NEW NEW ITALY MAKKKS OF ITALY. Virttvr Emaneul. Cavour. GaribaLdL NEW ITALY HER PEOPLE AND THEIR STORY A POPULAR HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS OF ITALY FROM THE TIME OF THEODORICH, THE GREAT TO THAT OF VICTOR EMANUEL III. BY AUGUSTA HALE GIFFORD AUTHOR OF " GERMANY : HEB PEOPLE AND THBIB STORY " ILLUSTRATED FROM PORTRAITS AND FAMOUS PAINTINGS BOSTON LOTHROP, LEE & SHEPARD CO. Published, March, 1909 Copyright, fQOQ* BY LOTHROP, LEE & SHEPARD COMPANY. All Rights Rtitrved NEW ITALY BBRWICK & SMITH Co. Norwood, Mass., U. S. A. I DEDICATE THIS BOOK TO MY HUSBAND GEORGE GIFFORD FROM WHOSE GENIUS I RECEIVED MY EARLIEST LITERARY ASPIRATIONS AND TO WHOSE ENCOURAGEMENT I OWE WHATEVER SUCCESS I HAVE HAD IN LETTERS 2037452 INTRODUCTION FROM the dawn of Italy's history the Italian's impres- sionable nature has responded in life and literature to the ardor of the scholar, the illusion of the painter, and the touch of the musician's hand ; and thus research in every avenue connected with this most fascinating people is attractive in the extreme. Italy is one of the most discussed subjects of the day, both on account of the great number of Americans who visit the country each year and also because it has recently come into notice as a kingdom in process of large development, which is likely to result in its finally assuming a place as one of the lead- ing nations. More and more is written each year concerning Italy's aims, aspirations, probabilities, and chances. Hence the necessity of a work telling the deeds of the people from earliest times has become most urgent. With reference also to modern Italian history for the past few decades, little concerning it has been put into concise readable form, and a great demand has all at once sprung up for a bright, brief, entertaining, authentic account of events in Italy since her consoli- dation as a united kingdom in 1870. viii Introduction No country has produced more intensely interesting historical characters than are found in both ancient and modern Italy ; and the deepest regret is entertained that in the comparatively small space it is possible to give this vast subject, the greater part of what is most absorbing in the lives of eminent Italians must be left out. Accordingly, with few exceptions, we have only tried in the regular routine of the work to present dis- tinguished Italian statesmen and scholars by their most distinguished deeds and, as they appear in the fore- ground of what they really accomplished, leaving the reader to elaborate their lives from biographies and his- tories which take up topics in detail. In some cases also, where matters relating to both Germany and Italy were treated thoroughly in our " Germany : Her People and Their Story," we have here only referred to such subjects superficially. Much of the material for this volume was collected during long absences abroad, with frequent sojourns in Italy, where access was gained to many books and historical papers in the original Italian as well as in other foreign languages. These furnished us informa- tion not obtainable in works hitherto published in English, while items concerning events transpiring in Italy during the past few years have been gleaned from magazines and general current literature in Italian, as they have appeared from month to month. Thus the civic and political conditions of Italy as a new king- dom have been determined from the popular home sentiment. Among writers consulted in the course of the work, besides books referred to at odd times, the names of which have often not been kept in mind are : Plutarch, Livy, Gibbon, Niebuhr, Mommsen, Symonds, Sismondi, CONTENTS CHAPTER I Course . of History from Theodorich to Charle- magne. Italy's Early Kings. The Ottos. 489- CHAPTER II 17 Beginning of the Italian Republics. The Franconian Kings as Emperors. The Norman Conquest. Guelphs and Ghibellines. Hildebrand. The Hohenstaufen. Frederick Barbarossa. The Lombard League. 1002-1190 A.D. CHAPTER III 29 Henry VI. Frederick II. Innocent III. Branca- leone. Manfred. Charles of Anjou. 1190- 1280 A.D. CHAPTER IV. 41 Venice, Pisa, Genoa, Colonna and Orsini. Sicilian Vespers. The Neri and Bianchi. Dante. 1280- 1310 A.D. CHAPTER V. S3 The Age of the Despots. The Condottieri and the Free Companies. Petrarch. Boccaccio. Giotto. Cimabue. Rienzi. 1310-1354 A.D. CHAPTER VI 69 The Visconti. The Chiompi Insurrection in Flor- ence. The Babylonian Captivity of the Popes. The Great Schism. 1349-1435 A.D. vi Contents PAGS CHAPTER VII 81 Rise of the Medici. The Sforza Family. Nicholas V. Savonarola. 1435-1495 A.D. CHAPTER VIII 95 Age of Invasion. Coming of Charles VIII. Spanish Possession of Naples. The Expulsion of Ludovico Sforza. Savonarola's Death. Peace of Cambrey. Art and Literature. 1494- 1553 AJ>. CHAPTER IX 114 Age of Spanish Rule. Clement VII. Fall of the Medici. The Jesuits. Decline of Venice. 1513- 1574 A.D. CHAPTER X 130 The Rise of the House of Savoy. Her Dukes. Charles Emanuel I. the Great. Excitement At- tending Struggle of Spanish Succession. Masaniello. Italy's Kingdoms, Duchies, and Republics at Napoleon's Invasion. 1574-1792 A.D. CHAPTER XI 147 The Absorption of Italy by Napoleon. Formation of His Republics. Enthusiasm of Italy for Napoleon's Institutions. 'Italy Restored in Napoleon's Absence in Egypt. Battle of Marengo. Excavations of Roman Ruins in Napoleon's Time. 1792-1812 A.D. CHAPTER XII 166 The Fall of Napoleon's Italian Monarchy. Austria Again in Ascendency. Advanced Ideas of the People. Old Conservative Governments Re- stored. The Carbonari. All Italy Aroused. Revolutions of 1821-1830 and 1848. Mazzini, Cavour, and Garibaldi. 1812-1848 A.D. Contents vii PAGE CHAPTER XIII l8 4 The Defeat of Charles Albert. Resigns in Favor of His Son. His Melancholy Death. Victor Emanuel II.'s Liberal Reign. Career of Cavour. Louis Napoleon Restores the Pope. Massimo d'Azeglio. 1848-1859 A.D. CHAPTER XIV ; 2 3 Victories of Magenta and Solferino. Disgraceful Truce with Austria by Napoleon. Central Italy Ceded to Piedmont. The Treaty of Villa- franca. Nice and Savoy Given to France. Garibaldi Delivers Kingdom of Naples. The Unification of Italy. Cavour's Death. Sep- tember Convention. 1859-1861 A.D. CHAPTER XV 221 The United Kingdom of Italy. Capital Removed from Turin to Florence. Alliance with Prus- sia. Prussian Army Victorious at Koniggratz. Austria Gives up Venice. Italian Army De- feated at Custoza, etc. End of September Con- vention. Pope Yields to Superior Force and Gives up Temporal Power. The Papal States Amalgamated. 1861-1870 A.D. CHAPTER XVI 2 33 Victor Emanuel Enters Rome as King of United Italy. He Administers Affairs of the Govern- ment Faithfully. Death of Many of Italy's Emi- nent Men. Victor Emanuel Dies. Death of Pope Pius IX. Pope Leo XIII. Reign of King Humbert. Death of Garibaldi Succeeding Events and Changes. 1870-1899 A.D. CHAPTER XVII 2 5* Princes of the House of Savoy. Officers of the State and Its Various Institutions. Improve- ment in Condition of People in Various Sections and Departments. Vast Emigration. viii Contents PACK CHAPTER XVIII 265 Abyssinian War. Crispi. Authors. 1885-1899 A.D. CHAPTER XIX 285 Assassination of King Humbert. Victor Emanuel III. Death of Crispi. Birth of Princess lolande. Birth of Humbert, Prince of Pied- mont. 1900-1905 A.D. ILLUSTRATIONS Makers of Italy Frontispiece Victor Emanuel Cavour Garibaldi PAGB Dante and Beatrice 46 Savonarola 91 Artists Ill Raphael Giotto Michaelangelo Fra Angelico Leonardo da Vinci Map, Italy in the time of Napoleon 149 Authors 162 Tasso Petrarch Dante Boccaccio d'Annunzio Map, Italy after the downfall of Napoleon . . 168 Castle of St. Angelo 232 Pope Leo XIII 240 Map, Italy at the present time 253 Musicians 280 Donizetti Bellini Rossini Verdi Mascagni Naples of To-day 284 Victor Emanuel III ' . 290 Queen Helene 294 NEW ITALY CHAPTER I COURSE OF HISTORY FROM THEODORICH TO CHARLE- MAGNE. ITALY'S EARLY KINGS. THE OTTOS. 4891002 A.D. IT is thought that the seven vultures which Remus first espied signified the seven centuries previous to the founding of the Empire, while the twelve birds in the heavens which appeared to Rotfulus indicated the twelve centuries during which Rome existed in her glory and might. Perhaps also there was a signifi- cance in the last ruler of the Empire being called Romulus Augustulus, the combined names of the founder of Rome and of the first Emperor. It might have been a cynicism on the small beginning, wonder- ful growth and phenomenal decay of a great nation, since Rome had passed from the immaturity of child- hood to the ripening of a noble manhood, and had then sunk into the decadence of a State which had passed its prime and outlived its usefulness. As we have had reason to notice, in her early strife for glory Rome recognized no forces outside herself. By her the other nations were regarded as so many puppets, an element of strength or weakness, accord- ing as they administered to her growth. Even her heroes were only used to advance her interests, and every great statesman whose mighty deeds had redounded to Rome's glory was thrust aside as soon as he ceased to be a stepping-stone on which she could mount to further greatness. Her demigods caught 2 Italy: Her People and Their Story the spirit, and trod beneath their feet all who stood in the way of their ambition. " Mighty and all-power- ful " were synonyms which crushed opposing influ- ences, whether the words represented Marius or Sylla, Pompey or Caesar, or the madmen who ruled as Emperors so many years after the downfall of the great State had commenced. The wars of Hannibal, instead of crushing the Roman people, brought out the arrogance and vainglory of a nation that could not be humbled even when abject at the great con- queror's feet; and nothing was able to destroy her until the poison of effeminacy, engendered by her successes, ate like a canker into her body politic, pro- ducing a race of pigmies in place of a nation of giants. Gibbon says that the decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable result of immoderate greatness. The Roman Empire before its fall in 476 A.D. had become a prey to the numerous barbarian factors she had appropriated, each seizing for himself the part which pleased him best; and thus many kingdoms had risen out of her ashes. The Angles subjugated Britain and named it England; the Franks conquered Gaul and called it France; and the Burgundians absorbed the portion which afterwards became Burgundy. The Vandals and Goths possessed Spain and extended their dominion over all the Roman provinces in Africa, holding them until Justinian's time; Panonia became Hungary, and " Italy alone kept her glorious name." Thus Rome, which had excelled all nations in liter- ature and the fine arts, and had become the model for great and warlike deeds, she, the world-conquer- ing portion of the globe, who by the force of her genius had dispelled mental darkness from the world, was at last the most subjugated. The very spoils New Italy 3 she had taken from the vanquished nations helped to precipitate her ruin by their demoralizing influence, and misfortune thickened in proportion to her preced- ing prosperity. There were, however, native forces outside of Rome that still held something of pristine virtue, and this was Italy's chance. Yet the years of servitude and centuries of chaos had been so tremendous in their influence that the strength of factions warring against their own interests could not be centralized in a moment. Italy was too great a prize to be left long in the undisputed possession of the weaklings who called themselves rulers; and the chieftain Odoacer, as has been noticed, having snatched it from their hands, governed it for a while as a barbarian king. North of the Black Sea, however, there was a pow- erful nation known as the Ostrogoths, or Eastgoths, whose king was Theodorich. Under him in 489 the Eastgoths marched seven hundred miles over the Alps into the plains of northern Italy; and in 493 A.D. forced the intrepid Odoacer to surrender, after he had held out bravely behind the strongholds of Ravenna for three years. Theodorich afterwards, in violation of an agreement to share the rule with Odoacer, put the latter to death. Zeno, the sovereign of the East- ern Empire, jealous of Theodorich's growing power, favored the victor, thinking that if the latter could absorb the Western kingdom he should not only be delivered from a dangerous rival, but that all com- plications with reference to Italy would thus be settled. Considering the circumstances surrounding Theo- dorich the Great and the times in which he liyed, his reputation for culture and wisdom is not unwarranted. 4 Italy: Her People and Their Story He was a prince of barbarian origin, but while still a child was educated in Constantinople as a hostage; and there he had acquired all the arts of civilized life. From the first he showed great executive ability in uniting Gothic and Italian elements so that they would do the best service for all. With this in view, he apportioned one-third of the soil of Italy to his Gothic soldiers, leaving the larger portion to the Italians; and in this way he succeeded in Romanizing his sub- jects instead of attempting, as other conquerors before him had done, to denationalize the subjugated. Theodorich also built up the State by other adroit and diplomatic measures, and among his discreet alli- ances with other surrounding nations was one with the great Frank, Clovis; and although he himself could never learn to write, he established communica- tion through secretaries with all the Gothic rulers throughout Europe. In order to better protect his kingdom, he kept up an army so well drilled that he could call into the field two hundred thousand war- riors at an hour's notice. Theodorich endeavored in every way to bring about the enlightenment of Italy; and these efforts, together with his great energy and sagacity, rendered his reign an era of unparalleled peace and prosperity. But in spite of his ability as a ruler, his vigor, tolerance and humanity, his love for literature, science and the fine arts, Theodorich exhibited many defects due to his barbarian descent. This was seen in the case of his favorites, the philosophers Boethius and Symmachus, whom he caused to be cruelly put to death without a trial, because he suspected them of plot- ting with Justinian to overthrow his Arian religion. When, however, he became satisfied of their innocence, New Italy 5 remorse for the deed preyed upon his mind and short- ened his life, though for six years longer he dragged out a melancholy existence, dying in gloom in 526 A.D. at the age of seventy-four. His ashes were scattered to the wind by the Catholics, who regarded him as a heretic on account of his Arian doctrine. During the last few years of Theodorich's reign Justinian was Emperor at Constantinople. Although of uncivilized stock he was the most famous of all the Eastern Emperors, his reign being filled with great events at home and abroad, in peace and in war. As a legislator and codifier of Roman law his name is most distinguished ; many of the codes he systematized being the same which Julius Caesar had commenced to classify. Justinian sent his great general Belisarius to take Sicily, and the latter, with Narses, afterwards suc- ceeded in extinguishing the race of Ostrogoths, after a desperate resistance on their part, thus reconquer- ing for Justinian a great part of the Western Empire. Belisarius also subdued Gelimar, the last King of the Vandals in Africa. He guaranteed him his free- dom as the price of surrender. Nevertheless he led the old Vandal warrior with a silver chain to Byzan- tium, where he forced him to walk in a triumphal procession, insulted and ridiculed by the people. The dignity and strength of the aged Vandal chief, how- ever, so impressed Emperor Justinian that he released him, giving him large estates outside the Byzantine capital, besides granting homes to his retinue and educating the maidens of his suite. But five thou- sand of Gelimar's squadrons were sent with Justinian's soldiers to fight the Parthians ; and the nation which at one time had numbered six hundred thousand fol- 6 Italy: Her People and Their Story lowers was annihilated. Thus the Vandal race dis- appeared from history. But scientists claim that they discover a remnant among the swarthy Moors of Africa, with a fair complexion and flaxen hair, whom they trace as descendants of the Vandals. Justinian was the last efficient Byzantine Emperor. He died in 565 A.D., and Italy soon after, during the sixth, seventh and eighth centuries, came under the rule of the Exarchs, Narses being the first to govern as such. There were seventeen Exarchs in all, who made the lives of the people most miserable. As a civic officer, the Exarch was a kind of a prefect or viceroy, and as an ecclesiastic his duties were varied. Narses ruled Italy for fifteen years as Exarch at Ravenna, and was a very important historical character of the sixth century. But he excited the jealousy of Justin II., successor of Justinian, who removed him. Sophia, the wife of Justin II., is said to have sent Narses insulting messages together with a golden distaff, bidding him spin wool in the apartment of the women, since he had none of the great qualities of manhood. Narses retorted that he would spin her a thread the length of which should be the limit of her life. He then summoned the Lombards to take pos- session of the land, hoping that his services would be needed to repel these foreign invaders. The Lombards whom Narses enlisted were a fierce nation of heathen who dwelt in Hungary, and for nearly two hundred years, from 570 to 744, kept the whole Italian nation in a ferment. The ferocious Lombard warrior, Alboin, soon arrived in northern Italy with his vast hordes, and in the course of time a large portion of the Italian peninsula was wrested by them from the Eastern Empire. The Lombard New Italy 7 duchies, that portion which was afterwards called the Southern Regno, were soon developed. These formed the " Theme of Lombardy," finally including in its boundaries Gseta, Naples, the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, and the extremities of Calabria, the most southern portion of Italy, which was a little later held by the Byzantine Greeks. Alboin assumed the title of King of the Lombards and made his captains counts and dukes over provinces which became his fiefs ; but he continued to be a bar- barian, amusing himself in his carousals like any sav- age, until finally he was murdered in 573 by his wife Rosamund, daughter of Kunimund, Queen of the Gepidae, because in a drunken revel he forced her to drink from her father's skull. There were thirty-two Lombard kings in all. Autharis, the most celebrated of these, was distin- guished for valor and great deeds. He was success- ful in warding off three eruptions of the Franks, who were trying to force their way into the plains of northern Italy. Rotharis and Grimoald were law- makers, the latter a reformer of his predecessors' codes. Luitprand conquered Ravenna and Aistolphus tried to get possession of the power at Rome, but was outwitted by Pepin the Short. Desiderius was the last King of the Lombards and was subdued by Charlemagne. The rest of the Lombard rulers were scarcely more than figureheads. Pavia was the capital of the Lombard kingdom, and during the reign of Autharis Gregory the Great was Universal Bishop and the only real ruler of Rome during the troublous times between 590 and 604. Gregory was of aristocratic family, and, after being Senator and governor, he had, when the Lombards 8 Italy: Her People and Their Story arrived, been promoted to the office of praetor. Be- sides fulfilling- his duties with dignity and pomp, he appropriated a large income to the needs of the State. After coming into the possession of great wealth through the death of his father, he became a monk of St. Benedict and dedicated the whole of his property to the establishment of charitable institutions. Thus the power of the Church commenced, not at first because the officers of Christ sought lands and wealth for their own uses, but because they really were seek- ing to be ministers of mercy to the suffering and needy. Men of means entered the monasteries, and since all that they had before owned was now given to the Church, that body became very rich, and, wealth being power, more powerful than the State itself. Six monasteries in Sicily were of Gregory's founding, and he himself lived in one of his own asylums, which had once been his estate on the Caelian Hill. Here he gave up his time to the care of the sick and to the study of the Scriptures, subsisting all the while on the meanest diet. It was at this time that his mother, who lived in an adjacent convent, used to bring him pulse in a massive silver dish, the last relic of their former great prosperity. One day, however, touched by the pitiable condition of a shipwrecked sailor, he presented the poor wayfarer with this heirloom. It was Gregory the Great who commenced the con- version of the Britons to Christianity. Some English slave children in the market in Rome attracted his attention ; and, on account of their fair skins and lovely faces, he called them angels or engels, and some think the word Angles or English came from this incident; and there are others who say he punned on the letters of the word Angles, and said that they would be little New Italy 9 " Engels " if they could be converted to Christianity. The thought of their conversion so occupied his mind that he obtained a dispensation to preach the Gospel to the Anglo-Saxons in England ; but when the people saw him starting out for that field they raised such a clamour at the thought of losing him, that he had to turn back ; and it was soon after this, in 590, that he was chosen Pope, then called Universal Bishop. It was Gregory's wish that "he might be unknown in this life and glorious only in the next." Accordingly, to escape this honor conferred upon him, he hid in a basket and was transported from the city as mer- chandise, his retreat being revealed, it is said, by a celestial light. Under him, forty missionaries were sent out to England, and in less than ten years ten thousand of the Anglo-Saxons were baptized. Just before this a pestilence fell on Rome, and Gregory the Great made the people form seven great processions, consisting of all ages and of every con- dition in life, not excluding women and children. All marched in this singular cortege, singing litanies and entreating that the dire disease might be stayed; and when the plague ceased Gregory thought that he be- held an angel standing on Hadrian's tomb. Accord- ingly out of gratitude he had a chapel built on its summit and dedicated it to the Lord, calling it St. An- gelo. From that time the whole magnificent round structure has been called the Castle of St. Angelo. After the death of the Lombard Autharis, Theodo- linda, his beautiful queen, whom he had won romantic- ally by going in quest of her himself, exerted so powerful an influence for Pope Gregory, that this, together with Gregory the Great's justice and wisdom, gained for the Papal office such prestige that for the io Italy: Her People and Their Story first time, as has been already noticed, it was exalted over temporal sovereignty. In the course of the next sixty years Italy was governed by rulers so insignificant in character that the most of their names have not been handed down. Ravenna, Naples and Genoa, like Rome and Venice, were still under the protection of the great Byzantine Empire; but, since all the fighting men had to be employed against the ravages of the Saracens, there was not sufficient force to keep down the Lombards in the North, until at last Pope Gregory III. called to his aid the great Prankish general, Charles Martel, who had driven back the Saracens on the 3d of October, 732, at the Battle of Tours, and had been rewarded for his valor by receiving Aquitania as a gift. Although Charles Martel did little for the Church, Aquitania was divided between his two sons ; and the elder, Pepin, was afterwards made Patriarch of Rome by Pope Stephen as a reward for endowing the Church with lands taken from the Lombard ruler Aistolphus. Pepin soon became King of the Franks and was the first of the Carlovingian line. He is known in history as Pepin the Short. Charlemagne, son of Pepin, broke up the Lombard kingdom, which had lasted two hundred years, when at Pavia, in 773, he overcame Desiderius, the last Lombard ruler; and ever afterwards he was recog- nized as King of the Franks and Lombards. A dramatic scene in the old Church of St. Peter's at Rome in reality opens the page of history for New Italy. Pope Leo III. had been imprisoned in a mon- astery by the Duke of Spoleto, and Charlemagne, to whom he had fled for aid, sent him back to Rome before the Christmas of 800 A.D. Having assumed New Italy II the garb of a Patrician, Charlemagne appeared in the Cathedral of St. Peter's. While he was kneeling in prayer Pope Leo stepped forward and placed upon his head the crown of the Roman Empire, the great dome resounding with the peoples' acclamation: " Long life and victory to Charles, crowned of God, the great peace-giving Emperor of the Romans." The Western Empire then breathed again; and from that date a new era opened for Europe. As a reward for the gift, Charlemagne gave to the Church Spoleto, the nucleus of what was later the Papal States; and the Popes were temporal sovereigns in Italy through the whole of the Carlovingian dynasty; for, although Charlemagne by his great statesmanship, during a reign of forty years, held Italy as well as France, a part of Spain, Germany and Hungary together, and his dominion was washed by the British Channel, the North, Baltic and Mediterranean seas and the Atlantic Ocean, he rarely resided in Rome, and his successors were mere figureheads. Accordingly the great net- work of government he had held securely together soon fell to pieces. Gibbon says that of all the princes who received the appellation of the " Great," Charle- magne is the only one in whose favor the title has been indissolubly blended with the name. Louis the Pious, Charlemagne's son, who suc- ceeded him by the terms of the Treaty at Verdun in 843, was followed, in the government of Italy, by his son Lothair. The kingdoms of Germany and France were at this time separated from each other, the former still adhering in a sense to Italy. In Lothair's reign the Saracens made such inroads, that among the defences against them the Vatican was for the first time surrounded by walls. Louis II. succeeded 12 Italy: Her People and Their Story Lothair and on his death the throne was disputed tiy his uncles and cousins. Gibbon says : " The dregs of the Carlovingian race no longer exhibited any symp- toms of virtue or power, and the ridiculous epithets of the ' bard,' the ' fat,' the ' stammerer,' and the ' simple,' distinguished the tame and uniform features of a crowd of kings, alike deserving of oblivion." Charles the Fat was the last Emperor of his family, he having been deposed in a Diet on account of incapacity. The old Lombard dukedoms were now reduced to Tuscany, Ivrea, Friuli, Susa, and Spoleto. Tuscany was the most prosperous ; but the quarrels of these dukes after the fall of the Carlovingian line were fierce and never-ending. After this, those who could appear at the gates of Rome with the largest armies were crowned Emperors in the Vatican, but usually they were only Kings of Italy. There were Lambert and Berengarius and the able Arnulf, descended from Charlemagne in an illegitimate line, and Louis of Provence, besides other pretenders. While Berenga- rius was fighting the Saxons and Hungarians, he was obliged to leave affairs at home to the nobles and monks whom he authorized to fortify their residences in order to better secure themselves from assault. In this way Italy first became covered with castles and fortresses, which was the beginning of the peninsula being cut up into isolated states having their own militia, officers and magistrates. Thus divided be- tween " feudal nobles and hereditary ecclesiastics," all national feeling in Italy was stifled. Anarchy and misery are the most prominent features of that long space of time between the death of Charle- magne and the descent of Otto the Great into Italy New Italy 13 in 951 ; and during the tenth century the civil and religious functions were united and became heredi- tary in the family of the Counts of Tusculum. After the death of Formosus, who crowned Arnulf, the Popes followed each other in quick succession, until eleven had passed away, some not reigning ten months, and others not even as many days. During the last half of the tenth century two very depraved women decided the politics of the times to a great degree, setting up Popes and putting them down at will. These women were Theodora, called the Sena- trix, and her daughter Marozia, the mother of Alberich, who was the son of her first husband Alberich of Spoleto. Alberich was one of the best rulers Rome ever knew, and for twenty years succeeded in bringing order and respectability into the society of Italy. His govern- ment was republican, and he was known as " Prince ps atque omnium Romanorum Senator" ; the foundation of his power being the right of the Roman people to choose their own ruler in spite of any who might call themselves Emperor. He had gained the power by shutting up his infamous mother Marozia in prison; but at the same time, Hugh of Provence, his step- father, continued King of Italy outside of Rome; until driven to desperation by the many conspiracies against him he gave up the power, appointing his son king at Milan, as Lothair II. The latter, after his father's death, -became a victim of Berengarius II., who himself was declared King of Italy. Thus matters stood when in the year 951 Otto of Saxony, known as Otto the Great, invaded Italy and conquered the kingdom. He compelled Berengarius II. to surrender, and, after imprisoning him in the 14 Italy: Her People and Their Story Castle of Bamberga in Germany, he liberated and mar- ried Adelaide, the charming wife of Lothair, whom Berengarius had imprisoned in an old castle because she refused to espouse his son. The coronation of Otto in 962 was considered a revival of the old Empire ; for up to this time, ever since Charlemagne, the Italian rulers had only been kings of a part of Italy with a meaningless title. Otto the Great's life henceforth was spent in travel- ing back and forth from Germany to Italy settling disputes, since Berengarius II. and Alberich's son Octavian, who was Pope John XIL, forgot all their pledges and kept rising over and over again in rebel- lion. During the last six years of Otto's occupancy of Italy he deposed Pope John XIL, who lacked all the good qualities of his father, Alberich. He was criticised as an inefficient temporal ruler and accused as Pope of being a perjurer, murderer and plunderer of the Church. Otto had shown his lack of confidence in Roman sincerity as far back as the time when he was crowned by Pope John XIL, and had told his sword-bearer to watch, saying : " While I am praying in St. Peter's keep your sword close to my head, since when we reach Monte Mario you will have time to pray as much as you like." Otto the Great at last died in Rome in 983, leaving a record for great deeds and a reputation for valor and wisdom which posterity has honored. In view of a plan to unite the Eastern and Western Empires, he had brought about the marriage of his son, Otto II., with Theophania, the daughter of the Greek Byzantine Emperor at Constantinople. Otto II. spent but little of his short reign in Italy, and during the minority of his son, Otto III., the New Italy 15 Romans set up a municipal government under a man named Crescentius, a citizen of great wealth and noble family, descended from Theodora and Pope John X. ; but Crescentius failed because he had none of the well- defined principles of Alberich. Otto III., after having passed a sentence of banish- ment against Crescentius, was crowned by Gregory V., his own appointed Pope, in 996 A.D. ; but when Otto went back to Germany Crescentius rose again, and Otto, returning, recaptured the rebel in the Castle of St. Angelo, afterwards sometimes called the Tower of Crescentius. Notwithstanding that the latter had surrendered on condition of his life being spared, Otto had him beheaded with twelve of his companions. Since the days of Nicholas I., under Louis the Pious, there had never been such a vigorous assertion of Papal rights as at this epoch. It is even thought that Gerbert, Otto III.'s old tutor, whom he had made Sylvester II., was the first to agitate the subject of pil- grimages to the holy places of the East, the outcome of which was the Crusades. Under Sylvester II.'s in- fluence Otto III. spent his time in fasting and prayer and pilgrimages, devoting most of his means to churches and monasteries and neglecting the affairs of the world to such an extent that he was finally com- pelled by the Crescentian party to leave the city. Up to this time he had intended to make Italy his home, having built in Rome a splendid palace, where he lived in the Byzantine style. When Otto was about to return from a banishment of some years, he was attacked with a deadly Italian fever and died in the winter of 1002 A.D., at the early age of twenty-two. It is claimed by some that he was poisoned by Stephanie, the wife of Crescentius. 16 Italy: Her People and Their Story Thus Otto the Great's plan of a Holy Roman Ger- man Byzantine Empire fell to pieces at the death of his grandson. The government of Rome, though sub- ject to the Pope for a time, resembled that set up by Crescentius ; but this declined under the corrupt rulers of the great House of Tusculum. The Republics 17 CHAPTER II BEGINNING OF THE ITALIAN REPUBLICS. THE FRANCO- NIAN KINGS AS EMPERORS. THE NORMAN CON- QUEST. GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. HILDEBRAND. THE HOHENSTAUFEN. FREDERICK BARBAROSSA. THE LOMBARD LEAGUE. 10021190 A.D. A^TER the fall of the Carlovingian line, the quar- rels among the petty dukes who aspired to be Kings of Italy, and the inroads of Hungarians and other barbarian nations, had caused the people to gather in the cities for mutual defence. The feudal nobles soon retired to fortified heights, and the cities, partially rid of their tyranny, increased in importance and at a redoubled rate. Naples, Amalfi, Pisa and Venice had thus gained a considerable degree of inde- pendence outside of the Lombard rule; and now, if all the cities had united, they could have formed a great and vigorous nation. As it was, in Otto the Great's reign the powerful Italian kingdom founded by the early Lombards ceased to exist; and with its subversion the only hope of a united Italy vanished. A little later, however, the most brilliant period of Lombard's independent history came about with the fall of the dukedoms and rise of the Commune. The government in these Lombard cities, which, in the eleventh century became embryo republics, was carried on by two consuls chosen by the people, each of the rising commonwealths having two councils. The more general of these carried out the measures of the i8 Italy: Her People and Their Story city government, and the other, which was called the Great Council or Senate, discussed all the new decrees. The highest power, however, was centered in the people themselves. When special measures were to be con- sidered the big bell tolled, calling all the citizens to a general Council or Parliament in the city square. After Otto III.'s death the Lombard nobles, as- sisted by Pavia, tried to resuscitate the defunct State by electing Arduin Magnus of Ivrea, while Milan chose Henry of Bavaria, afterwards Henry II. Thus the long-continued contest began which put an end to kings in Italy up to the time of Victor Emanuel II., the Pavian party sustaining Arduin until he with- drew and Henry II. was chosen. The latter died in 1024, and Conrad II., who succeeded him, confined his attention to the conquest of Burgundy, leaving the government of Italy to the nobles and bishops. It was at this time that Milan started out on that brilliant career for which she has ever since been dis- tinguished. Her ascendancy over the burghs of Lom- bardy commenced when Heribert, the archbishop, organized the population into an independent com- munity. It was he who originated the Carroccio, a huge car drawn by oxen, bearing the standard of the burgh and carrying an altar on which the Crucifixion was portrayed and the Host uplifted. This formed a rallying point in battle and played an important role in the warfare between the Italian cities in the Middle Ages, the loss of the Carroccio being an indication of most crushing defeat. Conrad II., having heard that Heribert was assum- ing too much authority, came to the rescue of the lesser nobles; and although as archbishop he had in- vited the king to Italy and crowned him with the Iron The Republics 19 Crown of Lombardy, Conrad II. deposed and impris- oned Heribert. Conrad died soon after returning to Italy, and Henry III., his successor, set in motion far- reaching reforms in Rome, where scandalous anarchy reigned under an utterly demoralized priesthood. After settling up the quarrels of ten Popes, who had one after the other disgraced the Papacy, one of the incumbents being a boy of only ten years, Conrad placed Leo IX. in the Papal Chair. At this time three hundred Norman knights had been enlisted by the Greek Byzantine Emperor to help drive the Saracens out of Sicily. After fierce disputes among themselves about the distribution of the spoils, these knights, captivated with the climate of southern Italy, and delighted with the soil, united under Robert Guiscard for the purpose of seizing the whole southern Regno for themselves. At the Battle of Civitella, in 1053, the Papal party was defeated and Pope Leo IX. taken prisoner; but, respecting his sanctity, the Nor- mans made concessions, agreeing to accept as fiefs of the Holy See Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily, where Henry II. had already given them leave to settle. This was a valuable stepping-stone to the future advance- ment of the Papacy; but it was the cause of many disturbances in Italy afterwards, since the power gained in this way by Robert Guiscard, and later by his brother, the great Count Roger, was the means of their family finally acquiring all Sicily ; for after thirty years, the Normans wrested the whole island from the Saracens, and Roger at his death bequeathed to his son of the same name Calabria and Sicily, a kingdom which afterwards became the most flourishing in Europe. Up to 1130 the Apulian Duchy was held as a duke- 20 Italy: Her People and Their Story dom by the Hauteville family, the descendants of Robert Guiscard ; but at this date Apulia and Calabria, included in the Kingdom of Naples, were united with Sicily into what was called the " Two Sicilies," and Count Roger II. obtaining the crown of the United Kingdom by Papal Investiture, Naples became the capital. This kingdom assumed and developed a more feudal character than the governments of the rest of Italy, and for six hundred years, with few inter- missions, this Regno continued as a fief of the Holy See. The Norman conquest of the Two Sicilies forms a most romantic episode in mediaeval Italian history. The Greek maritime cities, Naples, Gaeta and Amalfi, which had flourished earlier, increasing their trade in the East by monopolizing the Mediterranean, were crippled by the Normans, and in time gave place to Genoa, Pisa and Venice. These prosperous cities also carried on domestic manufactures and all were liberty-loving and independent. The crusades, which commenced in 1099 under Urban IL, greatly enriched these maritime towns, and it was then that Pisa, at the climax of her glory and splendor, built her famous Cathedral, Baptistery, and Leaning Tower. An assembly of one hundred and thirty bishops was called together by Pope Nicholas II. in 1060 to decide upon the election of the Pope by the cardinals, and after this time the Pope was recognized as the head of all the Latin churches in the West. Henceforth the Papacy was every priest's goal, and persons of every rank and of every degree of morality were placed in the Pontifical Chair. For some years before Henry III/s death the Church of Rome had been under the guidance of Archbishop Hildebrand. The ability of this future The Republics 21 great prelate, while he was still an unknown monk in Tuscany, was directed to the aggrandizement of the Church. He conceived in the solitude of his cloister a plan for subjugating the world to Papal power. A married priest was a criminal in his eyes ; and he also determined to stop the practice of simony. These were the two great causes of weakness in the Church; for marriage placed the priest on the same footing as other men, and the barter of office divested the clergy of the sacredness of their [character. Up to this time the Pope had really been only a Universal Bishop, but now he received the name of Pope as a specific title, and was declared to be God's vice-gerent on earth, and a being too holy to sin. The Pope's influence soon became so arbitrary that no king could keep his throne without the consent of the Pontiff; and finally " inauguration by the hand of His Holiness became essential to a title to the crown." This was called the " Right of Investiture." In the year 1073, after having refused the office a number of times, Hildebrand was appointed Pope as Gregory VII. His talents were of the highest order and his mind was deep and far-reaching. He and Henry IV. soon came into collision on the subject of the "Right of Investiture." Henry IV. denounced the Pope, and the latter retaliated by excommunicating the king, a Council being called by the princes to elect another ruler. It was then that Henry IV. crossed the Alps, covered deep in ice and snow, to beg the angry Papal potentate to grant him pardon. Henry's deep humiliation at Canossa, the castle of the great Countess Mathilda of Tuscany, burned itself into the heart of the world for all time. Mathilda was the daughter of that Countess Beatrice 22 Italy: Her People and Their Story whom Henry III., jealous of the united power estab- lished by her marriage with Godfrey of Lorraine, had kept in prison until his own death. Mathilda her- self became the wife of Godfrey's son, her stepbrother. Both she and her mother from the first had been enthu- siastic followers of the " Cluny regime," which was Hildebrand's policy. This had found expression in the cloisters at Cluny in what was called the " Tregua Dei" (The Truce of God), according to which all feuds in battle were forbidden from Wednesday even- ing until Monday morning. This had first been put in practice in the time of Henry III. During the long conflict which followed, the Popes were never without shelter from violence so long as they could reach the protection of the Tuscan frontier ; for the fiefs of the great Countess Mathilda stretched from Mantua across Lombardy, passed the Apennines, included the Tuscan plains and embraced a portion of the Duchy of Spoleto. After Henry IV. had waited three days and three nights in the frost and snow outside in the court of Countess Mathilda's great castle, Gregory VII. ab- solved him, but in terms so degrading that the king returned to Germany to wait for a chance to reopen hostilities. At last, having fought the Pope intermit- tently for three years, this much injured sovereign routed Gregory's forces, supplied by the Countess Mathilda, and was crowned Emperor by Guibert, Archbishop of Ravenna, whom he had himself appointed Pope as Clement III. Henry, however, was obliged to withdraw from Rome when Robert Guiscard's army returned from the East and entered the city to devastate, destroy and pillage. Gregory died in 1085 during a voluntary banishment among the Normans, uttering anathemas The Republics 23 against Henry with his last breath, and saying 1 : "I have loved justice and hated iniquity, therefore I die in exile." After twenty years of fierce fighting with Gregory VII. 's successors, Henry IV. was driven out of Italy and dethroned by his son, Henry V., dying in 1 1 06 in poverty and exile. In 1 122, after a further struggle of fifteen years, there was a compromise called " The Concordat of Worms," made between Henry V. and the Papal powers. The Pope ostensibly resigned the temporal and the Emperor really, the spiritual privileges of Investiture ; but the advantage was left with the Papal party; for the Pope became independent of the Emperor, while the Emperor's crown for several cen- turies came from the hand of the Pope. Countess Mathilda, when she died in 1115, left the Church all her vast possessions; and from this time on, owing to her action, the Popes were elected by a Roman Council. Consequently the Holy See remained in the hands of the Italians, and became the great glory of the nation. During the three-quarters of a century that the struggle over Papal Investiture had been going on, Italy had not been standing still. The most conspicu- ous cities of northern and central Italy, Milan, Venice, Genoa, Bologna, Siena, and Perugia, had be- come flourishing republics, and the old feudal nobility was gradually passing away. This is said to have been the age of real autonomy. Popes and Emperors who needed the assistance of a city had to seek it from the consuls, and thus the office came to resemble the presidency of a commonwealth. A great council of privileged burghers, which for a time formed the aristocracy of the town, stood between the Parliament 24 Italy: Her People and Their Story and the consuls, while the " Commune " included the entire body politic bishops, consuls, oligarchy, hand- craftsmen and the poor. No sooner had the compromise of Investiture been concluded than the commonwealths turned their arms against each other, concordant action for a national end being impossible for many centuries. Pisa sought to destroy Amain ; Genoa and Florence attacked Pisa, and Venice fought Genoa, while Verona absorbed Padua, Treviso, etc. ; but Milan all the while was the great center of the republican cities of northern Italy, and it was she who soon engulfed the lesser towns of Lombardy. As the new republics increased in importance they needed more territory. This they wrested from the nobles, who in the course of a century were forced to leave their castles and live in towns. They proved bad neighbors, and engendered such strife among the peaceable burghers that the war against the castles was changed to a war against the palaces. In turn the fortified residences defied the consuls; and this was the way the " Age of the Despots " commenced and the end of the republics came about. These turbulent forces produced a sympathetic revolution in Rome led by Arnold da Brescia, the " Patriarch of Pontifical Heretics," as he has been called, and the forerunner of all reformers. After hav- ing been exiled in 1139 on account of his bold censure of the clergy, he returned for the purpose of urging reforms in the government of Rome. This resulted in the proclaiming Rome a republic, with a civil sys- tem much like that of the republican cities of Lom- bardy. The Popes as they succeded each other wrote to Conrad III. to come down and quell the disturb- The Republics 25 ances; but the king was too much occupied to inter- fere or to seek the sovereignty of Rome, and accord- ingly was never crowned as Emperor. It was in the time of the Saxon, Lothair L, Con- rad's predecessor, that the war between the Guelphs and Ghibellines commenced, the former being the Church party and the latter the Emperor's faction. The Guelphs were named from Welf of Bavaria, de- scended from the old Welf, whose daughter was the wife of Louis the Pious; and the Ghibellines from Waibling, a castle of the original Hohenstaufen near Mount Staufen. The different factions were distin- guishable by different devices, the Ghibellines wearing the feather on their hats on one side, the Guelphs on the other, the Ghibellines cutting their meat crosswise, the Guelphs straight, etc. In this way crimes were often detected, one man being prosecuted on account of the way he sliced his garlic. In Conrad's time the excitement increased in vio- lence, and the war-cries " Guelph " and " Ghibelline " were first used. Frederick Barbarossa, the successor of Conrad III., was first called down into Italy in the interest of the town of Lodi, which was being oppressed by Milan. The Guelph party was now led by Milan and the Emperor's faction by Pavia; and, after a Diet held at -Roncaglia near Piacenza, Barbarossa proceeded to destroy Asti, Chieri, Tunis and Tortona, because Pavia and the Marquis of Montferrat brought accusa- tions against them. Barbarossa was thereupon pre- sented with the Iron Crown of Lombardy at Pavia; and, though Milan had refused shelter and subsistence to his army, he was obliged, on account of the weak- ness of his forces, to temporarily ignore the slight. 26 Italy: Her People and Their Story He now went on to Rome and, scorning the overtures of the new republic, he entered the Leonine City on the south side of the Tiber; and, calling back the exiled Pope Hadrian IV., he was crowned by him. In order, however, to effect this he was obliged to hand over to Pope Hadrian, Arnold da Brescia, who was burned alive in 1155 in the Piazza del Popolo. The Roman republic never recovered from that martyr's death, and it soon fell to pieces. Barbarossa's and Hadrian's quarrels then began, first about the provinces which Mathilda of Tuscany had given to the Church, and afterwards because Hadrian had confirmed William the Norman in his claim to the territory which Leo IX. had made over to the Normans as fiefs to the Emperor. Barbarossa even attempted to appropriate these southern prov- inces, but was driven back to Germany by the burning heat. In 1158 Barbarossa returned to Italy and spent three years in trying to force Milan to yield. Year after year he ravaged her lands, taxed her people unmerci- fully and appointed judges called Podesta, who har- assed the inhabitants by their arbitrary proceedings. At last he besieged the city for nearly a year ; and in 1161, having ordered all the inhabitants, even those sick unto death, to leave the town, he gave up the city to unlimited plunder, and after her total destruction he declared that the name of Milan should be blotted out. As soon as Barbarossa returned to Germany a league was formed against him by the citizens of northeastern Italy, Verona, Vincenza Padua, Treviso, and Venice, and in 1163, when he, with a brilliant staff of German knights, again crossed the Alps, these The Republics 27 towns refused to join his standard. Alexander III., in the meantime, had been elected on the side of the League, and an anti-Pope was set up by Barbarossa. Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua and Ferrara united with the first League and, receiving the addition of Milan, Lodi, Piacenza, Parma, Modena and Bologna, con- stituted the famous Lombard League. Afterwards Novara Vercelli, Como and Asti joined it, and between the Alps and the Apennines only Pavia and Mont- ferrat remained on the Imperialist side. Then Bar- barossa fled for his life across the Mont Cenis, his army having wasted away from pestilence ; and it was six years before he again ventured to set foot in Italy. In 1168, during the Emperor's absence, the town of Alessandria had been built to check the power of Pavia and Montferrat. It was named after Alexander III., the enemy of Barbarossa. Ravenna, Rimini, Imola and Forli now joined the League, which was after- wards called " The Society of Venice, Lombardy, The Marches, Romagna and Alessandria." Early in 1176 Barbarossa once more went down into Italy with his army, to again take up the fight against the Lombard cities. Alessandria with its mud walls, which the Emperor had contemptuously declared were made of straw, stopped his progress, and he besieged it. But a force of the League already assembled at Modena obliged him to desist; and a small army met his troops on the plains of Legnano about fifteen miles from Milan. Here Barbarossa was so badly beaten that the battle-field was covered with his dead. The Emperor himself disappeared altogether ; but three days after the battle he entered Pavia and opened negotiations with Pope Alexander. " For twenty-two years Barbarossa had been strug- 28 Italy: Her People and Their Story gling against the independence of Lombardy, and with seven different armies had devastated her plains, exer- cising every degree of cruelty upon her inhabitants; but the fatal Battle of Legnano left him powerless;" and in 1183, at the end of a truce of six years, the inde- pendence of Lombardy was guaranteed. At this time the united cities of the League were so powerful that they might have made themselves a great and pros- perous nation had they been in accord with one an- other. Guelphs and Ghibellines 29 CHAPTER III HENRY VI. FREDERICK II. INNOCENT III. BRANCA- LEONE. MANFRED. CHARLES OF ANJOU. 