AlKS. Caki. Schurz. 
 The first kinck-r^artner in the United States.
 
 THE KINDERGARTEN 
 
 IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 BY 
 
 NINA C. VANDEWALKER, B.L., M.Pd. 
 
 DIRECTOR OF KINDERGARTEN TRAINING DEPARTMENT, MILWAUKEE 
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. FORMERLY CRITIC TEACHER IN 
 
 MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, AND TEACHER 
 
 OF METHODS IN WHITEWATER STATE 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 1917 
 
 Ail rights reserved
 
 Copyright, igo8, 
 By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1908. Reprinted 
 February, 1913; November, 1917. 
 
 NortoooB iPresa 
 
 J. 8. Gushing Co. —Berwick & Smith Co. 
 
 Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
 
 LB 
 
 FOREWORD 
 
 Wherever the democratic idea has emerged during 
 the past century it has been accompanied by certain 
 movements which have tended to anchor and hold it fast. 
 Of all such social phenomena the kindergarten has been 
 one of the most interesting and enduring. 
 
 German thinkers had been for half a century consciously 
 imaging the universal ideals of freedom and unity in their 
 literature, philosophy, and art. " The Faust, " " The Ode 
 to Joy," " The Ninth Symphony," and Novalis' " Blue 
 Flower " were embodiments of that national spirit which 
 had been inarticulate for two centuries. At last the Idee 
 craved political expression and midway down the century 
 all Europe was stirred by spirited revolutions. These 
 revealed the extent to which men's hearts were reanimated 
 with courage and humanitarian purpose. New social 
 programs were offered by patriots and freethinkers to 
 the several governments under agitation. For the most 
 part these were rejected or proscribed, and their authors 
 cast out across the waters, only to propagate and quicken 
 the democratic idea wherever they were received. The 
 United States being made by and for such as these, they 
 came from Germany, Hungary, Italy, Ireland, and 
 Bohemia with the ideal of liberty more consciously en- 
 throned in their minds than ever before.
 
 VI FOREWORD 
 
 In spite of the enforced exodus and immediate failures, 
 a new ideal had been made to shine out before men, and 
 they now centered their hope and faith upon schemes of 
 reconstruction by means of child education and child 
 preservation. It was then that the kindergarten was 
 reached out for by the rational-minded, more or less well 
 understanding its remedial nature. An inevitable wel- 
 come awaited it in our own country, where it has proved its 
 basic worth, by moving naturally and steadily forward 
 on the national stream, which is ever rising toward its 
 level of a true democracy. 
 
 And now another half century has passed away, pressed 
 down and running over wqth pioneer intensities and exi- 
 gencies, and we look back and register the facts of this 
 movement and call it history. 
 
 The story of the kindergarten in America involves the 
 naming of great statesmen, public-spirited men and 
 women, far-seeing philanthropists and noble thinkers, as 
 well as a host of public and private educators who have 
 faithfully, even heroically, served to project the idea into 
 the practice of our public school system. 
 
 The pioneer stages are well over and the time has come 
 for these records to be made accessible to all students and 
 practitioners of education. 
 
 It is therefore with peculiar gratification that I welcome 
 this history of the kindergarten in America, by Miss 
 Nina C. Vandewalker, who is so eminently well prepared 
 to be its historian. Miss Vandewalker has had unusually 
 successful experience in grade and normal school teaching,
 
 FOREWORD VII 
 
 in supervising both primary and kindergarten work, as 
 well as in kindergarten training. To this practical equip- 
 ment Miss Vandewalker has also added that of the serious 
 scholar. Her able articles have appeared in our leading 
 scientific journals, and her just and accurate accounting 
 of both the past history and present tendencies in elemen- 
 tary education commands the respect and admiration of 
 the entire teaching profession. 
 
 A history of the kindergarten in America cannot fail 
 to widen and deepen the public understanding of this 
 unique movement, to know which, " root and stem, and 
 branch and all," involves a composite knowledge of phi- 
 losophies as old as Socrates, psychologies as new as yester- 
 day, and the whole range of habits, activities, sentiments, 
 and tendencies native to human life. 
 
 AMALIE HOFER. 
 Chicago Commons, 1907.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The kindergarten is an accomplished fact in American 
 life and education. That it embodies the fundamental 
 principles of child training, that it has become a part of 
 the school system in every progressive community, and 
 that its principles are being increasingly applied in ele- 
 mentary education are matters of common knowledge. 
 If one seeks, however, for definite information concerning 
 the origin, growth, or present status of the movement in 
 the United States, he is at a loss. Books treating of dif- 
 ferent phases of kindergarten theory or practice are numer- 
 ous, it is true, and articles have been written describing the 
 origin and growth of the movement in different centers ; but 
 the attempts thus far made to summarize the movement as 
 a whole have either been too brief to give its general scope, 
 or have been published in a form not readily obtainable. 
 This book is the outgrowth of a recognized need for a 
 survey of kindergarten progress in the United States. 
 
 The articles that have appeared in the kindergarten 
 periodicals from time to time describing the work in the 
 different cities have played an important part in advancing 
 the kindergarten cause, and the publication of the most 
 important of these in book form would make a valuable 
 contribution to educational literature. While such a
 
 X PREFACE 
 
 collection would furnish many facts of kindergarten history, 
 it would fail, however, to give what is equally needed, — 
 an insight into the movement as a whole, and into its 
 relation to other movements that have shaped American 
 life and education. The kindergarten movement, like 
 other movements, must be seen in its proper perspective 
 before it can be correctly estimated. To portray the 
 kindergarten movement in its relation to American educa- 
 tion as a whole is the difficult task which the author has 
 attempted in this book. The treatment which this calls 
 for must of necessity lack in concreteness, and therefore 
 perhaps in interest, for the average reader at least, but it 
 is hoped that the limitations which the form of treatment 
 imposes may be compensated for by the added insight 
 that will be given into the movement as a whole. 
 
