
there are three of these distinct changes, totally differing
from each other, and the pupa becomes inactive ; then
the metamorphosis is complete. This, indeed, is ob-
vious ; for what change can possibly be greater than that
of an active, voracious caterpillar, to a quiescent, almost
inanimate chrysalis? or can the imagination conceive
any thing more dissimilar than are these two, from the
aerial butterfly, fluttering from flower to flower upon
fc rainbow-coloured wings," and living upon the nectar
they contain? Assuredly, this is the most wonderful
and the most complete transformation that the mind can
conceive: did it rest upon evidence which could for a
moment be questioned, it is so utterly repugnant to the
course pursued by Nature in her other works, that human
reason would reject the belief with disdain, as totally
incredible, and only equalled by the Eastern fable of the
transmigration of souls, or the metamorphosis of the an-
cient poets.
(50.) Naturalists have given names to all the vari-
ations and degrees of metamorphosis hitherto observed ;
and these we shall subsequently notice. Some writers
have assigned four states to the insect world ; but no
egg can be stated to possess life, until its contents are
quickened. The period that the egg or embryo is con-
cealed in the matrix of the mother, may just as well be
termed one of the stages of existence of an animal, as
that in which it lies unformed and inert in the shape of
an egg. These considerations appear to confirm our pro-
position, that metamorphosis is the grand characteristic
of the annulose animals ; for, while very few others are
subject to such transformation, we find this property
Almost universal among them. This truth could not fail
to.be perceived by nearly all the great naturalists of the
last and present century ; but, contenting themselves
with the simple fact, they seem to have neglected to
draw from it the first and most natural inference,
namely, that those animals which exhibited these trans*
VARIATIONS OF METAMORPHOSIS. 55
formations most conspicuously, should, from that very
circumstance, be considered the most typical group of
the whole. Now., we have already seen that the highest
developement of metamorphosis is chiefly,, although, per-
haps, not exclusively, found among lepidopterous insects;
hence it follows, if our premises are correct, that this
order is unquestionably the type of the whole of the
Annulosa. This conclusion, however, does not appear
to have struck even the acute entomologist, who has laid
so much stress upon metamorphosis as to have declared
it the keystone of the natural system. Such, indeed, it
really is ; but, like every other character, it may, and
has been, repeatedly converted into the fabrication of
artificial systems. Jt has been well and justly remarked,
that ' e there is no principle of arrangement so good as
not to become worse than useless by being applied im-
properly." * The systems of Swammerdam, Lister, and
Ray in former periods, and of Latreille and others in our
own days, may be cited as proofs of this assertion. Mr.
MacLeay, perceiving this, has endeavoured to discover
the theory of variation in the metamorphosis of the An-
nulosa; and having, as he imagined, succeeded in his
research, he proceeded to make it the corner stone of his
system. It is singular, however, that he should have
overlooked one of the first objections which his ingenious
results lie open to ; for, after all his study, he confesses,
with the candour of a truly great mind, the impossibility
he finds in determining what insects constitute the per-
fection of the annulose circle. This difficulty, we think,
has originated from his adopting the two great divisions
of Clairville's Haustellata and Mandibulata as the basis
of his theory.
(51.) On the variation of metamorphosis there is much
to be said, and more to be discovered. The subject, how-
ever, is so abstruse, and encumbered with so many dif-
ficulties, that we must touch upon it very briefly. It
has been well observed, that the variation of metamor-
phosis is only an index of the series of affinity, and not
* Hor. Ent.
a 4
56 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
a principle by which the orders have been strictly cir-
cumscribed.* Our author, in another place f, proceeds
to designate the orders of the masticating insects by that
which he considers the natural principle of this variation:
the different kinds of metamorphosis he enumerates, are
four, viz. 1 . Obtect, or what we have termed perfect or
complete, as in butterflies, c., or the Lepidoptera and
Trichoptera. 2. Coarctate, as in bees and flies (Hymeno-
ptera and Diptera). 3. Incomplete , as in beetles and fleas
(Coleoptera and Aptera) ; and 4. Semicomplete, as in bugs
and grasshoppers (Orthoptera and Hemiptera). In his
fifth groups, jVeuroptera and Homoptera, he can discover
no particularly prevalent sort of metamorphosis ; he there-
fore considers it to be " various." Now, even upon this
theory, if metamorphosis is the basis of the natural ar-
rangement, it follows that the Lepidoptera and the
Trichoptera are the types of the Mandibulata and
Haustellata: since these are the only masticating and
suctorial insects whose metamorphosis is obtect, that is,
thoroughly complete and perfect. To the first of these
propositions we may readily subscribe; but what ento-
mologist would ever think of placing the Trichoptera at
the head of the Mandibulata, when, in fact, they are
obviously at the very bottom of the scale.
(52.) Let us now proceed to a more particular in-
quiry on the different changes produced by this principle
of transformation. The larva state is, therefore, clearly to
be considered the first stage in the life of an insect. Lin-
naeus, with happy application, adopted this name from
the Latin word signifying a mask; justly considering
that the real form of the insect, while it remained under
this covering, was disguised, or masked. We have two
vernacular terms corresponding to this, although by no
means so expressive, and in themselves indefinite. The
larvae of butterflies, moths, and of lepidopterous insects
generally, are called caterpillars ; while those which are
white, somewhat inactive, and are found either in the
ground, or enclosed in other substances, bear the common
* Hor. Ent. p. 450. f Ib, p. 440.
PRIMARY TYPES OF LARVAE. 5?
name of grubs or maggots. The vulgar, also,, some-
times call these latter worms; but as this name implies
an affinity (of which there is none) to the common
earth-worm, and is likely., on other accounts, to lead to
error, we shall not introduce it. In this period of their
life, during which they eat voraciously, and cast their skins
several times, they continue a longer or shorter period ;
some only a few days or weeks others, several months
or years. In very many instances, particularly among
the Cokoptera and the Neuroptera, the period passed in
the larva state is much longer than that which the insect
enjoys when in adolescence. The food, also, which it
then consumes, is much more substantial in its nature,
and more abundant in quantity; nay, in some instances,
this is the only period when food of any description is
taken ; or, at least, the mouth of some perfect insects are
so small as to appear obsolete, and we may thence infer
they take little or no nourishment. Every one knows
how ravenously the common cabbage butterfly devours
the leaves of our garden vegetables ; and the appetite of
the silkworm is equally voracious: but when these in-
sects arrive at their perfect state, and are furnished with
wings, the first is merely supported by a little honey
sucked from a few flowers, while the silkworm moth
will live for weeks in confinement, without food, and
appear to die rather from the want of air and exercise
than from starvation.
(53.) On the primary types of larva, that is, the
chief forms to which all their variations may be re-
ferred, a good deal has been written, and much more
remains for discovery. But we hear the student ex-
claim can it be possible that the system of repre-
sentation, of which so much has been said, should be so
universal, that vertebrate types can be traced among the
larvae of insects? and is it true that they follow each
other in the same succession ? The fact, however novel,
we venture to affirm, is perfectly true. Besides, it is
very clear that, unless such was actually the case, or, in
other wordsj unless all the groups of the Vertebraia
58 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
found their representatives among the Annulosa, our
theory on the natural system would be but an idle spe-
culation; and our first proposition that one uniform
plan reigned throughout nature would be denied. That
the reader, however, may have this remarkable fact
brought before him, we shall first proceed to describe
what, in our opinion, are the primary forms of larvae,
and the series in which they naturally stand; and we
shall then test the whole by comparing them with the
vertebrate series of forms as defined in our former
volumes. As the larvae of many natural groups in this
class of animals are either unknown or imperfectly un-
derstood, we shall select those belonging to the diurnal
butterflies (Papiliones Sw.) ; because they have more
especiallly engaged the attention of entomologists; and
because their forms, with a few exceptions, are the best
known. At the same time, we wish it to be understood
that the following remarks, so far as our own investi-
gations have extended, are more or less applicable to
the chief groups of the Annulosa.
(54.) It appears to us that nearly all larvae may be
referred to some one or other of the following types, we
shall designate by these names : 1 . The luliform, or
pre-eminently typical, 2. The Raptorial, or sub-ty-
pical. 3. The Natatorial, or Anopluriform. 4. The
Suctorial, or Vermiform, called also the Onisciform:
and, 5. The Rasorial, or Thysanuriform. The first two
of these belong to the two typical groups, and the last
three to the aberrant group. Let us now proceed to
notice them more particularly in the same order.
(55.) The luliform type of larva stands at the
head : it is so called because of its resemblance to those
insects which constitute the perfection of apterous in-
sects, and of which the common ringworm (lulus), so
frequent under stones and bark in this country, is a
good example. Caterpillars of this type are always
smooth; they have no horns or excrescences either upon
their head or their skin: they possess no noxious qua-
lity; nor do they assume, when disturbed, any threatening
RAPTORIAL TYPE OF LARVAE. 59
attitude. The head is never immoderately large nor dis-
proportionably small, but of a just proportion to the
rest of their body. Their shape is invariably long, as-
similating to the form of an lulus; and they are always
provided with feet, the body being cylindrical. Some-
times there is a little down upon their skin, but other-
wise this part is invariably smooth. They never conceal
themselves under any natural or artificial shelter when
feeding, but roam about; yet they do not leap, nor do
they ever frequent the water. It will be perceived that,
in many respects, the distinctions of this type of larva
are negative; yet such characters are just as good, and
in many cases better, than those which are drawn from
positive circumstances. The best examples we can name
of the larva we have now described, will be those of the
garden or cabbage butterflies: the swallow-tailed cater-
pillars also belong to this type, but are not so charac-
teristic as the former.
(56.) The Raptorial type, in most groups, may be at
once known by having its body covered either with pun-
gent spines, or warty tubercles assuming the same shape.
Although unable to inflict injury by their bite, these
spines upon the surface of these caterpillars are almost
always sharp, and very frequenly have the property of
inflicting a pain and irritation much more severe than
we experience in the sting of a nettle. They are, in
fact, the type of evil ; and they show this in a remark-
able manner : if, as in some lepidopterous groups, al-
though not in the diurnal butterflies, the body is unde-
fended either by spines or tubercles, they have yet the
extraordinary habit of assuming various threatening or
terrific attitudes, in such a way as to intimidate the
spectator, and make him believe that they have the
power of inflicting upon him grievous bodily injury.
Nay, still further to show that particular reference they
bear to the noxious and ferocious among animals, and
to the evil and reprobate part of mankind, when they
change into chrysalis, they either bury themselves in
the earth, as if that was their final home, or, if the
60 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
change is effected in the open air, their heads are sus-
pended downwards; whereas, in the pre-eminent or
iuliform type, the metamorphosis is invariably per-
formed in the open air; and in the typical diurnal but-
terflies, the head of the chrysalis is always pointed
towards the skies, as intimating a joyful and happy
change in its next transformation. But this wonderful
analogy does not cease here ; it is among the caterpillars
of this type, and of this type only, that we find all
those which feed upon noxious or deadly plants, on
hemlock, nightshade, nettles, and all such as, either for
their poisonous or hurtful qualities, are shunned by
mankind, as fit emblems of evil and of mischief. It is
almost needless to recapitulate the negative characters of
this type : the body is always lengthened and cylin-
drical, the head without any particular horns, spines, or
excrescences, and of a moderate proportionable size :
the other extremity of the animal, although obtuse, is
never suddenly thickened ; neither are there any tails,
filaments, or pointed appendages at the end. All the
caterpillars of the diurnal Lepidoptera belonging to this
type, are spined or tuberculated ; but in the next tribe,
which includes the hawk-moths, or crepuscular Lepi-
doptera (Sphingides Sw.), the threatening attitudes are
developed in lieu of the armed spines : in both, how-
ever, we find a large proportion feeding upon poisonous
or noxious plants. The common white admirable but-
terfly, which lives upon the nettle ; the painted lady,
which, as a larva, devours thistles ; and the splendid
peacock butterfly, which feeds with the former ; are all
familiar examples of the type we have here indicated.
(57.) The third is the Natatorial, or Anopluriform
type, so named because, in the higher and larger groups,
the animals belonging to it either live in the water or
frequent its vicinity : such aquatic creatures may there-
fore be said to be enclosed or covered, as it were, from
the atmosphere, and live under shelter of another sub-
stance. Now, although none of the diurnal butterflies
are either natatorial, or in any degree aquatic, Nature
SUCTORIAL TYPE OF LARVAE. 6l
has nevertheless preserved, in such as belong to this
type, the strongest and most beautiful analogy to animals
of such habits. The Hesperidce, or skipper butterflies,
unlike all others of the tribe, are enclosed and covered,
in their larva state, from the air; not, indeed, in water,
but within the folds of a leafy case, fabricated by the
animal itself, and which it never quits except as a
winged insect. The name of anopluriform had better,
perhaps, be retained to the examples of this type among
the diurnal Lepidoptera ; this epithet having been be-
stowed upon it from the resemblance borne by the cater-
pillars to the anopluriform apterous insects, or bird
lice, of Dr. Leach. But let us enumerate more par-
ticularly the character of these larvae. First, then, the
head, which in the two former is of moderate size, in
this type is always disproportionably large, thick, and
obtuse, yet it is never decorated with horns or append-
ages : the body is not long, but rather inclined to
shortness ; the hinder extremity, however, is always
much thicker than the fore part, so that it frequently
seems to end very abruptly : the surface is generally
smooth and naked, nor is their any appearance of spines,
tubercles, or other appendages. These caterpillars,
more than any other, resemble the fat maggots of flies ;
while their bodies, being sufficiently protected by the
covered habitation they fabricate, are usually soft : the
legs are small and weak, because there is little use for
them; the caterpillar being, as it were, sedentary. In the
natatorial or anopluriform type of other animals, the
legs are generally wanting.
(58.) The Suctorial) or Vermiform type, is one of
the most remarkable types, in the variation of its struc-
ture, and in the apparently contradictory forms under
which it appears. There is one peculiar distinction,
however, by which it may generally be recognised ;
this is, in the smallness of the heads of these caterpil-
lars, destitute, at the same time, of any thing like ex-
traneous appendages. It follows, from this circum-
stance, that the mouth is particularly small ; while the
62 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS,
hinder extremity of the body is invariably narrow and
pointed. These peculiarities are the very reverse of
those of the larvae belonging to the last type, and
render this of very easy detection. It might be in-
ferred from the term vermiform, that these larvse are
always of the lengthened shape of a worm, and that in
the mode of taking their food they are suctorial; but
neither of these inferences would be correct. These
caterpillars are likened to the true earth-worms, because
both their extremities are pointed, and because they are
the representatives of those creatures among the diurnal
Lepidoptera. Again, they are termed suctorial, because
most of their corresponding types or representatives
among other animals derive their food from suction
alone, and are the most toothless of their respective
groups. The different shapes which belong to the suc-
torial type among the diurnal butterflies, is the onisci-
form, or chelonian : in other words, its shape is inter-
mediate between that of a wood-louse (Oniscus Lin.)
and a chelonian reptile, or tortoise : the head and tail,
indeed, are small and narrow ; but the body is dispro-
portionably broad, much depressed, and appears as if
divided into plates like the shell on the back of a
tortoise. Most of the butterflies belonging to this type
are natives of the Tropics ; but there is one division
which is more particularly European, and which con-
stitutes the genus Polyommatus* , or, the Blues and
Coppers, of English collectors.
(59.) The Rasorial, or Thy sanuri form, caterpillars
belong to the last type we have to notice ; and they
differ, in many striking peculiarities, from all that we
have yet spoken of. In the general shape of their body,
and in the proportionate size of their head, they as-
similate to the iuliform and the raptorial types; but
from both these they may be known by two characters.
Either the head itself is armed with distinct spines,
forming a sort of crest round the back part ; or it seems
divided into two parts by a deep notch, each portion
* Zool. 111. ii. pi. 134.
THYSANURIFORM TYPE OF LARV.E. 63
being pointed : sometimes these points are so long as to
resemble horns ; in other examples they are very short,
and hardly conspicuous; while in some few, although
the hinder part of the head is pointed,, it is not divided.
The extremity of the body gives us another pecu-
liarity : this part, also, terminates in two pointed pro-
cesses., which, according to their length in different
examples, either assume the appearance of tails, or of
two little short spines. We have no very striking in-
stances of these horned caterpillars among those of the
European butterflies ; but if the student meet with the
larvae of any of the brown meadow butterflies, forming
the modern genus Hipparchia, he will have a very good
idea of the general character of thysanuriforin larvae,
the great developement of which is seen only in the
large butterflies of Tropical America. A few words
may be necessary in explanation of the names given to
these caterpillars. They have been called Thysanuri-
form, under a belief (and we think the supposition is
correct) that they represent the Lepisma or Thysanura
of Dr. Leach ; while, by terming them also Rasorial,
we point out at once their unquestionable analogy to
the rasorial birds.
(60.) Let us now compare these types of lepido-
pterous larvae with the five great groups of birds and
quadrupeds : the test of their accuracy will consist, of
course, on the analogy by which each should mutually
represent the other. We commence, then, with the
iuliform type. The butterflies which proceed from
caterpillars bearing this form, are well known to be the
most perfect of the whole tribe. This is manifested by
their possessing six perfect feet adapted for walking.
Linnaeus was well aware that the swallow- tailed butter-
flies were the princes of the diurnal Lepidoptera, for he
places them at the head as the NoUles, and names the
species after the heroes of Greece and Troy. They are,
in short, the most perfect of all butterflies, whether we
regard their general structure, or the unrivalled beauty
of their form and colouring. Now, this perfection, in
O4< NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
like manner, belongs to the typical order of perchers
among birds, and the Quadrumana or Primates among
quadrupeds. In each of these, the power of locomotion
is most developed and complete ; and the feet are con-
sequently more perfectly formed for such purposes than
in any other. If we look to the metamorphoses of the
iuliform butterflies, the analogy is further strengthened.
Their transformation is not merely complete, but nearly
all change into chrysalis with the head directed upwards.
To this remarkable fact, which is an essential part of
the sublime instruction conveyed to us by these em-
blems of our own resurrection, we attach the greatest
importance ; and we accordingly find it to be one of
the leading features of the most perfect sort of meta-
morphosis. The iuliform, or pre-eminent type of
larva thus agrees with the pre-eminent orders of qua-
drupeds and of birds ; all agreeing in being the most
perfect of their kind. The raptorial type (called by
some the Scolopendriform) is the next in succession.
We have seen that there is a character of evil belonging
to this type, even under the apparently harmless form
of a caterpillar ; and if any one should be inclined to
term this fanciful, he would soon change his opinion
upon handling one of the spined caterpillars of Brazil,
the pain of which (caused by its poisonous spines)
would cripple his fingers for many hours. Now, one
of the great characters of all the examples of this type
throughout nature, is to be less perfect in their con-
struction than the last, but to be endowed with one
advantage, that of strength. Such a power, in fact, is
inseparable from their nature. The falcons and vul-
tures among birds, and the carnivorous beasts among
the quadrupeds, being the most cruel and ferocious, are
consequently stronger than any others. The same ob-
servation is applicable to the butterflies of this type ;
they are well known to be the strongest in make, and
the most powerful in flight, of all the diurnal lepido-
ptera ; while they show a marked inferiority to the iuli-
form butterflies, by having the two fore feet so short
ABERRANT TYPES OF LARVAE. 65
as to be incapable of being used in walking. The meta-
morphosis of these caterpillars has been already adverted
to, and its peculiarity forms a part of the inferiority of
their station when compared to that of the pre-eminent
type : the head of the chrysalis is pointed downwards
to the earth, symbolical that all types of evil (C are of
the earth earthly ; " in contradistinction to the up-
ward direction of those pupse of the last type, which are
the symbols of perfection. Upon these grounds do we
maintain, that, in all the stages of their existence, the two
principal types of the diurnal butterflies are strictly
analogous to those of the vertebrate animals : if any
other proof was wanting, we need only rest our argu-
ment upon this. In quadrupeds and iuliform butter-
flies we have the greatest perfection of the feet; whereas
in raptorial or scolopendriform butterflies, and in birds,
Nature has evidently rendered these organs imperfect,
and made their perfection to consist in superior powers
of flight.
(6l.) If we turn to the aberrant types of larvae, or
those which have been named the Anopluriforth, the
Vermiform, and the Thysanuriform, we shall find their
analogies equally strong among the vertebrate animals.
The enormous head of the Hesperian caterpillars, and
their thick obtuse body, are strikingly conspicuous in
the anopluriform quadrupeds, or the whales ( Cetacea) ;
in which order, the head is so disproportionably large
as frequently to exceed the circumference of the body :
the aquatic birds, in like manner, represent both ; and
although their bodies do not end so abruptly, yet they
have the shortest tails of all the birds in existence.
Next let us take the vermiform or onisciform larvae ;
how strikingly do the caterpillars of the blue and copper
butterflies (Polyommatus Lat.) resemble a little tortoise,
with their small pointed head and tail, and their wide
depressed body marked by lines resembling plates ! If,
again, we compare them to armadillos, the analogy is
equally just and capable of demonstration ; for the genus
66* NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
Dasypus is a vermiform type., while it is almost the
only one among quadrupeds, which,, from being covered
with bony plates, can be compared to the tortoises or
chelonian reptiles. The smallness of the head and
mouth in the vermiform caterpillars is very remarkable ;
and upon looking to quadrupeds and birds, we find that
the GlireSy or mice, the armadillos, and the wading tribes
(Grallatores), have the smallest and most pointed muz-
zle,, the narrowest gape, and the least mouth of all ver-
tebrate animals. Now, the only difference between the
general form of these tortoise-like caterpillars, and that
of the common earth-worm, is this, that in the former
the body is excessively contracted, whereas in the latter
it is excessively lengthened : the pointed extremities of
the head and of the tail, in both animals, is a common
character, which, as we have already seen, belongs to no
other type of larvae of insects or of vertebrate animals ;
this at once accounts for the excessive length of body
possessed by all the gnawing quadrupeds (Glires Linn.),
and by all the birds in the order of waders (Gralla-
tores).
(62.) There now only remain the Rasorial or Thy-
sanuriform caterpillars; and these, if the preceding views
are correct, must of necessity represent the Gallinacece,
or Rasores, among birds, and the horned cattle, or
ruminants (Ungulata), among quadrupeds. Now, both
of these groups of vertebrate animals, in their respec-
tive classes, are the only ones which have horns, crests,
or pointed appendages on their heads. Look to the
whole of the order Ungulata, and you will find the
rhinoceros, with its horned snout, and the numerous
families of deer and antelopes and oxen, all decorated
in this manner : turn to the gallinaceous birds, and
you will find nearly all the peacocks and pheasants
ornamented either with conspicuous crests, or with little
ear-like egrets ; the different fowls with fleshy combs
cresting their heads, and the front of the different
Guinea hens armed with bony protuberances. These
COMPARISON OF LARVAE WITH UNGULATA. 67
are but so many representations of rasorial or thysa-
nuriform larvae, the chief characteristic of which, as
every experienced entomologist well knows, is the horn-
like spines which crest the head, and give to them the
aspect of ruminant caterpillars. But this is not the
only mode by which Nature has clearly pointed out to
us the harmony and simplicity of her fundamental laws.
Thysanuriform larvae are those only which have the
body either terminating in two long filaments resem-
bling tails *, or in two fleshy points, as in the caterpillars
of our common meadow brown butterflies, t Now, if
it be inquired, what are the birds which have the greatest
developement of tail ? the merest tyro will name the
peacocks, the pheasants, and all the typical gallinaceous
birds, as possessing this member in its highest state of
developement. The analogy of this order of birds,
with that composed of the domesticated quadrupeds,
long ago pointed out by Linnaeus, is unquestionable ;
and we accordingly find that the horse, which stands at
their head, has the most beautiful tail among quadru-
peds. But an arrangement, it has well been said, it
really natural, will stand any test : the most trivial, as
well as what appears to be the most important circum-
stances, must be taken into consideration. Now, it is
notorious, that the most bulky of true quadrupeds are
found in the class Ungulata ; there we have the ele-
phant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, and the whole
family of antelopes and oxen : the largest birds, on the
same principle, occur in the rasorial order ; and in like
manner the giants of the diurnal butterflies all proceed
from the thysanuriform caterpillars. To pursue these
beautiful and astonishing representations further, for
many others might be pointed out, is surely needless.
Enough has been said to establish our proposition, that
the types of lepidopterous larvae are only so many re-
presentations of the primary types among the most
* Merian's Ins. pi. 19. fig. 1. ; Stoll, pi. 3. figs. 3, 4.
f See Lewin's Brit. Ins. pi. 17. to 24.
F 2
68 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
perfect of the vertebrate animals. This fact being
demonstrated, it follows that all the larvae of annulose
animals must hear as true analogies to those of the
diurnal Lepidoptera, as these latter do to the primary
divisions of quadrupeds and of birds.
(63.) If, again, we look for analogies between the
classes of the Annulosa and the typical forms of larvse
already explained, we shall not be altogether disappointed.
It becomes, indeed, of the first importance to illustrate
this subject, because, having abandoned all the arrange-
ments and theories of our predecessors, the entomo-
logical world in general will expect that good and
sufficient reasons should be urged for this venturous
proceeding. We begin, then, with the iuliform type of
caterpillars, which, as we have already seen, are the
pre-eminent ; and they accordingly produce the most
perfectly organised of all the diurnal butterflies : it is
consequently this type which represents and stands at
the head of the class Ptilota. Next come the Aptera,
and the raptorial larvae. In the former we find all the
different races of those noxious or disgusting insects
which excite so much terror in vulgar minds, and whose
very appearance is repulsive. Among these it is only
necessary to mention the different races of spiders,
wood lice, scorpions, centipedes, harvest bugs, bird lice,
and those detestable parasites the Acari, which are the
pest of man in tropical countries. Surely, if any assem-
blage of insects may be called types of evil, those in the
list now before us are universally felt and known as
such. They compose, consequently, the sub- typical
group, whose hideous aspect and hurtful qualities are
aptly represented by the forbidding appearance and the
stinging qualities of the raptorial or scolopendriform type
of caterpillars. These latter, among the diurnal Lepi-
doptera, produce the NymphalidcR, the sub- typical group
of the butterflies; and are again represented by the threat-
ening rampant caterpillars of the sphinxes, which are also
the sub-typical group of the lepidopterous order. Be-
COMPARISON OP LARVAE WITH THE ANNULOSA. 69
tween all these, therefore, it is not possible to conceive a
more beautiful series of representations. Now pass to
the Rasorial or Thysanuriform type, the caterpillars of
which, as Dr. Horsfield well observes, have their heads
beset with horn-like processes ; but " their chief cha-
racteristic," as he could not fail to observe, " consists
in two very strongly marked lengthened or filiform ap-
pendages " at the end of the abdomen. We have already
seen that these tail-like processes represent the long tails
of the rasorial birds ; and we shall find that Nature again
employs this favourite device to designate the rasorial
type of the Annulosa. It is among the Annelides alone,
of all the aberrant classes of annulose animals, that we
find not a few, but the greatest portion, ornamented with
fringed crests on the fore part of their body, and long
tail-like processes at the other. Among the Annelides,
also, we have the largest Annulosa ; while the thysa-
nuriform larvae produce the largest of all butterflies.
Other analogies might be pointed out ; but the above are
so strong, that there cannot be a doubt of the Annelides
representing the thysarmriform caterpillars. Let us next
compare the class of Vermes, comprising the intestinal
worms, with the vermiform type of caterpillars. Here
the analogy is no less interesting. The entomologist
will recollect that the great distinction of these cater-
pillars is the attenuated or pointed form of its two ex-
tremities, so that at first sight it is not readily seen
which is the head and which is the tail. Now, this is
precisely the description of an intestinal worm, where
the mouth, if it exists, is so small as to become obso-
lete : even minute inspection is necessary before we
can determine at which end it is situated ; so completely
pointed and uniform are the two extremities. If it be
urged, that the shape of the vermiform caterpillars of
the diurnal Lepidoptera are broad and flat in the middle
of their body, we have only to look to several of the
Vermes for an exact representation of this shape. And
if it be said, again, that there are no vermiform cater-
F 3
/ NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
pillars having the long cylindrical body of the intestinal
worms, the entomologist must be reminded of the larvae
of the Linnaean Geometria, now called the true moths
{Phalanides), where we find the longest caterpillars in
the whole order of Lepidoptera ; just as the Vermes, and
their representatives, are the longest of all annulose
animals. There now remains but one division in each
group to be compared,, and these are the Anopluriform
caterpillars and the Cirrhipedes, or barnacles. These,
it will be remembered, stand at the extreme confines of
their own superior groups; the Hesperian butterflies
being the last of the Papiliones, and the barnacles the last
of the Annulosa. In such extreme groups, the analogies,
also, are always the most remote ; nor can we expect to
trace any thing in common, as regards absolute struc-
ture, between the form of an anopluriform caterpillar
and barnacle : but when we reflect upon the habits of
these two very dissimilar tribes, we are immediately
struck with the beautiful method by which Nature has
intended that they should represent each other. The
" truly natural character," as Mr. MacLeay observes of
the Cirrhipedes, " is that vegetative quality by which
they are rendered incapable of locomotion ; " while it
may with equal truth be said, that the most striking and
universal peculiarity of anopluriform caterpillars consists
in their always remaining, as it were, sedentary : they
spin themselves up in a leaf, which (apparently at least)
they never quit; and in which they change into the
pupa. So far, therefore, they have nearly as much of
that " vegetative quality/' when we compare them with
all the other types of larvae, as have the Cirrhipedes.
Both, in short, are modifications of the apodal larvae,
and may be described as truly sedentary, or living in
one place. We have intimated, that it would be almost
impossible to discover the most remote analogy between
the form of a barnacle and an anopluriform larva ; but
there is a very curious coincidence in the general ap-
pearance of the two animals, which may be here men-
FORMS ALWAYS SYMBOLICAL. 71
tioned. Any one who looks at an anopluriform cater-
pillar, must be struck by the excessive size of the head,
often broader than the body, from which it is so far
removed, as to appear attached to it by a peduncle.
Dr. Horsfield, therefore, justly characterised these larvae
as having ef a very large head, attached to the body by a
long neck." Now, the Cirrhipedes, properly speaking,
have no head ; but that part of the animal which corre-
sponds thereto, and where the mouth is situated, is ele-
vated on a long fleshy slender peduncle ; so that the
thickest part of the creature is that where the mouth
is situated. Such, in fact, is an anopluriform larva ;
the head, where the mouth is placed, is the thickest part
of the animal ; so that the figure of a pedunculated bar-
nacle may be termed a rude sketch of that form which
Nature developes more accurately in the larva of a
Hesperia, and brings to the highest perfection in the
quadrupeds, under the form of the whale, that is, in
the most perfect of all her groups. We make no apo-
logy to the reader for this apparent digression ; for
what can be more delightful than to trace the varied
yet consistent operations of Nature through the endless
diversity of forms she spreads before us. We have
shown that the primary types of caterpillars represent
the primary divisions of quadrupeds and of birds, and
that these three important groups are again represented
by the great divisions of Annulosa. It is impossible to
believe that results, so uniformly consistent with each
other, can be founded but on the true symbolical system
of Nature. We hope, therefore, to have now demon-
strated our original proposition ; namely, that the groups
of the Annulosa represent those of the Fertebrata, and
that the principles of variation, in one and the other,
are precisely the same. The following table, therefore,
concentrates all we have said in this paragraph : -
72 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
Analogies of the LARVAE of the LEPIDOPTERA to the AN-
NULOSA.
P<- p^'s'LoSr 1 ' innox -} **/<*
APTERA. Hairy or spinous ; often poisonous. Scolopendriform.
CIERIPBPES. [ H ^ ro TLc a k ge> attaChed ^ a ] Jnophrtfbrm.
v f Both extremities pointed ; head} Vermiform^ or
very small. 3 Onisciform.
(64.) Let us now inquire into the principle of variation
that pervades each of the types of larvae herein described.
This demands our particular attention, because, as it ap-
pears to us, some erroneous ideas have been entertained
on this subject. We have seen that, in one large group
of insects, containing many hundreds, perhaps thousands,
of species, there are five leading types or forms of cater-
pillars ; and that these correspond, and follow each other,
in the same order of succession as do the classes and
orders of quadrupeds and of birds. But the student,
any more than the professed entomologist, must not be-
lieve that all tha thy sanuri form larvae, for instance, go
in one of these five divisions ; or that he is to class all the
scolopendriform caterpillars together under another di-
vision. True it is, that by such an arrangement he would
get a uniformity of the same-shaped caterpillars, and he
might flatter himself with having discovered the true
arrangement of the Lepidoptera; but when he looked to/
the butterflies which proceeded from his thysanuriform
or his scolopendriform larvae, he would find that, so far
from exhibiting the regularity and affinity with each
other, which, from looking only to their caterpillars, he
had expected, he will be perfectly disappointed. But,
to render this clear, let us state a case ; let us suppose,
for instance, he had in his possession the five cater-
pillars here represented : he sees that they answer to
our description of the thysanuriform type; and, as they
TRANSFORMATIONS OF THYSANURIFORM LARVAE. 73
have a very close resemblance to each other, he conse-
quently concludes, with every show of reason, that they
will produce pupae and butterflies equally near, and
equally resembling each other. He accordingly feeds
them, and watches their transformation with great anx-
iety. The first, we will suppose, which changes into
chrysalis, is that of Podalirius Pompilius*, or the Ja-
vanese swallow-tail : he sees with surprise, that the
chrysalis, instead of having its head suspended down-
wards, as in all the true thysariuriform types, has it in
an erect position; while the butterfly, into which it is
subsequently transformed, has six perfect legs, and turns
out to be of the iuliform, or pre-eminent, type. Sadly
perplexed at this, he traces the progress of another ; this
he conceives, from the length of its horns, to be more
typical, and he consequently expects that it will pro-
duce him a perfect thysanuriform butterfly. But he is
again baffled; it becomes transformed into the purple
emperor, a butterfly which belongs to the raptorial, or
scolopendriform, division. Of two green caterpillars,
which, from their similarity, seemed to belong to species
of the same genus, one only becomes a true thysanuri-
form butterfly, the other changing to one of the scolo-
pendriform types. Finally, he gets from a fifth, which
closely resembles the last two, a decided species of Hes-
peria, & butterfly totally different from all those which
his collection of thysanuriform larvae had produced. How,
then, it may be asked, can we maintain that each of the
great divisions of butterflies has a peculiarly shaped ca-
terpillar; when we see, as in the foregoing instance, those
which are called thysanuriform are scattered in every one
of these divisions ? This question brings us to the point
we are to explain, namely, the principle of their va-
riation. It is, theoretically, as follows : Every natural
group of butterflie's, either in their caterpillar or perfect
state, contains representations of the primary types of
larvae, modified, however, in such a manner, as to indi-
cate the real type to which they actually belong. Sup-
* Zool. 111. ii. pi. 105,
74 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
pose, for instance, we take the iuliform butterflies, the
most perfect of the diurnal Lepidoptera; now, although
the types of this division perfectly agree with our de-
finition, we nevertheless discover, as we proceed to the
aberrant examples, that Nature so modifies them, that
some assume the aspect and character of scolopendriform
larvae, others have the thysanuriform shape, and so on.
So that, although the butterflies which stand at the head
of the iuliform division, as being typical, have iuliform
larvae, yet that the group, taken as a whole, will contain
analogical representations of all the other types of larvae
we have described. The scolopendriform butterflies
(Nymphalides Sw.), in the very same manner, contain
representations of iuliform, thysanuriform, vermiform,
and anopluriform caterpillars, besides their own proper
type, which is scolopendriform. This fact, which none
of the modern lepidopterous writers appear to have
perceived, has been so fully illustrated in a series of
plates *, as to be placed beyond all reasonable doubt. No
better argument, indeed, than this, can be urged against
the prevalent but erroneous idea, that the natural ar-
rangement of the Lepidoptera, or, in fact, of insects
generally, entirely depends upon the form of their ca-
terpillars. Our belief is, therefore, that, without a
knowledge of the perfect insect, we should never be able
to explain whether it was allied to any one particular
type by affinity, or whether it only analogically repre-
sented it.
(65.) Most of the modifications under which the
primary types of larvae are in a manner disguised, will
be easily comprehended by the foregoing remarks. lull-
form larvae, as we have already said, are smooth; but
sometimes they are covered with fleshy tubercles, as in
the instance of that beautiful butterfly, Polydorus Thoas.
Now, the whole structure of the perfect insect shows that
it belongs to the iuliform butterfly ; and the reason of
its larva being disguised in the form of another type
(for the spine-like tubercles on its body are merely soft
* Zool. 111. Sdseries.
SUCCESSION OF REPRESENTATION CONSTANT. 7 3
processes) is, to show that the genus Polydorus represents
t\\eNymphalides, or scolopendriform butterflies. Another
iuliform larva has the body terminated by two little
points,, thereby denoting its representation of the thysa-
nuriform caterpillars. Thus every natural group, not
only of the diurnal butter flies, but so far as we yet
know of the whole order Lepidoptera, contains repre-
sentations of the primary forms of larvae, following each
other in a uniform series, and producing perfect insects
whose structure harmonises with this theory. Where
natural groups are comparatively small, and pre-emi-
nently typical, it sometimes occurs that all the larvae are
uniform, without any of the above modifications. We
see a strong instance of this in the old genus Pieris, the
most typical, according to our views, of all annulose
animals. It is to this very circumstance we must attribute
the fact of all the Pierian larvae being iuliform. But,
when groups are very extensive, we consequently find a
greater variety of shape, of colour, and even of struc-
ture, in the perfect insects ; and this extends also to their
larvae. The genus Papilis of Latreille, the very next
after that of his Pieris, is a case in point. We ventured,
some years ago, to break up this most natural group into
minor subdivisions, because we found it contained iuli-
form, scolopendriform, thysanuriform, vermiform, and
anopluriform larvae, while the perfect insects produced
from them imitated, in some way or other, each of the
great divisions of the lepidopterous circle.
(66.) In orders where the metamorphosis is imper-
fect or incomplete, and the larvae more or less represent
the perfect insect, the analogies we have already detailed
can nevertheless be traced. Thus, while the lepidopterous
caterpillars live upon vegetables, the Hemiptera, in their
typical example (Reduviida), are carnivorous : like all
the raptorial types, these insects live by rapine, and suck
the blood or juices of their victims. The aquatic, or
anopluriform, type is seen in the active larvae of the
dragon-flies, in the neuropterous order.
(6*7.) We shall now briefly notice the shape and
76 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
peculiarities of the perfect pupa, or chrysalis. It is
without limbs, inactive, and so sluggish as to show no
other signs of life than a slight degree of motion upon
being disturbed. An insect in this state exhibits little
or no indication either of the form it originally had, or
that which it is destined to assume. Among the typical
Lepidoptera, or, more properly, the butterflies, we find
three distinct types of pupae, all of which change into
that state above the ground. The first of these chiefly
belong to the iuliform division : its form is angulated,
with both extremities pointed; the tail is fastened to
some other substance, generally the tree upon which it
fed as a caterpillar; while the body is kept in an erect
position, with the head pointing upwards, by means of
a transverse thread, which loops it across its breast. The
second form is generally more angulated than the former,
and not unfrequently ornamented with golden and other
metallic colours ; but it is attached in a very different
manner ; it has no transverse brace, because it hangs
suspended in the air by the tail, so that the head is
consequently directed downwards to the earth. The
third kind of pupa is attached, like the first, both by
the tail and by a transverse thread; but its position is
generally horizontal, and it is always enclosed within a
convoluted leaf, similar to the habitation which it lived
in as a caterpillar. The skippers (Hesperidce*) are the
only family of butterflies, at present known, which change
into pupae of this description. There is reason to think,
however, that, even in this family, some considerable de-
viations from the above mode of attachment will here-
after be detected. Lewin* figures the pupa of the
spotted skipper as enclosed in a slight web, " under cover
of a leaf," but without the transverse brace or thread.
With the metamorphoses, also, of the extensive family
of Erycinidce, we are but imperfectly acquainted, except
so far as regards one solitary species, figured by Stoll.
The pupa of the Apollo butterfly is also described as
being enveloped within a leaf; but whether it be simply
* Brit. Ins. pi. 46. fig. 7.
MODES OF CHANGE INTO PUPJE. 77
enclosed in a thin web,, without a brace, similar to that
of the spotted skipper, is uncertain. Should the figures
of Lewin be correct, it follows that such unbraced pupae
will present us with a. fourth variation among the butter-
flies; and this will be analogous to the pupae of the
spinning moths, or silkworms (Bomby tides), subse-
quently noticed.
(68.) But the typical forms of perfect Pupce are
not all to be found among the butterflies ; and this shows
us, by the way, that a system built upon this stage of
an insect is not a whit more valuable than another which
rests solely upon the caterpillar. Hitherto we have
seen that these creatures perform their transformations
in the same element as that in which they were born ;
but on entering among the crepuscular or twilight
flying tribe (Sphingides Sw.), we find that the larvae
quit the air and hide themselves in the bowels of the
earth, as if they " loved darkness better than light, be-
cause their type was evil." At the head of this tribe
stands the death's-head moth (Sphinx Atropos}, car-
rying upon him the " sign and seal" of the symbol
which Nature has designed him to be. Upon the thorax
of this extraordinary insect, which is the largest moth
found in Europe, the figure of a human skull, the em-
blem of death and of the grave, is so distinctly stamped,
that a casual observer might easily imagine it was the
work of some cunning limner desirous to give an un-
natural terror to the aspect of a really harmless insect.
Now, the caterpillar of this forbidding creature, when
it is about to undergo its transformation, penetrates to
more than a foot deep into the earth; and all the true
sphinges do the same ; but Nature does not pass to
these subterranean pupae without many gradual modi-
fications. Some of the hawk moths spin themselves a
web on the surface of the ground, which is covered by
leaves : others proceed a step further, and make use of
particles of dirt in preference : next come a few who
repose themselves in a little hollow grave, so that they
hardly lie beneath the surface : succeeding species dig
78 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
deeper and deeper, until we have the Sphinx Atropos as
the type and perfection of subterranean pupae. The
greatest part of the night-moths (Noctuides) possess
this metamorphosis, which may also be found in the
aberrant examples of the other tribes of moths ; but in
the two first mentioned, the Sphingides and the Noc-
tuides, it is most prevalent and typical. The most
complicated sort of pupa,, however, is that into which
the silkworm tribe are changed ; for here we have a
surprising display of preparatory caution and indus-
trious skill. It seems hardly necessary to describe in
this place the pupa or cocoon of the common silk-
worm, or rather caterpillar, except to notice its general
structure. There is a provident care in the prepa-
rations made by all insects of this tribe, which is very
remarkable; they envelope themselves in an oval com-
pact ball of the most delicate threads of silk ; these are
drawn from their own bodies; and they contrive, in
some unexplained stage of the operation, to affix the
whole, externally, to a firm object. Now, this is evi-
dently a very near approach to the same form of pupa
as that which is so slightly developed in the skipper
butterfly before alluded to ; but the difference is this,
that in the silk-spinning caterpillars, the web or cocoon
is so firm and compact as to resist the weather ; whereas,
in the other insect, the web is so thin that it can be
seen through, and consequently requires the additional
protection of a leaf or of some other substance. We
may add, also, that in the former, the chrysalis is always
thick, cylindrical, and obtuse, particularly at the head;
while, in the latter, it always exhibits some appearance
of angles, and the head is more or less pointed. The
pupae of the true moths (Pkalanide*) are mostly of
this latter description; that is, they spin a thin and often
almost transparent web, within the folds of a leaf, al-
though the form of the chrysalis itself is like that of
the silkworm. This, in fact, is the typical form of
the pupae among the true moths; but in this tribe we
have representations of the terrestrial and several other
TRANSFORMATIONS OP IMPERFECT PUP^E. 79
types, although we find none of those which are so
common among the diurnal butterflies. Such are the
leading variations or the most remarkable differences at
present known among the inactive pupae of the typical
order of annulose animals. But there is another modi-
fication which must here be noticed, because it comes
under our definition of a perfect chrysalis : this is called
coarctate; and is when the larva changes into a pupa
so entirely covered with a thick crustaceous shell, as to
assume the appearance of an oval egg, the surface of
which is smooth and glossy, without, in most in-
stances, exhibiting more than a slight indication of those
joints, segments, or angles, which are seen in all the
types before-mentioned. This sort of pupa is chiefly,
if not exclusively, found in the order of Diptera, or of
two- winged insects, and in that of the Hymenoptera,
which includes the bees and wasps. MM. Kirby and
Spence consider this as a ' ( fifth kind of pupae, which
are not, as in other instances, excluded from the skin of
the larvae, but remain concealed under it, and were hence
called by Linnaeus coarctate pupce : they may be termed,
in common language, cased nymphs. The envelope of
these is formed of the skin of the larva considerably
altered in form and texture/' *
(69.) Of imperfect pupa?, or such as are active, and
resemble either the larva or the adult insect, there are
various kinds. The name given by Linnaeus to these
semi-transformations, appears to us particularly objec-
tionable : he called them complete, thereby leading us to
the erroneous supposition that they are the most com-
plete or perfect examples of the pupa transformation ;
the fact being, that they are, in this respect, precisely
the contrary : they not only greatly resemble the mature
insect in form, but are equally capable of eating and
moving. As these insects, however, cast their skins at
stated periods, and undergo changes, though slight, in
their external and internal conformation, they are justly
regarded by all authors as undergoing metamorphosis,,
* Int. to Ent. i. 69.
80 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
although of an imperfect kind. Now, these belong to
two very different groups of annulose animals. In
the one, composing the apterous division of Linnseus,
there is no appearance of wings : these are his complete
pupae. The rest belong to the Ptilota, or winged group,
and resemble the perfect insect in every thing but pos-
sessing wings, the rudiments of which only appear :
these latter are called by some writers semi-complete
pupae ; and this name may be retained, because it im-
plies an intermediate state of metamorphosis, between
the imperfect transformation of an apterous insect, and
the perfect or complete one of a butterfly. The period
during which insects remain in this state depends upon
the species ; some quit it in a few hours, others after
some months, while not a few continue in it one or
even two years.
(70.) Let us now look to the third and last state
of an insect. We have traced this singular little being
through the two preparatory stages of his existence :
in the first, he is an inhabitant of the earth, in the
second of the grave, and in the third he becomes a
denizen of the air. Such, at least, is the life of those
perfect, or winged, insects, which are typical of the grand
division of animals now before us. The connection
between these, and apterous or wingless tribes, is ren-
dered gradual by the intervention of the dipterous flies,
where the organs of flight are but two ; whereas, in the
perfect Ptilota, the wings are almost universally four.
When an insect assumes its adult or perfect state,
Linnseus termed it an imago. " because, having laid
aside its mask, and cast off its swaddling bands, being
no longer disguised or confined, or in any respect im-
perfect, it is now become a true representative or image,
of its species, and is qualified to fulfil the laws of
nature in perpetuating its kind. As the power of flying
constitutes the perfection of true insects, we accordingly
find this in its highest state of developement in the lepi-
dopterous order, where the wings are the largest, and
the most adapted for rapidity of flight. From this
UNIVERSAL HARMONV OF NATURE'S LAWS. 81
point of perfection,, Nature recedes on each side, as from
a land-mark ; until, by two different routes, she reaches
the order Coleoptera, where she presents us with an
immense assemblage of insects, having, indeed, four
wings, but of which two are converted into cases or
shells (elytra), which principally serve as mere pro-
tectors or shields to the single pair which are alone
formed for flight. Hence it follows, that the beetles
are the most imperfect fliers of the Ptilota, or true
insects ; while, to compensate for such a loss, they are
the most expert runners of all the orders. On looking
to the vertebrate animals, we find the same plan in
their creation. No birds run so swiftly as the waders
( Grallatores) ; and no quadrupeds, in reference to their
size, pass over an extent of ground so swiftly as do the
rabbits, the hares, and other types of the order Glires.
How beautifully does Nature thus adhere to her primary
laws, while she modifies them in the most surprising
manner. We shall now terminate our remarks on the
metamorphoses of insects, or rather, of those two great
divisions which constitute the types of the Annulosa.
CHAP. II.
THE LEPIDOPTERA.
(71.) THE order Lepidoptera, as being the most per-
fect of all insects, is that with which we commence our
survey. It comprises the butterflies, the hawk moths,
and the moths. The wonderful metamorphosis under-
gone by these insects, would be almost incredible, were
it not familiarised to us from early childhood. That a
crawling worm, ravenous of gross food, should volun-
tarily seek a retreat in the earth, or spin its own shroud,
82 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
that then a change should come over it, so complete,
as that not a lineament of its first form was retained.,
that in this state, after remaining a misshaped lump, to
all appearance inanimate,, it should suddenly burst
forth, full of life and joy, and with many -coloured
wings ascend into mid air, and derive its only sustenance
from the nectar of flowers ; all this, we say, is one of
those miracles of nature, which, were it told of an in-
sect that had never yet been seen, the world would not
believe. But the world, alas ! is absorbed in its own
concerns ; the things of time, in the minds of the mil-
lion, exclude those of eternity. And although in this,
as in numberless other instances, <f Wisdom uttereth
her voice in the streets, and crieth aloud," that voice
is disregarded. A living emblem is placed before our
eyes, of those changes which await MAN : but by how
few is it regarded ! How few " lay it to their heart,"
and bring the momentous question to themselves Is
mine to be a change of happiness or of misery ?
And deems weak man the future promise vain,
When worms can die and glorious rise again ?
(72.) The general peculiarities of the Lepidoptera
are so strongly marked, as to give to the whole group a
very determinate character. It seems hardly necessary,
in a work of this nature, to describe a form so univer-
sally known. As we must, however, enter into some
particulars, we will take the common scarlet admirable
butterfly as an explanatory type (fig* 1.), both of the
larva or caterpillar (a), the pupa or chrysalis (6), and
the imago or perfect state (c). The wings are four,
broad, and ample, and rendered opake by a fine powder,
which, upon being magnified, is found to consist of
innumerable minute scales. The nourishment is imbibed
by means of a long trunk or proboscis, which is spirally
curved up when the insect is not feeding. The an-
tennae are long, composed of a vast number of very
shont minute joints, which frequently form a club-
shaped mass at the end. The lower wings only, in some
GENERAL DEFINITION OF LEPIDOPTERA.
groups, are capable of being folded. The metamorpho-
complete ; that is, the pupa is quiescent : some
authors term it obtect, and others incomplete : this latter
term, however, is objectionable, inasmuch as it is cal-
culated to give an erroneous impression on the subject.
The change of the caterpillar or larva (a) to the chrysalis
or pupa (6), and then to the perfect winged insect (c),
in this species, and nearly all others throughout the
whole order, is as complete an external metamorphosis
as can possibly be imagined.
(73.) The connection of this order in the circle of
the Ptilota has been already intimated, and will again
be adverted to when we come to speak of the Hemi-
ptera and the Neiiroptera. Several of the hemipterous
genera have their wings covered with a farinaceous
powder, and dilated quite as much as many of the
moths. Mr. MacLeay instances the African Plata
ttmbata, as another proof of this affinity ; since it is
not c :ute of ocelli, but has the antennae re-
markably developed. The immediate means of trans-
S4f NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
ition, the same author continues, "is probably exem-
plified in the genus Aleyrodes," whose metamorphosis
is described by Reaumer as perfectly resembling that
of the Lepidoptera. On the other hand, the connection
of this order to the Neuroptera is effected by the
Linnaean genus Phryganea ; and this so perfectly, that
the latter may even be called aquatic moths.
(74.) The different arrangements that have been
proposed for this vast assemblage, can only be slightly
noticed ; for, were we to enter into such details, a mo-
derate volume would scarce contain them. The three
great divisions of butterfly, hawk moth, and moth, are
so obvious, that Linnaeus formed them into as many
genera. The distinction was natural, but the denomi-
nation artificial ; not because they respectively com-
prised many thousands of species, but because the rank
of each group is totally different from those which he
denominated genera in the other orders. Fabricius long
had the general credit of having first broken up these
groups, and thereby made the first step towards a better
definition of their contents. But this merit belongs to
a countryman of our own. It was in the year 17^7,
that Moses Harris published his small " Essay preced-
ing a Supplement to the Aurelian," wherein he not only
gives most accurate magnified figures of all the leading
types of the British butterflies, but actually divides them
into genera. Few copies of this remarkable work, in
all probability, were printed ; and being given to the
world at a time when to doubt the authority of Linnaeus
was considered scientific treason, the Essay seems to have
attracted little or no attention. Harris founded his ge-
nera on the neuration of the wings, to which he paid the
most minute attention ; and his figures of those organs
are beautifully accurate. In the year 1776, was pub-
lished the famous t( Vienna Catalogue," as it is generally
termed, <c the joint production of Messrs. Denis and
SchiefFermuller, two distinguished officers of high rank
at the court of Vienna, who, from their charge in the
Imperial Academv, are known in Germany by the name
SUCCESSIVE SYSTEMS OF LEPIDOPTERA. 85
of Theresianer." * These original observers of nature,
by the great attention they bestowed upon the metamor-
phoses of their groups, opened a new field of investi-
gation. Without in the least detracting from the merits
of Ochsenheimer, Illiger, Schrank, and Fabricius, it is
very clear that all their groups are found in the " Vienna
Catalogue ; " and that these again, so far as regards the
British butterflies, had previously been pointed out by
Harris. The arrangement of the (c Vienna Catalogue"
is entirely founded upon the variation of the larva or
caterpillar ; whereas that of Harris is entirely from the
wings of the perfect insect : yet it is an extraordinary
fact, that these systems, although founded upon two such
different principles, are substantially the same. The
groups of the " Vienna Catalogue," in fact, perfectly
agree with those of Harris ; and this latter author has
the particular merit of having first pointed out, in the
year 1767:, the genus Leucophasia, which it was left for
Mr. Stephens to revise in the year 1830. The only two
attempts that have been made to arrange the Lepido-
ptera according to the natural system, has been one pub-
lished some years agot, and the more elaborate expo-
sition in Dr. Horsfield's valuable publication on the
insects of Java. The first of these is scarcely worth
repeating, and our space is too limited to admit of those
details necessary to explain the latter.
(75.) All lepidopterous insects arrange themselves
under three primary divisions, which are perceptible to
the most inexperienced observer. Mr. Kirby pointedly
insists upon this. fc The obvious primary sections of
the Lepidoptera," argues this eminent entomologist,
" which have been evident to almost every one, are
those three which correspond with Linne's genera Pa-
pilio, Sphinx, and Phalcena." The first of these is
characterised by having the antennae terminating in a
mass of club (jig* 2. a), and by flying, with few ex-
ceptions, during the day. The second comprise the
* Horsf. Java Ins. p. 12.
f Taylor's Philosophical Magazine for March, 1827.
G 3
86 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS*
hawk moths, generally so termed (Sphingides), where
the antennae are thickest in the middle (&), and gradually
narrowed towards each extremity. -^ 2. ^
These insects derive their familiar \v a ^r
name from the rapidity of their ^^M/^^
flight, and from the distant resem- >, Jjlf ^
blance which may be traced in the
profile of their heads to that of a
hawk ; in general,, they fly only
during morning and evening. The
third, which is by far the largest
division, comprehends the moths
(Phal&nides) : these fly only in
the dusk of evening, or during
the night ; and their antennae gra-
duate from the base to a fine point (c). These, as
Linnaeus long ago perceived, are the primary divisions,
corresponding to our primary circles of the whole order.
But as one of these, or the aberrant, is always resolvable
into three others, we find that the nocturnal moths ar-
range themselves into three great groups, composed of the
Bomby tides, or silk moths; the Geometrides, orloopers;
and the Noctuides, or night moths. Thus we have
three aberrant and two typical groups or tribes, corre-
sponding to the quinary divisions of all the other orders.
(76.) Commencing with the PAPILIONIDES, or first
tribe we shall merely observe, that they comprehend all
the diurnal butterflies with clavate antennae, or such as
were included by Linnaeus under his genus Papilio.
These we arrange under five distinct families, which,
under the following names, we shall briefly notice ;
namely, 1. the Papilionidce ; 2. the Nymphalida ; 3. the
SatyridcB ; 4, the Erycinidce ; and, 5. the Hesperidte*
The first have six perfect feet, and iuliform larvae ; the
second have the anterior feet abortive, and the larvae are
scolopendriform : these two being typical ; while the
three following are aberrant.
(77.) The arrangement of the Papilionida into their
minor families or divisions has not yet been attempted
ARRANGEMENT OF THE PAPILIONID^. 87
at least, with any reference to their complete circular
affinities. We shall not, therefore, at present, offer any
other opinion as to their true affinities, than that which we
formerly intimated ; namely, that the old genera Papilio,
Pieris, Colias, and Dorites followed each other in a na-
tural order : but analysis has brought to light another
group, which we were the first to characterise, under the
name of Licinia (Licinia Amphione ? fig. 3.) : it repre-
sents the HeliconincBy and is unquestionably connected
to Colias. Latreille has mistaken the type of this genus
for a Heliconia, in which he has been followed by Dr.
Horsfield, who cites the larva, of which the only repre-
sentation is that in Stoll. The general sketch of these
groups, which will now follow, is sufficient for our pre-
sent purpose: they are composed of 1. the Papilionince,
or true butterflies ; 2. the Pierince, or whites ; 3. the
Coliance, or yellows ; 4. the Lyccenince, or large under-
wings ; and, 5. the Parnassince, or Apollo butterflies.
(78.) The PapllionincB are generally termed swallow-
tails, from the lower wings being dilated into twospatulate
lengthened lobes ; but this form is by no means general,
since near one third of the species have the lower wings
rounded. They comprise some of the largest lepido-
pterous insects, and are at once known by the extreme
shortness of their palpi; these parts, in fact, are so
G 4
88 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
small, that they appear, even in the perfect insect, to
have been broken off : the antennse are long, the club
very slender, cylindrical, and slightly curved; and the
anterior thighs armed with a short acute process in the
middle. The sides of the lower wings are cut out, to
give a free passage to the body ; and all the feet are
strong and lengthened. Their colours are not brilliant,
but rich and imposing: black or brown is the general
ground colour ; this being varied with spotted bands of
yellow, red, or sometimes green : in some, the wings are
striped with black upon a yellow ground. Their flight
is not very rapid or strong, and much resembles that
of the garden whites. Their geographic distribution is
very wide; for although but two species occur in Eu-
rope, both of which have been found in England, those
of America and India are numerous, while others of
much beauty occur in the remote regions of Australia.
The group, however, is most abundant between the
tropics ; yet, like all others strictly typical, it is, in its
general range, almost universal.
(79- ) The Pierince, or garden white butterflies, imme-
diately succeed. They comprise several distinct genera.
In these butterflies, the club of the antennae is always sud-
denly enlarged at the top, and much compressed ; while
the palpi are clothed with long straggling hairs, and the
last joint obviously projects beyond the head. All this
will be apparent, on examining one of the common
white species found in our gardens. The legs are per-
fect: the caterpillars are nearly smooth, merely pro-
vided with short downy hairs, thinly scattered over the
body : the retractile horns, so general in the last group,
are entirely wanting. The ground colour of the perfect
insect is generally white ; but in that group which passes
into the Papilioninos, there is nearly an equal propor-
tion of black; in others (Euterpe Sw.), a similar
variation takes place; in all, however, the angles or
corners of the wings are much rounded, and they offer
no example of tails on the inferior wings : hence en-
sues a weaker flight, while their size is moderate : the
DEFINITION OF THE COLIAN^. 89
under wings have no groove for the body. Their geo-
graphic distribution is similar to that of the last family,
except that the genera of the Old World are in most
cases different from those of the New, and there are as
many species in temperate as in tropical latitudes.
(80.) The Coliance, or yellows, exhibit a uniformity
of colour seldom met with so decidedly prevalent in all
the species. They are of a rich straw colour or bright
yellow, entirely destitute of bands or spots ; but the
under surface is variegated with minute dots, and gene-
rally marked by one or two small central silver spots.
From the great similarity which prevails, the species are
not readily distinguished. The form of the perfect in-
sect, however, is very peculiar : its structure is thick
and robust ; the wings triangular, with the angles either
very slightly rounded or decidedly acute : no other but-
terflies in this family possess these characters, which all
indicate that boldness and vigour of flight belonging to
the group. The antennae also are peculiar ; they are
very gradually thickened towards the tip, where they
end abruptly and without any compression : the ante-
rior feet, although provided with claws, are much shorter
than usual; and the lower wings form an imperfect
groove for the body. Several species belonging to the
genera Gonepteryx and Eurymus occur throughout
Europe, and some of these inhabit Britain ; but the ty-
pical form is chiefly confined to the tropical latitudes
of both hemispheres, where they are found in prodigious
numbers: they are, in fact, migratory insects, and re-
present the swallows in their own tribe.
(81.) Of the Lyccsnince we can say but little, since we
know not the exact extent of the group : they are, how-
ever, immediately distinguished by their large under
wings, which are as long, and always much broader,
than the upper : the sexes differ so materially, that
closet naturalists have not only described them as
separate species, but have imagined they belonged to
different genera. In structure and appearance they
resemble the Heliconidce ; but their anterior feet are
90 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
perfect, while their long wings and very slender shape
equally separate them from the Pierince. The club of
the antennse is long, not abrupt, and greatly compressed ;
while the head exhibits the peculiar appearance of being
porrect, or placed upon a long neck. The larva of one
Species (Z,. Amphione) is furnished with two solid spines
near the head, as in the Erycinida ; but we know
nothing of its habits. We first became acquainted with
this remarkable group of insects in South America ;
where, during the autumn of 1816, we captured eight or
ten species.* The general appearance of the genus Leu-
cophasia induces us to place it at the confines of this
group.
(82.) Under the Parnassince we place the genera
Parnassius and Thais of Latreille, two remarkable
and apparently isolated groups, peculiar to the conti-
nent of Europe. Parnassius, in its larva state, is pro-
vided with the forked retractile horns of the genuine
Papilios ; and its chrysalis appears to be hid within a
leaf. In Thais, which evidently borders upon the next
division, the caterpillar is armed with a row of fleshy
spines, and the chrysalis is obtuse at its anterior part.
(83.) The family of the NYMPHALID^E, or brush-
footed butterflies, next succeed. These are eminently
distinguished from the last, both in their larva, their
pupa, and their perfect state. In the first, the caterpillar
is more or less covered with sharp spines ; which gives it,
as has been well observed, a terrific or threatening as-
pect. These spines are often surmounted or accompanied
by hairs possessing such a stinging or irritating quality,
as to cause the most intolerable pain to those who handle
them. This we have unluckily experienced in Tropical
America; but no such quality belongs to the British
species. The pupa is for the most part angulated, but
it is sometimes smooth ; in either case, however, it is
adorned with rich metallic colours, sometimes disposed
in the shape of spots, at others covering the entire
* The genus was defined and published in Zool. Illustrations, vol. i.
pL!5.
THE NYMPH ALID^E. 9*
chrysalis, which thus seems cut out of a solid piece of
metal. Unlike that of the true butterflies, the pupa is
always suspended with its head downwards, and is en-
tirely destitute of a transverse thread : some few, repre-
senting the silk moths (Bombycid(K\ live and undergo
their metamorphosis within a leaf; these exceptions,
however, are very rare. The perfect insect presents us
with many peculiar characters. Its whole structure is
more robust and vigorous, resembling, in this respect,
the Coliance ; the anterior feet are short, almost always
imperfect, and generally covered by long hairs ; whence
their popular name of Brush-feet. No general defi-
nition will serve to characterise the shape of the wings,
as these, no less than the palpi and antennae, vary in
each of the lesser families ; but, in general, the under
pair are so dilated, as to form a groove for the recep.
tion of the body. As illustrations of the more typical
92 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
forms of the larva and pupa in this family, we may cite
that of the peacock butterfly (a), which agrees with the
general structure above described; but those of the
purple emperor (&) are seen to be totally different ; al-
though the two species, in their perfect state, obviously
belong to the same division. In the genus Acrea, again,
the larva (c) resembles that of the peacock, while the
perfect insects are totally dissimilar. In the American
genus Euplosa (cC), which we place, without doubt, in
this family, the caterpillar is furnished with two pair
of fleshy processes, one towards the head, and another
near the tail ; sometimes the back is furnished with
another pair : these processes obviously represent the
tufts of hair upon the clear-winged Zyganidce of Brazil,
and indicate a very close affinity with them. The pupa,
which is smooth, is suspended downwards, and clearly
belongs to this division.*
(84.) The NYMPHALID^:, as a whole, have been
considered the typical or most perfect family of diurnal
butterflies. On this subject, we had long ago remarked,
ce If strength of body, rapidity of flight, or brilliancy
of colouring, were sufficient to constitute the typical
perfections of the diurnal Lepidoptera, the award of su-
periority would undoubtedly be conferred upon this
group, did they not show a decided inferiority to the
last family, in their less perfect construction. The an-
terior legs are destitute of claws, and are so short, as to
appear at first sight perfectly useless." f Now, this
peculiar structure of the feet, although, no doubt, admir-
ably adapted to some unknown habits of the insects, is
nevertheless, in one sense, an imperfection, when com-
* Dr. Horsfield's illustration of his system, from placing full confidence
in the nomenclature of M. Latreille, is unfortunately defective. The larva
he has figured at pi. 3. fig. 18. of his beautiful work, taken from Stoll, as an
example of Beliconto, is that of an Erycina. Again, fig. 20. on the same
plate, copied from the same work, is not a Heliconia, but is that of Acrea
Thalia, an insect we have seen by thousands in Brazil ; while that at fig.
19. called by Latreille a Heliconia, is that of our Licinia Amphione already
given in this chapter. (Zoo/. III. ii. pi. 91.) The truth is, that we are
perfectly unacquainted with the larva of a single species of Heliconia. It
is entirely an American group, and altogether tropical. We have fre-
quently met with the chrysalis (e) t but never with the larva.
t Phil. Mag. March, 1827.
THE SATYRID^E, 93
pared with those of the true Papllionidce. We see no
reason,, therefore, to change the above opinion.
(85.) The family of SATYRIIX&, or Argus butterflies,
was originally comprised by us in the last division ; but
more matured reflection, and the analogies they bear to
other groups of higher value,, induce us to consider them
as entitled to a distinct station. They have many pecu-
liarities in their habits, independent of all such as have
been pointed out in their metamorphosis. Here we find
the largest butterflies in existence ; the whole group
being analogous to that of the ruminating animals
among Quadrupeds. Nearly all the typical species are
confined to Tropical America. Their colours are distri-
buted on the upper surface, in large masses of shining
blue, upon a brown or dark ground. The genus Ama-
thusa represents these noble insects in India ; but their
size is smaller, and they are destitute of brilliant colours.
The smaller groups of this family are those only which
are distributed over Europe ; we have many species
in England, known by the familiar name of meadow
browns (ffipparchia F.). The strong peculiarity which
runs through all these groups, is, that the under surface
of the wings is invariably ornamented with beautiful
ocellate spots : these spots, in the large American spe-
cies, resemble in form, but not in brilliancy of colour,
those on the tail of the peacock ; but in the European
examples they are smaller, more numerous, and often
silvery. The general structure of all these insects, even
those of the largest, is weak. The typical groups live only
in the dark primeval forests, resting on the trunks of
trees during the meridian heat, and show a decided par-
, tiality for shade ; some, indeed, fly only towards the
dusk of the evening. These habits, strikingly contrast-
ing with those of the Papilionidce and the Nymphalidce,
show that we have reached an aberrant group of these
diurnal Lepidoptera; and illustrates that general habit
and structure must have more weight than partial con-
siderations, drawn either from the larva, the pupa, or
the perfect insect. The natural divisions of this group
Q4< NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
have never been investigated, and we shall not attempt
their definitions. The general structure of the cater-
pillar in this family is termed by Mr. MacLeay, Thysa-
nuriform, or, in other words, bearing a close analogy to
the Lepisma, and similar apterous insects of the same
division. It may be described, typically, as much
lengthened, narrow at the end, having two long setae, or
caudal appendages resembling tails; the head being
armed with spines, or greatly widened in its form, like
a shield : in the less typical groups, the end of the body
terminates in two points, and the head is frequently
divided in a similar way. The ringlet (Hipparchia
Hyperanthus), in the larva and all its other stages^ is a
native and familiar example of the Argus butterflies. The
pupa is more or less smooth; and is suspended with
the head downwards, similar to the last family. The
anterior part is sometimes much pointed ; but in the
European examples it is generally obtuse. Green is the
prevalent colour ; but no instances are known of these
pupae being ornamented with metallic colours.
(86.) The SATYRID^E, in their perfect or imago state,
differ very little in general structure from the Nympha-
lidce. The anterior feet have the same shortness and
brush-formed appearance ; the palpi are equally perfect ;
but the antennae are more slender. All these circum-
stances confirm the justness of our observations, that if
any one set of characters are made the key-stone of
a system, that system is sure to end in being thoroughly
artificial.
(87.) We retain the name of ERYCINID^E to the next
group, because there are many reasons for supposing
the genus Erycina of Fabricius constitutes the type,
rather than that of Lyccena or Polyommatus, as sup-
posed by some writers.* As the Satyridce contain the
largest butterflies, so do the Erycinida comprehend the
smallest. Their forms, however, are singularly diversi-
* See the subgenera of Polyommatus, illustrated and defined in Zoo/.
///. 2d series.
THE ERYCINID^E. 9^
fied ; and show how impossible it is to frame a compre-
hensive character for an extensive group, which is
nevertheless strictly natural. The three most prominent
groups contained in this family, seem to be represented
by the genera Erycina, Polyommatus, and Thecla. All
these, however dissimilar in their perfect stage of exist-
ence, preserve a strong resemblance in their larva state.
The colours and the habits of these butterflies are parti-
cularly varied. The Erycinince are chiefly found in Tro-
pical America : their form is delicate, and they rest with
all the wings expanded. Representations of all the
groups among the diurnal Lepidoptera are found in this
small- sized but singularly beautiful sub-family, of which
no true example occurs in Europe. That of Polyomma-
tus, on the contrary, containing the blue Argus butterflies,
is nearly unknown in South America, while it abounds
in temperate regions : they are denominated, by our
collectors, Blues ; a rich shining blue being the preva-
lent colour of the upper surface of their wings, while
the under is thickly sprinkled with small ocellated spots.
The Theclince are likewise remarkable for the brilliant
azure of their upper surface, but the under is generally
marked with slender delicate lines crossing both wings ;
hence their familiar name of hair- streaks. The genus
Lyccena, or coppers, on the contrary, are known by their
rich fire or copper colour. The former are found in
Europe ; but by far the largest proportion occur in Tro-
pical America and India. Brazil alone furnished us
with more than one hundred species of Thecla. The
copper butterflies are restricted to the Old World. Both
groups, however, bear a strong resemblance to each other
in all points of general structure and habit. The cater-
pillars of this family are of very peculiar make, and stamp
the group with every appearance of being a perfectly
natural one. By some it is denominated vermiform ;
but as the term onisciform, in this instance, is much
more expressive, we adopted the latter upon a former oc-
casion, as we shall now do upon this. The larva is short,
broad, flattened, and usually naked : the head is very small,
96 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
and its general aspect immediately reminds us of an Onis-
cus, or wood louse. In general it is naked (fig. 5. c) ; but
in some of the Oriental species ( Theda Jurbus Hors.) it
is hairy, and in others (T. longinus Hors. fig. 5.) the sur-
face is much wrinkled. In Erycina, the hairs sometimes
assume the appearance of tufts ; and in the only species
(e) of which the larva has been figured, there are two
horns near the head (a). Much, however, remains to
be discovered respecting the transformations of this
diversified group.
(88.) The pupa differs essentially from that form
so generally prevalent in the last family: it is short,
thick, and obtuse, attached by the tail, and, in all the
European and American groups, braced by a transverse
thread (fig. 5. d). It seems, however, from the figures in
the Javanese Catalogue (pi. 4. figs. 1. 3, 4, 5.), that several
of the Oriental species are merely suspended with the
head downwards, without any transverse brace. Is not
this an error of the engraver ?
(89.) The separation of the Erycinidce from this
family, merely because the larva of the only species
whose transformation is known, is furnished with two
horns like some of the thysanuriform caterpillars, ap-
pears to us highly objectionable, because it is in no
degree sanctioned by the structure of the perfect insect.
It is almost impossible to bring into contact two more
THE HESPERID^E. 97
different forms than an Erycina and a Hesperia,
whether we look to them in their larva or their perfect
state ; and for this, and other reasons, we adhere to the
arrangement we formerly proposed.
(90.) The HESPERID^E constitute the last family of
diurnal Lepidoptera. These insects have neither size
nor brilliancy to recommend them; while their long,
abruptly hooked antennae give them such an isolated cha-
racter, that the family can never he mistaken. Nor are
their distinguishing characters confined to outward struc-
ture. Their flight is even more rapid than that of the
Nymphalidce, and, in the more typical species, is per-
formed with such celerity that the eye can scarcely
follow the insect. They may, indeed, be compared to
the fissirostral or swallow tribe among birds, which, in
fact, they truly represent ; while their palpable affinity
to the hawk moths (Sphingides), has induced almost
every writer to place them as the connecting link be-
tween the diurnal and crepuscular Lepidoptera. Tro-
pical America is the great metropolis of this family,
where the species are so numerous that we found near
300 in Brazil alone : many occur both in India and in
Australia; a few in Southern Africa; but we have as yet
seen none from the Pacific Islands. In Europe and
Britain there are but few, and these are but thinly scat-
tered. Much misconception and many errors exist re-
garding the habits of these insects, such as the mode of
carrying their wings, &c. Some of these we have al-
ready rectified. * There are several important divisions
in this family, but our present rapid survey will not
admit of their particular enumeration.
(91.) The larvae of the Hesperida (fig. 6. a, d)
are so strikingly distinguished from those of the Poty-
ommatidcB) and the only one known of the Erycinidce,
that it is really surprising how entomologists still con-
tinue to arrange them in the same group. The larva,
in general shape, closely resembles that of the common
cabbage butterfly, but with these differences ; the
* Zool. 111., 2d series
H.
98 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
head is very large ; and, from the slenderness of the
anterior joints,, it seems,, as Dr. Horsfield remarks, as if
pedunculated : the posterior part is always obtuse, and
the surface of the body smooth : it is, moreover, always
concealed within a leaf, which it converts into a cylin-
drical tube ; herein the caterpillar resides, and performs
its chrysalis transformation. A similar mode of life is
observed in the family of Tortrices, comprehending
those little moths so destructive to our fruit trees in
spring, and which disfigure the leaves of the rose at
the same period. These, in fact, are the representatives
of the HesperidcB in their own tribe ; although, from
ignorance of the principle of variation, an erroneous
idea has been entertained that the circle of the Lepi-
doptera is closed by the union of the Hesperida with
the PhalcpnidcB or moths.
(92.) The pupa retains many of those characters
seen in the last family, blended with others which more
properly belong to the true butterflies (Papilionida).
It is in general smooth (/), but sometimes angulated
(e) : its form is lengthened; and it is attached at one
ffr"
THE SPHINGID^E. 99
^end., and braced by a transverse thread at the other (d) :
this change, as we have already observed,, is always
effected under the cover and protection of a leaf. The
examples here figured, of this group, are taken from
Stoll, and indicate tfiree remarkable variations both of
the larva and pupa.
(93.) The perfect insects are conspicuous for the
great thickness of their head and thorax, no less than
for muscular strength : many fly in the same manner
as the common humming-bird hawk moth of Europe,
and are most active during the morning and evening,
resting with their wings erect : others prefer the meri-
dian heat, and repose with all the four wings expanded ;
Others, again, are never seen to take nourishment, but
are found in the forests, sheltered under leaves : there
is, in short, such a great diversity of habit in this fa-
mily, that it cannot be defined in precise terms ; but in
all, as showing their immediate connection to the hawk
moths, the eyes are remarkably large and prominent :
this affinity is further manifested by the feet, the palpi,
&c.
(94.) The SPHJNGID^I, or hawk moths, compose
the second great division of the Lepidoptera. They
form a tribe, or a group of equal value (although not
of extent) to the Papiliones, or butterflies, from which
they are distinguished both by the form of their antennae
and by the period of their flight. Such, at least, are
their popular distinctions, and by which the two groups
may be understood by common observers. The typical
peculiarities of this tribe are shown in all stages of their
existence. The larva, in the principal groups, is very
large, thick, and furnished with an incurved horn at the
end of the body (fig. 7- c, d} : in some, which resemble
the Hesperian larva(fr), the head is very large; while in
others (d) it is proportionally small. The chrysalis is
never suspended by the tail, or braced by a thread ; and
the antennae, unlike those of the diurnal butterflies, are
never terminated by a club. The whole structure of
the perfect insects denotes great strength and muscular
100 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
powers of flight ; and the wings,, when the insect is at
rest, are never raised perpendicularly.
(95.) The natural arrangement of this tribe has
never been attempted; nor have the primary groups
been yet explained. Dr. Horsfield makes five divisions,
according to the variation in the larvae ; but he excludes
several aberrant groups, which appear to us to belong
strictly to this tribe. We shall, therefore, merely indi-
cate what appear to us as primary divisions, leaving the
analysis of the whole for further investigation.
(96.) The SPHINGIDES may be contemplated under
three great divisions. The first comprises all those
which perform their chrysalis transformation deep in
the earth ; the second spin themselves up in a thin web
THE ORTHID^E. 101
(fig- 7 d), and pass this period of their existence near
or upon the surface of the ground ; while the pupa of
the third is entirely enclosed in a thick web, as in
Agarista (fig. 7 ., 9\ or cocoon, attached to vegeta-
bles. All the insects of this latter division fly during
the middle of the day ; it contains, however, insects so
very dissimilar in appearance, that we shall divide them
into the three subordinate groups. 1. The Sphingidce
Sw., or true hawk moths, which constitute a group equi-
valent to the Nymphalidffi; which they also represent.
Of these, the typical genus is the well-known death's
head (the Sphinx atropus Linn.) concerning which there
are so many tales of superstition and of terror. This
insect, which we have already said is the type of the
whole tribe, has been very properly detached from its
allies ; but the change has been attended with this dis-
advantage, that the family name has been left with the
others, which are not typical, and a new one proposed for
this, which is strictly and naturally so. The larva has an
ovate truncated head; and the horn at the end of the body
is lengthened, naked, and covered with tubercles : when
disturbed, it draws itself up in a threatening attitude (c);
and its whole appearance is then so formidable, that most
persons view it with fear. There are, nevertheless, many
deviations from this typical structure. In Smerinthus
(exemplified by our beautiful Poplar sphinx), the head
is pointed above, and almost triangular ; while in another
group the horn is nearly wanting. The pupa is terrestrial;
and presents a striking peculiarity in the proboscis being
detached, as it were, from the body, and protected by a
covering of its own (e). The perfect insect is generally
marked with transverse bands on each side the body ; and
the end of the abdomen is neither attenuated to a point,
nor tufted with hair, but is thick, and comparatively ob-
tuse.
(97.) The ORTHIDJE, or spinning hawk moths, are
smaller and more beautiful than the last. The number
of species, and, consequently, of forms, is also much
H 3
102' NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
greater. All these, however, are more or less distin-
guished by a lengthened, pointed body, terminated by a
tuft of hairs : in some, these tufts are very small ; while
in others, particularly the clear- winged Sesia, or bee-
like family, they are very conspicuous. The larvte pre-
sent us with more instances of variation than the last ;
but, so far as we have discovered, the pupa (A) is
always enclosed in some substance, either as a protection
or as a defence; and this stage of its life is passed at,
or very near, the surface of the ground : the proboscis
is hid under the common fold enveloping the body of
the pupa; and is not protruded, as in the last division.
So little has been effected towards the discrimination of
this very natural group, that we shall not attempt a na-
tural disposition of the few genera that have yet been
defined.
(98.) The aberrant division of the tribe appears to
be composed of three families : 1. The Agaristida, or
Hesperian sphinxes. 2. The Zyganidce, or clear- winged
sphinxes : and, 3. the Castniada, or moth sphinxes.
The first, in its typical perfection, is almost confined to
India and New Holland. The perfect insect more re-
sembles a Hesperia than a Sphinx, or rather, seems in-
termediate between a Bombyx and a Hesperia. The
antennae are sometimes thickest in the middle, in unison
with the general character of the whole tribe ; yet the
tips are slightly but abruptly hooked, as in the Hes~
peridce. These curious and apparently anomalous cir-
cumstances appear to have much perplexed some writers.