11901880 A.D. WHEN the news reached Europe that the Infidels had taken Jerusalem, Frederick Barbarossa im- mediately set out on the third crusade; but he was seized with a stroke of apoplexy while crossing the little river Calycadmus in Syria and drowned. Pope Innocent III., unwilling to have the southern part of Italy absorbed by Germany, opposed the nup- tials of Henry VI., Barbarossa's son, with Constance, heir to the Two Sicilies ; but in spite of this, after the death of Barbarossa and the decease of William II., the grandson of Roger II. and father of Constance, Henry VI. in 1190 inherited the vast power of both. Henry VI. proved to be a merciless monarch, and his reign was soon cut short, it is thought, by poison. His wife Constance also died, leaving a little son four years of age, who, after the temporary sovereignty of his uncle, Philip, was crowned as Frederick II., sole heir of Swabia and Sicily. The child, before his mother's death, had been made a ward of Pope Inno- cent III. Meanwhile the Guelph and Ghibelline wars grew more and more bitter both in Italy and in Germany, the nobles defending themselves in their fortresses on the heights. In the recesses of these strongholds there was a donjon, or keep, where, in the last extremity, the lord of the castle retired with his family, friends 30 Italy: Her People and Their Story and followers, and day and night armed men kept guard on the walls or in a watch-tower outside. We gather from the vine-covered ruins of these fastnesses, overlooking the fertile plains of Italy, that, though picturesque as relics, as homes they were dismal as prisons; and except for the romances of every-day existence these lords and ladies must have been de- prived of all the attractions which at present make the dwellings of Italy charming. In the cities political quarrels were often mixed up with family disputes. This was the case in Florence, where from 1115, the year that Countess Mathilda died, up to 1215, there had been peace. At this time a feud broke out between the Buondelmonti and the Uberti families. The representative of the Buondel- monti, a young man of fashion and gentility, was en- gaged to a daughter of the Uberti ; but he deserted her for another fairer damsel, and one gala day her friends, indignant at the insult, murdered the youth in the public square of the city. All Florence inter- ested itself in this fatal quarrel, the Guelph party rally- ing round the Buondelmonti, and the Ghibellines sup- porting the Uberti ; and thus the feud continued for thirty years, the Guelph and Ghibelline power alter- nating in Tuscany. It was at this same critical era that the Welf Otto, son of Henry the Lion, came to Italy and as Otto IV. received from Pope Innocent III. the crown of the Empire which really belonged to Frederick II. When, however, he tried also to establish his rights to the ever-disputed territory of Countess Mathilda, and to the Kingdom of Sicily for a long time united in fealty to the Holy See, Pope Innocent, who had hitherto thought little of the welfare of his ward, deserted Otto Guelphs and Ghibellines 31 and supported the claims of Frederick to the Imperial crown. In this way His Holiness united with the Ghibellines, really the Emperor's faction ; and at the same time Otto, the leader of the Guelph party, fought the Pope. The cities also supported their own candi- dates respectively, some Papal towns adhering to Otto and some Ghibelline cities joining Frederick, who was the Pope's candidate against the Guelph Emperor ; and thus the web and woof of Italian politics was twisted. Frederick II., upheld by the forces of the Pope, slew Otto in the Battle of Bovines ; and, though Innocent III. died soon after, Frederick II. was crowned as Emperor in 1220 by Honorius III. on condition that he should visit Palestine, divide the power by giving up Apulia and Sicily to his son Henry, and acknowledge his dependence on the Pope. As an ambitious and diplomatic Papal ruler Inno- cent III. ranks with Gregory VII. and Boniface VIII. It was he who first conceived the idea of the Papal States by seizing upon a territory in the center of Italy and making the control of it one of the special offices of the Pope. He executed his plans with the ability of a great statesman, gaining such power over the con- temporary sovereigns of Europe that they all feared him. For the purpose of stifling the spirit of inquiry among the people, he encouraged the Franciscan and Dominican friars, whose orders were just established; and, by raising the vexed question of the expediency of giving the communion cup to laymen, he created many schisms in the Church which lasted up to Lu- ther's time. Frederick II. was now the Emperor of the world and held the crown of Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Apulia, Ger- many, Burgundy and Jerusalem. The versatility of 32 Italy: Her People and Their Story his character and comprehensiveness of his views made his reign one of the most remarkable of the age. He insisted on the obedience of law as the highest standard of justice; and accordingly the Kingdom of Sicily under his rule enjoyed exceptional prosperity. He surrounded himself with men of learning, adorned the city of Naples, established a University, and laid the foundation of the new Italian language, which has come down to us, he himself writing Italian poetry. He has been called the most cultivated monarch of those early times. Frederick's early training had made him skeptical and indifferent to the all-absorbing topic of the day, and, surrounded by everything calculated to fascinate the senses, he soon forgot his vow, made to Honorius, to set out on a crusade for the purpose of capturing the Holy Sepulchre from the hands of the Infidels. But, smarting under the maledictions of the Pope, he at last leisurely prepared for the campaign. Meanwhile Honorius III. died and Gregory IX., his successor, tired of Frederick's vacillating course, ex- communicated him. Finally, weary of the unrest at home, Frederick set sail for Palestine in 1228, and landed at Jean d'Acre, where, through his marriage with lolanda, daughter of John of Brienne, the exiled King of Jerusalem, he claimed the temporal crown of the kingdom; and this he placed upon his own brow. The Pope was so angry at the blasphemy of a mon- arch's undertaking a crusade in the face of excom- munication, that he hurled another bull against him and sent an army to lay waste his territory. On his return from the crusade Emperor and Pope were reconciled ; but there were so many insurrections in the North that he was obliged to employ the infamous Ezzelino da Romano, together with his Guelphs and Ghibellines 33 Saracen troops, in putting them down. He also defeated the Milanese and their allies at Corte Nuova in 1237, sending their Carroccio to Rome as a trophy. Gregory IX. now became so uneasy at the almost com- plete ruin of the Guelph party that he called Venice and Genoa to his aid, and, having for a third time excom- municated Frederick II., he incited his son Henry to rebel against his father. This so angered Frederick that wherever he could find the partisans of the Church he put them to death. The greatest drawback in the way of Frederick II.'s success was his contradictory character. " He sur- rounded himself at the same time with skeptics and churchmen, Mohammedans and Christians, and endowed convents and monasteries, while he was per- secuting the defenders of the Church ; and as soon as he was excommunicated, he started out on his crusade." Gregory IX., not knowing what to do with this tur- bulent monarch, called together the famous Council at Meloria ; but the Emperor was equal to the emergency, and with his squadron intercepted the French Bishops, appropriated their treasure, and sent the captive prel- ates bound in silver chains to Pisa. This was too much for the disappointed Pope, and he soon died from grief and chagrin, leaving the Papacy to Innocent IV., a former friend of Frederick II. Summoning a great council of one hundred and forty bishops from all over Europe, Pope Innocent hurled the greatest Bull of Excommunication upon Frederick which had been cast upon anyone since the time of Gregory VII. In it he declared that the Emperor had sacrificed his rights as a sovereign and that his subjects no longer owed him allegiance. Thus, though wearing five crowns, Fred- 34 Italy: Her People and Their Story erick II. henceforth led a doomed existence; for now he was surrounded on all sides by conspiracies, besides being maligned on account of the dark doings of his execrable vicar, Ezzelino da Romano; but fortunately, the latter, after having laid waste numberless prov- inces and committed murders by the thousand, was overcome by a united force of Guelphs and Ghibellines and slain. At last as a final blow his favorite son Enzio was imprisoned at Bologna, where he never again saw the light of day, dying twenty years later. There was a slight alleviation to the melancholy of this persecuted monarch at the time when the news that Florence had fallen into the hands of the Ghibellines reached his ears. He struggled on five years longer, dying in his Apulian castle of Fiorentino in 1250, a broken-hearted old man, although in fact but fifty-six years old. The power of the Ghibellines declined at his death, after having lasted a hundred years, and his reign closed the epoch of German Imperial rule in Italy. Innocent IV. rejoiced at the death of this accom- plished monarch, his friend of earlier years ; and on his return to Rome he made the Ghibelline faction quake, by taking the ground that the Kingdom of Naples now rightfully belonged to the Papacy. In accordance with this view he made a war on Frederick's heirs which lasted eighteen years. Conrad IV., Frederick's suc- cessor, died in 1254, during the contest, leaving an infant son. Innocent IV.'s influence, although it increased greatly, found in Brancaleone of Andalo, Count of Casalecchio, a Ghibelline opponent of much energy. This remarkable statesman, who won the respect of all posterity, before accepting the office of Senator in Guelphs and Gkibellines 35 1252, made definite terms to hold the government of Rome for three years, demanding that hostages for his safety should be sent to Bologna from the noblest Roman houses. Pope Innocent IV., being then absent at Perugia, could do nothing, and Brancaleone grasped the power firmly. He was the head of the republic in peace and war, appointed the Podestas in the adjoining territory subject to Rome, despatched ambassadors, concluded treaties and issued coins. The Parliament met in the square of the Capitol, and the Council in the Church of Aracceli. Unfortunately, like most of the old Roman records, those pertaining to the proceedings of this body are lost ; and it is only known that Branca- leone did not observe great ceremony, convoking the Councils as seldom as possible, but assembling the Parliament of the people frequently. He made the clergy respect the rights of the citizens, and put down the turbulent nobles with a high hand. He attacked their fortresses and leveled one hundred and forty strongholds, suspending some of the occupants on their own battlements. Brancaleone told Innocent IV., who had later fled in terror to Assisi, that he would burn him out if he did not return to Rome. In order to assist the people guilds were organized, the chief of these being admitted into the Councils of the republic as early as 1267. Brancaleone was the first Senator who took the title of "Romani Populi Capitanus." After Innocenf I V.'s death, and the election of Alex- ander IV., the clergy rebelled against his iron rule and the nobles grew more uneasy under their fancied wrongs, so that at the end of his three years' term of office Brancaleone was thrown into prison ; and, except for the hostages which he had required at first, his life 36 Italy: Her People and Their Story would have been sacrificed. As it was, in 1257 * ne Guilds arose, and recalled him for another three years. Brancaleone made an alliance with the son of Fred- erick II., Manfred, who was then in command of the Im- perial forces in Sicily and acting as king for his brother Conrad IV. Soon after the death of Conrad, Manfred joined the Ghibelline party under Farinata degli Uberti. Florence had gained great power in Tuscany under the government of the Guelphs, who, after having been driven out by young Frederick, the natural son of Frederick II., had now come back. The Guelphs of Genoa and Modena, and even of Lombardy, united with that party in Tuscany, and in 1260 they all met on the battle-field of Monte Aperto. The contest was unde- cided for a long time, until the Guelph cavalry was betrayed by Bocca degli Abati, who went over to the Ghibellines, and the day was lost. A large number of the citizens were slain, and Florence herself, falling into the hands of the Ghibellines, the Caroccio was taken and a council was called to destroy the city. Although Farinata had in the beginning enlisted Man- fred to help against Florence, he held the city in her danger dearer than his party. He said that he would not suffer his country to be destroyed while he could wield a sword, and begged so hard for her that Florence was finally saved. Dante, in his " Inferno," is supposed to have met Farinata in the Infernal Regions, where, among other things, "He said and shook his mournful head, 'In these things was not I alone, nor could Without grave reason be by others led, But I stood sole, when all consenting would Have swept off Florence from the earth; Alone and openly in her defence I stood.'" Guelphs and Ghibellines 37 For a time the power of the Guelphs in Tuscany and throughout all Italy was at an end, and Manfred held great power at the head of the Ghibellines. Branca- leone now ruled more sternly than ever in Rome, and became odious to Pope Alexander, who excommuni- cated him; that same year, in 1258, while engaged on the Siege of Corneto, Brancaleone was attacked by a violent fever, and, being carried to Rome, died on the Capitoline Hill. Alexander IV. died in 1261 and was succeeded by a French Pope under the title of Urban IV. The choice for Emperor now lay between Alphonso X. of Castile and Richard, Earl of Cornwall, brother of Henry III. of England. Pope Urban IV. ignored both candidates and offered the crown to Louis IX. of France. The latter had too much dignity to meddle with things out- side his own province, but, in 1265, he assisted his unscrupulous brother, Charles of Anjou, with men and money to undertake the conquest of Naples. The Count of Anjou was cruel and ambitious, as well as unprincipled, and very wealthy through his wife, Beatrice, daughter of the Count of Provence, in whose right he held that country. Hers was a family of queens, and it was thought that her ambition spurred her husband on. Urban IV. and the Guelph party had agreed to the election of Charles as Senator of Rome, on condition that as king he should hold Sicily and Naples only as a fief from the Pope ; and Urban, remembering how Henry VI. and Frederick II. had circumscribed the Church on the north and south, told Charles that when he obtained Naples he must relinquish the Senatorship of Rome, and must in the meantime acknowledge the supremacy of the Pope over the Senate. Although appearing to agree to 38 Italy: Her People and Their Story everything, Charles of Anjou intended to keep the Senatorship for life; and in addition to this, he suc- ceeded in obtaining the Vicarship of Tuscany. Before matters were settled Urban IV. died ; and his successor, Clement IV., crowned Charles of Anjou King of the Two Sicilies in the Church of St. John in Lateran. At the Battle of Grandella, on the 26th of February, 1266, Manfred was deserted by many of the Italian Ghibellines, and finally when his army fled, he was slain, the success of Charles of Anjou's followers, the Guelph Angevines, being assured. The Guelphs who had been driven out at the Battle of Monte Aperto now returned, and Charles was elected Signer of Florence for two years. Pisa, envious of Florence, threw her influence on the side of the Ghibellines to bring forward young Conradin, the only heir to the House of Sicily and the last of the Hohenstaufen. Notwithstanding the counsels of his mother, Con- radin sold the most of his possessions in Germany, and though a mere lad, collected all the troops he could gather in that country. Reinforced by a large num- ber of exiled Ghibellines and disaffected Sicilians, he crossed the Alps into Italy with ten thousand soldiers. At first the fair-haired boy defeated the army of Charles of Anjou ; but at Tagliacozzo, in 1268, the vic- tory was lost because, confident of success, Conradin's troops stopped to plunder the enemy. Charles of Anjou had been for a time obliged to give up the Senatorship at Rome, a democratic govern- ment being formed, consisting of twenty-six " boni homines," with Angelo Capocci, a Ghibelline, as cap- tain, while Don Henry, son of Henry III. of Castile, was elected Senator. The latter kept the clergy down and subdued the rough element of the Campagna, and, Guelphs and Ghibcllines 39 throwing the Guelph nobles into disorder, he made an alliance with the Tuscan Ghibellines. Don Henry drove back the troops of Charles, and when Conradin came he gave him a hearty welcome. But after the Battle of Tagliacozzo Charles was again elected Senator for ten years, and, Conradin having been betrayed into his hands, he had him put to death in a most barbarous manner. Anjou has been called " The Exterminator of the Hohenstaufen." Charles of Anjou would now have been master of the whole of Italy, and might have been crowned as Emperor, had not Gregory X. enlisted Rudolph of Hapsburg, the founder of the Hapsburg House in Ger- many, to assist him. The agreement was that Rudolph, as Emperor, should abstain from any interference in Italy, and that he should confirm the territorial pre- tensions of the Pope by a charter. In accordance with this arrangement, in 1276 Emilia, Romagna, the March of Ancona, the Patrimony of St. Peter and the Campagna of Rome belonged to the Holy See, and not to the Empire. These were the States of the Church which swore allegiance to the Pope, and stamped his image on their coins; and ever after this the Popes were landed proprietors. Nicholas III., who succeeded Gregory X., took away from Charles of Anjou the Vicarship of Tuscany and the Senatorship of Rome, and, raising the Ghibelline power, persuaded Rudolph of Hapsburg to surrender all titles to the lands of Countess Mathilda. Italy was now divided into three portions, the King- dom of Naples in the south under Charles of Anjou ; the Papal States, which contained seventeen thousand square miles and a population of several millions in the center of Italy; while Rudolph of Hapsburg con- 4O Italy: Her People and Their Story sidered the northen portion peculiarly his own, since he never meddled with the rest. At the time of the ascendancy of the Guelphs in 1276, the constitution of Florence assumed the form which it was destined to hold for many years. The citizens were divided into Guilds or Arts, as the trade organi- zations of Florence were called at that time. Each Art had its own council of six priors and its leader or Gonfaloniere, who all held office two months and ate at the same table and lived in the Palazzo Pubblico. There were twelve of these Arts in which the power was placed, and which were made the foundation of the constitution. The criminal court was under the supervision of both the Podesta and the Captain of the People. Florence had now no rival among Italian cities, and her location was unsurpassed in loveliness. She had become vastly populous and had gained great wealth and renown through her commerce, the Florentine fabrics being in the greatest demand in the European markets for three hundred years. Contentions of the Republics 41 CHAPTER IV VENICE, PISA, GENOA. COLONNA AND ORSINI. SICILIAN VESPERS. THE NERI AND BIANCHI. DANTE. 12801310 A.D. VENICE, in the beginning a collection of scattered islands, had gradually assumed considerable im- portance; but she never came into political notice outside her own limits until 1237, when the cruel execution of Frederick Tiepolo, the Podesta of Milan and son of their Doge, aroused the Venetians and in- cited them to join the Lombard League. From this time the Venetian republic made rapid strides in wealth and power, and attained great re- nown. Her government has been handed down as one of the most remarkable bodies in history. It was much like the administration in Florence, only that the Doges, nominated in the general assembly of the citizens, kept their position for life, assisted by six priors, it being stipulated that no Doge should associate his son in the government. At first there was only the Great Council, which consisted of the higher nobles and the lesser nobles; but the people, being denied all voice in municipal proceedings, became dis- satisfied. Accordingly a legislature was organized, composed of four hundred and eighty delegates, and a constitution was formed. In 1301 the famous " Council of Ten " was insti- tuted, which kept the people enslaved by the nobles. This Council united with the Doge and his priors, and held despotic power for a great number of years. 42 Italy: Her People and Their Story Its object was the ferreting out and punishing of crime. At the height of her glory Venice held dominion over three-eighths of the old Roman Empire ; and for half a century Genoa, aided by Greece, and Venice, by Pisa, were engaged in incessant strife, fighting over the spoils brought in from the Eastern world. It was the crusades which built up the commerce of Venice in the East, and brought into Europe much of the luxury of Oriental splendor; since her ships, after transporting troops to Palestine, came back laden with products from the Orient. About 1 200 A.D., at the time of the fourth crusade under Innocent III., in which Venice took so great a part, the Venetian fleet conquered Constantinople and kept it for forty-seven years ; and besides this, many islands were at this time ceded to her. The same old palaces then inhabited by the wealthy families who engaged in the commerce of that era are still seen on the Grand Canal. Genoa and Pisa, which had been contending for many years for supremacy, in 1284 engaged in a final struggle. When a large part of the Pisan fleet was destroyed by a tempest, Genoa rejoiced ; and when the Genoese navy captured more Pisan galleys, on their way to Sardinia, the great bells in the lofty tower of Maria in Carignano sounded forth their chimes more gaily than ever. Finally the large Genoese fleet outnumbered the three hundred Pisan galleys at the mouth of the Arno, and triumphed over the Pisans at the Battle of Meloria, the same place where forty years before Frederick II. had made his famous seizure of the whole Council of Bishops. Eleven thousand inhabitants were captured in this battle and Contentions of the Republics 43 many more were drowned. Ten thousand Pisan prisoners perished in the dungeons of Genoa during the next half score of years ; and it came to be a saying : " If you would see the Pisans you must go to Genoa." All the Guelph cities assisted in the final destruction of Pisa, and from this time her decline was rapid. At last she was betrayed by Count Gheradesca, the ad- miral of the Pisan navy, who had sought to confirm his own power by making terms secretly with the Florentines. The city was plunged into civil war and the great bells sounded. The party opposed to Gheradesca was victorious, and on the ist of July, 1288, after a day's fighting, the Count and his two sons were cast into a tower known as the " Tower of the Seven Streets," or " The Tower of Famine." Here they were left to die of hunger. Their suffering is one of the topics in Dante's " Divina Commedia." The Pisans for many years still exhibited the effects of continuous crushing defeat. The Sicilians, being tired of Charles of Anjou and his provincial troops, John of Procida put himself at the head of a conspiracy to arouse the people and exterminate French power from the island. He was assisted by both Emperor Michael of Constantinople and Peter, King of Aragon, who by marriage was entitled to the throne of Naples. In the year 1282, as the citizens of Palermo were celebrating Easter Monday, a beautiful girl of high rank was insulted by a French soldier. The con- spirators, only awaiting an occasion for an uprising, pierced the miscreant to the heart with their daggers. The tolling vesper bells seemed to be counting out the hour of retribution for the long-practiced cruel- 44 Italy: Her People and Their Story ties of the French rulers; and, as the cry of agony arose, the crowd of thousands formed itself into a mob which took possession of the city. A general slaughter of the French followed ; and in the morning not one out of the thousands of resident French had escaped. The work did not cease here; but all the French in Sicily were utterly exterminated " in this great flame of insurrection," the horrible massacre being handed down as the " Sicilian Vespers." Charles of Anjou was compelled to retire from Messina by Peter of Aragon, who was anchored in the harbor. Anjou's whole fleet, which was ready for the Greek War, was destroyed ; so that, although assisted by Philip the Bold and Pope Martin IV., he was never able to recover his lost dominion before his death in 1286. During the next twenty years the Spanish Ghibellines in Sicily and Apulia were ruled by Peter of Aragon and his sons, while the French Angevin House reigned in Naples, supported by the Guelphs. Since the expiration of Charles of Anjou's Sena- torship of ten years in Rome, the Colonna, Savelli, Orsini, Anabaldi and other Roman nobles had held the power, much to the detriment of the republic; and when the fame of the Sicilian Vespers reached the city the Orsini rose in arms, massacred the French garrison and re-established a popular government. In 1294 the Cardinal Colonna refused to acknowl- edge Pope Boniface VIII., because the latter, in order to raise his own faction to power, opposed the Colonna family, then in power, and excommunicated them. For a time Pope Boniface succeeded in. keeping down their influence, until at last, at the instigation of William Nogari and Sciarra Colonna, the Pontiff was impris- Contentions of the Republics 45 oned at Anagni and treated with such violence that, in 1303, he died of grief at the humiliation. On account of the violence of the extreme faction, the Guelphs in Florence had separated in 1300, the Bianchi or Whites, the moderate portion, developing into Ghibellines. The quarrels of these parties had risen so high, that Boniface VIII. felt obliged to summon Charles of Valois, brother of Philip the Fair of France. In 1301 Charles of Valois was joined by Corso Donati, and with the French cavalry laid waste everything within reach ; and afterwards the former advanced to Sicily to support the Guelphs against Frederick of Aragon. In the course of these dissensions Dante, who was of the moderate Guelph party, the Bianchi, was driven into exile and, through the tragedy of his sufferings, produced his immortal poem, the " Divina Commedia." This religious epic treats of Paradise, Purgatory and an Inferno, and describes Dante as visiting these places and talking with such of his countrymen as were noted for good and evil deeds. It is pronounced one of the greatest productions of human genius; and in it the principal characters in the awful scenes enacted at this era in Italy are painted in ineffaceable colors. Dante's mind was greatly influenced by a certain religious revival in the Church; since at this time Boniface VIII. had set apart the year 1300 as the first secular Jubilee, at the same time granting to all Chris- tians, who should make pilgrimages to the holy places of Rome, divine peace and mercy. In this way the custom originated of making the last year of each century the occasion of special religious solemnities. The overwhelming excitement at this time brought out so great a number of the faithful that the old bridge 46 Italy: Her People and Their Story of St. Angelo had to be divided by a barrier to separate the crowds going in different directions to St. Peter's and St. Paul's, many thousands besides the " Divine Poet " being stirred to noble thoughts and actions. Dante's is the first great name in literature after the " night of the Dark Ages." He was born under the sign of the Gemini, which astrologers considered fav- orable to literature and science. In the " Inferno " we learn that his instructor, Brunetto Latini, told him that if the guidance of this constellation were followed it would lead him to everlasting fame. While yet a boy Dante had prepared himself for his great work by the study of Virgil, Horace, Ovid and also by theological research. The great poet had first met Beatrice Portinari at the house of her father, in 1274, when they were both nine years of age. Although he never spoke with her personally but once or twice, and she knew little of his devotion to her, until the end of his life her beauty was his glory, her memory his solace, and her image his guiding star; and after her death he writes in his " Vita Nuova" : " It was given to me to see a beautiful and wonderful vision, which determined me to say nothing until I could write more worthily concerning her what hath not been written of any woman." Florence had enjoyed uninterrupted peace after the Battle of Monte Aperto, in 1228, until January n, 1289, when, at the Battle of Campaldino, the Ghibel- lines were defeated. Dante proved his manhood in fighting both there and at Caprona. Then he returned to his studies and to the meditations of his love; but in 1290 Beatrice died. Dante was a skilled draughts- man, and on the anniversary of that day he drew an angel on her tombstone. DANTE AND BEATRICE. Contentions of the Republics 47 Beatrice had become the wife of Simeone di Bardi, and, in 1292, after her death Dante, won by sympathy and kindness, married the daughter of Corso Donati. In spite of rumors to the contrary there is little doubt that Gemma, the mother of his seven children, was an affectionate wife; but for some reason or other she was never with him in his exile, and he left her out altogether in his " Divina Commedia." Her father, Corso Donati, became Dante's bitter political enemy in the strife then pending. Dante was inscribed in the " Art of the Medici and Speziali," which made him eligible as one of six priors to whom the government was entrusted in 1282. Documents still exist in Florence showing that he took part in the Council of the city in 1295 ; and from June till August of 1300 he held the office of prior. On January 27, 1302, Dante, with three others charged with embezzlement, was compelled to pay a fine of five thousand liras; and on March 10, for political reasons, he and fourteen other condemned persons were exiled from Tuscany for two years, and sentenced to be burned alive if found within the limits of the republic. All the exiles met at a castle called Garganza, between Siena and Arezzo, and Dante went from there to Verona and placed himself in the care of Bartholomeo Scala, whose son Can Grande was then a boy. An ill-advised attempt on the part of his com- panions to storm Florence disclosed to Dante their incapacity and baseness. Then, in his contempt for them, he became independent of the Bianchi in whose ranks he had been born and bred. Standing thus alone, he for the first time realized the bitterness of banishment. Though at first people thought of Dante only as an 48 Italy: Her People and Their Story exiled politician, he had, before he ever entered politics, written his " Vita Nuova," the song of his love for Beatrice, and other poems, so that often when he was going along the streets of Florence, as Boccaccio tells it, he heard the blacksmith at his anvil and the men driving their mules singing his verses. When they did not quote his lines correctly, he would stop them on the street, chide them and tell them they were spoiling his work. After the first years of Dante's exile, spent in trying to return to Florence, it dawned on him that " the sun still rose and set outside his beloved city " ; and he wandered from castle to castle and from monastery to monastery, until little by little he began to think of other things. His hopes failed at the untimely death of Henry VII., whom he had looked forward to as the deliverer of Italy ; and when Corso Donati, his father- in-law, with whom he had become reconciled, was attacked and killed in 1308, after joining the Ghibel- lines, his courage entirely gave way. Many cities and castles in Italy have claimed the honor of giving Dante refuge and being for a time the home of his Muse. Dante himself says : " Through almost every land where the Italian language is spoken a wanderer I have gone, showing against my will the wounds of fortune." The Ghibelline leader Uguc- cione at one time offered him shelter way up in the mountains of Urbino ; and, after visiting the Univer- sity of Bologna, Dante retired to the Castle of Moro- ello Malaspina, where the " marble mountains of the Apennines descend precipitously" to the Gulf of Spezia. Dante, when he received the news of his exile, was absent on a diplomatic expedition to Rome, and in the Contentions of the Republics 49 succeeding troublous times the old home opposite the Church of San Martino, which to-day bears the inscrip- tion, " The House where Dante was born," was broken up. Gemma, provident housekeeper that she was, hastily collected all the manuscripts and fugitive poems, put them together in a separate box, without any particular reference to their value, and sent them with other possessions to neutral friends. Years after, when comparative security prevailed, Gemma, with the help of Dante's nephew, Andrea, a young man who much resembled his uncle, collected her scat- tered treasures. The latter happened to open the chest in which Dante's writings had been packed, and dis- covered seven cantos of the " Divina Commedia," written in Italian. Dante had not forgotten these, but, too sorrowful to think of intellectual pursuits, he had given up com- pleting the work. His nephew, Andrea, who deserves the recognition of all posterity for this service, took the seven cantos to literary critics. These all agreed as to their merits, and a copy was sent to Dante in his mountain monastery above Spezia. Then the poet set himself to finish the work. He occupied two years in writing the " Inferno," which he dedicated to his host Malaspina. He devoted two years also to each of the others, the "Purgatorio" and the "Paradiso." The former he wrote at Pisa and dedicated to Uguccione, the " Paradiso " at Verona, dedicated to Can Grande della Scala, whose hospitality he enjoyed for a number of years. To him he sent before publishing them all of the cantos except the last thirteen, which were written after differences arose between them. These cantos were sought for unavailingly after his death, until one of his two sons, who had lived with him in 50 Italy: Her People and Their Story his last retreat at Ravenna, by means of a dream dis- covered their hiding-place behind a secret panel, covered with dust, cobwebs and mold. Dante would not send these to his offended patron, and could not bear to publish them without first submitting them to the arbiter of all the rest. After Dante separated from Can Grande, he visited Paris and went to Holland, crossing over to England. Still he longed for Florence, and " lingered upon the Umbrian Hills, where the horizon closed over his home." Once he had an opportunity to return ; for at the Festival of St. John certain criminals and pol- itical offenders were granted pardon, on condition of paying a fine and offering themselves to the care of that Saint. Dante's friends made a strenuous effort to induce him to accept this way of ending his exile ; but he scorned the humiliating favor, saying: " If by this means only I can return to Florence, she shall never again be entered by me." Boccaccio tells us that after Dante had written his " Inferno " he appeared one day to Fra Ilario, prior of the Monastery of Santa Croce del Corvo, asking for peace. Fra Ilario recognized the stranger as no other than Dante, who on leaving drew from his bosom a little book and gave it to the prior as a memorial. It was the " Inferno." Fra Ilario was much surprised to see so arduous a task accomplished in Italian, and asked Dante why he had written it in the vulgar tongue. The reply was that, having seen the songs of the most illustrious poets neglected, he had thought it best to adapt this great work to the " understanding of the moderns." In this way he confirmed the classic Italian which Frederick II. had first established in Sicily and made the court language. Contentions of the Republics 51 Boccaccio describes Dante somewhat as follows: " Dante was of middle height and stooped when he walked, and his aspect was grave and quiet. His face was long, he had an aquiline nose and his eyes were large. His complexion was dark, his hair and beard thick, black and curly, and his countenance was always melancholy. So it happened one day in Verona after his works were already known and his face familiar to many, that he passed before a house where several women were seated ; and one said softly : ' Did you notice him who goes to hell and returns again when he likes, and brings back news of the people down below.' Another woman replied : ' You speak the truth, for see how scorched his beard is and how dark he is from the heat and smoke.' When Dante heard this and saw that the women believed it he was pleased and amused and went on his way with a smile." It is pleasant to think that the last days of this great, but sad poet were passed in peace at the home of his friend Guido di Polenta, among the high houses of the same shady street in Ravenna opposite which one to-day sees his tomb. " Here all the world was tender to the poet." Here, withdrawn from all possibility of a sight of Florence, he gave up his deferred hope and was able to sink back into the melancholy old city with its mournful mosaics, almost as much older than Giotto as that painter is older than the artists of the present day. Here he was comforted by his two sons, Pietro and Jacopo, and spent much time in correspond- ence with his far-off friends. Guido of Polenta treated Dante with great considera- tion, giving him the place of honor at his table and sending him on important missions. Once he received an invitation to go to Bologna to 52 Italy: Her People and Their Story accept the Crown of Poetry. He replied : " If ever I am crowned at all it shall be within the solemn walls of the ' Bel San Giovanni,' " the church which Dante had never ceased to love. He wrote, " Sweet would it be to decorate my head with the crown of laurel in Bologna, but sweeter still in my own country, if ever I return there, hiding my white hair beneath the leaves." On returning from a mission to Venice, Dante caught a fever among the marshes, and in the month of September in the year 1321, when he was fifty-six years of age, he died at Ravenna. Florence at first made no sign of penitence ; but " to her shame one day she awoke to her glory " in his unrivaled greatness. She waited long for the people of Ravenna to give him up ; and she built him a beauti- ful monument in the Church of Santa Croce, a sar- cophagus bearing the words : " Dante Alighieri, il Divino Poeta," etc. ; but it is still empty. In the square outside his statue rises in almost divine benignity; and as one looks upon the penciled features it is not hard to understand how such wonderful creations could spring from a soul so harassed and persecuted. Age of the Despots 53 CHAPTER V THE AGE OF THE DESPOTS. THE CONDOTTIERI AND THE FREE COMPANIES. PETRARCH, BOCCACCIO, GIOTTO, CIMABUE. RIENZI. 13101354 A,D. IT was in the time of Clement V., in the year 1309, that the Holy See was moved to Avignon. This was the home of the Popes for the seventy-five years known as the " Babylonian Captivity." The Papal Palace built in Clement V.'s time was for many years used as a soldiers' barracks, and resounded to the revelry of the troops of France. Recently, however, the relic has been restored and transformed into a museum. Since the death of Frederick II. no German had claimed the crown of Italy; but in 1310 Henry VII. crossed the Alps for the purpose of putting down the Guelphs. It was the sound of his coming that had so thrilled Dante's heart. At first all the nobles and leaders rushed to his standard, the Ghibellines receiv- ing him as though belonging to them, and many of the Guelphs, because the Pope favored him. When, how- ever, it was apparent that he intended to put down the rebellious independence of the Italian cities, the strong Guelph influence predominated against him and nothing was accomplished except the recall of a few exiles, Dante being emphatically mentioned among the excep- tions. Rome also was opposed to Henry VII. and called to her assistance Robert of Naples, the grandson 54 Italy: Her People and Their Story of Charles of Anjou, so that Henry had to be crowned in St. John in Lateran instead of in the Vatican. Henry VII. made an alliance with Frederick of Aragon against Florence and the King of Naples, and while he was besieging Florence, during three months, a third wall was built around the city for protection. Henry VII. had already established the power of the Visconti in Milan and subjected Brescia and Cremona; and he seemed about to gain the ascendancy in Italy when, as he was marching up the country from Pisa with a powerful army in the August of 1313, he sud- denly died, poisoned in the communion cup in which his coronation had at last been consecrated. He was buried in Pisa, which had always been faithful to him. This was the last attempt of the German rulers to receive the Imperial crown, although they still kept up the title. Dante in his " Monarchia " strongly ex- pressed the disrespect of the Italian people for the German rulers and for the empty epithet of Emperor. In the beginning the Ghibellines were on the side of the Empire, and the Guelphs in favor of the Church ; but later the Florentines were equally indifferent to Church and Emperor, unless they worked for her inter- ests ; and " all parties confiscated right and left, whether they called themselves Guelphs or Ghibellines, Neri or Bianchi, or later Albizzi and Medici, Arrabbiati or Piagnoni." This struggle, however, between Guelphs and Ghibellines had a powerful influence on all subse- quent Italian history, since it proved to be a contention between old fossilized institutions and progress. In the first half of the fourteenth century the nobles were men of arms by profession. After the downfall of Ezzelino of Romano the lords of Pisa, Florence, Genoa and Bologna got the upper hand and were Age of the Despots 55 foremost as leaders in "The Age of the Despots." The Scaligeri rose in Verona, the Carraresi in Padua, the Castrucci in Lucca, the Estensi in Ferrara, and in Ravenna the Polenta family ruled. At Rimini the Malatesta, and at Parma the Rossi, at Piacenza the Scotti, at Faenza the Manfredi, in Genoa the Doria and Spinola were the despots, while all the time the Visconti ruled the Milanese. These, together with Robert of Naples and Pope John XXIL, were contend- ing for supremacy. A story of the Polenta family immortalized by Dante in his " Inferno " is one of the most tragic in his- tory. Francesca da Rimini, the beautiful daughter of Giovanni da Polenta of Ravenna, had been given in marriage to his efficient general, Giovanni Malatesta of Rimini, who was brave, but deformed and ugly. The heart of Francesca was won by the brother, Paolo the Handsome, and Dante tells the rest : "One day for our delight we read of Lancelot, How him love enthralled. The book and writer both were love's purveyors, In its leaves that day we read no more." Giovanni, jealous of his brother, murdered them both. This happened in Pesaro in 1284. The government of all the Guelph cities was much like that of Florence. A Council of the party was in time added to the General Council and the Parliament ; and the office of consul gradually yielded to the priors chosen from the Arts and Guilds ; but the Gonfaloniere of Justice alone held a check upon the despotic nobles. The office of Podesta was taken by a judge, an autocrat who decided all civic questions and declared war. In Rome the nobles removed Henry VIL's officers 56 Italy: Her People and Their Story and put Sciarra Colonna and Francesco Orsini in power as Senators. But the people rose and, driving these out, elected Jacob Arlotti Captain, with twenty- six " boni homines." He cast the nobles into prison and demolished their strongholds, so that a civil war ensued, during which one noble family united with the Ghibelline party and another with the Guelphs ; and the Orsini, the Colonna, the Velletri, the Savelli and the Gsetani fought in their turn. There are many interesting stories connected with these noble families, and many romances resulting from the opposite houses joining their fortunes in forbidden marriages. The Orsini and Colonna were the most noted among these cliques, their families being foes for two hundred and fifty years. Jealousy with regard to position was the ground of their quarrel, since glory redounded to each alike ; and besides this, they belonged to opposite parties, the Guelphs and Ghibellines respectively. The " Ursini " migrated from Spoleto in the twelfth century. They were the sons of Ursus, who was at one time Senator in Rome, and styled the father of their race. Soon the number and bravery of their kinsmen, the strength of their fortifications, their honor as statesmen, and the elevation of two of them, Celestin III. and Nicholas III., increased their emolu- ments, Nicholas III. giving the estates belonging to the Church to the Orsini family. Earlier their power had been increased by the marriage of Ursus' son to a daughter of the House of the Gaetani. The castle of Bracciano, on the lake of the same name, was the chief residence of the family, who owned many strong- holds in the vicinity of Rome. The names and arms of the Colonna are still sub- jects of doubt. Their family was first heard of in Age of the Despots 57 1104, and they are supposed to have descended from the Counts of Tusculum. " The pillar entwined in their crest and embodied in their name has been cred- ited respectively to Trajan's Column, the Pillar of Her- cules, the Column of Christ's Flagellation, and also the Pillar of Fire which guided the Israelites through the desert." But it is thought that the family ensign was some lofty pillar used as a decoration upon their heights in some of their estates in the Campagna. Nicholas I. was so great a patron of their family that he has been depicted in satirical portraits as imprisoned in a hollow pillar. At the end of the thirteenth century the family consisted of an uncle and six brothers. Soon after this we hear of the Colonna in connection with Boniface VIII. The eagle and keys appeared respectively on the banners of the Orsini and Colonna ; and long after the grounds of their early quarrels were forgotten they fought on. In 1323, after a long strife, Frederick the Fair of Austria had been overthrown at Miildorf, and Louis of Bavaria, or Louis IV., was crowned in 13^8 with the Iron Crown of Lombardy, through the influence of the Italian Ghibellines, and afterwards in Rome by two excommunicated bishops, who were soon set up as anti- Popes. After Matteo Visconti died, Louis installed Galeazzo, his son, at Milan, but for political reasons he afterwards imprisoned him. Louis made Castruc- cio Castracani, who was a nobleman in his bearing, though one of the great adventurers of the day, Duke of Lucca as well as Imperial Vicar and Senator of Rome. Although during this Age of the Despots many adventurers followed in the same train, Cas- truccio was the first man of his class to receive a title which became hereditary. 58 Italy: Her People and Their Story Rome at first welcomed Louis of Bavaria with joy; but, he having betrayed the Ghibelline party, who had upheld him and relied on his support, so many fac- tions arose, that in 1329 both Louis and the anti-Pope Nicholas, whom he had set up, were obliged to take themselves out of the way. After the election of Benedict XII. the Romans attacked the capital and es- tablished a democratic government, sending to Flor- ence for a model ; but their reforms did not apply to Rome, and public discord reached such a height that Benedict XII. was obliged to retire to Avignon, and was succeeded by Clement VI. in 1342. This was a bitter time for Florence also, for she too was oppressed by Castruccio Castrucani, the tyrant of Lucca, until he died in 1328. Florence had fallen into the hands of what was called the "Popolani Grossi ", a Plebeian aristocracy, and in her trouble she had called upon Robert of Naples for aid. He was now old, and accordingly sent his son, the Duke of Calabria, accom- panied by Walter of Brienne, Duke of Athens, the duke's lieutenant. Walter of Brienne was " crafty, clever and unscrupulous," and in 1342, by flattering the Florentines, gained control of the city for life. The nobles, however, after a year, seeing that they were denied any part in the government, drove Walter of Brienne out of the city. The people soon regretted this, for Florence was speedily overrun by merce- naries now employed everywhere in Italy; and to complete their misery, famine, and at last the plague, stared them in the face. Robert of Naples died in 1343 at the age of eighty. He offered the crown to Andrew, son of his nephew, King of Hungary, on condition that he should marry Joanna, his orphan granddaughter. She was a charm- of the Despots 59 ing Italian princess, brought up in one of the most fashionable courts of Europe; and she soon despised this boorish prince who had become her husband. Accordingly Robert himself, seeing that Andrew could not fill the position, excluded him altogether from the succession, and left the throne to Joanna under a regency until she became of age. Joanna was a girl of only sixteen, gay, high-strung, and inexperienced ; and she soon became demoralized. Tired of being harassed by the importunities of Andrew to be allowed to share the crown, she had him spirited away into the country, and, after a revel one night, he was thrown from the window of an old fortress. Joanna married Louis of Taranto soon after, and there was so much scandal connected with Andrew's death that the latter's brother, Louis of Hungary, without difficulty, took possession of the throne in 1347. He soon retired to Hungary, however, leaving only a fortified garrison for defence; and Joanna, gaining the influence of Clement VI., with the aid of her friends regained her kingdom after three years of atrocious barbarities on both sides. Finally Urban VI. excommunicated Joanna of Naples, who had afterwards married successively James of Aragon and Otto of Brunswick, and installed Charles Durazza of the House of Anjou; and when Joanna, having no children, declared Louis, Duke of Anjou, uncle of Charles VI. of France, her heir, Durazza instigated her assassination. Soon after Durazza, or Charles III., as he was called, was himself slain. He left a son, Ladislaus, ten years old, and a daughter, Joanna II. ; while Louis of Anjou, Joanna's heir, at his death left a boy, styled Louis III. Ladislaus at the age of sixteen gained influence by 60 Italy: Her People and Their Story marrying a wealthy heiress, and, triumphantly enter- ing Naples, drove out his rival, Louis III., thus becom- ing the head of the Ghibellines, or anti-French party. Ladislaus' sister, Joanna II., succeeded him and, having no heirs, adopted Louis III. of Anjou, grand- son of that Louis L, the successor of Joanna I. At the death of Louis III., Joanna II. then chose his brother Rene, but as soon as she died Alphonso V. of Aragon, entitled the Magnanimous, drove Rene out and became King of Aragon, Naples and Sicily. This Alphonso has the reputation of being the wisest and most popular sovereign that ever ruled over the Kingdom of Naples, his reign of twenty-three years being the most pros- perous period of the Sicilian kingdom. Some think that his government formed a basis on which Italian independence might have been secured. As will be remembered, the complicated history of Naples and Sicily dates back as far as 1053, when the leaders of the Hauteville family did homage to Pope Leo IX. for all conquests they had made, or might make. In 1130 the Island of Sicily under Count Roger was united with Naples in one social body, called by the Italians a " regno," which differed in its social insti- tutions and foreign relations from the rest of Italy. Charles of Anjou, after his victory at Grandella, in the year 1265, had gained the United Kingdom, calling it the " Two Sicilies," and Naples was the capital ; but in consequence of the Sicilian Vespers he was obliged to relinquish Sicily in 1282, although he continued to be King of Naples. After this the two kingdoms were separated until the year 1442, when, as has been seen, this same Alphonso V. expelled Rene of Anjou from the Kingdom of Naples and reunited the Two Sicilies under his rule. They continued thus until his Age of the Despots 61 death in 1458, when they were again separated until 1504. With short interruptions after this they both continued under Spanish rule until 1861, when through the cession by Garibaldi of his conquests to the scepter of the House of Savoy, they were absorbed into the present Italian kingdom. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries wars were carried on largely by mercenaries, mostly adven- turers who were called " Free Companies." This kind of fighting force was first collected from disbanded German, British, and French soldiers, whom the Vis- conti, Castruccio Castrucani, etc., took into their pay. Among them were Fra Monreale, Count Lando and Duke Werner, the last the captain of the first " Great Company " and styled " The Enemy of God, of Pity and of Mercy " ; these were some of the names of this kind of brigand which have come down to us. Fra Monreale was afterwards the captain of the " Great Company of Knights of St. John," and was as noted in his day as any of the princes. He has been handed down in the romances which have for their basis the unsettled state of the society of that era. His band was employed by the League of Montferrat, La Scala, Caresi and Este to check the Visconti. The Free Companies became a great curse to Italy, since the Italians themselves soon discovered that this kind of service offered a profitable career to men of daring. Albericp da Barbiano, a noble of Romagna, Italianized the profession of " mercenary arms " and formed the Company of St. George. These mer- cenaries as a class were called condottieri, and with them dawned a new military era. Thus "heavily armed cavaliers, officered by professional captains, fought the battles of Italy, while despots and republics 62 Italy: Her People and Their Story schemed in their castles or debated in the Council chambers." The remuneration of these men-at-arms was greater than that of the best-paid artisans; and the perils of war at that era being inconsiderable, in the course of time the ranks of the condottieri were recruited largely from the " needy nobility of Italy," who were fascinated by the life of daring and the wealth to be gained. Courtesy was the rule between these licensed bandits. They had a code of honor which did not permit imprisonment and spared the lives of the enemy of the same class. The " Great Company " was the first example of a strolling band of soldiers kept up for the sake of plun- der. As early as 1339 this " Great Company " was broken up through the continued efforts of the Floren- tines, though the custom of carrying on war by means of mercenaries still went on. Battles soon became less bloody, and " gayly caparisoned cavalry " was intro- duced in place of the old-time militia; and war soon degenerated into a selfish contract between nations and their own armies, which resulted in intrigue and treachery. A company of English soldiers came over to the peninsula, led by Sir John Hawkwood, really a condottieri leader of what was called the " White Company " ; and he at first fought bravely for the Pisans against the Florentines and the rest of Tuscany. The rise of mercenaries marks the epoch when Ital- ian despotism became the most insupportable. At first the tyrants got into public favor by being appointed captains of the people and vicars of the city. In order to make their government seem protective, they freed the people from military service by employing these mercenaries; and at the same time they rendered the Age of the Despots 63 old aristocracy powerless. As they grew stronger they advanced hereditary claims, and, assuming titles, soon took on the style of petty sovereigns. Although they used bribery instead of coercion, there was no limit to their cruelty. Galeazzo Visconti and Lorenzo de' Medici were examples of this mode of despotism, which " reigned by terrorism behind a smile." Notwithstanding all these dissensions, the arts and sciences flourished. Giotto and Cimabue invested the art of painting with new life. Petrarch, as a follower of Dante, helped to create the most melodious and flexible of languages out of old barbarous idioms. He enjoyed, while living, the praises of his contemporaries, as kneeling before the throne in Rome he received the laurel crown, while the people shouted " Long live the Capitol and the Poet." It was a degree of Doctor of Arts in poetry, and was invented by the German Emperors ; and from this time the custom of having a poet laureate has been kept up in England. Petrarch was born in 1304, and lived half of his life in the valley of Vaucluse near Avignon; and in his verses he cel- ebrated his love for Laura, the beautiful and virtuous, whose image in all his wanderings he could never tear from his heart. Even the laurel crown was dearer to him because its name was like that of his adored Laura. Their reclining statues, side by side, are seen to-day in the old museum at Avignon in southern France. Petrarch died irr 1374. Giovanni Boccaccio was born in 1313 and died in 1375. He accomplished for Italian prose what Petrarch did for its poetry. He wrote in the Tuscan language, and in his collection of novels he makes a burlesque of the wickedness of the times. The two Malespina were the earliest Italian his- 64 Italy: Her People and Their Story torians ; and Giovanni Villani, who died of the plague, also graphically chronicled events of the times, as did Matteo and Philippe, his brother and nephew. During the century and a half between 1309, when Clement V. settled at Avignon, and 1447, when Nicholas V. re- established the Papacy at Rome on a more solid basis, the Italians are said to have come nearer self-govern- ment than at any other epoch. At a period a little later the peninsula was divided up into five principal powers, the Kingdom of Naples, the Duchy of Milan, the republic of Florence, the republic of Venice, and the Papal States, and their united influence for forty- five years secured a brilliant season of peace and pros- perity. The history of Rome from this era was to a large degree swallowed up in that of the Papal States. In the middle of the fourteenth century floods, fam- ines and, in 1348, a fearful plague, which had earlier devastated the East, visited Italy. Naples lost sixty thousand of her inhabitants, Pisa more than half of hers, while Siena never regained her pristine prosperity. Boccaccio in his fascinating, though often corrupt, writing, gave a wonderful account of the sufferings of his native city at the time of this pestilence of 1348, which was called the " Plague of Florence." Under the terrible affliction, men, terrorized by overshadow- ing death, became lawless and strangers to natural affection. Meanwhile Rome was the scene of great disorder. Through all the strife in the rest of Italy the Romans had kept up the desire of governing themselves, and in 1347 they were still further aroused by one Cola di Rienzi, called the "Last of the Tribunes." Though only a notary and the son of a Roman innkeeper, this Age of the Despots 65 gifted man had a striking presence and a refined mind. Early in his life his brother had been slain by one of the Colonna family, and in his desire for vengeance he had imbibed a hatred for the whole race of nobles with a passionate love for the republic. Rienzi held everyone spellbound who came within the sound of his voice, and he at length believed him- self divinely inspired to revive the ancient glories of Rome. He had been made tribune by the Romans and Pope Clement VI. at first seemed to endorse his views. In the May of 1347, after Rienzi had returned from an audience with His Holiness, he draped him- self in a toga decorated with figures allegorical of his mission, and appeared in the presence of a few burghers and merchants, announcing to them a speedy restoration of Rome's ancient grandeur; and at the same time he made a solemn vow to overthrow the nobility and consolidate the republic. It was a favorable moment; for there was anarchy in the Kingdom of Naples, the Pope was for a time absent, and the Empire had been only a tottering fabric for many years. Rienzi spent the night of May 19, 1347, in the town hall; and, having placed the enter- prise under the protection of the Holy Spirit, he con- voked a Parliament of the people in the Capitol to arrange laws, raise an army, and provide for the public need and safety. On the day that Rienzi was publicly proclaimed tribune the nobles, though they retired scoffing, were alarmed; for Stephen Colonna was away with his forces at Palestrina, and the revolution every moment was making great headway. With a bodyguard of one hundred men Rienzi assumed command of the extemporized army, and retained, in place of the reg- 66 Italy: Her People and Their Story ular Senate, the " Thirteen," which had been estab- lished as a Council in a previous revolution. Rienzi also had a higher ambition than simply a local uprising. He at once despatched envoys all over Italy, exhort- ing the people to shake off the yoke of the tyrant. At the annual Latin Festival held in St. Peter's, the canons met him on the steps chanting " Veni Creator Spiritus" ; the provincial cities throughout the penin- sula did homage to him, and even Petrarch lauded Rome's tribune as the greatest ruler of ancient or modern times. Rienzi's head was completely turned by so much adulation ; and, issuing a proclamation that Rome would resume her jurisdiction over the world, he granted citizenship to all the towns of Italy. This zeal of the people was mainly fictitious; for, though the theories were plausible, scarcely any one was ready to respond with deeds. It was the keen- ness of Rienzi's prophetic insight which immortalized his name ; for in his high pitch of enthusiasm he looked beyond the ages, as did Dante and Petrarch, and saw in a vast panorama before him a vision of the nation as consolidated to-day. He had not, however, the tact nor practical skill to gain over the nobles, since he would not sacrifice personal animosities to the general good ; and thus he was not able to suppress the now united Guelph and Ghibelline factions of the Orsini and Colonna. These, upheld by the Pope, now weary of toleration, moved on Rome on the 3Oth of November from Palestrina and encamped before the city. Rienzi called out his militia, and a hard fight ensued, in which eighty of the nobles, mostly the Colonna, were left dead upon the field. This so weakened the aristocracy that they never again attained supremacy Age of the Despots 67 in the government of the republic; but the strength of Rienzi's rule was also broken. He was accused of heresy, and the people were tired of bearing the burden of his immense public and private expenses. At last after seven months he lost heart, and, finding that his forces were deserting, he retired to the Castle of St. Angelo on the I5th of December, 1347, and afterwards fled to Naples. For two years Rienzi led a life of " mystic con- templation " in the Abruzzi, seeing visions and dream- ing dreams and still believing that he was divinely appointed to set up a mighty and glorious kingdom which would redound to the honor of God and his own greatness. For seven years he wandered in disguise through the cities of Italy and among the hermits of the Apennines, until at last he threw himself on the generosity of Charles IV., and woke up to find him- self a prisoner at Prague. The semi-centennial Jubi- lee of the Church being about to take place, every effort was made to keep peace, and in 1350 Charles IV. of Germany, before he could be crowned, was obliged to deliver up Rienzi to Pope Innocent VI. in Avignon. The Pope, thinking that it would be a popular move- ment, and also influenced by Petrarch's eulogies of Rienzi in verse, released him, allowing him to return as a Senator to Rome, with Cardinal Albornoz, who was sent there to arrange Church matters for the Jubilee. Rienzi, in August, 1354, again entered the city, with five hundred soldiers, and passing through the Castello Gate took possession of the government for the second time. Having received funds for the campaign from the two brothers Fra Monreale, he sent them as cap- tains to surround the remnant of the Colonna at 68 Italy: Her People and Their Story Palestrina. Unfortunately, soon after this, Fra Mon- reale himself was murdered; and it is suspected that Rienzi, being again short of money, instigated the deed in order to gain further supplies, though it is generally understood that Fra Monreale was plotting to kill him. The death of the latter caused so great excitement among the people that Rienzi lost his influence, and when a new taxation was agitated they rose in open revolt, and on the 8th of October stormed the Capitol, shouting " Death to the traitor." The spell of Rienzi's magnetic presence was at last broken. When he presented himself at the window, never doubting that his eloquence would charm the people as of old, missiles were hurled at him and the palace fired. Finally, giving up all for lost, he shaved his head and in the disguise of a shepherd contempt- ibly tried to pass himself off as one of his own enemies, joining in cries against himself. He was recognized, however, by the golden bracelets he had forgotten to remove from his arms, and was finally struck down and repeatedly stabbed. Such was the ignominious fate of the man who had seemed destined to fill the world with his name and glory as the regenerator of Italy. Rise and Fall of the Visconti 69 CHAPTER VI THE VISCONTI. THE CHIOMPI INSURRECTION IN FLOR- ENCE. THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY OF THE POPES. THE GREAT SCHISM. 