ISITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY = -'-^fe 4q SITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY - ^ CO ') >- 1 0^ ISITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY (1 ^ ! ^■'Ai- ^4^44444 Y OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF T Y OF CALIFORNIA r FY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF 1 A-/ ^it^r^- ''-m mwi'^ TRAVELS AND RESEAKCHES IS CHALDJA AND SUSIANA; WITH AN ACCOUNT OF EXCAVATIOlJb ,AT WARKA, THE "ERECH" OF JSIMROD, AND SHUSH, "SHUSHAN THE PALACE" OF ESTHER, IN 1849-52, UNDES TUS OBDEBS OF ilAJOR-GENERAL SIR W. F. WILLIAMS OF KAR8, BART., K.C.B., M.P., AND ALSO OF THE ASSYRIAN EXCAVATION FUND IN 1853^. BT WILLIAM KENNETT LOFTUS, F.G.S. " Why dost thou build the hall, son of the winged days ?— Thon lookest from thy tower to-day : yet a few years, and the blast of the desert comes ; it bowls in thy empty court." — Ossian. NEW YORK: ROBERT CARTER & BROTHERS, 630 BROADW AY. 1857. I]S70 CARPENTI^ TO MAJOR-GENERAL SIR WILLIAM FENWICK WILLIAMS, OF KAES, BART., K.C.B., M.P., ETC., %\n !P^0lttm^ is Inscribtir, DT ADMIRATION OF HIS BRILLIANT ACHIEVEMENTS, AND m GRATEFUL REMEMBRANCE OF FOUR HAPPY TEARS PASSED UNDER HIS COMMAND UPON THE TURCO-PERSIAN FRONTIER. PREFACE. The following pages are due to researches in that remote, and but partially explored region, which, from our childhood, we have been led to regard as the cradle of the human race. The matter they contain is the result of two visits to the countries in question : first, in con- nexion with the Turco-Persian Frontier Commis- sion in 1849-52, under the orders of Colonel, now Major-General Sir W. F. Williams, Bart., of Kars; and secondly, in conduct of the Expedition sent out by the Assyrian Excavation Fund, at the end of the year 1853. On returning to England in the middle of last year, I hoped that the Committee of the above Society would have published in extensor and in VI PREFACE. another fonn, the fruits of its investigations in Chaldsea and Assyria ; but, this plan having been abandoned, I am induced to embody the records of some portion of m.y journeys and researches in the following pages. Although this volume does not chronicle the discovery of sculptured palaces, such as the sister- land of Assyria has yielded, yet it comprises accounts of cities existing centuries before the greatness of Nineveh rose to astonish the Eastern world, and of sites containing the funereal remains and relics of primseval races. With the more important of those great necropolis-cities I hope to make the reader familiar. In my account of Warka, I have, for the sake of brevity, combined the results of my three visits ; and, since the modern Sheah custom of burial, to a certain extent, corresponds with that which pre- vailed at the great Chaldsean cemeteries, I have introduced, in the early part of the work, a de- scription of the celebrated Persian shrines and cemeteries at Meshed 'All and Kerbella. Although the ruins of Babylon have been repeatedly described, I have made a brief allusion to them, and mentioned the most recent discoveries made there, because a work on Chaldaea would be PREFACE. Tli necessarily imperfect without some reference to, or description of, its great capital. In doing this, I have touched upon some points which have not hitherto been noticed. The discoveries made at Shush, during the progress of the Frontier Commission, are equally interesting in a biblical, as in an historical sense, for they identify, beyond reach of cavil, the exact position of "Shushan the palace," where the events recorded in the book of Esther took place, and settle many difficult questions connected with the topography of Susa, and the geography of the Greek campaigns in Persia, under Alexander the Great and his successors. In the course of the work, I have had repeated occasion to refer to the labours, and quote the opinions of others ; in doing so, I trust that I have accorded to each his due share in Chaldsean research. Since there appears to be no golden rule for the orthography of Oriental names — at any rate, as each writer on Eastern subjects adopts his own method of spelling, I have chosen one which, while it approximates as nearly as possible to the native pronunciation, agrees hkewise with the written orthography. In carrying this out, I am VUl PREFACE. deeply indebted to Mr Redliouse for his valuable corrections; and, although many well-known names appear here in somewhat different guise from that which they usually wear, I conceive that it is better to risk the charge of pedantry than to per- petuate errors, I am, nevertheless, fully aware that there are several inaccuracies in this respect, because the late severe illness of Mr Redhouse prevented my asking his aid until some of the early sheets had passed through the press. These it is proposed to amend, if another edition of the work be required. If, however, the accented vowels be attended to, the reader will approach very nearly to the native pronunciation. The a is equivalent to the French a: the e to the French e; i corresponds to the sound of ee; u to that of 00 ; and the guttural aspirate is represented in such words as ^ Mi and Miiscid. It gives me great pleasure here to record my sincere obligations to others of my friends who have aided me with their advice and corrections while the work was in the press; more especially to the Rev. Dr Hamilton, Mr J. F. Nicholson, Mr Radford, Mr Birch, Mr Yaux, and Mr Boutcher. To the last-named gentleman I am likewise in- debted for the careful copies on wood of his own PREFACE. IX original drawings, made on the spot for the Assyrian Excavation Society, and also of those (now in the British Museum) made by the friend and companion of my first journey, Mr H. A. Churchill. I here likewise take the opportunity of acknow- ledging the aid and encouragement afforded to me on the field of my researches. To General Williams I am in an especial manner indebted for the facilities which, as British Commissioner, he invariably granted to me in carrying out such plans as were advantageous to the success of my labours. During the more recent Expedition on behalf of the Assyrian Excavation Fund, my eflforts were materiall}^ aided by the position assigned me by the Earl of Clarendon, as an Attache of our Embassy at Constantinople during the continuance of the Expedition, for which I return my grateful acknowledgments. My thanks are also due to his Excellency Lord Stratford de RedclifFe, the first patron of Assyrian research, who, amidst other and most onerous duties, apphed to the Porte for, and obtained, new firmans for excavation. And, lastly, to Sir Henry Kawlinson I desire to express my obligations for the assist- ance rendered me in his then official capacity, as PREFACE. Consul-General at Bagliclad, by liis influence with the Turkish authorities and native Arab chiefs. In conchision, I hope that the new facts and observations which I am enabled to lay before the reader will insure me some consideration for my literary inexperience. W. K. L. Norwood, Decemher 1856. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. London to Baghdad — ^Turkish and Persian Troubles — Colonel Williams and the Frontier Commissioners — Constantinoj^le — Mesopotamia — A Flowery Wilderness — The City of H^- runu-'r-Keshid — Pestilence — ISTedjib and Abdl Pashas . 1 CHAPTER II. Baghdad to Babylon — The Khan — Canals and Ancient Fertility — Shapeless Mounds — Fulfilment of Prophecy . . .13 CHAPTEE m. HiUah— Tdhir Bey and the Turkish Brass Band— The Oven Dance — Martial Escort — Bridge of Boats — Birs Nimrud — Its true Theory — Sir H. Rawlinson's Discoveries — The Seven- coloured Walls of the Temple of the Spheres — Chaldee Astronomy ......... 21 CHAPTER IV. View from Bits Nimrud — Keffil — Ezekiel's Tomb — Children of the Captivity 33 CHAPTER V. The Marshes of Babylon — Khuzeyl Arabs — The Euphrates, and its Canals — Semiramis — Nebuchadnezzar — Cyrus — Alexander — Shujah-ed-Dowla, and the Indian Canal .... 38 Kii CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. PAOX Kufa— A Fiery Ride— Nedjef, and the Tomb of 'All— The Ghydwr in the Golden ISIosque — Fanaticism of the Sheahs — Far-travelled Cofifins and Costly Interments — How the Prime- Minister got a Grave at a Great Bargain — Turkish Torpor and Cleanliness versus Persian Dirt and Vivacity , . . 47 CHAPTER VII. Kerbella — The Governor's Dejeuner — The "Martyr" Huss6yn, and his Mosque — Siege and Massacre — ^The " Campo Santo " at Kerbella — Oratory of 'Ali — Magnificent Sunrise — Eastern Ladies, Mounted and on Foot — The Ferry . . • ,59 CHAPTER VIII. Climate of Chaldsea — Christmas in Baghdad — Departure for the South — MubSrek's Misadventure — The Kyaya of HiUah — Bashi-Baztiks 72 CHAPTER IX. From HUlah into the Desert — Sand-drifts — Bridge-building — ^The Surly Sheikh, and his Black Slave — Coffee-making — Rhubarb and Blue PiU— New Year 1850 80 CHAPTER X. The Itlighty Marsh — The Reed-Palace — Shooting-match — Niffar — Theory on the Chaldeeans — Probable Ethiopic Origin — Niffar, the Primitive Calneh, and Probable Site of the Tower of Babel — Beni Rechab, the Rechabites of Scripture 91 CHAPTER XI. Diwdniyya — Camp of Abdi Pasha — Mulla 'Ali, the Merry Ogre — Sheep-skin Rafts — Statue-hunting — Hammrim — Solemn Gran- deur of Chaldsean Ruins— The Statue— Tel Ede— Alarm of the Arabs — First Impressions of Warka . . • .105 CHAPTER XII. Bedouins — MtibSrek becomes useful — Ruins of Mugeyer — Cy- linders — Chedorlaomer ? — Belshazzar — The Author and his Guides put to flight their Turkish Escort — Busrah — Arrival in Persia 126 CONTENTS. Xui CHAPTER XIII. Plans and Preparations for Excavating in Warka — ^The Party — Arrival at Suk-esh-Sheioukli — FaJiad, Sheikh of the Mun- tefik — Reception Tent — Falcons — The Letter and Escort . 139 CHAPTER XrV. Winter — Camel-foals — Tuweyba Tribe — Old Friends — Harassing Labours — Dissatisfaction — Budda, the Grave-digger and Gold- finder — Arab Kindness — Warka in 1854 — Difficulties — Scarcity of Food and Water — Patriarchal Life in Abraham's Country — Misery and Rapacity — Sand-storms . . .146 CHAPTER XV. « The Land of Shinar "—Warka, the Ancient " Erech"— " Ur of the Chaldees" — Scene of Desolation and Solitude — Enormous Extent of Ruins — The 'Bixwaviyja — Reed-mat Structure . 159 CHAPTER XVL " Wuswas " Ruin — The Earliest Explorer — Rude Ornamentation — Columnar Architecture — Palm Logs the Probable Type — New Light on the External Architecture of the Babylonians and Assyrians — Interior of Wuswas — The Use of the Arch in Ancient Mesopotamia — Search for Sculptures — The Warrior in Basalt 171 CHAPTER XVIL New Styles of Decorative Art — Cone-work — Pot-work — Arab Aversion to Steady Labour — Blood-Feud between the Tuweyba and El-Bej — The Encounter Frustrated — The Feud Healed — Diversions after the Work of the Day • , . .187 CHAPTER XVIIL The absence of Tombs in the Mounds of Assyria — Their abundance in Chaldaea — Warka a vast Cemetery — Clay Sarcophagi of various forms — Top-shaped Vase, or " Babylonian Urn" — Oval Dish-cover Shape — Slipper-shape — Difficulties of Re- moval — Excitement of the Arabs — Gold Ornaments — Coins — Vases — Terra-Cotta Penates — Light-fingered Arabs — The Or- deal — Endurance of Pain — Earliest Relics . . . .198 XIV CONTENTS, CHAPTER XIX PIOI Bank-notes of Babylon — Relics Injured by Fire — ^A Fruitful Mound — Chamber containing Architectural Ornaments — Origin of the Saracenic Style — Clay Tablets with Seal Im- pressions and Greek Names — Continuance of Cuneiform until B.C. 200 — Himyaric Tomb-stone — Conical Mounds — Style for Writing Cuneiform — The Shat-el-Nil — General Results of the Excavations at Warka — Probable Relics still Buried there , 221 CHAPTER XX. Sinkara — Decamping — Ride in a Sand-drift — ^The Negro Lion- slayer — ^A Nocturnal Visiter — Dull uniformity of SinkSra — • The Temple of Pharra — The Dream and its Fulfilment — Nebuchadnezzar and Nebonit rebuilders of Temples — Another great Necropolis — Tablets and their Envelopes of Clay — Babylonian Arithmetic — Pictorial Records — Boxers in the Land of Shinar — The Dog-devourer 240 CHAPTER XXL Treasures found at Tel Sifr — Juvenile Footpads — Medina — Ytisuf and his Excavations at Tel Sifr — Large Collection of Curio- sities in Copper — Private Records, B.C. 1500 — Female Ex- cavators — ^The Works in Chaldaea abruptly interrupted — Leave-taking — Grateful Labourers — Embarkation on the Euphrates — River-craft and Amphibious Arabs — " The Mother of Mosquitoes" 263 CHAPTER XXIL Mohammerah. — ^Intense Heat — Sickness — Legion of Blood-suckers — Colony of Alexander the Great — Charax — ^The Delta of the Tigris and Euphrates — Disputes between the Turks and Per- sians — The Cha'b Arabs and their Territories . . .279 CHAPTER XXIIL Setting out for Susa — The Sulky Ferryman — Coffee-cups and In- fidels — Ahwdz — ^A False Alarm — Shuster — Dilapidation and Dirt — Shapur and the Captive Emperor Valerian — Their Grand Hydraulic Works — Festivities at Shuster — Tea — The Forbidden Beverage — Climate of Shuster — Failure in Diplo- macy 287 CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER XXIV. PAQB Departure from SMster — Change of Scenery and Animal Life — Huge Lizards — Botany — Geology of the Persian Steppes — Shdh-^b^d — Dizful — Subterranean Conduits — Costume of the People— The 'Ali Kethlr Guide— The Bridge of the Biz— Encampment at Shush — A Conflagration .... 306 CHAPTER XXV. The Tomb of the Prophet Daniel — Arabic Traditions regarding him — Benjamin of Tudela's Account — Present State of the Sepulchre — Spies and Persian Fanaticism — Charge of Sacri- lege — Ferment in Dizful and the Neighbourhood — The 'Alf Kethir Arabs — An accident befals the Author — Compelled to abandon the Mounds of Shush — Battle between the 'All Kethir and Bern L^m — Suleyman Khan the Christian Governor of a Mohammedan Province — Arrival of Colonel Williams . .317 CHAPTER XXVL Early History of Susa — ^From the days of Cyrus, Susa the Win- ter-residence of the Persian Kirgs — Ahasuerus identical with Xerxes — Lnmense wealth found by Alexander — Power of Susa declines — Its Ruins at the present day — Abundance of Wild Beasts — Imposing aspect of Susa in early times . . 335 CHAPTER XXVIL Excavations commenced by Colonel Williams — A Burglar — Con- viction and Punishment — Gigantic BeU-shaped Bases of Columns discovered — A Year's Interruption — Proposed Re- sumption in 1852 — Journey under the Protection of the Beni L^m — The Seg-wend Liirs — Hiring of Native "Navvies'" — Opposition of the Priesthood — The Cholera ascribed to the late researches — The New Viceroy, Khdnler Mirza . .349 CHAPTER XXVin. The Great Palace of Darius at Susa — Columns with Double-bull Capitals — Trilingual Inscriptions of Artaxerxcs Mnemon — " Court of the Garden" of Esther — Columnar and Curtain Architectmre — Origin of the Susian and Persepolitan Style — Worship of Tanaitis or Venus .364 XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXIX PAOl Hostility and Reconciliation — ^An Arrival — The Lur Workmen — Insurrection of Seyids — Administration of Justice — Novel Method of Smoking — Colonel Williams' Horses Stolen — An Arab attack Repelled — ^The Haughty Humbled — Besieged by a H^em 381 CHAPTER XXX. A Long Trench — Enamelled Bricks — Masons' Marks — ^A Hoard of Coins — Was Susa destroyed by Alexander? — Greek In- scriptions — Pythagoras and the Persian Daric — Unexpected Visit from the Guardian of the Tomb — Inscriptions and other Early Relics on the Great Mound — Alabaster Vases of Xerxes — Egyptian Cartouch — Mr Birch's Remarks thereon — Sculp- tured Trough 396 CHAPTER XXXI. The " Black Stone" — Its Discovery and Adventures — Its Con- nexion with the Welfare of Khuzistan — ^The Plot for its Re- moval Defeated — Investigations among the Rivers of Susa — • Identification of the " Ulai," or Eulseus — Bifurcation of Modem Rivers — Sheikh Abdulla Forgiven — Friendly Parting between the Arabs and the Frank 416 Chkonological Table 435 ohaldtEa and susiam. CHAPTER I. London to BagMcId — ^Turkish and Persian Troubles — Colonel Williams and the Frontier Commissioners — Constantinople — Mesopotamia — A Flowery Wilderness — The City of Harunu-'r-Eeshid — PcstUence — Nedjib and Abdi Pashas. FoK many centuries tlie extensive frontier between Turkey and Persia has been in an unsettled state, continually changing its limits as the strength or influence of either Government for the time prevailed. The aflable Persian naturally regards the haughty Osmanli in the light of an intruder upon those rich plains which owned obedience to the might of the Kayanians and Sassanians in the days of Darab and Shapvir. Eeligious difference, moreover, adds to the political animosity of the two great Mohammedan powers. The phlegmatic Turk quietly smokes his chibilk, swears by the beard of Omar, and thanks the omnipotent Allah for all the blessings he enjoys ; on the other hand, the ardent follower of the martyred 'All curses the orthodox believer, and takes every opportunity to insult his patron saints. It may be easily conceived that such political and religious disagree- ments are frequently productive of a state of anarchy and bloodshed, when the subjects of the two nations come into A CHALD^A AND SUSIANA. CHAPTER I. London to Baghdad — ^Turkish and Persian Troubles — Colonel Williams and the Frontier Commissioners — Constantinople — Mesopotamia — A Flowery Wilderness — The City of Harunu-'r-Eeshid — Pestilence — Nedjib and Abdi Pashas. For many centuries tlie extensive frontier between Turkey and Persia has been in an unsettled state, continually changing its limits as the strength or influence of either Government for the time prevailed. The affable Persian naturally regards the haughty Osmanli in the light of an intruder upon those rich plains which owned obedience to the might of the Kayanians and Sassanians in the days of Darab and Shapiir. Religious difference, moreover, adds to the political animosity of the two great Mohammedan powers. The phlegmatic Turk quietly smokes his chibilk, swears by the beard of Omar, and thanks the omnipotent Allah for all the blessings he enjoys ; on the other hand, the ardent follower of the martyred 'All curses the orthodox believer, and takes every opportunity to insult his patron saints. It may be easily conceived that such political and religious disagree- ments are frecpiently productive of a state of anarchy and bloodshed, when the subjects of the two nations come into A 2 THE TURKO-PERSIAN FRONTIER. close contact. To add to the difficulties attending any- proposed reconciliation, the frontier is inhabited by various predatory races, who regard both Turk and Persian with equal hatred, and who are only too happy to exercise their plundering propensities by incursions into either territory. The internal divisions and jealousies which exist among these warlike tribes fortunately prevent them from com- bining, as in the days of the Parthians, and proving forniid.a.blj3 competitors for the possession of Oriental dominion. . ;;En 1839-40, the outbreak of serious hostihties between the" Turkish and Persian Governments, arising from the causes above mentioned, was imminent, and likely, in the course of time, to endanger the tranquillity of the whole world. The Cabinets of England and Russia, in- fluenced doubtless by the proximity of their own fron- tiers in India and Georgia to the regions in question, and therefore interested in the maintenance of peace, offered their friendly mediation for the purpose of restraining the belligerent attitude of their Mohammedan neighbours. The proposal was accepted, and commissioners from the four powers assembled at Erzerum, who, after sitting four years, eventually concluded a treaty, one article of which determined that representatives should be sent to survey and define a precise line of boundary which might not admit of futiu-e dispute. A joint commission was conse- quently appointed to carry out this article. The British Government selected Colonel Williams, R.A.,"^'' to this ser- vice, his previous experience during the protracted con- ferences at Erzerum having eminently qualified him for the task now assigned him. Colonel Tcherikoff, the Russian commissioner, although not a party to the treaty, * Throughout this volume, " the Hero of Kars " is alluded to under the rank he held at the time as Commissioner for the deUmitation of the frontier. JOURNEY. 8 was equally well chosen to represent the Czar. With these officers were associated Dervish Pasha, and Mirza Jdfer Khan, the commissioners for Turkey and Persia respectively. Both had been educated in Europe. The former enjoyed the reputation of being the most learned savant among his countrymen, an excellent linguist and chemist. The latter soon endeared himself to the mem- bers of the various parties by his obliging manners and many acts of kindness and attention. In January 1849, I was attached by Lord Palmerston as geologist to the staff of Colonel Williams, and directed to lose no time in joining my chief. On reaching Constan- tinople, and presenting myself, according to instructions, to Lord Stratford de Pedcliffe (then Sir Stratford Canning), I learned that Colonel Williams and his party had set out from thence on Christmas-day, and that letters had been received, dated Siwas, giving a deplorable account of the state of the weather and roads. The snow had fallen to such an unprecedented depth, that the greatest difficidty beset their journey, and at several places it was found necessary, after many days' detention, to cut roads for the passage of the mules. Under these circumstances, the ambassador detained me at Constantinople for a few weeks, in the hope that the return of spring would open the communications with the interior, and admit of my travelling with more rapidity. On the 7th of March I left the shores of the Bosphorus. After the usual disagreeable voyage in a Black Sea steamer, and a cold protracted ride across the Taurus, upon which the snow still lay uncomfortably deep, I at length reached Diarbekir, whence, proceeding down the swollen Timis on a " kelek," or raft of skins, I arrived at Mosul on the 5th April, and there joined the British commission. It is no part of my intention to detain my readers 4 RAFT ON THE TIGRIS. with any description of " Nineveli, that great city." This has been ah-eady done by another and more able pen than mine. Let it suffice to state, that we beheld those asto- nishing " heaps built by men's hands," and admired the perseverance and determination of our countryman, Layard, who, from these shapeless mounds, exhumed the wondrous series of Assyrian sculptures which now forms such an important feature in our national collection of antiquities. We visited the four great mounds of Koy- unjuk, Khorsabad, K^ramles, and Nimriid, marking the angles of the parallelogTam which is supposed to enclose Nineveh. The time spent in our visit consumed exactly three days, and it is probably to a similar circuit of its extent that the passage refers — " Now Nineveh was an exceeding great city of three days' journey." '"" Baghdad was appointed for the rendezvous of the com- missioners ; and, as the Britisli party was in advance of the others, we floated down the Tigris on rafts, visiting at our leisure all those points of interest so admirably described by Rich in his " Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan," and subsequently by other travellers.! All beiQg new to us, we fully enjoyed the opportunity, granted to so few. We rambled over the desolate mound of Kal'a Shergat, the ancient capital of Assyria ; we landed at Tekrit, celebrated as the birth-place of the romantic Saladin, the Arab hero of the Crusades ; . and we stood on the plain of Dura, recalling to mind the golden image erected by Nebuchadnezzar, and the unflinching faith of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego. * Jonah iii. 3. This expression may, however, refer to the thinly in- habited district between the river Zab on the south, and the Khdbtir on the north, which, there is equal reason to believe, constituted the Nineveh of Jonah's mission. The journey between these two rivers occupies exactly three days. t Mr Layard gives a short description of the numerous ancient sites be- tween Mosul and Bdghddd in his " Nineveh and Babylon," p. 4G-1, et scq^ SCENERY ON THE TIGRIS. 6 It was midspring. Instead of the arid sands, which the word " desert " implies to the uninitiated in Meso- potamian travel, broad plains of the richest verdure, enlivened with flowers of every hue, met our delighted gaze on either side of the noble river. Coleopterous insects swarmed upon the banks, culling the sweets of the fleeting vegetation. The cry of the velvet-breasted francolin, and the sand -grouse '"' rushing overhead like an irresistible wind, enticed the most ardent of our party to land, and indulge the love of their favourite sport. The result was not unsuccessful, and little trouble was expe- rienced in providing for our commissariat. Now and then a herd of wild boars was discovered among the jungle, or observed crossing the river : it was seldom that they escaped unsaluted by a volley of bullets, with more or less effect. A bend of the stream sometimes brought us suddenly upon a large Bedouin encampment, whence, on observing the raft, a score or so of swarthy Arab dames, with piercing black eyes and never-failing rows of the whitest teeth, launched forth on inflated sheep skins, and paddled out to meet the " keleks." They bore on their heads bowls of milk or delicious lebben,t which they disposed of in return for a few small coins. Althoiigh the general aspect of the country is monotonous, there is always something to amuse the traveller. Never did a merrier party than ours float down the Tigris upon a fragile raft. o As Baghdad is approached, the pendent branches of the graceful date-tree, and the refreshing green of the pomegranate, with its bright red flowers, become more and more frequent until, many miles above the city, the river flows through one continuous grove. At length the mosques and minarets appear ; the goal so long * The Francolimis vulgaris and Pterocles arenarius of naturalists, t Sour clotted milk — the usual Arab beverage. 6 BAGHDAD PAST AND PRESENT. wished-for is within sight at last. He must be wholly- void of poetry and sentiment in whom the first glimpse BSghd&i and the Tigrifl. of those shining domes does not excite at least some spark of emotion. ^Vlio is there that does not recall that city where the lively imagination of his youthful days was wont to revel amid palaces shining in splendour, groups of blind beggars, and the glories of the khalifat 1 Who is there that does not exclaim, " Is this the Baghdad of Harilnu- 'r-Reshid and the ' Arabian Nidits ' 1 " Alas ! how fallen ! The blind beggars, it is true, still cluster in the bazaars, and are met at every corner of the streets — the misery and filth remain — but where are the palaces and the justice of the Prince of the Faithful 1 Few relics of its quondam magnificence survive to remind us of the past. A single minaret, a couple of gateways, the wall of a college, and the conical tomb of the beautiful Zobeid, are nearly all that exist of Baghdad as it was in the days of its greatness. To the just khalif has succeeded a race of Turkish pashas having no interest but their own aggrandizement — no thought but how they can most BAGHDAD IN DANGER. 7 effectually cheat the revenue, enrich themselves, and pass their time in gross debauchery. Exaction and vice are the order of the day. Now and then honourable exceptions occur to this general rule, but these, alas ! are few and far between. But of this more anon. At the date of our arrival (May 5) the whole popula- tion of Baghdad was in a state of the utmost alarm and apprehension. In consequence of the rapid melting of the snows on the Kurdish mountains, and the enormous influx of water from the Euphrates through the Seglawiyya canal, the spring-rise of the Tigris had attained the unpre- cedented height of 22^ feet. This was about five feet above its ordinary level during the highest season, even exceeding the great rise in 1831, when the river broke dowm the walls and destroyed no less than 7000 dwellings during a single night, at a time when the plague was com- mitting the most fearful ravages among the inhabitants. Nedjib Pasha had, a few days previously to our arrival, summoned the population en masse to provide against the general danger by raising a strong high mound completely round the walls. Mats of reeds were placed outside to bind the earth compactly together. The water was thus restrained from devastatino; the inte- rior of the city — not so effectually, however, but that it filtered through the fine alluvial soil, and stood in the serdabs, or cellars, several feet in depth. It had reached within two feet of the top of the bank ! On the river side the houses alone, many of which were very old and frail, prevented the ingress of the flood. It was a critical juncture. Men were stationed night and day to watch the barriers. If the dam or any of the foundations had failed, Baghdad must have been bodily washed away. Fortunately the pressure was withstood, and the inunda- tion gradually subsided. The country on all sides for miles was under water, so that there was no possibility S FEVER. of proceeding beyond the dyke, except in the boats which were established as ferries to keep up communication across the inundation. The city was for the time an island in a vast inland sea, and it was a full month before the inhabitants could ride l^eyond the walls. As the summer advanced, the malaria arising from the evaporation of the stagnant water, produced such an amount of fever that 12,000 died from a population of about 70,000. The mortality at one time in the city reached 120 per day — and no wonder, when a person on being first attacked was made to swallow a large quantity of the juice of unripe grajDCS ! The streets presented a shocking spectacle of misery and suffering. The sick lay in every direction — at the doors of houses, in the bazaars, and open spaces ; while those recently smitten or just recovering were to be seen staggering along by the wall sides or supported with sticks. The gates of the city were beset with biers — some carried on men's shoulders to the adjacent cemeteries, others on the backs of mules to the sacred shrines of Meshed 'All and Kerbella. Although our quarters were fixed in a small summer- house and garden at Gherara, an hour's distance from the city, the party was not exempt from the prevailing epide- mic. All in turn sufi'ered from fever, and at times there was scarcely a servant, out of our large suite, able to attend upon the sick. In consequence of the delay arising from the Turkish commissioner's non-arrival at the appointed time, and from certain intricate questions which required a reference to the home Governments, the idea w^as abandoned of pro- ceeding to the frontier until the summer should be past. In fact, it would have been impossible at that season to bear the fearful heat at the head of the Persian Gulf. Even at Baghdad, during the day, in summer, the thermometer STATE OF THE PA SH ALIO. 9 in the shade often rises to 117° Fahr. ; and frequently, when the wind blows from the south, the oppression on the senses is so great as to be almost unendurable.^' The atmosphere is, however, dry, consequently the lassitude produced is not to be compared with that experienced in a moist climate, like that on the sea-coast of India, or of the Gulf. The heat of the day is relieved in some measure by the agreeable temperature of the night. Our time was spent in making preparations for the ap- proaching campaign, purchasing horses and mules, hiring servants, and obtaining information likely to be useful in the course of oiu' future wanderings. Much of our leisure was passed in the agreeable society of the English residents at Baghdad ; and our sojourn there must ever be a subject of pleasiug reminiscence to the members of the commission. Nothing could exceed the attention and hospitality lavished upon us by the consul-general. Colonel (now Sir Henry) Kawlinson, Captain Felix Jones, and that small party of Englishmen whose lot it was to make the city of the khaltfs their temporary home. Baghdad has been so frequently described, that it forms no part of my intention to dwell upon it. Other and less- visited spots invite our notice. The state of the pashalic was anything but satisfactory at this period. The cruel exactions and oppressive con- duct of Nedjib Pasha, who had for many years farmed the revenues, were at length producing their inevitable fruits. Eevolt and disaffection reigned everywhere among his subjects. The Beni Lam Arabs, along the lower course of the Tigris, broke out into open rebellion, in consequence of the pasha having placed that tribe under their sworn foes, the Montefik, and thro^^^l into * We now had positive evidence of the statement made to us in the mountains concerning Bdghddd, that birds were so distressed by the heat, as to sit on the date-trees with their mouths open, panting for fresh air ! 10 NEDJIB PASHA. prison the two sons of their sheikh, Methkiir — his hos- tages at Baghdad — because he was several years in arrear of his customary tribute. They seized all native vessels laden with merchandise passing up and down the Tigris. All communication was interrupted between Baghdad and Busrah. Caravans were detained, and the hair of the camels shorn, it being the proper season for this pro- cess. But the Arabs, at least, had some sense of justice — the cargoes of the boats and the camels' hair were care- fully laid aside, to be honourably restored to their owners as soon as matters might be satisfactorily arranged ; and British property was respected. The Kliuzeyl Arabs, inhabiting the marsh lands on the west of the Euphrates, had torn down the dams which restrained the "great river" within its proj)er limits, and, by flooding their lands, placed themselves, for the time being, utterly beyond the power of the Tiu^kish Government, The wild Madan tribes, in lower Mesopotamia, were on the point of foUo^Aing the example of their neighbours on either side. The Bedouin Arab, taking advantage of the general confusion, made formidable incursions into the pashalic, and plundered all parties indiscriminately, thus retaining his character as the descendant of Ishmael, and fulfilling the prediction, that " his hand will be against every man, and every man's hand against him."^" The prospects of the Turks in their southern province were dark in the extreme. Strong representations were, how- ever, made to the Porte, and resulted in the dismissal of Nedjib Pasha, the instalment of the Seraskier Abdl Pasha in his room, and the abolition of the system of farming the revenue by the substitution of a regular and liberal salary to the new governor. The change was hailed with delight throughout the whole province, and by slow • Genesis xvi. 12. ABDf PASHA. 11 degrees tranquillity was restored. Nedjib Pasha shortly afterwards took his departure for Constantinople, leaving, it was said, an enormous amount of private debts unpaid, but taking with him a large sum of money. It was by his orders that Sofiik, the celebrated Shammar Arab chief, was treacherously slain, while under safe-conduct ; and a host of other serious crimes could be established asjainst him. Nevertheless, Nedjib Pasha was a politic governor ; his severities being frequently well-timed, insurrection was prevented in the bud. It was only by an unexpected chain of disorders, which he had not the power to queU, that he was driven from his lono; dominion. Acting in direct opposition to the orders of his superior, Abdi Pasha exhibited so much tact and good feeling dur- ing his mission with the troops into the Khuzeyl territories, that those refractory tribes were subdued without blood- shed, and returned to their allegiance. This circumstance had such weight with the Porte, that he was considered the fittest person to succeed Nedjib Pasha. He was, however, soon found wanting in those qualities which constitute a good governor. As a soldier, he had per- formed his part admirably ; but no sooner did he assume the civil power than his firmness forsook him. Eesigning himself to the luxury of his new position, he submitted to be guided by a favourite eunuch — a sort of buffoon whose gross gestures and language were unendurable by Europeans. The sagacious Arabs were not long in dis- covering that they might act almost as they pleased ; and they did not fail soon afterwards to take advantage of the circumstance. Such was the state of affairs at the end of summer in the pashalic of Baghdad, when, as soon as the intensity of the heat permitted, Colonel Williams determined to reheve the monotony and lassitude attendant on our long detention by carrying out a contemplated trip to the 12 CONTEMPLATED JOURNEY. ruins of Babylon, and to the celebrated Persian shrines. Oiu- arrangements being effected, and the day fixed for departure, we quitted our wearisome abode at Gherara, crossed the ferry over the Tigris by starlight, and at Klian-i-Za'ad were joined by the Russian and Turkish parties, who had expressed a desire to accompany us. CHAPTER II. Baghdad to Babylon— Tlie Khan— Canals and Ancient Fertility— Shape- less ]\Iounds — Fulfilment of Prophecy. The distance between Baglidad and tlie niins of Babylon is about fifty miles, across a barren desert tract. Large khans occur at convenient intervals, to provide for the security of travellers against the ro\dng Bedouins who at times scour the surrounding country. A description of one of these khans will suffice. It is a laro-e and substan- tial square building, in the distance resembling a fortress, being surrounded with a lofty wall, and flanked by round towers to defend the inmates in case of attack. Passing through a strong gateway, the guest enters a large court, the sides of which are divided into numerous arched compartments, open in front, for the accommodation of separate parties, and for the reception of goods. In the centre is a spacious raised platform, used for sleeping upon at night, or for the devotions of the faithful during the day. Between the outer wall and the compartments are wide-vaulted arcades, extending round the entire building, where the beasts of burden are placed. Upon the roof of the arcades is an excellent terrace, and, over the gateway, an elevated tower containinc; two rooms — one of which is open at the sides, permitting the occupants to enjoy every breath of air that passes across the heated plain. The terrace is tolerably clean ; but the court and stabling below are ankle deep in chopped straw and filth. Each 14 BABYLONIA. khan is supplied with a well, dug through the gravel into the gypsiferous deposits beneath, invarial)ly affording bad, brackish water, which tastes, as one of our party aptly described it, like a solution of leather! During the long summer, these khdns are frequently crowded to excess by pilgrims from Persia on their way to the shrines. Each caravan brings with it numbers of felt-covered coffins, containing dead bodies sent for burial in the sacred ceme- teries. As pilgrims, coffins, and animals are shut up together all night — or all day, as the case may be — within the khans, it may be conceived that the atmosphere, impregnated with noxious gases, deals death and destruc- tion around. It is estimated that, in healthy seasons, a fifth of the travellers, overcome with fever and other diseases, find their graves in the desert ; while, in times of cholera and epidemics, the average is much larger of those who fail to return to their distant homes. In former days the vast plains of Babylonia were nourished by a complicated system of canals and water- courses, which spread over the surface of the country like net- work. The wants of a teeming population were sup- plied by a rich soil, not less bountiful than that on the banks of the Egyptian Nile. Like islands, rising from a golden sea of waving corn, stood frequent groves of palms and pleasant gardens, affording to the idler or the traveller their grateful and highly-valued shade. Crowds of pas- sengers hurried along the dusty roads to and from the busy city. The land was rich in corn and wine. How changed is the aspect of that region at the present day ! Long; lines of mounds, it is true, mark the courses of those main arteries which formerly diffi^ised life and vege- tation alono; their banks, but their channels are now bereft of moisture and choked with drifted sand ; the smaller offshoots are wholly effaced. " A drought is upon her waters," says the prophet, " and they shaU be dried BABYLONIA. 15 up,"* All that remains of that ancient civilization — that " glory of kingdoms," " the praise of the whole earth" — is recognizal)le in the numerous mouldering heaps of hrick and rubbish which oversj^read the surface of the plain. Instead of the luxuriant fields, the groves and gardens, nothing now meets the eye but an arid waste — the dense population of former times is vanished, and no man dwells there. Instead of the hum of many voices, silence reigns profound, except when a few passing travellers or roving Arabs flit across the scene. Destruction has swept the land, and the hand of man been made the instrument by which God has effected his punishment.t But for the curse upon it, there is no physical reason why it should not be as bountiful and thickly inhabited as in days of yore ; a little care and labour bestowed on the ancient canals would again restore the fertility and population which it originally possessed. It would require no immense expenditure of funds to clear the channels of the loose sands, which have accumulated during so many centuries, and to render them navigable for the shallow vessels of the country. Such a work of supererogation is not, how- ever, to be expected from the existing race of Turkish officials, and must be left until the time when the ciurse upon it shall be removed, and European civilization, with its concomitant advantages, shall penetrate into those distant wilds. May that time soon arrive ! I have been led into this digression by the fact that the Ncihr Malka, one of the four main arteries which sup- • Jer, 1. 38. + In a review of " Johnston's Physical Geography," contained in the Edinburgh Magazine for April 1849, the writer has well remarked that " war and barrenness of soil are not the chief obstacles to population. Insecurity of property implied in tyrannical governments is the great depopulator. Men will not labour when they cannot be certain of the fruits of their labour ; they sink into lassitude, indolence, and beggary." This is a true picture of the present state of Turkey, and more especially appUcable to Babylonia, which has passed through so many vicissitudes. 16 BABYLON. plied Babylonia with tlie waters of the Euphrates, passed close to Khan-i-Za'ad, and is still traceable by a slight depression. It should be remarked, that the beds of navigable canals are below the level of the surrounding country, while those of the secondary or irrigating canals are above that level. This arises from the comparatively shallow depth of the latter, and the rapid accumulation of matter held in suspension by the water, which, on deposition, raises their channels each successive year. Now and then the beds of canals in action at the present day are cleaned out, and the deposit, forming embank- ments at the sides, prevents the flooding of the cultivated land. Between Khan-i-Za'ad and the little village of Mohawil there is nothing to interest the traveller, but soon after passing the date-trees and modern canal of the latter place, a small mound affords from its summit the first glimpse of the ruins of Bal^ylon. Truly said the prophet concerning her, " Babylon shall become heaps, an astonish- ment, and an hissing, without an inhabitant." ''' Unsightl}^ mounds alone remain of that magnificence which Scrip- ture so frequently dilates upon, and which the pages of Herodotus so carefully describe. Who can recognise in those shapeless piles, exposed to the ravages of time and the destructive hand of man during twenty centuries, any of its former grandeur 'i We learn from Herodotust that the great city was built in the form of a square, each side of which was defended by an enormous wall, measuring 120 stadia, or about 15 miles in length, and furnished with twenty-five gates of brass ; the interior being arranged in squares by streets intersecting each other at right angles. The Euphrates divided the city into two parts, which were connected by a bridge of immense length and width. * Jer. li. 37. t Lib. i. c. 178, et seq. BABYLON. . 17 According to DIodorus Siciilus,""' a palace stood at eitlicr extremity of the bridge : that on the eastern side measur- ing 3f miles in circumference — that on the western being *7l miles. He also speaks of the temple of Belus on the latter side. Herodotus, however, mentions but one palace and the temple of Belus. The ruins at present existing stand upon the eastern bank of the Euphrates, and are enclosed within an irre- gular triangle formed by two lines of ramparts and the river, the area being about eight miles. This space contains three great masses of building — the high pile of unbaked l)rickwork called byEicht "Miljellibe," but which is known to the Arabs as " Babel ;" the building denominated the " Kasr," or palace ; and a lofty mound upon which stands- the modern tomb of Amram-ibn-'Ali. Upon the western bank of the Euphrates are a few traces of ruins, but none of sufficient importance to give the impression of a palace. It mil therefore be seen that the ancient and modern descriptions of Babylon do not agree, unless we are to consider the mounds within the triangular space above- mentioned as constituting a single palace and its offices. If so, where are we to look for the walls of Babylon fifteen miles square ? It has been suggested, that, by regarding the great tower of the BIrs Nimriid on the south, and the conical mound of El Heimar on the east, as two corners of a vast square, we should thus get over the difficulty ; but unfortunately we have no evidence of the existence of any walls around the square thus traced. There are various causes to account for the comjJete- disappearance of the walls and so much of the buildings. Upwards of 2300 years ago, Darius, the son of Hystaspes,^ caused them to be demolished in consequence of a rebel- lion in the city, thus bringing about the fulfilling of the prophecy — " The wall of Babylon shall fall ;" " her walls are * Lib. ii. c. 8. t " Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon." % Herod, iii. 150. B 18 BABYLON. thrown down ;" " the broad walls .... shall be utterly ])roken.""'^ During that period, likewise, the ruins were used as a never-failing brick field — city after city was built from its materials. Ctesiphon, Kilfa, Kerbella, Hillah, Baghdad, and numerous other places — them- r^elves now scarcely to be recognized — derived their supply of bricks from Babylon ! The floods of the Euphrates and the rains of winter, too, have exercised their share in l^ury- ino; and disintef>;ratino; the materials. All these ao;encies at work have combined to render Babylon a byword and a reproach among nations. Eich, and, but recently, Fresnel and Layard, endeavoured by excavation to recover some information from the existing moimds, but they encountered such inextricable confusion that they gave up their several attempts in despair. In my opinion — and I have examined the ruins on four several occasions — it is now utterly impossi])le to recog- nize one single point in them as the remains of any of those sumptuous palaces described by the early historians. Eich,t whose account and measurements are models of careful examination, has misled himself and others by his enthusiasm in endeavouring to identify certain of the ruins with the descriptions of Herodotus. I grant that it is a most pleasing subject to speculate upon, but it is perfectly hopeless, at this distance of time, to trace out any plan of the ancient city as it existed in its greatness and glory .J It must not be inferred from these remarks that any doubt exists as to the identity of the ruins in ques- tion with those of the scriptural Babylon. There cannot be two opinions on that suliject. Independently of the * Jeremiah li. 44, 58 ; 1. 15. t "JMemoir on the Ruins of Babylon." J In 1854-55 a minute survey of Babylon and its environs was made at tlie request of Sir Henry Rawlinson, by Captain Jones, I.N., assisted by Dr Hyslop and Mr T. K. Lynch. The public will doubtless ere long be put in possession of the important information which, it is said, was obtained during the progress of this examination. LA YARD AT BABYLON. 19 fact that universal tradition points to tins locality as the seat of the Babylonian capital, no other site can be so appropriately determined on. During Mr Layard's excavations at Babylon in the Avinter of 1850, Babel, the northern mound, was investi- gated;'"" but he failed to make any discovery of importance beneath the square mass of unbaked brickwork except a few piers and walls of more solid structure. According to the measurement of Rich, it is nearly 200 yards square, and 141 feet high. It may be suggested that it was the basement upon which stood the citadel. From its summit is obtained the best view of the other ruins. On the south is the large mound of Miljelliba, so called from its " over- turned" condition. The fragment of ancient brick masonry called the Kasr, which remains standing on its surface, owes its preser^^ation to the difficulty experienced in its destruction. The bricks, strongly fixed in fine cement, resist all attempts to separate the several layers. Their under sides are generally deeply stamped with the legend of Nebuchadnezzar. Not far from this edifice is the well-known block of basalt, roughly cut to represent a lion standing over a prostrate human figiu:e. This, together with a fragment of frieze, are the only instances of has reliefs hitherto discovered in the ruins. The last, discovered by Mr Layard, exhibits two figures of deities, with head-dresses resembling those peculiar to Persepolis and Khorsabad. On the south of the Miljellibe is the moimd of Amnim, from which Mr Layard obtained the remarkable series of terr'a-cotta bowls, with inscriptions in ancient Chaldaean characters, supposed to have been charms used by the Jews during the captivity to ward off the Evil One. These are among the most interesting relics procured from Babylon. • * Nineveh find Babylon," p. 504-& 20 BABYLON. Various ranges of smaller mounds fill up the inter- vening space to the eastern angle of the walls. The pyramidal mass of El Heimar, far distant in the same direction — and the still more extraordinary pile of the Birs Nimrud in the south-west, across the Euphrates — rise from the surrounding plain like two mighty tumidi designed to mark the end of departed greatness. Mid- way between them, the river Euphrates, wending her silent course towards the sea, is lost amid the extensive date-groves which conceal from sight the little Arab town of Hiilah. All else around is a blank waste, recall- ing the words of Jeremiah : — " Her cities are a desolation, a dry land, and a wilderness, a land wherein no man dwelleth, neither doth any son of man pass thereby." '"" It would be useless here to enter into a more detailed description of the niins, because the -works of Eich and Layard yield all the information which is known on the subject, and to them my readers must be referred. * .Teremiah U. 43 CHAPTER III. Hillah — Tdhir Bey and the Turkish Brass Band — The Oven Dance — Martial ]<]scort — Bridge of Boats — Birs Nimrud — Its true Theory — Sir H. Rawlinson's Discoveries — The Seven-coloured Walls of the Temple of the Spheres — Chaldee Astronomy. The camp of our party was pitched on the southern extremity of the mounds, near the village of Jumjiinui, where we Avere joined by Tahir Bey, the military gover- nor of Hillah, one of the very few men in Turkey who have devoted their time to study the profession of a soldier. He was known as a dashing officer, and pos- sessed that frankness and off-hand manner which stamped the correctness of the character he had obtained. He was a general favourite, and soon made himself at home with us. He placed a guard of fifty men to look after our safety during the night ; and, to afiord some amusement, ordered out the brass band of the garrison under his command, which at intervals enlivened us with selections and remarkable variations from Bellini, Doni- zetti, and even Strauss ! This, as may be imagined, was not quite consonant to the feelings of the European por- tion of the assembly, who would infinitely rather have dispensed with such frivolities, and have indulged in quiet contemplation on the extraordinary scene which we had that day for the first time beheld. But, as there was no help for it, we were obliged to conform to the feelings of the majority, and to respect the attentions which Tahir Bey lavished upon us. At such times as the band ceased its somewhat dubi- 22 THE DANCER. ous melody, one of those never-failing accompaniments of Oriental fetes — a dancer — was introduced to add to tlie amusement of the evening. He proved to be no ordinary buffoon, sucli as usually exhibits to an Eastern audience. Hamza of Hillah was celebrated far and near for his grace and modesty. He might have been about eighteen years old, and was not only dressed, but ap- peared like a girl, tall and slightly built. His costume re- sembled that of a Spanish dancer, consisting of a tiglit vest with loose sleeves of red silk, and a skirt of the same material, which reached to below the knees, and was ornamented with alternate rings or flounces of red, blue, and yellow, edged with Persian shawl. This skirt was called " tennilr," from its resemblance to an Arab " oven." On his head Avas a fez, with long, fidl blue tassel ; and from his neck and breast hung numerous chains and large medals of silver — presents, doubtless, from his ardent admirers. The backs of his hands were adorned with silver studs, and his fingers with rings, of which he made the most dexterous use as an accompaniment to the sound of the tomtom. Oriental dances are usually gross and indecent in the extreme : it was therefore with no little surprise and pleasure that we remarked Hamza's movements were entirely free from this objection, and might have been witnessed by the most fastidious. His grace woidd indeed have amused, if not charmed, any audience, and, if exhibited in England, he would soon have made his fortune. There not being space sufiicient in the reception-tent for the full display of Hamza's powers, an adjournment took place to the open air. A large circle was formed around a torch adapted for the occasion. It was a round iron grate, raised upon a pole to the height of six feet from the ground. The fire was fed with the boughs and leaves of date-trees, Avliich cast a strong lurid light upon the spectators. THE "TENNtJR" DANCE. 23 The people of Hillali, hearing of our arrival, and judg- ing that there was something to be seen, collected in considerable numbers into a motley group. There was the old Turk, chibuk in hcand, with his venerable white beard, well-wound tiu'ban, and scrupulously clean person and apparel — the dirty Aral), with his gay keff ieh, striped abba, and constant companion, the long spear — the nearly naked water-carrier, bearing a huge bullock's sldn upon his broad back, and announcing his ever-welcome presence by the sound of little brass bells — here and there a stray Persian, in pointed lambskin cap and long blue robes, as worn ages past by his forefathers — and lastly, our own attendants, exhibiting every variety of race, caste, and costume between Malta and Baohdad — a com- plete Babel among themselves- Turkish sentinels at re- gidar intervals, musket in hand, kept the ring. Hamza now stepped into the circle and commenced the performance of what was esteemed his most wonder- ful feat — the favourite of the Turks. He begau, dervish- like, to move slowly round upon one spot, gradually increasing his speed as the music quickened, until at length he spun round with amazing velocity. He then proceeded to partially divest himself of his numerous ornaments and garments, but each article was taken olf so slowly and carefully, and the speed with which he turned was so great, that, when he rapidly passed it into the hands of a person stationed to receive it, the movement was scarcely perceptible. Each portion of his dress thus disappeared until only his under-clothing remained. Throwing a shawl over his person, he now actually increased his speed to a fearful velocity, until he appeared as though fixed on a pivot. He then dressed ; and, after half an hour of this violent exertion, suddenly ceasing liis gyrations, he made two or three elegant movements, salaamed the strangers, and retired amidst "bouts of applause. Although not 24 PROCESSION INTO HILLAH. exhibiting the grace of his dance in the tent, as an example of bodily endurance it surpassed anything of the sort I had ever before witnessed. This exhibition over, and the din of the tomtom ceased, a profound stillness took possession of the camp, varied only by the regular tread and challenge of the sentinel. It was long, however, before I closed my eyes. The excitement of visiting a spot so remarkable in the history of the human race was such, that I lay awake for a length of time, recalling to my mind all the wonderful events which had befallen " the golden city," and the astounding fulfilment of those prophecies which refer in so remark- able a manner to its present crumbling condition. No one who reflects seriously on such a subject and on such a scene can fail to be impressed with the truth of Scrip- ture. The whole camp was early astir on the following morn- ing, and we proceeded in great state towards Hillah, the little capital of the surrounding Arab district. The procession was led by the mounted escort which had accompanied us from Baghdad, and by the detachment of infantry sent from the to^Ti overnight by Tahir Bey. I must give them the credit of being by far the cleanest, most orderly, and soldier-like fellows I had seen in Turkey — vastly superior to the ill-clad wretches who hung about the streets of Stambul before the war. Their dress and accoutrements were good and clean, their muskets and long bayonets shining as brightly as any rigid, disciplinarian could desire. The only thing which detracted from their appearance, and rendered them some- what uncouth to look upon, was, that their European-cut white trousers were inconveniently small to contain the Oriental baggy drawers within. Next in order were three led horses of the pasha, covered with black trappings, and ornamented with plates and beads of bright silver, BRIDGE OF HILLAH. 25 having much the appearance of palls appertaining to a funeral procession. Behind these were two kettle-drum- mers, who kept up an incessant tomtomming until the ears ached with the intolerable din — these, of course, immediately preceded the three commissioners and a motley group of officers, in such costumes as each thought most suitable for affording shelter against the increasing heat of the rising sun. In the background came servants of all classes, exhibiting as picturesque an array as can be well conceived. Long strings of mules with the baggage closed the procession. Hillah is approached from the Baghdad road, by a nar- row avenue, passing through the extensive date-gardens which border on the river. The trampling of so many feet enveloped us in a cloud of the finest and most penetrating- dust, which all were compelled to endure while almost suffocated by it. At the suburbs we were received by our friend the governor, who had preceded us, by the band, and the bulk of the garrison. Although the dust was very an- noying, it was impossible not to enjoy a scene so strange and new. The sun was just beginning to shed his warming- influence upon the beautifid yellow clusters of ripening- dates, which hung like so many bunches of pure gold collected round the ends of the tall stems. The luxuriant tufts of feathery branches, and their elegantly pendent form, appeared to spring from the trees, as if solely in- tended to relieve the monotonous aspect of an Arab desert, or to prevent the fruit under their bounteous shade from being scorched and dried up under the vertical sun. A few dilapidated houses and a small bazaar, chiefly stocked with water-melons and cucumbers, guard the eastern approach to the bridge of Hillah. The crossing this bridge — if it could deserve the title — produced con- siderable wavering and consternation among the horse- men ; many of whom, it was observed, wisely dismounted, 26 JEWS OF THE CAPTIVITY. lest a false step or other accident sliould precipitate both horse and rider into the rapid Euphrates. The bridge was one of boats — infirm and old — covered, like Noah's ark, " without with pitch" derived from the bitumen springs of Hit. From boat to boat was laid down a roadway of date timber ; but so full of holes was it, that a broad- stepped ladder would have answered the same purpose. The oscillation produced by the passage of so many horsemen, the plunging and kicking of the animals, and the state of the bridge itself, rendered it a matter of no small difficulty to reach the opposite bank of the river in safety. As if for the sake of amusing themselves at our expense, and to create as much confusion as possible, the authorities in the town placed two large guns in such a position as to enfilade both sides of the bridge, and fired a succession of salutes — sufficient to have done honour to three sultans, instead of three commissioners ! Ha"ST.ng escaped all the dangers consequent on the passage of the Euphrates, we assembled at the seray, where pipes and coffee were duly provided, and a few minutes' rest was allowed us to collect our scattered thoughts. The seray is said to have been a palace of the khalifs ; and certainly, if its dilapidated condition be any warrant for this report, its antiquity is undoubted. There is nothing remarkable about the town of Hillah, except that, from its situation on the Euphrates, it is somewhat more picturesque than most Arab towns. The bazaars are extensive, and exhibit the usual amount of blindness, poverty, and filth. If there be one thing more than another which strikes the visitor to Hdlah, it is the large number of Jews who inhabit the place, and secure a livelihood by collecting and selling antiques from the neighboming mounds. They are tlie degraded and persecuted remnant of the ten thousand, whom Nebuchadnezzar carried off" from Jerusa- lem, still hovering around the scene of the captivity ! BfRS NIMRtJD. 27 It has been often suggested, that, in consequence of the frequent changes in the coarse of the Euphrates, the western portion of Babyk)n was gradually wa.shed away, and that its place is now occupied by the alluvial plain. Mr Layard is of this opinion/' But this mode of account- ing for the entire disappearance of such large edifices as we know, from the historical accounts, to have existed on the west of the great river, is highly unsatisfactory. Upon the same supposition, we should expect the eastern ruins to have likewise disappeared. The opposition of- fered by such a massive pile as Babel or Miijellibe could not be wholly overcome, even during a lapse of centuries. The result of the river's flowing at its base would simply be the disintegration of a very small portion of its mass. The surface of the ground between Hillah and the Birs Nimriid, a distance of six miles, shews the remains of old canals derived from near the present course of the Euphrates, which is quite opposed to this theory. It is more probable, in my opinion, that the river has not much altered its channel, but that the western division of the ruins, being more accessible to brick-hunters, was com- pletely demolished. It appears, however, to have escaped general observation, that there are mounds within the date- oToves of Hillah itself indicatino- the existence of older foundations. These may eventually prove to be a por- tion of the lost western half of ancient Babylon. There are few ruins in the world which have excited such general interest and speculation regarding their object and origin as the vitrified brick edifice which crowns the summit of Birs Nimrud. The old Jewish traveller, Ben- jamin of Tudela, in the twelfth century, regarded it with devout reverence as part of the identical tower of Babel destroyed by fire when the Lord scattered man abroad upon the face of the earth as a punishment for his auda- • " Nineveh and Babylon," p. 492-3. 28 BfRS NIMROD " TEMPLE OF THE SEVEN SPHERES." city. Many authors consider it to be the great temple of Belus, descrihed by Herodotus as having been partially destroyed by Darius, about 500 B.C., and afterwards plun- dered by his son Xerxes. Others, again, were inclined to look on it as an observatory erected by the Chaldsean priests for astronomical purposes. It is, however, to the sagacity and learning of Sir Henry Eawlinson that we are indebted for a correct determination of this remarkable edifice. The excavations conducted there under his directions, in 1854, confirm the correctness of the observations made by Rich, Ker Porter, and Buckingham, as to the existence of several stages Avhich they conceived to be visible under the accumulation of fallen bricks. Sir Henry Eawlinson ascertained that the structure consisted of six distinct platforms or terraces. Each terrace was about 20 feet in height, and 42 feet less horizontally than the one below it. The whole were so arrano-ed as to constitute an oblique pyramid — the terraces in front being 30 feet in depth, while those behind were 12 feet, and at the sides 21 feet each. Upon the sixth story stands the vitrified mass, concerning which such discussion has arisen, and which, it is now suggested, was the sanctum of the temple. Built into the corners of the stories were cylinders of Nebuchadnezzar, designating the whole structure, " the Stages of the Seven Spheres of Borsippa." Each story was dedicated to a planet, and stained with the colour pecu- liarly attributed to it in the works of the Sabsean astro- logers, and traditionally handed down to us from the Chaldj?eans. The lowest stage was coloured black, in honour of Saturn ; the second orange, for Jupiter ; the third red, for Mars ; the fourth j^ellow, for the Sun ; the fifth green, for Venus ; the sixth blue, for Mercury ; and the temple was probably white, for the Moon ! It may not perhaps prove imacceptable to my readers CYLINDER OF " NABU-KUDURI-UZUR." 29 if I here give Sir Henry Rawlinson's translation from the cuneiform record upon the cylinders, which is to the fol- lowing effect : — " I am Nahu-kuduri-uzur, King of Babylon, the estab- lished governor, he who pays homage to Merodach, adorer of the Gods, glorifier of Nabu, the supreme chief, he who cultivates worship in honour of the Great Gods, the subduer of the disobedient man, repaii-er of the temples of Bit-Shaggeth and Bit-Tzida, the eldest son of Nabu- pal-uzur. King of Babylon. Behold now Merodach, my great Lord, has established men of strength and has urged me to repair his buildings. Nabu, the guardian over the heavens and the earth, has committed to my hands the sceptre of royalty therefore. Bit-Shaggeth, the palace of the heavens and the earth for Merodach the supreme chief of the Gods, and Bit Kua, the shrine of his divinity, and adorned with shining gold, I have appointed them. Bit- Tzida also I have firmly built. With silver and gold and a facing of stone ; with wood of fir, and plane, and pine I have completed it. The building named the Planisphere, which was the wonder of Babylon, I have made and finished. With bricks enriched with lapis lazuli I have exalted its head. Behold now the l3uilding named the Stages of the Seven Spheres, whicli was the wonder of Borsippa, had been built by a former king He had com- pleted 42 cubits (of height), but he did not finish its head. From the lapse of time it had become ruined ; they had not taken care of the exits of the waters, so the rain and wet had penetrated into the brickwork. The casiug of burnt brick had bulged out, and the terraces of crude brick lay scattered in heaps ; then Merodach, my great Lord, inclined my heart to repair the building. I did not change its site, nor did I destroy its foundation platform, but in a fortunate month, and upon an auspicious day, I undertook the building of the crude brick terraces, and the 30 BORSIPPA. burnt brick casing of the temple. T strengthened its foundation, and I phxced a titular record on the part I had rebuilt. I set my hand to build it up and to exalt its summit. As it had been in ancient times, so I built up its structure ; as it had been in former days, thus I exalted its head. Nabu, the strengthener of his children, he who ministers to the Gods, and Merodach, the supporter of sovereignty, may they cause this my work to be estab- lished for ever ; may it last through the seven ages, and may the stability of my throne and the antiquity of my empire, secure against strangers, and triimiphant over many foes, continue to the end of time. Under the guardianship of the Eegent who presides over the spheres of heaven and the earth, may the length of my days pass on in due course. I invoke Merodach, the king of the heavens and the earth, that this my work may be pre- served for me under thy care in honour and respect. May Nabu-kuduri-uzur, the royal architect, remain under thy protection." The record further states, that " Nabu-kuduri-uzur's" re- storation took place 504 years after the original foundation by Tiglath Pileser I., who dates as far back as 1100 B.C. Antiquarians had long previously pronounced the Blrs Nimrud to be Borsippa, the city to which Alex- ander the Great retired when warned by the Chaldsean priests not to enter Babylon from the east. Every brick hitherto obtained from the ruin is impressed with the legend of Nebuchadnezzar. The attempted identification with the tower of Babel therefore falls to the ground, unless it shall be hereafter shewn that the temple restored by Nebuchadnezzar was erected upon the site of a stiU earlier structure.'^'' * NelDuchadnezzar was a great builder and restorer. His records are dis- covered in every part of Babylonia, and abound in the immediate vicinity of Babylon — corroborating to the fullest extent the words of Scripture: "Is not this great Babylon that I' have built ?" &c.— Dan. iv. 30. VITRIFICATION OF BRICKS, 31 The peculiarities displayed in the architecture of the Birs Nimriid agree so faithfully with the Greek descrip- tions of the temple of Belus at Babylon, that there can be no doubt of the two buildings having been erected on the same general plan, and that, when we look upon the existing edifice, we regard a fac-simile of the one which is now destroyed. As a discovery in art or science always leads to further knowdedge and information, so the seven coloured stories of the Temple of the Spheres enable us fully to compre- hend the hitherto dubious account of the seven coloured walls of the city Ecbatana in Media, described by Herodotus/"'' As regards the mode in which the colours of the bricks in each stage were produced, it may be sug- gested that chemical ingredients were added to the clay before the bricks were burned in the fm-nace. It is more difiicult to explain the cause of the vitrification of the upper building. My late talented friend, Captain New- bold, assistant-resident in the Deccan, originated an idea when we examined the Birs Nimriid in company, which is, I believe, now beginning to be adopted, that, in order to render their edifices more durable, the Ba- bylonians submitted them, when erected, to the heat of a fiu-nace. This will account for the remarkable condi- tion of the brickwork on the summit of the Birs Nimriid, which has undoubtedly been subjected to the agency of fire. No wonder that the early explorers, carried away by their feelings of reverence, should have ascribed the vitrified and molten aspect of the ruins to the avenging fire of heaven, instead of to a more natural agency. It is worthy of notice, that in several places where vitrified bricks occur in Babylonia, they are associated with a tradition that Nimrod there threw the patriarch Abra- * Lib. i. 98. 32 ASTRONOMYo ham into a furnace. There appear, therefore, to be some grounds for Captain Newbold's suggestion. The Birs Nimrud, then, was a temple dedicated to the heavenly bodies, where " the wise men of the Chaldees," prompted by their adoration of the countless orbs, were naturally led to the study of astronomy. The Chaldseans were the first people who reduced their observations to a regular system. On the authority of Berosus,''' it is re- corded, that when Alexander took Babylon, Callisthenes forwarded to his relative Aristotle in Greece a catalogiie of eclipses which had been observed at Babylon during the pre\4ous 1 903 years. Ptolemy refers to eclipses in the year 720 B.C., which were derived from a Chaldsean source. It is to those early astronomers we are indebted for the zodiac and the duodecimal division of the day. The expansive plains of Babylonia possess such natural advantages for the study of astronomy, that we cannot wonder at their having become the birth-place of that science. The remarkable dryness and regularity of the climate, the serenity of the sky, and the transparency of the atmosphere, particularly point to that region as admir- ably adapted for studies and investigations of this nature. Constellations of the eighth magnitude are distinctly visible to the naked eye, while between May and Novem- ber meteors fall in countless numbers. Under these circum- stances, when ol)servatories are being established in various less favourable localities, it appears not a little strange that " the land of the Chaldees " is passed over in utter forgetfulncss. AVith the appliances and correctly-adjusted instruments which the march of civilization has produced, what additions to our knowledge of astronomy and me- teorology might we not attain by erecting an observatory at such a spot as Baghdad or Babylon ! • Consult Porphyr., apud Simplic, i. 2 ; also, Pliny, vii. 67. CHAPTER IV. View from Birs Nimrud — Koffil — Ezc'del's Tomb — Children of the Capti\ity. The view from the summit of tlie Birs Nimriid is veiy extensive, and its utter desolation has been the theme of frequent observation. No one can stand there and sur- vey the scene around without being struck with the literal fulfilment of Isaiah's prophecy — " I will make it a possession for the bittern, and pools of Avater ; and I will sweep it with the besom of destruction, saith the Lord of hosts/' ''• Spreading out like a vast sea upon the north and west is a marsh, which all the labours of the ancient and modern rulers of the country have never been able to subdue. In certain seasons, the waters of the Euphrates rise above their ordinary level, and flood the whole surface of the low lands of Chaldsea, confirming every word of the prophet. Bordering upon this marsh, a few spots attract the eye and relieve the long level of the horizon. Due soutli stands the little tomb of the prophet Ezekiel, and at the distance of fifty miles, in the mirage of early morning, may be discerned the mosque of the sainted 'All, glisten- ing like a speck of gold as the beams of the rising sun play upon its surface. Nearer at hand, on the north- west, are the twin domes of Kerbella, the burial-place of 'All's slaughtered sons. The edge and islands of the * Isaiah xiv. 23. 