Dr. Leach seems inclined to place the Agaristidce with
the moths, near to Noctua Sponsa, but he confesses his
doubts on the subject; while Donovan brings them in
with the Hesperidce. The larva of the only species yet
known, very much resembles that of a full-bodied Sesia
deprived of its horn ( fig. 7. ) ; while the pupa (b)
is enclosed in a slight web, Cf spun on the stem of its food
under the leaves *;" and the perfect insect flies by day-
* Lewin's Ins. of New South Wales, pi. 1.
THE CASTNIAD^E. 103
Of the aberrant forms nothing can here be said, since
the group itself has hitherto received but little attention.
(99-) The Zyganidce, or more properly the Athero-
ceridce (since the former name has long ago been em-
ployed in Ichthyology,) is the most extensive and varied
family of the whole tribe. Like the last, they are day
flying insects, small in size, but richly coloured ; with
fusiform, but generally pectinated, antennae, and very
small posterior wings : their structure is altogether
weak, and their flight slow and feeble. A few ex-
amples of one of the minor groups occur both in
Europe and Britain, but the major part inhabit the
tropical latitudes of America and India. The typical
groups are distinguished by their clear and transparent
wings; but they are readily known from the brush-
tailed Sesice of Europe, by having no tufts at the end
of their abdomen ; and this part is also much thicker.
The metamorphosis of this family has been admirably
illustrated by Stoll, in his supplementary volume to
Cramer. The larva is onisciform ; but is either covered
with tufts of long hairs disposed in bunches or fas-
ciculi, or by elevated soft protuberances. The pupa
is always enclosed either in a cocoon, or in a fusiform
strong web, attached to plants. The resemblance be-
tween many of these insects and the Australian family
of Agaristidce * is so close, that nothing but a close in-
vestigation will determine the genera respectively be-
longing to each. This is, perhaps, the most interesting
group in the whole tribe ; since we find representations
of every order, and of nearly every family, of lepido-
pterous insects : many put on the appearance of wasps,
bees, beetles, moths, butterflies, flies, &c. ; and the
resemblance is so exact, that even an experienced eye
will not at first detect the difference.
(100.) The Castniadce, or moth sphinxes, conclude
x)ur sketch of this tribe. This is a very peculiar family,
which, from their economy being entirely unknown, has
* Some few American insects, however, enter into this group.
H 4
104 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
long perplexed entomologists, and some strange loca-
tions have recently been assigned to them. We were
fortunate in observing many of this family in their
native regions,, and thus obtained a clue to their natural
affinities. The perfect insects fly with great rapidity
during the heat of the day, and much in the same man-
ner as the typical Hesperidtf, yet we never saw them
settle upon flowers ; and when they rest, it is generally
on the shady stem of a large tree, having the wings
invariably deflexed or incumbent, similar to the noc-
turnal moths (Noctuides Sw.). The transformation
of one species (Castnia Licus) is imperfectly figured
on the thirty-sixth plate of Merian : the larva is repre-
sented as long, thick, smooth, and much resembles that
of a Pieris : the pupa, according to this figure, appears
suspended from a plant by the posterior extremity.*
The perfect insects are the largest of the whole tribe :
the wings are broad, powerful, and the farinaceous
scales so large, as to be distinguished, in many species,
by the naked eye. The head is very small ; and the
antennae are intermediate in form between a Sphinx
and a Hesperia. Dr. Horsfield, in his general survey of
the Lepidoptera, has altogether omitted this group, the
characters of which we illustrated several years ago. *t*
(101.) The third primary division of the order
comprises the Phalcence of Linnaeus, better known by
the name of moths. These insects, with a few exceptions,
are completely nocturnal ; concealing themselves in the
day, and flying abroad during the dusk. Their size, in
general, is small; although some few are among the largest
Lepidoptera yet discovered. They undergo the same
three-fold transformation of aU lepidopterous insects ;
and, like them, feed upon the nectar of flowers. Several,
however, by a singular provision of Providence, seem to
take all the nourishment necessary for their support, in
the caterpillar state ; since, when they become moths,
they never have a proboscis.
* Merian's figures, however, are not always to be depended upoa.
fr Zool. 111., pi. 1*3.
THE BOMBYCID^E. 105
(102.) As we believe that the three aberrant groups
of every circle form one, we shall, with Mr. Kirby,
consider the nocturnal moths as one group, resolvable
into three subordinate divisions; namely, 1. the Bom-
bycides, or spinners ; 2. the Phalcenides, or loopers ;
3. the Noctuides, or night moths. So little has been
done towards the philosophic investigation of these
groups, that, while their genera have been multiplied,
and are daily multiplying, in the artificial systems of the
day, the study of their affinities has been of late years
much neglected. We shall, therefore, merely touch
upon the general characteristics of these tribes, and
leave most of the families for future investigation.
(103.) The BOMBYCID^E, or silk-spinning moths,
comprise some of the largest Lepidoptera in existence.
Although not a very extensive tribe, it is one of much
interest, as containing those insects most serviceable to
man ; and the only ones, excepting the bees, which can
be said to be cultivated or domesticated. When we
recollect the innumerable purposes to which silk, the
produce of these wonderful insects, is applied in Eu-
rope, and that the greatest portion of the Asiatics abso-
lutely depend upon its fabric for their own clothing,
we see that, like the ruminating quadrupeds, Providence
has more especially ordained them to furnish comfort
and convenience to man. Nor is this power confined
to a single species. The silkworm of Europe, although
originally imported from Asia, is only one out of several
inhabiting the Eastern world ; each producing a silk of
some peculiar quality, and distinguished either by its
fineness, colour, or durability. The most marked dis-
tinction, indeed, of the whole group, is their enclosure,
during the pupa state, in an egg-shaped case, or cocoon,
rendered impervious to wet or other injury by the in-
numerable folds of silk which the caterpillar spins around
it ; the whole being attached to trees or plants. In the
pupa itself, there is nothing peculiar ; it lies within the
case, unattached either by the tail or by a transverse
thread. The perfect insect is remarkable for the very
106 NATURAL ARRANGE3IENT OF INSECTS.
small size of the head : this part projects so little be-
yond the thorax., that, in the typical species, it would
scarcely he perceived, but for the broad and highly
pectinated antennae, most conspicuous in the male sex :
the palpi are very minute, hairy, and lie close to the
head ; while the wings are broad, large, and ornamented,
in all the typical examples, with transparent ocellate
spots.
(104.) The natural divisions of the Bombycides are
completely unknown ; but as, for the purpose of refer-
ence, and the more easy detection of species, it is es-
sential to make some rude assortment of the genera, we
shall place them under the following heads, until a
better acquaintance with the whole has been obtained
by analysis : 1. Hepialidce, or ghost moths; 2. Bom-
bycidce, or silk spinners ; 3. Arctiadce, or tiger moths ; 4.
LithosiadcB, or day-moths ; 5. Cryptophasidce, or hermit
moths.
(105.) These divisions maybe thus slightly character-
ized. The first are chiefly composed of large, full-bodied
insects, with long narrow wings ; and feed, during the
caterpillar state, within the trunks of trees. The larva
is either entirely naked, or thinly covered with scat-
tered hairs. The second, or true silk worms, has been
already noticed: the larva is generally covered with
stellate tufts of short hairs, very stiff, and sometimes en-
dowed with a poisonous, or, at least, a highly irritating
quality. The third comprises all those usually deno-
minated tiger moths, from the black spots which orna-
ment their red or orange under wings : the larva is
covered with long hairs in every part of the body, and
merely spins a thin transparent web enclosing the chry-
salis. The fourth seems to be typically distinguished by
flying during the day. The larva is generally or-
namented with tufts of long silky hairs, of which there
are two more conspicuous than the others near the tail^
two more near the head, and two towards the middle of
the body. It is very clear that this family represents the
j or clear- winged sphinxes of South America;
THE PHAL^ENID^E. 107
but, although we can readily distinguish the typical
forms., it is very difficult to determine which are the
aberrant. The fifth and last division seems closely al-
lied, both to the Tortricidce in the next family, and to
the HepiaUdce in this ; they are, however, distinguished
by an economy so remarkable, that we shall view them,
for the present, as a separate group. The larva, in
shape, much resembles that of the goat moth; the head
is large, and on the body are a few scattered hairs : the
chrysalis is not enclosed in any web, but lies within the
chamber, or habitation, previously made by the cater-
pillar in the solid trunk of the tree. The perfect insect
differs from all the families we have here noticed, in
having the palpi curved up before the eyes, and di-
verging : the antennae, also, are very long; and the wings
possess a peculiar glossiness. We are indebted to the
late J. W. Lewin for a knowledge of these extraordinary
moths, hitherto found only in New Holland, and which
he has admirably illustrated in his " Prodromus" of As-
tralian Entomology. It is, perhaps, owing to the rarity
of this book, that modern systematists appear but little
acquainted with these singular insects.
(106.) The Phalanidce, properly so called, constitute
the second division of the nocturnal Lepidoptera. With-
out attempting to define this great and diversified group
by characters applicable only to a small portion, we shall
merely premise that they are, as a whole, the smallest
and the most delicately constructed insects in the whole
order. The thorax is small, the body thin, and the an-
tennae resemble a filiform thread, rather thickest at the
base : they are thus distinguished from the thick bodied
Bombycides, with their pectinated antennae; and from the
strong and full bodied Noctuides, by their slender and
delicate shape. The popular name of Loopers has been
given to the first or typical division of these insects, from
the movement of the caterpillar when walking, the body
being then raised in the middle in the shape of a loop :
in this group, also, the larva has only ten feet : the per-
fect insects constitute the Geometrce of the Linngean
108 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
school. The Tortrices, however, should first he noticed,
as they show, in many respects, a close approximation
to the last family of the Bomby tides: they are "beautiful
little moths, having the habit, in their larva state, of
rolling up the leaves on which they feed, and in which
habitation they pass the chrysalis state : excepting in
size, these caterpillars closely resemble those of the New
Holland group above mentioned ; and we have no doubt
but that analysis will fully establish this singular and
unexpected affinity. The third family is composed of
the Tineidce, the smallest of the whole order; some are,
indeed, so minute, that the collector finds it difficult to
insert a fine pin through their thorax : most of the species
are ornamented with spots of silver or of gold, so as to
exhibit, under a high magnifying glass, some of the
most beautiful combinations of colours in nature : the
antennae are often very long, and the wings fringed with
delicate hairs : the larvae are singularly diversified ; and
this group, which all entomologists agree is a natural one,
offers the strongest argument against all systems built
exclusively upon the larvae : some of the caterpillars have
eight feet, some fourteen, and some sixteen. The true
PhalcenidfB are the largest insects in the tribe, and in the
shape of their wings they very often resemble the di-
urnal butterflies ; the larva has twelve feet ; and in every
stage of its existence we see an obvious affinity to the
succeeding division of night moths (Noctuides). Fi-
nally, we should notice the PyraUdce, remarkable for
their long legs, for their aquatic habits, and for the
propensity of many of the species to fly during the
day.
(107.) A few remarks on the Noctuides, the third and
last division of the moths, will conclude our rapid survey
of this order. This natural and very numerous tribe
may be immediately distinguished from the two former,
by their simple setiform antennae, their short but stout
body, their large eyes, and their projecting palpi, usually
naked at their tip. The caterpillars are greatly diversi-
fied, but the pupa is almost universally terrestrial,
THE NOCTUID^E. 109
that is, neither suspending itself in the air, nor en-
closed in a cocoon, but buried deep in the ground.
The habits of the perfect insects themselves are
usually, as their name indicates, nocturnal, although
not exclusively so, as many of them flit about in the
sunshine, especially towards the time of its setting,
and as the shades of evening fall ; but this is doubt-
lessly preludatory to their nocturnal gambols. We
consequently find their apparel in the strictest accord-
ance with these peculiarities ; and nature here again ex-
hibits its rigid rule of strict economy, for it will not
even waste a shade of colour that has not its specific
object and purpose. The majority of these insects are
either sombre or very plain in their clothing, browns,
drabs, and greys, being the predominant tints ; yet,
although so obscure, these tints are elegantly diversified
by spots and markings, which amply compensate for
greater and gayer varieties of colour, and thus evince a
further corroboration of the favouritism of Nature which
is every where so prominently exhibited towards this
large and beautiful order of insects. In those, however,
which are more diurnal in their habits, we observe oc-
casionally a departure from this sobriety, which has
acquired for many of the former the name of quakers.
Thus, in the Plusice, we see the wings studded with
drops of gold and silver. In the Xanthice, the colours
are shades of yellow, orange, straw, and lemon ; in Ca~
tacola, the under -wings are of rich crimsons and reds,
contrasted with a bar of intense black ; in Bryophila and
Diphthera, the superior wings are elegantly variegated
with green. There is so much diversity in the structure
of the larvae of this group, that we may almost assume this
to be its typical characteristic ; and this would point to
Acronycta, as the most typical genus, from the great
differences it exhibits within itself in this preliminary
stage of developement : and it is a remarkable fact, that
even the most experienced entomologists are sometimes
baffled in determining the specific differences of perfect
insects in this group, which have their larvae extremely
110 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
dissimilar. The position we thus assume for Acronycta
is probably supported by its colouring, which seems
central, in the group of those which are least diversified
by varieties of tint, and associating with them we ob-
serve Folia, Hadena, Celcena, Miana, Mamestra, Rhi*
xolitha, Xylina, Orthosia, and Agrotis, if the latter,
however, might not dispute position with Acronycta.
We have just alluded to the difficulty that even skilful
entomologists have in determining the differences be-
tween closely allied species ; but to the young entomo-
logist, this entire group will form an admirable exercise
for his sagacity, and the gradual decrease of the diffi-
culties it presents will be a sure test of the progressive
developement of that peculiar tact, so essential, especi-
ally to the entomologist, yet which is more difficult to
acquire than knowledge, although, when once thoroughly
possessed, it is invaluable to the naturalist, from the
universality of its application. [W. E. S.]
;CHAP. in.
THE HEMIPTERA,
(108.) THE order HEMIPTERA is the second, or sub-
typical, division of the Ptilota. Its rank in the circle
of that class, and its integrity, has been already demon-
strated; we therefore think it unnecessary to combat
the opinion which some have entertained, that the
Hemiptera of Linnaeus, or rather of Latreille, is not of
itself a natural group ; still less to discuss the fancy
(for we can call it nothing else) of a few modern sys-
tematists, that they are composed of two distinct orders !
One would almost think that these pseudo-orders were
DEFINITION OF THE HEMIPTERA. Ill
intended to break up every tangible distinction, and
fritter away all the comprehensive views of the great
fathers of science.
(109.) The characters of the Hemiptera are of the
most simple and obvious description : they are the only
four-winged insects, besides the Lepidoptera, that are
altogether destitute of mandibles and maxillae ; hence
these two great orders are the most perfectly suctorial,
and, therefore, the most perfectly typical, of true in-
sects. Adhering to the admirable views of Latreille,
we shall define the order nearly in his own words. In
place of the mandibulae and maxillae of other insects,
not suctorial, the mouth is composed of a tubular arti-
culated proboscis, or rostrum, which assumes various
shapes, but is always bent, more or less, beneath the
head, and generally reposes upon the pectus, or breast,
along its upper surface ; and reposing in a groove, are
three stiff and fine bristles, the base of which is covered
by a tongue ; these bristles, when united, form a sucker,
which often performs the office of a sting or barb, with
which the animal pierces other insects, or sucks the
nectar of flowers. The mouth, in short, is formed en-
tirely for suction ; and it is only in the genus Thrips,
which unites this order to the Hymenoptera, that there
is any appearance either of jaws or of palpi. The
second character in importance, is that furnished by the
wings ; but this is much more variable than the last.
In the typical tribe, the upper wings are horizontal,
slightly coriaceous, and are crossed at their extremities ;
at which part they are, like the lower wings, membra,
naceous. In the sub-typical tribe, the upper wings do
not fold over each other at their ends, but lie com-
pactly on the sides of the body, as in most of the noc-
turnal moths, their -substance being very little thicker
than the under wings ; and both are generally trans-
parent, or nearly so. The metamorphosis is imperfect ;
that is to say, very slightly developed : the Hemiptera
undergo, it is true, the changes of larva and pupa, pre-
vious to becoming perfect insects ; but, in these two
112 NATURAL ARKANGEME!S 7 T OP INSECTS.
rudimentary states, they are as active as their parents,
from which they are alone to be distinguished by the
absence of their wings. The larvae rapidly increase in
size ; and, after casting their skin, become pupae. It is
in this latter state only that the rudiments of wings, in
the shape of scale-like processes or tubercles, are first
perceptible; the developement of these into perfect
wings constitutes the adult insects. Thus, although
the Hemiptera are so intimately connected to the Le-
pidoptera, that there are insects in each which render
their division by no means easy, they are yet strikingly
inferior to them in point of metamorphosis. On the
nature of the connection between these orders, we shall
subsequently enlarge, as well as upon that between
the Hemiptera and Hymenoptera. We shall, there-
fore, at once proceed to notice the primary groups or
tribes, and endeavour to trace their analogies in other
orders.
(110.) We arrange all hemipterous insects under the
five following tribes : I. The CIMICIDES, or bugs, where
the upper wings are more or less horizontal, and fold
over each other at their extremities. II. The CICADES,
or cicadas, having the upper wings deflexed, or incumbent
on the sides, and of a subtransparent nature through-
out : the rostrum is placed on the lowest portion of the
head, and is used only to feed on the juices of vegeta-
bles : the antennae are very short, and resemble fine
bristles : the females are furnished with an ovipositor,
which is used as a saw to effect openings in plants,
for the reception of the eggs. III. The APHIDES,
or plant lice, in some respects resembling the last, but
immediately distinguished by their long filiform an-
tennae, their very minute head, the absence of an ovi-
positor, and by having only two joints to their tarsi.
IV. The COCCIDES, or blight insects, where the tarsal
joints are five ; the wings, where they exist, are only
two, and lie horizontally on the body, one over the
other : the females are apterous, and onisciform, and
are alone furnished with a rostrum. V. We place, as
ANALOGIES OF THE HEMIPTERA. 113
the type of the last tribe, the genus ALEYRODES of La-
treille ; distinguished from all others, by undergoing a
complete metamorphosis ; and in other respects so much
of a lepidopterous insect, that both Linnaeus and
Reaumur placed it within that order. The whole may
be arranged in the following manner :
Analogies of the HEMIPTERA.
ClCADIDES.
APHIDES,
COCCIDES.
ALEYRODIDES.
5 Wings with distinct nerves ;}
often covered with afarinaceous >
substance. 3
r Gregarious; furnished with cau-1
^ dal appendages ; and secreting >
C honey. 3
CTrue wings only two; the most 7
L imperfect flyers. j
?
LEPIDOPTERA.
HYMENOPTERA.
COLEOPTERA.
NEUROPTERA.
(ill.) It is a remarkable fact, that all the orders of the
Ptilota exhibit one primary division which is rapacious,
that is, preying upon other insects, as the lions and tigers
among quadrupeds, and the falcons among birds. The
universality of this law is manifest in every order
above named ; and the Hemiptera, as a whole, being
the raptorial order of the circle of the Ptilota, so the
Cimicides are the pre-eminent types, standing at the
head of their own order, and consequently representing
it. The Cicades have such an acknowledged resem-
blance to the Lepidoptera, that many authors have ac-
tually thought they passed into each other, without the
intervention of any other group ; so that, were it not for
the remarkable structure and metamorphosis ofAfeyrodes,
we should be disposed to place some of the aberrant
Cicades in that rank we now assign to Aleyrodes. The
whole of the Lepidoptera, and the Cicadides also, are
herbivorous; or, at least, never touch animal substances;
for both live on the juices or nectar of plants, in their
i
114- NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
adult state.* The analogies, therefore, of these two
orders are not only placed beyond all doubt, but find
their corresponding representatives in vertebrate as
well as annulose animals. The Aphides, or plant lice,
are the bees of the Hemiptera ; for these two groups
contain the only insects which secrete honey. This
resemblance, however, is not a mere analogy, but an
affinity. Latreille, without any scruple, places Thrips
in the same division as Aphis, 'from which, however, it
differs so remarkably as to possess jaws j and he alludes
to a fact, what every one may verify, viz. that when
these insects (Thrips) are irritated, they turn up their
body in the manner of the Staphylini. The resemblance
which the onisciform shape, and often the coriaceous
covering, of the Coccides bears to Coleoptera, exactly
accords with every thing we have said on the analogies
of the latter group. They have the hardest covering
of all insects ; just as the armadillos among quadrupeds,
and the chelonians, or tortoises, among reptiles. Pur-
suing the especial analogy apparent in our table, we
find, also, that the Coccides and the Coleoptera are the
most imperfect flyers in their own groups : the females
of the former are apterous ; while the wings of the
males are only two, and these fold over each other,
horizontally, on the body. The reader will remember
what we have said on the wings of the Coleoptera, which,
in effect, are but two-winged insects ; the upper pair,
or elytra, being almost useless as organs of flight.
With such striking and even beautiful representations
of four out of the five orders of the Ptilota, as this
table substantiates, we may very well leave the last for
future investigation. The truth is, that, until the ab-
errant tribes of the Hemiptera, and perhaps even those
which are typical, are properly analysed, it will be
manifestly impossible to determine what other insects
enter into that group where at present we place only
Aleyrodes. We should not be surprised, however, if
* The raptorial feet of the larva? of the cicadas may possibly be used to
dress out the juices of leaves, &c.
ANALOGIES OF THE COLEOPTEBA. 115
some aquatic or sub-aquatic form may eventually be
added to it ; and this alone would be quite sufficient to
establish an analogy to the Neuroptera.
(112.) The analogies of the Hemiptera to all other
groups, whether of vertebrate or annulose animals,
may be traced through the foregoing exposition; for,
if this is substantially true, it follows, as a matter of
course, that the Hemiptera, like the Ptilota, have their
prototypes among all circular series of animals : one
only of these will, therefore, be noticed, since every
experienced 1 entomologist can now pursue this line of
inquiry. This comparison will bring the Hemiptera
into junction with the Coleoptera.
Analogies of the HEMIPTERA to the COLEOPTERA.
Families Tribes Tribes
of the of the Analogies. . of the
Predatores. Hemiptera. Coleoptera.
CicindelidcE. CIMICIDES. {^helTnVe^f ^^ UP n ] PREDATORES '
Caramce. dcADinEs.
DyticidcB. ALEYRODES. ? MALACODERMES.
("Body short, oval ; antennae}
Silphidce. COCCIDES. < moniliformj frequently >MONILICORNES.
t apterous. 3
Staphylinidtf. APHIDES. {Render ^^ 10ng &nd j CAPRICORNES.
We have merely added the first column, or that of
Predatores, to show the analogy between Thrips and
the StaphylinidcB, as noticed by Latreille. - Indeed, it is
so deceptive, that when these minute insects are seen
running upon paper (for they frequently fly into our
study at the very time we are writing), they look just
like their minute prototypes so common in summer.
The analogy between the cicadas and the lammellicorn
beetles is very strong, for the types of each feed upon
vegetable juices ; but this, of course, is not applicable
to the CarabidcB, whose only relation to the Cicadides
consists in both being in the sub typical groups of their
11 6 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
own circles. The tortoise beetles (Cassidfe) are the
types of the Monillcornes ; and who that looks at a
Coccus can doubt of one being intended, by Nature, to
represent the other ? The Aphides, like the Capricorn
beetles, are remarkable for the great length of their
antennae ; a remote resemblance, indeed, but still a re-
semblance altogether in unison with the natural series in
which these groups are here placed.
(113.) The typical tribe of the order before us is
that to which we give the name of CJMICIDES, as cor-
responding, with a little variation, to the genus Cimex
of Linnaeus. It comprises a very large assemblage of
insects, at once known by the upper wings being crossed
at their tips, one over the other, where they are thin
and membranaceous, the rest of the wing being of a
thicker and more opake substance : the rostrum or
mouth arises in front of the head ; and the thorax (ac-
cording to the modern theory) is formed by the first
segment of the trunk : the scutellum is almost always
conspicuous, and is sometimes so enlarged as to cover
the whole body, and give the insect an appearance, at
first sight, of being coleopterous ; the antennae, in the
typical groups, are linear, nearly of equal thickness, and
generally much longer than the head ; the joints being
very few, and distinctly seen, so as to produce angles :
the tarsi are of three joints, in such genera as are cur-
sorial, while those which are aquatic have but one or
two joints. Thus characterised, as a whole, we are dis-
posed to arrange the great majority of these insects into
the following primary groups : 1. The Pentatomida,
or wood bugs, having the rostrum long, slender, con-
cealed, and reposing upon the breast : the body is short,
oval, and generally half as broad as it is long: they live
for the most part upon vegetable juices ; but appear to
prey upon such smaller insects as come in their way,
probably at certain seasons. 2. The Reduviidce, or ra-
pacious bugs, where the rostrum is very short, much
resembling the thick but curved and sharp bill of a
bird ; it is very acute, and capable of inflicting severe
THE PENTATOMID^E. 117
wounds : the last joint of the antennae is often very
slender, and even setaceous ; the body more lengthened
and narrow than in the former family ; the head re-
markably small; the neck contracted and exserted, and the
eyes very prominent. The whole of this family are
raptorial, feeding entirely upon other insects which they
capture and suck: some are terrestrial, while others
are sub-aquatic_, and appear to lead to the next, 3. The
Nepidce, or water scorpions : these comprehend the
largest of all the tribe, and are immediately known by
the extreme shortness of the antennae, which are in-
serted and nearly concealed under the eyes. Like the
last family, they are carnivorous, and seize their prey by
their raptorial fore-feet. The tarsi have never more
than two joints; and the hind legs, in general, are cili-
ated for the purpose of swimming. The two remaining
families, in the absence of the requisite analysis, we
shall not venture to characterise. One may probably
be represented by the common bed bug, which, from
its general structure, and from being apterous in all its
stages, seems to form a family type, particularly from
its analogy to the Coccidte in the next tribe. But on
the 5th, which, from theory, we suppose would repre-
sent the Centrono tides, we are confessedly ignorant ; nor
can this deficiency be supplied until the natural station
of such genera as Telia, Gerris, and some others has
been worked out. Under these circumstances, the slight
notice of the principal genera which seem to belong to
the three primary groups first mentioned, is all that
can be at present attempted; after which we shall enter
more at large into the remaining tribes of the order.
(114.) lihePentatomidce, as we apply the term in pre-
ference to creating a new one, must not be considered so
exclusively and restrictively as its usual application
would imply. Its definition, given above, shows that it
comprises many insects not before included in it. It
consists of three large families of the more recent sys-
tematists, namely, the Scutati, Corel, and Lygcei. It is
thus seen to embrace many interesting forms, which are
i 3
118 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF I?x 7 SECTS.
usually very beautiful insects, gaily decorated with 2
variety of colours and markings, and occasionally enli-
vened with metallic brilliancy. The Scutati are at once
characterised by their name ; for in this family, which is
of considerable extent, we observe, in the more typical
division of it, the scutellum so largely developed as fre-
quently to cover the abdomen. In these insects we de-
tect also many which greatly resemble the Coleoptera:
some, in the elongation of their form, and metallic co-
lour, are remarkably like Buprestis, instanced in Calidea,
Peltophora, and their allies. Sphcerocoris, again, is a
completely mimicking representation of , the Coceinellida,
both in form and markings ; and in Scaptocoris, in
which the scutellum is less developed, we have the re-
presentation of a lamellicorn beetle, wanting its poste-
rior tarsi. A convincing proof that these resemblances
are exceedingly strong, is shown by the circumstance that
describers have frequently given them specific names in
allusion to the particular analogy the insect offered.
We have Linnaeus, even, leacling the way with his Ci-
mex ScarabcBO'ides. These resemblances, also, are not
confined to this group only, but they likewise extend
into the two following. The genus Podops, of which
we possess a species in this country, is remarkable for
its pedunculated eyes. The reputed British Coptosoma
globus presents a unique instance in the Hemiptera, of
the folding of the hemelytra in repose ; for these organs,
being considerably longer than the body, could not other-
wise be brought, under the protection of the large scutel-
lum. Solenosthedium Spin., and Coleotichus White, are
conspicuous for having a deep channel, for the reception
of the rostrum, in the pectus, the sides of which have
singularly elevated ridges. The genera which have an
enlarged scutellum, from the protection this affords to
the hemelytra, or superior wings, of course dispense with
the coriaceous texture observable in those which are not
so formed; for otherwise it is only where these organs lap
over each other, that the membranaceous substance pre-
vails ; but in the Reduvii we frequently observe a nearly
THE PENTATOMID.rE. 119
entirely membranaceous texture of the superior wings.
In this family, the latter structure occurs in all the true
Pentatomce. Very little is actually known of the habits
of these insects; it is presumable, however, that the
majority feed upon other insects ; and a friend of ours
has observed Pentatoma bidens preying upon Vanessa
/o, which implies a degree of skill in the capture of its
prey we were scarcely prepared to expect in any of this
group. If there be no mistake in the account given us
by Westermann, of the destruction caused by Thyreo-
coris silpho'ides in rice fields, in Hindostan, the family
evidently feeds upon a variety of substances ; although
may it not be that these insects are found in profusion
amongst those crops, themselves seeking the true de-
stroyer? We can here give but a very general idea of
the group, which is so large, that the space we can allot
to it would scarcely suffice to record their generic names.
In the next family, the Corei, which, from their great
variety, will scarcely yield to a collective character, we
observe insects in which the sides of the abdomen are
frequently considerably and angularly dilated; the wings,
when closed, having their sides always parallel, and
leaving those lateral portions of the abdomen uncovered;
but this dilatation is not always found in them. It is
observed chiefly in Coreus itself, and remarkably so in
Phyllomorphus paradoxus and hystrix, in which these
appendages are dilated into thin lobated plates, and ex-
tend also from the sides of the prothorax. In Anisocelis
we observe the posterior tibise laterally dilated into a thin
foliaceous appendage, as are the antennae in Pachylis,
which besides contains the largest species of the family ;
one, the P. gigas Kirby, being more than an inch and a half
long. In Physomerus, Jlferocoris, and Meropachys, we
find very largely swollen posterior femora. Some of
these insects still present a moderately large scutellum,
which, although less than in the preceding family, is
always larger than in the next ; and in Menenotus, which
seems to connect the Cord with the Pentatomce, we find
the thorax produced laterally forwards,, giving it the
i 4
120 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
appearance of a crescent, whence one species has heen
named lunatus. The prettiest species we possess, in this
country, of the family, is the Corizm Hyoscyami, which
is not uncommon ; it is of a brilliant vermilion, spotted
with black. We may also notice here the very slender
and elongated form of Berytus Fab. (Neides Latr.), of
which the B. Tipularius is frequently found in our
fields, and the delicate antennas of which are acutely an-
gulated at the apex of the basal joint. By means of
this form, the transition is easily made to the third family,
the Lygai, which consists of elongated insects. As in
the preceding families (with but two or three excep-
tions, viz. in Pyrrhocoris, Largus, and Mycrophysd), we
observe the usual ocelli, found, with rare exceptions,
and the total exclusion of one family, the Capsini,
throughout the heteropterous Hemiptera. This family,
compared with the former, is of very limited extent, and
the insects are generally much smaller. The very beau-
tiful I,ygceus equestris is a British insect, although ex-
tremely rare, for we believe only two specimens have
yet been discovered, one of which we are lucky enough
to possess : it is about six lines long ; of a brilliant
vermilion colour, varied with black, and having a limpid
white spot in the centre of the junction of the hemely-
tra. Pyrrhocoris apterus (also a British insect) is grega-
rious, and offers an uncommon anomaly in frequently
existing only in a wingless state, but exercising, even
thus, all the functions of the imago. Its apterous con-
dition must not, therefore, lead us rashly to conclude
that it is an imperfect insect; it may have, and evidently,
from the results, has, undergone all the completing in-
ternal developements, which from some cause, not yet
understood, have been thwarted in their external exhi-
bition. This circumstance, however, is not peculiar to
this insect only among the Hemiptera,, and we observe
it in the orthopterous portion of our Neuroptera. In
the Hemiptera, it displays itself in Myrmus miriformis,
and Actorus popularum Fab. of the preceding family ;
and we shall find it again occurring in the Redumidce.
THE REDUVIID^. 121
The most remarkable form, perhaps, among the Lygai,
is the Microphysa pselapho'ides Burm. which has only
abbreviated elytra, and is totally deficient in its interior
wings.
(115.) Our second circle, the REDUVIID^E, consists, we
expect, of the following three families : 1 . the Cap-
sini; 2. the Tingi; and, 3. the Reduvii. Possibly, Cimex
lectularius may form a fourth family belonging to this
group. All these insects we shall find considerably
more rapacious than those of the preceding circle ; and
although in Capsus, and its immediate affinities, it is
not quite so strongly instanced, so do they, doubtlessly,
on this account, form the connecting link between the
two. In the Capsini, we observe throughout the total
absence of ocelli ; and, although there are but few dis-
tinct generic forms in this family, their deficiency is
fully compensated by an overwhelming preponderance
in species. The insects are small, and have long and
slender antenna and legs, which, in Miris, are longer
than the body. The Harpocera Burmeixteri Curt., in
the male, is remarkable for the apical contortion of the
second joint of the antennse. In Heterotoma, the
second joint of the antennae is much enlarged, and very
much compressed : and in the little plump Orthonotus,
the posterior femora are considerably thickened, and the
tibire and tarsi exceedingly slender, and twice the length
of the femora ; and this last genus possesses the faculty
of leaping. From the Capsini we pass to the Tingi,
the second family of this group ; and here we observe
remarkable differences of form ; the most typical being
exceedingly depressed, their whole external integument
and hemelytra frequently consisting of a closely reti-
culated semitransparent substance, which, in Gakatus
Curt,, is extremely pellucid. Although the antennae
differ from the description given above in the definition
of the group, it is very evident, from the structure of
the rostrum and of the head, that these insects have a
close affinity to the Reduvii. It will admit of sub-
division into those which have simple anterior legs,.
122 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
which constitute the true Tingi, comprising also Aradus,
which is a sub-cortical genus ; Aneurus, another sub-
cortical form, in which the superior wings are wholly
membranaceous ; and other allied insects. In these, the
wings usually cover the abdomen ; but in the second
division, in Syrtis, we observe the sides of the abdomen
dilated, as we had occasion to notice in Coreus ; and in
Macrocephalus there is an enlargement of the scutellum,
as in the Scutati, equally covering the superior wings,
and which likewise corroborates the observations we
there made ; for we find these wings also, in this genus,
membranaceous, excepting their slight lateral portion ;
all the rest being wholly protected by the scutellum.
These two genera present us also with a character and
structure ; viz. their raptorial anterior legs, which, as
far as habits can confirm, substantiates their position as
being very proximate to the raptorial Reduvii. These
legs consist of a largely swollen femur, into a groove
beneath which the curved tibia fits. The object of the
enlargement of the femur is to give room for the exer-
cise of the powerful muscles that contract and close the
limb, whereby the insect is enabled to seize and retain
its comparatively strong prey, and which it then feeds
on at leisure. If the Cimex lectularius enters this group,
it is probably in this vicinity that it should be inserted.
To Aneurus it is allied by its very depressed form,
although amply distinguished from its antennae being
attenuated at their apex. There are few persons who
are not acquainted with the bed bug, which is the insect
we are now speaking of. It excites, perhaps, too much
disgust to interest any but zealous entomologists ; and
yet it would be found, upon examination, to be a
curious insect. Like some few other Hemiptera we
have previously mentioned, it is always deficient in
wings ; although Londoners, in particular, can well at-
test, that this does not, in the slightest degree, impair
its powers of propagation. The family of the Reduvii
will now occupy us. This very numerous concourse,
being the typical family of the group, are consequently
THE REDUVllDvE. 123
the most rapacious. Their very aspect seems to indi-
cate predatory instincts: their small head, prominent
eyes, frequently short, robust,, and raptorial anterior
legs, and lengthened posterior ones, combined with a
compact but long body, convey an idea of agility and
strength, which seem, in some respects, analogous to
the concurrent structure in the feline Mammalia ; and
many of them are equally nocturnal in their habits. In
one genus, in particular, the South American Cono-
rhinus, there is as strong a disposition as in Cimex to
feed upon blood ; for we find that it frequents houses,
and attacks sleeping persons. This genus also exhibits,
perhaps, the largest species of the family, the C. me-
gistuSj being frequently more than an inch and a half
long : indeed, this family contains generally large in-
sects. Although, perhaps, the normal number of joints
to the antenna? throughout the heteropterous division of
the Hemiptera is not to exceed five, we here frequently
find a divergence from it, in some extending to eight ;
and in one in particular, the Hammatocerus, the num-
ber reaches thirty, the usual second joint being sub-
divided into these numerous articulations. Some species
are remarkable for producing, under irritation, a chirp-
ing noise, like several of the Longicorn Coleoptera ; and
one, the Prionotus serratus, has been observed to give
an electric shock. The accuracy of this, Burmeister
doubts ; and, indeed, it does appear very startling ; yet
Messrs. Kirby and Spence mention it upon such high
authority, that its veracity it would be temerity to
impugn. Their words are*, <c The late major-general
Davis, of the Royal Artillery, well known as a most
accurate observer of nature, and an indefatigable col-
lector of her treasures, as well as a most admirable
painter of them, once informed me, that when abroad,
having taken up this animal (Reduvius serratus}, and
placed it upon his hand, it gave him a considerable
shock, as if from an electric jar, with its legs, which he
* Introd. to Entora, L 108.
felt as high as his shoulders ; and,, dropping the crea-
ture, he observed six marks upon his hand, where the
six feet had stood/' We expect the bug must have
been recently feeding upon the Gymnotus electricus !
Although there is considerable uniformity of general
contour in these insects, some, nevertheless, present pe-
culiar differences of structure ; for instance, Notocyrtus
has its thorax exceedingly inflated above ; and the
before-mentioned Prionotus serratus has the prothorax
longitudinally compressed into a raised semicircle ex-
tending over the scutellum, the edge of which is notched;
whence it is called in the West Indies the " wheel
bug," and it also thence derives its specific name. The
transverse suture of the head and thorax, in many of
these insects, is very like what we see in the coleo-
pterous genus Paussus ; and one of the latter, the
P. armatus, in the spine of its head, has an analogy to
the spine upon the head of the Nabis lividus of
Latreille. A further resemblance between the two is
the ocelli said to be observed in several species of
Paussi. In some, Pirates, for instance, the anterior
and intermediate tibiae are dilated at their apex beneath,
into a vesicular sole ; this structure gives them a facility
for adhering with greater tenacity to what they wish to
attach themselves. A small and very elegant species
of Holoptilugy from New Holland, has its antennae
densely fringed with hair, and the posterior tibia? still
more thickly so with longer curled hair; which, from
that peculiarity, look exceedingly like the legs of the
genus Ancyloscelis among the bees. The refinement of
modern science will, probably, form this into a new
genus ; the proportions of the two last joints of the
antennae differing from the typical Holoptilus, the penul-
timate joint being curved, and the terminal one clavate,
and inserted before the apex of the preceding. Coranus
subapterus, and Prostemma guttula, which are British
insects, offer us instances in this group, also, of perfect
insects in a sub-apterous state. There are three genera
in this family which we must still notice, from their
THE NEPID/E. 125
departing considerably from the usual form of the in-
sects contained in it. These are JEmesa, Cerascopus,
and Ploiaria,' which are very elongate and slender,
indeed, perfectly filiform. The two former occur in
America, and the latter in Europe. Their anterior
legs are raptorial, and, we believe, rarely used in pro-
gression, but kept vibrating with the antennae, which
are exceedingly slender and angulated : the interme-
diate and posterior legs are also very long ; and it is
upon them that these insects stalk about seeking their
prey. They are found chiefly in houses.
(116.) Our next group, the NEPID^E, will detain us
but a few moments. The genera differ considerably
from each other in form : thus, Nepa itself is broad, ovate,
and quite flat ; Ranatra, very elongate and cylindrical;
Belostoma, nearly ellipsoidal ; and Naucoris, almost cir-
cular, and slightly convex. These insects all inhabit
the water, as all of the preceding were occupants of the
land. They are very predacious, which is sufficiently
evinced by their powerful anterior predatorial legs. It
is probable that the Galgulini should form a component
portion of this group ; for, excepting that their posterior
legs are cursorial instead of being ciliated for swimming,
they very closely resemble Naucoris. From structure,
as we observe above, they are distinctly land, as the
others are water insects, and inhabit the banks, forming-
holes in the ground, where they lurk for their prey.
(117.) Telia, Gerris, and their allies, appear quite
as typical of a group as any of the preceding. Although
much resembling Ranatra among the last, and Eme&a
among the Reduvii, they possess peculiarities of struc-
ture and habits which at once distinctly estrange them
from both. In the first place, they inhabit the surface of
the water, where they run with considerable velocity; and
thus appear a sort of analogy among haustellate insects
to what we observe in Gyrinus among the natatorial
Coleoptera. The relative proportions of their legs differ ;
thus, in Telia, Gerris, and Hydroessa, the intermediate
legs are the longest, and the anterior usually kept bent :
126 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
in these, the head is short, and the antennae nearly as
long as the anterior legs. This is the case also in Ha-
lobates, which is an extremely remarkable insect, found
only upon the surface of the sea, within the tropics, and
at a considerable distance from land. They must, ne-
cessarily, he exposed to the worst vicissitudes of a sea
life, being unprovided with wings, to accelerate their
transposition from place to place. It is also a very
curious subject for speculation, what may be their pecu-
liar economy and habits, and where they may deposit
their eggs. Of the other genera, all are British. The
pretty little Velias, with their black bodies studded with
white spots, and the gay crimson of their abdomen, pre-
sent a pleasing appearance upon brooks ; and the ex-
tremely minute Hydroessa has all the appearance of a
microscopic aquatic Pentatoma. [(11 4 1 17.) W. E. Sh.]
(118.) The CICADA, or singing insects, have been
already shown to constitute the sub-typical group of
the present order. Like the Cimicides, they have a
suctorial proboscis folded downwards and reposing on
the breast ; but their wings do not cross each other, but
are deflexed when the insect is at rest. Their antennae,
instead of being at once conspicuous, and ending in
well-defined joints, are so short that they often appear
as wanting. On a close examination, however, two fine
hairs or bristles are discovered, placed close to the eye :
these bristles stand upon short and thick stems, which
are more or less jointed at the base. The wings are
always distinctly nerved ; the upper pair being stronger
and thicker than the lower, and either transparent, or
ornamented with colours. The head is usually very
large, thick, and transverse ; that is, much wider from
side to side than from the front to the back ; the fore-
head consequently is uncommonly broad, and this throws
the eyes very far apart : between the true eyes, by the
aid of a glass, three little ocelli, or false eyes, will be
discovered*, shining like morsels of glass; while the
* Excepting in the Membracidcc.
THE CICADA. 127
bugs have two of them only. The legs deserve great
attention ; with very few exceptions, the hinder pair
are remarkably longer than the others, and are formed
for leaping and for defence. The common froghopper,
called by some the cuckoo spit (which in its grub state
lives in a drop of froth upon plants),, is a small but fa-
miliar example of this order, and easily procured in
summer. The hind legs, it will be perceived, are not
only very long, but armed with sharp spines, much in
the same manner as those of the grasshoppers. Every
body knows what prodigious leaps are taken by these
little insects, when disturbed ; and if one is captured,
and held between the fingers, the struggles it makes to
get free will show the effect which the spines would
have on any other occasion. We have said that the
upper or superior wings are either clear, or opake and
coloured ; this colouring, however, is not farinaceous,
except in one family {Ffatidce), where the wings seem
covered with a white powder. It is by this, or similar
insects, that an easy passage is formed to the Lepi-
doptera, and the two orders brought into immediate
conjunction.
(119.) The natural habits and economy of the Ci-
cada are very different from those of the Cimicides.
The majority of the latter are predacious insects, living
upon the juices of others, which they seize by surprise
when hunting among foliage ; and having wounded
their prey by their proboscis, suck the blood. The
Cicades, on the other hand, mostly live upon the juices
*>f plants, which they pierce in the same way ; such, at
least, is the case with nearly all those found in Great
Britain : but there are very many (more especially those
which may be considered typical), which have the fore
legs raptorial ; that is, formed for seizing, similar to the
JSdantida, and other families which are known to live
upon smaller insects : in all such groups, these legs are
very thick and robust, and are armed with sharp spines,
which serve to secure and even to kill their prey. The
common Italian cicada shows a full developement of
128 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
this structure ; and unless it be supposed that the insect
uses these feet to press out the juices of plants, we
may fairly suspect that they are employed in seizing and
wounding smaller insects, There can be no doubt
that these vegetable suckers tend, in general, to the
healthiness of the plant they feed upon, although their
numbers frequently cause much injury. They are, in
fact, the phlebotomists of vegetables; attacking them
when in the full vigour of their growth, and feasting
upon that superabundance of sap with which they then
abound. The plant lice, or Aphides, are the most expert
suckers of any of their tribe. The little family of Mem-
bracina, which represent these insects in Tropical Ame-
rica, are found clustered on the rich luxuriant shoots of
the Guava and other fruit trees, busily employed in
tapping the stem and sucking the juice.* As to the
geographic distribution of the tribe, we have very few
in Europe, and these are mostly of a small size : the
rest are distributed in the hot latitudes of the Old, but
chiefly in those of the New World. The pre-eminent
types (Cicadida)) as is usual throughout nature, are
universal, and one has been discovered of late years in
the New Forest in Hampshire. Many family groups,
and nearly all the natural sub-genera, are restricted to
certain geographic limits. Several of these are interest-
ing, either from the singularity of their form, or their
habits, the chief of which will be subsequently noticed.
(1 20.) The affinities of the Cicades to the Cimicides on
one hand, and to the lepidopterous order on the other,
have already been intimated ; but so much of error, of
late years, has been introduced about f Borders" in the
reigning systems, that we shall here again return to the
subject, by quoting the opinion of others. The union
of this tribe to the typical Hemiptera is so obvious,
that it has been well observed, " the affinity cannot be
disputed, without a distortion of some of the most evi-
* Mr. Westwood attributes the first announcement of this fact to an
author who mentions it ten years after it fell under our own observation
in Brazil ; and then flippantly says, I was ignorant of the circumstance.
THEIR AFFINITIES. 129
dent facts in natural history, being accompanied with
an utter disregard to the authority of all entomologists/' *
The same author also states that " the transition is
effected through the medium of the Notonectidce (or
boat flies), and other Hydrocorisa of Latreille ; which
coincide with the Cicadides, in the small developement
of their antennae and conical rostrum ; and with the true
(or typical) Hemiptera, in their rostrum being frontal,
their elytra coriaceous, and their body generally de-
pressed. With proper caution, however, the same
learned author, not having entered upon the necessary
analysis, observes, " it would at present be very blama-
ble in me to pretend to determine whether these insects
(the Notonectidci) come nearest to the hemipterous or
homopterous (or Cicades) type ; but I may observe that
the probability is on the side of the latter supposition,
since the genus Ranatra bears a strong analogy to the
Ephemerae. We perceive, however, the wings of the
HydrocoristB becoming gradually more coriaceous, or
rather corneous, and opake; we perceive them crossing
one another more and more, in order to make room for
the enlargement of the scutellum, which, with the true
ocelli, and quadri-articulate rostrum, is the typical cha-
racter of the true Hemiptera (or our Cityicidei)"^ Our
analysis of this group has, in a great measure, confirmed
these views : we consider the Notonectida as one of the
aberrant divisions of the order ; and, from its obvious
analogy to the natatorial birds and quadrupeds, we should
term this division the natatorial family of the deader.
Now, as the Nepidce are obviously the corresponding
group among the Cimicides, it follows that this is the
point of junction between the two ; although the precise
sub-genus by which this passage is effected, has not yet
been ascertained. The second affinity regards the con-
nection of the Cicades (the Homoptera of some authors)
to the Lepidoptera ; and here, again, we shall make use
of the same authority in support of own decided opinions
* Hor. Ent., p. 376. t Hor. Ent., p. 377.
ISO NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS,
on this point. " The immediate means of transition from
homopterous insects to the lepidopterous, is probably
exemplified in the genus Aleyrodes of Latreille, the
Tinea proletetta of Linnaeus, and the Phalene culiciforme
of Geoifroy. The history of this minute insect is the sub-
ject of one of Reaumur's most interesting Memoires; and
when we learn that it undergoes an obtect" (or com-
plete) f{ metamorphosis; that in its pupa state it is inactive^
and in its adult is covered with a farinaceous powder ;
we are as little surprised that this great physiologist
should have considered it to be lepidopterous, as that
Latreille, reasoning from its articulated rostrum, should
have pronounced it to be homopterous. We are only asto-
nished that the latter should have adopted any arrange-
ment which would lead us to fancy that he believed his
observations on Aleyrodes contradicted those of Reau-
mur." It is thus, as our author truly observes, "that the
greatest naturalists, in every department of nature, are
often right and wrong at the same time, with respect to
the same animal; and that a person in search of natural
affinities, has generally reason to conclude himself to be
perfectly correct, when he has combined all their posi-
tive observations, and rejected their negative inferences/'
The farinaceous wings of the Flatida, subsequently no-
ticed, induced our author to pronounce them as ff mani-
festly bearing a distant affinity to certain extreme Lepi-
doptera." These insects, indeed, so completely resemble
moths, that they may be justly called the moth cicadas.
(121.) The primary groups under which we shall
now arrange the cicadas, will be considered in the light
of families, and may be thus concisely enumerated:
1. The true Cicadidtf, or singing insects ; so named from
their musical powers. 2. The Flatidce, or moth-like
cicadas, having their wings generally covered with a
white farinaceous powder. 3. The CentronotidcE, or
spined cicadas, remarkable for their small size, and the
spines upon their bodies. 4. The Notonectidce, or water
cicadas, vulgarly called boat flies : these are few in
number, and, as their name denotes, are aquatic. The
THE CICADIN^E. 131
5th type is uncertain, and may possibly be represented
by such insects as have the greatest resemblance to the
Coctida.
(122.) The true cicadas (Cicadidce) stand at the
head of the tribe, as the pre-eminent typical family :
they vary considerably in size ; and comprise, with but
two or three exceptions, the largest insects in the whole
tribe yet discovered, as well as some of the smallest.
Amid this diversity, there is one character, however, by
which nearly the whole may be recognised, that of
having the antennae placed directly in front of, or before,
the eyes. The front of the head is always swollen as
if inflated ; and these inflated parts are always crossed
by very fine transverse or horizontal lines, not unlike
the plaiting of a shirt frill. Of what use this singular
structure is to the insect, we know not ; but it is so
generally prevalent, that we may attach some weight to
its variation. There is a considerable variation in the
neuration or nerves of the wings : some groups have
these members transparent ; while in others, the upper
or larger pair are opake, and ornamented with bands,
spots, and other markings : these differences give rise to
further separations or sub-families, each of which seem
to possess some peculiarity of economy; hence we can
easily discriminate two leading divisions ; 1 . the Ci-
cadince, or singing group ; and, 2. the Cercopince, or
hopping cicadas.
(123.) The singing cicadas (Cicadince) are conspi-
cuous for their bulk, and have been long celebrated for
their economy. Many of the exotic species, when their
wings are expanded, measure six inches in extreme
length, a size superior to that of many of the humming
birds. The body is remarkably thick and robust ; and
they fly with such rapidity, that the eye cannot follow
them. With the exception of one species, Cicada An-
glica, these insects are unknown in our misty islands,
are children of the sun, and love to bask in more genial
climates. As this power of rapid flight is one of the
great peculiarities of these creatures, so the members
132 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
by which this is effected deserve attention. The wings
are long, and pointed towards the end, a form pecu-
liarly adapted for swiftness : in general, they are clear
and transparent, but some few from India and Africa
have the anterior or largest pair opake and coloured ;
in both, however, they are marked by regular distinct
nerves, which are divided into large cells towards the
thorax, and into numerous smaller ones at the edges.
But what more especially distinguishes these insects,
when alive, is their faculty of emitting a very loud, and
according to some authors a not unmusical noise. It
may be readily supposed that a power so very unusual
among insects, would excite great attention; and we ac-
cordingly find that the cicada was one of the most
celebrated insects of antiquity. Philosophers did not
disdain to write upon it; while the fictions of the early
poets invested it with perpetual youth, and exalted it to
the rank of a demigod. We find the cicada perpe-
tually extolled as an emblem of constant gaiety and
uninterrupted happiness, as little cheerful beings, " be-
loved by gods and men." Anacreon, in his celebrated
Ode to the Cicada, describes in glowing colours the un-
interrupted felicity of this creature. The Athenian
patricians wore golden ornaments representing the ci.
cada in their hair, to denote their national antiquity, or
to intimate that, like these insects, they were the first-born
of the earth. It has been ingeniously remarked, that, in
the infant state of music, man seems to have preferred
the natural sounds of some animals to those of their
uncouth instruments, and that hence arose the extra-
vagant praise bestowed upon the cicada. The ancient
Locri, a people of Greece, are related to have been so
charmed with its song, that they erected a statue to its
honour. The following fable, relative to the same
people, is too poetic to be passed over. A certain mu-
sician of Locris, contesting with another, would have
lost the chance of victory, by the breaking of two
strings of his lyre, but at this critical moment a cicada
flew to his aid, and resting on the broken instrument,
HABITS OF THE CICADINvE. 133
sang so 'well, that the Locrian was declared victor.'
His countrymen, in testimony of their gratitude, erected
a statue to the insect. There is a beautiful antique gem,
which we saw either at Rome or Florence, commemo-
rating this supposed event : it represents the figure of
the player, with the insect perched upon his lyre. No
author we have met with has given a better idea of
the singing of a cicada, than old Marcgrave, who says
its tune begins with gir, guir, and continues with sis,
sis, sis. This, we can affirm from experience, exactly
expresses their long-continued and monotonous chirp.
In the olive plantations of Italy and of Sicily, and
those which cover the beautiful plain of Athens, we
have heard innumerable hosts of these merry creatures
during summer ; and the noise is so loud, that it may
be heard at the distance of half a mile. Strange to
say, however, the traveller is not able to see one of
these creatures, although hundreds surround him on all
sides : while thus recreating themselves, they invariably
perch on the branches or stems of trees, some dis-
tance from the ground ; while their plain dusky colours
assimilate so closely to that of the bark, that the most
practised eye can scarcely detect them. It generally
happens that the concert is begun by one, who seems
to have more power than the rest : he commences with
all his might ; and in a minute or two, all the surround-
ing trees seem to join in full chorus. Many fables
among the ancients, and much erroneous matter by the
moderns, has been published regarding the means by
which this singing is produced. Reaumur, however,
with his usual patience and accuracy, solved the diffi-
culty : he discovered two large muscles, which at their
point of union formed a space almost square ; by
moving these backwards and forwards, he discovered,
to his no small astonishment, that he could make a
cicada sing that had been dead some weeks ! The
sound is emitted through two large apertures, one on
each side of the body, which are partly covered by
valves: in some species from Brazil, these apertures
K 3
134 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
are extended to the upper side of the abdomen, where
they have a considerable resemblance to those in the
pipes of an organ. The female cicada., however, is
entirely without this apparatus ; hence the old Greek
adage that the CicadcB were particularly happy, because
they had silent wives. Aristotle mentions them as de-
licious food ; but maccaroni has long supplanted them
in the estimation both of the modern Greeks and the
Italians.
(124.) The second division of this family is composed
of the CiRcopiNjE, or jumping cicadas. They are all
of a very small size ; and very different, in their exter-
nal appearance, to the last: they have no musical powers;
and their long hinder legs are saltatorial, or adapted
for leaping. These little creatures are abundant in all
verdant situations during summer, particularly among
the foliage of trees, and high grass. The larva or
grub, as before observed, has the singular property of
producing a frothy liquid, precisely like human saliva,
in which its soft tender body is secure, and in the
middle of which it constantly resides : hence the vulgar
names of cuckow spit given to the larva, and frog-
hopper to the adult or perfect insect : the ocelli, or
simple eyes, in this group, are only two ; and the supe-
rior wings, called by some the elytra (we think im-
properly so), are nerved in a very different manner to
those of the true cicada. The genus Ledra is the
only one wherein the thorax is ornamented with horns
or other excrescences ; and this appears to represent, in
its own circles, the Cent fonot idee. The foreign jumping
cicadas are innumerable, and are so little known, that
out of more than seventy species we discovered in
South America, we believe that not one half have been
described.
(125.) The moth cicadas, or the FLATID^, compose
the second great division or family of the tribe. ' As the
Cicadidce form the typical, so this constitutes the sub-
typical group ; and every one can perceive how beauti-
fully it represents the order of Lepidoptera. They are 3
DEFINITION OF THE FLATINjE. 135
in fact, cicadas disguised as butterflies and moths : like
these latter, their wings are very broad, obtuse, and, in
many genera, covered with minute scales, which appear
to the eye like a fine powder. Even in such as have
not their wings so covered, this powdery substance is
found upon the body, or on other parts : here, however,
the resemblance ceases, so far as the structure of the
two orders are concerned. The moth cicadas are nearly
all confined to the tropics of the Old and New World :
their representatives in Britain are the small aberrant
genera of Issus Fab., and Ciocius Leach ; these live in
thickets, and may be found by beating the hedges in
summer. The form of the head, and the position of the
antennae, joined to the shape of the wings just alluded
to, offer the best and most prevalent characters for this
family. We have seen that the front of the head, in
the Cicadidee, is swollen, or at least convex; but in
these insects it is either perfectly flat, as if cut off, or
divided into two concave hollows, at the bottom of
which, immediately beneath the eye, is placed their very
small antennae : the front is also destitute of those fine
horizontal lines so prevalent in the first great division
(CicadiadcR)* A remarkable exception occurs to the
generally truncate shape of the head, in the genus Ful-
gora, where this part is lengthened and swollen to an
enormous size, more analogous to the snout of an ele-
phant, or the horn of a rhinoceros, than any thing else.
This structure, however strange, is in strict accordance
with one of the most prevalent laws of nature. The
FulgorincB, in the circle of the Flatidce, seems to be
the rasorial type in regard to birds, and the thysanuri-
form with reference to insects ; both of which, as is
well known, are remarkable for -the appendages which
adorn their heads, which are frequently so strange as to
give them the most grotesque appearance. But the
analogies of the Fulgora do not rest here : on its lower
* It may be as well to observe here, that Dr. Leach has mistaken the
mode of insertion of the antennas in his genus Cercopis, and has thus made
bis third stirps both erroneous and artificial.
K 4
136 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
wings we have the eye-like iridescent spot of the raso-
rial peacocks, as if Nature intended to show how beauti-
fully she could make a bird and an insect represent each
other. Gallinaceous birds,, pachydermatous quadrupeds
(like the elephant), stag beetles (Lucanidce) among Co-
leoptera,axe always the largest of their respective groups;
and consequently FuZgora, which represents all these,
is not only the largest of the moth cicadas, but is equal
in size to the most bulky of its own tribe. We had no
intention of touching upon this analogy, beautiful as it
is, but we recollected that some explanation was neces-
sary for deviating so much from the usual arrangement
of this group. The Fulgora are called lantern flies;
and, if what has been said of them be correct, the name
is peculiarly appropriate. Madame Merian, well known
for her work upon Surinam insects, relates an amusing
anecdote about the great lantern fly of that country. It
seems that she had caught several of these insects during
the day, when they emit no light; and being ignorant
of their possessing this property, she put them, with
some leaves, into a box, which was laid upon her bed-
room table. In the middle of the night, her captives,
finding themselves debarred from their usual nocturnal
excursions (for these insects repose during the day),
began to buzz about and made every effort to escape.
The noise thus produced awoke Mad. Merian, who, find-
ing it impossible to sleep with all this fluttering, got up
and opened the box to release her prisoners. What was
her surprise at seeing it filled, as she thought, with large
sparks of fire ! in her momentary fright, she let the
whole fall to the ground : the insects, thus released, be-
gan flying about the room in all directions, like so many
moving candles. Our authoress goes on to state, that
by the aid of two of these living lights, she was able to
read the smallest print. Another conspicuous species,
F. Candelaria, although much inferior in size, is found
in India; but Europe possesses no such wonders. There
is, indeed, a small insect called Fulgora Europ&a, but
which is of a different genus to the true lantern flies,
THE CENTRONOTID^E, 13?
these latter being exclusively tropical. Two or three
small but curiously shaped genera, as Delphax, &c., are
placed at the end of this family, although their affini-
ties are at present uncertain.
(126). The horned cicadas, or the CENTRONOTID^E,
constitute our third great division. The whole insect
world cannot produce such extraordinary and eccentric
shapes as are exhibited among these little creatures :
were they of a moderately large size, any one might be
exhibited as a monster, and the most fanciful imagin-
ation would be sorely taxed to invent any thing more
grotesque than Nature herself has produced. The Cen-
tronotidce, with very few exceptions, are exclusively found
in the forests of Tropical America, where they live, fre-
quently in little societies of their own, upon the young
shoots of plants, which they probe and suck as the
Aphides do in Europe; for these latter insects, so far as
our own personal observations have gone, are not found
in these regions. This fact affords an additional rea-
son in support of our belief that these two families are.
analogous, and that both are types of the ruminating
quadrupeds, in other words, rasorial. How little the Cen-
tronotidcB are known, may be gathered from the fact, that
out of near a hundred species found by us in Tropical
America, not more than one half are described in books.
Yet, abundant as those insects are in those regions, which
may be termed their metropolis, only two species appear
to inhabit England. One of these, however, Centronotus
cornutus, is not uncommon, and gives a very good idea
of the whole family. Its head and breast are larger
than all the rest of the body ; the former is thick, broad,
and truncate, but of a very different form to any among
the Cicadidce or the Flatldce. The chief singularity,
however, lies in the thorax, which is enormously deve-
loped : on each side arises an acute spine, pointing
outwards, so as to resemble the horns of a bull, or rumi-
nating quadruped; while the hinder part is prolonged
into another spine parallel with the body, and which it is
obviously intended to protect : the wings are transparent^
138 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
and, both in their form and neuration, much more resem-
ble the typical cicadas than they do the Flatidce. Who
that looks upon this singular little creature, will not be
immediately reminded of a bull ? The truth is, that the
mind of man is instinctively prone to comparison ; for
the imagination will frequently associate together two
or more things, having not a single property in common,
yet so shaped as to suggest the same ideas. No better
proof of this can be mentioned, than the resemblance
which people very often imagine they can trace in the
faces of animals (particularly sheep) to those of their
acquaintances. Now there is as much diversity of phy-
siognomy in one race as in the other ; yet the analogy
between them is so remote,, that, although it may strike
the imagination with irresistible force, it would fre-
quently be difficult to state the reason of the similitude.
Now, this is precisely the case with those remote analo-
gies, or representations. In the present case, however, we
have more certain grounds to go upon. A glance at some of
the Brazilian types of this extraordinary family may here
be taken. The largest species yet discovered (Membra-
cis spinosa Fab.), in its general shape, exactly resembles
a very large thorn from the stem of a rose tree; and the
spine upon its thorax is so formidable, that we have had
our fingers severely wounded in attempting to capture
it. Another (Bocidium globulare) has a little fanciful
diadem of round balls and spines rising from the thorax;
and this is so spread over the insect, that every part of
its body is protected. In another group (Polyglypta),
all these spines disappear, and the thorax is lengthened
out in front into a snout-shaped process, as long as the
whole body; thus giving to them all the aspect of lan-
tern flies. Another genus (Darnis) might at first be
taken for a coleopterous insect; for it is entirely cased
over with a hard shell, without any external appearance
of wings, which lie concealed beneath, as in Scutel-
lera. In these cicadas, also, the head, although broad,
is particularly short, and is so bent down as to be almost
hid : the antennae are shaped like those of Cercopis;
THE NOTONECTID^E. 139
but instead of being in front of the eye, they are placed
in a hollow beneath it, similar to the Flatidce. Such
are the primary, or typical, characters of this family ;
but to attempt the definition of all those intervening
links by which it is connected with the preceding, would
far exceed our limits. There are several small groups,
peculiar to India and Australia, to which Nature has
obviously assigned an intervening station ; for all her
paces are slow and measured : if they appear otherwise,
as they certainly do in some few instances, we must set
it down to our own ignorance of her productions, rather
than to her departure from her usual principle of gra-
dual developement.
(127.) The fourth family of this tribe appears com-
posed of the NOTONECTID^E, or boat flies, constituting the
natatorial or swimming type of the whole group. Our
reasons for including these insects in this tribe, rather
than in the last, cannot be entered upon in this place.
It will be sufficient if the reader is made acquainted with
the general form of these insects, and their peculiar ha-
bits. For this purpose, let him fancy that a minute
insect, whose shape immediately reminds him of the
British Centronotus Genista, but whose hinder feet are
formed for swimming, he will thus have a very good
idea of the general form of the boat flies ; and more
especially of the genus Ploa, or the minute Sigara of
Dr. Leach. Without touching upon their other pecu-
liarities, it will be sufficient to state that the Notonec-
tidce are immediately known by their long hinder legs,
the tarsi of which are so compressed and fringed as to
resemble oars; these enable the insect to swim with
great rapidity. The shape of the body is thick and tri-
angular ; and the outer half of the superior wings fold
over each other. Dr. Leach very properly divides this
family into two groups ; one (Notonecta) having the
shield (scutettum) large ; the other, as in Corioca, being
entirely without this part. On aflfine summer's day,
they may be observed basking in the sun, close to the
surface of the water, in clear ponds or ditches; here
14*0 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
they will continue immovable for several minutes,, with
their hinder legs stretched out, in the same attitude which
a boat's crew assume when ready for a sudden start.
The Notonectidce, like the Nepidce among the bugs,, are
rapacious., living upon small insects, whose juices they
suck. The attitude we have just described, although
apparently one of listlessness, is really that of extreme
watchfulness : the insect is lying in wait for its prey ;
and the moment a luckless wanderer passes within reach,
it darts upon it with the utmost rapidity, and is out of
sight in a moment. Another singular habit belongs to
these insects: they not only swim, but repose, upon
their backs ; that is, with the under side of their body
turned uppermost : this is a wise provision of Nature,
and admirably suited to the nature of their pursuits ;
by resting in this position, their eyes are directed fully
to that quarter where they are to look for their prey ;
while, if they assumed the usual position of other insects,
they would gaze upon objects either upon the surface,
or above it.
(128.) Let us now look to the analogies which these
insects possess to other classes of beings. The JVoto-
nectidce are clearly an aquatic type, and offer an imme-
diate point of union with the typical Hemiptera; their
close affinity with the Nepadce is admitted by all writers ;
and we have frequently observed, both among annulose
and vertebrate animals, that one of the transitions of
nature is made by an aquatic group. All natatorial
types, among birds, represent the shrikes and the fly-
catchers, who have the peculiar habit of watching for
their prey from a fixed station, and seizing it, not by
pursuit, but by surprise, just as the insects now be-
fore us. Natatorial types, moreover, have always the
largest heads ; witness the hippopotamus among the
pachydermatous quadrupeds, the whale among the Ceta-
cea. and theHesperida in the circle of diurnal butterflies.
(129.) Inregarcfto the remaining family of the pre-
sent tribe, we can say but little. If we merely looked
to those genera which showed the greatest deviation
THE APHID^E. 141
from the families already enumerated, we might sup-
pose that Asiraca or Lima would probably form part of
another great division, or that some of the lanigerous
genera, resembling Coccus, would here intervene ; but
we do not, at present, venture to act upon such vague
suspicion, and shall therefore leave this part of the series
for future investigation.
(130.) Having now gone through the two typical
groups of the order Hemiptera, we shall at once
proceed to the three others, which appear to form the
aberrant divisions, namely, 1. the Aphides, or plant
suckers ; 2. the Coccides, or meal bugs ; and, 3. the
Aleyrodes.
(131.) The APHIDES, or plant lice, as we have
already observed, are all of a very small, and often
minute, size, and live for the most part in societies.
Three of these families are represented by the Linnsean
genera Chermes, Aphis, and Thrips; while that of
Leach's Eriosoma is a type of the fourth. Of the
Chermes, we possess, comparatively, but few species ;
they are found on the leaves, young shoots, and bark of
different plants : in their larva state, they seem to ex-
hibit a considerable affinity to the Coccides, or plant
bugs ; and we think it is to that family, rather than to
this, that some of them really belong : like the Coccides,
many of them are coated, particularly towards the tail,
with a flocculent or cottony substance of a white colour,
and. of a clammy tenacious nature, which exudes from the
pores of the animal. These flocculent cotton-like fila-
ments are very conspicuous in the Chermes Alni 3 which
may be found, during summer, on the leaves and shoots
of the alder tree. The larva, as described by Dr. Shaw,
is entirely covered about the hinder part by thickly
fasciculated heaps of viscid down or cotton, which, if
purposely rubbed off, are quickly reproduced by the ani-
mal, which secretes the white fibres from large pores
placed in a circle at some distance from the vent. These
larvae, or grubs, are gregarious; often appearing in such
numbers on the tree, that the whole of the shoot they
142 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
are upon appears covered with white cotton, which, if
touched by the finger, separates into distinct tufts, an
effect produced by the animals being suddenly disturbed,
and then moving in all directions. When this cotton is
brushed off, the larva appears of a pale green colour,
varied with black spots. When arrived at its complete
or perfect state, by casting its pupa skin, it is entirely
green, with transparent wings. If disturbed, it leaps
with great agility, frequently flying at the same time.*
(132.) The true APHIDES, or plant lice, are well
known to infest the early buds of the rose tree and
other plants, upon which they continue to multiply
during the whole of summer. The habits and economy
of these singular insects are so well known, that we shall
here chiefly confine our remarks to their external cha-
racters, and their general history. The body is thick,
fat, and round, having, towards the end, three horn -like
bristles, one of which is on each side, the other at the
vent ; these terminate in a little knob, and are move-
able ; their use, however, does not appear to have been
detected : the head and eyes are very small, the latter
prominent; while the antennae, unlike those of all the
other families, are as long as the body, slender, filiform,
and composed of seven joints : the wings also differ
greatly from all other hemipterous insects ; they are
perfectly transparent, and distinctly veined, assimi-
lating, in short, to those of the hymenopterous order.
Like those insects, they have likewise the power of
forming a honey-like secretion from the vegetable juices
upon which they subsist, although by a totally different
process. In most species of the Aphides, both males
and females acquire wings at certain seasons ; but in this
respect they are subject to great variation, there being
some males and some females that never have wings ;
again, there are some females that become winged,
while others of the same species do not. The Aphides
are the most defenceless of all insects, for they can nei-
* Shaw, Gen. Zool., vi. 1187,
HABITS OF THE APHID^E. 143
ther fly nor run sufficiently fast to avoid danger : they
seem never to make use of their wings, but for the pur-
pose of finally leaving the little society in which they
were born,, and establishing for themselves a distinct
colony ; while the feet, although perfect, are remarkably
slender, and only enable the animal to walk very slow.
(133.) The honey-dew, according to the observations
of the late Mr. Curtis, is chiefly, if not entirely, occa-
sioned by these insects. s( Were a person," observes our
ingenious author, t( to take up a book in which it was
gravely asserted that in some countries there were certain
animals which voided liquid sugar, he would soon lay
it down, regarding it as a fabulous tale, calculated to
impose on the credulity of the ignorant ; and yet such
is literally the truth. The superior size of the Aphis
Salicis, or willow plant-sucker, will enable the most in-
credulous observer to satisfy himself on this head. On
looking stedfastly for a few minutes on a group of these
insects, while feeding on the bark of the willow, a few
of them will be perceived to elevate their bodies, and a
transparent substance evidently drop from them; which
is immediately followed by a similar motion, and a dis-
charge like a small shower, from a great number of
others. On placing a piece of writing paper under a
mass of these insects, it soon became thickly spotted;
holding it a longer time, the spots became united from
the addition of others, and the whole surface assumed a
glossy appearance. I tasted it, and found it as sweet as
sugar. I had the less hesitation in doing this, having
observed that wasps, flies, ants, and insects without
number, devoured it as quickly as it was produced. In
the height of summer, when the weather is hot and
dry, and the Aphides are most abundant, the foliage of
the trees and plants upon which they reside, is found
covered by this substancej generally known by the name
of honey-dew." After combating the opinions that this
was either exuded from the plants, or had fallen from
the atmosphere, Mr. Curtis observes: <f As far as my
own observation has extended, there never exists any
144 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
honey-dew but where there are Aphides: such, how-
ever, often pass unnoticed,, being hid on the under side
of the leaf. We have some grounds for believing/'
Mr. Curtis adds, " that a saccharine substance,, similar
to that of the Aphis, drops from the Coccus also.
(134.) The astonishing fecundity of these insects
has no parallel in the animal creation. In summer,, the
young are produced alive from the body of the parent ;
but in autumn, the female deposits eggs on the stems
of plants, near the embryo shoots, and these are hatched
by the sun early in the spring. How beautiful is this
care of the Creator for the meanest of his creatures ! If
the last autumnal brood of the Aphides was brought
forth as the former, the frosts of winter would inevitably
kill all, and exterminate the race ; while the same sun
which brings the eggs to maturity in spring, expands
the young leaves upon which the parent insect intended
her future progeny should feed : thus both leaves and
insects come into life at the same time. But the most
wonderful part of their history is the power of con-
tinued impregnation through a great many descents. A
pregnant female, kept by itself, produces perfectly
formed young ones, which, though kept separate, will,
in a short time, produce others ; and thus several gene-
rations follow each other. The male insects only
appear in autumn ; and this may explain why the last
autumnal brood is enclosed in eggs. Reaumur com-
putes that each Aphis may produce about 90 young ;
and that, in consequence, in five generations, the de-
scendants from a single insect would amount to the
astonishing number of 5,904,900,000. Were it not
that these immense multitudes are called into being to
furnish food for other races, they would be sufficient to
destroy vegetation, and annihilate the empire of Flora.
We accordingly find that, in t{ due season," they become
the prey of many other animals, both in the bird
and insect world. During most years, observes Mr.
Curtis, the natural enemies of the Aphides are suf-
ficient to keep them in check, and to prevent them from
HABITS OP THRIPS. 14-5
doing essential injury to plants. But seasons sometimes
occur, when their increase is so prodigious that severe
damage ensues, both to the crops of the husbandman,
and to vegetation generally. Among the hop plant-
ations, for instance,, the Aphides are so prevalent, that
the scarcity or abundance of the crop entirely depends
upon their ordinary prevalence or unusual plenty ; and
hence the frequent reports on this subject in the news-
papers. Vain would be the attempt to clear a hop
garden of these pernicious insects, or to rescue any ex-
tensive crop from their baneful ravages. Even violent
rain has but a partial effect in destroying them. Mr.
Curtis immersed, in a glass of water, the footstalk of a
leaf of considerable length, from a stove plant beset
with Aphides. On immersion, they did not quit the
stalk, but immediately their bodies assumed a kind of
luminous appearance, from the minute bubbles of air
which issued from them. After an immersion of six-
teen hours, they were taken out and placed in the sun-
shine, when some of them almost immediately showed
signs of life, and, upon an average, not one out of four
was killed. So little effect, indeed, had this cold bath
upon the rest, that one out of the survivors, a male,
very soon after became winged, and another, a female,
was delivered of a young one !
(135.) The Thripsof Linnaeus are such exceedingly
minute insects, that to the naked eye they seem but as
little specks, or rather like short lines, not exceeding
the length and thickness of the letter i. In spring, these
minute creatures may be found running about the petals
of flowers, particularly the dandelion ; but in summer
and autumn, they fly into houses, if not in swarms, at
least in considerable numbers ; they alight upon the
hands and face, and occasion that troublesome irritation
which many people experience during hot weather,
without knowing the cause. Minute as these creatures
are, Mr. Kirby considers them as highly noxious to the
farmer, by deriving their nourishment from the embryo
grains of the wheat plant.
146 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
(136.) In a scientific point of view, the Thrips is a
still more interesting insect, since it unquestionably
unites a suctorial order with another that is masticating.
So naturally is this genus connected to the Aphides, the
Chermes, and the Cocci, that neither M.Latreille, nor any
of the subsequent, reformers, have materially disturbed
this arrangement ; they include Thrips and Aphis in the
same family, placing the Cocci immediately after. All
entomologists admit that Thrips is amandibulated type ;
although, from the excessive minuteness of the species,
and the consequent difficulty of understanding with
accuracy the parts of the mouth, we are somewhat de-
ficient in figures and descriptive details. Sufficient
evidence, however, is before us, to show that this genus
connects the Hemiptera, which is a suctorial order, with
some other which is both suctorial andmandibulated, or
furnished with jaws. The question, therefore, which
remains to be settled, is, to what mandibulated order this
genus leads. Now, there is only one in the whole of the
Annulosa, where the mouth, in the same manner, is
provided both with jaws and a proboscis ; and this order
is the Hymenoptera. The very aspect of the figure of
Thrips given by Reaumur, bears no slight resemblance
to the genus Scolia ; and that species figured by Mr.
Westwood, no less reminds us of a hymenopterous
insect. Great credit is due to Mr. Haliday, one of our
best entomologists, for his valuable memoir on these
insects ; although we cannot entertain his idea of
erecting them into an order. To his paper, and to Mr.
Westwood's valuable figures and dissections*, we must
refer the reader, contenting ourselves with retaining
the opinion of Latreille, that Thrips enters into the
circle of the Aphides.
(137.) The Aphides present us with some of the most
extraordinary analogies in nature. These singular crea-
tures, as will appear by analogical comparison, represent,
in their own circle, the hymenopterous order among the
* Modern Classification of Insects, ii. 1. fig. 57.
HABITS OF THE APHIDES. 147
Ptilota, the rasorial order among birds, and the rumi-
nating tribe (Ungulata) among quadrapeds. Dissimilar
as these groups are from each other in outward appear-
ance, the reader will be nevertheless surprised when he
learns how many things they possess in common. One
of the chief peculiarities of the Hymenoptera, is their
power of producing honey, a faculty which is given
to no other insects but to them and the Aphides : both
are eminently gregarious living in large societies or
swarms ; and in both do we find that one female is
generally the parent of a whole community, which feed
and live together. The wings of the Aphides are clear
and transparent ; and the structure of their nervures are
more like those of hymenopterous insects, than of any
other order ; while the Thrips, as we have before inti-
mated, bring these groups into immediate contact.
Next compare the Aphides with the scansorial and ra-
sorial birds ; all these are typically gregarious, feeding
only upon vegetables, and uncommonly prolific. The
great developement of the tail is one of the chief cha-
racters of these birds ; while the Aphides are almost the
only decides which have caudal appendages. It gene-
rally happens, as a necessary consequence of remote
comparison, that the more dissimilar are the objects
compared, the fainter are their analogies : but some-
times this is not the case ; and a remarkable exception
to the rule is presented to us on the present occasion.
Every one knows that it is from the ruminating ani-
mals alone that man derives that healthful and salubri-
ous beverage which in the early ages of society formed
his chief nourishment. No other vertebrate animal
has been intended by nature to supply us with milk.
Now, if we look to the annulose circle, and inquire
whether Nature has bestowed upon any of these the same
power of secreting a fluid destined to feed other crea-
tures than its own young, the reply is in the affirm-
.ative : the Aphides exclusively possess this faculty.