13491435 A.D. THE VISCONTI, who first appeared about 1037, in the time of Conrad II., came upon the scene, one after another, like spectral figures, and, after exerting a baleful influence on the people of Lom- bardy for more than four centuries, vanished. With few vicissitudes, they had been growing more and more powerful ever since Otto, the archbishop, in 1277, seized the power from the hands of the Delia Torre family, by shutting up Napoleone and five of his kinsmen in the three iron cages now seen in Como. Pagano della Torre had placed the Milanese under everlasting obligations by saving the remnant of their army after the Battle of Corte Nuova ; and that family was in power ever after until, on account of demo- cratic measures, they made themselves unpopular with the nobility, especially the Visconti. In 1312 Matteo, a nephew of Otto, was appointed Imperial Vicar, and that same year succeeded in exter- minating the last of the Torriani. Two years later Charles IV. was sent for, to check the influence of the Visconti in Lombardy. He did not prove powerful enough, however, to curb their tyranny, and from that era the decline of Imperial power in Italy was rapid. Azzo succeeded Matteo and the latter's uncle Lucchino 7O Italy: Her People and Their Story followed in 1339. He was murdered ten years later by his wife, and in the person of his brother, the Arch- bishop Giovanni, there appears one of the most notable characters of the fourteenth century. The reign of this " masterful Prelate " marks a new era in the des- potism of the Visconti, who had now become self- made sovereigns with a well-established power and wide extent of territory. The Pope, resenting the encroachments of Arch- bishop Giovanni, sent for him to come to Avignon. The primate replied that he would march thither with twelve thousand cavalry and six thousand infantry. He is handed down in portraits with a drawn sword in the right hand and a crosier in his left. Soon after this mandate of the Pope he thus appeared in the cathedral at Milan, where, unsheathing the flashing sword and taking the cross, he said : " This is my spiritual scepter, and I will wield it in defense of my Empire." Immediately after, he sent to Avignon to engage lodgings for his train and soldiers for six months. Although the Pope had summoned him, after this he was " fain to decline so terrible a guest." Giovanni died in 1353, having established the rule of the Visconti over more than twenty cities of north- ern Italy; and there is no doubt that he aimed at the crown of the Empire. The succession fell to three sons of one Stephano: Matteo, Bernabo and Galeazzo, who shared Milan and Genoa in joint rule and divided the rest of the dominion between them. The brothers soon disposed of the dissolute Matteo and ruled to- gether in harmony. Galeazzo, the youngest son, was distinguished as being the handsomest man of his age. He was tall and graceful, wearing his hair long and in a net, and sometimes in braids down his shoul- Rise and Fall of the Visconti 71 ders. He spent much of his vast wealth in shows, festivals and in magnificent buildings. His prodigal tastes led him to seek royal marriages for his children, his daughter Violante marrying the Duke of Clarence, son of Edward III. He gave her as a dowry two hundred thousand florins and five cities on the frontier of Piedmont. The Duke of Clarence, when he went to espouse Violante, left the city of London, with " un- paved streets and thatched-roofed houses, to enter the luxurious marble palaces of Lombardy rising above highways smoothly paved with stone." Gian Galeazzo, the brother of Violante, with his young friends brought as gifts three score of horses with trappings of silver and gold; and there were among the presents fine cuirasses and crested helmets and coats-of-arms inlaid with precious stones and crimson cloths for raiment. The remains after the wedding feast were sufficient for ten thousand men. Galeazzo delighted in parad- ing such wealth in the presence of the feudal nobles of the North, and in introducing as his honored guest his friend Petrarch, then the greatest literary man of Europe. His son Gian Galeazzo soon after married Isabel, daughter of the King of France, the ceremony taking place with equal splendor. Galeazzo's court was at Pavia, while his brother Bernabo reigned at Milan, and both were noted for their heartlessness and great cruelty. Next to Archbishop Giovanni, Gian Galeazzo, who succeeded at the death of his father, Galeazzo, in 1378, was the most remarkable Visconti of them all, and his reign, which lasted until 1402, forms a distinct chapter in Italian history. Shutting himself up in Pavia, he set systematically to work to supplant his uncle Ber- nabo by feigning the constitutional physical timidity of 72 Italy: Her People and Their Story the race, at the same time pretending to be a religious enthusiast. This led his uncle and cousins to regard him almost as an imbecile, and accordingly easily dis- posed of. Thus, when in 1385 Gian Galeazzo declared his intention of making a pilgrimage to Varese, and started out from Pavia with a bodyguard of Germans, his uncles with his sons unsuspectingly came forth to meet him near Milan. Pretending to welcome them, his German troopers, at a signal, took them all pris- oners, and Gian Galeazzo, after poisoning them, pro- claimed himself Lord of the Visconti. Gian Galeazzo was devoted alike to business and pleasure, never, however, neglecting the former for the latter ; and under him the Visconti reached the summit of their greatness. He associated with men of letters, and to a great degree led an intellectual life. It was he who built the magnificently beautiful Certosa di Pavia, earlier noted as a Carthusian monastery, now a museum sustained by the State; and in order fur- ther to gratify his taste for splendor, Gian Galeazzo founded the Cathedral at Milan. He also finished the palace at Pavia which his father had begun, and revived the University there. Among other large engineering projects he devised a plan for turning the Mincio and Brenta from their channels in order to dry the lagoons of Venice, thus hoping to bring the Lion of St. Mark's to his feet. With all his great conceptions, no minor details were too small for Gian Galeazzo's attention. He inaugu- rated a system of paid clerks and secretaries of depart- ments, having his ledgers kept with as great exactness, and his correspondence as carefully filed and copied, as business men of the present day. His wealth enabled him to keep in his service the chief condot- Rise and Fall of the Visconti 73 tieri, whom he pensioned. In this way a great impulse was given to the false military system which did so much harm in Italy. The disputes of his neighbors gave him vast opportunities to extend his power. The only cities which dared to contend with him were Florence and Venice. In an alliance with the Vene- tians he crushed the Delia Scala family in Verona and the Carrara in Padua, the d'Este in Ferrara, and the Gonzago in Mantua. The whole of Lombardy soon became prostrate before this Milanese despot, the name of " Great Serpent " being given to the tyrants of the Visconti, in allusion to the idea of the great viper absorbing all the smaller snakes. Yet like the rest of his family, Gian Galeazzo was physically timid, the least unexpected sound almost throwing him into convulsions. Accordingly he was always taking the strictest measures against assassination. Gian Galeazzo was the first Duke of Milan. Seven years before his death he bought the title from Em- peror Wencelaus for one hundred thousand florins, Pavia alone not being included in the Duchy, since he was made only the Count of Pavia. Afterwards he forced Ruprecht, the successor of Wencelaus, who came down to seize his vast possessions, to retire again across the Alps. Nothing could have prevented this ruthless potentate from obtaining the sovereignty of the whole of Italy, for which he was aiming, had not the plague cut off his treacherous career. In 1402 he retired to his island fortress of Marignano in order to escape its ravages. As he was dying, at the age of fifty-four, he pointed to a comet in the sky, saying, that God could but thus signalize the approaching end of so supreme a ruler. From his armchair in Milan, Gian Galeazzo had 74 Italy: Her People and Their Story trained a band of commanders to carry out his plans. Nevertheless, at his death, his children being minors, his kingdom quickly fell to pieces. His son Giovanni Maria succeeded him in 1412, but soon fell a victim to his own cruelty, being assassinated by his nobles. Filippo Maria, the latter's brother, reigned thirty-five years, which era covered many wars and much brutal bloodshed. He was the last in the male line of the Vis- conti. He married the widow of Facino Cane, who possessed great wealth, and, having used her money, he had her beheaded on a false charge. He, like Charles V., is said to have been outwitted by his own cunning, often defeating his aims at the point of achievement by his own duplicity. At this era the Scotti, the Correggi, and the Mala- testa held sway at Piacenza, Cremona and Brescia, respectively. The little State of Romagna was overrun by the Count of Barbiano, who, with his famous Free Company, entered the service of Boniface IX. The Count of Savoy, the Marquis of Montferrat, and the Lords of Padua, Ferrara and Mantua profited by the late reverses of the Visconti, and soon after the begin- ning of the fifteenth century were the only independent sovereigns of northern Italy, since finally Francesco di Carrara was forced to yield to the Venetians and was strangled by the order of the Council of Ten. While Milan had been usurping the Lombard prin- cipalities under the Visconti, Genoa and Venice had established large factories along the Black Sea, in which they prepared spices and merchandise brought from India; and for the next half century these two cities fought many battles, first the Venetians gaining the victory, and then the Genoese. Gunpowder had now begun to be used on the field of battle, and did Rise and Fall of the Visconti 75 much more effective work than the old weapons. One of the worst fights between the two cities took place in January, 1352, when the Venetian galleys met the Genoese in the Bosphorus near Constantinople, greatly outnumbering them, and causing fearful slaughter in their ranks. The Venetian fleet was almost annihi- lated and four or five thousand were slain on both sides. All the Dukes of Lombardy, worn out by the despotism of the Visconti, now united with Venice as his common enemy against Genoa, then a fief of the Duke ; but finally all parties were obliged to appeal to Charles IV., who for a time catered to everybody in order to secure the Iron Crown of Lombardy. But Genoa after three years came under the power of the Visconti. The residence of the Popes at Avignon, called the Babylonian Captivity, beginning in 1309, lasted until 1375. Seven Popes in succession resided there in opulence and voluptuous splendor, until the north of France was overrun by King Edward III/s troops, and the Free Companies in their restless wanderings in search of booty had penetrated as far as the Valley of Vaucluse. Then Urban V., alarmed, and influenced by Charles IV. of Germany, decided to return with the Papal Court to Rome, where he remained three years, greatly magnifying Papal grandeur. But there was no repose in Rome, since Charles IV., by his active diplomacy, was keeping Italy as well as Germany in a ferment, and all the various factions were at never- ending war with each other. Accordingly Urban V. returned to Avignon, and his successor, Gregory XL, died as he was about to restore the Papal residence again to Rome; and the Cardinals now met to choose his successor. 76 Italy: Her People and Their Story The famous schism, which desolated Europe for forty years, had already begun ; and, since the French and Spanish Cardinals were in the majority, the people feared that a foreign pontiff might be elected. Ac- cordingly thirty magistrates were chosen, delegated to represent the wishes of the people in the Sacred Col- lege. The Cardinals, however, silenced the magis- trates by telling them that they must not meddle, since the matter was a subject properly under the guidance of the Holy Spirit; but the people were not satisfied with this, and assumed the responsibility themselves, surrounding the Vatican and haranguing the Council, telling them that they should hold that body as surety that an Italian Pope would be elected. The Arch- bishop of Bari was soon chosen as Urban VI., and the populace was satisfied; but when he, as Pope, decided that no one outside of Italy could take part in Church government, the Holy See revoked their decree and elected Clement VII. as anti-Pope, the real Clement VII. coming two centuries later. Spain and Sicily adhered to the anti-Pope, while England, Germany, Hungary and Portugal, together with Italy, supported Urban VI., both Popes proving equally obnoxious. The latter established himself at Rome with nineteen Italian Cardinals, while Clement VII. retired to Avignon with most of the old Cardinals, Urban VI, who had caused the schism in the Church, died in 1389. After two other Popes had passed away, Gregory XII. was chosen as the Roman candidate; and upon the death of the anti-Pope, Clement VII., the Cardinals of Avignon chose Bene- dict XIII. in his place as anti-Pope. The Cardinals refused to recognize either, and, though everybody con- nected with the Church was chagrined at the quarrel, Rise and Fall of the Visconti 77 they summoned both Popes to appear at a General Council at Pisa. When the two Popes resisted the de- crees of these Cardinals, together with the prelates and ambassadors from all parts of the Christian world, the Council deposed both Gregory XII. and Benedict XIIL, electing Alexander V. Benedict XIII. then called a Council at Perpignan, a gloomy fortress on the frontier of Spain, while Gregory XII. rallied his forces at Ravenna and Alexander V. estab- lished himself in Rome, all sending out Bulls of Ex- communication among the rulers of Europe according to their different prejudices. While these ecclesiastical dissensions were going on, Braccio da Montone, the great kader, and the peasant warrior, Sforza Attendolo, fought respectively for Florence and for Naples, where Ladislaus, the son of Charles Durazza was then at the height of his power. Florence, in order to defeat Ladislaus, desired a univer- sally acknowledged Pope. Accordingly, Braccio da Montone, acting in her behalf, entered Rome and forced the people to acknowledge Alexander V. In a short time, however, the latter died, and Pope John XXIII., who succeeded him, called upon Emperor Sigismond to assist in the conflict; and when Ladis- laus, an important factor in the controversy, was struck down at the Battle of Roccasecca, Sigismund determined to put an end to the scandal of the schism. He forced John'XXIII. to call together all the clergy- men in Christendom at Constance in 1415; but the latter, finding that all the Popes were about to be deposed, fled in the disguise of a groom ; and Gregory XII. also was glad to give up the keys of St. Peter's and compromise for the office of Cardinal, while Bene- dict XIIL, after being sustained by Spain for awhile, 78 Italy: Her People and Their Story was obliged to retire. The three rival Popes having thus been put aside, Otto Colonna assumed the title of Pope Martin V., and with him the schism was nomi- nally ended. This was the Council in which John Huss and Jerome of Prague were condemned to death and burned. Eugene IV. followed Martin V., and then came the strong Nicholas V., who took his place among the first of the temporal powers of Italy. When the sun rose upon the fifteenth century the horizon of Italy was obscured in clouds. Lombardy was almost entirely absorbed by the Visconti, Naples was worn out with civil war, and, as has been seen, the Papal power was at a minimum. These were days of treachery and crime. During the time these Church quarrels were going on Venice held sway from St. Mark's to the Adige, and her flag floated from her strongholds in Treviso to Feltro, and over Belluno, Verona, Vincenza to Padua. In 1378 Venice and Genoa had their last serious encounter at Chioggia, where they fought fiercely about the possession of Cyprus. Genoa block- aded this channel twenty-five miles south of Venice at the end of the Southern Lagoon. The Venetian fleet was destroyed in the encounter, and the republic was in great danger. This was when the Genoese leader, Luciano Doria, boasted that he would bridle the bronze horses of St. Mark's. The consternation became so overwhelming that Vittorio Pisani, who had been imprisoned on account of the loss of the fleet, begged the chance to save his ungrateful country, and was released. Carlo Zeno, in the Levant, heard of the disaster, and coming to the aid of Pisani, blockaded the Genoese in the port they had seized, and at the end of six months forced them to surrender. The Rise and Fall of the Visconti 79 war was not finished until the treaty of Turin in 1381. Venice was obliged to give up Dalmatia and Treviso for the time; but she soon became as powerful as ever. Genoa, on the contrary, never regained the com- mercial prestige then lost, and in 1396 came under the power of Charles VI. of France. As far back as 1309 Bernabo Visconti had made war on Florence, which was supported for awhile by Urban V. and then by Gregory XL It was at this time that Sir John Hawkwood, the condottieri leader of the so-called White Company, came over, at first for the purpose of helping the Pisans. Afterwards, however, the Florentines made an alliance with Pisa and other Ghibelline powers, the management of the war being given to eight commissioners called the " Eight of War," who won such popularity by their able conduct that they were derisively called the " Eight Saints of War." Sir John Hawkwood, by his efforts in behalf of the whole combination, enabled them to successfully carry on the struggle against the Guelphs. Long afterwards, in 1378, Hawkwood as- sisted Florence when Gian Galeazzo Visconti tried to gain the ascendancy over her; and the strife did not end until the death of Gian Galeazzo in 1402. Hawk- wood is buried in the Cathedral at Florence. Silvestro de' Medici, who aimed to upset the ex- treme Guelph faction led by the Albizzi and Soder- ini, was chosen Gbnfaloniere in 1378, while the mod- erate Guelph party consisted of the " Eight of War," the Ricci and a large vacillating element who were not satisfied with the party in power. Salvestro hunted up some old archives which were hostile to the rule of the nobles, and though unsuccessful in the Council of the Arts, in the General Council of the peo- 8o Italy: Her People and Their Story pie he was popular; and accordingly he was able to drive the governing faction with their ill-gotten power to the wall. What is called the " Insurrection of the Chiompi " ensued. The latter was a class of work- men who belonged neither to the fourteen Greater Arts or Guilds nor to the seven Lesser Arts, but who with the other unorganized citizens were only called to- gether in Parliament at the tolling of the great bell. These artisans plotted to place the two Arts on an equal footing, and originated, in addition, r Arts of their own. When the conspiracy was discovered the people broke out into a riot and placed the standard of the Gonfaloniere in the hands of one Michele di Lando, who, barefooted, mounted the stairs of the Palace of the Signoria, declaring that he would place the building and the whole city in the hands of the mob. He appointed his own priors, two from the Greater, two from the Lesser and two from the New Arts he had given the people; and in spite of the Eight of War, who wanted Lando to work through them, he kept the artisans quiet until he went out of office. His successors, however, lacked his strength; and accordingly, in 1382, the Guelph aristocracy called for a " Balia," which was afterwards a very frequent demand, and consisted of a committee chosen by the people with full power to change the Constitution. This committee repealed all the measures just passed. In spite of this the Lesser Guilds had gained some ground and Silvestro de' Medici, the real leader, had obtained the great popularity for which he was aiming. The Medici 81 CHAPTER VII RISE OF THE MEDICI. THE SFORZA FAMILY. NICHO- LAS V. THE AGE OF INVASION. SAVONAROLA. 14351494 A,D. THE power in Florence fell into the hands of the Guelphs soon after the Ciompi Insurrection, and Rinaldo Albizzi held the reins of government. But powerful rivals were at hand. Silvestro de' Medici had a brother, Giovanni, and from the latter sprung the noted Medici family, commencing with his son Cosimo. The foundation of the future Medici great- ness was laid by the wonderful ability of this man, who surrounded himself by scholars, and gained great popularity by spending freely his immense self-ac- quired fortune. The Albizzi, bent on his ruin, finally shut him up in the tower of the grim Palazzo Vecchio. This step so aroused the people that, as in all extraor- dinary events, the great bell tolled and the gates of the Palace were forced open. Then the Signoria and Gonfaloniere came forth with the College of the Arts, and, all uniting, demanded a Balia. As it proved, this committee sidecl with the Albizzi, who, trembling for fear of Cosimo's return to power, greatly desired to slay him. In spite of this, however, he was only banished; and, as the Albizzi had apprehended, the following year, a change coming about in the city government, Cosimo came back. This time the Balia decided against the Albizzi, and they in turn were 82 Italy: Her People and Their Story banished, while Cosimo was raised again to supreme power; and this continued for more than a century in the family of the Medici. The Albizzi enlisted Filippo Maria Visconti; and the Florentines were several times defeated by him, until the Venetians came to their aid, assisted by Fran- cesco Comagnola. Comagnola was a Piedmontese, and one of the ablest military officers of the day, as well as one of the most humane of the condottieri commanders. He had won back for Filippo Maria Visconti all the small sove- reignites which had been lost at the death of his father, Gian Galeazzo. Afterwards, however, having been accused of treachery by Filippo Maria, he went over to the Venetians, for whom he gained im- portant victories. But, being defeated near Cremona in the great battle at Soncino by Francesco Sforza, whom at one time he had given his liberty, he became disheartened and remained so inactive that his loyalty was questioned. In 1432 he was called to Venice and suddenly thrown into prison, where he was tortured for several weeks before being taken out and beheaded between two columns in front of the Doge Palace. Though instigated by the Council of Ten, it was an impolitic movement, since Duke Filippo no longer cared to make peace with the Venetians after his powerful enemy Comagnola was dead. It was on the ruins of the latter's career that Francesco Sforza climbed up to greatness. Pope Eugenius was forced by Filippo Maria Vis- conti to flee from Rome and take refuge with Cosimo di Medici and his party in Florence. These were fast crushing out Duke Filippo Maria, when the latter en- ticed Francesco Sforza, who was then in the Pope's The Medici 83 employ, to his side, by giving him his daughter Bianca in marriage. The father of Francesco was the great general Atondolo Sforza. He was originally a peasant of Cotignola, who received the name of Sforza from his physical strength. When invited to enlist, he threw his ax into an oak and cried : " If it stay there, it will be a sign that my fortune is made." The ax stuck in the tree, and Sforza went forth to found a line of dukes. While his friend Braccio di Montone intro- duced the solid phalanx, Sforza still held to the old method of detached bodies of cavalry. In 1409 these two great captains separated, and as distinct companies, were known as the Sforzesi and the Bracconesi. They carried on all the wars of Italy for the next twenty years. Finding that to defeat each other was disas- trous to the respective causes, they adopted the plan of checkmating. At their deaths in 1424 Braccio was succeeded by Nicholas Piccinini, and Sforza, as has been seen, by his son Francesco, these two in their turn being the chief captains of Italy and the ablest generals of their day. Although Francesco Sforza married the Duke of Milan's daughter, his father-in-law did not favor him greatly, since he was too ambitious and interfered with the latter's power. Accordingly when Filippo Maria died in 1447, leaving no legitimate heirs in the male line, he becfueathed his dominions to Alphonso of Naples. Though one party upheld Sforza in the right of his wife, the greater number desired no duke ; and Milan was organized into a republic, her example being followed by Pavia, Como, Alessandria and all the cities which had been subject to the Visconti. This lasted three years, until Milan was finally inveigled 84 Italy: Her People and Their Story into appointing Sforza as commander-in-chief against the Venetians, who were pushing their power west- ward. In one brilliant campaign Sforza drove the Venetians back, burned their fleet, and defeated their army. Then, although some of the citizens said they would rather become subjects even of Venice, than to fall into Sforza's hands, after treacherously making peace with that nation, Sforza reduced the surrounding cities and forced Milan in 1450 to receive him as their duke. His cruel son, Galeazzo Sforza, succeeded him in 1466; and under the latter Milan and Genoa suf- fered greatly for many years. At this time the four great powers of Italy were the King of Naples, the Duke of Milan and the re- publics of Venice and Florence. Soon after, another mighty influence gained great advantage in Italy. It was the temporal power of the Pope. Had Florence and Venice at this time upheld the faction in Milan and Genoa who desired a republican government there would have been four dominating common- wealths to resist foreign interference, so that they might have maintained the freedom of one consoli- dated republic. But Cosimo di Medici, who was then just commencing his despotism in Florence, preferred to see a duke in Milan; and the Foscari in Venice thought only of territorial extension. The captivity of Avignon, which had nominally ended at the Council of Constance, had well-nigh ex- tinguished the influence of the Popes. ^Eneas Sylvius, however, the secretary of Emperor Frederick III., and a very learned, diplomatic, and versatile character, gained the ascendancy at the Council of Basle, and arranged things so that Pope Eugenius was enabled to triumph in that body. He also later secured the The Medici 85 election of Nicholas V., during whose rule the schism really ended in 1448. The reign of Nicholas V. opened an era of temporal splendor, which is said to have ushered in the Renais- sance; and this ended with the establishment of the Popes as sovereigns in Rome, a position they held up to the time of the present government. Nicholas V. had been tutor in the house of the Albizzi while only Thomas of Sarzana, and afterwards he was engaged as librarian of the Medici in Florence. Though humbly born, he imbibed the culture of the era and became a distinguished humanist. He was a peace- maker and promoted education, and as Pope he was without a rival in the Church. After the advent of the Greeks in Italy, before the taking of Constanti- nople by the Infidels under Mohammed II. in 1453, the zeal for Greek was revived, and Rome became the center of Greek culture. Nicholas V. encouraged art by rebuilding churches and palaces, and he also strengthened the city with fortifications. It was he who first conceived the idea of the prospective mag- nificence of the St. Peter's of to-day; and he re- fashioned the Vatican Palace, collecting manuscript and archives to found the famous Vatican Library. The invention of printing in his time also helped the progress of learning. In 1452, when Pope Nicholas had crowned Frede- rick III. with great ceremony at Rome, a large number of republican Romans, displeased at this, and his general assumption of power, formed a conspiracy to assassinate the whole Papal court, plunder the Vatican and, by setting up a government of their own, free the city from ecclesiastical bondage. This audacious and bloodthirsty plot was discovered, however, and 86 Italy: Her People and Their Story thwarted, and this was the last attempt of Rome to establish a free government. In 1454 Nicholas V. was the means of bringing about the Peace of Lodi, in which Venice, Milan, Florence and Alphonso of Naples united for the pur- pose of withstanding the Turks. A year after, in 1455, Nicholas V. died, and ^Eneas Sylvius was chosen Pope with the title of Pius II. In 1464 he also died while preaching a denunciatory sermon against the Turks. In 1477 a large Turkish army, after desolating the coast of Italy as far as the Piav, defeated the Venetians, their proceedings being watched from the Campanile of St. Mark's. The Turks also took pos- session of the Black Sea, depriving Genoa of all her possessions and influence there. The depredations of the Turks at this time were only stopped by the death of Mohammed II. The rise of the House of Medici in Florence is one of the most absorbing events in Italian history. Cosimo di Medici, after his return in September, 1434, from banishment in Venice, executed his power with remarkable wisdom and tact. He adorned Flor- ence with the finest architecture and founded the Pitti and Uffizi galleries, which still attract millions of peo- ple from all lands. Under his supervision the dome of the Cathedral was built by Brunelleschi, and Masaccio painted and embellished churches and chapels, after- wards models for Michelangelo and other great art- ists. Cosimo encouraged literature in every possible manner, keeping many scholars busy collecting manu- script to adorn the Medici library. From this era, for three centuries, the history of Florence is connected with the House of Medici. Neri Capponi was another great statesman. It was The Medici 87 said of the two men, if Cosimo was the wealthiest, Neri was the wisest. These autocrats, when afraid of any opposition, called a Parliament and had a Balia appointed for five years; and thus they were able to secure the election of their own party, as in the case mentioned against the Albizzi. The splendor and refinement of Cosimo Medici's taste enriched the State ; and, though his rule abridged the liberties of Florence, the material prosperity of the city was sustained. His death in 1464 left only one son, Pietro, who did nothing except burden the Italian people with his debts. He quarreled with Luca Pitti, a most formidable enemy, and soon died from his dissipations in 1469, leaving two sons, Lorenzo and Giuliano. The Medici were not, at this period, absolute des- pots like the Visconti ; but they were no longer simply a great family, as they had been in the time of Silves- tro. Although they used their power for the good of the city, they did it by drawing from the public treas- ury in the interest of their own house. The Popes of this epoch were striving for dominion, not in order to enlarge the Holy See, but for the purpose of making their sons and nephews Italian princes. Sixtus IV. therefore entertained a violent hatred for the Medici, since Lorenzo was opposing his attempt to establish his nephew in Romagna ; and, in sympathy with the old Greek and Roman ethics, he felt that nothing was a crime which would rid the State of tyrants. Accordingly Sixtus IV. concocted a scheme of assas- sination which was so gigantic and far-reaching that it involved at least one hundred persons, among them Sixtus' nephew and grandnephew, the Riario, Fran- cesco Salviati and the Archbishop of Pisa, while even 88 Italy: Her People and Their Story the odious King Ferdinand of Naples is said to have abetted the scheme. The conspiracy was called after the Pazzi family, who were the foremost in the plot. They instigated it because, though among the richest and noblest of Florence, they had been kept out of office by Lorenzo de' Medici and excluded from the right of succession to the Borrommeo property. This was according to Lorenzo's policy, which was to put down the wealthy and rais: up people of no conse- quence, over whom his influence would be paramount. During a Church celebration in Florence the two brothers Giuliano and Lorenzo de' Medici were invited to a feast to be given by Jacopo de' Pazzi on Sunday, April 26, 1478. But the conspirators found out that for some reason or other Giuliano would not be at the banquet, and not daring to postpone the assassination, the date of which was known to so many, they decided to commit the deed at once at service in the Cathedral. Francesco de' Pazzi and Bernardo Bandini were the ecclesiastics chosen to kill Giuliano, and it was ar- ranged that Giovanni Battista was to murder Lorenzo ; but he hesitated to commit the sacrilege of slaying his friend in church. Accordingly two priests, Antonio and Stephano, who comprehended sacred things better, undertook the task. After reaching the church, and finding that Giuliano was not there, Pazzi and Bandini went to his house, and in a playful manner accom- panied him to the service, at the same time ascer- taining that he was unarmed. An immense crowd enabled the assassins to get behind their intended victim without attracting attention; and as the little bell sounded when the Host was lifted up, and all were kneeling in the presence of God, Bernardo stabbed Giuliano to the heart, and Francesco di The Medici 89 Pazzi pierced him many times with a dagger. Antonio and Stephano only succeeded in slightly wounding Lorenzo, and were afterwards found in hiding, and slain. Francesco de' Pazzi having been disabled, the aged Jacopo, who had prepared the feast, gathered a few followers before the Palazzo Vecchio crying out: " Liberty and the People." The people, however, were too hoodwinked by the wiles of the Medici to comprehend that their freedom had already been taken away, and they immediately arose against the con- spirators, instantaneously cutting down more than seventy in the street. They hung the Archbishop of Saviati in his priestly robes outside his own window, and placed Francesco de' Pazzi by his side on the gal- lows. Two hundred more were put to death indis- criminately. All this was done at the instigation of Lorenzo, and has come down in history as the " Pazzi Massacre," just as the conspiracy is called " The Pazzi Conspiracy." Lorenzo de' Medici was conveyed in safety to his palace, and a special police force was posted in his grounds. His power was now strengthened by the sympathy of the citizens, and from this time he as- sumed a more sumptuous style than ever. He called round him a crowd of literary men, whom he main- tained, and who sustained him in his pride. The title " Magnificent," which familiarizes us with him, does no more than justice to his character, and although this magnificence was entirely egoistical and sup- ported at the public expense, he made the people feel prosperous, and they were contented. No longer dis- guising his part in the plot to assassinate Lorenzo, Sixtus excommunicated the whole duchy of Florence go Italy: Her People and Their Story which in turn appealed to the rest of Italy for support in a general council of the Tuscan clergy. Ludovico Sforza, son of Francesco Sforza, and the cruel Galeazzo's brother, had been banished from Milan by the latter's widow, Bona of Savoy, sister-in- law of Louis XL, because he had tried to wrest the power from her. Now, however, he returned to Milan and usurped the duchy in place of his nephew, a boy of twelve years, the son of Bona of Savoy. He then united with Louis XL in an alliance with Lorenzo. Sixtus IV. also was obliged to come to terms with all parties in 1480, when he saw that the Turks were threatening Rome. But he made one more attempt against the general peace by trying to get Ferrara for his nephew, Cardinal Riario. The Pope's captain in these great wars was Fedrigo, Duke of Urbino, a man distinguished not only for his skill in warfare, but for his culture, justice and uprightness of life. Sixtus IV., chagrined at the failure of all his plans, died in the year 1484. It was he who built the won- derful Sistine Chapel and named it after himself. The constructing of the Vatican was begun in the early part of the Christian era, and had continued up to the time of Charlemagne, who is said at one time to have resided in one of the courts of the Church of St. Peter's. The Popes from the time of Eugenius IV. had again taken up this work of culture and splendid architecture, which they continued for several cen- turies. Innocent VIII., the successor of Sixtus IV., was elected by the influence of Ferdinand of Naples, and though they soon quarreled, Lorenzo di Medici finally brought about a reconciliation between them after he himself had pacified the Pope by marrying his SAVONAROLA. The Medici 91 own daughter to one of the Pope's natural sons. Through this union he raised the Medici family to the highest position of ecclesiastical grandeur, since His Holiness now named Giovanni, the son of Lorenzo, then but thirteen years old, Cardinal; and this boy, afterwards Leo X., was the most renowned pontiff of the Vatican. In spite of the many internal dissensions, the period between 1480 and 1492 was a time of general pros- perity in Italy ; for the three leading men in the nation, King Ferdinand, Ludovico Sforza and Lorenzo di Medici, were anxious to be in harmony, desiring to work together in order to check the growth of Venice and to profit by the periodical embroilments of the other powers. During this epoch a great deal of land was brought under cultivation, manufactures flourished, and the Country grew populous and increased in wealth. The Italian peasantry were better housed, clothed and fed than men of the same rank in other countries and a sense of security pervaded the land. Although Italian art and literature were also in a flourishing con- dition at this era, the luxury and tyranny engendered by the Medici had enervated the people and lessened their virtues and self-respect. One Dominican monk, Girolamo Savonarola, fought against this influence. He began to preach in 1489, and so great w'as the desire to hear him that women and children would rise in the night to gain their places. They came with the same rejoicing to listen to his sermons with which they would go forth to a wedding or to a play, making no account of standing on cold marble pavements in the chill of winter. Savonarola thundered in awful tones against the vices 92 Italy: Her People and Their Story of society and the sins of the people, and foretold the terrible punishment which awaited such a course of life. The Florentines were held spellbound by the simple eloquence of a preacher who scorned all " tra- dition of oratory, and literary style " and swept every- thing before him by his earnestness and warmth of feeling. In looking upon his glowing countenance, the imagination of all was kindled. Some believed that they saw an angel on either side of him as he preached; and others thought the Madonna herself stood above him in glory, blessing him with uplifted hands while he pronounced a benediction on the mul- titude. The " Magnifico " feared Savonarola's influence, yet was attracted by him, and sought him out at the monas- tery of St. Mark's; but he could not gain his confi- dence, for Savonarola felt that any degree of sym- pathy with this luxurious though affable tyrant would fetter him in his mission of helping the people. Savonarola was of a fervid temperament, believed in special revelations, and dreamed dreams. He gained an especial power over the people by his ability to foretell the leading events of the times the advent of the French King, the fall of the Medici, the reign of Clement VII. and like great disasters. Lorenzo de' Medici died in 1492. He was one of the most illustrious men handed down in history ; and, in spite of a few rash acts of cruelty, the moral beauty of his character and his ennobling taste would seem lofty even in the most advanced epochs of a pure and unsullied state of society. It was through the patronage extended by him to all scholars and artists that the way was prepared for that most brilliant epoch in Italian history which came about in the sue- The Medici 93 cession of his son, and was called the " Golden Age of Leo X." Just before Lorenzo died his fascination for Savon- arola revived, and he summoned him from St. Mark's to hear his last confession, because he knew that the great divine would not fear to tell him the truth. The illustrious preacher refused to come, saying : " We could not agree " ; but Lorenzo sent back the messen- ger with a promise to accede to everything. The prior was led to the luxurious chamber where Lorenzo lay dying in the prime of his days, surrounded by all that he loved, yet hopeless and helpless, and tor- mented by the memory of the wrongs which he had committed. He confided to his confessor that there were three things which troubled his soul the atro- cious Sack of the Volterra, the Murder of the Orphans and the Massacre of the Pazzi. Savonarola told the penitent that, first, he must have a living faith that God would pardon him ; and Lorenzo told him that he could have that faith. Secondly: he must restore everything wrongfully acquired so far as lay in his power, only leaving to his children as much as would maintain them as private citizens. Lorenzo was mad- dened at this thought, but finally he said he would also do this. In addition to all the rest, the faithful friar told him that he must restore freedom and a popular republican government to Florence. Then the great Magnificent turned his face to the wall and said not another word ; upon which the prior went away without granting him absolution. Savonarola afterwards said that he grieved greatly because he had not allowed himself to become ac- quainted with Lorenzo sooner; for he believed that through the grace of God the distinguished ruler then 94 Italy: Her People and Their Story might have found salvation, " since he had never be- fore known a man so well endowed with all the natural graces." Lorenzo died at forty-four in the splendor of his prosperity ; and Florence, where to-day one cannot look in any direction without gazing upon the work of some man's genius, is filled with the spirit of the Medici in its churches, galleries, streets and squares, as well as in the beautiful Medici Chapel erected as a monument to the family name. Lorenzo left three sons, Pietro who succeeded him, Giovanni (Leo X.) and Giuliano. Innocent VIII. died nearly at the same time as Lorenzo, just as the " anarchy of the Feudal Ages was giving place to the renown of the Renaissance." But for Italy the Age of Invasion followed, and England, France, Spain and Austria for many years " menaced this disunited State by the consolidation of their gigantic power." The year after Innocent VIII. died, Rodrigo Borgia had gained by bribery his election as Pope under the name of Alexander VI. He used his power almost entirely to forward ambitious schemes in behalf of his children, Caesar and Lucretia. These two ex- ceeded their father in the insolence of their vices, their falseness and cruelty, so that the name of Borgia has been handed down as a synonym of vice. Age of Invasion 95 CHAPTER VIII AGE OF INVASION. COMING OF CHARLES VIII. SPANISH POSSESSION OF NAPLES. THE EXPULSION OF LUDO- vico SFORZA. SAVONAROLA'S DEATH. PEACE OF CAMBREY. ART AND LITERATURE. 14941553 A.D. FOR several years after the death of Lorenzo, Savonarola was the real ruler of Florence, and at the time of the French invasion determined the politics of the city, and with the aid of Piero Capponi guided the State through the critical period. He relieved the starving populace within the walls, opened shops for the unemployed, reduced the taxes, and administered justice in every possible way, at the same time exhort- ing all men to put their trust in God. The laws and edicts of this period are said to read like paraphrases of Savonarola's sermons. He warded off a revolution, not only by keeping the people quiet, but by frighten- ing the King of France with prophecies, so that the latter left the city free from his depredations. The Great Council which followed, giving the people their rights, was also the work of Savonarola. After the fall of the Medici the Florentines, influenced by Savon- arola's teachings, abjured their vanities and follies, leading a life of humility and repentance. Hymns and psalms rang in the streets, in place of loud songs which had so recently been heard, while men and women dressed with Puritan simplicity; and husbands and wives even quitted their homes for life in convents; for Savonarola's reign is said to have been a " kind of 96 Italy: Her People and Their Story heavenly despotism," short, but far-reaching in its influence. Although he preached eight years, from the year 1489, without interruption, his real rule over Florence commenced in 1491, and he reached the climax of his greatness in 1495. It was in 1492, after Alexander VI. was Pope, that, during the delivery of one of his forcible sermons, he heard supernatural voices portending the wrath of God, and he saw the celebrated vision recorded on contemporary medals and engravings symbolizing his doctrine. In it a hand appeared bearing a flaming sword and voices were heard proclaiming mercy to the faithful, and vengeance to the guilty. Then the sword bent towards the earth, and the sky darkened, thunder pealed and lightning flashed and the world was visited by famine, bloodshed and pestilence. It was the disturbance his sermons caused which influ- enced Pietro di Medici to have him removed from Florence; and it was while he was preaching in Bologna that the rebuke to the wife of Bentivoglio, the ruler there, for interrupting divine service by her noisy entrance, came near costing him his life. Assas- sins were sent to kill him in his cell; but, awed by Savonarola's words, they fled in terror from the con- vent. At the close of his last sermon in Bologna he fearlessly announced the day and hour of his departure ; and then he started out barefoot on his lonely journey over the Apennines. After a time, when the Florentines no longer feared Charles VIII. and were free from the shadow of the Pisan War, the people began to long for their old gayeties, and heeded less and less the great prior's teachings. In 1495 a Papal brief summoned Savon- arola to Rome, and in September another, and then a Age of Invasion 97 third. Just after he preached one of his most exciting sermons, Alexander VI. united St. Mark's to another division of the Dominican order, and thus abridged Savonarola's influence, which had been supreme over the monasteries. As early as 1497 the Arrabbiati and the Medici party united, and on Ascension Day Savon- arola was insulted and a Bull of Excommunication was hurled against him. That same year he was forbidden to preach in his own convent, and again summoned to Rome, his touching farewell sermon being delivered in 1498. Although Alexander was determined that Savon- arola should meet his death in Rome, the Signoria insisted that he should die in the presence of the Florentines. A trap was laid for him and a challenge given by Francesco di Pagano to prove the truth of his doctrine by the celebrated " Ordeal of Fire." Everything was ready for the experiment, and Savon- arola is said to have been almost assured of his triumph in the issue ; but there was delay and the au- thorities finally put a stop to the proceedings. His enemies after this pushed their advantage, and, having imprisoned him, tortured him for three successive days. As a result of his ascetic life he was too weak physically to endure the torment, and in his delirium he would promise to recant, saying and doing things based on whi^h the records were falsified, and state- ments and signatures forged ; but when unbound he would reassert his views, crying out : " My God, I denied thee for fear of pain." This vacillating course gave the Florentine Signoria a chance to claim that he who had swayed Florence for years was not only a false prophet, but had used his unusual abilities for his own advancement and vainglory. 98 Italy: Her People and Their Story On May 22, 1498, final sentence was passed. That night, as Savonarola lay asleep in his cell, his head resting on the shoulder of his confessor, the guard noticed a smile playing over his wan features, and asked what it was that he saw. Waking a little, Sav- onarola replied : " I hear the sound of falling chains." This was no doubt a vision, which came to him in his dreams, of the disenthrallment of future ages from the shackles of ecclesiastical error and bigotry, of which his martyrdom was the beginning. The next morning, the 23d of May, the execution took place, in which Savonarola and his companions were first hanged and then burned. When the bishop read the formula, " I separate you from the Church Militant and the Church Triumphant," Savonarola cried : " Not from the Church Triumphant, that is be- yond thy power ! " Then he was suspended on the center beam of the cross, erected on the spot where the great fountain near the Palazzo Vecchio now gushes forth, and the pile was fired. At dusk the re- mains of Savonarola and his two fellow-victims were thrown into the Arno. During the year and a half after the death of Lo- renzo di Medici his eldest son Pietro held a tottering sway in Florence. Meanwhile Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, became anxious lest Alphonso, son of Fer- dinand I. of Naples, should take up the cause of his nephew, Gian Galeazzo Sforza, Alphonso's son-in-law, whose power Ludovico, as has been seen, had wrested from him when he returned from exile. Ludovico, therefore, having made an alliance with the Pope and Venetians for mutual support, sought in vain to form, in addition, an Italian confederation composed of Florence, Rome and the Duke of Ferrara. Accord- 'Age of Invasion 99 ingly, as a final resort, Ludovico invited Charles VIII. of France to invade Italy and take Naples. King Ferdinand, when he heard that the French were coming, tried to make terms with Sforza, who, not wishing to come to an open quarrel, on account of the revolts in his duchy, put him off until he was sure of the French king. But Ferdinand died, and his son Alphonso, who succeeded him, was more obnox- ious to everybody than his father had been. The coming of the French into Italy was the begin- ning of an era of foreign invasion and despotism. Charles VIII. marched through Savoy, Piedmont and Tuscany, and entered Florence on one of the days when Savonarola was delivering his most powerful sermon in the Cathedral. He halted here because he could not advance further until he had made sure of the action of that city. The people were most anxious to get rid of Pietro de' Medici, Piero Capponi saying that " it was time to put an end to this baby govern- ment." In view of this, the authorities were inclined to treat the king well, housing him and his suite for eleven days in the deserted palace of the Medici, from which the family had fled at his approach. Pietro had at first tried to propitiate Charles VIII., going out to meet him, surrendering Sarzana, and promising to give up Pisa, Leghorn and other places, and to advance the king a large sum of money. His overtures, however, being disregarded, he attempted to make himself master of the town, and assembled his guard before the Palazzo Vecchio; but the city had strong forces hidden, and as the great bell tolled the soldiers poured forth as if from the ground, and the people gathered from their shops and stalls crying: " Popolo ! Liberta ! " It was then that Pietro fled ioo Italy: Her People and Their Story through the gates never to return. Pisa, that for almost a century had been in subjection to Florence, now entreated the French to gain back liberty for her ; and Charles took their part. Notwithstanding this, however, the Florentines, then completely under the sway of Savonarola, who tolerated Charles VIII.'s coming as a part of God's beneficent providence to rid Florence of the Medici, still maintained their loy- alty to the French king. Charles VIII. for a whik kept the Florentines down by threatening to bring back the Medici ; but one day he laid so grievous a list of propositions before the commissioners that Piero Capponi, enraged, snatched the paper from the scribes and tore it in fragments before the king's face, saying : " Sound your trum- pet and we will ring our bells." This, together with Savonarola's prophecies against him, frightened the king, since he knew that at the sound of the common bell so large a number of soldiers would present them- selves that his men-at-arms would be powerless. Accordingly he accepted their terms, promising to restore Pisa and the other places which Pietro di Medici had given up. But the last he never did. Charles VIII.'s father, Louis XL, had kept aloof from Italian affairs and had given up his right to Genoa to Francesco Sforza ; but Charles VIII. himself, as the representative of the Angevin House in the descent of King Rene of Anjou, claimed Naples; and though his cousin, the young wife of the down- trodden Galeazzo Sforza, had entreated him in behalf of her father, King Alfonso of Naples, Charles in- tended to appropriate the kingdom, and afterwards to cross over and drive the Turks before him. He would then retake Jerusalem from the Infidels and win back Age of Invasion 101 the Holy Sepulchre. He had induced Venice, as well as Ludovico Sforza, the usurping Duke of Milan, to help him, and as he approached Rome with a gorgeous pageantry of sixty thousand gayly equipped cavalry Alexander VI. threw open the gates of the Eternal City. His stay there, however, was for the most part perfunctory, notwithstanding that he forced Alexander VI. to agree to all his terms. The Italians looked with horror at the method of the invaders, since the French, from the time of the discovery of gunpowder, had guns made of brass, called cannon, which threw pointed iron balls, and could be fired at long range. On the other hand, they themselves still used great guns, with stone balls, which had to be drawn by oxen and were so heavy that they could be used with profit only in sieges. King Alfonso left the kingdom and fled to Sicily when he heard that the French were really coming; and his son Ferdinand II., being betrayed by his general-in-chief, was forced to seek refuge in the Island of Ischia. Although Charles VIII. was welcomed by the people of Sicily, he had made many enemies. In the first place he had failed to conciliate the Duke of Milan; and he had offended the Florentines because he favored the Pisans. The Venetians would not uphold a power which seemed likely to gain the ascendency over them ; and the Pope was dissatisfied because French rule interfered with his plans for increasing the influence of his house. Charles also angered the Orsini by favoring the Colonna ; while Maximilian, King of the Romans, was jealous because French rule was work- ing in such a way as might finally snatch from him his Emperor's crown. Thus it seems that everybody 102 Italy: Her People and Their Story was in a hurry to get Charles out of Italy, and Ludo- vico Sforza more than anyone else, though he had been the most influential in aiding him in the invasion of the peninsula. Ludovico now proceeded to make an alliance against the French with the Pope, Maximilian, Ferdinand II. and the Venetians. Seeing that this combination was going to be too strong for them, the French army, which had already settled down to a life of voluptuous enjoyment, took a speedy flight, marching out of Naples in May, 1495. Charles' greatly reduced numbers, after passing the defiles of the Apennines, met a large army composed of troops from Venice and Milan under Francesco di Gonzaga in the plains of Lombardy. Charles VIII. was victorious, but he felt that it would not be prudent to remain in Italy, and accordingly pressed forward to Turin and returned to France. Ferdinand II., assisted by the Spanish, the Pope, the Venetians and the Duke of Milan, re-entered Naples and regained nearly all he had lost ; but in less than a year he died and was succeeded by his uncle, Frederick. The Pisans, having been abandoned by Charles, were obliged to put themselves under the protection of the Venetians, who helped them to carry on war with Florence. In order to deliver that city from the in- fluence of the French, Ludovico Sforza tried to get Pietro di Medici back to Florence ; but the govern- ment hindered Pietro from entering the city. The followers of Savonarola, who were called " Piagnoni," or " Weepers," because his preaching had brought them to repentance, clung to the old popular govern- ment, and still favored the French Alliance. The "Arabbiati," or the "Angry," were the members of the oligarchy who had turned out the Medici; and Age of Invasion 103 there was a third party, who in secret favored the Medici, the " Bigi," the " grey or shady." This was the time of Savonarola's greatest popular- ity and his influence was paramount. Under his super- vision troops of white-robed children had gone beg- ging through the streets, bearing crosses, and taking with them to be burned all articles of luxury, call- ing upon them an anathema, or curse. Some of the most excitable of Savonarola's followers then lost his cause by giving themselves up to the wildest religious excitement. They sang and danced in the streets and shouted " Viva Cristo," demanding that Christ should be proclaimed King of Florence. A low doorpost is seen at Loches where Charles VIII. struck his head accidentally and died April, 1498. He was succeeded by Louis XII., formerly Duke of Orleans, who was heir in the descent through his grandmother, Valentina, daughter of Gian Galeazzo Visconti. Alexander VI. favored his plans because he thought his son, Cesare Borgia, would gain by this means. The latter was already an archbishop and cardinal, but the king added the city of Valence in Dauphiny, with the title of Duke of Valentinois. The Duke of Orleans, the Florentines, the Duke of Ferrara and the Marquis of Mantua all having united against him, the Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, was now left without support ; and the forces of Louis XII. took possession of the duchy in 1499, while the duke, deserted even by his people on account of his oppression, was finally betrayed by his Swiss mercenaries. When discovered, dressed like one of these and trying to escape, he was imprisoned by Louis in the Castle of Loches, until he died. Deep down in these dungeons there is a gloomy, isolated cell, on the 104 Italy: Her People and Their Story damp walls of which, to keep himself from madness, Ludovico carved his name and other curious inscrip- tions, leaving there the outlines of his own face, all of which are discernible to-day. Ludovico Sforza was recognized as the most " illustrious Maecenas " of his age. He did much to beautify the Certosa of Pavia, besides many other works demanding great culture. The legitimate duke, Gian Galeazzo Sforza, Ludovico's nephew, having died in the Castle of Pavia some years before, Louis XII. came into possession of Milan in 1500; and during the next twelve years all of Lombardy fell under his sway. He then turned his attention to Naples. Frederick, the new king, with his disbanded army and empty treasury, could offer but little resistance, although the troops Charles VIII. had left were scattered and without a head. Ferdinand the Catholic, of Spain, soon made an alliance with Louis XII. ; but at the same time arranged one with Frederick, who placed his fortresses in the possession of the Spanish troops. This was the Ferdinand con- nected with Columbus and the discovery of America, the consort of Isabella. When the French battalions crossed the frontier, Gonsalvo da Cordova, the Span- ish general, disclosed the treachery of the King of Spain in his alliance with the French, and his dis- loyalty to Frederick of Naples; and Frederick was forced to surrender and flee to Ischia, where he died three years after. In 1502 the French and Spaniards quarreled over the partition of the territory and fought a battle near Cerignola in Apulia, where the French were totally defeated by this Gonsalvo, called the Great Captain. Although his character was perfidious, he possessed great military genius and heroic courage. After one "Age of Invasion 105 or two more disastrous battles, the French, fearing that they should lose Milan, abandoned the contest; and in this way the Spanish got possession of the Kingdom of Naples and held it, with some interruption in the eighteenth century, until 1861, excepting during the time of Napoleon's dominion. Alexander VI. granted Louis XII. a divorce from his first wife, and in return received the lordship of Imola, Faenza, Forli and Pesaro ; and Cesare Borgia, in order to insure the inheritance, murdered all the heirs of these ruling families. Louis XII. refused to let Cesare annoy the Florentines, since he wanted them and the Bolognese on his side; but Cesare in 1502 got hold of Urbino. He was physically strong, tall, handsome and mentally powerful ; but he was cruel and treacherous and soon gained the hatred and con- tempt of all Italy. A conspiracy called the Diet of Magione was made against him by Bentivoglio of Bologna, Baglione of Perugia, Antonio di Venassio of Siena and the Orsini. Under the cover of great friendship for the Orsini, Cesare in 1502 assembled Paoli and Francesco Orsini with others, apart from their troops in the Castle of Senigallia, where he strangled them and annihilated the family. The old Orsini Palace is seen on the ruins of the Theater of Marcellus in Rome, where the later residence of the Neapolitan branch is in the Gravina Palace in Naples. Pope Alexander, whose corrupt reign had been filled with intrigue and the grossest crimes, died from drinking poison, which he had mixed for one of his cardinals. Cesare was only saved from the same fate by his temperate habits. The new Pope, Pius III., lived only a few months, and his successor, Julius 106 Italy: Her People and Their Story II., seized and imprisoned Cesare because he had not been of service to him against the Venetians and had failed to advance the growth of the Holy See. In 1504 Cesare sought refuge with the Spanish general, Gonsalvo, who, ignoring his feigned friendship, sent him off to Spain and had him shut up in the Castle of Medina del Campo. Finally Cesare escaped to his brother-in-law John, King of Navarre, and served in his army until he was shot under the walls of Viana. A legend revived in modern literature relates that Cesare neglected his beautiful bride, Charlotte d'Al- bret, and finally wished to get rid of her altogether. Taking advantage of her affection for him, he sent her a warm velvet canopy for her bed, adorned at the head by a protecting Madonna with a snowy white mantle. This he begged her to use, in order that he might think of her warm and protected in the cold north. But she sent back the message that it should not be put to any service until his return. The lovely princess, however, soon died and was wrapped in the curtains she had cherished for his sake, enfolded in the Madonna's white mantle. Scores of years after, when exhumed, her face was still fair and white, preserved by the arsenical compound with which Cesare had intended to poison her. Cesare's sister, Lucrezia Borgia, is conspicuous in history for her cruelty and for her knowledge of poi- sons, which she may have been falsely accused of using in disposing of persons who stood in her way. Gio- vanni Sforza of Pesaro was her first husband; after him Alphonso di Biseglia; and finally she married Alphonso d'Este, son of the Duke of Ferrara. She survived her whole family and lived surrounded by Age of Invasion 107 poets and men of letters. Personally she was very attractive, having a dazzling- complexion and silver- blond hair; and intellectually she is said by some to have been a genius. Charming as she was in person, however, her character is said to have been wholly depraved. Victor Hugo made her the subject of a play which is the basis for the text of the opera of Donizetti. Louis XII. in becoming Duke of Milan also gained Genoa. He ordered the Genoese coin to be stamped with his mark as a sign of submission. Ever since Charles VIII. had gained independence for Pisa, the Florentines had made strenuous efforts to re-establish their power over the city. Finally, after many negotiations, Louis XII. and Ferdinand of Spain agreed to the sum of money Florence offered; and Pisa in 1509, after fifteen years of war, again lost her freedom. Venice now extended from Aquileia to the Adda, and on the south to Rimini and Ravenna. It included Friuli and the coast of Dalmatia, Cyprus, Crete, and some points on the Peloponnesus, besides towns in the Kingdom of Naples, such as Otranto, Brindisi and Trani, which had been given up as pledges in war. Disaffected by the gaining power of Venice, Louis XIL, Ferdinand of Spain, Julius II., besides some of the minor powers, all of which respectively desired parts of her dominion, united and formed the League of Cambray in 1508, agreeing to divide among them- selves all future conquests. This was a critical time for the Venetian States, since by the