 The author recognizes that it may not be the part of 
 wisdom to discuss movements whose full significance has 
 not yet been revealed, since conclusions now drawn, 
 or interpretations now made, may be valueless in the near 
 future. She feels, however, that there is need for a state- 
 ment of the movements that have brought about the present 
 differences in theory and practice among kindergartners, 
 although the time may not yet have come to estimate them 
 correctly. She considers that the theory and practice 
 of the kindergarten, as well as that of education as a whole, 
 are being slowly evolved, and that no one school of thought 
 alone will furnish it. Although an interpretation of cur- 
 rent tendencies may have but a passing value, therefore, 
 she maintains that some statement of these tendencies is
 
 PREFACE XI 
 
 needed to make present conditions intelligible, even though 
 in the near future a restatement may be needed. 
 
 The information given in the following pages has been 
 obtained from many sources. Among these are : Barnard's 
 American Journal of Education; the Reports of the Com- 
 missioner of Education and of the National Educational 
 Association; the bound volumes of The Kindergarten 
 Magazine and The Kindergarten Review; and Miss 
 Anderson's Kindergarten Annual. The histories of edu- 
 cation in the United States by Boone, Dexter, and Butler, 
 as well as Monroe's " Text-book in the History of Educa- 
 tion " and Martin's " The Evolution of the Massachu- 
 setts School System " have been freely consulted, as 
 have many other books and periodicals quoted in the 
 text. Talcott Williams' article on " The Kindergarten 
 Movement," published in The Century; Susan E. Blow's 
 " History of the Kindergarten in the United States," in 
 The Outlook; and Hamilton W. Mabie's article on "The 
 Kindergarten in America," also published in The Out- 
 look, have likewise proved valuable and suggestive. 
 
 Much information has also been obtained from cor- 
 respondence. That concerning legislation authorizing the 
 establishment of kindergartens in the different states of the 
 Union has been obtained largely from the Superintendents 
 of Public Instruction in the different states. The informa- 
 tion concerning the kindergarten in temperance, welfare, 
 and missionary work has also been obtained largely 
 from correspondence. The author takes this occasion to 
 thank all those who have rendered such assistance.
 
 Xll PREFACE 
 
 She wishes to acknowledge her special indebtedness 
 to the late Carl Schurz and to his daughter, Miss Agatha 
 Schurz, for information concerning the life of Mrs. Schurz, 
 and for permission to use her picture ; to Mr. Charles H. 
 Doerflinger of Milwaukee for the loan of a complete 
 file of The New Education; to Mr. C. W. Bardeen, of 
 Syracuse, N.Y., for the loan of two volumes of The 
 Kindergarten Messenger and other books now out of print ; 
 and to Mr. Manfred J. Holmes, Secretary of the National 
 Society for the Scientific Study of Education, for permission 
 to use portions of the article on " The History of Kinder- 
 garten Influence in Elementary Education," which ap- 
 peared in the Sixth Year Book of that society. She wishes 
 to express her thanks to Miss Anna Webster Lytle of the 
 Milwaukee State Normal School ; to Dr. Edward L. 
 Thorndike and Dr. John A. MacVannel of Teachers 
 College; and to Miss Amalie Hofer of the Pestalozzi- 
 Froebel Training School of Chicago for valuable sugges- 
 tions and for reading the completed manuscript. 
 
 NINA C. VANDEWALKER. 
 
 Milwaukee State Normal School, 
 Milwaukee, Wis., December, 1907.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. The Kindergarten in Relation to Educational 
 
 Progress i 
 
 II. The Period of Introduction; Kindergarten 
 
 Beginnings 12 
 
 III. Early Literature 25 
 
 IV. The Period of Extension ; General Charac- 
 
 teristics 37 
 
 V. Kindergarten Associations and Women's Clubs 55 
 
 VI. The Kindergarten in Church, Sunday School, 
 
 AND Mission Work 76 
 
 VII. The Kindergarten in Temperance, Settlement, 
 
 AND Welfare Work 103 
 
 VIII. The Kindergarten and Educational Organiza- 
 tions AND Exhibitions 129 
 
 IX. Progress in Kindergarten Literature . .159 
 
 X. The Kindergarten in the Public School 
 
 System 183 
 
 XI. Kindergarten Influence in Elementary Edu- 
 cation 209 
 
 XII. New Tendencies 232 
 
 Appendix 257 
 
 Index 269 
 
 xiii
 
 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN 
 EDUCATION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 The Kindergarten in Relation to Educational 
 Progress 
 
 The kindergarten movement is one of the most signifi- 
 cant movements in American education. In the fifty or 
 more years that have passed since the first kindergarten 
 was opened in the United States education has been trans- 
 formed, and the kindergarten has been one of the agencies 
 in the transformation. Although it came to this country 
 when the educational ideal was still in the process of 
 transformation, its aims and methods differed too radi- 
 cally from the prevailing ones to meet with immediate 
 acceptance. The kindergarten is, however, the educa- 
 tional expression of the principles upon which American 
 institutions are based, and as such it could not but live 
 and grow upon American soil, if not in the school system, 
 then out of it. Trusting to its inherent truth to win 
 recognition and influence, it started on its educational 
 mission as an independent institution, the embodiment of 
 a new educational ideal. Its exponents proclaimed a new 
 gospel — that of man as a creative being, and education 
 
 B 1
 
 2 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 as a process of self-expression. They substituted activity 
 for the prevailing repression, and insisted upon the child's 
 right to himself and to happiness during the educational 
 process. They emphasized the importance of early child- 
 hood, and made the ideal mother the standard for the 
 teacher. They recognized the value of beauty as a 
 factor in education, and by means of music, plants, and 
 pictures in the kindergarten they revealed the barrenness 
 of the old-time schoolroom. By their sympathetic inter- 
 pretation of childhood, their exaltation of motherhood, 
 their enthusiasm for humanity, and their intense moral 
 earnestness they carried conviction to the educational 
 world. The kindergarten so won its way to the hearts 
 of the people that the school at last opened its doors and 
 bade it welcome. It has become the symbol of the new 
 education. 
 