When Linnaeus, therefore, with so much reason, termed
these little creatures the milch cows of the ants, and
L 2
148 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS,
when all subsequent naturalists have wondered at the
beauty of the analogy, we may well be struck with
admiration at rinding this relation confirmed by those
definite principles of the law of representation which
ive advocate. If the circular group which includes the
Aphides be compared with all those which comprehend
their prototype here mentioned, all these parallel rela-
tions will come out,
(138.) The Coctides, or plant bugs, succeed the last
tribe : these are also of a very small size, and in their
ordinary appearance resemble a scale ; all the parts of
the body being concealed underneath. They live on the
bark and leaves of vegetables, whose juices they suck ;
and are great pests to our hothouse and greenhouse
plants. The males have wings, and are much smaller
than the females, which are apterous. The Coccus
Adonidum Linn, is a familiar example of this family: its
shape has been aptly compared to that of an Oniscus,
or wood-louse : the whole insect is of a pale rose colour,
and appears more or less covered with a fine white meal
or powder : the male is very small, likewise rose-coloured,
somewhat mealy, with semi-transparent milk-white wings,
and four long filaments at the tail : the young are
hatched under the husk or body of the parent, and
afterwards disperse to feed separately. In regard to
their technical characters, the Cocci have many peculiar
to themselves. The female alone is furnished with a
rostrum, or sucker, while the male has only two large
membranaceous wings : this circumstance would seem to
throw a suspicion on the propriety of placing these in-
sects in an order where the number of wings are inva-
riably four; more particularly, as Latreille remarks
that the Coccus Ulmi has two poisers. But the whole
characters, and more especially the innumerable analo-
gies of these insects, show they are the most aberrant of
,Hemiptera, and therefore contain such insects as are
most defective in the powers of flight, just as are the
Coleoptera in the circle of the Ptilota; while their ana-
logy to the Cassidce, Oniscus, and other chelonian types,
ANALOGY OF THE COCCI TO THE CASSID.E. 149
Is remarkably beautiful. However destructive these
insects may be to our fruit trees, they seldom attack
such as are in a sound and healthy state. The Coccus
cacti, or cochineal, has long been celebrated for the beau-
tiful scarlet colour it imparts by dying, and which forms
such an important article of commerce with the Western
World. We may here advert to a common error, still
prevalent among unscientific persons, who suppose that
the cochineal dye is extracted from a berry. This has
originated from the appearance of the animal when dead:
the female, in its full-grown pregnant or torpid state,
swells to such a size, that the legs, antennae, and pro-
boscis become so small in respect to the rest of the
animal, as hardly to be discovered, except by a good eye,
or by the assistance of a glass ; so that, on a general
view, it bears a greater resemblance to a berry than to an
insect We may also advert to another error, viz. that
the cochineal was a species of Coccinella, or ladybird.
This seems to have taken its rise from specimens of the
Coccinella Cacti being sometimes accidentally intermixed
with the cochineal in gathering and drying.
(139.) The analogy which this group bears to the
Cassidas, the tortoises, and other omsciform types, has
already been brought before the reader; but, if he wish to
have this resemblance placed in the strongest light, let him
look to the figure of the Coccus cataphractus of Dr. Shaw *,
where he will see even the plates which compose the shell
of the tortoise, actually defined in the most exact manner
upon this pigmy representative of the chelonian reptiles.
The whole animal, as Dr. Shaw observes, (( being coated
on the upper parts, in the most curious manner, in a
complete suit of milk-white armour, as if cased in
ivory." Again, in allusion to the resemblance which the
Coccides have to a wood-louse, he remarks, that " their
general appearance is very much that of an Oniscus, or
millipede ; the antennae in both having a strong resem-
blance to a pair of forceps, being each curved inwards
* Nat. Mis. vol. v.
& 3
150 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
and pointed." Again, in reference to the Coccus Ado-
nidum, he remarks, i( It has the appearance of a small
millepede, or Oniscus; being of an oval shape, and slightly
convex above, with the body divided into many trans-
verse segments, projecting sharply on the sides, and
furnished with small processes or points." Now, these
words, intended to describe a Coccus, are equally just
when applied to an Oniscus; and, with very little vari-
ation, would be suited to the armadillos among qua-
drupeds, and to the larvae of the Ericinian butterflies.
CHAP. IV.
THE HYMENOPTERA.
(140.) THE order HYMENOPTERA, according to the
series laid down in our last chapter, follows that of the
Hemiptera. If a zoologist, versed in the other classes
of animals, was called upon to select that character which
he considered as the most essential, it would be, that
these insects have an appendage to the tail, either in
the form of a sting, or an oviduct. This character, in
fact, is so general, that it only disappears in a portion of
the order (Tenthredo Linn.) which is aberrant, and
where we should naturally expect some one or more of
the typical characters would be lost. It is by this, also,
that the analogy of the Hymenoptera to the thysanuri-
form larva is produced ; and both these, as will be clearly
shown, are modifications of the ungulated type of qua-
drupeds. Other characters, not so universal as this, are
exhibited in their wings and mouth. The first, where
they exist, are membranaceous and transparent, furnished
with corneous veins, arranged longitudinally and trans-
versely, leaving large spaces, a structure very different
DISTRIBUTION OF THE HYMENOPTERA. 151
from that of the Neuroptera : the mouth is provided
with horny mandibles and a lengthened rostrum, formed
by the maxillse ; this encloses the tongue, which is used
to lick up the food. The metamorphosis is variable, and
shows how little can be depended upon this character
when taken in a primary sense. The larva, in the great
majority, is apod or vermiform ; but in one of the aber-
rant groups it resembles that of the Lepidoptera; while
the pupa is inactive in all. Such, concisely, are the
main characters of the order before us. It is distributed
over the whole of the world; and is, of all insects
(excepting those which produce silk), that which, by
the production of wax and honey, is exceedingly ser-
viceable to man. When we add, that it comprises the
bees, ants, and gall flies, together with the wasps, and
ichneumons, it will be apparent that the Hymenoptera
are the most intelligent of all insects.
(141.) Looking to the characteristics discovered in
all circular groups of the animal kingdom which have
been minutely investigated, we shall take these for our
guide ; and thus, by synthesis, we presume the follow-
ing to be the primary divisions of the class before us :
First, the Apides, or bees, which live almost entirely on
vegetable substances : the body is short, thick, and hairy;
the antennae short and bent, and the legs comparatively
short : they are nearly all nectivorous, and eminently social.
The ants (Formicidce) appear to be the most aberrant
family of this tribe. 2. The Sphecides, or wasps, which
live, either in the larva or perfect state^ upon other in-
sects, which are either killed and devoured, or wounded
and stored up by the parent for the support of the young:
the most typical (Pepsis Fab.) are solitary; only a few,
like the European wasps (Vespa), build their nests in
common. The body is lengthened, generally slender,
and frequently petiolated ; that is, as if placed on a
slender stalk : the antennae are slender arid curved, but
usually geniculated ; and the legs are long, slender, and
frequently serrated or spined externally. None of these
insects collect the pollen of flowers, although many feed
L 4
152 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
upon their nectar. The MutillidfB appear to enter into
this group, and to represent, rather than to associate with,,
the Formicidae. 3. The Ichneumcmides, or ichneumons,
where the appendage to the tail, which has hitherto been
a sting, now assumes the office of an ovipositor, being em-
ployed to deposit the eggs: the enormous developement of
this organ in the typical group (Pimpla, Fab.) is very
remarkable : this, with the parasitic habits of all these
insects, their very slender filiform antennae, and their
linear bodies, which are frequently compressed, appear
to separate them as a distinct tribe from our fourth di-
vision, the Cynipsides, including the Chalcidites, or gall
flies. With few exceptions, these latter are very small,
and even minute, insects, known at once by several
remarkable peculiarities : their antennae are almost al-
ways geniculated, and sometimes pectinated; the body
and limbs are usually ornamented with brilliant metallic
colours ; and the hind legs, like those of the coleo-
pterous genus Haltica, are sometimes thickened ; and
like them, according to Latreille, many have the power
of leaping. They resemble the ichneumons in being pa-
rasitical in their larva state, and the ants by some genera
being without wings. The fifth is the most isolated group
of the whole ; yet the Tenthredines, or saw flies, are so
obviously allied to some of the typical Hymenoptera, that
they cannot possibly be removed from this order, merely
because their preparatory state or metamorphosis is differ-
ent. The perfect insect is immediately known by the ab-
domen being sessile, or joined to the thorax throughout
its whole thickness ; it consequently has no separate
motion, like that possessed by all the other tribes of this
order. As it is not our purpose to enter into the in-
ternal arrangement of these groups, in reference to what
may be the circular succession of their affinities, we
shall at once proceed to their analogies, as being the
chief basis upon which the foregoing arrangement of
the tribes is founded,
ANALOGIES OF THE HYMEN OPTERA.
Analogies of the HYMENOPTERA to the PTILOTA.
Tribes of the Orders of the
Hymenoptera. Analogies. Ptilota,
5 Pre-eminently typical; proboscis}
or tongue very long ; nectivo- > LEPIDOPTERA.
rous. 3
SPHECIDES. { Su b b o1 c y i P s i sh 1 ort nd rapt rial; pr "} HEMIFTERA.
ICHNEUMONIDES. [ c *^ appendages highly deve- j HYMENOPTERA.
CYNIPSIDES. The most aberrant of their circles. COLEOPTERA.
TENTHREDINES. [ H ^ y sS! portionidly large; j NEUROPTERA.
We ground the correctness of the first two analo-
gies upon the unquestionable facts, that the bees are
the most typical, and that the Sphecides are the rapto-
rial, tribes of the order. This arrangement coincides
not merely with the corresponding tribes of the Ptilota,
but with every tribe in the vertebrate and other circles
contained in our preceding volumes. The superior length
of the tongue in the typical bees and butterflies is well
worth remarking, and is strongly contrasted with the
universal shortness of this organ in the raptorial He-
miptera (ReduviusFaib.},2Lud the equally raptorial wasps.
The ichneumons, corresponding to the greater part of
the Pupivora of Latreille, as representatives of the order
in the entire circle, possesses one and only one of
the typical characters in the highest state of develope-
ment, a circumstance which we have frequently had
occasion to point out is universal in all natural groups;
and thus we consider the first three series of our table
to be substantially natural. Respecting the fourth, in
which we place the Cynipsides (including the Chalci-
didce) as a tribe distinct from the ichneumons, we are
not sufficiently clear. For a long time we were dis-
posed to adopt Mr. MacLeay's opinion, that the ants
(Formitidce) constituted one of the primary types of
the order; in which case they would have stood in the
most aberrant position, as types of the Coleoptera; but
154 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
their strong affinity to the more perfect and social Hy-
menoptera, and the impossibility of discovering the least
relation between them and the Tenthredines, has induced
us to doubt the correctness of this opinion, and to substi-
tute, for the present, the Cynipsides including the Chalci-
dites. The singular prolongation of the scutellum in some
of these insects, which Latreille very justly compares to
Scutellera, gives them, at first sight, a closer resemblance
to Coleoptera than any other insects of this order yet dis-
covered: this, at least, we can say, that two or three
species found by us in Brazil have this aspect so strongly,
that we mistook them, at first, for Mordella. The pe-
culiarity also mentioned by Latreille, of most of the
Fabrician Chalcidida enjoying the faculty of leaping, is
another point wherein they resemble the most aberrant
tribe of the Coleoptera, no less than the Syphonostoma,
or fleas, the acknowledged representatives of the beetles
among apterous insects. Families, again, in which me-
tallic colours run through the great majority of the
species, are invariably the most aberrant in their own
circles. We find this true in the humming birds, the
tanagrine genus Agla'ia, the. metallic pheasants of India,
and the prismatic mouse of the same region. It is again
seen in the ChrysomelidcB in the circle of the Coleoptera,
in the Buprestida, in that of the Lamellicornes, and in
the Curculionida among the Capricornes. However
unprepared we may therefore be, to offer any opinion
worth adopting on the rank of the Chalcidites and of the
ants, we have not a doubt that both they and the genus
Chrysis, together with the Mutillidce, are all repre-
sentatives of the Coleoptera, wherever their actual lo-
cation in nature may be. As for the latter group,
the Mutillidce, we look upon them as more related to
the true ants by analogy than by affinity: they agree only
in being apterous, a circumstance so common in widely
different groups of this order, that it is by no means
sufficient to constitute an affinity. The analogies of
the saw flies (Tenthrddines) to the aberrant Neuroptera,
(or the Pkryganida), although not so apparent, perhaps,
PARASITISM OP THE HYMENOPTEBA. 155
in the perfect insects, are yet sufficiently strong to cor-
roborate the idea of their being related to each other;
for both have their larvae cruciform. But in what
manner, if any, the Tenthredines are connected to the
more typical bees, must be determined by analysis.
Characters founded upon any one single organ are ge-
nerally artificial : yet it is very remarkable that, in the
two typical groups of our arrangement of this order, the
caudal appendage performs the office of a sting, while
in the three aberrant divisions it assumes the functions
of an ovipositor. Should our theory of the primary
types be correct, no better characteristic of them can
be giveno
(142.) Preliminary to our special treatment of the
habits., economy, distribution, and peculiarities of struc-
ture of the successive groups into which the Hymeno-
ptera have thus resolved themselves, we propose making
a few observations upon the order collectively. In the
first place, we may remark that sexual discrepancies are as
perplexing to the entomologist here, as in the other or-
ders, and there is as frequently a difficulty in associating
together the partners of a species : this is conspicuously
the case among the bees. In the aculeated division of
the Hymenoptera, there is, however, a tangible cha-
racter whereby the sex of the individual may be discri-
minated ; for the males have one joint more to the
antennae and the abdomen than the females. In the
preceding orders of which we have treated, we have had
occasion to observe the parasitical habits of many of
the species, which o^cur more or less considerably
throughout all insects. VHere, however, although it is
found very extensively amongst the Diptera also, it
reaches its maximum; for one group, the Ichneumonides,
as we here consider them, are almost exclusively para-
sites. The term will receive its explanation by our ex-
hibiting the characteristic and discriminating features
whereby it distinguishes itself in the several tribes in
which it occurs. The Ichneumonides , or, as they were
named by Latreille, Pupivora, from the peculiarity in*.
156* NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
cidental to their mode of parasitism, deposit their eggs
either upon or within the egg or larva of the insect
upon which they are parasitical. The young, when dis-
closed,, if deposited upon the surface, eats its way into
the insect upon which it preys ; but yet, guided by its
instinct, it feeds so cautiously as not to interrupt the
vital functions, and the creature progresses to the ma-
turity of the pupa state, but, of course, in a sickly con-
dition. Having undergone this change, its insidious
enemy still lurking within it, its existence then draws to
a close, for the parasite, becoming less restricted in
its diet, consumes all before it; and having by that time
acquired its full growth, it transforms either within the
husk of the insect upon which it had preyed, or it
pierces through this and spins its cocoon, and therein
takes its metamorphosis upon the surface of this case.
Sometimes a larva feeds but one of these parasites,
when it consists of the larger normal Ichneumones; but
myriads at other times inhabit it, when these are com-
posed of Chalcidites. In these last instances, more than
one species frequently prey at the same time upon the
devoted victim, as we have repeatedly had occasion to
observe, and much to our vexation; for, after having used
every precaution to rear some rare lepidopterous larva,
we have found all our assidous exertions thwarted by
these tiny foes. It is not, however, the Lepidoptera
alone that are subjected to these attacks, but some prey
likewise on the Coleoptera ; and it is not improbable that
all the orders may be infested by them, they having so
little fellow feeling as to be destructive even to their
own order. The second kind of parasites are those
which occur in our group of Sphecides : these deposit
their eggs within the nests of other Spheces, frequently
of the same genus as themselves, for the purpose of being
nurtured at the expense of the young, by consuming the
food laid up in store by the provident parent; and,
doubtlessly, these insects, being predatorial and carni-
vorous, feed upon the unhappy larva itself. An awk-
ward collision must of course sometimes occur, where
PARASITISM OF THE HY3JENOPTERA. 157
the developement of the parasitic larva is less rapid than
that of its intended victim, and this, by acquiring
early sufficient strength, neutralises the object of the
parents, and turns " the tables " upon its progeny. A
subdivision of this parasitical mode of breeding we
observe among the bees, which more resemble that of
the cuckoo than either of the other; and from this
^circumstance, those genera of bees wherein it occurs
have been called cuckoo bees. Here it is merely the
food that is laid up in store, that has been preyed upon
by the larva of the parasite; for the bee not being at all
carnivorous, the genuine inhabitant for whom the provi-
sion was made is starved by its abstraction by this intruder.
In the bees that possess this habit, it is always an entire
genus, and not a portion of a genus, as we have ob-
served among the Sphecides; although the same object
of resemblance is frequently obtained, by these parasitic
bees belonging very generally, from structural character,
to a cognate division of the group, as we shall have oc-
casion to instance below. With regard to structure, we
may here remark, that it occurs in a less fully developed
state throughout this second division of parasites ; but
this is compensated by the superior instinct with which
they are endowed, to enable them to evade the sagacity
of the insects upon which they prey. Instances, how-
ever, of fearful retribution we shall record below, when
we treat specially of the groups; and where we shall
show that severe punishment has followed the heedless
temerity of the parasite, when it has too rashly exposed
itself to the indignation of the enraged parent. Al-
though we have already observed that there are apparent
deficiencies in the analogical structure of these latter
parasites, we are not to note these as defects, but as a
further exemplification of the universal economy exhi-
bited every where in nature, which, fitting every thing to
its end, is never lavish in superfluous, and consequently
useless, implements.
(143.) In speaking here of the parasitic habits of
the Hymenoptera, we may notice, that they are them-
158 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
selves exposed to the parasitical propensities of indi-
viduals belonging to other orders. This we here merely
glance at, as we shall have further occasion to notice it ;
and it therefore remains for us to observe, in these
general remarks, that we think it very probable that
this order of the Hymenoptera will, eventually, when it
shall have obtained all the attention from entomologists
that it so well merits, prove numerically as extensive,
or perhaps more extensive, than any other. In cor-
roboration of the plausibility of this supposition, we
have only to advert to the hosts of minute Hymenoptera
discovered throughout the small area of our own
country, and described by Messrs. Walker and Haliday ;
and when we reflect upon the prolific exuberance of
more genial climates, exemplified in the multitudes of
insects of the favourite orders of Lepidoptera and C0-
leoptera which the zeal of collectors have brought
together, we may rationally expect that an assiduity
equivalent to Mr. Darwin's would speedily advance the
species of Hymenoptera to a triumphant competition
in number with the most numerous of the recorded
orders.
(144.) The Apides, or bees, compose our first large
group. These insects are well known, from the uni-
versal reputation of the typical genus Apis, the do-
mestic bee, which, from its social habits, has ever been
esteemed emblematical of the monarchical government ;
whilst its steady industry, in storing up provision for
the contingencies of a barren period, have been the
admired theme of sages and moralists, who have con-
stantly referred to it to rouse the inertness of indolence,
and have cited it as an example of prudential foresight.
These have thus given a name to a large group of
insects, which, upon the progress of systematic ento-
mology, were found to possess certain analogous pecu-
liarities of structure. It must not, however, be inferred,
because the bee most extensively known is social in
its habits, and has been domesticated by man to con-
tribute to his luxuries and comforts,, that all bees par-
GENERAL HABITS OF THE BEES. 159
ticipate in these instincts, and are equally fitted for a
similar subjugation. This opinion would be erroneous,
for it is among the social bees only that we find those
thus serviceable; and, although a few other genera of
bees are also social, we are not aware that any have
been domesticated like our common hive bee, or its
congeners, although the nests of the other social species
are constantly plundered by the natives and inhabitants
of the countries where they are found. The large ma-
jority of bees are, indeed, solitary in their habits, form-
ing either cylindrical burrows in a variety of substances
according to the species, or a cluster of small oval cells,
placed usually within a cavity, either found or formed
by the insect ; and these cells are constructed sometimes
of small particles of earth, or of a moulded clay.*
They then deposit wiihin them a store of food, con-
sisting of a paste, formed by a mixture of pollen and
honey, to serve as provision for the young. Having
laid up this magazine, in the due proportions of which
the mother insect is guided by an unerring instinct,
she then deposits her egg upon it, and encloses an
adequate space for the developement of her larva, and
of its transformation. As we observed above, the
several genera and species select different substances,
wherein they nidificate ; and they also follow different
modes in the occupation of these burrows, for some
line them with various substances, and others occupy
them bare as they occur, but perfectly smooth within.
Some, also, make them suit a succession of cells ; and
others deposit but one egg, and food but for one young
one, in each; but we shall have further opportunity
below to notice these different habitations, wherever
they present any remarkable peculiarity of structure.
These insects themselves are frequently very hairy,
although many are completely smooth ; and they are
* An exotic genus, closely allied to Osmia, appears to form its cells of a
rude kind of wax. This is a remarkable instance of any but a social bee
using wax. We should not, however, thence infer, that, as in the other
cases, it was a secretion of the insect, but possibly a vegetable production*
or perhaps the result of plunder from one of the social kinds.
160 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
generally of sombre and uniform colours : but some are
adorned with the gayest metallic and party-coloured
vestments ; yet it is chiefly among the parasitic tribes
that a gaudy costume is conspicuous. The purpose
which bees have to fulfil in the economy of nature, is
to collect the superfluous pollen of flowers, and whilst
collecting it, to convey it from plant to plant, whereby
the impregnation of these is more securely effected than
if it were left to the accidental agency of the wind ;
and, although this object is partially concealed beneath
the instinctive propensity to collect nutriment for their
young, yet is it so conspicuous, and has been so fully
proved by the careful researches and observations of
Sprengel and Kohlenreuter, that it must excite universal
admiration at the comparatively simple, yet certain,
means, Nature so frequently adopts to obtain important
results, one process accomplishing manifold purposes.
To effect this end, they are of course furnished with
adequate organs; and they are assisted to convey it,
whilst collecting it from flower to flower, usually by
means of a dense brush of hair, sometimes surrounding
the posterior tibiae and basal joint of the tarsus, but
which is placed occasionally merely externally upon
those members : in conjunction with this brush, there is
frequently a long curled lock of hair at the base of the
femur beneath ; and where this occurs, the whole of
that member is fringed, or the sides of the metathorax
behind are very hairy. In others, the clothing of the
legs is superseded by a very thick brush, occupying
the under side of the abdomen ; but, in the social
genera, in lieu of the brush upon the posterior tibiae,
these, as well as the basal tarsal joint, are considerably
dilated, and hollowed or flattened externally, and the
margin fringed with hair, which thus forms a receptacle
called a corbiculum, or basket, for the clodded masses
of pollen and honey made into a paste by these social
insects, or for the other stores of different materials
that they may require in their domestic economy.
Having thus briefly noticed these generalities, we will
SUBDIVISION OF THE BEKS. l6l
now proceed to the investigation of the contents of this
group of insects.
(145.) It has been found convenient by systematists
to subdivide the bees into two large groups, which are
determined by the mode in which the tongue or probos-
cis is folded in repose, and the comparative length of
that organ. Of course, it was to be expected that a
lengthy organ, as this usually is, must be folded, to en-
able it to be brought within the protection of the horny
parts of the mouth. Thus, in the Andrenid<z } which
constitute the first large division, we find the proboscis
folding only at its base ; and this, from the comparative
shortness of the organ, draws it sufficiently within its
protecting cases ; or at most the extreme apex (the
lingua) is recurved, and thus the large angle is placed
behind, the tongue lying in front of it and forwards.
In the ApidfSj however, we find a double flexure, there
being still a small basal bend ; but another larger one
occurs in front,, at the insertion of the maxillary palpi ;
and this throws the tongue backwards beneath, and
whither the apical half of the maxilla? follow it,
and cover it with their horny protection. The distri-
bution into genera, of the insects composing these two
divisions., has been effected by studying the compara-
tive proportions of the proboscis, and the varying num-
bers and forms of the articulations of the palpi, taken
either independently^ or in conjunction with other
peculiarities of structure,, such as the form of the legs
and tarsi, their clothing, the clothing of the venter, and
neuration of the wings; and the correctness of this
mode of investigation is corroborated by its always as-
sociating insects nearly identical in form and habits.
To the Rev. Mr. Kirby we are indebted for this in-
valuable arrangement, and the work wherein it is re-
corded, the Monographia Apum Anglice, will remain
the noblest monument of his entomological immortality.
It is much to be regretted, that certain fastidious views
with respect to nomenclature interfered with his giving
names to the sections into which he broke up this
1(>2 NATUSAI* ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
large concourse of insects ; for,, by omitting to do it, k
has unfortunately happened that names have been ap-
plied to them by Illiger, Latreille, and other continental
authors, whereby our countryman has partly been de-
prived of the well-earned universal record of his labours.
We must not; however, complain of the candour of
these authors, for they have done ample justice to the
originality and merits of Mr. Kirby's treatise, which
we cannot too strongly recommend to the diligent and
careful study of young entomologists. They will find
that it will teach them to digest thoroughly their plans ;
and it will enlarge their views beyond the feverish
expectancy of a precocious and questionable celebrity,
so easily and unworthily attainable, by the establish-
ment of insulated remarkable genera ; for it is only by
taking up groups, and thoroughly discussing them, that
the progress of the science can be at all promoted.
(146.) We find that it is by Colletesiu theANDRENiD^E
that the bees are most intimately connected with the
Spheces and wasps ; its bilobated tongue exhibits the
point of contact with some of the extreme genera of
fossorial aculeates. This genus is also remarkable from
its mode of nidification, and the silken cells it forms ;
and by its possessing two parasites, one the beautifully
variegated Epeolus, a cuckoo bee, and the other the
dipterous genus Miltogramma. The peculiarities of
the other genera of the Andrenida are, the wood bur-
rowing parasitic Hyl&us, which, when caught, emits a
delightful and powerful fragrance of lemons ; and
Sphecodes: the insects upon which these are parasitical,
the most careful research has not yet discovered. We
next have the extensive genus Hallctus, which is pecu-
liar for the caudal vertical incision in the females, and
the cylindrical body and length of antennae in the
males. We here find another exemplification of the
divergence of extensive genera from their types ; for
we observe forms in this genus which seem to point in
a variety of directions. Although the genus occurs
throughout the world, it is found most extensively in
GENERA OP ANDRENIDJE. l63
America and Europe; but it is in the former that its
most eccentric species occur. The approximate genus
JVomia, which is also found throughout the world, ap-
pears to represent Hatictus in India, where possibly it
is of similar extent, if we may judge analogically from
the diversities of form that occur in the species we
have seen. This genus is distinguished by the usually
very enormously enlarged and curiously spined posterior
femora and tibise, and elongated tarsi of the males, and
the frequently very large tegulse of both sexes. A re-
markable species of this genus we are acquainted with
from the Cape, which has the anterior tarsi dilated like
the first section of Megachile. In this division we will
only further allude to the extremely elegant Dasypoda,
which derives its name from its densely hairy posterior
tibiae and tarsi, and which are furnished with an in-
creased facility for retaining the large masses of pollen
they enable the insect to convey, by each hair giving
off' on each side, throughout its whole length, other in-
numerable very short and slender hairs.* The re-
markable genus Macropis Klug (the Meg ilia labiata of
Fabricius) has recently been added to the British fauna ;
and we owe the possession of this unique insect to the
liberality of the captor, Mr. Walton, who took it in the
New Forest ; but we introduce the notice of it here, only
to observe that it distinctly points in many peculiarities
to the fourth division of the solitary bees (the Scopuli-
pedes). The typical genus Andrena is perhaps of still
greater extent than Halictus; but its range, both struc-
tural and geographical, is more confined, indeed, it rarely
presents abnormal species. It was upon one of this
genus (A. nigrocenea) that Mr. Kirby made the inter-
esting discovery of the very singular parasite Stylops,
* Various kinds of this peculiar structure occur in different genera, and
none of which have before been noticed : it has also modifications which
accomplish the same purpose; thus, in Panurgus, instead of the hairs being
pilose, they are crenulated towards their extremity. That it only accom-
panies certain peculiarities of economy is proved by many of the very hairy-
legged divisions of the bees (the Scopulipedes) having these hairs entirely
simple. I am preparing a paper on the subject, in which all these peculi-
arities will be shown. W. E. Sh.
M 2
164 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
the peculiarities of the natural history of which we
shall give in its proper place ; and it is also upon An~
drena that the little hexapod creatures occur,, called, we
think very correctly, Pediculi by Mr. Kirby, but which
have been asserted to be the larvae of Meloe : the
correctness of this opinion we dispute ; but shall leave
the notice of our reasons for doing so until we arrive
at the Coleoptera. We are farther acquainted with
many undescribed exotic forms among the Andrenida,
some of which are highly interesting.
(147-) We now enter the division of the APID^E, or
genuine bees, where the diversities of form and struc-
ture are greater than in the preceding division, and
which consequently has given rise to a more extensive
subdivision into genera. It is, however, very probable,
judging from the contents of the collections which we
possess and have seen, that the species are not nume-
rically greater than in the Andrenidce. The Apidce re-
solve themselves very naturally into two subdivisions,
the solitary bees and social bees. The first of these sub-
divisions, the solitary bees, may be conveniently grouped
according to very obvious structural peculiarities, and
which, as usual, concur with the habits of the insects.
(14-8.) We have, Firstly, the ANDRENOIDES, or those
approaching, both in structure and habits, to the Andre-
nidte. These make their burrows in a similar way to
the typical portion of that group, and have their posterior
tarsi formed upon the same structural model : they also,
like those insects, generally frequent syngenesious plants.
The most remarkable genera are Rophites, which has
the apex of the abdomen in the male denticulated be-
neath ; and Systropha, which in that sex has the ex-
tremity of the antennae very singularly curved. The
general structure of Nomada includes it better within
this group than with the other cuckoo bees, with which,
from habits, it might otherwise be associated. These
gay and wasplike insects are parasitical upon various
species of Andrena and Halictus, but one infests
Eucera.
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE APID^E. 165
(149-) The second subdivision of the solitary bees, the
Dasygastrcs, are thus named from the hirsute clothing
of their venter, by which they carry their provisions, and
never by their legs, which is the case in all other bees.
They constitute a large group, some of the genera of
which are very extensive in species, and many of these
have received vernacular names. Thus, we have the
LEAF-CUTTER BEES, Megachile, for instance, a very nu-
merous genus, extending all over the known world, and
tolerably equally distributed. The males of some of the
species have the anterior tarsi considerably dilated. It
is upon these insects that the coleopterous genus Clerus
is probably parasitical. They derive their name from
the habit many of them possess of cutting semicircular
pieces of leaves from different plants, and with which
they line their burrows, usually formed in soft and de-
caying wood, whence they have sometimes been called
carpenter bees, which is perhaps better restricted to Xy-
locopa. It is upon the cognate genus Chelostoma that
Mr. Marsham observed the Ichneumon, Pimpla Manifes-
tator, which has so largely a developed ovipositor, to be
parasitical. In this group there is no genus, excepting
only Lithurgus, which does not occur in Great Britain.
(150.) We have next the MASON BEES, Osmice^ the
majority of this group form their nests in the third mode
we have described above ; and Anthidium, insects gaily
marked with yellow bands and spots. In this genus the
males are greatly larger than the females, and under the
impulse of passion convey her off into the upper air.
This genus is further remarkable for the habit it has
of lining its nests with the downy coating of plants. It
does not, in this country, make its appearance much
before the summer solstice.
(151.) Upon these follow the CUCKOO BEES, which
are all parasites ; but although it is convenient to group
together a certain number of these on structural accounts,
yet shall we find some genera of parasitic bees strag-
gling into the following subdivisions that we have to
notice. Here we have Melecta, that infests the grega-
M 3
166 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
rious Anthophora and Eucera; the very gay Crocisa,
distinguished for its beautiful white and caerulean mark-
ings ; the pretty little Ammobates, Phileremus, and
Epeolus, parasitical upon Colletes, and Calioxys whose
young is reared at the expense of that of Megachile.
We further observe the exotic respleridently metallic
Aglae^esoriychia, and Mesocheira; Ischnocera,v?lth its
exceedingly attenuated and nodose antennae in the males.
The three last of these are conspicuous for the structure
of the calcar of the intermediate legs, which are furcated
towards the apex, and one of the branches multidentate,
resembling an expanded hand with its thumb and fingers.
It is very probable, also, that the beautiful and large
genus Acanthopus belongs to this group, for the female
is not known, and it has a similarly constructed inter-
mediate spur : the furcation of this organ probably su-
persedes the possession of the usual pair. With the
exception of Melecta and Crocisa, which are cosmopo-
litans, we have detected these parasitic genera to be
natives only of Europe and America ; and the richly
metallic species being, as far as we are yet acquainted
with them, restricted to Tropical America and the West
Indian islands.
( 1 52.) The last large subdivision of the solitary bees,
the Scopulipedes, or HAIRY-LEGS, collectively present the
most assiduous collectors of pollen among the bees : the
posterior tibia and basal joint of the tarsus are densely
hirsute in all ; and in many it is difficult to detect the
form of the limb for the hair : the thickened and dis-
torted structure of the legs of the males of many of
them is very remarkable. The habits of a few only
are known, the majority being exotic; and the collectors
of exotic insects have rarely cared to notice or record
the habits of their captures. Our native genera consist
of Eucera,, named from the length of the antennae of its
male; Saropoda, and the gregarious Anthophora, the
tones of the hum of the different species of which are
so peculiar and distinctive. Here also should be placed
the small Southern African genus Allodapa; and our
HABITS OP XYLOCOPA. 167
pTetty little Ceratina may be inserted contiguous to the
continental and exotic Xylocopa. The latter constitute
a very numerous genus, for we are acquainted with more
than a hundred species, and they are the largest and most
bulky of all known bees ; the female of the oriental X.
latipes being more than an inch in length, and two inches
in expansion. These are most truly carpenter bees ; and
as they occur numerously in countries fertile in timber,
and of an exuberant vegetation, one purpose of their
economy may be to hasten its decomposition when dead,
by exposing it to the internal access of wet and fungi,
by the large lengthy longitudinal perforations they make
to deposit their young in security. They are subjected
in the West Indies to the parasitical attacks of the cole-
opterous genus Horia ; and probably, in other countries,
other parasites prey on them. This genus presents some
difficulties in its study, arising from the uniform in-
tensely black colour of the greatest number of the species :
their wings, which are of a brilliantly metallic steely
blue or coppery colour, have been referred to as affording
safe specific diagnostics ; but we think incorrectly, for
they are liable to all the contingencies of age and use :
the sculpture of the clypeus we consider presents a
safer clue. In the great majority of this genus, nothing
but direct observation can bring together the genuine
partners of the same species, as in very many instances
the males are yellow or fulvous, and the females black
or metallic. Here, as in Nomia and Halictus, we ob-
serve the species diverging in structure from the type.
In some males we detect a dilatation of the anterior
tarsi, as in Megachile; but these appear linked to the
more normal form by means of the fulvous species, which
have the anterior tarsi densely ciliated. Another diver-
gent form from Western Africa, which has the inter-
mediate legs very long and spined, and with curled locks
of hair, has been raised, unduly we think, to the rank of
a genus, by the name of Mesotrichia, and has been con-
sidered as linking Xylocopa to Anthophora, by means of
those species of the latter which also have males with
M 4
1 63
NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
elongated intermediate legs : these are, however, also,
abnormal species, and ought not to be considered typical.
This subdivision contains very many more genera, such as
JEpicharis, Centris, Oxaa, c. ; the mere names of which,
as they convey neither information nor amusement, we
will pass over : we may, however, state that it is in this
subdivision that bees with the longest and most highly
organised tongues are found.
(153.) The last division of the bees, the social tribe,
are doubtlessly the most interesting of all, from their
habits, economy, and uses. Our space will not admit
of our going particularly into these circumstances ; and
it is the less necessary, as there is no treatise on Ento-
mology but what abounds with details upon them ; and
we shall therefore only speak of those particulars that
have been hitherto least noticed. The genera of these
insects consist of Bombus Linn., and its parasite Psi~
thyrus St. Farg., Euglossa Fab., and the identical Cne-
midium Pty., and Eulaima St. Farg., with their parasite
Chrysantheda Pty.: Mellipona and Trigona of Latreille,
and lastly Apis itself. The species of the genus Bombus
form or seek cavities in the ground, which some line
with a warm coating of moss interwoven together, and
within which they build a series of irregularly clustered
oval cells constructed of a very coarse kind of wax:
others do not form this mossy lining, but instinctively
seek a very sheltered situation. Bombus appears to be
a northern and chiefly European and American genus:
there are very few intertropical species ; and we only
know two oriental. The genus Psithyrus so closely
resembles the insects upon which they are parasitical,
that they readily escape detection, and are not uncom-
monly confounded with them by naturalists. It is still
uncertain if Euglossa is social, and if their communities
consist of three kinds of individuals. This has been
assumed, upon the analogous structure of their posterior
legs, which much resemble those of Mellipona and Tri-
gona: the majority of the species are splendidly me-
tallic ; and we think both Cnemidium and Eulaima too
THE SOCIAL BEES. 169
closely like them to admit of generic subdivision. Chry-
santheda, we have not the least doubt, is parasitical upon
the metallic Euglossce. These insects belong exclusively
to the western hemisphere, and it has been stated that
such is the case also with Mellipona and Trigona ; but
we are acquainted with species of the latter, which were
brought from Java by Dr. Horsfield, and from Sumatra
by sir Stamford Raffles, and St. Fargeau has also de-
scribed one from Timor. From the vicinity of the
latter island to New Holland, it is, therefore, not impro-
bable that this genus may be discovered there; for we
have yet seen no genuine bee from that country, ex-
cepting such as have been imported by colonists, nor do
we know any insect that does there represent it. These
insects, Mellipona and Trigona, are likewise frequently
found in gum anime and copal. The occurrence of
bees without stings is an anomaly that we are scarcely
prepared to expect, especially where there are such rich
stores to defend as these insects form ; and yet this is
reputed to be the case with the indigenous social and
honey-making bees of America. Those of the genus
Apis which are found there were originally introduced
by colonists; but they have now permanently naturalised
themselves, and occur at large in the woods. Much
obscurity still hangs over the natural history of Mel-
lipona and Trigona, and we are yet insufficiently ac-
quainted with their sexes. The marquis Spinola has
recently helped to clear away some of the difficulties
involving these insects, and has shown that we are
scarcely to expect here those great sexual discre-
pancies that we meet with in the genuine Apis. These
insects are usually very small ; and all that we know of
their natural history is, that their nests consist of large
assemblies of individuals, which form their waxen hives
within hollow trees or the cavities of rocks. They
make large quantities of wax, and are not, apparently,
so economical in its use as Apis; for, from the figure
given of a portion of one of their nests by Huber, in the
Transactions of the Society of Natural History of Ge~
170 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
neva, it appears more carelessly and less ingeniously
formed, although the hexagonal structure of the cells
still predominates in it. Some, it is said, form nests of
irregularly attached oval cells, like our Bombi. It is
quite impossible to think of giving here, where we are
so cramped for space, any thing like a suitable account
of the economy of the hive bee (Apis domcstica) and
its congeners; but as this is dwelt upon in every book
treating upon insects, we shall merely mention the
extent of its distribution. Thirteen have hitherto been
described, and others we know: two species only seem
to occur in Europe, one confined to the North (our do-
mestic bee), and the other to the South. Others, we
surmise, might possibly be found in Spain, from its
proximity to Africa, were that fine country diligently
searched. Western Africa and India appear to produce
the greatest number of species ; but we believe they
are not as diligently cultivated in those countries as in
Europe and Egypt, although this might be supposed to
be the case in Western Africa, from the large quantities
of wax that are imported thence, and which are brought
from the interior. It would be trite to remark upon
the uses of these industrious little insects to man, prior
to the discovery of the sugar-cane. They must also
have abounded in Judea that land flowing with milk
and honey; and the allusions of the oriental poets show
the extent of their appropriation throughout the east.
The enormous consumption of wax in catholic countries,
both now, and when Europe was wholly catholic, and
before it could be substituted by a vegetable extract,
and the produce of a whale, exhibits the little insect in
another light, that of contributing to the religious
rites of man ; and this further shows what extensive
employment they must have afforded to multitudes of
individuals : but we will close the subject with ex-
pressing our gratitude for its adaptation to the wants
and the comforts of man, and our great admiration of
the wonders of its economy and instincts. We have
dwelt purposely longer upon this group of insects, from
ECONOMY OF THE FORMICID^. 171
the universal interest that attaches to them, than we
shall be able to do with the other groups of the Hymen-
optera, or than otherwise our prescribed and limited
space would have authorised.
(154.) The FORMICID^E, or ants, are the next large
group of which we shall treat ; but the connection be-
tween them and the bees is any thing but apparent, as
they seem allied only by their social habits. These
habits present us with very many interesting peculiar-
ities, which, however, have been studied only in a few
European species. To judge from the eccentricities of
form presented by the majority of exotic species, we may
rationally conclude that their diversities of structure run
parallel with differences in their economy and manners.
Wherever Nature presents a peculiarity of workmanship,
it is not a merely futile display of power, but it has a
direct tendency to a specific purpose, which, although
not always obvious, is necessarily to be inferred from
the unvarying evidence we already possess wherever we
can trace it to its object. All the species of this group
comprise three individuals ; or sometimes four, if the
fourth, where it occurs, may be considered otherwise than
as a modification of the third. These consist of males,
females, and neuters, or workers ; to which, in some
species, another class that of soldiers appears to be
added. Whether these neuters, as in the social bees,
are to be considered as abortive females; and whether
the ants possess the means, like the bees, of supplying
any accidental contingency in the nest, by developing
the sexual inertness of these neuters, through any par-
ticular course of nurture, has not yet been ascertained.
There seems to be no 'uniformity, even amongst congeners,
in their habits or architecture, for we observe species of
the same genus following different modes of life. As
amongst the social bees, some possess stings, and some
are without these formidable weapons, which are, how-
ever, supplied by a very powerful acid secreted by them,
and ejected in defence, and which is doubtlessly quite as
effectual in protecting them from their natural enemies.
172 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
It is within the tropics that these insects chiefly abound,,
and where they are excessively destructive ; and nothing
seems efficiently protective against their incursions. The
group has been divided according to the structure of the
abdomen; which in some has but one node only to its
peduncle, but in others it has two. It is in the first
division that we find the stingless genera, namely, For-
mica Linn., Formicina Shkd., Polyergus Latr., Polyrha-
chis Shkd.j and Dolichoderus Lund, besides several other
yetun characterised genera, which we shall shortly publish.
(155.) The Formicina rufa, or horse ant, forms those
large nests of dry leaves and sticks we so frequently ob-
serve in the woods ; and within these nests two genera
of Staphylini appear to be parasitical Lomechusa and
Pella; and in their deepest recesses innumerable wood-
lice (Onisci} are constantly found. The nature of the
connection between these insects has not yet been ascer-
tained, but perhaps it may be analogous to what has
been observed between other species and the Aphides.
It has been said that the larva of Cistela lepturo'ides also
lives in the nest of this species. Another singular Sta-
phylinus (the minute Claviger\ which is totally blind,
and otherwise remarkable in structure, inhabits the nests
of the Formicina Jiava, where it has once been dis-
covered in this country. Some of the species and genera
of this tribe, it is said, exclusively of the Formicidfe,
seek in the nests of other species, but always of the same
tribe, the auxiliaries, upon which they impose all the
" out-door " labours of the community ; but it is the
genus Polyergus which is most distinguished for its sub-
jugation of " helots," or " slaves/' Cercopis and Mem-
brads, two genera of Hemiptera, supply the place of
the <f Cow Aphis " to the Brazilian genus Dolichoderus.
All the Formicidce are extremely pugnacious, and fight
with inveterate obstinacy ; and frequently issue from
their nests in close columns, for the purpose of attacking
neighbouring colonies ; this, of course, with variable suc-
cess, but great slaughter is always made. Odontomachus
constitutes the transition from the stingless to the acu-?
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE FOllMICID^l. I'JS
leated division of the Formicidce. These insects construct
their nests in hollow trees,, and are exclusively found in
the New World and its islands; but we are acquainted
with a yet uncharacterised genus from Ceylon, which
closely links the latter with the next genus, Ponera. The
latter is of universal distribution, but exceedingly variable
in form ; it at present evidently incorporates many other
very distinct genera, which we propose separating from
it. By the strangulation of the second segment of its
abdomen, it makes a very convenient passage to the next
division of the group, those with two nodes to that
portion of the body. We are unacquainted with its
habits ; but in the absence of any account of extensive
building or mining, which could scarcely have escaped
observation, from the multitude of species that have been
collected, we surmise that its powerful mandibles indi-
cate very destructive propensities. The communities of
the European species (which also occurs in this country),
P. contracta, are said to be small, and to live under
stones; and, indeed, the neuters only, of one sub-genus
in particular, the Ponera gigantea, have come under our
notice ; which, from its conspicuous size, would cer-
tainly have attracted attention, had they formed large
dwellings, or associated in numerous bodies. In the
division with two nodes to the peduncle, we have some
doubt if Condylodon Lund, be truly an ant, for its form
greatly resembles some of the Mutillida. Lund, during
the whole of his residence in the Brazils, observed only
a single specimen of the genus. We are, however, ac-
quainted with nine species, all apterous, and all of
which seem very rare ; and this circumstance, even if
they be social, would of course imply that their societies
were small. Myrmecia, of which the type is the F. gu-
losa Fab., is exclusively confined to New Holland and
its adjacent islands ; it appears to be very numerous in
distinct species, which .differ considerably in size, even
more so than we usually observe in natural genera,
which generally present a tolerable uniformity. Eciton
is exclusively American ; and its type, the F. hamata,
174 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS,
presents us with the most singular structure of the man-
dibles observable in the Formicidce : these organs., which
are slender,, are protruded in a curve to a great length,
and are at their apex recurved upon each other. We
think it probable that this form is merely a modifica-
tion of the neuter of the Formica curvidentata ; for,
with the exception of the mandibles, both have an iden-
tity of organisation,, and exhibit the smallest eyes of any
of the group. We may, indeed, here observe generally,
that the eyes of the Formicida present greater differ-
ences of size and position than we detect in any other
natural group of insects, and in several they are totally
wanting. Eciton appears also numerous in species, and
neuters only do we know, but these are evidently genuine
ants. The universally distributed Crematogaster dis-
plays a singularly recurved and heart-shaped abdomen,
which has its peduncle inserted from above. Myrmica,
and a few small cognate forms, are the only ones of
this division that occur in Great Britain. The At-
tidce, which offer such an enormously developed head
in the modification of the neuter individuals, takes a
more southern range ; and the genus (Ecodoma, the type
of which is the Form, cephalotes, appears to be tropical
and American ; but we know allied forms from the east,
which,, perhaps, possess equally destructive propensities,
and constitute as numerous communities. We must,
however, hasten on; for a volume bulkier than the pre-
sent would scarcely do justice to all the peculiarities of
habits and organisation that we meet with in the For-
micidce: but we cannot quit them without noticing the
spider-like form of Cryptocerus ; and, indeed,, Lund
informs us that its habits and movements as much re-
semble those of a spider as does its form. It is com-
paratively solitary, although consisting of three indi-
viduals; and is usually found upon or beneath leaves,
lurking, curled up, ready to spring upon its unwary
prey. It derives its name from the structure of the
head, which has, on each side, a deep lateral channel ;
wherein, in repose, the antennae are inserted and con-
THE DORYLID^E. 175
cealed. The male has not yet been noticed, and per-
haps not before known, as it differs in this particular
from its female. The genus has hitherto been con-
sidered wholly American; but we possess a species from
New Holland, and we are acquainted with a closely
allied genus from the east. It appears to us, from a
careful review of an extensive collection of the Formi-
cidte, that the genera hitherto established, with a few
exceptions only, constitute the types of as many natural
families. Contiguous to the Formicid&we observe the
Dorylidtf, a small and very natural group of insects,
one sex only (the males) of which, throughout its four
very distinct and marked forms, have yet come to Eu-
rope; and this is the more striking, as the genera con-
sist of several species. We have hazarded the hypo-
thesis*, founded upon analogous peculiarities of structure
both with these and the contiguous groups, that certain
blind and apterous insects, ant-like in their appearance,
from Africa and the West Indies (Anomma Shkd. and
TyphloponeWestS), may possibly be the females of some;
but this is merely conjecture. Two forms of this group,
Dorylus and Rhogmus, occur in Africa; the former, how-
ever, extend to India. The latter continent exhibits
another form peculiar to itself ((Eriictus Shkd.), which
links, by participating in the structure of both, Dorylus
with that form of the group (Labidus) found exclu-
sively in America and its dependencies. These insects
are further remarkable from the sexual organ of the
male exhibiting specific differences.
(156.) It is perhaps convenient from this point to
enter the Sphecides, through the medium of the Mutil-
lidce. Although we here observe apterous individuals,
we think the circumstance scarcely a link of affinity
with the Formicidce ; for, in the MutillidcB, it is the
prolific female which is apterous, which is never the
case in the former ; and we have already hazarded a
doubt if the neuters be positively abortive females. In-
* See Shuckard's " Monograph of the Dorylidae," June, 1840.
17 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
deed, the occurrence of apterous genera is a circum-
stance far from uncommon in all large groups of insects ;
and it perhaps merits consideration whether, naturally,
Latreille's solitary Heterogyna do not disperse themselves
throughout the aculeated Fossores, instead of heing col-
lected together ; which is, possibly, merely a systematic
convenience, although it is in some measure confirmed
by the structure of the prothorax of the males. The
numerous typical genus Mutilla offers a repeated in-
stance of what we had occasion to observe in the genus
Halictus ; the divergence, namely, of extensive genera
from their types. We are acquainted with nearly 200
species of this genus ; and it is, perhaps, the most nu-
merous, excepting only Ichneumon, throughout the Hy-
menoptera. The occurrence of pectinated antennae is
extremely rare amongst the fossorial aculeates ; we have
seen it only in Psammotherma, belonging to this group,
but it is said to be found also in one of the Pompilidce,
among the typical Spheces. Apterogyna is remarkable
for the constriction of the basal segments of the ab-
domen in both sexes, and also for the evanescence of
the apical nervures of the wings. Thynnus and its
numerous cognate genera enter here, for its females
are all apterous. Many species, and the legitimate
partners of several of them, are now known to us: the
latter, however, could only be ascertained inconsequence
of the differences of their colour, sculpture, and form
from the males, from the direct observation of friends
in New Holland, where, with the exception of two or
three genera, the whole of the family which they ne-
cessarily constitute are found. It is into this family
doubtlessly that the Elis of Fabricius (Myzine partly of
Latr.) enters; for they cannot longer be associated with
Myzine (Plesia Jurine), as we know the males of the
latter. The females of the Thynnida, especially those
of the more typical genera, present many remarkable
structural characters, in the form of their legs, and of
the terminal segment of the abdomen ; and in some
there are singular longitudinal and transverse deep sul-
HABITS OF THE SPHECES. 177
cations of the head and face, which give it a cruciated
appearance. The males vary considerably, from a short
ovate form, similar to Bembex, to a long and cylindrical
shape. Elis, only, is found in Europe ; the others that
are not Australian occur in America.
(157.) We now enter the normal group of SPHECES,
which are all winged insects. The point of contact
seems naturally to be the Scoliadce. With the excep-
tion of the few parasites that occur in it, these insects
are all predaceous ; but this term, as regards them,
must receive explanation, as it would imply that they
themselves prey upon and devour other insects. This
is not the case ; at least, no instance of it is yet known
to us; and it is better thus to modify the assertion; for
we constantly and hourly detect that Nature, in her
discursive progress, will not be tied to the rules we lay
down from the observation of a few facts. From what
has been observed, it appears that these insects seek
their prey merely to provision their cells with nutri-
ment for their young; and they themselves, for their
food, visit flowers only. In the perfect state, they seem
to require but little nourishment ; for, excepting a few
genera, they are rarely found upon flowers; and this is
the more remarkable, as their mouths are of a very
highly organised structure. Parasites, amongst them,
have not yet been proved, and have been assumed
from the circumstance of certain species being divested
of the prevailing characteristic of the fossorial tribes,
which consists in a long external fringe of setae to the
anterior tarsi, generally coincident with posterior tibiae
armed externally either with a longitudinal serration
or succession of spines. That this is not invariably
the case in the predacious tribes among them, we have
already fully shown*, from direct observation. Nor is
it the diagnostic exclusively of those which burrow in
wood, which we once thought might be the case ; and
the theory appeared plausible, as it of course could
* See Shuckard's Essay on the Fossorial Hymenoptera, passim.
N
ITS NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
only be those which burrow in sand, and similar con-
crete substances, that would require such a brush-like
implement. But we subsequently found, that even
some truly predaceous sand burrowers (for we caught
them with their prey) were unfurnished with this
structure. This circumstance strongly proves how un-
safe it is to theorise too hastily upon a few facts only.
The wood burrowers, however, seem to possess a less
variable peculiarity, which is in intimate connection
with their economy and habits. They are generally
lengthy insects, and have short legs; but their dis-
tinguishing feature is to have either very large and
strong mandibles, dilating towards their extremity ; or
where these are smaller, not dilated, and parallel, they
are then shorter and more compact, and the head is
then considerably enlarged, to give room for the exer-
cise of powerful muscles. We thus see how provident
Nature is of her creatures; she endows them with
peculiar instincts, and, for the exercise of those in-
stincts, furnishes them with the requisite instruments.
A lengthened body and short legs is not confined to the
wood burrowers, for we find it conspicuous in the
Scoliadce, Crabronidce, and Philanthidce. The characters
upon which these insects have been collected into
families are not sufficiently precise; and very many
forms, we have not the least doubt, still remain to be
discovered. The Scoliadce and Pompilidtje are the only
families among them which present a thorax con-
structed similarly to that observed in the male Mu-
tillidce, and which is more or less developed according
to the genera, and extends backwards as far as the
insertion of the superior wings. We perceive a modi-
fication of this structure in the Arnpulicidce^ which
forms the transition to the collar of the rest of this
group. Their eyes are usually lateral and ovate ; but in
some they are kidney-shaped, which indicates a de-
parture to that normal form found in the Vespidce. In
the Scoliadce, Scolia itself exhibits to us the most bulky
insects in the group. This genus is of universal distri-
THE POMPILIDJE. 179
bution. Meria appears confined to Southern Europe
and Africa ; whereas Myzine (Plesia Jurine) is found
every where excepting in Europe ; and this circum-
stance corroborates the assumption that Ells Fab. (Jf?/-
zine partly Latr.), cannot possibly be the males; were
not this independently proved by our possession of two
genuine males of the genus, which, in form, closely re-
semble the females, have not the ventral segments con-
stricted, nor the anal segment spined ; and they confirm
the situation of the genus in this family by the slight
sexual differences observable in the neuration of the
wings which occur throughout it. Epomediopteron, of
which we are acquainted with three species, is limited to
the New World, but Tiphia occurs every where except
in New Holland.
(158.) In the family of the Pompilida, Pompilus is
of universal occurrence, an extensive genus, and of di-
vergent structure within itself. Pepsis embraces the
giants of the group, and, as yet constituted, is found both
in the Old and New World ; but a small, although evi-
dently important, distinction separates them into two di-
visions. Thus, in those of the New World, and to which
we would retain the name of Pepsis, the first recurrent
nervure is inserted at the basal end of the second submar-
ginal cell ; whereas in those of the rest of the world, to
which we have given the name of Mygnimia, this recur-
rent nervure extends to the apex of that cell. All these
insects display great brilliancy in the colouring of their
wings ; and, in a collection of them, rich blue, deep violet,
purple, green, fiery red, and black, with a limpid apex,
vie with each other in beauty and variety ; and these are
again contrasted with party colours, and wings elegantly
spotted with silvery white. The size and strength of these
insects are adapted for competition with the ferocity or
size of their prey, which consists either of the large inter-
tropical spiders, or of the monstrous caterpillars of the
larger Lepidoptera. Other interesting forms occur in
the family, such as Salius, with its largely developed
protborax ; Planiceps, with its flattened head and rap-
180 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
torial anterior legs, as well as produced prothorax ; Me-
gascelis, with its large coxse, and intermediate thighs; and
Exeira Shkd., wherein the form of the prothorax passes
off into the usual transverse collar. In this last genus,
which is from New Holland, we ohserve the only in-
stance of a petiolated submarginal cell; a structure found
in every one of the families of the fossorial aculeates,
but which was not known in this until the description
of this insect. It is strange that the Ampulicidce should
have been allowed to remain so long incorporated in the
midst of the family Sphegida, presenting, as they do, so
many distinctive characters. In the first place, the hete-
roclite structure of the abdomen, which not only distin-
guishes them from the rest, but is also sexual; for in the
male it is exceedingly obtuse and rounded, and in the fe-
male very acute, and either compressed or conical at its
apex; and the second segment of which is the most largely
developed, in some genera occupying nearly the whole of
the abdomen, and in all with which we are yet acquainted,
the segments, after the third, are very small. The majority
of these genera also exhibit a remarkably sculptured me-
tathorax, armed at its extremity with a couple of spines ;
their clypeus is produced generally into a sort of aqui-
line nose ; but the most remarkable circumstance in their
structure is the pulvillus of the under side of the penul-
timate joint of the tarsus, an organisation observable
no where else among the aculeated Hymenoptera, ex-
cepting in some of the social Vespidce. They are said
to prey upon the Blatta, and some one genus of them is
found in all quarters of the world : the majority are
brilliantly metallic, either blue or green, which is agree-
ably contrasted, occasionally, with red femora. Very
few, excepting the European Dolichurus, and New Hol-
land Conocercus, are black. The next family, iheSphe-
cidce, are distinguished by a pedunculated abdomen,
which is frequently of great length, and very slender.
These insects, like thePompilida, also prey upon spiders
and caterpillars. Chlorion is distinguished for its metal-
lic colours, as also Pronaus : the latter, which is African,
THE CRABRONIDJE. 181
has large falcated mandibles. The universal Sphex appears
to contain a second very distinct type, and is connected
withAmmophila by means of the singular and apparently
rare American Trigonopsis, named from its triangular
and protruded head. Both sections of Ammophila are of
extensive distribution ; and Pelopceus, also, has a wide
geographical range : this genus forms clusters of cells
of mud against walls, and beneath the eaves of houses,
and has thence > in America, been called the mud-chick.
The next family, the Bembecida, are remarkable for the
anal den ti dilations of the males; and the venter beneath
in this sex has frequently a large curved tooth, and some
one or other of the apical j oints of their antennae are hooked.
It is upon species of these insects that Parnopes of the
Chrysidid(B is parasitical, and which offers the remarkable
circumstance of an elongated proboscis, thus resembling
the insect upon which it is parasitical. In several of the
genera of the Larridce, we observe the two posterior of
the three usual stemmata becoming obsolete. Mono-
matium presents us with a petiolated submarginal cell ;
in Dicranorhina we observe the abdomen pedunculated.
The excessively active and numerous genus Tachytes is
found every where but in New Holland, where it seems
to be supplanted by Pison, which has reniform eyes.
In the Crabronidtz we are acquainted with several yet
undescribed forms, for instance, Spalagia, closely allied
to Nysson; Sericophorus to Oxybelus', Nephritomma
to Trypoxylon; Megalommus to Gorytes; Miscothyris
connecting the latter with Alyson; and Aspidion, appa-
rently intervening between Gorytes and Philanthus. An
observation or two upon the latter and Cerceris will
close our rapid survey of the fossorial Hymenoptera. The
former, although of general distribution, appears to
have its metropolis in Africa; as far as it habits are
known, it has been observed to prey upon the genus
Apis. The gay Cerceris is, perhaps, of more extensive
distribution than Phila,nihus, and certainly extends fur-
ther north ; and the food it stores up as provision for its
young consists of small Curculios.
N 3
182 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
(159.) We enter the group of Fespidte by means
of Ceramius. This group appears to contain a well-
defined assemblage of insects, held together chiefly by
its tongue, furnished at the apex with glands, and the
lateral sweep of its prothorax. Other characters are
common to the normal genera, such as to the folding of
the superior wings longitudinally and the reniform eyes ;
but which are lost in some of the aberrant genera, such
as Ceramius, Masaris, and Paragia. The Fespides re-
solve themselves into solitary and social tribes, both ex-
hibiting a great variety of structure, and many genera :
we can only briefly notice the most conspicuous. The
majority of the males of these insects have the antennae
terminating in a recurved hook ; in others, this is re-
placed by that portion curling round ; and in others, there
are no means of distinguishing it from the same organs
of the female, but by the number of its articulations.
The typical Synagris exhibits a large horn affixed to the
base of the mandible of its male; and the same sex of
another species has two large curved spines placed be-
neath the second ventral segment. Abispa is apparently
the largest of the solitary wasps, and comes from New
Holland, whence we have yet seen no genuine Fespa,
the place of which, Mr. MacLeay says, is supplied by
this Abispa, the type of which is the Fespa Ephippium
of Fabricius, synonymous with the Ab. Australiana of
MacL. : the genus appears to consist of several species.
The resembling and numerous Rhynchium is very widely
distributed, as is also Odynerus, which is nearly related
to it. Eumenes, a solitary and numerous genus, con-
sists of large and usually gaily coloured insects ; it has a
very long petiole and pyriform abdomen. Zethus has
a long and exceedingly slender petiole. There is but a
slight distinction between Eumenes and some of the
exotic social genera, such as Epipona and other closely
allied insects. The distinction consists chiefly in the
form of the mandibles, which in Eumenes are very
elongate, slender, and forcipate ; whereas in the social
kinds they are more robust and dilated, and dentieu*
ECONOMY OF THE VESPID.E. 183
iated at the extremity. This structure is required to
enable them to collect and manufacture the material of
which their densely populated nests are constructed,
and which are protected by a covering thicker than,
but closely resembling, coarse vellum or card-board,
which is totally impervious to the vicissitudes of the
weather. Within this, the cells are affixed to the un-
der side of horizontal or downwardly curved and parallel
layers, which are sometimes formed of a substance
similar to the external envelope, but frequently less
substantial. Others form their nests of a kind of pale
clay intermixed with small particles of the fibre of
straw : these nests are of various forms ; some conical,
with truncated extremities ; others rounded, generally
ventricose, but sometimes with their sides parallel ; but
the envelope is always in a continuous sheet, whereby they
differ from the genus Vespa itself, the envelope of which
consists of a succession of layers placed in superposition,
that which is most external being the last finished.
They are variously situated according to specific pecu-
liarities ; sometimes high on trees, or upon low shrubs
near the ground. Re'aumur has described all the pecu-
liarities of several of these nests ; and we are in expect-
ation of having a memoir upon them by Mr. White,
who, having all the ample materials at his command
which the British Museum affords, will have every op-
portunity of duly treating the subject, which is one of
considerable interest. It has long been known that a
species of wasp, the Vespa Lecheguana, collects honey
in store within its nest. This appeared at first so start-
ling a fact that naturalists would not credit it, until
it became confirmed by the testimony of a duly qua-
lified scientific observer, Geoffroy de St. Hilaire, who
brought with him to Europe specimens of the in-
sect, as well as of their nest and its contents. The
insect itself is identical with the Brachygastra * analis of
* The name Brachygaster having been applied, many years ago, by
Leach to the Evania minuta Oliv., it is requisite to change the name of the
present genus; we therefore propose in lieu of it, NECTABINA,
N 4
184 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
Perty. We were, therefore, not so much surprised the
other day, at finding, upon the section being made of
a large nest at the British Museum, that all the inner
cells of the intermediate layers were filled with a store
of honey. The inhabitant of this nest is a small wasp,
its first segment forming a long eumeniform petiole; and
it is entirely of a deep black, excepting only its scutel-
lum, and post-dorsolum, which are of a bright yellow.
This insect, accordingly, differs considerably from the
Vespa Lecheguana, in which the first segment is very
short, the second exceedingly large and globose, en-
closing within it the succeeding segments. The cells
wherein this honey is deposited are, of course, of the
usual papyraceous material of which wasps' cells are
formed ; for it is not to be supposed that, because these
insects collect honey, they also necessarily secrete wax,
for they have no organ whereby the pollen could be
collected, and whence, by feeding upon it, wax is se-
creted ; whereas the honey, as in the bees, is congested
in their stomachs, and, when it has undergone its proper
process, it is regurgitated into the cells which receive it.
Polistes, a social genus of extensive distribution, but
composing very small communities, forms an exposed
nest, which consists of a layer of cells attached by a
peduncle to either a plant, tree, or wall. It is strange
that the genus Vespa, which contains the largest and
most robust of the social wasps, should form nests of a
much more delicate and fragile substance than any of
the others. These, as in the others, consist of a suc-
cession of parallel and horizontal layers, covered over
with a series of envelopes, which give a perfect nest
very much of the appearance of a reversed close cabbage.
All of these insects are of a courageous character, bold
in the resentment of an injury, and which they will
not allow to pass with impunity ; and their sting, as
is well known, inflicts severe pain. There appear
to be three different forms of aberrant VespidcB, each
of which have but two submarginal cells. In the
Masarides, which are distinguished by their short
THE 1CHNEUMONIDES. 18,5
knobbed antenna?, the eyes are reniform, and the wings
ibid longitudinally : this latter character is lost in Ce-
ramius; and in a species we possess from New Holland,
the eyes become ovate : and in the genus Paragia Shkd.,
which is so like a true Vespa as to be easily mistaken
for one until closely examined, the wings are never
folded^ and the eyes are ovate ; but it has the glandular
tongue, peculiar prothorax, and pulvillulated under
side of the tarsal joints, found in Vespa; whence we have
inferred that it may possibly be the representative of Vespa
in New Holland. But, if social, the communities will
scarcely be large, as but two specimens, each a distinct
species, have yet come under our observation; the second
differing from the first, formerly described, in being
spotted with white.
(lb'0.) The ICHNEUMONIDES constitute the next group
of the circle of the Hymenoptera. These, as we before
remarked, are all parasites, and they form the most nu-
merous division of the order. Amongst them we observe,
in their lower divisions, a departure from the typical
neuration of the wings; these organs in many becoming
entirely destitute of those distinguishing characters.
Among the Chalcidites we also detect a further depar-
ture from the normal, and all but universal, pentamerous
structure in the tarsi of the Hymenoptera. This group
offers, besides, considerable differences of form, the most
conspicuous peculiarities of which we shall notice, as it
evinces itself in the larger divisions. The tribe of Ich-
neumones are distinguished from all the rest by the con-
fluence of the second discoidal and first submarginal
cells of the superior wings ; and where there is an in-
tervenient submarginal cell, by that being very small :
they also have always two recurrent nerves, and they
present varieties of form which we will rapidly survey.
1st. The IchneumonidcR proper have the body elongate,
ovate, and depressed ; with the ovipositor, which in the
whole of this group supplants the sting, not, or scarcely,
exserted. It is in this family that the splendid exotic
Joppa occurs, which in one sex has the antennae sud-
186 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
denly dilated at its apex, and compressed. 2dly. The
Tryphonidce, in which the abdomen is generally clavated,
and either subsessile or petiolated, with also a scarcely
exserted ovipositor. Two species,, the Tryphon vari-
tarsus and pinguis, carry their eggs attached beneath
the apex of the venter. 3dly. In the Cryptida, the ab-
domen is always petiolated, and the ovipositor exserted,
and usually as long as the body. It is in this family
that the genus Pezomachus occurs, all of which are ap-
terous. 4thly. The Pimplidce succeed ; and in these
the abdomen is subsessile and depressed, and usually
very elongate, and with an elongated ovipositor, parti-
cularly conspicuous in the typical genera Pimpla and
Rhyssa; and Glypta exhibits its abdomen marked above
on each segment with two convergent depressions. Eu-
ceros, in this family, exhibits, like Joppa in the Ichneu-
monides, a suddenly compressed enlargement of the
antenna?. In the 5th family, the OphionidcB, the ab-
domen is laterally compressed, and shaped like a scimitar,
especially in the typical genera. In Pristomerus, in
this family, the femora are armed beneath with long
spines, a structure found also in Odontomerus, in the
next family, the 6th, or Xorididce, which are chiefly
distinguished by their globose heads. This tribe is suc-
ceeded by the Ichneumones adsciti, or Bracones. These
are distinguishable from the former, by having but one
recurrent nervure, and by the second submarginal cell,
when extant, being frequently larger than the first.
These have been separated into two primary divisions,
according to the structure of the mandibles : into, 1st,
the Endodonttes, in which these organs close as usual ;
and, 2dly, the Exodontees, in which they are apparently
distorted, curving outwards when closed, and never meet-
ing. The first division have been subdivided into Po-
lymorphi, consisting, as their name implies, of insects of
a variety of forms, and which seem a convenient recep-
tacle for such as will not associate with the other sub-
divisions ; and here Streblocera is conspicuous for its
remarkably distorted antennae. The second division is
THE CIIALCIDITES. ] 87
the Cryptogastri, in which the external integument of
the abdomen is not usually separated into distinct
segments, but consists of one entire piece. 3d, the
Areolarii, which have a small second submarginal cell,
and in the typical genus the mouth is produced into a
proboscis ; and, lastly, the Cyclostomi, in which the
clypeus has a deep excision, which, when the mandibles
are closed, give it the appearance of a circular cavity.
The Exodontees we have above sufficiently characterised.
They form a very small assemblage of genera, but
amongst which Chasmodon is remarkable for being ap-
terous, and Alysia is the type. Throughout both these
large divisions of the Ichneumonides, the normal and
abnormal, we are acquainted with very many exotic
forms which have not yet been characterised. It is,
doubtlessly, contiguous to these groups that the eccentric
and extraordinary family Evaniada, comprising within
it Aulacus and Fcenus, are to be inserted. Somewhere
in this vicinity, also, those anomalous forms, Stephanus
and Pelecinus, must, of course, come ; and in a proxi-
mate situation to the Adsciti must, we expect, be the
place for Trigonalis, of which a second form has comae
under our notice. But time and subsequent discoveries
will determine these points.
(l6l.) We now enter upon the large group of CHAL-
CIDITES, which, in the majority, are minute insects. They
comprise an enormous host, the most of which are
splendid little creatures gaudily arrayed in the most
brilliant metallic colours. It is in this country chiefly
that attention has been paid to them, and we must be
grateful to Mr. Walker for his elaborate investigation of
the tribe. The more typical forms are the least me-
tallic, and are distinguished by their enlarged and elon-
gated posterior femora. Leucospis is singular for the
recurving of its ovipositor over the abdomen, and from
resembing the Vespida in the superior wings being lon-
gitudinally folded. The group exhibits, besides, many
peculiarities not the least of which is the reduced
number of the joints of the tarsi in the Eulophi ; and
188 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
the whole of them have but an obsolete neuration of the
wings. We have already referred to the remarkable
Thoracantha. Our space admits of no more than alluding
to the ProctotrupidcE, and the interesting genera they
include; and, among others, the ant- like form of Gona-
topuSj with its extraordinarily chelated anterior tarsi;
Inostemma, with its recurved abdominal spine ; and the
elegant little Mymar, with its pedunculated and beau-
tifully ciliated wings.
(162.) We must spare a few words for the Chrysi-
dida, which present the only instance throughout the
Hymenoptera of a tubuliferous ovipositor: their bodies,
also, are formed in a singular manner, being more or
less fornicate ; and their abdominal segments are more
or less reduced in number, from what we observe else-
where ; and we are acquainted with an African species
in which only two are apparent. Parnopes, of which
we know three species, presents a sexual difference in the
number of these segments, the male having one more
than the female. It has also an elongated rostrum, like
Bembex, upon which it is parasitical. These insects
are all richly metallic, and they are all parasites; and
amongst them Cleptes appears to lead off to Meria in
the circle of the fossorial aculeates.
(163.) The remainder of the Hymenoptera are all,
in their larva state, vegetable feeders. The Cynipsidce,
or gall flies, form a marked and distinct group, although
of but limited extent. Their young are reared within
the galls which the parent insect produces by the punc-
ture it makes upon the different parts of plants : the
juice it instils, and what is secreted by the larva, causes
the plant to throw out excrescences, which all differ ac-
cording to the species which excites them. We cannot
here go into their particulars. This group seems to
pass, by means of Oryssus, through the Siricidce, into
our last large group, the aberrant Tenthredines. The
preceding have all been internal feeders in their larva
state ; the Siricidce feeding within trees generally of the
fir tribe. They are large and conspicuous insects, and
THE TENTHREDINES. 189
present a formidable appearance with their exserted ovi-
positor. The majority of the larvae of the Tenthredines,
however, feed externally upon the leaves of plants, re-
sembling much the caterpillars of the Lepidoptera; and,
in some cases, they are very destructive to our crops,
instanced in the devastation among turnips, caused by
what is technically called the blacks, which is the larva
of Athalia centifolia. Some of these insects show an in-
direct connection with the Cynipsidce, for they form and
reside in galls ; but the paramount distinction of the
Tenthredines, from all the rest of the Hymenoptera,
consists in their possessing, in lieu of an ovipositor, a
serrated apparatus formed of two parallel plates, and
retractile, when not in use, within a sheath at the apex
of the abdomen. When in use, they have an alternate
motion, whereby their serrated edge perforates the ve-
getable substance to which it is applied, with a longi-
tudinal incision, wherein they deposit their eggs. The
bodies of these insects are always sessile, and generally
robust. Their first division, with knobbed antennse, the
Cimbicidce, do not possess the emarginated spine at the
apex of the anterior tibiae, which corresponds with a
similar excision in the basal joint of the tarsus, and
with which the rest of the Hymenoptera cleanse their
antennae : in lieu of this, this division has two spurs at the
apex of that limb. Many of the species of this group
possess also a couple of articulated spurs, placed half
way up the tibia : the apex of all these spurs, and the
underside of their tarsi, are very frequently also vesi-
cular : and, when we take into consideration the greater
expansion of their wings, and its more elaborate reticu-
lation, and view in conjunction their pedated larvae, we
shall no longer cause surprise at considering them
aberrant. The more remarkable genera are, Perga,
which is exclusively from New Holland, and which
broods over its young like a hen over her chickens ;
Schizocerus, with its furcated antennae ; Lophyrus and
Pterygophorus, which have those organs elegantly pec-
tinated in their males; Tarpa and Lyda, with their
IQO NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
enormous heads, and beautifully coloured bodies. Prox-
imate to this group,, but where is doubtful, should
be placed the interesting but perplexing genus Xyela
Dalm. The abnormal structure in the neuration of its
wings, its singular antennae, with their third joint very
much elongated, and its lengthy exserted ovipositor,
tend in combination to perplex us, but it appears to be
probably the transition from the securiform ovipositor
to the valvular one. Having thus finished our rapid
survey of the Hymenoptera, we can only regret that
we could not spare more room for the investigation of
so interesting an order. All that we have been able to
do in this limited space has been to notice the most
remarkable forms, and loosely generalise their most
striking peculiarities ; and, in doing so, we have pre-
ferred dwelling upon those groups which offered the
most extensive interest. [(142 163.) W. E. Sh/]
CHAP. V.
THE COLEOPTERA.
ON THE COLEOPTERA GENERALLY.
(164.) THE coleopterous order of insects is composed
entirely of those which, in popular language, are called
Beetles ; that is, of insects covered by a hard crust or
shell analogous to that of the tortoise, and which, in
both, protects the soft parts of the body from external
injury. This is manifestly a wise and a merciful pro-
vision for their safety, because these insects are not only
the most terrestrial of all others of the Ptilota, but
they are also the most imperfect fliers. From these
circumstances, it follows that the Coleoptera are more
exposed to injury than are any of this class; but, to
counterbalance these disadvantages, and to give them a
defence which no others enjoy, Nature has clothed them
FLIGHT OF THE COLEOPTERA. 19^
in a complete suit of natural armour ; diversified, indeed,
in the most astonishing manner, according to the differ-
ent tribes and families, but adapted,, with infinite skill,
to the great object of their preservation. A beetle, in
fact, is an insect cased in armour of proof. Let us take
a chafer, for instance, or one of those dors, whose
" drowsy hum " breaks the stillness of a summer's eve,
and examine it closely ; with what admirable precision
does all the parts of its armour join and fit into each other !
It will be almost impossible, in fact, to insert the head
of a pin between any of the joints j and yet the insect
moves about without the slightest embarrassment. Not
only is every joint, the most minute, either of the an-
tennae or the palpi, completely cased, but even the eyes
are often defended in the same manner. This remark-
able structure, joined to the circumstance of the wings
being protected by two of these pieces, is sufficient to
characterise the insects now before us. It may be fur-
ther remarked, that the name of the order, devised by
Aristotle (/coXeoc? irrepov), happily alludes to the wings
being protected or covered by a sheath.
(l6'5.) The power of flight enjoyed by coleopterous
insects, as before remarked, is much more limited than
in any other of the Ptilota; while the Lepidoptera soar
in mid air, and use their feet only as rests to support the
body: and, while the Hymenoptera transport themselves
by flight alone, a coleopterous insect appears to use
the limited power of its wings as a last resource, or only
upon great emergency. Touch a beetle, and, instead of
spreading his wings, he either counterfeits death, or he
quickens his pace ; but do the same to a moth, a bee, or
nearly any other winged insect, and he flies away in a mo-
ment. Flight, among the Coleoptera, appears, in short,
a subordinate faculty. A casual observer would not
suspect that a beetle had wings; for they are completely
hidden by the two convex plates, or elytra, beneath
which they lie folded, first longitudinally, and then
transversely. These members, among all the other Pti-
lota, are four ; but in these insects they are only two in
192 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
number ; their cases, or covers, occupying the situation
of the larger or superior wings of the other orders.
Every thing, in short, points out to us that the Coleo-
ptera, in regard to flight, are the most imperfect of four-
winged insects ; and it therefore follows that they are the
most aberrant.
(166.) On the other hand, when we look to the strength
and structure of their legs, we perceive that the defi-
ciency of flight has been amply made up to them in the
power of walking. No insects run with such swiftness,
or retain their hold with so much security. The whole
race of predaceous beetles (Predatores) are remarkable
for their swiftness, a quality which seems to be one of
their typical perfections. The tiger beetles (Cicindeli-
dae) fully illustrate this fact j and every one may have
witnessed the rapidity with which the small shining
CarabidcB course along the footpaths of our fields on a
bright spring day. How suddenly again do the water
beetles (Dytiscida) dart down to the bottom of a pool,
by the aid of their powerful oar-like legs. In those fa-
milies, again, which live among foliage, the same
strength of foot, and tenacity of grasp, is equally ap-
parent. Whoever has handled a chafer (Melolontha
vulgaris Linn.) knows how difficult it is to take the in-
sect from the leaf or spray to which, with its long and
acutely hooked claws, it tenaciously holds. So admir-
ably, indeed, are the feet of arboreal beetles constructed
for grasping, that they will cling to the naked hand with
as much ease as to a leaf or a twig. The Coleoptera, in
short, seem conscious of their superiority in this re-
spect ; for, upon all occasions of attack, there are very
few which do not depend more upon their feet for es-
caping harm than upon their wings. These latter mem-
bers, however, are of great and essential use ; though
not employed for removing to every short distance, they
are always used upon long excursions. When the food
upon one tree is exhausted, or the flowers of one plant
have been visited, a coleopterous insect crawls to the
edge of a slight eminence, and, after a moment's consi-
NUMERICAL EXTENT OP THE COLEOPTERA. 1Q3
deration, begins to throw up his elytra, expands his
wings, and slowly and steadily mounts into the air. Some
few, indeed, of the predaceous tribe, particularly the
Cicindelida, increase the natural speed of their course
by alternately flying and running ; while others, slow in
their motions, counterfeit death, and seem to fall to the
ground : this latter, however, is usually but a second
deception ; for these crafty little creatures generally con-
trive, by means of their hooked claws, to grasp hold of
a leaf, or spray, in their fall, and thus save themselves
the toil of again ascending to their former station, when
the cause of alarm has subsided : these latter habits be-
long to the greatest part of the Curculionidfs y or snout
beetles a family containing several thousands of species.
All these circumstances, connected with the use of the
feet, lead us to infer that the Coleoptera, as a whole, is
the most ambulating among the Ptilota, and hence pe-
culiarly deserve the name of terrestrial insects.
(167.) The beetles are, perhaps, the most numerous
of all the orders, M. Latreille expresses an opinion, that
there are probably not fewer than twenty-five thousand
already existing in European cabinets ; and this number,
great as it is, is perhaps not more than one third, or at
most one half, of those yet to be discovered. When we
consider that each species of this immense assemblage
has its own peculiar economy, and its especial task to
perform, in the great scheme of creation, the mind is
scarcely able to conceive how the form and structure of
fifty thousand beetles can be so varied, that no two are
alike ; still more impossible is it to imagine those deli-
cate shades of difference in their habits and economy,
which experience has shown invariably to accompany a
difference of species. We should remember, also, that
this vast multitude all belong but to one order of insects ;
which order forms but a small portion of the countless
myriads of animated beings, which live and move, and
do the work of HIM who made them. The astonishing
variety of differently formed creatures which swarm
o
194 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
upon the earth, strikes the mind of every reflecting man ;
although the number of those which he has seen, are but
as a unit to the thousands which he has not seen. This
interminable diversity of differently formed agents seems,,
in part, to be explained by one of the fundamental laws
of nature, by which it is ordained that the same effect
shall be produced by different means and different
agents. This truth is too apparent to need illustration,
and a slight notice on the economy of the order will
confirm the fact.