34 KEFFIL. marsh are at times clotted with encampments of Khuzeyl Arabs ; and with the telescope may be distinguished their numerous flocks of sheep and camels, while the hum of busy voices can be distinctly heard a distance of full six miles across the waters. From the Birs Nimriid southwards, a road runs along the raised bank, which here in a measure restrains the marsh within bounds. A succession of large canal courses, now dry, are crossed during a ride of twelve miles to the little town of Kefhl, which, from its want of ^^^{/i^SJ^ Keffil, and the Tomb of the Prophet Ezekiel. luxuriant trees and vegetation, looks dull and sombre in the extreme — a fitting place for the sepulchre of a captive prophet in a strange land. There have been trees at some time or other, as a few stunted palms bear witness ; but, like the town itself, they have witnessed more flourishing times. They are ludicrous specimens of their race, and stand with their branches projecting straight upwards into the air, giving them the appearance of gigantic brooms. The town of Keffl is protected by a high wall, and defended at intervals by small towers. An old broken-down mosque, with minaret to match, stooping TOMB OF EZEKIEL. 35 to its fall — the spire of the prophet Ezekiel's tomb — and the tops of the houses peeping above — are all that invite further approach. Except when a crowd of pilgrims collect at the annual festival, the exterior of the place is deserted. The spire of the sacred tomb is the frustum of an elongated cone, tapering to a blunted top by a succession of divisions or steps, cut and em]:>ellished in a peculiar manner. Similar spires frequently occur upon tombs throughout the East, where, as is well known, forms and customs alter but Httle. I am therefore inclined to regard the spire of the Arab tomb as analogous to the fir cone so repeatedly represented on the bas-reliefs at Nine- veh. The eagle-headed and other figures of the sculptures appear to present the cooie of Indian corn — an emblem of the first-fruits of the earth — as an ofiering to the Deity in the form of the sacred tree. May not the spire of the modern tomb have some similar symbolical meaning attached to it ? There is no reason to believe that the tradition is un- worthy of credence, which assigns to Keffil the honour of possessing the bones of the prophet Ezekiel. The con- tinued residence of the Jews in the land where their forefathers were consigned in exile, and the respect with which the tomb has for so many centuries been regarded, not only by the Jews themselves, but by the Mohamme- dans, ought to be considered a sufficient guarantee for the correctness of the tradition. The Jewish traveller, Ben- jamin of Tudela, in the middle of the twelfth centuiy, tells us, that "the monument was covered by a large cupola, and the building was very handsome. It was erected by Jeconiah, King of Judah, and the 35,000 Jews who accompanied him." Of course, the edifice of the Jewish monarch, if such ever existed, has long since fallen to ruin, and the present edifice is comparatively modern. 36 KEFFIL. It is remarkably plain, both externally and internally, containing two vaulted apartments — the roof of the outer one being supported by heavy columns. The sepulchre is cased in a large wooden box of considerable age, which measures ten feet long liy four feet high. Its decoration consists of a piece of English chintz and small red and green flags. The chamber itself is square, the. side walls being extremely dirty and greased with oil. Tlie floor is covered with a filthy matting. The vaulted ceiling is very prettily ornamented with scrolls of gold, silver, and bronze. Built into one corner is an ancient Hebrew copy of the Pentateuch. A scanty light is ad- mitted from above, and an ever-burning lamp sheds a solemn gloom into the sanctuary. The flat terrace or roof afi'ords a good view of the marshes extending to the base of the little elevation upon which the town of Keffil stands. The flooring of the terrace is, however, in such a state of lamentable filth that the Jews might, mth every justice, be charged with paying little or no respect to the memory of their prophet. The interior of the town, in fact, is redolent T\ith odours none of the most agreeable. A large proportion of the inhabitants are Jews, a host of whom, surrounding the door of the sanctuary, looked daggers as our large party, booted and spurred from the journey, crossed the sacred threshold. The Oriental Jews delight in wearing none but the very gayest colom-s, so that the group which we encountered contrasted strangely ■wdth the dull aspect of the place. A number of Jewish ladies, carefully veiled from the profane eyes of strangers, were also assembled on our arrival, but they had, one and aU, vanished before our return from the interior of the dim tomb into the glaring light of day. Keffil, being on the verge of the recently disturbed dis- trict, had just been the scene of some hard fighting. The KEFPIL. 37 place was held by a small garrison of Turkish troops as an advanced post. The Arabs in rebellion attacked and took it, putting the whole garrison of sixty men to the sword. On its being retaken a few days afterwards by the Turks, the bodies of the poor fellows were found still unburied and barbarously treated by their savage enemies. CHAPTER V. The Marshes of Babylon — Khuzeyl Ai-abs — The Euphrates, and its Canals — Semiramis — Nebuchadnezzar — C}Tus — Alexander — Shuj ah-ed- Dowla, and the Indian Canal. A NIGHT spent at Keffil during tlie montli of September, is by no means to be envied ; the mosquitoes, malaria, and damp of tbe marshes being all but certain to lay in the seeds of fever, which is not long in appearing. In order to reach Meshed 'All, it is necessary to cross the marsh. For this purpose boats are always to be pro- cured at Keffil. They are heavy clumsy vessels, con- structed of Indian teak, about 40 feet in length, with high pointed prows and sterns, and flat bottoms for enabling them to skim over the shallows. Each is guided by two nearly naked Arabs, one of whom manages the cumbrous and primitive rudder, while the other attends to a huge lug-sail — if such term can be ajiplied to a patchwork of every shape and colour, fiUed with innumerable holes. The stream flows, at the rate of four or five miles an hour, through a continuous rice-field, which is prevented from being completely overflooded by means of dams, constructed of stakes and reed matting. Sometimes, when the rise of the Euphrates exceeds its usual level, the country is a vast inundation. On such occasions, whole families of Arabs, with their frail dwellings of reeds and tents, are swept away in a single night. These calamities are but too frequent. Upon a few elevated LABOUR AND TAXES. 39 spots, small mud forts serve as citadels for refuge in case of inundation or attack. The Arab inhabitants of these marshes are a fine manly race, and their noble forms are particularly striking. Their half-naked and deeply-bronzed bodies, nourished by scanty fare, shew every muscle to advantage as they propel their vessels with long poles in the shallows against the wind or stream, dexterously run- ning along the edge of the boat. The keffieh, or head-dress, is useless among those marshes, for the long, thick, stream- ing hair of the Khuzeyl Arab acts as the most natural covering, and is admirably adapted for keeping oft' the rays of the sun. In sailing along, every now and then we encountered a noisy party in a crowded boat, who gazed with Avonder, not unmixed with alarm, ujdou the European fleet. All appeared life and activity around us in those fens — the men, not languidly smoking their pi^^es like the dwellers in cities and loungers in bazaars, but busy at their daily employments, as agriculturists should be. The women were engaged about their tents with duties not less arduous than those of the stronger sex. Notwithstanding their labour and activity, they are evidently in a wretched state of misery, and ground down by heavy exactions. The only power they possess of resisting injustice is that of flooding their marshes, but this is only temporary, for without cultivating, how are they and their families to exist during the ensuing year "? There is not a more industrious race thi^oughout the Turkish empire, and if their rulers knew but how to treat them, both would be highly benefited Justice and security of proj^erty and person are all that is required to effect this ; but know- ingly, and with impunity, the Turkish authorities permit the farmers of their revenues to oppress their temporary subjects, and evince no desire to protect the labouring classes. Under an enlightened government, as I have 40 DIKES OF THE EUPHRATES. previously remarked, such things could not be. In the secluded provinces, however, the rulers are less scrupulous than those nearer to the capital. The Pasha of Baghdad is, as it were, an independent prince, and his words are law. His emissaries, while carrying out liis claims, seldom fail to enrich themselves, if not to the loss of the Government, at least to the oppression of the subject. No wonder, therefore, that the province is in constant disturbance, and that the Arabs are at times driven to revolt and to the commission of barbarous acts, not characteristic of their otherwise honourable and kindly nature. To those who are most conversant with the Arab character, it is well known that these sons of the desert may be guided like children by kindness and firmness. The marshes of the Khuzeyl have played so imjDortant a part in the history of the Euphrates, from the earliest times of which we have authentic records, down to the present day, that a few remarks upon them and their connexion with " the great river " may not be unin- teresting. During the 530 miles of its course through the flat alluvial plains of Babylonia, the Euphrates does not average a greater fall than three inches in the mile,"^' the consequence of which is, that the low lands on either side are frequently flooded during the periodical risps of the river. In order, therefore, to check the dangerous super- abundance of the Avater, and to distribute it advantage- ously for the purpose of beneficial irrigation, dikes and canals were instituted at a very early period in the history of the country, and were, in fact, essential to its very • The Volga maybe compared with the Euphrates as regards its fall. It has its origin in a small lake on the slopes of the platei, .i of Valdai, at an elevation of 550 feet above the level of the ocean, whence it flows in a gently inclined bed to its termination in the Caspian Sea, 83 feet below the level of the Euxine. Its, entire fall, over a conrse of 2400 miles, therefore, amounts to only 633 feet, or to 3*16 inches per mile. THE PALLACOPAS. 4l existence/^ The once fabulous Queen Semiramis,t we are told, cut two artificial canals at a considerable distance above Babylon, and turned the superfluous waters of the Euphrates into the Tigris, by this means obviating the damage which the city and surrounding country pre- viously sustained from inundation. To facilitate the building of brick walls cemented with bitumen along both banks of the river, the same queen caused the whole body of the stream to be diverted by a large canal into a pro- digious lakej forty miles square, which she caused to be dug on the west of Babylon. In the days of Nebuchadnezzar, when Babylon was a land of trafiic and "a city of merchants," § considerable attention was paid to the proper distribution of the waters of the great river. The primary canals of Naln^ Malka and Pallacopas are attributed to that monarch. It seems probable, however, that the latter work was merely the re-opening of the canal dug by Semiramis, and its exten- sion to the sea — thus giving two distinct branches to the Euphrates. During the effeminate dominion of the succeeding Persian dynasty, it is inferred that little or nothing was done towards restoring the river to its natural course, so that it continued to flow into the marshes west of Borsippa, or Birs Nimriid, enlarging the Pallacopas opening. * Herodotus, i. 185. Strabo, xvi. 740. Pliny, vi. 26. Diodorus Siculus, ii. 100, et seq. Arrian, vii. 21 : see note, p. 42. t All inscription upon a statue of the god Nebu, discovered at Nineveh, bears the names of Phuhikh and Sammuramit, leading to the supposition that the queen, represented under the Greek name of Semiramis, was the Sammuramit of the cuneiform record, the wife of the scriptural Pul (the Belochus of the Greeks), who reigned about B.C. 750. See the Athenceum, Nos. 1388, 1476, 1503. X Herodotus, i. 184-5. This exaggerated description undoubtedly refcra to the Biihr or Sea of Nedjef. § Ezekiel xvii. 4. 42 THE PALLACOPAS. Xenoplion,"^' in describing the march of the Greeks to the assistance of Cyrus the Younger, along the eastern side of the Euphrates, mentions four great canals crossed by the advancing army, viz : — the Nahr-raga, the Nahr Sares, the Nahr ^lalka, and the Nalir Kvitlia. He, of course, knew nothing of other channels on the opposite side of the river ; but if, in addition to the above, it be considered that the Pallacopas carried ojff a great j^ortion of the Euphrates towards the marshes on the west, we can per- fectly comprehend that which afterwards occurred. When Alexander the Great returned from his Indian campaign, and desired to restore Babylon to her former grandeur, he found so little water passing through the city, that there was scarcely depth for small boats. He therefore determined on effectually closing the mouth of the Pallacopas — which, according to Arrian, was 800 stadia, or about 90 miles, cibove Babylon — and on digging a new canal, where the nature of the ground was ftiA^our- able to his purpose. His historian says, " When he had proceeded 30 stadia (or three miles), the ground was observed to be rocky." t The passage is interpreted in * Cycrop. i. p. 261-266. f Arrian's account of the PallacoiDas is so quaint and interesting, that I venture to give a hteral translation of the passage : — " But in the meantime, wliile vessels are being constructed, and a harbour dug at Babylon, Alexander was conveyed by the Euphrates from Babylon to the river Pallacopas. This is distant from Babylon about 800 stadia. Moreover, this Pallacopas is a channel cut from the Euphrates, not a river rising from springs. For the Euphrates, flowing from the mountains of Armenia, flows during the winter between banks, inasmuch as it has not much water ; but when spring sets in, and much more under the heat of summer, it increases greatly, and, overflowing its banks, inundates the plains of Assyria. For then the .snows melting in the mountains of Armenia increase its waters in a wonderful manner ; and thus raised to a great height, it overwhelms the whole region adjoining, unless any person turning it aside should discharge it through the Pallacopas into the lakes and marshes — ^which indeed, by the entrance of this channel, even to the region neigh- bouring on Arabia, and from thence into stagnant places, and at length by many and unknown windings, is carried to the sea. But, when the snows THE HTNDlEH. ' ^ several different ways ; but I believe that it means 30 stadia above Babylon,^' wliicli miglit well refer to tbe modern channel called the Hindieh — the ancient city extending to within three miles of its mouth ; and it is a curious coincidence, that near that point sandstone rocks rise through the alluvium to the surface ! For twenty-one centuries, since the time of Alexander, the Euphrates has fluctuated between its original channel through Babylon and this new opening, until at length, the navigation of the latter having become interrupted, an Indian prince, named Niiwab Shiijah-ed-Dowla, re- opened its channel one hundred years ago. Since that date it has been called, after him, the " Hindieh," and has are dissolved, especially about the setting of Vergilise, the Euphrates grows small ; but, nevertheless, a great part of it is drained by the Pallaci pas into the marshes. Unless, therefore, some one should again block up the chan- nel of the Pallacopas, so that the water, repulsed near the banks (clams), remains in the channel, it may so gi'eatly drain the Euphrates into it, that thus the fields of Assyria cannot be irrigated by it. Wherefore, a gover- nor of Babylonia, with much labour, blocked up the exits of the Euphrates into the Pallacopas (although they are not opened with much difficulty) ; because in those parts the soil is marshy and for the most part muddy, seeing that it is well washed by the water of the river, it may allow of the less easy shutting out of the water : — so that they may have occupied more than 10,000 Assyrians three whole months at this work. When these things were told to Alexander, they incited him to meditate something to the advantage of Assyria. Therefore, at the point where the flow of the Euphrates is drained into the Pallacopas, he resolved to dam its mouth firmly up. W/ten he had proceeded thirty/ stadia, the ground was observed to be rocky, of such kind that, if a cutting were carried to the ancient channel of the Pallacopas, the water might be prevented from overflowing by means of the firmness of the soil, and that its escajie might be able to be effected without difficulty at a stated jieriod of the year. Therefore, Alexander both sailed to the Pallacopas, and descended by it to the marshes, into the region of Arabia. There, having fixed on a certain convenient locality, he built a city, and surrounded it with walls, and conveyed to it a colony of Greek mercenaries, volunteers, and others, who, by reason of their age or any debility, had become useless in war." — Arrian, Be Exp. Alex., lib. vii. c. 21. * Many authors place the Pallacopas and Alexander's cutting beloic Baby- lon, and so it is laid down upon many of our maps, but this is quite con- trary to the ancient accounts. 44 THE HINDlEH. caused an infinity of expense and annoyance to the pashas of Baghdad. • The mouth of this interesting canal is situated about two miles below the khan at Musseib, and about six- teen miles above the commencement of the existing ruins of Babylon, at a point where the natural channel of the Euphrates makes a sHght eastern bend. When gTeatly flooded, the violence of the stream frequently breaks down the artificial barriers erected to regiilate the influx of water, and enlarges the entrance of the Hindieh. Immense sums of money are expended by the Turkish Government in rebuilding, repairing, and strengthening the dam, because the river has a tendency to quit the Babylon channel, and to flow westward into the marshes, as in the days of Alexander. The natural efiect is to deprive the eastern side of the Euphrates of its due irri- gation, by reducing all the canals below the point of bifurcation ; the villages become deserted, and the fields uncultivated. On the western side, the rice-grounds of the Khuzeyl Arabs are overflowed, and cultivation is entirely out of the question. The chief revenues of Bagh- dad being derived from these regions, it is of the utmost importance that the equilibrium of the two branches of the Euphrates should be properly cared for. Soon after the accession of Abdi Pasha to the govern- ment of the province, like aU his predecessors, his attention was directed to this subject. The force of the stream, caused by the extraordinary rise of the river, had carried away every trace of the former dams, and enlarged the mouth of the Hindieh to such an extent, that the Euphrates bid fair to disappear into the western marshes. He therefore cut , a new channel, 120 feet broad, at a short distance above the bifurcation, which relieved the pressure, and enabled him to efi'ect the building of a new and strong dam of osiers, reeds, and earth, at the mouth THE WESTERN EUPHRATES. 45 of the Hinclieh, while the quantity of water admitted into the new cut was regulated by two solid brick piers, with sluice-gates eighty feet wide. Notwithstanding all this expense and trouble, the river in 1854 overcame all obstacles, and once more regained possession of the marshes. Flowing southwards a few miles, a deep stream, 180 feet wide, with banks 10 or 20 feet high, the Hindieh enters and is lost in the great inundation, extending on the north and west of the Blrs Nimriid, passes Keffil and the ruins of Kilfa, and ulti- mately debouches into the great inland freshwater sea of Nedjef. No modern traveller has yet succeeded in following the entire course of the ancient Pallacopas, but traces of its channel are still visible on the east of the town of Nedjef.* The great sheet of water, the Bahr-1-Nedjef, extends forty miles in a south-easterly direction, and at its south- ern extremity gives out two considerable streams, Shat- el-Khuzif and Shat-el-Atchan, wliich subsequently unite, and are known by the latter name. Further to the south, five large bodies of water have their origin from the Atchan, and, uniting, constitute the Hiinin. This, after flowing about thirty miles, eventually joins the Atchan, and the two rivers form what is called the Western or Semava branch of the Euphrates. All the above branches are navigable when the mouth of the Hindieh is open, and it is by them that merchandise is conveyed from Busrali to Hillah. When the great annual rise of the Euphrates * The marshes between the mouth of the Hindieh and tlie Bahr-i-Nedjef were first surveyed by Jlr T. K. Lynch of Edghdad, who there frequently met with the banks of an ancient canal — the Ndhr-Algam — which may be the veritable channel of the Pallacopas. This gentleman communicated an interesting memoir on his researches to the Royal Geographical Society. The region has been since examined in more detail during the survey of the environs of Babylon by Captain Jones, I.N. 46 ** PALUDES BABYLONIA." occurs, the whole region, from the Bahr-i-Nedjef to Semdva, is one continuous inundation, called the " Khor Ullah," or. Marshes of God."^' Here and there it is dotted with thousands of small islands, separated from each other by an infinity of streamlets. It was amid the innumerable channels of these Paludes Bahylonice that Alexander was overtaken by a storm, and all but lost, during his sail down the Pallacopas.t It is only when the mouth of the Hindieh is opened by the destruction of the dams that the modern traveller is enabled to see the Paludes Babylonice as Alexander saw them. When, however, the Hindieh is closed effectually for a time, the Khiizif and Atchan cease altogether to exist, and the town of Semava is supplied by two smaU canals derived from the Hillah branch of the Euphrates, near Diwanieh. Such was probably the case during the labours of the officers in the Euphrates expedition under Colonel Chesney, as the streams flowing from the Bahr-1-Nedjef are not laid down on any map. Instead of them, however, there is the course of an extinct river-bed passing east of the Bahr-1-Nedjef to Semava, which may represent the Palla- copas of Alexander in a portion of its course. * Between Semdva and the southern extremity of the Bdhr-i-Nedjef, the marshes were, I believe, wholly unexplored, until I succeeded in sailing in a native vessel up the Huran and Atchdn, to Shindfieh, the residence of the Khuzeyl Sheikh. They are for the first time laid down on the map which accompanies this volume. t Arrian, vii. 22, and Strabo. CHAPTER VI. Kufa— A Fiery Ride— Nedjef, and the Tomb of 'Ali— The Ghyiwr in the Golden Mosque — Fanaticism of the Sheahs — Far-travelled Coffins and Costly Interments — How the Prime-Minister got a Grave at a Great Bargain — Turkish Torpor and Cleanliness versus Persian Dirt and Vivacity. A SAIL of four hours and a half from Keffil down the stream brings the pilgrim to a little tomb dedicated to Nebbi Yunus (not the prophet of Nineveh, but a much more modern personage). Here the freights are dis- charged from the boats, and the journey to the shrine of 'All again commences by land, passing over a spot cele- brated in modern history. Sa ad ibn 'Abu Wakkas, after the signal battle obtained by the Moslems at Kadessiyya, and the capture of the wealthy city Madayn, would fain have pursued Yezde- gird, the last of the Sassanian kings, to the Persian mountain fortress of Hoi wan. He was restrained from doing so by the cautious Khallf Omar, who feared lest his generals, in the flush and excitement of victory, might hurry forward beyond the reach of succour. The climate of Madayn proving unhealthy to his troops, Sa ad was ordered by the khalif to seek some favourable site on the western side of the Euphrates, where there was good air, a well-watered plain, and plenty of grass. Sa'ad chose for this purpose the village of Kufa, which, according to tradition, was the spot where the angel Gabriel alighted upon earth and prayed — where the waters of the deluge 48 HOT EIDE. first burst forth from the ground — and where Noah embarked in the ark ! The Arabs further pretend that the serpent, after tempting Eve, was banished to this place. Hence, they say, the guile and treachery for which the men of Kiifa were proverbial. The city which rose upon this spot became so celebrated, that the branch of the Euphrates upon which it stood was generally denomi- nated Nahr Kiifa. The most ancient characters of the Arabic alphabet are termed Kiific to the present day. It was here, too, that the unfortunate 'Ali — the son-in-law and successor of the Prophet — was assassinated, in the fifth year of his khalifat, by the three fanatic leaders of the Karigites.'"' Of Kiifa there now only remain a few low mounds and a fragment of wall. Although the city is said to have extended to Kerbella, forty-five miles dis- tant, there are fewer relics of its greatness now visible than of Babylon, wdiich was in ruins upwards of a thou- sand years before the foundation of Kufa I Whatever may have l^een the fertility of Kiifa in the days of Sa'ad ibn 'Abii Wakkas, it has none to boast of now. From Kilfa to Meshed 'Ali is a distance of 7 miles, over a gravelly soil, utterly devoid of vegetation. It was one of the hottest rides I ever remember to have experienced. There was not the slightest breath of air to dissipate the heat. The dome and minarets of Meshed 'All quivered in the mirage. The gravel refiected the sun's rays so powerfully as to cause men and animals to seek for temporary shelter under the scanty shade of the little round towers which at intervals guard the road. Our very dogs howled piteously being obliged to follow us, lest they should be left behind. Whenever the eye rested for an instant on any object, it felt scorched and * For an interesting account of the scenes with which KMa is connected at the commencement of the Mohammedan era, see the " Lives of the Suc- cessors of Mohammed," by Washington Irving. HIRA — NEDJEF. 49 bloodshot. An umbrella was useless, for, although it served to break the vertical heat of the mid-day sun, it concentrated the rays reflected from the ground, and afforded a welcome shade to the few flies which were able to exist in such a fiery atmosphere. Never was I more gratified than in gaining the tents, already pitched in a large oblong space within the walls, and near one of the gates of the town of Nedjef. Tahir Bey, who accom- panied us, had insisted upon this arrangement ; he would not be answerable for our security in the desert outside, because many roving parties of Bedouins were reported to be in the neighbourhood. Nedjef was founded on the site of ancient Hira, which, in the early part of the first century, gave origin to a race of Arab kings, who subsequently acknowledged allegiance to the Persians, and acted as lieutenants of Irak. During the third century, many Jacobite Christians, driven by per- secutions and disorders in the Church, took refuge at Hira ; and, shortly before the birth of Mohammed, the king of Hira and all his subjects had embraced Christi- anity. Much is said of the splendour of the capital, which possessed two large palaces of extraordinary beauty. When 'Abii Beker, in the second year of the khfdifat, undertook to execute the injunction of the Prophet, and to carry out the gigantic task submitted to him of converting the whole world to Islamism, he entrusted the conquest of Hira to the energetic Khaled. The city was speedily taken, its palaces stormed, its king killed in battle, and an annual tribute of 7000 pieces of gold imposed upon the kingdom. This was the first tribute ever levied by Moslems in a foreign land, and Hira was the first place beyond the confines of Arabia occupied by their advancing hosts.'' * See Washington Irving's " Lives of the Successors of Mohammed,*' already referred to. 50 VISIT TO THE MOSQUE. Nedjef is at the present day, however, far more cele- brated as the s^iot where the body of the murdered 'All was consigned to the tomb, and that magnificent mosque erected over it, which annually attracts thousands of Sheah ]\tohammedans to perform a pilgrimage to its shrine, invariably known to the Persian as "Meshed 'AH." The town is situated on a cliff of reddish sandstone and gravel forty feet high, overlooking the Bahr-1-Nedje£ It is said to bear a striking resemblance to Jerusalem in its general appearance and position. The w^alls are in excellent repair, and surrounded by a deep and wide moat, now without water. On one side^ this moat follows the line of a natural ravine, exhibiting a good geological section on its sides. The water of the Bahr, when con- nected with the Euphrates, is sweet and drinkable, but when the mouth of the Hindieh is completely closed, it becomes very unpalatable, and the people of Nedjef are then obliged to convey water from Kiifa. This condition of the water arises, as previously stated, from its con- nexion with rocks of the gypsiferous series. The level of the sea, observed from Nedjef, has undoubtedly under- gone considerable change — two distinct ranges of cliffs mark its former extent at different epochs. It is seldom that a Christian has the opportunity of entering a Mohammedan place of worship, much less such a sacred mosque as that of Meshed 'All. AVe were aU naturally anxious to visit it, and experienced no very insuperable objection on the part of our Simni compa- nions to aid in the accomplishment of our wish. Tahir Bey, like most others of his sect and race, took a pleasure in causing the Sheah Persians to " eat dirt" at the hands of the Ghyawr. As military governor of the district, he had accompanied us with a strong escort, for the double pur- pose of guarding and doing honour to our party. The troops were now drawn up under the latter pretext, but PERSIAN AllT. 5) in reality to conduct us to tlie mosque, and be prepared for any emeute which might arise in consequence of our temerity. The inhabitants, in accordance with their Oriental customs, rose and saluted, or returned the salutes of Dervish Pasha and Tiihir Bey as we passed through the bazaars ; but they bestowed a very doubtful and scrutinizing glance on the large party of Firenghis. A crowd gathered as we marched onward, and, on approach- ing the gate of the outer court, the threatening looks and whispered remarks of the groups around made it evident that we were regarded with no especial favour. The troops drew up outside the gate, and, as any hesitation on our part might have produced serious consequences, we boldly entered the forbidden threshold. It is all but impossible to convey to the mind of an- other the impression produced on the senses by the first inspection of a Persian mosque. The extreme richness and brilliancy of the polychromatic decoration, and the exquisite harmony of the whole, cannot fail to leave a lasting impression. It has been said, and is generally recognized, that the Arian races, among whom the Persians are included, are wanting in originality of design. This is not, how- ever, borne out by facts, because no Oriental people exhibit more original taste than the Persians in beauty of design and the power of expressing it, as exhibited in their edifices and works of art. Mr Fergusson, in his "Hand-Book of Architecture,""' well remarks on this subject, that " they are now too deeply depressed to attempt much ; but it only seems to require a gleam of returning; sunshine to ena])le them aoain to rival in art the ancient glories of Ninoveh and Persepolis." Like the generality of mosques, that of Meshed 'All is arranged in the form of a rectangle. The mausoleum ♦ Vol. i., p. 411. 52 MOSQUE OF MESHED 'alI. stands nearly in the centre of a large court, the walls of which, as well as those of the principal building, are adorned from top to base with square encaustic tiles. The design on these is a succession of scrolls, leaves, and doves wrought into the most intricate patterns. The colours, though bright, are so admirably and harmoniously blended and softened down by lines of w^hite, that the surface appears like a rich mosaic set in silver. Each wall is divided by two tiers of blind arches, ornamented throughout in similar manner, above each of which are texts from the Koran, written in letters of gold. Two liighly-decorated gateways, deeply set in lofty flat panels, give admission to the gTcat coiui} of the mosque, and serve to relieve the otherwise monotonous aspect of the enclosure. The summit of the mausoleum walls are like- wise surrounded by passages from the Koran. At three corners are minarets, two of which in front are covered throughout with gilt tiles, said to have cost two tomans (£1 sterling) each. These, together with a magnificent dome of the same costly material, give to the tout ensemble a gorgeous appearance. Seen in the distance, with the sun shining upon it, the dome of JMeshed 'All might be mistaken for a mound of gold rising from the level deserts. Before the door of the shrine stands an elegant fountain of brass, bright and polished like the dome itself. If the court of this remarkable building be so gorge- ously and extravagantly adorned, we may perhaps credit the accounts of its internal richness and magnificence. Slabs of the purest gold are said to pave the floor- ing of the sanctuary, and utensils innumerable and of unknown value — the gifts of the pious — to decorate the shrine. If all be true which Oriental tongue speaks, we are called on to believe that a mint of untold treasure lies concealed in the vaults below. The tomb of the POPULAR INDIGNATION. 53 great saint was not for infidels to approach and defile ; but the Gliyawr were perfectly content with the sight they were permitted to behold in the court of the mosque, in which there was more than sufficient to engaoe atten- tion and excite admiration. It is exceedingly strange to remark how the same observances have prevailed unchanged from early times. We read that, eighteen centuries ago, our Saviour went up to Jerusalem, "and found in the temple those that sold oxen, and sheep, and doves, and the changers of money sitting." '"' So in the court of Meshed 'Ali a constant fair is carried on at stalls, which are supplied with every article likely as offerings to attract the eye of the rich or pious — among these white doves are particularly conspicuou.s. We did not tarry long, as it was evident, from the demeanour of those around us, that we were not welcome pilgrims to the holy shrine ; we therefore slowly retired, casting a last lingering glance on this noble and fasci- nating specimen of Persian art. It was only on emerging from the gateway that we for the first time perceived the object for which the Turkish troops had accompanied us. Aware of the excitable feelings of the Persian crowd, Tahir Bey had taken all parties unawares, by marching us direct to the mosque before the people could comprehend his intention, or collect for the purpose of resistance. He subsequently acknowledged that in returning he was not a little alarmed at the aspect of the populace. Kindly feeling and hospitality were certainly not at that moment engraven on their countenances. It is difficult to forget the expression of passion which greeted any of the party who accidental!}^ brushed against the robe of a " tnie believer." The injured " professor of the faith " hastily drew back, muttered an audible curse on the unclean Firenghi, and proceeded on his way to w^ash and cleanse • John ii. 14. 54 CAHrjAGE OF CORPSES. himself from tlie polluted touch, or put his liand on the handle of his broad-bladed dagger, as if about to inflict summary vengeance for the insidt he had received. Nedjef and Kerbella are notorious for the fanatics who congregate to those places from all quarters. If they had been aware of Tiihir Bey's intention to admit us to the mosque, there is no doubt that they would have collected in front of the gates and made open resistance to such an iniquitous proceeding on the part of a Mohammedan. As it was, we had the satisfaction of beholding the interior of a mosque, to which but few Europeans are ever likely to obtain access. The profound veneration in which the memory of 'All is regarded by his followers, causes Nedjef to be the great j)lace of pilgrimage for the Sheali Mohammedans, by whom the town is entirely supported. At a low average, 80,000 persons annually flock to pay their vows at the sacred slnine, and from 5000 to 8000 corpses are brought every year from Persia and elsewhere to be buried in the ground consecrated by the blood of the martp-ed khalif The dead are conveyed in boxes covered with coarse felt, and placed two on each side upon a mule, or one u]Don each side, with a ragged conductor on the top, who smokes his kaliyiln and sings cheerily as he jogs along, quite unmindfid of his charge. Every caravan travelling from Persia to Baghdad carries numbers of cofiins ; and it is no uncommon sight, at the end of a day's march, to see fifty or sixty piled upon each other on the ground. As may be imagined, they are not the most agreeable com- panions on a long journey, es^^ecially when the unruly mule carrying them gets between the traveller and the wind ! The fee charged by the authorities of the mosque for burial varies from 10 to 200 tomans (£5 to £100), and sometimes much more. It is entii-ely at the discre- BURIAL OF THE DEAD. 55 tion of the mullas, and they proportion it according to the wealth or rank of the deceased. On the arrival of a Cai'iiage ol Corpses. corpse, it is left outside the walls, while the relatives or persons in charge of it (frequently the muleteer of the caravan) endeavour to make a bargain for its final rest- ing-place. Several days are frequently spent in vain over these preliminaries. At length one party or other gives way — ^generally the relatives — as the corpse, after many days' and frequently months' carriage in a powerful sun, has disseminated disease and death among its followers, who are glad to rid themselves of its companionship. The place of sepulture for the lower classes, or for those whose friends are unwilling to pay for a vault within the sacred precincts of the mosque, is outside the walls on the north side of the city, where the graves are neatly con- structed with bricks, and covered with gravel or cement to preserve them from injury. When the corpse is to be 56 nedjef:- buried within the walls, it is conveyed into the town. The officers of interment then generally find some pretext for breaking the former compact, and the unfortunate relatives are under the necessity of striking a fresh and mucli harder bargain. The same system of official fleecing is adopted at the adjoining city of Kerbella, where a story is told of the manner in Avhicli Hadji Mirza Aghassi, a rascally ex- prime minister of Persia, outwitted the cupidity of the hard-hearted cemetery authorities. He was known to be enormously wealthy, and had gone to Kerbella that the sanctity of the spot, where he proposed to lay his bones, mio'ht in some measure atone for the crimes he had com- mitted. On his deathbed, he sent to inquire w^hat sum would be demanded for a vault within the mosque, and was informed that no less than 2000 tomans (£1000) was expected from so great a man as an ex-prime-minister. He then sent to ask the fee for a hole outside the town. Thinking he was joking at their expense, the mullas replied in dudgeon "a keran" (one shilling). The old fellow at once closed the l)argain, and was actually buried in the common ground ! His tomb is marked by a simple brick monument, which attracts much attention because it covers the bones of a " great" scoundrel. But to return to Nedj ef . The constant influx of Persians is vastly enriching the place, as proved by its recent en- largement, and the rebuilding of new walls round a great part of its circuit. To remedy the inconvenience at times resulting from the want of good water, a new canal is in course of construction direct from the Euphrates, which, being excavated in solid rock to the depth of fifty feet, will, when finished, reflect great credit on their skill as engineers. Workmen are seen busily engaged in building and restoring houses, and tradespeople appear to thrive. But there is always a remarkable contrast DISAGREEABLE DISCOVERY. 57 between tlie life and activity of a Persian and the dulness and decay of a Turkish city. There is, however, one point in which the better-chid Turk surpasses his Eastern neighbour ; he always exhibits the flowing sleeve of a clean under garment, but the Persian has no regard what- ever for personal cleanliness, and even a royal prince sel- dom indulges in the luxury of a change of linen. The cimosity of the inhabitants of Nedjef was exhibited more than is usually the case with Orientals. They col- lected in large numbers at a respectful distance from our tents ; some even went so far beyond their ordinary habits, as to bring their harems to indulge in a prolonged stare at the wonderful Ghyawr who had the audacity to enter their mosque. The night was oppressively hot, and, confined within the close walls, we felt it doubly so from previously sleeping in the open desert. The governor took every precaution against danger and insult, by placing a strong guard around our tents — sen- tinels being stationed at very short intervals apart. But for this foresight, it is possible to conceive what the audacity and fanaticism of the Sheahs might have dared and eflected during the darkness of night. All, however, passed off quietly, and long before dawn the Firenghi camp was astir. While the tents were being struck, we were suddenly assailed by the most foul and unbear- able stench ; several persons retched violently, all being more or less affected. It was afterwards ascertained that a large pile of coffins, which had stood for several days in the fierce sun, waiting for the concluding bargain between their owners and the authorities, had been hastily removed on the previous day to afford space for our camp. They were placed out of sight in an adjoining empty space, enclosed by a high wall, but the morning breeze blowing from that direction, unfortunately revealed that which it was never intended should be made known to us. It was 58 EFFECTS OF LIGHT, fortunate this did not occur diirino' tlie niglit, or we might have been smitten with severe illness. Welcome was the bugle sound that summoned us to mount our steeds and ride forth once more into the pure atmosphere of the Arab desert. On quitting Nedjef the commissioners were, of course, saluted by the garrison, who were drawn up outside the gate for the purj)ose, and by the cannon from the walls. As the red light momentarily flashed upon the golden dome of the mosque, the efiect, viewed through the column of white smoke, was such as few artists can paint. The dead gold mass was for the instant illumined with a colour rivalliuo- even that of ]\Iont Blanc viewed from Geneva at sunset. There was a sublimity about the scene which did not fail to impress the minds of all who mtnessed it. As if for the sake of contrast, the sun immediately afterwards rose, and with his rays enveloped the mosque in a flood of dazzHng brilliancy. CHAPTEE VIL Kerbella — The Governor's Dejeuner — The " Mtartyr " Husscjm, and Lis ^losque — Siege and Massacre — The " Campo Santo " at KerbcHa — Oratory of 'All — Magnificent Sunrise — Eastern Ladies, ]\Iountcd and on Foot — The Ferry. The direct road from Nedjef to Kerbella runs along the skii't of the great Arabian desert, Lut is little frequented on account of the danger from Bedouin j)lunderers — none but large and well-armed parties daring to follow it. Within sight on the east are the marshes of the Hindieh, otherwise the route is entirely without water. We met nothing, and saw nothing worthy of notice to relieve the tedium of this desert journey, except here and there an Arab tomb, mth a few reeds stuck into the sand in Heu of gravestones, and now and then a human skull or the skeleton of a camel — the remains probably of some poor wretches overcome by fatigue and thirst, whose strength failed them before the long-coveted di'aught could be attained. The approach to Kerbella is somewhat more hvely than that to Nedjef. An abundance of date-trees surround the town, and several buildings erected outside the walls imply a greater amount of security from the roving tribes. At the outskirts are several kilns, where bricks of similar size and form to those of Babylon are made for modern purposes. Here a reception and scene awaited us much resem- 60 TURKISH HOSPITALITY. bling tliat wliicli greeted our arrival at Hillali. The civil governor came forth to pay his respects, accom- panied by the muUas and grandees of the mosques, in extensive turbans of the finest and cleanest white muslin, embroidered with gold, and otherwise most picturesquely attired. In truly Oriental style, they informed us that their houses and all they possessed were at our disposal, a compliment which, in common with many others, means nothiug, or, as the Osmiinli would ex^Dress it, " bosh." As before^ a b^jnd endeavoured to execute its best airs on the joyfid occasion, but, as every man played his own tune, at his own time, and with all the lungs which nature had endowed him with, it is totally impossible to say what was the original air. Seldom is heard such a discordant din ; it was laughable beyond endurance. AVith this too great attention, in a cloud of dust we entered the gates of Kerbella, and dismounted at the seray, where, after coffee and pipes, the worthy governor, who had been previously informed of our expected arrival, announced that he would be highly honoured by our taking break- fast. The tents had but just arrived, so there was little prospect of our meal being prepared for some time. The invitation was therefore accepted, and we were duly ushered into an adjoining room, where, around a huge tray, raised a foot from the ground, we sixteen hungry travellers sat down upon the cushioned floor. The com- ponents of the entertainment were pillaf, a few vegetables cooked in a variety of Avays, and one small dish of meat — all, it is true, pleasantly flavoured with lemon, but so overwhelmed with grease, that, unless the guests had been himgry beyond description, they would have fared but badly. Each dish, however, was rapidly emptied of its contents, as hand after hand was thrust into the well- piled heaps. The whole entertainment was concluded PLANS DEFEATED. 61 with a large bowl of — not intoxicating liquors (Moliam- medan hospitality, of course, does not admit of such forbidden draughts) ; but — mild innocuous sherbet, into which we dived strange-shaped wooden spoons, one being supplied to every two or three persons present. When the satisfied guests ceased from their labours and looked around upon their friends, the mutual examination was repaid by the sight of greasy hands and well-oiled beards. This ample feast duly fitted us for a ramble through the town and a visit to such " lions " as KerbeUa contained. Throughout the East news flies with unaccountable rapidity, and it is frequently impossible to trace its oriiiin. An instance of this occurred at KerbeUa on the occasion of our visit. Although we had travelled in the most speedy manner from Nedjef, our proceedings at that place had got wind, and we found the gateway of the great mosque of Husseyn filled with a crowd of raga- muffins, most forbidding in appearance, armed with clubs, sticks, and daggers to oppose our entry. At the head of the group stood a dervish with demoniacal expression of countenance. A tuft of shaggy hair hung from the top of his otherwise bald head, and his felt garment, scarcely sufficient to cover his nakedness, was patched with divers colours, and in every direction. "With his legs astride, a dagger in one hand, and a for- midable bludgeon over his shoulder, he looked the picture of a rascal capable of any mischief, and ready to excite the multitude to commit any excess. During our stay at KerbeUa, this dervish acted as a species of evil spirit, watching our movements, and following us about from place to place. The muUas from the interior made a sign that we should not approach. AVe were therefore obliged to rest contented with a distant view. Tahir Bey dared not to force a passage ; nor would it have been prudent to do so, as it was clear that the populace 62 MASSACRE OF HUSS^YN. was prepared for resistance. Although the soldiers might have beaten off an undisciplined mob, we shoidd not have been justified in the attempt. Tolerably good views of the mosques were, however, obtained from houses in their immediate vicinity. Two or three of our Christian attendants, favoured by some of their Mohammedan fellows, succeeded in gaining admission to the mosque of Husseyn ; but they were soon discovered, beaten with sticks, stoned, and turned out along with their intro- ducers. They might congratulate themselves in getting off so easily. A short account of the origin of these monuments may not be without interest to the unini- tiated in Arab history. On the death of 'All, the fourth khalif, according to the Sdnnis, in the fortieth year of the Hegira, his eldest son Hassan was elected as his successor ; but, lacking the energy and courage necessary during the civil wars that distracted the early periods of the Moslem empire, he shortly afterwards abdicated in favour of Moawyah, his father's great opponent, and was murdered nine years afterwards at the instigation, it is supposed, of Yezid, the son of MoaT\^ah. When Yezid succeeded his father in the khiiKfat, his first aim Was to secure undisputed pos- session of power. He therefore endeavoured to extract an oath of fealty from, or to compass the death of, Hus- seyn, the second son of 'All, who inherited the daring character of his father. Husseyn discovered the plot, and escaped with his brothers and family to JMecca, where he declared himseff openly in opposition to Yezid. On recei\dng overtures of assistance from the people of Kiifa, he set out for that city with a small force ; but soon dis- covered that the Kilfites were fickle and faithless. Obeid- 'allah, the governor, acting with promptitude, sent out strong forces to intercept Husseyn's approach, whose little party was surrounded at Kerbella, and cut off from the MEMORY OP HUSS^YN. 63 waters of the Euphrates, so that they suffered the extre- mities of thirst. After various parleys, orders were issued by Obeid'allah to 'Amar, in command of the khalif s forces : — " If Husseyn and his men submit and take the oath of allegiance, treat them kindly ; if they refuse, slay them — ride over them — trample them under the feet of thy horses ! " Hussepi, seeing that all hope of honoural^le terms was vain, resolved to die, but to die bravely. His little band determined to share his desperate fortunes. A general assault was at length made upon his camp, which, being skilfully arranged, was for a time success- fully defended. Numbers, how^ever, ultimately prevailed, and Husseyn, faint from loss of blood, sank to the earth, and was stripped ere life was fled. Thirty wounds were counted on his body. His head was sent to Obeid'allah ; and Shemr, who carried the order for his death, with his troops, rode forward and backward over the body, as he had been ordered, until it was trampled into the earth. Seventy-two followers of Husseyn were slain, seventeen of whom were descendants of Mohammed's only daughter, — among them Husseyn's brother 'Abbas, The only per- sons who escaped from this massacre were the women and children, with 'Ali-ezgher, the son of Husseyn, from whom are descended the modern " Seyids." '^' The Persians hold the memory of Husseyn in great veneration, entitling him Shahid, or the Martyr. He and his lineal descendants for nine generations are en- rolled among the twelve Imams or pontiffs of the Persian creed. The first ten days of the month of Moharrem are held sacred, in commemoration of the strife between Husseyn and his enemies, and are called " 'Ashiera," the tenth day being kept with great solemnity as the an- * This interesting, but cruel, episode in Moslem history is given, with affecting details, in Washington Irving's " Lives of the Successors of Mo- hammed," from which the above account is partially extracted. 64 SIEGE OF KERBELLA. niversary of his martyrdom. ■^''" A splendid mosque was erected in after years on the spot where he fell, and to which, it is said, the body of his brother Hassan was removed. An inferior one was dedicated to 'Abbas, their brother, who shared the fate of Husseyn.t The mosque of Husseyn is very similar in plan to that of Meshed 'All, but cannot be compared mth it for rich- ness of decoration, cleanliness, or state of repair. The dome only is gilded. One of the three minarets appears in imminent danger of falling into the coiu't below, the walls of which are in a most dilapidated condition. This state of things arises from the occupation of the city by the Turkish troops under Daoud Pasha of Baghdad. Nedjef and Kerbella, being sanctuaries of high repute, were resorted to by every class of ruffians and bad cha- racters, the extent of whose outrages became so glaring that it was necessary to suppress and root them out from their places of concealment. The pasha made him- self master of Nedjef ; but Kerbella, being thus rein- forced by the expelled " Yerrimasis," held out during a long siege. An approach was made to the weakest part of the walls, where a breach was eventually effected. The sol- * These fetes are celebrated among the Persians witli theatrical represen- tations of the scenes attendant on the death of Husseyn, for an account of which I may refer the reader to Lady Sheil's amusing " Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia," p. 125. t At the distance of a day's gallop from Kerbella is another site of extreme interest in the history of the Arab conquest, El Kadder, the ancient Kddessiyya, where Sa'ad ibn 'Abd Wakk4s, the founder of Ktifa, utterly vanquished the vast Persian host, and seized the sacred standard of the Ddrdfash-i-Kd\vdni, the loss of which was regarded as a symbol of the loss of power by the Persians. With the disaster at Kddesslyya the rule of the Sassanian kings terminated, and the religion of Mohammed spread unchecked throughout L'dn. Kddessiyya has been visited by two Englishmen — Messrs W. B. Barker and Boulton — who met with extensive ruins and halls. These are ornamented with a range of masks, carried round the archivolts of the arched roofs, in the same style as at Al Hddhr in the desert near Mosul, where they present such a remarkable feature in Sassanian architecture. CEMETERY AT KERBELLA. 65 diers entered, and the place was given over to pillage, when the most dreadful scenes took place. The troops poured volleys among unoffending women and children, and massacred the inhabitants within the very mosques. Tahir Bey himself was an officer at this cruel siege, and received his promotion in consequence. With his own hand he cut down three of the Yerrimasis, while his men, dragging forth seventy from among a party of women, with whom they had taken shelter, shot them on the spot ! The marks of this celebrated siege are still visible in various parts of the town. Opposite to the seray, the houses demolished have never been rebuilt, but exhibit a wretched scene of destruction. The mosques suffered seriously, and the ravages of the cannon-balls are dis- tinctly traceable on their domes, as well as in the walls of the town, where the holes made have not been repaired. The date-trees also exhibit evident marks of the injuries received from a cross fire, which for a length of time prevented the batteries of the Turks from making the breach. Several have holes through the centre of their stems, others have large pieces torn from their sides ; one still flourishes, although the branches are merely con- nected with the stem by a narrow strip of wood on one side ; some have never recovered the effect of their wounds, but stand like stunted poles, without foliage.''^ The arrangements for the disposal of the dead at Ker- bella are on the same system as at Meshed 'All ; but the numbers conveyed thither yearly are considerably larger- — Kerbella being, for some reason or other, both pecu- liarly aristocratic and popular. It is always alluded to by the Persians in preference to Meshed 'Ali. Little respect is shewn to the dead in committing them to th^ir • It was chiefly in consequence of this siege, that hostilities had almost taken place between the Turkish and Persian Governments, as stated in the opening chapter of this volurao. E G6 "tent" of 'ALf. last resting-place, a grave being dug of barely sufficient depth to cover the coffin, which is hastily and unceremo- niously covered up. Cemeteries throughout the East are generally kept in tolerable order ; but at Kerbella no care is exhibited, the brickwork of the graves has fallen in, and the ravages of dogs, jackals, and hyaenas may be observed in the holes they have made, and in the foul shreds of every hue and colour torn from the coffins and bodies of the corpses. It might be thought that, seeing such a disgusting sight, the thousands of pilgrims who return to their homes would be induced to discountenance the system of conveying the remains of their friends to this place. Such, however, is not the case ; and the desire to be buried on a spot rendered sacred by the blood of a martyr, prevails over all other considerations, and a tomb at Kerbella, or Meshed 'Ali, is looked on as an expiation for the greatest crimes, and a surety that, at the day of judgment, the pardoned sinner will rise into the seventh heaven."^' This system of forming cemeteries, and conveying the dead for interment to some distant and sacred spot, has prevailed from very early times among different nations. I shall, have, ere long, to describe some remarkable ancient cemeteries, which, from their magnitude, could never have originated from a fixed population in the immediate neighbourhood, unless aided by an accumulation from many distant localities. Outside the gates of Kerbella is a small oratory, said to have been erected on the spot where the great 'All had a celebrated vision in his tent, and, from that circumstance, it is called " the tent of 'All." It is a dodecagon, having six entrances, and is surrounded by a covered veranda * These are not, however, the only sacred burial-places to which the Persians resort. Kdthem4'in near Bdghddd, Sdmdra, Meshed, and Koom are all likewise hallowed from possessing the bones of the descendants of 'AIL STRANGE EFFECT. 67 supported on columns. Judging from the cracks in the building, it is not destined to stand for any great length of time. The whitened walls were written over with many extracts from Persian poets and modern eifusions. hut the place was anything but clean. Two cunning- looking Persian mullas received us, but objected to our entering with our boots. Having no desire to insult their prejudices we abstained from going beyond the veranda : but the Turkish officer accompanying us took no notice of the objection, and walked boldly in. " By 'All's beard ! why do you enter this clean and holy place to pol- lute it with your unclean feef?" said one of the guar- dians, in angry expostulation. " My boots are quite as clean as your filthy floor ! Look — see the dirt upon it ! When you clean your floor I'll take ofi" my boots ; Ijut I am not going to soil my feet to please you," was the answer returned, to the intense disgust of the mullas. The bazaars of Kerbella are well supplied with all kinds of grain, and articles from every part of the world carried thither by the pilgrims. It is celebrated for the manufacture of filigree-work, and for elaborate engraving upon the nacreous valves of the pearl oyster (avicula margaritifera), obtained from the fisheries at Bahreyn, in the Persian Gulf Travellers love to descant on the beauties of Eastern cities ; but it is seldom that it falls to their lot to witness such wonderful effects of light as fell under my own observation on this short journey. Early on the morn- ing of departure from Kerbella, I took a stroll to a little distance from the walls, and beheld a mag-nificent spec- tacle as "the glorious orb of day" rose above the hori- zon, and gradually lighted up the golden dome of the great mosque. The dark and comparatively sombre green surface of that which enshrines the bones of 'Abbas still remained enveloped in a thick curtain of blue mist, until 63 ORIENTAL LADIES. an orange or deep red tint crept slowly over the principal featnres of the edifice. Tliis continued during the space of at least two minutes, when the strange and fairy-like effect was dispelled by the bright sunshine. While it lasted, it was truly imposing and enchanting. From Kerbella our party returned direct to Baghdad, followino; for a considerable distance the course of a canal derived from the Euphrates, which, on account of its flowing to the tomb of the saint, is called Husseyniyya. The quantity of earth deposited, and frequently thrown out of its bed, is so great as to form an enormous line of mound on either side. Unless attention in this respect is paid to irrigating canals, they soon become choked with sediment, and cease their operations. The path to Miis- seib, being traversed by so many pilgrims and caravans on their way to and from Kerbella, is completely cut up by parallel tracks, and more beaten than any other throughout the East. It is, however, generally considered unsafe, and a large caravan was said to have been bodily carried off by the Bedouins two days before we passed along it. Fearing a like fate, some Persian ladies, with their attendants, begged they might be permitted to take advantage of our escort. The custom, universally adopted by Oriental ladies, of riding astride like a man, is certainly the most ungrace- ful that can be conceived. Enveloped in the ample folds of a blue cotton cloak, her face (as required by the strict injunctions of the Koran) concealed under a black or white mask, her feet encased in wide yellow boots, and these in turn thrust into slippers of the same colour, her knees nearly on a level with her chin, and her hands holding on by the scanty mane of the mule — an Eastern lady is the most uncouth and inelegant form imaginable. On foot, too, her appearance is not much improved ; for the awkw< rd boots and slippers compel her to slide and THE FEKllY-BOAT. 69 roll along in such an ungainly manner as forcibly to remind the beholder of a duck waddling to a pond, or of a bundle of clothes on short thick stilts. To complete the picture, it must be left to those European ladies who have had the fortune to gain admission to the privacy of a harem, to state whether the tone and conversation of their Mohammedan friends is more polished and elegant than their external appearance ; many a fair form is concealed beneath a rough exterior ; but, if we may judge of the fair sex of Islam by the native Christian ladies, I fear the answer will not be satisfactory. I remember on one occasion seeing an Armenian beauty at a fete presented with a choice bouquet. On receiving it, she languidly rose from the embroidered ottoman, and then — to the utmost surprise and indignation of the giver — deliberately sat upon it ! The Euphrates at Milsseib is crossed by ferry-boats — huge, unwieldy apparatuses, roughly built of planks over- laid with bitumen, and each capable of containing some dozen loaded animals, and a motley throng of human beings, men, women, and children. A low projecting bow acts as a landing-jetty, and the craft is guided by a rud- der of most complicated construction, sufficiently large to steer a vessel three times its size. Men, with poles in the shallow water and rude oars in the stream, propel the mass onwards ; and thus, after an infinity of shouting, and screaming, and invocations of 'AH, the boat reaches the opposite shore. A throng of ragged pilgrims, on their return from Kerbella, had just preceded our party, and were squabbling who should fii-st enter one of these Noah's arks, when our cavasses — with the usual prompti- tude and small sense of justice which these officers possess in so peculiar a manner — rushed into the crowd, and, by dint of tongue and stick, fighting their way through it, seized the beleaguered boat for our especial use. Ex- 70 CROSSING THE RIVER. eluded from it, the struggle for supremacy was trans- ferred to the craft alongside, and the usual scene at a ferry occurred. Every would-be passenger endea- vour's to obtain a footing for himself and his animal, whether horse, mule, or — still more useful "friend of man" — the donkey, whose slit nostrils and raw hide prove that his services are scarcely appreciated as they ought to be. Footing once secured, the difficulty is, how to induce the frightened animals to raise their other three feet fi-om terra Jirma into the same position, but caresses and hard thumps, kicks and curses, usually effect the desired object. When the boat is crammed so full that no restless animal can stir, the boat is shoved off, and the Kving mass takes its chance of floating or sinking, "as Allah mils it" — the gunwale within an inch or two of the water-level. The animals of our party, however, usually crossed the river in the more expeditious and primitive manner represented in the Assyrian bas-reliefs. The common herd was driven into the water, and compelled to swim the stream, but grooms led the more valuable horses by their halters into the river, and swam across with them, urging the unwilling with barbarous grunts, such as can only proceed from an Arab mouth. The pads, saddles, and bridles were passed over with the baggage in the boats. All crossed safely to the opposite side. Milsseib is a miserable but busy place, . supported entirely by the traffic to and from Kerbella. Large quantities of grain from the land adjoining the Euphrates were being thrashed, and a number of women were em- ployed in grinding it wdth the ordinary stone hand-mill of the country. Nearer to the river, men were mending kdfahs — those round boats described by Herodotus as used in his time upon the rivers of Babylonia, — made of reeds, coated inside and out with melted bitumen, derived from the springs of Hit, higher up the Euphrates. Mt^SSEIB. 71 Others were employed in making baskets from tlie stems of the liquorice-plant {GlycyrrMza glabra), which they adeptly twisted together. Above the village, on the eastern side, a sud or dam of earth had been recently constructed at a point where the river had, during the season of flood, burst upon the land, and swept all before it as fiir as the ruins of Babylon. At a few miles from Miisseib we rejoined the road previously traversed be- tween Baghdad and Hillali, and reached the former place without new adventure. CHAPTER VIII. Climate of Chaldsea — Christmas in Baghdad — Departure for the South — Mubdrek's Misadventui-e — ^The Ky^ya of Hillah — Bashl-B^uks. Further political questions detained the commissioners at Baghdad until the end of December, when the decree was issued for our proceeding to the frontier. It was arranged that the H.E.I.C/s armed steamer, Nitocris, under the command of Captain FeUx Jones, whose inti- mate knowledge of the country and amiable disposition are so well known to travellers in that remote region of the globe, should convey the whole party to Mohammerah, the southern point of the disputed boundary line. The mules, horses, and servants were to proceed by land, guarded by the troop of cavalry appointed by the Turkish Government as its due portion of an escort to accompany the commissioners during the progress of their labom^s. It was proposed that this party should travel by the direct route through Lower Mesopotamia, instead of the more beaten track along the western side of the Euphrates. As the route by the Jezireh'"' had been scarcely visited by Europeans, I naturally felt a strong desire to take advantage of the opportunity now afforded of breaking new groimd. I was influenced by a twofold object : that of examining the geology of the Chaldaean marshes, and that of exploring the ruins of • Jezlreh means " island," and, although a misnomer, is applied to the whole of Mesopotamia between the two rivers Tigris and Euphrates. PREPARATIONS AT BAGHDAD. 73 Warka, to which native tradition assigns the honour of being the birthplace of the patriarch Abraham. Colonel Williams, ever ready to afford fticilities to scientific enter- prise, not only granted a willing consent to my proposal to join the overland party, but also suggested that Mr Churchill should accompany me. In order that some idea may be formed of the difficul- ties and dangers attending a journey into Lower Baby- lonia or Chaldaea Proper, I may here miention, that, during spring and summer, when the Hindieh branch of the Euphrates is closed, the greater part of the comitry, from above lat. 32°, is a continuous marsh towards the south, quite impassable except in canoes called ter- radas. In these the natives are enabled to keep up com- munication among themselves on the spots of elevated land which raise their heads above the surroundino- o swamps. The heat, however, prevents the approach of travellers. In autumn these inundations rapidly subside, but the resultant malaria is so great as to deter any European from invading this terra (if it can be so called) incognita. The only season of the year, therefore, which frees Chaldaea from water and fever is the winter, when the air becomes rarified. The great alternations in tempera- tm-e which here take place are scarcely to be credited. No, sooner does the ardent heat of summer abate, than cool breezes begin to blow, and the thermometer quickly falls below the freezing point. This is due to the fact that the soil of the marshes is a comparatively recent deposit from the retiring sea of the Persian Gulf, and is therefore highly impregnated with marine salts, across which the wind in its passage is rendered intensely cold. T have myself seen the Arabs, completely benumbed, drop from their saddles. But during winter another obstacle opposes progress. A very large portion of the country, which was a few months previously covered with inunda- 74 INACCESSIBILITY OF CHALDiEA. tion, is now waterless, sometimes for two or three days' journey. The Arab tribes, too, are perfectly wild and uncontrolled, regarding strangers among them with in- finite suspicion. Under such unpromising circumstances, it is not at all surprising that this region has been so little visited, and that so many monuments of its past history still remain to be explored. In no other part of Babylonia is there such astonishing proof of ancient civilization and denseness of population. Some lofty pile is generally Aosible to mark the site of a once-important city ; while numerous little spots, covered with broken pottery, point to the former existence of villages and of a rural popula- tion. Traces of old canal-beds prove the care with which the whole country was watered when the marshes were confined within proper limits, and the land of the Chaldees flourished. Christmas-day was spent in great festivity at the hos- pitable and well-ordered board of the British Eesidency, where all the Europeans at Baghdad met, as customary, to celebrate our gTeat Christian festival. On the second morning afterwards, a gathering took place outside the gates of the city, at the little bridge over the Mess'iidl canal, preparatory to our long journey. The caravan was of considerable size, being composed of the servants and animals belonging to the four commissions — the whole escorted by four light guns, and one hundred weU- mounted, well-armed Turkish cavalry. The fittle red and white pennants attached to the lances of the soldiers imparted a gay and lively appearance to the cavalcade as it moved along. We pursued the road previously travelled to HiUah, which place we reached in a heavy shower of rain on the third day. Here an accident happened, which was near proving fatal to a wild Dhefyr Arab, named Miibdrek, STARTING. 75 whom I liad taken into my service, at the suggestion of Captain Jones, for the purpose of protecting my little party in case of any temporary separation from the main body dming my researches. I was im willing to be entirely dependent on the troops for guidance and safe-conduct, and it is always advisable, on entering an unknown region, to secure the protection of a native, or one weU acquainted with the people amongst whom the traveller has to pass. The Dhefyr Arabs belong to the true Bedouin tribes, and roam from the western shores of the Persian Gulf, along the banks of the Lower Euphrates, far into the deserts of Arabia. They bear the character of being more cruel and bloodthirsty than the generality of Bedouins ; but they claim a species of freemasonry among other tribes — any ragamuffin among them enjoy- ing the privilege of protection in an extraordinary way. In the present instance, however, the Dhefyr proved to be rather an embarrassment than a gain to my party ; for his depredations had so frequently been extended into the marshes on the east of the Euphrates, that there was no good feeling manifested towards him. Of this, however, I was not aware at the time of engaging him. Miibarek was not one of the brightest nor most prepossessing of Arabs. He was little in stature, ugly in countenance, dirty in person, and his abba and keflfieh were both in the last stage of decay. He brought with him another of his tribe — a half-witted fellow, named Mayuf, whose drolleries served to amuse the tedium of the barren, cheerless desert. Just before reaching the point at which the road turns through the gardens towards the bridge, Miibiirek's horse, a spirited little animal, with only a halter on his head, took fright, leaped a wall, and tore away at a furious pace among the thickly-planted date-trees.