terms of the treaty they were reduced to their original islands; but Julius II., not wishing to see the other nations gaining so much ground and desiring io8 Italy: Her People and Their Story Venice as a barrier against the Turks, went over to the side of the Venetians, and in 1510 broke up the League of Cambray. Julius II. now turned all his attention to expelling the foreign powers from Italy ; but, being thwarted in this by the French, he formed a Holy League, in which Henry VIII. of England joined, and afterwards Ferdinand of Spain. The French were successful in several contests, conquering at Ravenna the Pope's forces led by Fabriccio Colonna, and the Spaniards by General Raymond di Cordona; but they lost their distinguished though brutal leader, Gaston de Fois, Duke of Nemours, called the " Thunderer of Italy." A few months later Maximilian, then Emperor of Ger- many, joined the Holy Alliance and, with two thousand Swiss mercenaries belonging to the allies, overran the Duchy of Milan and drove the French out of Italy. The confederates of the old Ducal party now proclaimed Maximilian Sforza, son of Ludovico, duke. After the French were expelled from the kingdom the allies met at Mantua and decided that Florence, notwithstanding she had remained strictly neutral dur- ing the contest, must receive back the Medici. The Great Council agreed to admit the latter as private persons, but, the Florentines themselves refusing, the city was taken by storm August 29, 1512, after a siege of twenty-one days, by the Spanish Viceroy Ray- mond di Cordona, a brutal massacre following. Don Raymond forced the Florentines to join the League against the French, besides paying him a large sum. Among the changes in the government during the long struggle in Florence, the office of Gonfaloniere had become a life tenure ; but this officer was now forced to leave the city, and after Giovanni di Medici with his Age of Invasion 109 nephew Lorenzo, son of the banished Pietro, had taken possession, the common bell assembled the people, who were obliged to agree by means of a Balia to re-estab- lish the Medici in their former places of greatness. During these many dissensions, Pope Julius II., who had striven for temporal power in order to enlarge the Holy See rather than to enrich his house, died in 1513. He was succeeded by Giovanni de' Medici (Leo X.) and the Holy League was broken up. Italy was the leader of the Renaissance, and the early part of the sixteenth century, called by the Italians the " Cinquecento," being a time of great intellectual growth, the arts and sciences flourished. The stiffness in art which had prevailed among the painters before Giotto and Fra Angelico, and which had arisen from their stereotyped religious views, relaxed as artists began to study the Grecian master- pieces of antiquity. Many of these great works of art the sculptors found in Lorenzo de' Medici's large collec- tion in Florence ; and the enthusiasm was further stimu- lated by discoveries made in the excavations in Rome during the reign of Julius II., particularly the exhum- ing of the Laocoon in the Baths of Titus. At the same time the Chapel of Masaccio became the school for painters in Florence. The Popes, who, since Gregory's VII.'s time, had ceased to devote all their energies to the good of the Church, now encouraged a more secular spirit in art and literature. Before Julius II. died he had begun to pull down the old Basilica of St. Peter's to make room for the present magnificent structure; but Bra- manti, whom he employed as the first architect, con- ceived plans so vast that it took centuries to realize them. To carry on the work, Leo X. now introduced no Italy: Her People and Their Story the idea of granting indulgences ; and he was no doubt sufficiently gratified when he saw how this adroit scheme was bringing in millions, not only for his wars and the building of the great Cathedral, but to satisfy his own luxurious tastes. The patronage of art had reached its climax under Julius II., who brought from Florence to Rome the painter and sculptor, Michelangelo, and employed him in decorating the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, built by Sixtus IV. These adornments are at the present day more studied than any others of Michelangelo's works. It was later, in Clement VII/s time, when Michel- angelo was engaged in painting " The Last Judgment " on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel, that the romance of his life began with his ardent friendship for Vit- toria Colonna. In perfect reverence and loyalty " he lavished on her not only all the deep tenderness and devotion of which such a nature as his was capable, but he was prodigal in dispensing for her the treasures of his great genius ; for she is said to have been the theme of his finest sonnets, which he mastered with the same gigantic stroke as he did the productions of his chisel ; and his most exquisite drawings were created for her gratification. Besides all of this, he found time in the midst of his mighty undertakings to spend long, bright hours in her society; and finally when, during political crises, they were separated, a close correspondence kept their hearts united." This attachment was also a great solace to the gifted poetess, who rejected all suitors to her hand and remained true to the memory of the husband of her youth, the Marquis of Pescara, while cultivating literary pursuits to the end of her life in the compan- ARTISTS. Raphael. Giotto. Michaelanfjclo. Fro Angelica. Leonardo da. Vinci. "Age of Invasion in ionship of the great sculptor; and when she died Michelangelo's life was darkened by the shadow of this great grief. At Florence, Michelangelo had met Leonardo da Vinci and competed with him in making designs for the Palazzo Vecchio. Leonardo had been brought to Milan by Ludovico Sforza, and in the short time he was there he painted " The Last Supper " on the wall of the Church of Maria delle Grazie. Unfortunately time has so injured the wonderful painting that it is feared it will soon be entirely obliterated. Leonardo di Vinci, like the Greeks, aimed at perfection ; therefore his works are few. In the time of Julius II. Raphael painted the " Dis- puta," which is in the Stanza della Segnatura in the Vatican in Rome. Most of the famous paintings of this celebrated artist, such as the Sistine Madonna, the " Madonna della Sedia," etc., were executed during the reign of Leo X., but some of those in the Stanze were finished by his pupils after his death. Raphael designed the galleries called his Loggie, which connect the different parts of the palace, and had them decorated as seen to-day. Between the years 1513 and 1516, in Leo X/s time, Raphael prepared drawings for some tapestries, the designs of which were taken from the Acts of the Apostles. They were worked by the weavers of Flanders, or some say in the looms of Brussels. Having been completed in the marvelously short time of three years, they were placed on the lower wall of the Sistine Chapel, and though afterwards carried off, they were returned and are to be seen at present in a much damaged con- dition in the Galleria degli Arazzi, in the Vatican. The designs, having necessarily been cut in strips for H2 Italy: Her People and Their Story the weavers, were left in Flanders, until Charles I. of England bought them. Cromwell preserved them, and in the reign of William III. they were joined together and hung in Hampton Court near London, but at present are to be seen in the South Kensington Museum. Raphael's last work, " The Transfigura- tion," was painted for Clement VII. In his historical scenes Raphael was assisted by many young artists, who frequently exhibited little of the genius and keen artistic insight of their master. Michelangelo's paintings are easily recognized by the magnificent outline of the drawing instead of the high coloring which is the characteristic of the Venetian School. The three great Venetian artists are Titian, Tintoretto and Paul Veronese. Benevenuto Cellini did his best work in the reign of Pope Clement VII. He is well known as a Florentine goldsmith, as well as being an engraver. The Golden Age of Leo X. was also distinguished by much literary achievement. Ariosto and Pietro Bembo, among others, wrote in Italian. Ariosto com- posed in an age of courtly splendor, at a time when the accomplished men of the day could equally wield a sword or write a love poem. Hence he wrote of mad adventure, of combat, of paladins and the lover's devotion. In his " Orlando Furioso " he captivated both the gay and the earnest. Tasso, a courtier as well as a poet, wrote, half a century later, when the bards of the sixteenth century, like those of two centuries earlier, wove their sorrows into their writings. Poor Tasso, out of joint with everybody and everything, finished only two poems of great merit, " Aminta " and the " Jerusalem Delivered." The latter Age of Invasion 113 is said to be the best heroic poem of which Italy can boast. His " Rinaldo " was composed when he was seventeen years old, gaining him the name " Tassino " (dear little Tasso). Carducci says of Tasso that he was the legitimate heir of Dante ; but Tasso loved and commented on love in a learned style, even his passion for Leonora seeming generally philosophical. After all his misfortunes, Tasso, like Petrarch, was invited during the winter of 1595 to Rome to receive the laurel crown ; but before the laurel was green he saw his end approaching; and, ascending to the Mon- astery of St. Onofrio, on the Janiculum, he told the prior, who came out to meet him, that he had come to die with him. He was only fifty-one years old when the end came, in the April of 1595; and twelve years after a monument was raised to his memory. His cell in the monastery is at present an object of great interest, the same garden where he used to walk being still seen, together with the tree under which he sat, called the " Tasso Tree." Among the prose writers of the Golden Age was Machiavelli. He brought out the " History of Florence," his native city, and a political essay called " The Prince," which relates rather grotesquely the duties of a monarch and what his character should be in the troublous and corrupt times in which he wrote. The Medici ignored him because he ridiculed them. Guicciardini also wrote the " History of Italy " from 1494 to 1526. H4 Italy: Her People and Their Story CHAPTER IX AGE OF SPANISH RULE. CLEMENT VII. FALL OF THE MEDICI. THE JESUITS. DECLINE OF VENICE. 16181674 A.D. OOPE JULIUS had so extended the rule of the 1 Church that when Leo succeeded him he found that his sway was vast. King Ferdinand of Spain still held Sicily, Sardinia and Naples and was as anxious as the Pope to keep the French from getting the upper hand in Italy. The people, however, of the Duchy of Milan, which now included Genoa, were tired of the Sforza rule under Swiss support ; and one Antonio Adorno of Genoa having incited a revolution in favor of Louis XII., Maximilian Sforza was obliged to flee. But the French were again defeated and Sforza returned to his duchy for two years longer. In 1515 Louis XII. died and was succeeded by Francis I., who immediately claimed Milan. Leo X., alarmed, sent his nephew Lorenzo to meet the forces of Francis, who was joined by Robert de la Marck, the leader of the Free Company called the Black Band, and by the Doge of Genoa, Ottaviano Fregoso. While the Florentine forces and the Spanish under their vice- roy, together with the Papal army under Prospero Colonna, were marching to unite with the Swiss mer- cenaries, Prospero Colonna was taken prisoner at Villafranca. The remaining allies failing to appear, on account of lack of united action, the Swiss were left alone to meet the enemy. On September 13 the r Age of Spanish Rule 115 great battle of Marignano was fought. The Swiss, who had now become the great mercenary force of Europe, made the French waver by their courage, keeping up the fight by moonlight, so that the victory was still undecided when the moon set. The next day the Venetians, however, attacked the Swiss in the rear, and the battle ended in favor of Francis, twenty thousand dead being left on the battlefield. This has been termed " a Battle of Giants." The Swiss now left the Italian service forever and hired out as mer- cenaries to the King of France. Ferdinand, King of Spain, who by his marriage with Isabella had united Aragon and Castile, died in 1516, and was succeeded by his grandson Charles. The latter was also the grandson of Maximilian the Great of Germany; for Charles' mother Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, had married Philip of Austria, the son of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy. When Emperor Maximilian died in 1519, Charles V. and Francis I. of France were candidates for the election; and Charles, who ruled over Spain and the Low Countries, the Two Sicilies, the Netherlands, Franche Compte, and the new colonies in America just discovered by Columbus, was now elected. He also inherited Imperial dignity and the title of King of Jerusalem. It was at this time that the title of King of the Romans was changed to Emperor elect, and became the natural appendage of the King of Ger- many. Charles V.'s rule was much more extensive than that of the Roman Emperors in the days of their greatest glory ; and his ambition was even greater than theirs. This was the beginning of Spanish supremacy in Italy. ii6 Italy: Her People and Their Story A reformation had long been brewing in the silence of the German cloisters, and was now led by the Augustinian monk, Martin Luther, who was assisted by the Elector of Saxony and many others in the Em- pire ; and this movement was joined later by Zwingli of Zurich and Calvin of Geneva. Charles V.'s interest as a Spaniard leaned toward the Church in this matter ; and besides it was better policy to fight on the side of the Pope. Accordingly he made a treaty with Leo X. in 1521, and in the long struggle which followed he was always most active in his hostilities against Luther and those especially interested in carrying on the Reformation. After the Battle of Marignano, September 13, 1515, when the Duchy of Milan fell into the hands of France, Maximilian Sforza was forced by Francis I. to retire into exile in France, where he lived as a private citizen until his death in 1530; but Charles V. and the Pope now availed themselves of the opportunity, in the absence of the governor placed over the duchy, to enter Milan without opposition, and to proclaim as Duke, Francesco Maria Sforza, Ludovico's son, and the younger brother of Maximilian Sforza. Fran- cesco Sforza II. married Christina, daughter of Chris- tian II. of Denmark. She was the princess who, when sought in marriage by Henry VIII., is said to have replied that if she had two heads one of them should be at his disposal. At his death Sforza bequeathed the duchy to Charles V., Parma and Piacenza being given back to the Pope; and in the midst of his rejoicing at another triumph of his party over the French, Leo X. died in 1521. The culture and brilliancy of his reign have almost obliterated in the minds of posterity the cor- Age of Spanish Rule 117 ruption and falseness of his character; but in fact it was the general depravity of his government and his wholesale barter of indulgences which brought the Reformation to a crisis. Fortunately for him, he passed away before the disturbance he had set in motion had proved destructive to the welfare of the Church. Hadrian VI., a native of Utrecht, succeeded Leo X. He was the most holy prelate of his age. The voluptuous Romans called him the " Barbarian Pon- tiff," because he was a foreigner, and they hated him for his austerity of life, simplicity of manners and the sincerity of his views. They rejoiced when, unable to stem the tide of popular corruption, he died two years after his election. His greatest effort had been made in trying to arouse Christendom against the Turks. Venice, in her alliance with France at the Battle of Marignano, had gained all she had previously lost ; but, dissatisfied, she now united with Charles V., agree- ing to defend the Kingdom of Naples against the Turks. In 1522 Francis I. was driven completely out of Italy by the defeat of his army near Milan; and Genoa, the only remaining seaport left to the French in the peninsula, was lost. Ottoviano Fregoso was taken prisoner in this contest and Antonio Adorno succeeded him. A League was now made between the Pope, the Emperor elect, the King of England, the Archduke of Austria and the Duke of Milan in opposi- tion to the French. Francis, however, was again try- ing to force his way into Italy, when his chief general, Charles of Bourbon, "the Great Constable," became disaffected because the king's mother, Louise of Savoy, hating him, made a claim on his estates, and formed n8 Italy: Her People and Their Story an alliance with Charles V., Henry of England, and the Pope. Francis, having heard of the powerful com- bination against him, did not dare to leave the coun- try for fear of an English and Spanish invasion. Accordingly he gave the command of the French troops to Guillaume de Bonnivet, the Admiral of France, who was soon defeated by the diplomacy of Prospero Colonna, and obliged to quit the country. In 1524, when the French army was retiring, their rear was defended by Chevalier Bayard, the ideal knight of chivalry. In directing the retreat Bayard was mortally wounded and taken prisoner. The Great Constable found him under a tree, dying with his face still turned to the enemy and his eyes fixed on the cross formed by the hilt of his sword. The Constable tried to console him; but Chevalier Bayard replied: " It is not I who am an object of pity, for I die as a man of honor. It is you who have turned traitor to your country and king." Though the Great Constable forced the French to leave Italy, he himself was obliged to retire from an encounter in Provence ; and in doing so he gave the enemy the advantage, so that the French again crossed the Mont Cenis and would have marched directly to central and southern Italy had not Charles V. by his diplomacy circumvented them. The latter's cause, how- ever, was almost lost, when Giovanni di Medici (de- scended from Cosimo I.), of the younger Medici line and leader of the Black Band, went over to the French. Besides this, at that same time the Pope became neu- tral. The Great Constable, however, with the Marquis of Pescara, came back to the relief of Charles' army and united with the Emperor's brother, Duke Fer- dinand of Germany, who, with a force under General Age of Spanish Rule 119 Freundsburg, on the 24th of February, 1525, defeated the French at Pavia. Francis and his brother Henry were taken prisoners, with eight thousand others; and many were drowned in the Ticino, Admiral Bonnivet and Richard de la Pole being among the French nobles and commanders slain. Francis was shut up in the Castle of Pizzighittone, near Milan ; but was afterwards confined in the Tower of Alcazar at Madrid, where he had plenty of time to indulge in his favorite pastime of writing sonnets. Duke Francesco Sforza II., assisted by Henry VIII. and the Venetians, and joined by the dowager queen of France, all united to drive the Spaniards and Ger- mans out of Italy, and they also attempted to deliver Francis I. from prison. They were abetted by the Pope, the combination being called the Holy League. The Marquis of Pescara, however, discovered the plot, and though for a time he pretended to favor it, soon betrayed the whole plan, and at the command of Emperor Charles V. seized all the strongholds in the duchy except the castles of Cremona and Milan. The Marquis of Pescara died before the end of that year. He was the husband of the gifted Vittoria Colonna. The Great Constable again took command in the Mar- quis of Pescara's place ; and, although his army was scantily supplied with food and pay, he was victorious and forced the Duchy of Milan to endure every kind of outrage because the duke had joined the Holy League. In the beginning of 1526 Francis I. obtained his freedom by renouncing his claims to Naples, Milan, Genoa and Asti in the Treaty of Madrid ; but as soon as he was restored to his kingdom he declared all his concessions null and void because they had been made 120 Italy: Her People and Their Story under duress. The Pope then tried to induce him to join the League. In the spring of 1527 the German troops under Gen- eral Freundsburg were joined by the army of the Great Constable, which had become mutinous on ac- count of the scantiness of the pay. These marched quickly towards Rome, to overthrow the Pope, whose generals were defending the city. Freundsburg died in a fit just before reaching Rome; and the Great Constable on the 6th day of May, 1527, assaulted the city. Although the Constable was slain while scaling the walls, his forces continued the struggle and the " cap- ital of the world soon lay at the mercy of thirty or forty thousand ungovernable soldiers." The Papal Guards were put to flight and the Vatican and the Church of St. Peter's plundered. The German Luther- ans destroyed, as idolatrous, pictures and statues which were priceless, but the Spaniards committed even greater atrocities; and for seven months the city was at the mercy of an army which became a mob, greater violence being inflicted than during the barbarian inva- sions. Clement VII., who had succeeded Hadrian VI. in 1523, himself escaped to the impregnable fortress of St. Angelo, where he lived in close confinement for six months. This great diplomatist had earlier, as Giulio de' Medici, been the counselor of Leo X., and for a long time the real ruler of Florence. At present, however, Clement VII.'s position was no easy one, since, on account of preserving the " balance of power," he did not desire that the Sicilies and the Duchy of Milan should be under the same rule; and he was accord- ingly hostile to the Spaniards, who had cared nothing Age of Spanish Rule 121 for the interests of his predecessors, and had only cultivated them in order to use them to overthrow French power and set up their own in northern Italy. Meanwhile, outside the city harvests were destroyed and thousands of families had perished through sick- ness, famine and the sword. Giovanni de' Medici, who had led his Black Band against Freundsburg, con- tinued to worry the German forces, until mortally wounded in 1526. Although already celebrated all over the Continent for bravery and ability, he was only twenty-eight years of age when he died. The six years after the death of Leo X. were the darkest recorded in Italian history. During this time little duchies arose and went out forever, and some permanent despotisms were established. New terri- tory was annexed and then detached; and there was constant change without progress, and in the midst of it all the plague again broke out. The disturbances in Rome produced such an excite- ment that the Holy League reunited. This now in- cluded, besides Henry VIII. and Francis I., the Pope, the Republics of Venice and Florence, the Dukes of Milan and Ferrara and the Marquis of Mantua. Eng- land supplied the money and France sent an army un- der Marshal de Lautrec, who took Alessandria, sacked Pavia and in collusion with Andrea Doria removed Adorno from Genoa. Lautrec was assisted by the remnant of Giovanni de' Medici's Black Band; and, marching into the Kingdom of Naples, would have undermined the Spanish strength had he not found that kingdom occupied by the Prince of Orange. As it was, the whole French Invasion failed. In 1528 Andrea Doria was restored to power in Genoa, and, disaffected with Lautrec's methods, he deserted him, 122 Italy: Her People and Their Story the invading army of the latter enduring the greatest vicissitudes on account of not being acclimated. The news of the capture of Clement VII. caused great rejoicing in Florence, since it is not only proved that Savonarola had prophesied correctly concerning this Pope's reign, but also because his rule had been scarcely tolerated during the minority of the young Medici. Accordingly the leading citizens told Alex- ander, Clement VII. 's nephew, and the young Cardinal Ippolito, the natural son of Lorenzo, that they must go; and on May 17, 1527, Florence was for the sec- ond time free from the yoke of that family, Nicolo Capponi being chosen Gonfaloniere. The government then proceeded to form an alliance against Charles V. In the Peace of Cambray, 1529, notwithstanding all that had been done for Francis, the latter, hoping to place himself on a more solid basis, left Florence and all his other allies in the lurch. The various other states and duchies in connection with Francis joined the party of Charles V., and in 1530 the latter was crowned King of Italy and Emperor by Clement VII. in Bologna. The Florentines now saw that they must again come under the power of the Medici or struggle alone for their liberty ; and when they heard of the perfidy of the French king in leaving them out in the cold at the Treaty of Cambray, their courage almost entirely deserted them. They had learned, however, from Machiavelli, in his " Prince," the necessity of organ- ized resistance; and the inspiration received from the Black Band of Tuscany had kept their military vigor alive. Michelangelo, also, was ready to assist them; and, when he was appointed to superintend the building of the fortifications of Florence, laid waste the mag- Age of Spanish Rule 123 nificent suburbs in all directions, lest the enemy should find a hiding place in these charming environs. Charles V. soon sent an army of German and Span- ish troops under the Prince of Orange, to assault the city. These were at first beaten off by Stephen Colonna, the commander of the fortress of San Min- iato; and Francesco Ferruccio, a former leader of the Black Band, fortified Empoli, making it a storehouse from which the Florentines were supplied with food, Empoli, however, was betrayed while Francesco Fer- ruccio was away retaking Volterra. The Florentines were soon in great want of provisions, especially since Ferruccio, while marching over the mountains of Pis- toia, in order to reinforce the city, was misled by his guides and his plans were revealed to the enemy. A desperate encounter took place in a little hamlet among the hills, and the Prince of Orange being shot, it looked as if the Florentines had gained the day; but Fer- ruccio, pierced with many bullets, was taken prisoner and then struck down in the market place by an Imperialist general, meeting his death fearlessly. The last hopes of Florence now faded. After an heroic defense the city was betrayed, in 1530, through the treachery of Malatesta Baglione, chief captain of the armies of the republic; and the Signoria were coerced into capitulating to Emperor and Pope. The former was ,to regulate the government of the city, which, though it nominally preserved its liberty, was obliged to pay a ransom and give hostages to admit the Medici. A Balia was forced upon the citizens and the republican magistrates were compelled to lay down their office; and thus the world-renowned republic which had lasted four centuries became a prey to the depraved ambition of Clement VII., the most crafty 124 Italy: Her People and Their Story and corrupt of all the Medici ; and for three hundred years after, the history of Florence is almost a cipher, her provinces and dukedoms being at the beck and call of the sovereigns of the rest of Europe. When the Medici took vengeance on those who had fought for the freedom of the city, Michelangelo was saved by Pope Clement VIL, who needed him to complete some artistic work. The old bell which had pealed forth so many times in the cause of freedom, bringing the citizens together to consult or fight, was now broken up, a new Parliament was chosen, a new Council elected for life with a new Senate ; and Ales- sandro di Medici was placed over them as duke. All the years of pestilence, war and famine had not so desolated the city, nor had the misery of the people ever been so hopeless as during the six years of Ales- sandro de' Medici's rule. He was finally murdered by a distant kinsman, and with him the elder line died out, Ippolito the Cardinal having previously been assassi- nated at Alessandro's instigation. The infamous Pope Clement VII. died in 1534, and was succeeded by Paul III., who by his ability gained the respect of his subjects. The latter hated the Medici and occupied much of his time in exalting the Farnese family. Cosimo II., the son of Giovanni of the Black Band, was chosen by a party led by the historian Guicciardini, and was so powerful that after one or two revolutions the Florentines were obliged to sub- mit, and Cosimo's reign crushed out all that remained of the old republican spirit. He, like the earlier of the Medici, cast a false halo over tyranny, by ruling the State with apparent justice and moderation as well as by patronizing art and literature. His successor, Ferdinand, however, governed badly and all the pros- Age of Spanish Rule 125 perity of Cosimo II.'s reign was wiped out. Finally, two centuries later, the last Grand Duke of the Medici family, Giovanni Gaston, died in 1737 after a disso- lute life. Pope Paul III., who had persuaded the Emperor to give his daughter Margaret, widow of Alessandro di Medici, to his qwn grandson, Ottoviano, now bestowed the coveted Church possessions, Parma and Piacenza, on his own son, Pietro Luigi, at the same time de- priving Ottaviano of Camerino in order to give it to the Church. Ottaviano, indignant, took sides with his father-in-law, Charles V., and many conspiracies against Spanish power arose in which Pietro Luigi was at the head. He was at last assassinated at Piacenza by Fernando da Gonzaga, the viceroy of Naples. Paul III. died in 1553 and was succeeded by Julius III., who restored Parma to Ottaviano. Alessandro, the son of the latter and grandson of Charles V., became a famous leader under Philip II. and was made gov- ernor of the Netherlands. He had been placed at the head of the Spanish Armada; but the fleet of Hol- land and Zeeland shut him up while the English destroyed the Armada. His descendants were the Dukes of Parma until 1731. There were so many other complications in the vari- ous kingdoms of Charles V., that, worn out by the turmoil, Charles in 1555 gave up the Low Countries and Burgundy to his son Philip, who already ruled Sicily and Naples; and in 1556 he retired altogether, surrendering to Philip his rule in Spain, at the same time giving the title of Emperor to his brother Ferdinand. A Council had met at Trent in 1545 to define the sit- uation and to turn out of the Church such as held the 126 Italy: Her People and Their Story new doctrine of the Reformation. The reform views had much less influence in Italy than in other coun- tries, yet there were some persons in almost every town, who , seeing the scandalous lives of the Popes and Cardinals, were in favor of a Reformation in some form. The Society of Jesuits soon sprang up to check such heretical tendencies, their founder being a Span- iard, Ignatius Loyola, who had borne arms against the French. In 1540, with the permission of Paul III., he laid the foundation of this " Society of Jesus," and afterwards labored with untiring energy to crush the Reformation. Under Loyola, that system of court spies, judges and executioners, known as the Inquisi- tion, was set up by Pope Paul III. Pope Paul IV., who followed Julius III. in all Church affairs, established more firmly the Inquisition. On account of the hostility of the populace against Paul IV., the citizens at the news of his death formed a mob and opened the prison doors ; and after liber- ating the prisoners, whom he had ready for the Inqui- sition, they set fire to the building. At first the Jesuits numbered only sixty members ; but, assisted by privileges granted by the Pope, they gained great power among the people. There has been much discussion concerning the benefits con- ferred upon mankind by this order. Their worldwide missionary work was no doubt of great service to humanity, for through it they established seats of learning, and in it exhibited wonderful devotion to duty in every direction. They obliged the Popes to reform their lives, and the requirements of their holy office were soon defined. The Jesuits, however, presently became the enemies of freedom and progress, because they thought it was for the interest of the Church. 'Age of Spanish Rule 127 Culture and science among laymen was frowned down by the order, Galileo being twice prosecuted on account of his discoveries. All books printed in the country were subject to the criticism of a Jesuit tribunal; and accordingly literature gradually disappeared and art became enfeebled, since painters were obliged to con- fine themselves to religious subjects. Many of the oppressed fled to England and Germany and Switzer- land, to escape being burned as heretics. The Jesuits were not suppressed until the end of the eighteenth century, when a solemn Bull was hurled against them by Clement XIV. Among the reformers who flourished in the sixteenth century there was a sect called the Waldenses, who dwelt for the most part in the western Alps. These took their name from Peter Waldo, a reformer of the twelfth century, though it has been said that Waldo took the name of the sect when he became a convert to their views. At that time the Bible had been trans- lated into their language, and from its study they thought their faith was more genuine than that of the Albigenses, a sect then almost extinct on the other side of the Alps ; and accordingly there were many quarrels between them, each claiming that their religion was the only correct doctrine. During the sixteenth century both people and rulers degenerated, and, domestic life losing much of its sacredness, true social standards for the most part were sacrificed. The Papal States remained unchanged in this cen- tury, fourteen such insignificant Popes occupying the Chair of St. Peter that it began to be apparent that Pontifical power was on the decline. Gregory XIIL, however, the successor of Pius V. and Pope between 128 Italy: Her People and Their Story 1572 and 1585, founded many useful institutions. He ornamented the galleries of the Vatican, and is espe- cially famous for completing the reform of the calendar which Julius Caesar had commenced so many centuries before. Turkish power reached its climax in the last part of the sixteenth century under Sultan Solyman. Italy was never free from his ravages, the towns in the south, including the island of Venice in the Adriatic, and Corfu, which Venice held for the most part after the crusades until 1797, being especially subject to his depredations. Solyman's son Selim was a no less dreaded opponent, and, he having determined to reduce Cyprus, which had belonged to Venice for eighty years, the great Battle of Lepanto was fought. The com- mander having been forced to make terms with Selim's general, Mustapha, was tortured and slain, and the garrison sent to the galleys. The Venetians at last had to accept the aid of an allied fleet gathered by the exertions of Pius V. This was victorious over the Turks outside of the Gulf of Lepanto; and, on October 7, 1571, with great loss on both sides, Venice and a great part of Christendom were temporarily delivered from the Infidels. The allies failed to make a treaty, however, and the Venetians in 1573 were forced to yield their claims to Cyprus and pay a large tribute to the Sultan, thus giving the same prestige to the Turks as if the latter had been victo- rious at Lepanto. This was the close of the era of Venice's greatness ; though later in the seventeenth century she waged effective warfare in the Mediterra- nean against some Bulgarian pirates called the Uscoc- chi. In 1669, after a siege by the Turks of more than twenty years, she also lost the island of Candia ; but in Age of Spanish Rule 129 1684 her general Morosini conquered the whole of the Peloponnesus, which he held for thirty years. After Morosini's death, however, Venice had no part in the Eastern Empire excepting the Ionian Islands ; and her war with the Infidels, which had lasted with some interruptions for five hundred years, did not end until the Peace of Passarowitz in 1718. She was cut off from trade with the East and Egypt through the Red Sea by the success of the Turks, while at the same time the lately discovered passage round the Cape of Good Hope destroyed her trade overland with the Orient. After these reverses the nobility sank into such vices as gaming, and the common peo- ple were left in the grasp of the Council of Ten. Her decline, however, had commenced commercially to- gether with that of the rest of Italy at the time of the discovery of America; since, after this, people had larger power of development and the traffic of the world changed ground. Up to that time Italy had monopolized nearly all art and all the best literature as well as all fashion and elegance. The principal street in London was called Lombard Street, and Florentine bankers advanced money to the most powerful princes of Europe. Genoa and Venice held mercantile dominion over the Mediterranean; and the styles came from Milan ; so that to this day the person who trims bonnets is called a milliner. From this epoch the Mediterranean became virtually only a large lake, and but for the Suez Canal com- merce would be almost entirely oceanic. A few years ago, when Italy observed the Centennial in honor of Columbus and other American explorers, she is said by Italian statesmen to have celebrated the first cause of her decadence. 130 Italy: Her People and Their Story CHAPTER X THE RISE OF THE HOUSE OF SAVOY. HER DUKES. CHARLES EMANUEL I. THE GREAT. EXCITEMENT ATTENDING STRUGGLE OF SPANISH SUCCESSION. MASANIELLO. ITALY'S KINGDOMS, DUCHIES AND REPUBLICS AT NAPOLEON'S INVASION. 15741792 A.D. AT the time of the Peace of Cateau-Cambresis, cele- brated between France and Spain in 1559, there were only four free governments in Italy. These were Venice, the little republic of San Marino, Genoa and Lucca. The last two were only such in name, since they were subjects of the greatest power in Italy, the King of Spain, who ruled Naples, Sicily and the island of Sardinia as well as Florence and Milan. There was, however, another influence spreading in a remote cor- ner of Italy; for a clause in the Treaty of Cambresis recognized the right of Emanuel Filibert, Duke of Savoy, to Piedmont. It was his family which three cen- turies later was to emancipate and reunite the whole of Italy. They at this epoch ruled the most genuine Ital- ian State in the peninsula Savoy, which was formerly only a little domain in the valley of the Savoyard, earlier held by the Counts of Maurienne. This diminu- tive estate had extended its territory over a realm of mountains, ravines and forests on the western slope of the Alps, and continued to retain the same name. The most famous of the nobles who became subjects of Emperor Conrad when Rudolph III., King of Bur- Rise of the House of Savoy 131 gundy died in 1027, had been Humbert, Count of Bur- gundy, called " Humbert of the White Hand." Some trace his lineage back to the Saxon Wittekind, and others to the Margraf of Ivrea. In any case he was fifth in descent from Boso of Provence. He had re- ceived from Rudolph III. the counties of Savoy and Maurienne, and by the marriage of Humbert's son with Adelaide, daughter of the Count of Turin, Bur- gundy and western Lombardy were united, their heirs becoming Counts of Savoy. Little by little they lost their possessions on the French side of the Alps, but gained new ones in Italy, until their boundaries touched the Mediterranean at Savona. In the thirteenth century Savoy became influential among the European countries, since the daughter of one of her counts was the mother of Margaret, wife of Louis IX. of France, of Eleanor, queen of Henry III. of England, and of Beatrice, wife of Charles of Sicily. The family divided in the next two hundred years, its elder branch ruling Savoy and the northern shores of the Lake of Geneva, and the younger division holding Piedmont, with Turin for its capital. The Humberts in the meantime had succeeded the Amadeus, and the Amadeus the Humberts, one after the other as dukes. They were always engaged in warfare with their neighbors up to the time of Ama- deus VIII. , who had come into the inheritance of the elder line in 1391 ; and in 1418 had joined Piedmont to Savoy and received the title of duke from Em- peror Sigismund. Amadeus VIII. vanquished the Marquises of Montferrat and of Saluzzo, and his kinsman, the Prince of Achaia, his three most effective antagonists. He annexed Saluzzo and Chivasso and received Vercelli from Filippo Maria Visconti, only 132 Italy: Her People and Their Story being checked later in his advance on Milan by Fran- cesco Sforza. Amadeus VIII. was one of the most remarkable characters of his day. He not only built up the for- tunes of his house, but, through it, of all Italy. A conspiracy against his life, together with other causes, resulted in his abdication in 1434 in favor of his son Louis, after which he entered a cloister as a priest. Later he became anti-Pope as Felix V., at the Council of Basle, in place of Eugenius IV. ; but he resigned in favor of Nicholas V. in 1449. His two sons mar- ried princesses of Cyprus; afterwards through them the Dukes of Savoy claimed the title of Kings of Cyprus. In the time of Francis I. of France Savoy was enfeebled by the fickle course of her duke, Charles III. There were troubles between the latter and the Imperial City of Geneva, which revolted, the nobles of Vaud supporting him while Berne, Freiburg and King Francis I. adhered to Geneva. It was during this war that Bonnivard was kept confined for six years in the Castle of Chillon, on account of having dared to take sides against Savoy. His footprints are still seen worn into the grim stone pavement in the dungeon deep down below the castle. Lord Byron records the fact most pathetically in his " Prisoner of Chillon." The war was decided in favor of Geneva, in 1536, after which the French took away the larger part of Savoy's territory. Charles V., who had helped the Duke at first, occupied Piedmont, while Duke Charles was left with only Nice. Savoy and Piedmont were the center of much of the strife between France and Spain in the sixteenth century ; and when Duke Charles III. died in 1553, his son Emanuel Filibert, styled the Rise of the House of Savoy 133 " Iron Head " and the " Prince with a Hundred Eyes," was left a " duke without a duchy " ; but this was more than compensated for by his great ability. The " Little Cardinal," as he was also called, be- cause as a younger son he was intended for the Church, was suddenly raised to the throne by the death of an elder brother. A Venetian ambassador writes of him as follows : " In Germany he is re- garded as a German on account of his descent from the Saxons. The Portuguese claim him through his Portuguese mother; and the French consider him a Frenchman, both on account of his wife and his sub- sequent relations to them ; but he himself is an Italian, and wishes to be looked upon as such." Among the conspicuous acts of Emanuel Filibert was his bravery at the Battle of St. Quentin in 1557. Here, as an officer in the army of his cousin, Philip II. of Spain, he distinguished himself when the French were routed by that monarch, in a victory giving rise to the Peace of Cateau-Cambresis. He now married Margaret, daughter of Francis I. and sister of Henry II. of France; and in 1574 the French and Spaniards ceded to him the places which had been kept from him at the Treaty of Cambresis, with the exception of Turin. Afterwards, he devoted himself to strengthen- ing the kingdom until he died in 1580. From that time. the Dukes of Savoy became Italians instead of Burgundians ; and the capital being changed from Chambery to Turin, Piedmont became a more impor- tant factor in Italian affairs than Savoy. Emanuel Filibert held Nice, Bresse, and other territories north- west of the Alps, as well as Savoy. Charles Emanuel, called the " Great," succeeded his father Emanuel Filibert ; and, in order to gain the sup- 134 Italy: Her People and Their Story port of Spain, he married Catherine, sister of King Philip II. of Spain. Venice and the other Italian powers, jealous of the Dukes of Savoy, who had be- come some of the most notable men of the sixteenth century, depended upon France to check the power of Charles Emanuel. In the time of the struggle with the Huguenots, the latter joined the Catholic League under the Duke of Guise and invaded Provence, lay- ing siege to Geneva. When Henry III. was assassi- nated in 1589, some supported the claim of Charles Emanuel to the throne of France through his mother, who was Margaret, daughter of Francis I. ; but after the Battle of Ivry Henry of Navarre became King of France as Henry IV., and Charles Emanuel was required to give up Provence. A protracted war ensued, which was only brought to a close, in 1601, by the Treaty of Lyons, according to the terms of which Charles Emanuel had to renounce Provence by giving up Bresse, Bugey and Pays de Gex, but was allowed to keep Saluzzo. This drove the French out of Italy and, giving Charles Emanuel control of the French side of the Alps, was the stepping-stone which finally made the future rulers of Savoy Italian kings. During the fifty years of Charles Emanuel's reign there were disputes with Spain with reference to Val- tellina, which has only belonged to Italy since 1859, and differences about the Grisons, still a part of Switzerland, Louis XIII. and Venice siding with Charles Emanuel against Philip IV. The latter as well as Philip III. had always coveted this territory in order to insure a thoroughfare between Austria's and Spain's possessions in Italy. In the course of this war there were many plots against the oligarchy, in which the people of Genoa sought the aid of Charles Eman- Rise of the House of Savoy 135 uel, the Vaschero Conspiracy being one of them. This was similar to the " Conspiracy of the Fieschi " in 1547, which well-nigh extinguished the Doria family in Genoa. Charles Emanuel also had aspirations with reference to Montferrat, but this was given to France ; and, when Charles died, all his diplomacy came to naught except the acquisition of a few places on the borders of Montferrat. Casale, with a fortress built in 1090, was not added until later. Christina, the wife of Victor Amadeus I., successor of Charles Emanuel the Great, was the daughter of Henry IV. of France and the mother of Charles Emanuel II., who commenced to reign while a youth. Christina was also the sister of Louis XIII. On account of this fact Cardinal Richelieu had a great influence over her husband, Victor Amadeus I., forcing him to take part against Spain; and this influence continued, after the king's death, during Christina's regency. Charles Emanuel II. developed influential traits of character, and under him the princes of the House of Savoy returned to their allegiance to Spain ; and the trouble of the two nations ended by the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. For six years, with the aid of the Spanish, Charles Emanuel II. withstood the despotism of Louis XIV., and under him Pied- mont acquired much military renown. In spite of promises which Charles V. and his brother Ferdinand had made, the viceroys in the Kingdom of Naples often imposed unfair assessments on the most common necessities of life. In 1647, on account of a new and very unjust taxation, Tomaso Aniello, a fishmonger, called Masaniello, stirred up the whole people and, putting himself at their head, gained possession of the government. The mob burnt 136 Italy: Her People and Their Story the Custom House and shut up the Duke of Arcos, who was then viceroy, in the Castle of St. Elmo in Naples; but at the same time an insurrection in Pa- lermo increased the danger to such an extent that the Duke of Arcos was able to take advantage of it and gain over the principal citizens. Although Masaniello was nothing but a common peasant, he possessed wonderful personal magnetism, and the viceroy was obliged to combat his efforts by strategy. Accordingly at a feast he drugged him with mixed wine, which upset his balance and made him do such extravagant things that he lost his influence ; and the insurrection fell to pieces. The Neapolitans had looked upon Masaniello with a superstitious regard, and when he was assassinated they lost their spirit, and never again made but feeble attempts against Spanish rule. The French under Louis XIV. were also at war with Spain; but, in 1678, Louis made peace by the Treaty of Nimwegen, and, having withdrawn his forces, he formed an alliance with Victor Amadeus II., Charles Emanuel II. 's successor, ceding the fortress of Casale to him ; and in 1684 Louis made Genoa submit under a bombardment. The peace was not interrupted for twenty years; but the ist of November, 1699, Charles II. of Spain died and in his will Philip of'Anjou, grandnephew and grandson of Louis XIV., was declared heir to the Spanish dominions, with the title of Philip V. The right to the throne was contested by Archduke Charles, son of Leopold of Austria, who, through his mother, was in a direct descent, both she and the grand- mother of Philip V, being daughters of Philip IV. This war of the Spanish Succession raged four- 'Rise of the House of Savoy 137 teen years and deluged the whole continent in blood. The Spanish court sent orders to the governors of Naples, Milan, Sicily, Sardinia and Tuscany, to acknowledge the authority of Philip V. ; Victor Ama- deus II. also supported the latter, who was his son-in- law, while England, Prussia and Holland allied them- selves with Austria; and Italy became the battle- ground of the French and Austrian armies. The united efforts of Prince Eugene of Savoy and Marl- borough drove the French out of Lombardy and Naples, giving the prestige to the Austrian competitor, who was proclaimed King of Spain in Vienna, as Charles III. After trying two years to establish him- self in Spain as their ruler, the Archduke's brother, Emperor Joseph, died, and the former was elected Emperor of Austria as Charles VI. Now all parties, in order to maintain the balance of power, were glad to unite on the 7th of September in the Peace of Utrecht, and recognize the Bourbon, Philip V., as King of Spain, on condition that he give up his Ital- ian possessions and his rights to the crown of France. Victor Amadeus II., by the Treaty of Utrecht, gained Sicily, Montferrat and Alessandria, and a part of Lombardy, and his rights as an independent sovereign were acknowledged. The Neapolitan kingdom and the island of Sardinia, the Duchies of Milan and Mantua, all passed to Austria. The Austrian Charles also hoped to gain Tuscany through Anne, the wife of the Elector Palatine and the sister of Gian Gastone, who was the heir and had no children. But Philip V., when his first wife, the daughter of Victor Ama- deus II. died, had married Elizabeth Farnese, heiress of the Duke of Parma and Piacenza ; and through her, 138 Italy: Her People and Their Story who was also descended from Cosimo III., he suc- ceeded to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. In defiance of the Treaty of Utrecht, Philip V., under the influence of his minister, Alberoni, took away Sardinia from Austria and was bargaining for the new Kingdom of Sicily, which the Duke of Savoy held with his troops. A quadruple alliance was accordingly formed between England, France, the United Provinces and Charles of Austria to enforce the Treaty of Utrecht; and because Victor Amadeus II., Duke of Savoy, was suspected of being on the side of Spain, he was obliged by the allied powers to yield the Kingdom of Sicily to Emperor Charles VI., re- ceiving in return the Kingdom of Sardinia. Charles VI. now became King of the Two Sicilies, while Sar- dinia, which was to include Savoy, Piedmont and the island of Sardinia, was the cradle of the future sov- ereigns of united Italy. Victor Amadeus II.'s misfortune in having to ex- change the fruitful land of Sicily for the unproductive Island of Sardinia marks an important epoch in Italian history; for had he still kept Sicily, he and his heirs would in all probability have become so em- broiled in the succeeding Spanish and Austrian quar- rels that their independent growth would have been stunted and their final great service to Italy rendered impossible. In 1730 Victor Amadeus II., in order to contract a morganatic marriage with the Countess of San Sebas- tiano, gave up the crown to his son, Charles Emanuel III. The close of his life was saddened by this step; for within a year after his abdication this second wife became weary of their obscure and monotonous exist- ence in the fortress of Chambery, and influenced him Rise of the House of Savoy 139 to try to reclaim his possessions and dignities; and accordingly they set out for Turin. Charles Emanuel III. reached the capital before his father and upset these plans; but Victor Amadeus II. kept instigating new plots, until his son finally had him put in prison in the Castle of Rivoli, where he remained until his death in 1732. In 1738 the Treaty of Vienna was made between Louis XV. of France, Philip V. of Spain and Charles Emanuel III., King of Sardinia, for the purpose of driving the Austrians out of Italy and placing Don Carlos, son of Philip V., on the throne of the Two Sicilies and at the same time securing Milan to Charles Emanuel. At the close, however, France and Spain ignored their agreement with the King of Sardinia, leaving Milan and Mantua to Austria, while Spain received Naples and Sicily. Don Carlos, now being acknowledged King of the Two Sicilies, gave up his claim to Tuscany and Parma, and Francis of Lor- raine, who had married Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI., received the Grand Duchy, Gian Gas- tone, the Medici heir, having just died. Stanislaus Leszcynski, the father-in-law of Louis XV., who had long been struggling in vain to obtain the throne of Poland, received Lorraine from the Emperor. By this compromise, what was called the War of Polish Succession was also brought to a close, and at the same time the power of Spain was re-established in southern Italy. Charles Emanuel III. was ap- peased by receiving, as an extension to his frontier, Novara and Tortona. In the meantime Don Carlos had become King of Spain by the death of Ferdinand VI., and the latter's son Ferdinand became King of Naples. Thus one power after another kept acquir- 140 Italy: Her People and Their Story ing and ceding back the different parts of Italy, until the death of Charles VI. of Austria, which resulted in 1740 in the War of the Austrian Succession. France, Spain and Naples, all Bourbons, now joined with Prussia, Bavaria and the King of Sar- dinia to plunder Maria Theresa, the daughter of Charles VI., whom Frederick the Great was harass- ing on all sides. In 1742, however, the King of Sar- dinia broke away from his union with the Bourbons, into which he had entered only in a half-hearted way, and made an alliance with Maria Theresa on condi- tion of getting back Milan. The Genoese, who had kept up the same government which Andrea Doria had established in a semi-independence, were now much disturbed at the union, for fear Charles Emanuel III. would absorb their city, since he needed a way to the sea. At first in 1745 Charles Emanuel III. was defeated by the French and Spanish, and the victorious armies were allowed to pass through Genoa on their way to their prospective conquest of Milan ; but during the same year Maria Theresa's husband, Francis of Lorraine, was elected Emperor, and, a truce being tem- porarily made between Prussia and Austria, peace reigned in Europe. In 1746 the King of Sardinia and the Austrians defeated the French and Spaniards in a great battle under the walls of Piacenza, the city being given up ; and when they advanced and demanded to be admitted to Genoa, which was the key to the two Rivieras and to the Island of Corsica, the Genoese were obliged to open their gates ; and the Austrian leaders per- fidiously treated the city as though it had really sur- rendered. But when the Austrians tried to force the bystanders with blows to help them get a cannon out Rise of the House of Savoy 141 of the underground vaults, where it had fallen, men women and children formed a mob and with stones and other missiles obliged the Austrian troops to quit the city and retreat beyond the Apennines. Although Genoa's power continued in the hands of an oligarchy until Napoleon's time, the activity of her people and her importance as a seaport insured her commercial prosperity. The War of the Austrian Succession ended after seven years, in 1748, at the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Austria retained Milan and Mantua, which had been absorbed into the Duchy of Milan; but Francis of Lorraine gave up Tuscany, which had become prac- tically an Austrian province. The republic of Genoa and the Duchy of Modena were given to France, as a Protectorate. Genoa was allowed possession of the two Rivieras, but was obliged to give up Corsica to Louis XV., who afterwards brought the island into subjection. Parma was surrendered to Don Philip, brother of the real Charles III. of Spain. This small principality, together with Piacenza and Guas- tilla, had been taken from Austria by Spain in 1745 and restored to her in 1746; and now they continued to belong to Spain until the Napoleonic era. For forty years after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Italy was. at peace and little happened worthy of notice. Whatever religion there was, had degenerated into superstition. Popular education was discour- aged and there was no progressive spirit among the people. Tuscany, however, under Francis I.'s son, afterwards Leopold II., enjoyed exceptional independ- ence and prosperity. The latter did much to promote the welfare of the duchy by reforms in finance, by wise administration of criminal law, by the abolition 142 Italy: Her People and Their Story of the Inquisition, and a much needed restraint of the clergy. He also redeemed much land which wars and neglect by the people had allowed to degenerate into swamps and marshes, and restored the Maremma and the valley of the Arno and Paglia to something of their former fertility. His memory is still cherished with gratitude in Tuscany, and he is justly regarded as the most distinguished of the early liberal Italian rulers. Under his second son, Ferdinand, the excellent prince who succeeded him in 1790, Tuscany continued happy and prosperous until Napoleon's time. Charles Emanuel III. was alike a great general, a wary politician and an illustrious king. Although after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle he engaged in no wars, he strengthened himself in his Alpine bounda- ries by a line of magnificent fortresses and kept up such an efficient military force that he was ready to take the field at any moment with an army of forty thousand men well disciplined in the modern science of war. Like the rest of the rulers of Italy, he en- tertained Frederick the Great's conception of the right of kings, and was a " mild despot " ; but at the same time he followed out his father's wise policy. There were twenty thousand priests and twelve thousand monks at that time in the province of Piedmont alone. Accordingly he felt it necessary to diminish the strength and wealth of the Church, lest it should over- shadow his own power; but, notwithstanding his dip- lomatic character, he was not sufficiently progressive to advance education. The court of Charles Emanuel was carried on with the same ceremony as Versailles. Over three hundred courtiers surrounded the king and the yearly expendi- ture was more than two million liras. In accordance Rise of the House of Savoy 143 with the ideas of that age of absolutism, the sovereign demanded entire subservience from all the nobility, in even the most trifling personal matters. Turin, Charles Emanuel's capital, was then considered by the French " the most beautiful village in the world," and from that time it has kept its reputation for being one of the most stately cities of northern Italy. Victor Amadeus II. had said that " Italy was like an artichoke, which had to be eaten leaf by leaf." The Dukes of Savoy had first consumed Piedmont, and then Sardinia, and in this way established the Kingdom of Sardinia, the nest egg of the future United Kingdom of Italy. They then went on absorbing contiguous territory, until after the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, when their frontier extended to Lake Maggiore and the River Ticino, and the Kingdom of Sardinia included nine thousand square miles. In its three provinces there were three million inhabitants, with a revenue of fourteen million dollars. During the eighteenth century many moral and intellectual Popes had followed in succession; but in former times the States qf the Church had been governed so badly and the expenses of the Holy See in keeping up their temporal as well as spiritual dignity had been so great, that the Popes were obliged to tax the necessities of life; accordingly the poor had been kept down and were always in destitution. Thus, much time was required to remedy the defects of institutions which had debarred all intellectual progress and had kept the people in ignorance. The enlightenment which now prevailed in all the European nations had also threatened to undermine Papal power to such an ex- tent that the policy of the Popes had necessarily become that of throwing their influence on the side of 144 Italy: Her People and Their Story the most powerful, while appearing to be neutral. In 1769, however, Clement XIV. had the courage to sup- press the Order of Jesuits, who by their dark dealings had gained the odium of Western Europe. Among other reforms in the Papal States, Pope Pius VI. tried to restore the Campagna, which had depreciated into an unhealthy marsh, imperiling the lives of the inhabitants for centuries. At the time of the accession of Pius VI., in 1775, the population of the Papal States was two million five hundred thou- sand, and their army numbered five thousand. This territory covered an area of seventeen thousand square miles, with a revenue of nine million dollars. It ex- tended as far south as the Kingdom of Naples and as far north as the Po, while it was bounded on the west by the Mediterranean and on the east by Tuscany and Modena. The remarkable visit of Pius VI. to the Court of Vienna to interview Emperor Joseph II. in order to arrest his reforms is a memorable event in history. Although he was received with due respect, he accomplished nothing. Charles VII. of the Two Sicilies, afterwards Charles III. of Spain, Don Carlos as he was called, had done a great deal for the institutions of Naples. He adorned it most tastefully and brought from Parma, which he also held, many artistic treasures of the Farnese family. Some of these are to be seen to-day in the Neapolitan Museum, together with others taken from the Farnese Palace in Rome, the " Farnese Flora " and the " Hercules " being among the number. The "Farnese Bull," also seen in Naples, a Greek work of art from the Baths of Caracalla, is one of the finest sculptures in the world. When Don Carlos succeeded to the Spanish throne Rise of the House of Savoy 145 as Charles III. he gave Naples to his third son, Ferdinand IV., a boy of nine years of age, thus making it a province of Spain. Charles III. is remembered with more pride by the Spanish than any other sove- reign after Philip II. He finally established in Spain the Bourbon rule, which was kept up with few inter- ruptions until 1861. The three Bourbon monarchs, Philip V., Ferdinand VI. and Charles III., whose methods were the same as those of Richelieu and Mazarin, raised Spain from the lethargy which had held it all through the seventeenth century. Victor Amadeus III. succeeded Charles Emanuel III., and in his reign the French Revolution burst upon Europe in a great tempest of war. At this time Ferdinand IV. of Naples had just married Maria Caroline of Austria, sister of Marie Antoinette; and the former exerted a baleful influence all through the Revolutionary troubles. The Duchess of Tuscany was also a sister of Marie Antoinette, and accordingly the Austrian rulers were in favor of the royal party in Naples. It was the same in the little Duchy of Modena, where the only daughter of Hercules III., Beatrice, had wed Ferdinand, one of the Archdukes of Austria, and Hercules himself had married an elder sister of Marie Antoinette. Lombardy was now thoroughly organized into a duchy, with Milan for its capital, and annexed to Austria; and Venice, after her innumerable struggles with Turks and Spaniards, had fallen into effeminacy. The city was still governed by a Council of all the noble citizens who were of age and was presided over by a Doge ; and out of three million inhabitants only twenty-five hundred were entitled to the rights of citizenship. 