(168.) In regard to the food of the Coleoptera, we
find them devouring every thing each confining itself
to some peculiar substance ; but if there is any one de-
scription of nourishment more especially assigned to
beetles, it appears to be that derived from living and
decayed vegetable matter, but particularly such as is of a
hard and solid texture. The great family of Capricornes,
or Capricorn beetles, not only feed, in their grub state, on
the pith, fibres, and internal substance of trees, but
many actually saw off, with their strong jaws, the ex-
terior branches, as if to hasten the removal of the de-
caying tree. Thousands of a more puny race (Bostrichi},
unable to penetrate the solid wood, take up then: resi-
dence in the bark, which they perforate in all directions,
so that the elements soon effect decomposition, or thus
prepare caverns of shelter for other tribes : many, again,
have a different office assigned them ; their business is
to loosen the external bark from the internal wood ; and,
accordingly, they are only found in such situations.
These habits, so essential to facilitate the removal of su-
perabundant vegetation, are almost peculiar to coleopte-
rous insects. But foliage is a more abundant nutriment
than wood ; and hence we find that thousands and tens
of thousands of the smaller tribes live entirely upon the
leaves of trees and plants. Flowers appear assigned
more particularly to the Hymenoptera, the Lepidoptera^
and theDiptera; but several families of beetles are known
to partake of this delicate food, and their structure is
HABITS OF THE COLEOPTEBA. 1$5
accordingly fashioned for this purpose : of these, we
need only mention the petalocerous or lamellicorn beetles,
of which our green rose chafer (Cetonia aurata)is a beau-
tiful example. The Curculionida, a large and very sin-
gularly shaped family, live upon the internal juices of
vegetables, without encasing themselves in the substance
from which they draw their nourishment. All these,
however diversified their operations, are phytophagous,
or feeders upon vegetables ; but, as in every natural
group there is a type of evil, or in other words, a pecu-
liar division whose habits are rapacious, cruel, and blood-
thirsty, so we find, in the order before us, one tribe
answering to this description. The predaceous beetles
live entirely upon other insects, which they pursue and
capture in a living state, or devour when hastening
to decay. By far the greater part of these lions and
tigers of the beetle world roam about the ground,
" seeking whom they may devour," and are hence called
Geodephagous. Some few, as the Dytiscidce, habitually
live in fresh water ; from which circumstance they have
been named Hydrodephagous. It seems, indeed, certain,
that a portion of nearly every substance in the animal
and vegetable world is assigned as food to coleopterous
insects ; for not only do they feed upon such things as
are produced naturally, but they evince a decided relish
for such as are artificially prepared by man. Those fa-
milies of the predaceous beetles, which are furthest re-
moved from the perfection of their tribe, greedily devour
bacon, lard, cheese, and other stores of our kitchen :
some show a partiality for leather, even after it has been
prepared by the tanner and manufactured by the book-
binder. This is, perhaps, the last indication of the car-
nivorous habit ; and, as natural transitions are always
gradual, we find that many of these very insects feed on
other substances wholly vegetable.
(169). The structure of beetles is in every way adapted
to the various functions we have just enumerated. As
their food is of a much more solid nature than that
o 2
19 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
assigned to any other order,, we find that they have the
strongest and the most complicated jaws, or organs of
mastication ; thus showing another great departure from
the typical structure of the Ptilota. They are, in short,
of all insects, the most perfect masticators ; and had
Nature really divided the insect world into two primary
groups (Mand&bulata and Haustellata), as some have
imagined, the Coleoptera would stand at the head of the
former. Their actions and habits require great mus-
cular power, and they are consequently endowed with a
degree of strength perfectly surprising for creatures so
small. If any of our readers wish to verify this fact,
let him confine a chafer, or any other beetle, in his
clenched hand for a few minutes, and it is ten to one
but that the little prisoner, by main force, will effect
his escape between the fingers, or, by striking the spines
of his legs against the skin, oblige his tormentor to
open his hand. Beetles have no stings j but some bite
furiously and effectually with their upper jaws, which
are pointed at the tips, and serrated or toothed inside:
with these they seize their food; which is then masti-
cated by the help of a pair of under jaws (maxilla)^
and the upper lip (labrum\ which protects the other
organs. The situation of all these is analogous to those
in the mouth of a vertebrate animal ; and they are
accompanied by the feelers (palpi)) which are either two
or four.
(170.) We have said that coleopterous insects are
known by the two elytra, or sheaths, which cover the
wings and body, and which meet in a straight suture
down the back ; but if every insect in the whole order
really exhibited this character, Nature would then have
made a sudden halt, and would have passed, by an ab-
rupt transition, from a bee to a beetle, or from the Co-
leoptera to the Neuroptera. On this, as on every other
occasion, the chain of affinity is therefore graduated,
and one order of beings is not suffered to stand isolated
and unconnected. Hence it is, that, at the confines of
THE COLEOPTERA ABERRANT. 197
this order, we find the coleopterous structure so modi-
fied,, that some of its distinguishing characteristics hegin
to disappear. Thus, in the Malacodermi, or soft Coleo-
ptera, the wing-cases, as the name of the tribe implies,
are so thin as to be pliable. In the genus Meloe, and
several others, they are so small as scarcely to cover one
half of the body, nor do they form a straight suture :
others, having their wing-cases perfect, are destitute of
wings. In Baprestis, again, these latter members are
so short as not to require a transverse fold; while the
females of the glowworms have not the least vestige
either of wings or sheaths. It is by these deviations,
few, indeed, in comparison to the bulk of the order, but
definitely and strongly marked, that the graduated scale
of nature is preserved in harmony, and the symbols of
the animal world are shown. All these deviations either
show the passage to the Hymenoptera on one side, or
to the Neuroptera on the other ; or they will evince
clear and strongly marked types of analogy, by which
the other orders of the Annulosa and the Vertebrata are
represented.
(171.) Having now stated the leading distinctions of
the Coleoptera as an order, and touched upon those par-
ticular functions they appear intended to perform, we
may inquire what other tribes in the animal creation
these insects are intended to represent, or, in other
words, what are their true analogies in the scale of
animal life. If, in the class of Ptilota, we find an order
agreeing with the rest in most of their characters, yet
possessing only two effective wings, instead of four, we
cannot hesitate in pronouncing it the most aberrant, or
least typical, division of its class. Now, this is pre-
cisely the station in nature which the Coleoptera appear
to hold. Hence it follows, that they should represent
all of the most aberrant groups in the animal kingdom.
This is not merely a theoretical conclusion, but, as we
shall subsequently show, is the result of analysis. We
have said that the Cokoptera, in their external aspect,
o 3
198 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
have a greater resemblance to the tortoises than to any
other vertebrate animals ; it must follow, therefore, if
this analogy is not a mere fancy, that, on the circle of
Ptilota (of which this order forms a part) being
compared with that of the Reptilia, the Coleoptera and
the Chelonia stand opposite to, and represent, each other:
this they accordingly do, as seen in the following table:
Analogies of the PTILOTA and the REPTILIA.
Orders of Reptilia '
1. Typical.
LEPIDOPTERA. OPHIDES. Serpents.
2. Sub-typical.
HEMIPTERA. SAURES. Lizards.
3. Aberrant.
HYMENOPTERA. CHAMSLIONES. Chametions*
COLEOPTERA. CHELONIA. Tortoises.
NEUROPTERA. ELANIOSAURI. Fish Lizards.
The fact, therefore, of the beetles being really in-
tended by Nature to represent the tortoises among
winged insects, may be safely inferred, because these
two groups 'stand opposite to each other in their re-
spective series; which series, it must be remembered,
being founded upon affinity, is entirely independent of
all analogous considerations.
(172.) Let us now make another comparison. Every
entomologist knows that the Coleoptera are the most
gnawing of all insects : they have the strongest jaws ;
and both in the larva and perfect state, thousands
employ these organs in gnawing solid woods. Where,
therefore, do we find, among vertebrate animals, a si-
milar faculty displayed? Obviously in the order Glires,
or mice-like quadrupeds, named by M. Cuvier, from
this very circumstance, Rodentia. On placing the se-
ries of quadrupeds, therefore, opposite to that of the
Ptilota., we find these two particular groups come into
parallel relations.
ANALOGIES OF THE COLEOPTEBA. 199
Analogies of the COLEOPTEBA to the Orders 0/*QuA-
DBUPEDS.
Orders of the
Ptilota.
Analogies.
Orders of the
Mammalia.
LGPIDOPTERA.
Typical.
QUADRUMANA CUV*
HEMIPTERA.
Raptorial.
FER.E.
HYMENOPTERA.
Social.
UNGULATA.
COLEOPTERA.
Gnawers.
GLIRES.
NEUROPTERA.
Aquatic.
CETACEA.
It will be curious to see in what manner the
armour-like covering of the Coleoptera is represented
among other animals. The tortoises are covered with
horny plates; and if we look among quadrupeds for a
similar structure, we have the Indian ant-eaters, and the
armadillos of the New World, both protected in pre-
cisely the same manner. These latter animals are at
the head of the tribe Edentata, which is the most
aberrant division of the hoofed quadrupeds (Unguktta).
By bringing these into comparison, we shall here see
that the armadillos represent both the tortoises and the
beetles, as we have formerly shown. *
Analogies of the COLEOPTEBA to QUADBTJPEDS and
REPTILES.
Orders of the
Ptilota.
Orders of Tribes of the
REPTILES. UNGULATED QUADRUPEDS.
LEPIDOPTERA.
Serpents.
Ruminantes.
HEMIPTERA.
Lizards.
Solipedes.
HYMENOPTERA.
Chamcelions.
Pachydermata.
COLEOPTERA.
Tortoises.
Edentata.
NEUROPTERA.
Fish Lizards.
Anoplotheres.
(174.) Our former volumes will have sufficiently es-
tablished the different circles of the vertebrate animals
with which we have now compared the orders of the
* Classification of Quadrupeds, p. 180.
o 4
200 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
Ptilota, and to those we must refer the reader who is
desirous of further details. It would he highly inter-
esting, did our limits permit us to dwell upon all the
analogies indicated in these tables; hut our present bu-
siness is with the order Coleoptera, and to that only
must our remarks be confined. It appears, then, that
the three most striking peculiarities of these insects are
explained by the most simple process of analogical rea-
soning. They are covered with natural armour, because
Nature intends them to represent the reptile tortoises,
and the quadruped ant-eaters and armadillos : they
have the strongest jaws of all perfect annulose* animals,
because they typify the most gnawing of all perfect qua-
drupeds, namely, the Glires ; and they have two real
wings only, because they are the most imperfect ex-
amples of the Ptilota. If these analogies are true, they
may he extended to hundreds of groups : thus, the
Vermes are the most tough-skinned class of the Annu-
losa, and are the most aberrant of all the annu-
lose divisions : just so are Coleoptera among winged
insects.
(175.) The station of the coleopterous order is con-
sequently between those of the Hymenoptera and the
Neuroptera. This conclusion, verified in the foregoing
tables, reconciles many of the contradictory opinions
entertained by some of our first entomologists. Mr.
MacLeay, for instance, has not failed to remark the
close resemblance which many ants bear to the beetles;
and yet it is probable that the true passage between the
orders is made by means of the small parasitical ich-
neumons and gall-flies, forming our tribe Chalcides.
Some of these have the thorax prolonged into a plate
or spine, which extends the whole length of the body;
so that they put on the very form of a Mordetta.
Among the many singular insects discovered by us in
Brazil, is a species of this group, which is so completely
disguised in this way, that most persons would consider
it, at first sight, as anew sub-genus of Mordella, having
the antennae pectinated. On the other hand, Nature
COMPONENT DIVISIONS OF THE OOLEOPTERA. 201
leaves the Coleoptera for the Neuroptera, by means of
the earwigs (Forficulidoe), a passage so apparent, that
it has been recognised by almost every writer since the
days of Linnaeus.
(176.) Having now sufficiently treated of the Coleo-
ptera as an order, we may look to its component parts.
On examining the structure of the feet of these insects,
several remarkable differences will be perceived. In
some, the tarsi, which may be said to represent the
human finger, consist of four distinct cylindrical joints,
terminated by a forked hook or claws ; while in others,
these joints, apparently*, are only three or two, and,,
instead of being rounded and simple, are flattened, and
two-lobed. Now, it is obvious that insects which
belong to the first of these groups, that is, having
the tarsus altogether composed of five distinct joints,
are the most perfect in the construction of their feet ;
just as insessorial birds (Insessores), and four-handed
quadrupeds (Quadrumana), are the most perfect of their
respective classes. All the great systematists of the
present day tacitly concur in this opinion, by placing
the pentamerous, or five-jointed beetles, at the head of
their systems. Yet among these, again, we find two
very different races ; one composed of insects living
upon vegetables ; while the other comprehends all such
as subsist by pursuing and devouring their weaker
brethren, just as do the feline tribe of quadrupeds, or the
falcons among birds. Here, then, we see the two great
divisions of the pentamerous Coleoptera. The first, pre-
eminently typical, herbivorous, and harmless, constitute
the tribe of Lamdlicornes : so called from the shape of
their antennae, which are short, clavate, and lamellar. The
second, which is the sub-typical tribe, are predaceous, or
live upon animal substances : these form our tribe of
Predatores; and have their antennae longer, filiform,
and composed of lengthened joints. All other Coleoptera
* We say apparently, because there is reason to think that most insects
have the lull number, but that some are in a rudimentary state.
202 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
come under the aberrant division of the order, composed
of those tribes whose tarsi have almost always less than
five joints,, all of which, excepting the last, are gene-
rally flattened and lobed. Among these, again, we find
three natural subdivisions or tribes. The first are the
Capricornes, or lignivorous beetles; the most striking
character of the perfect insect being the great length of
their antennae, which are unusually robust, and gene-
rally curved, like those of goat or sheep. The second
tribe are the Malacodermes, or soft-winged beetles;
whose elytrae are soft, flexible, and often very short.
The third and last we shall name the Monilicornes:
they are to be known by a short, thick, oval, or hemi-
spherical body, with the antennas moniliform. Such
are the most prominent or typical distinctions of the
five great tribes of coleopterous insects, under which
we shall arrange the whole order. Before, however, we
proceed to enter more fully into details, it may be as
well to throw these characters into a tabular form, and
designate the groups in a more scientific manner.
Primary Divisions and Analogies of the Order
COLEOPTERA.
1. Typical.
T MPT T Trmmpq 5" Tarsi five-jointed ; antennas cla- 7 LEPIDOPTERA.!
* ES ' I vate ; herbivorous. j Papilio.
2. Sub-typical.
f Tarsi five-jointed; antennae fill- 7 HEMIPTERA.
I form; carnivorous. J Pent atoma Latr.
S. Aberrant.
MALACODERMES. Body particularly soft. {^LibelMa*'
TVTnvu TrnnxF* 5" Bod y short > ovate > frequently hid. 7 COLEOPTERA.
MONILICORNES. J den beneath the shell. j Cassida.
C APRICORNES Antenn vef y lon & i larva a P d ] HYMENOPTERA.
(. enclosed in other substances. 5 Apis Ichneumon.
(177-) The Monilicornes, which include the tor-
toise and ladybird beetles (or the genera Cassida and
THE MONILICORNES. 2 03
Coccinella of Linnaeus), are more protected than any
others,, by that hard covering which is peculiar to the
Cokoptera. It might, therefore, be supposed that they
should stand at the head of the order ; but this infer-
ence by no means follows. Superior perfection of
structure is the only true and certain distinction of
typical pre-eminence : this we consider as one of the
first aphorisms in the Natural System ; for it is that
which places the Quadrumana at the head of the Mam-
malia, the Insessores as the type of birds, and the
Ptilota as the first of the Annulosa : it is equally mani-
fest in the least of Nature's groups, as in the greatest ;
for it is by this rule that the animal kingdom takes
precedence both of the vegetable and the mineral. This
perfection of structure in typical groups implies the
possession of a greater number of faculties, and, there-
fore, a more complicated organisation, than is enjoyed
by the rest ; but, in aberrant groups, this perfection is
confined only to some one property, which is always
accompanied by a diminution of others. Of this latter
fact, a familiar example, out of hundreds which might
be adduced, will suffice. The Scansores, or climbing
order of birds, is an aberrant group : the perfection,
therefore, of this group is confined to one particular
quality, that of climbing; and this quality, being
most conspicuous in the parrots and the woodpeckers,
places these birds at the head of their own order. In
like manner are we to judge of the rank of the moni-
licorn beetles. That they may represent the Cokoptera,
when the contents of the whole order are compared with
the other Ptilota, Nature has developed in them one of
the leading distinctions in a most extraordinary man-
ner; for, in the Cassida, we find the members of the
body concealed beneath the shield of the head and the
wing-cases ; and they thus so closely resemble a che-
lonian reptile, that, in all countries, they have acquired
the name of tortoise beetles. Yet, notwithstanding this
great developement of this one character, we find a pro*
204
NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
portionate diminution of others; particularly in the
feet, which have only four apparent joints ; and one of
these, in a true neighbouring genus, Coccinella, is eva-
nescent. We see, therefore, in both the instances here
produced, an illustration of the same law. The scan-
sorial birds, except in climbing, are as inferior to the
perchers (Inaessores), in all other points of general
organisation, just as the monilicorn beetles are inferior
to the tribes of Lamellicornes and Predatores.
(178.) Nothing is, perhaps, more instructive, or
more interesting, than to trace the extraordinary man-
ner in which the natural arrangement of one order of
beings harmonises with another, from which, in point
of general appearance, it appears, toto ccelo, to differ.
Who would imagine, that, among coleopterous insects,
we should find a perfect representation, not only of the
leading groups of the Lepidoptera, but also of those of
the diurnal butterflies ? Yet such is truly the case : the
latter set of analogies, in fact, are dependent upon the
former, as will be seen by the following comparison :
Analogies of the COLEOPTERA to the LEPIDOPTERA.
Tribes of the
COLEOPTERA
Lamellicornes.
Predatores.
Malacodermes.
Monilicornes.
Capricornes.
Typical Characters.
1. Typical.
Antennae clavate.
2. Sub-typical.
Antenna* attenuated.
3. Aberrant.
f Body, either in the larva or imago 7
C state, particularly soft. J
f Larva vermiform, or onisciform; 7
i leap entirely or partially. j
Antennas greatly developed.
Tribes of the
LEPIDOPTERA.
Papiliones.
Sphingides.
Noctuides.
Phalcenides.
The soft-bodied Coleoptera thus find their repre-
sentatives among the larvae of the Noctuides ; which,
COLEOPTERA AND LEPIDOPTEBA COMPARED. 205
as a whole, are the most soft and naked of all the
lepidopterous caterpillars. The looper moths, as they
are called, or the Geometria of Linnaeus, are well known
to move by a sort of leap ; and almost the only Co-
leoptera, which really possess this property, belong to
the Monilicornes, where we have the whole family of
HalticidcB, with their thickened thighs. The largest
beetles are among the Capricornes ; and the largest
Lepidoptera are types of the Bomby tides. In both these
groups, also, we find the antennae more developed than
in any other insects : in some of the Capricorn beetles,
they are five times the length of the body; while, in
the silk moths, or Bornbycides, their structure is parti-
cularly complicated.
(179-) We must not be surprised, however, in sub-
mitting a natural group to many and diversified tests,
that some analogies are more remote than others ; and
that others can be traced only in one stage of the insect,
and not in another. To show this more clearly, as an
inevitable consequence of general analogies, we shall
next compare the tribes of the Coleoptera with the
families of the Diurnes, or true butterflies.
Analogies of the COLEOPTERA to the DIURNAL LEPIDO-
PTERA.
Tribes Families Tribes
of the General Analogies. of the of the
Coleoptera. DIURNES. Lepidoptera,
PAP,U.
PREDATORES. { t e re t 3 h '. eminent for j Nymphalidx. SPHINGIDES.
MALACODERMES. Body soft. Hesperidte. NOCTUIDES.
MONILICORNES. Larva onisciform. Erycinida. PHAL^ENIDES.
CAPRICORNES. Antennae very long. Satyridte. BOMBYCIDES.
Every entomologist knows that the body of the Hes-
perian caterpillars are so soft, and the skin so thin, that
the vessels can be seen through it ; and that the insect
206 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
itself, being so little adapted to resist external injury,
protects its body by artificial means, and lives concealed
within a rolled leaf: the Hesperidce, in fact, are the
soft-skinned butterflies, just as are the Malacodermes
among the Coleoptera. The next analogy or that
between the Monilicornes and the Erycimdce
is, perhaps, one of the strongest that can be found.
The caterpillar of a Cassida, or tortoise beetle, so
completely resembles that of an Erycinian butterfly
that they might both be taken for examples of the
same tribe of insects. Great developement of the
appendages to the head invariably accompanies all
those animals which represent the Capricorn beetles ;
whether these appendages are horns, as in quadrupeds ;
crests, as in birds ; or antennae, as in winged insects.
Hence it is, that the antennae of the Satyr idee, or wood
butterflies, are longer in proportion to their body, than
those of any other Lepidoptera in existence. Our own
cabinet, peculiarly rich in this splendid tribe, enables
us to state this fact with confidence; and the analogy
receives still greater confirmation, by the larvae of these
butterflies being provided, in almost every instance,
with spines on their heads, or appendages to their tails.
It thus appears that the arrangement we now propose,
for the first leading tribes of the Coleoptera, is in perfect
unison with that system upon which we have arranged
the animal creation, throughout which it cannot be
doubted that one uniform plan, perfect in all its parts,
must prevail.
THE LAMELLICORNES. 207
CHAP. VI.
COLEOPTERA, continued.
THE LAMELLICORNES.
(180.) WE may now take a more particular survey of
these tribes ; and endeavour to resolve these, also, into
their respective families. The LAMELLICORNES, or
beetles with clavate and lamellate antennae, and five-
jointed tarsi, stand as the pre-eminent tribe of the
coleopterous order : they may be further recognised by
the compression of the tibiae, or shanks, which are more
or less toothed on their exterior edge. The antennae
are remarkably short ; and so much bent, either towards
the middle (as in the Lucanida'), or at the club (as in
Cetonia), that the two portions form an angle more or
less acute. No general characters can be more definite ;
and it is only in the most aberrant divisions that we
find any material exceptions. The habits of all this
tribe are herbivorous ; that is, they feed entirely upon
vegetable matter, either in a green or decomposed state ;
while, amid great diversity of form, size, and colour,
we find some of the most splendid as well as the most
bulky Coleoptera yet discovered. The Cetonia aurata,
or the common rose beetle, may be taken as the type of
the whole. A glance at this beautiful, although com-
mon insect, will convey a better idea of the general
shape of the lamellicorn beetles, than the most laboured
description. As to their history and natural arrangement,
we owe all that is of permanent value to the admi-
rable work of Mr. MacLeay. Assisted by his arrange-
ment of a part of this tribe, but adhering to those
general laws we have traced so extensively in other
portions of the animal world, we shall now lay before
the reader the result of our own researches in this most
208 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
interesting group of insects. It may be as well to
mention,, that the Lametticornes compose the (C Chi-
lognathiform Stirps " of Mr. MacLeay, as detailed in
the work above mentioned.
(181.) The two families of CETONIAD.E and SCARA-
BJEID^E, as it has long ago been demonstrated, compose
the typical and sub-typical families of the lamellicoru
beetles. They consequently possess, in their full deve-
lopement, all the characters here assigned to the tribe.
The Cetoniadcp, from living on the fresh sap of plants,,
have been termed T hater ophagous.* Their colours,, in
harmony with the delicacy and pureness of their food,
with few exceptions, are elegantly varied, or uncommonly
splendid. As a further distinction, Mr. MacLeay men-
tions that the elytra do not, as in the, Scarabaida, en-
tirely cover the abdomen : this, however, although a
useful, is but a secondary, and very uncertain character;
inasmuch as we are entirely ignorant how far this devi-
ation of structure is connected with the habits of the
insects in question. As the Cetoniadce feed upon living
vegetables, and the Scarab&ida upon such as are de-
composed, the student may naturally inquire how these
distinctions are to be traced in the cabinet of the ento-
mologist who may be altogether ignorant of this differ-
ence? and what are the external characters which accom-
pany such a dissimilarity of habit ? These, at least, were
the first questions that occurred to us, many years ago,
upon commencing the study of the lamellicorn tribe.
We cannot discover, however, in the valuable pages of
the Horce Entomologies, any information which supplies
this knowledge. Nevertheless, it may be safely stated,
that Nature has marked these two families, in their ex-
ternal structure, in as remarkable a manner as she has
done in their economy. This difference is manifested
* As this group, however, seems to correspond with such as we have
termed families in other divisions of the animal kingdom, and as uniformity
of nomenclature is so highly desirable in all branches, we shall on this, and
all other occasions, take the family name from that division which is the
most typical. See our remarks on the rank of groups, in Classification of
Animals t p. 373.
DISTINCTIONS OF CETONIAD^K AND SCARAB.ETD^. 209
in the construction of their tarsi. The Cetoniadce are
arboreal beetles ; that is, living and moving among those
trees, plants, and flowers, which are their natural food.
Their feet are accordingly constructed for clinging to
objects which afford them such an uncertain footing.
The terminal joint of the tarsi, on which are the claws,
is that in which the greatest strength is necessary ; and
it is therefore invariably longer and stronger than any
of the others. Hence these insects cling with the greatest
pertinacity, frequently by only two or three of their feet,
to any object they catch hold of. The more equal ar-
ticulation, also, of all their legs, gives to these members
a freedom of motion which is denied to all other of their
affinities. In the genera Cetonia and Rutila (which,
as being types of the family, possess this structure in
the greatest perfection), the claw joint is sometimes as
long as the total length of all the others ; and even in
the more aberrant groups, the united length of all the
tarsi is fully equal to that of the shank. Now, all these
characters, in the Scarabaidce, are completely reversed.
Hence it is, that the two families admit of the most
simple, as well as natural, definition. The entomologist,
in short, has only to remember, that in the arboreal, or
Thalerophagous Cetoniadce, the tarsi are as long, and
generally longer, than the shank ; while in the terres-
trial, or Saprophagous Scarabceidce, the tarsi are invari-
ably much shorter than the shank : in other words, that
they are long in one, and short in the other. Having
now sufficiently defined the present family by its typical
peculiarities, we may proceed to its next subordinate
divisions, or sub-families. These, with but one excep-
tion, we shall distribute according to the arrangement
developed by Mr. MacLeay ; not that the groups them-
selves have yet been studied with that precision which
they require, but because, so far as we have verified
this theory, we find it, with but one exception, to har-
monise with the general plan upon which all the great
divisions of the animal kingdom are founded.
(182.) The five principal groups, or sub-families,
210 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
of the Cetoniada are as follows : 1 . the Cetoniana, or
floral beetles ; 2. the Rutilince, or metallic beetles ;
3. the Megasomince, or horned beetles ; 4. the Melo-
lonthincE, or tree beetles (chafers) ; and, 5. the Gla-
phyrincE, or wasp beetles. The error, as we conceive.,
which has caused the substitution of the Anoplognathidce
(MacLeay) for the Megasomince (Sw.), will be sub-
sequently noticed. It may safely be asserted, that the
arrangement of this and the subsequent family is the
only portion of systematic entomology which has been
founded on an imperishable basis. Enlarged concep-
tions, indeed, of the general laws of nature are fast
gaining ground ; but it is not among those; who yet tread
in the beaten path of isolated classifications, and dis-
connected nomenclature. It is the rising generation of
naturalists, who begin to study the philosophy of their
science, and who, in a few years, will make a complete
revolution in entomological science. The stream of ob-
livion has already passed over the entomological systems
we ourselves once cherished ; and the time is fast ap-
proaching, when no system, whatever it may be, which
is not founded on the general harmonies of nature, will
be regarded by any but mere nomenclators. In this
mighty revolution of zoological science, we venture to
predict, that the arrangement of the typical Lamelli-
cornes, above alluded to, will remain, in all its distin-
guishing features, the same, simply because it is
natural. For this reason, we shall devote as much space
as possible to the developement of these families. Be-
sides, the theory of their arrangement is equally appli-
cable to all other natural groups ; so that when once
fully understood, the entomologist, in a great measure,
will be prepared to investigate any other on the same
principles. With this object, we shall now briefly notice,
in further detail, the sub-families of the Cetoniadce ;
giving to them those names which point out what we
consider their relative value with other groups.
(183.) The CETONIAN^E, or floral beetles, on account
of the very wide geographic surface over which they are
THE CETONIADJE. 211
distributed, joined to other considerations, appear to be
more typical than the sub-family Rutilince, whose limits
are almost entirely restricted to the New World. The
CetoniancB, on the contrary, are common in Europe,
Africa, Asia, and Australia. They are at once dis-
tinguished by the membranaceous texture of the man-
dibles and maxillae ; a structure which proves that these
insects, in the perfect state, are intended to live on
vegetable juices. The Cetonia Morio, and probably
many others of the darker coloured species, regale on
the sap which flows from the wounds of trees ; while
the rose beetle (C. auratd), and its more brilliant com-
panions, are only to be found on flowers.* Mr. Mac-
Leay is of opinion that Trichius may with safety be
regarded as a natural group in this division, although the
larvae of these beetles live in putrescent wood. The
CetoniadcB may be distinguished, anatomically, from the
Glaphyridce (MacLeay), by having their labrum con-
cealed under the clypeus ; whereas these last have it ex-
serted, and very prominent. The larvae live in the richest
vegetable soils ; and the perfect insects, as before re-
marked, are gaily and elegantly coloured, although rarely
possessing that metallic brilliancy which belongs to the
next sub-family.
(184.) Although we have just said that this family
presents a less metallic appearance than the following,
it must be applied only as regards its genera ; for many
of the species, certainly, cannot be exceeded in beauty,
and, indeed, vie with any in the resplendency of their
decorations, especially in the genus Cetonia, as also in
some of the Goliathi. Among the anomalies of form in
this group, we may mention the cornuted thorax of
Cetonia (Ischnostoma) cornuta Fab., which Mr. Mac-
Leay considers as esculent between the two genera;
besides which relation, we may observe that it points
certainly very strongly to Pachycnemus, by its thickened
posterior legs. A tuberculated thorax we also find in
* Hor. Ent., 74.
* F 2
212 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
Osmoderma Eremita, which is the largest European in-*
sect in the group ; and which emits, we are informed^
when handled, a powerful scent of Russia leather.*
A greatly produced clypeus is not an uncommon cha-
racteristic, and is conspicuous in Goliathus, Ischnostoma,
Inca, &c. : this is usually a falcated process, with basal
ramifications, or it assumes the form of a cross ; it is,
however, exclusively restricted to the male insect. The
genus Cryptodus, which MacLeay originally placed
among the Trogidte, he has latterly been induced to
move into this group, proximate to Cremastocheilus ; the
habits of the latter of which, he says, from personal
observation on the banks of the Delaware, are to fly,
like Cicindela, over the sand which there (opposite Phi-
ladelphia) lines the bank of that noble river. They are
certainly not flower- frequenting insects ; and what they
find in the sand to their taste, I do not know.f It thus
appears not improbable, from the affinity of Cryptodus
with this genus, and from the analogy of the structure
of the mouth of Cryptodus to the Trogida, that the
habits of the latter genus may be identical with those of
Cremastocheilus. The excessively flattened and broad
form of Platygenia (MacLeay) presents another re-
markable aberration from the typical structure of the
group, wherein also, we see a curvature of the legs, per-
haps only in the male ; and in Campulipus (Kirby) this
male characteristic increases so much, that the inter-
mediate tibia is bent into an obtuse angle. The other
most remarkable genera are Lepitritr, for its mimicking
resemblance of that section of the gigantic Goliathi to
which the G. giganteus serves as type ; and Anisonyoc,
for its extreme hairiness, which makes it completely the
bear among the Cetoniadce. It is a genus peculiar to the
Cape of Good Hope. We have above alluded to the
enormous developement of the posterior legs in Pachy-
cnemus ; but we may here further remark, that they are,
* A circumstance very unusual in the lamellicorn Coleoptera.
f MacLeay's Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa, " Annulosa"
4to. Lond. 1838. p. 17.
THE RUTILIN^E. 213
perhaps, quite as large in proportion, as those of Rep-
simus among the AnoplognathidfE, a family distin-
guished for that peculiarity. We can now 6nly further
notice the extraordinary abridgement of the elytra in
Valgus, the females of which possess an elongate slender
exserted ovipositor ; and the parallelism of Inca, in
America,, to the genus Goliathus in the Old World ; but
upon this last gigantic genus we shall have further occa-
sion to say a few words below. W. E. Sh.]
(185.) The Rutilina, in their general aspect, have
much resemblance to the insects of the last division ;
but their mandibles are not only, in most instances,
prominent, but much stronger, while their texture is
horny, and not membranaceous : this latter, as it has
been observed, is " an obvious and easily seized character
of separation ; " but it is one, unfortunately, which
requires not only great anatomical skill in the detection,
but inevitably leads to the mutilation and injury of the
specimen. In our opinion, a more easy, and therefore
a preferable, distinction can be drawn between the two
groups, by attending to the structure of the feet. In
the Cetoniance, the tarsi are comparatively slender, and
the claw joint is always shorter than the length oc-
cupied by the four preceding ones. In the RutUince,
on the contrary, the tarsi are remarkably thick, the
basal articulations very short, and the claw joint so
large and long as to be equal in length to all the others.
We, of course, include the genus Anoplognathus in this
definition of the Rutilince ; for, so intimately is it
connected to this group, that even Mr. Mac Leay admits
cc we shall experience no trifling difficulty in the at-
tempt to separate them/' The typical Anoplognathi
are almost exclusively found in New Holland, and are
among the most splendid metallic insects of this family,
shining with green and golden reflections, changeable
in every position. We know little of their history ;
but we have heard that the most common species,
round Sydney, fly during the dusk of the evening. The
Anoplognathi, indeed, have the mandibles concealed
p 3
14 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
beneath the clypeus, and the tips of the maxillae more
obtuse. But the general aspect of these insects, and
more especially the construction of their feet, are so
much in unison with the Rutilince, that they carry the
appearance of belonging to the same natural division,
rather than of being types of a distinct sub- family. This,
at least, is the opinion acted upon in all the modern
works wherein these insects are mentioned. True it is,
that such opinions, unsupported by demonstration, can-
not possess a paramount authority ; and it unfortu-
nately happens, that every one of the sub-families of the
Cetoniadcs require to be analysed, their minor divisions
or genera defined, and their analogies worked out.
That there is, in many points of structure, a resem-
blance between the Anoplognathi and the Dynastidce,
cannot, for a moment, be questioned ; but this resem-
blance, as we shall subsequently endeavour to demon-
strate, is of a subordinate nature.
(186.) The most conspicuous genera in this exceed-
ingly elegant family are, in the first place, Chrysina,
distinguished for its golden green vivacity, whence it
has derived its name; and to which genus the celebrated
ScarabcBus Macropus is to be referred as the male.
This name Mr. Francillon applied to it, in consequence
of its greatly thickened and elongated posterior legs;
thus exhibiting a strong analogy to the kangaroo, but
certainly in developement only, and not in function, as
the insect does not leap. This insect, which was so
long considered an inestimable treasure, has recently
become comparatively common, from the importation of
a great quantity from Mexico. The whole of this
family is, however, distinguished by the enlargement
of the posterior legs in the males, which is especially
the case in Repsimus, Anoplognathus, and Chrysochlora.
Anoplognathus, Mr. MacLeay surmises, may constitute,
in its larva state, a considerable article of food to the
barbaric natives of New Holland, where the type of it
must occur in great profusion. Geniates, which has
been referred to this family, we consider as belonging
rather to the Melolonthidce ; and where, consequently, we
THE MEGASOMIN^E. 215
shall notice it. Macraspis and Chasmodia offer us,
here, the greatest developement of the scutellum ob-
servable among the Petalocem, and the large Peruvian
Chrysophora Chrysochlora may vie with all in external
beauty. It is of a deep rich coppery green, which
takes a golden tinge upon the upper surface of the
body, agreeably deadened by the innumerable punctures
with which the insect is covered. Further, the very
remarkable Heterosternus, which, divested of its an-
tennae, upon a superficial glance, might pass for a
Buprestis, and whence it has its specific name ; and
the anomalous genus Hexodon the country of which
has only recently become known to be Madagascar
one metropolis of extraordinary forms. Three species
we are now acquainted with, and they are found in
tolerable plenty upon the sandy coasts of that island.
[W. E. Sh.]
(187.) The Megasomince are the largest beetles of
this family ; and, both from their size and shape, are
in no danger of being confounded with either of the
preceding. The species, comparatively, are few, at
least, of such as exhibit the typical characters. They
are all natives of hot countries, chiefly those in the
New World ; and, from what little is yet known of
their economy, feed, in the larva state, within the
hollows of decayed trees., and in putrescent wood. The
perfect insects are clearly arboreal, for their tarsi are
all constructed for clinging to vegetables : the articu-
lations are cylindrical ; and the first joint, as in all the
preceding divisions, is much shorter than the last. In
nearly all these gigantic beetles, either the males only,
or both the sexes, have singular horn-shaped processes,
rising from the head and thorax, giving to them a very
grotesque and even formidable appearance. In this
respect, they so closely resemble the genuine Dynastidce,
belonging to the corresponding sub-family of the Sca-
rabceidce, that, to this day, all entomologists have over-
looked those positive distinctions manifested in the
different construction of their tarsi. It may be further
p 4
21 6 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
remarked, that the colours of the Megasomma are
sombre, being generally of a dull or livid green.
(188.) This family is remarkably distinguished by.
besides their gigantic bulk, the processes which almost
universally, and with but rare exceptions, arm the head
and thorax of their males. The use of these append-
ages has not been ascertained, if use they have beyond
the sexual distinction, which we may scarcely doubt.
A similarity of structure in these frequently grotesque
excrescences is but rarely found to be identical, even in
cognate species ; and this circumstance has led to the
investigation of the character of the trophi, where as
remarkable differences have been discovered, as in their
external and more obvious distinctions. These, conse-
quently, have led to their subdivision into genera ;
perhaps upon quite as good grounds for separation, as
what are now so extensively adopted throughout the
animal kingdom. Nature, in her variety, has always
an object ; empty exhibition we should no where find,
could we follow her into her laboratory, and there
observe the recondite uses which mould form ; for she,
like the ancient philosophy, has her esoteric and her
exoteric doctrines ; and until we shall have become the
hierophants of her temple_, the mysteries of the former
will remain inexplicable to us. This family is still
called Scarabceus by the majority of Continental ento-
mologists; but the application of this name, Mr.
MacLeay very consistently restricted to those insects
which truly represented the Scarabs of the Ancients,
the object of worship to the Egyptians. He then gave
to the present the name of Dynastes, thus electing them
RULERS of the insect world ; as it was customary for
nations, before the sophistication of hereditary primo-
geniture, to select their princes from their most gigantic
and powerful compeers. To this name we have, how-
ever, given a still further restriction, beyond what it
receives by the separation of the following genera, and
many others into which it has recently been divided.
XylotrupeS; type Sc. Centaur us * Golopha, type So..
THE MELOLONTHIN^. 217
Claviger ; Megasoma, type Sc. Action; Megaceras,
type Sc. Chorinceus ; Chalcosoma, type Sc. Atlas ;
Strategus, type Sc, Alaus ; Temnorynchus, type Sc.
Coronatus, &e. &c. We may further notice the
excessive elongation of the anterior tibiae and tarsi in
the genus Eucheirus Kirby, the type of which is the
Sc. longimanus, and the semi-metallic Agacephala with
its deeply furcated head. [W. E. Sh.]
(189.) The Melolonthin<e, or tree beetles, gene-
rally called chafers, appear to follow the last, whose
lengthened and slender tarsi (so different from that of
the Rutilince and the Cetonlance) prepare us for the
great developement of these members universal in the
present group. Notwithstanding that a contrary opi-
nion has been expressed, we consider the Melolontha
vulgaris of Britain, or the chafer of the country
people, as one of the true types, to which that of Serica
is subordinate. The chief distinction of the Melo-
lonthince MacL., is their very convex or sub-globose,
form, " in which respect they exhibit an excellent
parallel to the Trogidce" Great stress has been laid on
these insects possessing a transverse suture, <e which
divides the clypeus into two parts, just before the eyes;"
but as it is also admitted that this character is likewise
common to the whole of the Anoplognathi, and the
greatest part of the Rutilince, we do not perceive how
it can be selected as any peculiar character of this
group. So far as we have yet proceeded in our analysis,
it appears to us that one of its most typical distinctions
is found in the lengthy developement of the legs, a
structure admirably suited to the arboreal habits of the
insects. The Melolonthince, for the most part, are
dull coloured, being dark brown, or assimilating to the
colour of the earth. It is said that they mostly frequent
sandy soils probably in the larva state, for the beetles
themselves, as it is well known, are invariably met with
in trees : the structure of the feet, in short, is by no
means adapted for walking upon an even surface ; hence
the perfect insects are strictly arboreal : the tarsus is
218 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
longer than the shank, with the first joint scarcely half
the length of the last. These characters, joined to the
convexity and pubescence of their bodies, seem to afford
the best external distinctions of the Melolonthina.
Their food consists almost entirely of leaves ; and they
occasionally appear, at uncertain intervals, in amazing
swarms. It is, perhaps, one of the most widely distri-
buted groups of the arboreal beetles ; since we have
before us typical species from Africa, India, America,
and Australia : they seem, however, to be more abun-
dant in temperate than in tropical countries. The only
form which we have yet seen, possessing a rudimentary
horn on the thorax, is the genus Pachypus of Fabricius,
which we have occasionally captured in Sicily : it is,
perhaps, by this genus that the Melolonthince are united
to the Megasomince.
(190.) It is a very remarkable circumstance, that a
distinguishing feature of the entomology of Southern
Africa is the hairy clothing of the majority of its
contents. Of this we have a strong exemplification in
this family, in Cephafotrichia Kirby, the type of which
is Melolontha Alopeoc, in which all parts of the insect,
excepting its elytra, are densely covered with very long
down. The general aspect of these insects, both in
form and colour, is dull and heavy, instanced in the
type Melolontha itself. Of course, exceptions occur;
and yet, notwithstanding this circumstance, they appear
to have a compensation in the great beauty of the elegantly
lamellated antennae in the majority of the males. The
dilated tarsi are clothed beneath with hair in the genus
Geniates, and which is a structure of very rare occurrence
in the Petalocera ; it, however, is found only in the male
insect. Many HoplicB are beautifully enlivened with
delicate metallic tints, arising from their dense clothing
of scales ; and the little New Holland DiphucephalfE are
equally distinguished for their metallic brilliancy, which,
however, is not of so fragile a nature as in the last,
it being the integument itself which is thus coloured.
The British Serica is very delicate in texture ; and some
THE GLAPHYRIN^E. 219
of the African species are singular for their globose
form. We have already above alluded to the Ccelodera
Dej. (Pachypus} of Southern Europe,, which is so dif-
ferent to its male, that it is not long that they have
been united by entomologists ; the abdomen of the fe-
male, compared with the insect, is very vesiculose ; and
it has neither elytra nor wings. [W. E. Sh.]
(191.) The GlaphyrincB, or wasp beetles, follow next
in the series. Their typical distinction is the unusual
shortness of their elytra, and their soft semi-membra-
naceous texture : these characters, indeed, are common
to all coleopterous insects analogous to this type ; but,
among the arboreal Cetoniadce, they are altogether re-
stricted to this division. Another, and a very remark-
able peculiarity, is the extreme hairiness of these beetles,
a structure by which they are enabled to perform the
office of bees, in promoting the fecundation of plants.
This, and the following facts regarding the Glaphyrina ,
we can state as the result of personal observation. On
the flowery plains of Sicily, and more particularly of
Greece, several species of Amphicoma are found in the
greatest profusion during the early spring months : they
are to be seen on the wing very early in the morning,
flying about from flower to flower, and apparently very
busy. There is one species, more especially, found in
different parts of Greece, which is, without any doubt,
the Melolontha of the Ancients ; so completely does this
insect, when in motion, resemble one of the hymenopte-
rous order, that we captured it under that belief, and
only then discovered it was a beetle. After the month
of May, not one of the many Glaphyrina of those coun-
tries are to be seen ; and even at the proper season, they
seem all to retire before the middle of the day. During
the early part of May, the plains of Athens may be said
to swarm with these green and yellow Glaphyri, so that
the entomologist might collect them by thousands. Mr.
MacLeay, unacquainted with the fact, supposes that the
Trichius fasciatus was the insect alluded to by Eusta-
thius ; but, independent of the existence of the species
220 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
just mentioned, the Trichius fasciatus does not appear
to have such a southerly range at least, it was never
seen by us, either in Sicily or Greece, during a residence
of near seven years in different parts of those countries.
In regard to the geographic distribution of this group,
it seems confined to the Old World, and within zones
of 25 breadth on each side the tropics. Mr. MacLeay
further adds, that the membranaceous process of the
maxillae, the exserted labrurn, and subquadrate clypeus,
will serve to distinguish them easily from the Melolon-
thidce, with which they have a most obvious connection.
(192.) The genera of this family are very few in
number, and of which we have nothing further to record
beyond what we have observed above. We will merely
remark, that here the length of the legs furnishes the
features which their thickness supplied in the Rutilina;
and which, in the Megasomince, is replaced by the tu-
berculated and cornuted head and thorax, and in the
Melolonthidce by the enlarged developement of the male
antennas ; and this characteristic in the Cetoniidce presents
itself in the large developement of the mesothoracic
epimera. Before we quit the thalerophagous circle, we
will take a retrospective glance at the relative proportions
of the genera and species contained in each. The Me-
lolonthidce stand pre-eminently the first; for their num-
bers are more than double those of either of the other
families, and more than equal to the whole combined.
Next follow the Cetoniidce, in which there is a greater
uniformity of general structure ; but Cetonia itself is the
most numerous genus of the circle. The Rutilince fol-
low the last in the proportions of form, but the Glaphy-
ridce stand very low below either ; and the relative pro-
portions of species, in round numbers, are, Melolonthidce,
26; Cetoniidce, 14; Rutilince, 6; and Glaphyridce, 1.
[W. E. Sh.]
(193.) Such are the characters we have selected for
the five sub- families of the Cetoniadce, or those beetles
(Petalocera Thaler ophagaMacL.) which feed upon living
vegetables. We shall now show in what manner these
ANALOGIES OF THE CETONIAD^E. 221
groups represent the great tribes of the Coleoptera, and
what analogies they hear to other orders of created be-
ings. On the assumption that the Cetoniance are pre-
eminently typical, we may place the rest in the same
series in which they have been noticed.
Analogies of the CETONIADJS to the Tribes of the CO-
LEOPTERA.
Sub-families. Typical Characters. Tribes.
1. Typical.
CETONIAN^. Mandibles concealed. LAMELLICORNES.
2. Sub-typical.
RUTILIN.E. Mandibles prominent. PREDATORES.
3. Aberrant.
f Stature gigantic ; feed within de-}
MEGASOMINJE. < cayed wood ; each typifying the > CAPRICORNES.
C ruminating quadrupeds. j
MBLOLONTH,^. {**$? " ' *] Bfanuoo,
GLAPHYRIN.E. Elytra short, thin, flexible. MALACODERMES.
It is scarcely possible to conceive greater harmony than
that which subsists between these two series. The
experienced naturalist, if he wishes to detect innume-
rable analogies which result from this exposition, has
only to compare the contents of the first circle with all
those mentioned in this work, and he will find, in every
instance, the same results, however differently varied.
They may not, indeed, be striking, because analogies are
strong or faint, according to the dissimilarity of the
groups compared ; but each comparison will throw light
upon the other : we may trace, for instance, the convex
body of the Mdolonthina through their corresponding
type of annulose and vertebrate animals, down to
tortoises, or chelonian reptiles, until we arrive at the
perfectly cylindrical body of the intestinal worm ; ex-
tended, as the latter is, to such a disproportionate length.
By this disposition, also, of the thaler ophagous groups,
we at once perceive that Nature really has intended the
G/aphyrince to represent the Hymenoptera; and the Ce-
222 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
toniance to feed upon the same parts of a plant as nourish
the Lepidoptera, namely, the flower. And here another
obscure glimpse of interminable relations opens upon us ;
for as these two latter groups are pre-eminently typical,
so do they draw nourishment from the most perfect part
of a plant, which every one knows to be its flowers. The
unusual length of limb, again, possessed by the chafers,
and (if the fact be true) their partiality for sandy coun-
tries, is at once explained by their being the grallatorial
beetles, that is, by their representing the order of wading
birds (Gr allator es), which course the sands of all ma-
ritime countries, and sometimes congregate, like these
beetles, in migratory hordes of countless numbers : both
groups are remarkably deficient in bright colouring, for
both assume the tint of the naked ground. But we
must pause ; for, although analogies equally beautiful
crowd upon the mind, we are limited to a mere sketch
of this inviting subject. Let it be remembered, how-
ever, that " natural groups will stand any test;" and that,
unless those of the insect world will bear a comparison
with such as belong to all other animals, we may be sa-
tisfied that there is, in one or the other, some great error
to be detected.
(194.) We must now turn to the other great divi-
sion of the lamellicorn beetles, the Scarabceida, or
the Petalocera saprophaga of MacLeay. The first or
most pervading character which strikes the general ob-
server, on looking to this assemblage, is the thick and
ungraceful form they possess : this, joined to their
dark and sombre hue, and the repulsive aspect which
many of them possess, give them, altogether, a most
uninviting appearance. Their manners and habits are
quite in unison with their general aspect : instead of
sporting on flowers, living upon pure and uncorrupted
food, and enjoying the brightness of day, the whole of
these insects live only upon the ground, where they
seek out the decayed and corrupting remains of vege-
tables, more especially the excrement of herbivorous
animals, in which disgusting food they seem to revel
THE SCARAB^IN^E. 223
with the greatest delight ; within this, or in little sub-
terranean caves immediately beneath, which they exca-
vate with their fore-feet, do these impure creatures pass
the day, only quitting their retreats to fly abroad after
the sun has run its course, and the night has begun.
These nocturnal habits, however, are not universal ; for
some, as the true SCABAB^EIN^E of warm countries, and
the Aphodince of this country, may be seen abroad in
the heat of the day ; but they are always in search of
the same disgusting food, shunning the sweets of Flora,
as if they were, to them, poison. A few, however,
prefer nourishment of a less offensive nature : the large
Dynastince subsist entirely upon rotten wood, and take
up their stations in the hollows of decayed trees, where
both the larva and perfect insect may be found. But
these are only slight modifications of the same habits ;
for the whole family live entirely upon decayed vege-
table matter, in different stages of decomposition: and
although some few, as certain Anthophagi, and several
of the foreign Scarab&ina, are partially ornamented
with metallic colours, yet the general hue of the whole
of these insects is different shades of black, and dark
brown.
(195.) The structure of these insects is as peculiar
as their general appearance and habits. The body is
short, thick, and clumsy ; the thorax so large, as gene-
rally to be of the same size; while the legs are much
more spinous than those of the CetoniadcB. Their great
characteristic, however, is to be found in the construc-
tion of their feet. As the legs of the Cetoniadce are so
admirably adapted for clinging to plants and branches,
so are those of the ScarabceidtB for walking upon the
ground ; although their motion and progress, on such
occasions, is neither graceful nor active. The tarsi are
universally very short and slender, often, indeed, nearly
obsolete ; and although, in some of the divisions, the
five joints are of the same shape, and even present
much of the same relative proportion to each other as
those of the Cetoniadce, yet they are, collectively, inva-
22 4< NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
riably shorter than the shank of the leg, or that part
which forms the middle joint. The different modifi-
cations of the tarsi will be found, also, of the greatest
use in determining the different sub-families : let the
entomologist, for instance, examine those of the true
ScarabfBUS and of the common Geotrupes stercorarius,
whose drowsy hum is so familiar to us in summer ;
he will then perceive that, while the first exhibits the
greatest possible deviation from the Cetoniada, by having
the first joint of the tarsus larger than any of the others,
and the last hardly thicker than that which precedes it,
the latter has a miniature resemblance to the long
thickened claw joint so prevalent among the floral
beetles, with this difference, however, that the preceding
joints gradually become smaller from the first, as in all
this family, and are defended by strong bristles, which
are, no doubt, highly useful in assisting the animal to
walk upon the ground. In proportion, also, as we leave
this family, and approach the confines of the last, we
observe a gradual approximation in the structure of
their tarsi, until, upon reaching the bulky Dynastince,
the two families insensibly blend into each other; so
that much more refined characters must be used to de-
termine their respective limits, than has yet been em-
ployed by any author who has written upon the lamel-
licorn genera.
(196.) On looking to the anatomical construction of
the ScarabceidcB, we find they exhibit, in the nature of
their jaws, the same primary divisions as are observable
in the last family. In one (the Cetoniadce), these
organs, from being membranaceous, plainly show that
the insects live upon juices, and, " as it were, by lick-
ing their food ; " while the second, composed of insects
which have corneous or crustaceous maxillae, live on
more solid species of food, and by mastication.* But
without entering further into these analogies, we must
at once proceed to enumerate the five leading divisions,
* Hor. Ent., 27.
THE SCARAB^EIN^E. 225
or, as we consider them, sub-families, into which the
learned author, just quoted, has divided the whole:
these are 1. the Scarabceince ; 2. the Geotrupince ;
3. the DynastincB ; 4. the Trogince ; and, 5. the Apho-
(197-) The ScarabcBincB, or true scarabs*, are by
far the most numerous, and, consequently, the most
varied of the whole : in this respect they resemble not
only their prototypes, the Cetoniana, but nearly all other
pre-eminently typical groups in the animal kingdom.
Few, however, are found in Britain ; and these, chiefly
belonging to the genus Onthophagus, are of a small
size : the rest are chiefly inhabitants of tropical, or, at
least, of warm latitudes. According to the arrangement
we are now chiefly following, the insects placed in this
division have all membranaceous mandibles, which are
fimbriated at their tip and on their inner side : the
mouth is also invariably concealed beneath the clypeus,
or shield, which advances in front of the head; and
this, according to MacLeay, is the most constant cha-
racter, as well as the most certain, by which the true
scarabs may be distinguished from such genera of the
next division as make the nearest approach to them.
This latter character, therefore, is confessedly of more
importance than the first, even in a scientific point of
view ; while it is, also, much more adapted for general
use. The form of these insects will also materially aid
us in distinguishing them: the body is particularly
short in comparison to the thorax ; it is also greatly
depressed in the majority, although very convex in the
genus Copris, which, from other circumstances, does
not appear to be typical : the head is large, owing to
the great developement of the clypeus, or shield, which
projects all round it often so much as to conceal the
largest portion of the eyes and the antennae : the differ-
ent modifications of this part of the insect are all very
remarkable, and deserve much more attention than they
* See the relative rank of these groups in Classification of Animals t
p. 273.
226 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
have yet received. In the typical genus, Scarabou*;
the clypeus is semicircular in front, but deeply marked
by obtuse tooth-like divisions, as in S. Sacer, varying
in number according to the sub-genera, and even,
sometimes, in the species. None of these, however,
have any horns or erect spines, either upon the head or
thorax ; and a very few, like the Ateuchus Eyyptiorum,
are more or less glossed with metallic green. In Copris,
however, the clypeus, although slightly emarginate or
notched in front, has the margin otherwise undivided :
but in Onthophagus it is almost always entire, and even
sometimes pointed, as in the well-known O. Taurus.,
a species which is a rare example in this country of this
genus possessing well-defined horns upon the head.
(198.) The tarsi of this family are very remark-
able ; and although little, if any, attention has yet been
paid to these organs among the Lamellicornes, we feel
persuaded they will furnish some of the strongest
characters for indicating natural groups. We have al-
ready described the hinder tarsus of the typical genus,
ScarabcBus ; and this will also suffice for that of Copris;
but the anterior tarsi of the former are obsolete, while
those of the latter, although small, are sufficiently
obvious : there is scarcely one natural group, in short,
which does not present some modification of the joints,
either in shape or proportion, by which such group
could be characterised. We do not mean to intimate,
by this, an approval of the tarsal system, as it is over-
strained by some entomologists ; still less that these
characters should take precedence, in all cases, of others.
But, as the organs of prehension or of motion are con-
fessedly among those of paramount importance among
vertebrate animals, so do we conceive they may be,
from the nature of the case, equally so in the annulose
groups ; and experience has confirmed this supposition.
There requires no examination or dissection of the
organs of manducation, to determine the two great divi-
sions of the typical lamellicorn beetles ; their feet at
once determines the point to the most inexperienced
GENERA OP SCARAB.EIN^J. 227
observer ; and, although these characters have actually
been overlooked, yet they are the only ones of a tan-
gible nature which can establish the differences in
question.
(199-) This division comprises considerably the
greatest number of forms exhibited by the circle of which
they constitute a chief component. We have here the de-
pressed Scarabceus, Gymopleurus, and Pachysoma, the
latter resembling a couple of conjoined semicircles, and
further curious from its very hairy legs. Then we have,
next, the very convex Circellium, Chalconotus, Coprobis y
Copris, and Phan&us, the last distinguished for the
armature of their head and thorax ; the latter usually
retuse in front : we have then the irregularly gibbous
Sisyphus andHyboma, which form merges in the flatter
Onthophagus and Coprobices; and this passes through the
more elongated Onites and Oniticellus, which terminates
in the elongate, parallel, and completely flattened surface
of Eurysternus. There is as much diversity in the
proportion and structure of the legs of these insects, as
in their general form. Thus, the convex forms are the
most essentially fossorial in the structure of these limbs,
exhibited in the dilatation, concavo-convex, and ex-
ternally considerably denticulated edge of their anterior
tibiae ; and in all the legs of these, there is a greater
uniformity of size and length. The depressed series
makes an easy transition in the comparative slenderness
of these limbs, and the increasing length of the posterior
pair to the gibbous group, where the latter are very
lengthy and considerably curved. In the Onthophagi
and their allies, we find a great resemblance to the
pre-eminently fossorial structure ; but in Eurysternus
we have a third type of structure, where the intermediate
legs are the longest. Considering the substances that
these creatures frequent, and whence they have been
termed the " scavengers of nature," we, of course, ex-
pect to see obscurity -of tint prevail ; but when we ob-
serve the metallic brilliancy of many of the Coprobii,
Onthophagi, and Phan&i, the splendour of whose co-
228 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
lours will frequently rival any throughout the Coleoptera,
we are tempted to exclaim at the caprice of Nature,
which has clothed the inhabitants of such nauseous sub-
stances in such gay habiliments. It is a striking cir-
cumstance, and exhibits an anomalous condition of many
of this group as compared with the majority of the Co-
leoptera, that their males are dispossessed of anterior
tarsi ; but this deficiency is supplied by an elongation
of the tibia, which is curved at its extremity. The ob-
ject of the elongation of the posterior legs in these in-
sects is deduced from the observation of their habits;
whence we find that they use them to propel the balls
of dung, wherein they have deposited their egg, to the
receptacle they have formed for it ; and they thus pro-
pel it, walking backwards. Perty *, whose notice of the
habits of these insects is the most complete we possess,
informs us, that some species of Scarabceus frequent
ants' nests during the winter. Hyboma (if he be right
in the genus, which is somewhat doubtful) frequents
dung, is not fossorial, and rarely flies. The Coprobii
are found in fallen leaves, dung, and also frequenting
the exuding sap of wounded trees. The Eurysterni
are also not burrowers, but are active on the wing during
the day. The conformity of habit in genera is con-
firmed by the intertropical Coprides burrowing like our
native species. The Phancei are not very different in
habits to Copris, and fly during evening with a loud
noise and considerable velocity : they are extremely
abundant, even the largest species, the P. Principalis,
which is more than two inches long, and an inch and a
half broad. It must present an extraordinary appear-
ance to an European collector, to witness, for the first
time, the air and the earth, in intertropical regions,
teeming with their hosts of insects, and these large
Coprophagi sweeping through the sky with the velocity
we observe in our native species. Many of them are
diurnal flyers, but the majority, as here, are crepuscular,
* Delectus Animalium Articulat. Pref. p. 7. &c.
THE GEOTRUPIN-ffi. 229
and boom around, during dusk, with their sonorous
hum. [W.E.Sh.]
(200.) The next division is composed of the Geo-
trupina, or drone scarabs. " Concisely describing these
insects/' observes Mr. MacLeay, <f it may be said, that
they differ from the last by their corneous mandibles,
and from the Dynastince by their exserted labrum."
" But such characters/' as he truly adds, fc like all
others, are subject to an infinity of shades, and may
even altogether disappear in some insects of this family
hereafter to be discovered. They are coprophagous, or
boletophagous. * Some extreme genera, however, live
on roots, and may even be considered lignivorous." Most,
if not all, the typical species, which are comparatively
few, inhabit temperate latitudes ; while such as are here
considered " extreme," or, rather, aberrant, genera, are
restricted to warm or tropical climates.^
(201.) The common Scarab&us stercorarius of Lin-
naeus, so abundant in this country, is one of the best
examples we can adduce of this division. In its short
convex body, and, indeed, in general appearance, no less
than manner, it presents a strong resemblance to the
genus Copris among the Scarabceince ; but the position
of the hinder legs is different; the head is smaller; and,
from not being furnished with a dilated shield, the pro-
trusion of the mandibles, which are very strong, horny,
and arcuated at their tips, is rendered very evident ; the
labium is also exserted, or, as it were, pushed out, in
which respect they strikingly differ from the typical
scarabs. The tarsi furnish another important character ;
although considerably shorter than the shank, their
structure shows an evident approach to what is seen in
the floral beetles, or the Cetonidce : the claw joint is the
longest, and even exceeds the first; the others gradually
diminishing downwards : the joints, moreover, are cy-
lindrical, and not, as in the former division, compressed.
* That is, feeding either upon dung or decayed/wngi.
f Hor. Ent.,p.S2.
Q 3
230 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
Yet, with all these incipient indications of a prehensile
foot, these insects are invariably found upon the ground,
where, however, they walk with much more difficulty
than the typical Scarab&ince. The sub-genus Ele-
phastomus, with its incurved snout, is one of the most
singular insects in this assemblage.
(202.) Many of the observations that we have made
upon the habits of the ScarabceincB at page 227.; will be
found to attach to the present group. These insects,
however, are never richly metallic ; and they are more
exclusively fossorial. They differ less in form, but more
in habits, from each other, than that group ; for Lethrus
feeds upon the eyes of the vine, and where they abound
in the vicinity of vineyards, they do considerable mis-
chief. They are more essentially social than any of
the Petalocera, for they live in pairs in deep burrows in
the ground. Fischer tells us that they are very jealous,
and extremely pugnacious ; and their structure would at
once convince us that such collision must be very severe,
the mandibles of the male having beneath an enormous
process, nearly or quite as large as the organ itself. There
are but few genera belonging to this group, and their
species also are not numerous ; and these genera have
also a more limited geographical range than those of the
adjacent families. Thus, Elephastomus is confined to
New Holland; Orphnus, to Africa and India; Geotrupes,
to Europe and America ; Lethrus is wholly European,
but Bolboceras ranges over the entire world. W.
E. Sh.]
(203.) The Dynastina* evidently follow the Geo-
trupincB in a natural series, through the medium of
such forms as have their bodies rather longer than the
Geotrupints, but shorter than that of Oryctes nasi-
cornis. This latter we shall, for the present, view as
the type, not because we really believe it to be such,
but because it is the only species of whose habits and
economy, as yet, any thing decisive is known. Although
* Here separated from the Megasomince, but confounded v/ith them by
former writers.
THE DYNASTIN^E. 231
not found in Britain, it appears by no means uncommon
in various parts of the Continent. De Geer once dis-
covered a considerable number of them, both in the
larva and perfect state, in a heap of rich vegetable
mould ; and other writers mention its being found in
half-rotten tanpits. This is sufficient evidence that
this insect feeds upon decayed wood; and it therefore
follows,, analogically, that all others, having the same
general structure, do the same. The tips of the jaws
are rather membranaceous than corneous, and being un-
armed with the teeth of the true Dynastince, clearly
show that they are employed upon a much softer species
of food : in other words, we are brought to the con-
viction that the Dynastince in unison with the pre-
dominant character of all the other Scarabaida feed
upon decayed wood ; and that the Megasomince subsist
habitually upon that which is either in a living state,
or but just beginning to decay : thus are the two grand
and leading characters preserved; and consumers are
provided, in these groups, for every stage of vegetable
existence, from the flowers, on which alone the Ce-
toniance exist, down to the excrement of herbivorous
animals, in which the Scarabceince delight to revel.
(204.) But without looking merely to those cha-
racters upon which so much stress has been laid,
namely, the internal parts of the mouth, let us see how
far the separation here made of the DynastidcB of Mr.
MacLeay, into two sub-families, is borne out by the
structure of their respective tarsi. We have already
seen in what manner the two great divisions of terres-
trial and arboreal scarabs are thus naturally charac-
terised by their feet ; and this becomes apparent even at
the point of their junction. The posterior tarsi of the
Oryctes nasicornis may be thus described : they are
decidedly shorter than the shank ; almost as slender, in
proportion to the thickness of the legs, as those of the
GeotrupincB ; the first, or basal joint, is much the largest
of the four, the three others being considerably gra-
duated; the last, or claw joint, is equal in length to
Q 4
232 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
the two preceding; and they are all as well covered with
bristles at their articulations,, as those of the terrestrial
Geotrupince. There is, in fact, so little difference in
degree between the posterior tarsus of O. nasicornis and
G. stercorarius, that it is quite obvious they both de-
serve to be considered terrestrial scarabs, although se-
parated into distinct sub-families by the other parts of
their organisation : the claw joint, indeed, of Oryctes is
is much more developed ; yet still, although longer, it
is not so thick as the first tarsal joint, and, in many of
the Brazilian species, it is particularly slender. We
may now turn to one of the best known insects among
the Megasomince, viz. the Hercules beetle ( M . Her-
cules). The hinder tarsi, instead of being shorter, are
very considerably longer than the shank; the basal
joint, although very slightly thicker, is rather shorter,
than the three following, which are all of the same size
and length; while the claw joint is so highly developed,
that it is equal in length to the three preceding ones :
no hairs whatever are upon any of the joints, and the
claws themselves are remarkably hooked. Now, it can-
not for a moment be doubted that this gigantic insect is
completely arboreal, and that its progress upon the ground
would be just as slow and unnatural as that of a genuine
Scarabceus upon a branch. We have confined the fore-
going comparison to the hinder tarsi of these respective
insects, not from any supposition that they are more
important than the others, but simply because we judge
it unnecessary to enter into similar details respecting
the remainder : in point of fact, the same relative pro-
portions in the joints will be found in all the other legs;
premising, however, that the anterior claw joint in this,
and nearly all the arboreal Megasomincz, is much more
developed, in proportion, than that of the terrestrial
Dynastince.
(205.) From the foregoing observations, it is, there-
fore, evident that the Dynastidce comprise two distinct
natural groups of equal value, by which the terrestrial
and arboreal lamellicorn beetles are united. This opi-
GENERA OF DYNASTIN^E. 233
nion can be established upon two distinct grounds : first,
on the nature of their food, as indicated both by facts of
economy and of structure ; and, secondly, by their or-
gans of locomotion. In the latter, indeed, no less
than in the former, there are numerous modifications ;
and these will, doubtless, indicate some of the most
natural of the minor groups, or sub -genera; but we
have yet seen no insects which did not come under one
or other of these groups, or which did not fall into the
natural series by which they are connected to others.
We have had frequent occasion, in our progress through
the vertebrate animals, to show how much the peculi-
arity of colour enters into the composition of natural
groups. The same remarks are applicable, as every
experienced entomologist is aware, to insects. In the
present case, it may be observed, that the whole of the
genuine Dynastince are either deep glossy black, or dark
brown ; and although very many of the Megasomince,
as D. Actaon, &c., are of the same dark colours, yet the
majority have the elytra of a livid green, as if they
had been coloured with the weakened sap of the decay-
ing trees upon which the insects themselves chiefly fed.
This, of course, is mere conjecture, yet it is by no
means either impossible or improbable.
(206.) The genera we consider the most typical of
our Dynastince, are Oryctes, Phileurus, Hoplites (Ene-
ma Kirby), and Archon. This, consequently, is also a
limited group ; which, however, is not yet thoroughly
analysed as respects our views concerning it. All that
we know of the habits of the insects contained in
it, we have already stated. The forms are more
elongate than any of the preceding, and also some-
times considerably depressed, as in Phileurus, Enema,
and Heteronychus. We do not expect that any of them,
in their perfect state, are sessorial, although they have
all the requisite structure. They are considerably dis-
persed over the world; although Phileurus and Enema
are exclusively American ; Cryptodon, African, as well as
Heteronychus.
234 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
(207.) The Trogince are the next great division among
the terrestrial scarabs. They have been compared by
Mr. MacLeay, and very justly, to the genus Hister:
both appear to be fond of cadaverous matter; both " have
their head sunk in the thorax in a very peculiar man-
ner; and both have the curious habit, when alarmed, of
counterfeiting death, by applying their feet and antennae
close to the body, and ceasing all motion until their fear
may have subsided." We may add to these analogies,
the Linnaean genera Ptinus, Dermestes, Cassida, Cur-
culiOy Elater, Buprestis, and several others ; all of which,
in their own proper circles, are types of the MONILICOR-
NES. They are also related to the Melolonthin^., not
only by their very convex body and obtuse head, but by
the very same habit of counterfeiting death, which the
Melolonthina possess in a very high degree.* Here,
however, the similarity ceases. The Trogina, in compa-
rison to the other divisions, are remarkably few, and
but very little diversified either in colour or in form :
they are all small insects ; and possess the peculiarity,
almost unknown in others of this family, of having the
elytra deeply and thickly marked by excavated hollows.
Some of them are apterous, another point of analogy
they bear to several of the monilicorn types; while one
(Trox luridus Fab.) is said to have been found in rotten
wood.f The external resemblance between these insects
and some of the small Melolonthince^ such as Serica, &c.,
is well worthy of attention. The Trogidce, at first sight,
seem to be a much more isolated group among the sa-
prophagous Petalocera, than what we suspect they really
are. Among the smaller types, or sub-genera, of the
Dynastince, there are several insects which appear to
form a very gradual passage between the two, although
we have not yet been able to discover the point of junc-
tion : this, however, will not in the least militate
* The common cockchafer will continue this deception even if thrown up
in the air; instead of spreading its wings, it will fall to the ground as if it
were really dead.
f Hor. Ent., p. 63.
THE APHODIIN^E. 235
against the situation that has been assigned them in this
circle; for it is quite obvious they can hold no other
station.
(208.) The ApTiodiince form the last sub-family: they
are the least in size of the whole ; and, although not
very few in point of numbers, the variations in their
structure are comparatively slight: they differ anato-
mically from the Scarabeeina, in having short dilated
coriaceous mandibles, and the pairs of feet at equal
distances from each other. They are also sufficiently
separated from the Troylnce, by having their labrum
concealed under the clypeus ; and by their mandibles
being thin, compressed, and scarcely to be called corne-
ous.* The scutellum is always distinct; and the head
and thorax are almost invariably smooth. The species
swarm in temperate climates, and are particularly com-
mon in our fields during the spring and summer
months, hovering over, and very soon burying them-
selves, in the dung of cattle, to which they give a decided
preference. Their geographic range is comparatively
limited. Mr. MacLeay was unacquainted with any
from the Australian range; and we only met with a very
few minute species in Tropical America ; while at the
Cape of Good Hope, however, where large herbivorous
animals abound, they are not uncommon. It appears
that, although the majority are coprophagous, yet that
many live entirely upon putrid marine plants : thus
the former open a passage to the aberrant Scarabceince,
with which we began our survey, while the latter, by
frequenting sandy situations, prefer the same localities
as the majority of the Trogince.
(209.) The two preceding families the Trogince and
the Aphodiince are the most limited of the whole circle.
We have already sufficiently treated, above, upon their
natural history ; and we will only further remark, that
we consider the Trogina, within themselves, the most
anomalous family of ah 1 , as it is scarcely possible to
* Hor. Ent., p. 58,
236 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
conceive a proximate affinity between such genera as
Acanthocerus and Trox. The former, like Agathidium,
has the faculty of rolling itself up into a complete ball,
indeed, so much so, that one we received from the
Brazils was transpierced through the elytra, near the
scutellum, and again through the head. It is other-
wise remarkable for the extremely dilated expansion of
its tibiae, which form thin plates, that fold up within
a cavity beneath the body ; and thus, when the insect is
rolled, there is not the slightest vestige of these limbs to
be seen for the tarsi fold back upon the tibiae. The penta-
merous tarsi, and lamellated structure of the apex of the
antennae, are all that seems to associate it here. If this
be admitted, we see no reason why one of the Bostri-
chidfs, the Phloeotribus Olece, which has likewise la-
mellated antennae, should not come into the iamellicorn
circle. The habits of Acanthocerus, also, are to frequent
flowers, and not carrion, or putrescent substances, like
all its present associates. Trox, to us, seems to have itself
a strong relation, perhaps of affinity if habits. and habit
can show this with Opatrum amongst Latreille's He"
teromera. Trox is of universal dissemination ; Acan-
thocerus is wholly American ; and it is difficult to say
what other insects should enter the group. [W. E. Sh.]
(210.) In the Aphodiince, we have greater uniformity
of general habit, as also of specific habits ; and this,
although a limited group in forms, is, especially in its
types, very abundant in species ; for Aphodius numbers
as many as any genus, except Onthophagus, within the
Iamellicorn circles : it is also found every where ex-
cepting in New Holland ; and the only departure from
the habits of the family is in JEgialia, a small genus,
consisting of but two species, one European and one
American, the European occurring in Great Britain,
upon our sandy coasts, where possibly it feeds upon
putrescent fish, or the rejectamenta of the sea. The
relative proportions of these five groups differ greatly
from the parallel series of thalerophagous Petalocera,
and would stand thus in round numbers. Scarabceina
ANALOGIES OF SCARABvEID^ AND CETONIAD^. 237
precede all in genera, as well as species, and overwhelm
them with its numbers. In genera, the Geotrupince follow
them. The Dynastince and Aphodiince are about equal ;
and the Trogince are the lowest in the scale. In species,
their relative proportions are, Scarabceina, as 29 ; the
Aphodiince, as 7 ; the Geotrupince, as 3 ; and the Trogince
and Dynastince, as 2 each. [W. E. Sh.]
(211.) Having now detailed the chief peculiarities
of the five great divisions in each of the typical circles
of this tribe, we may proceed to verify their accuracy ;
first tracing the mutual analogies they present to each
other, and then illustrating the subject further by com-
paring them with other and more dissimilar groups.
The annexed diagram will exhibit, in one view, the dis-
position we have now made of the whole.
Aphodiina I \ Glaphyrina
Irogince./ \Melolonthince
This diagram at once exhibits both the affinities and
the analogies of the two typical divisions of the Lamel-
licornes. The first, or the Scarabceidce, are the Sa-
prophaga of MacLeay ; the second, or the Cetoniida,
are his Thakrophaga. Furthermore, the entomologist
will perceive that we have taken for granted eight out
of the ten relations of affinity exhibited in this diagram,
on the authority of the same author ; so that the ex-
tent of our alteration consists in separating the Dynas-
tince into two sub-families. The Megasomince thus
238 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
occupy the station assigned by Mr. MacLeay to his
Anoplognathidce, a group which appears to form an
aberrant portion of the Rutilince. We feel it necessary
to make these observations, as we by no means are sa-
tisfied, in our own mind, that the Cetoniance are so far
removed from the Megasomince, as they appear to be in
this arrangement. These doubts are occasioned by the
strong and unquestionable relationship between the gi-
gantic Dynastince of the New World, and their proto-
types in the genus Goliatha, on the opposite coast of West-
ern Africa. The question, then, simply resolves itself
into this: Is the obvious relation between these groups
one of affinity, or of very strong analogy ? This im-
portant point can only be determined by a thorough
analysis, not merely of the two groups in question,
but also of the Rutilince and the Glaphyrince ; for it is
yet by no means clear that Goliatha may not be really
within the circle of the latter. At all events, it is per-
fectly obvious, that these gigantic insects represent that
type which we shall term in this, as in former volumes,
the Rasorial. This will be equally true, into what-
ever circle they may ultimately be found to enter.
Their extreme rarity, and very high price (for they
are the most valuable, in a commercial point of view, of
all insects), render it impossible to procure a series of
the species for thorough examination.* It is clear,
however, to us, that the Goliatha of Brazil are much
nearer related to the Glaphyrina, through the medium
of Trichius, than to these African types ; although
nothing, at present, can be stated with safety on the
true nature of all these relations.
(212.) We may revert to the foregoing diagram,
solely with a view to illustrate the analogies, there ex-
* One of these sold for III. 10s. 6d. at the sale of Drury's fine collection
of insects in 1805. A beautiful figure was published by Martyn of this
grand insect, under the name of Scarabceus gigas. Others have been more
recently found on the western coast of Africa ; but they are so much prized,
that we have heard of 301. having been offered and refused for a single spe-
cimen, the proprietor demanding 50/. It was subsequently sold, as I un-
derstood, for IQl.
AFFINITY OF MEGASOMIN^E WITH RU TILING. 239
pressed by dotted lines, and founded on the following
characters :
Analogies of the SCARAB/EIDJE and the CETONIID^E.
Sub-families of AndloeirnL Character* Sub-families of
Scarabteldte. Analogical Lfiaracteis. Cetoniidce.
GEOTRUPINJE. Mandibles porrect, horny. RUTILIN^E.
SCARABJEIN^E. Mandibles membranaceous. CETONIAJVJE.
APHODIN.E. Maxillary process membranaceous. GLAPHYRIN^E.
TROT N JF C Mandibles acute ; head short, ob7 MELOLONTHivaJL
i tuse, smooth ; body very convex, j
r Mandibles obtuse; head and thoO
DYNASTIN^:. < rax of the male armed with >MEGASOMIN^:.
C horn-like processes. 3
It will thus be seen, that if the difference in their
food, and the opposite construction of their tarsi, are
not considered, these ten groups would, in the con-
struction of their mouth, be almost exactly alike. It
has been stated, as an additional analogy between the
Trogina and the Melolonthince, that they both frequent,
in preference, sandy soils : we must not, however, attach
too much importance to this alleged fact ; for we have
not found that our common chafer is more abundant in
such tracts, than in others ; and if the remark were
general, Africa, the most sandy region in the globe,
should therefore be the metropolis of this race, which
it certainly is not.
(213.) In further proof that the Megasomince are
naturally allied to the RutilincB by the nature of their
maxillae, and their sub-porrect mandibles, the opinion
of Latreille may be quoted ; for this celebrated ento-
mologist has considered these relations as establishing
an affinity between the two groups. This remark is in
complete unison with the disposition we have here made ;
for, by removing the Dynastince into the circle of the
Cetoniadce, and reducing Anoplognathus into a compo-
nent part of the Rutilince, there is no intervening
group to disturb the evident connection.
(214.) Having so fully illustrated the analogies of
240 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
the five primary divisions of the Cetoniadae, by com-
paring them with the higher orders of insects, and the
more remote groups of the vertebrate circle, we need
not repeat the same details in this place. If the
above comparison between the Cetoniadce and the Sea-
rabcBidce is really natural, it follows that the latter
possess precisely the same analogies to all other groups,
as do the former. Hence it is only necessary, in this
place, to assemble the names of the different groups
which have been thus compared, that the eye may at
once embrace the whole.
Analogies of the TYPICAL LAMELLICORNES with other
Groups.
Sub-families Sub-families Tribes Orders Tribes
of the of the of the of the of
CETONIAD.E. SCARABJSIDJE. Coleoptera. Ptilota. QUADRUPEDS.
Cetoniants. Scarabcein<&. LAMELLICORNES. LEPIDOPTERA. Quadrumana.