* The Arab, of course, had no control over his steed, and ran the chance of getting his brains dashed out by coming 76 THE DHEFYR AEAB. in contact with a tree. The horse rushed onwards nothing daunted by the labyrinth he had to thread, until his feet becoming entangled in the work of some cotton- spinners, he threw his rider with great violence. The poor fellow lay senseless, with the blood streaming from his mouth and nostrils, when an Arab bystander hastened to bring him round in the most approved native manner. Kaising the injured man in his arms, he shook liim exactly as a farmer shakes a sack of wheat to settle down. the grain ! By so doing, it was supposed that the blood would be expelled from the head into its right place. After several repetitions of the operation, the patient opened his eyes, gave a deep exclamation of " Allah ! Allah \" picked up his spear, and then, apparently little the worse for his accident, staggered after his truant and unmanageable steed. On gaining the western side of the bridge, we learned that the Tm^kish officers of Dervish Pasha's suite had kindly exerted themselves in obtaining quarters for my- self and companion at the house of Shebib 'Agha, the Kyaya of Hillah, a venerable gentleman with long flow- ing beard of the purest white, whose visible family con- sisted of his brother — a fac-simile of himself — and three sons, varying from nine to twelve years of age. The boys, all handsome little fellows, standing with the ser- vants in the presence of their father and his gTiests, pre- sented us with coffee and the usual accompaniments on our arrival. Our kind host insisted on supplying our- selves, servants, and animals, with food and provender during om' stay in Hillah. Anxious to obtain as much information as possible on the subject of our journey, I inquired concerning our line of route, and ascertained that he had visited Niffar, one of the great ruins in the centre of the Jezireh. I therefore asked if he had seen the stone obelisk which is said to He near the mound. SHEBfB 'aGHA. 77 Shebib 'Agha stroked liis beard, considered for a moment, and then replied, that — " By Allah ! he did not remember to have seen any snch stone ; but the Arabs tell a story that sometimes they see a boat jutting out of the ruins, which shines like gold, with a flame of fire proceeding from its centre ; but, Mashallah ! the Arabs are so alarmed at the sight, they dare not approach 1" He could, of course, give no further information concerning this won- derful apparition. The rain continuing to fall in torrents during the greater part of the day, we were confined to the house. In the interval three Jews called on the kyaya, and entered into a lono; but animated discussion with him on the subject of an overcharge of taxes. One of the Israelites was a voluble and accomplished orator, rolling forth the Arabic gutturals with all the roundness and fluency of a true son of the desert. He certainly made use of his talents to the utmost, but whether with or without effect on the purse-strings of the kyaya, I cannot say, because I quitted the house before his oration was concluded. I may here notice a fact, which must infallibly occur to the observation of travellers. When two Englishmen meet, the "weather" is generally the introduction to other topics of conversation, but is soon forgotten in the interest of other subjects. Throughout the East, how- ever, " money" is the all-absorbing theme. Money begins and ends a conversation. The word " piastre," " keran," or "fluce," invariably occurs within the first few sen- tences, and as invariably ends the debate ! Frequently, after a lengthened discussion on the subject, a little dirty bag is produced from the inner folds of the dress, and two or three small coins are counted out with the greatest deliberation. I was now informed, to my great disappointment and vexation, that the troops had received counter-orders, 78 FRESH ARRANGEMENTS. and were to proceed by the ordinary road from Hillah by the west of the Euphrates. Thus all my plans and arrangements appeared in a fair way of being frustrated. I was not, however, disposed to resign them without an effort, and therefore set out with my companion to con- sult with our good friend Tahir Bey, who fortunately happened to be in the town. He was as frank and hearty as ever, but strongly endeavoured to dissuade me from my intention. He represented truly the kind of country we should have to traverse : the great inunda- tions, and the wild character of the native Arabs, likely to rebel against the government at any moment. See- ing, however, that his representations did not alter my determination, he recommended me to take a few Bashi Baziiks, or irregular horsemen. On my assenting to this, he immediately issued his orders, and, moreover, volun- teered to furnish me with letters to certain sheikhs, through whose tribes we should have to pass. I felt highly pleased at the promptitude he shewed in meeting my wishes, and took leave, anticipating the delightful prospect before me of entering on ground hitherto un- trodden by European foot. It was arranged that the bulk of our animals should proceed with the troops under the charge of a cawas, the mlr-i-akhor (master of the horse), and the greater number of servants, while a small proportion was set apart as our o^vn especial convoy. At sunset, we sat down to an Arab dinner provided by our host. After much entreaty the old gentleman consented to sit mth, instead of waiting upon us. We had already discussed one greasy dish, and were waiting for another, when my servant unfortunately placed wine upon the table. Shebib Agha, like a good Mussulman, jumped up as if shot through the heart ; nor could all our entreaties, nor even the removal of the alarming bottle of KETTLE-DRUMS, AND CONSEQUENCES. 79 forbidden liquid, prevail on liim to resume his seat at the board. He had sat with Ghyawr who drank wine ; they were not therefore fitting companions for one of the faithful ! The continued rain during the night delayed the ap- pearance of our future escort, which did not shew itself till the sun shone forth late the following morning, ^vhen eight well-mounted Bashi Bazuks, with two drummers, mustered before the door of Shebib 'Agha's house. There is something irresistibly absurd to the European traveller for the first time riding out of a town preceded by his guard and a couple of fellows beating a monotonous sound out of a pair of bad kettle-drums. It was with some difficulty, under such circumstances, that we could compose our risible faculties so as to act our parts with due and proper decorum, while the shopkeepers and passengers in the bazaars stood in respectful attitudes and received the salutes to which they were entitled. I was not sorry, when, outside the date-groves, the musi- cians announced their intention of returning into town. On the receipt of a small " bakhshisli," they hastened to the bosom of their families, while we made for the heart of the desert. CHAPTEE IX. From Hillah into the Desert — Sand-drifts — Bridge-building — ^The Surly Sheikh, and his Black Slave — Coffee-making — Rhubarb and Blue PiU— New Year 1850. Directing our course towards the ruins of Niffar, our first two days' journey was, for the most part, across a level and sandy desert, intersected by an infinity of ancient water-courses, whose streams had centuries back ceased to flow, their very existence being sometimes only faintly indicated by the darker colour of the soil, arising from the salts contained in it. Now and then a low mound or a few fragments of pottery, bricks, and glass, assisted us to beguile the time by speculations and discussions on the former inhabitants of the land, and in making comparisons between the past and present. Like Paley's watch on the heath, what reflections may not a fragment • of pottery stir up ! In this manner, and in takino; carefid notes and observations of the route, the hours passed rapidly, and we fidly enjoyed the novelty of the scene before us in that deserted and barren plain — for so it may be called, because the inhabited and cultivated spots are so few and far between, in comparison with the wide expanse of rich land uninhabited and uncultivated, throughout Mesopotamia. Independently, however, of the strange associations called forth by bricks and pot- tery, the journey was delightfid, from the very uncer- tainty attending its course, from the excitement of BASHlYYA. 81 knowing that an unexplored region lay before ns, and from the enjoyment of the pure freshness of the desert air after the recent rain. Even the scanty Arab tents — although presenting the usual scene of squalid filth, and (as one is disposed to conceive) consequent misery — had some variety in their character and disposition. Deter- mined on being pleased with anything, it would have been a sad pity if we had been disappointed. The only point worthy of notice during the first day's journey was a remarkable range of low sandhills, which alter their form according to the direction of the wind. It has been conceived that their presence is due to springs of water below the surface ; but ]\Ir Layard offers another explanation. During his journey in 1850-51, across this region, he mentions having passed two or three places where the sand, issuing from the earth like water, is called " Aioun-er-nimmel," sand-springs.'"' I observed no such phenomenon ; but consider these hiUs as the van- guard of those vast drifts which, advancing from the south-east, threaten eventually to overwhelm Babylon and Baghdad. Further in the interior, these drifts are largely developed, and spread over large tracts of country not occupied by the marshes. They are temporarily arrested at this particular locality by the decayed stumps of numerous tamarisk bushes, that project and appear to be the nuclei around which the drifts accumulate. The advancing and destructive progress of the sand is seen at the little hamlet of Bashiyya, about five miles farther. The square walls of an enclosure gave shelter and security to a few families, who supplied us, during our first night's encampment, with fowls and milk — the usual luxuries of Arab life. A large grove of date-trees, also surrounded by walls, flourished along the bank of an old canal-bed, and shaded an old Arab tomK The term • « Nineveh and Babylon," p. 54& F 82 SAND-DRIFT3. " khithr" (verdure) is peculiarly appropriate to spots where a patch of green, or even a single tree, relieves the dull monotony and continued glare of a desert soil — and it is therefore frequently applied to these oases. On subsequently visiting Bashiyya, in January 1854, a great change had come over it ; the sands, drifting from the south-east, had produced a desolation as imposing as that of Nineveh or Babylon. Its inhabitants were gone, the walls were barely visible above mounds of sand, the canal courses were utterly extinguished, and the date-trees rapidly dying from the lack of necessary moisture. The invasion of this drift-sand is also observable at Nllhya,"'' about nine miles east from Bashiyya. This Mobammedan Ruins at Nflfy3r8 famous Arab city is mentioned by 'Abiil-Fedah as existing in his time upon the great canal of Nil, from which it • During my journey in 1854, through the Jezirch, in charge of the expe- dition sent out under the auspices of the Assyrian Excavation Society, I visited these ruins in company with Messrs Lj'nch and Boutcher. They were of great size, but so concealed under the sand-drifts that it was im- possible to ascertain their full extent. The principal buildings remaining, are a few fragments of an old mosque, and some piers of a bridge over the BUILDING A BRIDGE. 83 took its name. In 1848, the sand began to accumulate around it, and in six years the desert, within a radius of six miles, was covered with little undulating domes, while the ruins of the city were so buried that it is now impos- sible to trace their orioinal form or extent. This feature is to be expected in a low flat country, recently (in a geo- logical point of view) reclaimed from the sea, as we know to have been the case with Chaldaea. For the next few days, pointed or domed buildings, erected over the bones of some imam (holy man, or influential chief), served at intervals for marks to guide our path, being of infinite value to the traveller in these deserts. They indicate likewise that a much larger popu- lation obtained in comparatively modern times. During two days' journey from Hillah, several of these white tombs dot the horizon, and are known by the name of the saint buried at each, such as Imam Khithr, Imdm Ashjeri. The son of the sheikh at Bashlyya undertook to guide the party to the tents of Sheikh Mulla 'All, to whom we carried letters from Tahir Bey. A vast inundation from the Shumeli Canal, derived from the Euphrates, obliged us to make a considerable detour before reaching the bridge by which all traflic is carried on. It proved to be a single date log thrown across the stream ; but it afi'orded such a precarious footing, that the first mule bed of the Nil, which i^assed through the centre of the city. There was no appearance of any relics earlier than the Mohammedan era ; if such exist, they are buried under the more modern d6bris. Seen from Nlliyya are the following mounds : — Zibbai-, four miles distant, bearing 21° 35' ElMeheri, 48 10 ElBershieh, 64 45 NIshdn Uivdn, ) . . , , .,,•„„ . . . . 123 10 ElKhitherlat.T^'''^""^^^^^'^^^"^-'' .... 131 30 Habil-i-Sakr, a large ruin of black stone, said to be six or seven hours from Ed,gdddleb, on the Tigris. ... 41 $4 AKAB CURIOSITY. on attempting to cross slipped and fell sideways on the bank. The cook's stores, onions and lemons, pots and kettles, were seen floating in joint fellowship down the canal. My people and the Bashi Baziiks endeavoured to raise the prostrate beast, but to no purpose. A few Arabs from the adjoining tents gathered round, but shewed no disposition to assist, until the soldiers had recourse to their whips, and thus secured a few volunteers. The mule raised, they were next set to repair their own bridge, which otherwise would have been allowed to rot. Several labourers returning from the plough were also gently pressed into the service. In a quarter of an hour the bridge was completed, by laying a second date log parallel with the first — a quantity of camel's thorn being then thrown down as a foundation, and loose earth placed on the top. When all were safely across, we soon reached the large encampment of Mulla 'All, whose great black tents spread along the bank of the canal. Our arrival was the signal for the gathering of a crowd, and we were regarded somewhat in the light of monkeys or dancing dogs in a rural English village. The amazement and curiosity of the Arab community was great while they pmved the strange garments of the Firenghis, and expressed odd notions concerning their make and fabric. The little naked children seemed to partake of the general excite- ment. After a steady survey of a few seconds, the youth- ful fry, with their stomachs swelled to deformity from eating rice, and their mouths besmeared with dates, scampered off to relate their impressions to their mothers, who> afraid of the evil eye, scrutinized our persons and movements from behind the recesses of their tents. Having a long journey before us, we did not dismount : in fact, it was useless to do so ; the sheikh being a very old man, and on the point of death. I therefore merely SHEIKH SAID's tent. 05 requested that a guide might accompany us to the next encampment on the road to Niffar. In due time four Arabs were added to the party, and we travelled onwards to the camp of Sheikh Said. In the east, at the distance of about ten miles, a great mass of unbaked brickwork, the ancient mound of Zibliyya,"'''' shone brightly against the setting sun. Darkness overtook the party before arriving at the camp of the sheikh, conveniently situated near the tomb of an imam, on the verge of the great Affej marshes. The sheikh himself, a tall, stout, short-necked buU of a fellow, with a decided enlargement of one eye, which gave a very sinister expression to his countenance, advanced to the entrance of his tent to bid us welcome, and invited us to take a seat at his fire while our own tents were being pitched. We were accordingly ushered in. Two exceed- ingly greasy pillows of striped silk were placed on an equally dirty fragment of Turkey carpet, and we were duly installed into the seats of honour. As we entered, fresh fuel was added to the blazing fire upon the ground, producing a smoke so dense, that our eyes, not having served an apprenticeship in such an atmosphere, were completely blinded, and we remained for some time in utter ignorance of the sort of den we were in. When at length my vision had in some measure overcome the pun- gency of the smoke and penetrated through its density, I discovered that we sat under a huge black goats'-hair tent, sixty feet long and twenty feet broad, supported in the centre by poles fourteen feet high. The sides were all pegged closely to the ground, so that the only means * I likewise visited Ziblij^a in 1854. It appears to be an edifice, measur- ing forty-four paces square at the base, and fifty feet high, raised upon a low mound of similar construction. From the relics discovered around, it probably belongs to the Parthian era, Mr Layard visited Zibliyya in 1851, — the year following the journey above described, — and it is mentioned at page 569 of his " Nineveh and Babylon." 86 ARAB LEVEE. of exit for tlie smoke were through the entrance and the wide meshes of the tent itself. Eather less than one- third of the space was partitioned off by a screen of the same black stuff. This was the private apartment of the sheikh and his family, although I could perceive no bright eyes of Araby maids peering at us from behind it. As soon as our seats were taken, numerous dusky forms stalked in, made a haughty salaam, and took their several places in silence on the ground around the fire. It was impossible to resist a smile as we surveyed the group and observed ourselves to be the focus of their attraction. A hundred black eyes, with every expression from utter astonishment to utter rascality, stared at us uninter- ruptedly, from fifty heads, stretched forward from the bodies to which they severally belonged, the better to examine our strange physiognomies and still stranger garments. Each soon began to make personal remarks in a whisper to his neighbour, or expressed them openly for the benefit of the assembled divan. Never had I before seen such a levee of savages — ^411 any, deceit, and crime appeared to be the distinguishing characteristics of their features. This is the result of oppression. How different were these Madan Arabs from the free and noble Bedouin, who treats the Turkish pasha as an equal ! My first visit to a large Arab tent prepossessed me in favour neither of Arab cleanliness nor of Arab hospitality, as the event will shew. In due time there appeared a nearly naked black slave, with legs and arms so leng-thy and disproportioned that he might have been a resusci- tated figure from the temples of Eameses or Amenophis ! Stalking up to the fire, he commenced the important operation of preparing coffee. He first arranged in line a series of coffee-pots, of every size from the great grand- father of coffee-pots, black with age and fire, to the COFFEE-MAKING. 87 infant coffee-pot just made, and bright from the hands of the tinman. Then came the pater-familias — a huge old fellow, wrapped up in the most careful manner in an old piece of abba stuff. As the kawaji unwound the nume- rous dirty folds, I was at a loss to conceive the meaning of all this care, but it eventually proved that pater- familias was the receptax?le into which were collected the dregs and leavings of all the great coffee drinkings of the Kerbiil tribe from time immemorial. This was placed on the fire, and the operator, in the most theatrical manner, then bared his arms and legs, tucked his abba under him, and commenced the scientific process of roast- ing and pounding. A large iron utensil, having some relationship to a gigantic spoon on three legs, was next produced, and also put upon the fire. The negro then thrust his hand into some inscrutable corner of his robe and drew forth a small bag, from which he extracted two handfuls of coffee-berries, looking round at the same time, as much as to say, " You observe they're genuine Mocha !" These he threw into the capacious spoon, and continually turned them over with a flat shovel until the aromatic flavour, permeating through the tent to the olfac- tories of every person present, pronounced them to be duly roasted. Then the berries were pounded in a wooden mortar with a copper pestle — and here it was that the negro exhibited his skill, as he rang out various notes in the most scientific and artistic manner from the rude instruments on which he performed. When sufiiciently pulverized, the coffee was confided to the great grand- father of pots, and a quantity of the delectable fluid above mentioned was poured upon it. Then all the family of coffee-pots took their turn at boiling it until the infant in his juvenile brightness had performed his part, and the negro skeleton advanced to present a cup of the beverage for my consideration. 88 USE OF MEDICINE. The behaviour of the sheikh was, however, so extraor- dinar}'- during all the above process, that it was evident we were not welcome guests. From the time of our arrival, he kept giving a continued succession of orders to his ser- vants, in an unpleasant manner and flustering voice, turning his back most uncivilly upon his guests, and scarcely deign- ing to answer the few questions which were addressed to him. In order to shew we were aware of his incivility, and also oflended by it, we rose when the coffee was handed, took a haughty leave of the astonished sheikh, and retired to our tents, which were by that time ready for our recep- tion. This movement had the desired effect. AVe had scarcely reached our tents when, as anticipated, the sheikh followed. He was received very coldly, and scarcely received a reply to his oft-repeated question — " Wallah ! Beg, what is the matter ? " At last he added, " I hope you are not off'ended. I should not have treated you so ill, but I did not understand who you were ! " He then begged us to forget what had occurred, and to take coffee with him, which was brought before he received a reply. Having reduced the uncivil fellow to reason, it was unnecessary to take further notice of the intentional insult we had received. I therefore accepted his coffee ; after which he became communicative, and endeavoured to make himself agreeable. He was not long in asking if either of us were an hekim, or doctor, and if we possessed any medicine. His gross body had an enormous boil on an indescribable portion of his carcass, for which he required some remedy, and begged so energetically, that I at length agreed to give him a blue pill and a dose of rhubarb, but I quite forgot to see him swallow the former. Most probably it was wrapped in a dirty rag, and laid aside among his treasures until some of his friends might be ill, when, whether the malady were fever or cholera, a spear wound or dysentery, LED A DANCE. 89 the sheikh would produce his supposed talisman for all ills, and, possibly, kill his patient. As to our visiting Niffar, he recommended our going forward to the next encampment of the Affej tribe, which was nearer to the ruins ; but, as I was desirous of spending New Year's day on the mounds, I endeavoured to persuade him to furnish us with guides. After presenting various obstacles, he at length agreed that his son and four horse- men should accompany us. There was no further cause, for the night at least, to complain of incivility or want of attention. Ourselves, servants, and animals were supplied with every requisite which an Arab camp can furnish. The New Year of 1850 was ushered in with a fog so dense that the sheikh again endeavoured to dissuade us from our purpose, but, being determined on the sub- ject, we started as arranged overnight. We rode for about an hour, Avhile the sheikh's son continually urged me to give up my visit till another opportunity, and I began to suspect that he never intended we should reach Niffar. I was at length confirmed in this view by discovering oui own tracks on the ground, and that we had been led a complete circuit round Sheikh Said's camp ! I was naturally highly incensed at this conduct, and, on the guides declaring it impossible to reach the ruins and return before dark, I required them to conduct me to Shkyer, the abode of a sheikh of that name, brother of Aggab, chief of the Affej. I had afterwards reason to know that Sheikh Said was at feud with the tribes between his camp and Niffar : hence his great unwillingness to aid us in visiting the ruins. On reaching within half a mile ol Shkyer, our guides left us to introduce ourselves to the amphibious inhabitants of the Affej marshes. Hitherto our journey had been through the districts of the Zobeid Arabs and their tributaries. Their chief, who farmed the revenues for the pasha, boasted of a Turkish 90 THE WADf BEY. title to his name, and was called the Wadi Bey. In con- sequence, however, of his oppressive conduct and extor- tionate demands, the tribes over whom he ruled — for they included others besides the Zobeid — were continually in rebellion. They complained, and with justice, that the Wadi robbed them and debauched their families, leaving neither food nor honour for themselves. In makino; known their complaints to the pasha, they exclaimed, "Send soldiers, slay us, cut off our heads, we will not obey him any longer." In consequence of these com- plaints, the Wadi Bey had recently been deposed by Abdl Pasha, and was then in prison at Miisseib to answer the charges brought against him. It was generally under- stood that the pasha intended taking the government of the tribes into his own hands — an arrangement which appeared to be perfectly satisfactory to the iU-used Arabs. Great jealousy and mistrust reigned, however, amoiig the various neighbouring tribes during the interregnum, and it was on this accomit that the son of Sheikh Said refused to accompany us into the village of Shkyer. Before reach- ing it, we experienced the awkwardness of travelling among marshes. Our animals were slipping and sliding about, out of one buffalo track into another, and had the greatest difficulty in keeping on their feet. An hour's scrambling in this way at length brought us to the village, where we were honourably and hos]3itably received by the aged Sheikh Shkyer and his numerous sons. CHAPTER X. Tlie Mighty Marsh — The Reed- Palace — Shooting-Match — NifFar — Theory on the Chaldajans — Probable Ethiopic Origin — Niifar the Primitive Calneh, and Probable Site of the Tower of Babel — BenI Rechab, the Rechabites of Scripture. We had now reached tlie commencement of those immense marshes which extend almost uninterruptedly to the Persian Gulf, and which, as I have previously said, cause the country under their influence to be a complete terra incognita. The swamps occupied by the AfFej Arabs stretch, during the low season, from the Euphrates on the west, into the very heart of the Jezireh, and in some places even join those of the Tigris. It is impos- sible to state their area ; but it is calculated that they support a population of 3000 families, who pay an annual tribute of 100,000 piastres (above £900) to the Pasha of Baghdad. Abdi Pasha, however, thinking they were able to bear a considerable increase of taxation, proposed to double the above sum for the following year. The AfFej were in no small state of fermentation and alarm — com- plaining bitterly of the treatment they had at various times received from the authorities of Baghdad. Nedjib Pasha had thrice blown their fragile towns about their ears with cannon. These consist entirely of reed huts, the reeds being tied in large bundles, and neatly arched overhead. This primitive construction is covered exter- nally with thick matting, impervious to rain. The riches 92 THE MtJTHfF. of the AfFej are indicated by rows of huge reed cylin- drical baskets, containing the grain npon which they subsist. Rice is produced in great almndance along the edges of the marsh ; but the whole of their fields were, at the season of our visit and for a third of the year, entirely under water. Communication is kept up, as on the marshes of the Hiudieh, by means of long, sharp, pointed terradas, constructed of teak, and measuring twelve or fourteen feet long, by a yard in width. The Affej tribe is divided into two nearly equal parts, governed by two brothers, Aggab and Shkyer — the former being the accredited head of the whole. We were conducted to the miithif, or reception-hut of the chief, which resembled the other habitations of the place, but was of gigantic size, forty feet long, and eighteen feet high. It boasted the almost fabulous age for a reed building (if the Arabs might he credited) of no less than half a century, and appeared likely to last as long again, but its interior was black with soot and smoke from the fire which invariably burned under the arch, and had no means of exit but the entrance facinsf the marsh. After sitting a short time in this primitive jDalace, the sheikh himself, an old man of seventy on crutches, came to wel- come us ; three of his sons having, in the interim, done the honours of hospitality. The manly and open counte- nances of the Affej are remarkably striking, and differ so much from those of the Zobeid that they are at once pro- nounced to be of another origin. Their rich scarlet dresses — for the Affej are great dandies — and brightly striped keffiehs produced a remarkably brilliant and gay scene as they sat with their backs against the sides of the long muthif. The manners of the Affej are much more prepos- sessing and polished than the other tribes of the Jezlreh. In approaching the reed town, along the edge of the marsh, my companion had dismounted to shoot a fran- M(JBAREE. 93 colin, and his fame as a flying-sliot spread far and near. Such a prodigy had never before been seen among the AfFej marshes. The double-barrelled gun was handed round the muthif, and examined amid exclamations of surjjrise and delight ; but the percussion caps were a complete puzzle to the whole assemblage. The springs of the powder-flask and shot-belt were equally a source of astonishment. A shooting-match was proposed ; and shortly afterwards, Churchill and Mohammed, the sheikh's eldest son, were skimming about on the marsh in a narrow terrada, the depth of the water generally not exceeding three feet. The En2;lishman fired six times to the Arab's once, amidst rounds of applause an^d loud clapping of hands. The powder and shot of the latter were separately weighed in a rude scale, from one end of which was sus- pended a piece of lead, and from the other a hollow reed closed at one extremity ; the process of loading his heavy unwieldy gun was therefore long and tedious ; and the result of his day's sport anything but satisfactory to his self-esteem. The wondrous performance of my fellow- traveller spread far and near ; and, four years afterwards, they reminded me of the manner in which he brought down the flying birds. The shooting-match is a subject of conversation to this day. In the course of the day our guide, Miibarek, who, it will be remembered, was engaged to conduct us and secure our safety during the journey, was recognized by the Arabs couchins; in a dark corner of one of the tents, as a Bedouin thief, notorious for stealing by night. His tribe, too, was at blood-feud with the Aflej. Had it not been that he was attached to my party, his life would have paid the penalty of his temerity in venturing among his enemies. Well knowing this, he did not therefore dare to shew his face outside the tent all the time of my stay at Shkyer. 94 DIFFICULTIES. It is altogether beyond the comprehension of an Arab that a person should travel several days for the mere purpose of gratifying his curiosity by the sight of an ancient mound — they are always under the impression that a search for treasure is the true but concealed object; and it is next to an utter impossibility to shake this belief. From some cause or other, the ruins of Niffar appear to be an object of peculiar dread to the Arabs ; the inhabitants of Shkyer exhibited the same disinclina- tion to accompany us as Sheikh Said's people had pre- viously done. Before quitting Baghdad, I had been warned that difficulties of every kind would be thrown in my way, and that I should be very fortunate in suc- ceeding. After a long conversation to no purpose, I declared my determination to set out for Niffar alone, if the sheikh would not oblige me by sending a guide. It was thereon arranged that his second son, Biilath, and a few horsemen of the tribe, should be ready at day- dawn. AVe were up betimes on the foUoAving morning, but the promised escort was by no means ready. It was then for the first time explained that the whole tribe could not muster more than three horses — buffaloes they had in plenty, but they were not available for such a ride as was before us. It was therefore necessary to accommodate them with our own animals ; and at length, after consi- derable delay, the party started from the village. The expedition consisted of ourselves, young Sheikh Biilath, two servants, six BashI Bazuks, and six Arabs. The road being, as a matter of course, pronounced insecure, we Avere armed to the teeth, and might easily have been mistaken for a plundering party, instead of antiquarians on our way to visit an old ruined city. Once free from the mud and water of the marshes, we hastened over the THE NIL. 95 plain at a merry rate, in order to have time at the mounds. We were assured that the way was long, and truly so we found it. In order to avoid the marsh on the south of us, it was necessary to make a detour of at least seven- teen miles. Several considerable mounds, and various old canals, were crossed — one of which, bearing directly from Zibliyya, was of considerable size, and must have been a main stream. It was called Derb-el-Jababara,"* or "the Giant's road." The Euphrates is described by the Arab historian, Abiil-Fedah, as in his time striking off from the modern channel immediately above the mound of B4bel at Babylon. Its sunken bed may still be traced on the west of the red pile of El Heimar, which some authors include within the circumference of the great city of Nebuchadnezzar. Its course terminated in the Tigris above Kilt-el-'Amara, the ancient Apamea. A main artery, derived from the old Euphrates near the city of Niliyya, flowed southwards towards Niffar. Its channel is now, how^ever, lost in the marshes at the base of the mounds, but is again traceable near Warka. The waters had but recently retired from the surface of the desert, and our horses sank deep into the soft and yielding soil.t On approaching a hollow among the iniins, we came suddenly upon two or three Zobeid shepherds and their flocks, who, notwithstanding the assurance of our friendly disposition, made a precipitate retreat to their distant tents. As Niffar is supposod to stand upon the northern con- fines of Chaldoea, it will not be out of place here to give * The word " jabbar," or " giant." is the particular title used in the Hebrew Scripture as applied to Nimrod. The name occurring at Niffar is an additional reason why the reputed antiquity of the site should be re- garded as authentic. t The best approach to Niffar is from the Tigris, on which side the ground is firm ; but the distance is great, and the desert entirely with- out water. Sir Henry Rawlinson, I believe, twice visited Niffar from that direction, and placed it in latitude 32° 7' 3" N. 96 THE CHALD.EANS. briefly an account of its early inhabitants, and their origin — as ftir, at least, as our present knowledge con- cernino; them will admit of. The Chaldaeans are alluded to in the Bible under various conflicting denominations. At one time they are spoken of as colonists ; "' at another as priests and astrologers ; t and, lastly, as a conquering nation from the north.J; Hence has arisen a diversity of opinion as to who and what they were. The recent researches made in the interpretation of the primitive cuneiform inscriptions have led to the not inconsistent belief, that, in the earliest ages previous to the historic period (which commenced with the empire oi Nimrod), the region on the north of the Persian Gulf was probably inhabited by a Semitic race, which was gra- dually dispossessed by a powerful stream of invasion or colonization from the south. The Hamitic or Scythic element, which prevails in the most ancient cimeiform records throughout Babylonia and Susiana, points to Ethiopia as the mother country of the new settlers. They appear to have crossed the Red Sea and the penin- sula of Arabia, leaving traces of their migration along the shores of the Persian Gulf. In the lano-uao;e of the CD O inscriptions, they are called "Akkadim" — a name pre- served in one of their cities, the Accad of Genesis — and their first settlements are concluded to have been Erech and Ur, the modern sites of which are represented by the ruins of AVarka and Miigeyer. The existence of a Hamite race in this region is confirmed by Herodotus,§ who distinguishes the Eastern Ethiopians of Asia from the Western Ethiopians of Africa by the straight hair of the former and the ciu-ly hair of the latter. Homer I| speaks of them as "a divided race — the last of men — • Genesis xi. 31 ; xii. 1-4 ; xv. 7. t Daniel i. 4 ; ii. 2 ; iv. 7 ; v. 7-11. X Jer. X. 22 ; Hab. i. 6, &c. § Book vii. 69, 70. II Odyss., i. 22. THEORY RESPECTING THE CHALDEANS. 97 some of them at the extreme west, and others at the extreme east." Memupii, who aided Priam against the Greeks at the siege of Troy, is mentioned as an Ethiopian ; but his seat of empire was at Siisa, which was called, after him, " the Memnonium." In the name of Kudur-Mapida, who had the title of " ravager of Syria," Sir Henry Rawlinson identifies the Chcdorlaomer of Scripture.""' In his father's name, Smti- Shil-Khcd', and in that of Tirhhak on the Susa records, the last element, khah, is in all probability the hak or hyc of the shepherd-kings who overran Lower Egypt B.C. 2084. These coincidences are, to say the least, very extra- ordinary, and certainly denote a common origin between the Chald^eans of Scripture and the Eastern Ethiopians. At this distance of time it is, of course, impossible to define the original limits of Chaldsea, but it seems probable that, from a minute settlement at first, the dominion of the Chaldees extended over the lower plains of the great rivers into the mountains of Elymais and Media, Hamitic dialects being recognised in the rock inscriptions of Mai Amir in Persia, westward to ]\Ialatia in the centre of Asia Minor, and as far north as the lakes of Van and Uriimia. With the rise of the Assyrian power in the thir- teenth century B.C., the Semitic races appear to have in turn gained the ascendency, and spread over the low countries ; at the same time, the language gradually acquired a Semitic character, but still maintained an ad- mixture of Hamitic roots. Into the mountainous region, however, the Semites found difiiculty in penetrating, and it is doubtless to the Hamites stiU dwelling there, retain- ing an their warlike propensities, and constituting the flower of the Babylonian army, that the Jewnsh Scriptures * Genesis xiv. o 98 THE CUNEIFORM CHARACTER. refer when tlioy say, " I will bring evil from the north, and a great destruction,"" meaning the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, "king of the Chaldees/'t But it is in a more restricted sense that Isaiah;]; alludes to " the Chaldeans, whose cry is in their ships" — a people of aquatic habits and maritime position, agreeing well with the descriptions given by Ptolemy § and Strabo, || of a people bordering on Arabia and the Persian Gulf, and into the marshes of whose territories, according to Pliny, If the Tigris emptied itself in its course to the sea. From these authorities we are led to conclude, that Chaldsea Proper extends from about the latitude of Hillah to the Persian Gulf, md from the verge of the great Arabian deserts on the u^est, across the plains and marshes of the M(isopotamian rivers, to the parallel of Hawiza on the confines of ancient Susiana. With regard to the language of this early people, whether we call them Hamites, Scyths, or Chaldees, I cannot do better than quote from the writer of an inte- resting article in a recent periodical :'""'' — " They were in reality the inventors of the cuneiform chairacter, having first made rude pictures of natural objects, after the manner of hieroglyphs, w^hich in pro- cess of time assumed the form of letters, possessing a phonetic power, and having some correspondence with the title of the original object which they were intended to represent. It seems likely that this alphabet had been in use at least a thousand yeai:s before it was employed to represent the sounds of a language like the Assyrian, differing wholly in structure and character from that for which it was originally invented. Hence it happened, that ^vhen the Semitic people began to make this use of • Jer. iv. 6. t 2 Chron. xxxvi. 17. + Chap, xliii. 14. § Book vi. 20. II Book i. 4. H Book vi. 27. ** Notice of Colonel Kawlinson's researches in " The Monthly Review of Literature, Science, and Art," vol. i. page 45. CHALD.EAN ASTRONOMY. 99 it, they found it necessary to retain the old Scythic values of tlie letters, and therefore only modified the existing alphabet in such a manner as to give to each character the power which belonged to the Semitic synonym for the original Scythic term." Tlie science of Assyria, even to the latest times, appears to have been recorded in the old Haniite language, so that the acquisition of tliis tongue was regarded as an essential part of Assyrian education. At the present day, it is well knoT\Ti there are some tribes in the highlands of Kurdistan called Kaldani, or Chaldseans, who profess Christianity, and are a brave, hardy race. One theory concerning their origin is, that they are the descendants of the original inhabitants of Chaldsea, who were driven into those fastnesses by the after-spread of the Semitic races."'' The original colonists are, it is supposed, alluded to by Moses under the name of "Nimrod," which signifies " those who are found," or, " the settlers." Their Hamitic descent is confirmed by the application of the name Cush (the father of Nimrod), under various modifications, to difierent sites in the territory north and east of Baby- lonia — for instance, Shiish, Ciitha, Kushasdan, Shuster, Cossoea, &c. The frequent jnention of the Chaldseans as priests and astrologers may be accounted for by their having brought with them, in their migration, a knowledge of the sciences at that time far advanced in Egypt. Hence it was that * The various theories advanced concerning the Chaldceans have been so frequently quoted in other recent works, that I refrain from a repetition of them in this volume. The reader may, therefore, be referred to Baillie Fraser's " Mesopotamia and Assyria," and Vaux's valuable resume of mo- dern discoveries, entitled " Nineveh and Persepolis." The discussion in detail will be found in Faber's "Origin of Pagan Idolatry," Beke's "Origines Biblicse," Bochart's " Geographia Sacra," Dr Grant's " Lost Tribes," and Ainsworth's reply, Michaelis' " Specim. Gcograph. Ilebrseor. Ext.," Layard's " Nineveh," &c. &c. 100 NIFFAR. thei'e existed at Babylon in the time of Alexander the Great a record of eclipses which had taken place from the year 2234 B.C.'"' — a date nearly corresponding with that assigned to the commencement of Nimrod's empire as given in the marginal references of onr Scriptures. We are also told by Strabo,t that the Chaldoeans had two schools for the study of astronomy ; whence the learned men were called Borsippeni and Orchoeni. A further proof of the Egyptian origin of the Chal- dees is derived from the fact, that, in addition to the ordinary lunar year, they made use of a solar one for as- tronomical purposes, w^hich was divided, after the manner of the Egyptians, into monthly sections. The adoration of the heavenly bodies, which we know to have prevailed among the Hamite tribes, appears to have introduced a system of polytheism among the Semites, whose religion in its primitive state consisted in the worship of one supreme and omniscient Creator. This subject is not, however, one for me to investigate. It may not l)e uninteresting at this point to state the opinion of Sir Henry Rawlinson on the important ruins ol Niffar. He considers that " the names of the eight primeval cities, preserved in the tenth chapter of Genesis, are not intended to denote capitals then actually built and named, but rather to point out the localities where the first colo- nies were established by titles which became famous under the empire, and which were thus alone familiar to the Jews." He regards the site of Nifiar as the primitive Calneh — the capital of the whole region. It was dedi- cated to Belus, and was called the city of Belus. Hence he concludes that this Avas the true site of the Tower of Babel ; and that from it originated the Babylon of Nebu- chadnezzar, on the banks of the Euphrates, at Hillah. The existing remains were built by the earliest king of whom * On the authority of Ecrosus, + Book xvi. 739. RUINS OP NIFFAR. 101 we have any cuneiform monuments, about 2300 B.C., but whose name cannot be read with certainty. It was then called Tel Ann, from the god Anu, our scriptural Noah, who was worshipped there under the form of tjhe Fish God Cannes, of whom we have representations on -the bas-reliefs of Nineveh ; the name Niffar "was '. saUst-- quently given to it. The old titles were retained when the Talmud was composed, the writers of which say that Calneh was Niffar, and they call the place Nineveh ; but the Nineveh of Assyria was certainly at Mobul — "Out of that land went forth Ashur and builded Nineveh." ^'' The present aspect of Niffar is that of a lofty platform of earth and rubbish, divided into two nearly equal parts by a deep channel — apparently the bed of a river — about 120 feet wide. Nearly in the centre of the eastern por- tion of this j)latform are the remains of a brick tower of early construction, the debris of which constitutes a conical mound rising seventy feet above the plain. This is a conspicuous object in the distance, and exhibits, where the brick-work is exposed, oblong perforations similar to those seen at the Birs Nimrud, and other edifices of the Babylonian age. The western division of the platform has no remarkable feature, except that it is strewed with fragments of pottery, and other relics of a later period than the tower above alluded to. At the distance of a few hundred yards on the east of the ruins, may be dis- tinctly traced a low continuous mound — the remains, probably, of the external wall of the ancient city. As to the obelisk, the particular object of my visit, the Arabs positively declared that there was one, but none of them had seen it, or could indicate its position in the mounds. * For the above notices on the origin of the Chaldisans and early history of Niffar, I am mainly indebted to Sir Henry Rawlinson's numerous me- moirs, contained in the publications of the Royal Asiatic Society, in the *' Proceedings of the Royal Geogr. Society for 1856," p. 47, and pages of the " Athenaeum." 102 BENf KECHAB. It is unnecessary to dwell at greater length on these ruins, because Mr Layard has given a detailed account of his researches there in 1851.'"' I myself visited Niffar asecoYid time in 1854, when his trenches were scarcely recognizable — in a year or two more they will be entirely filled vp Avith drifted sand. Although no very remarkable discovery has yet been made at Niffar, it cannot be regarded as thoroughly exj^lored ; and the extensive area of the ruins encourages the hope that at some future period excavations may be successfully resumed. On the west and south of Niffar there extends a region of marshes, hitherto unvisited — a complete chain of natural defences for the wild Madan Arabs, who dwell among them upon the slightly elevated ridges which at inter- vals raise their heads above the inundation. It is entirely owing to the presence of these swamps that the tribes in the interior are so little under the dominion of the Turkish Government. Joining to the Affej district are the territories of the BenI Eechab,t whose independent chief, named the Amir or Prince, claims descent from the original possessors of the soil. He is the sworn ally of the great Muntefik sheikh ; and when that tribe is at war, the followers of the Amir, with their long muskets, fight side by side with those of the modern King of the Arabs. The Beni Eechab are a remarkable race, and in them we may probably recognize the descendants of the Bechab- ites, who, in the days of Jehoiakim, King of Judah, were made an example to the Jews of a people who, unlike the chosen race, obeyed the precepts of their forefathers. When wine was placed before them in the temple by Jeremiah, they refused to partake of it, saying, " Thus have we obeyed the voice of Jonadab the son of Bechab our father in all that he charged us, to drink no * " Nineveh and BaTt)ylon," chap. xxiv. t Literally, " sons of the stirrvip." THE EECHABITES. 103 \yine all our days, we, our wives, our sons, nor our daughters ; nor to build houses for us to dwell in : neither have we vineyard, nor field, nor seed : but we have dwelt in tents, and have obeyed, and done accord- ino- to all that Jonadab our father commanded us. But o it came to pass, when Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon came up into the land, that we said. Come, and let us go to Jerusalem for fear of the army of the Chaldeans, and for fear of the army of the Syrians : so we dwell at Jeru- salem/' ■^'' It is by no means improbable that at the taking of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar a few years later, the Eechabites were oblioed to follow the fallen fortunes of o their allies the Jews, and that the Chaldsean marshes were assigned to them as a residence in the land of their conquerors, t Their descendants are still to be found in the same locality, but instead of being a dependent, they have become an independent race. But whatever may have been the result of their intercourse with the Jews, the observance of their ancient customs remains un- chano-ed, like that of all the wild Arab hordes. There is not sufficient proof, in the name alone, that the modem tribe of Beni Rechab are the Rechabites of the Scriptures, but the tradition of their early possession of the country, the title of Amir so unusually applied to an Arab chief of this region, and the peculiarity of feature which distin- guishes the tribe, certainly afford some ground for the opinion here advanced. The Beni Eechab are extremely jealous of strangers, as I once experienced, and it is not safe to venture among them without the Amir's protection. In countenance they * Jer. XXXV. 8-11. t Whether these Beni Rechdb are related to the tribe of the same name whom the Jewish traveller, Benjamin of Tuclela, mentions as dwelling in the deserts of Yemen, and observing the precepts of the Talmud, I am unable to say. They may be divisions of the same tribe. 104 BISMYA AND PHARA. bear a strong reseml)lance to the Jews, and may easily be (iistinguislied from the smTounding Arab tribes ; I am not aware, however, that they have any traditions of a former connexion with the Jewish nation. Unlike their affable neighbours of the Affej, they are sullen and morose, un- willing to give information, and infinitely more addicted to plunder than to any other occupation. The sway of the Amir extends from the Aifej southwards to near the mounds of Hammam hereafter mentioned, and as far east as the Tigris, along the banks of which he exacts black-mail from all native vessels plying between Baghdad and Busrah, although he himself pays no tribute to the Turkish Government. Amouo- the marshes of the Beni Rechab are several important ruins, of which Bismya, distant about twenty- five miles south-east of Nifiar, is the most remarkable. These two ancient sites, however, are separated by a great extent of marsh, so that Bismya is still unex- plored. I have seen it at the distance of about ten miles, and, from its low but spreading outline, I believe it to be of very ancient origin. This form is, for the most part, common to mounds of remote age in Chalda3a, and proves that after-generations have not built upon the older remains. Phara is another of the Beni Rechab mounds, abound- ing in small antiques, such as signet-cylinders, rude bronzes, and figures carved in stone. According to the Amir, such articles " flow like water " from the mound. It is consequently much resorted to by antique-hunters, who find a ready sale for their treasures among the Europeans at Baghdad. At Phara I obtained a very interesting Egyptian amulet. CHAPTER XL Diwaniyya — Camp of Abdi Pasha — Mulla 'Ali, the Merry Ogre — Sheep- skin Rafts — Statue-hunting — Haminani — Solemn Grandeur of Chal- dsean Ruins — The Statue — Tel Ede — Alanii of the Arabs — Fii'st Impressions of Warka. After a minute inspection of the ruins of NifFar, we returned to Slikyer, which we reached before sunset. Had it not been that we were the bearers of letters to Abdi Pasha, who was then at Diwaniyya, I should have made an effort to penetrate through the Beni Rechab. As it was, however, our course lay south-east- ward from Shkyer, encountering considerable difficulties by the way. The marsh was wide, and, althougli not generally deep, intersected by numerous streamlets from the Euphrates, which rendered the passage of the horses and baggage-mules no easy task. Sheikh Shkyer under- took that some of his people should conduct them by a circuitous route, so as to avoid the main inundation, but they were still obliged to ford in three feet water for an hour, and to swim across the deeper streams. The baggage and saddles were conveyed with ourselves in terradas through the open marsh and straight long lanes or ditches of reeds, only sufficiently wide to admit of two boats passing each other. The reeds formed walls on either side to the height of twelve or fourteen feet, and excluded every breath of pure air. The animals having at length joined us, we mounted, 106 THE pasha's labours. and traversed some groves of fine tamarisks to the little liamlet of Yiisufiyya, surrounded by date-trees, upon the left bank of an important trunk stream of the same name. This canal, derived from the Euphrates a few miles above the town of Diwani}ya, conveys a deep flow of water into the interior for the purposes of irrigation in those locali- ties where the elevation of the land is uninfluenced by the rise or fall of the marshes. The Yusufiyya, at about seventeen miles from its source, is divided into three parts — one of which, called the Shat-el-Kahr, falls into the marshes of the Shat-el-Hie, at the junction of that branch of the Tigris with the Eujohrates. None of these streams are fordable, consequently the depth and width of the Yusufiyya is considerable. It is crossed in a rude boat at the village, beyond which Diwaniyya is an hour distant. Our tents were pitched after smiset above the town, on the left bank of the Euphrates. The pasha, with a camp of 3000 men, was stationed on the opposite side, having just concluded one of those Sisyphian labours, previously mentioned, which each successive governor of Baghdad is obliged to undergo, namely, the reconstruction of the dam at the mouth of the Hindleh. He was now sta- tioned at Diwaniyya for the fourfold purjDose of testing the result of his work, of arranging matters consequent on the Wadi Bey's deposition, of curbing the universal disposition to rebel against the Ottoman rule, and, lastly, of collecting arrears of tribute. When daylight on the following morning revealed our position, the appearance of tents on the opposite side of the river caused a considerable stir in the camp of His Excellency : for it was beyond the comprehension of the Turks that ordinary travellers could surmount the supposed insuperable difiiculties of the marshes ; and — unless we had dropped from above — there was no other method by which we could have got there. Mes- THE FAVOURITE EUNUCH. 107 -vyry senger after messenger arrived in kiifahs to satisfy the curiosity of their masters concerning the rank, quaHty, and destination of the new comers. In due time, having previously announced our arrival to the pasha, we crossed the river, and were received on landing by an officer in waiting. Instead, however, of conducting us to the pre- sence of the pasha, he led us — probably bribed to do so — to the tent of Mulla 'All, the little eunuch and buffoon, of whom I have already spoken as possessing the confi- dence of the governor. His purpose, no doubt, was to satisfy himself on the objects of our journey, and the cause of our visit to the j^asha. Mulla 'All was originally a slave of a former pasha, but his antics and jokes were so effective that he obtained his freedom, and subse- quently rose high in favour with 'All and Nedjib Pa- shas. It was impossible to guess his age, but, as he sat doubled up on a carpet, covered with a huge furred cloth tunic and an enor- mous dark -green turban, he was one of the most repulsive creatures which the eye could well encoun- ter. His face more resem- bled that of the monkey tribe than anything else I can conceive. His mouth stretched nearly from ear to ear, and the latter append- aoes stood out from each side like those of an ass. Teetli he had none, so that his tongue, as if too large for his mouth, frequently lolled out, giving him the appear- ance of an idiot. His face, thin in the extreme, was Mulla 'AH. 108 THE FAVOURITE EUNUCH. puckered into a thousand wrinkles, the bones projecting, and the skin of the colour and consistency of hard leather. The whole of his features were condensed into an expres- sion of low cunning, cupidity, cruelty, and lust, which no one could behold without shuddering. His character did not belie his appearance. He was at one time made chief over certain Khuzeyl tribes, but his conduct was such that it was found necessary to remove him. Money was his chief object, and ]:e extorted it without scruple, AVhen he failed by the itsual means, he tried torture, and took as much delight in the sufferings of his unfortunate vic- tims as either Nero or Caligula. His favourite punishment was to bury an offender alive with his hands tied, leaving only his shaven head above ground, but this was smeared over with honey to attract reptiles and insects ! The wretch took his pleasure in frequently going to grin and make faces at the poor victim, who, however, without food, and under an almost vertical sun, was soon relieved by death from the tortures and atrocities he suffered. It is difficult to comprehend how a man so kind and humane as Abdi Pasha could consent to the companionship of a creature so vile and abominable, but wherever he went, Mulla 'All accompanied him, whatever state-matter he had to transact, Mulla 'Ali was consulted. It is true that the eunuch was full of anecdote, and his drolleries made the staid pasha laugh in the midst of the most sober affairs, but that was no excuse for giving coun- tenance to a creature who had lost all human feelini^s. However gross or insulting the buffoon's jests miglit be, the pasha was always ready with a hoarse laugh. On one occasion, I remember seeing Mulla ^All, like a huge toad, publicly spit upon the person of an European gentle- man. The pasha, as usual, exercised his merriment ; but in an instant afterwards looked serious, for it occurred to him that this was a matter beyond a joke. INTERVIEW WITH THE PASHA. 109 This paragon of ugliness and cruelty received his visi- tors without rising, merely motioning us to be seated on the carpet near him. Salutations and compliments were soon dispensed with, by his abruptly demanding in one breath, " where Ave had come from, where we were going, and what we wanted ? " The answer appeared to amuse him exceedingly, for he burst forth into an inordinate fit of laughter, in which he was joined by his attendants, who gathered behind their master to ascertain the sul)ject of gossip for the day. A more out-at-heel squad can seldom be seen. Every one grinned from ear to ear, in imitation of their master, at the very idea of two Englizi passing through the ]\Iadan country, into which no Turk ever yet dared to venture — being pronounced beyond the pale of the pasha's authority. MuUa 'Ali became guinea-yellow with excitement at the bare possibility of such an attempt being successful, and at the greater probability of our being spitted on Arab spears. He told some horrid stories of cruelties perpetrated by the Mad an tribes ; but these were so contrary to their nature, that I set them down as instances of his own barbarity. Not finding us dis- posed to believe all he said, he endeavoured to amuse his audience at our expense by turning round and remark- ing : — " What a pleasure it would be to hear that the Arabs had made donkeys of them ! " The reply was, that " if the Arabs did so, he shoidd not," and so we left him huddled up in his furs. We found the Pasha of Baghdad sitting on the edge of a high bank overlooking the river, with that expression of utter stolidity which characterizes the Turkish features. Ask a grave old Turkish gentleman what he is thinking about, and his answer will invariably be, "By Allah! what should I think of 1 Nothing." So, doubtless, Al)di Pasha thought of " nothing" as our approach woke him from the slumber into which his cogitations had fallen. 110 PEEPARATIONS AND START. He received us graciously, but could by no means com- prehend the ol)ject of our proposed journey on the eastenn side of the Euphrates. As to Warka, or the region where it is situated, although within his own territories, he knew nothing Avhatever. The official map called for gave no further explanation ; whereupon he seemed to conclude that Warka must be an exceedingly dangerous place, for he remarked in a decided manner, " You cannot go ; I will not be answerable for your safety." Expostulation had little or no eflfect, and although I repeatedly released him from all responsibility, the same answer was returned — " It is impossible ; you must travel with the troops and animals by way of Semava." Seeing that no good could be effected by reasoning on the absurdity of his fears for our safety, I merely asked for a small party of Bashi Baziiks, in lieu of those who had brought us to Diwanijya, and firmly stated my intention of continuing my journey as previously arranged at Baghdad. Having done so, I left him biting his lip and wondering at European obsti- nacy. ]\Iy impression was, that he did not wish strangers to see the little authority he exercised over the tribes. During the remainder of the day, the necessary pre- parations were made for entering an unknown region. Several skins were purchased to enable our crossing any streams and marshes which might fall in our way. The services of a Jebur Arab Sheikh, called Mahmud, whose camp lay on our route near the verge of the Amir's terri- tories, were secured ; and, early on the following morning, nothing was wanting but the promised escort. It was some time before the p>aslia could be prevailed on to con- form to my wishes, but at length sixteen rudely equipped horsemen crossed the river, and we sallied forth from the gToves of Diwaniyj^a in search of novelty and adventrn'^e, exulting at the result of continued obstinacy and deter- mination. PRIMITIVE RAFTS. Ill For three days our road lay across a level and un- interesting desert, at times interrupted by a detour to avoid a marsh, or by a halt to cross a broad and deep water-course. In such case the loads were unpacked, and the inflated sheep-skins tied to our tent-poles or branches of tamarisk — thus forming a primitive raft. Eeeds were then placed on this framework in order to keep the passengers and luggage dry. In this manner all were floated across to the opposite side, while the horses and mules swam over. Sometimes, when the stream was very rapid, the kelek or raft was attached to a rope, and prevented from floating down the current. One of the most important water-courses was the Fawar, derived from the Yusufijya, and terminating in the marshes on the banks of the Euphrates. The Fawar, in its turn, gave ofl" a considerable branch called the Turunji3ya, which supplied some small kal'as and the cultivated land adjoining them. The Arab owners, how- ever, declining the payment of their taxes, had endea- voured to shew their independence by destroying a dam so that the water of the Fawar might be transferred to the channel of the Turunjiyya, and subsequently into a marsh surrounding their abodes. Abdi Pasha had sent Mustapha Bey, the kyaya of Baghdad, with a large force to bring these refractory Arabs to reason. His first care was to close the mouth of Turunjiyya with a strong dam of earth and brushwood, and afterwards to attack a fort to which the Arabs retreated. He was successful in his eff'orts, and took possession of the fort on the very day we passed — the defenders having decamped during the night, carrying with them all their goods and chattels. We crossed the Fawar at the ruins of a modern town called Silk-el-Fawar (Fawar Market), once a consider- able and thriving place — the centre of a large district like Siik-esh-Sheioukh. It originally belonged to the 112 OLD RIVER-BED. Muiiteflk Arabs, and was surrounded at intervals Ly small martello towers, for defence against more unsettled neighbours. I have already had occasion to allude to the effect produced by the destruction of the dam on the Eu- phrates above Babylon, at the mouth of the Hindieh.'" Nowhere is this effect better observed and understood than at Suk-el-Fawar. In consequence of the breaking of that dam about twenty-five years ago, the water deserted the channels and streams on the east of the Euphrates. Suk-el-Fawar, among other places, became a sufferer by the catastrophe, and was soon afterwards abandoned. Decaying date-trees, and ruins of well-built mud huts, extend half-a-mile along both sides of the channel, harbouring only wild beasts and reptiles. The pasha's recent work had restored a copious stream to the bed of the Fawar, and water was flowing towards spots which had for many years been without moisture. On the third day's journey from DiAvaniyya, we reached a deep river-bed, now dry, called by the Arabs " Shkain," or " Es-Sahain," which w^as said to have also become dry at the same time as the Fawar. The great size of the chan- nel, measuring 270 feet mde by 15 or 20 deep, shews its importance. Whether it had ever been the course of the Euphrates, it was diflicult to decide on a casual examina- tion. It is by no means improbable that it is a continua- tion of the ancient Nil, previously lost to sight in the marshes of Niffar. At any rate, its course singularly coincides in general direction with that of the Nil. Parallel with om- road could be traced the course of the Shat-el-Kahr — a continuation of the Yiisilfiyya — here and there indicated on our east by a mud fort or enclosure. Numerous smaU. mounds, too, began to spring up in advancing soutln^'ard, while the path was constantly * Sec page 44. GRANDEUR OF CHALDEAN RUINS. 113 strewed with fragments of bricks and pottery. It was evident that we were approaching the seats of ancient civihzation, and the neighbourhood of once populous cities. The further we proceeded, the more clearly was this manifested. Our new guide, Mdhmild, having mentioned the exist- ence of a large statue at a ruin named Hammam,* I deter- mined on directing our course to the east of the road we were pursuing, in order to ascertain the truth of his account, because little reliance can usually be placed on Arab information upon such points. After passing several considerable mounds on either side, we at length, before sunrise on the morning of the fourth day's ride from Dlwaniyya, caught a glimpse of the goal we sought. I know of nothing more exciting or impressive than the first sight of one of those great Chaldsean piles loom- ing in solitary grandeur from the surrounding plains and marshes. A thousand thoughts and surmises concern- ing its past eventful history and origin — its gradual rise and rapid fall — naturally present themselves to the mind of the spectator. The hazy atmosphere of early morning- is peculiarly favourable to considerations and impres- sions of this character, and the gray mist intervening- bet ween the gazer and the object of his reflections, im- parts to it a dreamy existence. This fairy-like effect is further heightened by mirage, which strangely and fan- tastically magnifies its form, elevating it from the ground, and causing it to dance and quiver in the rarefied air. No Avonder, therefore, that the beholder is lost in j)l easing doubt as to the actual reality of the apparition before him. The ruins of Hammam measure about a mile in diame- * The site of Hammdm, " a bath," is believed by Sir Henry Rawlinson to represent the Giilaba of cuneiform inscriptions. See Proceedings ol Royal Geographical Society for April 1856, p. 47. H 114 RUINS OF HAMMAM. ter, and consist of a series of low undulations around a grand central tower, whose remarkable form cannot fail Ruins of Hivmm^m. to attract attention. Owing to the falling away of the brickwork at its sides and base, and to the projection of its upper parts, this building has, in the distance, under the influence of mirage, the appearance of a gigantic mushroom. Its total height is about fifty feet, of which twenty is a conical mound supporting a mass of unbaked brickwork. Its original form has evidently been square, but the sides are now reduced to seventy-eight feet each, and the angles are rounded off. Judging by other ruins of similar character, and by the numerous broken frag- ments lying upon the sloping sides of the mound, it was probably faced externally with kiln-baked bricks. The most northerly angle points twenty degrees east of north. A deep channel, formed by the rains of "winter, divides each side into equal parts, and leaves the angles projecting like four rounded turrets. The action of the weather, too, has likewise worn away these apparent towers, and THE ANCIENT STAT CJE. 115 exposed a layer of reeds at tlio summit of each. The bricks used in the construction of this edifice measure fourteen and a-half inches square by five, or five and a-half inches thick, and are composed of sun-dried clay, mixed with barley-chaff and chopped straw. Each row is separated by a layer of reeds, which project and shelter the bricks beneath them from the influence of the weather. It is difficult to conceive the purpose of this and simi- lar edifices throughout Babylonia, unless we assume them to have been platforms for the erection of temples, such as may be seen in a state of better preservation at Blrs Nimriid and Mugeyer. That the ruin at Hammam was a portion of a temple devoted to the worship of a Chal- dsean divinity, is moreover inferred from the statue which lay about two hundred yards from the north-west corner of the ruin ; this bore all the characteristics of a sacred idol. Unfortunately it has suffered much from ill-usage, being not only broken, but otherwise maliciously defaced. According to the information of our guide, this inte- resting statue was perfect about two years previously, but was broken with large hammers by a tribe'" who work in iron near Siik-esh-Sheioukh, in the expectation of finding gold in its interior. It had likewise been used as a target by the Arabs for ball-practice , but the frac- tures bore evidence of having been effected at an earlier period than my informant admitted. * By this description must be implied the Sabceans or Christians of St John — a strange race of whom little is known. They are probably a relic of the old inhabitants of the country. I doubt their ability to break so large a block of stone ; and it is not their custom to travel about with the large implements of their trade. My friend Professor Petermann, the emi- nent Oriental linguist and savant of Berlin, passed nearly the whole of the year 1854 at Suk-esh-Sheioukh among the Sabl. We may shortly expect some valuable information from his pen concerning them. A few families reside at Shtaster and Dizfiil, whsre they are dreadfully persecuted by both Persians and Arabs. General Williams, with the humanity which distin- guishes him, obtciiued a firman from the Shah for their protection. 116 THE ANCIENT STATUE. Tliis statue represents a male human figure, of the natural size and correct proportions, cut out of finely- grained black granite, and executed with remarkable skill. The torso is broken at the waist, where the hands are clasped in front, as if holding a garment thrown loosely over the left shoulder. The right shoulder is bare, with a defaced inscription in Babylonian characters cut upon it. The head'"' and arms are unfortunately gone. This fraornent measures sixteen inches from the neck to the waist, and nineteen inches between the shoulders. The second piece, representing the lower part of the body, has been severed from the former, and measures two feet six inches. The surface is much broken ; but upon the right hip and side there is another defajed inscription, bordered w^ith a deep fringe similar to that represented on the Assyrian sculptures. The third and last fragment is a shapeless block, thirteen inches long and ten inches A\dde, polished on one side, and exhibiting a trace of gar- ment fringe. Statues of Babylonian workmanship being extremely rare, I packed the pieces in the best manner which circumstances would admit, and brought the awkward loads on the backs of our mules to Busrah, whence they were shipped for England. These fragments, I believe, are the only specimen of an undoubted Baby- lonian statue in Europe ; but I am sorry to remark that they still lie neglected in the vaults of the British Mu- seum, t Want of time prevented my making a thorough exa- mination of the other ruins of Hamm^m. As they do not appear to have been occupied by succeeding dynas- * In the possession of Captain Lynch, C.B., UT., is a very beautiful head of similar stone, which probably belongs to this statue, having been repre- sented to him as obtained from this neighbourhood. t In 1854 I obtained a similar, but smaller, statue from the neighbouring mound of Yokha, which was likewise sent to England. mAdan alarm. 117 ties, they will probably afford valuable information con- cerning the Chaldsean period. If excavations are ever again undertaken in those regions, Hammam is one of those sites which deserves early attention.''