146 Italy: Her People and Their Story This brief review of the situation indicates the con- dition of Italy when the French Revolution roused the people all over Europe from despair into a wild frenzy. It shows the subjection of the Two Sicilies and Parma to Spanish rule, and how the Duchies of Lombardy, Modena and Piacenza were subject to Austria; also that the Grand Duchy of Tuscany was Austrian, and that Venice and Genoa were just sup- porting a semi-independent existence, the latter having given up Corsica to France. The States of the Church were still occupied in trying to aggrandize, and the little republic of Lucca now belonged to Tuscany. This state of affairs shows us the Kingdom of Sardinia with the only really vigorous territory in all the Italian peninsula, except the little republic of San Marino, all the others but Genoa and Venice being under Austria or Spain. At that time not one Italian State was subject to France. Strangely enough, in the midst of all this confu- sion science and literature had somewhat revived during the century. Alessandro Volta, a native of Como, had discovered the theory of galvanism by con- tact, and in 1800 invented the voltaic pile, while the Piedmontese count, Alfieri, had brought out his first volumes glowing with patriotism. These, dwelling as they did on the idea of a new Italy, caused the people to reflect on their ancient glory and aroused an ab- horrence in them for tyrants and a hope of freedom. Napoleon in Italy 147 CHAPTER XI THE ABSORPTION OF ITALY BY NAPOLEON. FORMATION OF HIS REPUBLICS. ENTHUSIASM OF ITALY FOR NAPOLEON'S INSTITUTIONS. ITALY RESTORED IN NAPOLEON'S ABSENCE IN EGYPT. BATTLE OF MA- RENGO. EXCAVATIONS OF ROMAN RUINS IN NAPO- LEON'S TIME. 17921812 A.D. AT the close of the eighteenth century the Bourbon rule seemed about to end in Italy; but after the Revolution all the despotic governments in Europe were alarmed lest the example of the French in estab- lishing a written Constitution should be followed. Therefore they united to put down constitutional liberty and once more restore the Bourbon family to power. Soon after 1792 the French invaded Savoy ; but for nearly four years after, the turmoil at home absorbed their entire attention, the First Coalition, consisting of all the despotisms of Europe, having in the mean- time been formed. In 1795 the new French govern- ment sent an army across the Alps and the masses of the Italian people, hoping thereby to drive out the Austrians, welcomed it heartily. Savoy, glad to avail herself of the chance to escape from the Kingdom of Sardinia, threw herself upon the French, who rejoic- ing said: "The Alps bid France welcome Savoy." Piedmont, however, was forced by the Austrians to assist in levying forty thousand troops to help make 148 Italy: Her People and Their Story up one of the armies of the First Coalition, which was either to attack the invaders or to enter France when the Prussians on the Rhine should have drawn away the French army in that direction. In 1796 Napoleon Bonaparte, the Corsican, was made commander of the French troops. He was then twenty-five years of age, slender in form and almost as delicate as a girl in appearance. The condition of Italy furnished an unbounded field for ambition, and the manner in which Napoleon was received by the restless people, longing for freedom, was no doubt the keynote of his phenomenal success and unprecedent- edly great career. The small force of forty thousand men with which he was furnished were badly equipped soldiers of the Revolution, more like the mercenary bands of the Middle Ages than a regular army. They were half starved and freezing and lived on half rations taken from the mouths of the peasants already impoverished by constant warfare. The officers received only a dollar and a half a day and were obliged to go on foot, since the cavalry horses had succumbed to the rigors of the climate. This meager force Napoleon posted along the ridges of the Mont Cenis and Little St. Bernard in the face of the Austrian troops awaiting his advance in the rich plains of Italy. Napoleon was at first received with suspicion by his soldiers and with open hostility by the generals in command, who disliked being placed under an inex- perienced youth. By his wonderful genius, however, he overcame all difficulties and soon gained the love of those who had tried to circumvent him, this love soon growing into something like idolatry. Napoleon Napoleon in Italy 149 now began to develop a remarkable series of military tactics, which transformed his meager forces into an army intoxicated with victory. After a thorough study of the country, and with Longitude East 12 from Greenwich matured plans, Napoleon on the I2th of April, 1796, commenced that first campaign, which continues to excite the admiration of the world. He addressed his 150 Italy: Her People and Their Story men with great eloquence, praising them for the courage and patience which they had exhibited on the barren ledges, at the same time reminding them that they had not yet been tried in regular army service. He told them that he was about to lead them into luxurious plains where, if they would press heroically on, they would find rich provinces, great cities and glory awaiting them. From the time of the first encounter the genius of the leader and the valor of the soldiers were alike evident. By the 1st of May the Austrians were driven out of the kingdom and the King of Sardinia, Victor Amadeus III., was forced to make terms with Napoleon, renouncing Nice and Savoy as well as Tor- tona and Alessandria on the Italian side, and giving up several fortresses of Piedmont. He was also obliged to grant Napoleon passage through his do- mains. After the Austrians were driven out they retreated into Lombardy and, on the Qth of May, the Battle of Lodi was fought, bringing the whole of Lombardy under Napoleon's sway. This fulfilled a promise made to his men that in a month's time the enemy should be at their feet. He entered Milan the I5th of May, 1796, at the location of the present Triumphal Arch, built afterwards in 1804 as the terminus of the Sim- plon route. It is almost the duplicate of the Arch of Triumph in Paris, begun two years later, only that it is smaller. Napoleon now issued a proclamation telling his soldiers that the standard of the French republic waved over the whole of Lombardy, and that the Dukes of Parma and Modena only existed through his courtesy. He said : " To you will belong the glory Napoleon in Italy 151 of replacing the statues of heroes who have rendered Rome immortal and of rousing the Romans who have become enslaved." And indeed it was a fact that the Duke of Parma had already compromised by paying a heavy indemnity, and giving up twenty of the best works of art; while the Duke of Modena had de- serted his subjects, taking his art treasures to Venice with him. The Austrians at Mantua had at the same time withdrawn to the Tyrol, passing through Venice on the way. These movements inspired the Italian republicans with great enthusiasm, and they hailed Napoleon as the regenerator of Italy. The King of Naples solicited an armistice, and withdrew from the First Coalition ; and Napoleon was soon able to bring the Pope to sue for peace, at the same time occupying with his army Bologna, Ferrara and Ravenna, territory belonging to His Holiness. Reggio and Modena revolted from the Italian governors placed over them and were formed into a provincial government, which, united to Bologna and Ferrara, made up Napoleon's first Italian State, called the Cispadane republic, with Bologna for its capital; and in less than a month all the powers in central Italy in favor of Austria were compelled to abandon their allegiance. The Austrians, notwithstanding this, were gather- ing an overwhelming army in the north to pour down upon Napoleon's forces; and, although weakened by service, they were threatening, with the aid of English financial support, to make the situation very critical for Napoleon. The Battles of Arcola and Rivoli, however, fought in 1796, resulted in a crushing defeat for the Austrians, who retired to Verona. When Napoleon entered Modena the people eagerly 152 Italy: Her People and Their Story demanded his aid in setting up republican institutions, while the populace in the Papal States, which he had already taken, received him with overwhelming effu- sion. The Pope was alarmed, since he saw that Napoleon was doing everything to create a sentiment in favor of freedom and to impress the people with the idea that his mission was not to destroy, but to dissem- inate liberty and enlightenment. Napoleon proceeded to annihilate the British fleet then holding Leghorn. This was a seaport which the Medici had built up in the sixteenth century by erect- ing warehouses, building fortified harbors, and inviting commercial people to settle there. The Grand Duke of Tuscany sided with France, and was now so de- lighted to see the English driven off, and so desirous of conciliating the rising great general, that he enter- tained Napoleon magnificently. It was of no use, how- ever, for he, with the others, finally had to submit to the conqueror and go. After successive victories Napoleon repulsed the Archduke Charles, brother of Francis II., at Taglia- mento, and the Austrians were compelled to treat at Loeben on the i8th of April, 1797. Napoleon was in- censed against Verona on account of an insurrection known as the Pasqua Veronese, in which the French garrison had been massacred, and also because the Veronese had sheltered Louis XVIII. The Venetians also had offended him by offering an asylum to the Austrians, and Napoleon made all this a pretext for extinguishing the Venetian republic. Accordingly on the 1 2th of May, 1797, with the permission of the Austrians, who had already surrendered, he appeared before the city of Venice. Their Doge, Luigi Manini, being paralyzed with fear, the Grand Council sur- Napoleon in Italy 153 rendered their authority without resistance and the oligarchy fell. Her galleys were destroyed, and the " Golden Book," in which were enrolled the names of all the Doges, was burned, while " the bronze horses which Enrico Dandolo had brought from Constanti- nople and Luciano Doria had sworn he would bridle," were carried off to Paris. During a general revolt in Genoa, which took place in May, 1797, the French frigate was captured and many families who were loyal to the French were sent into exile. Napoleon came to their rescue, however, and put down the revolt. The Genoese government then had to pay an indemnity for the frigate destroyed and to recall the banished French families. A re- publican Constitution was set up, modeled after the French republic, and later was called the Ligurian republic. The Anconian republic was soon instituted in the same manner. At the peace of Campo-Formio, in October, 1797, hostilities between Austria and France were sus- pended. Lombardy, Parma, Modena, the Papal States of Bologna, Ferrara and Romagna, were given up, and the Venetian territory to the Adige boundary was inaugurated into the Cisalpine republic, in which the Cispadine republic was absorbed. Napoleon's other republics in central Italy were added the year after. To pacify the Austrians for the territory they had surrendered, the Venetian cities were again given over to them, the Austrian government being set up on the Adriatic the next year. Notwithstanding that this dishonorable treatment of Venice, together with similar proceedings in other parts of Italy, contra- dicted the promises held out by Napoleon, the terms which the Austrians were obliged to make at Campo 154 Italy: Her People and Their Story Formio modified the condition of the Italian States ever after; since from the Cisalpine republic flatter- ing ideas of liberty spread in every direction, and from the reforms established by Napoleon's free in- stitutions the principle of equal rights was dissemi- nated. The capital of the Cisalpine republic was Milan, and its Legislature consisted of a Senate and House of Representatives, every respectable and self-sup- porting man at the age of twenty-one being entitled to the right of citizenship. On leaving Italy in 1798, before his Egyptian cam- paign, Napoleon exhorted the people to hold fast the liberty he had worked out and to prove themselves deserving of the good fortune awaiting them. Napoleon's success so aroused the enthusiasm of the Italian patriots that they gladly supported the troops with which France had armed their fortresses; and thus the new republic was strengthened against the powerful monarchies of Europe, which were anxious lest little by little the whole country should be revolu- tionized. England was so alarmed because her lower classes sympathised with Napoleon's republican movement, that she resolved to do her utmost to anni- hilate the French republics and restore the Bourbon governments; and even in Italy the more conservative saw that it was Napoleon's aim to establish, not Italian, but French republics in the peninsula, and recognized that the taxes for his glorious victories must be paid by them. Pius VI., thinking that the Austrians were sure to conquer in the end, was recreant to his pledges given to Napoleon; accordingly, during 1797, the latter en- tered the Papal States and, besides making the Pope Napoleon in Italy 155 pay a large sum of money, he compelled him to give up the cities of Avignon and Vennais, in addition to the towns already surrendered. Revolutions encour- aged by the French also arose, and the Romans to retaliate attacked the French embassy. After this, on the 27th of November, 1798, Napoleon entered the Holy City and proclaimed the Tiberine republic, announcing that the temporal power of the Pope had fallen. Pope Pius VI. was seized, the Vatican plun- dered and its art treasures sent to Paris. The Pope was exiled to France, where he died at Valence in 1799. Not long after this Ferdinand of Naples, excited by the idea of Nelson's victories over Napoleon's forces in Egypt, thought he was strong enough to defy France and re-establish the Pope, especially as Napoleon himself had left for Egypt in the May of 1798. Accordingly, during November Ferdinand oc- cupied Rome with an army of sixty thousand; but the French soon returned and, having routed the Nea- politans in several battles, they drove them back to their kingdom. King Ferdinand took refuge with Lord Nelson's fleet, anchored in the harbor of Naples, and afterwards retired to Sicily. The republicans now admitted the French into Naples, where, in 1799, the Parthenopean republic was set up. The last sovereign in Italy to yield his kingdom to Napoleon was Charles Emanuel IV., who had suc- ceeded Victor Amadeus III.; but the French had gradually worked their way into Piedmont, and, having taken possession in 1798, they obliged Charles Emanuel IV. to give up his throne and withdraw to the island of Sardinia, since, although professing friendship for the French, he was suspected of treachery; and they 156 Italy: Her People and Their Story did not dare to leave the key to the Alps in the hands of a recognized hostile power. In 1802 this unfortu- nate king entered a Jesuit monastery, where he re- mained until his death. His son, Victor Emanuel L, succeeded him that year as ruler of the island of Sar- dinia. Piedmont was at the same time annexed to France, and, together with all the other continental possessions of the Kingdom of Sardinia, belonged to that nation for twelve years. Soon after this the Grand Duke of Tuscany was forced to flee to Austria, and thus the whole of the Italian peninsula, except the Duchy of Parma, Pia- cenza, Venice and the little republic of San Marino, was in the power of the French. When Napoleon sailed for Egypt, England, Austria, Russia, Turkey and Naples engaged in a Second Coalition ; and early in 1799 General Suwaroff, with a strong army of Russians and Austrians, entered Lom- bardy. The French were obliged to retire to Genoa, where they were blockaded by an English fleet; and after a succession of great victories on the part of the allies the French republics on the peninsula were overthrown. The Bourbons in Naples, encouraged by this, were guilty of great cruelties against those who tried to defend themselves. Lord Nelson returned with the King and Queen of Naples, and, in spite of their capitulation, he had the French chained in pairs in the dungeon of his warships. Many of the peo- ple, worn out by persecution, voluntarily exiled them- selves in France, and carried the idea of liberty with them, among them being Botta, the historian. The more humane king, shocked at such barbarities, re- turned to Sicily, leaving his wife to administer affairs, in company with Lady Hamilton, who had com- Napoleon in Italy 157 plete control over her. Queen Caroline is said to have been brought to encourage these outrages against those who sympathized with the French on account of the late execution of her sister Marie Antoinette. Nelson has been greatly criticised on account of his harsh conduct at that time. The Battles of Verona, Novi and Trebbia well-nigh exterminated the French troops in Italy, the few that remained finding hiding-places in the Alps. Some of the old governments in Italy were restored, and a new Pope, Pius VII., was appointed and installed in Rome; and, besides this, the other powers were threatening to invade France itself. The allied armies were already assembling on the frontier of the Rhine, while everywhere at sea the French had been worsted by the English ; and even in France itself the people were trying to upset the government. Napoleon, however, returned from Egypt on the 9th of October, and on the 9th of November, 1799 (i8th Brumaire), proceeded to overthrow the Direc- tory. On the 27th of the same month he made him- self First Consul. England and Austria, however, re- fused to make terms unless France would agree to establish the Bourbon dynasty. After the allied armies on the Rhine were forced to retire, Napoleon, having brought an army of sixty-five thousand men together at Dijon, commenced new operations to re- cover Italy. The passage over the Great St. Bernard, was accomplished between the i6th and 2Oth of May, 1800, with extreme difficulty, each man having to lead his horse by the bridle on the brink of the precipices; but when they arrived at the summit completely ex- hausted, the monks at the hospice provided the soldiers with refreshment. 158 Italy: Her People and Their Story On the I4th of June, 1800, Napoleon gained lasting renown by his victory over the Austrians on the bloody field of Marengo. It is said that he would have been defeated except for General Desaix, who, while out reconnoitering at the time, heard the fighting and thought the battle lost. He exclaimed, however : " It is only three o'clock, and there is time to win another." He then joined Napoleon, and, though he himself was slain, the result was a splendid victory. This battle drove the Austrians out of Italy; but the allied powers, even as early as this, had made up their minds that there could be no peace without Napoleon's overthrow. When Murat, with twenty-eight thousand men, was sent to quell the insurrection raised by Ferdinand IV. of Naples, Queen Caroline went to St. Peters- burg to implore the intercession of the Czar. She succeeded so far that France, hoping to gain the alliance of Russia, permitted the Bourbons to remain in Naples on condition that they should agree to the terms of the Continental Blockade. In 1801 the treaty of Campo-Formio was con- firmed by the Treaty of Luneville; and the Cisalpine republic was re-established. Later Napoleon changed the Constitution somewhat, and made himself president of what was now called the Italian republic, a vice- president also being appointed. It was intended, how- ever, to leave it for the most part free to govern itself. Piedmont and the Duchy of Parma, including Pia- cenza, were also attached to France. In the May of 1801 Napoleon made a monarchy of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, and called it the Kingdom of Etruria. In order to pacify the Spanish Bourbons and to attach them to France, this was given to the Duke of Parma, Napoleon in Italy 159 whom they had just deprived of his duchy, and who had married the daughter of Charles IV. of Spain. It was hoped when Napoleon appeared in 1804 as Emperor of France that the monarchs of Europe might be appeased, since the republican form of government had been so distasteful to them. But England, far from being taken in by this device, would not consent to grant peace on Napoleon's terms. The next year Napoleon changed the Cisalpine or Italian republic into a monarchy, and the Ligurian republic was amalgamated with it. He then crossed the Alps, and, being joined by Pope Pius VII., on the 26th of May, 1805, in the Cathedral of Monza near Milan, took the Crown of Lombardy and placed it upon his own brow, saying : " It is from God ; a curse on him who touches it." Napoleon was accompanied by Josephine, from his love for whom no adulation of beautiful women was ever able to wean him. He ap- pointed as viceroy of Italy, Josephine's son, Eugene Beauharnais, who became so beloved by his subjects that even down to the present generation he is referred to with affection. Napoleon immediately abolished the Legislative Assembly, and Italy became a monarchy with the same government as France; for, though he planned to separate France and Italy in the future, he thought it necessary that at first they should remain in the same kingdom in order to accustom the Italian States, which had so long been disunited, to live under common laws; therefore he said he would begin by making them French. That same year Europe made a Third Coalition, and a large Austrian army under Archduke Charles took fhe field in Italy. Then Napoleon marched upon Vienna, and the celebrated Battle of Austerlitz was 160 Italy: Her People and Their Story fought, December 2, 1805. This overwhelming de- feat forced the Austrians to cede the whole of Venetia to Bonaparte, at the Treaty of Presburg on the 26th of December. The latter joined it to his Italian king- dom, and Francis II. was forced not only to lay down the scepter of the German-Roman Empire, but obliged to acknowledge Napoleon's sway. Just after Austerlitz, Napoleon heard that the Bour- bons had again admitted the British into the harbor of Naples, and were assailing the French in the rear. He then made a proclamation announcing the punishment of that kingdom, and told the army that, though after Lodi and the other battles he had suspected Naples of treason, he had shown her particular favor out of consideration for Russia, and had respected her nomi- nal neutrality; and after the Battle of Marengo he had again pardoned the king and had dealt more than generously with an enemy who had done everything to destroy himself; but he now pronounced the dynasty of Naples at an end. The Bourbon family at once took refuge in Sicily; and in March, 1806, Napoleon had his brother Joseph crowned King of Naples. During the short time that Joseph reigned he made many permanent civil and military improvements, opening new roads, draining marshes and causing the peasants to work for good pay. In 1808 Napoleon made Joseph King of Spain, and appointed Murat, his brother-in-law, King of Naples in Joseph's stead. The people had been very fond of Joseph, but they became equally attached to Murat. Capri, having at that time been taken from Sir Hudson Low, was annexed to Naples. The provinces of Basilicata, Calabria and the Abruzzi were at this time overrun with brigands, and a Napoleon in Italy 161 large force of these, encouraged by the priesthood and the Bourbons, joined an insurrection which Queen Caroline had incited against the French. Great cruel- ties were practiced on both the French and the English side in a desultory warfare, which continued until 1811. Pius VII. wished to have the temporal power of the Pope restored; and, on Napoleon refusing, His Holi- ness declined to enter into any agreement with France. Accordingly Napoleon, since he would have no hostile power under him, proceeded to annex and occupy the Papal States. After the great Battle of Wagram Napoleon heard that the Pope had hurled a Bull of Excommunication against him ; and Murat, at the end of the year 1809, seized the pontiff and had him imprisoned in the Palace of Fontainebleau, where he remained until the downfall of Napoleon in 1814. The King of Etruria, formerly Duke of Parma, with his son and his mother, the regent, were forced to find a temporary asylum in Spain ; and during the same year Bonaparte again made Tuscany a Grand Duchy and appointed his sister Eliza, whom he had already made Duchess of Lucca and Princess of Piombino, Grand Duchess. By thus cutting up Italy for the maintenance of his family, Napoleon kept it subservient to himself, and at the same time built up a new French aristocracy, which made his court surpass in brilliancy the one sacrificed in the Revolution. His governments were carried on according to the demands of justice; and besides re- vising the barbarous laws he made new ones so perfect that they still continue to be used in jurisprudence. It was at this era that the idea of a United Italy was first infused into the hearts of the people, this harmo- 1 62 Italy: Her People and Their Story nious feeling being greatly developed by the fact " that the natives of all parts of Italy fought side by side in the armies of Napoleon." The historian Balbo says : " Of all the periods of servitude this was the most glorious, and from this time the name of Italy was pronounced with increasing love and honor." Napoleon afterwards at St. Helena wrote out a paper showing that he had planned to unite the Venetians, the Milanese, Piedmontese, Genoese, Tus- cans and all the other Italian States into one great nation, with Alpine boundaries and the Adriatic, the Ionian and Mediterranean seas for protection, and to leave it all as a " trophy of his glory." He had in- tended in this way to shut out Austria and to guard the route to the Orient. Rome was to be the capital of this glorious country which Petrarch referred to as " a beautiful land divided by the Apennines, surrounded by the sea and the Alps." Napoleon thought that it would take thirty years to complete this project; and most people believe that if he had spent his entire energies in consolidating Italy he would never have lost the prestige gained, for the union which he con- ceived and partly executed was the harbinger of what Italy became a little more than a half century later, after many and bitter struggles. Under Napoleon's regime improvements were vast. It was he who established the army organization, such as has come down to the present day. He constructed new roads and engineered important systems of canals, besides beautifying cities with graceful memorial arches, and encouraging the population of the country districts to engage in agricultural pursuits. Napoleon also commenced the renovation of Rome. The ruins of eighteen hundred years in the Forum and Tasso. Boccaccio. AUTHORS. Dante. Petrarch. d'Annnnzto. Napoleon in Italy 163 on the Palatine were soon excavated, and the imposing columns of the temples and wonderful old palaces were restored in their original grace and stateliness. In the Colosseum the iron flood-gates which had ad- mitted water for naval displays and the doors of the dens of the wild beasts leading into the amphitheater were discovered ; and even the bronze rings to which the Christian martyrs used to be chained were again visible; while the marvelous auditorium, with some of the seats still numbered, all together having the ca- pacity of accommodating eighteen thousand specta- tors, was thrown open. After clearing away rubbish eighteen feet deep in the center of the Forum, earlier the location of rude villages, a beautiful pavement, thought to be the old Sacra Via, was disclosed with the marks of the chariots which had served in the old Roman triumphs. The little Temple of Vesta was also exhumed, and excavations were made in the Baths of Titus, where the famous Laocoon was discov- ered. Napoleon had also begun to turn aside the course of the Tiber, revealing the wonderful treasures of art thrown in there at the time of the Gothic in- vasion. Since Napoleon had intended to make the Quirinal palace his home, it was beautified and re- fashioned into something of the comfort and magnifi- cence which characterizes it to-day. The war horses attached to the fountain in front of this palace are among the few things which had never been buried. In spite of this progressive spirit, Italy was for the time being brought into great straits, since Napoleon divided and sub-divided, set up and demolished, ac- cording to his will. The people of Sicily, jealous of being deprived of the new institutions and resources developing in other 164 Italy: Her People and Their Story parts of Italy, made a pressure upon King Ferdinand IV. for the granting of a constitution after the Eng- lish model, and he was forced to abdicate in favor of his son Francis, as Vicar-General, January 16, 1812. Queen Caroline resisted English protection, and, being unpopular on account of the extravagance and luxury of her court, and on account of her cruelty, the Eng- lish banished her and sent her back to Vienna, where she died in September, 1814. Naples continued an independent kingdom, divided, like all the nations, into the Liberals and a despotic party. The Kingdom of Sardinia, under the rule of Victor Emanuel I., was sustained by the English fleet in spite of the restlessness of the people, who were always comparing their condition unfavorably with other parts of Italy. The French provinces of Italy were united under Louis Bonaparte, and afterwards given to Count Borghese, the husband of Napoleon's sister, the beautiful Pauline Bonaparte, whose incom- parably fine reclining statue is still seen in their late home, the Borghese Villa. This magnificent park, in- cluding the galleries with gardens adjoining, has been lately purchased by the Italian government and will be kept as a museum of the State. Napoleon had raised Lombardy from the lowest con- dition of national life to prominence in all the environ- ments which tend to prosperity. Among the radical changes, the famous road over the Simplon connecting Lombardy and Switzerland was constructed, the ex- pense of one million two hundred thousand dollars being borne by France and Italy unitedly. To this day the Lombard people look back upon Napoleon's reign as among the " brightest of Italian days " ; for he had taken care to confer all the offices of State of any con- Napoleon in Italy 165 sequence upon native Italians, and not only kept the people united, but pacified the principal citizens all over Italy. In view of his distinguished services, after his banishment to Elba, he was invited by the authori- ties at Turin to accept the leadership of the govern- ment, in view of receiving the crown of united Italy. 1 66 Italy: Her People and Their Story CHAPTER XII THE FALL OF NAPOLEON'S ITALIAN MONARCHY. AUS- TRIA AGAIN IN THE ASCENDANCY. ADVANCED IDEAS OF THE PEOPLE. OLD CONSERVATIVE GOVERNMENTS RESTORED. THE CARBONARI. ALL ITALY AROUSED. REVOLUTIONS OF l82I, 1830, AND 1848. MAZZINI, CAVOUR AND GARIBALDI. 18121848 A.D. THE destruction of Napoleon commenced when he planned his disastrous campaign of 1812 ; for this mighty undertaking resulted in the annihilation of his large army in the snowfields of Russia. His selfish- ness, as shown in sacrificing so many thousand lives for his own aggrandizement, became at this time more and more apparent; and the people, weary of his des- potism, forgot his wonderful achievements and soon ignored the regenerating influences he had set in motion. Thus, when all the nations of Europe united against him, the great demi-god fell. When the crisis came, Murat, hoping not to be re- moved, entered into negotiations with Austria. He left Naples with a large army, bound for upper Italy, without disclosing his disloyalty to viceroy Eugene. The latter, desiring to keep his throne, after he had learned of Napoleon's complete downfall in France, and that the English had occupied Leghorn and Genoa, declared his willingness to submit to the rule of the allied powers. The Senate also was about to intercede in Eugene's behalf; but the people of Lorn- Italy Aroused 167 bardy, in spite of their love for him personally, were so tired of French government that they broke into a mob, and Eugene was obliged to surrender the fortress of Mantua to the Austrians. Thus, when a few days later the Austrian army entered Milan, the French kingdom in Italy fell. In 1815 the Allies, who had entered Paris on May 31, 1814, met in a Congress at Vienna to arrange the ultimate status of the countries which Bonaparte had absorbed and now lost. Austria received all the main- land of Venice and the whole of Lombardy to the Ticino on the west; and on the south as far as the Po, under the name of the Lombardo- Venetian king- dom. Victor Emanuel I. was given back Piedmont and Savoy, with the addition of the provinces of Genoa; and on the 2Oth of May, after an interim of sixteen years, he was received back to Turin with great joy by the people. He immediately commenced, fossil as he was, the same regime which had been abandoned nearly twenty years before, reinstating all the old officers in a body, without ascertaining how many of them had died during French rule, for he said that he " regarded the intervening epoch as a dream." The Grand Duchy of Tuscany was given to Ferdi- nand, the brother of the Emperor of Austria, with a revenue of fourteen million, and the States of the Church, including Bologna, Ferrara, Forli and Ra- venna, consisting of a population of three million, and a standing army of sixteen thousand, were all restored to the Pope, the sixteen departments being sometimes called the Northern Legations. Pope Pius VII. , hav- ing been liberated, returned to Rome. He proceeded to reorganize the order of the Jesuits, and re-estab- i68 Italy: Her People and Their Story lished the Inquisition; but the Jesuits, unadapted to the newly developed emergencies, soon lost ground. The Duchy of Parma, including Piacenza, was, with Guastilla, assigned by the allies to Marie Louise, wife of Napoleon, and daughter of the Emperor of Austria, who was not allowed to share Napoleon's exile. The Spanish Bourbons were given Lucca, but on Marie Italy Aroused 169 Louise's death Parma was to be restored to them and they were then to relinquish Lucca to the Austrian Ferdinand III., Grand Duke of Tuscany. Francis IV., son of Beatrice d'Este, the daughter of the late Duke Hercules III., received the Duchy of Modena. There was one republic left, and that was the tiny principality of San Marino, surrounded by the Apen- nine mountains and the Papal States, which in early times served as a bulwark between the Montefeltro and the Malatesta. Through all the centuries it had " observed the storms which had desolated Italy at its feet," and ever since the time when it was first recognized, in 1631, no nation had been mean enough to usurp authority over it. During the reign of Philip V. of 'Spain, in the eighteenth century, Cardinal Albe- roni gained permission from Pope Clement XII. to destroy this ancient government; but the latter was obliged, on account of opposition, to withdraw his consent and to confirm the privileges of the State. Although San Marino consists of only thirty-three square miles, with a population of about ten thousand, which would-be considered in the United States hardly more than a small country district, it is entirely self- supporting, and is governed by two presiding officers elected every six months, one from the aristocracy and one from the people. San Marino was established in the fifth century as a hermitage by a stonemason named Marinus, and under him it grew into a community of seven thousand persons, its very insignificance prevent- ing it, during all these years, from being blotted out. Marinus afterwards was dubbed a saint, his bones hav- ing been restored to the town by Pepin the Short, the father of Charlemagne. The Bourbon Dynasty was restored in the Two 170 Italy: Her People and Their Story Sicilies, under King Ferdinand I. in 1816. Ignoring his other titles, "Ferdinand IV. of Naples" and " Ferdinand III. of Sicily," he reigned as Ferdinand I. of the United Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Murat had governed in Naples through the latter part of the Napoleonic era, and had not given up his crown dur- ing the time of Napoleon's banishment to Elba. The question of the Ferdinands and Francises in Sicily, the Two Sicilies and Naples, is especially confusing, princes with the same titles seeming to appear at intervals sometimes of centuries. This is on account of the intricacies in the separation and union of these kingdoms from earliest times, which often makes a prince of the same name governing Sicily appear to reign in Naples much later. Outside of Naples, Italy, as is seen, was left by the powers virtually a province of Austria, and governed for the most part by Austrian princes. The allies at Vienna had not yet brought their treaties and festivities to a close when they learned that Napoleon had escaped from Elba; but the Battle of Waterloo soon decided his fate. The people of Italy at this time assisted the allies in expelling the common enemy ; but they were dis- appointed in the results, since Italy was only used as a puppet in the hands of the ambitious monarchs of Europe. The Holy Roman Empire that was founded by Augustus, re-dedicated by Charlemagne, and nomi- nally restored by Otto the Great, had been in reality for many years only the Empire of Austria, and had come to an abrupt close after Austerlitz by the en- forced abdication of Francis II. The peace of Italy was additionally disturbed by an attempt by Murat to be reinstated in his kingdom. Italy Aroused 171 Austria had consented that he should continue King of Naples; but, distrusting her loyalty, and thinking that his friends, the Neapolitans, would join him in upholding Napoleon, Murat went over to him ; and when the latter landed, he tried at the head of forty thousand men to overcome the Austrian force in northern Italy. He was driven back, however, and, abandoned by his troops ; he then fled to Naples, thence to France, and afterwards to Corsica. Having re- turned, he reached the coast of lower Calabria with thirty followers, but was seen and seized by some of Ferdinand's soldiers; and condemned by the king, being given only half an hour to prepare for death. During these valued moments he received absolution and wrote a pathetic letter to his family. This hap- pened on the very day on which Napoleon arrived in St. Helena. It was soon seen that methods of thought as well as manners and customs had been changed by Napoleon's invasion. In the reaction from fierce political excite- ment the people diverted their minds by games of chance and lotteries, this being the beginning of the gaming fever which has proved such a curse to Italy. Indeed, it has been said that the place which alcoholic intoxication usually occupies is replaced in southern Italy by the frenzy for gambling. Secret societies at this time also sprang up, formed among violent men for the purpose of getting rid of Austrian rule in Italy, and of setting up a democratic government; but it was soon proved that the deliverance of Italy had to be accomplished by efficient workers, men will- ing to bide their time. The Carbonari was the name of a secret society organized in the Kingdom of Naples during the first 172 Italy: Her People and Their Story years of the nineteenth century, the influence of which increased on the restoration of the Bourbons, in whose ranks many of this fraternity were found. A plot to murder the Viceroy of Milan instigated by them failed; but on the 2d of July, 1820, encouraged by the success of an insurrection in Spain, the people of Avellino demanded a Constitution. The governor reluctantly joined the two lieutenants, Morelli and Silvati, who commanded one hundred and twenty- seven men, and went forth from Nola under the tri- colored (black, red and blue) banner of this society, with their watch cry of " For God, King and Consti- tution." On the night of the 5th of July General Pepe, in- charge of the garrison of Salerno, left Naples for the purpose of leading the revolutionists. King Ferdinand, leaving the government to his son Francis, with the title of Vicar, granted a Constitution under duress, and then fled to Leyback, where the Holy Alliance between Austria, Prussia and Russia was con- vened. The ministry which was now formed by the Liberals promised a Constitution like that set up by Napoleon. Palermo, which with the rest of Sicily, had enjoyed a Constitution in the Napoleonic period, received the news with great rejoicing and proceeded to expel the Bourbon troops, though all the rest of the Neapoli- tan kingdom still endorsed the old government. This excitement was the signal for an uprising in the Papal States. Piedmont also broke out into an insurrection, and the people tried to force the king to adopt a Constitution like that of Naples, hoping by their liberal policy to be able, as they did some years afterwards, to take the lead in Italian politics ; but Victor Emanuel I., although he could not forget that Italy Aroused 173 the Austrians had done nothing to keep his father, Charles Emanuel III., on the throne, was obliged to join the alliance at Leyback in the spring of 1821, and could not yield to their demands. Therefore when the citadel fell into the hands of the Constitutionalists, he abdicated in favor of his brother, Charles Felix. In the absence of the latter, Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano, was made regent ; and the same day he was inveigled into adopting the Constitution. Charles Albert was descended in another line from Thomas Francis, a brother of Victor Amadeus I., both of these princes being sons of the illustrious Charles Emanuel the Great. Encouraged by the sympathy of the British govern- ment, Austria, Russia and Prussia sent their armies to put an end to this republican movement. The new Constitutions were destroyed and the patriots executed and exiled. Some managed to escape, how- ever, and led a miserable existence in foreign coun- tries. Ferdinand I. was reinstated on his throne, and the Neapolitans were forced to bear the expense of supporting the immense Austrian army which was left in occupation. The Austrians now took possession of all the for- tresses and entered Turin in triumph. Charles Felix, who had never supported the liberal measures en- dorsed by Charles Albert in his absence, declared that he would not adopt the government established by the latter. Charles Albert was urged to break altogether with his cousin ; but, being scarcely more than twenty-three years of age and inexperienced, he saw no way to free himself from the political entangle- ments. Accordingly, he secretly left Turin and, not succeeding in gaining an interview with Charles Felix, 174 Italy: Her People and Their Story he sought the home of his father-in-law, the Grand Duke of Tuscany. The royal party, aided by the Austrian troops, forced the revolutionists to retire, and in 1821 the revolution ended. The people of Genoa received the exiled patriots, and gave them money; and some of the most sympathetic even proposed with them to form a nucleus of a party for future resistance. But the revolutionists admonished them that the time was not yet ripe. Italy was shrouded in gloom for many years and the people were reduced by taxation to intolerable destitution. From this time up to the revolution of 1830 few events of importance occurred. The greater number of the Piedmontese patriots who had joined the insurrection of 1821 finally took refuge in Spain or fought for Greek independence. Among these last was a comrade of Charles Albert, Santorre di Santarosa, who met death in 1825 like a hero. Ferdinand of Naples' minister, Canosa, having ter- rorized the people into something like order by im- prisonment and death, the Austrian troops entered Naples on the 23d of March, the leaders of the rev- olution at Avellino being executed among the first. On the 5th of May, 1821, the miserable Ferdinand I. died; and in 1830 Francis I., who was more wicked than his father, also died, and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand II. Having made the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom a great fortress, with which to overawe all Italy, Austria committed the most monstrous outrages against the Italian people and nobility. Among such instances was that of one Federigo Confaloniere, suspected of Italy Aroused 175 complicity with the Piedmontese revolution. He was suddenly alarmed one day by a visit from the Austrian marshal ; and on trying to escape by a secret staircase in his house he was seized and sent to languish and die in a dungeon at Spielberg. The Austrians and the clergy hoped to persuade Charles Felix to cut off altogether his cousin, Charles Albert, who was inclined to liberalism, and, ignoring the Salic Law, to leave the throne to Francis of Mo- dena, who had married the sister of Charles Albert. The latter, however, would not agree to this ; but after calling his cousin to his court he obliged him, as a concession to the Holy Alliance, to enroll himself among the troops sent to Spain by them for the pur- pose of demolishing the Constitutional government lately set up there. Thus Charles Albert was called upon to crush out the same principles which he had formerly advocated, and at this time to fight against forces partly made up of those patriots who had been driven out of Piedmont. After the Napoleonic era every ambitious leader en- tertained a hope that by espousing the cause of the people he might be made head of the State. In the beginning of 1831 Francis of Modena united with Giro Menotti, a rich manufacturer of Modena, in the leadership of a revolutionary league. Among the members was Louis Philippe, the Duke of Orleans, who, hoping to gain recognition of his title of King of France, divulged the whole plot to the Austrians; at the same time Francis of Modena also proved false and wrote to Vienna to warn the court against Louis Philippe himself, implicating the rest of his colleagues. Menotti soon found that Francis of Modena had de- ceived him, and instigated an insurrection during 176 Italy: Her People and Their Story which Francis was obliged to flee to the Austrian garrison at Mantua ; but he took care to have Menotti brought along with him as prisoner. In 1831 Pope Gregory XVI., who had recently been elected, was also having trouble in Romagna, on ac- count of the same revolution; and the Duchess of Parma, becoming involved, was obliged to flee. It was in the course of this revolution of 1830 that the two young Bonapartes first appeared, one of them dying afterwards at the massacre of Forli, and the other being the subsequent Emperor of France. The Pope had been forced to leave Rome, and a provisional government was set up everywhere ; but the Austrians came to the aid of the Pope and brought back Francis of Modena and the Duchess of Parma. Francis, when restored, did not spare his former com- rades. He imprisoned some, executed others, and was not even merciful to Giro Menotti, whom he had promised to protect. Although the revolts of 1831 had been put down, the French were uneasy because of the power of the Austrians in the Papal States ; and in 1832 Louis Philippe sought to check their influence by establish- ing a military post at Ancona. This was kept up until 1838, when the Austrians were obliged to evacuate. Soon after the revolts in his kingdom were quelled, Charles Felix died in 1831, leaving no children; and Charles Albert succeeded to the throne. The latter's conduct had made Austrians and Italians alike doubt- ful of him, and the former hesitated to uphold him as King of Sardinia, while the Liberals in Italy con- sidered that he had betrayed his colleagues who had sustained him in 1821. The people, however, hoped from his early course that he would take the lead in Italy Aroused 177 throwing off the Austrian yoke; but this would have brought on a war with that nation, and he knew that without the aid of France, who did not support him, he was not powerful enough to meet it. The sorrow and perplexity he felt at the situation, and the doubt as to which course to follow, may be seen by the re- mark he made on ascending the throne: "I stand between the dagger of the Carbonari and the adulation of the Jesuits." About this time Charles Albert received a fanatical anonymous epistle urging him to defy Austria and place himself at the head of the nation as the represen- tative of advanced ideas. The letter told him that this was his opportunity to hand his name down to pos- terity, and impressed upon him that if he hoped to succeed he must consecrate himself to the work as to a holy mission. It recalled the hopes centered in him from the position he had taken in 1821, and urg^d that if he disappointed the expectations of the people opprobrium would succeed the joy which had greeted his succession ; and the writer added : " You will be hailed by posterity as the first among the heroes or the last of Italian despots." The author of these sentiments was Giuseppe Maz- zini, a young Genoese who had been confined in Savona for complicity with the Carbonari. On receiving the message Charles Albert ordered the prosecution of the writer whenever he should appear in Piedmont. This was just as Mazzini had expected; for he had written the letter to undeceive the Radicals, who had trusted in Charles Albert's liberal principles ; and now he organized a society called " Young Italy," whose object was to unite the nation and establish republi- can institutions. Though fanatical, impractical and 178 Italy: Her People and Their Story impatient of results, Mazzini was an eloquent speaker, and was the first Italian statesman to declare that " Italy might and must some day exist as one free nation." He and his party, aided by Crispi, were san- guine that, with an army of patriotic countrymen gathered from the ends of Italy, they might free their land from the Austrian yoke. Charles Albert refused to lead the party, and Maz- zini, incensed at his conservative attitude, made the mistake of tampering with the king's soldiers, and by drawing them away from their allegiance threatened to destroy the only military support upon which Italy Could depend. In putting down these revolts, many were executed, while others sacrificed their lives, among these being Mazzini's most devoted follower and trusted friend, Joseph Ruffini, who committed suicide lest, maddened by some of the tortures, he should in a frenzy disclose his friend's methods of procedure. Mazzini now established himself at Geneva, and, in January, 1833, with his army of exiles, sought to bring about a revolution in Savoy ; but the undertaking was abortive, and he was obliged to hide for a time in London. The Moderate party had confidence that Charles Albert would unite Italy and make her free; and ac- cordingly they were content to wait. The man destined to unite this Moderate party, and make it a neutraliz- ing force against the Liberals, was Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, who was born in 1810, and was accordingly two years younger than Mazzini. He was at this era writing articles for the Risorgimento in Turin, a journal in opposition to the Mazzini organ, the Concordia, and all the while he was devoting Italy Aroused 179 himself to political research. Of the three leaders who soon became prominent, Mazzini was said to be the prophet, Cavour the statesman, and Garibaldi the knight errant of Italian independence. These three were all natives of the Kingdom of Sardinia. Mazzini was from Genoa, which hated the enforced rule of Turin; Garibaldi was from Nice, the darling of the people, and Cavour a scion from the old Piedmontese aristocracy. This was a loyal stock, tenacious, truth- ful and brave ; and under its stolid exterior was hidden great political force. Cavour had the genius of the statesman, together with practical sense and great swiftness of detail; and though but for the others he could not have been the savior of Italy, without him Mazzini's fanatical effort would have been abortive, and Garibaldi's dexterous strokes in arms must have resulted in failure. When Francis II. of Austria died, his weak-minded brother, Ferdinand I., ascended the throne, in 1835. He was so much of an imbecile, however, that even the mechanical effort of signing decrees was more of a task than he felt able to undertake, and thus the power fell into the hands of Metternich. Several plots were made against the lives of rulers in Italy during the next decade; and it was not until this time that the Piedmontese, realizing that their sovereign's life was in danger, awoke to a sense of loyalty. Up to this era the Popes, who had always been supported by the Austrians, were naturally in oppo- sition to the Liberals. Pius IX., the successor of Gregory XVI., worked on a new basis, however, and declared himself a Liberal, proclaiming general am- nesty to political prisoners and promoting liberty of i8o Italy: Her People and Their Story speech ; and it soon began to look as if the restorer of Italian freedom walked among them in pontifical garb. Italy went wild with enthusiasm, much to the dis- satisfaction of the radical republicans, who were the extremists in Rome; and frequent disturbances fol- lowed in the streets. Cardinals were attacked and the Papal Guards and police, not being strong enough to put down the riots, were obliged to accede to their demands. On July 6, 1847, tne PP e proceeded to form a National guard throughout the Papal States, while the Austrian government in turn despatched an army and took possession of Ferrara in spite of the Papal legate. The following September the people rose against the Bourbon Duke in Lucca ; and Tuscany, whose minister was Bettino Ricasoli, was soon roused. Events became more critical when the rulers in Parma and Modena were forced to allow Austria to garrison their cities as a defense against the Liberals. These were a few among the series of events which caused Charles Albert to turn to his own people for support, declaring that if the Austrians dared to go further, he would fight to the death for Italy. As early as 1845 Massimo d'Azeglio brought before him the hopes of Italian patriots and their expectation that help would come from Piedmont. The king then replied without hesitation : " Tell these gentlemen that it is useless to act at present, but they may be sure that when opportunity comes, my life, the life of my son, my weapons, my treasure and my army shall all be used for the Italian cause." The climax was reached when Austria taxed the Sardinian kingdom in the matter of wine and salt Italy Aroused 181 for the purpose of testing her subservience, and as far back as the time when the Emperor required all the Italian rulers to be present in Milan to witness his coronation as sovereign of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, Charles Albert had flatly refused to accede to the demand. The first sound of the new revolutionary movement came from Sicily, the ist of January, 1848; and by the beginning of February the whole island was in a flame of revolt. This spread to Naples, and on the 28th of January Ferdinand II. of the Two Sicilies was obliged to promise a Constitution. The excitement advanced as far as Piedmont, and Cavour declared that a Con- stitution must be demanded and a statute given. This was granted by Charles Albert. These demonstrations were re-echoed in Tuscany when Leopold II. promised a Constitution, and on the 1 4th of March the Pope granted a Constitution in the Papal States, a ministry having been previously established. During the first of January the Austrians goaded the Milanese into a riot about the tobacco tax, three score of the inhabitants being slaughtered. The news of the Sicilian revolt and of the Constitution granted by Ferdinand II. reached the north about the same time that the revolution of 1848 stirred the whole of Europe in a great struggle for freedom. The revolu- tion in Vienna, in which the Constitution was de- manded and finally granted by the Emperor, followed ; and Metternich, who had control of Ferdinand's government, and who had once said contemptuously that Italy was only a "geographical expression," was obliged to flee to England. On the i8th of March Milan grew wild at the news 1 82 Italy: Her People and Their Story of these successes, and the people formed itself into a mob against the soldiery, barricading the streets, men, women and even children coming to the rescue of the insurgents. On the 2Oth of March they at- tacked the Hungarian garrison under General Radet- sky, and he, with his army of fourteen thousand men, having been driven out of the city on the 2ist, Milan was free. On the 22d the gate of the city was burned, and the tricolored flag waved from the highest point of the Cathedral." When the news of what was going on had reached Venice, on the I7th of March, the people broke out into a riot, demanding that those incarcerated for political offenses should be set free; and on March 22 the whole city arose against the commandant of the arsenal, a provisional government being set up by Danieli Manin, a Venetian Jew. For six days the conflict raged, and General Zichy wrote to Vienna that it would take seventy thousand troops in addition to his eighty thousand to quell the mob. The other principal Venetian cities also capitulated, and on the 22d of March, 1848, "the fall of the Austrian dominion and the re-establishment of the Venetian republic were proclaimed together from St. Mark's Square." On the 23d of March immediately following, the news flashed over the country like lightning that Milan was free and that the Austrians had retreated, a messenger arriving in Turin to implore Charles Albert to send an army to help defend Lombardy. Count Cavour appeared with an article in the Ri- sorgimento, saying that the hour had arrived on which the fate of the Empire and the destiny of the people hung like a thread, and that " doubt, hesitation and Italy Aroused 183 delay were no longer possible." Then the crowd surrounded the royal palace at Turin, and when at midnight Charles Albert appeared with the tricol- ored flag in his hand, the enthusiasm of the people was beyond description; for at that moment the " dynasty of Savoy and the Piedmontese rule were united in consecration to the freedom of Italy." The following morning Charles Albert issued a proc- lamation, saying that his soldiers were now ready to send that aid which only a " friend can give a friend and brother a brother " ; and that when his troops should enter the Lombardo- Venetian territory " They would march under the shadow of the tri- colored flag with the armorial bearings of Savoy." These sentiments awakened a response all over Italy. Modena, Reggio, Parma, Piacenza, Tuscany, the Pope, and even the King of Naples, were compelled to pledge their support, and Sicily dispatched a goodly number of volunteers. In all the decades of centuries of Italian history this was the first time that Italy from north to south and east to west had risen with a harmonious sentiment against the public enemy. 