Rutilince. Geolrupince. PKEDATORES. HEMIPTERA. Ferce.
Megasomirue. Dynastince. CAPRICORNES. HYMENOPTERA. Ungulata.
Melolonthince. Troginee. MONILICORNES. COLEOPTERA. Glires.
Glaphyrinte. Aphodince. MALACODERMES. NEUROPTERA. Ceta*
It thus appears that the Cetoniance pre-eminently re-
present the most typical of the coleopterous tribes, the
most perfect of the orders of winged insects, and the
most highly organised of vertebrate animals : the
Rutilince, by their large jaws, find their representatives
not only in the Geotrupinae, but in the voracious Cicin-
delidcBythe -predatoriidHemiptera, and the beasts of prey:
the gigantic Dynastince and Megasomince stand as pro-
totypes of the great Capricorn beetles, and the bulky
ruminating quadrupeds. The most striking analogies
are merely glanced at, that the philosophic entomologist
may elaborate innumerable others which result from
this table.
(215.) On the three aberrant families of this tribe,
the Lucanidce, the Buprestida, and the Hydrophilidce,
our notices must be brief: they are greatly inferior
in point of numbers to the typical groups, and no
THE ABERRANT FAMILIES. 241
attempt has yet been made towards determining their
circular arrangement. The LUCANID^, or stag beetles,
evidently follow next in the series, from which they
are to be distinguished by several characters: the
tarsi are invariably five-jointed,, of that structure,
developed in a greater or less degree, which belongs
to the CetoniadcB: the antennae are of the lamelliform
structure, but are more developed than in the two
former families, that is, in regard to their length,
and the acute angle which distinguishes the typical
genera, of which the common stag beetle of Europe is a
familiar example : the tarsi are particularly lengthened
in the types, but very short in the aberrant genera.
The whole appear to be herbivorous or lignivorous
that is to say, feeding on vegetable substances either
in a living or decayed state. Several genera may be
safely included in this family, however, which depart
very considerably from most of these characters. Their
large exserted jaws, and general affinity to others of
a more decided character, fully justify us in bringing
them in here. The excessive developement of the
jaws, indeed, constitute the most typical, or, at least,
the most obvious, character of the Lucanidce ; and
yet, in the aberrant groups, these organs are not very
prominent. The greater part seem to be naturally ar-
ranged in the following sub-families : The Lucanince
and the Lamprlmince are obviously the two typical;
while the genera Hister, Ptinus, and probably that of
Byrrhus, seem to lay the foundation of the three aber-
rant sub-families : around each of these may be as-
sembled several other modern genera of minute ligni-
vorous insects, now scattered as small families, in our
systems, under different heads. However this may be,
it is perfectly clear that, in the Lucanince, we have that
point of junction between the typical pentamerous in-
sects of this family, and those which, by their frequently
dilated tarsi, become analogous, and pass into the Tetra-
mera. The Lucanince, also, are highly interesting in
another point of view : they form, beyond doubt, the
B
24-2 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
true passage between the lamellicorn and the Capricorn
tribes, an affinity, indeed,, that has been more than
once remarked by several writers, but which has never
yet been acted upon, that we are aware of, in any of the
modern systems. The very change of food, of struc-
ture, and consequently of habit, from those families
which subsist on living, and those which delight, in
dead trees, may all be traced within this circle; so that
in several of the smaller groups we have the jaws of a
Lucanus, with the antennae and the tarsi of a Capricorn
beetle. There is a strong analogy between the two ty-
pical groups of this family, and those of the scarabs.
In the vivid and highly beautiful colours of the Lam-
primintv, we have a symbolical representation of the
Cetoniadce, while the dark and sombre Lucanince cor-
respond in the same manner to the Scarabtfida. The
analogy, again, of this family to the Megasomidce, the
Dynastince, and all the rasorial types, is too obvious to
be dwelt upon ; and may, indeed, be gathered both from
their common name of stag beetles, as representing the
horned quadrupeds, as well as by their habit of licking
up their food, just as an ox licks the grass.
(216.) The Lucanidtz, as we above consider them,
comprise a group of insects of much greater diversification
of structure and habits than either of the typical circles
that we have just gone through. The genuine Lucanidce
constitute our two first families ; and of these, the first
contains the most normal insects. The variety of shape
in these is very considerable. From nearly the paral-
lelopipedal form of Lucanus. Dorcus, and Platycerus, it
becomes almost hemispherical, as in Colophon; or cylin-
drical, as in Nigidius, Sinodendron, Figulus, Cardanus,
and particularly so in Chiron; which latter takes a form
and fossorial appearance which seems to point in the
direction of Scarites, whilst Sinodendron as distinctly
points towards the Bostricliida. The family terminates
with the elongate, linear, and depressed Passalus and
Paxillus. In size, the Lucanidce, especially Lucanus
itself, is very imposing ; this is most conspicuous in
THE LUCANID.E. 243
some of the Indian species, in which they are some-
times three inches long. The Passalus tridens, also,,
from Java, is two inches and a half long. The ma-
jority, however, are of moderate or even small dimen-
sions. We have already said that the distinguishing
feature of the group is the great developement of their
mandibles, which are frequently angulated or toothed in
a remarkable manner: in the present family, this occurs
most conspicuously in Lucanus itself ; in which genus,
and in Dorcus, if they do not curve downwards, they
are horizontal ; but their most characteristic form, or
that which is most prevalent, is to curve upwards.
We also find their head frequently sculptured or tuber-
culated in a peculiar manner; but it is rarely that we
observe this feature occurring in the thorax: in the male
Sinodendron, however, it is particularly retuse. Very
few of the present family exhibit a metallic or coloured
clothing, but we still observe it in Platycerus. Their
natural history is very unvaried : we have above re-
corded their habits, which are possibly incidental to both
the typical families. Passalus and its affinities are said
to commit great devastation in sugar plantations in
South America and the West Indies. The larvae are
formed, as far as they are accurately known, upon the
usual lamelliform type. \~W. E. Sh.]
(217.) The second group are all more or less dis-
tinguished for their metallic splendour, which is most
brilliant in Lamprima itself, and in Chiasognathus, a
superb insect both for size and colour, and in which the
mandibles of the tribe attain their greatest develope-
ment ; they are, however, slender, and, as well as in
Pholidotus, curve downwards: they have, beneath, a mo-
derately long horn at their base. There is less diver-
sity in the geographical distribution of the present
family, than in the preceding. Thus, Lamprima and
Rhyssonotus are confined to the Australian group,
where the former sometimes appear in excessive pro-
fusion, and seems to replace there the occurrence of Lu-
canus. Pholidotus is South American, where it has a
244* NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
wider range than the equally American Chiasognathus,
which appears to be restricted to the little island of Chiloe,
on the western coast of Northern Patagonia. In the
former family, the majority of the genera have a wide
diffusion : although Colophon is exclusively African, and
Syndesus Australian : but the island of Java exhibits
the largest forms throughout the Lucanidce : with this
exception only, we observe in these insects the reverse of
what we have noticed in the other Lamellicornes,
namely, that inter tropical countries produce compara-
tively the smallest species. QW. E. Sh.]
(218.) The Histeridce, the third family of this
group, are more exclusively saprophagous than the pre-
ceding insects. They present equally curious modifi-
cations of general form. Thus, in Hister, the typical
structure is quadrate, and almost cubical : the elytra
are always shorter than the abdomen in Hololepta, and
Phylloma is excessively flattened; whence, probably,
these insects live beneath the bark of trees : but the
most remarkable form in the family is that of Trypa-
nceus., which is completely cylindrical, and which as dis-
tinctly, perhaps, indicates a remote affinity again with
the Bostrichidce, and such genera of the Lucanida as
Sinodendron and Chiron, as Onthophilus does a proxi-
mate one to the Staphylinidcz, through Micropeplus ; if,
however, the latter genus be not more correctly in its
place in the present family. Their generic separation
has been founded upon the mode of insertion of their
antennae, conjunctively with the reflection of their tarsi,
and the channel receiving them ; and the form of the
prosternum; and the most satisfactory specific diagnostics
are deduced from the sculpture of their integument.
Their geographical distribution is very wide : Try-panceus
is, however, Brazilian; and Abrteus European. Being still
uncertain as to what exactly constitute the other families
of the group of the Lucanid<z, we shall leave them
until analysis shall have satisfactorily ascertained the
insects that fill up the temporary chasm. QW. E.Sh.]
(219.) The Buprestidce form the most aberrant family
THE BUPRESTnXZE. 245
of the LameUicomes, and, consequently, possess the
fewest of the typical characters. Their external aspect
is sufficient, at once, to prevent their being confounded
with any other group : it is, in fact, so peculiar,, that
none but an entomologist would detect their affinity to
the floral beetles. The body is remarkably long, and,
generally, very narrow behind ; while the head and
thorax are short, the former being remarkably obtuse
and broad. The tarsi have, generally, five distinct
joints ; but, then, they are often so dilated, as to appear,
at first sight, similar to those of the Curculionidce and
other tetramerous genera : in some of the African
types of Buprestis, there appear to be only four tarsal
joints ; the fifth, or claw joint, being so small as to be
nearly hid under the penultimate one. In truth, how-
ever, the variations are so great in this single sub-
family, that no stress can be laid on these characters,
drawn from these parts only, for defining the whole.
It may be a question whether the Buprestis or the
Elater are the pre-eminent type of this family ; for,
although abundantly distinct, they are yet most inti-
mately united. The first, however, is by far the most
numerous both in species and in forms ; and, as this
is almost universally the case in groups pre-eminently
typical, we are disposed to consider the sub-family
Buprestince in this light. They are the most richly
coloured, as a whole, of all the tribe. But, here,
almost every indication of lamellicorn antennae dis-
appear : some large and fine species of Elater , indeed,
have these organs fan-shaped, or flabelliform ; but, in
no case, are they angulated, as if broken, similar to the
other lamellicorn families. These two typical groups
present as great a diversity, in their respective colours,
as the Lucanince and the Lamprimince. The Bupres-
tince, with very few exceptions, are richly glossed with
metallic shades of green and blue ; while the Elaterinte
are almost universally devoid of any bright colours.
The peculiar powers of leaping, possessed by these
latter insects, when laid upon their backs, is without
B 3
246 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
parallel^ and is known to every one : it is effected by
means of a beautifully contrived spring placed between
the mesothorax and the body ; and the spines on the
posterior angles of the thorax have, no doubt, some
connection with this faculty. The larvse of these two
groups feed upon the roots or stems of trees, and the
perfect insects on the leaves and flowers of plants.
More than one species of JElater is highly luminous,
the phosphoric light being emitted from a small
whitish oval spot placed on each side of the thorax.
Mr. Curtis has given a very interesting account of one
of these species, which our mutual friend, Mr. Lees,
brought home alive from the Bermuda Islands. Some
smaller groups of minute insects enter, also, within
this circle, but which we have no space to particularise.
(220.) The first, or more typical, family of this
group presents us with the remarkable feature of mo-
difications of form coincident with a certain geogra-
phical position ; but which we can scarcely attribute to
climatic influence exclusively occurring as they do, in
the same belt. But they must be considered in con-
junction with local peculiarities and causes ; for* East
and West, Zenith and Nadir, are convertible in their
application. We must not, however, be understood to
give an absolute restriction to the range of these forms,
for we sometimes find them crossing each other ; but
they then constitute the exception, and not the rule.
Thus, we have the obtuse, broad, flattened form of New
Holland instanced in Conognatha ; the convex gibbous
form, narrowing behind, of India, found in Sternocera
Chrysls; the African hairy lulodis; the attenuated
Indian form of Chrysochroa ; and the broadly dilated
Silpha-like shape of Madagascar Buprestidce. These
beautiful insects occur all over the known world, and
are eagerly sought by collectors, as elegant decorations
to their cabinets. They abound, particularly, in the
hottest climates ; and are excessively active during the
heat of the season in which they occur, taking wing
promptly, and flying with great velocity and vigour.
THE BUPRESTID.E. 247
It is a singular circumstance,, that, although the affinity
of the perfect insects of the present family is remark-
ably close to the next the Elateridce, yet their larvie
are so different, that a system, founded upon these,
would widely separate them : the larvae of the former,
as far as they are known, are apods, with greatly en-
larged heads, and a tapering body ; whereas the Elaters
present two types, both, however, possessing legs ;
the one is long, slender, and completely cylindrical,
exhibited in the wire worm, which is so excessively
injurious to farming crops ; and the next is the flattened
form of the larva of Lepidotus. Although these in-
sects are not usually metallic, yet instances occur, as in
Ludius fulgens from China, and in our native Selato-
somus ceneus and Ctenicerus pectinicornis : they are,
however, in compensation, frequently decorated with
brilliant tints, particularly of a bright sanguineous hue,
as we find it in the Elater sanguineus and Pomona ;
and this is often contrasted with an intense black, as in
the genus Cardiophorus, and the remarkable Brazilian
Tomecephalus. The distinguishing feature of the Ela-
teridcB is, as we have before noticed, their power of
leaping, but by a totally different apparatus to the legs :
but some, standing upon the confines of the family, as
Pterotarsus and Lissomus, are divested of this faculty ;
as is also the extremely remarkable Chelonarium, if,
indeed, it belongs to this group. Serrated antennae are
a characteristic ; but these are frequently flabellated, as
in Tetralobus, or beautifully bipectinated, as in Calli-
rhipis. The usual form of these insects is regularly
ellipsoidal ; in some, however, the thorax forms a
capouch over the head, thus pointing towards Anobium
and Apate ; and it is in the latter group we expect
that Melasis ought most properly to be placed, pre-
senting, as it does, such strong affinities to Ptilinns.
Generic separation has been effected amongst them by the
lobated structure of the tarsi and the denticulations of
their claws, considered in conjunction with the form of
the posterior coxse, their antennse, and clypeus. The
B 4
248 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
other families of this circle we can scarcely, at present,
determine. [W. E. Sh.]
(221.) The fifth and last family of the Lametti-
cornes are the aquatic beetles, forming Latreille's Hy-
drophylii, a name we retain, merely giving it the family
termination of idee. It is more than probable, also, that
tSpJueridium likewise enters in this part of the circle :
the very name of the best known type, S. Scarabceo'ides,
shows its resemblance to the typical families ; while the
little insects forming the genera Elophorus, and two or
three of similar value, show the mutual connection of
the semi-rapacious, and therefore typical, Hydrophylid<& 9
to the other lamellicorn families, and to the predatorial
tribe which succeeds this. These water scarabs, never-
theless, are very few in number, although of a large
size ; they swim with facility, but not with swiftness.
One of these is a common inhabitant of the ponds and
fresh waters of Britain ; and others, differing nothing in
structure, occur within the tropics : the antennae are
clavate, and thus exhibit a good deal of the lamellicorn
type ; while in other respects they show a close relation-
ship to the true Dytlscidce.
(222.) As in all other groups, we also find here, in
the more typical representatives, a combining character,
which exhibits itself in the great elongation of the
palpi, which, notwithstanding the differences in the
habits of the insects themselves, and these are great,
unite them permanently together. We find here aquatic,
sub-aquatic, and terrestrial forms, each displaying those
definite modifications which result from their appropri-
ation to a distinctive peculiarity. Thus, we have the na-
tatorial form displayed inHydrophiluspiceus, peculiarly
suited for progression through so dense a medium ; and
the proof of which we shall find in its universal occurrence
among the true water beetles, as we observe its analogy
in the form of fishes, and man's imitation of these in the
shapes of his ships and boats. The larva of the type
of this genus is remarkable for being carnivorous,
whereas the imago is herbivorous ; and the latter,, unlike
THE PREDATORES. 249
the true water insects, and which circumstance seems
to remove it from that group, besides its other pecu-
liarities, swims by moving the posterior legs alternately,
and not simultaneously. We find in this group, again, a
slight metallic tinge in the colouring, as in many species
of Berosus, and in the thorax of Elophorus. Their ha-
bits are exceedingly obscure ; nothing is known of them
beyond their habitat, although they are found exten-
sively in this country. Sphceridium evinces its rela-
tionship to this group, by the under side of the body
resembling the JSlophori, and its antennae, anterior tarsi,
and palpi approaching it to Hydropliilus; whilst its
habit of frequenting dung, and its circular form, give
it a strong resemblance to Geotrupes, in the circle
of the Scarabceida. The group likewise embraces
a multitude of small genera, such as Spercheus, Ochthe-
bius, Hydrena, &c., the habits of which are, evidently,
greatly uniform ; and we may further observe, that the
intertropical species of all these genera are, apparently,
always less than their more northern congeners, and in
some, especially the aquatic genera, they are very nu-
merous.. It is not improbable that Heterocerus, Par-
nus and Elmis may be aberrant constituents of this
group. [W. E> Sh.]
CHAP. VIL
COLEOPTERA, continued.
PREDATORES.
(223.) THE most rapacious of all beetles are com-
prised in the tribe of Predatores, which, in the fore-
going arrangement, we place as the sub- typical, or car-
nivorous, group of the Coleoptera, a rank and station
which is established by the analogy subsisting between
250 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
them and the rapacious tribes of quadrupeds and birds.
As among the Lamellicornes there are none of a car-
nivorous nature, so in the tribe before us there are none
which do not either wholly, or in part, live upon animal
substances,, whether in a living or a decayed state, This,
therefore, is their primary distinction, difficult, indeed,
to be traced in the aberrant groups, from the great vari-
ation of their structure, but decidedly marked in the
great majority, whether we regard their natural economy,
or their peculiar organisation.
(224.) That this is a natural group, will be further
apparent by the arrangement of MacLeay : this acute
entomologist, looking to the formation of their larvse
alone, designates the genera Carabus and Dytiscus as
examples of his chilopodiform type ; so that, without
founding our arrangement upon isolated principles, ap-
plicable only to the annulose animals, we yet see that,
in this instance, it is in perfect conformity with his
general views.
(225.) In order to give intelligible characters of this
or any other natural group, it is necessary to look chiefly
at the typical examples., where the pre-eminent charac-
ters are most developed. This remark is particularly
applicable to the group before us, which, although pal-
pable in three of its minor divisions, has not been suf-
ficiently studied in regard to the two others. Confining
our attention, therefore, to the typical predacious beetles
represented by the Cicindelida and the Carabida, they
may be known at once by the length of their legs, and
the perfect developement of their tarsi, both of which
are formed for running upon the ground ; they are, in
fact, eminently cursorial : the mouth is armed with
strong jaws, and the antennae are linear or setaceous.
On looking to the aberrant groups, however, nearly all
these external characteristics disappear. The Dytiscida
or water beetles, have a large depressed body, and short
thick feet, the hinder pair being somewhat oar-shaped,
and calculated for swimming; in their setaceous antennae,
THE PREDATORES. 251
they still resemble the typical forms ; and although they
inhabit a different element, they are equally rapacious,
subsisting only upon smaller water insects. This family,
composing the aquatic division of the tribe, constitutes
the true point of junction between the predacious and
the lamellicorn beetles, an affinity which entirely con-
tradicts the supposition that the Hydrodephagce MacL.
is one of the " normal/' or, more properly, typical
groups. The very few genera of the Dytiscidce here
occasions an interruption in the series, which leaves
much uncertainty as to the precise point of junction
between them and the Silphidce : nevertheless, as some
authors insist upon an affinity between these latter in-
sects, and such genera as Leiodes, Agathidium, Catops,
and Choleva*, we have no great hesitation in adopting
their views, and placing the Necrophaga Latr. as part of
the most aberrant family of the present tribe, under the
more appropriate name of Silphidce. Judging from
analogy, however, we have an impression that Pimelia
is the true type of this family: its analogy to the
Ckrysomelidte, in its thick and globose body, is quite
obvious ; while its affinity, on one side to Blaps, and
on the other to Silpha, are further inducements to our
belief that this is their true station. All these insects,
in fact, are in some degree carnivorous, although their
animal food is only derived from dead or decomposed
substances ; they are the only Predatores which, in ay
degree, derive nourishment from vegetable substances.
How far the Engidce MacL., and such genera as Ero-
really enter into this assemblage, or are merely
* Latreille considered the Parnidce so allied to Gt/rinus, that he once
included them in the same family ; and, as both are more or less
aquatic, they would seem to offer, with the above, additional links in
the chain.
f " It is perhaps by the Erotyli that the opposite points of the circle of
Coleoptera meet." Ann. Jav. p. 40. And again, the same author ob-
serves, " As to the Erotyli being tetramerous, it is a circumstance to which
little importance ought to be attached, since the five articulations of the
tarsi are visible in several species ; and other insects, which are close to
the genus, such as Mr. Kirby's Sphem'scus, are heteromerous.
252
NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
its representatives in the circle of the Monilicornes, are
questions of minor importance, which analysis can alone
determine ; the latter supposition,, however, appears to
us the most prohable. Leaving these, we concur in the
opinion of others as to the affinity of Silpha with the
Stapliylinidce (BrachelytraLatr.), which we accordingly
place as the last family of the predatorial tribe. That
this is its true situation in nature, is manifested by the
close resemblance of some of these genera, as Stenus,
&c., to the Cicindelidce. The circle of the Predatores,
under this view, no less than that of MacLeay, would
be thus closed ; and the relations of the whole to the
primary divisions of the Coleoptera may be thus
stated :
Analogies of the PREDATORES to the Tribes of
COLEOPTERA.
Families of the
Predatores.
Tribes of the
Analogies. Coleoptera.
{^ m ^S. y typical in their ] LAMELLICORNES.
JSiJ-g^^cuiwridsIvhi^J PREDATORES .
{ Leg* short, and greatly compress- j MALACODERMES<
p~|y. a Often globose jtani very j MONI
CARABID*.
DYTISCID*.
SILPHID*.
STAPHYLINIOE. Jaws exserted ; head large.
NILICORNES.
CAPRICORNES.
(226.) Between groups which stand at the head of their
respective circles, there can be but faint analogies of
actual structure ; but their very typical pre-eminence is
in itself a point of strong analogy as in the present
instance. Every one is aware, again, that the Cicinde-
lidce are the most cruel tyrants of the predaceous beetles,
and are much higher organised than the Cardbidae; since
they not only run with greater agility, but add to their
speed by short flights. On the other hand, we have
seen that the lamellicorn insects are the most typical of
ANALOGIES OP THE PREDATORES. 253
the whole order, corresponding to the Insessores among
birds, and to the quadrumanous Mammalia, by their
power of grasping. It is a remarkable circumstance,
that in such a vast assemblage of animals as the Coleo-
ptera there is no primary group, which is aquatic, such
as the natatorial order among birds, and the Cetce among
quadrupeds. Hence it is that, at first sight, there seems
no sort of relationship between the soft-winged tribe of
Malacodermes, and the aquatic Dyticidce : nevertheless,,
we have no doubt that this is a true analogy ; for these
are the only groups where the legs in the great majority
are decidedly compressed, and we might also say the
least developed for either running or grasping. The un-
certainty, already hinted at, as to the true type of the
Silphidce, leaves us in much doubt as to their direct
analogy to the Monilicornes. But if, as we suspect,
the Pimelidcefill this situation, the difficulty of detecting
their analogy is not very great ; for every entomologist
must confess that they are the Chrysomelce, as it were,
of the Predatores, having moniliform antenna?; short,,
thick, and round bodies ; and tarsi not much unlike each
other. Lastly, the Staphylinidtf, dissimilar in every
respect to the Capricorn beetles, nevertheless possess that
great protrusion of the jaws, which belong to all such
types as represent the ruminating animals, and their re-
presentatives (like the toucans and hornbills) among
birds. So far, therefore, we have proved this disposi-
tion of the predatorial beetles, which differs but slightly
from that of MacLeay, to be strictly natural, not only
from the affinities which connect each of their families,
but by bringing this series to a test which has never
yet been attempted.
(227.) The above comparison, however, is made be-
tween groups widely dissimilar both in rank and affinity :
we shall, therefore, compare the predaceous tribe with
that to which it is immediately connected ; where, the
relations being nearer, the analogies, of course, will be
stronger.
NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
Analogies of the PREDATORES to the Families of
LAMELLICORNES.
Families of the Analnme* Families of the
Predatores. Analogies. Lamellicornes.
5 Pre-eminently typical in theirs
own circles; colours brilliant j ? CETONIAD&.
fly by day only. 3
rARAmna? C Sub-typical ; flychiefly bynight ; ? ^
i colours dark. J oc
DYTISCID^E. Aquatic. HYDROPHILID^E.
CMost aberrant from their ownl
SIIPHIDJF os ara ro r own B
J. types ; tarsi variable. j
STAPHYLINIDJE. Jaws considerably projecting. LUCANIDJE.
The rank of the Cetoniada, as the most typical of
all the lamellicorn families, here receives additional
confirmation ; since these beautiful insects,, in which
white spots and lines upon a green ground are so very
prevalent, fall in, as it were, exactly opposite the
splendid Cicindelida, whose colours and markings are
so remarkably similar. Two of the most common in-
sects in this country, the Cetonia aurata, and the
Cicindela campestris, will bring this analogy home to
the conviction of the most ordinary observer. It is no
less remarkable, that nearly all the insects of these
groups fly only during the day, and delight to bask in
the sun. The greater part, however, both of the
Carabidce and the Scarabceidce, are nocturnal insects,
and still more resemble each other by their black and
sombre colours. Such, at least, are the majority ; for
some few in each partake of the metallic green reflec-
tions of the chief types ; but these are among those
exceptions, and not the general character. The most
satisfactory analogy, perhaps, in the table, is that which
shows that the predaceous Dytiscidte, although intimately
connected to the Hydrophilidce, are also their repre-
sentatives. The connection of Hydrophilus, which, in
PREDATORES AND LAMELLICORNES COMPARED. 255
fact,, is a true lamellicorn insect, to the Scardbceidce, by
means of Sphceridium in one group,, and Aphodius in
the other, is,, in our estimation at least, indisputable ;
although we are not prepared to offer any opinion,
worth recording, how these aquatic lamellicorn insects
are connected to the Buprestidce. Our present busi-
ness, however, is with analogies, not affinities. If our
main groups are naturally located, we may leave their
contents for future analysis. Passing, therefore, to the
SilpliidcB, we should have been at some loss to have
detected their analogy to the Euprestidce, but for that
extraordinary insect, the Helota Vigor sii of MacLeay *,
a type which presents such a singular deviation from
the rest of its congeners, that it would be perfectly
anomalous, but for the direct relation of analogy it is
now seen to possess with those insects it so strongly
resembles. The analogies of the Stapliylinidas to the
Lucanidcp. are shown in the same characters of exserted
jaws, which shows that both are prototypes of the
Capricorn tribe. It is also well worth observing, that
the gigantic Prionidce, among the latter, have their
wing-cases very thin, and sometimes abbreviated, so
that it is not improbable they represent the Malaco-
dermes in their own circle.
(228.) After these expositions, it might be tedious
to test the analogies of this tribe, by bringing its con-
tents into comparison with others of the annulose circle :
those we have now reviewed, appear quite sufficient to
establish the existence of mutual relationships ; but a
few incidental references to the general principles upon
which all insects seem to be constructed, will not be
misplaced. The Coleoptera, as a whole, are the most
imperfect flyers of all the Ptilota ; and, therefore, it
might naturally be expected that many would be ap-
terous, that is, unprovided with the pair of real wings
usually concealed beneath the elytra ; and these, there-
* Annulosa Javanica, pi. 1. fig. 9.
256 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
fore,, would be the most aberrant of their congeners.
Now, on looking to the most aberrant groups in the
circles of the Predatores and the Lamellicornes, we find
in one the Pimelidce, and in the other the Buprestidce ;
and in both these, the real organs of flight are very
often either totally absent,, or very slightly developed.
A large proportion of the Pimelidce are apterous, having
no wings beneath their elytra ; while these organs in
the Buprestidce are so short, that they require not to
be folded when the insect is at rest, being riot longer
than the elytra. It is singular, also, that this absence
of wings takes place also among many of the Trogida ;
which, as being the most aberrant group of. the Scara-l
bteidce, corresponds to the Pimelidce and the Buprestidce.
Many apterous insects occur, indeed, both in the families of
the Cicindelidce and Carabidce ; and these, without doubt,
will hereafter prove to be naturally located in similar
positions in their own circles. Nevertheless, this cha-
racter is obviously only of secondary consequence ; and
is here adverted to more for the purpose of showing its
indication of extreme aberrant groups, than of laying
on it a primary stress. Many of the African Pimelida,
again, put on, as it were, the very aspect of the Tro-
gid(B ; so that an inexperienced observer might readily
suppose they were of the same genus. Looking to the
Lamellicornes ; which represent the Lepidoptera, we see
they are the most perfect flyers of all the Coleoptera :
hence the apterous species are remarkably few ; while
in the Predatores, equally conspicuous for their run-
ning, the true wings are often wanting, as their absence
is amply made up by the cursorial structure of their
feet.
(229.) We may conclude this sketch of the natural
arrangement of the predatorial groups with the follow-
ing table, wherein the analogies, although remote, art
still in unison with the last.
ANALOGIES OP THE PREDATORES. 257
Analogies of the PREDATORES and the Orders of the
PTILOTA.
Families of the Arudoeifi Orders of the
Predatores. Analogies. . ptiiota.
rirmnFi IDK Typical of their own circles ; co- 1 T EpinoiyrERA
DELIDJ!. J lourg bright . fly - n the gum j LOPI
B - dark; fly H EM ^ ER
SlLPHID*. y s OS aerran an mPereC COLEOPTERA.
STAPHYLINID,E. Jaws more or less exserted. HYMENOPTERA.
That celerity of motion, which is produced by flying,
is certainly more developed among the Cicindelidce than
in any tribe of coleopterous insects ; and as the Lepido-
ptera are the most perfect flyers of all the Ptiiota ; both
these facts not only render these groups analogous, but
tend to corroborate our theory, that perfection of flight
is one, if not the very first, character of the annulose
circle, just as it is of birds in that of the Vertvbrata.
On the other hand, there is an important difference to
be remarked, if we look, not to the Cicindelidce only, but
to the whole order in general ; for then it is obvious that
the Coleoptera, with regard to motion, are the most im-
perfect flyers of the whole of the Ptiiota, although they
are the swiftest runners or rather, are more terrestrial
in their habits than all other winged insects. These are
the chief points in the above table which it seems ne-
cessary to touch upon ; and these remarkable analogies
will be still further confirmed by placing the Ptiiota in
comparison with the orders of birds.
258 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
Analogies of the COLEOPTERA to the PERCHING BIRDS.
Orders of the Annlneip* Orders of
Ptitota. Analogies. Perching Birds.
1. Typical.
LEPIDOPTERA. {^J^gj" 51 * ^ f tbeir j INSESSORES.
2. Sub-typical.
HEMIPTERA. Sub-typical and rasorial. .RAPTORES.
3. Aberrant.
HYMENOPTERA. [ E *J socia1 ' and beneficial }RAsoREs.
COTEOPTERA f The most Perfect walkers, and)-
COLEOPTERA. swiftest runners. j (TRALLATORES.
NEUROPTERA. The most aquatic in their habits. NATATORES.
Every ornithologist is perfectly aware that the sand-
pipers, curlews, plovers, &c., all being types of the gral-
latorial order, are the swiftest runners among birds *,
just as we find the hares and mice to be among quadru-
peds : thus do they represent the coleopterous order of
insects, the types of which are the Cicindelidce and the
Carabida. An equally strong analogy, although not
brought out in the above exposition, can be traced be-
tween the lamellicorn insects and the insessorial birds,
in both of which the power, not of running, but of
grasping, is at its maximum. Take a Carabus in the
hand, and so soon as it feels itself at liberty, it runs
away; but a chafer (Melolontha), although released,
will absolutely cling to the fingers of its captor : such is
the power of instinct. The philosophic reader will not
fail to perceive, in all these analogous comparisons, addi-
tional evidence in support of our views, that, however
the Coleoptera may be regarded as favourites among
entomologists, they are, without exception, the most
imperfect of all the Ptilota ; and that, instead of being
* The half-flying half-running progress of the. whole family of sand-
pipers is a precise counterpart of the progress made by the Cicindelida,
when hunting for their prey.
THE CICINDELIDJE. 259
placed the first in a natural system, they really should
come in as the last.
(230.) We will now make a rapid survey of these
families, and give a succinct view T of their contents.
The three first are distinguished from all other coleo-
pterous insects by their possessing six articulated palpi,
two labial, and four maxillary; the external lobe of the
maxilla being here converted into a palpus. The Cicin-
delidce will first occupy us. We have already given a
very general idea of a peculiarity in their habits ; we
may, however, further remark, that many of the tropical
forms are not ground insects, but occur on plants,
doubtlessly in search of prey. The distinguishing cha-
racter that separates them from the large family of the
Car abides, is one not readily detected without the micro-
scopic inspection of the mouth, as it consists in the claw
of the maxilla being articulated, and not anchylosed, as
in the latter ; but in the Ctenostoma this is not the case,
thus showing that rules are not absolute. There is,
however, a general facies, which, when these insects are
once known in their normal types, will readily guide a
speedily acquired tact easily to distinguish them. They
are generally of a slender, agile form, with long legs,
and very prominent eyes. Larvae of the typical Cicin-
dela, only, we believe, are yet known ; but should the
habits of these be confirmed, it would help to give a
determinate character to the group. Thus, the larva of
Cicindela campestris forms a burrow, within which it
lurks on the watch for any unwary insect that may in-
cautiously come within the grasp of its capacious and
prompt jaws. It is so formed, that it easily supports
itself at the top of its cylindrical and vertical cell ; for
it has a couple of hooks upon a swollen segment, to-
wards the apex of its body, whereby it is suspended ;
whilst its largely dilated prothorax completely fills the
orifice of its den ; and its formidable jaws being bent
down, and concealed beneath, are thrown suddenly up
when its unhappy prey is within itsreach, and which,
like the tiger, it rarely misses. It then retires with it
260
NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
into the recesses of its cave, and devours it at leisure*
Although it possesses long legs, it rarely uses these for
the purposes of transportation; and, we believe, never,
unless inconvenienced in its abode : whereas the larvae
of the CaraMdos roam about in search of their food, with
the exception, only, of a very few genera, which, also
form burrows, although they occupy them only as re-
treats, and not as domiciles. The series of insects con-
tained in the family of the Cicindelidce are evidently very
numerous, and of course exhibit very great varieties of
form, which has led to their being subdivided into
smaller families or sub-families,, named in allusion to
the preeminent genus, around which some few others are
collocated; but we here regard them as a body, and
cannot, in the small space we are enabled to devote to
them, go into these minute particulars. The majority are
not large insects, although some few are very conspicu-
ous, and comparatively large ; but not so when placed
parallel to the Carabidce. Many are apterous ; which is
the case with Manticora, a second species of which has
been recently described by Mr. Waterhouse ; andPlatychile,
which is so rare, that we believe a half a dozen specimens
are not known in Europe. Both of these are from South
Africa. Dromica is also another apterous African genus.
The Brazilian Ctenostomce are remarkable for assuming
the girdled figure of hymenopterous insects, whence
some of them derive their specific names ; and Colliurus
is distinguished for its elongated and slender form.
Therates has a very large labrum, and occasionally
spined elytra. The large Omus appears to be the North
American representative of the South AfricanManticora,
which insects are the largest in their family. Upon the
habits of Megacephala, M. Lacordaire, who observed
them in Cayenne., thus speaks: " They are frequently
observed running on sandy spots in woods; they rarely
make use of their wings." Of the M. Chalybea he
says, " Upon endeavouring to catch them, they retreat
beneath dry dung, into the large deep holes made by the
Phancei and Coprides^nd. they try to defend the entrance
BBACHINID^E. 26 1
when attacked ; but finding this useless, they retire to
the bottom of their hiding place; and the only means to
extract them then is to introduce a long straw, which
they seize with their powerful mandibles, and allow
themselves to be dragged out without quitting hold.
They are all usually beautifully decorated with metallic
splendour, and are certainly the gayest of the predatory
Coleoptera. To give an idea of their numbers, Cicindela
alone is recorded to contain more than two hundred and
fifty species.
(231.) Our second family consists of the CaraUdce,
which will admit of subdivision into five very natural
sub-families, thus to be distinguished : 1. The
Brachinince, named from the typical genus Brachinus.
The distinguishing characteristic of these insects consists
in the abridgement of their elytra, which do not entirely
cover the abdomen behind. They also, in common
with the two next sub-families, have a deep notch
within the anterior tibiae. Both in form, and the
general fragility of their structure, they greatly resemble
the aberrant genera of the preceding family ; and are,
like them, frequently found upon plants where Lebia,
Dromius, Odocantha, and Demetrius constantly occur.
Some are so remarkable for an elongation of the neck,
namely, Casnonia, that Linnaeus associated them with
the genus Attelabus, in the vicinity of the Curculios.
There cannot well be a greater contrast than that pre-
sented by Trigonodactyla and Lebia, the one very
elongate and slender, the other broad and depressed.
But the most extraordinary form throughout the circle
is certainly that of Mormolyce, the true position of
which is doubtlessly in the vicinity of Agra. It is a
Javanese insect, and is distinguished for its excessively
flattened form : it has an elongate neck ; lengthy an-
tennae and elytra, which, although truncated at their
apex, have their sides dilated into a thin leaf, and ex-
tending beyond this apex ; and the legs very slender.
It is said to live upon trees. In elegance, perhaps,
all are exceeded by the beautiful Drypta of the Old
s 3
262 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
or Agra of the New World. Srachinus'
possesses the peculiar property of crepitating when
irritated or captured, and the noise is accompanied
with a bluish smoke ; these insects have thence obtained
the name of bombardier beetles. The Indian Catosco-
pus is reputed to have the same means of defence.
These insects are less absolutely predatory in their
disposition than the other sub-families of the Carabidte;
and many of them are gregarious, associating in large
troops beneath stones, or under the bark of trees. They
are universally distributed, and appear more numerous
than the Cicindelidce. The second sub-family are the
ScaritincB ; these are essentially fossorial insects.
They are elongate and depressed, and the abdomen is
affixed to the thorax by means of a short peduncle,
whereby the latter acquires a degree of motion which
greatly facilitates its burrowing habits ; their antennae
are short and moriiliform ; and the legs also are short,
the anterior tibiae being dilated into a broad, palmated,
externally denticulated burrowing implement. It is a
small group, very widely distributed ; few genera of
these consisting of nearly solitary species being peculiar
to any country, for instance, Acanthoscelis to the
Cape, Scapterus and Oxygnaihus to India, Oxystomus
and Camptodontus to the Brazils, Carenum to New
Holland, and Pasimachus to North America ; species
of the latter frequently come over in raw turpentine.
(232.) The third sub-family is the Harpalince,
the distinctive characters of which consist primarily in
the enlargement of the four anterior tarsi of the males ;
they have moderately long antennae ; and, in common
with the preceding, possess a deep notch in the inside of
the anterior tibise. They are generally robust insects,
and perhaps, with the Carabines, are the most voracious
of the entire circle. But we have the extraordinary
apparition of vegetable feeders in the midst of them.
Thus, Zabrus is said to feed exclusively upon corn ; and
many of the Amarce, upon the tender shoots of grass
and plants, as also upon their roots. This is a very,
THE CARABID^E.
263
extensive sub- family, containing many genera, and dis-
tributed throughout the known world. They have been
broken up into named sections; and the genera are
constructed upon peculiarities in the form and structure
of the palpi and mentum, conjointly with the external
shape. The most voracious are probably Broscus and
its allies, and the type Harpalus ; and the most conspi-
cuous forms are doubtlessly Hyperion Schrceteri and
Catadromus, both New Holland genera, and the giants
of the tribe.
(233.) The fourth sub-family consists of the normal
Carabines, and from which, if Cychrus and its affinities
may be associated with them, we certainly cannot agree to
separate Elaphrus and its allies. The prominent character
of this fine sub-family is to want the notch in the anterior
tibiae. They are also, viewing them in their types
chiefly, more bulky insects than any in the family, and
also more convex ; and amongst them are certainly some
of the most elegant. None of the whole of this circle
can compare with Procerus in size, or with Pamborus
and Tefflus in form and size combined ; whereas Cara-
bus presents us with many brilliantly metallic insects
for instance, the Regalis, splendens, and rutilans.
Cychrus, and its affinities, are evidently considerably
more aberrant from the whole of this group, than any
other form : in its apterous condition, connate elytra,
securiform terminal joint of the palpi, and in the ex-
ternal lobe of the maxilla being not palpiform, it seems
to point directly towards the Heteromera. To this
anomalous group belong Sphceroderus and Scaphinotus,
both American genera. Elaphrus, and its sub-aquatic
cognates, appear to depart widely, also, from the normal
features of the sub-family : in the prominency of their
eyes, and active ferocity, they evidently have an affinity
to the Cicindelidce, with which Linnaeus associated them ;
and it is through them, from the affinity of habits, that
we most conveniently pass into the fifth sub-family, the
Bembediince, the whole of which, as their characteristic
signature, have subulated maxillary palpi. As the pre-
s 4
20* NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
ceding sub-family were the giants of the Car abides, so>
are these the dwarfs, for amongst them we have some
of the smallest Carabideous insects. They all frequent
humid situations ; and many, when captured, exhale
offensive odours : they are exceedingly active, as their
names frequently indicate, for instance, Tachys, Ocys,
Tacky pus, which have all reference to this peculiarity ;
and from this, in combination with their habitat,
they might not inaptly be styled coleopterous Wills o' the
wisp. By means of the little gibbous genus Omophron,
the present family merges into the next, for it has a
most remarkable resemblance to Haliplus and One-
midotus.
(234.) The ffydrodephaga, or Dytiscidce, constitute
our third family. This group, compared with the
former, is of very small extent. They retain all the
prominent characters of the preceding family; for, being
aquatic Carabidce, their structure is only so far modified
as to suit the different element they are intended to in-
habit ; and the reason of the smaller diversity of form
observable in them throughout all latitudes, is the limit-
ation and uniformity of the functions they have to
execute. The only peculiarity we remark in their dis-
tribution is, that Cybister is evidently tropical, for of
it we have but one representative in this country, and
only three species occur to the north of 35 of northern
latitude; whereas Dytiscus, which here takes its place,
does not occur to the south of the Tropic of Cancer.
The males of all the larger genera of these insects are
remarkable for the scutellated enlargement of their an-
terior tarsi, which form frequently a circular disk sup-
plied beneath with a cluster of small sucking cups for
the purposes of sexual adhesion ; and a peculiarity in the
majority of the females of males so furnished, is to have
their elytra deeply furrowed longitudinally. They are
exceedingly voracious insects in all their stages, but es-
pecially in the larva state; for all that their strength or
dexterity can overcome do they prey upon, and small
fish and the fry of larger ones are not free from theis;
THE HYDRODEPHAGA. 265
attacks. They possess this peculiarity in their larva
state, that, although furnished with capacious jaws, they
do not masticate their food; for these jaws are merely
prehensile organs, and are tubular and perforated towards
the extremity : their acuteness wounds the prey caught,
which is then sucked dry through this tube. Their
progression in the water is effected in jerks or springs,
caused by the sudden expansion of their bent tapering
tails; and they direct it with that precision, as to pounce
as readily upon their prey as a cat does on a mouse.
The perfect insect, if not alarmed, is stately in its
motions, proceeding always in an oblique direction
through the water, to the top of which it frequently
comes for the purpose of inhaling fresh atmospheric
air ; this it does by protruding the apex of the elytra
above the surface, and thus receives beneath them a
quantity sufficient for the supply of the spiracles which
are situated there. The small genera, such as Haliplus,
Cnemidotus, ffydroporus, PceloUus, &c., are much more
active than the larger ones, and move about with the
greatest velocity in every direction, sporting with each
other in the merriest gambols. Cnemidotus presents a
remarkable singularity in the structure of the posterior
coxae, which are dilated externally into a thin plate, be-
neath which they receive and conceal the posterior legs.
We have associated with this family, the Gyrini, or
whirlwigs; thus named from their habit of swimming
in circles upon the surface of the water. Their acti-
vity is excessive and incessant ; and the structure and
combination of their muscular fibre must be remarkable,
to admit of such interminable and rapid motion. The
whole structure of the larva and imago, also, is very dif-
ferent to that of the preceding section of the family:
thu-s, in the perfect insect, the antennse are thick and
fusiform, with a large auriculated joint at their base;
their legs are considerably dilated and compressed, the
anterior being the longest and most slender, evidently
for prehension; and the posterior tarsi consist of laminae
folding apparently upon one joint. Their larva is
266
NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
elongate and depressed ; and each segment, beyond the
three thoracic ones which bear the slender legs, is fur-
nished laterally with an elongate,, inarticulated, ciliated fila-
ment; and the thirteenth with four articulated,, very pilose
appendages, of about the same length as the lateral fila-
ments. When it has acquired its perfect size,, this
larva creeps up some aquatic plant,, where it spins a
cocoon wherein it undergoes its transformation; thus,,
also differing from the Dytiscince, which undergo theirs
beneath the earth, and do not spin a cocoon. Of the
many water beetles collected by Mr. Darwin during his
voyage with the Beagle, the majority were minute and
well known forms resembling those occurring in our
own country.
(235.) Being uncertain whether the SilphidtB orPime-
lidcK should occupy the situation of our fourth family,
we will give a brief description of the most remarkable
contents of each. The relation between the Dytiscida
and them, it is at present impossible to trace without
straining affinities ; and the Silphidce, in particular, of
which we will first treat, are considerably different, both
in habits and structure, from all that have preceded
them in this circle ; although connected, by means of
both, with the Staphylinidce. Their antennae are clavate,
the club being perfoliated ; their elytra usually abbre-
viated ; and in the aberrant forms of the family, there
is much divarication, and even sexual disparity, in the
number of the joints of the tarsi, although, typically,
they are pentamerous. The chief types, consisting of
the genera Necrophagus, JVecrodes, and Silpha, and feed-
ing as they do upon carrion, are, like the vulture, endowed
with the sense of winding it from afar; and upon a bright
spring day they will come soaring along, sweeping with
the velocity of a bee around the object of their solicitude,
and fall directly upon it. The species of Necrophagm
are called burying beetles, from the habit they have of
associating together for the purpose of excavating the
earth from beneath the dead animal (if not too bulky)
with which they are engaged, which sinks gradually
THE SILPHIDJE. 267
into the ground, and they then cover it over with loose
soil and deposit their eggs in it. The larva is speedily
developed, grows rapidly to its full size, and then buries
itself to undergo its subsequent transformation. Nature,
universally, carefully conceals these changes ; she will
not, voluntarily, admit a spectator in her tiring room ;
and if we wish to witness these transmutations, it must
be done by subterfuge, and even when exercising all
that we are capable of, she will frequently evade us.
Hence it is, that we know so little of the transformations
of insects, a subject, however, replete with the greatest
interest, and one, the careful notice of the progressive
stages of which we cannot too strongly inculcate the
due observation of, when those fleeting and rare oppor-
tunities present themselves. These insects frequently
emit a sort of musky odour, which would be far from
disagreeable were it exhaled by a flower ; but proceeding,
as we assume it does, by secretion, from the nauseous
substances they inhabit and feed on, our imagination
makes it loathsome, and thus evinces how much we are
the slaves of that faculty. In some, which are most
approximate to the typical Necrophori, namely, Ne
erodes, the posterior thighs are frequently thickened:
Silpha itself, and its closest allies, are flat or hemispheri-
cal ; and the Nitidulce are distinguished by the enlarged
basal joint of the antennae : the various forms this takes,
and the various relative proportions of the following
joints, and of the club, which is sometimes solid, with
merely transverse sutures, or consists of three successive
joints, or sometimes four or more are incrassated, have
divided this group into a multitude of small genera, the
habits of which present some diversity, although they
frequent resembling substances. Thus, some occur with
the types in carrion, as Nitidala proper, which is the
most numerous genus of all ; others are found in fungi,
as Atomaria, Triphyllus, Mycetophagus, Phloiophilus,
and Strongylus ; others occur only in flowers, as Bytu-
rus, Cater etes } Meligethes y and Antherophagus ; many
beneath the bark of trees, as Ips, Engis, Tetratoma, and
268 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
Thymalus; others are found by sweeping in low herb-
age, as Typhcea, Mycet&a, and many Cryptophagi; and
many occur in heating heaps of garden rejectamenta,, as
Anisarthria and Trichopteryx, the latter is distinguished
by being the most minute of all Coleoptera, and having
their delicate wings fringed with fine hair, which, when
folded beneath their closed elytra, protrude like a couple
of pencils. As aberrant forms in this family, we may
view such genera as Choleva > Scaphidium, arid Leiodes,
and their allies, all distinguished by the club of their
antennae consisting of five joints, the eighth of the organ,
the second of the club, being disproportionally minute.
With these associates also Agathidium, that rolls itself
up like a ball, yet less spherical than we have observed
in Acanthocerus among the Trogince; and here, conti-
guously, must be placed the still more remarkable Clam-
bus, which, under the apprehension of danger, closes
its large broad head upon its four anterior legs ; whilst
the protection of the posterior pair is referred to the
broad enveloping plate, formed, as in Cnemidotus among
the Dytiscidae, by the dilatation of the posterior coxae.
All of these, like the majority of the Nitidulince, are fun-
givorous ; and the Leiodes Cinnamomea feeds upon the
truffle. Of course, we here can enumerate only the
most conspicuous forms, and must refer the location of
the rest to the determination of their affinities. The
exotic forms are comparatively few, probably from their
being minute, and not having yet had sufficient atten-
tion bestowed upon them ; but some among them are
sufficiently remarkable; for instance, the very extraor-
dinary Hypocephalus armatus is referred to this group,
and placed near the Necrophori. This is, perhaps, one
of the most grotesque forms the Coleoptera can exhibit.
It is a large insect, more than two inches long, with a
greatly developed thorax, not unlike that of a Calandra;
its head is small and deflexed ; antennae short and moni-
liform, as are also its palpi ; the mandibles are somewhat
distorted and curved; the maxillae large, prominent,
and triangular; it has the elytra of a Carabus; the
THE PIMELID^E. 2$
four anterior legs very robust ; and the two posterior
incrassated like those of Sagra ; with largely developed
coxae; and the apex of their tibiae flat and vesicular
beneath^ like the anterior ones of Pirates among the
Reduviince, in the Hemiptera. This incongruous com-
pound of anomalies is of a dark chestnut colour, and is a
native of the interior of the Brazils, whence it was first
brought by prince Maximilian of Neuwied, and was ori-
ginally scarcely believed to be more than the unskilful
workmanship of some cozening dealer, so complete a
burlesque did it seem upon Nature's general harmony of
structure : but others have since been brought, and the
authenticity of the monster is confirmed. We possess
an undescribed extraordinary Brazilian Nitidula, in
which the anterior tibiae are bent inwards, at right angles,
at their middle, the lower half being considerably dilated,
and the tarsi inserted before their termination. It is
excessively flat; and being a very distinct genus, we pro-
pose for it the name Place adunca. We have before
spoken of the very singular Helota, of which several
species are now known.
(236.) The PimelidcB, which may perhaps fill the place
of the Silphidfs in this circle of Predatores, form a
group of insects of a most extraordinary and repulsive
aspect. They are all heteromerous, that is to say, the
posterior pair of tarsi have one joint less than the four
anterior; but this is a peculiarity which extends over a
large mass of the Coleoptera, many of which we shall
have to consider when we treat of the Malacodermata.
For the present, we may state, that an additional cha-
racteristic of these insects is, to have the third joint of
the antennae the longest ; their elytra soldered together,
and frequently hispid with innumerable spines, teeth, or
tubercles; and they are, besides, usually of ungainly gib-
bous forms. They are pre-eminently the inhabitants of
deserts, wastes, and arid sandy tracts, especially Northern
and Southern Africa, and Patagonia, where Nature is
most inhospitable and cheerless ; and they thus partici-
pate in the features of the districts they occupy. Their
270 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
colour harmonises with their form, to make them hideous,
for they are invariably of a deep black or dirty brown.
Epiphysa offers us the most gibbous form amongst
them. In Cryptocheile and Adesmia, this form is
covered with short spines or tubercles, placed either
irregularly over the whole surface, or arranged in rows
between which there are furrows. In Pimelia proper,
and Moluris, we have the gibbous form also greatly
developed, but with a deep strangulation between the
thorax and abdomen : and in Prionotheca, the same
general form is somewhat flattened, and the lateral su-
perior edges of the elytra are armed with a coronet of
protruding spines. In others, we observe them taking
the more general figure of Carabida, as in Scaurus and
Trachynotus ; and in others again they become exceed-
ingly flattened with dilated edges, as in Eurychora; and
which, in Steira, is furnished above with longitudinal
carinse. Among the aberrant forms, we may notice the
extraordinary Helens, which is very like a black Cassida,
with a perforation through the dilated margin of the
thorax, for the head to exhibit itself; and in one species
the whole of the central convex portion of the insect is
covered with erect rigid setae ; and amongst the most he-
terogeneous of these forms, Machla claims a place. The
affinities of this group to the circle are obscure, and
difficult to trace; their position is suggested for the ana.
lytical examination of entomologists.
(237.) The Staphylinida, or rove beetles, constitute
our fifth group of predatorial insects : their distinguish-
ing characteristic, as we have above said, is to have
considerably abridged elytra, beneath which their ex-
pansive wings are folded up ; and thus there are almost
always more, and never fewer, than four segments ex-
posed. As in the Coleoptem generally, their antennae
consist of eleven joints, rarely of ten, and the apex of
their abdomen is usually furnished with a couple of
retractile vesicles. There is great diversity in the
number of the joints of their tarsi, but the typical
number may be considered as five. They are exces-
THE STAPHYLINID^E. 271
sively active insects, promptly take wing, and fly with
considerable velocity. They frequent coprophagous
substances of all kinds, and in which they associate
sometimes in considerable multitudes, so much so, that
the very surface of it is sometimes wholly alive with them,
and by them it appears transformed into a living mass.
They have been subdivided into seven distinct sub-
families ; the structure of which differs considerably in
minute points of a highly interesting nature, in its in-
vestigation, to the systematist. The largest majority of
these consist of minute insects, comparatively few of
which exceed half an inch in length, and the major part
are under a line. They appear to be, with very few
exceptions, a northern group, replaced within the tro-
pics, in the exercise of the peculiar function awarded
to them by the ants ; although some few also occur
there. These, especially the Brazilian ones, like the
prevailing character of its entomology, are of brilliant
metallic splendour.
(238.) They consist, first, of the Staphylini proper,
which contain the largest species of the whole family,
and are chiefly distinguished from the rest by their
fissile labrum, and tarsi always pentamerous. They are
courageous insects, and resist aggression, and endeavour
to intimidate by opening their powerful jaws; with
which, indeed, they can pinch severely. They also
have the habit of erecting their tails, to produce inti-
midation; and it is by the flexibility of this part of the
body that they are enabled promptly to fold their wings
beneath the elytra; and the activity with which this is
done, is highly interesting. Their larvae are depressed,
and have similar habits of life to the perfect insects, and,
like them, occur most abundantly during the spring and
autumn. The most interesting genera are Velleius,
which has serrated antennae, and is said to frequent the
nests of hornets, whether as a parasite, or in quest of
prey, is not determined. Creophilus is the common
black large-headed species, mottled with grey, that
occurs so frequently in our walks. Emus is a beautiful
2?2 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
insect, densely pubescent, its clothing being party-co-
loured, black and bright yellow ; and the Devil's coach-
horse,, the common Goerius, is the frequent occupant of
our gardens. Oxyporus is remarkable for its moon-
shaped palpi ; and a modification of this form occurs in
AstrapfBuSy Tasgius, and Pelecyphorus. Achenium and
Siagonium, lastly, have porrected horns upon the head
and thorax.
(239.) The second family, the StenidcE y liSL\e greatly
the appearance of Elaphri, and, indeed, participate
with them in their attachment to humid situations.
They are nearly cylindrical ; have very prominent eyes,
long exserted palpi, and antenna subclavate at the tip.
They are very active insects, and seem very predaceous.
(240.) The third family are the Oocytelidce : these
are depressed, have very large heads, very serrated
tibise, and usually but three joints to their tarsi, the
terminal one being longer than the rest together. There
is nothing peculiar in their natural history, beyond the
circumstance of their being, perhaps, the most gre-
garious of the group, associating in the multitudes we
have instanced above, and occurring in dung and putrid
substances.
(241.) The fourth family are formed by the Oma-
lidce, which, as their name indicates, are exceed-
ingly depressed; their tarsi are pentamerous; and the
terminal joint of their palpi is frequently subulated.
These insects are often found in flowers, and are in-
teresting, from presenting instances of the rare occur-
rence of ocelli in the Coleoptera.
(242.) The Tachynidce form the fifth family, and
are distinguished by their convex tapering forms ; their
tarsi are also pentamerous ; and they have, likewise, the
habit of frequenting flowers. They are excessively
agile, and readily escape capture by the velocity of their
motions. There is nothing strikingly distinguishing in
them to require notice in a work thus general.
(243.) The Aleocharidcs constitute the sixth fa-
mily : their antennae are inserted below their eyes,
THE PSELAPHID^, 2?3
which is the only general character which seems to
pervade them ; for they present numberless diversities
of form, and remarkable anomalies in the numerical
relations of the joints of their tarsi. The knowledge
of these particulars must, of course, be referred to other
works. They comprise the greatest number of insects
of any of the families of Staphylinidce, and differ as
much in their habits as their forms. Thus, some, as
Pella, Dinar da, Lomechusa, occur only in ants' nests ;
Deinopsis, Diglossa, Oxypoda, amoiigst rejectamenta;
Falagria and Astilbus, in moss ; Homalota and Calo-
dera, beneath the bark of trees. Deinopsis, Diglossa,
and Mi/llana, are remarkable for the protrusion of their
labial palpi as setee; and Callicerus has beautifully
formed antennas.
(244.) The Pselapliida form the last family, if pro-
perly they be a constituent of the Staphytinida ; for they
differ so considerably in many particulars, and agree in
so few, that we think they should compose a distinct
group. They are the smallest and the most elegant of
the series, and are distinguished by their clavate and
frequently nodose antennae ; elongate clavate palpi ;
three-jointed tarsi, which terminate in a single claw.
The only character they have in common with the Sta-
phylinidce, is the abbreviation of their elytra; for their
abdomen is usually bulky, and incapable of reflexion.
They occur in the nests of ants, at the roots of
grass, and in moss in damp situations. They are
very voracious, and feed upon living insects. In the
observations on the Hymenoptera, we have already al-
luded to the remarkable Claviger; and, by so singular
a form, we may quit the Predatores. (2,30 244.)
W.E.Sh.]
274 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
CHAP. VIII.
COLEOPTERA, continued.
CAPRICORNES.
(245.) FROM the close affinity, already remarked, be-
tween the LucanidcB and the Prionidce, there can he no
doubt that the lamellicorn arid Capricorn tribes are
united. This union, which has long been admitted by
modern writers, will now be confirmed by additional
evidence, founded on those general laws of natural ar-
rangement upon which our entire theory reposes. Mr.
Maeleay, looking only to the formation of the larvae, or
more properly to the metamorphosis, hesitates not to
place the Capricorn beetles between the Lametticornes
and the Monilicornes. This conclusion we have also
come to, from studying the perfect insects, and by test-
ing the theory by our own impression of the laws of
representation.
(246.) The chief or typical characteristic of this tribe,
presented by the adult insect, is the great length of their
antennae, their large and vertical head, and the unusual
strength of their jaws : the construction of their tarsi
is also peculiar, and they are all, while in their larva
state, lignivorous, or, at least, living in the internal
substance of vegetables ; chiefly, however, in solid
wood. Hence it is, that although many of the groups,
which we shall here consider aberrant, are very dif-
ferent, in their adult state, to the pre-eminent types,
they agree with them much more closely in the general
shape of their larvae. This form of larva, by Macleay, is
termed Apod, and is defined as ' ' having scarcely the
rudiments of antennae, and furnished, instead of feet,
with flat fleshy tubercles, which, when continued along
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CAPRICORNES. 275
the back and belly, give the animal a facility of moving
in whatever way it may be placed." Our author cites
Curculio or Cerambyx as examples. It may be observed,
however, that these larvae are not completely apodal,
since they have the rudiments of six scaly minute legs
with joints, yet so small as to be useless for locomotion.
We thus find that considerations, drawn from the larva
state of an insect, are often of the highest importance,
and that in certain cases they may be employed with great
advantage, without elevating them too high in the scale
of primary and absolute distinctions. Under the impres-
sion, therefore, that this tribe contains within itself all
such lignivorous insects as have apod larvae, we have
no hesitation in adopting the above views, more espe-
cially as they will be subsequently developed more in
detail.
(247.) The above definition of the perfect insects of this
order is entirely drawn from the two typical families, the
Cerambycidce and the Lepturidtf, with which, however, the
group connecting it to the Lamellicornes (the Prionidce)
is intimately allied. Of the two others, one (the Curcu-
lionidcB) is remarkably unlike either of the preceding,
and the other is involved in some doubt. Without at-
tempting, therefore, to find any more general characters
for the Capricornes than those already glanced at, we
may at once proceed to characterise with much brevity
the primary groups or families into which we divide the
tribe. 1. The Prionidce, at once distinguished by their
depressed form, their protruding or exserted jaws, di-
rected forwards, and the comparative softness of their
wing cases. 2. The Cerambycidce, having their head
large and vertical, the jaws short and sharp, the tarsi
prehensile, and the thorax nearly as broad as the body :
these, like the last, feed both in their larva and perfect
state, upon solid or decayed wood, and are strictly lig-
nivorous. 3. The Lepturidce, or floral capricorns, of a
much more delicate and slender form, having the jaws
or mandibles more lengthened and straight, the tip
T 2
2J NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
hooked,, the legs cursorial,, and the first joint of the tarsi
long ; the thorax is always narrower than the body,
and is generally either spined or wrinkled : the perfect
insect is floral; that is, feeds upon living vegetables and
flowers. Of the extent of the 4th family we feel very
uncertain ; but we are disposed to consider the major
part of the Xylophagi of Latreille as forming a part, at
least, of the group, regarding Bostrichus, or Tomicus,
as the type of a family of lignivorous insects to which
Clerus is unquestionably related either by affinity or
analogy. The 5th and last family is the Curculio-
nidee, or snout beetles, connected to the former by means
of Bruchus and the Anthribides, through Hylurgus, &c.
Nearly the whole are distinguished by the prolongation
of their snout, which forms a rostrum, at the extremity
of which is a very minute mouth. The antennae, which
in the first three families is usually as long as the
body, and generally much longer, is here comparatively
short, and is almost always bent into an angle in the
middle, as if broken.
(248.) The above arrangement of the primary divi-
sions is founded partly upon synthesis, and partly from
analysis. The situation of the Prionidce cannot be
questioned ; because, being united in the most intimate
manner to the Lucanidce, it necessarily follows they
must be placed in that part of their own circle which
brings them into immediate contact with their proto-
types among the Lamellicornes. The difficulty respect-
ing these insects, does not lie in their station, but in
ascertaining what other lignivorous genera are naturally
associated with them. It is quite clear that the old genus
Prionus contains merely the typical examples ; so that
we have no scruple in placing Latreille's Platysoma (in-
cluding Cucujus), and perhaps most of his Trogosita,
excepting Trogosita itself, as aberrant forms : but how
many others, among the host of small or minute ligni-
vorous genera (now broken up and elevated to the rank of
small genera), are naturally associated with them, it is,
THE CEBAMBYCID^B AND LEPTURIDJE. 277
at present, utterly impossible to say. The whole of
the LucanidcB and the Bostrichidce, no less than the
Prionidce, require a thorough analysis ; and until that is
done, individual opinion, founded only on conjecture,
can alone be offered. The nature of the food, and the
form of the larva, indeed, may materially assist us in
unravelling the confusion which now involves all these
groups. Details like these, however, belong not to our
present plan. We merely seek to establish the primary
groups, and to show they exhibit as strong relations of
analogy among themselves, as are found in other parts
of the animal kingdom. It can hardly be disputed,
for instance, that there is a strong relation between Pas-
salus and Trogosita, as well as between Cucujus and
Hister ; but these, we suspect, will eventually prove
merely analogical.
(249.) In respect to the two typical families, the
Cerambycidce and the Lepturidce^ we feel much more
confident, not, indeed, as to their specific contents, but
as to the fundamental principles upon which we should
base them. As we prefer, upon all occasions, the retention
of Linnaean names, when they can be preserved with-
out injury to science, we call the first of these the Ceram-
bycidce, although, strictly speaking, the genus Lamia of
Fabricius is the pre-eminent type. The natural history
of the L. amputator, so beautifully illustrated by Guild-
ing, one of the most accomplished zoologists of the age,
completely establishes the fact, if such evidence were
wanting, that these insects are lignivorous, both in their
larva and perfect state : they feed, in fact, upon hard
wood ; and even amputate branches, without paying any
regard to the leaves ; and their thick, strong, and com-
pact structure are in unison with such habits. The
Lepturidce, on the other hand, although internal feeders
in their larva state, are yet totally incapable of gnawing
hard substances when arrived at maturity. Whether
they occasionally feed upon leaves, we know not, but their
common resort is flowers, upon which the most inexpe-
T 3
278 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
rienced studenthas, no doubt, often captured them. Their
light and elegant shape, cursorial feet, and small head,
offer a contrast to the Cerambycidce. With regard to the
fourth type, we have already expressed our doubts, chiefly
arising from a deficiency of analysis. We were long
disposed to think that this part of the series was naturally
occupied by such genera as Sagra and Crioceris, parti-
cularly as Latreille places them immediately in conjunc-
tion withLeptura, a station, after all, they may possibly
hold ; but their still closer affinity, as we conceive, to
the Chrysomelidfe, prevents us from following such high
authority. Satisfied, for reasons that will presently ap-
pear, that the Curculionidce were the most aberrant
family of tjie Capricornes, our next object was to find
what group was most likely to connect these, in some
degree, with the Lepturidce, by means of Attelabus, which
Latreille very judiciously arranges close to the Curculio-
nida>. On these grounds have we formed the conjecture
that most of the Bostrichi intervene between these two
families more particularly as we do not think they form
a part either of the LucanidcB or the Prionida. By this
means, also, the evident affinity between Bostrichus and
Clerus may be preserved, if we consider the latter as
leading to the Coccinellidce and ChrysomelidcB, the former
of which they resemble by the carnivorous habits of their
larvae, All this, however, as we stated before, must be
considered a mere matter of opinion, until the groups to
which these several insects are in any way related are
thoroughly analysed.
(250.) We may now turn to the analogies resulting
from the above arrangement of the whole tribe ; and as
the most difficult of these will regard the CurculionidcZ)
we shall commence by the following comparison.
ANALOGIES OF THE CAPRICORNES.
279
Analogies of the CAPRICORN ES to the TYPICAL VERTE-
BRATA.
Tribes of the
COLEOPTERA.
Lamellicornes.
Predatores.
Malacodermes.
Monilicornes.
Capricornes.
Analogies.
Orders of the
MAMMALIA.
Orders of
BIRDS.
Legs formed for grasping. Quadrumana. Insessores.
Eaptores.
Natatores.
Grallatores.
Easores.
f Carnivorous ; and rapa-7
i cious. 3
f Feet shorter none j much \ rtftnp
\ compressed. j <- etac
Most aberrant. Glires.
r Appendages to the head}
S highly developed, eit
) in the shape of ho
[, crests, or antenna?.
e head}
, either f
horns, f
a?. 3
Without, detaining the reader by additional explan-
ations on the first four of these resemblances, we shall
merely premise that the two last columns are arranged
strictly according to their affinities as explained in
former volumes, and that the analogies are expressed
horizontally. We thus find the Capricorn beetles fall
in a line with the ungulated quadrupeds (or the oxen,
antelopes, and all other horned genera), the represent-
ations, as every zoologist knows, of the peacock, turkey,
and other rasorial birds. As this comparison, therefore,
establishes the analogy of the two groups in a general
way, we may now proceed a step further, and ascertain
how far this theory holds good when we come to ex-
amine the contents of each.
Analogies of the CAPRICORN TRIBE and the UNGU-
LATED QUADRUPEDS.
Families of the
Capricornes.
PRIONID^S.
CERAMBYCIDJE.
LEPTURID2E.
BOSTRICHID.E.
CURCULIONID.SE.
Analogies.
Tribes of the
Ungulata.
PACHYDERMATA,
SOLIPEDES.
Size gigantic; body thick, heavy.
Strong j robust.
C Slender ; graceful ; horns or an- 7
\ tenme very long. 5
CThick obtuse snouts; prone as-7
i pect; antennas short. j
Head produced into a long snout
rostrum ; mouth terminal, EDENTATA.
.mall.
RUMINANTES.
ANOPLOTHERES.
r Head pr
j or ros
C very s
ut}
S,]
280 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
(251.) We may here intimate to such of our readers as
are unacquainted with the animals composing the Eden-
tata, that the long-snouted ant-eaters and the armadillos
are here designated ; and so perfectly do the first of these
represent, in their long snout, the attenuated rostrum of
the CurculionidcBy that it is almost inconceivable how a
quadruped and an insect can be such prototypes of each
other. The Pachyd&rmata, or the elephant, the rhino-
ceros,, &c., are as truly the giants of the ungulated qua-
drupeds^ as the bulky Prionldce are of the Capricorn
tribe. The inferior developement of the foot in the Ce-
rambycidte and of the Solipedes, the tarsi of one cor-
responding to the hoof of the other, is not a little
remarkable; while the Lepturidce, with their long and
slender legs and their agile movements, find their ap-
propriate representatives in the graceful antelopes. The
uncertainty that hangs over the Bostrichidce prevents us
from offering any conjectures on their analogy to the
Anoplotheres ; and this latter group, also, from being
chiefly known by its fossil remains, contains but very
few types. Upon the whole, however, this is not a
matter of much consequence, seeing that the analogies
of the other four groups are as perfect as the great
distance between the groups themselves, in point of af-
finity, will admit. Our main object, in fact, was to
draw the reader's attention to the analogy of the snout
beetles and the ant-eaters; in doing which, the other
resemblances, which previously we had never thought
about, came suddenly to light while drawing up the
table. That the analogies of the Curculionidce should be
more apparent among quadrupeds and birds, than among
annulose animals, or even insects of the same order, is
not a little singular ; but such is undoubtedly the fact, for
there are few other beetles possessingan elongated rostrum.
This is additional proof that analogies can never be fully
traced or even understood without a general knowledge
of all the classes of animals, and that they may be altoge-
ther obscure in one group, while they become perfectly
apparent when sought for in another.
COMPARISON OF THE ABERRANT TRIBES. 281
(252.) The Curculionida being, therefore, the most
aberrant family of the Capricorn circle, we may glance
at those other groups, which are similarly situated among
the lamellicorn and predaceous divisions : these are, the
Buprestidce in the first, and the Silphidce in the second.
Buprestis, indeed, offers two points of analogy with
CurculiOy in being, like them, internal feeders upon
wood, and in the dilatation of their tarsi ; but in all other
respects the two groups are widely different, and, in
their perfect state, have not the least similarity to each
other. On turning, however, to the Silphida, or rather
to their possible representatives the Pimelidce, the
analogy between certain groups is very remarkable :
thus, for instance, the large apterous forms among the
African Brachyceri, with their globose black bodies,
immediately remind us of certain Pimelice, more es-
pecially of the Fabrician Pimelia and Latreille's Mol-
luris ; and in all these are shadowed out the typical
form of the Chrysomelida ?, and other Monilicornes,
obscurely, indeed, yet still sufficiently to add additional
evidence to that already adduced.
(253.) The analogies of this tribe to the Lamellicor-
nes, again, is not without interest ; for although the
relations, to all appearance, are remote, there is nothing
to militate against the supposition that the primary
groups represent each other.
Analogies of the CAPRICORNES to the LAMELLICOHN and
the PREDATORIAL BEETLES.
Families of the A . Families of the Families of the
LameUicornes. Analogies Capricornes. Predatores.
r Form thick, heavy ; co- ^
C stances. 3
r Jaws unusually exsert- ^
LUCANIOE. 3 ed; elytra sometimes PRIONID;E. STAPHYLINID^.
L abbreviated. 3
BUPRESTIDJE. i Larva concealed in 7 CURCULTONID^E. SILPHIDJE.
HYDROPHILIDJE. ? BOSTRICHIDJS. DTTisciD2E
282 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
As the Capricorn and the lamellicorn tribes live upon
vegetables, they are of course more analogous to each
other, than either of them are to the Predatores, where
the food is so totally different. We shall, therefore, say
nothing of this last column in our table, but confine our-
selves to illustrating the tribe we are now more particu-
larly engaged upon. While rejecting the tarsal system,
adopted by our modern nomenclators, as totally at va-
riance with all natural classification, we yet attach no
small importance to the different construction of the foot,
whenever we find it is accompanied by other decided and
general characters, whether of economy or of structure.
When used with caution, it will assuredly lead to most
satisfactory results, of which the arrangement of the two
chief lamellicorn families (the Cetoniadce and the Scara-
bfeida) is a striking instance. Now, it is very obvious
that each of these find their prototypes among the Capri-
corn beetles. The elegant and highly ornamented Ceto-
niadce correspond with the Lepturidce, in having their
tarsi long, linear, or cylindrical : both live also upon
nearly the same food, and may be even seen upon the
same flowers. The Scarabceida and the Cerambycidce,
on the other hand, have a form and an economy very
different. They are both more bulky and inactive, and
have the tarsal j oints short, broad, and more or less di-
lated on their sides. We look upon these organs, in
fact, as only extreme modifications of the same primary
structure, just as that which we see in the tarsi of a
Leptura and a Cicindela; these latter being both cur-
sorial, or adapted for running. Many of the Ceram-
bycidce, again, live on decomposed or dead wood, either
iu their larva or perfect state, or in both ; and all the
ScarabfBidcB subsist upon decayed or decomposed vege-
table matter : the colours of both are dull or dark, and
they are equally tardy and heavy in their motions. In
short, the parallels between these two typical divisions
are as strong as the nature of the case can possibly ad-
mit ; nor are there wanting instances where the lamelli-
form antennoe of one is seen in a much greater degree of
THE PRIONID^E. 283
developement than in the tribe where this structure is
universally prevalent. On the analogy, or rather the
affinity, between the Prionidce and the Lucanida we have
already stated quite sufficient; as well as on those reasons
which makes the Buprestida, however obscurely, the
representatives of the Curculionidce. As for the last in
our series, wherein the Bostrichidcp stand opposite to the
Hydrophilidce, the same uncertainty exists in this as in
the preceding table. If Latreille's Sagrides really fill
this station, our difficulty would be removed,, since those
insects present two tangible points of analogy both to
the Hydropliilidce and the Dyticidce; one, in the great
developement of their posterior legs, and the other in their
aquatic habits. Latreille remarks that the Donacice,
in their larva state, live on the internal parts of the roots
of those aquatic plants upon which the perfect insect
feeds ; so that in their larva state they are as decidedly
aquatic as any of the true water beetles. On the other
hand, these analogies may be all perfectly true, and yet
the Sagrides may hereafter prove to be no other than
some aquatic type within the circle of the Monilicornes,
and as such, also, we shall subsequently treat them.
(254.) Our first family, the PRIONIDCE, contains, as
we have before observed, many of the most gigantic of
the Coleoptera. As the term is rather indefinite, a dis-
tinct idea will be conveyed, when we say that the Ti-
tanus gigas is frequently eight inches long, exclusive of
the antennae ; and the Prionus Hayesii of Mr. Hope,
evidently closely allied to the genus Macrotoma, is four
and a half inches in body, but, including its antennae, it is
nearly a foot long. There is considerable variation in
the structure of these organs in the family before us :
that which is most typical, and which occurs chiefly in
the genus Prionus itself, is to have them pectinated;
although in the larger genera, as Titanus, Enoplocerus,
Ctenoscelis, &c., they are filiform : but it must be ob-
served, that what is technically called serrated arises
from the gradual enlargement from base to apex of
each successive joint of the organ, and not from the
284 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
armature of the joints themselves ; in which case Enoplo-
cerus, Macrotoma, and others,, would also have serrated
antennae, as each joint is thickly set with minute teeth.
In Polyarthron they are flabellated, and consist of forty-
seven joints ; whereas, as we have before had occasion
to observe,, the typical number,, as that which most con-
stantly occurs, is for the organ to consist of but eleven.
We however find in this family frequent aberrations in
this particular, as very many exceed the usual number.
Its most elegant form is that, perhaps, which occurs in
the imbricated antennae of the males of Prionus; and
the family has received its name from this serrated struc-
ture, prion signifying a saw. Other parts, besides the
antennae, are likewise thus singularly furnished, espe-
cially the legs and sides of the thorax ; the latter being
always armed, laterally, with one or more spines, and
frequently with a row of very minute and sharp teeth ;
and it is from the variation in the number and arrange-
ment of these spines and teeth, that Serville has founded
his distribution of the large mass they constitute, and
has thence broken them into genera. We have adverted
to the characteristic of their being usually dark and
sombre insects. This must not, however, be adopted
with a rigorous application ; nor can, indeed, any cha-
racter universally in any group in nature ; for here, even
in JHfegopis, Anacantha, and Ccelodon, the thorax is not
denticulated ; in Mallodon, and many others, the legs
are not serrated ; in Anacolus and Pcecilosoma, the body
is gaily coloured; and in Pyrodes, Psalidognathus,
and Clieloderus, it is brilliantly metallic : the latter is
remarkable for its concave, small thorax, and is an ex-
tremely rare insect from Mexico, whence also Psali-
dognathus comes. There is considerable difference in
the sexes of the latter ; and, as in most metallic insects,
differences of colour, some being of a deep blue, and
others of a bright green ; whereas Cheloderus is of a rich
vinous tint. The leading instance of analogy to the Luca-
nidaK is found in the deflexed, elongated, forcipate man-
dibles of the former ; but the largest developement of
AFFINITIES OF THE PRIONIDyE. 285
this structure is in Macrodontia, where they are greatly
porrected, and more than twice as long as the head.
These insects fly usually at night, and during the day
they are lazily affixed to the trunks of trees. The power
of flight,, of course,, implies the possession of wings ; but
one genus (Prionapteron) is remarkable for being apte-
rous, and having its elytra soldered together. InAnacolus
these organs are shorter than the body and the true
wings ; and, although the tetramerous tarsal structure
is universal among them, yet in Trictenotoma they are
heteromerous ; whence M. Solier has combined it with
PhrenopateSy another anomalous, genus, but belonging
certainly to a different group ; and he has formed with
them an introductory section to his distribution of the
Heteromera. We, however, think Trictenotoma appears
to have a strong affinity to the Lucanidcz, into the
circle of which, as an aberrant form, it ought possibly
to enter ; of which we have a double indication in the
structure of the antennae, which present a very elongate
basal joint, and an indication of a lamellated form at
the apex. A similar situation might also, possibly, be
assigned to Parandra, which the majority of sys-
tematists have placed contiguous to the Prionidce ; in
their general form, however, particularly in that of the
clypeus and labrum, and the thorax, and in the posses-
sion of the tarsal plantula and pseudonychia, they are
closely related to the Lucanidce, and only want pec-
tinated antennae to belong absolutely to that family.
But leaving this for future investigation, we have not
the least doubt that, by means of the extraordinary
Torneutes, a South American insect, nearly three inches
long, and not more than half an inch broad, we have a
direct intimation of the proximity of Cucujus and its
affinities, as Spondylis equally points to the sub-family
of the Bostrichidce. The excessively flattened forms of
Cucujus, Brontes, Dendrophagus, &c., is admirably
adapted for their peculiar economy, living, as they do,
beneath the bark of trees. The allied Palcestes and
Passandra follow naturally here^ where we think it
286 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
probable that Clinidium, Khysodes, and Cupes, also as-
sociate ; indicating another affinity, in the direction of
JBrenthus, amongst the Curculios. Within this circle,
possibly, also, but certainly its most aberrant sub-
family, may we place the remarkable Paussidce, in-
sects that sport with the integrity of all previous sys-
tems, and present a problem, as to their relations, never
yet satisfactorily solved. Indeed, the small lignivorous
and fungivorous genera of coleopterous insects are far
from having yet been lucidly investigated, or even an
approximation made to their affinities and analogies.