^ Within sight of Hammam, about six miles distant in the south-south-west, rises another lofty and imposing pile, called Tel Ede, or Yede. Towards it our course was next directed. We had by this time reached the limits of the Mun- tefik territories, inhabited by the wildest of those Ma- dan tribes who acknowledge fealty to the great sheikh. As we advanced in a compact party, we were espied by a few Arab shepherds tending their flocks, which find excellent grazing on the short grass produced by the early rains among the sand-hills. Alarmed at the sight of so many horsemen, they took up their position on a small mound, elevated a black kefileh upon a spear, sang their war-cry, and danced like spirits demented. In a few minutes they were joined by others of their tribe, who joined in the song and dance, until they were almost lost to our sight in the dense cloud of dust created by their frantic evolutions. V/lien they considered their numbers sufficiently strong, this half-naked band of savages — their abbas bound round their waists, their heads bare, and their long black locks flowing wildly in the breeze — formed in the most approved style of Arab array, and ran at a rapid pace, with spear and club in hand, to meet the supposed enemy. The whole neighbourhood was in a state of the greatest excitement and alarm. The sheep and cattle were being driven towards the tents for protection ; * When I passed through the country a second time in 1854, it was my intention to have commenced operations at Hanimdm on behalf of the Assyrian Excavation Society ; but the want of water in the Shat-el-Kahr, which flows within a few miles of these ruins, comi:)clled my seeking a more eligible locality. 118 mAdAn alarm. the Avomen collected in numbers togetlier upon the mound which their heroes had just quitted, ui-ging them on to brave deeds by their shrill and constant tahlehl — a sound intermediate between a halloo, a whistle, and a scream, which rings through the nerves like a gal- vanic shock. The warriors approached us in admirable order, as if they had passed through many a field-day, and were quite prepared to do or die, as brave hearts shoukl, in defence of their kxdies fair. Arrangino; them- selves in two long lines, at equal intervals apart, in num- ber about sixty, they then advanced, in New Zealand fashion, with a kind of running dance, chanting their war-song, and throwing their weapons high into the air, to catch them again, with inimitable dexterity, in their descent. Tliey were apparently led by an old man with a luxuriant white beard, who sang the solo parts, and was otherwise exceedingly active in the whole business. Mahmiid rode forward to explain that we came in peace, and not in war ; whereupon the announcement was received with a yeU of indescribable expression. One of our horsemen fooHshly fired a pistol while they danced round about our party, which added tenfold to the general excitement. Positive exhaustion alone obliged them to desist. Then came inquiries and explanations, which resulted in their insisting on oiu? taking up our quarters for the night at their encampment, shewing that genuine hospitahty to strangers which does so much honour to the i\j:ab character. They would take no excuse, and, seizing the bridles of our horses, were about to drag us thither with good-humoured force. I was not, however, inclined to forego my visit to Tel Ede, and therefore entered into an amicable arrangement, by which they agreed to conduct the mules and baggage to their tents, while we rode forward to the ruins. The great pile of Tel Ede much disappointed my ex- TEL EDE. 119 pectations. It is a huge artificial mass of solid sand, ninety feet liigli, the circumference of its base measuring ■*S>»i^r«i5^ Tel Ede. 2500 feet. Its form is irregular, and its largest diameter from north-west to south-east. Its highest point is at the north-west. The south-west face is steep and inacces- sible ; while that on the opposite side is furrowed by deep rain-channels. The north-west side is much weathered, and exhibits a section of its compact sandy mass."^^* The effect of rain and wind is to cut large holes deeply into the surface. The long ridge-like ranges of small mounds at its north-east base are covered with the usual relics — such as fragments of bricks, pottery, and glass — but they are still unexamined by the spade, and await the investigation of some future adventurer. At first sight, I was almost induced to consider Tel Ede a continuation of a range of sand-hiUs which bear away from it towards the south-east ; but its dimensions and • Mr Taylor excavated deeply into a similar conical monnd, called Um- wdweis. A high wind arising during the night, completely carried away its summit : so light were the particles when loosened. 1 20 CONICAL MOUNDS. compactness, as well as its evident connexion with tokens of ancient remains at its base, do not confirm this suppo- sition. Moreover, I afterwards ascertamed that similar conical mounds occur in various parts of Chaldoea, in- variably surroimded by, or connected with, lesser mounds undoubtedly artificial. They appear to have been citadels or temples of the same period as the adjacent ruins ; but it is remarkable that they bear on their summits no trace of brickwork, and are merely cones of solid earth and sand. In two instances, I caused excavations to be made into similar but smaller conical mounds at Warka ; but from top to base they exhibited no change of character ; nor did they contain the slightest clue to their origin. Until such be obtained, we must remain in ignorance on the subject. Having completed our casual survey, we regained the Ijaggage and servants at the Arab camp, two miles dis- tant, where our tents were already pitched among the sand-hills. Our hosts belonged to the Madan Arabs — those of the lowest caste, who are employed by the supe- rior Arabs in tending buffaloes and cattle, or in cultivat- ing maize on the edges of the inundations. Ignorant and despised, they live in the most primitive state of bar- barism, their only wants being those of absolute necessity. At times, when the Euphrates fails in its annual rise to overflow their lands, the destitution of the Mddan is extreme, and they are even reduced to the alternative of digging up roots to support a miserable state of poverty and hunger. Their ignorance is extreme ; and I could scarcely believe that very few among them had ever seen a mule, until their genuine surprise was evident at those which carried our ba2;2;ao;e ! S\ik-esh-Sheioukh and Semava are immense cities in their estimation ; Baghdad and Busrah are far beyond the limits of their peregrina- tions ; Stambiil and the Sultan they have barely heard of. THE MAdAN ARABS. 121 Like hyaenas or jackals, they congregate amid the burial- places, or pitch their tents upon tlie ruined cities of the past, without the slightest reverence for or knowledge of the people by whom those monuments were raised. These mounds yield them utensils for their camp and frequently gold from a ransacked tomb, which is disposed of to wandering Jews for a few dates, valueless cotton fabrics, or rude ornaments for their women. Unlike the Bedouins, little reliance can be placed upon their word, and they do not scruple to plunder, both openly and secretly, from their enemies and friends without distinction. It is true, that diu'ing my subsequent stay among them nothing was positively taken from my tent ; but they could not resist the desire to pilfer whenever ojiportunity was afforded them. Cupidity is their weak point ; for a trifle they will cringe Hke the most abject slave, and condescend to the meanest artifices to obtain what they crave. Fickle and almost unmanageable, few persons can conceive the difficulties to be encountered in undertaking excavations among them. It was only by employing parties from several tribes, and pitting one against the other, that I succeeded in carrying on researches in the region they occupy. Jealousy and ill-wiU had great effect upon them. The Jebiir and other tribes employed in the excavations at Nineveh are comparatively civilized ; but the Madan of Chaldsea are little superior to the buffaloes they tend, and are regarded as destitute of feeling by the superior class of Ai-abs. Yet they are not altogether without good qualities. Merry and good-humoured, they contrast advantageously with the neighboiuing tribes of the Amir, and the suUen Beni Lam across the Shat-el-Kahr. Their hospitality knows no bounds, and they will willingly share with the passing traveller the little stores they pos- sess, until the whole has disaj)peared. In the present instance, our large party quickly demolished their stock of 122 THF MAdAN ARABS. barley, and before morning all the rice of the encamp- ment was consumed by our animals.'^ The Llddan are slightly built, but well-formed, strong, and active. Their skin, exposed to all temperatures, from 25° to 150° Fahr., is tanned to a deep swarthy hue, and seldom, even in the coldest weather, covered with more than a single abba, made of goat's hair. KefFiehs or head-dresses appear to be despised ; their hair, hanging in tliick plaits, or more commonly in a state of nature, is so plentiful, that it alone affords suflElcient pro- tection from the summer's sun. Their eyes, wild but expressive, shine with a brightness seldom witnessed in our own humid climate ; while their teeth, from eating only vegetable food, can vie in whiteness with the purest ivory. Fire-arms are almost unknown among the Madan ; but no man leaves his tent without a favourite spear or bitimien-headed club, of which he is prepared to make good use whenever opportunity arises or necessity re- quires. Feuds are of continual occurrence, either with their neighbours or among themselves. The period of our visit, notwithstanding the warnings of the pasha and the Turkish authorities, was peculiarly favoiu'able ; a peaceful cahn prevailed after the raging storm which had just ceased with the change of governors. Throughout this journey, the only real annoyance I experienced was from the Bashi Biizuks. Accustomed to plunder and abuse all who came in their way, the}' were Tsath difhculty restrained from ill-treating their kind Arab hosts ; and it was only by constant entreaties and threats that they were compelled to desist. The Arabs frequently complained to me of their conduct ; and often, when I expressed a probability of my returning among them, I was greeted mth the remark, " Come, Beg, we shall be glad to receive you as a brother, but do not * See chapter xiv. for farther uescription of the Mdddn Arabs. NIGHT SCENE. 123 bring the niz^m (soldiers) with you. We will guard you better than they ! " I took their advice on my return among them, and did not, in this case, regret having trusted to their word. As an instance of the security of a stranger in an Arab camp, a scene may be related which took place at this locality. Guards had, as usual, been placed around our tents, and every person had retired to rest, when — by accident or design, whether by friend or foe it is impos- sible to say — a pistol was fired in the immediate neigh- bourhood of my tent. The whole encampment was in- stantly roused, and a report spread that an enemy was in the neiohbourhood. The war chant of our hosts was echoed on all sides from distant encampments ; the sounds, at first low and indistinct, gradually becoming louder and nearer, at length made us aware that large bodies of the Madan were advancing to the rescue. The efi"ect was startling and grand, as the dead silence of night was broken by an excitement of this natm-e. Two or three hundred men were speedily gathered round our tents, and joined in the same wild chant, grunting, yell- ing, and dancing without cessation. At length it was discovered that an enemy did not exist, and each party slowly retired to its own encampment, but it was long before all became once more still. From our night's resting-place, the outline of the lofty and imposing mounds of Warka was distinctly visible. The mao;nitude of the ruins determined me to send on the baggage a couple of hours further to another Arab camp, so that, if requisite, we might have the op- portunity of renewing acquaintance with them on the morrow. On again emerging from the low sand-hills upon the open plain, we crossed a plot of ground, covered with a natiural carpet of the richest green. The grass, incited 124 FIRST VIEW OF WARKA. by the few light showers recently fallen, was being eagerly cropped by numerous herds of graceful gazelle, which left their browsing as the party approached, and bounded ofif in long lines to search for a quieter retreat. The scene before us was exciting. Even the staid Bashi Bazilks were moved beyond their wont, and, packing up their long chibiiks, set spurs to their horses. Uttering wild cries, they vainly attempted to overtake the frighted herds, or played at jerid among themselves for their own and others' amusement, leaving deep tracks in the soft green sward. The scene, too, was doubly enjoyable by comparison with the sterile and glaring desert at the commencement of our journey : while the sight of AVarka within a few miles' distance, and the discussion natm^ally raised by its proximity, created a measure of excitement and delight in my companion and myself which none but ardent antiquarians on new ground can fully appreciate. Three massive piles rose prominent before our \iew from an extensive and confused series of mounds, at once shewing the importance of the ruins which we — their first European visitors — now rapidly approached. The whole was surrounded by a lofty and strong line of earthen ramparts, concealing from view all but the principal objects. Beyond the walls were several conical mounds, resembling, in their general form, that of Tel Ede — one of which equalled in altitude the highest struc- ture within the circiuuscribed area. Each step that we took, after crossing the walls, convinced me that AVarka was a much more important place than had been hitherto supposed, and that its vast mounds, abounding in objects of the highest interest, deserved a thorough exploration. I determined, therefore, on using every effort to make researches at AVarka, which, of all the ruins in Chaldasa, is alone worthy to rank with those of Babylon and Nineveh. IMPORTANCE OF WARKA. 125 All tliat could be effected at this visit was to make a careful map of the place, and to take such general notes as miolit be hereafter useful. Its most remarkable feature is the enormous accumulation of sepulchral remains of extraordiuary character, which at once prove it to have been a vast necropolis, dating probably from times the most remote. As the importance of Warka requires a separate chapter to describe its wonders, I shall defer that account for the present. On this occasion, Mr Churchill and myself spent nearly two days upon the ruins, and succeeded in obtaining several small articles and executing some drawings which indicated the great antiquity of the site. With these we once more resumed our journey, fearing lest, by a longer stay, we might be too late to rejoin the Turkish troops according to arrangement at Suk-esh-Sheioukh. It was with no little regret, therefore, that we were compelled to leave a spot so replete with interest. CHAPTER XII. Bedoiiins — Mubsirek becomes useful — Ruins of ]\Iugeyer — Cylinders — Chedorlaomer 1 — Belsliazzar — The Author and his Guides put to flight their Turkish Escort — Busrah — ^Arrival in Persia. From Warka we rode nine miles in a south-south-east direction, over a desert frequently covered with marsh, to a new kal'a called Duraji,''' on the banks of the Euphrates, near which our road passed over low rough ground, dead rushes, and old channels of the river — the evidences of former inundations. Here we encamped for the night, within sight of three remarkable piles of past gi'eatness — Tel Ede, Warka, and Sinkara — the last of which I succeeded in ^dsiting on subsequent occasions, and which will be described in due time. Our course from Diiraji followed along the left bank of the Euphrates to the marshes at the confluence of the Shat-el-Hie and Shat-el-Kahr with that river. At the parallel of Baghdad, the level of the Euphrates is so much above that of the Tigris, that the water of the for- mer flows into the latter by a canal called the Seglawijya. As the two rivers pursue their course southward, the Euphrates descends with more rapidity, and, at 31° north latitude, is for the first time joined by the water of the Tigris through the channel called the Shat-el-Hie, which bifurcates from the main stream at Kiit-el-'Amara. The Shat-el-Hie, in conjunction with the Shat-el-Kahr, forms * From the number of " francolin" which abound there. BEDOUINS. 127 an extensive marsh, out of which a single stream finds its way to the Euphrates. Just above the point of junction a kiifah ferry is maintained, by means of which we crossed to the western sido, where we suddenly found ourselves among a number of Bedouin encampments of Aneiza and Dhefyr tribes, who, for the sake of the water and vegetation of the Euphrates, usually frequent its banks at that season of the year. It was then that we experienced the benefit of Mitbarek's escort. Several times strong parties of horsemen, attracted by the sight of a caravan, were in the act of swooping down upon our little party, when the wild fellow, whose eye always first detected their movements, urged his horse to full speed and rode forth to meet them. An embrace from each of the Arabs usually greeted our friend, a short conversation ensued, and they quietly retired in the direction from which they had come, while Miibarek returned in triumph to announce the success of his interview. With his aid we passed unmolested over some cultivated lands belonging to a tribe of Agayl Arabs, opposite Imam Sherifeli, whose hospitality we sought for the night within sight of the great temple of Milgeyer. At this point commences the line of date-groves which extend in uninterrupted succession along both banks of the river to its embouchure at the head of the Persian Gulf. A messenger from the sheikh of the Muntefik was here await- ing the arrival of the Turkish troops and animals, which, notwithstanding our zigzag route and detention at Warka, liad not yet arrived at the rendezvous. The unexpected delay of the Turkish escort afi'orded me the much-coveted opportunity of turning aside to examine the jMiigeyer, of which Mr Baillie Eraser gives a short description in his volume on " Mesopotamia and Assyria,"" From the Agayl camp to the ruins was a * Pase US. 128 RUINS OF MtJGEYER. distance of nine miles, but at a point further to tlie south the Euphrates approaches within six miles. During the high inundations of the river, however, Miigeyer is com- pletely surrounded Ijy water, and is, like AVarka, unap- proaclial)le on any side except in boats. The ruins consist of a low series of moimds, of oval form, the largest diameter from north to south measuring rather more than half a mile. The name Miigeyer is, however, peculiarly given to a remarkable building, seventy feet high, which stands near the north end of the mounds, and is the only example of a Babylonian temple remaining in good pre- servation, not wholly covered by rubbish. It is built of large bricks, and from their being " cemented with bitumen " originates the modern name of JMiigeyer."' It consists of two distinct but massive stories, having the plan of a right-angled paral- lelogram, the longest sides of which are the north-east and south-west. One angle points due north, which feature, I may remark, is observable in all edifices of true Chal- dsean origin. As each story rises, it gradually slopes in- wards at an angle of nine degrees, for the purpose, doubtless, of bearing great superincumbent pressure, and to this fact may be attribu- ted the remarkably perfect condition of the whole remaining edifice. The lower story is, moreover, supported by buttresses thirteen inches * Frequently, but incori'ectly, called Umgheir. Plan of the Great Temple of MCigeyer. RUINS OF mCGEYER. 129 deep, and, with the exception of those at the angles, 8 feet wide. The longest sides — the north-east and south- west — measure 198 feet each ; the others only 133 feet. The number of buttresses on the south-west are nine, and on the north-west six. Those of the other sides are concealed in rubbish. Whether intentional or not, the above measurements and numbers are in the ratio of 3 : 2. The basement or lower story is 27 feet in height, and exhibits but one entrance, 8 feet wide, on the north-east side, which leads from the base to the summit of the building. Between the stories is a gradual, stepped in- cline, about 7 feet in perpendicular height, which may, however, be accidental, and arise from the destruction of the upper part of the lower story. The upper story is 14 feet in height, surmounted by about 5 feet of brick rubbish. As far as I coidd ascer- tain, the sides of this story are without supporting but- tresses, measure respectively 119 by 75 feet, and recede several feet from the lower waU ; '"* bu t the whole of the south-east side of the edifice is in ruins, so that it is impossible to say whether the length of the upper story exceeded 119 feet. It rather struck me, however, from the gradual incline from top to base, that a grand stair- case, of the same width as the upper story, occupied this side of the structure. Various piles of rubbish occur at different parts, and render it difficult to give detailed measurements. The- Miigeyer appears to stand on a mound about 20 feet high. The exterior of the whole edifice is faced, to the thickness * Mr Taylor remarks that " the second story is close up to the northern end of the first." There are, however, 30 feet between the summit edge of the first and the base of the second. Mr Taylor must intend to say that the second story is closer up to the edge of the first at its north-west end than at its south-east, the respective measurements being 30 feet and 47 feet. 1 30 MR Taylor's cylinders. of 10 feet, with red kUu-balced bricks, but tlie whole mass of the interior is built of partially burnt, or sun-dried bricks. Those of the lower story are smaller than those in the upper, and are cemented with bitumen, while the latter are fixed with ordinaiy lime mortar. These differ- ences arise from the fact tihat the two stories were not erected by the same monarch. The whole surface is pierced with oblong apertures resembling those at the Birs Nimrdd, Akker Kuf, El-Heimar, and numerous other Chaldsean edifices. Subsequently to this visit, at the request of Sir Henry Rawlinson, excavations were undertaken in 1854 for the British Museum at the Milgeyer by my friend ]\Ir Taylor, her Majesty's Vice-Consul at Busrah, while I was myseU engaged at Warka for the Assyrian Excavation Fund. I again took the opportunity of revisiting the site. Mr Taylor,"^' with astonishing patience and perseverance, penetrated through the solid mass of brick-work to the very heart and base of the edifice without discovering any- thing to reward his labours, or to throw light on its con- struction or object ; until, in excavating at the south corner of the upper story, he found, at a depth of six feet below the surface, a perfect inscribed cylinder, stand- ing on one extremity in a niche formed by the omission of one of the bricks in the layer. He afterwards sank shafts at the other corners, and secured a precisely similar record from each, all of which are now deposited in the British Museum. This discovery at Milgeyer con^dnced him that the commemorative cylinders of the founders were always deposited at the corners of Babylonian edi- fices. With this knowledge before him. Sir Henry Raw- hnson, in the following autumn, at once disinterred his beautiful cylinders of Nebuchadnezzar from the corners * See that gentleman's Memoir on the result of his excavations, iu the •Tournal of the Royal Asiatic Society," vol. xv., p. 260. UR OF THE CHALDEES (1) 131 of one of tlie lower platforms at the Bits Nimnid, to the 2;reat amazement of his Arab workmen/' From his examination of the numerous brick and cylinder inscriptions obtained at Miigeyer, Sir Henry Kawlinson reo-ards this as one of the earliest, if not the very earliest, of the sites colonized by that Ethioj^ic or Scythic invasion, to which reference has already been made.t Tliese records bear the names of a series of kings from Urukh, B.C. 2230, to Nabonidus, B.C. 540. Among others, is that of Kudur-mapula or Chedorlaomer. The temple was dedicated to Sin or " the moon," which element was preserved by the Greeks in the name Mesene, applied by them to the surroimding region ; and also in that of Camarina, derived from the Arabic word kamar, " the moon," assigned by Eupolemus to either Miigeyer or Warka. The most important identifi- cation, however, is that of Miigeyer with the Biblical Ur of the Chaldees, which Sii- Henry Eawlinson| supposes to be complete, from having read the name Hiir upon the cylinders. In support of this proposed identification, he states that one particular parish of this place was called Ihra, from which he supposes Abraham to have set out on his journey to Canaan, and from whence originated the word Hebi^ew.^ This appellation is usually supposed to be derived from Hcher, the alleged ancestor of Abraham, or from a Hebrew verb which signifies to pass over, in consequence of the patriarch having crossed the Euphrates. This latter, however, cannot be the correct derivation, * See the "Athenaeum," No. 1421, for Jan. 20, 1855, p. 84. t At page 95. X This great authority has elsewhere frequently expressed his belief that Warka is Ur of the Chaldees, deriving his opinion from the fact that it was known to the Talmudists and early Arabs as the birthplace of Abraham, and that it is even named Ur by the early Arab Geogi'aphers. See " Jour- nal of the Eoyal Asiatic Society," vol. xii., p. 481 ; and " Twenty-ninth An- nual Eeport," p. 16. § See "Proceedings of Royal Geographical Society," vol. i, p. 47. 132 BELSHAZZAR. because, whether Abraham previously resided at Miigeyer or Warka, it would have been unnecessary to pass over the great river, if in his time it flowed, as some suppose, considerably eastward of those places and joined the Tio-ris, as before stated, at Kut-el-Amd,ra. The above proposed derivation of the word is therefore equally rea- sonable with one of the two usually adopted ; but at the same time, it must be confessed that the ordinary accep- tation of Hebrew as a patronymic from Heber is still more worthy of credit. The cylinder inscriptions of Miigeyer are invaluable documents in confirming the authenticity and truth of Scripture. They not only inform us that Nabonidus, last king of Babylon, repaired the Great Temple of the Moon at Hur, but they also explain who Belshazzar was, con- cerning whom the early Bible critics have in vain endea- voured to reconcile conflicting statements. In the Book of Daniel,'"' he is alluded to as the king of the Chaldees when Babylon was taken by the united armies of the Medes and Persians. The account of Berosus does not, however, agree with that of Scripture. It states that Nabonidus, after being utterly routed in the open plains by Cyrus, shut himself up in the city of Borsippa, but was soon obliged to surrender his person to the conqueror, t From Daniel, therefore, we are led to conclude that Belshazzar was the last Chaldaean monarch ; while Nabonidus is represented in the same capacity by Berosus. Hero- dotus only adds to the difficulty by calling Belshazzar and his father Labynetus — which name is certainly a cor- ruption of Nabonidus.| Sir Henry Kawlinson's reading of the Miigeyer cylin- ders entirely reconciles these discrepances. The records ♦ Daniel v. 30. t In Joseph. " Contr. Apion.," i, 20. t It is likewise stated in Joseplins, Ajitiq., z. 11, 2, that Baltasar waa called Naboandel by the Babylonians, J CEMETERY. 133 distinctly state that Bel-shar-ezer (Belshazzar) was the eldest son of Nabonidus, and that he was admitted to a share of the government. When Cyrus took Nabonidus, Belshazzar was regent or governor of Babylon, and, to all intents and purposes, king of the Chaldees. Amongst other discoveries made by Mr Taylor at Mugeyer was that of a house or oratory, in a small mound covered with clay and scoria, near the eastern angle of the great temple, erected on a mound or foun- dation of sun-dried bricks. The ground plan of the edifice is that of a cross. The exterior was ornamented with perpendicular stepped recesses, thickly coated with bitumen. This coating may have arisen from the oozing out of that material between the bricks during the de- struction of the edifice by fire, of which there were evident symptoms. Many of the outer faces of the bricks were insciibed. A thin coating of enamel or g)rpsum-plaster appears to have been laid over the surface, upon which the characters were stamped. These were remarkably fine ; but the material was too brittle to admit of their being well preserved, and chipped off with a touch from the finger-nail — a sufficient proof of the antiquity of the edifice in which these bricks occurred, because, in like manner, they could not have been extracted from any other place without damage to the inscriptions. This building, too, has settled the important architec- tural question, whether the Babylonians were acquainted with the arch. Two regularly constructed semicircular arches, running through the entire thickness of the walls, are in admirable preservation — the bricks being wedge- shaped to form the voussoirs. Mr Taylor also ascertained that the rest of the oval space occupied by the ruins was a cemetery of the primi- tive ages ; his account of the tombs and their contents 134 FRAGMENTS. forms by far the most interesting portion of his memoir on the subject.""' As I shall have occasion to refer to similar objects in the account of my own researches, it is unnecessary to allude to them furtlier in this place, except to remark that they are all referable to the Baby- lonian epoch. About two hundred yards from the north-east side of the great temple, Mr Churchill discovered three large blocks of black granite projecting from the ground. On clearing the earth from around them, some parts exhibited a fine polish, but they were too much broken to admit of their original form being distinguished. They probably be- longed to an altar. One bore a fragment of inscription ; another had a plain upper surface, with a moulding, eight inches in depth rounded off at the angles, passing along the top of each side : two opposite surfaces bore in high relief an ornament resembling the capital letter A reversed, and supporting the moulding : of the other two sides, one was plain and the other broken. Like the fragments of the statue at Hammam, they probably be- longed to the shrine of the deity, which stood upon the principal building.t From the summit of Mdgeyer are distinctly discernible the ruins of Ab\i-Shehreyn, also sub- sequently examined by Mr Taylor. During the time we were exploring the ruins, the Turkish escort passed us at the distance of two or three miles. Some of the most intelhgent officers, seeing the huge edifice on their flank, formed a small party and galloped towards it. Having reached within a mile of Miigeyer, they were surprised to observe two or three human beings upon the summit apparently regarding the ♦ "Notes on the Ruins of M6geyer," in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. v., p. 260. t Mr Churchill's drawings, with copies of the iuscriptions here discovered, were deposited in the British Museum. DEFEAT OF THE ESCORT. 135 movements of the troops. Under the impression that the place was a deserted ruin, this unexpected apparition alarmed them. They halted, and watched for a few minutes. Two more figures were seen scrambling up from the opposite side, which served to confirm their fears. Eiding back with all speed, they gave the alarm that a large body of Axabs were lying in ambush to attack the party. Preparations were therefore duly made for a stout resistance. The mules, servants, and baggage were placed in the centre, the troops arranged around them in square, the four guns placed at the corners so as to receive the enemy with a cross fire. Thus in a compact mass, they marched rapidly across the desert to Ai^jah, where we rejoined them, and then for the first time learned the commotion and alarm that we had unwit- tingly occasioned. It appeared that while I was engaged with Mr Churchill in taking measurements and notes on the ruins, some of our escort had climbed upon the sum- mit, and given rise to the idea that an ambush was pre- pared for the Turks. It was a subject of considerable merriment for the rest of the journey, that two English- men, one servant, half-a-dozen Bashi Baziiks, and an Arab, had caused the retreat of a squadron of well-armed Turkish cavaby ! From Arjah, we all travelled in company to Swaij, the usual residence of the Sheikh of the Muntefik — a distance of only a few miles — where we rested for the remainder of the day, and made arrangements for crossing the desert to Busrah. Swaij is within a mile of the Arab town of Suk-esh-Sheioukh ; but, as is weU-known, an Arab chief infinitely prefers the freedom and security of the open country to the treachery of town walls. In accordance with this feeling, Fahad, the then Sheikh of the powerful tribe of the IMuntefik, pitched his tent, and held his royal state, like his predecessors, at Swaij. His immediate 136 THE SHEIKH OF THE MUNTEFIK. retainers were encamped around him, and thus he lived with his flocks and herds patriarchal as Abraham him- self. He behaved with princelike hospitality, supplying the whole of the caravan and troops with provisions, not only for that day, but for the three days' journey before us. He exhibited his independence, however, by receiv- ing the Turkish officers witlv^ut rising, and scarcely deigning to speak to them — an indignity which they did not readily forget, and which, it is said, in common with other causes of complaint, shortly afterwards re- sulted in his being removed by order of the government. He also issued an order that no Turkish officer or soldier on horseback should enter the town of Siik-esh-Sheioukh upon any pretext. It was my intention to have paid my respects to this Eling of the Arabs, but he unfortunately retired to his harem sooner than usual, probably to shew his dignity, and also to rid himself of his Turkish guests, who did not fail to remind him of the suzerainty of the Porte. On sending my regrets at not having had the opportunity of waiting upon him, I received a gracious answer — a cup of hot bitter coffee — and a gracious visit from his secretary. At Siik-esh-Sheioukh the Bashi Bazilk horsemen and our Dhefyr guides left us, carrying with them ample pre- sents for their services. Mubarek, who on first quitting Baghdad was rather in the way than otherwise, proved eventually not only useful as a guide but as a safeguard from the Bedouins. He soon became attached to our party, and sang as merrily as his cousin ]\Iaydf On making him a present, I remarked that — as he had eaten the bread of the Firenghi, been saved from his enemies the Affej, and treated well during the journey — I hoped he would not forget these circumstances, but THIRSTY RIDE. 137 return good for good, by looking after tlie safety of any unfortunate European who might happen to fall into the clutches of his tribe. Drawing himself up to his full height, he replied : — " Beg ! the Dhefyris have heard in their deserts that the Englizi speaks the truth, but they have never met with such a wonder. I shall tell them, inshallah ! on my return, Avhat I did not before credit, that the Englizi never lies — his word is as straight as my spear ! For the kindness you have shewn me, the Dhefyr will prove his gratitude when a Firenghi crosses his path ! For your sake he shall be my brother ! " The* last 1 heard of the wild fellow was, that, with the present received, he had purchased a swift-footed deliil, and set out to re- join his tribe on a plundering expedition. Between Siik-esh-Sheioukh and Busrah is a difitance of about seventy mUes across an undulating tract of gravel and g}^isum. A few wells alone supply small parties with bad brackish water, but these were totally insufficient for so many men and horses as composed our caravan ; it was, therefore, necessary to strike a more easterly course towards the marshes of the Euphrates, After suffering thirty-two hours' tliirst under a hot sun, our poor animals were completely exhausted, and could with difficulty be prevented from over-filling themselves, Avhen they reached the inundation. Three troop-horses died in the course of the night from the effect of drink- ing to repletion. I need not detain my readers with an account of the remainder of the journey. We reached Zobeir in safety, crossed the great inundation which threatens shortly to overwhelm the declining city of Busrah, passed through its mouldeiing walls and pestilential atmosphere, and floated down its narrow inlet shrouded in groves of pomegranates, dates, and acacias to the noble Shat-el- Arab — the combined stream of the Tigris and Euphrates. 138 BUSK AH AND THE SHAT-EL-ARAB. Fleets of mercliant vessels a few years ago used to anchor in the deep channel of this magnificent river ; but, owing to the neglect and ignorance of the Turkish authorities, commerce is now at a stand-still, and the only vessels, which annually enter the commodious port, are two belonging to English merchants resident at Baghdad, and occasionally a frigate of the East India Company's squad- ron in the Persian Gulf. From the eastern bank of the Shat-el-Ardb, a six hours* ride across the desert brought us to the camp of the fron- tier commissioners, outside the extensive date-groves of Mohammerah in Persia^ CHAPTEE XIII. Plans and Preparations for Excavating in Warka — The Party — Arrival at Suk-esli-Sheioiikli — FahSd, Sheikh of the Muntefik — Reception Tent — Falcons — The Letter and Escort. As soon as Colonel Williams was made acquainted with the results of this journey, and had examined the relics, plans, and drawings brought from Warka, he readily Hstened to my suggestions that excavations should be conducted on a small scale at those ruins. To his libe- rality and patronage of science are due the first-fruits of Chaldsean exploration. Supplying the necessary funds for the purpose, he directed me, after a few days' rest, to return to Warka, with instructions more especially to procure specimens of the remarkable coffins of the loca- lity, and such objects as might be easily packed for trans- mission to the British Museum. I hastened to Busrah, purchased implements, and laid in a Httle store of trifling articles — such as keffiehs, dresses, tobacco, pipes, needles, dates, &c., which I might give to the Arabs as presents, or barter for small anti- quities in their possession. On setting out from Busrah, my party consisted of nine. First, my servant Ovannes, a shrewd Armenian Christian, who spoke seven of tlie native languages with fluency, and who served me faithfully during the con- tinuance of the frontier commission ; he had previously been in the service of Colonel Kawlinson, and spent the greatest part of his life with Englishmen ; he was 140 THE MUNTEFIK RECEPTION-TENT. one of the most thoughtful, useful fellows I met with during nearly six years' experience in the East. There were, besides, a edwas, a groom, a tent-pitcher who also acted as cook, three muleteers, and two guides, with fifteen horses and mules. The disHke exhibited by the Arabs to the Turkish troops told me that I should be safer and more welcome alone. I therefore declined to apply for letters from the Pasha of Busrah, and set out without so much as either asking or requiring his aid or protection. After a tedious and uninteresting journey of little more than three days, without adventure worth recording, we once more arrived at Suk-esh-Sheioukh. The cawas was sent forward with a message to the Sheikh of the Munte- fik at Swaij, that one of the English officers, who had passed through a few days previously with the Turkish troops, desired an interview with him. On my arrival, I learned that FahM was in his harem, and about to per- form his devotions, it being just mid-day ; but he sent me a polite invitation into his reception-tent, which stood upon the open desert, accessible to the whole tribe. It was a large white canvas tent supported on two poles, with a lining of pink calico and double roof, the lower of which served as a kind of canopy, and was edged "with what had been gold fringe, but which had now assumed every colour of the rainbow. This tent was a recent present from the new pasha, when friendship was re-established between the noble house of Muntefik and the government of Baghdad on the accession of Abdi Pasha to power. The sides of the tent were spread with narrow carpets, and, at the upper end, the seat of honour w^as indicated by a large cushion of striped silk backed mth two pillows of blue plush. Upon these I took up my position, and endeavoured to amuse myself until the sheikh had con- cluded his prayers. SHEIKH FAHAD. 141 An ugly black slave seems usually chosen to perform the office of kawaji to a great sheikh, as though his colour were peculiarly fitted for presiding over cinders and cooking utensils. This worthy soon made his ap- pearance, and forthwith proceeded with his important functions, surrounded by his family of coffeepots close outside the tent. Attracted by the sight of these preliminaries, and knowing from them that some guest had arrived to the tribe, the elders and warriors began to collect, sit down in the tent, and stare with untired gaze at the strangely accoutred traveller. After an interval of half-an-hour the sheikh was announced, and all rose to receive him while yet distant some hun- dred paces from the tent. Two or three of the assembly tried by repeated gestures to induce me to follow their example, but, as dignity would have been compromised by a too hasty show of obedience, I retained my seat, to their utmost consternation, until Faliad was close at hand. Although his harem was not 500 yards from the recep- tion-tent, he rode a magnificent black mare, hung round with red tassels and Arab paraphernalia, and was attended by about fifty of his immediate followers. In approaching, he saluted the crowd, and was received by each man present with his hand on his heart, but a proud inchnation of his body, as much as to imply, " We reve- rence you as the head of our tribe ; but you are, never- theless, only a man like ourselves." While he dismounted and advanced towards me, an opportunity was afforded of observing his appearance. Sheikh Fahad (the tiger) was a tall, stout, handsome man, forty-five or fifty years of age, with regular features, and the slightly aquiline nose so peculiar to the high-class Arab. His forehead was lofty and expansive, full of thought and energy. The expressive black eyes, as they glanced from one to another of the party, beamed witli 142 SHEIKH FAHAd's RECEPTION. kindness and good humour ; but it was not difficult to conceive them assuming a very different aspect on other occasions. Conscious of his importance, high birth, and dignity, he bestowed his salaams with the grace and pride of a monarch saluting his abject slaves, rather than as the head of a little republic where fraternity, liberty, and equahty prevailed. Yet the Munteiik were proud of their sheikh. He was just such a man as a powerful and warlike race desire for their chief. He was brave in battle, sage in council, hospitable and generous ; but un- bearable in his demeanour towards the Turks, whom he treated with the utmost contempt and disdain. Although he had recently sworn fealty to the pasha at Baghdad in humbled pride, he now assumed the state and dignity of an independent prince in his native wilds. It was the true iVrab feeling which induced him to treat the Turkish officers with such rudeness on their late visit, mingled probably with a desire to gain more effectually the hearts of his tribe — ^to the sheikhship of which he had but recently succeeded by the death of his brother Bender. He wore the usual striped keffieh, and black abba embroidered on one shoulder with gold. He bade me welcome with the greatest affability as we seated ourselves on the silken lahdf. A salaam to the assembly was the signal for all to be seated. Coffee and pipes were duly handed to the principal parties, and the conference then commenced. My object in visiting him was to secure his protection while in his territories. EJaowing that Arabs care nothing for the antiquities of their deserts, provided they are not golden treasures, I concluded that it was best to be frank and open with him. He was evidently in good humour — a white day on his calendar — so, in oriental style, I endeavoured to gain his good opinion with a few pointed compliments. I thanked him for his attention and hospitality on my former visit. INTERVIEW WITK SHEIKH PAHAD. 143 and regretted not liaving had the opportunity of person- ally expressing my obligations on that occasion ; adding, that a favour shewn to me was, in fact, an exhibition of friendship and esteem towards the Sultan of my country. This little speech had the desired effect. He was thence- forward, in Eastern phrase, " my friend, my servant, my — anything I pleased ! What could he do for me V On expressing my desire to visit Warka, and that he would send some of his people to accompany and protect me, he instantly rej)lied : — " I am your slave. Some Arabs are dogs, but the tribes of the Muntefik are my servants. You and your property are as safe with them, as in the shelter of my own tent." He immediately called two of his nobles by name, who stepped forward, made their salaams, and received his orders to bring their mares to the tent. During their absence, the following conversa- tion ensued : — " Do many Europeans pass through Siik- esh-Sheioukh "?" — "No! what should induce them to come so far from their own homes in Firengistan V — " The Arab loves the shade of his own tent, and the Firenghi is equally attached to the land of his birth, but the latter travels into far distant countries, to see the world, gain instruction, and impart it to his friends on his retiu-n. Some travel on business — others for pleasure. Many, like myself, are partial to visiting old ruins, like Babel, NifFar, and Warka. The Arabs think us mad for our pains \" — *' Perhaps so. What is the use of your see- ing them V — " They afford us many relics — such as writing on bricks — which throw light on the past not otherwise obtainable. From them we learn that our forefathers were yours also !" He seemed to doubt this fact, for how could a Ghyawr be related to a good Mussulman ! At this stage of the conversation, one of the bystanders stepped forward, and said that I had already been to Warka, and got some small antiques from the Mddan, "for which, 144 THE ARAB LEVEE. mdsliallali ! the Firenghl paid nine kerdns, when they were not worth a pice. By Allah ! what I say is true !" Fahad appeared pleased that I had spent money among his people ; but his informant, after true Arab fashion, had magnified the amount ninefold ! The sheikh, how- ever, understood the object of this information, and said, laughingly : — " You had better go with the Beg, and see if you can't find something worthy of his acceptance, for which he will pay you at the same rate." The secretary was sent for, and ordered to write a letter to Sheikh Debbi, at Duraji, instructing him to re- ceive me safely across the Euphrates, and to attend me to Warka, Sinkara (which place had not been mentioned), and any ruin I desired to visit within the limits of his jurisdiction. When I might be pleased to retiu-n, he was to see me again safely conveyed across the Euphrates. Dimng all this time the Arabs continued to arrive, until there were about two hundred within the tent. Each man on entering advanced into the centre, made his salaam to the sheikh, and then retired to take his place, either among the free Arabs who sat on the narrow carpets, or among the servants and slaves who stood behind. A large semicircular space was thus left in front of the chief It was highly amusing to watch the free Arab, marching straight to a spot where it ap- peared impossible for him to wedge himself into the crowded row. The occupants, however, invariably arose, and in an instant the wedge was inserted and seen squat- ting upon the carpet. The decorum of the whole assembly, and the implicit obedience and respect paid to the chief, struck me particularly. If such were not mere outward shew, and faith were really to be placed in his followers, the Sheikh of the Muntefik is no mean personage, and is not to be despised by the Turkish or any other govern- ment. Better to have him a friend than a foe. It is THE sheikh's CHARGE. 145 asserted that in a few hours he is able to raise a body of 50,000 well-armed men. Fahad was an ardent sportsman, and kept his leash of falcons. As a portion of his state, the beautiful birds were placed in the centre of the area ; while the falconer, in his crimson dress and plaited locks, shewed off the docility and grace of his pet birds, amid the frequent plaudits of the sheikh and the assembled Muntefijis. At length the secretary finished the letter, and the seal of the sheikh was duly affixed thereto. The two guides, having brought their black mares to the tent, were then called in, and received the letter in charge with the in- junction : — " You see this Beg sitting by my side ; attend him wherever he pleases to go, let him do what he wishes at Warka and Sinkara, and take care to bring him back in safetv to this tent." Then tm^ninsc to me he said : — " All that you required is done." Taking this as a hint, I returned thanks, paid my salaam, and departed — the sheikh rising as much as, in his opinion, a strict Mussul- man consistently could do towards a Christian. I left the tent much pleased with my reception and the result of the interview. CHAPTER XIV. Winter — Camel -foals — Tuweyba Tribe — Old Friends — Harassing La- bours — Dissatisfaction — Budda, the Grave-digger and Gold-finder — Arab Kindness — Warka in 1854 — Difficulties — Scarcity of Food and Water — Patriarchal Life in Abraham's Country — Misery and Rapa- city — Sand-storms, It was now winter in the Arab plains, and tlie thermo- meter stood below freezing-point as we advanced north- ward from the sheikh's encampment. On quitting the date-groves, clouds concealed the sun, and the wind blew so keen and cuttingly across the level desert, that it was necessary frequently to dismount and walk, that the blood might be kept in proper circulation. Al- though I had crossed the snows of the Alj^s and the Taurus, I never before experienced such an intensity of cold. I was almost paralyzed, not from the lowness of the temperature, but from the passage of the \^dnd over the soil impregnated with saltpetre ; we were as if in a spacious refrigerator. The Arabs, with their bare feet resting in large iron stirrups, were completely benumbed and useless, frequently falling from their faithful mares, and requiring to be again lifted into their saddles. AiVTierever we passed an encampment, a wretched camels'- dung fire imparted a degree of warmth to the half-clad Arabs, which only caused them to feel the cold more acutely. They sat shivering and grinning, their faces alone visible from beneath their rags, and bearing more resemblance to monkeys than living human beings. All CRUEL PUNISHMENTS. 147 had dreadful coughs, and their constant barking jarred horribly on the ear. It is almost incredible that the Arab of the Tigris and Euphrates can endure such extremes of temperature as there prevail — at one season scorched under a burning sun, at another almost frozen to death. The same coarse abba which shades him from the heat in summer is his only protection against the cold of winter ! We again crossed the Euphrates. The Sheikh of the JMuntefik was at this time about taking stock, and the banks of the river were covered with immense flocks of camels, sheep, and cattle. Many were the inquiries made whether the bridge of boats was yet built which was to convey them across the great stream to Swaij. It was the foaling season, and the camel-herds were actively engaged in protecting the young. Numbers recently foaled, and unable yet to walk, were being care- fully carried in arms to the tents for protection from the killing wind. On the second day from Swaij, I alighted at the reed muthif of Sheikh Debbi, at Diiraji, whom I had seen on my previous visit. The Madan tribes above Silk were governed by a deputy of Fahad's. For many years this honour— and profit — were enjoyed alternately by two brothers, Sa'diln and Debbi. The former was then in power, and Debbi was his lieutenant. In authority the latter was a great tyrant, and delighted in inflicting severe punishments for small crimes. Many poor wretches were shewn rne as instances of his cruelty — one had lost his hand, another his foot, and a third was hamstrung and appeared on crutches dragging behind him the use- less limb ! Debbi received the great sheikh's letter with becoming respect, and did the honours of hospitality right nobly. A few minutes sufficed to prepare a bountiful meal, of which I was not sorry to partake, for the cold and wind 148 A DAINTY MEAL. had given me a ravenous appetite. A dirty reed basket was speedily laid on the ground, containing freshly-baked flaps of bread, and the grilled shoulders of a young lamb, accompanied with a bowl of lebban, or soured milk. In true Arab style, I set to with fingers and teeth — the native knife and fork — and enjoyed a delicious meal. My two Arab guards and Debbi himself seemed to do the same, for, between us, the eatable contents of the basket effectually disappeared. The bones, however, were destined to undergo another polishing, for, on removal from the banqueting-hall, I saw them between the teeth of two or three Arabs seated near the entrance, while an expectant crowd stood round awaiting their turn. The nearest Arab encampment to the ruins of Warka, was that belonging to the Tuweyba tribe of the Benl Hacheym,''"" situated on the right bank of the Euphrates, at the distance of six miles. To this, therefore, it was arranged that I should proceed, and pitch my tent during my temporary stay. Debbi, in conformity with the orders of his liege lord, mounted his mare and accompanied me. We travelled north-westward about ten miles, among a succession of ravines cut by the river during its seasons of flood, and ultimately arrived at our destination. I was soon recognised by the Arabs, who proved to be those I had previously made acquaintance with upon the ruins, and from whom I had purchased several antiques. Their bright eyes and smiles satisfied me that I was regarded as a welcome guest. The sheikh, Azayiz-es- Salem, was ill in bed, but his son-in-law, Hennayin, came out to greet me, and held the bridle of my horse while I * The names of the Benl Hdcheym tribes are — 1. Thtidlem 4. El-Ezowyer 7. Mtish'dla 2. El-bti-Hassdn 5. El-'Abbds 8. Jti'aber 3. Ez-Zaydd 6. El-Hadjll 9. Tuweyba. The last-named tribe possesses about 100 tents, or 500 souls. Concerning the other tribes, I could obtain no positive information. THE TUWEYBA TRIBE. 149 dismounted. One of Faliad's men, as a superior being, addressed liim and the crowd, which unceremoniously seated itself in a circle around the new comers : — " Dogs : this Beg is an officer of the Sultan's ; if any harm happens to him, or if the least article belonging to him is stolen, you and your wives shall be taken with your hands bound to Sheikh Fahad, and you will not soon forget the punishment you will receive." All bowed their heads, in implicit obedience to the great power, with exclamations of "Wallah!" Hearing the guides giving imperious orders, I feared the Arabs might imagine they were to supply everything in Oriental style — gratis, and therefore called the sheikh's representative aside, to tell him that it was my wish to pay for all articles, at a reasonable price, and even a little above actual value. If, however, he attempted to be exorbitant in his demands, I threat- ened to leave the settlement of his account to the Sheikh of the Muntefik. Hennayin seemed to be delighted, but in a short time, Arab-like, asked six shamies (9s.) a-day for each workman, the ordinary wage lieing a tw^elfth part of that sum — to which he at length decreased his demand. On the follo^dng morning I started with a party of excavators for the ruins, and continued my labours for three weeks. My work was harassing in the extreme. At sunrise I set out with the Arabs for the mounds, a distance of six miles, and never left them during the whole day. The soil was so light that, in w^alking from trench to trench, my feet were buried at each step. The Arabs required constant direction and watching. It was usually long after sunset ere we returned to camp, stumbling every instant over the broken ground. A few minutes sufficed for me to swallow the food my cook had prepared, when, almost tired to death, I was obliged to lay down plans from mv rough notes, write my journal, 150 DISSATISFACTION IN CAMP. and pack the objects procured in tlic course of the day. On many occasions, it was two o'clock in the morning before I retired to rest, perfectly benumbed from the in- tensity of the cold, which even the double walls of my little tent could not exclude. Debbi on the second day begged permission to return to Duruji, pretending that he had received a pressing mes- sage from his brother Sd'dun, He left behind him a servant to look after my safety, kissed the hands of Fahad's people, and prayed them, by all that was holy and sacred, to take the greatest care of my precious person and goods, " for," said he, " should anything hap- pen to him, woe betide me !" Two days later, the Mun- tefik guides themselves also asked permission to return home, because Fahad and all his people were about to set out in a few days for the pastures beyond Mugeyer with all their flocks and herds, and they naturally desired to accompany them. I was not sorry to lose these gentry, for they evidently rough-rode the poor Tuweyba tribe, treating them like " dogs " as they had styled them. No sooner, however, were my protectors gone than my troubles began. The fickle character of the Madan re- quired fresh excitement ; many of them were soon tired of their new employment ; they desired another scene. A portion of the tribe had already departed to commence their cultivation on the flooded banks of the Shat-el- Kahr, which had now for the first time overflowed for se^^eral years ; the rest were all anxiety to follow. Daily they became more importunate, but Avere still detained "by the sheikh's son-in-law, Hennayin, whom I had gained over to second all my plans, it being no i3art of my intention to quit Warka until the objects of my journey were secured. Hennayin, at my instigation, sounded the feelinfrs of the Arabs, and found that more than half their number was willing to remain and work. The remainder, DANGER. 151 headed by the sheikh's brother, insisted on going and taking all the tribe with him, although the poor sheikh himself was too ill to bear the fatigue of a journey, and wished to remain. At length the dissatisfied portion of the community contented themselves by decamping during the night — not, however, before they had set fire to the brushwood at the back of my tent with an evident desire to burn it down. Each following day shewed a decrease in the size of our little encampment, until at length Sheikh Azayiz sent me word to say, that he would no longer be respon- sible for my safety, as his tribe was at feud with all around, and nothing would delight his enemies more than to pounce upon him in his present undefended state. He suggested that we should all decamp to Duraji, promising to remain with the workmen who adhered to my party. This ar- rangement was carried out, and, during the remainder of my stay, my tent was pitched under the walls of Sheikh Debbi's kala'a, nine miles from the ruins. Of the Arabs who remained with me there were some who had passed their lives in ransacking the ruins for gold, and who consequently were acquainted with every hole and corner of the place. Among these was an old fellow, named Budda, whose locks had grown gray during his avocation as a "grave-digger." Shrewd, active, and energetic, the head of every piece of fun or mischief, whether in leading a chorus or in attacking the enemy, old Budda was regarded as the father of his tribe, and had much more positive influence over his fellows than either Azayiz or Hennayin. Whenever a quarrel took place, Budda was appealed to as judge : whenever an opinion was required, Budda was the counsel employed : in fact, Budda was the genius of the Tuweyba tribe, and at his death will doubtless be dubbed an Imam! He soon became as necessary to me as he was to his own people ; 152 THE GRAVE-SEEKERS. and all works requiring particular care were confided to Budda's dii-ection. He delighted when the day's labour was over to steal softly into my tent, sip a cup of coffee, and recount his wild adventures. His little gray eyes sparkled, and his wrinkled smiling face beamed with delight, when he was informed that he was appointed sheikh of the work- men. His favourite position was to sit on his heels and place upon his knees liis bony hands, which, from continual grub- bing in the earth, had grown long and sharp like those of a mole. His dress was a respectable white abba, which he wore round his waist, his head being wrapped in an ample keffieh, almost the only one in the tribe. Next in intelligence was his son Gunza with the squeaky voice, a miserable, lanky fellow, having sharp hatchet fea- tiu'es, and long jet-black locks, well greased and plaited by his newly-married \^afe. He too was a general favour- ite ; and, next to his father's, the falsetto voice of Gunza was heard above all others in their wild yells and songs. He was a good workman, extremely docile, affectionate and obliging. His skin was as brown as his abba, which I never saw on his shoulders ; keffieh he scorned to wear. His father had brought him up to be a professed coffin- Budda. TRAITS OF CHARACTER. 153 breaker, and it was incredible with wliat cunning and cleverness lie set about bis work. He was a perfect ferret, and might frequently be seen burrowing in a hole into which it seemed almost impossible that he could have crept. Then came his cousin Suweyd, a tall handsome fellow, who delighted in a short spear and a thick head of hair, which, being seldom combed, hung about his ears and neck ad libitum. Suweyd was fond of cringing, and was frequently ill-tempered, but he was strong, and esteemed a good warrior as well as an active workman. With these three and Hennayin, who was deputed to use the influence and power of his father-in-law Sheikh Azayiz, and who rendered me valuable assistance, I con- trived to guide the unwieldy spirits of the Tuweyba.. Notwithstanding their wild looks and bad character, they exhibited many good traits. They could not understand my ha^dug any other object but that of searching for gold like themselves, and were disappointed at my not having found any. Soon after commencing excavations, Gunza one mornino; came to me with the followino- offer : — " Beg ! you have now been with us several days, and spent much money to no purpose : let us choose a place where to dig, and, inshallah ! we shall soon find heaps of gold I" It is needless to say that these heaps existed only in his good-natured imagination. In returning from the ruins at night I always made it a practice to ride along with the Arabs and enter into the spirit of their amusements. This, I believe, told strongly in my favour. Often, when a francolin sprang up before the party, and a well-aimed shot with a bitumen-headed club or stick brought down the game, the lucky sports- man would throw it on the ground before my horse and beg my acceptance of it. Occasionally one of my wild friends would rush into my tent, holding out a hen's egg :— -" AYe receive presents from you. Beg, daily, but 164 WARKA IN 1854. have nothing to give in return worthy of your accep- tance. What else but food have we to offer? All I possess is a hen ! See, she has just laid an egg ; pray, Beg, accept it." Similar instances of a kind disposition evinced themselves ; and I passed a pleasant time on the whole with this rude and primitive tribe. During the month spent at the camps of A^ayiz and Debbi, my first collection of antiquities was sent from Warka to the British Museum, but my principal dis- coveries were effected during a subsequent visit, when, accompanied by JMr Boutcher the artist, I passed the three first months of the year 1854 at the same locality, in charge of the expedition sent out under the auspices of the Assyrian Excavation Fund. Few explorers can have more difficulties to experience than I had on that occa- sion. After having passed, with numerous adventures and mishaps from Niffar, through the intricate marshes of the Affej, the imknown swamps under the independent sway of the Amir, and a three-days' waterless desert, I found that a little revolution had taken place around "Warka during my absence. The Tuweyba tribe had been driven out of Mesopotamia across the Euphrates, Sheikh Debbi had fled with his people from Kala'a Duraji, and there were no Arabs nearer the ruins than at the httle village of El-Khithr on the Euphrates, nine miles distant, conse- quently too far off to admit of my carrying on effective operations for any length of time. To this place I was, however, driven, in order to make my preparations and collect a staff of workmen. The sheikh at El-Khithr proved to be an ignorant cross-grained fellow, evincing no desire to aid me, and exorbitant in all his demands. It is true that he permitted some of his tribe to work in the ruins for a few days at high wages : but there was no dependence to be placed in liira, and he at last absolutely refused to supply me with workmen. DIFFICULTIES ATTENDING EXCAVATIONS. 155 Hearing that mj Tuweyba friends were encamped about a day's journey off, I despatched a messenger to Azayiz, who speedily made his appearance in company with old Budda. Loving were the greetings that passed between us, and many were the hugs which Azayiz bestowed on me. Budda, however, as an inferior, contented himself with imprinting two respectful kisses on my left shoulder. Azayiz was willing to place his tribe at my disposal : but it was in fearfully bad odour with all around, more espe- cially with the Wadi, into whose hands the Warka terri- tory had now passed. On my promise to give him a written guarantee for his security, he brought over about thirty men, and pitched his tent near mine. This num- ber not being, however, sufEcient for my purpose, more were sent for. I likewise accepted an offer of labourers from Tamar, Sheikh of El-'Abbas tribe, which was sta- tioned near the junction of the Semava and Hillah streams of the Euphrates. Finding that my force was increasing, the El-Khithr tribe rebelled against the authority of their sheikh, and voluntarily offered their services : I selected as many men as were required, and at once decided on a change of quarters. While these arrangements were in progress, a few Arabs were employed in digging wells midway between El- Khithr and the ruins, in the dry deep channel of an old offshoot from the Euphrates. The experiment succeeded, and a supply of brackish water was obtained, sufficing for a time to satisfy our wants. The camp was then removed from the bank of the great river into the desert beside these wells, which was the nearest position to the ruins affording water. Azayiz brought his tent, but the workmen contented themselves with rude shelters of camel's thorn, fetched from the side of the Euphrates, and interposed between themselves and the wind, which at times blew most bitterly cold. Fuel was procured by 156 PRIiMlTIVE MODE OF LIFE. digging up decayed roots of tamarisk, which were here and there to be found under the sandy soil. This served to keep in their bodies some sparks of warmth, as they sat shivering over their watch-fires at night. The water, however, at length became undrinkable — even the Arabs refused to touch it. It was, therefore, necessary to pur- chase camels, by means of which valuable animals sweet water from the Euphrates was daily conveyed, not only to the camp, but also to the working parties at the mounds. Nothing could exceed the primitive mode of life which we led in this region of Abraham's birthplace. In the patriarchal style, we were surrounded by our people — our flocks and herds, asses and camels, were daily driven to browse by the river side in the morning, and back to the camp at night. A few of the Arabs brought their wives with them, who baked flat loaves of barley bread in their native ovens for the wants of the community. Little enough, it is true, had the poor Arabs : and we were frequently obliged to provide for them out of our scanty store when their own was exhausted. The extreme scarcity of food was, perhaps, our greatest difficulty. In consequence of the river having failed to overflow its natural banks for the four years since my former visit, the small plots of cultivation which formed the chief support of the Madau tribes had utterly failed, and reduced them to a state of the most abject destitution. They had little or nothing to support life beyond the roots dug out of the groimd, or the plunder obtainable from neighbouring tribes. A dearth of provisions every- where prevailed along the banks of the Lower Eu- phrates, so that barley had risen fourfold beyond its usual price. On first commencing operations, the oflal thrown out from our cook's tent was greedily seized and devoured by the poor, half-starved wretches, who, how- MISERY AND RAPACITY. 157 ever, fared better as the excavations progressed, and they received the reward of their daily hibonrs. Hunger makes all men selfish, and in most cases alters all the better feelings of our nature. The Tuweyba tribe, which were previously in comparatively affluent circumstances, and had engaged my sympathies on account of their good-natured hospitality, were now become perfect demons of avarice and rapacity. They insisted on being paid their wages every night, so that, as there was much diffi- culty in obtaining coin, I was frequently obliged to reduce my customary number of hands imtil a fresh supply reached me. There was not sufficient small chanc;e to pay each man separately, so that a deputy was chosen for parties of four or five, and the wages were handed over to him in their presence. Then began a violent discus- sion about the due partition of the spoil. Each man tried to cheat the other, and argued his own case, at the full pitch of his voice, in rich, round Arab gutturals. The furious gesticulations that accompanied the dispute seemed frequently to threaten an open breach of the peace, but only ended in talk and abuse. They would sit for hours over their watch-fires, discussing the knotty question implicated in a black pice : and often, when it appeared to be settled, and the angry voices had subsided to their natural tone, the smothered flame woidd break out afresh with more impetuosity than before. Half the night was frequently spent in such debates, which invariably ended in some poor fellow being defrauded by his friend. The scenes which these quarrels gave rise to, under the light of the pale moon and the red glare of the tamarisk fire, were such as would have formed a fine subject for the painter. Each man was the guardian of his own wealth, and dared not trust his little skin of flour to the care of his neighbour : whether in camp or on the ruins, every one carried his supply tied up in .his abba, which, when 158 SAND-STORMS. measured out to be made into bread by tlie women, never passed out of its owner's vision I"^^ The great difficulty was, as I have said, how to buy provisions, for, on account of the scarcity, not a single article could be obtained in the neighbourhood for love or money. It was therefore necessary to send for all our supphes to Suk-esh-Sheioukh, a distance of sixty miles ; and, as the desert did not furnish a blade of grass, our animals, too, were obliged to be provided with barley and straw from the same place. In ordinary seasons, the inundation of the Euphrates extends to the very base of the mounds, and renders approach impossible from the east except by boat. It is upon the newly-deposited soil left by the retiring waters, that the Arabs cultivate crops of maize for their next year's subsistence ; it may therefore be well conceived that their condition was not enviable when their hus- bandry failed for several successive years, and they had no other means of support. Another difficulty considerably impeded excavations. It was my desire to have encamped amid the mounds themselves ; but this was impossible, in consequence of the frequency of sand-storms induced by the slightest breath of air. While all around was in comparative stillness, Warka was enveloped in a dense cloud of impal- pable sand, which occurred at least twice or thrice a-week, and rendered our situation at times extremely disagree- able. The workmen were driven from the trenches, and these were drifted up in the course of a few hours. So densely was the air impregnated with the flying atoms, that the Arabs themselves often lost their way in return- ing to camp. Yet, beyond a certain distance from the ruins, scarcely a breath of wind was perceptible, and the atmosphere remained clear and tranquil. * For a farther account of the character of the Mdddn, see page 122. CHAPTER XV. "The Land of Sliinar "— Warka, the Ancient " Erech"— "Ur of the Chaldccs" — Scene of Desolation and Solitude — Enormous Extent of Euins — The Buwariyya — Reed-mat Structure. Of the primeval cities founded by Nimrod, the son of Gush, four are represented, in Genesis x. 10, as giving origin to the rest : — " And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Galneh, in the land of Shinar/' The position of this land of Shinar is a much disputed point, and grave discussion has arisen concerning its identification. Some writers, from similarity of name, contend that it refers to the modern district called Sinjar, in Mesopotamia, between Mosul on the Tigris, and Bir on the Euphrates ; but the coincidence goes no further, for Shinar is described in the Bible as "a plain," whereas Sinjar is an undulating, rocky region, traversed by a range of lofty limestone mountains. Under these circumstances, the supposed identity fails, and we are compelled to look elsewhere for the first settlements. Others, with more reason, point to a district much further to the south, where are the remains of innumer- able ancient cities, regarded by Jewish tradition as the country Shinar, from whence that nation originally pro- ceeded. In confirmation of this, Babylonia, in the old cuneiform inscriptions, is called by the same name, — 160 DERIVATION OF THE NAME " WARKA.' Shinar, and it is likewise still preserved in tlie important ruins of Sinkara. The site of Babel is, moreover, traditionally assigned to the same region, and the large ruins near Hillah on the Euphrates are generally supposed to represent it. If this be admitted, we ought naturally to seek for the other three cities of the primitive kingdom in the adjacent region. AVithout, however, attempting to identify Accad or Calneh, which would be foreign to our purpose, let us see if there be any site which will correspond with the bibUcal Erech — the second city of Nimrod. About 120 miles south-east of Babylon, are some enormous piles of mounds, which, from their name and importance, appear at once to justify their claim to con- sideration. The name of Warka is derivable from Erech without unnecessary contortion. The original Hebrew word "Erk," or "Ark," is transformed into "Warka," either by changing the aleph into vau, or by simply prefixing the vau for the sake of euphony, as is customary in the conversion of Hebrew names to Arabic. If any depen- dence can be placed upon the derivation of modern from ancient names, this is more worthy of credence than most others of like nature. Some persons derive Warka from the Arabic root 'irk, " a branch or vein," from whence originates the modern name of the region — Irak- Arab! ; but it must be remem- bered that the Arabic language is not to be depended on for the root of such an ancient name as Erech. " Country of arteries" would otherwise be a very appro- priate name for a region intersected with canals. Sir Henry Rawlinson states his belief that Warka is Erech, and in this he is supported by concurrent testimony. Although he has been unable to read its cuneiform name with precision, it is generally designated as " the oiiy," par excellence. He therefore ascribes to Warka a very high __,..