184 Italy: Her People and Their Story CHAPTER XIII THE DEFEAT OF CHARLES ALBERT. RESIGNS IN FAVOR OF HIS SON. HIS MELANCHOLY DEATH. VICTOR EMAN- UEL II/S LIBERAL REIGN. CAREER OF CAVOUR. LOUIS NAPOLEON RESTORES THE POPE. MASSIMO D'AZEGLIO. 18481859 A.D. THE enthusiasm attending these liberal movements kept Charles Albert firm in his resolution to deliver Italy from the yoke of Austria. Volunteers from all parts of Italy enlisted under his banner, and in the last part of April, 1848, at the head of seventy-five thousand men, he joined the patriots at Milan. In all, ninety thousand volunteers were engaged against the fifty thousand veteran soldiers under the aged Radetsky, who, unfortunately for the volunteers, was a host in himself. Accordingly the struggle dragged on month after month, until finally, when Radetsky was heavily reinforced, Charles Albert had to retire at the Battle before Santa Lucia, the trouble being that he exhibited no originality of action, but little discretion, and lacked military genius. But after this he successfully besieged the fortress of Peschiera and gained a victory at the Bridge of Goito. His troops, however, were scattered from the mountains north of Verona to Mantua ; and the Pope's army in June had already surrendered to Radetsky. Still Charles Albert resisted bravely, with half of his army at Custoza for three days, " four brigades holding their own against Struggle for Independence Commences 185 five Austrian army corps," notwithstanding that they were overcome by the heat and many other demoraliz- ing circumstances. But at last he was completely defeated on the 25th of July. In the meantime, events in the other parts of the peninsula had not been standing still. As early as the 29th of April Pope Pius had announced his in- tention of withdrawing from the contest as soon as he could recall his troops, who were already engaged near Verona under General Pepe. Ferdinand II. of the Two Sicilies also took this opportunity to retire ; and the rest of the Italians, jealous of Charles Albert ? s growing power, cooled in their enthusiasm. Venice had formed herself into an independent republic, and in Milan the more advanced Liberals had come out against the king. Charles Albert thus found himself fighting alone in this gigantic struggle ; and all these disagreements served to rouse discontent in the ranks of the army, interrupting concerted action and lessen- ing the bravery of the troops. Accordingly, after the defeat at Custoza, on the 25th of July, when Charles Albert, instead of pro- tecting his retreat, turned toward Milan, still unsuc- cessfully fighting the enemy, his entrance as he ap- proached the city was a very different affair from what he had formerly imagined " No huzzahs of the people, no acclamations of victory and no shouts of triumph met his ear. Instead of these he saw only anger at his failure. The streets were barricaded, bells tolled, and all was in the attitude of heroic de- fense." Accordingly the officers soon decided that it would be folly to hold out any longer, and terms of capitulation were signed. The people went wild at this terrible news, some even imputing disloyalty i86 Italy: Her People and Their Story to Charles Albert. Then the latter offered to fall fighting with the Milanese if they still wished to re- sist. The government thought best, however, to ratify the treaty of surrender, and that night, when the king tried to address the crowd, guns were fired and the rage of the exasperated mob was so great that Charles Albert was obliged to withdraw secretly, since he had left the greater part of his troops outside the gates. Consequently Charles Albert went out of the city on foot, many Lombard families accompanying him into his own territory. There he issued a proclama- tion, saying that he was not unaware of the aspersions with which some would tarnish his name, but that "God and his conscience were witnesses to the in- tegrity of his actions, which the impartial judgment of posterity would justify." He said : " Every pulsa- tion of my heart has been for Italian independence, but Italy has not yet shown herself strong enough to accomplish this alone." Thus, in less than half a year's time Italy had learned that liberty cannot be gained contending over barricades, but that there must be firm and harmonious action to insure freedom to a nation. The House of Savoy, now in dust, could no longer think of governing Sicily. Accordingly Charles Al- bert's second son, the Duke of Genoa, declined the crown of the Two Sicilies just proffered him. Before King Ferdinand was victorious, however, nearly ten thousand Neapolitans were slain in a riot, and the severest measures were necessary to put the revolu- tion down; the Constitution in the meantime being sacrificed. Finally in September, 1848, Ferdinand bombarded Messina, and, after the general massacre usual in the Sicilian kingdom, the city fell. Struggle for Independence Commences 187 It was said that the reason of all these failures was that the King of Sardinia feared a victory for the republicans more than Austrian subjugation. But Mazzini at this very time comprehended that the flag of Italy " trailed in the dust " because it was not yet the badge of the republican idea. Meanwhile, after the Battle of Custoza, all the northern kingdoms had been subdued by the Aus- trians, although the famous leader Garibaldi for some time kept up an irregular warfare. This wonderful adventurer, having been exiled on account of com- plicity with Mazzini, had been leading a life of daring in South America. Charles Albert had refused his services in the beginning of the disturbances, because he was afraid of his fanatical republicanism; but Garibaldi sat as Deputy from Nice when the Pied- montese Parliament met in 1848. He joined the up- rising in Milan during the middle of July, and later with his volunteers defended Brescia, until he was forced to retreat to the Alps the following October, having ignored the armistice of 1848, which Charles Albert was forced to make with the Austrians. The Moderate faction during this crisis was nearly crushed, and the Pope and the republicans were anxious to push matters to the utmost. Count Pelle- grino Rossi, seeing that the quarrel would give the Austrians an advantage, sought to mediate, and on November 15 he was struck down in the door of the Chamber. The people broke out into a riot, and the Pope, ten days later, having been forced to form a ministry, escaped in the disguise of a footman to Gaeta. Here he put himself under the protection of the King of Naples, and sent back word that his en- forced action after the I5th of November was invalid. l88 Italy: Her People and Their Story On the 5th of February, 1849, m a Roman Assembly the temporal power of the Pope was once more de- clared at an end. A republic was then set up, the chief place being occupied by Mazzini as one of the Triumvirate, of which the two others were Saffi and Armillini. The Grand Duke of Tuscany also fled to Gseta when the Liberals tried to compel him to organize a State according to their ideas under Guerazzi, Montanelli and Mazzini. After Custoza, Charles Albert declared to the Brit- ish and French ministers, when they wished to mediate, that " he must either abdicate or see an Italian re- public established." He said that he had thought of giving up his crown after the campaign of 1848, but had deferred the plan from a desire to vindicate his own honor against the aspersions of his enemies. But he now saw that if he fought he must fight alone, and he feared this was useless. On the 20th of March, the truce having been set aside, war broke out anew. The Austrians under Ra- detsky entered Piedmont with eighty thousand troops, and Charles Albert having given up the command, his army was led by Czarnowsky, a Pole. This proved to be an unfortunate exchange, and as a result the campaign, from a strategic point of view, was a failure. The Piedmontese, after one or two successes, were defeated, first at Mortara, and then in the ter- rible battle at Novara. It was a dreadful night, that 23d of March, when the Piedmontese soldiers scattered in flight, and Charles Albert, ascertaining that it was impossible to continue the struggle, saw that all was lost. The terms of the surrender were hard, and Charles Albert Struggle for Independence Commences 189 would have gladly died fighting; but since he was denied this solace, he determined to leave Piedmont forever. As he departed from the scene of his calamities he said to one of his generals : " This is the last. I have exposed the life of my family and myself, and imperiled my throne, and I have failed. I am now the only obstacle to peace ; and since I can- not sign the deathblow to Italian independence, I will make myself a final sacrifice to my country; and ac- cordingly I lay down the crown and pass it over to my son, the Duke of Savoy." Not waiting for daylight, Charles Albert set out that night on his self-appointed exile, and a few months after, this heroic monarch died, broken-hearted, at Oporto in Spain. His pathetic death silenced the dis- cord of party strife ; and when his body was brought home for burial on the Superga Heights, " Italy recognized his sterling virtue and made him her patron saint. Bands of pilgrims journeyed to his tomb, and from that time all felt that to do honor to his memory they must serve Italy " ; and more and more the people pledged themselves to fidelity and to the unity which his son with undeviating energy soon brought about. Victor Emanuel II. was born at Turin in 1820, and was brought up a rigid Catholic. He had little inclina- tion for study and books, but later threw himself heart and soul into the Italian struggle for independ- ence. In the battle at the Bridge of Goito he turned the tide of battle favorably by his bravery, and in every subsequent encounter he was seen in the thickest of the fight. He had withal a soldierly bearing and was a cheerful and jolly companion, his qualities being in strong contrast to the melancholy and secretive 190 Italy: Her People and Their Story character of his father, Charles Albert. He was very strong physically and fond of the chase; and many stories are told of his life as crown prince, while hunt- ing in the Val de Cogne. He knew everybody in the region personally and was especially fond of the fair sex. Inured to hardship, he astonished his companions by his power to endure the vicissitudes of rough camp- ing life. At two thousand meters above the sea he would camp out in a hunter's tent, rising at three o'clock to smoke his favorite pipe while promenading in the icy mountain air, all the time laughing at the fears of his suite about the danger from exposure. For the purpose of checking his restless habits, a marriage was contracted for Victor Emanuel II. with the Archduchess Adelaide of Austria, a kind and genial companion whom he admired and always treated with confidence, though he cared nothing for social etiquette and position, if he found any other lady charming. His ministers were annoyed by his expensive habits ; but he understood how to disarm criticism by a quick wit; and the fact that he finally opened the way to the independence and unity of Italy was atonement for all his shortcomings. Victor Emanuel II., when he first ascended the throne, was obliged to make a compromise in favor of whatever terms Austria placed upon him, because the most powerful fortresses of Piedmont were in the latter's hands. On the 24th of March, 1849, he went to treat in person with Radetsky, who had hoped that, since Victor Emanuel II. had married the daughter of Archduke Reinier, " the tricolored flag would disap- pear from the country forever." Disappointed in this, Radetsky obliged the king to pay fifty million dollars ready money, and to garrison the Sardinian frontier Struggle for Independence Commences 191 between the Ticino and Sesia, and also to disband nearly all the Piedmontese troops and to occupy the fortresses of Alessandria in common with the Aus- trians. After the defeat of Charles Albert, at the end of October, 1848, the Austrians had moved on Venice, and kept the inhabitants defending the city all winter. General Haynau, who had already rendered his name infamous for all time at Brescia, finally removed his forces to Venice in the March of 1849, an d trie d to intimidate the government into surrendering; though from the beginning the situation was hopeless. On the 2d of April the Venetians heroically decided not to yield until the last resort. Under the able leader- ship of Daniele Manin, they made the day of their downfall one of the most illustrious in history. On the night of the 4th of May of the same year, after a disastrous attack under Marshal Radetsky, the victory belonged to the Venetians. The siege was kept up, however, for months, until famine was added to the terrors of war; but it was not until cholera succeeded famine that Daniele Manin consented to a consulta- tion with the Austrian envoys, as the result of which hostilities ceased on the 22d of August. On the 24th papers of surrender were endorsed, and on the 3Oth Radetsky celebrated mass at St. Mark's. Though Mazzini and his party were no longer in the ascendancy, the course pursued by such men as himself and Daniele Manin had taught the masses that with perseverance and their co-operation the longed- for union of Italy would soon become an accomplished fact. Daniele Manin was afterwards banished by the Austrians and died in exile as early as 1857. Ten years later his body was interred on the north side of 192 Italy: Her People and Their Story St. Mark's in Venice, where the inscription on his tomb is now read daily by interested tourists. On the 2Qth of March, 1849, a revolt in Genoa was put down by a body of troops under Alphonso la Marmora; and on the I2th of April of the same year Leopold went back to Tuscany. But he disaffected the Moderate party, who had reinstated him, by re- turning under the protection of the Austrian militia, himself clothed in an Austrian uniform. Parma and Modena also replaced their dukes on the throne, and King Ferdinand of Naples < kept his subjects trodden down by the help of foreign mercenaries. Soon after the final defeat of Charles Albert it be- came evident that Austria intended to take possession of Rome and restore the Pope; and she gradually advanced her forces as far as Ancona. In the De- cember of 1848 Louis Napoleon, having succeeded in obtaining the presidency of the French republic, saw that, though opposed to the Austrian movement, in order to have the support of the Church he must reinstate the Pope at Rome. He now despatched to Italy General Oudinot, who landed at Civita Vecchia in April with twenty-eight thousand men and be- sieged Rome. The Romans recalled Garibaldi and placed him in command of their forces. Ferdinand of Naples with his troops went out to help the Papal army, but was defeated by Garibaldi at Palestrina on May ii. Garibaldi, knowing that his handful of vol- unteers could accomplish nothing against the whole of the French army, temporarily made a truce with France; but General Oudinot declared that these ne- gotiations were not valid, and for nearly four weeks Garibaldi, with his men and the extemporized Ro- man force fought outside the city. On the I3th of Struggle for Independence Commences 193 June there was a memorable struggle, in which many of the Liberals fell, thus immortalizing their names, Goffredo Mameli, the young poet, being among the number. In the contest the French made a large break in the wall, so that on July 2 the gates of the city were opened to them. At the request of Na- poleon III. all the great works of art were spared. Garibaldi with five thousand men escaped, as well as Mazzini. They had intended to carry on a guerilla warfare in the passes of the Apennines ; but, finding himself menaced by both Austria and France, Gari- baldi took leave of his men in the territory of the re- public of San Marino, which had received them as refugees. In a little street on the summit of that great rock on which the village of San Marino is situated there is a tablet of which the inhabitants are justly proud. It reads from the original Italian like this : " Soldiers, in this friendly refuge all must deport themselves in a manner which shall deserve the consideration due to the unfortunate. I now release you from the duty of accompanying me. Return to your homes ; but re- member that Italy must not remain in servitude and disgrace." This was written on the 3Oth of Septem- ber, 1849. On tne same wa H tnere is another framed inscription, with the date of 1861, probably a quotation from a letter, which says : " I am proud to be a citizen of this estimable republic," and another writ- ten in 1864, " I shall always hold in memory the hospitality of San Marino in the hour of extreme dan- ger to myself and Italy." Three hundred of Garibaldi's followers desired to go with him to Venice to help in a struggle which was then going on with the base Haynau and his troops. I 194 Italy: Her People and Their Story Accordingly they procured a dozen little fishing smacks and set out; but the beautiful night proved unfortunate for the wayfarers, so that the Austrian vessels which pursued them were able to capture all but five of their boats. In one of these were Gari- baldi and his wife, who had heroically shared all his trials and dangers. She was ill, and he was obliged to carry her in his arms to the shore, where, having found a hiding place in a cornfield, he laid her down and sent his companions to seek shelter somewhere in the mountain passes. Much to Garibaldi's delight, an old companion-in-arms, who was recuperating amongst the heights, appeared and soon helped them to procure a refuge with his relatives. Garibaldi's wife, already dying from fatigue and exposure, expired before they could summon a doctor, her last words being loving messages to her sons. Garibaldi was obliged to leave her to be buried by the strange cottagers ; and, after much suffering, he reached Genoa, whence he embarked for America. He remained here about five years. It was not until April, 1850, that Pope Pius IX. was brought back to Rome, where, guided by the Jesuits and supported by the French garrison, he kept the people under martial law until the entry of the Italians in 1870. The Italian insurrection was indeed crushed, and the hopes of the revolutionary party for a time van- ished ; but the assertion of d'Azeglio, " the House of Savoy cannot retreat," expressed the determination of the ruling classes. The greatest inspiration to all at this crisis was the thought " that the defenders of Rome and Venice had not been princes or nobles, but men of the people, artisans and tradesmen, as well as advocates and attorneys." All had now come to see Struggle for Independence Commences 195 that the regeneration of Italy could not be accom- plished in a moment ; but that the nation must first be shaped; and all agreed that the task must be en- trusted to Piedmont, since she alone was able to enlist reliable volunteers for emergencies. Thus, even after the Peace of Novara, the moderate factions looked to Victor Emanuel II. to save Italy, and people believed that, although his father had failed, Victor Emanuel himself would triumphantly carry on their cause. Austria, feeling that Sardinia was a protest against her tyranny, fortified her boundaries with new zeal, at the same time forbidding Sardinia to take up arms. The latter replied that she would apply to France; and Louis Napoleon, since the French felt that they must have Sardinia to depend upon in case of possible hostile European coalitions, now informed Austria that " he should not look with indifference on their invasion of Sardinia." He also said that if he entered into war it would be to restore Italy to independence. He declared that, though he should not disturb the Pope, whom he had re-established, he should maintain order on legitimate grounds; and accordingly he set two hundred thousand French troops in motion. Piedmont under the new king had already a Con- stitution, and the people were not restricted in religious matters nor in their newspapers and books. Victor Emanuel II. was loyal to all parties, priding himself on the epithet of " The Honest King." With the help of his chief minister, Massimo d'Azeglio, and Camillo Benso di Cavour, his Minister of Commerce, he con- scientiously carried on the reforms begun by Charles Albert. Ever after the accession of Cavour in 1852 the career of Victor Emanuel was to a great extent 196 Italy: Her People and Their Story what this able minister made it, since the king placed himself largely under his political guidance, as a leader every way capable of pioneering the State to a national union. Vincenzo Gioberti, before his death, the preceding year, had written a book which pointed out Piedmont as the substantial basis for a united Italy, and empha- sized the mistakes they had all made in 1848-49, in a manner which helped all Italian statesmen in the future. The Siccardi Law was soon put in force. This set aside the ecclesiastical courts, which for a long time had stood in the way of Italian unity; and in 1854, at the instigation of Ratazzi, monastic bodies were sup- pressed. This movement was a great blow to two or three thousand ecclesiastics, who had still remained after the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1848. Ratazzi, the advocate, and Cavour, the skillful de- bater and great statesman, at first worked apart; but finally they were attracted to each other by what is called the "affinity of contraries " ; and, together with d'Azeglio, they played a most important part in shaping the constitutional government of that era. D'Azeglio, however, thought that Cavour was advanc- ing too rapidly in reforms when he joined the demo- cratic party in Piedmont, headed by Ratazzi; and in 1853 he resigned, the premiership being taken by Cavour. The latter forwarded all progressive move- ments throughout Italy, but he gave a special impulse to Piedmont, intersecting the country with railways and telegraph wires, and altogether greatly developing commerce. In the face of great opposition Cavour favored the alliance with England and France, who were opposed Struggle for Independence Commences 197 to Russia; for he considered the latter the hot-bed of despotism as well as an enemy of Italian freedom ; and, besides, he knew that by this alliance European equi- librium would be better maintained. He also soon saw that otherwise, in order to secure the co-operation of Austria, these powers might connive at her encroach- ment in Italy. By a secret stipulation in the treaty the French and English were to cancel the obligation some time in the future in the ever impending Italian strife. Cavour also perceived that by proving her- self a valuable auxiliary in the Crimean War Pied- mont would acquire the respect of the powers. Ac- cordingly, taking advantage of his alliance with England and France, on January 10, 1855, fifteen thousand troops set out for the Crimea under Alphonso la Marmora, and on August 6, " on the banks of the Tchernaya," in a measure " redeemed the glory of their flag from the shame of Novara." It was at this time that, within the same week, the king's mother, Maria Theresa, his wife, Adelaide, and his brother, Ferdinand, Duke of Genoa, died. The nation sympathized deeply with him ; but the clericals regarded it as a just visitation upon him for having so lately legislated against them. In pouring out her best blood and treasure in the Crimea, Piedmont had not fought for conquest or glory, but for the right to be heard in behalf of Italy in the great council chambers of Europe. Conse- quently in 1856 she was invited to take part in the Congress of Paris. Here Cavour, by his dignified bearing, great tact and keen insight, took a distin- guished place in the deliberations of this body. He insisted that Italy should be placed on the same foot- ing as the other great powers ; and, seeing that Austria 198 Italy: Her People and Their Story intended to persist in her course, he arraigned her at the bar of European opinion, and made a touching plea in behalf of his oppressed country. He reproached Austria with her bad faith, enumerated her usurpa- tions, and exposed her subterfuges. He depicted the melancholy condition of Piedmont, overrun by foreign soldiery and subjected to a military despotism. He then cited the occupation of Venice in open violation of solemn treaties, charging Austria to deny his as- sertions. Austria assumed a defiant attitude, although she was able to make but a lame defense. Lord Claren- don, among others, was much excited, telling Austria that if she refused to make pledges with reference to Italy the liberal element in Europe would consider it a challenge which at no distant day would be taken up. Furthermore, Gladstone reported that the tyranny he had observed while waiting for an audience with King Ferdinand II. in Naples in 1851 had so aroused his ire that he withdrew without seeing his Majesty; and on his return to England he published a letter he had written to Lord Aberdeen, saying that the Bourbon rule in the Two Sicilies was in the present era of ad- vancement a disgrace to humanity. The powers, how- ever, remonstrated with Ferdinand in vain. At this Congress of Paris the Pontifical rule also was de- nounced as a scandal to Europe. About this time some of Mazzini's followers tried to organize conspiracies against the King of Naples; and later Baron Francesco Bentivegna was shot for engaging in one of these. There were also many other unsuccessful plots, which proved the impossi- bility of putting down despotism by mobs. On the i6th of April, 1858, Cavour in the Chamber Struggle for Independence Commences 199 defined the political situation since 1849. He declared that, after Novara, Piedmont might have gone back to the position that she had held in 1848 ; but, while im- mediate prosperity would have followed from that course, she would have " sacrificed all the glorious tra- ditions of the House of Savoy, and would have repu- diated the melancholy but magnificent heritage left them by Charles Albert." Cavour told them that the only way to combat such perils as they would no doubt provoke in the jealousy of the powers by supporting these traditions, was on the field of battle with bat- talions and fleets. He said: "As in the days of Frederick the Great, Fortuna is not always on the side of justice ; for that goddess loves to befriend the largest armies and the strongest squadrons; but, lack- ing these, our nation must gain the support of reliable allies." Cavour had concluded from his travels abroad that although the English sympathized with Italy, Great Britain at present would probably only give them moral support; and accordingly they must depend upon Napoleon III. as an ally. Yet it was difficult just at that time to gain Napoleon's confidence, since an Italian, Felice Orsini, had shortly before made an attempt upon the latter's life. In 1858, however, Cavour and Napoleon formed a treaty at Plombieres, the basis of their future alliance; and later, in 1859, Prince Jerome Napoleon came to Turin to arrange a marriage with Princess Clotilde, Victor Emanuel's eldest daughter, this union being an event of great political importance. In the March of 1859, in an interview with Cavour at Paris, Napoleon made the condition that he would only intervene between Aus- tria and Piedmont in case of the latter being the in- 200 Italy: Her People and Their Story jured party; and, accordingly, Cavour determined to observe the same tactics with regard to Austria that Bismarck, a little later, practiced in his dealings with France, namely to drive the Austrians to an early declaration of war. Victor Emanuel, therefore, had notified the Austrian Emperor that he would make war on Austria unless a national government were granted to Lombardy and Venice. Austria immediately re- called her minister at Turin, and, commanding the King of Sardinia to disarm his forces, mobilized an army, which was sent to the various posts on the Pied- mont frontier. Thereupon Cavour despatched mes- sengers to Garibaldi and warned him to be ready. In answer to an accusation that a bill had been brought forward for raising fifty million francs, for the purpose of involving all Europe as well as Sar- dinia in war, Cavour recalled the policy of Victor Emanuel since 1849, which was never to provoke revolution, but to develop the principles on which the institutions granted by Charles Albert were based those of liberty and nationality. He then reminded them that after the Paris Congress events had war- ranted the opinion that the difficulties of the Italian question could never be settled " by pacific and diplo- matic means," and that later proceedings had justified this theory. The Sardinian ministry immediately de- cided on war. During these perilous days the labor of Cavour was herculean. He was President of the Council, Minister of Marine and Minister of War. He even transferred his bed to the War Office, protracting his labors far into the night, hurrying from one debate to another in his dressing-gown, dictating dispatches, transmitting orders, and directing the operations in the field. He Struggle for Independence Commences 201 infused a portion of his own patriotism into the hearts of the despondent, say.ing : " Courage, my friends, we will give to Italy the regeneration dreamed of by Gioberti." The adroitness of Cavour was never more apparent than at this epoch. He temporized with Mazzini, if it served his purpose, and proposed terms of friendly alliance to the Bourbons. He managed his coalition with England and France with the greatest dexterity and extended a hand to any who were willing to co- operate with him. His power over Napoleon III. amounted to a fascination, compelling him to engage in a war which he neither sought nor desired. As the republicans in Venetia had rushed to the standard of Daniele Manin, saying: " Regenerate Italy and we are with you," so the noblest of the Italian youth now flocked to the standard of Garibaldi, asking for nothing better than to die for their country. Ac- cordingly thirty thousand volunteers awaited with swords half drawn the signal to rush upon the Aus- trian legions. The formal announcement of hostilities followed, and Victor Emanuel roused his troops to enthusiasm by the following speech : " Soldiers, we are not in- sensible to the cry of suffering that arises from so many parts of Italy. Austria threatens to invade our country, and dares to tell us, who are armed only in our own defense, to lay down our weapons and put ourselves in her power. I am certain that you are pre- pared to make your nation's wrongs your own, and I, who recognized your prowess when fighting under my magnificent father, will be your leader, convinced that on the field of honor and glory you will be able to justify and augment your military renown. You 2O2 Italy: Her People and Their Story may remember with pride Pastrengo, Goito, Santa Lucia, and above all Custoza, where four brigades held out three days against five army corps. Crown with fresh laurels that standard which rallies from all quarters the flower of Italy to its three-fold colors, and points out your task that sacred enterprise under- taken for the independence of Italy." The Unification of Italy Completed 203 CHAPTER XIV VICTORIES OF MAGENTA AND SOLFERINO. DISGRACEFUL TRUCE WITH AUSTRIA BY NAPOLEON. CENTRAL ITALY CEDED TO PIEDMONT. THE TREATY OF VILLAFRANCA. NICE AND SAVOY GIVEN TO FRANCE. GARIBALDI DELIVERS KINGDOM OF NAPLES. THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY. CAVOUR'S DEATH. SEPTEMBER CONVEN- TION. 18591861 A.D. npHE Austrians now crossed the Ticino, but were A defeated by the Sardinian army and General Cial- dini. On the loth of May Louis Napoleon left Paris and embarked at Marseilles, arriving at Genoa on the I2th, twelve thousand troops having preceded him; and on the I4th he found Victor Emanuel at Alessan- dria with sixty thousand Piedmontese soldiers. On the 2Oth the Austrians were defeated by the French and Piedmontese at Montebello, and on the 3Oth, hav- ing been put to flight at Palestro by the French and Sardinians, they were pursued as far as Magenta. Here, on the 4th of June, the whole of the Austrian army engaged the French, and this fierce battle, cele- brated for instances of bravery, lasted all day. All the modern tactics of war were employed, and there were forty thousand men either killed or wounded. On the 8th of June Victor Emanuel II. and Napoleon III. entered Milan in triumph, while that same day the Austrians were beaten at Melegnano, and Garibaldi entered Bergamo. " He had been the last one to leave 204 Italy: Her People and Their Story Lombardy in 1848, and was now among the first to re-enter that country." After the Battle of Magenta, Emperor Francis Joseph, who had succeeded his brother Ferdinand I. on his abdication in 1848, assumed command of the Aus- trian army. During the night of the 23d of June the retreating Austrians took a stand to the south of the Lake of Garda, and on the following morning they were met by the Franco-Piedmontese army, the com- bating force covering a line of fifteen miles. The Austrians held their position on a range of hills over- looked by Solferino and San Martino ; and it was only after a terrible day's battle that the French succeeded in occupying Solferino, on the 24th of June, 1859. San Martino was taken and lost four times before the Austrian army retreated, protected by the darkness resulting from a terrific tempest. The combatants were reckoned at three hundred thousand, one hundred and sixty thousand of whom were Austrians. The total loss was twenty-five thousand. Francis Joseph now retired into Venetia behind fortresses which Austria had been years in construct- ing for such an emergency; and it now seemed certain that the Austrians would be headed off and driven out of Italy. But, instead of this, the most unexpected events happened. On the 8th of July, 1859, Louis Napoleon demonstrated the inefficiency of his weak character by ratifying terms of peace with Francis Joseph at Villafranca without consulting Victor Emanuel. Austria was obliged to cede only Lombardy to the west of the Mincio to the King of Sardinia, leaving Venice out in the cold; whereas Napoleon III. had agreed to free Italy from the Alps to the Adriatic. According to the treaty, the Italian States The Unification of Italy Completed 205 were to be united in a confederation, with the Pope at their head, and Austria, by keeping Venice, would have been a member of the confederation. The Grand Duke of Tuscany and the Dukes of Modena and Parma, all of whom had been obliged to flee, were to be restored. But none of these weak rulers ever re- turned, and the proposed confederation was never realized, since these duchies under their provincial governors, together with Romagna, begged Victor Emanuel II. to annex them to his kingdom. At the loss of Romagna and the Marches, which also rebelled, the Pope sent a Bull of Excommunication against all his enemies. Cavour had promised Napoleon III. that he should have Savoy for his pains ; and now the latter claimed it ; for he thought that otherwise from a military point of view Savoy was highly dangerous to him. To re- fuse such a command from his only remaining ally would have been madness, and Victor Emanuel II. was obliged to consent to give up the "cradle of his monarchy," as well as Nice. Garibaldi was so grieved that he said " that man Cavour has made me a stranger in my own house." Cavour replied with deep emo- tion : " I know that between General Garibaldi and myself there exists an unfathomable abyss ; but I was performing the most painful duty of my life when I counseled the king to cede Nice and Savoy to France. From my own grief I can realize what Garibaldi has suffered, and I can well afford to pardon him if he cannot forgive me." This startling controversy took place in the memorable session of the April of 1860. It was a long time before the Italians forgave the great statesman for his share in Piedmont's losses, resulting from, what seemed to them, premature 2o6 Italy: Her People and Their Story promises. Outside of Italy, too, this cession of Nice and Savoy caused great discontent, since by the treaty of Vienna these provinces, if ever separated from Piedmont, Were to be annexed to Switzerland. The Peace of Villafranca was so great an affliction to Cavour that he grew careworn and aged greatly in the space of three days; and, overcome by fatigue and chagrin, he retired from the Cabinet to his villa at Leri, leaving Ratazzi to open a new ministry. He, however, saw compensation; for Villafranca had opened a new vista the final subjection of Austria and the unity of Italy; and, accordingly, in 1860 he resumed his place in the government. Though Louis Napoleon did all he was strong enough to accomplish, and probably what was the best in the end for Italy, it has been a great question why he did not follow up his advantage. No doubt the first and greatest reason was that, although he favored Italian freedom, he was afraid he could not control Italian politics ; and accordingly he arranged a con- federacy in which France was sure to have the ascen- dancy. Another potent explanation for his action was that he feared there would be an alliance between Austria, Prussia and Great Britain against himself and Italy, which would be too overpowering to meet; and some have thought that besides these greater influ- ences he dreaded the hardships and horrors of pro- longed warfare. While the late startling events had been going on, Ferdinand II. of the Two Sicilies, who had acquired the name of " Bomba," from his frequent assaults upon his people, had died on May 22, 1859, detested by everybody. Throughout his whole reign he had sought to keep down insurrections through fear, shoot- The Unification of Italy Completed 207 ing revolutionists in the streets without mercy, and incarcerating thousands of patriots, besides establish- ing a police system under which no one was safe. It has been said that in view of the years of oppression which Naples endured under cruel rulers, it is no won- der that at the present time all the songs in southern Italy are in a minor key. The mother of Francis II., the new King of the Two Sicilies, nicknamed " Bombino," was Maria Christina, whom the Neapolitans called the " Saint," on account of her forbearance and amiability. She had died in 1836, and Francis II. was brought up under the Jesuits by his Austrian stepmother, " to whose demoralizing training he did great credit"; for each year exiles from his tyranny spread tales of Bourbon cruelty all over Europe. A strong friendship had existed between Victor Emanuel II. and Christina, the boy's mother, and the king advised Francis II. not only to grant a constitution, but to unite with Piedmont in sending troops against Austria. Francis, however, did not heed his counsel until it was too late, and in 1860, when he might possibly have consented to reform, a revolt in Palermo had already broken out, the insur- rection spreading through Messina and Catania. Although Garibaldi feared that it might prove a reckless venture, he finally consented to lead a Sicilian expedition, already fully equipped by Augustino Ber- tani and Giuseppe la Farina. The Sicilian exile Crispi and Nino Bixio urged him to go on ; but Cavour, who appreciated the advantage to be gained in case of the success of such an enterprise, took no active part in its execution, although he secretly encouraged it. General Garibaldi, with twelve hundred volunteers called "The Thousand," set sail from Genoa the 5th 208 Italy: Her People and Their Story of May, 1860, in two Italian ships, the " Lombardo " and " Piemonte," of the Rubatino Company. Gari- baldi was not disheartened at the ostensible disap- proval of the government, because he knew that suc- cess would make it all right everywhere. On the nth of May Garibaldi stepped out upon the beach at the town of Marsala, followed by his men; and, after taking possession unopposed, he " unfurled the flag of Sicilian independence in the name of Victor Emanuel, King of Italy." Here they met with many curious experiences, one of them being at the tele- graph office. " The operator was just reporting over the wires that two Sardinian vessels were disembark- ing troops in the harbor, when one of Garibaldi's party who was an expert in telegraphy, pushed him aside and finished the message with : * made a mistake, only two trading vessels.' The reply to this was brief and rather profane, and then the pseudo-operator cut the wires." At Salemi, the next halt, Garibaldi declared himself dictator in Victor Emanuel's name. The Neapolitan government, now alarmed, telegraphed to General Landi, at Palermo, to meet Garibaldi with a large force; and the struggle which took place at Calatafimi was most terrible, though Landi was finally defeated. After a week's siege Garibaldi succeeded in getting possession of Palermo by strategy, his troops entering on the 27th of May. Although they were driven away from here, they again defeated the king's troops at Milazzo on the /th of June, where the mountaineers and peasantry rallied around Garibaldi during the en- gagement. The conquest of Sicily was now complete except for Messina, which continued to hold out even after being abandoned by King Francis; and in fagt it never really surrendered. The Unification of Italy Completed 209 The Neapolitans were paralyzed with fear and the upper classes left the city, all mercantile transactions being suspended. The terrified king promised to ameliorate the condition of his people and begged Victor Emanuel to put a stop to the movement, and the latter was finally obliged to send word to Garibaldi not to cross over to Naples. Cavour, fearing that the country and the people were unprepared for so sudden a union, would far rather have delayed the con- solidation with the south for awhile; but since affairs were so well started he wrote to Garibaldi not to leave the work uncompleted, and at the same time he himself did all in his power to secretly precipitate revolt in Naples. But it was in Potenza, in the Basilicata, that this revolution finally did its effective work; for, on the i6th of August, the citizens in this town were the first to raise the flag of Italian independence. Thus, when Garibaldi landed on the shores of Naples with his heroic followers, thousands were there ready to unite with them, and the insurgents in Umbria and the Marches were "listening for Garibaldi's bugles." On the 8th of September, 1860, Garibaldi had overcome all difficulties and entered Naples. All the populace at the windows and in the streets wel- comed him with a kind of delirium, shouting, weeping and embracing each other, amidst loud cries of " Long live Italian Unity." " Garibaldi, having inaugurated a provisional gov- ernment, was as inconsistent in his procedure as the wildest of the throng. He launched one proclama- tion after another; first expelling the Jesuits and then confiscating the goods of the clergy, and at last abolish- ing lotteries and such vices. In his visionary moments he proposed, after the reduction of Capua and Gseta 210 Italy: Her People and Their Story to march upon Rome, liberate the Marches and Umbria, and in the name of Italian liberty advance from vic- tory to victory until he could unfurl the tricolored flag upon the summit of St. Mark's." A republic might have been established in such a way, but more likely chaos would have followed, instead of the subsequent magnificent consolidation of the State, since there was a lack of concord, and an exhausted treasury crippled the government. There were fifty thousand troops in Naples loyal to the Bourbon dynasty, and ready at any moment to break through Garibaldi's lines. In this case a counter revolution was sure to follow. Indeed, on the ist of October Garibaldi was obliged to meet such an emer- gency. Had it not been for Cavour's statesmanship at this time these complications might have resulted in for- eign intervention ; but, acting under his counsel as prime minister, Victor Emanuel II. now took a more decided stand, and sent word to the Pope, whose troops were getting troublesome, that he was about to rescue the inhabitants from the cruelties Lamoriciere was then committing in Umbria and the Marches. Accordingly, on September u, without awaiting a reply, the Ital- ian soldiers crossed the frontier under Cialdini, and occupied Perugia. On the i8th of September the Papal army was beaten at Castelfidardo, and Lamo- riciere, having fallen back on Ancona, was obliged to capitulate on the 26th of September. Piedmont wished to immediately annex the Neapoli- tan provinces in order to show the European nations what had really been done. Garibaldi, however, in- fluenced by the erratic counsels of Mazzini, as well as by his own inclinations, was determined first to liberate The Unification of Italy Completed 211 Rome and Venice and also to get back Nice. Cavour knew that all this could not be accomplished at once, and exclaimed : " Garibaldi wishes to prolong the revolution; while we wish to end it." So the breach between the two great men, which had arisen at the time of the cession of Nice to France, was greatly widened ; and the position became uncomfortable to Garibaldi, especially as he was accustomed to adula- tion accorded so freely and exhibited so unreservedly by the people of the south because he had done so much for them. "The badge of the Garibaldian volunteer was to them a greater inspiration than the gray coat of the Piedmontese, the ensigns of order, for which they were not ready." It was partly to con- ciliate Garibaldi and keep him from moving on Rome, and at the same time to keep control of the revolution, that the king had sent troops into the Papal States. King Francis II. of the Two Sicilies replied to all advances made by the new government : "I do not understand what you mean by the independence of Italy; I only recognize the independence of Naples." Until it was too late he refused all alliance with Ca- vour, and on the 6th of September fled to Gaeta, which he now prepared to defend with an army of thirty thousand against a siege begun by the Sardinians in 1860. On the 26th of October, 1860, Victor Emanuel II. met Garibaldi in the country near Teanum, and was greeted by the " red-shirted volunteer " as King of Italy. The king and Garibaldi seated side by side made their triumphal entry into Naples. Through the influence of the provisional government Garibaldi became reconciled to the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies being united to the Sardinian kingdom; and, accord- 212 Italy: Her People and Their Story ingly, a bill was passed to that effect by a unanimous vote of the people. The great revolutionist now volun- tarily laid aside his dictatorial dignity and retired to Caprera with a disinterestedness worthy of an old Roman ; and " the sword left by the Ghibelline leader, Castruccio Castracani, as a legacy to him who should become the liberator of his country " was given over to Victor Emanuel II. The latter was then proclaimed King of Italy by the " Grace of God " and the will of the people. When Victor Emanuel II. made his opening speech at Turin in the February of 1861, he expressed special appreciation in the name of the Italian people for the kindly attitude which the English had exhibited toward them in their recent struggle for liberty. Up to this time Victor Emanuel had simply been recognized as King of Sardinia ; but on his birthday, the I4th of March, 1861, Parliament, by acclamation, declared him King of Italy; and on the i7th of the same month the enactment was put on record as one of the statutes. Soon afterwards this title was acknowledged by Eng- land, and a little later by Switzerland and the United States. On the 2d of November, 1860, the fortress of Capua had been taken ; but Gseta, the brave defense of whose garrison was one of the most remarkable events of the period, could not be seized on account of the pro- tection of the French fleet. Napoleon III., however, on being reminded that he was violating his neutrality, withdrew his squadron. It was three months after Francis II.'s succession to the throne that the last insurrection in Naples broke out; and, when in September of 1860 he fled in a Spanish ship to Gaeta, his noble wife, a sister of the The Unification of Italy Completed 213 late Empress Eliza of Austria, compelled him during the long siege of five months, to take a stand. It was she who furnished "all the inspiration, brains, cour- age and strength of the defense " against the greatly superior force. She appeared constantly on the bat- tlements to cheer the garrison and direct the opera- tions; and, though the weak, cowardly king kept out of sight, she made herself everything that he ought to have been to the defenders. Europe looked on "amazed at this modern mediaeval fighting queen," a bride of only two months, and hardly older than a girl in her teens. After Napoleon had withdrawn his fleet, they were finally obliged to surrender, from want of food and ammunition and men to fight; but the enemy recognized her bravery and accorded the sur- vivors all the honors of war. She was afterwards made a member of the Russian Order of St. George, reserved for those who have displayed conspicuous bravery in battle. Queen Maria, ex-queen of Naples, has continued one of the most romantic figures in Europe up to the present time. Soon after their defeat she and Francis II. went to Rome and held court in the Farnese Palace, and afterwards to Paris, the home of exiled sovereigns. After that time, until the death of the ex-king in 1894, they were often in great straits in order to supply the former ignoble ruler with the means for riotous living, in spite of the fact that his wife had earlier inherited a fortune from her mother. Ex-queen Maria is an expert in boating; and in 1900 received a medal for her bravery in saving the lives of three perishing sailors whom she had drawn from the surf into her own boat just as they were sinking. Several of the States of Europe expressed their dis- 214 Italy: Her People and Their Story pleasure at the invasion of the Papal States and the annexation of the southern provinces, by removing their ambassadors ; and many of the European powers met at Warsaw in October of 1860 to discuss what action should be taken against Piedmont. England, however, came to the rescue and took a public stand in favor of Italy, Lord Palmerston announcing that the Italian people had the sympathy and good-will of Great Britain. To further reward the French Em- peror for his part in forming the Italian kingdom, Monaco was added to a French department made of Nice, and in return France acknowledged Victor Emanuel as King of Italy. Thus the first part of the great drama, in which Garibaldi had brought free- dom to Naples and Sicily, closed. When Garibaldi retired to Caprera the lower classes were not satisfied, since they had no confidence in the new government and were offended in many respects by Cavour's general policy, as well as at his late attitude against the convents. In the Parliament of March of the same year the breach between Cavour and Garibaldi was widened when the question of the rank of the Garibaldian officers came up, and it appeared as though their ser- vices had not been appreciated. This aroused Gari- baldi, and he rushed to Turin, declaring in the Chamber that he would never again shake hands with Cavour. The king, much grieved, soon brought about a recon- ciliation through a letter which Garibaldi at last con- sented to send Cavour on the i8th of May, 1861, just before Cavour's death. In the epistle Garibaldi recog- nized the latter's " superior capacity," and said that he should gladly await Cavour's " summons to a field of action." The Unification of Italy Completed 215 Like all new governments, it was not always smooth sailing for the Italian " ship of State." The difference in the character and training of the people in the north and south showed itself in many ways and was the occasion of much discord. Victor Emanuel found it necessary to put into office those who had held posi- tions under the Bourbons, and these were not always trustworthy; and, besides, there was a good deal of grumbling among the higher classes in Naples, be- cause reforms did not go on so fast as the Neapolitans desired. Thus many could not see that they were bene- fited much by belonging to Piedmont, especially as in doing so they had sacrificed Naples as a gay capital. Brigandage had now become very common in the Abruzzi and the Basilicata. The brigands pretended that they belonged to the army of Francis II., calling themselves generals and colonels of the king, in order that they might find an asylum in the Pope's territory. During the summer of 1861 these armed robbers be- came so adroit that even Naples was not considered a safe place. " They fired at railway trains, sacked villages, slaughtered cattle and attacked and slew men in their own dwellings, often carrying off wealthy prisoners in order to obtain a large ransom. The line between the soldier and the brigand and the brigand and the common laborer was very closely drawn, since the peasant as he worked in his garden had a gun in his hand and used it, as became necessary, along with his spade." Oftentimes the real officers of the King of Naples did not hesitate to act with the brigands, and one Don Jose Borges, a Spanish adventurer, enlisted with them, expecting in truth to restore the Bourbon rule in the Two Sicilies. He soon perceived, however, that 216 Italy: Her People and Their Story it was only lawlessness and plunder that animated the gang; and seeing that the king's cause was not ad- vanced he determined to leave them. But before he could accomplish this they stripped him of everything, and, while he was hastening to inform Francis II. about the character of his retainers he was shot. King Francis II., while living in Rome after his downfall, was in the habit of sending arms as well as officers and men to reinforce the most infamous malefactors, such as those just spoken of, and others like Ciprian, Lagala, etc. Many thousand brigands joined these leaders, and one band took the little village of Melfi. These, with other difficulties, gradually disappeared before the energy and good sense of Victor Emanuel II. and his ministers, all classes having learned that they could trust the new sovereign; and the great progress socially and politically reconciled the Neapoli- tans to the loss of what they considered their former privileges. Two momentous questions still demanded solution, Rome and Venice ; for the unspeakable anguish which the Venetians felt in being abandoned kept them ever on the alert to take advantage of any opportunity to gain their freedom. The activity of Count Cavour during the year 1860, after he again accepted the premiership, was simply marvelous, and the expenditure of nervous force no doubt hastened his death. His work throughout evinced the kindness of his heart and exhibited his purpose to follow right and justice. He at one time wrote to the guardian of the seal, " The statesman who is not ready to sacrifice even his good name for his country is not worthy to govern his peers." Again he writes : " My experience of thirteen years con- The Unification of Italy Completed 217 vinces me that an honest, energetic ministry, which does not fear the press, or let itself be influenced by extreme parties, has much to gain from parliamentary contests and debates. I would not betray my trust or deny the principles of my life. I am the son of Liberty and owe her all that I am. If a veil is to be placed over her statue, it will not be I who do it." No one suffered more than Cavour from unbridled license of the press ; yet he persistently refused to have it muzzled. He abolished the duties according to his doctrine of free trade, while at the same time as Minis- ter of Finance this compelled him to see the revenues decreasing. Notwithstanding his liberal tendencies, he favored a monarchy rather than a republic for Italy; yet, though noble himself, he held birth and position lightly. The Papal government was now rapidly crumbling to pieces, and all saw that the first attack of the Italian troops would wind up the temporal power of the Pope. While the Bourbon army was still in the field, Cavour spoke in the Chamber on the necessity of Rome be- coming the capital of Italy. He showed that it held within itself all the elements that the chief city of a great State needed; and in another speech made in 1861 he closed by saying that everything pointed to Rome, with its renown of twenty-five centuries, as the glorious capital. With regard to the Church, he said, that liberty, being favorable to the development of genuine religion, the Church would lose nothing by the amalgamation of Rome and Italy, and that the Holy Father would sacrifice nothing by giving up his tem- poral power; on the other hand he would gain greater liberty than that which he had sought from the Catho- lic powers and had never been able to gain from 218 Italy: Her People and Their Story " concordats." He also said that all enlightened Catholics must see that His Holiness would be able to exercise the duties of his office more freely and in- dependently, supported by the affection of millions of the Italian people than by twenty-five thousand bayo- nets. Near the close of his speech, the last he ever made in the Chamber, he said : " All the world knows how to govern by martial law ; I would rule by means of liberty " ; and then he gave utterance to the same words which a short time after were on his lips in death : " Liber a Chiesa in libero Stato " (A free Church in a free State). Cavour's strength had gradually failed under the long strain incident to the changes in the government of Italy. On the eve of the 2d of June, the day ap- pointed and still kept by the government as a national holiday in commemoration of the accomplishment of Italian unity, Cavour returned home tired and worn, and was soon after taken dangerously ill. The court- yard of his palace was continually thronged with a sympathizing crowd until the small hours of the night, while the telegraph was kept busy sending medical bulletins all over Europe. In his delirium Cavour often called for his private secretary, saying to his physician : " Cure me at once ; my time is precious ; for I have all Italy on my shoul- ders." He was very anxious about the southern States, which then presented the same vexing questions as at the present time. He said to the king, who was almost constantly with him in his last sickness : " The north is complete, there are no longer Lombards, Piedmontese or Tuscans, we are all Italians; but alas, there are still Neapolitans. Many of them are very corrupt, poor fellows, but it is not their fault; they The Unification of Italy Completed 219 must be purged again and again." This was very significant and intelligible to those who, since 1861, have witnessed the patience required to bring order out of chaos in this section. Cavour then said : " In twenty years the Kingdom of Naples will contain the richest provinces in Italy." In delirium he went on : " Gari- baldi is a gentleman. I wish him well. He rushed to the aid of Rome and Venice; but that donkey of a Ferdinando, [meaning Francis II.], his is such a cor- rupt government that Providence cannot permit it to be restored. Moral influence must be introduced and the youth educated. They covet badges of honor. If they are patriotic and honest, I will buy their badges for them and forward their promotion," etc. Cavour died in June, 1861, and Victor Emanuel 'desired that he should be buried in the cemetery of the Royal House of Savoy in the Superga, but the great statesman, in accordance with his own request, was interred in his family tomb at Santena in the village of Chieri. In personal appearance Cavour was of medium stature and rather stout. He had a broad forehead and wore glasses. He was quick and energetic in his movements, and, although sometimes his smile was ironical, his countenance as a whole was expressive of benignity. Simple in his manners, but dignified in his bearing, he would have been recognized anywhere as a country gentleman familiar with court usage. He believed in his mission to save Italy; and even though he often changed his tactics, he never for a moment lost sight of the objective point. He was clear in his statements, but wholly lacked the ideality and sentiment of such enthusiasts as Mazzini. There had been differences of opinion between the 22O Italy: Her People and Their Story two great men who worked together, but such were soon settled, Cavour acknowledging that Victor Emanuel alone could unite Italy; while the king de- clared that the settlement of political differences in Piedmont was due to the great statesman. Indeed, one of Victor Emanuel's important services to Italy was his recognition of Cavour's wonderful genius, shown in giving him absolute freedom of action without reference to personal preferences. Time has proved how high Cavour ranks in the role of Europe's statesmen ; and the development of Italian history since 1860 corroborates the common verdict that " no statesman ever so wisely directed the desti- nies of any nation on the road to constitutional liberty." Cavour was hardly second in diplomacy to Bismarck, whom he greatly resembled; and in strength and straightforwardness he had no equal. Many con- temporaries wrote eulogistic notices of his character after his death, all agreeing that he would receive eternal honors from posterity, and that his name would live as long as the deeds of heroes are recorded in history ; and it is since apparent to all that his memory is every year becoming more and more imperishable. Venice Given up by Austria 221 CHAPTER XV THE UNITED KINGDOM OF ITALY. CAPITAL REMOVED FROM TURIN TO FLORENCE. ALLIANCE WITH PRUS- SIA. PRUSSIAN ARMY VICTORIOUS AT KONIGGRATZ. AUSTRIA GIVES UP VENICE. ITALIAN ARMY DE- FEATED AT CUSTOZA, ETC. END OF SEPTEMBER CON- VENTION. POPE YIELDS TO SUPERIOR FORCE AND GIVES UP TEMPORAL POWER. THE PAPAL STATES AMALGAMATED. 