The Paussidce not only exhibit a very heterogeneous
structure in their antennae, all the species differing con-
siderably inter se in their form ; but they present, like-
wise, an extraordinary difference in the number of the
joints of these organs, in the several genera of which
the sub-family is formed: thus, in Cerapterus there
are ten, in Pentaplatarthrus there are six ; in Paussus
two, the terminal joint being usually variously swollen
and denticulated ; but, as if Nature took here a par-
ticular pleasure in extraordinary freaks, we have even
one in which this joint is perfectly cylindrical. Their
legs present similar anomalies, for some are much com-
pressed and dilated, and others are likewise cylin-
drical. [W , E. Sh.]
(255.) The Cerambycida, according to the views
already explained, form a family group, in which the
front of the head, when viewed in profile, is always
more or less vertical. This singular formation, which,
as a general character, is found in no other family of
the capricorns, is almost essential to the economy which
belongs to the whole of this group. Sufficient evi-
dence is before us, that the manners of Lamia am
putatory first made known by Guilding, are more or
less similar to its numerous congeners : for some pur-
pose, which is not yet sufficiently cleared up, these
beetles are in the habit of gnawing off the branches of
trees; and this is done in such a manner that they
/V 0* ^X
THE CERAMBYCIDL% ' T^ T? ftS^S T fp *J\
Vv X*fc *** JL 4 /
appear to be cut off, in an abruptly transverse direction,
as if by the strokes of an axe or hatchet. Now, to
accomplish this, it is evident that the heaiUQf the ift^J^.-^
sect should be considerably bent downwards, that~the
jaws may cut transversely instead of obliquely. Hence
we find, that as stooping the head during this long
and toilsome occupation would have been exceedingly
wearying to the insect, nature has given to that part a
permanent position most suited to the office it has to
perform. By this, also, we see the necessity of great
muscular power being placed in the jaws, and the con-
sequent enlargement of the head : the compact manner,
also, in which this part is joined to the thorax, which,
by encasing a considerable portion of its base, gives it
still greater strength, is likewise in unison with the
economy belonging to the family before us ; and is
strikingly opposed to the small exserted heads of the
Prionidce, and the feeble structure so characteristic of
the Lepturidce. We select this, therefore, as the pri-
mary character of the Cerambycidce ; for it not only per-
vades the typical, but, with a very slight diminution, all
the aberrant groups. When to this we add the equal
breadth of the thorax and the head, the shortness and
breadth of the tarsal joints, and the slight degree in
which the hinder legs exceed the others, we enable the
most unpractised student to determine at once, with-
out minute anatomical investigation, the insects be-
fore us.
(256.) Our analysis of this family has not proceeded
sufficiently far to allow of our designating more than
the five sub-families, and to offer some remarks upon
what appear the typical genera. We arrange the whole in
the following divisions : 1. The Acrocinintf, which, as
representatives of the Prionidce^ with which, indeed, they
were once placed), are of a very large size ; having the
body considerably depressed, the anterior feet much
lengthened, and the elytra spined at their tips : the
tarsi in this group are very peculiar, and depart con-
288 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
siderably from the typical structure; the first joint is
nearly as long as all the others, and the third only is
lobed, or heart-shaped * : nor is there any " knob or
swelling like an articulation, at the origin of the last/ 1
or cla vv -joint; hence we infer that these insects are
much more cursorial than any of their congeners, since
their tarsi have a close resemblance to those of the
Lepturidce. 2. The Lamiince, where the typical cha-
racters of the family are most conspicuous, appear to
follow the last. Their body is narrower, more cylin-
drical, and does not much exceed the breadth of the
head and thorax ; the front of the former is so broad
and flattened, that it is almost square ; and the latter is
almost always armed with spines or tubercles. As they
walk very slowly, but cling tenaciously, their feet are
very different from the last : in the great majority, the
two first joints are very short and heart-shaped, and
the third, as usual, deeply lobed. In some, approach-
ing to Acrocinus 111., the anterior tarsi are greatly
dilated in one sex, and conspicuously fringed with
hairs : few are ornamented with any bright colours,
and none that we know of are metallic. 3. The
Cerambycinfe have a general resemblance to the La-
miina, in their cylindrical body being nearly of equal
breadth throughout; but their thorax and head are
somewhat narrower, their legs more slender, and the
first tarsal joint rather longer than the next : the ap-
pearance of these insects, also, is quite different; their
elytra are smooth or glossy, and often ornamented with
a beautiful admixture of colours. One (Lophonocerus),
from Brazil, covered with bright yellow spots upon a black
velvet-like ground, is one of the most elegant capri-
corns of this family. As a type of the 4th division, we
place the genus Lissonotus, which seems to intervene
* This is one of the innumerable instances of abuse of primary charac-
ters drawn from these organs. Authors begin their definition of this fa-
inily by stating that the second and third tarsal joints are heart-shaped, and
the last with a knob at the base; whereas all the three are diversified in
almost every leading group.
THE FIFTH TYPE DOUBTFUL. 289
between this sub-family and the next. These insects
are remarkable for their large frequently tuberculated,,
and wrinkled thorax, and the comparative smallness of
their head, which is scarcely vertical. The antennae
are very long, and the joints in one sex considerably
compressed and widened as they approach their termi-
nation. Thus, with the robust form and general
structure of the feet of the Lamiina, they begin to put
on the characters of the Lepturida ; and here, therefore,
do we consider the two are united. On the 5th type
we feel incompetent to speak with any degree of con-
fidence. The SaperdcB Fab. are too closely allied to the
LamiintB to be separated as a distinct sub-family. We
have seen in museums certain South American Ceramby-
cidcB having flabelliform or laminated antennae (Phcenico-
cerus) ; but without the power of examining them at this
moment, we dare not venture to say how far they are re-
lated to Lissonotus, or whether they form a distinct group
which would come in as the most aberrant division of
this family. Judging theoretically, we should consider
this latter supposition more than probable; since such a
form is obviously analogous to Mefofantha, Elater, and
several other types, filling the most aberrant stations in
their own circles. Their shape, also, assimilates very
much to certain pubescent Prionidce from South Africa ;
and thus they may connect the Lissonotince with the
Prionida?. These, however, are mere conjectures, useful
perhaps in directing the attention of others to the sub-
ject, but by no means sufficient to influence their decision
on so intricate a point, yet, for the present,, we shall
consider Dorcadion, Parmena, and their affinities,, as
occupying this situation.
(257.) Hasty arid imperfect as the foregoing sketch
of this family may be, it is quite sufficient to show
there is a mutual relation between those divisions we
have characterised, and those belonging to other assem-
blages. This will be apparent on looking to the
290 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
Analogies of the CERAMBYCID^E and the CAPRICORN
FAMILIES.
Sub-families of the . r . Families of the
CERAMBYCID*. Analogies. Capricornes.
Laniin*. {^&>^^'} CERAMBYC^
Ceramtycin*. j*^^^^^] I-
("Thorax very large and much de-7 T>
Ussonohn*. veloped; head small, j BoOTWCHIDJ*
Dorcadionm*. pn^ remarkably short; often j CURCULIONID ^
Acrocinints. Size large ; tarsi sub-cursorial. PRIONID^E.
Without dwelling upon all these resemblances., it may
be sufficient to remark that Lissonotus offers a striking
analogy to Bostrichus, in the enlargement of its thorax,
the comparatively diminutive size of its head, and its
short feet, circumstances which appear to favour our
idea, not only that the two groups are analogous (for that
is sufficiently obvious), but that they naturally stand in
the situation of affinity we have assigned them. A few
details on each of these sub-families, and of the general
principle which appears to enter into each, will conclude
our remarks on this division of the capricorns.
(258.) The Acrocinince, although mostly large, are few
in number, and are chiefly, if not exclusively, confined to
Tropical America. The Acrocinus longimanus, Lacor-
daire informs us, is usually found upon the trunks of trees
or near them, and that it rarely occurs beneath their bark ;
it has an awkward gait, and drags itself along rather
than walks. It sometimes takes flight about nightfall, and
this it accomplishes heavily, but with a considerable
noise. It seems scarcely capable of directing its pro-
gress, as it frequently strikes against trees, and then falls
to the ground. It possesses the power, like many other
Coleoptera, especially Capricornes, of producing aloud and
sharp noise by the friction of its thorax ; and this can be
THE DORCADIONINJi:. 29 1
heard at a considerable distance. It is asserted that the
umbones, or movable spines upon the thorax of these in-
sects, have no use ; this is merely a confession of igno-
rance, for is it at all probable that such an apparatus
should be formed for no purpose ? We strongly incline
to the opinion of Messrs. Kirby and Spence *, who
fc hazard the conjecture, that these organs were given to
this animal by an all-provident Creator, to enable it to
push itself forward, when, in the heart of some tree, it
emerges from the pupa, that it may escape from its
confinement/' The great length of its legs, and from
their being folded beneath it, and the confined position
it is in, render a provision of this kind essentially requi-
site. Macropus, Qreodera, Microplia y &c., enter into
this sub-family.
(259.) The Dorcadionina are apterous insects, which
sometimes have the elytra soldered together. They
chiefly occur upon the ground in sandy districts, and
are abundant in the South of Europe, especially on the
coasts of the Mediterranean ; others occur at the Cape,
and a very few come from the Brazils. These insects
have usually an elliptical body and short antennae, and
are slow and heavy in their motion : they are usually
also of small size. Parmena, Dorcadion, and Morimus
constitute the most typical forms, and Phrissoma and
Cercegidion appear more aberrant : the latter are peculiar
to the southern hemisphere. The Lissonotince comprise
Megaderus, Trachyderes, and other allied genera. They
are generally gaily marked insects, and are chiefly natives
of South America : their elytra are usually smooth and
shining ; and frequently their thorax is very considerably
tuber culated, and the body somewhat depressed and at-
tenuated posteriorly. A common characteristic of the
Capricornes, the elongation of the male antennae, is
found considerably developed amongst them. The ge-
nuine Cerambycince constitute but a small group, and
the typical genus is confined to the old world, where,
however, it has a wide distribution, occurring as far
* Int. to Ent, iv. 587.
u 2
292 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
eastward as the Philippine islands. The Lamiina; form
a very large group, and range all over the world. They
possess great variety of form,, and amongst them are
found some of the most eccentric of the entire circle.
They are rarely metallic, and their prevalent colours
are greys and drabs ; their anterior tarsi are frequently
considerably dilated, and their antennae have occasionally
a horny hook at the extremity. Some of the most re-
markable genera are Gnoma, with its greatly elongated
neck, and the terminal joints of its antenna?, forming seg-
ments of a circle ; these are natives of the larger islands
of the South Pacific Ocean : then Tapeina, in which the
head is considerably flattened in front, and produced
into a lateral plate, behind which the antennae are in-
serted ; TracJiysoma, with its humped camel-like back ;
and Xylorhiza, which has all the appearance of a piece
of dead stick. [(258, 259.) W. E. Sh.]
(260.) The third, or sub-typical, family of the Capri-
corn beetles ara the Irtpturidtf, known at once by their
slender form, their small and slightly exserted head,
which is triangular in front, and by their cursorial legs ;
the hinder pair of which are more or less lengthened.
The most universal character, probably, among these
insects, is the prolongation of the first tarsal joint, which
is equal in length to all the others, particularly in the
hind legs ; the second joint, also, is not heart-shaped or
dilated, but more properly resembles the sides of a
wedge : the head is narrower than the thorax ; and the
eyes are generally oval, instead of kidney-shaped. The
profile of the head, no longer vertical, is directed
obliquely forward. Under this family we include most
of Latreille's restricted genus Cerambyx, together with
all the other floral capricorns, as Leptura, Clytus, Necy-
dalis, &c.
(26l.) The great majority of these elegant insects,
remarkable for their vivid colours and slender form,
may be naturally arranged under the following sub-
families: 1. The Stenocorince ; where the body is
cylindrical, convex, and of equal breadth throughout;
ANALOGIES OF THE LEPTTJR1DJE. 293
the thorax ventricose, and the elytra abruptly termi~
nated by two acute spines, similar to those of Acrocina.
2. The Callichromince, where the body and elytra
are narrowed from the base. 3. The Lepturince,
greatly resembling the last, but head narrow and por-
rect at the base: the thorax, also, is narrow in front, and
is only spined in one or two types. 4. The Necydalince.
And, 5. The Dasycerince, where the general form is
not unlike that of Stenocorus ; but the elytra are not
spined ; the thorax and head are of equal breadth with
the body, and the former, in the typical genera, is con-
siderably lengthened ; the thighs or shanks are nearly all
clavate, or suddenly thickened at their outer extremity :
and the aspect of very many immediately reminds us of
the Saperda among the Lamiidce. Looking to them as
forming a circle, we shall at once arrange them in the
following series, for the purpose of determining their
analogies in other groups.
Analogies of the LEPTURIDJE and the
Sub-families of A ma i nn ; a * Subfamilies of
Lepturida. Analogies. Lamiid*.
CALLICHROMIN^. Sub-typical. CERAMBYCIN.E.
T f Pre-eminently typical ; destitute 7 T .
LEPTURIN*. J of metallic bolours. j LAMIINJS.
NBCYDAHH*. pho^ax considerably enlarged,and | LISSONOTIN ^.
DASYCERIN*. ph^axcyHndrical, unarmed, and j DoRCAmoNIN ^
SxENOCORiNwE. Elytras terminating inacute spines. ACROCINJE.
(262.) The only confidence we feel in this table, re-
sults from the analogies which appear to exist between
the respective groups ; and in a conviction that the two
series are naturally distinct. But our analysis has not
proceeded sufficiently far to determine the rank either
of the Dasycerincp or the Dorcadionlnce : we believe they
are representatives of each other ; and as such we have
.placed them, provisionally, as sub-families. This ana-
u 3
294 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
logy may yet hold good ; even if the groups themselves
turn out, upon further examination, to be of different
or subordinate ranks.
(263.) The Stenochorince present us with some,
very interesting genera. In addition to the spines of
the elytra, the apex of the joints of the antennae are
frequently prolonged into acute spines, as are also in
some the extremity of the femora. Uracanthus is dis-
tinguished for its narrow very linear form, and Scole-
cobrotus for the series of small spines occupying the
whole length of each joint of the antennae externally;
and Eburia and Elaphidion are gay insects with ivory-
coloured spots ; but Chlorida is distinguished for its
pale green elytra.
(264.) The CallichromincB are very elegant insects,
usually of brilliant greens and blues, and are frequently
of very conspicuous size, especially in the genus
Callichroma itself, in which the posterior tibiae are
always compressed into a dilated plate. The type
of the sub-family is a British insect, namely, the
Aromia moschata, which, like its congeners, as also the
species of Callichroma, exhale a rich fragrance much
resembling the odour of the otto of roses. This is pro-
duced by a white milky secretion more liquid than what
we have observed in speaking of the exuding secretion
of Meloe. Possibly here, the fluid is a sexual lure
instead of a means of defence., as it is always found to
be strongest prior to their intercourse. lonthodes and
Rosalia are also elegant insects, and the latter is ex-
tremely abundant in various parts of Switzerland : the
majority of these occur in humid situations, and chiefly
inhabit soft wood like the willow.
(26,5.) The LEPTURINJE are distinguished from all
the rest of the Longicornes by their very distinct neck,
which in some, as in Nemotrogus, a large linear
Cape insect, is extremely long, as are also the an-
tennae, the latter being very slender. The thorax
attenuated in front, amply characterises this sub-
family, and, together with their porrect mouth, gives
THE NECYDALIN^E. 5295
them a peculiarly inquisitive appearance. They are
usually very agile, and frequently gaily coloured : this
is conspicuous in Leptura, Toxotus, and Strangalia;
whereas in Rhamnusium, Rhagium, and Cometes, the
legs are short and their gait is heavy. They are fre-
quently found upon flowers and the trunks of trees,
and many species are natives of this country. The
other sub-families are noticed below. (263 265.)
W.E. Sh.]
(266. ) On the sub-family Necydalina we sh all venture
more at large. After our first theoretical arrangement of
the Capricornes , we selected this group for minute ana-
lysis, with the object of ascertaining how far the result
would demonstrate the accuracy of our general distri-
bution of the whole tribe. As we have already ex-
plained the distinguishing characters of this group, it
will be only necessary to impress upon the reader its
true typical perfection. The Necydalince represent
the Malacodermes, or soft- winged beetles, in the family
of floral Capricornes, precisely the same as do the Sta-
phylinidcB in the tribe of Predator es, with which, in
fact, it is naturally analogous. Now, the great peculi-
arity of the Malacodermes and the Staphylinidce is this,
that the elytra are soft, and much less developed than
in any other type : hence it follows that, as the Necy-
dalin^e represent these two groups, those forms which
have the most imperfect elytra become the most typical.
They are, in short, pre-eminently imperfect in that
particular structure, which distinguishes the Coleoptera.
The genus Necydalis of Linnaeus accordingly stands at
the head of this sub-family, because, of all those forms
which compose it, these have the shortest and the most
imperfect elytra.
(2670 The general aspect of these insects, particularly
when alive, and running upon flowers, so closely re-
sembles that of the hymenopterous sand-flies [Sphecidce)
that even an entomologist is often deceived at the first
glance. The wing-cases are so short that the true wings
are exposed ; and these, unlike most other beetles, have
u 4
29 NATURAL ARRANGE3IENT OF INSECTS'*
no transverse fold, but lie upon the long, somewhat
pedunculated, body, at their full length. The true
Necydali and the Sphecidce frequent the same situations ;
both are fond of basking in the sun, and feeding upon
the nectar of umbelliferous flowers ; and they may
often be captured from the very same plant. Their
active gait shows that their structure, like that of all
the floral Lamellicornes, is adapted for running. We
consequently find the hinder legs remarkably long,
while the basal tarsal joint is double the length of the
two next. The most remarkable developement of this
singular form of beetle, is seen in the Necydalis major
Linn., the European type of the genus, at once dis-
tinguished by its very short and abruptly truncated
elytra. Other sub-genera occur in Tropical America ;
one having the thorax globose, the hinder legs hairy,
and the elytra more lengthened and pointed: the other
has the thorax cylindrical (Odontocera), more like the
European type, but the tapering elytra are nearly as
long as the body : in both these American types, the
thighs are considerably and suddenly swollen. We pass
on to the next or sub-typical genus, Vespisoma (^Ves-
per us of the French catalogues), where we have the
general form of a Necydalis, but with the body shorter,
and almost entirely covered by two very narrow elytra,
so narrow, indeed, that the whole body does not exceed
the breadth of the thorax. Nature seems to have a pecu-
liar pleasure in representing her forms under appropriate
disguises ; for here ( Clytus} we have beetles clothed in
the very colours of bees and wasps, that is, banded
and spotted with bright yellow upon a dark ground :
the head is short, broad, and abrupt ; and is so much
encased in the large globose thorax, as to appear con-
founded with it. These, like the Necydali, are fre-
quently found upon umbelliferous flowers ; and, under
several sub-generic forms, are common both to temperate
and tropical countries. The three aberrant genera ap-
pear to be represented by Distichocera Kirby , Euryptera,
and Cleonia. In regard to the Australian
ANALOGIES OF THE NECYDALIN^. 297
however, we cannot speak from personal observation.
Mr. Kirby, whose idea we have adopted, expressly
mentions its affinity with Necydalis, and its analogy to
Rhagium ; and it will be found that both these opinions
are verified by the attempt we shall now make to illus-
trate their analogies.
Analogies of the NECYDALINLE with the CAPRICORN
FAMILIES,
Genera of the A*j n Families of the
Necydalin*. Analogies. Capricornes.
NECYDALIS. Head prominent, porrect. LEPTURID.E.
Prx ._ CHead obtuse, the base incased? T AMTIfll ,
1 within the thorax,front vertical.] J^ 1 ""^
DISTICHOCERA. Thorax large, globose. BOSTRICHIDJE.
CLEONIA. Body lengthened, cylindrical. CURCULIONID^.
EURYPTERA. Mouth and jaws prominent. PRIONID^E.
(268.) It is a remarkable circumstance, that one of
the most universal distinctions between the floral and
the lignivorous Capricorn beetles, namely, the different
insertion of the head, is likewise conspicuous in the
smaller group. Necydalis and the Lepturidce feed upon
flowers : they are, in their respective stations, pre-
eminently typical; and both have the head distinctly
projecting beyond the thorax. On the other hand, we
see, that as Clytus represents the Lamiidce, it accords
with these latter insects in several respects : it is more
fond of wood than of flowers ; its structure is more ro-
bust ; and the head, like that of a Lamia, is so much
sunk in the thorax, that there is no indenture between
the two parts. Compare the remaining three genera,
again, with the aberrant families of the tribe, and the
series of analogies follow in the same order. Disti-
chocera is remarkable for its large globose thorax; so
also is Boatrichus. The most lengthened and slender
beetles in existence are found among the Curculionidce ;
while Cleonia, in just the same manner, is the most
lengthened and cylindrical of all the aberrant Necyda-
lince. But still we want another genus to complete the
298 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
circle ; and this, from all we know of the natural series
in other groups, should have exserted jaws, in order to
represent the Lucanidcp, the Prionidce, the Staphylinidce,
and their corresponding types : no genus of modern
systems appears to possess these characters more than
Euryptera, a very curious insect we found in Brazil ;
its jaws are not, indeed, very decidedly exserted, but the
mouth is considerably produced : we are further dis-
posed to assign it this station, because it clearly repre-
sents Hispa and Lema, which seem to occupy the same
station among their congeners as Euryptera here falls into
in the sub-family of Necydalince. On looking among
the other Lepturidce, for representations of Euryptera,
we are immediately struck with its outward similarity
to Stenoderus, in the shape of its elytra ; while the
beautiful parallel between Distichocera arid Lissonotus
is one of those resemblances all can perceive. So far as
our analysis has yet extended, the sub-genera of Clytus
and Necydalis are in unison with this series of the ge-
nera of Necydalince.
(269.) We have frequently called the attention of
zoologists to a singular fact, which the structure of
Distichocera fully confirms. In the rasorial type (or
that which corresponds to it among insects), the antennae
are either greatly developed, or are of an unusually
complicated structure. The tribe of the Capricornes,
which represents the rasorial tribe of birds, are accord-
ingly remarkable for the excessive length of these mem-
bers. In like manner, as Distichocera represents these
tribes in the little circle of the Necydalince, so do we
find it is distinguished from all the remaining genera
by the very same circumstance, namely, the peculiar
developement of its antennae. The great prevalence
of this structure is again seen in the tribe of Bombyci-
dee, or the silk-worm moths, where the antennae are very
highly developed; while, in the very smallest group
in nature, we have a sub-genus of Necydalis where the
antennae appear as if borrowed from a Bombyx. It by
ao means follows, however, that all rasorial types possess
THE CAPRICORN ES FORM THE RASORIAL TYPE. 2$9
pectinated, or very long antennae ; because,, if so, the bulky
Dynastidce should have longer antennae than any of the
other Lamellicornes, which they have not : but here we
find the same analogy manifested under another character.
Rasorial types are pre-eminently horned, or furnished
with crests or tubercles, representing the real horns of
ruminating quadrupeds. It is therefore under this form
that nature shows us which is the rasorial type among
the Cetoniadce; and nearly every entomologist who has
mentioned these singular and unwieldy beetles, has com-
pared them to horned cattle. All the leading types of
nature are to be known by some three or four peculiar
characters ; but as we recede from the highest point of
perfection, some one or more of these will gradually dis-
appear : it therefore inevitably follows, that there are
comparatively few instances which show a combination
of all the typical characters ; because, in every group, the
typical examples are much fewer than the aberrant.
Hence a rasorial type may be indicated by the possession
of horns, without any unusual developement of the an-
tennae, as is the case with the Dynastince and the Mega-,
sorri'lnce. If both these characters are wanting, nature
confers upon the type some other of the rasorial cha-
racters, namely, an unusually long neck, as in the Ca-
melopardalis, the swan and ostrich among birds, and Agra
and Casnonia among the predaceous beetles. If none of
these indications of the rasorial type are seen, nature is
still consistent ; for she ornaments her type with ocel-
lated or rounded spots, in imitation of the peacock that
bird which stands at the head of the Rasores, and in
which she has consequently concentrated all the rasorial
characters in the highest perfection. These remarks,
although introduced to illustrate the genus Distichocera,
must be considered as applying to all natural groups
throughout the animal kingdom.
(270.) We shall conclude with a few remarks on the
genus Euryptera. Most entomologists, upon a hasty
glance, may be tempted to look upon this as a very ano-
.malous form, whose admission among the Necydalin
300 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
appears extremely doubtful. A more attentive examin-
ation, however, will weaken, if not entirely remove, the
doubts. In the first place, the very peculiar structure
of the antennae is a strong indication of this affinity ;
secondly, it is the only form yet discovered in this sub-
family, wherein the mouth and jaws are lengthened and
prominent. Theoretically, we have abundant evidence
that such a form is to be found in every natural genus;
because, without it, we should have no representation of
the PrionidcB and their corresponding types. Now, the
mouth of Euryptera assumes all the lengthened pointed
appearance of that of a bee; while the proximity of the
antennae, and the wide termination of the elytra, remind us
immediately of Hispa and of Lycus, two groups which,
in their own circles, occupy exactly the same station as
that we have assigned to Euryptera among the Necyda-
lince: these reasons appear to us much more weighty than
others, by which it may be urged that Eurypterus, from
its lengthened muzzle, is more likely to be the type of
the Curculionidfs. If we had to look only to this con-
sideration, the analogy is certainly strong ; but how then
are we to account for the depressed form of the body,
and the dilatation of the elytra? The Curculionidce,
and all their representations, the Trogidcs and the Melo-
lonthidte, are eminently thick and convex ; the resem-
blance, therefore, does not seem sufficiently strong. If
an analogy is true, the whole structure of an insect can
be illustrated ; for, by comparing it to numerous others,
all holding the same station in their respective circles,
we get an insight, by every fresh comparison, explana-
tory of some one or other of its peculiarities. What
other sub-genera helong to Euryptera, we know not ;
but a very remarkable type, which we here delineate,
appears to connect it with the LepturincB.
(271.) In thus attempting, in some measure, to in-
dicate those principles upon which the two typical
families of the Capricornes, as we conceive, are natu-
rally distributed, we feel how much remains to be ac-
complished. Our views, as it will be readily perceived,
THE DASYCERA. 301
are completely at variance with those who have gone
before us ; and yet they have every appearance of coin-
ciding with every thing that we have hitherto written
upon the natural system. Thus encouraged, we have
had less scruple in giving them to the public ; and we
hope it may be instrumental in breaking up the present
disjointed and empirical mode of studying animals,, and
more particularly insects : our great object will then be
accomplished.
(272.) A few remarks upon the group we have
provisionally called Dasycera will close our present
sketch of these capricorns. They (Cosmi&oma, Core-
mia, Disaulax, &c.) are commonly termed, by collectors,
bottle brushes, from the circumstance of a considerable
number having fascicles, or tufts of hairs, situated about
halfway on their antennae, and sometimes, though rarely,
on their hinder feet. These appendages, however, are
sometimes found in certain insects, which in all other
respects belong to the Lamiida ; while in many of those
which seem naturally situated among the Lepturidt,
there are great differences in all other parts of their
structure. Nothing but analysis, therefore, will de-
termine whether these resemblances . are relations of
analogy or of affinity. In the mean time, however, we
cannot resist the belief that, between the Stenocorince on
one side, and the Necydalince on the other, a large portion
of these insects will intervene, and constitute the most
aberrant sub-family of the floral capricorns. Those
which appear to us the most typical, have the thorax
cylindrical, nearly half as long as the body, and always
smooth ; the head small, truncate, and sunk ; and all
these three parts are nearly of equal breadth throughout.
In this respect, they considerably resemble the Saperda,
but in all other points are totally different. The legs
are slender, thighs very clavate, and the first tarsal joint
lengthened : the elytra are truncated and unarmed; but,
in such as show an affinity to the Stenocorince, they are
spined ; while in others, which remind us of the Necy-
dalinee, the thorax is short, broadest in the middle, and
302 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
the short antennae much resemble those of Necydalis.
It is upon these considerations we ground our helief that
the Lepturida form a natural circle of affinity; and that
the Dasycerce correspond, in their own group, to the
Saperdce, whatever their respective ranks may be. There
is an objection, however, against this location of theDasy-
cerce, on the score of analogy, which, as few will antici-
pate, we shall ourselves mention. If the thorax of
insects be urged by some as representing the neck of
quadrupeds (a position we cannot admit), then it may
be said there is no analogy between the Dasycerce and the
swan, the giraffe, and other long-necked Vertebrata, be-
cause these are rasorial types, and not the most aberrant.
But even admitting this, the long thorax of these insects
find their representatives in Brentus, among the Curcu-
lionida, and even in a whole order of birds ; for the
Grallatores, or waders, have the longest necks, as an
order, of all others. However this may be, apparent
affinities must not be disturbed for the sake of such ab-
struse questions as these, which may be safely put aside
until natural affinities are better understood at least,
among the Annulosa.
(273.) Our fourth family, the Bostrichidce, although
of comparatively limited extent, is of a very marked
character ; and also, although possessing considerable
habitual resemblance, especially between the typical and
least aberrant forms, yet in particulars differ much from
each other. The most typical structure is for the head
to be retractile within the thorax, which is large, sub-
globose, and forms a ventricose hood : the body itself is
cylindrical. In the most normal forms, the antennae
are geniculated and clavate at their extremity, the knob
being sometimes solid. In some genera, as in Hylurgus,
Hylastes, Scolytus, the head is prolonged, anteriorly,
into a truncated snout ; but in Tomicus, Platypus, &c.
it is obtuse; in the latter genus, the tarsi are very long
and slender, exceeding the tibiae in length. In the
closely allied genus Tesserocerus, the basal joint of the
antennae is continued, in the male, considerably beyond
THE BOSTRICHID^E. 303
the geniculation of the organ, and this process is dilated
at its apex into a fornicate appendage with a long fringe,,
and, in repose, the two combined meet over the forehead
and cover it like a cap. In Tomicus, the elytra are fre-
quently retuse at their apex. The little Scolytus is no-
torious for the devastation it has caused among the elms
in the vicinity of the metropolis, but it is a point not yet
quite satisfactorily decided, if it is the insect which is
the original depredator, or whether, from some other
cause, the tree having fallen into a sickly condition,
these insects then visit it, and greatly accelerate its total
destruction. The majority of this family are sub-cor-
tical dwellers, comparatively few of them piercing into
the solid wood. Almost every species has a different
mode of forming its gangways, arid in some cases the
channels they elaborate are extremely elegant. Between
these, which have the closest affinity to our next family,
and Bostrichus, Apate, &c., the chief and most marked
differences consist in the clava of the antennae being
formed of three distinct and separate joints : there is a
great difference also in their larvse; those of the latter,
where, indeed, the structure of the 1 antennae has a la-
mellated indication, being considerably like those of the
LamellicorneSj and have long legs, whereas the former
are apods, or have but warty tubercles. Those of Apate,
&c.also more frequently bore into the solid wood of trees.
In AnoUum, and its immediate allies, we observe the an-
tennae becoming filiform, the only intimation of its preced-
ing structure consisting in the elongation of the three ter-
minal joints, which sometimes, &$ii\.Dryophilus > exceed the
length of the remainder of the organ. We thus detect an
indication of the proximity of Ptinus, in which, however,
there is a departure from the xylophagous habits of the
group, pointing evidently towards Dermestes, whence
we doubtlessly come into close contact with the circle
of the Silphidce. By means of Nemosoma, and from
it through Trogosita (for it is here we expect the
latter must come, proved by that affinity), we find col-
lateral affinities impinging clearly upon the Cucujida in
304< NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
the circle of the Prionidce. We have not space here to
analyse these relations, and can only hint at them to
guide the student's further research. As aberrant con-
stituents of this circle, we shall, of course,, find many
of the small xylophagous genera,, as Lyctus, Bitoma,
&c. &c.
(274.) Our fifth family consists of the Curculionidce.
It cannot be expected that we can give more than a very
general idea of this enormous concourse of insects, which,
in Schonherr's monograph, already occupies five octavo
volumes of nearly a thousand pages each, and will possibly
require as many more to complete it. The described
species considerably exceed 5000 in number. The most
striking peculiarity in their economy is their being
very extensively carpophagous, or feeders upon seeds and
fruits: we have already noticed some of their most
prominent features, and thence we may assume that
those which have the longest rostra, and most strongly
geniculated antennae, must, of course, be the most typi-
cal in their own circle ; we therefore find them in the
genus Balaninusj our common nut weevil, and its affini-
ties. Megarhinus and Antliarhinus also offer us striking
instances of this characteristic; in the latter, this rostrum
is several times longer than the body, and as slender as a
stout bristle. Schonherr, in his very arti ficial arrangement
of these insects, has widely separated these genera ; he
has, however, suggested a new arrangement at the com-
mencement of his fifth volume, in which he has turned
the whole mass, of what he calls the spurious Curcu-
lios, round, to follow the Orthoceri, or those which
have not the antennae geniculated, but which are usually
long-snouted insects. By this means we have them im-
mediately succeeding the Cossoni and Rhyncophora,
insects, also, which have long rostra. The filiform
Brenthides, as also the Rhinomacerides, Anthribides,
and Bruchides, as abnormal forms, are excluded from
the genuine series. The most typical Gonatoceri,
or those with geniculated antennee, are evidently con-
tained in the first division of his Mecorliynchi, namely,
THE CURCULTONII)^. 305
the Erirhinides, two forms of which we have already
noticed. The position of the legs, the structure and
number of the joints of the flagellum of the antennae,
the form of the pectus, of the rostrum, and of the lateral
channel in the latter, into which the insect can with-
draw its antennae, supply the leading characters in the
generic distribution of this host of insects. Thus, in
some, as in the Cryptorhynchi, the insect has the
power of burying its long rostrum in a groove in the
breast. Zygops, in this same group, is remarkable for
the size and contiguity of its eyes, as also for the com-
pression of its legs, and Mononychus for the single
claw at the apex of its tarsi. In Mecopus the anterior
legs of the male are exceedingly lengthy. We also
find lengthy anterior legs among the Rhynchophora,
which have not the power of concealing their long ros-
trum in the breast. In the latter, the tarsi are con-
siderably developed, and they contain the largest genuine
weevils, all being truly carpophagous. Protocerius
colossum is more than two inches long, and of a pro-
portionate bulk ; in length, however, as compared with
bulk, the Brenthides are the most conspicuous, for
Brenthus barbicornis, a New Zealand insect, is usually
two inches and three quarters long, and at its widest
part it is not more than two lines wide : but the most
bulky of this group are to be found in the short-snouted
division, in the genus Brachycerus, wherein we have a
species more than an inch and three quarters long, and
an inch broad, and all its limbs of a proportionate ro-
bustness. These latter insects, which are apterous, occur
in sandy deserts, and we have already had occasion to
compare them with some of the Pimelias, with which, in
habits, they completely agree : they occur in abundance
in Southern Africa, Patagonia, and the French coast of
the Mediterranean. Apterous insects are very frequent
in this group, which also, although it presents very many
obscure and black insects, is chiefly remarkable for the
brilliant splendour of the majority of its members. A
well-known instance of this splendid clothing, and one
306 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
not easily surpassed,, is to be found in the common dia-
mond beetle, Entimus imperialis, and its neighbour E.
splendidus, insects usually so abundant in the Brazils,
that the trees which they inhabit a species of Acacia
are more densely covered with them than with their
leaves, and which would thus happily prefigurate the
gardens of the Hesperides with their golden fruit, here
refulgent with the most delicate and varied tints of gems
and metals. Cyphus also is very rich in its vestments,
yet few surpass the elegant little Coniates Tamarisci,
which, upon a golden green ground, has a couple of
oblique bands of a bright coppery hue. The colour of
these insects, for which we have significantly used the
term clothing above, is produced by the imbrication of
a multitude of minute scales of a variety of forms, and
which under the microscope, for which they prove ad-
mirable test objects, exhibit differences of sculpture;
and this, from its various reflection of the rays of light,
produces all their diversities of tint. Although the colour
of the majority of these insects is usually produced by
the scales, yet some of intensely brilliant hues are to-
tally without them, as in the genus Eurhinus, where
we have greens, blues, and purples the colouring of
the integument itself unsurpassed in the whole cir-
cle of the Coleoptera : these are smooth insects ; but
in Rhyncliites, a softened tone is given to their tints
by a multiplicity of minute punctures, whence a
lengthy pubescence envelopes the creature. One
of the most splendid of the latter is the Rhynchites
Bacchus, an insect which has derived its specific name
from its attachment to the vine, which unfortunately,
however, it "loves to destroy/' for in the vineyards of
the Continent it is frequently very detrimental. We
are prepared to expect many eccentricities of structure
in so large a group of insects, and of which we witness
on all sides remarkable exemplifications : the thickened
snout of Hipporhinus; the two curved spines of the
propectus of Diorymerus, as also its humped thorax ;
the remarkable obesity of Guioperus ; the conspicuous
THE CURCULIONID.E. 307
central strangulation of Hyphantus ; the tabular flat-
ness of Homalonotus ; the spinose and tuberculated
backs of many Hipporhini and Amycteri, and the very
obtuse snouts of the latter ; as also the gibbous forms
of Byrsops ; the thickened antennae of Ulocerus and
Episus ; the remarkably slender antennae of a small
new genus from Van Diemen's Land, in which these
organs are longer than the body ; and Eurhamphus,
one of the largest of this group, which has its body
covered with scattered tufts of erect brown and white
hair, all offer striking instances. Being chiefly phy-
tophagous insects, for Brachycerus, and some few
others, form remarkable exceptions they are, of course,
the natives of all countries; and the more luxuriant
vegetation becomes, the greater is their population,
which is strongly confirmed by their abundance in
the Brazils. It is chiefly from the aberrant portions
of this large group, that we trace their more direct
affinities; thus, by means of Rhinomacer, we have
a passage marked towards Mycterus and Salpingus,
in the heteromerous division of our Malacodermata,
and through Rhinotia to JLycus, in its pentamerous
division. In Bruchus^ they direct, by their flabellated
antennae, to the Lamellicornes, and by their enlarged
posterior thighs to Sagra, in the monilicorn circle;
but it is by Mecocerus and Ptychoderes, among the
Anthribides, that we have the most evident affinity
indicated with the normal Capricornes. Here, also, in
the broad short snout of Euparius, Platyrhinus, and
Lagopezus, we have an affinity shown with the Scoly tides,
in the circle of the Bostrichidce, which is further con-
firmed in a different part, namely, to Anobium, &c., by
the serrated clava of Ar&cerus. If we may venture an
analogy with the Predator es, we have it hinted at in the
lengthened neck of Apoderus, which much resembles
Casnonia; whence Linnaeus mistook one of the latter
for an Attelabus, with which he considered Apoderus as
congenerical. [(2?3, 2?4.) W. E. Sh.]
SOS NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
CHAP. IX.
COLEOPTERA, continued.
THE MONILICORNES.
(275.) THE MONILICORNES appear a most natural
tribe of the Coleoptera, when we look only to the chief
types ; but until those, which we shall here term the
aberrant forms, are better studied, their precise situ-
ation in the series is rather surmised than asserted.
This division is eminently distinguished from the Ca-
pricorneSy both by the habits and form of the larvae, no
less than of the perfect insects. In one sense they are
the most typical of all Coleoptera, while in another they
are the most aberrant; a paradox which may be thus
explained : The whole tenour of our remarks upon this
order, when looked at as a whole, goes far to prove
that the developement of the superior wings, under the
form of hard cases, and great powers of walking, are
two of the principal characters of the order. Now,
the first of these are more conspicuous among the mo-
nilicorn beetles, than in any other tribe; the elytra
not merely cover the body in the ordinary manner, but
actually, in the typical families, are so much dilated
as to project beyond the body, so as to protect the
legs; while the thorax, in a similar manner, forms
a shield which encircles the head, and completely
hides it when viewed from above. These, in fact, are
the universal characters of the numerous family of
the Cassidce, standing at the head of the tribe ;
and which, from thus being concealed, as it were, by
a buckler over their bodies and joints, are called tor-
toise beetles. Their inferiority, again, to all other
THE MONILICORNES. 309
Coleoptera, is shown in a different way. They have the
shortest tarsi of all others, and composed of the fewest
joints * ; they are consequently the slowest walkers.
We thus verify our second proposition, of their being
the most aberrant of all Coleoptera, when viewed in op-
position to the Cicindelida, the most pre-eminently
typical of the order in the powers of locomotion.
(276'.) Looking, therefore, to the Cassida, and their
near neighbours, the Coccinellida, or ladybirds, and the
Chrysomelidte, we see a numerous assemblage of small,
thick, globose beetles, with the body very convex on
the upper part ; the thorax nearly as broad as the elytra :
the head is always small, either sunk in front of the
thorax, or concealed beneath it : the antennae are moni-
liform, or resembling a string of beads : the legs are short
and thick, with the tarsi dilated and heart-shaped; the
first joint of the tarsus, in the typical group, being scarcely
longer than the second. Primary characters, however,
taken from these organs, in the present group, are ab-
solutely of no value whatever, for they vary in the most
remarkable manner in almost every family ; nay, some-
times, in the most natural genera. Among these insects,
the Cassida are most remarkable for the singularity of
their forms, and the Chrysomelida for the brilliancy of
their metallic colours. MacLeay, looking also to other
characters, perceived it was one of the most natural
groups in the whole order. He defines it as having ' ' a
hexapod and distinctly antenniferous larva, with a sub-
ovate, rather conical body, of which the second segment
is longer, and of a different form from the others, so as
to give the appearance of a thorax." This definition
is more especially taken from the larva? of Cassida and
Coccinella, the two typical families of the tribe. Among
,
exploded system taken up again, and called " Modern Classification," be-
cause " it is in general use, and of easy application : " so is the binary
310 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
the aberrant groups, however, there are several modifi-
cations, more or less influenced by their affinity to in-
sects beyond their own circle,, and by the analogies they
bear to others. The great majority of the Monilicornes
live upon the leaves of plants ; but there is an extraor-
dinary exception in regard to the Coccinellin&, or lady-
birds, whose larvae are carnivorous, feeding most vora-
ciously, as is well known, upon the Aphides, or plant lice.
This is another marked instance, within this order,
of herbivorous and raptorial insects being actually as-
sociated in the same group ; and yet, that they follow
each other in a natural series, there can be no doubt.
This carnivorous propensity seems to be shared also
by the Hispidae, but is quite unknown among the larvae
of the other families. Did our space permit, it would
not be difficult to show that the ladybirds correspond
in their own circle to the predatorial tribe, just as the
Cassidce represent the Lamellicornes.
(277.) The three aberrant families which we consider
as more or less connected with the two preceding, are the
Clythridce, \heErotylidce, and the Hispidce, each differ-
ing, in a striking manner, from the other, both in their
larva and perfect state, yet all possessing certain cha-
racters by which they approximate to the typical structure.
In regard to Cryptocephalus, it is impossible to determine,
without analysis, whether the insects form a part of the
Chrysomelidce, or of a distinct family. The nature of their
larvae, which is stated to be unknown*, might help us to
determine this question. However this may be, we
have no doubt that the genus Clythra is the type of a dis-
tinct family, analogous to theAcrocinince by the elongated
fore-legs of the perfect insect, and to the Hesperidce by
their larvae : the species are few, and are remarkable for
the large size of their heads. The Erotylidce are the
largest insects contained in this tribe, and differ so much
among themselves, that, from not having been properly
analysed, we cannot separate the true from the false
* Griff. Cuv., p. 146.
ANALOGIES OF THE MOXILICORNES. 311
affinities. We consider the types, however, to be per-
fectly distinct from, although strongly resembling in
outward appearance, the Silphidce or Pimelidce (the cor-
responding group in the tribe of Predatores) ; and that
the Stenochice enter herein. Finally comes the genus
Hispa, as the type of a family, alike distinguished in
its larva and its perfect state. By this form, and
Alurnus, we again reach the Cassid&, and complete the
circle of the Monilicornes which are here epitomised.
Analogies of the MONILICOBN Families.
Families of the Anaimri^ Tribes of the
MonUicorns. lalogtes. Coleoptera.
CASSIDJE. Pre-eminently typical LAMELLICORNES.
CHRYSOMELIDJE. Sub-typical. PREDATORES.
CLYTHRID.E. Elytra soft. MALACODERMES.
EROTYLIDJS. Most aberrant ; tarsi variable, MONILICORNES.
HISPIDJE. Larva feeding internally. CAPRICORNES.
Every principle of analogy drawn from various groups
of vertebrate animals, no less than of insects, shows that
Cassida is the pre-eminent type of the whole tribe ; and
we have seen that such is also the station of the lamelli-
corn beetles. Coccinella, in fact, although raptorial in
its larva, is but a sub-family of the Cassidcz; and this
station, confirmed by analysis, shows it to be the raptorial
division. In what manner the Chrysomelida represent
the Predatores, otherwise than in holding the second sta-
tion in its own circle, does not appear; but the soft elytra
of the ClythridcB seem to represent the Malacodermes.
The resemblance, again, of such genera as Erotylus
and Stenochia to Blaps and many of the Silphidce, is
so close, that it is difficult to distinguish one from the
other ; while the larva of Hispa is stated to be so like
that of the capricorns, that we cannot be very far wrong
in assimilating them : nevertheless, until the true station
of Sagra and Donacia have been worked out, we look
upon the station here assigned to Hispa as more than
x 4
312 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
doubtful. However this may eventually be decided,
it is quite clear that Hispa is a representation of Lycus,
with which, but for its obvious affinity, as we think,
to Alurnus, we should have placed it. Hattica appears
a subordinate division,, or sub-family, among the Chryso-
melidce ; but that which is held by the Cleri of La-
treille must also be left for future investigation.* A
rapid survey of the chief groups, which probably enter
into each of these families, will now be given.
(278.) This is doubtlessly the least elegantly diver-
sified, in the forms of its contents, of any of the divisions
of the Coleoptera : a great number of genera yet uncha-
racterised exist in it ; and it also contains many very
abundant in the species. A more than adequate com-
pensation, however, for this uniformity and inelegance
of shape, is made by the remarkable brilliancy of the
insects incorporated in this group, which contains some,
perhaps, more dazzling than any in the whole circle of
beetles. In confirmation of this assertion, we need but
mention the single genus Lamprosoma, some of the
species of which sparkle more vividly than even the
most lustrous gems, and are equally fitted, as they have
also been used, for personal decoration. We will first
treat conjunctively the Cassidida and Hispida, the first
and last members of our circle, and, consequently, where
it is confluent. The structural differences between the
two families are but slight, and consist chiefly in the
form of the thorax and the developement of the head,
which, in the Cassididee, is concealed by the enlargement
of the anterior portion of the thorax ; whereas, in the
Hispidce, it is entirely exposed. The South American
genus Imatidmm appears to connect the two forms, in
which the head is less exposed than in Hispa, and the
thorax less developed than in Cassida. The insects of
the latter group are usually of small size, and the typical
genus itself is of universal distribution : they are much
* Mr. MacLeay conjectures they belong to the same tribe as Meloe and
Mordella,tha,t is, to the Malacodermes ,- a supposition which scenes to sn*
highly probable.
GENERA OF MONILICORNES, 313
more brilliant in their colours when alive than dead,
which then fade ; although they may he renovated for a
short time by immersion in boiling water. Some have
the disk of the elytra elongated perpendicularly into a
tall spine, presenting a convenient hold for removing
them from plants ; others have it elevated pyramidically :
they present a good deal of difference in the outline
of their form ; some being quadrate, but the most regular
and usual figure is a perfect oval. Their larvae possess
the singular habit of covering themselves with their ex-
crement, which is held suspended over the body by
means of a furcated process originating from the apex of
the abdomen ; and this crust they have the power of
raising or depressing to suit their convenience. They
feed upon the leaves of plants, upon the surface of
which they take their transformations. The CoccineL
lidce, which we have above associated with them, have,
as we have there also shown, totally different habits,
being carnivorous. The perfect insects are very convex,
frequently completely hemispherical : their tarsi have but
three distinct joints ; and their antennae are short and
gradually clavated, the articulations of the club being
transverse. They are very numerous, and occur in all
countries ; and are sometimes so prolific in individuals,
that upon our coasts we have, in some years, seen the
cliffs and shores densely covered with them. Such appa-
ritions are welcome to hop growers, who may then expect
redundant harvests, as the Coccinella, or ladybird, feeds vo-
raciously upon his chief enemy, the Aphis. Chilocorusand
Scymnus, in the same sub-family, have the same habits.
In this group we must also associate the Endomychi, the
majority of which feed upon funguses. These insects
are ovate, convex, with the thorax usually much nar-
rower than the abdomen, and either quadrate or trape-
ziform. Our solitary British species of the genus is of
bright pale vermilion, studded with black spots; and
occurs, sometimes, beneath the bark of trees, in consider-
able profusion. The exotic Eumorphus has the sides
of the elytra, in some species, dilated like Cassida, and
314* NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
extending considerably beyond the abdomen : their an-
tennae are dilated into an abrupt, compressed, three-
jointed clava ; and in some the inside of the anterior
tibia of the male has, towards its apex, a long decumbent
spine. Other cognate genera have not the sides of the
elytra enlarged.
(279-) Our next sub-family, the Chrysomelidce, are
convex insects, generally ovate: they differ from our
second section of the preceding, in having four obvious
joints to the tarsi; antennae not clavate; and their
larvae, at least those of the type, are naked, and feed
upon the leaves of plants, leaving nothing but the
fibrous skeleton. The Galerucidce, which contain also
Halticdy but we think very incorrectly, considering the
different structure and habits both of larva and imago,
are a component portion of the present family: the
latter are remarkable for the great enlargement of their
posterior legs, which gives them the power of leaping ;
and they are the only insects, throughout the phyto-
phagous division of the Coleoptera, that possess this
power. Their larvae and themselves are exceedingly
destructive to plants ; and our farmers have frequent
occasion to execrate their existence, on account of their
spoliation of turnip crops, one of these little skipping
insects being the well-known and formidable turnip
fly ; their larvae feed between the membrane of leaves,
upon the parenchyma. Tritoma and Triplax, which
British entomologists have usually associated with the
Engidce, evidently come into this group somewhere ad-
jacent to Chrysomela : they are fungi vorous insects;
and some of the exotic species are very conspicuous for
size. The types of the sub-family Galeruca are formed
like the preceding, but they do not jump, and occur
chiefly in humid situations.
(280.) Our next family, the Clythrida, are all
insects of a heavy obtuse form ; sometimes, as in
Chlamys, of a rough and very unequal surface, more
resembling a cluster of irregular crystals than an insect :
it is exclusively American. Clythra itself is more
THE EROTYLID^E, SI 5
elongate, nearly cylindrical, and very obtuse at both
extremities ; it has short serrated antennae. Cryptoce-
phalus is of a somewhat similar form ; but its antennae
are usually very long, especially in the males, and
slightly clavate at the apex. Its head, also, is retractile
within the thorax, whence its name ; whereas in Clythra
it is deflexed, and has very prominent mandibles. The
latter appears confined to the Old World; whereas
Cryptocephalus, w r hich is a very numerous genus, nearly
200 species being known, has a universal range. The
larvae of the insects of this family have a peculiar ap-
pearance, very unlike the neighbouring families, and
more like those of the Lamellicornes, being consider-
ably swollen at the posterior extremity, and frequently
curved. Like the Cassidce, these insects use their ex-
crement as a protection, forming a case of it, into
which they retire, protruding only their heads and legs.
Many other genera as the beautiful Colaspis, Eumol-
pus, and Lamprosoma belong to this group ; the latter
exclusively American, and of considerable refulgence, as
we have before observed, and whence Mr. Kirby named
it generically.
(281.) The ErotylidcB are our next family, and have,
like the Eumorphi, an enlarged compressed club to the
antennae ; the body very gibbous, the gibbosity almost
angulated; and they have also longer legs than the
cognate families: they are fungivorous insects. It is
exceedingly remarkable, that several truly heteromerous
genera find their complete analogies within this circular
group of insects ; for we cannot consider them close
affinities, although the resemblance is frequently so
great, that any but a skilled entomologist would, from
their appearance, place them with the genera they re-
semble. This shows how important it is to divest
ourselves of the influence of appearance, and to examine
carefully ; for it is particulars only that can confirm
identity. As instances of these deceptive forms, I need
mention but a few; namely, Spheniscus, Nilio, Cossy-
phus, and Helceus. Although the structure of parts
31 6 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
would justify our placing Languria in this sub-family,
yet its general form is so dissimilar, it being very elon-
gate and linear, that we consider systematists ought to
find a more appropriate place for it. We cannot think
that, like Tritoma and Triplax, it is fungivorous.
(282.) The Hispida are our fifth family, and, from
their close affinity to the Cassidce, thus complete, as we
have before observed, the circle. They are depressed
insects, with short legs, and porrect moniliform an-
tennae. The typical genus is usually surrounded by
spines, which give it a formidable appearance, as well
as a name. Although the structure of the perfect in-
sect associates it very closely with our first family, yet
the form and habits of its larva as widely separate
them ; for the larva of the present feeds, like that of
Haltica, between the membranes of leaves, upon their
parenchyma. This larva is robust and of a tapering
form, and undergoes all its transformations within the
leaves ; different species frequenting different plants.
The largest insect of the group is contained in this
family, in the Brazilian genus Alurnus^ which seems to
replace there the Hispa of the Old World ; and yet this
insect is only comparatively large ; and the character
of the whole group is to contain insects of small
dimensions.
(283.) There being no greater difference between
Hispa and Cassida than we find between Haltica and
Galeruca, we may still hesitate whether we might not
introduce Sayra, and its affinities, into the place of the
Hispida, and transpose these into the circle of the
Cassida; but whether this be their confirmed position
or not, we cannot have a better opportunity to notice
the few conspicuous genera that would otherwise want
a locality. Sagra is eminently distinguished for the
enormous size of its posterior femora, and its long curved
posterior tibiae, thus greatly resembling the structure of
Leucospis and Chalcis among the Hymenoptera ; for as,
in them, this structure is unaccompanied with the power
,of leaping, a similar incapacity and structure we observe
HABITS OF DONACIA. 31?
also in Bruchus. The Sagree are beautifully coloured
insects, of a green, blue, or a rich purple vinous tint.
We find this family containing other genera of a similar
form, as Megamerus, a rare New Holland genus ; and
Megalopus, from South America ; and we know other
African forms yet undescribed. A closely allied genus,
Donacia, is, perhaps, one of the most beautiful of the
Coleoptera; they are metallic, and of every variety of
tint : their larvse feed within sub- aquatic plants ; and it
is upon these that the perfect insect is found, for a short
time, about midsummer : these may be termed, also,
sub-aquatic, for they have the power of walking down
water plants considerably beneath the surface it is
presumed, to deposit their eggs; and to enable them to
retain their hold, we find them furnished with very
powerful claws, by which they tenaciously adhere. This
is a structure evidently appropriated to this purpose ; for
we find it again, but with increased developement, in
Macroplea, which has similar habits, and belongs to the
same family ; and in Macronychus, which has the habit
of clinging to floating wood in strong currents, and be-
longs to a group closely allied to Parnus and Dryops.
The genus Lema, or Crioceris, will terminate our notice
of the monilicorn Coleoptera. These insects seem a con-
necting link between Galeruca and the Sagridce; like the
former, they are frequently very destructive : the little
black larva of one species especially, the C. Asparagi, de-
stroying the crops of asparagus, and the C. Merdigera
being equally obnoxious to the white lily ; here, however,
less detrimental to the results of men's industry and ex-
pectations, than in the preceding case. They are elegant
and gaily coloured insects. [(278283.) W. E. Sh.]
318 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
CHAP. X.
COLEOPTERA, continued.
ON THE MALACODERMES.
(284.) THE MALACODERMES, or winged tribe of beetles,
is composed of those genera, where the elytra are either
remarkably soft, or much abbreviated : of these, the ge-
nera following, mostly representing sub-families, seem to
be the chiefly typical: Lampyris, Meloe, Cantharis,
Lytta, Lycus, Dictyoptera, &c. We adopt the expressive
name given to the majority of these insects by Latreille ;
but we by no means include all he has arranged among
his Malacodermes, and we incorporate others, as is ap-
parent even in the foregoing list, which he has placed
in widely different situations. Mr. MacLeay seems to
be the only naturalist who has had any clear conception
of this group, one of the most natural in the whole order,
to a philosophic mind, but altogether incomprehensible
to a mere methodist, who is guided by methods built on
the form of the palpi or the joints of the tarsi. True
it is, that soft-bodied insects, with imperfectly formed
elytra, are scattered in many other tribes, as the Staphy-
UnidcB among the Predator es, several forms belonging to
Prionidce, and many others in the Lepturidce, as Necy-
dalis, &c. ; but as, in other parts of their structure,
they retain all the characters of the groups to which
they severally belong, there is no danger of their being
mistaken or confounded with the true Malacodermes,
they are merely representatives, not congeners. In the
slight sketch we are now employed upon, any attempt
to define a group so varied, by precise characters appli-
cable to the whole, would be altogether premature, even
THE LAMPYRID^E. 319
were it practicable. It is sufficient to state, therefore,
that not merely the elytra, but the whole body and
limbs, of these beetles are soft ; that nearly all are very
much depressed ; that the elytra do not embrace the
body, as in ordinary beetles ; and that the head is never
sunk in the thorax. Whether any subordinate characters
may be furnished by the larvae, it is impossible to say.
It seems, however, that in more than one instance,
among the typical forms, these are furnished with cau-
dal appendages, a circumstance which tends, in this in-
stance also, to corroborate MacLeay's impression of this
being the thysanuriform type of the Coleoptera; in which
case it would be perfectly analogous to Podura by its
larva, to Staphylinus by the perfect insect, and to all
others related by analogy to these groups.
(285.) As we are now proceeding by synthesis, we
shall make no attempt to throw these insects into a
circular series, a process which might rather tend to
retard the investigation they require, than to strengthen
our present theory. Nevertheless, as some mode of ar-
rangement becomes absolutely necessary, we shall inti-
mate what appear to us for reasons subsequently
stated the primary types or families of the whole.
These may be represented by the following five genera :
1. Lampyris ; 2. Meloe ; 3. Lymexilon ; 4. Mor-
della; and, 5. Lycus.
(286.) The Lampyridce, or glowworms, if not the
most typical, are certainly the sub-typical family, of the
whole order. Its most predominating character is to
have the thorax dilated into a shield, the margins of
which project on every side, and very often entirely con-
ceal the head ; the legs are short, with all the joints un-
usually compressed, the tarsi of nearly equal thickness
throughout, and the apparent joints only four. The an-
tennae are variable in the different genera : in some, they
are remarkably pectinated ; in others serrated ; many are
merely compressed; while, in the aberrant divisions, they
are almost filiform. The body is always long, generally
narrow, and remarkably soft. The genus Amydetes,
320 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
where the antennae are remarkably developed, and the
head completely hidden under the dilated margin of the
thorax, is probably the most typical form : it contains,
no doubt, its own sub-genera ; but the variations of the
antennae are so numerous, differing in almost every spe-
cies, that no reliance must be placed upon these mo-
difications, for sub-generic characters.* It is generally
imagined, that the great majority of the typical Lampy-
ridcB, like those of the South of Europe, are luminous :
this supposition, however, is against our personal expe-
rience. We have seen, on a summer's night, in the
suburbs of Genoa, the air perfectly illuminated with
millions of one of these species ; but this we never wit-
nessed in Brazil. We do not remember, indeed, to have
remarked the luminosity of any one of the numerous
Lampyrida found in that country, during any part of our
travels in Tropical America. Several other forms, more
or less related to these insects, enter within the family :
those, for instance, having theexserted head of Latreille's
Pyrochroides, as our Pyrochroa rubens, where the tho-
rax is still nearly orbicular, but reduced to the ordinary
dimensions, serves to indicate the passage between this
family and the Cantharidce; while the approach, on the
other side, to Lycus, is still more evident. Latieille,
indeed, includes the latter insects as a part of the Lam-
pyridoe; and the analogies of both may, possibly, show he
is quite correct in this, particularly as we should then
have but little scruple in raising his Cleri to the rank of
one of the aberrant families : but at present we are
chiefly guided by synthesis ; and when we see so strong
a resemblance between many of the Brazilian species of
Lycus and of Hispa, we cannot but suspect that these
two groups, standing at the confines of their respective
circles, connect the Monilicornes with the Malaco-
dermes y in other words, that this is a relation of affi-
nity, rather than of analogy.
(287.) The next typical family, or the Cantharidce,
* See figures 4, 5, and 6. on plate 39. of Griffith's Cuvier, vol. xiv.
STRUCTURE OF THE MALACODERMES. 321
may be represented either by Lytta Fab., or Meloe.
These insects differ most materially from the former;
the thorax, instead of being large, dilated, and flattened,
is small, very narrow, and convex ; while the head is
broader than the thorax, large, cordiform, and bent
considerably downwards ; it is so much exserted, or de-
tached from the thorax, that the neck is seen externally :
the tarsi are unlike all other insects out of this tribe ;
they are rather compressed than depressed, and are so
nearly of the same thickness, that their slightly cu-
neated shape is not at first perceived; such, at least, is
the case with Meloe, Mylabris, and certain forms more
allied to the typical Cantharidce ; but in others, these
parts are considerably modified : in Lytta, for instance,
they are much more lengthened, often very slender, and
the claws on the joint appear as if double. The great
enlargement of the head, in comparison to the thorax,
appears to us the most prevalent character running
through this family, and is more especially developed
in Horia.
(288.) We have seen that, in Meloe, the elytra are
more abbreviated than in any other group yet noticed; but
in some of the Lymexylonid(Z y \he$e organs are generally re-
duced so much as merely to resemble a small scale, almost
precisely like those of many of the Staphylinidce. Like
them, also, they have the thorax square, and the body
greatly depressed, particularly seen in the individuals
of the genus Atractocerus. Many of these singular
forms so much resemble the Cantliaridce, that Linnaeus
included them in that and the genus Meloe. Upon
these grounds, we consider the Lymexylomda as forming
a distinct family, which, by means of the Pselaphi and
the StaphylinidcB, connect the two extremes of the entire
order of Coleoptera, and unite the five tribes into one
great circle.
(289-) The two remaining groups, which appear to
form aberrant families in this tribe, are represented by
the genera Mordella, and either Lycus or Clerus : the
former appears to us to be almost certain ; but, as we
Y
322 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
have before observed, some difficulty arises in deciding
which of the two latter should stand in this situation.
The short obtuse head of the Mordellidce, of equal
breadth, and almost sunk in the fore part of the thorax,
is without parallel in this tribe, and immediately re-
minds us of the E later idee and other analogous forms,
a resemblance rendered doubly evident by the enlarge-
ment of the thorax. If the Cleri do not form a sub-
ordinate group in the family of the Cantharidce, then it
will take the place, in all probability, of Lycus, and
thus present a direct analogy to its prototype Bostrichus,
in the Capricorn circle. If, on the other hand, Lycus
intervenes between Mordella and Lampyrus, there are
not wanting species of the former, which, in their pec-
tinated and nearly serrated antennae, the rugosity of
their elytra, and the form of their thorax, render such a
passage in some degree probable. It is obvious, how-
ever, that, in the rapid manner we are now proceeding
(imposed upon us from the vastness of the subject), all
such minor difficulties must be left for analysis. If,
in constructing the tribe before us, we have brought
together the elements of a natural group, and thereby
placed, under one head, a multitude of insects now scat-
tered over the whole of the Coleoptera, our chief object
will be gained. The next step will be to analyse these
groups, and appropriate to each its respective genera and
sub-genera. This task must be undertaken by those
who confine their attention to small divisions, without
embracing, as we have done, the whole animal kingdom.
Although we shall not attempt, under these circum-
stances, to construct a regular table of analogies for this
tribe, there are, nevertheless, some resemblances which
are too striking to be passed over. Setting aside the
obvious similarity between Hispa and Lycus, which we
deem, for the present, an affinity, it is not a little
singular how strongly the Cassidce are represented by
the Lampyrida : in both, the elytra project considerably
over the sides of the body, without embracing it ; and
in both, the margins of the thorax are dilated so much
THE HABITS OF THE MALACODERMES. 323
as to hide the head either partially or entirely. Thus
we find the two typical families, at least,, have their
direct analogies in the neighbouring circle of the Moni-
licornes; and this fact, although insufficient to com-
pensate for the absence of the other analogies, tends to
show that, in the typical groups, at least, we cannot
greatly err.
(290.) The habits of the insects are of a mixed cha-
racter : many are exclusively carnivorous, for instance,
those which are parasitical ; others are only carnivorous
in their larva state ; whereas, in others, in this state,
they are herbivorous, and their taste for flesh is acquired
only on assuming their perfect condition. We find in
this group, likewise, structural peculiarities of a very
marked character, for we have here both heteromerous
and pentamerous insects. We have already mentioned
some of the chief distinctions of our first family, the
Lampyrida, for instance, namely, their phosphorescent
luminosity, which we are assured is the beacon of love,
the females being frequently apterous ; and as a seem-
ing corroboration of this, it is the female which is the
most brilliant. They appear to possess a control over
its exhibition, and which is evidently a wise provision ;
for this " beaming lamp " would attract their enemies as
well as their friends ; and what was intended for their
preservation and continuance, would otherwise be the
guide to their destruction. It is the under side of the
terminal segments of the abdomen which display this
brilliancy ; and although we have stated above, that we
never observed this phosphorescence in the Brazils, we
do not mean to say that it is improbable, for the Brazil-
ian species equally possess the analogous pale spots and
segments, whence the light issues in those European
species we are acquainted with. This family is very
numerous, and contains many very natural genera : the
most remarkable are those with greatly developed an-
tennae, as Amydetes, in which they consist of at least
twenty joints, each of which throws off a long curving
plume ; Phengodes, also, where, however, the antennae
Y 2
324 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
retain the normal number of eleven joints, are not
outvied in their beauty by the last, for here each joint
emits a double convoluted feather. In Lamprocera,
which also throws out from each joint a double branch,
these are porrect and divergent ; but in others, the
antennae are simple. In the typical Lampyris, the
females are apterous ; and in the proximate Phosphcenes
the elytra are abbreviated : in Luciola, they are entire ;
and the species of the latter are sometimes so prolific,
that on a summer's night they completely fill the air,
and sparkle about in their erratic vagaries, presenting
an agreeable spectacle, and one which the Luciola Italica
constantly exhibits to our absentee countrymen. Species
of the three last are those which chiefly occur in
Europe ; the type, only, ranging as far north as our
island. Tropical countries, and especially South Ame-
rica, seems to exuberate in them ; thus compensating in
an additional instance, in those regions, by the prolific
energy of physical phenomena and powers, for the
debasement and enervation of intellectual and moral
characteristics. Like the neighbouring genus Drilus,
Lampyris feeds upon snails ; and the former genus is
remarkable for its fleshy larva-form female, which, we
believe, wholly lives within the shells of snails.
(291.) Passing to the next family, we appear to enter
it by its pentamerous division, or those insects which
have the greatest affinity to the preceding. We thus
proceed by means of Telephorus, a genus of universal
distribution : Malthinus is distinguished for its abbre-
viated elytra and prominent eyes ; and in the next
sub-family, the MelyrinfB^ we observe Malachius, which
has the power of projecting from various parts of its
thorax, under excitement and irritation, large fleshy ve-
sicular appendages, the uses of which are not correctly
known. By means of the next sub- family, the Dasytes,
we have an intimation of the proximity of the Cleri to
this circle, if not constituting a family of it : a very
easy transition is effected from the Tekpkorina to the
typical heteromerous Cantharidce ; for ia general habit
THE CLAIMS OF INSECTS TO ATTENTION. 325
the insects are remarkably similar, especially to an in-
experienced eye. It is from this sub-family that we
obtain the officinal Cantharides, so extensively used as
s^ vesicatory. Insects here, again, put forth a claim to
our consideration and notice, and are not such trivial
objects, or so despicable, as it pleases many to consider
them. For, thus having with the silkworm clothed us,
and this clothing then gaily coloured and decorated by
the cochineal insect (Coccus Cacti), the bee lights up
our houses with its wax, and with its honey it furnishes
our tables with a luscious luxury ; and when the intem-
perate enjoyment of this produces repletion and inflam-
mation, another insect is offered us, in the blister beetle,
to cool our fever, and to restore us to health. Nor are
the uses of insects confined to these few ; and perhaps
the indirect benefits we derive from them are more sub-
stantial than those which are more obvious: yet these
necessarily involve the reflection of how many thousands
of our fellow creatures are daily occupied in, and derive
their whole means of living from, the cultivation and
produce, and the manufacture of the produce, of these
creatures. If we view their study, even merely with
the eyes of the political economist, all this must strike
us; and besides, who can say that an insect may not be
discovered, which shall surpass all yet known in confer-
ring benefit on the human race : and surely, when we
reflect on the devastation and injury caused by others,
the study ought to be promoted upon the principle of
self-defence. With all these, and the additional and
superior object to be obtained from their study, by its
opening to us a large chapter of the wisdom and good-
ness of God in the creation, pray let us hear no more of
entomology being talked of as an idle and frivolous pur-
suit. To return from this digression : the insect called
" the Spanish fly," is a beetle of a richly brilliant green
colour ; it is found throughout Europe; and within the
last few years, it has occurred in great abundance in
various parts of the South of England. Whether our
native species would be as efficient for medicinal pur-
Y 3
326 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
poses, as those coming from a hotter climate, we are un-
prepared, in the absence of the requisite experiments/
to say; but it is certainly to be regretted that such have
not been made, and that, in lieu of it, paupers were
employed in Suffolk and Essex to collect them and to
burn them. In the East, various species of Mylabris
and Lytta seem equally well known to possess, and
are used for similar purposes. We may here, again,
further remark, that almost the whole of this family is
excessively prolific in the produce of individuals; for,
of the majority, in their proper season, their peculiar
habitats literally swarm with them. In this sub-family
we observe very many striking structural peculiarities,
notwithstanding a tolerably general uniformity of ap-
pearance, excepting only in a few instances. Thus,
in this type, we have moniliform antennae ; in Hy~
cleus, MylabriSy &c., these organs are considerably
enlarged at their apex, differing generally in the num-
ber of their joints. (Enas has them fusiform; and
in Lytta they are attenuated towards their apex. They
are all more or less peculiar for the structure of the
claws of their tarsi : thus, in Lydus these are strongly
serrated beneath, and in Tetraonyx they are bifid,
as well also in other genera, and particularly so in
Meloe, which presents, perhaps, the greatest divergence
from typical characters, if we except only some apterous
females, of any insects throughout the Cokoptera. They
are soft, swollen insects, apterous, but having abbre-
viated elytra, which are rounded at their extremity, and
lap over each other. They possess the property of
exuding, when captured, a yellow, oleaginous liquid,
which stains the fingers, and has a somewhat foetid or
faint smell, not unlike that ejected by Coccinella;
whereas that of Timarcha, among the Chrysomelida, is
of a sanguineous hue, and more watery and profuse.
Much obscurity still envelopes the natural history of the
flfetoe : it has been assumed that those little Pediculi,
found so frequently upon many species of bees, espe-
cially Andrence, whence Mr. Kirbygave them a specific
DISCUSSION RELATIVE TO MELOE. 327
name, is the larva of this insect ; and that it resorts to
the bees for the purpose of being conveyed into their
nests, to feed there upon the provision collected for the
larva bee. Some degree of plausibility is given to these
statements, from the circumstance of very similarly con-
structed and equally active creatures being bred from
the yellow masses of eggs deposited in excavated holes
by the Meloe ; and thus these statements have received
the sanction, and grown into the belief, of many emi-
nent entomologists. Having thus had the seal of au-
thority stamped upon them by such men as De Geer,
Latreille, St. Fargeau, and Erichson, it might be con-
sidered rash to question their accuracy ; for this opinion
would, of course, be the result of careful and rigorous
inquiry. There is, however, drawn out opposite this
formidable array, a phalanx of great men, whose pa-
tient accuracy of investigation is not to be impugned, or
their judgment questioned; for here we have Swam-
merdam, Kirby, Walckenaer, and Leon Dufour, who
all treat it as an error ; and the strongest probability of
correctness consorts itself with them. The first cir-
cumstance that strikes us in the inquiry, is, the appa-
rently infirm footing that the science stands upon ; for
here we have a dispute between men competent in every
respect for the investigation, whether a certain creature
is a perfect insect, for if it be a Pediculus it must be so,
or the larva of another in its first stage of develope-
ment ! Upon the very threshold, we have the strongest
presumptive evidence that it cannot be the latter ; for
success has never accompanied even the greatest care to
breed these supposed larvse, although many individuals
have tried ; and they have still remained the same little
active, hexapod, double- tailed creatures they originally
were, neither increasing in size, nor altering in shape,
and have thus continued until they have at last dispersed
or died. The arguers pro have attributed this to their
not having proper food, or some particular in their
mysterious economy, insoluble even to the most anxious
wish to elucidate the whole difficulty of the question ;
Y 4
328 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
and, of course, the arguers con have availed themselves
of it to strengthen their views. It must not, however,
be inferred, that the point has been canvassed for the
sake of disputing only, for this would be beneath the
great men whose names occur in the discussion ; but it
is the circumstance of a fact being withheld from our
knowledge, and continuing involved in its original ob-
scurity, even after the researches of two centuries, that
gives a permanent interest to it. Curiosity has for a
characteristic an inveterate dislike to be thwarted in its
pursuit, and satisfaction ; and an incentive stimulus is
here given to it, by the assumed peculiarity of the case
contradicting what we know of all analogical develope-
ment. Our view is, that there is a strong resemblance
between the two creatures, but that they are not iden-
tical ; and the probability of this is somewhat strength-
ened, by the larva of the neighbouring Cantkaris being
also much like these hexapods. A further corrobora-
tion of our view is derived from a statement made by
Frisch, which appears to have been altogether over-
looked in the discussion : whether this has proceeded
from later entomologists feeling satisfied with the
luminous statement made by Latreille, of all that he
knew of the history, derived chiefly from De Geer, he
not knowing German, and the description of De Geer ;
or whether the subsequent inquirers have been uncon-
versant with the German language, and therefore could
not test De Geer's accuracy, in whom the important
omission must have been accidental, we know not ; but
the fact is, that Frisch, who wrote before 1730, for it
is in his 6th Treatise, and we have an edition of the
7th, dated 1728, explicitly says, " After numerous
successive changes of skin, in the last of which they
acquire their wing-shaped cases, they remain during the
winter in the clayey earth, where no humidity can
reach them, until the following year, about the month
of May." Here is a positive statement made by
an accurate observer, clearly from the observation of
factSj and certainly without bias, as his remarks were
DOUBTS UPON THE ASSUMED LARVA OF MELOE. 329
made more than thirty years before the subject was first
mooted. It is to be regretted that Frisch is not more
ample in his particulars ; for we are still left uncertain
at what stage of the developement, or at what change of
the skin, these very active creatures are transformed into
the heavy,, dull larvae they become when they have ac-
quired their full size, in which state they are well
known. The change, we conceive, must be made early,
or these larva? must early bury themselves, and thus
avoid detection ; otherwise their increased size and ac-
tivity would not so entirely have escaped all accidental
discovery as they seem to have done. We have given
more space to this subject, from its being one of the most
interesting inquiries connected with entomology, than
our limits would otherwise have justified ; for, in point
of interest, it is certainly not exceeded by the obscurity
that hangs over the natural history of the Stylops, in
connection with which we may here mention incident-
ally, although it bears upon the point we have been al-
luding to, that these Stylops* have been observed to
have a hexapod parasite, which were detected creeping
out of the head of its larva, protruding through the
segments of an Andrena. May not this be the larva of
the Pediculus? which is thus necessarily found upon
bees, and occasionally upon bee-like flies, Eristalis,
Syrphus, &c. ; their instinct being deluded by the resem-
blance, when these Diptera have alighted upon flowers,
where these Pediculi have found themselves, having
strayed from the bee when it visited the blossom. We
throw this out as a suggestion.
(292.) To pass on from this interesting subject, we
observe some curious particulars of structure in this
family, in* the greatly enlarged head of Horia, a species
of which, according to Lansdown Guilding, is parasiti-
cal upon the bee Xylocopa teredo; and another species
is distinguished by its enormously developed mandibles.
The closely allied Cissites has largely incrassated poste-
* Westwood, Trans. Ent. Soc. ii. 186.
330 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
rior femora, a structure observable in other genera of
this family group, as we see in Oncomera, Nothus, and
(Edemera : these are, however, as is usually the case
with anomalous structural features, a characteristic of
the male insect only; an observation still further exem-
plified in the most extraordinary antennae of the male
Cerocomce, the description of which would scarcely convey
a distinct idea of the confusion of so heteroclite an organ.
The same sex of the same insect has an equally re-
markable developement of the maxillary palpi ; but some
of the most striking instances of curious palpigerous
structure, we shall find in the next family. In Nemo*
gnathusandGnathium, cognate genera, we find the max-
illae elongated into two slender filaments, half as long
as the body. This circle seems to present several con-
necting points with other groups ; thus, we have at once
an instance of it, by means of Notoxus, which, by the
way, is remarkable for its produced thorax suspended
over the head, through Scydmcenus and the Pselaphidce,
to the Predatores. We have also, from the vicinity of
this point, in the attenuated elytra of Sitaris, a genus-
parasitical upon Osmia, one of the mason bees, an in-
timate link of connection with the fourth family of this
circle, the Mordellida ; but it is evidently through Py-
rochroa that we approach our next family :
(293.) The Lymexylonidce, the name of which ex-
presses at once their economy and habits, for in their
larva state they are excessively destructive to timber.
Indeed, one of them, the Lymexylon navale, was found
so injurious to the ship timber in store in the dock-
yards of Sweden, that Linnaeus was consulted upon the
best mode of checking the ravage ; and upon ascertain-
ing the true cause, he suggested a very effective one,
by the immersion of the timber under water during the
breeding period of the insect. The most striking
feature in this small group of insects, all of which are
pentamerous, (consisting, as yet, of only three genera ;
for we doubt if Cupes and Rhyssodes belong naturally
here,) is the remarkable maxillary palpi in their males:
AGENCY OP INSECTS IN THE ECONOMY OF NATURE. 331
these organs,, in Hyleccctus, are strongly pectinated, like
a hand with many fingers, the joint representing the
thumb setting off in opposition to the others : in Ly-
mexylon, they consist of several ramose branches, spring-
ing out of a large basal cup-like joint : in Atractocerus,
they are more regularly pectinated ; and this last has
its eyes nearly meeting on the face, and very minute
elytra, the body excessively long, the wings themselves
expansive, and folding in repose merely longitudinally,
and, of course, wholly exposed. We surmise, from the
structure, that it must be a most active insect, al-
though nothing is known of its natural history, it
being exclusively inter tropical, where it is, doubtlessly,
the representative of the two other typically northern
forms, and exercises there similar functions, which are
certainly to accelerate the decomposition of dead trees,
by perforating them in all directions. This agency we
have had occasion to notice in the Bostrichidce and else-
where. Nature thus operates by various means to ac-
complish one end, to clear away that which has become
dead, which we cannot, however, here say has run its
course, but has consequently become useless, to make
room for that which has to live ; and to produce this
result the more rapidly, for otherwise dead vegetation
would stifle the living, and choke its growth, she in-
troduces these little agents ; thus every where exhibit-
ing her prolific energy of vitality, by making all her
purposes subservient to the extension of life and living
beings in every possible form and organisation ; for so
varied are her plans and purposes, and her means of
accomplishing them so interminable, that the imagina-
tion cannot conceive a new form that has not been, or
does not now exist, and its own combinations of old
ones are so monstrous, that Nature's monsters are
symmetrical in the comparison. The insect world,
throughout, extensively exhibits these wonder-working
phenomena, and displays conspicuously the gigantic
effects of such seemingly insignificant and inefficient
agencies.