 The acceptance of the kindergarten in the United 
 States has not depended wholly upon the attitude of the 
 school, nor upon the recognition of its pedagogical value. 
 The kindergarten was the outgrowth of the idealistic 
 philosophy which so profoundly influenced the world's 
 thought during the century just closed. As the influence 
 of that thought made itself felt in American life, the thought 
 of the people became receptive to the kindergarten mes- 
 sage. Until the conception of man as spiritual had been 
 emphasized in the American pulpit, the church and Sun- 
 day-school would not have been ready for Froebel's sug- 
 gestions concerning the child's spiritual development. 
 Until the mission of art to humanity had been recognized,
 
 RELATION TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 3 
 
 the emphasis which the kindergarten places upon beauty 
 as a factor in education would not have been understood. 
 Until the heart of America had been stirred to a new 
 sense of human brotherhood, the significance of the kin- 
 dergarten as an agency for the salvation of neglected 
 childhood would not have been appreciated. Until the 
 school conceived of education as something more funda- 
 mental than instruction in the Three R's, the doctrine of 
 education by development would not have been selected 
 as the foundation for educational procedure. The prog- 
 ress of the kindergarten cannot be fully understood, 
 therefore, without a glance at the history of American 
 thought during the latter part of the nineteenth century. 
 Its progress in relation to elementary education cannot be 
 adequately comprehended without an acquaintance with 
 certain significant facts in American school history during 
 the past fifty years. 
 
 The building up of the American school system has 
 been a slow process, — one not yet satisfactorily com- 
 pleted. It began, not at the bottom, with the work of 
 the youngest children, but at the top. In fact, the value 
 of early childhood for educational purposes was the last 
 to be recognized and the work of the youngest children 
 was the last to be provided for. The primary school had 
 to win its way into the school system much as the kinder- 
 garten is now winning a place there. For many years 
 children were not allowed to attend the "reading and 
 writing schools" until they were seven years of age, and 
 even then only on the condition that they had already
 
 4 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 learned to read. Even after primary schools were estab- 
 lished they were not regarded as a part of the school 
 system ; both in and out of New England — in Boston 
 until 1854 — they were managed independently. It 
 was not until about i860 that the present system of grading 
 was established. A complete revolution in educational 
 thought was therefore necessary before the kindergarten 
 could hope for recognition. Had Frocbel himself come 
 to the United States, as he at one time thought of doing, 
 his message would have fallen upon deaf ears, for until 
 the importance of early childhood for educational pur- 
 poses began to be recognized, the kindergarten could have 
 no meaning. It is not strange, therefore, that the ten 
 kindergartens opened in the United States before 1870 — 
 with one exception established by educated Germans — 
 should have attracted relatively little attention. 
 
 Before the kindergarten could hope for general recog- 
 nition, however, other important changes in educational 
 thought were necessary. While education was looked 
 upon as a process of instruction in the Three R's only, 
 the kindergarten could hope for little or no recognition. 
 When that conception gave way to one of development, 
 the fundamental value of kindergarten theory and practice 
 became apparent. Although the older view has not been 
 entirely supplanted even yet, it was practically unques- 
 tioned until after the organization of the graded school 
 system — until the Civil W' ar. The growth of the psy- 
 chological conception of education which in the United 
 States began to make itself felt at about this time, was a
 
 RELATION TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 5 
 
 gradual one toward which many influences and individuals 
 contributed; Probably no one person's influence did 
 more in the early years than that of Dr. E. A. Sheldon, 
 the founder of the Oswego Normal School. Dr. Sheldon 
 had come under the influence of Pestalozzi's principles 
 and methods while superintendent of schools in Oswego, 
 N.Y., and in 1861 he opened in the city schools a depart- 
 ment for the training of teachers on Pestalozzian prin- 
 , ciples. That there is a natural order in the child's develop- 
 ment and that this order must determine the character of 
 early education was the principle especially emphasized. 
 This called for objective teaching and self-expression in 
 the early years, however, not primarily for instruction in 
 the language arts. The work based upon these principles 
 proved so successful that in 1863 the little training class 
 in the city schools was organized into a state normal 
 school. The success and enthusiasm of the graduates of 
 the Oswego Normal School was such that they were 
 sought for in nearly every state in the Union. With the 
 gradual acceptance of the new views the kindergarten 
 began to assume significance, and its message no longer 
 fell on unheeding ears. 
 
 The insight into the psychological conception of edu- 
 cation brought about by its successful application at 
 Oswego was doubtless one of the causes for another 
 advance in elementary education having an important 
 bearing upon kindergarten progress. This was the addi- 
 tion of drawing and manual training to the elementary 
 curriculum. The introduction of these subjects indicated
 
 6 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 a new trend in education, — a trend in the direction of 
 activity as a principle in school work. This principle 
 is basic in the procedure of the kindergarten, but until 
 the value of activity for the pupils in the grades began to 
 make itself felt the message of the kindergarten was but 
 partially comprehended. But the adoption of this prin- 
 ciple — the first outward indication of which was the 
 introduction of drawing into the schools of Boston in 
 1870 — had not come without effort, and was the result 
 of practical considerations rather than of pedagogical 
 insight. The necessity for art instruction as a factor in 
 education had been impressed upon England by the 
 London Exhibition of 185 1, and the awakening of England 
 had had its effect upon American education. The value 
 of art education had been further emphasized by the Paris 
 Exposition of 1867, and the introduction of drawing into 
 the schools of Boston was the result. The advocates of art 
 teaching realized, however, that the value and feasibility 
 of such teaching needed demonstrating to the people at 
 large. The opportunity for such a demonstration was 
 furnished by the Philadelphia Exposition of 1876. The 
 exhibit of drawing and manual training work made by 
 the Boston schools on that occasion was the direct stimulus 
 to the introduction of these subjects into the schools of 
 the country. Competent authorities have declared the 
 addition of these two subjects, drawing and manual train- 
 ing, to be "the most notable educational advance of the 
 past two decades." "Throughout all the long hundred 
 years in which they had been building a nation^ Americans
 
 RELATION TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 7 
 
 had shown themselves children of utility, not of beauty," 
 says Woodrow Wilson. "Everything they used showed 
 only the plain unstudied lines of practical serviceability. 
 The things to be seen at Philadelphia, gathered from all 
 the world, awakened them to a new sense of form and 
 beauty. Men knew afterward that that had been the 
 dawn of an artistic renaissance in America, which was 
 to put her architects and artists alongside the modern 
 masters of beauty, and redeem the life of the people from 
 its ugly severity." 
 