18611870 A.D. AT the death of Cavour the consolidation of Italy had in reality been accomplished. Such able statesmen as Ricasoli, Minghetti, Ratazzi, Farini, La Marmora, Lanza and Crispi, and others who succeeded him, tried to carry out his policy, but none of them approached him in coolness of judgment and thorough- ness of execution. The last struggle for Italian liberty took place in Rome, where the early history of Italy began. Ricasoli formed a conservative government, and Ratazzi led the opposition, while Garibaldi swore never to rest until Rome and Venice were free ; and, together with Mazzini, he was ready for any act which would bring about the desired results the most speedily. These two men both wanted to take from the Pope his spiritual as well as his temporal power, and to confiscate all the property of the Church. It was even suspected that they were opposed to a constitutional monarchy, and would have been glad to dethrone Victor Emanuel and 222 Italy: Her People and Their Story establish a radical democracy. Although Ratazzi, the former minister of Charles Albert, did not wholly agree with Garibaldi, his party at times allied them- selves with the Garibaldians, thinking that the State would grant a subsidy for a speedy expedition to gain Venetia. When, however, Ratazzi succeeded Ricasoli as minister, he changed his policy, in the hope that, by taking a more conservative course like Cavour, he would run no risk in the event of failure and receive the benefits of success in case of a prosperous issue. But he was not so tactful as Cavour had been in his dealings with Napoleon. In 1862 Garibaldi raised a volunteer army of twenty- five hundred men. Napoleon, regarding this as a men- ace, ordered Ratazzi to stop him; and the latter, in order to conciliate Napoleon, sent out against Gari- baldi government troops under Cialdini, who was de- feated by the volunteers at Reggio on the 28th of Sep- tember, 1862 ; but the next day Garibaldi in turn was beaten at Asprimonte by General Pallavincini. Al- though there were only a few shots fired, Garibaldi was wounded and carried to Spezia as a prisoner. Ratazzi was blamed for his cowardice in allowing Garibaldi to be sacrificed, and also in permitting the French garrison to still be kept in Rome. The whole disturbance unearthed so many skeletons that Ratazzi was obliged to retire from office in 1863, and Garibaldi was allowed to go back to Caprera. The next year Garibaldi went to London for the purpose of raising money to carry on the war against Austria. Although England refrained from giving him any material support, she and all Europe were aroused in favor of Italian unity. Thus, though this expedition had seemingly ended in failure, like all of Venice Given up by Austria 223 Garibaldi's insurrections it had spurred on the people to more earnest effort to bring Rome and Venice into the Italian kingdom ; and the ministers of Victor Emanuel, seeing that the foreign powers were in sym- pathy with them, felt encouraged to press on to the completion of the union and freedom of Italy. The Italian people were indignant on account of the continuance of French troops in Rome, and accord- ingly Napoleon and Victor Emanuel in 1864 agreed to what was called the " September Convention." By its terms, the French garrison was gradually to be re- moved so that the Pope might have a chance to sur- round himself with a defensive force before the end of two years, when the French were to withdraw from Rome altogether. In exchange for these concessions, Victor Emanuel promised to make no attack on the Pope's territory, and the people were to give up the idea of Rome for a capital. It was now generally understood that the whole Italian peninsula, including the majority of the in- habitants of the Papal States, desired that all Italy should be united with Rome for its capital. Yet it was thought to be good policy to make it appear that this project was abandoned; and accordingly the seat of government was removed from Turin to Florence in 1865, at the time of the celebration attending the sixth centennial anniversary of Dante's birth. The people of Turin had been quite reconciled to the idea of giving up their prestige to Rome; but now, when they saw that the capital was taken away from them, to be given to Florence, riots broke out. It was Cavour who in 1861 had first seriously con- sidered an alliance with Prussia. La Marmora was at that time sent to pay his respects to King William I. 224 Italy: Her People and Their Story on his ascension to the throne in the January of that year, and in the interview he referred to the similarity of the early history of Piedmont and Prussia, men- tioning that the Italians regarded His Majesty as their friend and benefactor. Afterwards when the early bitterness between Prussia and Austria began to be apparent, Prince Bismarck broached the subject of an alliance to La Marmora, who was prime minis- ter; and thus on the 8th of April, 1866, a compact was made between Italy and Prussia, pledging mutual sup- port in case of war against Austria. The latter, when she found herself so embroiled, offered through France to give Venetia back to Italy, if Victor Emanuel would annul his contract with Prussia. Having pledged him- self, however, the latter refused to be disloyal, and the King of Prussia in turn agreed not to yield in case of war, until Austria should give up to the Italians all that part of Venetia which did not include the city of Venice and the quadrilateral formed of the fortresses of Verona, Vincenza, Peschiera and Mantua. On the 20th of June, 1866, war having been de- clared against Austria, La Marmora took command of the army and Garibaldi came over from Caprera to lead twenty battalions of volunteers. At first it was thought that Garibaldi might be employed success- fully to stir up the populace of Dalmatia, and then to force an encounter with the Austrian troops in the direction of Vienna; but, fearing Garibaldi's natural impetuosity the king only dared to send this erratic revolutionist into the Tyrol, while General Cialdini drew up his large force on the lower Po. The Aus- trians, although far outnumbered, were strongly forti- fied in the quadrilateral, under Archduke Albert. On the 24th the Italians and Austrians met on the heights Venice Given up by Austria 225 of Custoza, that battle-ground formerly so fatal to Charles Albert. Although La Marmora showed great courage, he did not possess the happiest qualities of a commander- in-chief. There were many personal deeds of valor during the battle, but no unanimity of purpose was shown ; and no doubt the moral effect of the former disastrous defeat at Custoza in 1848 was depressing to the soldiers. In any case, the disappointment to the Italians, when their army was obliged to retreat instead of achieving the glorious victory expected, was most overwhelming. Meanwhile Garibaldi, in the Tyrol, was struggling against fearful odds and finally was beaten and wounded at Monte Suello. In Germany, however, the Austrians had been de- feated by the Prussians at Sadowa; and on the 3d of July they again made the offer to Victor Emanuel to give up Venetia. The king refused to agree to such dishonorable terms, and the Italians still determined to keep on fighting. Garibaldi, in view of this, pene- trated without difficulty as far as Trent, while Cialdini continued on his way to Venetia. Here, after the de- cisive battle of the 22d of July, 1866, at Koniggratz, an armistice was concluded between Prussia and Austria without waiting to confer with Italy. In the meantime the Italian fleet had been defeated on the 2Oth by the Austrians at Lissa, an island on the Adriatic coast. Their admiral, Persano, was removed on account of inefficiency, since Italy, being proud of her navy, had expected a great and victorious sea- fight. At the Peace of Prague, on August 23, 1866, Aus- tria was obliged to give up Venetia to Napoleon III., who yielded it practically entire, including Venice and 226 Italy: Her People and Their Story the fortresses on the frontier, to Victor Emanuel, after the people had ratified it by a vote. The Iron Crown of Lombardy, also, which had been taken in 1859 and carried to Vienna, now had to be given up. Austria kept for herself Istria and Aquileia and other primi- tive cities of Venetia on the Dalmatian coast. Although the Italians had gained little personal glory, their long- wished-for purpose was attained; and, on the 7th of November when Victor Emanuel entered Venice, the populace raised a jubilant shout at being at last free from foreign servitude, and cried simultaneously: " Long live the King ! Long live the King ! " After seventeen years of French rule, in accord- ance with the September Convention, the French troops were withdrawn from Rome at the end of 1866, and the Pope was left to his own resources. The repub- licans under Mazzini wished to attack the city, while Ratazzi followed the same prudent course as in 1862. Notwithstanding the king had announced that he would try to bring the two parties to an agreement, Garibaldi as usual made an effort to rouse the citizens in several districts; and everything was ready for an uprising. But on the 3d of September the Italian government was obliged, on account of complications with Napoleon, still a defender of the Pope, to put Garibaldi under guard in Caprera. This arrest was only a farce, however, for in spite of it the revolu- tionists went right ahead and penetrated into the Papal States. Louis Napoleon now considered that the September Convention had been violated, and on the i6th of Octo- ber, 1867, sent a fleet from Toulon to rescue the Pope. This was just after the time that Garibaldi had es- caped from Caprera in a little fishing-boat and had Venice Given up by Austria 227 succeeded in reaching Tuscany without being way- laid. He gained a victory at Monte Rotondo on the 26th of October, and the king was obliged again to promise that he would stop the advance of the volun- teers. But there were still further attempts on the part of Garibaldi, which became abortive, and he was sent back to Caprera. During this time Ratazzi, find- ing that affairs were getting too complicated, again resigned. Even though the expedition of 1867 had failed, Garibaldi had as usual accomplished his purpose in further arousing the people and stimulating the sym- pathies of the Liberal party in Europe, especially in England. Notwithstanding the French government said that Italy could never have possession of Rome, Giovanni Lanza, speaker of the Italian Chamber, de- clared in December, 1867, that Rome " through the very nature of things " must finally be made the capi- tal of Italy. Accordingly, when Napoleon III. sought Italy's alliance in 1869 against Prussia, the government was ready to agree to it on condition that Rome should be at once evacuated ; but the Church party influenced Napoleon not to listen to the terms and it had to be given up. After the first defeat in 1870 Napoleon again asked help from Victor Emanuel; but there was a general outcry in Italy against the French; and, making the alliance of 1866 with Prussia an excuse, Italy took a neutral stand. On the 8th of August, the French army being needed to help carry on the war at home, it left Rome and sailed from Civita Vecchia. Still Pope Pius IX. would not go, and the government under Victor Eman- uel was much alarmed lest the republicans, who 228 Italy: Her People and Their Story were becoming more violent every day, should molest His Holiness, especially since Mazzini was urging them to more strenuous effort. It now looked as if, unless the king moved at once, the revolutionists would rise en masse and engulf the whole Italian gov- ernment ; and if Rome were taken without the author- ity of the king, it would be the capital of the re- public of Italy, and unity as a nation would without doubt be lost. Besides, the king still felt himself bound by the September Convention ; and accordingly he had Mazzini seized and confined at Gaeta; not be- cause his untiring efforts were unappreciated, but be- cause his violent methods would have overturned the monarchy. On the 24th of August, 1870, Prince Jerome Bona- parte, the king's son-in-law, arrived in Florence to push matters, agreeing to let the Roman question alone. It was too late, however, for any alliance, since it was an established fact that Louis Napoleon had no further power to prevent them from absorbing the Papal States. After the victory of Sedan a republic was pro- claimed in France on the 4th of September, 1870; and the foreign minister of the new French republic de- clared the September Convention, which had lasted six years, at an end. The agitation in Italy was now at a white heat, and the newspapers were full of vehe- ment articles entitled " To Rome," which declared that the Pope must now yield his temporal power. Meet- ings followed in all the principal cities of Italy de- manding Rome as the capital of Italy, and the seizure of the Papal States. The excitement was so great that no ministry, and not even the monarchy itself, could resist the will of the people. Venice Given up by Austria 229 Victor Emanuel, who saw that immediate action must be taken, wrote a letter to Pius IX., begging him at last to give up the temporal power. The Pontiff replied to this that he would do so only under compul- sion. The court at Florence also sent a respectful letter to the Holy Father, saying that the Italian gov- ernment " regarded his spiritual office with the pro- foundest reverence ; but that the exigencies of the times demanded the downfall of his temporal power, and that it was hoped he would yield amicably." The Pope flatly refused in a concise letter read be- fore a formal audience given his ambassador in Flor- ence on the loth of September, 1870, and the next day, Sunday, September u, the troops of Victor Emanuel entered the States of the Church at three different points. General Cadorna, setting out from Turin for Rome soon after stationed his forces at Porta Pia on the iQth. A second division proceeded from Orvieto to Civita Vecchia under General Bixio, while a third under General Angioletti invaded the Papal States by the way of Frosinone and Anagni. The Pope commanded, that since any resistance would be useless, there should be only a sufficient exhibition of force to prove to the world that his realms were taken away from him by military violence. At half-past eight on the 2Oth of September, 1870, a breach was made in the Porta Pia, at half -past nine it was leveled to the ground, and at ten o'clock a part of General Cadorna's army entered Rome and took pos- session. The temporal power of the Pope had lasted eleven centuries, ever since Pepin the Short ceded the territory to Pope Stephen in return for the coronation of himself and his sons. Although Pius IX. had long seen that his temporal 230 Italy: Her People and Their Story power hung by a thread, he was obliged, in order to retain his prestige with the Catholic Church, to seem to yield only under the greatest pressure, and to ap- pear in the role of a martyr shut up as a prisoner in his own domain. The Popes have done this ever since, but there never has been the slightest effort on the part of their people to change the environment or separate them from the dignified and luxurious life they have there enjoyed without intermission. The Palace of the Caesars, the Forum, and the most of the ruined monuments of Ancient Rome, besides the business and residence portions, are on the left bank of the Tiber ; while on the right is the " Leonine City," consisting of the Vatican and St. Peter's and "nearly all the artistic wealth which the Catholic Church has accumulated during a period of a thou- sand years," and especially during the reign of Pope Leo X., the illustrious pontiff from whom the Leonine City is named. In order that these environs of the Pope might not be disturbed, a regiment of Italian troops were sta- tioned in the gardens of the Vatican to protect His Holiness. On the 2d of October, 1870, by a unanimous vote, the people of Rome cast off all temporal alle- giance to the Pope, and became the subjects of the King of united Italy. The clerical party would not vote, declaring that " they were overawed by sixty thousand bayonets and that any appeal to the ballot- box was a farce." In the September previous to this the Italian govern- ment issued a manifesto declaring that, although the political authority of the Pope had been superseded, the pontiff should still be free to exercise his ecclesiastical functions. It was also agreed that besides supporting Venice Given up by Austria 231 the Pope, Italy would assume the debts hitherto con- tracted by the Papal States. Later, in 1871, by the "Bill of Papal Guarantees," enacted at Florence, the person of the Pope was de- clared sacred and inviolable, any offense against him being punishable in the same way as though perpe- trated against the king. He was allowed as many guards as he thought necessary to protect his palace and person, his annual allowance being fixed at three million two hundred and twenty-five thousand liras, free from all taxation. But it is said that his annual sti- pend has never, in all the years since, been touched by the Papal government. The Pope was to remain in possession of the Vatican with its libraries and art gal- leries, the Lateran, the Villa of Castel Gondolfo, and the Church of San Maria Maggiore. His Holiness was left free to correspond with the bishops and the whole Catholic world without interference on the part of the Italian Kingdom. Postal and telegraph ser- vice was attached to each of his palaces for the private use of his government, and all Papal schools, univer- sities, and colleges in Rome and the suburban dioceses were entirely under his control; and no official or other government agent was to be allowed to enter any of the Pope's dominions without His Holiness' permission. Thus the government exhibited all the magnanimity that a self-reliant State, sure of its posi- tion, could show to a great but subjected power. One faction, the party of the Left, were opposed to every concession ; but, notwithstanding this, the priv- ilege of nominating and appointing officers in the Church was given to His Holiness on condition that Italian subjects should be chosen; and bishops were exempted from taking the oath of allegiance to the 232 Italy: Her People and Their Story king. Bills were passed concerning Church property, religious corporations, convents, monasteries and their superiors, so as to avoid interference with the Pope's peculiar position. The heads of these institutions were given an annuity from the State, and while the incum- bents lived, apartments were left them in the houses where they had so long resided. The new parliament in Florence opened on the 5th of December, 1870. In his speech at this time Victor Emanuel said : " When Rome is finally made the capital of Italy I shall have fulfilled my promise to my people and shall have finished the enterprise which was begun by my sainted and heroic father twenty-three years ago. My heart thrills both as a monarch and a son as I salute all the representatives of our united country for the first time and say : 'Italy is free and united; it only remains for us to make her great, happy and prosperous.' " Victor Emanuel II. and King Humbert 233 CHAPTER XVI VICTOR EMANUEL ENTERS ROME AS KING OF UNITED ITALY. HE ADMINISTERS AFFAIRS OF THE GOVERN- MENT FAITHFULLY. DEATH OF MANY OF ITALY'S EMINENT MEN. VICTOR EMANUEL DIES. DEATH OF POPE PIUS. POPE LEO XIII. REIGN OF KING HUM- BERT. DEATH OF GARIBALDI. SUCCEEDING EVENTS AND CHANGES. 18701899 A.D. VICTOR EMANUEL showed great emotion when the envoys came to Florence in the December of 1870 to announce to him officially, that by a unanimous vote of the people, Rome had been made the capital of united Italy. The king responded in a speech, saying that at last the great work of reconstructing the State had been achieved, and that " the name of Rome, the grandest ever uttered by man, was joined to that of Italy, the name dearest to his heart." In proclaim- ing the unity of Italy from the Adriatic to the Apen- nines and from the north to the extreme south, he said that he should remain true to the liberty guaran- teed to the Church and the legitimate independence of the Pope. The people, rejoicing from one end of Italy to the other, felt that the ashes of Cavour in Santena must have stirred in the tomb, as the deputation from Rome crowned his monument with an imperishable memorial, in recognition of the nation's gratitude for a life spent in the nation's service, culminating in the regeneration of the State. 234 Italy: Her People and Their Story After Victor Emanuel II. took up his residence in the Quirinal Palace, desirous of making any sacrifice con- sistent with the welfare of united Italy, he sent a mes- sage to Pope Pius IX., in which he expressed his per- sonal devotion to the Church and congratulated His Holiness on having held his sacred office more than twenty-five years, a longer space of time than legen- dary history assigns to St. Peter. It was a great disap- pointment that Pius IX. denied an audience to the ambassador and disdained other similar attentions from the Quirinal. From the 2d of July, 1871, the time when the king established his court at Rome, the Chamber of Depu- ties occupied the Monte Citorio Palace, while the Senate took possession of the Madama Palace. From that era there has been no considerable inter- ruption in the public peace ; but although the relation of Italy with foreign affairs involves many problems which require great tact, it has been in the control of domestic concerns that the most numerous difficulties have been found. The lack of previous training in carrying on a constitutional government, the apathy and ignorance of the people, so long held down by tyranny, and the subtle influence of the Papal party over the people, has made the business of governing united Italy very perplexing. Victor Emanuel continued to carry on the affairs of State with great fairness to the end. He adopted what- ever measures his ministers, selected by a vote of Par- liament, approved; and his great success was due to his wisdom and firmness in adhering to constitutional forms. In opening the first Parliament he said: " The work to which we have consecrated our lives is completed. Italy is restored after long and self-sacri- Victor Emanuel II. and King Humbert 235 ficing effort. Everything speaks to us, not only of past greatness, but of future duties, and in the joy of the occasion we must not forget our responsibilities. Re- generated by liberty, may we seek in freedom and order the secret of strength, and endeavor to reconcile Church and State." The government now took up the management of public instruction, and, though they confined themselves to teaching ethics in the elementary schools, in 1874 there was unrestricted religious freedom given to those private and ecclesiastical schools and to the monastic institutions which until recently had been the only source of learning open to the Italian youth. Yet the Church was not satisfied with the provision. In order to show their gratitude, affection and ap- preciation, the people 'celebrated on March 23, 1874, the twenty-fifth anniversary of Victor Emanuel's accession to the throne, his sovereignty at that time having extended over little more than Sardinia and Piedmont. The next year Garibaldi's wise and patriotic course in Parliament surprised all who had feared that there would be some disturbance; and the government was more firmly established by his attitude. The attention of the State was drawn more and more to the destitution in Sicily and the south, where the industries had been neglected and the people were indifferent to progress. The railroad system through- out Italy was but poorly sustained, Piedmont, Ligu- ria, Lombard and Tuscany, all together in 1859 sup- porting not much more than a thousand miles of rail- road. In the Neapolitan provinces, with an area equal to the combined territory just mentioned, there were only one hundred and fourteen miles ; while in Sicily, 36 Italy: Her People and Their Story which is as large as Piedmont, no railway existed at all, and the ordinary roads and postal and telegraphic service were correspondingly inferior. But as early as the end of 1871 there had been nearly six thousand additional miles of railway laid, of the most difficult construction. That year the Mont Cenis tunnel between France and Italy was completed; and after that the two largest tunnels in Europe were built, the Arlberg, in the Austrian Tyrol, and the St. Gott- hard, the latter having been the principal route from Switzerland to Italy. Meanwhile the great men whose wisdom had accom- plished the consolidation of Italy had passed away one after the other. Mazzini had lingered at death's door for a long time in exile at Lugano in Switzerland, but at last he was permitted to die in Pisa, a beloved city, in the midst of loving companionship. He was fol- lowed to the grave by a vast throng, who felt that he had ennobled their patriotism. His remains were placed in the Campo Santo in Genoa. The London Times had warned the Emperor of France, at the time of the siege of Rome, that he had to contend not with a broken-hearted exile, but, " with the Mazzini in every Italian breast." The truth of this admonition now be- came apparent ; for, although " he had been hunted like a felon while living," the Italian Assembly and officers of rank, and the whole European press, now delighted to crown his grave with laurel. The fact that Mazzini preferred cross roads to beaten tracks in reaching the goal was soon forgotten by posterity in their gratitude for the part he took in bringing about the liberation of Italy. Mazzini had among his friends the great and learned; but during the many years of his exile, spent Victor Emanuel II. and King Humbert 237 mainly in London, he cultivated, for the most part, men and women devoted to liberty. The great patriot while living in London did much to ameliorate the condition of his countrymen by starting free and benevolent schools for the Italian youth and children, besides performing many other charitable deeds. At the age of sixteen, while walking in the streets of Genoa with his mother, Mazzini beheld some bruised and wounded Piedmontese, revolters from Austrian oppression; and in an instant he became a full-fledged patriot. Soon after this he was confined in prison for writing patriotic articles for the " Antolo- gia of Florence." The governor of Genoa, when ques- tioned by his father as to the reason of his imprison- ment, replied : " Your son is a young man of talent, given to solitary walks, and silent as to the subject of his meditations; and the government is not fond of such young men, the theme of whose musings is un- known to us." This was the Italy to which Mazzini was born a country which threw its young thinkers into dungeons. Urbano Ratazzi was among the statesmen who died during the early years of the new regime. After Cavour's death the Conservatives, or party of the Right, as they were called, held the power in the government; but when this party became unpopular on account of many mistakes and its unwise fiscal policy, the opposition was in the majority, and accord- ing to custom it remained with Depretis, the leader of the Left, to form a new ministry. Their policy proved so popular, and in the next election the Left had so overpowering a majority, that compromises had to be made in order to avoid an outbreak. On the 5th of January, 1878, General Alphonso la 238 Italy: Her People and Their Story Marmora breathed his last at Florence, the city of his adoption; and on the pth Victor Emanuel also passed away. The king was a loyal Catholic still, and when he saw his end approaching he desired to receive the Holy Communion; but his private chaplain did not dare to administer the sacrament to an excommuni- cated person until he had permission from the Pope. His Holiness, notwithstanding that he had so fre- quently stigmatized Victor Emanuel as a " sacrilegious usurper," sent a message, regretting that his own feeble condition did not permit him to leave the Vatican to solemnize in person the " last communion " at the Quirinal. During his reign of eight years Victor Emanuel II. had preserved, amidst the splendor of his fashion- able court, the simple tastes of his early life. His were the ways of the people, and nothing gave him such genuine pleasure as associating with them on equal terms. It was no uncommon experience for him to sit down to the villagers' humble table and eat bread and cheese at their family board. A story is told of a countryman who, when unsuc- cessfully trying to lift his wagon out of the mire, saw a strong, burly stranger passing and said : " I should think you might lend a hand in lifting this wagon." " Certainly," the stranger replied, as he put his shoulder to the wheel, and lifted the vehicle onto level ground. At this moment a traveler coming along made a humble obeisance, and the rustic, greatly humiliated, discovered that his friend in need had been the King of Italy. Victor Emanuel first won the confidence of the Italian nation when, soon after Charles Albert's abdi- cation, he induced Radetsky to allow the Sardinian Victor Emanuel II. and King Humbert 239 Constitution to stand, at a time when every other vestige of representative government in Italy was swept away. The king's death excited the most profound dem- onstrations of respect and sorrow throughout the country. We read to-day over his tomb in the Pan- theon, where he was then buried, the familiar words: " To the Father of His Country." Every year up to the time of King Humbert's death, at a very late hour on the Qth of January, a somber mourning cortege passed through the streets of Rome from the Quirinal to the Pantheon, where the retinue remained for several hours in private devotion before Victor Emanuel's tomb, the whole day being given up to general memorial services. During the entire week thousands of the populace and many strangers visited this renowned structure, which was shrouded in gloom. The large opening in the dome was enveloped in mourning draperies and the black hangings about the tomb of him who devoted his life to the interests of Italy were decked with stars of pearl; while on the other hand Raphael's tomb and the monuments of other famous Italians were concealed. The death of the king was followed a few weeks later, on the 7th of February, 1878, by that of Pope Pius IX. The latter had also done much for the con- solidation of Italy at the dawn of Italian independence, by supporting the national movement in the beginning of his reign; while his subsequent withdrawal made the accomplishment of the task easier ; since otherwise hampering concessions with reference to his temporal sovereignity, as well as with respect to the rights of the Church, would have been obligatory. Pope Pius IX.'s body lay in state three days in the 240 Italy: Her People and Their Story Church of St. Peter's, on a rich cover of crimson, sur- rounded by twelve golden candlesticks. It was so placed that all the faithful could gather around and kiss his feet. In the conclave which was held immediately after, sixty-one cardinals were present ; and after a session of thirty-six hours inside closed doors, Cardinal Gioa- chino Pecci, then sixty-eight years of age, was chosen. He took the title of Leo XIII., the coronation cere- monies taking place on March 3, 1878. Leo XIII. for a time followed closely in the foot- steps of Pius IX., though he showed himself a much broader ecclesiastic. For many years he supported the illusion that temporal power would be restored, since he held that otherwise spiritual authority could not be freely maintained. At the same time he kept before the Catholic world the idea that the Pope was being kept a prisoner in the Vatican. Notwithstanding this, the Pope's subjects in Italy from the first appeared satisfied with the new regime. The Prince of Piedmont, the eldest son of Victor Emanuel, succeeded to the throne as Humbert I. In the course of his memorable speech on the occasion of his taking the oath, he said : " The only solace left to us is to prove worthy of the departed, I, by following in his footsteps and you by imitating his civic virtues ; and I shall not forget the precepts my father was always anxious to impress upon me, that a religious observance of Italy's liberal institutions is the surest safeguard against all peril. That has been the strength of my House; that shall be my strength also." With Victor Emanuel the violent period of the rapid unification of Italy closed, that era of "tragic con- spiracies, bold diplomacy, and bloody battles " ; with POPE LEO XIIL Victor Emanuel II. and King Humbert 241 Humbert there opened an epoch of pacific labor which was to make the Italian union more rich, prosperous and compact; and the people more capable of under- standing their country's needs. King Humbert was born the I4th of March, 1844, his mother being Mary Adelaide of Ranieri. His various praenomina were sufficient to stifle the growth of any small boy, though they seem not to have affected him physically or morally. They were Humbert Ranieri Charles Emanuel John Maria Ferdinand Eugene. He remained under the care of his mother until she died, when he was ten years old, and then he was put under Giuseppe Rossi for military training. As is usual in the case of royalty, he held a military rank from childhood, but it was only after rigorous training that he gained his officer's epaulets. At four- teen, in March, 1848, he became captain of the 3d Regiment of Infantry. In 1859 he was with his father at the Battle of Magenta, where he was received with such enthusiasm that he gained the name of the " gal- lant Humbert"; and great honors were conferred upon him by his countrymen in memory of his noble bravery. Humbert and Amadeus both took part in the Austrian struggle of 1866 at Custoza, the former receiving a medal for valor. Humbert was at first engaged to an Austrian duchess, and bridal presents had been exchanged, when the charming young lady was burned to death by her silken scarf igniting from a lighted cigarette. Soon after this he was affianced, by his father, to his cousin, Margherita, daughter of the Duke of Genoa. She is said to have been the most beautiful woman in Italy and was afterwards called the " Pearl of Savoy." The wedding festivities were celebrated at Turin on 242 Italy: Her People and Their Story the 22d of April, 1868, and were very brilliant. Victor Emanuel, Prince of Naples, now king, was born the next year. Victor Emanuel II. had been careless in his ex- penses, and at the time of his death the leader of the Left proposed that his debts should be canceled by the nation ; but Humbert replied resolutely : " I must pay all my father's obligations." He was able to accomplish this only through great economy in his royal household. The exhibition of feeling throughout the peninsula at the time of King Humbert's accession to the throne proved that, though slowly, the critical point had been reached and safely passed, and that the enduring strength of the government was cemented by the affec- tion of the people. At first the Italian government simply sought to keep up friendly relations with all nations; but at the Berlin Congress in 1878 it became apparent that it was for Italy's interest to no longer abstain from formal alliances with other powers. France had never for- given Italy for what she considered the latter's in- gratitude in refusing support in the war against Ger- many ; and the breach widened when France took pos- session of Tunis, a country Italy wished to appro- priate. Out of this Mediterranean question other jealousies between the two nations arose, and Italy made advances to Germany, who drew Austria into the League ; and thus in 1882 the Triple Alliance was formed, which was renewed in 1887, and again in 1891 and 1896, and still exists. On June 2, 1882, the great Italian patriot and hero, Giuseppe Garibaldi, died at the age of seventy-six, in his island home of Caprera. He is remembered by Victor Emanuel IL and King Humbert 243 the Italians with greater enthusiasm perhaps than any other patriot, while the garb he wore is still affected by his followers all over the world. His love of liberty and his devotion to the cause of his country is more and more appreciated by all who comprehend the far- reaching benefits of Italian unity ; and his name is sure to be perpetuated through all time as one of the great- est in Italian history. The Italian, Giosue Carducci, in a speech made at Bologna, gave utterance, among other impassioned sentiments, to the following : " The glorious figure before the vision of our childhood and our ideal of later life has disappeared. The eyes which sighted Palermo are closed forever. The heart of him who made Italy one, and which so nobly beat and never despaired, has yielded to the fate which, soon or late, overtakes all." Gradually religious changes were introduced among the people of Italy, and missionary efforts were at- tempted in some of the principal cities. Hospital work was begun and schools established, among them an institution for girls, while colporteurs and Bible readers were kept busy, all of which met with con- siderable opposition. Several Protestant sects are working all the time in the heart of Rome and Naples, there being many English churches and several of the American denominations in Italy, so that strangers from our own land, when settling down in the large Italian cities, feel that they have a religious home. Rome, however, is still the great Catholic center of the world, as is seen in the Christmas and Easter festivi- ties, when the whole populace is entirely given up to Church observances; and to the dispassionate looker-on Rome would hardly seem like the Eternal City if these forms and ceremonies were abolished. 244 Italy: Her People and Their Story Pope Leo XIII., although a shrewd diplomat, was a devout Christian, the interests of the Church through- out the world having been his most absorbing care. His greatest desire was to take part in the memorable ceremonies of the Jubilee Year of 1900; and in spite of his advanced age he officiated at the opening of the Holy Door in St. Peter's. This so fulfilled all the hopes he had entertained of seeing the end of the nine- teenth century that it was feared he would not long survive the beginning of the twentieth. He showed great fortitude, however, throughout that year, con- tinuing to appear occasionally in the great Basilica and to give private audiences. He took part in the cere- monies connected with the shutting of the great Jubilee Door in St. Peter's on the 24th of December, 190x3, there being above the lintel a tablet stating this fact. Near it another records that Leo XII. opened and shut the Jubilee Door of 1825 ; while a third tablet chronicles the fact that Pius VI. officiated at a similar service in 1775- In the presence of a large audience Leo XIII. blessed all the material to be used in the closing of the door, and then threw upon the threshold three tiny golden shovelfuls of mortar. Bricks, engraved with the Pontifical coat-of-arms and other inscriptions, were placed over a diminutive urn filled with com- memorative medals of gold, bronze and silver ; and the mechanical labor followed. The years of Pope Leo's life were much prolonged by the watchfulness of his attendants and physicians, who were ever at hand on important occasions. During the summer months he spent his days among the walks and drives of the Vatican gardens, which are a world in themselves, breakfasting and dining under Victor Emanuel II. and King Humbert 245 the trees, where he received visits from his cardinals and ministers. On March 3, 1903, the twenty-fifth anniversary of Pope Leo's coronation was celebrated with elaborate display. The illuminations which the Pope observed from his study windows embraced the Trastevere and the Leonine City, and, beyond, the view extended a dis- tance of seven miles. As the Pope withdrew from gazing on the scene he remarked : " This will indeed be a pleasant thing to dream of." Although the Pope endured the fatigue and ex- citement of the day remarkably well, and notwith- standing it was almost five months before the end came, from this time his strength declined perceptibly. After a noble fight, Leo XIII. passed away on the 2Oth of July, 1903, at the age of ninety-three. The efforts of his physicians had been unwearying to keep the silken cord, so finely spun out, still unbroken; and their endeavors were supplemented by his own almost super- human tenacity, which kept him alive nearly three weeks after his case, a complication of pleuro-pneu- monia, was pronounced hopeless. His death was grand, calm and serene ; and according to the testimony of his doctors few persons, even in youth, have shown such heroic courage in dying. It was the birthday fete of Queen Margherita ; but out of respect to His Holi- ness no salutes were fired ; and when the news was cir- culated that the end had come, flags and ensigns of re- joicing were withdrawn from the streets and houses all over Rome. The Pope had always had confidence in the loyalty of the royal 1 family, as was indicated by a remark made on hearing that the king had deferred his visit to Paris : " We know how chivalrous the House of Savoy has ever been to its opponents." 246 Italy: Her People and Their Story Beside the same bed over which all the world had watched without regard to creed or politics, the car- dinals soon assembled to take official notice of the Pope's decease. Cardinal Oreglia, in his capacity of Dean of the Sacred College, approached the dead Pon- tiff and struck his forehead with a silver hammer, call- ing him by name; and then after a short silence he announced in the Assembly that the Pope was really dead. After this came the ceremony of taking off the " Fisherman's Ring," this amulet having belonged, it is said, to St. Peter ; and it is claimed that it has been worn by every Pope since that time. Cablegrams and dispatches were immediately issued, notifying the sovereigns and rulers of foreign nations ; and before nightfall many messages of condolence were received. At eight o'clock commenced the cease- less clanging of bells from the four hundred churches of Rome, which was kept up for an hour, until the whole city seemed a tremendous reverberation. This was repeated at the same time in the evening until the day of the funeral. Pope Leo XIII. was a statesman and a scholar as well as an ecclesiastic, the very simplicity of his charac- ter constituting his greatness. It is said of him that no man held so much influence for good in the last two decades of the nineteenth century, during which time his hand was visible in almost every public event of importance transpiring in the world. He was an inde- fatigable worker to the last, his days being spent in unremitting labor and toil ; and, even after his illness set in, it grieved him when he saw his capacity for work diminishing. Pius IX., with his rule of thirty-two years, was the only prelate who ever reigned longer than Leo XIII., Victor Emanuel II. and King Humbert 247 and ten other Popes each held the sacred office for twenty years. Pope Leo XIIL's body lay in state in the Church of St. Peter's until the funeral, which occurred on the 25th of July, 1903, and the vast populace was allowed during this time to view his remains. Ac- cording to his own request, his body, after a year's repose in St. Peter's, was to be removed to St. John in Lateran, while an ancient custom prescribed that his viscera should be placed in the crypt of the Church of St. Anastasius. When they sought the key it could not be found, since on account of political complica- tions the heart of Pius IX. was left in the Vatican, and this ceremony had not been observed since the death of Gregory XVI. in 1846. Accordingly it was found necessary to break down the door of the vault. Nine days after Leo XIII. died, the conclave of the cardinals met to elect his successor (the word from cla- vis, meaning a key, since it is an assembly behind closed doors), the avenue to the Vatican having been walled up and all the cells of the cardinals locked and barred. There were many interesting incidents connected with this imprisonment, since a strict examination was re- quired lest something contraband should find its way from outside, to influence the cardinals in their choice of a candidate. One day there were three hundred chickens, five hundred newly laid eggs, besides crates of fruit and quantities of vegetables, salads, etc., pre- sented at the little wicket for examination. The chickens had to be opened, baskets of produce turned topsy-turvy and even the eggs were not unmolested. The inferior grades of cardinals were sometimes even found at their cell window answering signals sent to influence their vote. Cardinal Gotti is said to have 248 Italy: Her People and Their Story been the only cardinal who did not complain of his quarters. After Clement IV. died the choice of his successor was debated two years and a half before any decision was reached, while Leo XIII.'s election was accom- plished in thirty-six hours. Each morning the people outside the Vatican looked for the coil of smoke coming from a certain chimney in the Sistine Chapel, which denoted that the ballots were being burned because no decision had yet been reached. "La fumata, la fumata," was often re- peated amongst the crowd of sixty thousand sometimes assembled in the square of St. Peter's, this undulating mass of humanity being kept in order by squads of soldiers. On the fourth day Rampolla threw his in- fluence, which up to this time was the greatest, in favor of Sarto, and on the 4th of August, 1903, the latter was elected as Pius X. This Giuseppi Sarto was a cardinal, sixty-eight years old, and the Patriarch of Venice. At first he refused the honor, but when his duty was made clear he finally accepted, not without reluctance; and on the following Sunday, August 8, he was crowned in St. Peter's, the first Pope to re- ceive the diadem there since Gregory XVI. in 1831. Pius IX. in 1846 and Leo XIII. in 1878 had assumed the office in the Sistine Chapel. The length of the Pope's Pontificate is reckoned from his coronation day. Pius X. is a man from the common people and much admired in Venice. He is endowed with handsome features and a magnificent clear voice with a musical Venetian accent. When chosen, although already somewhat advanced in years, he walked with the firm- ness of a man in his prime. He was first a parish Victor Emanuel II. and King Humbert 249 priest, then a "canon of the Cathedral of Treviso and afterward Bishop of Mantua. He was made a cardinal in 1893 by Leo XIII., and when he was elected Patriarch of Venice, the highest office in the Catholic hierarchy, considerable opposition was raised by the Italian government, this being a part of the king's patrimony. But, being a friend of King Humbert, the difficulty was easily solved and he held the office ten years, beloved by the Catholics and esteemed by the State. The scene in the Vatican square when his election was announced was of unparalleled interest. The peo- ple were waiting as usual for the smoke, when Cardinal Macchi, in official robes, appeared at a window and a wild shout went up. Just as he was reading in clear tones the preamble, and the name of Sarto was pro- nounced, terrific applause of acclamation arose from the great crowd. In vain the cardinal waved his hand for silence; the pent-up feelings of those who had watched day after day for the " fumata" could not be suppressed. In the conclave Sarto was the only candidate strong enough to secure the two-thirds vote required by the Church. It was believed by most that he would fol- low out the broad lines of Leo XIII.'s policy, since he had the same reputation for wisdom and culture, and his piety is said to possess a strong element of common sense. His personality and dignity are in keeping with the traditions of the ablest pontiffs who have ruled the Vatican, though he is not a man of strong physique. It is said that Leo XIII. himself predicted at one time that Sarto would be his successor. Many thought that his election would finally result in the union of Church and State in Italy, and that before many 250 Italy: Her People and Their Story decades the Popes would cease to imprison themselves in the Vatican ; but, although socialistic inclinations betoken necessity of co-operative action between Church and State, and the Pope's tendencies favor such a policy, the calm of Italian politics has not yet been disturbed by the excitement inevitable in the settlement of a question which would not only derange the foundation of government, but tend to counteract embryonic educational influences. Improvements and Modern Institutions 251 CHAPTER XVII PRINCES OF THE HOUSE OF SAVOY. OFFICERS OF THE STATE AND ITS VARIOUS INSTITUTIONS. IMPROVE- MENT IN CONDITION OF PEOPLE IN VARIOUS SECTIONS AND DEPARTMENTS. VAST EMIGRATION. THE throne of Italy is hereditary in the male line of the House of Savoy, which, in accordance with the Salic Law, debars female succession. A part of the ceremony, when the title of the King of Italy is as- sumed, is that he accepts the crown by the " Grace of God and the Will of the People." This exemplifies constitutional government, which places the will of the people as equal to the kingdom given by God's grace. The title of Prince of Naples first originated in 1869, at the birth of the present king, Victor Emanuel III., the only child of King Humbert and Queen Margherita. King Humbert's brother, Prince Ama- deus, died in Turin, in 1890, leaving four sons, Eman- uele, Duke of Aosta ; Victor, Count of Turin ; Umberto, Count of Salemi, and Luigi, Duke of the Abruzzi. The last was the rightful heir in succession until the birth of little Prince Humbert. The Duke of Abruzzi started out in 1899 on an ex ~ pedition to the North Pole, returning in 1900. He penetrated as far as 86 33' north latitude, farther than any previous explorer, Nansen only going as far as 86 14'. Nansen himself met him on his return in the October of 1900 at Christiania, and received 252 Italy: Her People and Their Story him with great cordiality. The Duke lost several fingers in the North from exposure to the cold, and was thus prevented from going with the party who left their sledges on the 28th of Feb- ruary in order to explore nearer the Pole. They found the temperature 50 below zero, Fahrenheit, and three out of the six died from exposure, the rest being obliged to turn back on the nth of March. The Duke of Abruzzi was born in Turin in 1873. The annual allowance of the King of Italy is fifteen million liras. He acts through his ministers, nomi- nated by himself, and taken from the national repre- sentation. These protect him in all his State negotia- tions, their signature being necessary to give validity to the royal decree. With the help of the Chamber the king makes the laws; he has the right to declare war, and to bring about peace, and has the chief com- mand on land and sea. He coins money, stamped with his own image, confers orders and has the right to pardon. He also calls the National Assembly together and dissolves it. The coat-of-arms of Italy is a white cross on a red field, with a gold regal crown on a shield surrounded by a chain of the Annunciata Order ; and the tricolored flag of the nation consists of vertical stripes of red, green and white, the green next to the flagstaff. Negotiations with foreign States, commercial and marine, are decided by the National Assembly, which consists of Senate and Chamber of Deputies, these together, as complements of each other, forming the Parliament. The Senate, which is the Upper House, has no fixed number, but never exceeds four hundred, the members being appointed for life by the king. The princes when twenty-one years old are admitted Improvements and Modern Institutions 253 to the body, and when twenty-five have a voice in its measures; the president of the body is elected for the session. Any Italian more than forty years of age out of Longitude Eat It from Greenwich twenty-one categories is eligible to the Senate; as for instance those of the learned class, or artists, of the class of high officials or of a category who pay the 254 Italy: Her People and Their Story three hundred liras in taxes to the State. Only a cer- tain number, however, can be represented from each of the classes, the king's appointments being subject to an examination by a committee chosen for that pur- pose. In case of high treason, and also in the impeachment of ministers, the Senate is the highest court of justice. In contrast to the changing House of Deputies, the Senate represents the Conservative party, although all its members do not necessarily belong to the latter. The Senate is not equal in importance to the Chamber of Deputies, without whose consent the laws are not valid. The Deputies are chosen every five years by a College of Electors behind closed doors ; and its members are selected in a ratio of one to every fifty-seven thousand inhabitants, making, in all, about five hundred. These must be thirty years old or up- ward, and of irreproachable character. Only forty of one profession can have a seat, but in every category the choice is made by lot, and those who are not chosen stand open to the next election. Nominally the king opens the Chamber and dissolves it, but in reality the members themselves perform this function. The choice of Deputies gives rise to much party feel- ing through complaints and frequent accusations of bribery. When there is a vote passed by the Chamber of Deputies unfavorable to the cabinet, the latter is forced to retire, and the king places the responsibility of selecting a new cabinet on the leader of the opposition. The president of the Chamber is chosen from the ministers. There are eleven officers in the cabinet : the Secre- tary of the Interior, of Foreign Affairs, of Justice, of Improvements and Modern Institutions 255 the Treasury, of Finance, of War, of the Navy, of Education, of Public Works, of Agriculture, of In- dustry, and of Commerce, as well as of Posts and Tele- graph. The principal incomes are derived from the land tax (eighty-eight million liras), and from the building and movable property (three times that amount), and from right of succession, and customs, nearly eighty-six millions each. The citizens are subject to military duty at the age of twenty, all young men who are able-bodied being obliged to serve two or three years, though the more highly educated pay a tax of twelve hundred liras and serve only one year. In this way there are always two hundred and fifty or three hundred thousand men ready for military service; and since they can be enlisted until they are forty years old, nearly a million and a half of men are at command in case of war. Though the support of this large army is one great cause of Italy's poverty, they think that it increases their dig- nity as a nation and wards off attack from the outside. All the latest inventions have been introduced into the service; but notwithstanding the common soldiers are willing, enthusiastic, courageous and self-sacrificing, they lack technique, and the officers for the most part have never greatly distinguished themselves. For protection of the restless population of Italy who live among the mountains, and have to traverse long and difficult distances on foot, a special hunter guard or Alpine force, called the Carbinieri, has been insti- tuted. There are twelve legions of these, composed of forty-three divisions, consisting of thirty-nine hundred mounted gendarmes and four thousand foot. They carry light cannon, which can be taken to pieces and transported on the backs of donkeys ; and chey wear a 256 Italy: Her People and Their Story black uniform with stripes of red surmounted by long black cloaks, and cocked hats. The Carbinieri, to pre- vent surprise from the criminals they are tracking, always go in pairs, so that there is a popular joke that they are born twins. The fact that these are chosen from the Piedmontese and Tuscans and from Lom- bardy, because more reliable, disaffects the southern Italians and arouses envy and hatred towards them. This corps is selected from those who in their three years' obligatory service have never incurred the slightest punishment; and the king's guard is made up of picked men from this force. The Carbinieri have done much to suppress brigandage in the country districts. The need of the Carbinieri is still apparent from the fact that in the October of 1901 several of these brigands were captured, among them one Musolino, a noted and dangerous desperado, who had escaped from prison where he was serving a sentence for mur- der. He had lived three years as an outlaw, killing in the meantime several Carbinieri and many citizens. Napoleon in one of his speeches said : " The Italian nation to exist must have a strong navy to enforce authority over her islands and to protect her coast." In accordance with this idea Italy has made her naval power equal to that of her army, and in doing so fulfills the traditions of the early Marine republics, the gigan- tic warships of which were the first examples of fine naval armament. The shipyards in Venice, Spezia, Taranto, Naples and Castellamare still send forth many fine ships. All persons who after the age of ten have been on the sea as fishermen, or six years as stokers on steam- ships, or have worked in shipyards, are subject to Improvements and Modern Institutions 257 naval duty. They enter the navy at eighteen years of age, and are divided into three classes. First, those who join the navy for life and have four years of active service, eight years in the Reserve, and six years in the Naval Reserve, as it is called. Second, those who have twelve years in the Reserve and six years in the Naval Reserve; and third, the exempts mostly among the wealthy those who enter immediately on the so-called Naval Reserve and have no active service. The officers, who are educated at Leghorn in a naval school like the German one at Kiel, are given a general military and naval education, besides being taught the minutiae of a seafaring life. The shipbuilding engi- neers take the usual engineering course, and then are taught the art of shipbuilding in special schools. In Piedmont the natural warlike inclination has been fostered for three hundred years by clever military training. Accordingly the nobility of the land for several generations have accustomed themselves to military service, so that there is scarcely an aristo- cratic family who cannot boast of brave officers. The father of Massimo d'Azeglio begged his wife in his will not to put on mourning in case he should fall fighting, but to appear in holiday attire; since she ought to consider it the greatest happiness that he had been permitted to give his life for his king and country. If one of his little sons complained of suffering, d'Azeglio would say to him, half joking: " When a Piedmontese loses both his arms and legs, and has two wounds in his body, then, and not until then, ought he to complain of not feeling well." Italy is a centralized government in the sense that its departments are dependent upon the chief govern- ment. There has been an effort made to decentralize 258 Italy: Her People and Their Story the provinces, namely, to give them each a legislature of their own like our separate States, though still de- pendent upon the administration at Rome. It has been thought that the length and narrowness of the penin- sula renders a centralized government difficult, and prevents that brotherly feeling which engenders a desire for consolidation. But the greater facilities of the present era for communication by means of the numerous railroads and telegraphs have brought all countries, and especially the divisions of countries, to- gether, and made all sections cosmopolitan. Italy is now divided into sixteen departments, sixty- nine provinces, one hundred and ninety-seven circles, eighty-seven districts, one thousand eight hundred sub- districts, and eight thousand two hundred and sixty-one townships. When the census was taken in 1881 there was a population of twenty-eight million, four hun- dred and fifty-nine thousand, six hundred and twenty- eight (28,459,628) inhabitants; but in 1900, in spite of emigration, it had increased to nearly thirty-two and a half million (32,449,750), and, with colonies, about thirty-five million. The extent of the kingdom is now one hundred and ten thousand, six hundred and seventy-five square miles, making a population of two hundred