{, fl/.^t V SCALE or YARDS A Bouarich. B Was- Was Ruin. C Large Ruin. D Parthian (?) Tower. E Edifice of Cones. F Conical Mound (Excavated). Q Greek and Parthian Mound. H Scaria Mounds. I Sculpture in Basalt. L Tower of Brick and Vases M Conical Mound. N S. W. Square Mound, O Tablet Terrace, WARKA " UR OF THE CHALDEES." 161 antiquity, and regards it as the motlier-city from wliich al] others sprang.'"' It is not improbable that Herodotus re- fers to Warka when he speaks of Arderikka,t corresponding with the Chaldsean Ar'a de Erek, or Land of Erech. A trace of the same name appears to exist in Orchoe of Alexander's time. We are told by Phny| that the inha- bitants of that city diverted the waters of the Euphrates for the purpose of irrigating their lands ; and it is Hkewise mentioned by Strabo§ as a city which possessed an university for the study of astronomy, from whence originated the sect of Chaldsean philosophers called Orchoeni, in contradistinction to those of Borsippa. The near correspondence of the two names, the discovery of very early cuneiform, as well as of Greek, records at Warka, the immensity of its ruins, and the sacred character attached to them, are certainly highly favour- able to the identity of Warka with the primitive Erech, and the Greek Orchoe. It has been elsewhere observed, || that previous to the discovery of the Mugeyer cylinders, Sir Henry Rawlinson definitely concluded that Warka was, moreover, Ur of the Chaldees, from whence Abraham migrated into Syria. He remarks that a very ancient and valuable manuscript in his library determinately connects the ruins of Warka with Ur : — " The traditionists report that Abraham was born at El Warka, in the district of Edh-Dhawabi,ir on the confines of Kaskar, and that his father afterwards moved to Nimrod's capital, which is in the territory of Kutha. As-sudi, however, states that when the mother of Abraham found herself pregnant, Azer (the biblical Terah) feared lest the child should perish, so he went out • See page xvi. of the Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1852 ; and Proceedings of the Royal Geogr. Society, vol. i., page 47.- t Herodotus, i. 185. % Pliny, vi. 27. § Strabo, xvi. 739. II At page 131. 1" Dowab, in Persian, means " two rivei-a." L 1 62 UNAPPROACHABLE POSITION OF AVARKA. with licr to a country between Kufa and Wasit, which was called Ur."''^ This tradition of Abraham's birth- place at Warka, however, originated not with the Arabs, but with the Jews, and is therefore more deserving credence. Without desiring to claim for Warka more honour than the place is duly entitled to, may we not, although admittincr the correctness of the reading " Hur" on the Mtigeyer cylinders, still, consistently with this ancient tradition, regard Warka as Ur, on the supposition that this name is apphed — not to a city — but to a district of the Chaldees, w^hich included both the ruined sites of Warka and Mugeyer 1 In this light " Ur of the Chaldees " is, I believe, regarded by some authorities on this subject. If IMugeyer be Ur, we have likewise the same root in the name Orchoe. I therefore agree with Mr Baillie Fraser,t in his remark that " Warka may possibly represent Orchoe of the Chaldseans, while the term Orchoe may be nothino; more than a mere modification of the ancient Erech, and Warka or Irka a more modern pronunciation of both." Having made these preliminary remarks on the still obscure origin and history of Warka, I proceed to describe the present aspect of these very remarkable ruins. They stand in latitude about 31° 19' N. and in longitude about 45° 40' E., and are distant four miles from the nearest point on the eastern bank of the Euphrates. An elevated tract of desert soil, ten miles in breadth, is slightly raised above a series of inundations and marshes caused by the annual overflowing of the Euphrates. Upon this * *' Journal of Royal Asiatic Society," vol. xil, p. 481 ; note. t " Mesopotamia and Assyria," p. 115. In several recent works, the names Miigayah, El-Asayleh, or " the place of pebbles," and Senkereh are, on the authority of Colonel Chesney, applied to the ruins of Warka. The Arabs of the locaUty, however, do not know them by any such names ; and Sinkara is an independent ruin, 15 miles east-south-east of Warka. SOLITUDE AND DESOLATION. 163 are situated not only Warka, but Sinkara, Tel Ede, and Hammam — all unapproachable, except from November to March, during which months the river assumes its lowest level, and occasionally admits of access. This belt of elevated soil extends from a few miles south of Warka, in a N.E. direction, to the meres of the Affej already men- tioned. Towards the south and east the land of Chaldsea is swallowed up in a chain of marshes, through which, at long intervals, an island or an ancient mound appears above the horizon of waters. This character of the dis- trict appears from historical evidence to have obtained from the earliest times, and is duly represented in the Nineveh sculptures during the period of Sennacherib. While the inundation prevails, reeds and coarse grass skirt the border of the water, and a few stunted tamarisk bushes flourish for a time at a little higher level ; but with the retiring of the water vegetation rapidly dies, and in a few short weeks nothing but dried rushes and leafless twigs are to be seen on a parched sandy desert. The desolation and solitude of Warka are even more striking than the scene which is presented at Babylon itself. There is no life for miles around. No river glides in grandeiu? at the base of its mounds ; no green date groves flourish near its ruins. The jackal and the hyaena appear to shun the dull aspect of its tombs. The king of birds never hovers over the deserted waste. A blade of grass or an insect finds no existence there. The shrivelled lichen alone, clinging to the weathered surface of the broken brick, seems to glory in its universal dominion upon those barren walls. Of all the desolate pictures which I have ever beheld, that of Warka incom- parably surpasses all. There are, it is true, lofty and imposing structures towering from the surrounding piles of earth, sand, and broken pottery, but all form or plan is lost in masses of fallen brickwork and rubbish. These 164 GENERAL VIEW AND EXTENT. only serve to impress the mind more fully with the complete ruin and desertion which have overtaken the city. Its ancient name even is lost to the modern tribes, and little is known with certainty of its past history. Nineveh, Babylon, and Siisa have their peculiar traditions, but ancient Warka and its sanctity are forgotten as though they had possessed no previous existence. Standing upon the summit of the principal edifice called the Buwariyj^a/'' in the centre of the ruins, the beholder is struck with astonishment at the enormous accumulation of mounds and ancient relics at his feet. An irregular circle, nearly six miles in circumference, is defined by the traces of an earthen rampart, in some places forty feet high. An extensive platform of undulating mounds, brown and scorched by the burning sun, and cut up by innumerable channels and ravines, extends, in a general direction north and south, almost up to the wall, and occupies the greatest part of the enclosed area. As at NifFar, a wide channel divides the platform into two unequal parts, which vary in height from twenty to fifty feet ; upon it are situated the principal edifices of Warka. On the western edge of the northern portion rise, in soleimi grandeur, masses of bricks which have accumulated around the lower stories of two rectangular buildings and their various offices, supposed to be temples, or perhaps royal tombs. The bleached and lichen-covered aspect of the surface attests the long lapse of agos which has passed since the enterprising hand of man reared them from above the surrounding level desert. Detached from the principal mass of platform are several irregularly- shaped low mounds between it and the walls, some of which are thickly strewed with lumps of black scoria, as though buildings on their summits had been destroyed by fire. At the extreme north of the platform, close to * A on General Plan. GENERAL VIEW AND EXTENT. 165 the wall, a conical moiind^' rears its head from the sur- rounding waste of ruins — the barrow probably of some ancient Scyth. Warka, in the days of her greatness, was not, however, confined within the limit of her walls ; her suburbs may be traced by ruined buildings, mounds, and pottery, fully three miles beyond the ramparts into the eastern desert. Due north, at the distance of two miles from the Buwariyya, is the dome-shaped pile of NufFayji,t which rivals the central ruin itself in height, and stands the advanced guard of the city. Near it several smaller barrows are strewed around without apparent order or design. On the north-east is another large mound, | re- sembHng, but smaller than, Nuffayji. Forlorn splendour and unbroken solitude reign undis- turbed on the ruins. With the exception of the Tuweyba tribe, the Arabs shun a site which is held to be the abode of evil spirits, and none wiU dare to pass a night upon the doleful spot. The view of the surrounding horizon is not more cheer- ino: than that of the desolate scene within the walls. During seasons of drought (for I have visited Warka at no other time), seldom is an Arab tent or herd of cattle discernible on any side. In the clear sky of morning or evening it is only possible to make out a few spots which mark the winding coiKse of the Euphrates at the junction of the Hillah and Semava streams, El-Khithr trees and K^la'a Duraji — old settlements casually inhabited. Tel Ede on the north-north-east, Sinkara on the east- south-east, and a few date-trees on the marshes of the Kahr, are all that the eye finds to dwell upon in the opposite direction. The intervening space is a dry, barren and dismal desert, void of water, vegetation, and inhabi- tants. The prophecy of the coming desolation of Babylon is equally applicable to Warka : — " It shall never be • F on Plan. t J on Plan. X M on Plan. 166 EXTERNAL WALLS. inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in from- generation to generation : neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there ; neither shall the shepherds make their fold there."''" For probably eighteen centuries, Warka has stood deserted and in ruins as she now appears. No wonder therefore, that her history is lost in the oblivion of tlie past ! The external walls of sun-dried brick enclosino- the o main portion of the ruins may be traced without much difficulty throughout their entire circuit. They assume the form of an irregular circle five-and-a-half miles in circumference, with slightly perceptible angles towards the cardinal points. They attain their highest elevation on the north-east side,t where they are between forty and fifty feet above the plain, but the great quantity of rubbish lying at their base proves that their original height was considerably more. The width may have been perhaps twenty feet. From this point they trend away towards the south, gTadually decreasing in height until they become level with the desert, exhibiting at intervals traces of the brick- work itself. For the most part, however, they have long since lost all marks of their origin, and cannot be distin- guished from a simple earthen rampart. Many breaks occur along this portion of the walls, some of which were undoubtedly entrances. From south to west the course of the wall is only dis- cernible from the desert itself by the darker colour of the soil and the remains of semi-oval tiu'rets, fifty feet apart. These were open towards the city, and j^ossessed walls from four to five-and-a-half feet in thickness. Towards the north-west the wall may be followed over several large mounds, covered with black slag and scoria, like the refuse of a glass factory. It is not improbable that this was the site of the furnaces where the glazed • Isaiah xiii. 2(V t Near the conical mound maiied F on the Plan. THE BUWARfYiTA. 167 pottery herfkfter alluded to was made. Pottery, vitrified and inscribed bricks, scoria, and glass, are elsewhere found in abundance on the surface of the ruins. Of the three great edifices""' which rise conspicuously from the surface of the ruins, that called Buwariyya is not The Buwdriyya Ruin at Warka. only the most central, but the most lofty and ancient. At first sight it appears to be a cone, but further exa- mination proves it to be a tower, 200 feet square, built entirely of sun-dried bricks. On excavating at its base- ment there was discovered, on the centre of each side, a massive buttress of peculiar construction, erected for the purpose of supporting the main edifice. Unlike Miigeyer and other Babylonian structures, the lower tower of the Buwariyya is without any external facing of kiln-baked brickwork, its place being, however, supplied by the above-mentioned buttresses. This, together with the pri- mitive manner in which the central portion is arranged, leads to the supposition that it is a very early struc- ture. Sir Henry Rawlinson confirms this conclusion, by reading the name of King Urukht upon the brick legends * A, B, and C on the Plan. t See inscriptions page 1G9. This king also built Mtigeyer and Niffar. 168 THE BUWARfYYA. of tlie buttresses, which record the dedicatioifof the edifice to " Sin/' or the " Moon," by that monarch, who is sup- posed to have lived about 2230 B.C. The total height of the Buwariyya is perhaps 1 00 feet above the desert plain, but only 27 feet of the internal brickwork emerges from a mass of rubbish, which slopes in a gradual descent from the summit and entirely covers up the buttresses. The sides are deeply cut and furrow^ed by rain channels and ravines. The sun-dried bricks are of various shapes and sizes, w^hich is contrary to the custom in later edifices. They are rudely moulded of very incoherent earth, mixed with fragments of pottery and fresh-w^ater shells, and vary in size from 7 to 9 inches long by 7 inches wide, and 3 or S^ inches in thickness. The name "Buw™y}^a," in Arabic, signifies "reed mats," which term is similarly applied to other mounds in Meso- potamia, in the construction of which the reed matting is used as a new foundation for the successive layers of bricks. Eeeds are placed at intervals of 4 or 5 feet, and serve to protect the earthen mass from disintegTation, by projecting beyond the external surface. Four or five rows of bricks are laid horizontally under and upon each layer, and cemented in mud, but the remainder are placed lengthwise on edge, with their flat surfaces and narrow edges facing outwards. The same oblong apertures, which usually characterize edifices of this description, are ob- servable here. The summit of the existing ruin is per- fectly flat, and measures 68 feet from north to south. At one point are traces of a brick superstructure, with inscrip- tions of Sin-shada, who lived about 1500 B.C., and the rubbish, mixed with bitumen, on the exterior, appears to have fallen from it. We therefore conclude that Sin- shada repaired or rebuilt the upper terrace of the Buwariyya which had been erected 800 years previously by his pre- decessor, Urukh, in the same manner as Nebuchadnezzar, RECORDS OF URUKH, 2230 B.C. 169 MkB II ^ ^%fP>. stamped Inscription of Urukh in Monograms. at a later period, repaired tlie terraces of the Birs Nimrud, constructed 500 years before his time. The buttresses which have been referred to are 19 feet high, and each is divided into two equal parts, by an intervening space of 1 foot 9 inches. Each portion is 2 feet 2 inches thick, and pro- jects 7^ feet from the unbaked central mass, against which the two parts of the buttress are united by a strong wall. The fiat bricks are cemented with thick layers of bitu- men, so firmly adher- ing together that they can with difficulty be separated. Each brick is inscribed with eight lines of complicated monogrammic characters, peculiar to the earlier cunei- form inscriptions. The greater num- ber are stamped, but in some the inscriptions are written, and ex- hibit the manner in which the stamped mono- grams are consti- tuted. I destroyed a 2'reit DOrtion of a inscription ofUi-ukh in oi-dlnary cuneiform characters. buttress, and duo; a considerable distance into the western ano-le of the internal mass of brickwork, for the purpose 170 THE BUWARfYYA E^X'LOSURE. of discovering the dedicatory cylinders, which IVIr Tay- lor s excavations at Mtigeyer proved to be deposited at the corners of Babylonian edifices. It is, however, pro- bable that they had long previously been destroyed by the fall of brickwork, and therefore my search for these valued records was fruitless. The Buvvariyya stands at the western angle of a large enclosiu-e, 350 feet long by 270 feet wide, which evidently extended around it, and reached to the south-east edge of the great platform. Distinct w^alls of vitrified bricks, bearing the name of Merodach-gina, 1400 B.C., are trace- able in different places. Without extensive excavations it w^ould be impossible to understand the original plan or disposition of the nu- merous walls which appear from under masses of unbaked brick. It is probable that they acted as supports, and served to prevent outward pressure. The south-east portion of the enclosure is traversed by numerous ravines, which penetrate deeply into the mound, and expose several of these walls. Wherever trenches were opened at this locality they revealed the same un- baked mass intersected by rectangular walls cemented in bitimien. CHAPTER XVI. "Wuswas" Kidn — The Earliest Explorer — Rude Ornamentation — Columnar Architecture — Palm Logs the Probable Type — New Light on the External Architecture of the Babylonians and Assyrians — Interior of Wuswas — The Use of the Arch in Ancient Mesopotamia — Search for Sculptures — The Warrior in Basalt. By far the most interesting structure at "Warka is that called " AVuswas."'"' It is contained in a spacious walled quadrangle, the eastern corner of which is 840 feet from the Buwariyya. Its north-western side is on the edge of the great platform. The enclosure is oblong, and includes an area of more than 7^ acres ; the north-west and south- east sides respectively measure 650 feet and 500 feet. All the buildings at Warka point with one corner to the true north, and, this being likewise the case at Mugeyer, I presume that such arrangement obtained generally in Clialdoean architecture, perhaps for astronomical pur- poses. The walls of the enclosure are now reduced to long, high ridges of bricks and mortar. A large court on the level of the platform occupies the eastern corner, and is approached by an entrance through each of its external walls. A third gateway on the south-west led to a ter- race in front of the principal building. A second court, at a lower level, occupies a correspond- ing position at the north angle, and likewise approaches the main structure, probably by a flight of steps. A large * B on Plan. 172 THE SACRILEGIOUS NEGKO. gateway gives entrance to this court from the north- west. The remainders of the north-west and south-east sides are elevated terraces, parallel with the walls of the prin- cipal edifice, that on the north-west being of considerable width. The most important and conspicuous portion of this great enclosure is the structure on the south-west side, which gives its present name to the min. It is said to be derived from a negro called Wuswas, who, a few years ago, observed a wall on the south-west side, and began to make an exca- vation, under the impression that he would find gold within. After pe- netratino- fifteen feet throuoh solid brick-work he dis- covered a valu- able ring, but one of the saints of the Mohammedan calendar appeared in a vision, and warned him that ^ his act of spolia- tion was sinful, and that, if he still persisted in his wicked pro- ject, paradise and its hiiris would not be his future lot. Wuswas was alarmed, but, un\villing to part with the treasure he had akeady acquired, disappeared, and it is to this day unknown whether he had been torn to pieces The Excavation at Wuswaa. THE WUSWAS RUIN. 173 by wild beasts, or whether the Mohammedan saint had forthwith transported him to the seventh heaven. The superstitious Arabs have never sin^e dared to enter the excavation, although they have no hesitation in ejecting the bones of the dead from the tenements where they have for ages reposed. The excavation made by Wuswas shewed an a.ct of patience and perseverance foreign to the Arab character, and exposed a thickness of walling which is, at first sight, likely to lead to the erroneous conclusion that the great pile was a solid mass. This ruin is 246 feet long by 174 feet wide, and stands 80 feet above the plain. On three sides are terraces of different elevations, but the fourth or south-west presents a perpendicular fagade, at one place 23 feet in height. Like all Babylonian and Assyrian ruins, the Wuswas building is elevated on a lofty artificial platform 50 feet high, which has perhaps been added to that of the Buwd- riyya. The enormous amount of rubbish which encumbers its summit, sides, and base, gives some slight idea of the magnitude of the edifice, and excites unbounded surprise. It rises from 2 to 6 feet above the building, completely fills every chamber, measures from 20 to 30 feet from the base of the external walls, and extends down the slope of the mound — a truncated pyramid of broken bricks and mortar. At my second visit, on returning from Mohammerah, I remarked certain architectural peculiarities, which sub- sequently induced me to undertake excavations on the site of Wuswas's labours. Trenches were therefore di- rected against the fa9ade, where there appeared a proba- bility that an entrance might be effected into the interior. The immense accumidation of fallen brickwork rendered excavation a work of considerable danger, and required the greatest care to prevent the workmen being buried up by the giving way of the loose material. Appliances 174 SOUTH-WEIBT FACADE. like stays or slioring were unprocurable in the de- serts ; we laboured in the most primitive manner. The edo-e of a broken wall was, in the first place, laid bare at the summit, and the uniformity of its outline induced me to ex- cavate at four different localities, but it soon became evident that i neither entrance nor window ever existed on this side ; at the same time, it afforded the first glimpse of Babylonian architecture, exhiljiting I peculiarities so remark- I able and original as to I pronounce at once its ^ undoubted antiquity. It g furnishes a new page to I the annals of architec- ^ tural art. The facade measures 174 feet in length, and, as before stated, in some places 23 feet in height. With this elevation, it is not difficult to complete a restoration of the entire front to that height. Al- though the portions un- The right half of the Plan is a horizontal section throuorh the columns-^ EUDE COLUMNAR ARCHITECTURE. 1 75 covered possess no beauty comparable with the artistic conceptions and productions of subsequent ages, a broad air of grandeur must have attended the immense size and height of the edifice. Such buildings as those at Warka must have been imposing in the extreme. At the base of the ruin a narrow terrace, 3^ feet wide, coated with a thin layer of white plaster, runs the entire length of the facade. From this, in one unbroken per- pendicular line, without a single moulding, rises the main wall, which is subdivided by slight recesses 1 2^ feet long. Nothing can be more plain, more rude, or, in fact, more unsightly than the decoration employed upon this front ; but it is this very aspect — this very ugliness, which vouches for the originality of the style. It has long been a question whether the column was employed by the Babylonians as an architectural embelHshment. The Wuswas fagade settles this point beyond dispute. Upon the lower portion of the building are groups of seven half-columns repeated seven times — the rudest perhaps which were ever reared, but built of moulded semicircular bricks, and securely bonded to the wall. The entire absence of cornice, capital, base, or diminution of shaft, so characteristic of other columnar architecture, and the peculiar and original disposition of each group in rows like palm logs, suggest the type from which they sprang. It is only to be compared with the style adopted by aboriginal inhabitants of other countries, and was evi- dently derived from the construction of wooden edifices. The same arrangement of uniform reeds or shafts, placed side by side, as at Wuswas, occurs in many Egyptian structures, and in the generality of Mexican buildings before the Spanish invasion. It is that which is likely to the other half a section through the recesses of the upper story. The only portion of the facade exposed before the excavations was around the hole dug by the negro, of which an engraving is given on page 172. 1 76 RUDE COLUMNAR ARCHITECTURE. originate among a rude people before the introduction of the arts. There is not a line in the facade to which foreign influence can be traced. In place of a plinth, a fillet of plaster, 1-^ inch high, re-connects the line of wall broken by the successive groups of columns. In similar manner above them a horizontal band passes flush with the wall. The otherwise monotonous character of this portion of the front is in some measure varied by the nearer arrange- ment of the two outward groups of columns. From the horizontal band, immediately above the three central columns of each group, rises a stepped recess if foot deep, surmounted by a larger and a smaller crescent — a sacred emblem of Chaldaean worship. On either side of these recesses, over the first and seventh columns of each series, is a chasing, containing, in its upper half, a column similar to those before described. The rest of the front at intervals is perpendicularly subdi\T.ded by chasings 7 inches deep, extending unin- terruptedly from the terrace to the highest point of the building now remaining. This chasing occurs in many other Chaldsean ruins — at the small oratory at Mugeyer and on the great temple at Sinkara — and may be regarded as a chief characteristic of Babylonian architectural ornamentation. The whole front has been undoubtedly coated with white plaster from 2 to 4 inches thick, which seems to have suff'ered more from the fall of the upper portion of the building than from its anterior exposure to the weather. It exhibits no trace of colour. I have entered upon the above details, because we previously knew httle or nothing regarding the external architecture of the Babylonians, or of the Assyrians. It is true that the lower story of the great temple at Mugeyer has stood exposed for centuries in good preservation, but GROUPS OF COLUMNS THE PREVAILING TYPE. 177 it is -without tlie peculiar features above described. At the Birs Nimriid, too, so little of the edifice was visible under the superincumbent pile of rubbish, and that little in such a deplorable state of ruin, that it is impossible to gain any light upon the subject. These were the only two Babylonian edifices which, previous to the discovery of Wuswas, exhibited any external features. Neither Mr Layard's excavations at Koyunjuk and Nimrud, nor those of M. Botta at Khorsabad, furnished any idea as to the exteriors of the Assyrian palaces. Except at the grand entrance of Sargon's palace at Khorsabad, and that of Sennacherib at Koyunjuk, guarded by their colossal bulls and attendant human figures, no portion of the outer walls of an Assyrian palace had ever, up to that time, been uncovered. For the first time, then, Wuswas advances some positive data by which to reconstruct the ■ exterior of a Ninevite palace. It is not, however, extra- ordinary that this had previously escaped discovery. The walls of the palaces erected by the Assyrian kings were merely composed of unbaked bricks, which, in a more humid climate than that of Chaldaea, crumbled away when they ceased to be cared for, forming a com- pact mass with the earth and rubbish under which they were eventually buried. Khorsabad, however, appears to have escaped the destruction which befell the other palaces of Assyria, and to have continued in a remarkably perfect condition when explored by the French Govern- ment. To the perseverance of M. Victor Place, the late French Consul at Mosul, is due the credit of having first discovered and exposed the exterior of an undoubted Assyrian edifice. It is remarkable that not only was the discovery made about the time of my excavations at Wuswas, but also that the architectural peculiarities of the two edifices are so similar that no possible doubt can be thrown on their common origin. The whole exteriors of M 178 REVIVAL OF THE STYLE UNDER THE SASSANIANS. the tower and liarem of Sargon, at Khorsabad, exhibit a modified representation of the Wuswas fa9ade ; the same rude cokimns, without capital or base, are ranged in sets of seven together, side by side ; and the same dentated recesses or chasings separate the groups, varied only by the insertion of a single column, or a cluster of three, between them. The wall at Khorsabad unfortunately terminates before the columns have attained their full height ; con- sequently, this portion of the Wuswas design with its crescents are not visible. Wuswas therefore still remains the most perfect exterior of its class. I several times subsequently uncovered columns ar- ranged in Hke manner, with chasings at their sides, on the exterior of the south-east palace at Nimrud. At a later date. Sir Henry Eawlinson ascertained that the same system of half-column groups and chasings occurs on the lowest terrace or story of the Bii'S Nimrud ; but the results of his discoveries at that locality are as yet only partially made public. That gTOups of columns and double recesses were the prevailing type of Assyrian and Babylonian external architecture there can be little doubt, and future excava- tions in those countries may develop the fact more fully/' This native style ceased with the introduction of Greek art and its chaste ornamentation during the occupation of the coimtry under the Seleucidse ; but a slight revival probably took place under the Sassanians. We have several edifices of the latter period, such as the Tauki Kesra at Ctesiphon, and the Palace of Firuzabad in Southern Persia, which in all essential particulars so much resemble Wuswas as to prove that the Sassanians borrowed most * In several Koyunjuk sculptures, one of which is engraved in Mr Layard's " Nineveh and Babylon," p. 647, the double recesses or chasings are precisely delineated, and afford further proof — if such be required — of their adaptation to the exterior of Assyrian edifices. INTERIOR OF WUSWAS. 179 of their peculiarities from earlier native examples.* In the two buildings mentioned, we have the same dull, heavy aspect, without break or window, and the same repetition of inelegant columns and narrow arches, which take the place of stepped recesses in the earlier edifices. Having said thus much on the external character of Wuswas, it is time to explore its interior. Here, however, I experienced much difficulty. It has been already stated that the enormous thickness of the south-west wall, and the accumulation of bricks, are likely to lead to the conclusion that the building is of solid construction. Sub- sequent excava- tions, however, proved that this is not the case, but that a prin- cipal entrance,t with plain brick jambs, conducts into a large outer court, with cham- bers on either side. Beyond it is an- other hall similar- ly arranged. My excavations were commenced on the summit, at the south - west side, where certain hollows and lineal elevations of bricks indicated faint outlines of rooms. But the immense • Fergusson's « Illustrated Handbook of Aixhitecture," voL i,, p. 373. t Ate. Plan of the Great Edifice at Wuswas. 180 ARCHED ROOF. thickness of the walls compared with the size of the chambers, for a length of time defeated my purpose, and I was almost inclined to the belief that the great mass of building was a solid block of brickwork. Success, however, ultimately rewarded my labours, and I had the satisfaction of at least tracing the walls of nearly seven chambers, the general arrangement of whicli resembles, in a remarkable manner, that of the Asspian palaces, as respects want of uniformity in size and shape, and the position of the doorway at the sides rather than the centres of the rooms. The largest chamber or hall ^" measures fifty-seven feet by thirty feet ; and the smallest, t adjoining it, nine feet by thirty feet. A shaft was dug in the former, and the rubbish entirely cleared out of the latter to the depth of twenty-three feet and a half. The walls were rudely plastered, but did not exhibit any trace of colour. Portions of date-wood were found in the small chamber, and apertures for beams are traceable in the walls twelve feet from the brick pavement. These extend, however, only partially the length of the room, leaving a space by which light may have passed to the lower apartment, or by which a stair may have communicated between the upper and ground-floor rooms. The other chambers must have been in some measure liohted from above, but the precise mode is conjectural, since there is neither window nor door along the whole length of the front by which light could have been admitted. J ♦ A of Plan. t B of Plan. X In the above description of the architectural peculiarities of the Wuswas edifice, I have largely availed myself of the valuable and concise report which, at my request, Mr Boutcher prepared on the spot for the Committee of the Assyi'ian Excavation Fund. I take this opjjortunity of eipressiug my obligations to that gentleman for the great assistance he afforded me in my labours both in Chaldoea and AssjTia, and of directing attention to the very beautiful collection of drawings which he made dur- ing the continuance of the expedition. These drawings are now deposited in the British Museum, and in the collection of the Royal Asiatic Society, THE ARCH versus THE COLUMN IN ASSYRIA. 181 The rubbish, as I heave before mentioned, completely filled every chamber ; so that, having ascertained the non-existence of sculptures in two apartments, I did not deem it advisable to explore further. This extent of rubbish, taken in connexion with the great thickness and arrangement of the walls, gives some idea of the size and roof of the fallen superstructure. On reference to the plan, it will be observed that there is a great dispropor- tion in the relative thickness of the flank and front walls of the building, but, if we consider the wall of the fagade to be the side wall of the two large chambers, its thickness may be accounted for. On further examination we shall find the flank walls of every chamber thicker or slighter in proportion to the width of the chamber, wliich is precisely what would be necessary, if, as I believe, each chamber were covered with a brick arch. I am here induced to make a few remarks on the con- struction of the Assyrian palaces. In his admirably conceived restorations, Mr Fergusson"' everywhere adopts the conclusion that, as the span between the walls was frequently too great to admit of the roof being supported by horizontal beams, the Assyrians had recourse to columns in preference to all other modes of building. He supports his arguments by examples derived from India, Persia, and elsewhere, and his reasoning is clear and satisfactory, as far as it goes. It may be presumptuous in me to differ from one who has so intimately investi- gated this and similar subjects, but it strikes me, from actual observation of these ruins, that Mr Fergusson's theory is founded in error. It is perfectly true that the Ass}Tians used the column, because the bases are stiU found — but always at doorways and not within the and will well repay the examination of those interested in the subject of Chaldajan and Assyrian antiquities. * " Nineveh and Persepolis Restored," p. 270 et seq. 182 THE ARCH versus THE COLUMN IN ASSYRIA. rooms ; — they have never yet been discovered in the latter position. When Mr Fergusson arrived at this conclusion he was not aware that the Assyrians really made use of the arch on a grand scale ; but this has since been fully proved at Khors^b^d, where magnificent arches, of sun- diied brick, still rest on the massive backs of the colossal bulls which guard the great gateways leading into the city, and shew that, not only did the Assyrians under- stand the construction ot an arch, but also its use as a decorative feature. However admirably an open chamber, supported on columns, might be suited to the lofty or cooler regions of Persia or India, where refreshing breezes at intervals relieve the heat of the day, they are not well adapted to the continuous sultriness of an Assyrian climate. The natives of Mosul, at the present day, do not use colunms in preference to arches, and my belief is that customs have not much altered in that region since the days of Sennacherib. To exclude heat and rain, nothing can be better adapted than the lofty arch, as it is still there employed. The Hght is frequently admitted by small windows, immediately under the spring of the arch. A similar mode of lighting, I have no doubt, prevailed in the ancient palaces, than which a better system could not be adopted for the display of their wonderful bas-rehefs. These never look so well as in a trench, with the sub- dued light admitted through a small hole above. The great thickness of the walls in the Nineveh palaces is, I am convinced, due to the fact that the rooms were vaulted, as first suggested by M. E. Flandin.''' An arch, constructed of such mud bricks as those still standing at Khorsabad, would in its fall cover up and preserve the sculptures uninjured, exactly as they are disclosed to us by the excavations. This, too, will account • " Revue des Deux Mondes." THE AGE OF THE WUSWAS EDIFICE. 183 for the great quantity of earth which fills all the chambers of the palaces.'"' This is precisely what has happened at Wiiswas with the brickwork of the superstructure, and which I have little doubt was vaulted. The bricks used in the construction of this edifice mea- sure twelve and a half inches square by tln^ee inches thick. Each is marked on its under side with a deeply impressed triangular stamp or wedge, which may here be regarded as a sacred emblem, as it certainly is upon the altar in the National Library at Paris, and on many Babylonian cylinders. This stamp undoubtedly indicates the charac- ter of the edifice in which it so repeatedly occurs. In addition to this wedge-shaped stamp, a few bricks are likewise impressed with an oblong die, bearing thirteen lines of minute cuneiform characters, resembling those which occTU' on clay cylinders, but so extremely indistinct that it is quite impossible to copy the legend. Sir Henry Eawlinson, on examining one of these, was inclined, from the apparent simplicity of a few characters, to regard them, not as Babylonian, hnt as Parthian, or even late Sassanian ; and he therefore pronounced the building of Wuswas to belong to a post-Babylonian age. He argued, too, that there was nothing Babylonian in the character, design, or architecture of the building, which would favour the idea of its greater antiquity. This was, however, pre^dous to M. Place's discoveries at KJiorsab^d, and to Sir Henry Eawlinson's own excavations at the * The vaulted roofs of the houses and mosques at Mosul are, however, constructed of gypsum plaster and broken bricks, the terraces being covered ■with mud and earth. Such may have been the case in the palaces of ancient Nineveh. The numerous fragments of bricks and lumps of decom- posing gypsum in the soil above the sculptures, is strong presumptive evidence that this plan of constructing their roofs was adopted by the Assyrians. This explanation would entirely do away with the necessity for columns, and the difficulty of erecting vaulted ai-ches of mud bricks over rooms thirty-three feet wide, which is the chief objection raised to the sys- tem of arched roofing at Nineveh. 184 THE AGE OF THE WUSWAS EDIFICE. Birs Ninu'iid — at botli which places, as I have elsewhere mentioned, precisely the same architectural features were met with in edifices of undoubted Assyrian and Baby- lonian origin. Admitting the possibility that the Sassanians adoj)ted in full the style of the Babylonians, it is extremely improbable that it should have remained wholly unin- fluenced by the introduction of a more classic taste during the Greek occupation of Mesopotamia ; and that a style so rude and unsightly should have endured unchanged even during the dominion of the Persians, who, long pre- vious to the Parthians and Sassanians, were far advanced in art. Such, we know, was not the case ; and, although they may have retained the elements of the Babylonian style, all the Sassanian edifices with which we are acquainted exhibit a decided advance in art, and an adaptation of the more elegant designs of the West. I cannot therefore conform to the opinion that the AVus- was temple is either a Parthian or a Sassanian structure. Although it has hitherto yielded no records to decide the point satisfactorily, I would fain believe that such will ultimately be recovered to prove its undoubted Babylonian origin. It is impossible at present to assign to it other than an approximate date. From the discovery of a few fragments of bricks, bearing the name of Sin- Shada — probably derived from the upper story of the Buwariyya, and built into the entrance jamb — it cannot be older than 1500 B.C. (the probability is that it is much later), and, as the style of architecture seems to have been at its height in the times of Sargon and Nebuchadnezzar, Wuswas temple was perhaps erected about the seventh or eighth century B.C. With regard to the object for which this immense edifice was built, it is, of course, presumptuous to pro- nounce an opinion with so little to guide us. The wedge, as a sacred emblem, might equally well be applied to a CHALDiEA GENERALLY WITHOUT SCULPTURES. 185 palace, a temple, or a royal tomb. It will, I fear, be long before any positive data can be obtained to decide the question. The fact, however, that Warka was a great Necropohs, and that the Greek historian Arrian says that the Assyrian kings were buried somewhere in the Chal- daean marshes, rather tends to the supposition that two at least of the monster edifices at Warka were among the tombs of the kings to which Arrian alludes.'^"' With the exception of several fragments of coloured enamelled bricks, similar to those found on the ruins of the Kasr at Babylon, there was nothing in or around the edifice which indicated the mode of decoration employed ; and as AVuswas failed to yield sculptured bas-reliefs, we must, I fear, give up all hope of discovering works of this nature in Babylonia. It is not, however, surprising that the palaces and temples of this region should be without sculptured slabs, because the alluvial plains of the lower Tigris and Euphrates do not furnish stone suited to the purpose. Any that might be used must have been pro- cured at great expense, and conveyed a considerable distance down the river. Bricks and plaster, therefore, naturally took the place of the gypsum slabs which adorned the palaces of Assyria, and were obtainable in any quantity from the quarries in the neighbourhood of Nineveh. Warka, howaver, is not without one specimen of ancient sculpture. My friend Mr T. Kerr Lynch (who took ad- vantage of my last journey to accompany me from Bagh- dad on a visit to the ruins) in passing over the mounds, directed my attention to an isolated lump of basalt pro- jecting through the soft and yielding soil. It lay about 400 feet south of the Buwariyya upon the slope of the great platform.t On turning over the block, it proved * Arrian de Exped. Alex., vii. 22. + At I on the General Plan. 186 THE WARRIOR IN BASALT. to be a fragment of coarse columnar basalt, nearly four feet long, but broken into four pieces. Three sides were uncut, but the fourth bore upon it a rude figure in low relief. A warrior was represented in short tunic, confined round the waist with a girdle. In the belt was a short sword or dao-o-er. The louo; hair was bound round the head with a narrow fillet. The left arm crossed the breast, while the right, raised and wielding a short spear, was in the act of striking a prostrate foe or animal, which did not, however, appear on the sculpture. The design was very spirited, and the outline remarkably correct, but the execution was rough and unfinished. There was a certain archaic character about the bas-rehef which marked it as one of the earliest relics on the ruins. The Arabs, seldom accustomed to see blocks of stone upon the mounds, invariably regard them as talismans or trea- sures. The sculpture in question was so looked on by my Tuweyba friends, who have little respect for any- thing but gold. In hope of finding its interior filled with gold, they had lighted fires around it at various times ; but, observing the little effect thus produced, they managed to break it by other means. It had suf- fered considerably from exposure and ill-usage, and was valueless to bring away as a work of art. This discovery caused me to expend much time and labour in its vicinity, searching for the locality from whence it had been derived, and where I imagined there might be other specimens of a similar kind. My work, however, resulted in total disapjpointment. CHAPTER XVIL New Styles of Decorative Art — Cone-work — Pot-work — Arab Aversion to Steady Labour — Blood-Feud between the Tuweyba and El-Bej — The Encounter Frustrated — ^The Feud Healed — Diversions after the Work of the Day. About one hundred feet north of the sculpture just described, close to the southern angle of the Buwariyya enclosure, I was fortunate in meeting with the remains of an edifice,""' which bears analogy to that of Wuswas, and is, without exception, perfectly unique in its con- struction. Situated nearly on a level with the desert, it may also be regarded as of early origin, and although only a fragment, it yields to none in interest. I had frequently noticed a number of small yellow terra-cotta Terra-cotta Cone, natural size. cones, three inches and a half long, arranged in half circles on the surface of the mound, and was much perplexed to imagine what they were. They proved to be part of a wall, thirty feet long, entirely composed of these cones imbedded in a cement of mud mixed * At E on Plan. 188 WALL OF TERRA-COTTA CONES. witli chopped straw. They were fixed liorizontally mth their circular bases facing outwards. Some had been dipped in red and black colour, and were arranged in various ornamental patterns, such as diamonds, triangles, zigzags, and stripes, which had a remarkably pleasing effect. The wall which these cones ornamented consisted j=j' Elevation and Plan of the Terra-cotta Cone Wall, Warka. of a plane surface fourteen feet ten inches long, broken away for a short space in the centre, and projecting one foot nine inches beyond a series of half-columns, arranged precisely as in the Wuswas facade side by side. Two of these columns aj^peared on one side of the projection, and six on the other. Each differed from its next neighbour in design, but that first from the plane wall only measured one foot eight inches in diameter, while the others were each two feet six inches. It would have been interestino- to have ascer- tained that the number of columns in each group agreed with those at Wuswas, but unfortunately the wall ceased before completing the number — seven, and the height of the whole did not exceed six feet. Trenches in various directions failed to discover other portions of this edifice ; neither could any trace of walHng behind the cones be distinguished from the surrounding mass of earth. That some supporting wall formerly existed is, however, evi- dent from the slender nature of the remainino- fabric. CONES OF TERRA-COTTA. 189 In ancient Egyptian tombs, similar but much larger cones are found, with hieroglyphs stamped upon their bases, several specimens of which are in the British Mu- seum. They are supposed to have a sepulchral character, and to have been let into the wall at the entrance of the tomb, although they have never been ol)served in that position. The hieroglyphs are probably the names of the deceased. No marks or inscriptions occur on these Warka cones, but there is every reason to suppose that they were in a similar manner connected with the burial of the dead. The ascertained fact, before noticed, that the site was a vast cemetery, is strong presumptive evidence in favour of tliis conclusion. Cones of the same kind are of frequent occurrence upon the ruins of the great platform, sometimes firmly fixed together in strong white plaster or cement, but no other building was observed with them in situ. There is, how- ever, little doubt that several might be discovered by largely excavating in the mounds. Similar cones are found in many other ruins of undoul)ted Babylonian age, which, unlike Warka, have escaped being built upon by succeeding races. Mr Taylor discovered them plentifully, both at Miigeyer and Abu Shehreyn, at which latter place they occurred ten inches in length, composed of limestone and marble, and sometimes with a rim roimd the edge filled with copper.'"'" They were, undoubtedly, much used as an architectural decoration in Lower Chaldsea, and always in connexion with sepulchral remains. Cones, or rather horns of baked clay, frequently occur on the same ruins, inscribed round the thick part of the circumference in early and complicated cuneiform characters. They, however, appear to have been attached to some other object, and are usually bent at the summit * See Mr Taylor's Memoirs on the ]\Itigeyer and Abti Shehreyn, in the "Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society," vol. xv., pages 268, 274, 411, 416. 190 POT-WORK DECORATION. of the cone. One of these, obtained by me at Warka, bears on it the name of Bel or Belus. It is engraved in Mr Layard's "Nineveh and Babylon," p. 564, and is now in the British IMuseum. Warka is a complete mine for extraordinary and un- heard-of modes of decoration in architecture. Within a stone's throw of the south-west fa9ade at Wuswas, is another mound crowned with a curious building, which has some points of resemblance to the cone-brick structure last described. It rises abruptly from the base of the artificial mound"' on which the Wuswas ruin stands, and appears to have been a tower of unbaked brick. My attention was particularly directed to it by the enormous quantity of broken pottery and conical ends of jars which lay around. On excavating midway up its north side, I came upon a kind of basement or perhaps terrace of mud-brick abutting against a mass of compact earth. Upon the latter was raised a wall composed entirely of unbaked bricks, and a peculiar species of conical vase, the fragments of which lay strewed on the surface. This wall was traced about one hundred feet, but was extremely irregular in plan, at one point projecting forward four feet, then rounding off and receding eight feet. It afterwards assumed its original direction for forty-three feet, then made an obtuse angle, and finally bore away as before, when I ceased to follow it further. Above the foundation were a few layers of mud-bricks, superimposed on which were three rows of these vases, arranged horizontally, mouths outward, and immediately above each other. This order of brick and pot-work was repeated thrice, and was succeeded upwards by a mass of unbaked bricks. The vases vary in size from ten to fifteen inches in length, with a general diameter at the mouth of four inches. The cup or interior is only six inches deep, consequently * At L on the General Plan. THE GREAT RUIN. 191 the conical end is solid. The cup was formed by a regular turning apparatus. These vases, from their great thickness throughout, are capable of bearing very con- siderable pressure, although the greatest proportion of them was broken by the superincumbent mass of earth. With their circular mouths outwards they produced a very strange effect — more striking even than that of the painted cone edifice already described. It is difficult to conceive the piu-pose for which these vases were designed. We know, however, that large in- flated vases were sometimes built into the walls of the ,/p^^s-*f/rj*^. Jar and Jugs from the Coffiu Mounds. CLAY PENATES. 213 Steel and Flint. beins: Parthian. Close to the foot of each coffin are one or more large glazed water-jugs and earthen drinking cups, of extremely artistic form. One of these, the tall central jug of the engraving, was foimd in a recess built for its reception in the side wall of a vault, within arm's length of the coffin. The bones of a fowl, with flint ^'' and steel, were also frequently deposited upon the lid. The practice of placing food and water near the body was certainly con- nected with the superstitions of the period. The same practice is, I believe, continued among the Arabs, who conceive that these articles are necessary to give the spirit strengih on its long journey. Some of the most interesting objects found in the same position are small terra-cotta figures, which were probably household divi- nities. Many are un- doubtedly Parthian ; such, for instance, as the reclin- ing warrior, with a cup C?) in his left hand, wear- ino; a coat -of- mail or padded tunic reaching to the knees, and a helmet Reclining Fig^xre of PartUianWarnor. ornamented in front. The whole costume is well repre- sented on many coins of the Parthian epoch. Several are female figures in loose attire, exhibiting strange head-dresses, which, doubtless, give us some notion of the costume of the period. One of these is very re- markable ; it rises into two tall conical peaks, from which depends a veil, reminding one strongly of the EngUsh • Slices of flint and obsidian, precisely like the sacrificial knives of the ancient Mexicans, are found upon the mounds. The former were designed for striking a light, but the object of the latter is not so evident. 214 CLAY PENATES. ladies' costume in the time of Hemy IV. Nude female figures, probably representing the IMyHtta or Venus of Terra-cotta Figures. Parthian 5 the Assyrians, were extremely common at the Parthian period, having been handed down from antiquity. Simi- lar figures are universal throughout the East before the Christian era. A few figures bear traces of colour. The accompanying figures represent an old bearded man and an old woman carry- ing a square basket or box in her hand ; red and black paint are distinctly recog- nisable upon them. Of all the clay figures, the heads, in the adjoining woodcut are most interesting. They are infinitely superior to the rest in point of design and execution, and mark the rapidly spreading influence of Greek art. They possess all the characteristic features and boldness of the Greek face, and yet they can scarcely be other than the works of Babylonian artists. The hair is arranged in long ringlets, and the heads are Clay Figures exhibit ing traces of paint. LIGHT-FINGERED ARABS. 215 Greek Heads. surmounted by lofty head-dresses of different form. To the same period may be referred a small broken tablet, representing a stui'dy winged figure, with a robe fastened by a brooch at the right shoulder, but flying loose- ly, and leaving the body naked. The head is want- ing : the leo's with ank- lets stand on small round- ed prominences ; one is held in his left hand. This figure is probably a repre- sentation of Hercules. It would be endless to give in detail all the small articles Avhich were discovered in connexion with the slipper coffins. It is not to be supposed that my Arab friends pati- ently submitted to my appropriating the small articles which were revealed dui'ing the researches among the ruins. On the discovery of an urn or coffin, it was with the greatest difficulty they could be prevented from at once breaking in and stealing the valuables, before the earth was sufficiently removed from around it, to admit of my making a careful examination. They would then all cluster together, thrust themselves in my way, and shew the greatest eagerness to seize a share of the spoil ; it was sometimes almost impossible to move for them. When I drew any object out of a coffin, a general commotion took place, and a variety of exclamations were uttered ; the words " gold," *' a cylinder," " silver," " sherbeh," " beads," rang through the assembly like wild- fire, and it required every possible manoeuvre to keep their hands out of the sarcophagus. Old Budda gene- rally succeeded in obtaining the best place, his little eyes sparkling with avarice, and his long arms stretched 216 LIGHT-FINGERED ARABS. out, while he volunteered information to those who could not see so well as himself, his finger-ends itching all the while to take advantage of any opportunity when they might intrude themselves into the proceedings. It was useless to drive them away ; like Hies or v;iltures, they would return immediately to their prey. It frequently happened that, no sooner was a coffin discovered, than it was rifled without ceremony in my absence, and, of course, no person was the offender. To dismiss a work- man by way of ex- ample was super- fluous, because his next neighbour would repeat the offence on the first opportunity. They were perfectly in- corrigil^le in this respect. A vaidt was once discovered in a trench, when a fear- ful hurricane of sand drove us all from the mound ; it was impossible to work, and almost to breathe. Fearing some of the AralDS might return and plunder the contents, I de- puted old Budda and two others to remain and to keep watch awhile behind the rest. On the following morn- ing, notwdthstanding this precaution, the vault was found to be broken into, and the coffin rifled. Beino- Coffin Treuch. THE ORDEAL. 217 miicli annoyed, I resolved, if possible, to ascertain who were the aggressors. Open and secret questioning were of no avail — aU strenuously denied the theft — so another plan was adopted to discover the guilty party. It was proposed that each man should take an oath upon the Koran that he was innocent of the offence. Ovannes, therefore, seated himself as judge on a hen- coop, and the Arabs, in their tribes, filed off before him, kissing, as they passed, a French Dictionary, which an- swered the part of a Koran, and declaring that they knew nothing of the act committed. The whole of the 'Abb^s and Khithr tribes went through the ceremony without flinching, but, when it came to the turn of the Tuweyba, they begged for an hour's consideration, and, at the expiration of that time, asked to be permitted to visit El-Kliithr and consult the bones of the holy Im4m on the subject. Finding this subterfuge without effect, at daybreak the following day, Azayiz appeared with a handfid of various beads which, it is to be charitably presumed, were the whole of the stolen property. As an act of great lil)erality on my part, they were returned to him, with an injunction that he would strictly look after the honesty of his people. I never overcame the belief that Budda and his companions (unal)le to resist the opportunity of being left alone on the mounds with an unsearched coffin before them) were the delinquents, and that his influence over the tribe prevented their denouncing him. He was very humble next day, and often repeated his regrets that the Tuweyba tribe had so committed itself. Considering the friable nature of the soil in the coffin trenches, it is wonderful that no very serious accidents took place during the continuance of the excavations. One mishap, however, occurred, in consequence of the proximity of an old Arab working, and afforded an in- 218 ENDURANCE OF PAIN. stance of Arab endurance of pain, and the rapidity with which their wounds heal. The trench side gave way and huried three men, one of whom was dug out with his collar bone broken. The poor fellow walked back to camp, where I managed to set the bone. While en- gaged in this occupation in the presence of the Avhole assembled tribe in the sheikh's tent, one of the perse- cuting dust squalls arose, and in a few seconds we were enveloped in a flood of dense sand, the light of the setting sun was completely shut out, and a yellow, sickly colour pervaded the atmosphere. The force with which the particles of sand were driven produced a sharp tingling of the flesh, and obliged the half-naked Araljs for once to cover themselves with their abbas, in which they sat crouching until the tent was blown down about our ears, and there was a chance of our being either strangled or suffocated. They then all sprang to their feet, and re- erected the tent under the excitement of the war-cry of the men and the tahlehl of the women. The patient, during the scramble which ensued, had the bone put out of position, and suffered great agony from the roughness of his comrades. As soon as the hurricane was over, it was set a second time and bandaged up, but in the night it got once mere disconnected. He, however, insisted on returning to his family across the Euphrates, notwithstanding all my persuasion. On receipt of a week's wages, he set out on foot upon a two days' journey! The endur- ance of an Arab is astonishing. Within a month after the occurrence of the accident, the man presented him- self again and demanded to be employed once more, swinoing his arm round to shew that it was healed. His request was granted for light work, and he after- wards obtained me several valuable relics. In this place I may enumerate the few objects which EAELIEST RELICS. 219 undoubtedly belong to the earliest type of funereal re- mains : — 1. The edifice of terra-cotta cones, of which I have already given an account (p. 187); and the horns of the same substance, with the dedication of Belus, as ascer- tained by Sir Henry Rawlinson. 2. Several dark brown tablets or syllabaria of unbaked clay, measuring nine inches by seven, and inscribed mth columns of minute cuneiform characters ; — one of which contains the names of various trees. 3. Terra-cotta figures of Venus ; an old man with flowing beard, wearing a skull-cap and long robe, encircled round the waist by a belt, his hands clasped in front in the Oriental attitude of res23ect ; and a younger personage, hold- ing some unknown object, pro- bably a mace, in the hands. These figures are infinitely su- perior to those of the later periods. Althoup^h stiff in out- Babyloniaii Figures. t • i line, they are very correctly modelled, and may be known at once by the dark green clay of which they are composed. 4. Near two well-built brick vaults, cemented with plaster, at the base of a small mound ^'^ south-east of the Buwariyya, was dug up a rude jar, containing a thin silver plate, which was folded in linen. It measures two inches long by one inch wide, and is embossed with a beautiful female figaure. The hands are raised in an attitude of adoration, and the hair hangs loosely behind. The attitude and costume recall to mind the extraordinary figiu'es on the rock sculptures of Mai Amii' plain, in the Bakhtiyari Mountains in Persia. * At G on the Plan. 220 EARLIEST RELICS. All the al)ove objects occur at the outskirts of the great cofliii iiKJUiids, where, if accumulated in the way I have been led to suppose, it is natural we should find the pri- mitive rehcs. If it were possible to penetrate through the vast piles of more recent deposits, we should doubt- less obtain some very valuable information regarding the veiy earliest modes of buiial. CHAPTEE XIX. Bank-notes of Babylon — Relics Injured by Fire — A Fruitful Mound — Chamber containing Arcliitectural Ornaments — Origin of the Sara- cenic Style — Clay Tablets witli Seal Impressions and Greek Names — Contimiance of Cuneiform until B.C. 200 — Himyaric Tomb-stone — Conical Mounds — Style for Writing Cuneiform — The Shat-el-NQ — General Results of the Excavations at Warka — Probable Relics still Buried there. While rambling over the mounds one day, I acciden- tally observed two bricks projecting through the soil of the wall or terrace which constitutes the edge of the great platform on the east of the Buwariyya.'"' Thinking, from their vitrified aspect, that they were likely to l^ear cunei- form legends, I extracted them from the earth, and, in doing so, exposed two small taljlets of unbaked clay, covered on both sides with minute characters. On searching further, others were discovered, and eventually there were obtained forty, more or less perfect, varying from two to four-and- a-half inches in length, by one to three inches in breadth. Many others were either irrevocably damaged by weather, or unavoidably broken in extraction from the tenacious clay in which they were disposed in rows and imbedded upon a brick pavement. They are now in the British Museum, but it is feared that the nitrous earth of which they are composed \\dll cause them to decay rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere. Sir Henry Eawlinson reported concerning them : — • At on the Plan. 222 BANK-NOTES OF BABYLON. " tliat they are certainly official documents issued by order of the king, attested or indorsed by the principal officers of state, and referring to specific amounts in weight of gold or silver. He could not help suspecting that the Babylonian kings, in an age when coined money was unknown, used these pieces of baked clay for the mere purpose of a circulating medium. The smaller cakes, he thought, corresponded to the notes of hand of the present day, the tenor of the legend being apparently an acknow- ledgment of liability by private parties for certain amounts of gold and silver. The more formal documents, however, seemed to be notes issued by the Government, for the convenience of circulation, representing a certain value, which was always expressed in measures of weight, of gold or silver, and redeemable on presentation at the Eoyal Treasury. He had chiefly examined them vrith the view to historical discovery, and had succeeded in finding the names of Nabopollassar, Nabokodrossor, Nabonidus, Cyrus, and Cambyses (ranging from 626 to 522 B.C.) ; the precise day of issue in such a month of such a year of the king's reign being in each instance attached to the document."^' These tablets were, in point of fact, the equivalents of our own bank-notes, and prove that a system of artificial currency prevailed in Babylonia, and also in Persia, at an unprecedented early age — centuries before the intro- duction of paper or printing ! They were, undoubtedly, deposited in the position where they were discovered, about the commencement of the Achsemenian period. On removing the rubbish from the brick pavement, it appeared that it formed a terrace thirty-two feet long and four feet wide. Only one brick was inscribed, and that had evidently been taken from some edifice built by Urukh, most probably from the Buwariyya. Behind was • See "The Athenseum" for March 16, 1851. ARTICLES DAMAGED BY FIRE. 223 the base of a wall of unbaked bricks ten or twelve feet thick ; the whole being covered with two feet of rubbish and charcoal. Upon the terrace were several highly- interesting articles damaged by fire, among them may be mentioned : — 1. Fragment of an alabaster cone, apparently portion of a grotesque head for a mace or staff. It is engraved ^vith scrolls, and has upon it a few Assyrian characters. 2. Part of the hinge and valve of a bivalve shell (Tri- dacna squamosa). On the exterior are delicately traced the heads, necks, and fore legs of two horses drawing a chariot, and covered with trappings and armour C?). The reins are fastened to semicircular processes behind the ears, like those on the sculptures of Sennacherib from Nineveh. Full-blown and budding flowers of the lotus are introduced on every available space, extending over the hinge to the opposite side of the shell, which is carved with an ornamental basket filled with the same flowers.'"" 3. A carved ivory panel, four inches long, in a state of rapid decomposition. 4. Two large mushroom-shaped pieces of baked clay, covered on their flat tops and stems with cuneiform records. 5. A brick with stamp in relief of a circular-topped altar on a pedestal, surmounted by a seven- rayed sun. Beyond the spot where the tablets and the above articles occurred, I discovered indica- tions of another method of burial. My atten- tion was directed to two bricks resting angle- wise against two others placed horizontally, s'^^'p^" bricks. Below the shelter so formed were three more tablets, * A woodcut of this shell is given at p. 563 of Mr Layartl's "Nineveh and Babylon," where also the author alludes to a similar engraved shell from an Etruscan tomb in the British Museum. 224 INSCRIPTIONS OF CAMBYSES. lying on a huge brick, seventeen inches square, vnth a hole through its centre. It covered a well-built vault, measuring thirteen inches by ten inches square, and twenty-one inches in depth, which was filled with earth and the fragments of two large sepulchral vases, with- out any traces of their original contents. At the left corner of the vault, towards the edge of the pavement, was a small square hole in which lay a broken dish or jar. Behind the four bricks on the surface of the- vault, was a broken vase, containing reed ashes and burned bones reduced to small lumps, and crumbling to powder. At a short distance from this first vault was a second, in every important respect reseml^ling the other. Within the small hole at the angle were broken pottery, burned reeds, date-stones, and part of a lamb's jaw. From subsequent discoveries at Sinkara, I conclude that the bones of the dead were, in the above cases, de- posited in vases and placed in the vaults, after which the private records and property of the deceased were arrano'ed over them, and the whole submitted to the flames. In a neighbouring terrace, two similar vaults to those described were discovered. This terrace measured forty feet long by four feet wide, and was paved with bricks inscribed in slightly relieved cuneiform characters of Cambyses the brother of Cyrus, a personage of whom we possess no historical notice whatever.'"' A few unim- portant articles lay on the surface of the pavement. * In a short notice of my discoveries, at p. 377 of " Xineveh and its Palaces," I observe the following passage : " At one place, Senkereh, he had come on a pavement, extending from half-an-acre to an acre, entirely covered with writing, which was engraved upon baked tiles," &c. As the unimportant pavement described in the text is the only one I was so fortu- nate to discover, either at Sinkara or Warka, it is difficult to conceive how such an error should have crept into the passage quoted. It is to be re- gretted that, in a work intended to be a resume of Assyrian and Babylonian I'l H|l|!|||||||!h: ll'l liPiji -^ ^ >^ -, -^ i^ T^> I ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENTS. 225 The locality at AVarka, which furnished the most valuable and interesting fruits of my researches, was a small detached mound/'' forty feet high, situated about half-a-mile south-east of the Buwariyya. One of my overseers picked up from its summit a few fragments of ornamental plaster, which induced me to make exca- vations. I was soon rewarded by the discovery of a chamber, measuring forty feet long and twenty-eight feet wide, the mud walls of which stood only four feet high, and had been covered with coloured plaster. It was a perfect museum of architectural scraps, of a highly instructive and curious character. The unbaked brick floor was literally piled with broken columns, capitals, cornices, and innumerable relics of rich internal decora- tion, which exhibited undoubted symptoms of Greek and Eoman influence on Oriental taste. The smaller objects were wholly plaster; but the larger consisted of moulded bricks, thinly coated with white plaster ; many of them were fantastically coloured. One large frag- ment of cornice bore, among other devices, a spirited crouching griffin, which, at first sight, reminded me of the similar figures sculptured on a frieze in an inner chamber at the remarkable ruins of Al Hadhr, near Mosul.t This emblem was accompanied by the well- discovery, greater care had not been taken to prevent the insertion of this and many more grievous errors. Cuneiform inscriptions in relief are not of very frequent occurrence in Babylonia. Besides the instance above mentioned, Mr Taylor discovered this variety of legend on small bricks of very early date from the coflSn mounds of Mugeyer. I afterwards exhumed bricks with a Pehlevi inscrip- tion in relief from the mounds of Kh^n-I-Kydya near Bdghdad, and at Jidr in central Chaldsea. It is not improbable that the style was re-intro- duced into Mesopotamia by Cambyses on returning from his conquest of Egypt, where relief inscriptions commonly occur. * At G on the plan. This mound yielded two of the three coffins in the British Museum. t See a sketch of this frieze, accompanying Mr Aiusworth's Memoir in the " Journal of the Hoyal Geographical Society," vol. xu P 226 GREEK AND ROMAN INFLUENCE. kno\vn Greek echinus moulding ; but the cornice was pur- posely destroyed by some strange Arabs, who visited the mounds between the intervals of excavation. Three of the capitals are Ionic; but the proportions of the volutes and other members are peculiar. A fourth descri];)tion of small capital has peculiarities of its own, suggestive of the later Byzantine style. A large and elegant leaf rises from the necking, and bends under each corner of the abacus. Springing from behind a smaller curled leaf in the centre is the bust of a human figure, wearing the same preposterous head-dress which is characteristic of the slipper coffins and Parthian coins. No columns were discovered to correspond with the larger capitals ; but the walls were liberally adorned with small Ionic half-columns, with half-smooth, half- fluted shafts, which were highly coloured. The lower and smooth surfaces were diagonally striped with red, green, yellow, and black ; the flutes being painted black, red, and yellow alternately, while the level ridges between them are left white. In some cases the flutes were quartered with the same colours. Amono; the debris of smaller articles were bases of columns, — friezes, with bunches of grapes alternating with leaves, — gradines, resembling those on the castles of the Nineveh bas-reliefs, but ornamented at the base with a conspicuous six-rayed star in a circle, — fragments of open screen-work, with complicated geometric designs of difl'erent patterns on the opposite sides (these are very peculiar, and difler materially from the arabesqiie), — and flakes of painted plaster from the waUs, with fragments of small statuettes, coloured, and sometimes gilded. Scratched upon the edge of one object were the cha- racters ^ I ^^ QJ which approach nearer to the Him- yaric character than any with which I am acquainted. With regard to the age of this building, so elaborately ORIGIN OF SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. 