 The recognition awarded at the Philadelphia Exposition 
 to the lines of work upon which the kindergarten had from 
 the beginning placed the greatest stress, brought that 
 institution a recognition not accorded it before, and 
 another step was taken in the preparation for its general 
 acceptance. The friends of the kindergarten were not 
 satisfied, however, with a recognition of its principles alone. 
 They felt that the institution as such had a mission in 
 American life and education, and had seen in the Exposi- 
 tion the opportunity for presenting its message to the 
 American people. A model kindergarten on the Expo- 
 sition grounds had been arranged for, which was carried 
 on for the entire time that the Exposition was in progress. 
 The message it had to offer was heard and understood, 
 and from that time on its acceptance was assured. 
 
 For the two decades following the Philadelphia Expo- 
 sition the main lines of educational advance were the 
 introduction of courses in drawing and manual training 
 into the schools of the country, and the incorporation of the
 
 8 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 kindergarten into the school system. The kindergarten 
 did not always yield the results for grade work that its 
 friends anticipated, however, since the aims of the kinder- 
 garten and those of the school lacked unity of purpose. 
 The attempted application of kindergarten principles to 
 the higher grades was frequently disappointing for the 
 same reason. The new studies too — drawing, manual 
 training, and nature study — were often merely additions 
 to the curriculum, without an insight into their real pur- 
 pose and value or their relation to the traditional studies. 
 For this, and other reasons too complex for discussion 
 here, the need of a more fundamental educational theory 
 began to be felt. The response to this need was the "new 
 psychology" — the psychology of James, Hall, and 
 others — which began to make itself felt during the last 
 decade of the century. The new psychology, of which 
 the child study movement was the natural outgrowth, 
 had a most important bearing upon kindergarten progress. 
 The nature of its bearing upon that progress must be 
 reserved for a later chapter. Suffice it to say in passing, 
 however, that the new psychology set the seal of its approval 
 upon the main features of kindergarten procedure and 
 upon the application of its principles to grade work. 
 To many it gave their first insight into the aims and pur- 
 poses of the kindergarten ; to others it reinterpreted the 
 Froebelian doctrines and gave them a broader significance. 
 The new psychology therefore prepared the way for an 
 appreciation of the kindergarten and of the other move- 
 ments in education that would have been impossible before.
 
 RELATION TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS 9 
 
 An acquaintance with the general progress of American 
 thought thus briefly outlined will serve as a background 
 against which the progress of the kindergarten may be 
 seen in clear relief. A new conception of education was 
 necessary before the significance of the kindergarten could 
 be comprehended, but this alone would not have accorded 
 it the place it now holds in popular esteem. A new 
 Christianity too was needed, no less than a new ethics, 
 and a new insight into the mission of art. The "new 
 theology " no less than the ''new psychology" has played 
 a part in advancing kindergarten progress. The social 
 reformer doubtless proclaimed the message of Froebel 
 as effectively as did the educational expert. Visions of a 
 new theology, a new ethics, a new art, and a new educa- 
 tion began to dawn upon the American people during the 
 years immediately following the Civil War. The struggle 
 for the realization of the new ideals characterized the last 
 two decades of the century. From the standpoint of kin- 
 dergarten progress the first of these periods — from the 
 opening of the first kindergarten in 1855 until after the 
 Philadelphia Exposition — may appropriately be called 
 the Period of Introduction; the second the Period of 
 Extension. The first period divides itself naturally into 
 the period of the German kindergarten, — from 1855 to 
 about ^870, — and the period from 1870 to 1880 or there- 
 abouts when the kindergarten was accepted by Americans 
 as an institution adapted to American conditions and 
 American needs. The period of extension falls likewise 
 into two subdivisions. During the first of these — from
 
 10 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 1880 to 1890 — the kindergarten was accepted with 
 relatively little question ; during the second — from 1890 
 until the present time — a more critical attitude has set 
 in, and a reconstruction of its theory and practice is de- 
 manded. The dates given are general and approximate 
 only, as the movement has differed radically in its origin 
 and progress in different localities. There are many 
 sections of the country where the period of introduction 
 is still to be entered upon; there are others where the 
 kindergarten is known and theoretically appreciated, but 
 where its extension into the school system has not yet been 
 effected ; there are others still — not infrequently kinder- 
 garten strongholds — where no evidence appears that 
 the criticisms made upon its procedure during the past 
 ten years have been heard or heeded. These differences 
 are not surprising. Where the movement has been pri- 
 marily philanthropic, where it has come into no contact 
 with progressive school work and educational leaders, it 
 is not surprising that the older views should obtain. 
 Where the work brings the kindergartner into a constant 
 association with those of larger outlook, it would be little 
 to her credit if the newer views did not prevail. The peri- 
 ods outlined are intended to serve as a framework against 
 which the progress of the kindergarten may be seen in 
 its relation to the progress of elementary education as a 
 whole. 
 