and eighty-nine persons to a square mile. The population of Rome doubled between 1871 and 1881, so that at the latter date it was half a million, and in 1899 it was five hundred and twelve thousand, four hundred and twenty-five. As the population in- creased dwelling houses had to be provided, often at the sacrifice of old classical buildings, and for some years Rome has had the air of a modern city, which towers above the monuments of ancient Rome and now extends a long distance beyond the Leonine City. Improvements and Modern Institutions 259 It soon became so apparent that there is room in Rome for the spiritual sovereignty of the Church as well as for the temporal glory of the Kingdom of Italy, that Leo XIII. overcame much of his prejudice against the agencies which had robbed the Popes of their temporal power, and for some time previous to his death permitted the functionaries of the Papal court to maintain relation to some extent with the rep- resentatives of Italian liberalism. When, a little while before his death, Massimo d'Azeglio exclaimed : " Now that Italy is made we must make the Italians ," he meant that the half cen- tury during which the kingdom had been built up was entirely inadequate to mold the character of a great people. Since then another fifty years has passed, and yet Italy is not quite up to the standard of the most advanced nations of the twentieth century ; but considering the short period since its consolidation in 1870, it would be unjust to compare it with countries which have had centuries of freedom and unity; and in the words of General Ponzo di San Martino : " It will take yet another century for us to show the world what Italy can do." It is the elevation of the masses which will bring about the return of greatness to Italy. At present their condition, compared to that of other nations, is pitiable, especially in the south. In parts of the old Papal States, particularly in the Marches, some of the poor live the year round on chestnuts, and even on acorns, while in Milan the frequent subsistence on corn-meal disorders the physical system and engenders disease. There are also in this section tenement houses where at night eighteen hundred souls are crowded together like cattle in their stalls. These 260 Italy: Her People and Their Story poor people spend from fourteen to sixteen hours in the workshop, some of the men receiving only twelve cents a day, the women earning but four cents ; and in the south, in some provinces of Sicily and Calabria, they have only the waste of what they help to manu- facture, receiving no money at all. This manner of life has not only dwarfed them mentally, but stunted their physical growth, so that the standard of height for military service has been lowered. In spite of all their poverty, the Italians are taxed more heavily than any other nation it is said to the extent of an average of fifteen dollars per head. There is a tax on every- thing, both the necessities and the luxuries, on railroad tickets, and on the smallest exchange ; and indeed there is no package too minute for a government stamp to be affixed; so that it is thought that it averages four per cent, on the annual income of each individual. The result of all this is the enormous emigration, which amounts to over three hundred thousand a year. This happens in spite of the fact that nearly fourteen million acres of uncultivated land remain unredeemed and that the government has to import eighty million dollars' worth of cereals annually. Although the in- crease in emigration of able-bodied men from Italy seems enormous, it must not be forgotten that, in spite of this, the census shows an increase of about forty- four per cent, since 1860; and that, if emigration should stop, the population, which is now about thirty- two million, would in the course of a century amount to nearly a hundred million. Accordingly it is esti- mated that if Italy became as densely populated pro- portionately as the province of Genoa, where there are twice as many people to the square mile as elsewhere in Italy, at the end of this century she could not contain Improvements and Modern Institutions 261 much more than half her population, since fifty-five million is about the maximum capacity of the whole peninsula; hence the necessity of the balance of the hundred million emigrating in the course of the next hundred years. During the past two decades five million have gone out of Italy into other countries. One hundred thou- sand annually enter Switzerland, and nearly as many more go to the United States ; though those who go to Switzerland often return to Italy later, with a little stock of money saved, and settle down in diminutive homes. There is an immense Italian colony in New York City as well as in other large American towns; while in London the Italian quarter amounts to a very considerable city in itself. Many emigrate to South America, where they do not meet with the same diffi- culties in language that they do in the United States. The day is not far off when the Argentine Republic, ten times as large as Italy itself, will be at least half inhabited by Italians, and a new Italy will be formed across the sea. The lack of proportion in the management of inter- nal affairs in Italy is apparent when we realize that it has cost one hundred and five million dollars to sup- port the African colony of Erythrea in the last sixteen years, and the expenses of the army are over seventy- one million, while only eight hundred thousand are used up in redeeming uncultivated land. The most disheartening aspect of the situation in Italy is the increase of crime. " In that region of the Papal States where St. Francis of Assisi taught the pure gospel of peace and charity, sanctifying many who listened to his doctrines, four thousand murders are committed annually." But these discouraging feat- 262 Italy: Her People and Their Story ures are the result of centuries of decay, political slavery, and moral degradation. It is well to add that in the north there is more of fraud, just because there is less violence; for while inherited criminality of a semi-barbarous civilization acts rudely and frankly, attacking with the knife, modern delinquency works in the dark, and assumes a mask of hypocrisy. The modern facilities of communication have in- creased the traffic and have brought into Italy twenty- five thousand to seventy-five thousand tourists annu- ally in the last twenty-five years. In the time of Ferdinand of Naples, called " Bomba," the percentage of illiteracy in some of the provinces of Sicily was ninety-nine, and the average throughout the peninsula was then seventy-five per cent. ; and even in Tuscany public instruction did not exist. As is sometimes the case at present, at that time public letter writers, often people of culture who had seen better days, were stationed in conspicuous places in order to help the ignorant. Since the consolidation of Italy things have im- proved greatly; for where sixty-four per cent, of the entire peninsula could not read or write in 1871, at present there are scarcely forty per cent. At that era there were only about thirty thousand public primary schools in all Italy, costing six million dollars, with about a million pupils, while now there are sixty thou- sand schools, and over three million pupils, which cost annually fifteen million dollars. Every parish has a girls' and boys' school with a teacher for every seventy pupils; and larger cities have higher elementary schools. Unfortunately, however, education is oblig- atory only from six to nine years of age, and they fail to enforce even this law on account of insufficient Improvements and Modern Institutions 263 means and lack of teachers. This latter difficulty has been partially obviated, however, by the establishment of one hundred and fifty normal schools. Higher schools are not free; and although Italy was the earliest seat of universities, at present their standard is much lower than elsewhere. It is even said that many of their college students know hardly more than high school graduates in other countries. For many years voting was restricted to those who paid taxes to the amount of forty liras; for it was thought that there was danger from the suffrage of the poor and ignorant who were indifferent to public questions. The qualification has now been extended to all who are of age and can read and write; and if there were no illiterates there would be seven million on the electoral list. As it is, there ought to be four million voters, when in fact only two million citizens have signed the voting list, and only about a million and a third went to the polls at the last general elec- tion. Therefore it is apparent that it is the will of the minority which governs Italy, and that the most potent cause of this, and the one which might prevent Italy from becoming a great and glorious nation, is the lack of education among the common people. There are three times as many post and telegraph offices in Italy as there were in 1870, the postal matter also being trebled. The commerce has gained ninety- nine per cent., and her exports one hundred and twenty per cent., since 1870. Beggars are at present practi- cally confined to the south ; and Florence and Naples, which have been centers of infection, are now largely rebuilt; so that where in 1872 the death rate in Rome was forty-one and eight-tenths per thousand, in 1897 it was only fourteen and three-tenths. 264 Italy: Her People and Their Story But the greatest foe of Italy is of her own house- hold, the household of faith, the clericals being her bitterest enemies ; for, since they have condescended to take part in the government they are ready to support any antagonist, whether republic or empire. These political differences, however, have at present little effect on public tranquillity. Thus, " the year that Pius IX. was at the Vatican, Victor Emanuel II. at the Quirinal, and Garibaldi at the Villa Casalini, these three men, who had fought each other for thirty years, lived in the same city without being in conflict. When the philosopher, Giovanni Bovio, came to Rome and saw the situation, he exclaimed : ' This is not a town, it is the world ! ' " When after the taking of Rome the clericals, a large part of the conservative element, were forbidden by the Pope to vote, the " Right " ceased to exist, and the traditional party lines of " Right and Left " gradually disappeared; but afterwards these two parties again took shape, and in addition to these the Socialists be- came an important factor with which to reckon, they having increased from seventy-six thousand in 1895 to one hundred and thirty-five thousand in 1897. Military Expansion and Literature 265 CHAPTER XVIII ABYSSINIAN WAR. CRISPI. AUTHORS. 18851899 A. D. IN 1880 the Florio-Rubatino Navigation Company ceded to the Italian government their coaling station on the Bay of Assab on the Red Sea, which she had held since 1870; and in 1885 the Italians were attacked with the widespread fever for colonization. The English were at this time engaged in trying to absorb the Soudan ; and now Italy, desiring to gain their favor, sent troops to take possession of Massowah. When Khartoum fell the Italians made friendly overtures to John, the Negus of Abyssinia, hoping thus to attract the inland trade to their new port of Massowah. But the Negus was not so easily pacified, and, having sent a large force to Dogali, he surrounded a division of five hundred Italians and massacred them. This was the signal for war; and in January, 1888, the Negus en- camped before the Italian fortifications at Massowah, but later thought it best to retire with his large force without engaging in battle. Menelik, the mighty King of Shoa, revolted from his allegiance to the Negus John, who was mortally wounded in the fray. This Menelik, though still half civilized, is a much better sovereign than his prede- cessors, such as the usurper Theodore, who traced their pedigree from the ancient line as far back as Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. When in 1887^ Crispi became prime minister after 266 Italy: Her People and Their Story the death of Depretis, the Italian government, wishing still further to enlarge its territory in Africa, occupied Keran and Asmara, and united with Menelik, who pledged himself to support them. Crispi called his new colony in Africa Erythrea, from the Greek name of the Red Sea; and a large protectorate was estab- lished over a considerable extent of the Somali penin- sula. Crispi, who thought that by these conquests a great colonial career was about to open for Italy, has always been censured as the one to blame for the con- tinuance of the war. In his early history Crispi was known as an adven- turous, ambitious, and daring spirit, he having been an animating force throughout the struggle, which led to the overthrow of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. After being repeatedly banished on account of his fanatical tendencies, he wandered in the disguise of a tourist, and sometimes as a journalist, between London, Paris and Italy, the agent of the United Italian party, organizing committees to incite revolution. He sided with Mazzini against the Piedmont alliance with Louis Napoleon, it being understood that if at any time Vic- tor Emanuel himself became the head of an invading army, they would unite with him. Having returned to Naples, Crispi was allowed to land on the 3Oth of August; and on the I3th of May, 1860, he set out with "The Thousand," under the command of Garibaldi. His acts were so decided that he is said to have been the " best abused " man in Italy next to Mazzini. He, with Garibaldi and Mazzini, adhered to the original programme of freeing Venice and Naples and crown- ing Victor Emanuel King of Rome. Although the Cavour party wished to keep Crispi out of Parliament, he was not only elected, but, being Military Expansion and Literature 267 very poor, his electors supported him in Turin until his success as a lawyer rendered him independent. During the '6o's he was the leader of the extreme Left, and was called " an Ishmaelite among journalists " ; and he was ever after no cipher in politics. He was an advocate of a vigorous policy against Austria in 1866, and was then opposed to Depretis. He was af- terwards, however, Minister of Finance, in Depretis' cabinet, not only succeeding him in 1887 as premier, but also assuming the posts of home and foreign minister. Soon after this he paid the memorable visit to Bismarck, which resulted in the entrance of Italy into the Triple Alliance. The undertaking of vast naval and military schemes brought Italy to the verge of bankruptcy, and a series of financial crises followed; and in 1889 two attempts were made on Crispi's life. His refusal to consider the question of retrenchment in military and naval affairs led to the defeat of his ministry in 1891 ; but after the term of Signor di Rudini and the resignation of Signor Giolitti, Crispi was again head of the Cham- ber in 1894. Notwithstanding Menelik's shortcomings as an African barbarian, in this war he proved himself a great statesman. He claims to sustain a Christian government; and he and his wife, an uncommonly intellectual woman, lead a well-ordered life, going to church service daily, and Sundays to the Holy Trin- ity Church. They live in great splendor at Aditis Adab in East Africa, and are very much interested in the modern accouterments of living, new inventions, etc., Menelik having for his chief military officer a Swiss engineer by the name of Ilg from Zurich, Swit- zerland, who is really his prime minister. The crown 268 Italy: Her People and Their Story of Menelik is said to be so heavy that he cannot speak without its being lifted. In 1893 Menelik got control of all Abyssinia and refused to recognize the Italian protectorate. Taking courage from this, the Dervishes, followers of Osman Digma, annoyed by the Italian advance, stormed the fort of Agordat, but were defeated with great loss, and in 1894 General Baratieri succeeded in expelling the remnant of their band from Kassala, thus securing the safety of the Italian colony on that side. Italy and Abyssinia now came to open warfare, and though Bara- tieri succeeded in occupying the whole Tigris by de- feating Ras Mangascia, the viceroy, at Coatit and Senefeh, in 1895, tne latter secured the aid of Menelik, and with a large force carried all Abyssinia with him in turn, advancing against Baratieri. The latter was badly equipped and poorly supported at home by the ministry, who knew nothing about the situation in the East, and did not look out that the resources were sufficient to prosecute the war. In December, 1895, Major Toselli was killed at Amba Alagi, while resisting a large force of the enemy. Major Galliano, at Makaleh, held out against the Abyssinians for a month ; then, not being relieved and seeing his men dying for want of water, he de- cided to blow up the fort; but Menelik, either out of respect for their bravery, or because he had himself been meeting with great losses, allowed them to march out and join Baratieri at Adigrat. After reinforcements arrived, General Baratieri, not- withstanding his hardships, kept on the defensive, but on the ist of March he led fourteen thousand men into action against the Abyssinians at the fateful Battle of Adowah. On account of the lack of good Military Expansion and Literature 269 generalship in advancing, the Italians were routed by the enemy, who greatly outnumbered them. Some seven thousand, a third of their army, was slain, and sixty or seventy guns taken. Among the dead there were several prominent generals, including General Arimondi and General Galliano, who had just been promoted, for his distinguished services at Makaleh, to the position of Lieutenant-Colonel. General Dabor- mida was mortally wounded. Another third of the forces were taken prisoners under General Albertone, who bore the brunt of the battle; but the latter was missing after the fight was over. General Baratieri, who was wounded, was tried by court-martial for inefficiency, and, though acquitted, was superseded by General Baldissera, who arrived five days after and proceeded to reorganize the army in Erythrea. Menelik was too cautious to advance further. The people were greatly aroused at the news from Adowah, and accused the government of mismanage- ment, censuring Crispi for forcing upon their country such vast and unprofitable projects without sufficient resources to back them. In the meantime the troops left in Adigrat, together with two other garrisons, several thousand prisoners in all, were waiting for peace in order to gain their release. On the 5th of March Crispi again gave up his ministry to Rudini, who rejected the former's ex- pansion policy. At the same time he relinquished Italy's newly acquired possessions, restricting their boundaries to the Mareb-Belesae-Muna line, thus vir- tually retaining only their colony of Erythrea. Finally the prisoners were liberated at the cost to Italy of a large ransom; and later the popular feeling was that the English, in order to keep the advantage in their 270 Italy: Her People and Their Story Soudanese expedition, had unduly influenced Italy to give up Kassala, which the latter had just ceded to them. Then the people realized that it would be a long time before Italy would be able to " draw from her foot the thorn of Abyssinia"; and when three years later, in 1899, it was thought that the English were trying to spur them on to regain what they had lost at Adowah, they said that they would not again "pull the chestnuts out of the fire for England" as they had done at Kassala. Some time before this, frauds had been detected in the management of several of the State banks, and investigations brought to light the fact that there was dishonesty in various departments of the govern- ment. Cavallotti, one of the writers of the day, and the leader of the " Left," was at the head of this move- ment, and was a great instrument in again bringing about the fall of Crispi. Just at this time, in 1898, the effect of the Spanish- American War raised the price of bread and precipi- tated notorious riots in Milan, which were only sup- pressed by the imprisonment of many. In this revolt the nation thought they recognized an attempt to un- dermine the great structure of Italian unity. But the spirits of the people were raised and the populace op- portunely diverted by a splendid exposition at Turin, where for the next six months thousands of people had occasion to notice the great progress which Italy had made during half a century. The king, by the advice of his minister, Pellou, had issued a decree against the Socialists, which had refer- ence to the riots of 1899 m Milan. This was the occasion of great disturbances in the Chamber, so that Parliament was dissolved and Zanardelli, president Military Expansion and Literature 271 of the Chamber of Deputies, resigned in favor of Chinaglia. The society called the Mafia had sprung up among the Italians, very much like the old Vehm-Gericht which did such deadly work in Germany during the Middle Ages. At their instigation, during the year 1899, Nota-Bartolo was thrown off a train going at full speed for trying to expose their practices. Deputy Palizzuolo was at the time suspected of complicity with the society, and later was tried and convicted, and in 1902 was sentenced as being privy to the deed. It has been said that all Italy's achievements during the last half of the nineteenth century her dignity as a nation, her ability in uniting heterogeneous particles, and her political successes were rivaled by her con- quests in literature during the first half of the century. The nineteenth century had begun with the Peace of Luneville, in 1801, a peace which Alfieri said " held all Europe in arms and terror." Parini had died two years before, and two years after Alfieri passed away, he whom Gioberti called the " Restorer of Italian Genius." The poet Giuseppi Parini was born in 1729, and from the time of his first poems, which were published when he was only twenty-three years of age, his des- tiny in letters was assured and his influence in literary circles established. The writings of Vittorio Alfieri, on the contrary, were during his lifetime more influential from a polit- ical point of view ; yet it was he who elevated the Ital- ian drama, great theaters dating from that era. His most popular tragedy was " Saul " ; and he also pub- lished many poems in which he exalted liberty and sung of a new Italy and a new life for her people. 272 Italy: Her People and Their Story The writers of the seventeenth century had crossed the Alps and, after communicating with the French, German and English, had translated their books and caught their spirit; and from this contagion the first Italian novel was derived, " The Last Letters of Jacob Ortis," by Ugo Foscolo, which introduced the litera- ture of the nineteenth century. The sentiment of the Italians in the Napoleonic age are brought out in the life and works of Foscolo and Monti. The other writers of that period were but satellites who reflected but little of the white heat of the times. Foscolo, though still young, having been bora in 1778, was no longer full of the illusion and hopeful- ness of youth when he wrote the novel in which he depicts his grief at the course of Napoleon in selling the liberty of Venice, a city with a record of thirteen centuries of splendid independence. In 1827, several years before his death, he published his sublime poem, " The Sepolcri," written in 1806, reminding the Ital- ians that only national traditions and the memory of the illustrious dead would be able to bring about the regeneration of Italy. Vincenzo Monti, though an older man, born in 1754 and dying in 1828, also lived in the Napoleonic era. He had more confidence in Napoleon than in the Ital- ian nation; and, though he had once clung to the Papacy and railed at revolt, he now devoted his life to revolution, even endorsing the tragic putting away of Louis XVI. He clothed his language in classical and mythological garb, in relating contemporaneous events, and gained the name of poet of the Italian government. When Napoleon was Emperor of France and King of Italy Monti made him the sole subject of his songs and poems, celebrating his victories in the " II Bardo " Military Expansion and Literature 273 and other books, at the same time that Foscolo, anxious and aloof, was at Brescia writing his patriotic " Sepolcri." The work, however, which endeared Monti to pos- terity and showed his perfection in writing verse, was the translation of the " Iliad." When Napoleon had renounced his dominion in Italy, and Austria had regained her hold in that penin- sula, a mental activity took the place of the din of arms, and the writers of the day again returned to let- ters and study. While Foscolo was far away in exile doing his best work, and Monti had grown old and ill in the advanc- ing century, two other sovereigns in letters grew to maturity Alexander Manzoni and Giacomo Leopardi. These two men, who came from different parts of Italy and possessed diverse characteristics and education, gave to the Italian language some immortal works. Following the example of Sir Walter Scott, Manzoni introduced the historical novel, representing Lombard and Spanish society during the first half of the seven- teenth century, and the character and lives of obscure men in the most unhappy epoch of Italian history. Although Manzoni's theories leaned toward romanti- cism, in his novels he brought real people before his readers, adapting them to the era in which they lived ; and realism soon after characterized Italian litera- ture. A Christian spirit of charity and justice ran through all Manzoni's writings and developed in him the love for his country. " I Promessi Sposi " and " II Cinque Maggio " were his most distinguished works, the for- mer being without doubt the greatest Italian romance as well as the most beautiful example of popular mod- 274 Italy: Her People and Their Story ern Italian prose, both on account of its simplicity and artistic dignity. Leopardi in his youth knew only fleeting dreams. He was a pessimist, his mind being devoid of faith both in mankind and in Divine Providence, and thus by an unhappy and reserved life he became entirely engrossed in literary pursuits. While he studied the antique he divined, almost without contact with the outside world, the rich and fervid motives of modern thought; and by his own impulsive romantic doctrines and aspirations he chose subjects which were not such as literary traditions teach, but what real life brings before one. Indeed, he presents us with life itself, which makes us all brothers in suffering. " In his prose works he reasons out by philosophy the neces- sary unhappiness of living beings ; in his poetry he pours out the cry of his divine heart, which wept for the misery of his country and the sorrows of the world." Day by day he wrote the story of his inde- fatigable spirit in a great and immortal volume called his " Pensieri." Now no other voice but that of the literary world remained to the martyred nation. The passion for the liberty of their country had once more arisen in the eager hearts of the youths, after the first terror at Italy's fall into slavery under Napoleon had passed away ; and among the conspirators there arose the new patriotic literature which was to educate the Italians to revolution as a nation. The condemned and exiles of 1821 gave to poetry a new fire of youth, which broke forth in the songs of Giovanni Berchet, Gabriel Rosetti and others. In 1832 Silvio Pellico returned from ten years' confinement in the prisons of Spielberg, and published " Le Mie Prigioni," a story of his sufferings, Military Expansion and Literature 275 so powerful in its patient cadence that it cost Austria more than one lost battle and incited all liberal Europe to pity. His moving tragedy, " Francesca da Rimini," was full of patriotism. From that time Italian literature was changed and became warlike and revolutionary. Foscolo had said: " Italians, I exhort you to write history ; for no people can show more calamities to lament, more errors to avoid, more bravery to arouse respect, nor more great minds worthy of being liberated from oblivion." The classic writers responded to this sentiment by writing eloquent histories and the romanticists by the his- torical romances and drama, which, by presenting in an attractive form the facts of Italy's past, became auxiliary to history proper. The historical romance took a sentimental form under Tomaso Grossi, an oratorical bent with Fran- cesco Domenico Guerrazzi, who said that he wrote books because he could not fight battles, and a dra- matic turn with Massimo d'Azeglio, the leader of the Moderate party. The latter we have had occasion to refer to many times as a Piedmontese lord of great nobility of character who condemned radical move- ments. The historical drama arose with Giovanni Battista Niccolini; and literature was filled with great memories of the past. Thus the Italian youths, who made up the armies of Italy fighting in the wars for independence, drew inspiration from the books which they read. A good example of the satirical poets was found in Giuseppe Giusti. He, with his quick wit, aroused laughter and anger in turn, by rhymes which seemed jokes and which were victorious battles of good sense for the liberation of Italy. The most powerful writer of the first three-quarters 276 Italy: Her People and Their Story of the century was Giuseppe Mazzini, whose poetic prose, vibrating with enthusiasm, gained innumerable co-operators of that revolution, brought about in the name of God and the people, for the unity of Italy and republican liberty. Nicolo Tommaseo, a companion of Daniele Manin in the insurrection of Venice, and an exile with him, produced many strong political, critical, and philologi- cal treatises. Balbo, the minister of Victor Emanuel I., wrote " Speranza di Italia " (Concerning the Hopes of Italy). Manno, Capponi, Cantu, Corrente, Amari Troya and Vanucci also wrote historical works and patriotic articles. In Florence, that quiet center of study, all lovers of literature gathered together in the club founded by Gian Pietro Viesseux. Thence came the "Antologia " and "Archivio Storico Italiano " (The Historical Archives of Italy), the publication of which works opened up the modern revival of historical study. Vincenzo Gioberti in the revolutionary period had taken the part of the existing confederation and rec- ommended conciliation at the same time that Mazzini was instigating plots and uprisings. The reality, how- ever, proved far different from Gioberti's ideals, and in 1851, recognizing his mistake, he publicly took his stand in favor of the revolution ; accordingly in his " Rinnovamento Civile d'ltalia " (The Civil Revival of Italy), he urged a change from ideal aspirations to the study of the real and more imminent practical mat- ters. This work turned the tide in politics towards the destiny of the nation under Victor Emanuel and Count Cavour. One by one the old patriotic writers died or were almost forgotten, and between 1849 and 1859 only Military Expansion and Literature 277 Giovanni Prati was noticeable. He brought forth poems and splendid lyrics, which, though gems, were lost in the midst of digressions and strange bursts of allegory. Ippolito Nievo portrayed in a novel the life of the Italians during the transition period ; but the promises of his genius were cut off through his acci- dental death by drowning while he was returning, in March, 1861, from taking part in Garibaldi's revolu- tion in Sicily, just at the time that the Kingdom of Italy was being proclaimed at Turin. The joyful climax was not the signal, as might be expected, for a bold revival of literature; minds were confused by the upheaval and there was less and less of that intellectual concord which had governed the writers of the first half of the century; and besides, Italy as a nation had to revive educationally in order to come up to modern standards. Then art took di- vided paths, either turning with Prati to the imitation of the classic style, or, with Aleardo Aleardi, giving vent to romantic sentiment. At the proclamation of the Italian kingdom roman- ticism really passed away, as in the first half of the century classicism had given place to the romantic, Goldoni being the first of the former and Giordani the last; and before the third quarter of a century dawned the realistic school had superseded the ro- mantic. When Carducci, the leader of the literary world be- tween 1870 and 1890, came upon the scene, he pro- claimed himself opposed to romanticism. His style was influenced by Alfieri and Foscolo, while his poems, though resembling the foreign poetic masters, are boldly original and cling to classic requirements. 278 Italy: Her People and Their Story Although it was many years before his genius was recognized, he dimmed the fame of all his contempora- ries and formed a school of living poets who have adopted the severe purity of Greek and Roman metric forms. He also writes valuable prose in the form of political and historical treatises. Rapisardi stands alone as an exception to this rule and resembles Prati and Arthur Graf, the latter a Ger- man romanticist who stands by himself in writing the Italian language. Villari, the living historian, has written fascinatingly of Florentine life as it existed in the time of Savona- rola and Machiavelli, presenting those past scenes with the same vividness as experiences of to-day. He also treats current topics ably. Besides several distinguished poetesses, there are many other living writers of some note, but we will only mention two: d'Annunzio and d'Amicis, whose fame is world-wide. Gabriele d'Annunzio, the poet and novelist, born in 1862, is equally criticised and lauded. He is an imag- inative poet and expresses himself like a writer of the sixteenth century, portraying the life of the fashion- able set. Although he egoistically works into his novels the turbidness of his soul, his fervid tempera- ment and wealth of imagery develop something of the originality found in Goethe and later in Theophile Gautier. Among his latest works are several dramas which have attracted much attention, one of his latest being the tragedy, " Francesca da Rimini." D'An- nunzio's poetry is greatly admired in Italy, and great things are expected of him ; but he is immoral in his tendencies. Edmondo d'Amicis, on the other hand, exerts a de- Military Expansion and Literature 279 cidedly moral influence and is the most popular of liv- ing Italian authors on account of his wit and the ver- satility of his genius. At first he was an officer in the army ; and at present he is a great traveler as well as a novelist, his topics varying from reminiscences of the Italian wars to the descriptions of contemporaneous customs in far-away countries. He is a Socialist and a great observer of human character, painting vividly all phases of social life. His most popular work, " Cuore," which has been translated into all languages, is a simple and touching picture of school life in Pied- mont. Next to Manzoni he has given to Italy her best prose, most nearly resembling the spoken language, and of the purest style. He stands alone in fame all over the world and we may speak of him as Marmion did of his great master, as a "captain without soldiers." The works which will live in future generations are " I Promessi Sposi " by Manzoni, " II Canti " by Leo- pardi, and " La Divina Commedia." The last, though belonging to another epoch, was popularly appreciated only in this century ; and it can be said that the Italian author best known, most studied and ever deeply loved, is Dante Alighieri. The large army of eminent living journalists, scien- tific men, biographers, humorists, etc., at the present time, too numerous to mention, furnishes evidence of intellectual activity as well as of the strength of the nation and the vitality of the race. The greatest name in Italian art during the first two decades of the past century was that of Antonio Canova. He was called the " Prince of Sculptors and Reformer of Art in Italy." His first efforts brought him praise; and fortune being on his side, sovereigns 280 Italy: Her People and Their Story and Popes overwhelmed him with decorations and honors. Sculpture continued to prosper under Alberto Thor- waldsen, a Dane who came to Rome in 1796, when twenty-six years old, and remained there more than forty years. He sustained fanatically the systems of Winckelmann and David, using Greek art for his model. Theophile Gautier wrote of him : " He has studied the antique thoroughly and has copied nature with seeing eyes, simplifying or eradicating useless details and leading up to a beautiful ideal." The greatest sculptor of the last half of the nine- teenth century is Vincenzo Vela, who was born in the Swiss Canton of Ticino and now lives in Turin. As a realist he has exercised, for half a century, the greatest influence on Italian sculpture. Romanticism has found its warmest adherents in the sculptors Lorenzo Bartolini and Marochetti, and in the painter Hayez, while the artist Morelli, who died a year or two ago in Naples, was a more decided ro- manticist than any of them. The brothers Domenico and Girolamo Induno were realists in the highest sense, making genre pictures their specialty. In music Italy no doubt has led the world, Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti and Verdi being four names, any one of which would have brought glory to a nation. Rossini effected a revolution in music like that of Goldoni in the drama, and one can only appreciate what force, what variety of expression and what fullness and richness of form he added to it by comparing him with his predecessors. His fame can be judged by these lines from the pen of an illustrious French critic : " After the death of Napoleon there was another man who was the subject of conversation each day from Rossini. Verdi. M* greater friendliness of, 259 Christian II. of Denmark, 116 Christina, wife of Francesco Sforza, 116 Christina, wife of Victor Amadeus I., 135 Cialdini, General, 203 ; sent against Garibaldi, 210 Cimabue, 63 Ciprian, brigand, 216 Circe, 219 Cisalpine republic, 153; re- established, 158 Cispadane republic, 151 Cities, Rise of, 17 Civita Vecchia, 192 Civitella, Battle of, 19 Clarendon, Lord, 198 Clarence, Duke of, 71 Clement IV., Pope, 38 Clement V., Pope, com- mences Babylonian Cap- tivity, 53 Clement VI., Pope, 58; aids Joanna, 59 ; upholds Ri- enzi, 65 Clement VII., Anti-Pope, 76 Clement VII., Pope, 120; capture of, 122; Florence prey of, 123 ; death of, 124 Clement XIV. hurls bull against Jesuits, 127, 144 Clement XII. gives permis- sion to destroy San Ma- rino, 169 Clothilde, daughter of Vic- tor Emanuel II., 199 Clovis, the Frank, 4 Cluny, regime, 22 Coatit, 268 Colonna, family of, 44; Sci- arra, 44, 55; arms of, 55, 56; Rienzi at war with, 65; Stephen, 65; Otto, 78 Colonna, Fabriccio, 108 Colonna, Prospero, taken prisoner, 114; overcomes French, 118 Colonna, Stephen, 123 Columbus, 104 Comagnola, Francesco, 82 Commune, 23 Company of St. George, 61 Conclave of Cardinals, to elect Leo XIII., 240; to elect Pius X., 247 Concordat of Worms, 23 Congress of Paris, 197 Conrad II., 18 Conrad III., 24 Conrad IV., 34 Conradin, 38 Constance, 29 Constance, council at, 77 Index 39 Coreggi, despots at Cremona, 74 Corneto, siege of, 37 Corte Nuova, defeat of Mi- lanese at, 33, 69 Corrente, author, 276 Council of Ten, Decemvirs, 48 Crescentius, ruler in Rome, 15 Crimean War, Piedmont in, 197 Crispi, Francesco, hopes of Italian freedom of, 178; encourages Garibaldi, 207; as prime minister, 266; as a journalist and statesman, 267; failure and resigna- tion, 269; death of, 295 Croce, Church of Santa, in Florence, 52 Custoza, first defeat at, 184; second defeat at, 225 Czarnowsky, 188 Dabormida, General, 269 Dante, reference to, 36; con- version of, 45; love for Beatrice, 46; exile of, 47; wanderings of, 48; Divina Commedia of, 49; per- sonal appearance of, 51 ; death of, 52 Delia Scala, family, 73 Delia Torre, Napoleone Pa- gano, 69 Depretis, 237; death of, 266 Dervishes, 268 Desaix, General, 158 Desiderius, 7; overcome by Charlemagne, 10 d'Este, family, 73 Divina Commedia, 49 Dominicans, 31 Donati Corso, 45; father-in- law of Dante, 47; killed, 48 Don Henry, senator of Rome, 38 Donizetti, 280; style of, 281 Doria, despots in Genoa, 55; Luciano, 78 Dunbowski, scientist, 283 Durazza, Charles, 59 Education in Italy, modern, 262 Edward III.'s troops in Italy, 75 Eight of War, 79 Eleanor, Queen of Henry III. of England, 131 Eliza, sister of Napoleon Bonaparte, 161 Emanuele, Duke of Aosta, 251 Emigration from Italy, 260 England takes a stand for Italy, 214; royal couple visit, 299 Enzio, 34 Erythrea, African colony of, 261, 266 Estensi, despots in Ferrara, 55 Etruria, kingdom of, 158, 161 Eugene IV., Pope, 78 Eugene Beauharnais, 159; obliged to surrender, 167 Eugene of Savoy, Prince, 137 Index Exarchs, 6 Ezzelino da Romano, 32; death of, 34 Facino Cane, 74 Farnese, family, 124; Eliza- beth, 137 Farini, statesman, 221 Fedrigo, Duke of Urbino, 90 Fedrigo, Confaloniere, 174 Felix V., Anti-Pope (see Amadeus VII.) Ferdinand I., of Naples, 90; death of, 99 Ferdinand II., of Naples; flight of, 101 ; death, 102 Ferdinand the Catholic, of Spain, 104; joins League of Cambray, 107; joins Holy League, 108; death, US Ferdinand of Germany, Duke, 118 Ferdinand II., of Spain, 125 Ferdinand VI., of Spain, 139 Ferdinand IV, of Naples, T 39 !45! defies Napoleon, 155; retires to Sicily, 156; raises insurrection, 158; exiled, 160; abdicates, 164; recommences rule as Ferdinand I., of Two Sici- lies, 170; grants Constitu- tion, 172; reinstated, 173; death of, 174 Ferdinand of Austria, 142, 145 Ferdinand III., Grand Duke of Tuscany, 169 Ferdinand II., of Two Sici- lies, 174; promises Con- stitution, 181 ; retires from alliance with Charles Al- bert, 185; victorious, 186; defeated at Palestrina, 192; oppression of, 198; death of, 206 Ferdinand I., of Austria, 179 Ferdinand, Duke of Genoa, 197 Fernando da Gonzaga, 125 Fieschi, Conspiracy of the, 135 Filibert, Emanuel, Duke of Savoy, 130 ; achievements of, 133 Filippo Maria Visconti, 74 Fiorentino, Castle of, 34 Florence, as a republic, 24; Guelphs and Ghibellines in, 30; barely escapes de- struction, 36; Constitution of, 40; oppression of, 58; rise of the Medici, 79; rule of the Magnifico in, 89; under power of Savo- narola, 96; expels Medici and receives French, 100; again in hands of, 108; renewed struggles with the Medici in, 122; republican spirit crushed out in, 124; capital of Italy, 223 Fontainebleau, Pius VII. im- prisoned at, 161 Formusus, Pope, 13 Foscolo, Ugo, author, 272 Fra Ilario, 50 Fra Monreale, 61 ; under Rienzi, 67 Index 3 11 Francesca da Rimini, 55 Francesco di Carrara, 74 Francis I., of France, 114; claims Roman Empire, 115; driven out of Em- pire, 117; imprisoned, 119; joins Holy League, 121 France recognizes Victor Emanuel II., 214 Francesco, Ferruccio, 123 Francis of Lorraine, 140, 141 Francis IV., son of Beatrice d'Este, 169 Francis II., of Austria, 170; death, 179 Francis I., of Two Sicilies, 174 Francis of Modena, 175; restored, 176 Francis Joseph of Austria, 204 Francis II., of Two Sicilies, 207; refuses alliance with Cavour, 211; driven to flight, 213; supports male- factors, 216 Franciscans, 31 Frederick II., Emperor, 29; ruler of the world, 31 ; death of, 34 Frederick of Aragon, 54 Frederick the Fair, 57 Frederick III., 84; crowned by Pope Nicholas, 85 Frederick of Naples, 104 Frederick the Great, 140 Free Companies, 61 French withdraw from Rome, 226 Freundsberg, General, 119; death of, 120 Gaeta, City of, 20; French withdraw fleet from, 212 Gaetani, 56 Galileo, 126 Galliano, Major, 268 Garganza, Castle of, 47 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 179; early activity of, 187; put in command of Roman forces, 192; defeat and escape, 193; quarrels with Cavour, 205 ; leads Sici- lian expedition, 207; suc- cess, 208; enters Naples, 209 argues with Cavour, 211 retires to Caprera, 212 reconciled to Cavour, 214; is wounded, 222; in the Tyrol, 224; under guard, 226; escapes and is recaptured, 227; in Parlia- ment, 235; death of, 242 Gaston de Fois, 108 Gelimar, the Vandal, 5 Genoa, 20, 23; contentions with Pisa, 42; competi- tion with Venice, 75; loses power, 78 Gerbert (see Sylvester II.) Gheradesca, Count, 43 Gian Galeazzo (see Vis- conti) Gian Gastone, 137 Gioberti, Vincenzo, 196; works of, 276 Giotto, 63 Giovanni di Polenta, 55 Giuseppe la Farina, 207 Giusti, Giuseppe, 275 Gladstone, 198 Godfrey of Lorraine, 22 3 I2 Index Goito, Bridge of Victory at, 184; Victor Emanuel, 120 Gonsalvo da Cordova, 104; treachery of, 106 Gonzago, tyrants in Mantua, 73 Graf, Arthur, 278 Grandella, Battle of, 38 Gravina Palace, 105 Great Company, 62 Great Constable (Charles of Bourbon), 117; victorious, 119; killed, 120 Gregory III., the Great, 7; piety of, 9 Gregory V., 15 Gregory VII., 21, 22 Gregory IX., 32 Gregory X., 39 Gregory XI., 75 Gregory XII., 76 Gregory XIIL, 127 Gregory XVI., 176 Grenoble, Fortress of, 122 Grimoald, 7 Grisons, 134 Grossi, Tomaso, 275 Guelphs and Ghibellines, 25; confusion of, 31, 54 Guerazzi, Menco, 275 Guibert, Archbishop of Ra- venna, 22 Guicciardini, 113 Guido da Polenta, 51 Guillaume di Bonnivet, 118 Guise, Duke of, 134 Hadrian IV., 26 Hadrian VI., 117 Hadrumentum, 273 Hamilton, Lady, 156 Hauteville, 20, 60 Hawkwood, Sir John, 62; assists Florence, 79 Hayez, 280 Haynau, 191 Helene, Queen of Italy, 291 Henry II., of Bavaria, 18 Henry III., 19 Henry IV., 21; death of, 23 Henry V., 23 Henry VI., 29 Henry VII., crosses into Italy, 53; death, 54 Henry VIII., of England, 108 Henry of Navarre, IV., of France, 134 Hercules III., Duke of Mo- dena, 145 Heribert, 18 Hildebrand (see Gregory VII.), 20 Holy League, 119, 121 Holy See, 20 Honorius III., Pope, 31 Hugh of Provence, 13 Huguenots, 134 Humbert of the White Hand, 131 Humbert I., 240; early life of, 241 ; assassination of, 285 ; mourning for, 287 ; kindness of, 288; memori- als to, 293 Humbert, Prince of Pied- mont, 296 Huss, John, 78 Illyria, 378 Illyrian War, 118; colonies, war with, 181 Index 313 Induno, Domenico Girolamo, artist, 280 Innocent III., Pope, 29 Innocent VI., 67 Innocent VIII., go; death of, 94 Inquisition, 126 lolanda, wife of Frederick II., 32 lolanda, Princess, 293 Ionian Islands, 129 Ippolito, 122 Iron Crown of Lombardy, 25, 226 Isabel, wife of Gian Ga- leazzo Visconti, 71 Isabella of Spain, 115 Ischia, Island of, 101 Italian republic, 158 Ivrea, Margraf of, 131 Ivry, Battle of, 134 James of Aragon, 59 Jean d'Arc, 32 Jesuits, 126; repressed, 144; re-established, 168 Joanna, 58 Joanna II., 60 Joanna, mother of Charles V., 115 John XII., Pope, 14 John X., 15 John of Brienne, 32 John of Procida, 43 John XXII., 55 John XXIII., 77 John, Negus of Abyssinia, 265 Joseph of Austria, death of, 137 Joseph II., of Austria, 144 Joseph, King of Naples, of Spain, 60 Josephine, 159 Julius II., Pope, 106; forms Holy League, 108; death of, 109 Julius III., Pope, 125 Justin II., 6 Justinian, 4; death of, 6 Kassala, 268 Khartoum, 265 Koniggratz, Prussian success at, 225 Kunimund, 7 Ladislaus, 59; height of power of, 77 Lafala, brigand, 216 La Marmora (see Alphonso la Marmora) La Farina, Giuseppe, 207 Lamoriciere, capitulation of, 210 Lambert, 12 Landi, General, 208 Lando, Count, 61 Lanza, 221 Latini Brunetto, 46 Laura, 63 League of Cambray, 107; broken up, 108 Leghorn, 152 Legnano, Battle at, 27 Leo III., Pope, 10 Leo IX., 19, 26 Leo X., Giovanni di Medici, 109; Golden Age of, 112; death, 116 Leo XII., opens Holy Door, 244 Index Leo XIII., appointed Pope, 240; opens Holy Door, 244; twenty-fifth anniver- sary of, 245; death of, 245 ; ceremonies attending funeral of, 246 Leonardo da Vinci, in Leonine City, 230 Leonora, 1 13 Leopardi, Giacomo, 273 Leopold of Austria, 136 Leopold II., 141; promises Constitution, 181 Lepanto, Battle of, 128 Leyback, Alliance at, 172 Ligurian republic, 153 Lissa, defeat at, 225 Liutprand, 7 Loches, Castle of, 103 Lodi, 25; Peace of, 86; Battle of, 150 Loeben, 152 Lombard League, 27 Lombards, 6, 17 Lombardy, 145 Lothair, n Lothair II., 13 Louis the Pious, II Louis II., n Louis IX., of France, 37 Louis IV., of Bavaria, 57 Louis of Taranta, 59 Louis of Hungary, 59 Louis, Duke of Anjou, 59 Louis III., 59 Louis XL, 90 Louis XII., 103; in Milan, 104; death of, 114 Louis of Savoy, son of Amadeus VIII., 132 Louis XIII., 134 Louis XIV., 135 Louis XV., 139 Louis Philippe, 175 Louise of Savoy, 117 Loyola, Ignatius, 126 Lucca, 169 Luigi, Duke of Abruzzi (see Abruzzi) Luneville, Treaty of, 158 Machiavelli, 113 Mafalda, Princess, 295 Mafia, 271 Magenta, Battle of, 203; Humbert I. at, 241 Magione, Diet of, 105 Makaleh, 268 Malaspina, Dante visits, 49; historians, 63 Malatesta, despots at Rimini, 55; at Brescia, 74 Mameli, Goffredo, poet, 193 Manfred, 36, 37 Manfredi, despots in Fa- enza, 55 Manin, Daniele, 182; dies in exile, 191 Manini, Luigi, 152 Manno, author, 276 Manzoni, Alexander, 273 Marconi, 283 Mareb-Belesse, Muna Line, 269 Marengo, Battle of, 158 Margaret, wife of Ottaviano, 125 Margaret, wife of Louis IX. of France, 131 Margaret, wife of Emanuel Filibert, 133 ; and daughter of Francis I., 134 Index 315 Margherita, Queen, marriage of Humbert to, 241 ; eu- logy of, 287; honors for, 289 Maria in Carignano, 42 Maria Caroline of Austria, 145 {see Caroline) Maria Theresa, 139; King of Sardinia makes alliance with, 140 Maria Therese, mother of Victor Emanuel II., 197 Maria Christina, mother of Francis II., of Naples, 207 Maria, ex-queen of Naples, 213 Marie Antoinette, 145 Marie Louise, 168 Marignano, 73; Battle of, US Marinus, 373; Saint, 169 Marlborough, 137 Marochetti, sculptor, 280 Marozia, 13 Marsala, 208 Marshal de Lautrec, 121 Martin IV., Pope, 44 Martin V., 78 Martin Luther, 116 Mary Adelaide of Ranieri, 241 (see Adelaide) Mary of Burgundy, 115 Masaniello (see Aniello), 135 Mascagni, 282 Massaccio, 86 Massimo d'Azeglio, 180; sayings of, 257, 259; as a writer, 275 Massowah, 265 Mathilda, Countess of Tus- cany, 21 Maurienne, Counts of, 130 Maximilian, 108 Mazarin, 145 Mazzini, Giuseppe, 177 ; hides in London, 178; death of, 236; brief biog- raphy of, 237; as a writer, 276 Medici, Alessandro de', 124 Medici, Cosimo de', 81 ; prosperity introduced by, 86; death of, 87 Medici, Cosimo de', 124 Medici, Giovanni de', 81 Medici, Giovanni de', Leo X., 91; ascends Papal throne, 104; grants in- dulgences, no; encourages art, in; death of, 117 Medici, Giovanni de', of the Black Band, 118 Medici, Giovanni Gaston, 125 Medici, Giuliano de', 87; murdered, 88 Medici, Giuliano, son of Lorenzo, 94 Medici, Lorenzo de', the Magnifico, 87; culture of, 90; death, 92 Medici, Lorenzo de', nephew of Leo X., 114 Medici, Pietro de', 87 Medici, Pietro de', son of Lorenzo, 94; exiles Savo- narola from Florence, 96; expelled from Florence, 99 Medici, Silvestro de', 79, 81 Medina del Campo, 106 316 Index Melegnano, Battle at, 203 Meloria, Council at, 33; bat- tle of, 42 Menelik, king of Shoa, 265; life of, 267; presents gift to Princess lolande, 294 Menotti, Giro, 175 Metternich, 179; flees, 181 Michaelangelo, no; assists Florence, 122 Michael of Constantinople, 43 Michele di Lando, 80 Milan, Visconti, in, 55, 79; a republic, 83; Capital of Cisalpine republic, 154; Austrians enter, 167; riot and freedom for, 182; Charles Albert's entrance into, 185; riots in, 270; representative feeling in, 299 Milazzo, battle at, 208 Minghetti, 221 Modena, Duchy of, 145, 151, 169 Mohammed, 86 Monaco, given to France, 214 Montanelli, 188 Monte Aperto, Battle of, 36 Montebello, Battle of, 203 Monte Mario, 14 Monte Rotondo, victory at, 227 Montferrat, Marquis of, 25, 74; overcome by Ama- deus VIII., 131 ; given to France, 135 Monti, Vincenzo, author, 272 Morals in Italy of to-day, 262 Morelli, artist, 280 Moroello Malaspina, 48 Morosini, Venetian general, 129 Mortara, defeat at, 188 Murat, in Naples, 158; King of Naples, 160; disloyal to France, 166; execution of, 171 Mustapha, 128 Naples, Independence of, 17; capital of Two Sicilies, 20; plague, 64; uprising in, I35 becomes part of Aus- tria, 137; Garibaldi enters, 207; destitution in, 285 Napoleon Bonaparte, takes command of the French, 148; Emperor of France, 159; downfall of, 166; offered crown of Italy, 165; at Elba, 170 Napoleon III., an ally, 199; unites with Victor Eman- uel II., 203 ; makes peace with Austria, 204 Napoleon, Louis, 164 Narses, 5; rules as Exarch, 6 Navy, 256 Nelson, 155; cruelty of, 156 Niccolini, Giovani Battista, 275 Nicholas I., Pope, 15; pa- tron of Orsini, 57 Nicholas II., 20 Nicholas III., 39 Nicholas V., 78; rule of, 85 Index 317 Niveo, Ippolito, author, 277 Nimwegen, Treaty of, 136 Nogari, William, 44 Nota Bartolo, 271 Novara, Battle at, 188; Peace of, 195 Novi, Battle of, 157 Octavian, Pope John XII., H Oreglia, Cardinal, 2, 46 Orsini, 44; history of, 56, 66; plots against, 105 Orsini, Felici, 199 Osman Digma, 268 Otto II., 14 Otto III., 14, 15 Otto IV., 30 Otto of Brunswick, 59 Ottaviano, 125 Ottaviano Fregoso, 114 Oudinot, General, 192 Padua, 24 Palazzo, Deputy, 271 Palermo, expels Bourbons, 172; taken by Garibaldi, 208 Palmerston, Lord, 214 Paolo the Handsome, 55 Papal States, nucleus of, n; Investiture, 20, 23; States occupied by Napoleon, 161 ; government, decline of, 217; temporal power, fall of, 229 Parini, Giuseppe, 271 Parma, Duke of, compro- mises with Napoleon, 151; king of Etruria, 158 Parthenopian republic, 155 Parthians, annihilation of, 5 Parties of Right and Left, 237 Pasque Veronese, 152 Passarowitz, Peace of, 129 Paul III, 124 Paul IV., 126 Pavia, 7, 25; court of Ga- leazzo Visconti at, 71 ; Certosa di, 72 Pazzi, Jacopo de', Francesco de', conspiracy of, 88; mas- sacre, 89 Pecci, Cardinal Gioachino (see Leo XIII.) Pellico, Silvio, 274 Pellou, 270 Pepe, General, 172 Pepin the Short, 10 Persano, 225 Perugia, republic, 23; oc- cupied by Italian soldiers, 210 Pescara, Marquis of, no, 118; betrays Holy League, 119 Peschiera, fortress of, 184 Peter, King of Aragon, 43 Petrarch, 63 Philip the Bold, 44 Philip the Fair, 45 Philip of Austria, 115 Philip II. of Spain, 125, 133 Philip IV., 134 Philip of Anjou, Philip V. of Spain, 131 Piagnoni, 102 Piazza del Popolo, 26 Piazzi, 283 Piccinini, Nicholas, 83 Index Piedmont, important, 133; annexed to France, 156; demands Constitution, 172; and Prussia, 224 Pietro Luigi, 125 Pisa, independence of, 17; beauties of, 20; competi- tion of, 24; on side of Ghibellines, 38; defeat by Genoa, 42; loss by plague, 64; Archbishop of, 87; in power of Florence, 107 Pisani, Vittorio, 78 Pitti, Luca, 87; Palace, 86 Pius II., 86 Pius V., 127 Pius VI., 144; false to France, 154; opens Holy Door, 244 Pius VII., 157; imprisoned, 161 ; returned, 167 Pius IX., 179; retires from contest, 185; flees from Naples, 194; imprisons him- self in Vatican, 229; gen- erous concessions to, 231; refuses audience to king, 234; death of, 239 Pius X., elected, 248; history of, 249 Pizzighitone Castle, 119 Polenta Family, 55 Polish Succession, War of, 139 Political differences, in Italy, 264 Ponchielli, 282 Ponzo di San Martino, 259 Popolani Grossi, 58 Portinari, Beatrice, 46 Postal facilities, 263 Potenza, in revolt, 209 Prati, Giovanni, 277 Prague, 67; Peace of, 225 Presentation journey, 294 Presburg, Treaty of, 160 Prince of Naples, 251 Prince of Orange, 121; death, 123 Private life of sovereigns, 296 Prussia aids Italy success- fully, 224, 225 Puccini, musician, 282 Pyrenees, Treaty of the, 135 Quirinal, Napoleon restores Palace, 163 ; Palace, Victor Emanuel II. in, 234 Raconigi, royal family at, 294 Radetsky, 182; surrender of Pope to, 181; Victor Emanuel II. treats with, 190 Raphael, ill Rapisardi, 278 Ras Mangascia, 268 Ratazzi, Urbino, 196; blamed for cowardice, 222; death of, 237 Ravenna, Dante in, 50 Raymond di Cordona, 108 Reformation, 116 Renaissance, 94, 99 Rene, adopted heir of Jo- anna, 60 Republics, cities as independ- ent, 23 Riario, 87; Cardinal, 90 Ricasoli, 221 Index 319 Ricci, 79 Richard, Earl of Cornwall, 37 Richard de la Pole, 119 Richelieu, 135 Rienzi, Cola di, early success of, 65; first failure, 67; return to Rome, 67; death, 68 Right of Investiture, 21 Rivoli, Castle of, 139 Robert Guiscard, 19 Robert of Naples, 53; death of, 58 Robert de la Marck, 114 Roccasecca, Battle of, 77 Roger, Count, 19 Rome, independent, 24, 188; desire for Italy's capital, 217; further agitation con- cerning, 228; seized by Italian government, 229; capital of Italy, 233 Roncaglia, Diet of, 25 Rosamund, 7 Rosetti, Gabriele, 274 Rossi, despots at Parma, 55 Rossi, Count Pellegrino, 187 Rossi, Giuseppe, 241 Rossini, 280 Rotharis, 7 Rudini, Signer di, 267 Rudolph of Hapsburg, 39 Rudolph III., King of Bur- gundy, 131 Ruffini, Joseph, 178 Ruprecht, 73 Sadowa, Prussia successful at, 225 Saffi, 188 Salemi, 208 Salerno, 172 Saluzzo, Marquis of, 131 Salviati, Francesco, 87 San Marino, 169 San Martino, 204 San Miniato, 123 Santa Lucia, Battle before, !84 Santorre di Santarosa, 174 Saracens, n Sardinia, nest-egg of Italian kingdom, 138; increase of, 143 Sarto, Giuseppe (see Pius X), 248 Sarzana, Thomas of, Nicho- las V., 85 Savelli, 56 Savona, 177 Savonarola, Girolamo, 91 ; influence of, 92; interview with Lorenzo di Medici, 95; height of power, 95, 103; persecution of, 97; death of, 98 Savoy, rise of, 130; power weakened by France, 132; invaded by France, 147; ceded to Napoleon, 207 Scala, Bartolomeo, 47 Scaligeri, despots in Verona, 55 Schiaparelli, 283 Schism, 76; end of, 85 Scotti, 74 Selim, 128 Senefeh, 268 Senigallia, Castle of, 105 September Convention, 223, 226 3 20 Index Sforza, Attendolo, 77; cap- tain, 83 Sforza, Francesco, com- mences career, 82; Duke of Milan, 84; checks ad- vance of Amadeus VIII., 132 Sforza, Galeazzo, succeeds Francesco, 84 Sforza, Gian Galeazzo, son of Galeazzo, superseded, 90, 98; death of, 104 Sforza, Ludovico, 90, 98; death at Loches, 103 Sforza, Giovanni, of Pesaro, 106 Sforza, Maximilian, son of Ludovico, 108; flight of, 114; death of, 116 Sforza, Francesco Maria, younger son of Ludovico, 116 Siccardi Law, 196 Sicilian Expedition, 207 Sicilian Vespers, 43 Sicily, rebels against Bour- bons, 163, 164; revolt in, 181 Siena, a republic, 23 Sigismund, 77 Silvati, 172 Simeone di Bardi, 47 Simplon, road over, 64; opening of tunnel through, 297 Sistine Chapel, 90 Sixtus IV., 87, 90 Socialist, 270 Soderini, 79 Solferino, 204 Soncino, Battle at, 82 Sophia, 6 Soudan, 265 Southern Regno, 7 Southern Italy, destitution in, 260 Spain, disputes wfth Savoy, 134, U5 Spanish Succession, War of, 136 Spielberg, Pellico, impris- oned at, 274 Spinola, despots in Genoa, 55 Spoleto, Duke of, 10 Spoleto, 56 Stanislaus Leszcynski, 139 Staufen, Mount, 25 Stefano, 88 Stephen, Pope, 10 Stephanie, wife of Crescen- tius, 15 St. Elmo, Castle of, 136 St. Quentin, Battle of, 133 Suello, Monte, Garibaldi de- feated at, 225 Superga Heights, 189 Sylvester II., 15 Symmachus, 4 Tagliacozzo, Battle of, 38 Tagliamento, Battle of, 152 Tasso, 112 Tchernaya, 197 Theodolinda, 9 Theodora, 13 Theodore, 265 Theodoric, 3 Theophania, 14 The Thousand, 208 Thomas, Francis, 173 Thorwaldsen, 280 Index 321 Tiberine republic, 155 Tintoretto, 112 Titian, 112 Tommaseo, Nicolo, 276 Tortona, 25 Tours, Battle of, 10 Toselli, Major, 268 Trebbia, Battle of, 157 Tregua Dei, 22 Treviso, 24 Triple Alliance, 242 Troya, 276 Tunis, 25 Turin, treaty of, 79; capital removed from, 223; ex- position at, 270 Turks, 86; Venice threat- ened by, 128 Two Sicilies, brief summary of history of, 20, 60 Uberti, 30 Uguccione, 48 ; Paradise dedicated to, 49 Umberto, Count of Salemi, 251 United Italy as planned by Napoleon, 162 Urban II., 20 Urban IV., 37 Urban V., 75 Urban VI., 59, 76 Ursus, 56 Utrecht, Peace of, 137 Valentina, 103 Valtellina, 134 Vandals, disappearance of, 6 Vanucci, 276 Varese, 72 Vaucluse, 63 Vela, Vincenza, 280 Velletri, 56 Venice, 17, 20, 24; govern- ment of, 41 ; contest with Genoa, 74; at height of her power, 78; league against, 107; decline of, 128; Napoleon takes, 152; again proclaimed a re- public, 182; oppressed by Austria, 191 ; deserted by France, 204; given up to Italy, 225 Vercelli, 131 Verdi, 280; life of, 281; death of, 282 Verdun, treaty of, n Verga, dramatist, 282 Verona, battle of, 157 Veronese, Paolo, 112 Via Sacra, 297 Victor, Count of Turin, 251 Victor Amadeus I., 135 Victor Amadeus II., 136; supports Philip V., 137; abdicates, 138; impris- oned, 139 Victor Amadeus III., 145; makes terms with Napo- leon, 156 Victor Emanuel I., 156; receives back Piedmont and Savoy, 167; abdicates, 173 Victor Emanuel II., 189; compromise with Austria, 100 ; commences reform, 195; patriotic speech of, 201 ; takes stand against temporal power of Pope, 210 ; recognized by powers 322 Index as King of Italy, 212; re- sides in Quirinal, 234; death, 238; mourning for, 239 Victor Emanuel III., birth of, 242; succeeds Hum- bert, 290; early training and education, 291, 292; ability of, 293 Vienna, Treaty of, 139; congress at, 167 Viesseux, Gian Pietro, 276 Villafranca, Peace of, 206 Villani, Matteo, Filippo, 64 Violante, 71 Visconti in Milan, 55; Mat- teo, 57, 69 Visconti, Galeazzo, 57; Otto the Archbishop, 69 Visconti Azzo, 69; Luc- chino, 69 Visconti, Archbishop Gio- vanni, 70 Visconti, Stephano, 70; Mat- teo, 70 Visconti, Galeazzo, 70; in Pavia, 71; Bernabo, 70; in Milan, 71; Gian Gale- azzo, 71; ability of, 72; Giovanni Maria, 74; Fil- ippo Maria, 74; failing power of, 82; yield land to Piedmont, 131 Vittoria Colonna, no Volta Alessandro, 146 Wagram, Battle of, 161 Waibling, 25 Waldenses, 127 Waldo, Peter, 127 Walter of Brienne, 58 Warsaw, Council at, 214 Waterloo, 170 Welf of Bavaria, 25 Werner, Duke, 61 Wencelaus, 73 White Company, 62 William the Norman, 26 William II., 29 Wireless telegraphy, 283 Young Italy, 177 Zanardelli, 270; death of, 297 Zeno, 3 Zichy, General, 182 Zwingli, 116 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACIL A 000034274 1