227 ornamentecl, I was for some time in doubt. The enor- mous head-dress of the capital, being equally characteristic of both the Parthian and Sassanian periods, affords no evidence on the subject; but, as the ruins abound with coins of the former dynasty, while none of the latter have been found, it is but reasonable to conclude that the edifice is rather Parthian than Sassanian; and, therefore, on mature consideration, I assume that it dates about the Christian era. AVhile the Koman griffin, and the incongruities with pure Greek architecture observ- able in the capitals, are evidences of a past age and style, — the complicated design of the screen-work, with its geometric curves and tracery, seems to shadow forth the beauty and richness of a style which afterwards followed the tide of Mohammedan conquest to the remotest corners of the known world. It has long been a disputed question whence originated the germs of Saracenic architecture; but the prevalent opinion is that the Moslems, having no style of their own, adopted those which they found practised in the countries whither they carried their conquests, more especially the Byzantine. It is, nevertheless, remarkable, that the same uniformity in richly-wrought tracery and geometric ornamentation prevails from India to Spain in Saracenic structures, w^liich could only have arisen from a central point. We know that in the days of Harunu- 'r-Reshld the city of Baghdad, far removed from the influence of Byzantine art, had attained a high pitch of civilization and splendour, and that her public edifices, within little more than a century after the rise of Islamism, were adorned with a richness and an attention to minute Saracenic details, which could scarcely have arrived at perfection in so short a period. We know, too, that Kiifa, at the commencement of Mohammedan dominion, was equally celebrated for its architectural beauties. 228 THE PARTHIANS ORIGINATE THE SARACENIC STYLE. May we not suppose that the peculiarities of Sara- cenic architecture are clue to a much earlier period, and that they originated with the Parthians, who succeeded the Greeks in the possession of Mesopotamia ? Of this race we have, unfortunately, scarcely any memorials left.'*' They are described, in their wars with the Romans, as barbarians, celebrated for their skill in horsemanship and shooting with the arrow, and for the richness of their armour. Of their arts we know nothing; but surely they could not have been without some apprecia- tion of the beautiful, inhabiting, as they did, the cities and fortresses adorned by the Greeks and Romans, with which great nations they passed five hundred years in conflict. It may be that the Parthians were the in- ventors of the Saracenic style, but that the Sassanians — their rivals and successors in power — suppressed the influence which they had exercised, and which again shewed itself, after the Mahommedan conquest of those countries, in the application of Parthian ornament to Moslem buildings. This may possibly be esteemed a far-fetched hypothesis; but I can see no other mode of accountino; for the advanced state of the arts under the KJialif Hiirunu-'r-Reshid, so entirely diff'erent from that practised under the Sassanians. At any rate, we have at Warka an edifice, mth an approximation to Byzantine and Saracenic forms, due to a period long anterior to their introduction elsewhere, which edifice was, I firmly believe, erected during the Parthian ascendency. That it was Parthian, I, moreover, infer from the dis- covery of a slipper-cofiin, and the usual embossed figures with the preposterous head-gear, at the depth of six feet below the floor, within the chamber. On digging deeply • It is true that the legends on Parthian coins ai-e written in Greek, but we know little further concerning them, or of their own written language. SEALED TABLETS OF THE GREEK PERIOD. 229 into the mound, for the piu'pose of ascertaining if it, like the great platform, were composed of coffins, it proved to be constructed of solid earth, around and upon which were coffins ; those on the summit not extending below the depth of a few feet.'"' The chamber was probably a tomb erected over the coffin. There were apparently other chambers in the same vicinity which contained similar relics, but I had no opportunity of excavating among them. Within twenty paces of the above chamber, and three feet below its level, was made one of the most curious, if not the most valuable, discoveries at Warka. In several cases, it was noticed that clay tablets, with cuneiform re- cords, were associated with the ashes of burnt wood ; I therefore paid particular attention to the nature of the soil composing the mounds. While riding up to the workmen engaged at the Partliian edifice, my horse's feet turned up a quantity of black earth, which induced me to dismount, and examine it more closely. My trouble was repaid by the discovery of a fragment of baked clay tablet. A small party of Arabs were directed to the spot, and, in the course of a few hours, their la- bours were rewarded by finding, close under the surface, eight tablets of light-coloured clay. They were lying on decayed straw matting, which was imbedded in bitumen, and surrounded on all sides with charred date-wood and ashes. They difier from any hitherto discovered, in being fully an inch in tliickness, and in having round their broad edges the impressions of seals, above each of Avhich are the characters, ir{f ,^ "the seal of;" and below, the name of the party to the deed. Many are extremely beautiful, and shew the perfection attained in the art of gem engraving, in Babylonia, at that early period. It * Two of the coffins in the British Museum were dug up from this mound, where they proved to be in better condition than elsewhera 230 SEALED TABLETS. is true that we possess numberless cylinders with figures of a much more ancient date, but they are of ruder work- manship, and of a totally different character — by no means to be compared with the impressions upon the tablets, which evince a great advance in art, assigning them to a later period. The inscriptions, which cover both sides of the tablets, are so minute and delicate, as to require the aid of a microscope to decipher them with precision. These tablets and seal impressions are so curious and interesting, that a detailed account of them may prove acceptable :'"* — Tablet No. 1. — Twelve oval seals, some elongated and pointed. The central ones at top and bottom are tho largest and most important. One of these is an indis- tinct representation of the winged deity — the Hormuzd of the Persian sculptures, — in front of whom is a well- defined isosceles triangle, precisely resembling the stamp upon the bricks at Wuswas, and at the other larger but imexplored ruin at Warka.t On the same edge is an im- pression of a fine Socrates-Uke head. The large central seal on the opposite edge is a very beautiful face, with Greek expression, beardless, and resembling the profile of Alexander the Great. Next to this impression is one of a male and female figure conversing at the base of a graceful voluted capital. Another exhibits a Greek head, with helmet and plume. The other impressions are very indistinct. Size, four and a-half inches by four inches. Tablet No. 2 has one corner broken oft'. It originally had twenty or twenty-one impressions, among which are several sphynxes. One is exceedingly spirited, with a * I am sorry to observe that, since their arrival in England, the exuda- tion of saline efflorescences has much damaged these remarkable objects, and there seems every prospect of their being completely obliterated, un- less means are discovered to preserve them. t At B and C of the General Plan. SEALED TABLETS. 231 four-tiirretted crown surmounting the head. Several others are damaged. Size, four-and-a-half inches by three-and- a-half inches. Tablet No. 3 bears eighteen impressions, some of which are remarkably beautiful, in excellent preservation, and highly spirited. They comprise : — 1. Aroaring lion — moon and star. 2. A wild ass trotting — crescent above. 3. Winged Sagittarius — crescent in front. 4. AVinged griffin with a single horn, the profile resembling that on the rock tombs at Persepolis. 5. A horse. 6. A winged griffin and crescent. 7. Nude figiu^e. 8. Goat — crescent above, star in front. 9. AVino-ed bull and crescent — triangle below. 10. Human-headed bull. 11. Dressed figure. 12. Winoed human-headed animal. 13. Lion holding crescent — star above. 1 4. Fish-ood, 1 5. Human fio;ure. 16. Dog — triangle above. The other impressions are less distinct. Size, four-and-a-half inches by four inches. Tablet No. 4 has only a few impressions reniaining dis- tinct : — 1 . is the most beautiful and perfect of the whole series. It represents the fish-god Ovannes C?) with goat's head and fore-legs, and fish-body and tail, in front is a star — behind hovers an eagle witli outstretched wings, probably intended for Hormuzd.'"" 2. Two figures, repre- sentino; the Dioscuri or twins. 3. Human-headed wiufred bull. 4. Human figure. 5. Dog. (1) 6. Winged uni- corn. Tablet No. 5. The only impression very distinct is that of a Babylonian figure in profile, in a long robe, with a staff in one hand. The impressions on the three remaining . tablets are more or less damaged by the efflorescence of nitrous and other salts, which is contained in the clay composing * The cuneiform signature beneath this impression reads Savastana equivalent to the Greek le^aaros and Latin Augustus. 232 CUNEIFORM TABLETS OP THE GREEK PERIOD. these, aud in fact all articles of similar description from Warka. In examining these tablets there is one point which cannot fail to be remarked — the frequent repetition of the heavenly bodies and zodiacal signs. They seem to imply some connexion with Chaldsean worship, and this impres- sion is to a certain extent confirmed by Sir Henry Eawlinson's inspection of the inscriptions upon the tablets. He observes that the matter relates entirely to the domes- tic economy of the temples. The most extraordinary circumstance, however, connected with them is the recognition of Greek names, in Babylonian characters, beneath many of the seals, and the dates in various years of the reigns of Seleucus and Antiochus the Great upon the subject matter of the records. They are therefore the latest documents of the cuneiform period extant, and afford undoubted proof that cuneiform writing was still in current use as late as about B.C. 200. Previous to this discovery the most recent records of the style with which we were acquainted were the Persian inscriptions of Artaxerxes Ochus on the northern face of the plat- form and on the western staircase at Persepolis, and that upon the porphyry vase,'"" preserved in the treasmy of St Mark's at Venice, and ascribed to the same monarch, about 350 B.C. This discovery is the more important because it raises a hope that some cuneiform records of the intervening one hundred and fifty years between Artaxerxes Ochus and * It has been inferred from the orthographical corruption of the king's name in this instance, that the language had lost its purity towards the close of the Achsemenian period, aud therefore that the inscription upon the vase must be that of Artaxerxes Ochus. It is not, however, improbable that the Artaxerxes in question is Artaxerxes Mnemon, as, during my excavations at Susa, inscriptions of this king were discovered, exhibiting similar errors in grammatical construction, and implying au earlier decline in the Persic tongue. HIMYARIC TOMB-STONE. 233 Antiochus the Great may yet cast up, and that an era so prolific in great events may prove to have possessed its Babylonian as well as its Greek historians. What valuable information might we not derive from a cunei- form memorial of Alexander's campaigns, or from a cuneiform record accompanied with its equivalent in Greek, which might set at rest the prevailing doubts concerning the true interpretation of the arrow-headed character ! Warka has already yielded many interesting and valuable treasures from its mounds, and may yet furnish the above desideratum. With the exception of Susa, I know of no ruins more likely to do so. At the foot of the mound where the plaster ornaments and Seleucide tablets occurred, my servant was one day giving some instructions to the workmen, when the ground under his horse's feet suddenly gave way, and precipitated them into a vaulted tomb without coffin or other relics. It measured seven-and-a-half feet long, and four feet wide, and had been already plundered by the Arabs. At one extremity was an entrance two feet wide, partially closed by a rough lime- stone slab, measuring two feet by one foot and-a-half and four inches thick. The slab was found standing on end, with the accompanying imperfect Him- yaric inscription, facing inwards, and recordino; the death of Hanat- asar, son of Esau, son of Hanat- asar. Who this person was, or the date at which this grave- stone was erected to his memory, it is quite impossible to say. The record is, however, of considerable value and in- ^ DrSXhYl) o Himyaric tomb-stone. 234 CONICAL MOUNDS AT WAEKA. terest, iiiasmucli as it is the first inscription of the kind which has yet occurred in Meso^^otamia, and tends to shew a connexion with southern Arabia, where the Him- yaric language prevailed at an unknown early date, before the introduction of Kiific and modern Arabic. The Himyaric language is supposed to be of Ethiopic deriva- tion, and a relic of its existence in this region is interesting as connected with the Hamitic mio;ration and origin of the ancient Chaldees, to which allusion has been pre- viously made in these pages/"' In addition to the mounds and ruins thus far described, there is yet another class of remains which is deserving of notice, but concernino- whose ao-e we have little but analogy to guide us — I mean the conical mounds occur- rino- both within and w^ithout the walls. Of the former there are two. One, marked F on the plan, stands about two hundred and fifty feet from the north wall. Its height is forty-five feet, including fifteen feet of platform. The other is about eight hundred yards south-west from the former, and of much less importance. I dug trenches, from summit to base, completely through each, but without being rewarded by any discovery. They both were composed of unbaked brick. At the distance of a mile beyond the most northerly point of the walls is a conspicuous and important mound of this description, which bears the name of iNufFayji (J of the plan). Standing solitary in the desert, apart from the great mass of the main ruins, Nuimyji is one of the most remarkable objects at Warka. In height it rivals the Buwariyya — being ninety feet above the plain, with a circumference at its base of nine hundred and fifty feet. The steepness of its sides renders the ascent to the summit both difficult and dangerous. Its aspect is that of a huge bell, and appears to be composed of • See page 9G, et seq. STYLE FOR WRITING CUNEIFORM. 235 solid loam and sand ; but, having failed to make any dis- coveries in the smaller mounds of the same form, I de- clined to attack it. The purpose for which such a pile outside the city was constructed it is difficult to understand, except it were for a watch-tower or a tomb. The Arabs have an idea that it was raised by a besieging army, but that, findino; it too far distant from the walls for their designs, they raised a second mound about eight hundred yards from the north-east wall, indicated at M upon the plan, but inferior in size to Nuflfayji. Between Nuffiiyji and the walls are several small conical mounds, about twenty-five feet high, apparently, in some way or other, connected with the large mounds. The only article obtained in any of these mounds is a small flat oval pebble, of dark green serpentine, cut and sharpened exactly after the fashion of the ancient Celtic hatchets found in the barrows of Europe. Similar ob- jects are exhumed from other Babylonian ruins, but I scarcely think they were designed for the same use as that to which they were applied in far distant regions. My own impression is that it was not a celt, but rather a species of style for writing cuneiform inscriptions. When impressed upon soft clay or dough, it produces characters precisely similar to those on small clay tablets and cylin- ders, for which purpose it is admirably adapted. In the hand of a ready writer, it might be used with great rapid- ity and exactitude. Conical mounds of similar description occur at widely different points from Persia to the Mediterranean, and are probably tumuli. "Whether, however, they arc to be ascribed to the ancient Scyths or to the Parthians of a later period, is yet a sul)ject for the investigation of the curious. To whatever race tliey may be due, their presence at Warka is, however, quite in keeping with 236 BRICK CAPITALS AND SPIRAL COLUMNS. the sepulchral character of the place ; and the bones of the warrior kings, in whose memory they were erected, may eventually be discovered, deeply biu-ied in the centre, below the level of the desert. Besides the conical mounds, there is a small square mound,'"' just outside the south-west wall, which deserves mention. It measures seventy-six paces by one hundred and ten, but its height does not exceed fourteen feet. Upon its surface is nearly every variety of inscribed brick, which occurs within the walls, and which, it is reasonable to conclude, were removed at a late period in the history of Warka to their present position., Among them are likewise several bricks of fine quality, cast in moulds for spiral columns and ornamental capitals of peculiar character. One brick bore in relief a star of twelve rays. None were in situ, but they all lay scattered about indiscriminately. Similar bricks were sparingly found within the ruins, and I observed others at the mound of El- Assam on the Shat-el-Kahr beyond Sinkara, and at Tel Usmer adjoining Akker Kiif near Baghdad. These are also probably of Parthian origin. Among the smaller relics obtained at AVarka, a small tablet of serpentine is .deserving of notice. Upon one side are four lines of Babylonian cuneiform, and upon the other a figure which ap- pears to shew the origin of cunei- form characters from pictorial re- presentation. The latter is, as every one knows, the most ancient method of expressing * N on Plan. Brick capital. Spiral column of moulded bricks. /T^ Serpentine Tablet. HIEROGLYPHIC TABLET. 237 natural objects, and it has been supposed by many that the cuneiform character, like tlie Egyptian hieroglyph, originated in simple ideography. By reference to the accompanying diagram it will be perceived that two lines crossed suppose the outline of the human figure, and that below one hand is a monogram, as if its cuneiform equi- valent, the digits being expressed by five parallel strokes. What the other symbols are it is not easy to determine. I am not aware that this tablet has attracted the atten- tion of cuneiform scholars, but the present opportunity is taken of laying it before them. In describing the walls at the north-east of the ruins, I mentioned that they are between forty and fifty feet high, while on the opposite side they do not rise above the desert level. It was difficidt to understand why there should be this difference in theix elevation, until I ascer- tained the existence of the bed of an ancient river,'"" which, flowing from the north-north-west, was turned eastward by the height and thickness of the wall, and thus pre- vented from entering the city. I traced the channel for a considerable distance beyond the great pile of Nuffiiyji, which mound it passes three hundred and fifty paces to the westward. It afterwards approaches within thirty paces of the small conical mound K. After touchinir on the north-east point of the walls, it passes round under them towards the east, where it divides into two branches, one of which holds its way in the direction of Sinkara, and the other continues its course southwards. Both branches are lost after proceeding a short distance further. Near to Nuffayji, the channel measured one hundred and twenty feet wide, and was elevated a few feet above the level of the desert, its banks on either side Ijeino- about five feet high. That it was a trunk stream is evident * Its course is represented on the Plan, by dotted lines. 238 SHAT-EL-NfL. from tlie fact that it gave off numerous secondary canals towards tlie west, one of which was eighty feet broad. At the point where it meets the w^alls, a sluice pro- bably admitted a small supply through them into the city ; but, if so, the channel is now drifted up with sand. My great authority on the oral traditions of Warka — old Budda — remembered that this old cliannel was known to the fathers of the present generation of his tribe as an " ancient river,'^ which they called the " Nil," He knew nothing of its origin or course, and the " Shat-el-Nil," farther north, was wholly unknown to him. It has been- eleswhere stated that, at the Arab conquest, there was an ancient branch of the Euphrates wdiich flowed from Babylon in a south-east direction towards the city of Niliyya, and joined the Tigris near the modern site of Kiit-el-'Amara. This was called the " Nil," and gave off a large stream to Zibliyya and Niffar which is, I believe, traceable further south, in the bed called the " Es-Sahain," or " Shkain," and also in the Nil of Warka. At any rate, it is not a little remarkable that the same name for an " ancient river," not " a canal," should occur at two such distant points as Babylon and Warka. The term " >S'Aa^el-Nil " indicates its importance. It is, I believe, the only ancient artificial canal (Nahr) which has received the appellation of " Shat," or large river. As etymology offers no ready solution for the name Nil, it is probably derived either from its being thought worthy of comparison with the Nile of Egypt, or else in commemo- ration of some important event in the intercourse between the Egyptian and Chaldsean nations.y If the mounds of AVarka have failed in yielding bas- reliefs and objects of a higher class of interest, like those dug from the palaces of Assyria, they have at least af- forded abundance of important information on two sub- jects of which we were previously in comparative igno- GENERAL RESULTS FROM EXCAVATIONS. 239 ranee ; namely: — Babylonian arelntecture, and the mode of burial during twenty centuries preceding the Christian era. From these researches, we learn the existence of a new and original style of architecture, entirely uninflu- enced by the exalted taste which subsequently prevailed ; and the situation of a necropolis of enormous extent and extraordinary sanctity, probably derived from the most remote antiquity. If there be a scarcity of early annals, and of more po- sitive information than could have been desired, the fault must be assigned to the great difficulties attending exca- vations at so inaccessible a spot, and to the superimposed quantity of funeral remains covering up the older relics. It is to be remembered that these results were obtained during the short period of three months, and that the excavations were continually interrupted by overwhelm- ing sand-storms. Warka may still be considered as un- explored ; the depths of its mounds are yet untouched. If those of Nineveh were not thoroughly examined in thirteen years, those of Warka will require a much longer period, before we can arrive at anything like a full apj^re- ciation of their contents, and of the valuable information to be derived from them. For the sake of science, it is to be hojped that, at some period not far distant, excavations may be resumed among the mounds of Chaldoea ; and I do not hesitate to state my conviction that each site will yield its o^\m pe- culiar records of a past and almost forgotten age, and that Warka — the most extraordinary and important of them all — will afford memorials and relics yielding to none in value and interest. From them we may hope for inucli additional light, not only concerning the early Chaldcean and Achoemenian periods, but also with relation to its Greek and Parthian occupiers, down to about the Christian era. CHAPTER XX. Siiikara — ^Decamping — Ride in a Sand-drift — ^The Negro Lion-slayer — A Nocturnal Visiter — Dull uniformity of Sinkara — The Temple of Pharra — ^The Dream and its Fulfilment — Nebuchadnezzar and Ne- bonit rebuilders of Temples — Another great Necropolis — Tablets and their Envelopes of Clay— Babylonian Arithmetic — Pictorial Records — Boxers in the Land of Shinar — The Dog-devourer. Having made siicli excavations as appeared to me de- sirable at Warka, I determined on visitins; the neiohbour- ing ruins of Sinkara, which had previously been reached by Dr Ross of Baghdad, and Mr Baillie Fraser, during a hasty journey they made through the Jezireh, in the year 1834. In order to effect this purpose, I stated my wish to the Bedouin Sheikh Tellag, one day while he was honouring my tent with a visit. He was no sooner made aware of my object than, seizing my hand, he exclaimed : — " Beg, are we not brothers 1 Is not your wish my wish 1 Are not my sheep and cattle, my mare and my camels, yours also 1 God is great ! I came here to say that I was about to go to Sinkara, where there is at least some- thing for my beasts to eat — which there is not here — and you gladden my heart by saying that you are going to Sinkara also. What can I do for you ? Beg ! my camels and aU I have are at your service ; take as many as you please, and accompany me. On the word of a Shammar, no one shall injure you while under my shadow, neither shaU any of my people harm your workmen. Have I not already said if? The word of a Shammar is DEPARTURE FOR SINKARA. 241 truth." I took him at his word, and in a few minutes all preliminaries were arranged. At daybreak on the third day after this conversation, all the camp was astir with the usual sounds of prepara- tion. Amidst the unmusical gurglings of Tellag's camels (which were forthcoming at the time agreed upon), and the corresponding gutturals of their Arab masters, the din of camp followers, and the war-songs of the Madan, my tents were struck and the loads packed. In true Arab fashion, the brushwood (which had afforded shelter to the workmen) and the refuse of the camp were set fire to as we quitted the ground, and the spot, which, during the past three months, had been a scene of con- stant bustle and confusion, once more resumed its wonted solitude and repose. Tellag's tribe was already in mo- tion, and his long strings of camels stalked majestically along the barren desert, towards a more verdant pastu- rage ; but, before we could join our forces, a furious squaU arose from the south-east, and completely enveloped us in a tornado of sand, rendering it impossible to see within a few paces ; Tellag and his camels were as invisible as though they were miles distant. A continued stream of the finest sand drove directly into our faces, filling the eyes, ears, nose, and mouth with its penetrating particles, drying up the moisture of the tongue, and choking the action of the lungs. The Arabs tied their garments closely round their faces, leaving only their sharp black eyes visible from under the protection afforded them, and each man rode or trudged along in silence, evidently unwilling to open his mouth lest it should be instantly fiUed with the noxious sand. We shaped our course in the direction of Sinkara, and, after proceeding some dis- tance, were surprised to see Tellag riding on his mare, unaccompanied, through the storm. He was anxious after my safety, and had left his own party to guide my Q 242 THE NEGRO LION-SLAYER. little caravan. But for Lis aid, we should in all proba- bility have wandered into the marshes of the Shat-el-Hie. As it was, even Tellag and the Arabs could not be entirely depended on, because the density of the sand stream shut every mark from view by which they were accustomed to guide themselves. After riding for about five hours, Tellag began to look anxiously around, and to hold fre- quent consultations with the Arabs ; it was evident we had missed the point aimed at. During a lull in the storm, however, I fortunately caught a glimpse of a dis- tant object, looming far on our left. Tellag would scarcely believe me, but, after a while, it appeared again, and he was obliged to confess that even he had held too southerly a course. Being now satisfied concerning the whereabouts of our goal, Tellag left us to search for his own camels, which, he feared, must also have lost their way. In approaching Sinkara, some of the advanced party fancied they observed living creatures moving upon the summit of a mound. My cook Miirad, an active and daring negro, originally a slave from Mozambique, dis- mounted to reconnoitre, because we were in ignorance of any Arab arrivals in the neighbourhood, and these might be either friends or foes. Milrad was a good shot ; so, gun in hand, he silently advanced upon the dubious tenants of the ruins. They proved to be two lion cubs, one of which lay fast asleep, while the other gambolled round its fellow like a kitten at play. Milnid fired a charge of large shot, and, on hastening up, found one animal dead, and the other mortally wounded, attempting in its pain to bite the body of its companion. The fortunate sportsman was immediately hailed as " Abu Seba in," "the father of the two lions," at which Miirad exposed his rows of white teeth with every symptom of pride and satisfaction. From that day he was ever afterwards A NOCTURNAL VISITOR. 243 known by the above honourable soubriquet, and regarded with reverential awe by the Arabs, as an invincible war- rior, who killed two lions at once. The bodies were carried to the ruins, where the tents were pitched, upon a flat and convenient situation for the encampment. The camels were unloaded, and again dis- missed with a strong party to fill the water-skins at the Shat-el-Kahr two miles beyond the ruins, and to procure brushwood to protect the Arabs against the cold wind and driving sand. Before darkness set in, the chief part of the camp was fast asleep, completely worn out with the fatigue of the day's march ; the watchmen alone sat silently keep- ing guard around their little fires, which burned for a few seconds furiously under the impulse of fresh fuel and the high wind, and then sank half extinguished under a deluge of sand. Towards midnight the hurricane abated, and silence reigned profound, when a sudden, deep, sepulchral roar, several times repeated, roused the whole camp once more to life and activity. " The lion ! the lion ! " shouted the Arabs, as they drew closer together, piled brushwood on the watch-fires, grasped their spears, sang their war-cry, and exhibited other signs of violent trepidation and alarm. No more sleep for them that night: they huddled round the fires in parties, told stories of adventures with wild beasts till they frightened themselves into the belief that the lion was close upon them, when their shouts and songs would be redoubled, in the hope of driving the king of beasts away. The horses snorted, tugged at their ropes, and evinced every disposition to free themselves from the trammels which bound them. There was no moon, so that the deep in- tensity of the surrounding gloom added to the fears of the little community. Several times that night I was aroused by their sudden outcries and wild shouts. 244 LIONS AND ARABS. At daybreak, it was discovered that the wary animal had made off with a little doo- belonsiuc: to the Arabs, which had barked pertinaciously on the first notification of our unwelcome visitor's presence. The huge footprints of the hungry and irate brute were distinctly visiljle on the surface of the newly drifted sand, pacing round and round, at a respectful distance from the camp. With da3dight she withdrew to her lair among the reeds and underwood along the course of the Shat-el-Kahr. Lions frequent the marshes of this region at certain seasons, and do much damage amons; the flocks and herds of the Arabs, who, as I have said, shift their camps to the banks of the Kahr for the culture of grain during the early spring. It is seldom that the king of beasts dares to attack man, unless driven by stress of hunger. When the Arabs muster strongly near Sinkara, there is generally abundance of sheep and buffaloes to assuage his hunger; but the Arabs are terrified to approach the Kahr alone, and I frequently saw them, when obliged to do so, return into camp trembling with fear. The ruins of Sinkara, situated fifteen miles south-east of Warka, stand on the extreme verge of the broad desert ridge, which, as before mentioned, intervenes between the inundations of the Euphrates on the west, and the marshes of the Shat-el-Kahr on the east. In ordinary sea- sons, the waters of the Kahr extend close up to the eastern base of the ruins. These consist of a low circular plat- form, about four and a-half miles in circumference, rising gradually from the level of the plain to a central mound, the highest point of which is seventy feet, and is dis- tinctly visible from Warka and the Euphrates. Adjoin- ing this principal pile on the north-west, is a low ex- tensive ruin, apparently consisting of a series of brick walls and pavements. At four hundred paces, on the north-east of the great ruin, is a high mound of large, THE RUINS OP SINKARA. 245 half-baked red bricks, at the base of which is traceable, by the colour of the soil, the outline of an ancient square enclosure, and small chambers between thick walls. The south-east edge of the whole platform is occupied by an undulating ruin of considerable extent, composed of mud bricks, and known to the Arabs by the name of " Jemel," or the camel, from the peculiar hump which rises from its centre. The surface of the rest of the ruins is covered with pavements, varying from thirty to forty feet square, elevated a few feet above the general debris, and con- structed of small rough bricks ; on the north-east these pavements are of very frequent occurrence. It is evident, from the first inspection of these ruins, that they all belong to one period, and that no later races of different origin have built upon the edifices erected by the ancient people. There are no coins, no glass, no glazed pottery, as at Warka; but a uniform dull brown hue pervades everything about the place : the fine dust, the bricks, the pottery, are of the same sombre colour ; the only relief being presented in the north-east mound, whose deep red bricks afford a pleasing contrast to the general dingy aspect of the place. The soil on the sur- face of the mounds at Warka was soft and yielding, but that of Sinkara was infinitely more impalpable. My first efforts''' were directed to the principal ruin, which is of oval form, its longest diameter being 'from north-west to south-east. Owing to the quantity of rub- bish with which it is encumbered, the expenditure of a very large amount of money and labour would be required before its complete plan can be understood. I was able to ascertain, however, that the edifice crowning its sum- mit was included within an oval space, whose diameters * The excavations and results here described are wholly due to the Assyrian Excavation Fund. 246 THE TEMPLE OF PHARRA. measured three himdred and twenty feet by two hundred and twenty feet. The area was circumscribed by a wall four feet two inches thick, which is traceable, with a few breaks, from the centre of the north-east side towards the south, and so to the west point of the mound where it is lost, having fallen or been carried away piecemeal. It is built of square bricks, firmly set with bitumen, and having a thirteen-line inscription of Nebuchadnezzar upon the under side of each. At the distance of thirty-six feet from the extreme south-east curve of this wall, and at the height of about six feet above its level, a trench dug into the mound exposed the wall of a terrace extending from south-west to north- east. A second terrace, six feet above the first, and seventy-four feet behind it, stood in front of what has undoubtedly been the princijDal facade of the edifice which crowned the summit, and formed the main feature of the ruins.'"' Although not more than four feet in heio;ht, the character of this building might still be determined. The front extended sixty-five feet in length, then receded twelve feet, and ultimately resumed its former line forty feet towards the south-east and six feet in the opposite direction, beyond which it was not traced. An entrance, nine feet wide, was discovered in the centre of the sixty-five feet front, which was ornamented with ten stepped recesses, each one foot nine inches wide, jp^^^^ similar to those on the walls of the Wuswas edifice of Warka, and the small oratory at the foot of the IVIugeyer. The brickwork measured five feet thick, and was backed with a mass of sun-dried brick, from which it is evident that the upper erection was a sun-dried tower, faced, like the Mugeyer, with burnt bricks. On the left entrance-pier, close under • The position of this structure, with its angles facing the cardinal points, corresponds with that of Miigeyer, Wuswas, and other edifices of Chaldasan origin, as previously remarked. ITS CYLINDER RECORDS. 247 the surface, lay a mucli-damaged barrel-shaped cylinder, which appeared to have rolled from among the sun- dried bricks, and to have remained a length of time exposed to the weather. A trench was carried through the entrance up a sloping pavement, covered with a thick coating of bitumen, and bounded by brick walls. The pavement, however, ceased at fourteen feet, and introduced us into a most unpro- mising mass of mud brickwork. Continuing the excava- tion a few feet, however, the workmen came upon a second pavement, the position of the bricks directed towards the centre or highest point of the ruin. Turning the trench, therefore, at an angle of forty-five degrees from its former course, the excavation was continued, and at length rewarded our endeavours by the exhumation of a second, smaller, but quite perfect, cylinder, about three feet under the surface, and five feet above the pavement. It stood upright among the mud-bricks, without any pre- vious indication of its presence. Both at the Milgeyer and at the Birs Nimrud, the similar records, as I have stated, were discovered in receptacles prepared for them, but in this instance the cylinder lay completely surrounded and in contact with the brickwork. It is five and three- quarter inches long, and is unequally divided by a line round the thick part of the barrel. On one side are twenty-five, and on the other twenty-six, lines of cunei- form inscription. This discovery was accompanied with an amusing inci- dent. My servant Ovannes, who was a great believer in the truth of dreams, came into my tent one morning before daybreak, to say that he was unable to sleep all night from being perpetually tormented l)y a big cylinder, which he attempted to lay hold of, but which always eluded his grasp. He was certain that this dream was a revelation of some wonderful discovery in the course of 248 A DREAM AND THE CYLINDER. the day, and therefore begged he might be allowed to mark out one or two new trenches. He was so energetic on the subject, that, to satisfy him, I granted his request. Soon after the men commenced work, I was induced, by a great shouting, to go to the door of my tent. Ovannes was running at fuU speed down the slope of the great mound, as if the lion were after him. In his haste, he tripped and turned a somersault to the infinite amuse- ment of the Arabs and myself, who, unable to conceive the meaning of this caper, imagined he had gone mad. At last he approached sufiiciently near to explain the cause of all the excitement. "A cylinder! a cylinder!" he cried ; " I told you, Beg, that my dream would prove true !" A cylinder he certainly brought, obtained, how- ever, not from his new trenches, but from the great trench in the principal mound. Continuing the trench through the unbaked brickwork to the highest point of the mound, the workmen came upon a mass of masonry, which, for some time, puzzled me exceedingly. It proved to be a tomb of peculiar construction and undoubted antiquity, nearly every brick bearing a stamped dedication of a temple to the Sun by Urukh, the common founder of Warka and Nifiar. That it was an original work, was also evident from the fact that it was surrounded and covered by the mud bricks, which contained the inscribed cylinder ; it was likewise evident that it was purposely concealed, because the exterior was rough and daubed with bitumen, and would indicate that the tomb was erected with the mound. On digging downwards, a second and similar tomb was dis- covered below the first, but, at the depth of twelve feet, I failed to reach the base. Both tombs were built into and ao-ainst the inside of a solid wall, five feet in thickness, but they had been plundered, most probably, centuries ago. The walls were three feet three inches thick ; and the NEBUCHADNEZZAR'S EDIFICE. 249 interiors measured six feet deep, and one foot ten inches wide ; the length being six and a-half feet, of which one foot ten inches, at one extremity, were covered by a vaulted arch, formed by the overlapping of each course of bricks beyond the layer immediately below. Another trench, at right angles to that in which the cyhnder occurred, revealed the corner of a foundation- wall set in bitumen, six and a-half feet high, and the same in thickness. Many of the bricks bore the same legend of Nebuchadnezzar as that upon the oval wall at the base of the mound. From the lowest layers at this corner were obtained two bricks, one edge of each of which was minutely inscribed with 2:)recisely the same record as that upon the barrel cylinders, thus, beyond doubt, fixing the date of the upper part of the mound above the tombs as early as the time of Nebuchadnezzar, about 600 B.C. This is confirmed by Sir Henry Eaw- linson's decipherment of the inscriptions."^'" He states that they commemorate the rebuilding of the temple of Pharra, by that monarch, in the city of Larrak. A description of the same work occurs on Bellino's cylinder from Babylon, published by Grotefend. Nebuchadnezzar is represented as digging into the foundations of the old temple of the Sun, which had fallen to ruins, for the pur- pose of obtaining the ancient idol, with the intention of placing it in his new edifice. Having excavated for a considerable time, he was obliged to give up a fruitless search, and to finish his building witliout it. The same authority elsewhere states, that *' through- out the Babylonian monuments — that is, on the bricks found at Niff'ar, at Sinkara, and at Warka, as well as on • A third and perfect cylinder was also discovered at a distant part of the ruins. These numerous copies of the same legend are the more valuable, because of the many variations which occur in the cuneifoi'm characters upon them. 250 nebonit's building. the tablets of Nebucliadnezzar — the city in question is named Sikkara or Siukareh." He further conjectures that the Lanchara of Berosus, which was the capital of the original Chaldcean dynasty, is a mistake of some ancient copyist for Sanchara.'" In this name we probably have preserved that oiShi7iar, the land from whence the Biblical migration took place. A king named Purna-Puriyast was also a builder here. I picked up a brick with a legend of sixteen lines bearing this name, which Avas at that time, I believe, new to Sir Henry Eawlinson's list. An excavation was made into the centre and base of "El Heimar," or the " red " mound. It proved to be wholly composed of half-baked red bricks, measuring fourteen inches square, and four and-a-lialf inches in thickness. As in other buildings of similar character, previously de- scribed in these pages, layers of reeds occur at intervals between the bricks, and the entire mass is pierced hori- zontally with numerous square apertures. Its interior yielded no information, but a patch of building at the base of its eastern corner afforded a legend of Nebonit, the last king of Babylon, under whose reign, as before mentioned, the empu^e was overthrown by the imited forces of the Medes and Persians, about 538 B.C. This monarch, like his predecessor, Nebuchadnezzar, appears to have repaired a more ancient structure, for, at the northern corner of the same ruin, there was uncovered a fragment of brick masonry, with a legend of the Chal- daean king Khammurabi, who is supposed to have flour- ished about 1500 B.C. With the subsequent rise of the Persian empire after the •See Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1852, p. 15. Sinlcara is likewise sn2)posed to be the Sarsa of other inscriptions, as stated in the Proceedings of the Royal Geog. Society, p. 47. I cannot attempt to reconcile these different identifications. t This monarch seems to have reigned about 1650 B.o. THE RIVAL CITIES. 251 fall of Babylon, Sinkara declined in importance ; the latest record obtained from its mounds being a small clay tablet inscribed with the name of Cambyses. From that period, Warka, the great rival of Sinkara, as- sumed a higlier rank, at least as a place of sepulture, and engrossed the whole consideration which it had previously shared in conjunction with Sinkara. It appears to have been the only city throughout that region which survived the great convulsion attending the taking of Babylon. With the extinction of the native rulers, Miigeyer, Sinkara, Abii Shehreyn, Tel Sifr, Medina, and numerous other sites in Chaldsea, were de- serted, and have remained so to this day. Warka alone maintained its position five hundred years longer as the caj)ital of the district, — saw the enfeebled dominion of the Persian pass into the hands of the Grecian con- queror, and from him in turn to the barbarous Parthian, when he, too, succumbed under the changeable character of the times. The aspect of the mounds of Sinkara fully bears out the opinion as to their early abandonment, arrived at from an investigation of the inscriptions obtained from them. It is not among the loftiest mounds that we are to expect the oldest relics. AU the more ancient ruins of Chaldsea are but slightly raised above the desert level, and the accumulations of ages are invariably sepul- chral ; this is the characteristic feature of Chaldsean mounds. It would appear that the early inhabitants, like those of modern days, made a practice of burying their dead at certain places held sacred, from time im- memorial, by the erection of a temple dedicated to some deity. Sinkara is one of these, and its sepulchral re- mains are among the most interesting discoveries made during my excavations. If evidence were required that the early Chaldseans 252 CHALD-^AN BURIAL. practised the rite of burial, Sinkara furnishes it beyond the shadow of a doubt. The whole area of the ruins is a cemetery ; wherever an excavation was made, vaults and graves invariably occurred, and the innumerable cuneiform records contained in them substantiate their undoubted antiquity. So numerous were the clay tablets, I almost arrived at the conclusion that the fine brown dust of the mounds resulted from their decom- position ! Many of the platforms mentioned on the north-east side of the ruins were examined, and proved to be family vaults. In digging down, the workmen frequently found a series of small connected chambers, containing quanti- ties of wood-ashes and partially-burned clay tablets. These were with difficulty extracted entire and after- wards preserved, in consequence of the damage received from fire and their state of natm^al disintegration from the nitrous earth composing them. Below the chambers were frequently large vaulted tombs, containing one or more bodies, which were constructed in a peculiar man- ner. Layers of bricks were placed at an angle of forty- five degrees, so as to rest upon the layer previously laid in the same position. They were supported by an outer wall inclining towards the tomb, the other ex- tremity of which was closed with a corresponding wall leaning in the opposite direction. The bricks used were generally small, of coarse texture, and of light yellow baked clay ; but they were frequently merely composed of sun-dried mud. The cement was, in all cases, mud. The roofs were circular, and exhibited traces of red paint. The skeleton was always extremely fragile, and crumbled to dust at the slightest touch. As at Miigeyer, it usually lay on the left side, with the finger bones before the face. A common baked clay plate was VAULTS AND THEIR CONTENTS. 253 placed on either side, with jars and vases of various forms. Some of the latter are exceedingly elegant, par- ticularly one of convolvulus shape, which is commonly met with at Sinkara, and appears to be the type of the modern drinking kivja used at Baghdad. A few of the forms of pottery peculiar to these ruins are engraved in the accompanying woodcut. In one vault, the bones of Pottery from Sinkara. several other skeletons were heaped up in the corners, evidently for the piu^pose of giving place to the last deposited body, which occupied the centre of the tomb. An armlet lay in the right upper corner, and a large jar near the right foot contained a small tooth-comb, made of bone. Among the dust was a rude white cylinder, and an onyx bead, with a rudely engraved figure upon it. In another vaidt was the skeleton of a tall large-boned man. With the bones of the feet lay two copper rings, and near the chest a small lapis-lazuH frog, and a couple of agate beads. On the left of the body were five knuckle- bones of sheep, and a copper dish ; on the right were two beautiful heart-shaped red vases. In a corner near the feet were two large water-jars, and, close to the head, a smaller one containino- several beads and wood orna- ments, perhaps the tassel of a sash ; also, a small head of white stone or plaster, much defaced, through the fore- 254 ENVELOPED TABLETS. head of which is a pin for ftistening it to a stick or mace. In the chamber above were numbers of inscribed clay tablets. The contents of the vaults varied considerably. In one, an urn contained a piece of dark-brown unbaked clay, moulded into the form of a human hand and arm, ten inches in length, which fell to pieces with its own weight. A second jar contained nothing but two copper armlets ; a third, some fish's bones, and a small terra-cotta figure representing a body in a coffin with a mace (?) in each hand.' A small and beau- tifully moulded human head, in unbaked clay, also occurred in another tomb. In many instances, the bones of the skeletons were found in the upper cham- bers, but these were always crushed by the superincumbent weight of earth. It was from these chambers that the clay records were obtained. There were several distinct varieties. The most common were minutely- inscribed small tablets, contained wdthin a thin clay envelope, similarly inscribed, and likewise covered with the impressions of those cylinder seals, of which so many are to be seen in our museums. These tablets were doubtless family records, but they are highly inte- resting, because they shew us the particular use to which the cylinder-seals were applied. The Chaldseans were not contented with a simple impression, but rolled the cylinder over the entire written document, thus preventing all chance or possibility of forgery. The clay of the tablet must have been perfectly dry before it was enclosed, because the inner side of the envelope bears a cast, in relief, of the inscription beneath. These records vary from an inch to four or five inches in length ; but the thinness of the envelope causes it to be seldom Terra-cotta figrirs of a body in a coffin ARITHMETICAL CALCULATIONS. 255 found entire.'^'^ One of the smallest of these enclosed tablets, with its envelope tolerably perfect, bore upon it the name of Cambyses. Clay cakes, three inches in diameter, are also of fre- quent occurrence with rude cuneiform inscriptions on one or both sides, t There is evidence, too, that the early inhabitants of Babylonia used other materials for their written docu- ments. Among the tablets were found many triangular lumps of clay covered, like them, with the impressions of rolled cylinders. At two of the corners are the holes through which cords passed and attached them to parch- ment, papyrus, or leather. From the fact that many of these objects were damaged by fire, there is every reason to believe that it Avas a prevalent custom of the Babylonians to burn the private records of the dead over their graves. I know of no other cause to account for their blackened appearance, and the quantity of wood-ashes with which they are always associated. Among other clay documents, I must not omit to mention a small tablet, which confirms the statement of Berosus, that the Babylonians made use of a sexagesimal notation — the unit of which was termed a " Sossius " — as well as a decimal notation. The record in question is a table of squares. It has been already published by Sir Henry Eawlinsou ; J but I am tempted to extract from it the following, as a specimen of the advance made at that early date in arithmetical calculations : — * The same system of enveloping tablets in clay cases likewise prevailed at Nineveh. In examining the numerous collections in the British Museum, I observed one or two with envelopes attached, and the form of many others indicates that they had once been enclosed. This fact had hitherto escaped observation. t Mr Layard figures a cake of somewhat similar kind at p. 164 of his "Nineveh and Babylon." X Journal of Royal Geogr. Society, vol. xv., p. 218, note. 256 TABLE OF SQUARE ROOTS IN CUNEIFORM. Soss. Units, Soss. Units.* The Square of «^ //yj or 50 25 = yi ^^^ Clay Tablet from a Tomb at Sinkara. 1. Two figures, apparently boys, boxing, in the most approved fashion of the "ring" — a proof that the pugilistic art was practised and understood in the marshes of Chaldsea centuries before England was known to the world ! The positions taken by the figures are admirable. They are either stripped for the purpose, or they wear a costume similar to the Madan tribes of the present day — an abba, or cloak, tied round the waist, the rest of the body being bare. On their heads are skull-caps. A third figure, standing with his back to the * The tablet representing a man and Indian dog, obtained in Babylonia' by Sir Henry Eawlinson, and figured at page 527 of Layavd's " Nineveh and Babylon," much resembles these Sinkara tablets, and was probably procured bv the Arabs from an ancient grave or tomb. i-^' 258 THE LION S FEAST. combatants, seems to appeal over a huge vase, much resembling those used in interring the dead, to a female (?) wearing a long garment and a turban. She is seated on a stool beating cymbals. 2. A lion disturbed in his feast off a bullock, by a man armed with club and hatchet. The costume of the human ligui-e somewhat resembles that of the modern Arab : it consists of an abba thrown over the shoulders, a short Clay Tablet from Sinkara. tunic, and a band of camel's hair round the head. The action of the lion roaring and lashing his tail with mane erect (although one paw is very rudely represented) is extremely spirited, and shews considerable knowledge of the lion on the part of the artist. A fragment has been broken out, and again mended with bitumen. 3. This tablet is not flat like the others, but is made with a projecting stand, and rounded at the back. Upon it is represented the figure with the conical head-dress, and long robes, usually seen upon small cyhnders, and of which impressions occur upon the inscribed tablets. One foot is placed on a kind of stool, and the left hand holds a mace or some indescribable implement. Above PICTORIAL TABLETS. 259 are the Clialdsean emblems — the crescent, and an eight rayed star enclosed within a circle. The tablet is pierced with three holes. From the tombs were ob- tained tablets, with figures of a lion devouring a prostrate human being ; a man carrying a fish ; and an Indian dog. The lion appears, from these tablets, to have been indigen- ous to the Chaldsean marshes in very early times. I much doubt, however, if the mo- dern Arab would dare, single- handed, to attack the infu- riated beast while satiating his hunger on his prey. Fre- quently, during my stay at Sinkara, the deep grunt of the lioness was audible upon the mounds or close to the precincts of the camp. I had many times before heard what is called the roar of the lion on the banks of the Tigris, but it considerably disappointed my expectations. The pre- conceived idea of a lion's roar is of something noble and terrible in the extreme ; this, however, is not the case with the lion of Mesopotamia; the sound which he utters is like the squall of a child in pain, or the first cry of the jackal at sunset, but infinitely louder, clearer, and more prolonged. The nocturnal wail of the lioness at Sinkara in search of her cubs was truly imposing, and struck terror into the hearts of my nearly naked Arabs. I could scarcely Clay Tablet from Sinkara* 260 THE DEATH OF TOGA. Clay Tablet from Sinkara. be persuaded that it was not the lion himself, until they, one and all, declared positively it was the lioness. Dur- ing the day-time she lay quiet in the jungle by the side of the Kahr, and was only seen once or twice by a solitary shepherd. At night her approach was al- ways made known to us by the vehement barking of some half- dozen dogs belongmg to the Arabs, which gave furious tongue at some distance from the camp. The lioness was too cunning for our canine guardians ; gradually their number decreased, until oiu' greatest favourite. Toga, alone remained. One pitch dark night Toga was more energetic than usual in warning us of our enemy's position ; at last, apparently tired of his exertions, he returned sullenly into camp, and lay down close to my tent-ropes, growling audibly. Soon afterwards a sudden rush, followed by two or three bounds, making the very ground tremble like the galloping of horsemen, informed the whole encamp- ment that the dog-devourer was among us. Poor Toga was heard to give one stifled yelp, and all was over with our last guardian ; he was carried oj0f and demolished at a meal. The insatiable monster had crouched behind the rubbish of an adjoining excavation, waiting her opportu- nity for the fatal spring. Her traces were next morning visible in the sand, passing within a few yards of a watch- fire, which was surrounded by a party of Arabs in full conclave. It may be imagined that, on the first notice of the dreaded beast's approach, they were scattered like a flock of sheep. The camp never recovered its composure A HUNT IN THE DAEK. 2dl again that niglit, and the following day's work was but a sorry one. Fearing for the safety of the horses and camels, as soon as the animal made known her presence next evening, I hastily proj^osed an expedition against her, and set out armed, with "Ab\i Seba in," and Mahommed Agha, my cawas carrying loaded guns. The Arabs were told to follow if they pleased. We crept silently to the summit of the red mound, and halted to ascertain where the enemy lay. Here Ovannes, Tellag (who had come to spend the evening with me), and Budda, as a matter of course, with a few of the Tuweyba, soon joined us, all armed with spears. Tellag, undertaking the office of monitor, with ominous voice reminded me that it was very dark, and that the wild beast was mad from the loss of her young, and from her continued taste of blood. Seizing me by the arm, and pointing to the spear which I carried, he exclaimed : — " Beg ! if the tufenk (gim) misses, what, in the name of Allah, is the use of that reed?" I was per- fectly sensible of the correctness of his remark, but was determined to proceed fiu'ther, if it were only to ascertain whether the hearts of my men were in their right places. We descended from the red mound, and advanced towards the foot of the great ruin ; but alas ! it became more and more evident, each step we proceeded, that, although Tellag and the Arabs would have willingly bared their arms, tied up the sleeves of their zibbiins, and followed me against a human enemy by daylight, they were not disposed to attack an enraged lioness in the dread dark- ness of night. If the beast could have been seen in the distance, all would have made off at full speed to the camp. Mahommed Agha could scarcely hold his gun from fear. At the base of the great ruin a second halt was called, and we listened attentively. Something was heard to stir among the bricks on the summit, and the 262 A FALSE ALARM, next instant the queen of beasts uttered a loud roar; my companions, with one accord, looked behind them to ascer- tain if the coast were clear. An instant afterwards her roar was again heard as she made off in the distance, to the unspeakable relief of my companions-in-arms. In returning to camp, the Arabs determined to eke out their excitement by a piece of fun. At a convenient distance a general shriek "was raised, and all rushed towards the watchfires at full speed, as if the lioness were at our heels. The Arabs who remained in camp, thinking such was really the case, ran out to give us succour, grasping their spears and singing their war-cry as usual. When the deception was discovered, a merry laughing ensued, and each man sang and danced with the excitement. In this scene the Arab character ap- peared without disguise. Unwilling to make an attack in cold blood and darkness upon a wild beast, those in camp were prepared to resist an attack, and to advance to the aid of their fellows, whom they supposed in danger. Tellag, however, did not so soon forget the rashness of the enterprise : he followed me into my tent, and ex- postulated with me on the subject. " She is gone now," said he, " but will most assuredly attack and kill the first Arab she meets, out of revenge for our attempt against her !" CHAPTER XXL Treasures found at Tel Sifr — Juvenile Footpads — Medina — Yusuf and his Excavations at Tel Sifr — Large Collection of Curiosities in Copper — Private Eecords, B.C. 1500 — Female Excavators — The Works in Chaldaea abruptly interrupted — Leave-taking — Grateful Labourers — Embarkation on the Euphrates — River-craft and Am- phibious Arabs — " The Mother of Mosquitoes." From Sinkara several large mounds are visible across the Shat-el-Kahr, among which Ablah, El-Assam, and Tel Sifr, are the most important. Having heard from the Tuweyba promising accounts of the last-named ruin, and of one more distant, called Medina, I paid them a visit, and was induced to send a couple of work- ing parties, imder the direction of overseers, to open trenches at positions I had marked out. At daybreak on the fourth day after their departure, a messenger arrived from Tel Sifr, with the information that a quan- tity of copper articles were discovered on the previous evening, as the men were leaving off work. I was pre- paring to set out at once, but was informed that the Kahr had risen so considerably as to render it impossible for me to cross without a boat. While reflecting on the best plan to be adopted, a second messenger arrived with a basketful of the new-found treasures. He informed me that there were as many as a mule's load waiting to be conveyed across the Shat-el-Kahr. He had crossed with the copper on his head and the water reaching tc his chin. 2G4 A MESdExVGER FROM MEDINA. While an Arab was despatched to Tellag to borrow sheep-skins for a raft, Ovaunes proposed to ride off with- out delay and swim the stream on horseback. This was the only method of getting over the difficulty ; so away he went, accompanied by an Arab on a mule, carrying the baskets which the cook used for the conveyance of his pots and kettles. He took with him a small box, a packet of paper, and a bag of cotton for wrapping up any fragile articles which might require especial care. He had scarcely disappeared when a third messenger arrived — this time from Medina — Avith a small tablet of unbaked clay from the surface of a tomb. The poor fellow was shivering with ague, induced by fright, from encountering a lion by the way. He thought his last houj arrived ; for the animal espied him, lashed his tail, and roared as he made towards the terrified Arab, who sank to the earth with a prayer for the protection of Allah. On waking from the stupor into which he had fallen, he discovered, to his great relief, that his prayer was granted, and that the lion had disappeared ; he, therefore, lost no time in putting the river between him- self and the animal. The poor fellow arrived completely stricken with fear. Shortly afterwards I was met by a fourth messenger from Tel Sifr, who brought with him a very beautiful and quite perfect tablet of unbaked clay, as a specimen of "ketliir ! kethir !" — "many ! many !" which had been just discovered. Ovaunes had not met this messenger, and, therefore, received a welcome surprise on reaching the Tel. The overseer, Yusuf, was in the act of wrapping up the last of a large collection of beautiful tablets. Having exhausted all the stock of paper taken for the purpose, he was driven to the sad alternative of tearing up his blue calico trousers, and the skirts of his shii't, to supply the deficiency. Ovannes found him directing ope- CROSSING THE SHAT-EL-KAHR. 2(35 rations in liis drawers. All the spoils were soon packed, and conveyed to the Shat-el-Kiihr upon the back of the mule, which staggered under the weight of the burden. They were there unloaded and carried in baskets across the river on a man's head — the same who broke his coUar bone a month previously ! He was a tall strong man, and walked with the water just reaching to his mouth, while two Arabs swam on either side supporting him. Tellao- collected from the women of the Shammar camp half-a-dozen water-skins, and, next morning at daybreak, they were sent down to the Shat-el-Kahr, where they were tied to a few pieces of wood and tamarisk twigs, cut from the brushwood which grew at hand, and, in a few minutes, converted into a primitive kelek. The horses w^ere soon stripped, a saddle-cloth was spread for my seat, and, with a " bismillah," — " in the name of God" — I was pushed off iufco the stream. At the point chosen for crossing, a large island divided the Shat-el-Kahr into two parts. In the first branch the water reached to the shoulders of the two Arabs who guided the kelek before them. The horses were led over by their groom, and the kelek made a second voyage for Ovannes and the saddles. It was then carried across the island to the larger branch of the stream, over which we were transported in a similar manner, except that, the channel being two hundred feet wide, deep, and with a rapid current, the kelekjls were obliged to swim, and we drifted a considerable distance together down the Shat. The horses were saddled, and we once more set oif at a round pace in the direction pointed out as that of Tel Sifr, for it was impossible to see through a driving sand-storm. After riding about an hour, we approached a large mound, which proved to be that of El Assam — much to the left of our proper course. Being then nearer to Medina than to Tel Sifr, I deter- 266 THE YOUNG HERO OF THE TUWEYBA. mined to visit the former place first, in order to see what had been done there. In galloping along, I was hailed by two shepherd boys, belonging to the main divisions of the Tuweyba tribe, whose tents were in the neighbour- hood. The older might be twelve, the younger ten years of age ; they were armed with clubs and spears. " Stop, stop ! don't be afraid ; we will not hurt you !" said they, running up, with their long hair streaming over their swarthy shoulders. " It is you who should be afraid ; we are horsemen — ^you are on foot," said I. " Oh ! but we don't fear two horsemen only, if there be no more behind," replied the younger little fellow, as he looked in the direction we had come. He was a fine intelligent boy, with sparkling black eyes, that betokened a future Sheitan, or dare-devil. " But horsemen sometimes carry fire," I replied, pointing to my holsters. " Yes ! I know fire kills, but that saddle cannot hurt," he retorted, as he touched the leather case. " No ! that cannot harm you, but this might," said I, exposing the butt-end of a pistol. " God is great !" exclaimed the young hero, as he coloured up, and drew himself a step back from the dreaded weajDon. Being eventually assured that we were friends, they directed us towards Medina, which we reached after a quarter of an hour's further ride, by which time the wind and dust had abated. The overseer, whom I had despatched to this ruin, was a very shrewd, active, and honest young fellow, named Hannah, a Chaldaean from Mosul, who had worked in the trenches at Nineveh. He was one of my best men, and usually proved lucky; he was delighted to see me, but his look at once announced that, on this occasion, his customary good fortune had failed him. His numerous trenches had only yielded a single clay tablet, a few insignificant copper articles, and pottery of the forms common at Sinkara, among which were some pretty TUWEYBA ENCAMPMENT. 267 specimens of the bell-shaped drinking vase."'" The fault was not Hannah's : he had dug deeply and earnestly. The mounds were of considerable extent, running in a line from south-west to north-east. There was nothing to shew that Medina had been more than a small cemetery. It abounded in brick vaults, similar to those at Sinkara, one of which contained no less than four skeletons, lying one upon the other. The workmen were afraid of the solitude ; there were no Arabs in the neigh- bourhood, so that they were obliged to sleep at night in the tombs which they had discovered during the day. A dismal place it certainly was, with an unbounded view of marsh towards the south-east, and a desert bearing an abundant crop of ancient remains, in every other direction. The water reached to the base ot the mound — a perfect dead sea — without reeds, or other evidence of vegetation appearing on its salt-incrusted shore. The Arabs pointed out Shatrat in the distance, but it was far beyond my vision. They begged hard to be allowed to return, and, there being no great prospect of a successful issue in further excavations, their request was granted. A minute or two sufficed to pack up their property, and to turn their faces campwards. From Medina I galloped to Tel Sifr, at the foot of which was encamped a numerous body of the Tuweyba tribe. Their black tents were low and small, but arranged in long lines, at regular distances, after a more systematic manner than any Arab camp I ever saw. The denizens were a wild race, but among them I noticed many remarkably fine men and women — the latter with huge nose-rings, and other ornaments of gold and silver. Unlike my workmen, who were evidently of the lowest • One of which is engraved at page 253. t Shatra is a reed village among the marshes of the Shat-cl-IIie — a species of market-town for the inhabitants of the surrounding region. 268 DISCOVERY OF COPPER ARTICLES. class, they appetired well-fed, and otherwise in good con- dition ; the men Avere lolling about at their ease, basking in the sun, or sitting by the side of the women, who were generally engaged in spinning. Their countenances bore a strong resemblance to our English gipsies. There was an air of quiet repose about the scene, quite charming to me after the noisy squabbles which ensued after each day's excavations on the ruins. The arrival of a Firenghl might have been an everyday occurrence, for they scarcely stirred from their occupations; while in other more civilised tribes men, women, and children would have collected round, in gaping astonishment. Yiisuf and his gang were hard at work, covered with perspiration and dust ; they had cut some enormous gashes into the little conical mound, which crowns a low platform nowhere exceeding forty feet above the desert. With the exception of the cone, the whole surface of the platform, which was of much less extent than Sinkara, was completely burrowed by old Budda and his grave- hunting fraternity. The dead were buiied here also in oblong brick graves, for the most part vaulted, and painted red inside. The name of Tel " Sifr " is derived from the numerous "' copper " articles found by the Arabs in the vaults, and was still more appropriate after Yiisuf s excavations. A trench was dug into the south-east side of the prin- cipal mound, according to instructions, and §oon came against a brick wall, which, from its position, supported by a three-feet buttress, and its elevation in two-inch gradines, was evidently the exterior of a building. Its thickness was not ascertained, but it encased an internal mass of mud brickwork, as explained by some other trenches. FoUowino^ this wall for a distance of about six feet, the workmen discovered a number of copper articles arranged along it, which form a very cmious IMPLEMENTS OF COPPER. 