 It is too early for a complete history of the kindergarten 
 movement, but the general demand for information upon 
 the subject, more comprehensive and available than the
 
 RELATION TO EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS II 
 
 magazine articles or summaries in the Report of the Com- 
 missioner of Education, which have heretofore been the 
 main sources of knowledge, has led to this brief statement 
 of the main facts of kindergarten history. It is intended 
 primarily for the younger kindergartners, to whom an 
 acquaintance with the movement with which they are 
 allied is essential to intelligent effort. It aims also to 
 acquaint the younger school men of the country with one 
 of the vitalizing influences in American education during 
 the past quarter century, and to lead them to a study of 
 the Froebelian philosophy. If it succeeds in showing 
 them the reasons for the differences that prevail among 
 kindergartners at the present time, and in securing their 
 cooperation in the problem of adjusting the kindergarten 
 to the school, it will have rendered a needed service.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 The Period of Introduction; Kindergarten 
 Beginnings 
 
 The first kindergarten in the United States is popularly 
 supposed to have been the one opened in Boston in i860 
 by Miss Elizabeth Peabody, but the real beginning of the 
 movement must be placed several years earlier and ascribed 
 to a different source. The European Revolution of 1848 
 brought to the United States many Germans of culture 
 and influence, who during the decade between 1850 and 
 i860 established private schools, bilingual in character, 
 in all the larger cities in which their countrymen had 
 settled, — New York City, Hoboken, Detroit, Milwaukee, 
 Louisville, and several others. It was in these schools, 
 based upon the principles of the new education, which 
 at that time had found little or no recognition in the United 
 States, that the kindergarten in the United States had its 
 real origin. Although these schools did not attract from 
 American educators the attention which their excellence 
 deserved, and hardly a mention can be found of the kinder- 
 gartens that most of them contained, their indirect influence 
 in behalf of the new education in general and of the kinder- 
 garten in particular was considerable. The whole kinder- 
 garten movement in Wisconsin can be traced to the efforts 
 
 12
 
 PERIOD OF INTRODUCTION; BEGINNINGS I3 
 
 made in its behalf by those in charge of the German- 
 English Academy of Milwaukee, — an institution of the 
 kind in question, and this is not an isolated instance. 
 The German-English Academy at Louisville, Ky., and 
 that at Detroit, Mich., as well as the institution in Newark, 
 N.J., of which Dr. Adolph Douai was principal, did ef- 
 fective service in promoting the spread of the new insti- 
 tution. Although several of the earliest kindergartens 
 were private and independent, the impulse that led to their 
 organization came from the same general source. With 
 the single exception of Miss Peabody's, the ten kinder- 
 gartens established in the United States before 1870 all 
 owed their origin to the movement in question. The first 
 kindergarten in the United States was one in the home of 
 Mrs. Carl Schurz, in Watertown, Wis., in 1855. The 
 second was that opened by Miss Caroline Louise Frank- 
 enburg in Columbus, Ohio, in 1858. As far as can be 
 learned, the first of the German-English institutions to 
 adopt the kindergarten was Dr. Douai's school, to which 
 reference has already been made. The kindergarten 
 became a part of that institution in 1^861. A kindergarten 
 was opened in Hoboken, N.J., at about the same time, 
 and three years later two were opened in New York City. 
 One was opened in West Newton, Mass., in 1864 by Mrs. 
 Louise Pollock. The inspiration of the kindergarten 
 ideal came to Dr. William N, Hailman in i860, during a 
 visit to the schools of Zurich, Switzerland, and in 1865 
 he added a kindergarten to the German-English Academy 
 of Louisville, Ky., of which he was president. It was in
 
 14 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 this kindergarten that Mrs. Eudora L. Hailman found the 
 inspiration to her life work, and that she and her husband 
 began their thirty years of united service to the kinder- 
 garten cause. The German-EngHsh Academy of Detroit 
 adopted the kindergarten in 1869, and in 1873 organized 
 effort in its behalf was undertaken by the German-English 
 Academy of Milwaukee. There is little record of the 
 effort made by these institutions or by the private kinder- 
 gartens thus established to influence existing educational 
 procedure, but the indications are that such influence was 
 much more widespread than has been supposed. 
 
 The efforts made in behalf of the kindergarten by Dr. 
 Henry Barnard and Miss Elizabeth Peabody are fairly 
 familiar to the educational public, but the relation between 
 these efforts and those of the German exponents of the 
 kindergarten has never been adequately shown. Dr. 
 Barnard visited England in 1854 as a delegate to the 
 International Exhibit of Educational Systems and Ma- 
 terials, and while there became deeply interested in the 
 kindergarten. English interest in the doctrines of Froebel 
 had been awakened in 1854 by the lectures of the Baroness 
 von Marenholz-Buelow, Froebel's foremost disciple, and 
 by the practical work of Madam Bertha Ronge, who had 
 been a pupil of Froebel and an active worker in the kinder- 
 garten cause in her native city of Hamburg. With Madam 
 Ronge had been associated her sister. Miss Margaretha 
 Meyer, also a pupil of Froebel. Dr. Barnard made a 
 report of the educational exhibition in general and of the 
 kindergarten in particular to the governor of Connecticut
 
 PERIOD OF introduction; beginnings 15 
 
 upon his return. He also described the exhibit of kinder- 
 garten materials in an article in the American Journal 
 of Education, of which he was the editor. The report in 
 question and the article, published in 1856, were, as far 
 as known, the first articles concerning the kindergarten 
 to appear in print in the United States. Between the 
 time of Dr. Barnard's London visit and the publication of 
 the articles, however, the kindergarten itself had appeared 
 upon American soil. Miss Meyer had become the wife 
 of Carl Schurz, and had come to the United States, settling 
 in Watertown, Wis. In order to give her own children | 
 the advantages of kindergarten training she gathered 
 together the children of relatives who lived near, and 
 taught them the kindergarten songs, games, and occupa- 
 tions in true Froebelian fashion. This was, as has been 
 stated, the first kindergarten in the United States, 
 
 Dr. Barnard's report concerning the kindergarten had 
 awakened the interest of Miss Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, ^ 
 who is usually considered the apostle of the kindergar- 
 ten movement in the United States. The interest thus 
 awakened was deepened by an article which appeared in 
 the Christian Examiner in 1859. This article, written 
 by Mrs. Edna D. Cheney and Miss Anna Q. T. Parsons, 
 was a description of the kindergartens of Germany and a 
 summary of Froebel's principles as stated by the Baroness 
 von Buelow. Miss Peabody at once undertook the study 
 of Froebel, and a chance meeting with Mrs. Schurz during 
 a visit of the latter to Boston in the winter of 1859 fanned 
 her interest into a flame of enthusiasm. Having gained
 