332 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
(294.) Our next family, the Mordellidce, is also of
imited extent,, although more numerous than the pre-
ceding. They are usually small gibbous or humped
insects, their longitudinal section exhibiting the segment
of a circle. They are frequently large and thick in
front, and much attenuated behind ; and in many, as in
the genuine Mordella, that extremity terminating in an
exserted ovipositor. They are all very active creatures,
flying with great velocity and promptitude, and to
facilitate this, in many genera, the elytra are attenuated
and abbreviated, as in Rhipiphorus, Emenadia, Myo-
dites, &c., the former of which is parasitical in the
nests of wasps, and all, in the males, have flabellated
antenna* ; and the last is so active in its motions, and
its elytra are so abbreviated, that it has received its
name in allusion to these circumstances. It is with
these insects that Sundeval's extraordinary genus
Symbius, which is parasitical upon the Blattee, must be
associated, the females of which, like those of Drilus,
are destitute of wings and elytra, or even their indica-
tion. The species of Mordella are gaily decorated with
markings, usually white upon a black silky ground ;
Orchesia has the power of jumping j and Pelecotoma
contains the largest in the family, which excessively
rarely reach an inch in length ; the majority are minute,
varying from two to four lines. The most of them
have spurs at the extremity of their long legs ; and they
are found almost exclusively upon flowers.
(295.) Our next family, Lycus and its affinities, if
it should really form a distinct family, or, rather, a
constituent of our first family, the Lampyridce, consists,
also, of but few insects. This circumstance strengthens
our supposition that the requisite analysis will place the
CleridcB here, and remove these to where we have just
suggested. They are very flat insects ; and some,
especially the African genus Lycus, have the elytra in
the males enlarged, and circularly developed on each
side. In Catopteron, these organs are not wider than
the thorax at the base, but gradually enlarge towards
THE CLERID^E. 333
the apex, where they are considerably wider than the
body. The legs and the elytra are usually considerably
compressed, the latter dilated and serrated, and inserted
closely together upon the face or forehead ; but in the
Nepaul Tylocerus, their basal and terminal joints are
greatly enlarged. In Dictyoptera, the body is linear,
as also in Omalisus ; and in Lyons the thighs are con-
siderably thickened, and the head prolonged in front
into a porrected snout, with the palpi very conspi-
cuously exposed. Many of these insects are sub-cortical
feeders, and almost all are gaily coloured.
(296.) We have already hazarded the suggestion
that the Cleridce should occupy the present situation of
the preceding family, and those be transposed into the
circle of the Lampyridce ; in which case we should have
another direct connection with the Predatores in this
group. They have also a very close and intimate con-
nection with Dasytes, in our second family. This is,
perhaps, one of the prettiest families of the Coleoptera.
They are tolerably uniform in figure, but present con-
siderable differences in the structure of their antenna,
palpi, and tarsi : their most typical forms exhibit the
former clavate the clava being constructed of the three
last joints, the palpi securiform, and the tarsi penta-
merous. But we have here, perhaps, the greatest suc-
cession of changes and differences of combination in
these organs, of any extant, in so small a family, through-
out the Coleoptera. They are very gaily diversified in
their markings, presenting us with rich blues and
purples, agreeable greens, vivid carmines, and pale
vermilions, in all kinds of combinations and spots,
with bars of white or yellow, and very generally
considerable metallic brilliancy. In those which have
distinctly five joints to the tarsi, Priocera has serrated
antennae, with the labial palpi securiform; Cylidrus
has the seven terminal joints only serrated; Aocina and
Tillus, with the antennae gradually enlarging to the
apex, but the latter differing from the former, in all the
palpi terminating in a securiform joint; and Eurypus,
334" NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
with a similar structure, has the four first joints of the
tarsi with a long membranous appendage ; and in
Tillus, the sexes of one have heen considered generally
distinct species. In those which have but four dis-
tinct joints to the tarsi, there is a greater uniformity in
the general structure of the antennae,, although Eno-
plium has its three terminal joints separated and ser-
rated. Some of the species of Clerus are parasites in
the nests of certain mason bees ; and the genus Thana-
simus occurs upon felled trees and timber, its larva
preying upon those of many of the wood-feeding ge-
nera, as Apate, Bostrichus, Anobium, &c. They are
all very active insects ; and some of the latter, in the
distribution of their colours, and general form, have a
remarkable resemblance to the hymenopterous Mutilla,
and whence they have derived their specific names.
All these insects have the head rather wider than the
thorax ; the latter cylindrical, and constricted at its
base, or swoln about the centre ; although some, as Co-
vynetes and Necrobia, have the sides of the latter slightly
margined. These are found, usually, among heaps of
bones, or upon dry carrion ; and one of the latter is
celebrated for being the cause of saving Latreille's life
during the sanguinary period of the French revolution ;
in as far as the circumstance of its capture, in his pri-
son cell, interested, through the medium of the surgeon
that attended him, some influential scientific men, who
stayed his debarkation to the colonies in a ship that
. was atrociously foredoomed to perish, with its cargo of
transports, almost within sight of their native land. The
largest species occur in the Mexican genus Cymatodera,
and the universal Opilus. Europe is rich in species of
the family ; but New Holland appears to be their me-
tropolis, if we may judge from the numbers, and the
forms, we have seen recently imported thence. Very
many genera are still uncharacterised in this interesting
group. [(290296.) W. E. Sh.]
THE NEUROPTERA, THE AQUATIC TYPE. 335
CHAP. XI.
ON THE NEUROPTEA.
(297.) ON this, the last order of the Ptikta, our
survey must be very brief, since our allotted space is
drawing rapidly to a close. The general construction
of the insects we arrange under this head, has been
more than once adverted to, and their ranks among the
other tribes of winged insects sufficiently demonstrated.
The character of having four reticulated wings, as-
signed to the order by the great fathers of Science, and
by which all its typical families are distinguished, is
that to which we adhere ; and which, in our estima-
tion, is its leading distinction. Nothing definite can
be drawn from its metamorphosis, which both Latreille
and MacLeay are obliged to confess is " varied." With
the exception of the Phryganidce, which can scarcely be
termed masticating insects, the whole of our neuropte-
rous families are provided with jaws, and many, like the
Gryllidce, bite very hard. By our former diagrams, it
will have been seen how perfectly this ordet coincides
with all we have said of the AQUATIC TYPE of Nature,
where the head is of unusual size, and the animal itself
lives habitually in the water. Popular opinion, in this
instance, has fortunately proved correct ; for the dragon
flies (Libellulidce) are unquestionably the pre-eminent
division of the order, and thus preserve their analogy to
the fissirostral types in ornithology. Like the swallows
and flycatchers, they seize their prey on the wing, and
watch for it from a fixed station. In their larva and
pupa state, they live entirely in the water ; and even
when they become winged, haunt the precincts of that
element on all occasions : they have the largest heads of
336 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
any insects in existence; and, like nearly all aquatic
tribes, have great swiftness of motion. Next to these
we place the Gryllidce, or grasshoppers and locusts,
whose heads are less developed ; and whose upper wings,
as typical of the Hemiptcra, are thicker, and more in-
clined to become coriaceous than the under : the under
wings, also, in both, are semitransparent, and are folded
when at rest : they are all herbivorous, and thus again
imitate the sub- typical division of the Hemiptera. Fol-
lowing these two families, we place the Forficulidce, or
earwigs, which thus enter in that part of the neuropte-
rous circle which touches the Coleoptera. That this is
their true station, may be proved by analysis ; and is
further confirmed by the opinions of several writers un-
acquainted with the theory we now maintain. " The
Forficulidce," as MacLeay truly observes, " are, in fact,
coleopterous insects, with the metamorphosis and caudal
appendages of true Orthoptera;" to which we may fur-
ther add, they are the thysanuriform type of the whole
of this circle. The insects forming the supposed order
Strepsiptera, we place as the next, and the most aber-
rant family : they are representatives of the Coleoptera,
and find their prototypes in several families of beetles,
as well as in many of the parasitic genera in the hyme-
nopterous and hemipterous circles. The affinities of
these extraordinary insects, until the discovery of their
most aberrant types, must ever remain a subject of
doubt or dispute. Our own opinions have resulted
from the utter impossibility of locating them elsewhere,
the absence of any other distinct group sufficient to
fill up this part of the neuropterous circle, and the
opinion that some writers hold on their relation to the
Forficulidce. The whole question, as it now stands, is a
matter of inductive reasoning, and of the synthetic
principles of arrangement, and as such we leave it. On
the fifth and last division, there can be no doubt. The
Phryganidce are partly neuropterous and partly lepi-
dopterous insects ; thus blending the characters of the
two orders, and bringing them into juxtaposition. Our
AFFINITIES OF THE NEXJROPTERA. 337
space will not permit us to state those reasons which
make us decline to view these five groups as orders,
a rank to which many excellent entomologists have
elevated them. The system of representation, of itself,
totally forbids this : the contents of the class Ptilota
must agree with those of the Aptera, and both must
have their definite number of prototypes in the classes
of the vertebrate animals.
(298.) The affinities by which the order is united
into a circle of its own, may be thus briefly stated. The
LibellulidcR comprise, beside the sub -family of that
name, the Mymeleonince, the Panorpina, the Termince,
and the genus Mantispa; which latter appears to be
only a representation of the Maritime . We leave these
families for the Gryllidce ; of which the genera Mantis,
Gryllus, Locusta, Acridium, and Blatta, form the
types of the sub-families, and represent those in the
LibellulidcB. The crickets seem to open a passage to
the ForJiculidcB, which, with the Stylopidce, contain so
few genera, that we shall not venture to designate their
rank. Finally come the Phryganidce, the leading divi-
sions or sub-families of which are the genera Ephemera,
Phryganea, Hemerobius, Perla, and Psocus. Each of
these correspond analogically, and in precisely the same
order, with the primary types, already enumerated, of
the Libellulidce and the Gryllida. We look upon these
latter as the typical and sub-typical groups ; and the
other three as aberrant. A brief notice on the principal
genera, in each of these, is all that our limited space
will now admit of.
(299) The large group of insects, here treated col-
lectively as Neuropiera, present considerable differences
in their structure, transformations, and economy; indeed,
so much so, that modern systematists have concurred in
treating several of the subdivisions, of which they are
here constituted, as distinct orders. Without reference
to these views, we shall give some few particulars of their
natural history in the order of succession above laid
down ; and, in consequence of the difficulty of finding
338 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
general characters to combine the successive groups, we
shall treat the sub-families independently of each other.
(300.) The insects constituting the LibellulincB are
well known to all persons who knowany thing of the coun-
try, as dragon flies. They are essentially flying insects;
and the four powerful organs whereby they accomplish
this faculty, consist of usually a pellucid glassy mem-
brane, which is closely and thickly covered with a reti-
culation of nervures ; whence, KGLT et&xfir, as the most
typical members, they give a name to the entire group
called from them Neuroptera. In velocity of flight,
and the power of its protracted continuance, they doubt-
lessly exceed all other insects; and Leeuwenhoek re-
cords an instance of a swallow being unable to overtake
one, which it continued in pursuit of for some time.
They have been divided into two groups, of which Li-
bellula and Agrion form the respective types, a sub-
division supported, in some degree, by differences in the
structure of their larvae. The characters, upon which
it is founded in the perfect insect, are, that in the former
the head is globose, and, in repose, the wings have a hori-
zontal distended position ; whereas, in Agrion, they are
united vertically over the body, like the butterflies, and
their head is transverse. Several exotic species of the
latter genus are remarkable for the length and slender-
ness of their bodies: thus, the Agrion Lucretia from the
Brazils is 5 inches long, and its body scarcely more
than the eighth of an inch thick. These gay insects
may be observed sporting in every variety of evolution
over ponds and brooks, to which they give considerable
animation; and it is here that their entirely aquatic larvae
pass their lives. These, which undergo an incomplete
metamorphosis, progressively acquire the rudiments of
wings; and when they have attained their full growth,
they creep up the stem of some water plant, and fixing
firmly by their legs, the skin splits down the back, and
the perfect insect creeps out. A very short time suf-
fices to expand its wings, and it then sweeps forth a
denizen of the air. In this state it is remarkable for its
THE MYRMECOLEONTIN^E. 33$
very powerful mandibles, organs which it possessed of
fearful capacity in its preliminary stages, but which
then had the adjunctive assistance of a singular appa-
ratus, which, in repose, covers the lower portion of the
face like a mask ; but which, possessing a lengthy joint,
the insect has the power of projecting forwards; and it
thus forms a prehensile organ, by means of its lateral
articulated hooks, whereby the creature seizes its prey,
and conveys it to the mouth ; and this is doubtless to
compensate for its imperfect means of progression through
the water. The eyes of the larger genera of the perfect
insects for instance, of (Eshna and Libellula occupy
nearly the whole of the head ; whilst Calepteryx and
Lestes are distinguished for the brilliant metallic colours
of their wings and bodies. They are all natives of all
parts of the world, throughout which they are tolerably
equally distributed.
(301.) The MYRMECOLEONTIN^E differ considerably
from the preceding insects ; thus although they have
equally prominent eyes, they have never ocelli ; their
mandibles are comparatively small ; they have lengthy
palpi, organs wholly deficient in the preceding ; and their
antennae, instead of being subulated, as in those insects,
are here, although short, considerably clavated, and the
club is compressed and curved. These characters are
sufficient to distinguish them from the preceding, did
not their larvae totally disunite them. Their economy,
in this stage of their existence, is exceedingly interest-
ing. This larva, even more unlike the former, than is
the perfect insect, inhabits dry sandy situations : here
it forms a funnel-shaped hollow, the superior edges of
which, when the larva is approximate to its full growth,
are' about a foot in diameter ; and the sides are formed of
such loose sand, that any insect approaching the edge,
inevitably slides down ; where, at the inverted conical
bottom, this creature lies with merely its large man-
dibles protruding, ready to seize the unfortunate crea-
ture that comes within its grasp, which is sucked com-
pletely dry. Having thus exhausted its juices, the
z 2
340 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
husk is placed upon its head and legs, and a sudden jerk
casts it heyond the outer circle of this pitfall. It forms
these cavities by shuffling backwards with its pointed
abdomen in a spiral direction,, rejecting, as it proceeds,
the superfluous sand, by a jerk similar to that by which
it throws off the cases of the insects it has devoured.
It is a short plump creature, with the head flat above,
but convex beneath ; and the mandibles are slender,
forcipate at their extremity, and nearly one third the
length of the body. It has six short slender legs ; the
posterior pair being distorted in position, to facilitate
the peculiar regressive motion by which it forms its
burrow. When arrived at maturity, it forms a circular
cocoon of silk, by means of the spinneret at the apex of
its abdomen ; and, after a short period, the insect itself
comes forth, and is disproportionately large compared
with its pupa ; for, after quitting the case of the latter,
it rapidly expands until it has acquired its full size ;
when its parts harden, and it sails forth to revel upon
the nectar of flowers, for it has now lost its carnivorous
propensities, and its life henceforth is a (i perpetual
feast of nectar'd sweets." Reaumur has observed, that
they will feed upon fruits, especially plums. A fur-
ther confirmation of the striking differences between
the preceding and the present families is, that the latter
rarely fly during the day, but chiefly towards evening ;
and, in repose, their wings are roofed over them like
those of moths ; whereas the former fly only during
the brightest sunshine, and the position of their wings
has before been shown. Closely allied to Myrmecoleon
is the genus Ascalaphus. Their larva? are considerably
alike, but they do not, like those of the former, make
conical traps; and, besides, their progression is for-
wards, and not backwards. The perfect insect is ex-
tremely like a butterfly ; it has antennae as long as the
body, which are suddenly knobbed at their extremity ;
their wings are more or less triangular, and variously
spotted or marked ; but they have a slow and heavy
flight.
THE PANORPINJE. 341
(302.) Our next sub-family, the PANORPIN^E, are
peculiar for the possession of an elongated rostrum, at
the apex of which is the mouth ; and in the typical
genus Panorpa itself, the abdomen is lengthy, attenu-
ated, and recurved, the terminal segment being con-
siderably swollen, and having prehensile chelae at its
extremity in the male. From the resemblance of this
appendage to the tail of a scorpion, they are called
scorpion flies: they occur abundantly in meadows^
about the summer solstice ; and, although so common,
they are unknown in their larva state. In this same
family, we observe the apterous small Northern genus
JBoreus, in which the ovipositor of the female is formed
not unlike that of a Gryllus, and their males only have
the indication of wings. This genus occurs in the
northern parts of this island, usually during the winter,
and it has even been caught tripping along upon the
snow, at a period when complete torpidity suspends the
animation of the rest of the insect world ; excepting
only, also, the little apterous Chionece, another Northern
genus, but belonging to the circle of the Diptera, which
is found almost exclusively upon the snow. We here,
in this sub-family, further observe the long-legged
genus Bittacus, and the long- winged Nemoptera; the
former resembling a Tipula, but having four wings of
equal size. In Nemoptera, the anterior wings are large,
and nearly circular ; and the posterior pair very long
and filiform, being usually at least three times the
length of the body : in the form of its proboscis, this
genus makes the transition to Chorista, and thus con-
veniently associates here instead of in connection with
Myrmecoleon ; for Chorista, although in all the other
particulars of structure it resembles Panorpa, has not
the prolonged rostrum of the latter. It is a native of
New Holland, that world of wonders in its animal and
vegetable forms.
(303.) Passing to our next family, the TERBIITIN^J,
we come to the only tribe of insects out of the circle of
Hymenoptera, which exhibit social habits. Man mea-
z 3
342 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
sures every thing with direct reference to himself; and
as it promotes his good or ill, so does he pronounce
upon its worth or worthlessness. We admire the eco-
nomy of the bees, and speak with rapture of the indus-
try of the little chemists which gather those stores of
the fields, that, hut for them, would evade our acquisi-
tion, and we then fraudulently rob them of their hard-
earned treasures ; but we execrate the devastations of
the Termes, although it is the self-same impulse which
directs the energies of each. Man, in his tyranny aver
Nature and Nature's free denizens, forgets the justice
of the retribution, and exclaims against it as an evil,
heedless of the multitudinous evils which his own pra-
vity scatters around, and which frequently have no ob-
ject beyond their wilfulness. But he must here submit,
and with patience suffer what his sagacity can rarely
avoid ; and to prompt this, he must see in it but another
.instance of that general law which imbues all creatures
with the instinct of self-preservation and the ardent love
and protection of their young, that universal crropyj)
which overcomes all obstacles, and is resistless in its
effects. These insects form very large communities,
consisting of individuals of four different kinds of
winged males and females, and of soldiers and neuters
which are apterous. In the former, the four wings are
equal, with the neuration of the disk obsolete, a charac-
ter not found elsewhere among the Neuroptera; and the
apterous individuals have strong mandibles. There is
some diversity of opinion respecting the latter; and na-
turalists are not decided whether they are the prelimi-
nary stages of the insect, or independent and perfect
states of existence : they, however, constitute the major
part of the community, and execute all its labours. The
information that we possess upon their internal economy
is very imperfect. All that we know as certain is, that
the different species construct different nests made of a
kind of hard mortar; consisting of earth or sand agglu-
tinated together, some of which are like a cluster of
sugar-loaves of different sizes, the largest being eight
THE TERMITJNvE. 343
or ten feet high ; the nests of others are cylindrical, and
are not more than two feet above the ground, with a
roof extending on all sides beyond the lateral walls ;
others, again, build in the upper branches of trees,
sixty or eighty feet from the ground; and in countries
where trees abound, they excavate and occupy their in-
terior. These insects always work under cover, and,
unless by accident, they are never exposed to sight ; and
they thus construct subterranean galleries from their
nests, wherever their destructive propensities incline
them to wander; and in attacking houses, they eat into
its timbers, gnawing their galleries longitudinally in its
centre, leaving only the external crust ; and thus, when
their depredations have been extensive, not an article of
furniture in a house is free from this dilapidation, and
upon the least forcible touch, or first wind, all falls to
pieces. The fecundity of the females is truly astonish-
ing; and she is as much an object of solicitude to the
workers, as is the queen among the bees. She and her
partner are incarcerated in a cell by the neuters, and
they are there regularly supplied with food ; and after
impregnation, upon the enlargement of the ovaries, her
abdomen swells to the enormous size of 1500 or 2000
times the rest of the body; and as soon as she begins to
lay eggs, these are conveyed away by the neuters to their
prepared cells, which, in conjunction with their maga-
zines of provisions, occupy the interior of these nests.
It is said that she lays as many as 80,000 of these eggs
in the course of twenty-four hours, a fecundity that
would speedily overwhelm the earth, were it not pro-
vided that but comparatively few reach maturity, and
the great majority serve as food to birds_, and beasts,
and fishes; and the natives, also, of the tropical regions
where they occur, cook them and eat them as a delicacy.
From the great resemblance of their manners to those
of ants, they have been called " White Ants." But
the true ants are their mortal enemies, and prey upon
them with the greatest voracity, especially at the period
of their swarming, at the commencement of the tro-
z 4
34<4< NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
pical rains, the only time when they voluntarily make
their appearance abroad. Although,, probably,, all are of
tropical origin, a few species have located themselves in
the South of Europe ; but it is to be hoped that the tem-
perature of our climate is too variable and cold to suit
the constitution of these insects ; and although commerce
has imported many evils in concurrence with its bene-
fits, we heartily deprecate the possible introduction of
such unwelcome guests. Other allied forms, but which
are not social in their habits, are found in Embia and
Olyniha.
(304.) The last sub-family of this first circle, the
Rhaphidiince, have, in the structure of some of its con-
stituents, a direct intimation of the proximity of the
next circle ; for the genus Mantispa, with its lengthened
neck, and raptorial anterior legs, is a complete resem-
blance of Mantis itself. It has short clavate antennae ;
but the elongated neck is also the characteristic of the
family, for the genus Rhaphidia, of which it is besides
formed, likewise possesses it in a remarkable degree.
The latter insect, in its larva state, is very voracious,
preying upon every other insect it can seize upon ; it
occurs chiefly in woods, upon the stems of oaks. The
genus is as yet known only as European, and all the
recorded species we possess in this country. Of Man-
tispa, the greatest number of species appears to occur
in America, although it is found all over the world ex-
cepting New Holland. Some of the species seem to
indicate a strong affinity, in the structure of their wings,
to the genuine Orthoptera, the anterior half of those
organs being occasionally semi-coriaceous, which is a
departure from the otherwise exclusively membrana-
ceous structure of these limbs throughout the circle
before us.
(305.) We now enter the family of the GRYLLID^E ;
the first sub-family of which, the Mantinte, contains
two very different types of form, namely, Mantis
and Phasma. Their habits differ as much as their
structure : the latter being herbivorous _; whereas th$
THE MANTIN^E. 345
former are carnivorous, and of a very sanguinary and
rapacious disposition. They are long and slender : the
head transverse and small, with a pair of long, slender,
setaceous antennae at the junction of the head and
thorax : the latter is attenuated, but dilates immediately,
forming a linear, parallel, somewhat flattened tube, with
its sides margined ; and which has an articulated flexi-
bility at its junction with the meso thorax, and is
more than a third the length of the body. Attached
to this in front, and approximate to the head, are a pair
of comparatively stout legs, the peculiar construction
of which, adapted for the seizure and retention of prey,
has acquired for them the name of raptorial. The
insect itself being slow, and without much muscular
energy, and its nature requiring a large supply of food,
it is furnished with this organisation, that, when lurking
insidiously about, its purpose is disguised under its
form, which considerably resembles the parts of a plant,
although not so much so as we shall observe in the
Phasmince; and when arrived within a convenient dis-
tance of its prey, it darts forth these limbs and captures
it. To give them the power of greater expansion, the
coxae are elongated, being nearly as long as the femur;
and the trochanters are so articulated, that they admit
of great variety of motion. The tibiae, which are half
the length of the femora, fold back upon them, which
admits of the two latter acting in concert as prehen-
sorial organs; and that they may effectually secure their
prey, they are densely serrated longitudinally with a
double row of short and acute teeth ; and the tibia is
furnished, besides, at its extremity, with a long curved
hook, and, together with the long tarsus, which is at-
tached externally to the latter, thus acquiring additional
and wider range of action, draw conjunctively within
the scope of the raptorial apparatus their destined
victims. A striking illustration of how easily man is
deluded by hypocrisy and false appearances, is afforded
by the variety of names and religious character this
blood-thirsty creature has acquired in all countries
346 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
that it inhabits. By the attitude it assumes when
lurking for its prey, or advancing upon it which is done
by the support of the four posterior slender legs only,
whilst the head and prothorax are raised perpendicularly
from the body, and the anterior raptorial organs are
folded in front, it greatly resembles a person praying;
whence in France it is called le Precheur ; in Provence,
Prego-Diou; and in other countries it has similar names.
The Turk says it points to Mecca ; and the Hottentot
pays it religious observances. Burmeister acquaints us,
from the information of Zimmerman, with some singular
facts connected with the North American species, the
J\f. Carolina. He says, a specimen he possessed "was
caught on the 2d of October; on the 3d, it laid its
eggs : this was noted down. I was now prepared to
expect the death of my Mantis. This, however, did
not take place ; for she continued to devour daily some
dozens of flies, and occasionally large grasshoppers
and young frogs; and it even consumed lizards three
times its own length, as well as many large fat cater-K
pillars. By this abundant fare, its abdomen began to
swell considerably ; and on the 24th of October, it laid
eggs a second time ; and after this business was over,
which occupied several hours, it recommenced feeding
upon every living thing that was put in its way : its
abdomen swelled up again, and I fully expected to see
it lay eggs a third time; but this was doubtlessly pre-
vented by the increasing cold of the November nights ;
and in December, I observed that the tarsi of the crea-
ture had dried up and become useless. Its death now
evidently approached, and this took place on the 27th
of the same month. Whether it was impregnated
before it came into my possession, I do not know ; but
from the beginning of October to the end of December,
it lived solitary in a glass. The eggs of the first gene-
ration were hatched upon the 26th of May of the fol-
lowing year. An interval of three weeks had elapsed
between the laying of the first and the second lots :
I therefore thought a similar time would intervene
THE PHASMIN^. 347
between their hatching; but in this I was deceived, for
the second brood left their shells three days after the first,
viz. on the 29th of May. I now had my room full of
young Mantes. I fed some with small flies, and their
actions and mode of feeding were precisely like those
of the older ones." The antennae of the males of some
are bipectinated, as in Empusa, Blcpharis, and Harpasc ;
and the resemblance to vegetables is considerably in-
creased in others, by the foliaceous appendages of their
legs and prothorax, as inHymenopus, Phyllocrania, &c.;
and this resemblance is enhanced by their usually green
or grey colours, and it is rarely that they exhibit a me-
tallic brilliancy ; the genus Metalleutica, however, displays
this peculiarity, especially in a species we possess from
New Holland, although the genus is usually Indian.
These insects have a wide geographical range, being
found in all the hotter regions of the earth : the extra-
ordinary little Eremophila, with its abbreviated elytra,
appears, however, confined to Northern Africa, and the
contiguous parts of Asia, where they are the inhabitants
of the most arid sandy wastes, skipping about upon the
surface of the burning sands, as the Hydrometrce do
upon the water.
(306.) In the extraordinary peculiarities of personal
appearance, the Mantince are far surpassed by their
near neighbours, the Phasmince, in which vegetable re-
semblances are quite complete ; for their wings and their
elytra are frequently perfect leaves, as in Phyllium sic-
cifolium ; and where this is not the case, the body is
lengthy and cylindrical, like a dry stick or straw. The
latter form is strongly exhibited in Diura Chronos, a
native of Van Diemen's land, an insect in which the
body is eight inches long, and which has very small
wings ; others are totally apterous, as in Bacteria and
Bacillus. In Ectatosoma tiaratum, and Eurycanthus,
monstrosity reaches its acme ; the former has dilated
spined legs, a swollen body, with foliaceous appendages
also spined. In others, again, the male is winged, and the
female apterous. Cyphocrania exhibits species with the
348 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
largest wings, and also the longest insects; and their wings
are usually of a delicate rosy tint : but we must hasten
on to the Gryllince, which, although forming a small
group,, are of a very marked character. They are usually
robust. In Schizodactylus, a native of China, the tarsi
are elegantly lameilated laterally; the tibiae are very
spinose ; and the extremity of their hemelytra are beau-
tifully convoluted. The domestic cricket belongs to this
group, whose cheerful chirp enlivens the farmhouse
hearth. Here we have also the remarkable Xya, which,
like Gryllotalpa, is a burrowing insect : but in the latter,
the extraordinary palmated anterior tibiae, very like a
dilated hand and fingers, the structure requisite, as in
that of the mole, for its burrowing habits, reaches its
highest perfection, and to which w r e find a sort of ana-
logical resemblance in the anterior tibise of the burrow-
ing Carabidce, and in the structure of the prothorax in
the genus Chiron. The little Sphcerium acervorum is
an inhabitant of ants' nests : its four anterior legs are
slender; it is quite apterous; and has, perhaps, the most
largely developed posterior femora throughout the circle.
It is supposed that it feeds exclusively upon the roots
of plants. Equally apterous is the genus Cylindrodes,
an elongate cylindrical insect, and one of the most ex-
traordinary forms throughout the group.
(307.) In the LocustincB, we find in the genus Ptero-
chroza, a remarkable similitude to many of the Phas-
mince, in the resemblance of its elytra and wings to
leaves, but from which group its saltatorial legs remove
it. It is difficult to draw the strict line of separation be-
tween these and the preceding group, excepting, perhaps,
in the number of the joints of the tarsi, which are here
four; their antennae are equally setaceous, which separates
them from the Acridince : they are usually more com-
pressed in form, and less robust; their tarsi, besides, have
a vesicular sole. In some, as Bradyporus and its allies,
the head is exceedingly large, and in Anostostoma, in-
sects from New Holland, there is a remarkable develop-
ment of the mandibles. In the division with smaller
THE ACBIDINyE. 349
heads,, we observe the remarkable Acridopeza, also from
New Holland, in which the female is short,, convex, and
ovate, and the male elongate and slender. It is in the
genus Decticus, belonging to this group, that we find
the species called verrucivorus ; which has its name
from being used as a specific to eat away warts: pos-
sibly this is effected by the acrid secretion it instils into
the wound it makes with its mandibles : and it is the
closely allied typical genus Locusta which offers us, in
the viridissima, our largest native species.
(308.) The next family, the Acridince, constitute
the true grasshoppers, insects whose song and vivacity
give cheerfulness to the noontide languor of a summer's
day. They are distinguished chiefly by their antennae
being shorter than half the length of the body, and dis-
tinctly articulated; the posterior legs being always salta-
torial; their tarsi three- jointed, and all the tarsi alike.
Some are apterous, as Batrachotetrix and Proscopia,
the latter very much resembling one of the stick-like
Phasmina. There is greater uniformity in the struc-
ture of their wings than throughout the rest of the
circle, and these organs in repose form a very com-
pressed roof over it; and the four are always of the same
length ; the true wings having frequently considerable
expansion, and are often gaily or gaudily coloured, -
sometimes being of a bright scarlet, or of a rich purple,
as are the insects themselves, although greens are the
prevalent tints. A leading characteristic in these in-
sects is doubtlessly the diversities of structure observ-
able in their prothorax, which, in Acridium, is usually
produced, posteriorly, as long as the body. In Trux-
alis, the antenna are fusiform, and the head is remark-
ably formed, having the forehead considerably produced;
and in Pneumora. the abdomen is inflated into a
large semitransparent bladder: but the (Edipoda mi-
gratoria is the species which has obtained the widest
celebrity, from its assumed migratorial and destructive
habits. The narrative, as regards their flying to con-
siderable distances, is possibly fabulous ; but there is
350 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
no question that in some years, in which they have
acquired excessive prolificness, they may make de-
structive excursions. All hooks on entomology are
redundant with its history : we shall, therefore, on ac-
count of our limited space, proceed to the Blattinai,
which, probably, would more properly come into our
third family. These are distinguished by their elytra
lapping one over the other, and being entirely coriaceous,
beneath which the wings are folded longitudinally: their
antennae are setaceous, and their legs all cursorial, with
pentamerous tarsi. Some genera, as usual, are entirely
apterous, at least, winged individuals have not yet been
seen belonging to them ; and this is the case in the New
Holland Polyzosteria, one of the largest insects of
the sub-family, and which is of a bronzy metallic tint.
In Perysphceria and Heterogamia, the male is winged,
and the female apterous. The majority, however, are
winged insects in their final condition. They are lu-
cifugous, and feed chiefly at night. Commerce has
introduced many species to our sea-ports, some of which
have gradually spread all over the country; two of
which especially, the common black beetles, the Peri-
planeta Americana and Orientalis, are found in kitchens
and warm cupboards where provisions are kept : when
at large, they generally occur in obscure places or be-
neath stones, and sally forth, after night-fall, in search
of their prey. They are usually of a bright or dark brown
colour: some are livid or testaceous, as, for instance,
Blabera gigantea, which is the largest in the circle; and
a few are gaily coloured, as in Corydia and Phoraspis.
We find at large, in our woods, and beneath stones, the
Blatta Laponica and Germanica. The remarkable cap-
sule which contains their eggs, is a phenomenon oc-
curring no where else in the insect world, as it is formed
within the abdomen of the female : it is an oblong,
flattened brown sheath, within which the eggs are de-
posited in two rows ; and the female carries this attached
to her abdomen until the eggs are nearly mature, when
she lets it fall, and the compressed edge bursts open,
THE FORFICULID^J AND STREPS1PTERA. 351
and the young creep forth with the shell of the egg
still adhering to them.
(S09-) Our next family, the FORFICULID^, is a group
of still smaller extent, which are known by the name of
earwigs, and are distinguished by their abbreviated pa-
rallel elytra, thus resembling the Staphylinidce, and
whereby the Coleoptera and Orthoptera seem in some
measure connected; and also by their elegant delicate and
expansive wings, which in repose fold in radii diverging
from a nearly central spot. Their tarsi are trimerous ;
and the apex of the abdomen is furnished with a couple
of elongate curved horny processes, which are usually
forcipate and capable of being used as prehensile organs,
being articulated at the base : the antennae are setaceous,
and variable in the number of the joints. Some, like
some of the Blattince, are apterous. These peculiarities
and differences of structure have led to generic sub-
division. The female covers her eggs as assiduously as
a hen; and a similar instance of this brooding we have
already observed in the Hymenoptera, in the genus
Perya. The Forficulce are very destructive in gardens,
to flowers and fruits, which they much deface; but the
bad reputation they have acquired, and which their ver-
nacular name implies, is not merited, and the circum-
stance totally fabulous. It is unfortunate that such
reprehensible mistakes should exist, as those which attach
to very many insects; for they tend to foster prejudices
which necessarily obstruct the progress of knowledge,
by making objects abhorrent to inspection, which, when
investigated, present as large, but a more readily acces-
sible, field for instruction, delight, and amusement, as
any throughout nature; none of which, however, surpass,
perhaps, the extraordinary little parasites which form
the contents of our next sub-family,
(310.) The STYLOPID.E, or Strepsiptera. The situ-
ation of these insects is one of perplexing interest.
They are parasites upon some of the genera of bees and
wasps ; and the peculiarities of their structure and eco-
nomy have made them a problem which entomologists
352 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
have not yet solved. The first discovery of one of these
insects was made by Rossi, who found it upon the Po-
listes Gallica, and established for it the genus Xenos ;
and Mr. Kirby subsequently observed a Stylops emerg-
ing from its obtected pupa-case between the abdominal
segments of an Andrena. The whole structure of these
insects is very remarkable: their antennae are either au-
riculated, as in Sty lops; furcated,, as in Xenos; or flabel-
lated, as in Halictophagus ; and robust, compared with
the insects : their head transverse, with sub-pedunculated
eyes, consisting of comparatively few and separated hex-
agons. The mouth is of singular structure : the man-
dibles are apparently obsolete; it has no obvious labrum;
the labium and mentum are invisible ; and its trophi are
reduced to apparently a couple of setiform maxillae, with
an enormously large two-jointed maxillary palpus af-
fixed externally at their base ; the prothorax is trans-
verse and narrow ; the mesothorax also narrow, with a
couple of lateral distorted articulated appendages, the
analogues of elytra ; and the metathorax is very largely
developed, occupying more than one half of the insect;
and this gives room for the exercise of the large muscles
required for the movement of its expansive semicircular
wings, which fold longitudinally in repose, and rest
upon the body. These are without nervures, although
there is a slight indication of something like them, some-
what analogous to the irregularity of neuration we find
in the wings of the Coleoptera; and we strongly incline
to the opinion, that they have considerable analogy to
the eccentric genus Atractocerus, where we have also a
greatly enlarged metathorax, wings folding longitudi-
nally, and minute and all but obsolete wing-cases. The
tarsi of these insects vary in the number of their joints,
from two to four, and these are all furnished beneath
with a vesicular cushion, and they are without terminal
claws. These insects fly with a sort of undulating
motion, and are very conspicuous objects in the clear
sunshine. Their sexual differences are unknown ;
and it is assumed that those hitherto described are all
males, and that possibly the females are apterous:
THE EPHEMERIN^E. 353
this point, and many other particulars relative to them,
are still involved in deep mystery, which time and care-
ful observation only will elucidate. We place them in
this circle, as its most aberrant group.
(311.) We now enter our fifth circle, comprising
the group of the PHRYGANID.E, the majority of which,
in their preliminary stages, inhabit the water ; and
throughout the whole of which we find a uniformity of
texture in their four or two wings, which peculiarity
we quitted in leaving our first circle, the Libellulidce.
The first sub-family of these constitute the Epheme-
rince; the brevity of the lives of which, in their perfect
state, have furnished moralists with a comparison for
the shortness and vanity of the life of man. In many
particulars of structure, these insects bear a strong af-
finity to the first sub-family of our first typical circle of
the Neuroptera, viz. the Libellulince. Like them, these
are destitute of palpi ; and they have short, subulated
antenna, and they likewise exhibit a large developement
of the eyes : in their wings, however, we observe a con-
siderable difference j for in the present sub-family, the
secondary wings are considerably the least in size ; and,
as a necessary consequence, there is a smaller develope-
ment of the meta thorax, the reverse of what we find in
the Libellulinte; but these wings are always expanded,
and never folded. In the Ephemerince, we observe con-
sider able sexual discrepancies in the length of the anterior
elongated legs, which are protruded forwards, and evi-
dently serve, as in some of the gnats, for organs of
touch ; and the apex of their abdomen is furnished with
two or three lengthy and articulated setae. There is
much resemblance between the larva and the perfect
insect. These larvae breathe by branchiae, and they oc-
cupy burrows formed in the mud of the banks of the
streams wherein they dwell : they feed upon the larvae
of other insects, or animalcule, which they bring within
their reach through the motion given by their branchiae
to the water : they possess very large mandibles, which,
besides assisting them in the capture of their prey,
354 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
enable them to make their burrows. They possess
three long legs attached to their large thorax, all of
which are bent forwards : their branchiae are affixed on
each side of the abdomen ; and of these there are usually
seven pairs, which occupy the place subsequently held
by the stigmata in the perfect insect ; there are varieties
of structure in these organs in the several genera of
which the sub-family is composed. Swammerdam in-
forms us that they are three years in acquiring their full
growth ; this is a remarkable circumstance, considering
the shortness of their lives afterwards. Having grown
to maturity, in which state anglers make use of them
as a bait, they quit their burrows, swim to the surface,
where their enveloping case splits, and from which the
insect extracts itself with expanded wings, and flying
to some neighbouring object on the shore, again uncases
itself; for, although it has already acquired its wings,
and the power of flight, a delicate membrane still clothes
it, of which, however, it speedily divests itself. The
insects sometimes abound in such profusion, that the
air is completely filled with them, and their dead bodies
have been strewed over the land as a rich manure; for
their life terminates with the execution of the function
for which they were solely transformed, that of
perpetuating the species, which is almost instantly
accomplished. The chief genera are Oxycypha y with
only two wings ; Cloe, with four, but the posterior ex-
tremely minute. Bactis and Ephemera have the in-
ferior wings larger ; but the former have three ocelli,
and the latter but two.
(312.) Our second sub-family, the Phryganin(z, is
of much larger extent than the preceding, and they
are known as " May flies." They constitute the order
Trichoptera of Kirby. Of all insects, they approach
the closest in resemblance to the Lepidoptera, their
wings being covered with hairs, or narrow scales ; and
in their transformations, also, they have a considerable
resemblance to that order ; from which, however, they
are sufficiently distinct in having a mandibulated mouth.
THE PHRYGANJN^E. 355
They have long setaceous antennae ; their wings are of
an unequal size, and are laid in repose, like those of a
moth, over their back ; their legs are usually long, and
their tibiae are variously furnished with spurs half way
up its shank. In their larva state, they reside in
cylindrical cases, but which, in Hydroptila, are kidney-
shaped, which are composed of a variety of substances,
as bits of stick or straw, or of small shells, or sometimes
of small stones, which are attached together by a silky
substance spun by the larva. The majority are con-
veyed about, either by the motion they can themselves
give to their case, or by the current of the water ; and
other cases are permanently affixed to stones beneath
the water ; and it is probable that^ upon each change of
skin, a fresh case is made. Like most aquatic larvae.,
they breathe by branchiae. Unlike the majority of the
rest of the Neuroptera, these larvae are very dissimilar
to the perfect insect, and which, extracted from its
case, is a soft worm-like creature, with the anterior
segments somewhat horny. Their branchiae are placed
along each side of the abdomen ; they are setiform, and
are usually arranged in stars, radiating from a centre.
Their anal segment has appendages which, as their
cases are open at each extremity, admit of their being^
used as feet, but which vary in structure in the genera.
They are indifferent in their diet, feeding as willingly
upon aquatic plants as upon other insects, and they are
excessively voracious. They are but one year under-
going their transformations, and to effect this, they
close both the apertures of their cases. They undergo
a complete metamorphosis ; and the perfect insect then
flies forth to feed upon the juices of flowers ; and when
impregnation has taken place, the female deposits upon
some water plant a mass of eggs enveloped in a thick
jelly-like substance. The most remarkable genera are
Acentropus and Hydroptila, in which, possibly, the
resemblance to the Lepidoptera is the strongest. In
Mystacides, the antennae are excessively long; in
Barypenthus, and in Sericostoma. the middle spurs of
A A 2
356 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OP INSECTS.
the tibiae are wanting ; and Phryganea itself exhibits
the largest species.
(313.) Our next sub-family, the Hemerobiince, offer
less harmony of general structure, either in the per-
fect insect or the larva. These insects are usually
called lace- wing flies, from the elegant reticulation of
those organs, which are of comparatively considerably
larger dimensions; and they differ from the last in
having the trophi free. They have rarely ocelli, and
their eyes have considerable metallic brilliancy : their
legs are short and slight, and their tarsi pentamerous.
Their larvae are not aquatic, but they are very ferocious
devourers of small insects ; this we have particularly
observed in that of Chrysopa perla ; and we have further
observed, in the transformations of this insect, that the
pupa creeps to some distance out of its cocoon when
ready to undergo its final change, and then casts off
its pellucid skin, and emerges as the perfect insect.
HemeroUus has usually its wings covered with minute
hairs, and Osmylus has them beautifully spotted : the
latter is remarkable, also, for the possession of ocelli, -
a circumstance of rare occurrence in this sub-family.
Although possessing large wings, they fly heavily, by
slowly flapping them, and their flights are very short.
They occur usually in hedges skirting brooks. Their
transformations approach closer to those of insects with
a complete metamorphosis ; and there is less resemblance
between the larva and the imago, than in any of
the preceding sub-families, excepting only the last. It is
in this same sub-family that we arrange Sialis and its
allies, Chauliodes and Corydalis : of these, the larva of
the first only has been observed, and which is aquatic ;
it is a common native. This larva is furnished with
branchiae, as in the Phryganince, and which are arranged
somewhat similarly to those insects, being attached to
the seven or eight first segments of the abdomen, but
ciliated ; it is gradually attenuated posteriorly, and has
a single caudal appendage ; and, like those insects, it
is probably carnivorous. Chauliodes and Corydalis are
THE PERLIN.E AND PSOCIN^E. 357
both North American genera, and are of conspicuous
size compared with the rest of the sub-family ; all that
are yet known exceeding an inch in dimensions. The
former is distinguished for its pectinated antennae ; and
one species of the latter, the C. cornuta, has, in the
male, largely developed mandibles, whence it has de-
rived its specific name.
(314.) The PerlincR are our next sub- family. These
insects possess four narrow naked wings, of which the
inferior, in repose, are folded ; the nervures are wider
apart than in the majority of the preceding sub-
families ; they are almost always obscurely coloured :
the insects are of a depressed form, with a large qua-
drate head. They fly rarely, and are very inert, allow-
ing themselves to be readily captured. Their larvae
inhabit the water, where they move by the rowing of
their legs ; and they feed upon other small insects : they
are more than a year undergoing their changes ; and
when they have attained their maturity, they creep up
the stem of some water plant, and there quietly await
the bursting of their skin, which speedily takes place
down the centre of the head and thorax ; and the perfect
insect then creeps forth, and flies off as soon as its
wings are thoroughly expanded. It is remarkable, that
the males are incapable of flight, owing to the frequent
shortness of their wings ; thus reversing what is usually
the case in insects, of the females being the least pro-
vided with these organs, when such a sexual disparity
exists. Nemura, Perla, and Eusthenia are the chief
genera. The last is a native of New Holland.
(3 1 5.) Our next, and the last sub- family, the Psocince,
is of equally limited extent. They are minute insects :
when winged, the wings are unequal in size, the an-
terior being considerably the largest, and they are loosely
covered with nervures. The typical genus, Psocus,
occurs about the stems of trees and on palings, and is
said to feed upon lichens. It is contiguous to these
insects that the genus Atropos is placed, and which con-
tains the so celebrated book-louse, famous for its reputed
A A 3
358 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSERTS.
ticking, whence it has also been called the death-watch
which is doubtlessly a fable, as it is more than probable
that the noise is produced by an Anobium; for it is
scarcely possible that so small and delicate an insect as
the Atropos should cause so loud a sound. These in-
sects are apterous, and are very destructive in neglected
collections of insects or plants ; but they are readily de-
stroyed by the smell of camphor. Although it occurs
frequently in old books, especially those which have
been exposed to damp, it either seeks their paste, or the
minute fungi developed by the moisture j and those holes,
so frequently found in such books, must be attributed
to the larvae of the Anobia, and other beetles of similar
habits. Only one exotic genus ( Thyrsophorus) of this
sub-family is known.- It is peculiar to the Brazils;
whereas the others are all natives of our own country,
[(299315.) W.E. Sh.]
359
PART III.
ON THE CLASS OF APTEROUS INSECTS.
CHAP. I.
ON THE APTERA GENERALLT.
(31 6.) THE second, or sub- typical, class of anmilose
animals is the APTERA of Aristotle; which is connected to
the Ptilota of the same immortal zoologist by the order
of Diptera. The general reader will readily understand
this class, on being told it contains the different families
of the spiders, centipedes, scorpions, crabs, and other
wingless groups, together with the flies; which, as stand-
ing at the confines of the whole, connect the apterous
orders with such as are provided with four wings.
(317-) Our definition of this group, in its primary
or typical characters, is in accordance with those of
Aristotle, Linnaeus, and Fabricius, three names quite
sufficient, if science reposed upon mere authority, to
counterbalance all those of modern times who hold op-
posite opinions. As we have simply defined an insect
to be a creature which moves on the earth by means of
jointed legs, so do we comprehend under the name of
Aptera y all such as are either destitute of wings in every
stage of their existence, or which have, in their adult
state, only two. Like the typical insects, they are all
more or less subject to metamorphosis, but in different
ways ; 'for this change is a primary character of the
typical Annulosa, and is even extended to one of the
aberrant classes, namely, the Cirrhipedes, or barnacles.
(318.) Before we enter further into this subject, it
A A 4
360 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
may be as well to examine the validity of the grounds
upon which the moderns have ventured to break up the
Aptera of Aristotle, and thus to render their definition
of an " insect " perfectly unintelligible to the world at
large. We will first endeavour to meet their arguments
upon general principles, and then to oppose them upon
other grounds. The French naturalists, Cuvier and
Latreille, upon discovering that the Crustacea breathed
by branchiae, at once separated them from insects, pro-
perly so called ; thereby assuming, that the mode by
which an animal breathes was, among the Annulosa, the
primary character to be looked to, and upon which we
were to decide what was, or was not, an insect. Now,
it is against this assumption, which is the very root of
all the modern changes introduced in the arrangement
of the annulose circle, that we take our stand. We
deny it is either logical in itself, or borne out by facts,
It is illogical, because it sets aside all the most pro-
minent distinctions by which insects are characterised
from other classes ; and makes that a primary principle
of separation, which does not even enter into the de-
finition of an annulose animal. If it be true, that the
Annulosa are characterised by their body and limbs
being articulated, by being provided with distinct feet,
and by undergoing a metamorphosis ; which, in the pre-
eminent types, gives to the adult insect the powers of
flight ; how, let us ask, can their mode of respiration be
placed higher than all these ? How can it be brought
in for the construction of primary divisions, when it
forms no part of the primary characters of the Annu-
losa ? The natural divisions of a group, such as this,
are indicated by the modifications of those characters
which are applicable to the whole ; and this we see is
actually the case, not merely with regard to insects, but
to all classes of animals. Thus, in the Ptilota. they are
all developed; in the Aptera, the metamorphosis is im-
perfect, and the wings disappear ; in the Cirrhipedes,
there are no true legs, as in the former ; and finally,
there remains, in the Verities and the Annelides, only
FORMER DIVISION OF THE APTERA UNNATURAL. 36l
the annulose body (and this often very obscurely ), to
indicate their connection to the annulose circle. The
very principle, therefore,, of introducing the mode of
respiration as a ground for founding classes and orders,
is radically vicious and unphilosophical.
(319-) The effect of attaching this imaginary im-
portance to the respiratory organs of insects, has led to
all that confusion and opposition of opinion, which might
naturally have been expected. The integrity of the
Aptera being once destroyed by the separation of the
Crustacea, and the principle being unthinkingly ad-
mitted, innumerable other dislocations followed. New
classes and new orders were proposed, and attempted to
be defined, by all who built their systems upon respir-
ation; and this was pushed so far, that the entire dis-
tribution of the Annulosa has actually been made to
hinge upon this single circumstance.* In proportion
to the multiplication of these new " classes," so was the
disunion of sentiment among those who advocated the
respiratory system ; they neither agreed, in fact, with
each other, nor with themselves. Dr. Leach changed his
System of the apterous groups two or three times ; La-
treille has done the same ; and ultimately we find
Messrs. Kirby and Spence rejecting all these, and pro-
posing a division called Aptera, which they themselves
are dissatisfied with, as not a natural, but a provisional
order. No wonder, therefore, that all these conflicting
theories "have much perplexed systematists," who really
seem to have become bewildered by their own refine-
ments.
(320.) Now, it would be well to ask, whether the
respiratory theory of entomologists is supported by any
analogous instances in other classes of animals ? and
whether the possession of gills, or sacs, or tracheae, have
been looked upon, by zoologists in general, of sufficient
importance to create distinct classes or orders ? No
* See Dr. Leach's arrangement, as given in Samouelle, Entom. Com-
pend. 75.
362 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
such instance, in fact, can be cited. Cuvier, indeed, has
done this in the case of the Syngnathida among fishes,
a single genus, which, because its branchiae are in tufts,
instead of being pectinated, as in most of the other
osseous fishes, he detaches as the type of a distinct
order; and yet the genus Heterobranchus, which has two
sorts of branchiae*, (a structure unexampled among
the whole class of Pisces,) is left with its natural
allies, and is only distinguished as a genus in the fa-
mily of Siluridat. Among the testaceous Mollusca,
again, the variations in the mode of breathing are still
more remarkable; and yet they are considered but of
very inferior moment, when compared with other points
of structure. Still more is it apparent in the class of
Amphibia^ where we find the branchiae external in one
group, internal in another, and absent in a third ; while,
among the salamanders (Urodela), the young have ex-
ternal branchiae, and the adult is furnished with cellular
lungs. The frogs (Anoura), when tadpoles, have ex-
ternal branchiae, which disappear in the perfect animal,
and become internal. The whole of the Animal King-
dom, in short, exhibits instances of this. It has been
observed by a well-known writer, that Cuvier never
made a more palpable mistake, than when he attempted
to arrange the Mollusca according to their several systems
of generation and respiration.
(321.) Reverting, then, to the enlarged views of the
early writers relative to the Aptera, we shall at once look
to the class before us as composed of the five following
orders, whose relations to the corresponding group of
Ptilota will be subsequently noticed : I. The ARACH-
NIDA, or spiders, consisting of insects whose head is
confounded with the thorax, and whose mandibles assume
the appearance of fangs, or hooks, from which they are
capable of ejecting a poisonous liquor : the body is ge-
nerally short, oval, and pedunculated ; and the legs are
eight. II. The MYRIAPODA, or centipedes, having the
* Classification of Fishes, i. 359.
THE SUCTORIA. 363
body greatly lengthened, the head distinct, and a great
number of feet. III. The CRUSTACEA, or crabs, which
are enveloped by a hard or crustaceous covering ; live
in the water, and breathe by branchiae ; the head being
apparently confounded with the thorax. IV. The SUC-
TORIA, or fleas : the body is compressed, and covered
transversely with hard and. polished plates, and with four
minute scales, which indicate the position of the wings
of flying insects. V. The DIPTERA, or two-winged
insects, which, like the last order, imbibe their nourish-
ment by suction.
(322.) The isolated position which belongs to the
fourth of these orders, is, we apprehend, entirely caused
by the fact of its containing not more individual species
than would form a sub-genus, while, in itself, it ranks
as an order : this rank has been assigned to it ever since
the days of De Geer, who was the first writer that thus
detached it; arid whose name of Suctoria we shall retain,
in common justice to so great a man. We shall not
enter into the conflicting opinions of the moderns re-
lative to the situation of these singular insects ; for a
chapter might be so filled, and the reader, in the end,
left pretty nearly in the same state of uncertainty as at
first. We would simply call the attention, even of the
most unscientific, to those little crustaceous insects so
common among sea- weed on sandy shores, and then ask
him what insects can possibly be more like, in habits
and appearance, than these are to fleas ? their very name
of sand fleas at once shows that this resemblance is so
strong that every body perceives it ; and however the
two may differ, when we come to anatomical details and
technical refinements, these will never alter the similitude,
or persuade an unscientific person that they do not come
wonderfully near to each other. We consider, therefore,
that the order Suctoria is more clearly related, by affi-
nity, to the Crustacea than to any other ; but this being
admitted, we confess our entire ignorance of what re-
semblance it has to the Diptera, beyond the fact of both
being perfectly suctorial orders. The only great hiatus.,
364 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
or interruption,, therefore, of the circular succession of
the Aptera, as here arranged, appears to be at this point ;
since the resemblance which certain extreme Crustacea
possess to such forms as Oniscus, renders the union of
both sufficiently clear. From the Diptera, therefore,
to the Arachnida, the passage is at once opened by Nyc-
teribia ; from the spiders to the centipedes, and from
these to the Crustacea, the line of affinity is preserved;
while what has been said of the resemblance between
the marine and the land fleas, is all but demonstra-
tive that the whole form a circle, since the situations
of Diptera and Suctoria are established, not by their
own union, but by their connection to the orders which
either precede or follow them.
(323.) We now come to the analogies, which may be
thus exhibited as referring to the Ptilota.
Analogies of the APTERA to the PTILOTA.
Orders of the ,*../;,. Orders of the
Aptera. Analogies. Ptilota.
C Sub-typical : feet the same in their 7
ARACHNIDA. \ larva and perfect state. j
rPre-e
< circl
C. larv
r Pre-eminently typical of their own T.
MYRIAPODA. -J circles ; feet variable in their > LEPIDOPTERA.
" irva and perfect state. J
CRUSTACEA. Head large. Aquatic. NEUROPTERA.
SUCTORIA. Body encased in hard plates. COLEOPTERA.
DIPTERA. Winged in their adult state. HYMENOPTERA.
(324.) In our former volumes, we have had frequent
occasion to notice the occasional transportation, as it
were, of the analogies of the typical groups in two dif-
ferent circles ; as a consequence of some variation in the
dispositions of the groups, thus brought into parallel
comparison, for which we were unable to account. We
have before observed that the tendency of metamor-
phosis in the Ptilota is to give wings to the perfect in-
sect ; while, in that of our Aptera, it is to give an
increase in the number of feet. Now, if this theo-
retically be true, the philosophical inference will be,
that the Myriapoda are the types of the Ptilota ;
ANALOGIES OF THE APTERA. 365
for the first have the greatest developement of the feet,
just as the other has of the wings. It is not a little
extraordinary, indeed, that the first have the fewest,
and the latter have the most, feet, in their larva state :
here, then, is certainly an analogy, although it cannot
be expressed succinctly in words. On the other hand,
the lulidfB, again, which are certainly the types of the
Myriapoda, agree with the Lepidoptera in not being
carnivorous ; and this is a material point of similitude ;
so that we see the two pre-eminently typical groups
agree in many important particulars : on the other hand,
when we consider that the spiders and the lepido-
pterous larvae, are the only insects having the power of
spinning, we are tempted to believe, that they are true
representations of each other ; and that the Myriapoda
represent the Hemiptera not the Lepidoptera. We
state all these circumstances, leaving the question to be
decided by others, although we ourselves believe the
former to be the correct mode of viewing the subject.
The analogy which many authors, particularly MacLeay,
conceive the Suctoria to have with the Coleoptera, is
strengthened by the foregoing table; and it is quite clear
they represent each other, just as the Crustacea typify
the aquatic Neuroptera : as for the resemblance between
the Diptera and the Hymenoptera, it is not merely an
analogy, but an affinity, and this so close as to be ob-
vious to every one. The analogies, in fact, between the
two great typical classes of insects, are so complete, as to
leave no doubt that they are founded in nature.
(325.) The use of these comparisons, however, is not
merely confined to the developement of analogies. They
prove, if any thing can prove, the rank of the divisions
belonging to each ; and show, in the clearest manner, that
if those in which the Ptilota are at first divided, are really
orders, those of the Aptera are nothing higher. The
Neuroptera, in fact, are as much entitled to be termed
a class, in the usual acceptation of the term, as are the
Crustacea; for structure, and not numerical amount, is
to be looked to in all questions of this sort ; and if the
366 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
groups in equivalent circles correspond in some one
or more characters, peculiar to them alone, they must
be inevitably of the same value.
(326.) Having now endeavoured to place the primary
divisions of apterous insects upon a more determinate
footing than has hitherto been done, we shall not attempt
to indicate, even by synthesis, the natural division of fa-
milies which must belong to each. Our object is to indi-
cate the road to natural arrangement, not to follow it up
in detail. The groups of the Aptera we have adopted,
are those of our predecessors : the only novelty consists
in an attempt to determine their relative value, and to
establish their relations to other groups. This done, we
shall, in the following pages, merely give the general
reader an idea of the insects contained in each, without
any attempt at determining their limits, or the system-
atic order in which the families should stand.
CHAP. II.
APTERA, continued.
ON THE DIPTERA, ARACHNIDA, CRUSTACEA, MYRIAPODA, AND
SUCTORIA.
(327.) NOT having thoroughly analysed the families
of which our circle of APTERA consist, we prefer giving
a rapid sketch of its contents, as investigated by the
latest and best systematists, to leaving the scheme im-
perfect by the omission. The first family comprised
within this circle are the Diptera ; and, although it
may appear a contradiction to speak of so large an order
of insects as the Diptera, under the general denomina-
tion of Aptera, yet, as they form the most aberrant sub-
family in the circle, this difficulty is removed, as they
constitute the direct point of contact with the pre-
ceding circle of the Ptilota. The Diptera comprise a
STRUCTURE OF THE DIPTERA. 3&J
host of insects, the most general character of which is
to possess two membranous wings, with their disk
variously occupied with longitudinal nervures and com-
paratively few transverse ones, these wings are affixed
to the mesothorax, and are thus analogous to the
superior wings of those insects which have four genuine
wings, or to the elytra or heme]ytra of those in which
the superior wings are supplanted by such appendages.
In addition to these two wings, and attached behind
them, are a couple of usually clavated organs, having a
moderate peduncle ; these are called halteres, or poisers ;
they are articulated organs, but the uses of which are
not known, although they may not be considered as
analogous to the secondary wings of the other orders.
In addition to these organs, very many possess a con-
cavo-convex scale, which covers the halteres, and which
is called the alula, or winglet. Being exclusively suc-
torial insects, and feeding upon liquids, their trophi, or
organs whereby they take their food, consist of a flexible
proboscis, modified in a variety of ways in the different
families, but always analogous to the structure we have
before described in mandibulated insects : thus, we find
the theca, or sheath, which represents the labiunr, and
which encases the proboscis ; further, the haustellum,
which consists most generally of two pieces analogous
to the labrum ; occasionally of two others, which are
called the cultelli, or knives, which possibly represent
the mandibles ; and there are rarely two others, called
the scalpella, which may remind us of the maxillae ;
and there are, in addition to these, two palpi. It thus
amply differs from the trophi of all other haustellate
insects. These are the most general characters, whereby
the entire order is distinguished. Within themselves,
the modifications of structure which they exhibit, furnish
the characters upon which their distribution is founded.
The most prominent of these are supplied by their
antennae, which, considered typically, consist of but
three joints j but, attached to the third, we frequently
detect a setaceous appendage. In the first division,
368 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
however, they have never less than six joints, and
usually more than twelve. The eyes of the Diptera
exhibit some remarkable peculiarities, and frequently
sexual discrepancies : these organs, in the male, often
occupying nearly the whole of the head ; and they are
often densely ciothed with hair, a structure that would
almost seem to impede vision ; and another singular
circumstance is, that, although the hexagonal structure
of the facets of which the composite eyes are composed
is universal, yet the several families, genera, species,
and sexes exhibit peculiar arrangements of different
sizes of these facets in the same eyes ; a fact, which,
although exhibited by Hook in his enlarged eye of
TabanuSj was left unnoticed by himself, and never,
subsequently, observed or heeded by systematists or
anatomists, although it displays such striking pecu-
liarities.
(328.) The general integument of these insects is of
as fragile a texture as in many of the Neuroptera y and
the rest of their structure is perfectly analogous to the
parts of other insects. All these structural particulars,
however, undergo an infinity of modifications which are
nowhere stationary; and the forms of their bodies are
as variously different. These insects are usually ovi-
parous, but they present two remarkable exceptions ;
for in Sarcophaga they are viviparous, or produce their
larvae hatched ; and in the terminal division, the Pupi-
para, they are pupiparous, and bring forth their young
advanced to the stage of pupae, and thus form a re-
mote analogy to the marsupial animals. Under the
several families, we shall observe other peculiarities
incidental to the preliminary stages of their existence.
The transformation of the majority into the pupa state
is also very peculiar ; for, instead of spinning a co-
coon, or forming a cell, the skin of the larva hardens,
and thus makes a case, within which the changes
take place. In their perfect state, they are possibly
not inferior to any order in the multiplicity of forms
which they exhibit; whereas, in the abundance of
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE DIPTEBA. S6$
individuals, they certainly surpass all ; no place or time
is unfurnished with them, and usually in enormous pro-
fusion. Life thus multiplies life; for the multitudes
of birds that they support, contributes to vary its exten-
sion over the earth; but the chief function that they
exercise in the economy of nature, is to contribute to-
wards the destruction of those substances which, in a
state of corruption, would tend otherwise, by poisoning
the air, to produce disease and mortality. Further pe-
culiarities in their economy we shall briefly notice as we
pass rapidly through the families ; and we shall now,
therefore, quit this generalisation, and proceed to the
investigation of the contents of the order, and their dis-
tribution.
(S29-) The two primary groups, the NEMOCEBA and
BBACHOCERA, into which they have been divided, ac-
cording to the number of the joints of their antennae,
are of very unequal extent. The first, or NEMOCEBA,
are those which possess more than six joints to the
organ, and comprises the Cullces and Tipulce. The
former are perhaps the most highly organised, in every
respect, of all the Diptera; and to the perfection of
their suctorial apparatus the majority of us can attest,
from our individual experience of what is. called the
sting of a gnat. Their larvse are aquatic, and are those
singular little red worms, large at one extremity, that
we frequently observe in stagnant waters ; they move
by a sort of jump ; and, breathing by means of anal
tracheae, they frequently resort to the surface, to imbibe
a fresh supply of air. These are all small insects, and
all the genera are natives of this country, but Cu lea? is
the most abundant in species. The Tlpulce } which
form the second group, are less highly organised in the
structure of their mouths only. The typical genera are
well known as " Father long-legs ; " and, in their larva
state, many of them are very injurious to the roots of
grass. They form a large tribe, subdivided by struc-
ture, but named from the places or substances they
B B
370 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
frequent. Thus we have Culiciform Tipulce, terricole
Tipulce, fungicole Tipulce, gallicole Tipulce, and floral
Tipulce. They have been very aptly compared, from
the multitude of tribes,, genera, and species occurring
in them, to the large coleopterous families of Curculi-
onidce and Car abides, wherein Nature exhibits an inex-
haustible diversity, combined with a typical unity : but
we must hasten on, with merely observing, that in the
Tipulce they exhibit to us the largest native Diptera;
and in Ctenophora we find the most elegant structure of
the antennae, which are bipectinated, in the males, with
alternate long and short branches. And in Chironomus
we have the extraordinary instance of larvae living in a
social community at the bottom of ponds and brooks.
We also find amongst them the remarkable little Chio-
nea, which, as its name signifies, occurs only on the
snow; and which, from its being apterous, has very
much the appearance of a spider : and the North
American Bittacomorpha is remarkable for the excessive
incrassation of its tarsi. Among the fungivorous Ti-
pulce, the genus Gnorista has a singular elongation of
its head and front ; this produced portion being half as
long again as the head itself. Cecidomya and Lasi-
optera are the representatives of the gallicole Tipulce;
and, like the Cynipidce amongst the Hymenoptera, their
larvae live in the galls of plants, which the puncture of
the parent insect forms : and it is amongst the former
that the terrific destroyer of wheat is found, which is
known in America by the name of the " Hessian fly ;"
as also in the tribe of floral Tipulce, we find the genus
Simulium, which use their anterior tarsi as feelers; and
the number of the individuals of which, in some coun-
tries, is so great, that they become an oppressive pest
to man and animals.
(330.) The second division, or BBACHOCERA, have
never more than three joints to the antennae, the last of
which, however, undergoes a multitude of forms, and is
usually accompanied with a style, or seta : they are sub-
divided into three smaller divisions, depending upon the
THE TETRACH^ET^E. 371
number of setae that accompany the oral apparatus ;
thus, the HexaclicetcB have six., the Tetrachcetce four,
and the Dichcetce two.
(331.) The first of these subdivisions, or HEXA-
CHIETJE,, comprises insects which, as their very name im-
plies, possess a highly organised mouth ; and consequently
we observe amongst them those which feed upon the
blood of the Mammalia, and for which purpose they
were furnished with the apparatus of lancets their
mouth contains. They are usually insects of a very ro-
bust form; and, by the subdivision of the third joint of
their antennae, they appear to indicate their proximity
to the Nemocera. Their tarsi are furnished with three
vesicles ; and the reticulation of nervures of their
wings exhibit high organisation. Amongst these are the
Tabaniy and their allies, Hcematopota and Chrysops,
all blood-thirsty creatures, and which, in the woods, in
summer, constantly alight upon the entomologist's face
and hands, and put him to considerable pain. Indeed,
it is related that Messrs Kirby and MacLeay were frus-
trated in an entomological excursion by the prevalence
of these insects, against the severe punctures of which
they could find no protection. These are all more or
less distinguished for the excessive brilliancy of their
eyes whilst alive, which surpass the most vivid gems in
lustre, especially the latter genus, which deduces its
name from the circumstance. Raphiorhynchus, named
from its curved and produced clypeus, and Acanthome-
rus, which has spined femora, are large exotic genera
peculiar to the Brazils ; and Pangonia longirostris y in
which the proboscis is several times longer than the
body, is a native of India.
(332.) The second subdivision, the TETRACH^ET^E,
which are deficient in one pair of setae to the mouth,
have usually the terminal joint of their antennae simple,
or with an apical seta consisting of three divisions,
which seem an obsolete indication of its previously de-
veloped structure. They have, further, but two vesi-
cular soles to their tarsi, and their wings have less com-
B B 2
3J2 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS,
plication in their neuration than the preceding. They
form a large host, and are divided into three families,
viz. the Notacantha, the Tanystoma, and the Brachy-
stoma. The first family,, or JVotacantha, are distin-
guished by having the third joint of their antennae
annulated, thus somewhat resembling the Hexachcetce.
They are all more or less characterised by the spines of
their scutellum. whence their name ; and they form
three tribes the Sicarii, the Xylophaga, and the Stra-
tiomycB. The larvae of the second of these have been
observed to live in putrescent wood. The Brazilian
genus, Hermetia, in the same tribe, is peculiar for the
pellucid spots at the base of the abdomen. Xylophaga
is an extremely rare British genus. The third tribe,
the Stratiomyce. are all more or less attached to the
water or its vicinity. Thus, Stratiomya is found only
in such situations, and its larva occurs in stagnant pools;
this is elongate,, and depressed, and attenuated at the
posterior extremity ; and these insects are constantly
found upon aquatic flowers; whereas the brilliantly me-
tallic Sargus settles only upon foliage. The bodies of
all these insects are considerably depressed, and their
wings have a central, rather large, cell. Ephippium is
of very rare occurrence as a British insect ; and is of an
intense black, with a bright red thorax : none of the
family are of large dimensions.
(333.) The second family, or Tanystoma, contains
the giants among the Diptera, and includes insects of
great variety of habits and of forms. Their combining
character is, however, to have the third joint of their
antennae simple, with a terminal seta ; a coriaceous ros-
trum, which is usually slender and lengthy. The Asi-
HdcB are probably the most typical; and are very rapa-
cious insects, feeding upon every thing else that they
can conquer. Megapoda is remarkable for its lengthy
slender legs and large size, and is peculiar to the Brazils;
whence also Mallophora, with its hairy body, comes, and
which, thus much, resemble, the Bombi. Dasypogori,
Dioctria, and Asilus are native genera, and the latter
THE VESICULOSA. 373
appears to be of universal distribution. But the most
gigantic in the tribe are found in the genus Mydas,
which are likewise insects of prey, and sometimes nearly
two inches long. The third and fourth tribes, the Hybo-
tidae and Empidte, still retain the sanguinary habits of
the preceding; but they are much smaller insects; and
the latter, especially, have usually very elongated rostra,
and seize their prey in flight, although they do not dis-
dain the nectar of flowers. In this same tribe, the Hi-
lar& are peculiar for the dilatation of their anterior tarsi
in the males ; and they have the habit of dancing upon
the surface of the water in brooks and ponds without
any fear of submersion. The present is a large tribe,
consisting of many genera of small insects.
(334.) The fifth tribe, or the Vesiculosa, are re-
markably gibbous insects, with very minute heads,
which are nearly lost in comparison with the rest of
the body, and almost wholly occupied by their eyes ;
and they have also lengthy rostra, although in some it
is nearly obsolete. Their wings, in repose, are placed
in a sort of roof over the body. These insects are all
attached to flowers, and their preliminary stages are
unknown. The sixth tribe, or Nemestrinida, have a
considerable resemblance to the Bombylii, from which,
however, the peculiar neuration of their wings estranges
them ; for in these organs they closely resemble Mydas:
the two genera known are exotic and rare insects. The
seventh tribe comprises the Bornbyliida, which are
distinguished for their short hairy body and lengthy
proboscis, which is sometimes considerably longer than
the insect. They have usually great power of flight,
and accomplish it with remarkable velocity ; and many
of them take their food, like some of the sphinges and
humming-birds, whilst hovering over the flower which
contains it. They consist of several genera, the most
of which are exotic. The eighth and last tribe of the
TETRACH^ET^ TANYSTOMA,, consists of the Anthracidce,
insects almost wholly remarkable for their intensely
black colour, and beautiful wings, variegated with
B B 3
3j4f NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
black markings,, especially in the type Anthrax itself)
and which is likewise distinguished for its reniform
eggs, a structure rarely occurring among the Diptera.
As an elegant contrast to their deep mourning garb,
they are frequently decorated with bands of bright
silvery hair, which gives them an extremely beautiful
appearance. They are chiefly inhabitants of the warmer
climates, where they appear to abound.
(835.) The third family of the TETRACH^T^, and
the sixth of the entire order, is occupied by the Brachy-
stoma. These have a short and membranous proboscis,
the terminal lobes of which are considerably thickened :
the third joint of their antennae is simple, with its seta
usually dorsal. They consist of insects of great variety
of form, and are separated into four tribes ; 1 . The
Xylotomidce ; 2. Leptidce ; 3. Dolichopido} ; and, 4. Syr-
phidce. The three first are distinguished by their lengthy
and slender legs, and frequently gay metallic colouring.
The majority are floral insects. In the Leptidce, we
find the remarkable genus Vermileo, the larva of which
forms a pitfall for its prey, very similar to that we have
described in giving the habits of the Myrmecoleon
among the Neuroptera ; and among the Dolychopidce,
the male legs of Medeterus are curiously distorted. The
last tribe of this family we find occupied by the Syr-
phidce, which certainly exhibit the most elegant insects
throughout the Diptera. They are usually depressed
and ornamented with beautiful colours. It forms a
very large group, embracing more than forty genera ;
and in which, consequently, the typical organisation
undergoes considerable variety of modification. In
Ceria and Callicera, the antennae are much developed,
and very elegant : in Volucella we find a mimicking
resemblance of the bee ; and which, also, in the larva
state, inhabit their nests : the Helophili are gay in-
sects, residing in the vicinity of water, especially where
there is an abundance of reeds and rushes : Merodon,
Tropidia, and Xylota have greatly enlarged posterior
thighs : Rhingia has an elongated clypeus and pro-
SUBDIVISION OF THE ATHERICERA. 3?5
fooscis ; but it is in Syrphus, Milesia, and Cheilosia, that
perhaps the most elegant species occur : and Baccha,
lastly,, is remarkable for its lengthy and slender body.
(336.) The third general subdivision consists of
the T)icnjTJ the characters of which are to have two
setae to the proboscis ; the antennae usually patelliform,
with a dorsal seta, or tuberculiform. In these insects,
also,, we find a gradual obliteration of the nervures of
the wings, which speedily become considerably reduced
in quantity. These form two families the Athericera
and the Pupipara ; the first of which is distinguished
by the sucking tube being contained within the pro-
boscis, and the terminal joint of the antenna? usually
patelliform. These are subdivided into eight tribes ;
1. The Scenopinidae ; 2. The Cephalopsida ; 3. TheLon-
chopteridce; 4. The Platypezidce ; 5 The Conopsidce ;
6. TheMyopid<z; 7. The (E ' strides; and, 8. The Muscidce.
The first six of these tribes have but little connecting
affinity, and seem to associate themselves here, from no
other situation more conveniently offering to receive
them. The first exhibits the remarkable combination of
a generally inferior organisation, in intimate union with
wings of complicated structure. The insects, consti-
tuting but one genus, occur usually in the windows
of houses. The second tribe, the Ccphalopsida, are
minute insects with large heads, which are nearly all
eye ; they are found in meadows and upon low shrubs,
and but rarely frequent flowers. The third, or Loncho-
pteridce, are also very difficult to locate : of these there
is but one genus which presents the singularity of a
sexual disparity in the neuration of the wings, a
structure found in the Diptera but rarely, as it occurs
besides, only in Penthetria among the Tipulce. The
present insects occur among herbage, in marshy situ-
ations. The fourth, or Platypezidce, are distinguished by
their posterior tarsi being imbricated obliquely. They
are rare insects, and are probably fungivorous. The
fifth, or Conopsidce, appear to borrow their structure
from the superior and inferior groups : thus, by their
B B 4
376 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
antennae, they are connected with Ceria among the
Syrphidce, and their tongue associates them with the
Muscidce. They have a very elongate,, slender, and
geniculated proboscis ; and in the perfect state frequent
flowers ; but in the larva state they live as parasites
within the bodies of the Bombi. The next tribe, the
Myopidce, greatly resembles them, although sufficiently
distinct ; and their early stages are not known.
(337.) We now enter the remarkable tribe of the
(Estridce, which are all parasites upon some part of the
body of the Mammalia; and it is a singular anomaly,
that some of the genera which contain the largest spe-
cies among them, inhabit the smallest animals. Thus,
Cuterebra, an American genus, and a giant in the
group, inhabits the backs of rabbits, rats, and mice;
whilst (Estrus inhabits the stomachs of horses/ CEde-
magena, the facial cavities of the reindeer ; and Hypo-
derma forms tumours upon the backs of oxen. In
their structure, they are also remarkable ; as among them
we find the only Diptera that want a mouth, which is
wholly deficient in Cephalemya, which inhabits sheep,
Colax, and (Estrus; and in Cuterebra and Hypoderma,
although there is a buccal cavity, there is no proboscis
or palpi. Although thus imperfectly organised, their
general analogy, in many other points, to the higher di-
visions of the Muscidce, assign to them this situation.
The remarkable dread with which cattle view their ap-
proach has given a name to the tribe, and animals resort
to every manoeuvre to prevent the insect depositing its
egg upon them; but vainly; for neither swiftness nor
immersion in water will evade their antagonist. They
are supposed to act as counter-irritants upon the system
of these large animals, and thus to modify the effects of
grass feeding and repletion. They certainly form a
highly interesting tribe, and one that has occupied the
laborious and thorough investigation of Bracy Clarke,
the celebrated veterinary surgeon, whose skill and pa-
tience have elucidated the obscurities of their history.
(338.) We now enter the enormous tribe of the
THE MUSCID^E. 377
Muscidce. These have been divided into three sec-
tions; 1. The Creophilidce; 2. The Anthomyidce ; and,
3. The Acalypteridce. We will give the characters, both
structural and economical,, peculiar to them, and then
hastily notice some of the more striking genera. 1st,
The Creophilidce are distinguished by the setae of the
antennae usually consisting of two or three joints, and
by their wings having large alulae. In the Antho-
myidce, the seta of the antenna is not jointed, and the
alulae are but small or moderately sized; and the third
section, the Acalypteridce, have the face broad in both
sexes, and the alulae either rudimentary or obsolete.
The Creophilidce are the most powerful of the Mus-
cidce : in brilliancy of colour, rapidity of flight, and
general instinct, they also surpass the rest, and usually
deposit their eggs in decomposing animal substances :
many of them are, however, parasitical upon other
insects : this is peculiarly the case with the Tachince;
and these insects exhibit bodies usually armed with
rigid spines, and the setae of their antennae are always
naked. The Ocypterce are remarkable for the cylin-
drical slenderness of their body; and the Gymnosomce,
for its hemispherical convexity. In the Phasiance, the
abdomen is considerably depressed ; and their wings
acquire great amplitude, and are frequently coloured,
and of a thicker texture than is usual : they are pow-
erful flies, and are gregarious in their choral aerial
dances. Among the Dexiarice, we find the brilliant and
conspicuous New Holland Rutilice, which are the largest
of the Muscidce, and the most delicately metallic; and
they appear to be abundant, both in species and in-
dividuals, in that island. The Sarcophagce, the next
sub-tribe we have had occasion to allude to in our
preliminary generalities, where we have noticed their
viviparous nature : they are extremely abundant, and
usually chequered with ashy and silvery reflections.
The seventh sub-tribe, the Muscidce, have never rigid
setae upon the abdomen : they are frequently gaily co-
loured and metallic, although of usually sombre or dull
378 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
hues. Amongst these, the remarkable genus Achias
is distinguished by the lengthy dilatation of the sides
of the head; at the extremity of which the eyes are
placed. Stomoxys and Hcematobia feed upon the blood
of animals, and the majority resort to animal secretions
or excretions ; but it is the females only which are
thus annoying. AU substances, vegetable or animal, in a
state of decomposition, afford pabulum for their young ;
and notwithstanding the celerity of these processes, their
developement keeps pace with it, and these larvae acquire
maturity by the time their provender disappears.
(339.) The second section contains the An thorny via t
which are closely related in structural characters to the
former, and from which it is difficult to separate them
strictly. They are, however, less vigorous; and the
order here visibly commences decreasing in organisation :
they form a large group, which are frequently difficult
to determine specifically.