269 and quite unique collection, consisting of large chal- drons, vases, small dishes, and dice-boxes C?) ; ham- mers, chisels, adzes, and hatchets ; a large assortment of knives and daggers of various sizes and shapes — all un- finished ; massive and smaller rings ; a pair of prisoner's fetters ; three links of a strong chain ; a ring weight ; several plates resembling horses' shoes, divided at the heel for the insertion of a handle, and having two holes in each for pins ; other plates of a different shape, which were probably primitive hatchet^ ; an ingot of copper, and a great weight of dross from the same smelted metal.'"" There was likewise a small fra2;ment of a bitumen bowl overlaid with thin copper; and a piece of lead. The conclusion arrived at from an inspection of these implements and articles is, that they were the stock-in- trade of a coppersmith, whose forge was close at hand, but the explanation of their connexion with the public edifice, near which they were discovered, is by no means clear. They are well and skilfully wrought. One of the hatchets particularly attracted my notice, being of the same form as that represented on the tablet of the man attacking the lion ;t the articles which I conceive to be dice-boxes, precisely resemble those of modern form ; the knives were all adhering together en masse, their rough broad edges proving that they were never finished by the cutler. The total absence of iron in the older ruins implies that the inhabitants were unacquainted with that metal, or at any rate that it was seldom worked. Many of the copper implements above enumerated appear to be but little adapted to the object for which they were fashioned. Copper was particularly used in the Taber- * The whole of the articles obtained from Tel Sifr are deposited in the Bi'itisli Museum, t See woodcut, page 258. 270 TABLETS IN ENVELOPES. nacle"' and Temple of the Jews, and, it may be, that this metal was specially chosen for sacrificial purposes, which might account for its abundant discovery in connexion with the edifice — a temple — against the w^all of which the implements were found. At any rate, the entire absence of iron, and the curious shapes of many articles, point to a primitive age for their origin. The actual date of these copper objects is, however, to be inferred from that of the " enveloped" clay tablets which were found close to them. These records were arranged with much care. Three mud bricks were laid down in the form of the capital letter U. The largest tablet, measuring six-and-a-quarter inches long and three inches wide, was placed upon this foundation, and the two next in size at right angles to it. The rest were piled upon them and also upon the bricks — the whole being surrounded by a reed matting, traces of which were still visibly adhering to many of the tablets. They were covered by three un- baked bricks, which accounts for the perfect preserva- tion of so many. Several were found broken, but the fragments were carefully collected. There must have been, in all, about one hundred, of which seventy are either quite perfect or but slightly damaged. Each tablet was inscribed in minute, .complicated characters of Babylonian cuneiform, and afterwards placed in an envelope of the same material. That this thin layer of unbaked clay should have remained entire during so many centuries under a slight covering of earth, appears almost incredible ! It is also strange that the * " And he made all the vessels of the altar, the pots and the shovels, and the basins, and the flesh-hooks, and the fire-pans : all the vessels thereof made he of brass." Exodus xxxviii. gives a full account of the altar of burnt-offering and its vessels — brass being the principal metal employed. By brass we must understand copper, because the factitious metal was unknown at that early a^e TABLETS IN ENVELOPES. 271 envelope had infinitely more pains bestowed upon it than the internal record, which, it is natural to suppose, was UnbaKed Clay Tablet and its Envelope. the important document. Upon each side are inscribed about twenty lines of inscription, commencing from a broad margin on the left. Along the margin and upon all the four edges of the envelope are distinct impressions of cylindrical seals, which likewise cover the whole surface of the wi'iting. The woodcut shews one of the tablets, with a portion of the envelope removed."^^ These remarkable tablets have not been critically examined, so that I am unable to guess at the reason of the envelope having so much more elaborate pains bestowed upon it than upon the tablet itself. Sir Henry Rawlinson pronounced them, after a cursory examination, to be the documents of private persons in the time of the Chaldsean Kings KJiammurabi and Shamsu-Iluna (whose name he then met with for the^first time), about 1500 B.C., which nearly corresponds with the date of the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, upwards of three thousand three hundred years ago. • The broad margin and surface seals are not exhibited in the woodcut. 272 FEMALE EXCAVATOES. Yvisuf s excavations were much more lively and amus- ing than such works generally are. Their proximity to the Arab camp induced a number of the Tuweyba women and children to gather round their friends and relations. The females in their deep blue and red gowns sat spinning and chattering at the edge of the trench, and the younger part of the community, in dress of nature's own providing, gamboled round them, or stood watching when any object was being minutely examined. In addition to the enveloped tablets and copper arti- cles, Tel Sifr produced a third novelty — two girls were carrying baskets of earth from the trench. One, a very pretty lass of sixteen or thereabouts, had begged so hard for work to support her old, infirm mother and three young brothers and sisters, that Yiisuf could not resist the appeal. The second girl was jealous of the first one earning money, and therefore offered her services, which Yusuf accepted in order to countenance the other. They were great favourites among the men who, with more kind feeling than the Arabs usually exhibit towards their women, picked out for them the smallest baskets, which they never wholly filled. I observed to Yusuf that they carried their loads with infinitely greater ease and speed than the men, and that they discharged three baskets of earth while the men lazily emptied but two. Yusuf grinned and declared he wished all his labourers were women, because they were not only quicker, in their movements, but more manageable. Much merriment was created by my ordering all the men out of the trench and announcing my intention to employ only women for the future, while 1 paid a /leserving compliment to the ladies. A few days after this little excursion, a termination was put to my researches amid the antiquities of Clial- dsea by events over which I had no control. The great TERMINATION OF CHALDEAN RESEARCHES. 273 mound at Sinkara liad yielded a series of liigbly inter- esting historical annals in its bricks and cylinders, and, there being reason to anticipate the discovery of much more ancient records at a greater depth, I was anxious to continue the excavations, but in this I was destined to be sadly disappointed. The continued rise of the marshes from the overflowing of the Shat-el-Kahr, an- noimced that the whole of Chaldaea would be in a few weeks covered with the inundations, and warned me to effect an escape while it was possible to do so. The Arabs foresaw, in the rise of the waters, a period put to the acute miseries they had endm-ed for several succes- sive seasons, and could no longer be restrained from quitting me to commence the cultivation of their grounds before they were submerged. It would have been an act of cruelty to detain them longer. Azayiz and Hen- na)dn, Budda and a few inveterate grave-diggers alone remained with me, and it was evident that they too desired to depart. Tellag, in whom my hopes of con- tinuing the excavations might have rested, came to in- form me that he had entered into an agreement with the Beni Hacheym tribes to quit the ground he then occupied near Sinkara, and to retire across the Shat-el-Kahr further into the Jezireh. His camels had abeady de- parted for their new pasture grounds. Thus there ap- peared every likelikood of my being left in solitary pos- session of the ruins, because, without means to convey away my spoils, I was unable to move. My provisions, moreover, were just exhausted, and there was no pros- pect, under circumstances, of a fresh supply. I was,, therefore, reluctantly obliged to sacrifice my wishes to absolute necessity, and to suspend the works both at Sinkara and Tel Sifr. On stating my dilemma to Tellag, he promised to send some of his camels back again for my acconmaodation, S 274 THE ADIEU. and in two clays he not only redeemed his word, bnt himself returned with the animals, and on the following morning my little caravan was once more in motion towards the Euphrates. For the aid he had rendered me, Tellag was content with the present of an embroidered abba, and our parting em1:>race was one of mutual esteem. The friendship, begim under very unpropitious circumstances, had proved of infinite value in the ar- rangement of my plans, and I therefore took leave of my Bedouin protector with regret. Such of my work- men as had remained faithful from the commencement, were rewarded with the present of a spade, or a trifling Arab coin. They had not anticipated such generosity, and were overwhelmed with gratitude and delight; Gunza almost cried through excess of joy, and exclaimed that, with the sum he had saved and what I then gave him, he would be able to pay a debt of fifteen shamies, and have, moreover, three to spare ! As I mounted my horse, they hung round me, kissed my hands and gar- ments, and clung sorrowfully to my stirrups. Hastily bidding them adieu, I cantered after the baggage. On turning round at some distance to take a last look at the mounds, I saw the party sitting on the ruins of the temple of Pharra, — and there they continued to sit until their diminishing forms were finally lost to my sight. Azayiz and Hennayin being desirous of preferring fiome request to the Governor of Semava on behalf of the Tuweyba tribe, accompanied me to the banks of the Euphrates. A great change was taking place in the aspect of the country ; many old channels and water- courses, which I had been accustomed to see empty and dry, were now rapidly filling with river water. In many spots it reached up to my saddle-girths, proving the propriety of the step I had taken in ending the excavations. Within the space of a week, or less, passage CHANGE OF SCENE. 275 in that direction, or indeed in any other, would have been impracticable, Hennayin, as he walked l:)y my side, broke out into frequent exclamations of delight at the sight of little runners of the vivifying fluid as it trickled along, gradually filling the canals. " Is not this a beautifid country V he continually exclaimed, while he looked up into my face with undoubted signs of gratification. In anticipation of my return, two native vessels were engaged to convey my party and treasures to Busrah. The horses, mules, and grooms occupied one, while the antiquities were stowed away in the second, which carried myself and immediate attendants. While the embarka- tion was being efiected, I was in full enjoyment of the scene before me. After the dust and barren dreariness of the ruins, nothing could exceed the beauty and luxury of that river side and its now verdant banks. The shouts and squabbles of the Arabs about the daily division of their pay were ceased, and in their stead bee-eaters, king-fishers, herons, pigeons, hawks, and other birds, in all their bright and varied plumage, were flying about, utterino; their several cries, and luxuriatino; in their native element, scarcely deigning to notice the presence of human beings. When all were embarked, I bade the Tuweyba chief and his brother-in-law adieu, — the cable was hauled in, — the sails set before a fair wind, — and, with a thousand invocations to God and Mohammed, my little fleet was wafted rapidly down the stream. The boats used by the natives for the navigation of the Mesopotamian rivers are huge clumsy craft, built of Indian teak, and of many tons burden. They have high sterns, with cabin and quarter-deck, from the top of which they are steered by a primitive rudder, composed of a compKcated system of cross spars, roughly tied together. Here sits the captain, 276 AN ARAB CAPTAIN AND HIS VESSEL. giving liis orders and smoking his chibiik, during the livelong day, unless disturbed by unforeseen circum- stances from his wonted calm ; in which cases he rises, pipe in hand, and claims implicit obedience from his crew by the utterance of a torrent of abuse in richly- flowing Arabic, which is so admirably adapted to that purpose. Each vessel is supplied with a single tall mast, and huge square sail. In floating down the stream, or in sailing before a favourable breeze, the ungainly vessel goes glibly along ; but when the wind is foul, or the course against the stream, the crew strip, floimder to the shore, and take the place of brute beasts at the tow-rope. The crew of an Arab vessel is an amphibious race — quite as much in the water as out of it. Deep streams have to be crossed, or shoals avoided in their tracking, and many an hour has to be spent in shoving their craft oft a shallow sand-bank. The life of a Tigris "tracker" is as hard as can well be imagined. Cleanliness is unknown in the cabin of an. Arab vessel. The flooring, sides, and ceiling are begrimed with grease, and stained with smoke, — there is scarcely room to stand upright, — the boards are pierced with rats' holes, and small vermin issue from every crevice. Add to these annoyances, the incessant creaking of the im- wieldy rudder and its appliances, — the intolerable noise made in tacking, — the frequent prayers to Mohammed for propitious winds and weather, mingled with wild songs without the slightest pretension to be called musical, — and it may be conceived that a stranger to the navigation of the Mesopotamian rivers passes a sleepless and dis- turbed first night on board an Arab vessel. Fortunately the wind was favourable, so that we anchored at Siik-esh-sheioukh soon after midnight, by which arrangement there was a A\'elcome cessation to, at least, the noisy portion of the annoyances. It was SAIL DOWN THE EUPHRATES. 277 my intention to have paid my respects to the Sheikh of the Muntefik, and to have thanked him for the pro- tection he had afforded me ; Ijut the captain desired to take advantage of the fair wind while he might. Quitting our anchorage at day dawn, we sailed at a merry rate down the Euphrates, and in two hours passed Umm-el-Buk — "the Mother of Mosquitoes" — the head of the vast inundation which from this point spreads out in every direction like a continuous sea. The channel of the Euphrates was only to be distinguished from the surrounding water by a narrow strip of bank, or by a line of date-trees along its margin. Here and there the flood might be seen rushing in a roaring cascade from the river into the marshes beyond it ; at such points all the skill of the captain and crew was required to prevent oui* being carried through the break. Tcrradas were busily employed in conveying the little property of the Arabs from their previous settlements, which w^ere being speedily covered by the increasing waters. Throughout the day the same monotonous deluge presented itself; but we continued on our course without intermission, at midnight passing Korna, where the stream of the Tigris joins that of the Euphrates, and from whence their combined waters flow onwards to the Persian Gulf, under the name of the Shat-el-Arab. A thick forest of luxuriant date-trees frino-es the bank on either side of the noble river, which supplies innumerable canals for their nourish- ment, and for the cidtivation of cereals, which flourish in large quantities even beneath the shade of the palms. The ebb and flow of the tide is perceptible twenty miles above Korna — quite eighty miles from the Persian Gulf. At noon the following day, two of my horses were dis- embarked at the little village of Girdelan, opposite to the creek which flows to Busrah, and, with a single ser- 278 SAIL DOWN THE EUPHRATES. vant, I rode across the desert to Moliammerah. The vessels meanwhile proceeded on their course to meet me in the Hafar canal, or branch of the Persian river K^riln, which flows past that city towards the Shat-el-Ar4b.'"' * The collection of antiquities, made during my second visit to Warka, was despatched from hence to England at the end of April 1850 ; and my report on the subject, accompanied by Mr Churchill's beautiful drawings and plans, was then Ukewise forwarded to the British Museum. CHAPTER XXII. Mohammcrali — Intense Heat — Sickness — Legion of Blood-suckers — Colony of Alexander tlie Great — Charax — The Delta of the Tigris and Euphrates — Disputes between the Turks and Persians — The Chd'b Arabs and thek Territories. The camps of the Commissioners for the demarcation of the Turco-Persian frontier were pitched in the open desert, at the distance of a mile from the date-groves, where it was supposed they would be free from the miasma arising from the decomposition of noxious matter during the period of low tides. From the account given of Mohammerah by Captain Selby"'' in his Memoir on the Ascent of the Karim in 1842, it was generally supposed to be an extremely healthy locality. The lengthened stay which the Commissions made on the spot proved, however, the contrary to be the case : continued sick- ness pervaded the whole four camps ; food could not be retained upon the stomach long after a meal ; and a general state of debility naturally ensued. This could not be attributed to the style of living ; because each party followed its own customs : — the Russians took their little doses of cognac, and ate their national caviare, — the English abjured fruit, and the Orientals lived upon it. Captain Jones and the officers of the Nitocris, on their arrival each month from Baghdad, were seized with the same complaint ; every meal saw * Journal of Royal Geogr. Soc, vol. xiv., p. 223. 280 M OH A M M ERAH. some of our party obliged to make a precipitate retreat from the table ; and yet no one was seriously ill. Besides this curious endemic, there were other causes which rendered the region around Mohammerah by no means a desirable place of residence. The heat was intense, day and night, — in June rising to 124° Fahr. in the shade. It was of that peculiarly moist nature which prevails on the sea-coast of India, and more especially on the shores of the Persian Gulf, bathing the clothes in a continual state of perspiration. At Bdghdad the heat is great ; but, being uninfluenced by the moisture of the distant sea, the atmosphere is extremely dry, and the thermometer, consequently, much less affected than at Mohammerah. Another source of disquietude was the myriad of gigantic mosquitoes which about sunset issued from the date-2:roves, and made a violent onslaught upon the cnmps. We could hear them, in the distance, approaching with an intolerable buzz, and, in a few seconds afterw^ards, it was no uncommon sight to behold a party at dinner rush for protection to the confined atmosphere of the tents. No one could endure the virulence of their bites, — our light clothing was pierced instantaneously by their formidable probosces, and no earthly endurance could bear the torment inflicted at the same moment on the sensitive parts of the body. Gloves and boots were of no avail, — thev bored throuo;h the former at once, and found their way over the tops of the latter. Eesting at night was a sheer impossibility ; under a net was the heat of an oven, — outside of it a legion of blood-suckers. No wonder that all desired a speedy release from the miseries endured at this Ultima Tliule of the frontier ; but we were destined long to hope in vain. Mohammerah owes its foundation, it is said, to Alexander the Great. In order to avoid the necessity of sailing MOHAMMERAH. 281 down the Eulseus (the modern Kariin) to the Persian Gulf, and afterwards coasting up to the mouth of the Tigris, he caused an artificial cutting to be made between the two rivers, which is still to be recognised in the Hafar^' now flowing past Mohammerah. Previously to this, the Kariin appears to have discharged its waters by one or both of the channels called Edior Kobb^n and Khor Bahmeh-shir,t through a low promontory into the Persian Gulf. The site of Mohammerah was fixed at the junction of the Eulseus and Tigris upon the sea-shore. At this point Alexander built an artificial mound, and transferred to it a colony from the ruined Persian city of Durine, leaving a garrison of those soldiers who were unfit for service. He named the place Alexandria after himself, and the sur- rounding country was called Pellaeum after the city where he was born. The town was afterwards destroyed by the invasion of the rivers, but was rebuilt by Antiochus, and heuce called Antiochia. It was again ruined, as be- fore, and a third time restored by an Arab king Spasines, son of Sogdonacus, who erected great dams, wharves, and causeways, calling it after himself, Charax of Spasines. It was the birthplace of Dionysius the geographer, whom the Roman emperor Augustus sent to obtain in- formation on the country for the instruction of his eldest son, who was about making an expedition to Armenia against the Parthians. The province of Characine, whose capital was Charax, appears to have especially flourished under the dominion of the sub-Parthian kings. The British Museum pos- sesses several remarkable copper coins referred to the kings of that province ; they bear rude Greek legends, in • " Hafdr," in Arabic, means '* digger." t For further information on this point, I would refer the reader to the Journal of the Royal Geogr. Society, voL xvi. p. 55, and Macdonald Kin- near, p. 293. 282 MOHAMMERAH — CHARAX. connexion with busts of j)eculiar character, diadems, long peaked curled beards, and tlie enormous coiffures, so characteristic of remains from Warka. Charax was named Kerkhi Misau, and Asterd,bM by the Sassanians, and jMaherzi by the early Arabs. The site is highly interesting in a geological as well as an historical point of view. It is an instance of an oceanic delta gaining, wdth almost unprecedented rapidity, upon the sea. According to the statement of Pliny,'"' the original site of Charax w^as two thousand paces from the shore, but, in consequence of the rapid accumulation of mud annually produced by the rivers, in the time of Juba II., king of Maiuitania (25 B.C.), it stood fifty miles in- land. There is, of course, much exaggeration in Pliny's information ; but, if we take the trouble of comparing the historical accounts of the early Greek, Latin, and Moham- medan authors, the increase of land at the delta of the Tigris and Euphrates may be distinctly traced. Since the commencement of our era there has been an incre- ment at the extraordinary rate of a mile in about seventy years, which far exceeds the growth of any existing delta. This rapid increase is accounted for by the deposit of the river mud in the confined basin of the gulf, w^here, instead of being w^ashed away by currents, as in an open ocean, it is driven back by the returning tide, and formed into a gently shelving bank, perceptible at a consider- able distance from the embouchure of the rivers. The comparatively recent formation of the country aroimd Mohammerah is evident from the remains of fiuvia- tile and marine shells, which occur abundantly upon a soil highly impregnated with saline efflorescences. These semi-fossils are identical W'ith species now living in the adjacent rivers and in the Persian Gulf. About the middle of the last century, when the Per- * Liber vi. 27. MOHAMMEPAH At^D THE CHA'B. 283 sian empire was thrown into confusion by tlie assassina- tion of the great Nadir Shah, the Cha b Arabs, from the marshes at the junction of the Tigris and Eupln-ates, attacked the Persian tribe of Afshar, and eventually ex- pelled them from their possessions on the estuary of the Shat-el-Ar4b and Karun. Kerim Khan, the successor of Nadir Shah, after a fruitless attempt to regain the valuable territory, was compelled to abandon it to its new occu- piers. Sheikh Salman, the head of the Cha'b Arabs, aware of the importance of the position thus acquired, quickly raised a fleet, and long held his ground against both Turks and Persians, making piratical attacks on vessels in the Persian Gulf, among which he succeeded in capturing some British vessels. Tribute, or rather pish- kash (present), is, however, now exacted from the Cha'b, whenever the Shah or his provincial governors possess sufficient force for the purpose, and the amount varies in ratio to the power exercised. The value of Mohammerah as a commercial position was established by Sheikh Thiimir, the great-grandson of Salman, who opened it as a free port, thereby inflicting serious damage on the revenues of the Turkish customs at Busrah: hence arose the dispute concerning the place between the Turks and Persians. 'Ali Pasha findino- his income considerably diminished, determined on attacking the enterprising sheikh ; an expedition was consequently fitted out, and the town, with all its valuable contents, destroyed. The Persians being naturally under obliga- tion to support the sheikh, and defend what they re- garded as Persian soil, the dispute waxed warm between the two powers, and the chief of the Cha'b, meanwhile, assumed a very independent position, although nominally under the Turks. His place of residence was at Fellahiyya, but the custody of Mohammerah was consigned to Sheikh Ja'ber, who acted as his agent, and gradually acquired 284 MOHAMMERAH AND THE CHa'b. au enormous fortune. On tlie death of Sheikh Thdmir, he was succeeded by his son Faris, the present head of the Ch^'b, and Sheikh Ja'ber has raised himself to be almost independent of his natural chief. By the treaty of Erzeriim, however, it was agreed that Mohammerah should be finally made over to the Per- sians ; but, on its being proposed, when the Commis- sioners met upon the spot, to carry out the spirit of the treaty, an unexpected difficulty presented itself. The Turkish Commissioner, in most lawyer-like manner, argued, like Portia in the Merchant of Venice, " This bond doth give thee here no jot of blood ; The words expressly are, a pound of flesh. Then take thy bond — take thou the pound of flesh." According to the letter of the deed, he was content to deliver up the town, but not an inch of the surrounding territory. Here, however, the similitude ended. Con- ference followed conference on this momentous question. Dervish Pasha stood his ground, and would consent to no other terms ; whereupon Mirza Jafer Khan instigated Sheikli Ja'ber to raise the Persian flag upon the walls of Mohammerah. Thus there was danger, at the very outset of the Commissioners' assembling, that the whole affair would fall to the ground, and bring about a recom- mencement of hostilities. Fortunately, European counsel was listened to ; the obnoxious flag was removed, the point at issue referred to the four governments for decision, and it was ultimately resolved that a careful survey should be taken of the whole frontier line, and that all disputed questions should be left for future discussion. In its present state, Mohammerah consists of a wretched assemblage of huts, containing about three hundred families, and is tolerably furnished with bazaars. On the settlement of the pending controversy, the place will, THE CHA'b ARABS. 28 J from its naturally advantageous position, soon become the great emporium of commerce between India, Turke}', and the south-western provinces of Persia ; but, under the present aspect of afltiirs, there is little immediate prospect of its advancement. Sheikh Ja'ber is a shrewd calculating Arab, far be- yond his race in intelligence and civilization. Possessed of several vessels, he carries on an extensive trade with Muscat and Bombay, and can bring into the field a considerable force of horsemen and musketeers. His riches and influence are so great, that, in case of a mis- understanding with his superior, Sheikh Ja'ber would be a formidable rival for the chieftainship of the whole tribe. The Cha'b Arabs are a tall, warlike race, with swarthy countenances, and an expression which denotes a strong infusion of Persian blood. In dress, they rather adopt the Persian than the Arab costume. The national black and white striped abba is thrown over the blue cotton tunic and short drawers of the Persian, while an ample black turban, tied in the peculiar fashion of Shuster and Dizfiil, shields the Adsage from the sun. Each man caixies an immense long musket slung over his shoulder, a sword, and round target of tough bull's hide, studded with large copper nails or bosses. They are a brave, but cruel race, far inferior to the Bedouin in every manly and noble quality. The district occupied by the Cha'b Arabs constitutes the largest part of the Persian province of Khiizistan, " the land of sugar " — the name being derived from the cultivation of that plant, which was extensively carried on here in former times. It is, however, usually deno- minated Ar^bistan, from its inhabitants. The Cha'b"''* extend from the Persian Gulf, on the • For a detailed account of tliis laige tribe, consult Mr Layard's 286 SULEYMAN KHAN. south, to an imaginary northern line, drawn from the Shat-el-Arab above Bnsrali, to the Kariin, midway between Ahwaz and Ismaill, forming a junction with the tribes of the Beni Ldm and W411 of Hawiza, — thence the line follows the left bank of the Kdrun, to a point above the village of Wais. From this, the eastern boundary extends along the Zeytiin Hills to the river Hindiyyan, and down its course to the sea. On the w€st, they possess a small strip of land upon the farther bank of the Shat-el- Arab, from its mouth to near the town of Busrah. During the early part of our mission, Khtizistan Avas governed by a Georgian Christian, named Suleyman KJi^n, whose justice and moderation rendered him a general favourite with all classes of his subjects. Not- withstanding their fanatical dispositions, and his despised religion, they were eloquent in his praise ; and it spoke well for the feelino;s of all classes — from the Sh^h to the Arab cultivator — that a Christian governor should be tolerated in the most fanatical of all Mohammedan countries. In my own intercourse, however, with the Persians, I did not always meet with the same toleration ; and I can only account for their endurance of Suleyman Khan in consequence of his sterling qualities, and, above aU, of the Shah's supreme will. admirable memoir " On the Province of Khtizistdn," in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xvi., p. 36, et seq. ; and likewise Baron de Bode's "Travels in Ldristdn and Ardbistdn," vol. ii., p. 110. CHAPTER XXIII. Setting out for Susa — The Siilky Ferryman — Coffee-cups and Infidels — Ahwaz — A False Alarm — Shuster — Dilapidation and Dirt — Shapur and the Captive Emperor Valerian — Their Grand Hydraulic Works — Festivities at Shuster — Tea — The Forbidden Beverage — Climate of Shuster — Failure in Diplomacy. As soon as my collection of antiquities obtained at Warka was despatched to England, Colonel Williams desired me to visit Susa, and endeavour to make excava- tions at the mounds which are well known to exist at that locality. I was particularly instructed to be careful in my dealings with the natives, and to desist from any attempt at carrying out the project, if it were productive of opposition from any quarter. As the ruins had never been surveyed, it was desirable that a plan should be at once made, which might be turned to account in the event of researches being made on the spot. ]\Ir Churchill, my companion on the previous journey through Meso- potamia, gladly availed himself of the permission accorded to him of joining me in the expedition, and I was only too delighted to take advantage of his knowledge of the language, and his agreeable society. Letters were furnished me by the British and the Persian Commissioners to Suleyman Khan and the authorities at Shuster and Dizful — the two great Persian cities in the plains of Arabistan. Mirza Jafer Khdn likewise sent one of his own glioliims to guide, and 288 UNCIVIL EECEPTIOX AT ISMAlLf. to ensure us a certain degree of respect from his country- men. Tlius provided we once UKjre Lid adieu to our friends, and set out on our travels, delighted beyond measure to escape from the feverish heat and debilitating atmosphere of Mohamraerah. In order to avoid the intensity of the sun, it was necessary to start early, so as to rest for a few hours at noon, and again resume the journey when the heat had somewhat abated. Our general course was north-easterly, along the banks of the Karun, but, during our first day's ride, we only touched upon it at a single point, and again took the direct route, sleeping at night upon the arid floor of the desert. On the foUowino- mornino; we once more reached the river at a ruined tomb called Imam Seba', enshrouded in a deep grove of date-trees ; the banks of the Karun beino; also frino;ed with a thick forest of fine tamarisks, which gradually sloped to the river brink. At mid-day we arrived opposite to the Arab village of Ismaili, where a ferry-boat is established for passengers. Whether the Arabs were taking their siesta, or whether they were indisposed to move instantaneously at the beck of every traveller who might present himself at the water's edge, it is difficult to say, but, notwithstanding aU our shouting, threats, entreaties, and firing of pistols, the Charon of Ismaili refused to appear. Having no other alternative but to wait the pleasure of that worthy, an awning was hastily raised, under which we fell asleep to while away the time. Patience always has its reward ; so in this case, after waiting four hours, a man paddled over the stream in a small boat to ascertain wdiat we wanted, although he might have heard every word spoken by us on the opposite side. A messenger was then sent across to the sheikh to say that we carried letters from the Elchi (ambassador) at Mohammerah to the governor of the province, and that the ferry-boat must be sent over BIGOTRY, 289 without farther delay. After levelling some abuse at Christians, Charon at length appeared with a large hulk, into which the baggage was tumbled, ourselves taking up a position on the top of the pile. The horses and mules swam the river, and the whole party was soon landed in safety on the left bank below the village. The sheikh probably thought he had carried his dis- respect too far, and now came out on a beautiful mare to receive his guests ; but we took no notice of him. Not until we had made all the necessary arrangements about the pitching of our tents and disposal of the baggage, did we deign to tell him, in the hearing of his joeojDle, that the elchi should be informed of our un courteous reception. His excuse was that he was not aware we were waiting for the boat, and that the ferryman could not be found. After several refusals, we at length condescended to accompany him to his hut. We were then conducted to a dirty yard, where, under the scanty shade of a few boughs, sat a party of filthy Cha'b, unwilling to shew the slightest respect to the Christian strangers until the sheikh requested them to rise. Then, and then only, they made a feint of getting up from their greasy mats. Coffee was made and handed in a cracked cup, with a large piece out of the edge, from wliich we both drank. It had been purposely chosen, for no sooner was it carried to the door than it was broken to pieces, being pronounced " nedjis," " unclean" from having touched our infidel lips ! It Avas impossible to resist the temptation of saying that washing Avould have had equal effect, and that then the exj»ense of a new cup would have been spared to the sheikh's pocket ! Such was our reception by our first Persian hosts. Our third day's journey extended to Ahwaz ; during it we caught the first glimpse of the distant mountains, with their continuous undulating line, void of speak or 290 VEGETATION OP THE GRAVEL PLAINS. of any prominent features ; but the breeze which blew from them was cool and invigorating. As we now quitted the saliferous alluvium of the lower plains, and entered upon the gravel and sandstone beds of the ter- tiary rocks, a considerable change was perceptible in the character of the vegetation ; the tamarisk was becoming less plentiful, and its place was occupied by large bushes of the sidr, or kon^r, with its pretty red berries. The soil, too, was covered with widely scattered blades of scorched yellow grass ; and on the bank of the Karun, about two miles from Ahwaz, were four large trees, resembling the oak in form, and fifty feet high. They bore small oval, tough, leaves, and were in full bloom, with large yellow flowers resembling a foxglove, but much larger, and referable to Tetrandria Monogynia. I gathered several specimens for my herbarium, but, before I could overtake the caravan, the heat destroyed them. The same species of tree never again occurred to me, nor was I ever able to ascertain its native name. Sheikh Ibbara, of Ahwaz, shewed himself to be more civilized and hospitable than the cup-breakers at Ismail! Ahwaz is situated on the left bank of the Karim at the base of a range of reddish sandstone and gravel-con- glomerate hills, which bear in a south-east direction towards Zeytun. This range is the principal outlier of the great mountains, and may hkewise be traced in the opposite direction across the Karun towards Hawiza, and from thence to the east of ]MendeK. It finally rises into a considerable range called the Hamrin, and crosses the Tigris below the junction of the Little Zab with the larger river. Ahwaz is celebrated for the massive bimd, or dam, which, below the town, obstructs the free naviQ;ation of the river. This bund is a natural barrier formed by the continuation of the sandstone beds of the range above AHWAZ — AGINIS. 29 1 mentioned, further strengthened and enlarged by an artificial wall, portions of which are still remaining entire, while the remainder has been washed away by the force of the stream. One of the three openings was navigated by Captain Selby in the H.E.I.C. steam-vessel Assyria, but the others are shallow. The artificial masonry was doubtless erected for the purpose of diverting a portion of the stream into canals on either side above the bund, which acted as the bank of a reservoir, and raised the water to the required level. Above the town is the dry bed of a wide, ancient canal, called Nahr-el- Bahara, which flowed past FelMhiyya and joined the river Jerrahi at Bender. Its bed is now a corn-field. When the artificial dam existed, and there was a super- abundance of water in the reservoir, it was got rid of by means of tunnels cut through the rocks on the left bank, which again conveyed it to the main stream below the bund. Here, on the right bank, is another dry channel, supposed by some travellers to be the mouth of the river Eulseus, by which Alexander the Great sailed from Susa to the sea. The ancient city of Aginis is said to have occupied the site of Ahw^z. Extensive ruins occur along the base of the sandstone range, and are reported to extend a distance of two days' journey. In the ascent from the modern town are to be seen a number of fallen coliunns, quarried from the stone of the neighbourhood, and a quantity of debris from various decayed edifices. The solid rock, at some period or another, has been cut in many places, and the remains of excavated chambers are abundant. Wherever an abrupt surface of rock is ex- posed, it has been rudely scarped and ornamented. In aU directions are rock tombs, accessible by means ot steps, and due to a period anterior to the Arab conquest of Persia; but at the base of the rocks are sepulchres 292 THE KARtJN. of later date — large stone slabs lie horizontally on the ground, ornamented with a Saracenic arch, and having at the lower extremity a small channel to allow the rain to escape from the surface. Around the arch are much- weathered Kufic inscriptions. From the highest point of the range, the view of these burial places has a remarkably curious effect, and is well worthy of the tra- veller's attention. From Ahwaz our next stage was to Bender-ghil, pass- ing by the way the small Ai-ab village of Wais, where the whole population was busily engaged with the har- vest ; men and boys, cows and donkeys were assiduously treading out the corn, of which there was an abundant supply. Above Wais the Karun flows through a light alluvial soil, admirably suited for the cultivation of grain, although it is to be doubted if the farmers of Wais were aware of the fact. The river Karun is divided at Shuster into two branches, which again meet at Bender-ghil after a course of about thirty miles. The eastern branch is called the A'b-i-Gargar, and flows in a milk-white stream through an artificial channel. The western branch is the origi- nal bed of the river, and takes the appellation of Shuteyt ; the colour of its stream is reddish, and its velocity greater than the Alb-i-Gargar. At Bender-ghil, likewise, is the mouth of the Dizful river, which pours its red. turbid waters into the Shuteyt, leaving a deposit of red mud below the village, upon the island formed by the two streams of the Karun. For a considerable distance below the junction of the rivers, the milky water of the A'b-i-Gargar refuses to mingle cordially with its fellows ; but, before arriving at Wais, the Karun has partaken of the turbid character of the Diz, which it retains through- out the remainder of its course to the sea. Bender-ghil is a wretched place, containing forty THE ANAPIYYA — FALSE ALARM. 293 houses, entirely supported ])y the trattic produced by its ferry — httle enough in all conscience. From hence our route lay over a pretty undulating country. A ripe grass of rich golden hue clothed the surface, which was plentifully studded with greeii kon^r trees, affording not only a deep contrast for the eye, but a welcome shade for the whole person of the traveller. Espying a large mound on oiu- right hand, we made a detour to visit it, under the impression that it was portion of the ruins said to stand on the bank of the A'b-i-Gargar. We were, however, mistaken in our surmise, and had the trouble of wading through roughly-ploughed ground, which yielded an abundant crop of prickly thistles, making ourselves and horses wince with pain. AVhile carefidly picking our way through the army of lances opposing our progress, a black flag was suddenly hoisted on our right, and, shortly afterwards, a strong party of horsemen with large tufted spears advanced to meet us from one direction, while, from another, a little army of half-naked Anafi}^a Arabs, Avho occupy the island, cut off our retreat ; the latter were armed with swords and guns slung over their tawny shoulders, and came on rapidly, preceded by a man carrying a piece of black tenting on a pole. Yells and war-dances were rendered exquisite by the additional excitement imparted by the thistles. It afterwards appeared that they were in daily expectation of an attack from their mountain neighbours, the Bakhtiyari, and, seeing us u^Don the mound far away from the beaten track, they made certain their enemies were upon them. How surprised they must have been to meet two peaceful Englishmen with umbrellas instead of muskets in their hands! The horsemen were, of course, first to reach us ; they were all well armed with spear and leathern shield, and presented an imposing and picturesque front as they rode up, on valuable 294 THE ANAFfYYA. mares, headed by tlicir sheikh Husseyn and his big- tufted spear. Notwithstaudiug the unnecessary alarm we had occasioned them, he gave us a kindly welcome, and rode back with us to his camp. One of the Arab party was questioned as to the force his tribe could muster, when he readily answered, " nine hundred foot- men and three hundred horse." Then riding up to the sheikh's side, he asked if he had replied satisfactorily. "Yes, pretty well!" said Husseyn; "you might have said more, but never mind, it will do tolerably well." The fact was, that a third of the number would have been ample ! We encamped during the heat of the day within a few yards of his tent, and received from the sheikh the present of a lamb, in proof of his friendship and goodwill. A further ride of three short hours brought the party to Imam Kaf-'Ali, a whitened sepulchre on a little ele- vation, which overlooks the town of Shiister with its mosque and numerous tombs of holy men — all painted white, and contrasting in the most marked degree with the piles oi rubbish and filth around them. The most distant object is the old castle overlooking the Shuteyt, and the nearest is a series of gardens, partially con- cealino- low mounds and ruins, the remains of a more ancient city. The first sight of Sinister is by no means an interesting or beautiful scene, for, even in the dis- tance, ruin and decay are the principal features, afford- ing too correct a picture of its wretched condition. The precincts of the place are entered from the south by the Puli Lascar, whose low arches span a dry canal ; near it we were introduced to the tomb of Imam-zada Abdulla, one of the most extraordinary specimens of ugly, mis-shapen architecture which any Mohammedan city can produce. Its squat building was surmounted by an enormously elongated cone, resembling a huge ex- SH(JSTER. 295 tinguislier. On either side was a tall minaret, with gallery to the summit, giving it the appearance of a large candlestick with the candle just burned to the socket. To render them more conspicuous, the promi- nent features were glaring white. The town appeared as though an earthquake had recently occurred, the bazaars, once so famous, were de- serted, and the houses were apparently in the act of fall- ing on the inhabitants, many being merely heaps of bricks. Ruin ! ruin ! ruin ! was the prevailing character d the Persian seat of government in Ai'^bistan, which presented a worse picture of depopulation than either Baghdad or Busrah. But there had been no earthquake, no recent attack from the foe; what we saw was the result of continued misgovernment, over-taxation, and internal feuds. Shiister is the abode of many noble families, constantly drawing the sword upon each other. Every quarter has its own chief, who is surrounded, by his followers, ready at any moment to attack their neigh- bours. The influence of the Persian government is only maintained by keeping up a feeling of hostility among the various clans — for so the difierent parties may be called. Frequently, however, the antagonism, which it seeks to promote, is turned against its own lieutenant, and the governor of Arabistan is at times obliged to defend himself vi et armis, or by an ignomini- ous flight. No great outbreak had occurred for the previous three years, so that we saw the city on its best behaviour, with a disposition to be tranquil, until some unexpected and unforeseen circumstance should arise to fan the latent fire. Persian cities generally are not remarkable for cleanliness ; but of all that the traveller ever visits, Shiister — and, I may add, Dizful — are the ne plus ultra in this respect. Dogs are, of course, the scavengers in all Oriental towns ; but they decline to 206 THE NATIVES OF SHt'STER AND DTZFtJL. cleanse the streets of the twin capitals of Ardl)istan ! Spouts, projecting halt-way across the narrow lanes, dis- charge the night soil from the house tops. There the foul mass lies unnoticed, contaminating the air, and dif- fusing fevers, cholera, and disease, being only removed by the heavy rains of spring, or thrown to one side and covered with fresh earth on the arrival of some great visitor whom it delights the governor thus to honour ! It is impossible to walk through the streets ; and. in riding, good navigation is required to escape the down- pom-ings from the spouts ! Indigo is much cultivated at Shijster and Dizful ; hence it is that the prevailing colour worn by the natives is blue. Blue cotton tmiics girded round the waist with a shawl ; shalwas, or trousers, of the same colour and material ; and tawny complexions, well stained with the dye, meet one at every comer. The usual cuUah, or tall lamb-skin cap of the Persian, is seldom worn here ; but the ordinary head-dress of the people consists oi a long piece of black stuflf wound round the brow, one end being puckered up in front, like the feather of a Highlander's bonnet, while the other hangs down the back, in imitation of the streamers which were used by the Parthians and Sass- anians. Excepting a thick felt skull-cap, and short drawers which cover the hips and thighs, boys run about entirely naked. The countenances of the inhabitants are not prepossessing; — low cunning, deceit, and mistrust being universal among the lower classes. These towns are the gathering-places of priests and Seyids, or de- scendants of the Prophet, the fanatical expression of whose features — overshadowed by white and green turbans in ample folds — proclaims intense bigotry and hatred of all races, sects, and religions but their own. The aristocracy, however, boasts of some well-informed and hberal men, whom it would be imfair to include among VALERIAN AND SHAPtJR. 297 tlie vulgar herd. The hospitahty and attention displayed by them during our three days' stay left a favourable impression on our minds, which was not effaced during subsequent visits. Of the primitive history of Sh\ister we know nothing, researches not havino- been made in the surroundino; ruins. By some authors it is regarded as the site of " Shushan the Palace," where the stirring scenes con- nected withthe life of Esther are stated to have taken place. These, however, as will be hereafter seen, ceitainly occurred at Shiish. The town of Shuster appears to have risen into importance at a period coincident with the decline of the great capital of the Persian kings ; and the mo- dern name " Shuster," or " Little Shush," indicates its phoenix-like birth from the ruins of the greater city, Shushan. However this may be, it was undoubtedly at the height of its power in the time of Shapiir, the second monarch of the Sassanian line, a.d. 242-273. History tells us, that when Shapur advanced from Persia to wrest the Western Provinces of Asia from the hands of the Eomaus, the Emperor Valerian, in attempting to relieve Edessa, was taken prisoner. Shapur, mth the cruelty of the Eastern character, during seven years insulted and degraded his fallen foe, using him as a foot- stool to mount on horseback. At lengtli, after a con- tinuance of unheard-of cruelties, the captive's eyes were plucked out, and his skin — flayed from his body — was dressed, died red, and stuffed, in which condition it v/as carried about with the conqueror, and exhibited as a trophy of his greatness ! To Valerian's captivity and genius Shuster is in an eminent degree indebted. The existing remains of magnificent specimens of engineering skill, far surpassing anything of the kind in Persia at the present day, are attributed to him. It forms no part of my intention to describe these remarkable hydi-aulic 298 THE BUND-f-MlZAN. works in detail, because this has been carefully done elsewhere f' but it may not be uninteresting to give a short description of them for the information of the general reader. The K^run, just before reaching the town of Shiister, after striking against a high cliff of sandstone and gravel conglomerate, makes an abrupt turn to the west, passing close under the foot of the castle rock. Beyond this is the Bund-i-Mizan — a massive dam of hewn stone blocks, fastened with iron cramps, and thrown completely across the wide, deep, and rapid stream of the Kdrtin. The admii'able nature of this dam is evident from its having borne the rush of the torrent during so many centuries. This bund not only acts as the wall of a reservoir, but serves as a foundation for a bridge of enormous length. Probably no portion of Valerian's original structure now exists at this bund, with the exception of some massive pier-bases. The bridge itself has repeatedly given way in various places, and now presents a complete patch- work of Persian ingenuity in architecture. Three of the centre arches had fallen the winter before our visit, and lay obstructing the passage of the water over the bund — ■ to all appearance likely to lie there until the force of the current should wash them away! Of the arches remain- ing, thirty-six were large and twenty small — built in every style, from the high to the low pointed arch. On the north side, below the bridge, are the remains of several water-mills, to which the Avater is diverted by excavations in the solid rock. The gravel cliffs here are hoUowed out in every direction for serdabs, or cellars, many of which are of sufficient size to accommodate a large caravan. Pillars of the rock are left to support the • I m\ist refer to Sir Henry Rawlinson's and Mr Layard's valuable pape:-s, in the Royal Geographical Society, for a full and historical account of these extraordinary works. Vol. ix., p. 73 ; voL xvi., p. 27. THE BUND-f-KAYSAR. 299 roof ; but huge blocks, lying in the bed of the river, attest that they have fallen from their places by being too much undermined. The object of the Bund-i-Mizan was twofold: — to form a foundation for the bridge, and to accumulate a sheet of water before the castle for the delectation of its possessor, who, like all Persians, was, doubtless, partial to the sight — if not to the touch — of water. But Valerian's or Shapur's great work was the cutting of the great channel, through which the A'b-1-Gargar, or eastern branch of the Kdrtin, flows, which was effected at the point where the main stream of the Ki-run is, as I have said, deflected from its previous course above the town. Here a cutting was made to the depth of seventy feet through the natural rock, and carried to a distance, which I am unable to state, from the bed of the original channel. Into this cutting the stream was admitted ; but, as it must otherwise have abstracted the greater part of the river, a soHd and well-built wall, supported by strong buttresses of he^vn stone, was built across the mouth of the canal. To withstand the force of the stream, when flooded, the dam was suppHed with external round buttresses, admirably adapted to the purpose. The water, admitted through several sluices in the stone- work, may be regulated at pleasure. The name applied to this massive dam is a self-evident proof of its being originally designed and constructed by the captive emperor : it is called Bund-1-Kaysar, or Caesar's''' dam. It is likemse frequently named Bund-i-Shah-zada,t from having been repaired or strengthened by a late prince- governor of Kirmanshah. * Caesar, as every person knows, was the title assumed by all the Boman emperors after Julius Csesar, in the same manner as Pharaoh was applied to the Egyptian monarch. t Shdh-zdda means Prince ; literally "Son of a king." 300 THE BUND-f-KAYSAK. At the distance of about lialf-a-mile below this ancient ^^■ork is another Ijund, of probably more recent construc- tion, even more solid and substantial than the one just described. It communicates with the suburb of Boleitl, and is hence called Pidi Boleitl, being seventy paces long, twelve paces wide, and nearly as high as the cliffs on either side. The water, conveyed through the rock at the sides, falls about twenty feet into the artificial channel below, working, in its course, numerous wheels, which daily grind immense quantities of barley. There does not, probably, exist throughout the East a single city at which so much labour has been expended in distri- buting a proper supply of water to its dependencies as at Shiister. The interior of the town is provided for by two canals, pierced through the castle rock. Between the Bund-i-Kaysar and the Eunl-i-Mizan, the bed of the Karun is said to be paved Avith stone, and called the Shadarawan, With the exception of the bunds and foundations of the great bridge, there do not appear to be at Sliiister any buildings existing of earlier date than the Moham- medan era, although M. Court ^'"' mentions a relic of Sassanian origin at the castle gateway, but which no other modern traveller has yet seen. Suleyman Khan, the governor of the province, to whom our letters were addressed, was absent at Eam Hormiizd collecting tribute, and preparing to send an expedition against the great Bakhtiydri chief, Jafer Kuli Khan, who had taken refuge in his inaccessible mountain fortress — the Diz — and defied all the forces of Persia. AVe were, however, received by his secretary Hadji Mohammed 'All, and Mirza Sultan 'Ali Klian, the gover- nor of the town for the time being, who, as well as the other great men of the place, treated us to a series of * Joiirnal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay, No. xxxv., p. 5G0. THE GOVERNORS RECEPTION. 301 festivities, which, if not quite in accordance with European taste, at least shewed a disposition to honour their visitors after their own fashion. The following was the style of entertainment dispensed to us by the gover- nor, whose residence was one of the most pleasantly situated, and one of the largest in the town. It stood on the edge of the cliff overlooking the A'bi-Gargar — a huge block of lofty walling, with here. and there a small grated window, more useful for the discharge of Ijullets during an emeiife than for the admission of light or air. It had two entrances, the principal of which was a deep oval recess, decorated at the top with Arabesque ornaments usual in such positions, and supplied with stone seats, where the owner of the mansion " sat in the gate," after the mode of Orientals in all ages, hearing the news and discussing the various questions of the day amid a respectfid circle of visitors and attendants. Rising at our approach, he conducted us through a spacious court, containing in the centre a large tank fuU of water, up a narrow staircase in one corner, to an upper story, where was a second but smaller court, surrounded on three sides by plain walls — the fourth, next the river, containing an iw^n, or arched chamber, open at one extremity — a never- failing adjunct to Persian houses. In the centre of the court was a small garden with a few stunted specimens of vegetation, and in front of the iw4n was a small reservoir — also an indispensable neces- sary to Persian keyf — in which two very curious jets were made to play in an extremely comical manner by the pres- sure of water, raised from the river to the top of the house. This was effected by means of a creaking piece of machinery and leathern buckets, driven by an obstinate mule, which, to the no small amusement of my companion and myself, every now and then turning restive, caused the cessation of the fountains through lack of the needful supply. 302 THE governor's banquet. We were soon duly seated iipou one of those mag- nificent carpets which excite the admiration of all travellers in that country. Mirza Sultan 'All Khdn was very gracious as we explained to him the object of oui- proposed visit to Shush, and the nature of the information likely to be derived from excavating in its mounds. He quite comprehended us, and became warm on the con- quests of Key Kawtis, and the magnificence of KJiussrev ; but when, as a matter of course, he struck into the everlasting theme of Persian recitation — the Shah-nama of Ferdusi — there seemed a probability that his excite- ment would outdo his hospitality. The name of Shush acted like magic on a knot of green-turbaned gentry who sat with us, and the whispering that succeeded proved them to be jealous and doubtful of our real intentions ; but of this we took no heed. Kaliyiines, or water pipes, were first duly served by ganymedes with sombre head- dress, and hand upon heart ; then ensued a general hubble-bubbling, as if it were part of every man's avoca- tion in life to inhale the smoke of tobacco and charcoal into his lungs with the greatest possible noise. After this came tea — not the stuff sold in English grocers' shops, which produces astringency enough to convert the surface of the tongue into a rasp — but pure and undefiled chai, brought overland through Russia, and whose flavour gives one some idea of the delicious infusion which, alas ! we in England know not of. Russian overland tea, in Persia, takes the place which Arab coffee assumes in Turkey, and no old lady in the land of the west can sip her dish of fragrant tea with more relish than does the Persian gentleman. There, the greater the pile of sugar put into the cup, the greater is the honour paid to the guest. Succeeding to a surfeit of tea-syrup came a second edition of kaliyun, after which we imderwent the categorical examination of the green tiirbans for so long a time that THE governor's BANQUET. 303 I confess to having entirely lost the use of my nether extremities from cramp. We had gone to breakfast with the governor at an hour he had himself named, but, time sHpping rapidly away, it became questionable whether our host had not forgotten the invitation, or whether we had misimderstood him. Three huge trays at length entered the court on men's heads, which prepared us for a sumptuous repast ; my readers may judge our disap- pointment and horror when, at mid-day, without pre- viously eating anything, we found that the trays placed before us contained literally nothing but green cucumbers and sour apricots — the S3anbols of cholera, as we had been accustomed to regard them ! However, there was no retreat, so, putting a good face on the matter, we duly washed our hands and set to with the best possible grace. We both fortunately survived that day ! After the banquet came a washing of hands in the water tank with the comical jets, another course of kaliyuns, and finally a cup of coffee, wdiich completed this great entertainment and permitted our departure w^th decorum. The gover- nor accompanied us to the door of his house, and we rode to our tents by the river side to get " something to eat ! " This was a specimen of the ordinary fetes, but we sometimes had enough, and much more than enough, of chilaw, and pilaw, and lamb stuffed with rice, almonds, and raisins ; vegetables swimming in oil, and an infinity of compounds, which it is impossible to enumerate, and which only a hungry traveller can truly appreciate. Tea and sherbet were our only drink during these visits, but, for all that, it must not be supposed that Persians do not tipple. I well remember a subsequent stay at Shuster, when, in addition to one of sherry, a bottle of brandy was placed on the table of the Commission, after a long day's journey in a pouring rain. The governor's brother entered, in his usual sedate manner, and took a 304 A PERSIAN TIPPLEK. seat. He desired to know the contents of the bottles ; a glass of sherry Avas poured out, which he drank, and pronounced " khfib !" " good!" A second was " khile khub ! bisiar khub !" " extremely good !" — but he asked to taste of the other bottle. That was "beh! beh! beh!" Then he tried a glass of sherry, then a glass of • brandy. Finally, he seized both bottles, and mixed the liquors in the same glass; nor did he desist until the whole contents had disappeared. Not content with this, he asked for more, but this was, of course, refused him. He was ultimately supported from the room by an old domestic, who exhibited great concern that ghyawrs should see his master in his cups. We afterwards learned that, previously to joining our party, he had imbibed eleven glasses of raw 'arak ! An oriental has no idea of temperance in his potations ; he thinks that there is little pleasure in a single glass : accordingly, when he drinks, he does so to excess. During the summer, the intensity of the heat compels the people of Shuster to retire into their serdabs, or under-ground apartments, during the day, and to emerge at sunset to sleep upon their terraces. These serdabs are cut out of the solid rock, and supplied with flues or shafts, which, rising above the houses like ornamental chimneys, produce a free current of air. Without ser- dabs, it would be almost impossible to exist in the hot, drying wind, which more resembles the blast from a furnace, than the air of the habitable earth. In the absence of Suleyman Khan, we were more especially the guests of Hadji Mahommed 'Alt who would not permit anything to be cooked by our own people, insisting that whatever we required should be sent from his kitchen. In fact, during our stay, all parties vied with each other in their attentions towards us. With letters to the Governor of Dizftil, to aid and DIPLOMATIC FAILURE. 305 assist our plans at Sli6sli, we took leave of our new friends. Two small keleks supplied the place of the broken bridge, by means of which our baggage was conveyed to the western bank of the Shuteyt, where it was necessary to pass the night, so as to make a good start at daybreak. On quitting Shuster a liberal present was left for the servants of Hadji Mahommed 'Mi, in return for his hospitality. It was, however, sent back, with a message " that the Hadji would not permit it ; were we not the Hadji's guests, and should his servants receive presents on that account, although it was a Persian custom ? It was a bad example ; — they would expect the same from the next Englishman who chanced to pass that way." Soon afterwards, the major-domo of the Hadji presented himself with a low bow, and a pretended message from his master to the intent that, " if it were tlie custom of our country to give bakhshisJi on depar- ture, he would for once permit us to do so !'' Another low bow from the messenger, who bore aU the appearance of a convicted thief! He tried a clever trick, but, finding the Firenghis too deep for him, was obliged to slink off without the much-coveted kerans, evidently dis- gusted at the unsuccessful termination of his diplomacy- 17 CHAPTER XXIV. Departure from Shuster — Change of Sceijery and Animal Life — Huge Lizards — Botany — Geology of the Persian Steppes — Sliah-abad — Dizful — Subterranean Conduits — Costume of the People — The 'Ali Kethir Guide — The Bridge of the Diz — Encampment at Shush — A Conflagration. On first leaving the bank of the Kdrun, the road to Dizftil traverses some small ridges of gravel conglomerate, the alteration in the geological features of the country being accompanied by a corresponding change in animal and vegetable life. Clinging to the rocks, basking in the hot sun, or fleetly pursuing smaller reptiles, were numerous huge lizards {Psammosaurus scincus) lashing their long tails, and opening their capacious black jaws. Our gholdm exhibited his skill as a rider and sportsman, in shooting one of these creatures for examination. They live chiefly on snakes, which they pounce on suddenly, shake as a terrier does a rat, and cranch from tail to head ; then they suck the mangled body down their throats, somewhat after the manner of a Neapolitan swallowino; his national maccaroni ! I once saw a lizard of this species attack, kill, and attempt to swallow a serpent six feet long. After gulping for a length of time to get down the tip end of its victim's tail, which hung out of its mouth, it disgorged its meal, repeated the pro- cess of mastication, and, ultimately, after some hard gasping, succeeded in overcoming its difficulty. BOTANY. 307 Then, for the first time, we encountered the delicately- phimed rock partridge [Perdix petrosa, Lath.), fraterniz- ing with its velvet-breasted relative of the lower plains, the common francolin — the favourite of the sportsman. In botany, the tamarisk and the camel's thorn were replaced along the margin of the streams by the poisonous ole- ander, with its elegant pink flowers. I here also first observed a large shrub, 7 feet high, called "kalableb," which bore a large white flower ; the stem was full of a milky juice, bitter to the taste, and said to burn like caustic. There was likewise a large plant, bearing a leaf much resembling rhubarb, and a bunch of deep -red flowers, which produces an oval green, fleshy, spiked syncarpous fruit, longitudinally divided into four parts, each containing three rows of white juicy berries, of agreeable flavour, resembling the walnut. They are largely collected by the Arabs for food. At Dizfid, I heard the plant called by an Arab, " Dendrorhu ;" it is named by the Turks, " Ar4b khozi,^' or Arab nut."^ "With the above exceptions, vegetation was already dead throughout the undidating gravel ridges. It was now only the 1 9th of ]\Iay, and yet the grass was scorched to a bright yellow, which, with the deep red of the gravel itself, gave to the imagination a vivid idea of the intense heat reiofnino- in that remon three months later in the season. The temperature was high, but it was perfectly delightful compared with the furnace we had recently quitted at Mohammerah. A fresh invigorating breeze every now and then blew from the adjoining moimtains, along the base of which oik route lay, giving some con- ception of the delights in store for us as soon as we might ♦ Since the above was written, I have ascertained, through Mr Bennett of the British Museum, that this plant is the Glosmstemon Brvguieri of Desfontaines, described and figured in Mem. du Mus. Hist. Nat., torn, iii., p. 238, pi. 11. It does not appear to have been met with since the time of Bruguier, in 1797. 308 GEOLOGY. quit the burning plains. Having passed so many months upon the unpicturesque level of the Arab deserts, the ap- proach to the mountains of Luristan was hailed by my companion and myself with unspeakable delight. The anticipation of ere long reaching some of those snow- crowned crests far surpassed the positive reality when we had attained the summit of our wishes. The great range, distant thirty miles from our road, attains an elevation of eight or ten thousand feet above the sea, and bears in a general direction towards the north- west. Its rocky masses belong entirely to the cretaceous and lower tertiary series, rising in huge, elongated saddles of compact, altered limestone parallel to each other. At intervals, where the elevating force, which produced the present configuration of this region, has acted with extreme intensity, the continuity of the beds became broken, and masses of rock were left standing isolated with precipitous escarpments, presenting retreats accessible only to the savage inhabitants. " Diz" is the name appKcd to natural fortresses of this kind, which frequently bear on their summits acres of rich grass, and springs of dehcious water, whither a native chief with his adherents can retire in safety in times of need, and defend their difficult passes with a handful of men against the whole power of the Persian government itself. Superimposed on the harder limestone rocks are beds of a softer nature-; — marls, rivallinor the coloured sands of our own Isle of Wight in their brilliant and variegated aspect, — vast piles of amor- phous gypsum dazzling the eye with its excessive white- ness, — and successive layers of red sands alternating with gravel. These formations follow the contortions of the harder crystalline limestones, lie at extraordinary angles on the slopes of the saddles, and fill up the hot, feverish valleys between them. Wherever the higlilands of Persia are approached from GEOLOGY. 309 the plains of Mesopotamia the same formidable barrier of mountains presents itself. To attain the high level of that garden of roses, which the Persian poet loves to des- cant on, it is necessary to climb the successive ridges by roads scarcely better than goat tracks, which regular gra- dation of ascents is appropriately described by the Greek historians as K\i/xaK€ases in the Great Hall, attributed to XerxcR, at Persepolis, but those of Susa are infinitely- more graceful in design and detail, exhibiting round the swell of the bell an elegant and elaborate wreath, formed by alternate buds and perfect flowers of the lotus."^" At the western foot of the mound were the breast of a fractured bull, enormous fragments of fluted columns, and portion of a fourth base similar lO the other three, amidst a quarry of debris. Trenches were then carried from two ol the pedestals, fifty-five feet into the mound; and, from the centre of the third monolith, holes were dug twenty-seven feet apart, in the expectation of others being found. Exca- vations were likewise made at E (on the General Plan), but nothino; fm-ther could then be discovered of the elegant building to which the fragments undoubtedly belonged. Durinor a month's residence at Shush, Colonel Wil- liams' researches were much interrupted by the miscon- duct of the Arabs, as well as by the hea\y spring rains, which at times threatened to wash our encampment bodily into the swollen Shaour below. Suleyman Khan was much annoyed at the behaviour of our neighbours, and there can be little doubt that, except for his pre- sence at Dizftil, the Arabs would have declined to lend the little aid they did. None of the great sheikhs • See woodcut, page 360. The beautiful design, which so frequently oc- curs upon the sculptures at Nineveh and on the column bases at Susa and Persepolis, is usually supposed to represent the flower of the Egyptian lotus {Nijmphcea Lotus), but it may equally well be intended for the Egyptian bean {Nelumhium speciosum), the Kvaixoi of Pythagoras, now no longer an inhabitant of the Nile, but indigenous to the East Indian rivers. In some cases, however, as in a slab recently exhumed from Nineveh, the flower is evidently that of the common white lily of our gardens {Lilium caikdidum). khCzistAn in 1851. 