 1(5 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 from Mrs. Schurz an insight into the practical details 
 of conducting a kindergarten, she opened the kindergarten 
 associated with her name the following year. "Miss 
 Peabody had participated in the great social, literary, 
 religious, and philosophical movement somewhat vaguely 
 described as New England Transcendentalism," says 
 Miss Blow, "and was peculiarly fitted both by natural 
 endowment and experience to enter into the thought of 
 Froebel." She was at this time fifty-five years of age, 
 and in the full maturity of her powers. As sister-in-law 
 of Horace Mann she had come into vital contact with the 
 great educational movement identified with his name. 
 She was a close friend of Bronson Alcott, in whose uniqua 
 educational experiment she had shared. She had taught 
 for years also in another private school of considerable 
 note. That she gradually realized from the inadequacy 
 of her results that the philosophy of Froebel needed a 
 deeper study than she had given it; that she went to 
 Europe in 1867 for the additional study which she con- 
 sidered necessary; and that she devoted the remaining 
 years of her active life to the advancement of the kinder- 
 garten cause by teaching, writing, and lecturing, are facts 
 well known to the student of educational history. 
 
 The significance for elementary education of the decade 
 from 1 870-1 880 has already been commented upon. It 
 was a significant decade for the kindergarten movement 
 also, not alone because influences favorable to the kinder- 
 garten were set into operation at that time, but for other 
 reasons as well. One of the indications of advance in the
 
 PERIOD OF introduction; beginnings 17 
 
 kindergarten movement was the establishment of kinder- 
 garten training schools, the first of which was opened in 
 Boston in 1868 by Madame Matilde Kriege and her 
 daughter. These ladies were pupils of the Baroness von 
 Marenholz-Buelow, who had been induced to come to 
 Boston by Miss Peabody. In 1872, Miss Henrietta B. 
 Haines, the principal of a large private school in New York 
 City, invited ]Miss Maria Boelte to open a kindergarten 
 in her school. Miss Boelte was a pupil of Froebel's 
 widow, who had achieved marked success both in England 
 and in Germany. Her work in New York attracted 
 riiuch favorable attention. At the close of the year Miss 
 Boelte married Professor John Kraus, already an exponent 
 of the kindergarten, and together they established a 
 kindergarten training school which is still in existence, 
 although it has been carried on by Madame Kraus-Boelte 
 alone since Professor Kraus's death in 1896. As trained 
 kindergartners were thus becoming available, kinder- 
 gartens multiplied rapidly. The kindergarten found a 
 foothold in Washington, D.C., in 1870 through the efforts 
 of Mrs. Susan Pollock, and its influence was strengthened 
 in 1872 by the establishment of a training school under 
 Miss Emma Marwedel. In 1873 several German 
 kindergartens were established in Milwaukee, through 
 the agency of the German-English Academy of that city, 
 and when the following year Professor W. N. Hailman 
 succeeded to the presidency of that institution, kindergarten 
 training was instituted also. The year 1873 saw the 
 beginning of the kindergarten training movement in St. 
 c
 
 1 8 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Louis, under the leadership of Miss Susan E. Blow, and 
 the following year saw the beginnings of the movement 
 in Chicago, under the leadership of Mrs. Alice H. Putnam. 
 In 1875 kindergartens were opened in Indianapolis and 
 in Los Angeles, Cal., and in 1876 in Denver and San 
 Francisco, as a result of a lecturing tour by Dr. Felix 
 Adler, who espoused the kindergarten cause almost from 
 the beginning. The Philadelphia Exposition acquainted 
 the Quaker City with the new institution, and when the 
 Exposition closed. Miss Ruth Burritt, the "Centennial 
 kindergartner," remained in Philadelphia to open a kinder- 
 garten and a kindergarten training school. The kinder- 
 garten spread rapidly during the latter part of the decade, 
 the result in part of the larger acquaintance with it for 
 which the Philadelphia Exposition had furnished the 
 opportunity. The friends of the kindergarten had recog- 
 nized the opportunity which the Exposition would afford, 
 and had planned accordingly. The Exposition kinder- 
 garten was conducted in an annex to the Woman's Pavilion, 
 by Miss Ruth Burritt of Wisconsin, who had had several 
 years of experience as a primary teacher before she became 
 a kindergartner, and whose manner and insight were such 
 as to gain adherents for the new cause. The enclosure 
 for visitors was always crowded, many of the on-lookers 
 being "hewers of wood and drawers of water, who were 
 attracted by the sweet singing and were spellbound by 
 the lovely spectacle." Thousands thronged to see the 
 new educational departure, and many remained hours 
 afterwards to ask questions. The Exposition marked
 
 PERIOD OF introduction; BEGINNINGS 1 9 
 
 an epoch in the advancement of the kindergarten move- 
 ment, as it marked an epoch in the history of elementary 
 education. 
 
 The ready acceptance of the kindergarten after the 
 Philadelphia Exposition did not imply a recognition of its 
 pedagogical value alone ; in fact it is worthy of note that 
 many of the kindergartens established at this period were 
 philanthropic in their ultimate purpose. As the rapid 
 growth of cities and the increasing immigration was fast 
 developing the slum with its attendant evils, people were 
 beginning to realize that some antidote must be found. 
 The value of the kindergarten as a child-saving agency 
 was at' once recognized, and churches and philanthropic 
 societies took up the movement. The first charity kinder- 
 garten was opened in 1870 in the village of College Point, 
 N.Y. ; others were opened the same year in Cleveland, 
 Ohio, and Florence, Mass. In speaking of. this phase 
 of kindergarten work in the Report of the Commissioner 
 0^ Education, Miss Laura Fisher says : — 
 
 "Centering among, and concerning itself with, the 
 children of the poor, and having for its aim the elevation 
 of the home, it was natural that the kindergarten as a 
 philanthropic movement should win great and early 
 favor. The mere fact that the children of the slums were 
 kept off the streets, and that they were made clean and 
 happy by kind and motherly young women; that the 
 child thus being cared for enabled the mother to go about 
 her work in or outside the home — all this appealed to the 
 heart of America, and America gave freely to make these
 
 20 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 kindergartens possible. Churches established kinder- 
 gartens, individuals endowed kindergartens, and associa- 
 tions were organized for the spread and support of kinder- 
 gartens in nearly every large city." 
 