(340.) The third section, the Acalypteridce, exhibits
seventeen sub-tribes : our space will not allow us to
notice more than the most conspicuous of them, for
they comprise the largest group throughout the Zh*-
ptera ; and which exhibits a progressive declension in
structure and organisation, displayed chiefly in their an-
tennae and wings; in some of the superior sub-tribes,
the former still exhibit considerable developement,
which gradually decreases. Some of the most remark-
able structural peculiarities are shown in the exserted
ovipositor and gaily marked wings of the Tephritidce; the
produced scutellurn of Celyphus, nearly covering the ab-
domen ; the laterally dilated head in Diopsis ; the en-
largement of the anterior femora in Ochthera, thence
named Mantis; and the singular and constant vibration
of the wings in the Sepsidoz and Ortalidcs. The order
here loses the active habits of the preceding divisions,
these insects being usually rather inert, and frequenting
the shades of woods and plants, and but rarely visiting
flowers and the sunshine. Some, as in the preceding
tribes, feed upon decaying animal and vegetable sub-
THE PUPIPARA. 379
stances, as the Scatophagce and SapromysKB; others, as
the OrtalidcB and Tephritidce, deposit their eggs upon
living vegetables and plants,, and thus produce excres-
cences like galls. The Dolichocerce live upon aquatic
plants ; Calobata has the power of walking upon the sur-
face of pools ; and the Actor ce frequent the sea-shores,
where they live upon fuci and marine rejectamenta.
(341.) The sixth and last family of the Dipt era
contains the Pupipara. These have, for separative cha-
racters, antennae with hut one distinct joint, placed in
front of the lateral extremities of the head; and a mouth
without a proboscis, the function of which is executed by
two setae,, which form a sheath or tube. They constitute two
tribes, 1. The Coriacea; and, 2. The Phthiromya. The
first are distinguished by having a head of a moderate
size, and usually wings. We have before adverted to the
remarkable circumstance of their young undergoing its
states of larva and pupa within the abdomen of the
parent ; and as matured pupae they are born. They re-
semble the lice, living as parasites upon animals and
birds ; and although, when winged, they are not skilful
flyers, yet, in their native habitat, upon the skin of animals,
they have considerable activity, running about, but
chiefly laterally. Belonging to the first group, and
winged, we find Hippobosca, or the horse-fly; Strebla,
inhabiting the bat; Ornithobia and Ornithomya, upon a
variety of birds; and Anapera (Oocypterum Leach) and
Stenopteryx , exclusively upon swallows. Leptotena has
but rudimentary wings, and inhabits the deer ; and Mai-
lophaga, which is totally apterous, the sheep. The se-
cond tribe, the Phthiromya, contains but one genus,
Nycteribia animals whose situation is indicated as being
proximate to the Hippoboscidce, by the structure of their
mouth and the identity of transformations. These in-
sects greatly resemble spiders ; and thus indicate the con-
tiguity of the Arachnidce, although their structure is
completely analogous to that of the hexapod Insecta. A
particular detail of this would exceed the limits we are
restricted to ; and we shall therefore merely notice that
380 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
they have a small conical head, attached hy a tough
membrane to the upper anterior surface of the thorax ;
two simple eyes placed on each side of its anterior angles;
their antennae are two-jointed, flat, and placed closely
together within the anterior emargination of the head ;
the head, thorax, and abdomen, are distinct; the legs
are long ; tarsi pentamerous, the basal joint being very
lengthy, the terminal joint very robust, and with large
claws ; and, attached to the base of the intermediate legs,
there is, on each side, a curved pectinated process, ap-
parently the analogue of wings. These remarkable insects
inhabit different kinds of bats, and, as far as they are yet
known, they are peculiar to the Old World, being found
in Europe, India, and the Mauritius.
(342.) Having completed, with theDiptera, the view
of six-legged insects that undergo a true metamorphosis,
excepting only the small sixth section of the present
chapter, containing the Suctoria, we have now to give
a summary of the contents of the other divisions of
the Articulata, which have not entered within the pre-
ceding synopsis. According to the series above laid
down, the Arachnida or spiders succeed the Diptera,
to which they are apparently allied by the last genus
in that order, Nycteribia. Both physiologically and
physiognomically, they exhibit marked differences from
the true Insecta : thus, the head is no longer distinctly
separated from the thorax, and they have no antennae;
besides, they have four pairs of legs; their eyes are
always simple, and usually consist of six or eight, dis-
posed in a variety of ways on the top of the cephalo-
thorax, the number and arrangement of which have
greatly helped towards their systematic distribution.
Although possessing no evident and distinct organ of
hearing, it cannot be doubted that they have a perception
of sound, and touch is acutely performed by their ex-
tremely sensible tarsi and palpi. In a large division of
them, we observe the usual tracheal respiration of the
hexapod Insecta transferred into a pulmonary apparatus,
and in these there is a complete circulating system, which
DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARACHNlDiE. 381
in the Tnsecta we have always observed to be either
partial or imperfect at all events, certainly not obvious.
Their instincts are apparently very perfect, and even
capable of striking developement ; they are very sangui-
nary in disposition., and consequently require the full ex-
ercise of these faculties to circumvent their prey, from
the latter being instinctively apprehensive of their na-
tural enemies. Although best known to ordinary ob-
servers from the nets spread forth by many for the
purpose of intercepting their supplies of food, and by
the elegant reticulation of this delicate filament, which
is a glutinous silk, secreted in a liquid state within the
body, and transuded through a cluster of small nipples
at the apex of the abdomen, yet very many do not pos-
sess the means of weaving this web, whence the order
has obtained its classical name ; but they roam forth or
form pitfalls, and exercise their ingenuity in a variety of
ways to obtain their requisite supplies of provisions,
which we shall briefly see below. Throughout nature,
the two primary functions exercised by animals are self-
preservation and the propagation of the species : these
are universally obvious ; but in their execution, others,
conjunctive and collateral, are ellicited, which depend,
however, more or less upon the difficulties or facilities
that impede or promote the accomplishmentof the former.
The exercise of the second of these primary functions,
the propagation of the species, seems to demand in
these creatures as much sagacity as the first ; for, from
their sanguinary habits, the least powerful individual in
this intercourse, must, by some stratagem, elude the
fate that inevitably attends it, unless this be resorted
to : a remarkable fact, that that passion which tames
the bold, and gives courage to the timid, and edul-
corates all, here loses its distinctive characteristics, and
its usually absolute predominancy ; for it is frequently
lost in the superior energy of that which prompts self-
preservation. The integument of these animals is often
a flexible membrane, although in many it retains the
several peculiarities of structure found in the normal
382 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
Ptilota. From these loose generalities, we must proceed
to the distribution.
(343.) It will be of little moment that we invert the
order of affinities, as by it we shall save ourselves from
the inconsequence of treating the least typical first.
Thus, they are divided into the pulmonary Arachnids,
and the tracheal Arachnids ; the latter, of course, most
closely allied to the hexapod Insecta, although the
smaller division. The pulmonary Arachnids are the
most typical, and the most abundant : these are further
divided into 1. Araneidce; 2. Phryneidce ; and, 3. the
Scorpionidce. The tracheal Arachnidce comprise 4. the
Solpugidce ; 5. PhalangidcB ; and, 6. the Acaridce. Of
the first, the Araneidce, we have a further division into
terrestrial and aquatic. The former inhabit the earth,
and are either suspended in the air, or cavities in rocks
or trees, or they are affixed to plants, or else they oc-
cupy holes in the ground ; whereas the aquatic Araneida
dwell in the midst of the water, in a cell filled with air.
The former are divided into Theraphoses and Arachnce
proper. In the Theraphoses, the mandibles are articu-
lated horizontally, having a vertical, motion ; and, in the
Arachnc/B, they are articulated either vertically, or upon
an inclined plane, and have a lateral motion. In the
former group of Theraphoses, we find the large and
powerful Mi/gale, the most robust insects of the order.
The fact has been doubted, of these catching birds in
their nets, and feeding upon them ; but the probability
of this has been substantiated and confirmed by a com-
munication we have recently received from W. S.
MacLeay, Esq., who informs us, that in the vicinity of
Sydney, N. S. W., he has met with a true bird-catching
spider, having himself found one of the Epeiridce
actually devouring the young of a Gasterops, that had,
no doubt, lately flown from the nest; and which is
not a solitary instance, as his father, A. MacLeay, Esq.,
had previously observed a similar fact. He therefore
retracts his observations upon Myyale in the Zoo-
logical Transactions ; for here, evidently, is a spider
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE ARACHN^E. 383
which feeds upon the juices of a warm-blooded ani-
mal.*
(344.) The Arachnai may be divided into 1st.
Those which are the Fagabonda, which quit their dwell-
ings to chase and catch their prey; 2dly, The Wanderers,
which roam about in the vicinity of the nests they have
constructed, or the nets they have spread to entangle their
prey; and, 3dly, Those which are sedentary, which
construct large nets for the apprehension of their prey,
and in the centre or sides of which they lurk, awaiting it.
Among the Fagabonda, we find some with six eyes, and
others with eight. Those with six form either tubes or
cells of silk, within which they dwell ; and these consti-
tute the genera Dysdera, Segestria, Uptiotes, &c. The
possession of eight eyes, we, however, find the most
prevalent peculiarity, being all but universal in this divi-
sion. Among the Fagabonda with eight eyes, we observe
the Runners, those which run with agility to catch their
prey, including Lycosus, Sphasus, Ctenus, &c. ; the
Leapers, those which leap and jump lightly upon their
prey, as Myrmecia, Eresus, Attus, or Salticus, &c.; and
the Walkers, which walk laterally and backwards, and
occasionally spread nets to supply themselves with pro-
visions.
(345.) In the second division, or WANDERERS, we
find 1. The Niditeles, which form a web of their nests,
whither filaments converge, by which they catch their
prey; they consist of Clubiona, Desis, and Drassus:
2. The Filiteles, which spread long filaments of silk
wherever they move, to catch theirs; and here we find
Clotho, Enyo, Pholcus, &c.: 3. Tapiteles, which manu-
facture large webs of a close tissue, and within which
they reside, awaiting their prey; and here we have
Tegenaria, Lachesis, &c. : 4. The Orbiteles, which con-
struct webs with open meshes, and formed either in
regular concentric circles, or in spirals, and which lurk
* From a letter to me dated 7th April, 1840, brought by Mr. Gould
from Sydney. [W. E. Sh.]
384 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
either in the centre or at the side, awaiting the entan-
glement of their victims ; here we have Epeira, Tetra-
gnatha, Zosis, &c. : 5. The Napiteles, which spread
wide nets of a web of close texture, suspended among
irregular chambers ; this, as far as yet observed, is con-
fined to the genus Unyphia : and, 6. and lastly, The
Retiteles, which form webs with open meshes and irre-
gular chambers, and which lurk in the centre, or at the
sides ; these comprise Argus and Theridion, c. The
aquatic Araneidce consists of the single genus Argyro-
neta, which spreads filaments in the water, which
catches for them their food. We have not space to
notice further the interesting peculiarities incidental to
these insects, and have room only to mention that it is
in the genus Lycosus, among the Vagabonda, that the
celebrated Tarantula occurs, the effects of the venom
of which is reputed to be cured only by the violent
exertion of a dance produced involuntarily by the
music of a guitar. The name of the Insect is derived
from the city of Tarentum, in Italy, in the vicinity of
which they occur in profusion.
(346.) The Phryneidce, or second division of the
pulmonary Arachnidce, are distinguished from the first,
by their anterior legs being not ungulated, and very like
antennae, and possibly executing similar functions ; and
the maxillary palpi very spinose, and terminating either
in hooks or chelae. They consist of two genera Phry-
nus and Thelyphonus. They are inhabitants of the in-
tertropical regions of the Old and New World. The latter
is distinguished from the former, by having a long and
slender tail, and more robust maxillary palpi. Their
habits are not known, but they are much feared in the
countries where they occur ; and they are of a malig-
nant aspect, and comparatively large.
(347.) The scorpions form the third division. These
are readily distinguished from all the former, by their
enlarged maxillary palpi, which here form a prehensile
organ, greatly resembling, to use a familiar illustration,
the claw of a lobster : they have an elongate annulated
SOLPUGID^E, PHALANGID^E, AND ACARIDJE. 38 5
abdomen, with no deep constriction or separation be-
tween the thorax and abdomen ; eight unguiculated legs ;
and a tail of six joints, separated from each other by a
deep strangulation,, the last bearing a curved hook,
whereby the insect inflicts a wound and injects a poison.
These are terrific creatures, whose poison becomes the
more virulent as they approach the torrid zone. None,
fortunately, are natives of this country, but several occur
in the South of Europe.
(348.) The Solpugidce, the first division of the
tracheal Arachnida, are equally hideous with the last
in aspect, being usually covered with long hairs or
spines ; and are said to be also venomous; but, if so, the
poison must be injected by the mandibles. They have
the head, thorax, and abdomen, separated by a strangula-
tion. They have eight legs, the anterior pair being pal-
piform, as are also their maxillse ; whilst their mandibles
form robust didactyle claws ; and their abdomen consists
of a succession of segments. They frequent hot coun-
tries and sandy districts, especially of the Old World.
They run with great rapidity, holding up their heads
as if to defend themselves. With these, doubtlessly,
Chelifer and Obisium may be united ; which are minute
animals, both natives of our own country, where they
frequently occur in moss. The second division consists
of the Phalangidce, in which the head, thorax, and abdo-
men are united, and the latter not divided into segments,
but by its epidermis being frequently folded, it thus
resembles a segmental division. Their mandibles are
very robust, and with didactyle claws, eight unguiculated
legs, and either slender and filiform or spinose palpi.
Their legs are usually exceedingly long and very slender.
Some occur in this country, but perhaps the most ec-
centric forms among them are found in Gonoleptes and
its affinities, from the Brazils. They usually occur run-
ning upon the ground or on plants, and are very active ;
some also are found under stones, or in moss.
(349.) The last tribe of the Arachnidce are the Aca-
ridce. or mites. Head, thorax, and abdomen are here
C G
386 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
usually united : their abdomen is not divided into seg-
ments : they have eight legs ; and their mouth is haus-
tellate or consisting of pieces, which form a sucking tube.
These comprise an extensive tribe of creatures, which
are excessively prolific, consisting also of many genera,
as Trombidium, Gamasus, locodes, Bdella, &c. The ma-
jority are very small, and occur every where beneath stones,
in moss, under the barks of trees, in flour, dried provi-
sions, old cheese, &c. ; others live as parasites upon the
skin or in the fiesh of animals ; and some are said to be
the cause of certain loathsome diseases which affect
humanity, the itch, for instance: they are found upon
other insects, and some have even been observed in the
eyes and brain of man.
(350.) Our third division of the Aptera consists of
the MYRIAPODA, or, as they are usually called, hundred
legs : they constitute the Chilognatha and the Chilopoda,
and undergo a partial metamorphosis, which consists in
their acquiring, with every progressive moult, an addi-
tional number of segments and legs. The former have
short antennae; a convex cylindrical body, surrounded
by a hard integument ; neither maxillae nor palpi ; short
mandibles, and short and slender legs. They occur usually
in humid situations, and beneath the bark of trees ; and
they feed upon both animal and vegetable productions.
They consist of Gtomeris, lulus, Polydesmus, &c. &c.
The Chilopoda have elongate antennae, a depressed body
covered with coriaceous plates, and legs of very variable
length : those with unequal legs constitute Scolopendra
proper, and its subdivisions, among which is the elec-
trical Geophilus. Those with equal legs have those
limbs very long, and form the genera Cermatia and
Scutigera. All of these run very fast; they are carni-
vorous and nocturnal, and the majority occur beneath
stones, the bark of trees, and in humid loose earth.
The most of the exotic species are of large size, and are
said to be venomous. The rest, which do not undergo
a metamorphosis beyond a change of skin, and which
form the aberrant portions of the circle, if indeed they
belong here, consist of Leach's two orders, Thysanura
STRUCTURE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 387
and Anoplura: and are all hexapods, the former are
covered with hair or scales, and the tail has filaments
or setae whereby they jump ; they are very active,, and
occur in neglected collections or among rejectamenta and
refuse. They comprise Lepisma, Forbicina, Podura,
&c. ; in the latter, the forked tail is hent beneath the
abdomen, and forms a leaping apparatus. The Ano-
plura consist of the lice, which are all parasites, some
one being peculiar to all animals and birds ; and one, in
particular, is the cause of a disgusting disease, the Phthi-
riasis, instances of which now rarely occur, but which
was comparatively common during the middle ages.
(351.) The fourth division of the Aptera, the CRUS-
TACEA, is allied to the Myriapoda by means of Oniscus;
but here again, in this order, we shall reverse the affi-
nities, and proceed in a declining line from the superior
to the inferior. The subject of a metamorphosis we
have before noticed, in speaking of Mr. Thompson's
researches, and shall not resume it here, farther than by
observing that it has very recently been confirmed by
Rathke.* In speaking of the order generally, we may
observe, that although they possess symmetrical forms,
yet is it combined with such eccentric extravagance as
to outrage all preconceived notions of elegance and
beauty. How it was that many of them were ever se-
lected as choice comestibles, we know not; and it must
certainly be considered a vagary of human caprice,
which can sit down with zest to a lobster or crab salad,
that would turn with disgust from a stew of caterpillars,
although the latter are by far the most cleanly feeders. Did
the public appetite take this turn, we should not then
vainly ask for remedies against the destroyers of our crops,
but which would thus yield us other crops equally ser-
viceable and beneficial ! This division combines structural
differences and peculiarities far more varied than we ob-
served in the Arachnidce, but which we must treat more
briefly, for our space precludes the amplitude of detail that
can alone make such particulars instructive or amusing ;
* Wiegman's Archiv., part iii. 1840.
C C 2
S8S NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
and knowing so little as we do of the habits of these crea-
tures, they being chiefly natives of the ocean and its
recesses, it is, consequently, only from their structural
details that they derive an interest. These are as distinc-
tively inhabitants of the water as the metamorphotic
hexapod Insecta are of the land. Their integument
is usually harsh, hard, brittle, and crustaceous ; whence
their name : and that which generally covers conjunc-
tively the head and thorax, is called, technically, the
carapax, or shield. We think this integument cannot
be considered thoroughly analogous to the dermo-skele-
ton of the hexapod insecta, as it is more independent of
muscular attachment. Waiving the difficulties and ques-
tion of their preliminary transformations, we find that
their growth is subsequently effected by casting their
skin, which they, as it were, creep out of ; in which
state the animal becomes sickly and seeks solitude.
These creatures have two pairs of antennae, and a mouth
furnished laterally with numerous appendages. It is
sometimes true legs which surround the mouth, and which
thus perform the double function of maxillae and legs ;
but, in general, many of them are devoted exclusively
to the prehension of food ; and, as we descend the
series, we observe a proportionate decrease of these
appendages, and an r'ncrease of the number of legs : the
latter are affixed to the thorax; they generally con-
sist of five or seven pairs, and their form varies with their
function, whether for the use of swimming, walking,
or prehension : in the first case, they are broad
and more or less membranous ; in the second, slender
and lengthy; and, when formed for prehension, they
terminate in a claw. Beyond the legs, and attached to
the successive segments of the abdomen, there is a
double row of appendages which assist them to swim
and to carry their eggs. These few generalities must
suffice : of course, great variations and modifications are
found ; but the insects themselves take their definite
grouping chiefly from the arrangement, disposition,
uses, and structure of the legs. They constitute two
large divisions, the masticating and suctorial Crustacea,
THE HABITS OF THE LAND CRABS. 389
of very unequal extent ; the former being by far the
most numerous, and the former are likewise subdivided
into two further groups according to whether their eyes
are pedunculated or sessile.
(352.) Those with pedunculated eyes are subdivided
into decapod andstomapod Crustacea. The former of these
contain the greatest number of genera throughout the
group, and also considerably the largest animals : they
have usually five pairs of legs, and are subdivided into,
first, decapod Brachyura, known as crabs. The structure
of the abdomen of which is very remarkable, forming a
sort of leaf, disproportionately small, and which folds
back upon the under side of the thorax. It is quite im-
possible that we should go into further detail here of their
subdivisions ; and all that we can do, therefore, will be
to exhibit some of the more prominent genera, distin-
guished either by their economical uses or their habits.
Amongst them is the genuine crab of our tables, the
Cancer Pagurus, the type of the entire group, the
flesh of which is much esteemed and considerably used.
Among the quadrilateral crabs, we observe the genus
Thelphusa, peculiar for inhabiting fresh waters, and the
power they possess of living a week or even a month
away from the water. These animals are common in
the limpid lakes and streams of the South of Europe,
and are sought as great delicacies. It is this species
which is represented upon the ancient coins of Agri-
gentum in Sicily. In this same division we find the
genera Gecarcinus and Cardisoma. These are the ce-
lebrated Tourlourous, or land crabs, called also violet
crabs and white crabs from their colour, and are natives
of the West India islands and South America. They
are very courageous, and try to intimidate by the clatter
of their claws, and they pinch very severely. The
history of these creatures presents some of the most
extraordinary phenomena throughout entomology, that
we cannot forbear giving a rapid sketch of it. Their
usual habitat is in the mountains, away from the sea
and water, where they reside within cavities or burrows
c c 3
390 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
of the earth, and rocks, or in hollow trees : they feed
variously ; and it is known that they will prey as freely
upon putrid carcases, disputing their possession with
the vulture, as upon fruits and vegetables ; and yet
they are esteemed and used as delicate and choice
articles of food. Their instinct prompts them, at the
period of oviposition, to seek the shores of the ocean,
and therein to deposit their eggs ; and this migration
they execute in such multitudes, that the land is lite-
rally covered with them ; and their progress is as direct
and destructive as a stream of lava, passing over every
thing. Having arrived on the coast, they bathe them-
selves, and then deposit their eggs ; and this accom-
plished, they again seek their former habitats, but,
of course, in a considerably exhausted state ; and they
therefore frequently halt, and repose on their journey.
Having regained their domicile, they undergo their
moult, which is a critical period in their lives ; and to
shelter them from external injury, as they are then
soft and sickly, their integument resembling wet parch-
ment, they closely shut themselves in their burrows ; and
it is now that their flesh is most esteemed. Their eggs,
meantime, being recastupon the sand, are speedily hatched
by a combination of heat and moisture ; when the young
hasten to the adjoining fields, where they gradually ac-
quire the strength and size requisite to enable them to
undertake their migration to the haunts of their parents.
They are chiefly nocturnal animals, migrating and prey-
ing at night. It is a remarkable fact, that, although
furnished with branchiae, their vitality is suspended by
immersion in water ; and also that they possess a cavity
in the vicinity of their respiratory apparatus, which serves
as a reservoir for the water requisite to keep those organs
constantly moistened. The neighbouring Gelasimus is
singular for the excessive developernent of one of its
claws, which is sometimes larger than the whole of the
rest of the body, and serves it to close the aperture of its
burrow, when it has retired. The habit it has of raising
this, as if calling, has procured it its specific name of G.
vocans. The genus Nautiloyrapsus consists of small
THE STOMAPODA. 39 1
animals, which float about, in the ocean, upon marine
plants ; and it is supposed that it was one of these which
indicated to Columbus, some days before his discovery, the
proximity of the New World. The sub-parasitical Pin-
notheres are also singular, from inhabiting, at certain sea-
sons, the bivalve shells of some of the Mollusca. Among
the curious genera which form the passage from the
Brachyura to the Macroura, or large-tailed division of
the decapod Crustacea (the lobster), we find those in
which the enlarged tail has not yet become the chief
organ of progression, by means of its violent and sudden
concussion ; and among these, the Pagurus, or hermit
lobster, is worthy notice, from its habit, in consequence
of its tail being always soft, of seeking for its protection
some univalve shell, wherein it buries it; and these shells,
with its progressive enlargement, it has the instinct to
change. The allied Birgus, which, from its size, cannot
find shells convenient for its reception, lives naked, and
has the habit of dwelling for a long time, like the land
crabs, in cavities of rocks and burrows of the ground.
The normal Macroura contain the large Palinurus
homaruSyOr sea crayfish, which has not didactyle claws;
the Astacus Gammarus, or lobster ; the Astacus fluvia-
tilis, or river crayfish, both with large anterior chelated
claws ; the former marine, and the latter inhabiting the
fresh water ; the Crangon, or shrimp ; and the Palcemon,
or prawn, delicacies for the breakfast table ; and multi-
tudes of others.
(353.) Among the Stomapoda, or sea mantises,
named thus from their spined raptorial anterior legs,
occur Squi'la and its allies ; and near these, but with-
out such legs, we find the genus Phyllosoma : their
leaf-like bodies, indicated by their name, are as flat
and transparent as a piece of stamped mica ; their head
is disproportionately large, and abdomen equally small.
(354.) The second division of the Crustacea, the
Edriophthalma, or those with sessile eyes, contains three
groups ; the Crustacea Amphipoda, which constitute
the various generaof those compressed shrimp-like jump-
c c 4*
3Q2 NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
ing Crustacea we find so frequently in stagnant waters,
such as Talitrus, Gammarus, Phronime, &c. ; the
Crustacea Lcemodipoda contains Cyamus, &c., which
live as parasites upon the whale, and others, as Caprella,
are wanderers ; the Crustacea Isopoda are broad
and depressed, and do not leap : among these we find
Oniscus, or the woodlice; the Cymothoe, which are para-
sites, and very broad ; and Idotea, which are equally
slender. To this division, the fossil Trilobites very
closely approach in general structure.
(355.) The Entomostraca form the last division of
the Crustacea. In these are the Branchiopodes, con-
taining the remarkable forms of Monoculos, or Cyclops,
which are very minute and pyriform insects ; Zoe, with
its digitated legs ; Apus, with its case covering its
body. It is here, doubtlessly, that the extraordinary
form of Limulus should come : these are large creatures
sometimes two feet long, and peculiar to the seas of
America and India ; specimens frequently occur in Chi-
nese boxes of insects ; they have a large hemispherical
crust covering the anterior portion of the body, and a
long and slender tail : arid lastly, the Pcecilopoda, which
comprise the only truly suctorial Crustacea ; among
which there have been observed, in their early stages, con-
siderable transformations. They live chiefly as parasites
upon other animals, and especially fishes. Amongstthem^
Argulus has natatorial legs, and Cecrops is short and
stout, without legs ; and Dichelestion, which is parasitical
upon the sturgeon, is long and slender. Naturalists have
not fully determined where the Pycnogonidce should
be placed, whether proximate to Phalanaium among
the Arachnidce, or with the Crustacea, linking the two
orders : Latreille adopts the former view ; but Walcke-
naer and Milne Edwards, respectively the greatest au-
thorities in their two branches of Arachneology and
Crustaceology, concur in considering them crustaceous.
They are spider-looking creatures, with eight very long
and ungulated legs ; but, in addition to these, the females
have two pseudo legs for carrying their eggs. They are
occasionally found upon the Cetacea, upon which they
ENTOMOLOGY A SOURCE OF INSTRUCTION. 3p3
are supposed to be parasitical, although they also occur
upon marine plants and under stones on the sea shore.
They contain the genera Pycnogonon, Nymphon^ &c.
(356.) Our last division of the Aptera contains the
Suctoria ; the most typical of which is the genus Pulex,
which undergoes a metamorphosis resembling that of
the Diptera. We need not enlarge upon the flea, as the
space we could devote to it would not be ample enough
to do it justice, and it is sufficiently well known ; we
may remark, however, that it contains, besides the com-
mon flea, others that are peculiar to certain animals, as
well as the renowned Chigo of the West Indies, so injuri-
ous to the feet of the negroes. With these insects we
conclude our survey of annulose animals.
(357.) The synopsis we have thus rapidly passed
through, must be considered only as suggestions, and
stimulants to further inquiry ; and should it prove so,
we shall have gained our object, as it is but requisite to
procure attention to the subject, to invest it with a para-
mount interest. The accidental discovery of some frag-
ment of man's works, which had been buried for a few cen-
turies, and then brought unexpectedly to light, produces
a tumult of comment ; the learned world, in the frenzy of
its excitement, deduces from it, howsoever grotesque and
rude, irrefragable proofs of the antiquity of man's civilis-
ation, and of the supremacy of his intellect; and Egyptian
monsters and Persepolitan figments are unfortunately too
frequently esteemed more worthy of investigation than the
perfect works of GOD'S hands, old as the creation of the
world, yet descending to us in all their pristine complete-
ness, which is not merely external, but also internal, com-
posed, too, of the minutest parts, the ultimate structure of
which eludes the microscope's research ; and both ex-
ternal and internal corresponding in so intimate a conca-
tenation of cause and effect, and these so harmoniously
blended, and so finely united, that even the profoundest
speculations of man's boasted intelligence cannot deter-
mine which is cause and which effect, being, as they
seem, simultaneous : and into all there is infseud the
mysterious spirit of life, making them free and active
NATURAL ARRANGEMENT OF INSECTS.
agents, endowed, to the extent and variety of their
organisation , with perceptions fitted for its fullest en-
joyment; and these, so governed by recondite influences
that control them_, that, in seeking and effecting their
own weal, they work concurrently for the common weal
of all. The student of this world of wonders can
patiently endure the contumely of those, who, busied in
the noisy mart of social life, sneer with contempt upon
his pursuits ; for he knows full well, that a day will
come, when these traffickers in human flesh and human
misery, who accumulate wealth distilled from human
blood, for no end but accumulation and ostentation,
shall be scourged from God's living Temple ; and that
the exalted shall be humbled, and the humble exalted.
(358.) We cannot better conclude the present work,
and the series to which it forms the sequel, than in the
words of an eminent advocate of the representative sys-
tem. The precursory suffrage of the great Bacon shall
terminate our labours : he says *, " Was not the Persian
magic a reduction or correspondence of the principles
and architectures of Nature to the rules and policy of
governments ? Is not the precept of a musician, to fall
from a discord or harsh accord upon a concord or sweet
accord, alike true in affection ? Is not the trope of
music, to avoid or slide from the close or cadence,
common with the trope of rhetoric, of deceiving expect-
ation. Is not the delight of the quavering upon a stop
in music, the same with the playing of light upon the
water ?
1 Splendet tremulo sub lumine pontus.'
Are not the organs of the senses of one kind with the
organs of reflection, the eye with a glass, the ear with a
cave, or straight, determined, and bounded? NEITHER
ARE THESE ONLY SIMILITUDES, AS MEN OP NARROW OB-
SERVATION MAY CONCEIVE THEM TO BE, BUT THE SAME
FOOTSTEPS OF NATURE, TREADING OR PRINT.ING UPON
SEVERAL SUBJECTS OR MATTERS." f(327 358.) W.
E. Sh.]
* Advancement of Learning, p. 151. ed. 1825.
INDEX.
A.
ABISPA, a solitary wasp, 182.
A branches, 20.
Acalypteridae, sub-tribes of, 378.
Acanthocerus, 236. 268.
Acari, 68.
Acaridae, or mites, 385.
Acentropus, 355.
Achenium, 272.
Acrea, larva of, 92.
Acridinge, grasshoppers, 349.
Acridopeza, sexes of, 349.
Acrita, 4. Simple formation, 36.
Acronycta, 109, 110.
Actorse, of the sea-shore, 379.
Actorus popularum, 120.
Adesmia, 270.
Adsciti, the, 187.
JEgialia, a small insect, 236.
Affinities, of natural, 4.
Agarista, 101.
Agaristidse, the, 102.
Agathedrium, rolls up as a ball, 236.
Aglae, resplendently metallic, 166.
Aglaia, the genus, 154.
Aglaura, the head concealed, 25.
Agras, 261.
Agrion, 338. A. Lucretia. 338.
Agrotis, 110.
Albionnides, 21.
Alciope, 25.
Aleocharida?, family, 272.
Aleyrodes, 84. 113.
Allodapa, African genus, 166.
Alysia, typical, 187.
Amathusa, of India, 93.
Ammophilse, of extensive distri-
bution, 181.
Amphicoma, 219.
Amphynoma, 25.
Amphynomidae, 25.
Amphitritidae, golden setae of, 23.
Anacolus, 284.
Ancyloscelis, 124.
Andrena, 163, 164. 352.
Andrenidre, the, 161, 162. 164.
Andrenoides Apida?, 164.
Animal creation, the great divisions
of the, 4. Vertebrata, 1. 81., &c,
Testacea, Radiata, Acrita, Annu-
losa, compared, 4.
Animal kingdom, entomological
analogies and affinities with the,
35. 42. 81. 140. 199. 201. Ana.
logies to quadrupeds, 49, 50. 64.
66. 93. 136. 240. 279.
Annellides, red-blooded worms,
their affinity with Annulosa,5,6.
Are aquatic animals, 7. Are ap-
proximate to fishes, 8. Long-
bodied, 9. Similar conformation
with Nudibranchise, 16. General
characters of, 17. 19. 69. Savig-
ny's five orders of, 20. Lamarck's
arrangement of, 20. Milne d-
wards's arrangement of, 21. A.
apodes, &c., 20. A. chetopodes,
22. A. cephalobranchiae, 22. A.
mesobranchiae, 22, 23. McLeay's
arrangement of, 25. Their ana-
logy with the Scansores among
birds, 34. Analogies of, 35.
Annulosa, general account of, and
of the three aberrant classes of,
Part I. chap, i., 1. 7. Some
most intelligent, yet most minute,
2. Typical, have two or four
wings, and six feet, 2. Remote,
resemble shell-fish, 3. Parasitic,
3. General model of, 3. Rank
of, in the circle of animated na-
ture, 4. A perfect class, 5. Their
connexion with the Annellides
and Radiata, 5. Primary divi.
sionsof annulose animals, 6. Ty-
pical and sub-typical group
396
45. 69. Circle of affinity of, 8.
Analogies of, to vertebrata, 9. 12.
15. And to testacea, 16. 30. 35.
With the animal kingdom, 35. 49,
50. Metamorphosis of, 51. 54.
Anobia, larva? of the, 358.
Anobium, 247.
Anoplognathi, 213, 214.
Anoplognathida?, 210.
Anoplura, the, 387.
Anopluriform type of caterpillars,
61. 65. 70. 72.
Antennas of Insects, chief notices
of, 86. 90. 102. 107. 112. 116. 121.
126. 138, 151. 166. 181. 186. 201.
205. 207. 247, 248. 355, et passim.
Antherophagus, and other insects
consuming flowers, 267.
Anthomyida?, the, 378.
Anthopliora, gregarious, 166.
Anthribides, the, 276.
Ants, of, 147. 151. 171. Consist of
males, females, and neuters, 171.
Termitina? have been denomi-
nated "white ants," 343. Enmity
of the true ants to them, 343.
Apate, 247.
Aphides, or plant-lice, 132. 116. 128.
137. 141, et passim.
Aphis, 114.
Aphodiina?, sub-family, 235.
Aphodius, 255.
Aphroditae, 25.
Apidse, the genuine bees, 164.
Apides, or bees, 151. 158.
Apis, 168. A. domestica, 170.
Apollo butterfly, 76. 87.
Aptera, or wingless insects, 8, 9.
Affinities of, 9. 11. 13. 16. 80. Ana.
logy with the Dentirostres among
birds, 34. Sub-typical group, 46.
Noxious and disgusting insects of
this class, 68 May be termed
types of evil, 69. On the class of
Apterous Insects, Part III., 359.
Apus, 392.
Aquatic insects, various, particu-
larised, 60. 108. 129, 130. 140. 192.
248. 26o, 264. 335. 353355.
Arachnidae, the, 380393.
Aranea, tribes of the Araneida?,
381, et seq.
Arctiadaj, tiger moths, 106.
Arenicoles, 23. Consist of Areni-
cola and Chetoptera, 23, 21.
Argulus, 38. 392.
Argus butterfly, 92. 95.
Aricida?, consist of the genera Ari.
cia, Cirratulus, Ophelia, &c., 24.
Articulata, affinities with the, 30.
Ascalaphus, the genus, 340.
Astacus fluviatilis,the cray fisb.,391.
Astacus gammarus, the lobster,391.
Astilbus, dwells in moss, 273.
Atomaria, 267.
Atractocerus, 331. 352.
Attelabus, the genus, 261.
Atropos, 358. The death-watch, 358.
" Aurelian, Essay preceding a Sup-
plement to the," by Harris, 84.
Axina, structure of, 333.
B.
Baetis, 354.
Balanus pusillus, 38.
Bark of trees, a domicile, 267.
Barnacles, or Cirrhipedes, are ma-
rine annulose animals, of imper-
fect nature, having shells ; re-
present the Mollusca ; also con-
nected with the Articulata, 5. 7.
29. Families and analogies of, 31 .
33. 70. Mr. Thompson's discovery
respecting the metamorphosis of
minute marine animals into Cir-
rhipedes, 37. The young bar-
nacle, 39.
Barypenthus, 355.
Bdella, 21.386.
Bdelloides, 21.
Bees, of, 79. 124. 151. 157. General
description of, 158, et passim. Of
the sexes, 170, 171. Rev. Mr.
Kirby's Monographia Apum An-
glian, 161. Hive bees, 170. Soli-
tary bees, 163, 164. Social bees,
164.168. Mason, 165. Leafcutter,
165.
Beetles, of, 9.4850. 56. 115. 136.
154. 193. Their habits and eco-
nomy, 191. 207. 274. 281.
Bembecidas, structure of the, 181.
Bembediinae, sub-family, 263.
Berosus, many species of, 249.
Berytus, 120. B. tipularius, 120.
Bird lice, the, 61. 68.
Birds ; comparisons and analogies
in Ornithology and Entomology,
33. 49, et passim. Allusions to
fissirostral birds, 33, 34. To perch-
ers, or Insessores, 33, 34. 64. 203,
204. 258, &c. To Rasores, 63. 66.
279. To Raptores, 64. To Hiru-
dines, 89. To Grallatores, 81. To
Gallinaceae, 66. 136. To various
others, as sandpipers, curlews,
plovers, &c., 258, et passim.
Birgus, naked, 391.
Bittacus, the long-legged, 341.
Blaps, 251.
Blattae, the, 180. 332. 337.
Blight insects, or blights, 112.
Blues and coppers, 62. 65. 95.
Boat flies, of, 129, 130. 139.
Bocidium globulare, 138.
Bombus or humble bees, 168.
Bombycidee and Bombycides, the
silk worms, 57. 77. 205. Their
cocoons, 78. The silk moths, 86.
91. 105. Natural divisions, 106.
Book-louse, the, 358.
Boreus, an apterous insect, 341.
Bostrichi, numerous, 19i 276.
Bostrichidae, family, 236. 302. 331.
Brachyceri, of Africa, 281.
Brachygastra analis, 183.
Branchellion, Branchellionidae, 2.
Brancniopodes, 392.
Brontes, 285.
Broscus, and its cognates, 263.
Bruchus, 276.
Brush-feet, a butterfly, 91.
Bryophila?, 109.
Bugs, of, 56. 112. 126. Wood-bugs,
116. Rapacious bugs, 116.
Buprestidae, the, 154. 240246. 255.
Buprestinas, the, 245.
Buprestis, 118. 197. 245.
Burying beetles, the, 266.
Butterfly, properties and habits
of the, 54. 56. The Apollo, 76.
The cabbage-butterfly, 57. Com-
mon white, 60. Painted lady, 60.
Peacock, 60. 91. Swallow-tailed,
63. 73. Brown-meadow, 67. 93.,
&c. The greater diurnal proceeds
from the thysanuriform cater-
pillar, 67. The largest in ex-
istence, described, 93. The Hes-
perian, 70. Harris's magnified
figures of the British butterflies,
alluded to, 84. Arrangement of
the genera, 87.
Butterflies, chief order of the Pti.
lota, 10. Of diurnal, 60. 67. 68.
The luliform type, 63. Sub-ty-
pical group, the Nymphalidae, 68.
Byrrhus, the genus, 241.
Byturus, and other insects having
their domicile in flowers, 267.
C.
Cselodera (Pachypus), 219.
Calepteryx, brilliant colours of, 339.
Calidea, metallic colour of, 118.
Campontia, genus of Errantes, 25.
Campulipus, 212.
Cantheridae, Lytta or Meloe, 320.
Capricornes, family of Coleoptera,
115. 194. Chap.'ix., 2/1, et seq.
Analogies of, to the typical ver~
tebrata, 279. To the ungulated
quadrupeds, 279. To the lainel-
licorn and predatorial beetles, 281.
To the Cerambycidffi, 290. To the
Necydalina?, 297.
Capsini, family of, 120.
Carabidre, analogous with Lamelli-
cornes, 115. 260. 258. ?61. The
normal, 263. The aquatic, 264.
IX. 397
Carabus, 250. 258. 263. C. regalis,
splendens, and rutilans, 263.
Casnonia, elongated neck of, 261.
Cas>sidaa, tortoise beetles, 116. 202.
Analogy with the Coccides, 149.
Castnia Licus, 104.
Castniadae, moth sphinxes, 103.
Catacola, 109.
Catadromus, 263.
Caterpillars, of, 54. 5961. 68, 69,
70. 73. 92. Types of, 60. 65. 93.
Ruminant, 67. 93.
Catops, 251.
Cells of bees, &c., of the, 159. 169,
170. 183.
Centipedes, 10. 53. 68.
Centronotidae, 117 Spined cicadas,
130 134. Horned cicadas, 137.
Centronotus cornutus, 137. C. ge-
nistoe,139.
Cephalopsidae, the, 375.
Cephalotaa, or Errantes, 23, 24.
Cephalotrichia, 218.
Cerambycida?, the, 275. 290.
Cerambyx, 275.
Cerceris, 181.
CercoDinae, the hopping cicadas,
131/134.
Cercopis, conformation of, 138. 172.
Cetacea, allusions to, 51. 65. 71.
Cetonia, the genus, 207. 209. C.
aurata, 207. 254. C. cornuta, or
Ichnostoma, 211. C. Morio, 211.
Cetoniadae, the, or floral beetles,
208. 210. 254. Sub-families, 220.
Analogies of, to Coleoptera, 221 .
Analogies of Scarabaaidze and
Cetoniida?, 237. 239.
Cetoniidaa, circle of the, 239, 240.
Cetoniinae, the, represent the most
typical Coleoptera, 240.
Chafers, of, 192. 196. 210. 217.
Chalcides, and gall-fnes. 151, 152.
154. 156.
Chalcididae, the, 153.
Chalcidites, structure of the, 185.
Large group of, 187, et seq.
Chalconotus, 227.
Chasmodia, 215.
Chasmodon, apterous, 187.
Ch el on an urn, 247.
Chelostoma, the genus, 165.
Chermes Alni, 141.
Chetoptera, genus, 23, 24.
C hiasognathus, 243.
Chigo, attacks the feet of negroes,
393.
Chilognatha, the, 586.
" Chilognathiform stirps," 208.
Chilopoda, the, 386.
Chionew, apterous, 341.
Chiton, 242.
Chloeia, 25.
Chlorion, metallic colour of, 180.
Chorista, 341.
INDEX.
Chrysalis of insects, notices of, 48.
53, 54. 79. With head pointed
upwards, 60. With head pointed
downwards, 65. Perfect, 76.
Chrysididae, ovipositor of, 188.
Chrysina, 214.
Chrysis, the genus, 154-
Chrysomelas, the, 253.
Chrysomelida?, the, 154. 314.
Chrysophora chrysochora, 215.
Cicada Anglica, 131.
Cicades, or Cicadas, conformation
of the, 112. Singing insects, 126,
et seq. Aberrant species of. 113.
The true, or Cicadiadse, 131.
Anacreon's eulogy of the, 132.
Cicadides, 113. 129.
. Cicadinje, singing, 131.
Cicindela, the typical, 259. C. cam-
pestris, 254. Its larva, 259. 261.
Cicindelidse, or tiger beetles, 115.
192. 250259, &c.
Cimex, genus, 116. Conformation
of, 116. C. lectularius, 121. C.
scarabseoides, 118.
Cimicides, or bugs, 112, 116. 126.
Circellium, convex, 227.
Circopinee, jumping cicadas, 134.
Cirratulus, 24.
Cirrhipedes, parasitic, 3. Covered
with scales and hard plates, 9, 10.
16. Are marine animals, known
as barnacles, 29. Families of, 31.
70. Analogies of, with the Aves
fissirostres, 33, 34. Metamor-
phosis of, 36. Relation with the
Crustacea, 38.
Cissites, 329.
Cixius, the genus, 135.
Claviger, remarkable form of, 273.
Cleri, the, 322.
Cleridae, the, 333.
Clerus, 165. 276. 321. 334.
Cloe, the ephemeral genus, 354.
Clymene, fragile tube of, 23.
Clythrida?, family, 314.
Cnemidotus, 265. 268.
Coccides, or Blight Insects, 112.
148, et seq.
Coccinella, 149. 203.
Coccinellida?, 118. 278.
Coccus, 116. C. adonidum, 150.
cacti, 149. 325. Cataphractus, 149.
Cochineal, produce of the cocci,
149. 325.
Cocoon of the silkworm, 78.
Colax, 376.
Coleoptera, 9. 57. Wings, hard
cases, and shards of, 48. Analogy
of, with Amphibians, 49. With
Glires, 50. Imperfection as to
flight, 49. Analogies with Hemi-
ptera, 115 With quadrupeds and
reptiles, 199. The natatorial, 125.
General view of this order, chap.
vi., 190. ; vii., 207. ; viii., 249. ;
ix., 274. ; x., 308.; xi., 318. Ana.
logics of, 202. 204. 252. 258.
Coleotichus, 118.
Colianse, yellow butterflies, 87. 89.
Colias, a butterfly, 87.
Colletes, its bilobated tongue, 162.
Colophon, 244.
Condylodon, 173.
Coniates Tamarisci, 306.
Copper butterflies, the, 95.
Coprides, habits of the, 260.
Copris, 227.
Coprobii, the, 227.
Coprobis, 227-
Coptosoma globus, 118.
Corei, family of the, 117. 119.
Coreus, 119.
Coriacea?, the, 379.
Corixa, the group, 139.
Corizus Hyosciami, 120.
Coronula, 32.
Crabronida?, 178.
Crabs, allusions to the feet of, 2.
To their eyes, 38. To the alter-
ation of external appearance of,
53. Type of the group of, 389.
land, 389.
Crayfish, 391.
Creophilus, black-headed beetle,
common in our walks, 271.
Crickets, of, 348,
Crocisa, white and cerulean mark-
ings of, 166.
Crustacea, 13, 14. 38. 387393.
Cryptidse, the, 186.
Cryptodus, genus, 212.
Cryptophasida?, hermit moths, 106.
Ctenicerus pectinicornis, 247.
Ctenostoma, 259.
Cuckoo bees, 157. 162. 165.
Cuckoo spit, 127. 134.
Cucujus, 276, 277.
Curculio, 181, 275.
Curculionidse, the, 154. 193. 276.
278. 297. Species of, 304.
Cybister, 264.
Cychrus, and its affinities, 263.
Cyclops, swimming feet of, 37. 392.
Cyclostomi, clypeus and mandibles
of the, 187.
Cylidrus, 333.
Cylendrodes, apterous, 348.
Cylindrical cases of May.flies, 354.
Cynipedes, the, 153.
Cynipsidas, gall-flies, 188.
Cyphus, rich vestment of, 306.
D.
Daphnia, the water-flea, 37.
Darnis, the genus, 138.
Dasygastraj, hirsute, 165.
Dasypoda, the elegant, 163.
Dasypus, genus, 65.
Dasytes, 324.
Death's-head moth, 77.
Death-watch, the, 358.
Decticus, the genus, 349.
Deinopsis, and Diglossa, 273.
Dendrophagus, 285.
Delphax, curious shape of, 137.
Demetrius, 261.
Dentalium, 22.
Devil's coach-horse, 272.
Dichaetae, families of the, 375.
Diopatra, 25.
Diphtera, moths named, 109.
Diphucephalae, 218.
Diptera, two-winged insects, 9. 46.
56. 79. 366, et seq.
Diura Chronos, 347.
Dolichoderus of Brazil, 172.
Donaciae, and their larva, 283.
Dorcadion, 289.
Dorcus, the genus, 243.
Dorites, 87.
Dorsibranches, 20.
Dorylida?, the, 175.
Dorylus, 175.
Dragon-fly, stingless, 48. Aquatic
in the larva state, 49.
Drilus, 332.
Dromius, 261.
Drones. See Bees.
Drypta, 261.
Dynastes, 216. D. Actseon, 233.
Dynastidae, 215. 231, 232.
Dynastina?, 224. 233. 240.
Dytiscidaa, 115. 192. 195. 250. 254.
264. 266.
Dytiscus, the genus, 250, 264.
E.
Earwigs, or Forficulida?, 201. 336.
Ecdysis distinguished from meta-
morphosis, 52.
Edriophthalma, 391.
Eggs of insects, of, 54. 79. 112. 132.
156. 159. 186. 343. 355, et passim.
Elaphrus and its sub-aquatic cog-
nates, 263.
Elater, highly luminous, 245, 246.
E. sanguineus, 247.
Elaterinse, the, 245.
Electrical shock from insects,! 23,1 24.
Elophorus, genus of water beetles,
240.
Elytra, or sheaths, of the, of insects,
81. 191. 196. 255. 321, et passim.
Embryo, of the insect tribes, 54.
Emus, the beautiful, 271.
Engidae, of MacLeay, 251.
Engis, 267.
Entomostraca, the, 392.
Entozoa, intestinal worms, 7. 27.
Epeolus, variegated cuckoo-bee, 162.
*. 399
Ephemera, wings of these insects,
353, 351.
Ephemenna?, their brief life, 353.
P^pomediopteron, 179.
Erotylida?, family, 315.
Erotylus, 251.
Erpobdella, 21.
Errantes,the largest family of Anel-
lides mesobranchiae, 24. Their
animal economy, 24.
Erycina, of Fabricius, 94. 96.
Erycinida?, 94. 96.
Eucera, genus, 166.
Euglossa, 168.
Eulaima, 168.
Eulophi, tarsi of the, 187.
Eumenes, a solitary wasp, 182.
Eunicidae, comprise CEnone and
Aglaura, also Lycidice, Eunice,
&c., 25.
Euphrosyne, 25.
Euploea, 92.
Eurymus, 89.
Eurysternus, legs of the, 227, 22a
Euterpe, 89.
Evaniadae, family of, 187.
Eyes of insects, some notices of the,
118. 126. 134. 185. 324. 339. 353.
380, et passim.
F.
Feet of insects, the, 2. 10. 90. 94. 124.
380. Swimming feet of, 37.
Filaments, certain, of insects, 141.
Filaria, the most simple of the
Vermes, 28.
Flata limbata, of Africa, 84.
Flatiria>, family of, 127. Moth-like
cicadas, 130. 134.
Fleas, of, 56. 154. 393.
Fleshy processes, 92.
Flies, of, 375, et passim.
Floral beetles, the, 210. 254.
Flowers, list of insects inhabiting,
267.
Forficulidze, the earwigs, 201. 336.
Formica, stingless, 172.
Formicidae, or the Ants, 151. 171.
Are pugnacious, 172.
Formicina, 172.
Formicina rufa, 172.
Fossores, aculeated, 176-181.
Fresh-water insects, 21.
Froghopper, the, 127. 134. ^
Fulgora?, analogies of, 135. 136.
Fulgorana?, in the circle of the Fla-
tida;, 135.
G.
Galeatus, 121.
Galgulini, the, 125.
400 IN
Gall flies, 151, 152. 188.
Gastrobrauchus, allusion to, 18.
Geographic distribution of insects,
b8. 93. 95. 97. 103. 107. 119. 124.
128. 132. 154. 166. 169. 173. 175.
181. 218. 246. 263. 269. 346, 347. 384.
Geometna, of Linnaeus, 69. 205.
Geometrides, or loopers, 86. 107.
Geotrupes stercorarius, 224.
Geotrupinae, or drone scarabs, 229.
Gerris, 117. 125.
Ghost-moths, the, 106.
Glow-worms, of the, 319.
Glaphyri, green and yellow, 219.
Glaphyridae, 211.
Glaphyrinae, 219.
Glaphyrinse, or wasp beetles, 10.
Glycera, appertains to Nereida?, 25.
Goerius, 272.
Goliathus, the genus, 238.
Goliathus, beetle, 211, 212.
Gonepteryx, 89.
Gradual developement, 139.
Grasshoppers, of, 53. 56. Their ha-
bits and economy, 126, et scq.
Allusions by various authors to
the tribes of cicadas, 132, 133.
The Gryllidae, or grasshoppers,
336, 337. The Acridinse, their
song and vivacity, 349.
Grubs, of, 54, 57. 60. 141.
Gryllinae, and crickets, 348.
Gryllotalpa, the burrowing, 348.
Guinea worm, or Filaria, a pest of
hot climates, 28.
Gymnopleurus, 227.
Gymnotus electricus, 124.
Gyrini, the, 265.
H.
Habitat, ordinary, of many ento-
mological tribes, 267, 2b8, 386.
Hair-worm, or Gordius, 28.
Halictus, genus, 162, 163. 176.
Haliplus, 265.
Halobates, marine, 126.
Haltica, the genus, 152.
Harpalidae, the, 262.
Harpalus, the type, 263.
Harpocera Burmeisteri, 121.
Harvest bugs, 68.
Haustellata, 45. 55. 196.
Hawk-Moth, the, 60. 86. 99. Spin-
ning^r Orthidse, 101.
Heleus, structure of, 270.
Heliconia, 87.
Heliconinae, 87.
Helota, 269. H. Vigorsii, 255.
Hemerobiina?, the, 356.
Hemiptera, 9. &c. Chap, iv., 110,
et seq. Their wings generally
coriaceous and folded, 48. Ana-
logy with certain quadrupeds, 49.
With Ferae, 50. Are carnivorous,
75. Analogies with the Coleop-
tera, 115. With Cicades, 128.
Hepialiriae, or'ghost-moths, 106, 107.
i Hercules beetle, the, 232.
| Hermella, 23.
Hermit moths, 106.
Herpa, Guilding's, alluded to, 27.
Hesione, 25.
Hesperia, 73. 97.
Hesperian caterpillar, its large
head, 65. The butterfly, 70.
Hesperia?, skipper butterflies, 61. 76.
97, 98. 102. 205.
Heterogyna, solitary, 176.
Ht-teromera, the, 263.
Heterosternus, 215.
Heterotoma, antennas of, 121
Hexapod insecta, the, 47 380, et
passim.
Hexodon, 215.
Hipparchia, meadow brown butter-
fly, 63. 93.
Hipparchia Hyperantus, 94.
Hipponoe, 25.
Hirudina, 26.
Hirudinidas, leeches, 18. 21.
Hirudo, the medicinal, 21.
Hispidae, the, 316.
Hister, the genus, 241. 244.
Histeridaa, the, 244.
Hive bees, 170.
Hives, of the, 169, 170.
Hololepta, 244.
Holoptilus, the typical, 124
Honey, 160. 170. 183. 325.
Honey dew, 143.
Hoplias, metallic tints of, 218.
Horia, genus, 167. 329.
Horn-like processes of insects, 69.
Horned beetles, 210, et passim.
Horned cicadas, 137.
Horns of insects, 73. 90. 137.
Horse-fly, the hippobosca, 379.
Humming birds, 34. 154.
Hydrena, 249.
Hydrocorisae, structure of the, 129.
Hydrodephagaa, the, 251.
Hydrodephagpus beetles, 195. 264.
Hydroessa, minute, 125, 126.
Hydrophilida?, the, 240. 248.
Hydrophilii, aquatic beetles, 248,
Hydrophilus, the genus, 254. H.
piceus, 248.
Hydroporus, 265.
Hydroptila, kidney-shaped cases of
the larvae of, 355.
Hylseus, the wood burrowing, 162.
Hymerioptera, 9. 1^3. Wings of,
never coriaceous, 48. Their ana-
logy to Ileptilia, 49. Poisonous
stings of the typical, 49. Analogy
with Ungulatii, of quadrupeds,
50. Inclusive of bees and wasps,
79. Of the order Hymenoptcra,
\ INDEX.
401
chap, iv., 150. Analogies with
Ptilota, 153. Fossorial, 176. 181.
Hypocephalus armatus, 268.
Hypoderma, 376.
Hystrix, 119.
Ichneumons, the, or Ichneumo-
nides, 151, 152. 155. 165. 185, et
seq. Proper, 185.
Imago, the term, 80.
Inca, 212, 213.
Infusoria, are minute, 2.
Insects, natural arrangement and
characters of, 1, et seq. 41, et seq.
Industry, and almost miraculous
works of, 5. Gregarious com-
munities of, 5. Five great divi-
sions of, 69. Typical classes of,
45. Definition of an insect, 46.
On the winged insects, 47, et seq.
No tribe of insects absolutely do-
mestic, 50. Systems of entomo-
logy, 41, et seq. 55. The singing
insects, 126132 Of aculeated
insects, 155. 158. 171. 176. Pulmo-
nary apparatus of certain apte-
rous, 380, 381.
Intestinal worms, simple structure
of this class, 7. Their varieties
and habitation, 27.
Ips, and other tribes, of which the
bark of trees is the habitat, 267.
Ischnocera, antenna? of, 166.
Ischnostoma, 211.
Issus, the genus, 135.
luliform caterpillars. 64. 68. 72.
lulodis, of Africa, 246.
lulus, 10. 58.
Java, insects of, 85. 96.
Joppa, the genus, 185.
Ladybird, the, Coccinella, 149. 202.
Lamellicornes, family of Coleop-
tera, 115.201- i ; 07, et seq. Ana-
logies of the typical with other
groups, 240. 254. 281.
Lamia, the genus, 277.
Lamiada?, analogies of the, 293.
Lamprima, splendour of, 243.
Lamprimina?, the, 241.
Lampyrida?, the glow-worms, 319.
Land crabs, 389.
Languria, 316:
Lantern -flies, orFulgora?, 135, 136.
Larrida?, genera of, 181.
Larva? of insects, notices of the,49.
58. 63. 67. 94. 97. 106. 141. 151.
156. 204. 211. 334. 339. 355. Pri-
mary types of larva, 5764. lu-
hform type, pre-eminent, 58. 63,
64. Aberrant types of, 65, et seq.
Analogies of the larva? of the
Lepidoptera to the Annulosa, 72.
Representations of, 73
Lebia, 261.
Ledra, the genus, 134.
Leech, the medicinal, 21.
Leeches, 6. 18.
Leiodes, 268. L. cinnamomea, 268.
Leodice, head free and porrect. 25.
Lepidoptera, 9. 56. 80. Characters
of, and metamorphosis, 48. Pupa
active, 48. &c. Analogy of, with
birds, 49. With quadrumana or
quadrupeds, 5(1. Crepuscular
Lepidoptera, 60. The diurnal, 63.
92. 205. &c. Have the longest
caterpillars, 69. Analogy of
to the Annulosa, 72. Chap, iii.,
of the Lepidoptera, 82. et seq.
Aberrant group of, 93. Affinity
of Cicades to, 12P. Analogies of,
Lepisma, 63. 94.
Lepitrix, a remarkable beetle, 212.
Leptura, 278.
Lepturida?, the, 275.
Lepturina?, analogies of, to tb
Lamiada?, 293.
Lestes, its brilliant wings, 339.
Lethrus, its food the vine, 230.
Leucophasia, the genus, 85. 90.
Leucospis, ovipositor of, 187.
Libellula, its large eyes, 339.
Libellulida?, the, 337.
Libellulina?, the, 338.
Lice, of, 379. Bird-lice, 61. Plant-
lice, 112. 114. 128. 141.
Licinia amphione, 87. 90.
Licinina?, butterflies, 89.
Limulus, extraordinary form of, 392.
Lissonotinse, the, 289.
Lithosiada?, day moths, 106.
Lobster, the, 391.
Locusta, the genus, 337-
Locustina?. the, 348.
Longicorn coleoptera, 123.
Looper moths, 86. 107. 204.
Lucanidae, 136. 207. 240. 274.
276.
Lucanus, parallelopipedal, 242,243.
Ludius fulgens, 247.
Lumbricina, 26.
Lumbricus, or earth-worm, 22, 23.
Lyca?na, 94.
Lycidice, a genus of Eunicida?, 25.
Lycus, 321, 322. 332.
Lyga?i, the, 117. 120.
Lygseus equestris, 120.
D D
402 INDEX.
Lymexylonidae, the, 330.
Lytta, description of, 321. 326.
M.
Machla, heterogeneous form of, 270.
Macraspis, 215.
Macrocephalus, 122.
Magilis, 22.
Maggots, of, 57. 61.
Malachius, 324.
Malacodermes, or soft Coleoptera,
115.197.202. Circle of the, 255.
Account of this winged tribe of
beetles, chap, xi., 318.
Malthinus, elytra and eyes of, 324.
Mamestra, 110.
Man, lessons to be derived by him
from the evidences of nature, 82.
342.353.393.
Mandibulata, typical class of Co-
leoptera, 45. 55. 56. 146. 196.
Manticora, 260.
Mantidee, the, 127.
Mantinse, the, 344347.
Mantis, 344. 378. M. Carolina, de-
scribed, 346. Sea Mantises, 391.
Mantispa, 344.
Mask of insects, 56. 339.
Mason bees, the, 165.
May flies, 354.
Megacephala, 260. Chalybea, 260.
Megachil,a universality of, 165,
Megasomina, Hercules, 232.
Megasominae, or horned beetles,
210. 215. 231. Arboreal, 232.
Melecta, 165, 166.
Mellipona, 169.
Meloe, elytra of, 321. doubt upon its
larva, 327.
Melolontha alopex, 218. M. vul-
garis, 192. 217.
Melolonthidas, or tree beetles, 210.
Meloldnthinie, 217, 18.
Meiyrinae, the sub-family, 324.
Membracis spinosa, 138. 172.
Menenotus, 119.
Merocoris, 119.
Meropachys, 119.
Mesotrichia, of Africa, 167.
Metamorphosis : Of Ptiiota, 811.
36, 47. Of Cirrhipedes, 36. Of
moths, 103. Of annulose ani-
mals, their chief distinction, 51.
Variations of obtect, coarctate,
incomplete, semi-complete, 52. 55,
56. Three stages of, 64-74. &c.
Reflections on the nature and
wonders of entomological, chap,
iii., 82. Other instances of ento-
mological, 113. 151. 336.
Miana, 110.
Microphysa pselaphoides, 121,
Millipedes, of,'53. 150.
Miltogramma, 162.
Miris, 121.
Mites, or Acaridae, 385.
Molluris, 281.
Mollusca, certain insects that bear
affinity to the, 7, 22. 27.30. Ana-
logies with, 35, 36.
Monilicornes, tribe of Coleoptera,
115. 202206. General view of,
chap, x., 309. Analogies 'of the
families of, 311.
Monoculos, 392.
Monocuh, tribes of, 37. Bivalve, or
Ostracoda, 38.
Mordella, account of, 321323.
Mordellidaa,ofthe,332.
Mormolyce, 261.
Moth cicadas, the, 127. 130. 134.
Moths, of, 60. 77, 78. 86. 108. De-
nominations of, 77. 105, 106.
Muscidae, comprehensive tribe of
the, 375, 376.
Museum, the British, 183, 184.
Mutilla, typical genus, 176.
Mutillida?; the, 152. 154. 175.
Mygale, 382.
Mygnimia, 179.
Mylabris, of the East, 326.
Myriapoda, 19. 53. 386.
Myrmecia, of New Holland, 173.
Myrmecoleontina?, the, 339.
Myrmus miriformis, 120.
Mystacides, 355.
Myxine, 5, 6. 19. 26.
My/ine, 179. .
N.
Nabis lividus, 124.
Nais, 23.
Natorial, or natatorial conforma-
tion, 60. 140., &c.
Naucoris, 125.
Necrodes, 266.
Necrophagus, burying beetles, 266.
Necrophori, the typical, 267.
Necydalina?, sub-family of, 295.
Analogies of the, 297.
Necydalis, 295. N. major, 296.
Neides, of Latreille, 120.
Nematoidea, this order without
perceptible joints, 27.
Nemoptera, the long-winged, 341.
Nepa, 125.
Nepadae, the, 129.
Nephelys, 21.
Nephritomma, 181.
Nephtys, 25.
Nepidse, group of, 125. 140.
Nereida?, 18. The feet furnished
with cirrhi, 25.
Nereidina, head distinct, 26.
Nereis margaritacea, 19.
403
Nests, of insects, 151. 156. 159. 165.
169. 183, 184. 273. 343.
Neuroptera, aberrant class of Ptl-
lota, 8, 9. Have no sting, the
wings reticulated, 48. Analogy
of with fishes, 49, 50. Larva* of,
49.339. Description of, chap, xii.,
335. A circle of its own, 337.
Night moths, 78. 86.
Nitidulse, 267. 269. N. proper, 269.
Nitidulinee, the, 268.
Nobiles, swallow-tailed, 63.
Noctua sponsa, 102.
Noctuides, 78. 86. 104. 108. 204.
Notnada, general structure of, 164.
Nomia, the genus, 163.
Notonecta, large shield of, 139.
Notonectida?, 129, 130. 139. 140.
Nymphalidaa, sub-typical group of
the butterflies, 68. 75. 90. 92.
O.
Ochthebius, 249.
Odocantha, 261.
(Edesmagena, 376.
CEnorie, 25.
OEshna, large eyes of the, 339.
(Estrida?, parasitic, 375.
(Estrus, 376.
Omalidaa, family of the, 272.
Omophron, gibbous, 264.
Omus, the large, 260.
Onisciform larvse, 65. 72. 95.
Onisciform type, 149, et passim.
Oniscus, 62. 96. 149. 387. 392.
Onitis, 227.
Oniticellus, 227.
Onthophagus, the genus, 225. 227.
Opatrum, 236.
Ophelia, 24.
Ophionida?, the, 186.
Orthidae, spinninghawk-mothSjlOl
Orthonotus, structure of, 121.
Orthoptera, 56.
Oryctes nasicornis, 230. 233.
Osmiae, or mason bees, 16.3.
Ostracoda, bivalve monoculi, 38.
Ovipositor, the, in entomology, 152.
186188, et passim.
Oxycypha, the genus, 354.
Oxytelidae, beetles, 272.
p.
Pachycnemus, 211.
Pachylis, 119. P.giga?, H9.
Pachypus of Fabricius, 218, 219.
Pachysoma, 227.
Paecilopoda, truly suctorial, among
the Crustacea, 392.
Palastes, 285.
Palmyra, 25.
Pamborus, 263.
Panorpa, the genus, 341.
Panorpinae, the, 341.
Papilio of Latreille, 75.
Papilio of Linnaeus, 86, 87.
Papiliones, the, 10. 5470.
Papilionidaa, arrangement of the,
87. True butterflies, 98.
Papilionides, tribe, 86, et seq.
Papilipninaa, the, 87, 88.
Paragia, the genus, 185.
Parasitic insects, of, 68. 162. 164,
165. 168. 177. 181. 329. 332. 334.
352, 379. 392. 393.
Parenchymata, Cuvier's, 27, 28.
Parnassinae, the, 76. 87. 90.
Parnassius, 90.
Parnopes, parasite, 181.
Parnus, 249.
Passalus, devastations by, 243.
Passandra, 285.
Paussi, genera of the, 124.
Paussus, 124. P. armatus, 124.
Peacock butterfly, the, 60. 91.
Pectinaria, 23.
Peduncles of barnacles, 30. 71.
Pelecotoma, 332.
Pella, beetles, 273.
Pelopaaus, range of, 181.
Peltophora, 118.
Pentatomaa, the true, 119. P. bi-
dens, 119.
Pentatomi dae, or wood bugs, 116.
Pepsis, typical wasp, 151. 179.
Perepates, 25.
Perga of New Holland, 189.
Perlinae, the, 357. Genus Perla,
357.
Petalocera, 230. 236.
Phalaena, 86.
Phalaena? of Linnaeus, 104.
Phalaanides, 69. 78. 86. 107.
Phalangidae, the, 385.
Phalangium, 392.
Phanaei, the, 227, 228. 260.
Phasma, description of, 344. 347.
Phasminae, 345. 347.
Philanthidse, the, 178.
Philanthus, 181.
Phileurus, 233.
Phloitribus Olese, 236.
Pholidotus, 243.
Phosphoric light in insects, 246. 323.
Phryganida?, the, 154. Fifth circle
of Neuroptera, 353. 354
Phryganina?, sub- family, 354. The
largest species is Phryganea, 356.
Phryneidae, pulmonary Arachnidae,
384.
Phrynus, 384.
Phthiromyae, the, 379.
Phyllis, 25.
Phyllomorphus paradoxus, 119.
D D 2
404
INDEX.
Physomerus, 119.
Pierinae, the, 87. Garden white
butterflies, 88.
Pieris, 75. 87.
Pimelia,251.281. P. Africa, 256.
Pimelidae, 256. 269.
Pimelinae, the, 266.
Pimpla, a remarkable ichneumon,
152. P. manifestator, 165.
Pirates, structure of, 121. 269.
Piscicola, 21.
Pison of New Holland, 181.
Planiceps, 179.
Plant bugs, Coccides, 112. J16. 148.
Plant lice, the, 112. 114. 128. 141, &c.
Platycerus, 243.
Plax adunca, 269.
Plea, the genus, 139.
Plusiae, 109.
Podalirius Pompolius, 73.
Podops, pedunculated eyes of, 118.
Polia, 110.
Polyarthron, 284.
Polydorus Thoas, 74.
Polyergus, slaves of this ant, 172.
Polyglypta, group of, 138.
Polynoe, 25.
Polyomatus, 62. 94.
Polypes, allusions to the, 7.
Pomonae Elater, 247.
Pompilidaa, the, 178, 179.
Pompilus, characteristics of, 179.
Ponera, the genus, 173.
Pontobdella, 21.
Porocephalus, white-blooded,26.
Prawn, the, Paltcmon, 391.
Predatores, coleopterous, 115. 192.
249. 333. Their analogies to the
coleopterous tribes, 252. To the
families of Lamellicornes, 254.
To the orders of Ptilota, 257. To
the Capricornes, 281.
Priocera, antenna? of, 333.
Prionidaa, gigantic, 255. 274. 276.
Prionotheca, 270.
Prionotus serratus, electric, 123.
Prionus, the genus, 276284.
Proboscis, or rostrum, tubular arti-
culated, described, 111. 161.
Procerus, 263.
Prona?us, mandibles of, 180.
Psammotherma, 176.
Pselaphinae, the, 273.
Psithyrus, parasite genus, 168.
Psocinje the typical genus is Pso-
cus minute insects, 357.
Ptilota, receive wings in the period
of metamorphosis, 8, 9. 11. 36.
110. Their sub-divisions and
circle of, 9. 80. Analogies of, 16.
34, 35. Characters of the five
orders of, their relations to other
animals, and their metamor-
phoses, Part II. Chap, ii., 47,
et seq. Analogies of the five
orders of, 49, 50. The primary
divisions of these are rapacious,
and prey on other insects, 113.
Analogies with Hymenoptera,
153. With the reptilia, 198. With
the coleopterous Predatores, 257.
Ptinus, 241 .
Pupa? of insects, references to cer-
tain of our notices of the, 48. 53.
91. Peculiarities and perfect
shape of, 76, 77. Varieties of
structure of pupae, 78. 96. 104;.
Of perfect, imperfect, and coarc-
tate, 79. 98.
Pulex, or flea, 393.
Pupipara, the, 375. 379.
Pupivora, of Latreille, 153. 155.
Pycnogonida?, description of the,392,
Pycnogonon, 393.
Pyralidae, aquatic habits of, 108.
Pyrrhocoris apterus, 120.
Q.
Quadrupeds, analogies with, 49, 50
64. 93. 136. 199. 240. 252. 279.
R.
Radiata, 4, 5. Analogies with, 35.
Ranatra, 125. 129.
Raptorial larvae, 64. 68. Insects, 153.
Rasorial type, 62. 66.
Reduviidae, the typical hemiptera,
carnivorous, 75. 116. 120.
Reduvii, 118. 121, 122. 125. 269.
Reduvius, 15a
Rhyssonotus, 243.
Rhyzolitha, 110.
K ingworm of trees and stones, 58.
Ringed animals, 1. See Annulosa.
Rophites, genus of bees, 164.
Rutila, the beetle genus of, 209.
Rutilinje, the, 210, 211. 213.
S.
Sabella, 23.
Sagra, 269.
Sagrides of Latreille, 283.
Salius, large protothorax of, 179.
Satyridae. the Argus, 92. 94.
Saw flies, the, 154.
Scale-like processes, 112.
Scaphinotus, 263.
Scarabs, of the ancients, 216. The
true scarabs, or Scarabaeina?, 225.
229. The Geotrupinae, or drone
scarabs, 229.
Scarabaaidaj, of the, 208, 209. Gene-
ral description of, 222, et seq. Mu-
tual analogy of the Scarabaeidae
and Cetoniidae (diagram), 237, 239.
Scarabaeinffi, the, 235.
Scarabaeus macropus, 214. S. ster-
corarius, 229.
Scarites, 242.
Scarlet dye, cochineal, 149. 325.
Scaurus, 270.
Scenopinidae, the, 375.
Schizodactylus, of China, 348.
Scoliada?, 177, 178.
Scopuhpedes, solitary bees, 163.
With hairy legs, 166.
Scorpions, of, 68. 384.
Scutati, 117, 118. 122.
Scutellera, 138, 154.
Serica, 218.
Sericophorus, 181.
Sericostoma, 355.
Serpula, 23.
Serpulida?, 18. Tube calcareous
and convoluted, 23.
Serpulina, sedentary, 26.
Sesise, the brush-tailed, 103.
Sexes, characteristics of the, and
neuters, 171. 173. 179. 182. 264.
330. 349. 352, et passim.
Shells of certain insects, 81.
Shrimp, the, Crangon, 391.
Siagonium, horns of the, 272.
SigaJion, 25.
Sigara, minute, of Leach, 139.
Siliquaria, 22.
Silk moths, the, 86.
Silkworm, the, 57. 77. Cocoon of
the, 78.
Silpha, 266, et passim.
Silphidae, 115. 251. 266.
Sinodendron, 244.
Skipper butterfly, 61. 76.
Smerinthus, 101.
Solenosthedium, 118.
Solipedes, 280.
Solpugida?, tracheal Arachnidae,385.
Spalagia, 181.
Spanish flies, of, 320326.
Spercheus, 249.
Sphanridium, 248, 249. S. scara-
baaoides, 249.
Spha?rocosis, a representation of the
Coccinellida?, 118.
Sphaeroderus, 263.
Spheces, a winged group, 177. Nests
and eggs of, 1-56.
Spbecidaa, the, 180.
Sphecides, group of the, 79. 151. 153 .
156. 175.
Sphecodes, 162.
Sphex, is cosmopolitan, 181.
Sphingides, or hawk-moths, 60. 77.
97. 99. Great divisions of, 100.
Sphinx, genus characterised, 86.
Sphinx Atropos, 77,78. 101.
Sphinxes, rampant caterpillars of
the, 68.
Spiders, of, 68. 380, etseg. Number
of legs of, 2. 13.
Spined caterpillar of Brazil, 64.
The spines poisonous, 64.
:x. 405
Spined cicades, 117. 130137. Other
insects, thus armed, 270.
Spondylis, 285.
Squilla, 391.
Stag-beetles, 136.207. 241.
Staphylini, the proper, 271.
Staphylinidas, or rove beetles, 115.
252. 255. 270.
Stenida, beetles, 272.
Sternapsis, 23.
Stings of insects, some of the notices
of the, 49. 155.178.
Stomapoda, or sea-mantises, 391.
Streblocera, distorted antenna? of,
186.
Strepsiptera, 336.
Strongylus, 267.
Stylops, parasite, 163. 352.
Suctorial process, 126.
Suctorial type, the, 61, 62. 137. 393.
Swallow- tailed butterflies, 63. 73.
88.
Syllis, 25.
Symbius, a parasitic insect, 332.
Synagris, typical, 182.
Syphonostoma, 154.
Syrtis, 122.
Systropha, antennae of, 614.
T.
Tachynidae, the, 272.
Tachytes, the genus, 181.
Tadpoles, of the, 53.
Ta?nia, 28.
Taenioidea of Cuvier, 7- 27. 28.
Tape-worms, represent the class
Vermes, 7. 27. Said to be a com-
pound animal, 28.
Tarantula spider, 384.
Tefflus, 263.
Telephorus, universal, 324.
Tenthredines, the, 154.
Tenthredo, of tinnasus, 150.
Terebellidae, 23.
Termitinae, social habits of the, 341.
Their economy, 342, 343.
Terricoles, belong to Annelides me-
sobranchiae, 23.
Testacea 4. 16. 27. 35, 36.
Tetratoma, 267.
Thais, 90.
Thalassema, Thalassamenidae, 23.
Thalerophaga, of MacLeay, 237.
Thalerophagous group, the, 221.
Thanasimus, on felled trees 334.
Thecla, 95. T. jurbus, 96. T. lon-
ginus, 96.
Thelyphonus, 384.
Thrips, the genus, 111. Possesses
jaws, 114. Details of these mi-
nute insects, 145, et seq.
Thynnidae, structure of the, 176.
Thynnus, and its genera, 176.
Thyreocoris silphoides, 119.
Thysanura, 63. 393,
406
Thysanuriform type, in caterpil-
lars, 62. 65, 66, 67, 68. 72. 93.
Tiger beetles, 192, et passim.
Tiger moths, 106.
Tillus, form of, 333.
Tineidae, 108.
Tingi, family of the, 121.
Tiphia, 268.
Titanus gigas, 283.
Tomicus, 276.
Tortoise beetles, 116. 149. 202.
Tort-rices, 98. 108.
Tortricidae, 107.
Trachy notes, 270.
Trichius, group of beetles, 211.
Trichius fasciatus, 219.
Trichoptera, order of, 56. 354.
Trigona, 169.
Trigonalis, 187.
Trigonodactyla, 261.
Trigonopsis, a rare genus, 181.
Trilobites, 392.
Trogidze, the, 212. A division of
terrestrial Scarabs, 234. Uni-
versal distribution of, 236. 256.
Trogosita, 276.
Trox luridus. 234.
Tubicinella, 32.
Tubicoles, 20. 22, 23.
Tubifex, 23.
V.
Vanessa lo, 119.
Velia 117. 125.
Velleius, serrated antennae of, 271.
Vermes, the class, 7. 9. 69. The
genuine annulose, 8. Naked, 16.
27. White-blooded, 26. Body
cylindrical, presenting no sem-
blance of a disc, 27. Filaria the
most simple, and Taenia the most
complicated, 28. The family Tae-
nioidea typical of the Vermes,
28. Analogy of Vermes to the
humming-birds, 34. Simplicity
of formation in, 36.
Vermetus, 22.
Vermiform type, 61. 65. 69. 72.
Verrucivorus Decticus, 349.
Vertebrata, 1. Analogies of, 9. 12.
34. 65. 279.
Vespa, the genus, 183185, V.
Ephippium, 182. V. Lechegua.
na, 183.
Vespida?, social, 180. The group
described, 182. The Solitary Ves-
pidae, 182. Aberrant, 184.
W.
Wasp beetles, 210.
Wasps, of, 79. 151. 177. 182185.
Water beetles, 115. 192. 248.
Water cicadas, 129, 130.
Water flea, the, 37.
Wax, production of, 169. 325.
Webs, insects', 78. 102. 380.
Wing cases of insects, 197. See
Elytra.
Wood-louse, the, 62, 68. 392.
"Worms, general character of, 3.
The red-blooded, or Annelides,
5, 6. 20. The intestinal Tamioi-
dea, Entozoa, &c., 7. 69. Earth-
worms represent the Annelides;
fape-worms the class Vermes ;
barnacles the Cirrhipedes, 7. The
Lumbricus, 23. Vermes, oran-
nuloseworms,26, 27. Glow-worms
319.
X.
Xanthiae, moths, 109.
Xenos, the genus, 352.
Xya, a burrowing insect, 348.
Xylina, 110.
Xylocopa, genus, 167. X. latipes,
167. X. teredo, 129.
Xylophagi, 276.
Xylotrupes, 216.
Z.
Zethus, long slender petiole of, 182.
Zoe, 392.
" Zoological Researches" by Mr.
Thompson, 39.
Zyganidae, the clear-winged, of
Brazil, 92. 102.
THE END.
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