355 paid the respects which were customary towards a per- son in the official position of Colonel Williams. Their utter detestation of the Firenghi was evinced in every possil)le mode. They refused to sell corn or sheep to oiu- party ; they abused our servants whenever they met ; and they kept themselves as far as possible from the contaminatinor and dreaded influence of the hateful o strangers. At leno-th the season arrived for the Commissioners to resume their labours and conferences at the " de- bateable land " of Mohammerah ; and once more the green plains and healthy mounds of Susa were deserted for the less aoreealile deserts on the borders of the Hafar. We all regretted the sad alternative, but duty required our presence upon the frontier. Before any attempt was made to resume excavations at Susa, another year elapsed, during which interval great changes had taken place in Klmzistan. The threatened discharge of Suleyman Khan from the ad- ministration of the province actually took place : bribery and court intrigue had done their work. The Christian had played the same game, and ventured a high stake ; a purse of tomans to the Shah, and 20,000 more to the Amir, were spent in vain, — Khanler Mirza, the favourite uncle of the Shah, took possession of the province. He had previously governed the Gulpaigan district, near Isfahan, where his stern and unflinching distribution of justice gained him the greatest respect. To this were now added Luristan,Khuzistan, and the Bakhtiyari moun- tains, so that Khanler Mlrza ruled over the largest, richest, and most important region throughout Persia. As a natural consequence of the change of governors, the whole of the above districts were in an excited state, and with difficulty prevented from breaking out into open rebellion. A few judicious examples were made by the 356 PROPOSED RESUMPTION OF EXCAVATIONS. Prince, whose iron rule soon made itself felt, alike among Liirs and Arabs. At the end of 1851, the only disaffec- tion still existing thi-oughout the Prince's dominion was at its north-western extremity, among a division of the Feyli Ltirs. In the interim, the delimitation of the Turko-Persian frontier proceeded but slowly, and December 1851 saw the four Commissions assembled at Zoh^b, in the Persian province of Kermanshah, without any material results of their labours. Letters were there received from Colonel Eawlinson, at Baghdad, stating that, during the previous session, a sum of £500 had been voted by Parliament, and placed at his disposal, for the purpose of making further researches at Susa. Lord Pahnerston's con- sent had Hkewise been obtained, authorising my being em- ployed in excavations, when not otherwise more profitably engaged. As the movement of the Commissioners was directed from Zohab towards the south, keeping along the plains, my services as geologist could, for the present, be dispensed with by Colonel Williams, who therefore directed me to proceed to Baghdad, and receive Colonel Eawhnson's instructions concerning the prosecution of excavations at Susa. La the middle of January I once more rejoined the Commission at Mendeli, whence, provided with letters to the Prince, and armed Avith the Shah's firman, I prepared for an adventurous journey of two hundred miles across the desert to Dizfiil. I travelled under circumstances of more than ordinary difficulty, none of the authorities being willing to ensure my safety. The region, through which portion of my route lay, belongs to the Beni Lam Arabs, who are nominally subject to the Pasha of Bagh- dad, although that dignitary has really little influence over them. During the winter and spring months, the numerous Persian tribes of the Fe}'li Liirs descen.l from JOURNEY TO SUSA — INSECURITY OF THE ROUTE. 357 tlieir mountain fastnesses, and pasture tlieir flocks upon the same plains. As these occupants of the country be- long to distinct races, and speak diflferent languages, distrust and warfare are of constant occurrence between them. Two feelings, however, they have in common : — intense hatred to tlieir respective and nominal sovereigns, and bigoted intolerance towards all but their own sect of Sheah Mohammedans. Methktir, the Beni Lam Sheikh, being considerably in arrear with his annual tribute to the Baghdad treasury, was endeavouring to elude the Pasha's messengers. 'Mi Khan, the chief of the Segw^end Liirs, was, as I have just said, in open rebellion against the new governor of Khuzistan ; he was a relative of that Kelb 'All Khan, who murdered our countrymen, Grant and Fotheringham, and was equally notorious for his cruelty and want of faith. Carrying w^ith me letters to the Prince, and a large sum of ready money for the commencement of the excavations, but being without protection from any party, it must be admitted that my prospects were not very encouraging.^'" However, in ad- dition to my own little staff of domestics, the Persian Commissioner, Mirza Jafer Khan, with his usual prompti- tude, placed at my disposal two of his mehmendars, and I was joined by two Bakhtiyarl servants of Seyid Mustapha — an influential religious chief of Dizful, enjoy- ing British protection, — one of the most daring and unscrupulous of intrig-uers. Thus we mustered a tolerably strong party. Mii'za Jafer Khdn had supplied me with letters to the * I had before me Mr Layard's warning of the insecurity of the route (Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xvi., p. 89), but there was no alternative, unless I chose to take the long journey by Busrah and up the Kdrtin. Any laudation from me is, I am aware, superfluous, but I cannot omit to express my sense of the value of that gentleman's geographical communication upon the region in question. It is full of the most accurate and detailed information. 358 OBTAIN PROTECTION OF THE BENl LAM. chief of all the Fc} li Ltiis, but, at the conclusion of my third (lay's journey, the people of Baghcha-Seray, a small village on the Persian side of the frontier, refused either to admit me within their walls, or to furnish me mth a guide to their chief or elsewhere. Und^r these circum- stances, I deemed it advisable to seek the protection of the Beni Ld,m Sheikh, and, for this purpose, diverged towards the bank of the Tigris. Falling in with a few tents of his tribe, I obtained a guide, who undertook to conduct me to his camp, distant two days' journey, amid the sand-hills of the Tib. It was fortunate that I took this course. Methkur was flattered by my placing myself under his protection and guidance ; while the present of a bag of coffee, and a rich piece of green silk for a dress, made him my friend and " brother," and subsequently secured me from the depredations of his whole tribe during my third residence on the mounds at Shush. The Beni Lam are notorious thieves, and their name is said to be derived from the following tale : — " An ancient king, passing through the tribe, ordered each man to bring a kid's-skin full of milk to a cer- tain place for the supply of his troops. The skins were duly brought, well filled out ; but, on the milk being measured, there proved to be only half the quantity or- dered. It appeared that each milkman had unwittingly stumbled upon the same expedient to cheat the troops and save his own dairy, their skins were half-filled with wind. Hence the tribe was called 'Lam,' the Persian for knave or black-leg ! " Such, at least, is the Persian explanation. Methkur's protection was valid among the insurgent Segwendis, whose camp lay on my next day's journey. 'All Khan at first seemed disposed to be inhospitable, and, perhaps, thought what a diversion it would be to his re- spected followers if he gave the order for an onslaught *ALf KHAN and the SEGWENDfS. 359 on the party. His fears, or better feelings, liowever, pre- vailed, and he feasted me that night on good wheaten bread and national lamb. If any truth is to be placed in physiognomy, that of 'Ah Khan fully justified the character he received ; his tribe, too, was the most extra- ordinary assemblage of animals bearing the human form that I ever set eyes upon. They had high shoulders, long legs, pucker-faces, and (if the Lamarckian theory of transmutation of species be true) perhaps also long tails, although I wi\l not vouch for this fact, not having had an opportunity of making a minute zoological ex- amination. They could not, liowever, have been so far advanced in the scale of progression as those men with tails, whom it is said the French naturalist, M. Castel- man, heard of in Abyssinia, because the latter possessed benches mth holes in them, through which they passed their tails ; the Segwendis were not so civilized as even to construct a bench ! Had we encountered this strange race in the deserts without Methktir's protection, our safety would not have been valued at a straw. As it was, how- ever, 'All Khan provided a guide, in addition to the Arab sent by the sheikh, and by his assistance we crossed the river Kerkhah at a dangerous ford, and ultimately arrived in safety at Dizful. His Highness the Prince, since his accession of terri- tory, had done away with the steps and stairs by which the bridge was previously crossed. He had only just de- parted for the Nahr Hashem, where a bund w^as in course of erection, for the purpose of restoring the river Kerk- hah to the ancient channel past the town of Hawiza, which was abandoned by the stream in 1832. A mes- senger was despatched to him with my letters, and in a few days I received a reply, stating that " all my wishes should be gratified," and that he would return to Dizful in a few days. 360 HIRING OF WORKMEN. In the interim I made no secret of my intentions, but i^ave notice to all my visitors that the excavations were about to be resumed. At the same time I took care to exhibit the Shrih's fimi^n, so that the news spread like wildfire through the bazaars that the Firenghis were come again to dig for gold at Shtish ! The regular pay and circulation of money during Colonel AYilliams' ex- cavations had produced an improved feeling among the lower classes towards Europeans. The Arabs, it is true, did not shew much disposition to aid me, but the agri- cultural Liirs from the adjoining villages flocked in from all directions anxious for employment. The previous conduct of the Arabs on two occasions, and their present shyness, were not such inducements that I should rely upon them alone ; whereas the Liirs were strong, hardy mountaineers, accustomed and able to handle the spade. I engaged seventy at the rate of half a keran per day, equivalent to fivepence of our money, and ascertained that, \vith a day's notice, two or three hundred more could be secured on the same reasonable terms. Two-thirds of the Lurs agreed to take their own implements. Addi- tional spades, axes, pulleys, ropes, and other necessaries were daily accumulated, and nothing was now wanting but an interview with the Prince, and his full permission to enable me to break ground without delay. It must not be supposed that the priests and holy men of Dizful observed my open proceedings with favour. They used every endeavour to thwart my plans, but this was done secretly, because they knew Kh^nler Mirza to be no friend to their order. Since the last visit of the British Commission, cholera had committed ex- tensive ravages throughout the province, — this was, of course, attributed by them to Colonel Williams' excava- tions " at Danyel ! " When it became known to the mujtehid that the Lurs were offering themselves, several PRIESTLY OPPOSITION. 361 of the poor fellows were called into his presence, and told that, if they escaped being killed by the falling of the trenches, they would assuredly die of cholera before the expiration of the year ! The act of digging into those mounds was a sacrilege, and there was no hope for of- fenders who ventured to transgress after the priestly warn- ing! Love of gain, however, proved infinitely more po- tent than the threats of the priesthood or the fear of death. When kerans became plentiful in the hands of the workmen, and were spent in the bazaars, even the green- turbaned descendants of the Prophet, seized with the general fever after wealth, forsook their usual avocations, and hastened to the trenches ! As soon as the Prince arrived at his camp on the cliff opposite to the town of Dizful, I received an invitation to his tent. Having had the advantage of his previous ac- quaintance, I was received by him in the most affable and courteous manner. The letters, of which I was the bearer, had evidently given him much pleasure. His Highness, Khdnler MIrza, might then be about thirty-five years of age, and was a remarkably handsome man, although somewhat pale, the result, it was whispered, of dissipa- tion. His intelligent features, high forehead, full black eyes, and aquiline nose, would have anywhere rendered him an object of attraction. He did not generally bear a good name, but, from circumstances which afterwards presented themselves to my notice, I arrived at the con- clusion that he was an admirable governor of a Persian province, stern and unrelenting to the criminal, but usually mild and lenient towards others. If he called on his subjects for a large increase of their taxes, (the chief charge against him), it was, I would fain believe, with the intention of applying the proceeds to the public good. He was building and repairing bridges, erecting dams for the better distribution of water, and engaged in other sub- 362 KHANLER MfRZA, THE NEW VICEROY. stantial works, which, if fully carried out, would he of the utmost consequence to the prosperity of Khfizistan. He was reported to be cruel in his punishments, hut that is as much the fault of the people as of their rulers : they never have a due respect for the authority of a governor unless a few executions take place on his assumption of office. Such examples are therefore absolutely necessary to awe a province into good behaviour for at least a reasonable time. He soon introduced the name of Shush, and shewed that he took great interest in the excavations at the palace of " D4r4b " (as he correctly called the column bases already exposed), which he had carefully examined one day while hunting in the neighbourhood. On my stating that I had engaged some Lurs, subject to his approval, he inter- rupted me, " But," said he, " you are going to pay them too much ! I hear you have engaged them at a ker^n a-head, because, when I wante,d labourers for the bund at Nahr Hashem, they refused to come for the usual rate of pay, alleging that you were offering tmce as much." I told him, with a knowing look, that he knew the people of the country better than myself, but that half-a-keran was the sum I had agreed to give them. He fully comprehended me, and returned my look with com- pound interest, exclaiming, with a smile, "A keran, indeed! The dogs' fathers never saw so much money ! " His recent visit to the bund at Nahr Hashem had evi- dently much annoyed him. His engineers, if such a term could be applied to the parties employed, had made a complete failure of their work, and consequently a large portion of it was carried away by a sudden rise of the river. " But," said the Prince, " before I leave Dizful for the moun- tains, inshallah ! I shall have it finished ! " As I rose to depart he gave me strict injunctions that, if any one mis- behaved in the slightest degree, or failed to shew me the KHANLEE MfRZA, THE NEW VICEROY. 363 same deference he should himself expect if there, I should inform him without delay ; if I did not, the fault would be my own. The same instructions were given to Feth Ullah Kh4n, one of his trusty men, whom he ordered to watch over my safety, and obey my orders. Heavy rain prevented my leaving Dizful for a couple of days, after which my tents were pitched upon the north- west platform, within a few hundred feet of the column bases. My seventy workmen duly made their appear- ance, spade on shoulder, ready to commence operations as soon as the order should be issued. Having no tents, the sanctity of Daniel's tomb was soon violated, and its old roof rung with the chorus of wild Lurish songs, which seventy lusty throats screeched forth untiringly. CHAPTER XXVIII. The Great Palace of Darius at Susa — Columns with Double-bull Capitals — Trilingual Inscriptions of Artaxerxes Mnemon — " Court of the Garden" of Esther — Columnar and Curtain Architecture — Origin of the Susian and Persepolitan Style — ^Worship of Tanaitis or Venus. On looking around the vast area of mounds, and con- sidering the small sum at my disposal for the investigation of their contents, I was almost tempted to regard my enterprize as a hopeless one. There was an exceedingly bare prospect of making any important discovery near the site of the columns akeady exhumed, because of the slight depth of the earth. However, with them before me, and the certainty that some other portion of the building must exist near at hand, I resolved to proceed and endeavour to ascertain the plan of the edifice to which they belonged : possibly something of interest might turn up among the fragments. There was a probability, too, that a stylobate existed, as in the palaces at Perse- polis, adorned with sculptures and inscriptions. I there- fore decided on driving several trenches into the mound from the edges, commencing, in the first place, near the columns. My efibrts in their immediate neighbourhood* were wholly unsuccessful, but, on the first day, a trench one hundred and twenty-five feet distant, close on the north side of the platform, struck upon a large basement • At F on the General Plan of the ruins, page 343. THE GREAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT SUSA. 365 slab of blue limestone (at No. 9 on the Plan, see next page). Upon its surface could be distinctly traced a circle, eight feet four inches in diameter, a proof that it formerly sup- ported a column of precisely similar dimensions to those already laid bare (Nos. 5, 6, 7). From the centre of this slab, twenty-seven feet three inches were measured off on either side along the scarp of the mound, and a similar slab discovered in each posi- tion. I was not, however, equally fortunate with holes dug at the same distances from the centres of these slabs towards the centre of the mound. Colonel Williams had in like manner failed to find any indications of a second row of columns. I tried a series of holes at equal dis- tances beyond those last made, but with no better success. Not satisfied with this, I opened a long trench from my first-discovered baRement slal), passed the two holes, and, at the distance of sixty-eight feet four inches from its centre, reached a gigantic monolith pedestal. It mea- sured eight feet square, and two feet five inches high, at which point there was a flat ledge, nine inches deep ; beyond this again the monolith rose a foot higher, and was then broken off. Farther on, in the same line, with a like inter-columniation of twenty-seven feet three inches, occurred four similar square pedestals, more dilapidated than the first, and a vacant space for another, thus marking, in all, the positions of six columns. A trench at right angles to the other, was now dug from the square base first discovered, and disclosed, at similar distances apart, four additional square pedestals on the east, and one on the west (in row 1 , 3, of the Plan). I was now satisfied that the structure was one of similar description to the so-called Great Hall of Xerxes at Persepolis. Further researches not only confirmed this impression, but proved likewise that, although the two 366 THE GREAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT SUSA. colonnades differed in details, they were erected on the same plan, and with nearly the same measurements. It is therefore natural to conclude that they were the designs of the same architect. The accompanying ground plan of the palace at Susa ; ' rves to explain its arrangement. It may, however, be Column bases or basement slabs actually discovered. Positions of columns not sought for. r,_ Column b:iaes with triling^ial "* inscriptions. □ Position of a column, no por- tion of which was found. THE GREAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT SUSA. 367 necessary briefly to remark, for the information of those with whom the PersepoHtan structure ■''" is not familiar, that the Great Hall at Susa consisted of several magni- ficent groups of columns, together having a frontage of three hundred and forty-three feet nine inches, and a depth of two hundred and forty-four feet. These groups were arranged into a central phalanx of thirty-six columns (six rows of six each), flanked on the west, north, and east, by an equal number, disposed in double rows of six each, and distant from them sixty-four feet two inches. Of the inner phalanx the positions of twenty-one columns were determined, and many others doubtless might be discovered by excavation ; but, as it was necessary to make the utmost use of my funds, I was obliged to rest satisfied with ascertaining the actual plan of the edifice. Of the external groups, there remained on the west, three t of the inner row — the original discovery of Colonel Williams, — and a large fragment of another among the debris upon the slope of the mound. It doubtless be- longed to the outer row of the same group. Three large basement slabs of the inner row alone remained of the northern series; — but, of the eastern group, the positions of two in each row were ascertained ; the rest are either still buried, or had long since fallen down the slope of the mound. It was in consequence of the outer rows being destroyed in the western and northern groups, that neither Colonel Williams nor myself at first succeeded in finding the rest of the columns. We might have dug holes all over the * For details regarding Persepolis and its palaces, I may refer the reader to the admirable works of Chardin, Le Brun, Niebuhr, Texier, Ker Porter, Flaudin and Coste, and Fergusson. t Numbered 5, 6, 7, on the Plan, :3G8 THE GllEAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT SUSA. inouuds at twenty-seven feet three inches apart, com- menciiio- from our separate starting points, and neither of us would by this means have discovered another column ! As another instance of the luck attending excavations, I may mention that Colonel Williams actually dug two trenches* between the rows of columns ; whereas a few feet deviation from the straight line must have inevitably revealed one of them ! In the Great Hall at Persepolis there are clearly two orders of columns ; the same coincidence obtained at Susa, but as none of the shafts remain erect at the latter locaHty, it is impossible to speak unhesitatingly concern- ing the entire details. We know for a certainty, however, that the inner phalanx possessed square bases, while those of the outer groups were bell-shaped. All the shafts were undoubtedly fluted like those at Persepolis, but beyond this point there must remain much conjecture. Strewed in inextricable confusion amono; the monoliths were liuo;e portions of the fallen columns ; these were so abundant that I w^as able to take correct measurements, and, with Mr Churchill's assistance, to restore the various details of one variety of compound capital, identical (except in a few unimportant particulars) with those in the external groups at Persepolis. This capital evidently consisted of four distinct parts, as shewn in the accompan}dng wood- cut, which is reduced from JNIr Churchill's drawings of the originals. t They are probably intended to represent the pendent leaves of the date-palm, the opening bud of the lotus flower, a series of double volutes, and certainly at the summit, two demi-buUs, between whose necks passed the beams for the support of the roof. * Shewn at E on the General Plan. t These drawings were extremely careful restorations of the sculptures, nothing being admitted for which there is not suflQcient proof. They are now in the British Museum. THE GREAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT SUSA. 361) Whether any other variety of capital existed at Susa it is difficult to decide, but from the fre- quent repetition of the same subject among the debris of the palace, I am inclined to think that the same surmounted the top of every column. Mr Fergusson,"^' in his admirable attempt to re- store the Persepolitan structures, rejects the drawings of Texier, Flan- din and Coste, as re- gards the presence of the double -bull capital in the interior of the build- ing, and remarks : — " In this, the beams runnino; equally in four direc- tions, a capital facing * " Nineveh and Persepolis Restored," p. 162. t The total height of this compound capital was 28 feet. The horns and ears of the two bulls were not found ; these were let in with lead, but had disap- peared. The beams represented in the woodcut are, of course, imaginary. There was no means of ascertaining the height of the fluted column, because no portion remained in situ. The total height of the tallest column at Persepolis is, from the floor to the architrave, 67 feet 4 inches. Compo\ind capital and base of column at S^isa. 370 THE GREAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT SUSA. only in two is a singularly awkward expedient, as clnmsy for an interior as it is appropriate for an external poreli." But, nothwitlistanding this opinion, the abundant frag- ments of broken bulls, which occur in the very centre of the great plialanx at Susa, are, I think, satisfactory proof that all the columns were surmounted by them, and I therefore fpiite concur with the three authors just mentioned, that the same was the case in the corresponding structure at Persepolis. It is certain, at any rate, that the northern row of the central Susian group was supplied with double bulls, because one pedestal (No. 1)* has a piece cleanly cut out of its eastern side by the perpendicular fall of the bull-caj)ital, which could not have fallen into that position except from the column immediately above, or from the one adjoining it. The head of another bull was observed to rest against a monolith, while a body had fallen on the opposite side. The most interesting discovery, however, connected \vith this columnar edifice is the fact that, in each of the two most northerly rows of the great phalanx, the two central square pedestals (Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4) were or had been inscribed with trilingual cuneiform records. These were cut around the ledge, but the fall of the columns had so materially injured them that only one copy remained entire — written unfortunately in the lan- o;ua2;e which is least known of the three. As if in an- ticipation of the fate which awaited the edifice, and of the prospect that one copy at least might escape the gene- ral destruction, each set of inscriptions was repeated four times. The Scythic version occupied the western side, the Persian faced towards the south, and the Baby- lonian pointed eastward. The fourth side was plain. Each version was deeply cut in five lines, and extended six feet four inches in length, and seven inches in breadth. * See Ground Plan of Palace at page 366. INSCRIPTIONS OF ARTAXERXES MNEMON. 371 Upon pedestal No 1, the Scythic version was per- fect, the Persian had lost the l^st two lines, and the whole of the central portion in the Babylonian copy was destroyed by the fall of the bull-capital. Of pedestal No. 3, a few characters of the Persian alone remain. The monolith No. 2, is likewise much damaged, having only fragments of the Persian and Babylonian copies still existing. It had been injured on some previous occasion, either by flaws or otherwise, be- cause pieces of the same stone had been fitted in and secured with iron or lead, over which the inscriptions had been cut. Of the pedestal No. 4, ^ nothing is left but the base- ment slab to determine its former position. There can, however, be little doubt that it was inscribed like the others, because these four columns mark the position of the principal facade. These records are, in many respects, highly interesting. They are the sole memorials extant of Artaxerxes Mne- mon, the conqueror of the Greeks at the battle of Cun- axa, and they record the completion of the edifice, which had been commenced by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, as stated by Pliny.'"" This fact is important, because.it enables us, with a tolerable degree of certainty, to con- jecture the age of the great colonnade at Persepolis, as to which much doubt exists. It is generally supposed to have been the work of Xerxes, because it bears a com- memorative tablet of that monarch ; but Sir Henry Eawlinsont has suggested the probal)ility of its original foundation by his father Darius. That such was really the case is corroborated by the general agreement in plan and measurement, as well as in the details of the * Infra est Susiane, in quri vetusrcgia Persariim Susa, k Djrio Hystaspis filio condita. Liber vi., c. 27. t Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. x., p. 271. 372 ORTHOGRAPHICAL INACCURACIES. Siisian and Persepolitan structures. It is, I think, highly probable that they were designed by the same architect, altliough finislied at different and distant periods. From the perfect Scythic version of the inscriptions, aided by the Persian text, Mr Norris'" suggests the following translation as not being very far from the truth : — " Says Artaxerxes, the great king, the king of kings, the king of the country, the king of this earth, the son of king Darius : — Darius was the son of king Artaxerxes, 'Artaxerxes was the son of king Xerxes, Xerxes was the son of king Darius, Darius was the son of Hystaspes, the Aclipemenian. Darius, my ancestor, anciently built this temple (or edifice), and afterwards it was rejjaired ('?) by Artaxerxes, my grandfather. By the aid of Ormazd, I placed the effigies of Tanaitis and IMithra in the temple. May Ormazd, Tanaitis, and Mithra protect me, with the (other) gods (1), and all that I have done. ..." Mr Norris remarks that " the loose way in which this inscription was engraved, the abnormal spelling, ai:.d the unusual forms of the letters, all combine, with gram- matical inaccuracies, to throw difficulties in the way of a satisfactory explanation of that part of the int;cription which follows the usual introductory phrases. The Persian text would have been of great assistance; but it unfortunately fails us where the difficulties begin, the last two lines being almost completely broken away, ^dthout leaving a single entire word." It is probable that the orthographical inaccuracies above mentioned are the result of the language having become materially corrupted during the Achsemenian period, or between the time of Darius, surnamed Hystas- * For further information on this subject, I must refer the reader to Mr Norris's elaborate and learned memoir '"on the Scythic Inscriptions" in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, voL xv., p. 157-162. COURT OF THE GARDEN IN ESTHER'S PALACE. 373 pes, and Artaxerxes Mnemon, — or it may be, as Mr Norris seems to think, that these irregularities arise from a desire on the part of the writer to make the translation as literal as possible, even to the errors of the original. There is another point which gives extreme interest to this inscription. I have elsewhere * quoted valuable authority as to the identity of Ahasuerus, the husband of Esther, with the Xerxes of Greek authors. If this be admitted, we cannot but regard the edifice in question as the actual building referred to in the following verses of Scripture : — " The king made a feast unto all the people that were present in Shiishari the palace, both unto great and small, seven days in the court of the garde7i of the king's palace; where were white, green, and blue hangings fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings and pillars of marble: the beds were of gold and silver, upon a pavement of red, and blue, and white, and black marble." t It was here, among the pillars of marble in the court of the garden in Shushan the palace, "when the heart of the king was merry with wine," that the order was given for queen Vashti to overstep the bounds of Orien- tal female modesty, and " shew the people and the princes her beauty." | By referring to the plan of the ruins, it will be ob- served that the position of the great colonnade corre- sponds with the account above given. It stands on an elevation in the centre of the mound, the remainder of which we may well imagine to have been occupied after the Persian fashion, with a garden and fountains Thus the colonnade would represent the " court of tht garden of the king's palace," with its "piUars of mar * See note, page 339. t Esther i. 5, 6. % Esther i. 10, 11. 374 COLUMN AND CURTAIN ARCHITECTURE. ble." I am even inclined to believe that the expression "Slnishan the palace" applies especially to this portion of the existinir ruins in contradistinction to the citadel and the city of Shushan.'"' But to return once more to the excavations. In the hope of solving the difficulty as to the connexion which existed between the central and outer groups of colunms, trenches were, in several instances, dug between them to ascertain if there had been any intermediate wall for the support of a roof. At that time I had not seen Mr Fergusson's valuable work, recently referred to, nor had I any indications of his theory on the subject. I had, it is true, noticed the foundations of two doorways, mid- way between the central gToup and the front portico at Persepolis ; but, as these were the only indications of aii existing wall at that place, I was not satisJBed on the point, and determined to investigate the subject at Susa. My trenches all proved fruitless : there was not the slightest vestioe of such a wall as Mr Feimisson has suggested in his restored plan t of the Persepolitan Great Hall. Although strongly inclined to adopt a similar idea, in order to make the entire structure com- pact, I was obliged to abandon it. If there had been any such wall at Susa, some portions of it must have been discovered, even if constructed of bricks. Mr Fer- gusson's argument is partly founded on the fact, that in two of the smaller palaces at Persepolis, such walls do actually remain. - But this, I think, rather invali- dates his theory, because, if they were not desti'oyed in the smaller edifices, there was less likelihood of their Ijeing carried away from the more massive buildings. As regards Susa, however, there is, in my opinion, a strong proof that such walls did not exist. It cannot * To this point I shall have occasion again to allude, see page 429. t "Nineveh and Persepolis Restored," p. 144. COLUMN AND CUilTAIN ARCHITECTURE. 375 otherwise be well explained why there should be no inscription on the north side of the four colunnis* — that side wliich was undoubtedly the principal front of the edifice, — except that the record miglit Ije protected from the influence of the weather. At Persepolis and Nineveh it was customary to place the commemorative records in the most cons^jicuous position at the entrances, and, unless for the reason above assigned, it is difficult of explanation why the same principle was not carried out at Susa. I feel therefore persuaded, notwithstanding the strong arguments which have been adduced to the con- trary, that the outer groups or porticoes stood distinct from the central square of columns, or connected simply bv means of curtains. It seems to be to this that reference is made in the " hangings fastened with cords to silver rings and pillars of marble" t at the feast of the royal Ahasuerus. Nothing could be more appropriate than this method at Susa and Persepolis, the spring residences of the Persian monarchs. It must be considered that these columnar halls were the equivalents of the modern throne- rooms, that here all public business was despatched, and that here the king might sit and enjoy the beauties of the landscape. With the rich plains of Susa and Persepolis before him, he could well, after his winter's residence at Babylon, dispense with massive walls, which would only check the ^varm fragrant breeze from those verdant prairies adorned with the choicest flowers. A massive roof, covering the whole expanse of columns, would be too cold and dismal, whereas curtains around the central group would serve to admit both light and warmth. Nothing can be conceived better adapted to the climate or the season. The elevated position of the Great Colonnade, with the * Numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 on the Ground Plan at page 3G6. t Esther i. 6. 376 ABSENCE OF BAS-RELIEFS. somewhat abrupt edges of the mound upon which it stood, suggested the probability of a sculptured stylobate resembling that at Persepolis. Without a massive sup- port of some description, the immense superincumbent weight of the columns must have necessarily caused the platform to give way at the edges. Several trenches were therefore dug on all sides, but without the discovery of the smallest fragment of sculpture. At the north-west corner, however, on the edge of the platform,* and at the depth of about fifteen feet, there occurred a block of large bricks, set in bitumen, evidently the foundation of a strong wall. I therefore conclude that the platform was sustained by a brick wall, and that neglect in repairing it, or wanton removal of the bricks, produced the destruction of the whole edifice. The absence of bas-reliefs at Susa need, however, be no cause of surprise. Nineveh and Persepolis are situated in localities producing the stone of which the edifices are constructed. Susa, on the contrary, stands on a gravel plain, thirty miles removed from the nearest point whence building stone is procurable, t The habitable portion of the Susian palace, erected by Darius and his successors, undoubtedly stood on the south of, and immediately behind the coliunnar hall. Traces of brick walls were there uncovered, but, the depth of earth being so shallow above them, it was useless to exca- vate further in that quarter. The similarity between the buildings of Persepolis and Susa is so great that any peculiarity observable in the one will equally illustrate the architecture of the. other. At F on the General Plan, t The dark blue limestone of the Susa monoliths is extremely hard and difficult to work In parts, however, its texture is slaty, and to this cause may be attributed, in some degree, the destruction of the columns. It was most likely obtained from the valley of the river Kerkhah, near Ptil-i-Taug, or from the adjoining range of the Keblr K(xh, whence it must have been conveyed on rafts to Susa. ORIGIN OF SUSIAN AND PERSEPOLITAN ARCHITECTURE. 377 Even if not erected by the same architect, they were the works of the same dynasty, and they proceeded from one source. They form a distinct style of architecture, and it now becomes necessary to offer a few remarks upon it. The large hollow member with leafy ornaments — form- ing, as it were, the cornice of certain Persepolitan structures — is nowhere else observable except in the ruined edifices which line the banks of the Nile, or deck the Egy[Dtian plains ; but the palaces of the Achoemenian kings lack the massiveness which is the grand charac- teristic of Egyptian buildings. The bulls of Persepolis and Susa remind us at once of their prototypes in the Assyrian palaces : the flutings of the columns are almost counterparts of the delicate chasings of the Greek pillars, whilst the palm-ornaments of the capitals point to the fallen empires whose splendour once mirrored itself, even as their ruins are now reflected, in the waters of the lower Tigris and Euphrates. It is worthy of notice, however, that the palaces of Susa and Persepolis are much inferior to those which they resemble in the several empires whose remains are still preserved to us, and that, far from being (as M. Flandin remarks, in the Revue des Deux Mondes) " worthy to be classed with Greek art," they were rather the works of a powerful monarch, who wanted the skill and taste to direct the labour which his power commanded. Such a one was Darius, the son of Hystaspes, who, having subdued a people which had suflered the luxury of art to rust its sword, was ambitious, " by the grace of Ormazd, who had brought help to him," to make his palaces outshine, by prodigality of ornament, those of the nations he had conquered, and to " engrave with an iron pen in the rock for ever," in commendable simplicity, the record of his deeds. The purity and artistic feelings of the vanquished he could not transplant, nor perhaps even appreciate. It may 378 ORIGIN OF SUSIAN AND PERSEPOLITAN ARCHITECTURE. have contented him to borrow forms indiscriminately from all, so that each of the hundred columns""' surround- ing his throne might bear upon its fluted shaft the lotus, the palm, and the bull, and symbolize the glories which the vigorous arms of the Persian had gathered upon the battle-fields of Egypt, Assyria, Greece, and Babylonia. The earliest specimen of the Achsemenian structures i!5 at IMilrghiib — the ancient Passargadse — which likewise bears the earliest cuneatic record of that dynasty by C}Tus the Great. As it is pretty generally admitted that this alphabet was adopted from subjected nations, and as it is invariably connected with their architecture, both at Persepolis and Susa, it rather adds confirmation to the view here taken as to the origin of these unique specimens of the building art. In the inscription, upon the monolithic bases of Ar- taxerxes Mnemon, we read that he raised a statue in honour of the goddess Tanaitis,t or Venus ; it is interesting to corroborate this worship, by meaiis of excavations in a different part of the ruins. In a trench,^ twenty-two feet deep, at the south west corner of the great platform, was discovered a collection of about two * The Great Palace at Persepolis, it is well known, is. more Fersartim, called " Chehil Mindr," '• The Hundred Columns," although it only ])Ossessed seventy-two. t Tanaitis is certainly the Assyrian Anaitis, the Persian Anahid, the PhcEuician Tanith, and the Gieek Tai^dis of some MSS. at least. The Persian version of the record still shews apart of the name " —na/iata;''' the Baby- lonian has Anakliitu. The Scytliic word may be read Tanata. The inscriptions confirm the statement of Plutarch, that Tanata was woishipped in the time of Artaxerxes Mnemon. It has been usual, in printed (Jreek works, to alter the name of Tanata, or TavnU, to 'AwiiVis ; but the Phoeni- cian Tanith, the present inscription, and the authority of good M.S.S. of Strabo, shew that Tavats was ecpially admissible ; and, if the Very pi'obable conjecture of Gesenius as to the identity of Tanata and the Fgy[)tian god- dess Neith be correct, the reason of the variation is plain, ta being merely the Egyptian feminine article. See Mr Norris' ^lemoir on Scytliic Inscrip- tions. Journal of lioyal Asiatic Society, vol. xv., p. 160. 1 K on Plan. WORSHIP OF TANAITIS OR VENUS. 379 hundred terra-cotta figures, the greater number of whicli were nude representations of the goihless. Venus was es- pecially worshipped at Bab}don, and her clay models are Clay figures of Venus from Susa. among the most common of those found throughout Baby- lonia. Those discovered at Susa are altogether of a different type, and exhibit some remarkable peculiarities, shewn in the woodcut. The hands, as usual, hold the breasts, as emblems of fruitfulness ; the features are very carefully moulded, and present a decidedly Assyrian profile ; the hair is clipped close to the forehead, like the modern fashion of the Persian women ; and the head-dress is high and pro- jecting, like the cap frequently worn by Jewish ladies in the East. The ears, neck, wrists, and ankles are adorned with their appropriate ornaments. The features and head- dress are perfectly different from any found elsewhere. There was evidently a great demand for these statuettes, which were cast from several moulds, and it appeared as thouo'li the trench had descended into the imao;e- maker's store. In an adjoining trench,'"* was recovered * J on Plan. 380 WORSHIP OF TANAITIS OR VENUS. one of tlie clay moulds in which the figures were cast/^ There occurred also, in the same trench, other male and female figures, playing on instruments resembling the native zantur, together with several primitive re- presentations of domestic annuals — the Indian bull, the sheep, and horse. • In a small chamber, in the south-east palace at Nimrtid, I discovered a large collection of very beautiful ivories, among which were a great variety of nude figures, frequently in the same posture as those above described. In several instances, they composed gi'oups as column shafts. From the frequency of their occurrence, I concluded that they had formed part of an ornamental shi'ine dedicated to Venus. Short accounts of these ivories, with figures of the most remarkable, are contained in the Literary Gazette of April 5, 1856, and in the Illustrated London News of April 12, 1856. The originals are in the British Museum. CHAPTER XXIX. Hostility and Reconciliation — An Arrival — Tlie Lur Woikmen — Insur- rection of Seyicls — Administration of Justice — Novel Method of Smoking — Colonel Williams' Horses Stolen — An Arab attack Re- pelled — The Haughty Humbled — Besieged by a Harem. It must not be supposed tliat tlie progress of the ex- cavations was unattended with difficulty and annoy- ance. On quitting Dizfid for the ruins, the services of only seventy Lurs were secured, under the impression that, as soon as the work began, many Arabs would be induced to ofifer themselves. In this, however, I was dis- appointed, and the letters furnished me by Khanler Mirza failed to produce the desirable result ; the 'Ali Kethir were not to be moved from their obstinate determination. Sheikh Gliafil, the chief of the whole tribe, whose tents were situated about three miles from the mounds, was especially directed to see to my safety, and to sup- ply me with workmen ; but his remark, on reading the Prince's letter, was to the effect that he would not send men — "the Shah-zada (Prince) might cut him and his tribe to pieces ; his sons and wives were the Prince's, but he would not send a man to dig at Shush for a Firenghi!" With his rival, Sheikh Mahommed,* encamped with his * The 'Ali Kotlilr Arabs are divided into thirty-one tribes, of which the Cherim, Anafija, Chd'b, and Md'la are the only large ones. At the time of my AHsits to Susa, Ghdfil was sheikh of the first, and Mahoramed-em-Meshdl of the last. 382 AN INSULT. people a sliort distance from the mounds on the opi)osite side of the Shiiour, there was no better success. His reply to my demand for workmen was the question, "how the Prince permitted a Ghyawr to excavate at Shush !" From another camp it was stated that my groom was driven with sticks and stones wliile endeavouring to pur- chase corn for my horses. A general feeling prevailed tliat the recent visit of cholera to the province, was the conse- quence of Colonel "Williams' excavations, and that, it would return aojain with tenfold violence, at this second act of impiety ! It soon became evident that, unless means were taken to prevent it, I should be exposed to gross insult. The opportunity was not long in occurring, and eventually turned to my advantage. On the third day after my tents were pitched at Shush and the works in full operation, Sheikh JMahommed's brother, with about a dozen of his people, presented them- selves at a trench where I was watchinoj the workmen extracting pieces of fluted columns. Salutations were expressly made to the Lurs, under the designation of "Dizfidl," for the undoubted purpose of excluding me. At first I took no notice of this conduct, regarding the visitors as ignorant Arabs; but when they followed me about from trench to trench, behaving in the same man- ner at each, and holding conversations among themselves concerning " the beast, the pig," &c., it was evident that a direct insult was intended towards myself. To have submitted tamely would have been productive of con- tinued annoyance ; I therefore insisted on their .leaving the trenches until they had learned to treat me with com- mon respect. They were not prepared for this high tone from a Christian, and therefore took their departure with strono: siirns of surprise and disgust. Determined to strike the iron while hot, I despatched the Prince's man to Sheikh Mahommed, demanding an apology for this RECONCILIATION. 383 gratuitous insult on the part of his ])rother. On the fol- lowing day, Mahommed himself sought an interview, and begged that the offender might be forgiven. " He is an Arab," said he, "and knows no better." His brother also confessed that he had acted with great impropriety, but was sorry for his behaviour. Thus an excellent opportunity arose for conciliating my nearest neighbours, and at the same time of explaining that I had no desire they should act contrary to their prejudices in working at the ex- cavations. To prove that I possessed- due and proper authority for my proceedings, the Shah's firman was ex- hibited. Sheikh Mahommed received this precious docu- ment standing ; he carefully examined the seal, kissed it, muttered a prayer, and then placed it reverently on his head. It was then handed to his brother, who did likewise. The old man's cpiet demeanour and pleasant counten- ance were a strong contrast to the roughness and ill-looks of his tribe, and the interview between us evidently told likewise in my favour. He became particularly commu- nicative, and, from that day, he and his brother were my stanch friends. With the exception of excavating in the mounds, they willingly aided me in anything I might re- quire, and, during my stay, I was obliged to them both for many acts of assistance and friendly feeling. A few days after this interview I was enal)lcd to test this newly formed friendship. A scrap of paper was one morning put into my hands, addressed in European hand- writing to Colonel Williams, with the intimation that the writer Avaited a reply on the opposite side of the Kerkhah. It proved to be from Lieutenant elackson, I.N., who was on his way to join the English party. He had recently arrived from Boml)ay, and went to Bagh- dad in expectation of finding Colonel Williams at Men- delf, l)ut, being too late to overtake him there, he set out 384 LIEUTENANT JACKSON. once more on tlie Tigris, hoping to reach his chief at Hawiza. The native boat, in which he took passage, as bad hick would have it, ran aground. Eighteen days elapsed, and, there being no chance of the vessel floating until the annual rise of the river, the voyager decided on making his way overland. He fortunately made the acquaintance of a Benl Lam sheikh, who hospitably un- dertook to see him safely to the banks of the Kerkhah. In passing the Segwend Liirs, one of their tushmals, or chiefs, swore that, but for his protector, his life would have been the penalty for his temerity in venturing among them ; in token of the truth of which assertion he inhospitably turned the unlucky traveller out of his tent into the rain, leaving him to find shelter elsewhere. After various other adventures, he at length succeeded in gaining the bank of the Kerkhah, where the Arabs re- fused to provide him with skins to form a raft. He wisely wrote to the elclii, who, he understood, was dig- ging up piles of gold and silver cups at Shush ! An ap- plication from me to Sheikh Mahommed was instantly attended to ; sheepskins were collected from the women, and in a few hours my friend was safely and gladly lodged in my tent. Sheikh ]\Iahommed's camp was my farmyard ; it supplied barley and straw for my animals, and every species of Arab luxury for our own sustenance. And yet, although my immediate neighbours now behaved so well, others at a greater distance exhibited less friendly disposition towards m)^ party. Whenever any Lilrs were caught straying far from the mounds, or were engaged in cutting wood on the banks of the Shaour, they were at- tacked, and not unfrequently some awkward wounds were inflicted. On one occasion a workman was carried into camp speared in a frightful manner by a party of Arabs. In order to suppress such outrages, it became necessary THE LUR WORKMEN. 385 to organise well-armed, foraging parties, who were accom- panied by a chief answerable to me for the behaviour of his men. This had a good effect, and the cowardly attacks ceased. Having satisfactorily ascertained tliat it was useless expecting the Arabs to aid me, I determined on increasing my force by engaging men in Dizfiil. It soon became known that workmen were required, and the mounds were besieged by applicants ; no farther difficulty was experienced in raising three hundred and fifty men. The principal number were Ltirs, but many were a mixed race from the town, — half Ltir, half Arab, hating the Frank, but greedy for his kerans. This additional force was distributed at various positions on the mounds, as indi- cated by the coloured lines on the general plan of the' ruins. The men were divided into gangs; the strong Ltirs used the long-handled spades of the country, and, like Irish "navvies," threw the earth high out of the open trenches, while the town's-people, less accustomed tO' such hard work, filled baskets, and hoisted the loose earth from the tunnels by means of pullies. None could, how- ever, forget the predictions of the priests, that some accident would inevitably befall the sacrilegious wretches who dared to assist the operations of the Ghyawr. In order to avert this supposed danger, the party at each- trench elected a mulla — one of themselves — who every now and then extemporized a prayer, calling on 'All to- save and defend them from aU ills likely to arise from digging at Shush, and receiving the wages of an infidel,. " whom might 'AU curse." Each invocation was loudly responded to by three earnest cries of " Ya, 'AH ! " (Oh, 'Ali).^' The echo was taken up by the adjoining trench,. • It will be remembered that 'All is the patron saint of the Persians. The names of Allah (God) or Mohammed are seldom invoked by them, as they are by the Turks and Arabs of the Sunni sect. 386 THE LUR WORKMEN. and the mounds, from end to end, constantly resounded with this oft-repeated pra3^er. The accession of Dizfulis to the excavations was, in one respect, unwelcome : they brought bigotry along witli them. The Lurs were tolerant ; they chiefly belonged to that extraordinary sect called 'All Ilahls,"^ who believe that the Deity has vouchsafed to man a thousand and one successive incarnations of the godhead, and that the most perfect development of his presence took place in ]>enjamin, David, and 'All. The Seyids, or descendants of the Prophet, were, as I have said, induced at last to overcome their scruples, and I was surprised one morning to see no less than seventeen green-tui'baned individuals, from Dizful, ranged before my tent door. If they had not been armed with spades, • Very little is really known of this singular sect. It is extremely diffi- cult to ascertain what are the tenets of their religion, because they are very jealous of inquiry concerning this subject, although tolerant of other opinions. From their many Jewish names and general physiognomy, it is supposed by some travellers that they are of Israelitish descent. Their religion appears to be a mixture of Jewish, Sabaean, Christian, and Moham- medan belief. Their great holy place is the tomb of Baba-Yadgar, on the mountain fort of Ban Zdrda, near Zohdb, which was at one time regarded as the abode of Ehas. In 1851, 1 spent some months among the 'Ali Ilahis of Kirrind, but can add Httle to what we previously knew concerning them. They say to Christians : " Our religion differs but little from yours ! we driuk wine, eat pig, and are not obliged, like the Mohammedan, to pray." The men of Kirrind are brave and handsome, and the women fail* and good- looking. The holiday-dress of the latter consists of a bright-coloured short jacket of velvet, having a lappet in front, and the breast laced like the Swiss costumes of Berne and Lucerne. They mix freely with the men of their tribes, and are less particular than Mohammedan ladies in covering their faces. In fact, at their weddings, only ladies who are "engaged" are re- quired to conceal their features, which is done by throwing a kerchief over the head. The Kirrindls follow the profession of their Deity Ddwud (David), who is said to have been a blacksmith ; their iron-work is deservedly cele- brated throughout Persia. To escape persecution, the 'All Ilahis profess Islamism when they descend into the plains, but in the mountains they feel free to follow their own opinions. For further information concerning this sect, consult the " Journal of the Royal Geographical Society," vol. ix., p. 36. INSURRECTION OF SEYIDS. 3iS7 I might have imagined them to be a deputation from the mujtehid, mth orders to put a stop to my proceedings. Several of these gentry were placed together in one trench, but so many green turbans in close proximity could not fiiil to produce mischief ! They were very ob- stinate, and frequently refused to obey instructions. One day my servant, carrying them a message, was at- tacked with very abusive language by the mulla of the party. On its being repeated, Ovannes struck the holy man a violent blow, whereon the latter raised his spade, and endeavoured viciously to cut the other down, calling on his fellow saints to resent the insult inflicted on one of their number : — " A Seyid ! a descendant of the Prophet, to be struck by a Ghya^vr ! Will you suffer this 1 Seyids ! aid me, in the name of 'AH ! " Watching the whole scene from the summit of the great mound, and fearing worse might ensue, I ran to the spot just in time to save Ovannes a blow, which would inevitably have cleft his skull, and wrenched the implement from the fellow's hand, as he still more vehemently raised his outcry against myself. On refusing either to be pacified or to quit the trench, I bestowed his own epithets upon him- self, together with a succession of hearty kicks each time he opened his mouth to call on his brother Seyids to "exterminate the Ghyawrs 1" As soon as he was fairly driven ofi" the mound, I returned to the trench and told his fraternity that this summary punishment to one of the order was inflicted out of no disrespect towards themselves ; but, so long as they worked for me, I insisted on being obeyed, and would submit to no insolence or bigotry. This example had the desired efi'ect ; from that moment my influence, like that of every stern governor, small or great, in Persia, was established. It was soon discovered that the Ghy^wr could act impartially, and be just in his dealings. My decision was frequently appealed to in 388 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. matters of dispute, and on some occasions the wliole of the workmen assembled to ask advice. They all huddled together at night into Daniel's tomb, and their wild songs resounded through the solitude of the ruins, sometimes interrupted by loud cries of " Ya ! 'All." On a few grand occasions the exterior of the building was illuminated. Lamps were placed at inter- vals around the edges of the veranda and terrace, as well as upon the spire of the penetralia, the effect of which was very striking, — the white spire of the edifice seemed to be semi-transparent. Every man took care to receive his own wages, and to secure them in his own private bank — his girdle — honesty not being a distinguishing characteristic of the Persian race. A Lfir was one night caught in the act of robbing his next neighbour, and, the ker4ns being found upon his person, he could not do otherwise than confess his guilt. Next morning he was brought to me by the whole of the workmen to be punished. I offered to send him into Dizful to be submitted to the tender mercies of the authorities. " No ! No !" was the general cry, " Punish him here! Punish him here!" The culprit stepped for- ward and repeated the request, kneeling down and kissing my feet ! The reason of this was soon explained. If the man were sent to Dizful, he would not only have the soles of his feet beaten to a jelly, but the kerans, the cause of the dire offence, would, by some magical process or other, disappear into the pockets of the jailers, and probably an additional sum be filched from both parties concerned. To avoid this, it was agreed, in full conclave, to ask me to distribute justice ; therefore, to satisfy all parties, I consented to the arrangement. The stolen money was duly paid over to the proper owner, and twenty blows were inflicted on the person of the criminal, after which he was dismissed the service — not, however. A NOVEL PIPE. 389 l)efore he had kissed my feet ; after which the whole party ■proceeded to their trenches, exchiiming : — " This is some- thing like justice ! where shall we get such justice in Persia!" After these little episodes, order and regularity were fully established in the trenches, the only variation +o our day's labour being when Sheikh Ghafil, Mohammed, or a ■neighbouring chief came to look and wonder, and depart ; or when a general distribution of tobacco took place in return for a hard day's work, or an extraordinary piece of good fortune. An occasional present of tobacco produced an exhilar- ating effect upon the excavators ; without making the frantic demonstrations of the Madan Arabs on the banks of the Euphrates, the Lurs dug to desperation, and yelled forth their strange mountain cries, amidst incessant calls on the ubiquitous 'Ali. Having but few pipes, they adopted a primitive and ingenious method of inhaling the magic cloud. With a little water, the earth at the edge of the trench was converted into a tenacious paste ; two holes were made in it having an underground communication between them of three or four inches in lenoth. The tobacco was then placed in one hole, and, at the other, they, one after the other, applied their lips and sucked till all was dry. The mouth-piece of this novel pipe was frequently made inside the trench, and much resembled a fungTis adhering to the wall. It was very amusing when a fresh "kaliyun" was lighted, to see them standing in a circle waiting their turn, while one of the number knelt in the centre with his mouth to the earth sucking until quite blue in the face with the exertion. I had just succeeded in overcoming the scruples and gaining the confidence of the workmen, when the British Commissioner and a part of his suite, after completing the survey of the southern portion of the frontier, spent 390 THE commissioner's horses stolen. a few days with me on their way northward. An event then took place which threatened to put a somewhat premature stop to the excavations. On the second night of their arrival, two horses were skilfully stolen from the encampment, and strong sus- picions attached to a sheikh named Eizaz, belonging to the Cha'b''' division of the 'Mi Kethir Arabs, who had only pitched their tents the day before on the bank of the Kerkhah: the stolen horses were heard galloping towards them, and shortly afterwards their dogs barked vehemently. Information of the theft was immediately communicated to the Prince, and very early the second morning after the robbery. Colonel "Williams set out en route for Mendeli, leaving Mr Jackson with me to await the arrival of Lieutenant Glascott from Shuster. Breakfast was just finished when I was apprized that four hundred armed Arabs, headed by Abdullah, the sheikh of the suspected Chab, were approaching the mounds. When the sheikh expressed a wish to see me, not knowing the object, nor liking the advent of such a host of light-fingered gentry, some of my people, without my knowledge, desired him to leave his followers outside the camp. With this request he abruptly declined to comply, insisting that they should pass through' the camp, and remarking that his Arabs were as clean as Firenghis. The admission of the posse comitatiis was stoutly refused, and high words ensued between the parties. Ovannes instantly hastening to the spot, invited the sheikh and the elders of the tribe to my tent, but asked him, as a favour, to call a halt of their attendants. The sheikh passionately replied by denouncing him as a • These Arabs are not to be confounded with the great tribe of the Chd'b, although they naay probably have originally emigrated from it to the 'Ali Ketliir. AN ARAB ATTACK REPELLED. 391 Firenghi dog, which was the signal for a general attack on my people with clubs and sticks, a gun being jGbi-ed by way of intimidation. The Liirs now took part in the affray. Delighted at the opportunity of facing the tribe which had but recently almost murdered one of their party, they swarmed from the trenches, and rushed to the attack, howling and yelling with right good will, every man armed with a spade, pickaxe, or other weapon; their guns being fortunately left in the tomb. The battle now became general. The Arabs — chiefly armed with sticks, and perhaps not relishing the aspect of the sharp glittering spades, or not aware of our numbers which now amounted to three hundred and seventy — slowly retreated under cover of an incessant shower of broken bricks. All this had taken place in a few minutes, before it was possible to comprehend the affair ; but, having no desire to be the cause of a blood-feud, or to risk the prose- cution of the excavations, I ran to the scene of combat, and used my best endeavours to maintain peace. The Ltirs, after much difficulty, were persuaded to a halt, and obey discipline. Having so far succeeded, I advanced alone towards the Arabs, calling on the sheikh who rode in the rear to come forward and speak to me. A shower of bricks and a volley of bullets — for they had about fift}' guns among them — was the return for my pains, but these were fortunately discharged without efiect. The indig- nant Lilrs aoain rushed forward, and were a^j-ain checked by my interference. The same order of events occurred thrice. Just as they were quieted on the last occasion, an outcry arose that the Arabs had seized and were mui- dering a Lur. There was no time to lose ; — the Arabs were again regaining courage, and preparing to advance on seeing our halt, when I gave the word for a general charge down the mound. The enemy declined close con- 392 AN ARAB ATTACK REPELLED. tact with the spades, and made a hasty retreat to the ford over the Shaour, keeping np a running fight with bricks, their stock of powder being by this time exhausted. As soon as tliey reached the river, the Liirs were brought to a halt once more, and I walked with Mr Jackson and Ovannes to the bank. On beckoning the sheikh to speak with me, he menacingly shook his stick, and, as no exj)ostulation had any effect in producing an explana- tion, I told him he must take the consequences of this unjustifiable assault on his own shoulders; then turning away, I retired unmolested by the Arabs, many of whom were performing a species of demoniacal dance around me. A messenger was soon on his way with an account of the whole proceedings to Colonel Williams. The only explanation to be ofiered as to the sheikh's conduct is, that not aware of the Commissioner's depar- tiu'e, he had come with the intention of insulting him for charging the Cha b tribe with the theft of the horses. If his visit were intended as a mark of respect, he would have kept his people out of my camp. The Prince was highly enraged on hearing from Colonel Williams the account of the attack, and instantly com- manded Sheikh Ghafil to secm^e and send his subordi- nate to Dizfiil — a task easier said than done -^- for, within twenty hours after the occurrence, Abdullah and the Cha'b were on their way to seek refuge among the marshes of the Kerkhah beyond Hawiza. The plains, which the day before were thickly dotted with black tents and herds of buffaloes, were now deserted, — not an Arab was visible, — nothing but an expanse of verdant meadow of the richest green was apparent as far as the eye could span. Ghafil was now in a dilemma ; in accordance with Persian custom, he was answerable for the conduct of the whole 'All Kethir, and bound to produce Abdullah. He being, however, beyond reach. THE HAUGHTY MADE HUMBLE. 393 his relatives were instantly seized and lodged in prison. Ghafil and a party of sheikhs soon honoured me with a visit, but their previously haughty and threatening mien was lowered : the men, who had before drawn their swords and insulted the Ghyawr, were now anxious to shew their deference ; each, as he entered the tent, bowed his head low, and insisted on kissing the hand of the previously despised infidel. Many were the excuses and entreaties offered on behalf of the culprit; but nothing would move my compassion, because T con- ceived it a duty to future travellers that the matter should not be lightly passed over. Unless the Arabs were now made to respect the European, it might fare ill with the next visitor to the ruins. At my intercession, however, the relations of Sheikh Abdidlah were released from prison, it being manifestly unfair that the innocent should be punished for the guilty. Not succeeding in his entreaties, Sheikh Ghafil took a sorrowful leave, declaring that he would shortly return with his hdrem, under the impression that woman's prayers would prevail over my stubborn resolution. He kept his word. In a few hours, I was siu-prised at seeing a long line of females approaching in single file towards my tent, headed by the sheikh himself and a black eunuch. The ladies were all richly dressed, their faces scrupulously concealed under black horsehair masks. But I at once declined to receive them, and threatened to quit my tent if they persisted in approacliing. Finding me so determined, they halted, but Ghafil now declared they should not depart until I yielded. This was attempting to storm the fortress in a way not calculated upon ; but, being resolved to stand the siege, I ordered a tent to be pitched for the accommodation of the Amazons, and all supplies which they might need to be provided 394 BESIEGED BY A HAREM. for them. Tlie black eunucli took up his appointed station in a broiling sun, midway between tlie besiegers and besieged, and acted as the advanced corps of ob- servation. All communication between the two forces was held through his instrumentality ; messages and presents alike passed through him from camp to camp. In the evening, Sheikh Ghafil, without a word, took his departure, leaving his h^rem to continue a hopeless task; but on the following day he returned with a pri- soner — a poor labourer caught ploughing his fields — and represented him as the man who commenced the attack. With his wretched \ictim he departed for Dizfill, impressed with the idea that this great show of activity and zeal woidd bring about the desired result more speedily than his besieging army, which was henceforth withdrawn. He was, however, still mistaken; Sheikh Abdullah, and no other, would satisfy my demand. Such being the case, another stratagem was attempted. A Persian, representing himself as an officer of the Prince's, made his appearance with the offending sheikh, pretending that he was ordered to bring the fellow for me to punish as I might please ; but the real fact most probably was, that he had entered into a compact with his prisoner, hoping to beg him off on condition of a liberal reward for his inter- cession. Some such agreement evidently existed, because, on my declining to listen to the advocate, they set out on the road to Dizfiil ; it was subsequently stated that AbduUah had made his escape, and that a large body of Cha'b w^as in ambush by the way, prepared to rescue their chief if I had actively moved in the matter. He once more made off into the marshes, and did not again trouble me during my further stay ; Sheikh Ghafil, how- ever, in his own behalf, continued to importune me for his friend's pardon whenever he paid me a visit. methkOk the thief. 395 The stolen horses were ultimately traced to the camp of my worthy friend Methkiir, the chief of the BenI Ldm, whose own brother proved to have been the accomplished thief I True to the compact made with myself, my goods and chattels were held sacred by his tribe; but, having made no stipulation on behalf of Colonel Williams, the other property of the commission was regarded as a fair object for plunder ! The Prince wrote to Methkiir, re- quiring him to deliver up the horses into my charge ; while the 'All Kethir, in whose territories they were lost, were compelled to provide others of equal value in exchange ! Thus was the matter of the theft arranged ; but the more serious affair of the Cha b attack still remained to be dealt with. CHAPTER XXX. A Long Trench — Enamelled Bricks — Masons' Marks — A Hoard of Coins — ^Was Susa destroyed by Alexander 1 — Greek Inscriptions — Pythagoras and the Persian Daric — Unexpected Visit from the Guardian of the Tomb— Inscriptious and other Early Relics on the Great Mound — Alabaster Vases of Xerxes — Eg3^tian Cartouch — Mr Birch's Remarks thereon — Sculptured Trough. Excavations were now vigorously carried on in the three principal mounds. In a regularly formed portion of the platform south-west of the colonnade of Artaxerxes, a trench"^" was dug diagonally across the mound, from one side to the other. At the depth of eleven feet, it struck upon a brick pavement, evidently connected with the palace, probably a court. On its surface were numerous pieces of fallen walls built of moulded composition bricks, many of which exhibited portions of glazed, coloured figures and designs in high rehef, but, being on a large scale, it was impossible to understand their import or to fit the fraoments to each other, Amono; some smaller designs was frequently repeated the symbol of the Deity — a dotted ball with expanded wings, — the colours being much varied and in a good state of pre- servation. There was also the rosette ornament, which occurs so abundantly and was so universal a favourite throughout edifices of the same period at Nineveh, Persepolis, and Susa.t From the position in which these ♦ At I on the Plan. t Specimens of these enamelled bricks are in the British Museum. masons' marks. 307 glazed bricks lay, it would appear that the wings of the great palace at Siisa were ornamented externally in this style, and hence we may attach some credit to the state- ments of the ancient historians ^' that the walls of edifices in Babylon and Ecbatana in Media were adorned with gorgeously-coloured representations of various siib- jects. The shallowness of the trench, and the overturned condition of the brickwork, induced me to cease minute researches at the north side of the mound. There is another point connected with these enamelled bricks of some interest. Upon their upper sur- face is generally one, and sometimes two or three peculiar characters. They are of different kinds, as shewn in the accompanying list. Those in the lines, No. 1, were merely scratches made with a knife or sharp instrument while the composition was soft. The second series of marks is the most interesting. They are small, but very carefully formed, near the front edge of each brick, generally with dark-coloured enamel, and are apparently intended to indicate the upper side of the design in front. The marks in the columns, No. 3, weic rudely laid on in glaze with a brush or stick. As they do not belong to any known language, the inference is that these characters are merely builders' marks, t * Diodorus Siculus,lib. ii., c. 20. Herodotus, lib. i., c. 98. The large num- ber of enamelled bricks discovered in Mr Layard's excavations at the Kasr mound, Babylon, led him to the same conclusion at that locality. In Assyria, glazed bricks are an important feature in the front of the city gateways still standing at Khorsdbdd, but it is to be doubted if the ex- ternal walls of Assyrian palaces were adorned in the same manner through- out. They may have been painted but not enamelled. I laid bare three sides of the north palace at Koyunjuk, but without observing any trace of colour upon them. t Marks of similar kind occur upon many ancient stone buildings in the East — as at Takht i Suleyman, near Persepolis ; at the base of the sculptured rock of Bisutlin ; in blocks near the Zendertid and in the garden of the Che- hil Sitfm ; at Isfahan ; and especially on the walls of Al Hddhr, near Mosul. It is not improbable that those observed at the Chebil Sittin were de- 398 MASONS MARKS. With regard to others of similar kind elsewhere, it has been suggested that they are the marks of Chaldsean @ vw r^ -F UU * :-r\ ^ M- rl ^ ^n/ L ^ V o-,^ x^ -evmt-0 -y A- k h^ rr y^' + + £ %^ J C im>^ u J^ ^im -z^ L^. 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