 The fact that kindergartens could be carried on success- 
 fully under public school conditions was satisfactorily 
 demonstrated by the experiment made in St. Louis, Mo., 
 by Superintendent William T. Harris and Miss Susan E. 
 Blow. But for this experiment the general introduction 
 of the kindergarten into the schools of the country — 
 accomplished in large part during the following period — 
 might have been postponed for many years. Dr. Harris 
 was at this time acknowledged as the leading exponent 
 of the idealistic philosophy in the United States, and as 
 such he had actively espoused the kindergarten cause. 
 Miss Blow was a native of St. Louis who had taken a 
 course of kindergarten training in Miss Boelte's school. 
 Superintendent Harris had recommended the adoption 
 of the kindergarten as a part of the school system to the 
 St. Louis school board in 1870, but the first step in that 
 direction was taken in 1873, when Miss Blow offered to 
 superintend a kindergarten and instruct a teacher gratui- 
 tously, if the board would provide the teacher, the room, 
 and suitable equipment. The offer was accepted, and 
 the kindergarten was so successful that additional ones 
 were soon called for. A training school was organized, 
 as Miss Blow preferred to train her own co-workers, and 
 new kindergartens were opened as fast as kindergartners 
 could be trained. The success of the experiment made
 
 PERIOD OF introduction; beginnings 21 
 
 St. Louis the center of interest among school men, and 
 educators from all parts of the country coming to visit, 
 the stimulus was carried to their respective cities. Dr. 
 Harris severed his connection with the St. Louis schools 
 in 1880 and Miss Blow withdrew from the work that she 
 had so successfully inaugurated in 1884, but by that time 
 the practical value of the kindergarten as a part of the 
 school system had been demonstrated to the satisfaction 
 of the educational public. 
 
 The friends of the kindergarten movement in Wisconsin 
 looked even farther than the introduction of the kinder- 
 garten into the public schools. They wished to secure 
 its adoption by the normal school system of the state, 
 and to provide for the training of kindergartners at state 
 expense. Because of the many German residents of the 
 state who had brought an acquaintance with the kinder- 
 garten from the land of their birth, the movement in 
 Wisconsin had made considerable headway before it 
 came into contact with the movement as it had developed 
 in other sections of the country. In 1870 a vigorous 
 campaign had been undertaken in Milwaukee which had 
 resulted in 1873 in the organization of kindergartens in 
 the four German-English institutions of that city. Pro- 
 fessor William N. Mailman's acceptance of the presidency 
 of one of these institutions in 1874 had not only strength- 
 ened the kindergarten sentiment among the German- 
 speaking people, but had also brought it to the attention 
 of the English-speaking people of the city and state. 
 The first English kindergarten in Milwaukee was organ-
 
 22 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 ized by Mrs. Hailman, and training classes were under- 
 taken in both languages. A campaign for the introduc- 
 tion of the kindergarten into the schools of Milwaukee 
 and into the normal school system of the state was under- 
 taken. The second of these objects was accomplished 
 during the decade under consideration, and the first soon 
 after the opening of the following one. A kindergarten 
 was opened in the State Normal School at Oshkosh in the 
 spring of 1880, — " the first kindergarten officially and 
 directly connected with any state normal school in the 
 United States." A similar movement had been under- 
 taken in Minnesota, and a few months later a kinder- 
 garten department was also opened in the State Normal 
 School of Winona. 
 
 The organization of the National Educational Associa- 
 tion in 1872 had afforded another means of stitnulating 
 interest in the kindergarten on the part of school men. 
 At the first meeting Professor Hailman, then of Louisville, 
 Ky., had presented a paper on "The Adaptation of 
 Froebel's System of Education to American Institutions," 
 and urged the appointment of a committee to examine 
 the system. The committee, consisting of Professor John 
 Kraus, John Hancock, Dr. Adolph Douai, William T. 
 Harris, George A. Baker, J. W. Dickinson, and William 
 N. Hailman, made a most favorable report the following 
 year, and the impression made by the report was strength- 
 ened by a paper read before the Association by Mrs. 
 Kraus-Boelte. In the years immediately following, the 
 cause of the kindergarten was kept before the Association
 
 PERIOD OF introduction; beginnings 23 
 
 by Mrs. Kraus-Boelte, Dr. Harris, and Professor Hail- 
 man. 
 
 At the end of the decade the friends of the kindergarten 
 had abundant reasons to rejoice at the progress of the 
 cause. In 1^870 there_W-ere less than a dozen kindergartens 
 in existence, all save one established by Germans and 
 conducted in the German language; in 1880 there were 
 not less than four hundred scattered over thirty states. 
 In 1870 there was one kindergarten training school in the 
 United States; in 1880 such schools had been established 
 in the ten largest cities of the country and in many smaller 
 ones. The year 1870 saw the establishment of the first 
 charity kindergarten; in 1880 the new institution had 
 become recognized as the most valuable of child-saving 
 agencies, and mission kindergarten work had become so 
 popular among wealthy young women as to be almost a 
 fad. The practicability of the kindergarten as a part of 
 the school system had been successfully demonstrated, 
 and the logical sequence of its future relation to the school 
 had been recognized by the establishment of kindergarten 
 training departments in the normal school systems of two 
 great states. The National Educational Association 
 had set the seal of its approval upon the principles which 
 the kindergarten embodied, and had commended the 
 institution to the school men of the country for experiment 
 and consideration. "The lessons of the Philadelphia 
 Exposition, at which the meaning of the art and industrial 
 elements in education was first revealed to the American 
 teachers," had been taken to heart, and the result of the
 
 24 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 awakening it had occasioned had been the attempted 
 enrichment of the elementary curriculum by the addition 
 of the subjects frequently termed "fads," — music, 
 drawing, manual training, nature study, and physical 
 culture. The fact that these subjects constituted an 
 organic part of the kindergarten awakened an interest 
 in that institution on the part of many who had thus far 
 given it but little attention. They began to see in the 
 kindergarten games the true beginning for the child's 
 physical development ; in its gift and occupation exercises 
 the foundation for art and manual training work; and 
 in its garden work and nature excursions the foundation 
 for a true knowledge of nature. The significance of the 
 kindergarten as the logical foundation for a new system 
 of education had therefore begun to dawn, and the com- 
 prehensiveness of the Froebelian philosophy stood out in 
 striking contrast to the meagerness of the educational 
 theory which then prevailed. The period of its apprentice- 
 ship was therefore over. Its advocates could silence doubt 
 and criticism by pointing to results already achieved, 
 and could urge its extension with the faith and enthusiasm 
 born of the assurance that it met a recognized need in 
 American life and education.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 The Period of Introduction; Early Literature 
 
 The present familiarity with the spirit and method 
 of the new education makes it difficult to comprehend 
 the curiosity with which the first kindergartens were 
 regarded and the difficulty that people experienced in 
 understanding its philosophy. Even a slight acquaintance 
 with the views generally held a generation ago will show 
 that the difference between the views of life of the twentieth 
 century and those of the period of the Civil War is world- 
 wide. The idealistic philosophy, of which the kinder- 
 garten is the expression, considers the universe funda- 
 mentally spiritual, and nature and humanity as but varying 
 expressions of the World-Spirit, — God. Man is therefore 
 in essence good, and education is a natural process of 
 unfolding his spiritual capacities, in accordance with the 
 universal laws of evolution. This doctrine has permeated 
 every phase of the world's thinking during the past quarter 
 century, and no longer seems strange and unfamiliar; 
 but at the time in question there had been little to familiar- 
 ize the American people with such views. It is not sur- 
 prising, therefore, that the kindergarten which embodied 
 them should have appealed most strongly to the highly 
 educated and the spiritually minded in the early days, 
 
 25
 
 26 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 and that its American sponsors should have been the Nev} 
 England Transcendentalists, — the American exponents 
 of German idealism. The acceptance of the idealistic 
 interpretation of the universe, reinforced later by the 
 doctrine of evolution, then hardly yet formulated, and the 
 new interpretation of Christianity in terms of social value, 
 — these have given to the life and education of the present 
 generation a depth and a significance that it lacked a 
 generation ago. 
 
 The few, therefore, caught the real significance of the 
 new institution in the early years; the many saw, and 
 comprehended but in part. Education in a guise so 
 different from that which she had hitherto worn was 
 practically unrecognizable. Visitors came, — too many 
 for the well-being of the children or the comfort of the 
 kindergartner ; but, aflame with the enthusiasm of a new 
 insight, she bade them welcome, hoping to gain new con- 
 verts to her educational faith. The kindergartner of 
 to-day, beginning work in a new locality, encounters few 
 of these difficulties. She deepens the interest of the in- 
 quiring or silences the doubts of the skeptics by referring 
 them to Froebel or his many interpreters, or by pointing 
 to the results the kindergarten has accomplished in other 
 localities. The kindergartner of the early day had no 
 such resources. She must be, perforce, the priestess of 
 the new cult, for available literature there was practically 
 none. Froebel and his European exponents were hidden 
 from the majority in the fastnesses of a foreign language. 
 It is not surprising, therefore, that the translation of kinder-
 
 PERIOD OF introduction; early literature 27 
 
 garten literature should have been thought imperative, 
 and that the spread of that literature should have been 
 considered an essential part of the movement. Had not 
 the philosophy of Froebel contained fundamental truth 
 it could never have kindled the enthusiasm needed to over- 
 come the almost unsurmountable obstacles. The lit- 
 erature of the kindergarten, containing as it does the new 
 philosophy of education in a nutshell, has been a sig- 
 nificant factor in shaping educational ideals, and no study 
 of the movement can be considered complete that does 
 not include a resume of its development. 
 
 The beginnings were insignificant enough. The brief 
 mention of the kindergarten in the Journal of Education 
 in 1856 and 1858, and the admirable exposition that had 
 appeared in the Christian Examiner in 1859, had, as has 
 been stated, acquainted a few people with the existence 
 of the new institution. Charles Dickens, the first great 
 English student of the kindergarten, had written for 
 Household Words in 1855 an article on "Infant Gardens," 
 as kindergartens were called when first introduced into 
 England. This article was written for the purpose of 
 calling attention to the work of the Baroness von Maren- 
 holz-Buelow, who had come to England the year before 
 to introduce the kindergarten system. "This article 
 must always take a front rank as a strikingly clear, com- 
 prehensive, and sympathetic exposition of the principles 
 and processes of the kindergarten," says Professor James 
 L. Hughes. The Baroness herself had written a pamphlet 
 on "Infant Gardens " also, and her co-workers, Madam
 
 28 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Ronge and her husband, had written a " Practical Guide 
 to the English Kindergartens." These articles had re- 
 ceived considerable attention in the United States. 
 
 In 1862 an article in the Atlantic Monthly by Miss 
 Peabody, entitled "What is a Kindergarten?" attracted 
 further attention to the movement, and the interest awak- 
 ened by the article and the kindergarten itself led Miss 
 Peabody to the publication of her "Kindergarten Guide" 
 the following year. This consisted of two parts, — an 
 exposition of the kindergarten by Miss Peabody, and a 
 treatise on "The Moral Culture of Infancy" by her 
 sister, Mrs. Horace Mann, who had herself been a teacher 
 and a co-laborer with her husband in his efforts for the 
 advancement of education. About four thousand copies 
 of the "Guide" were sold. The following year Mrs. 
 Louise Pollock of West Newton, Mass., already mentioned, 
 translated one of the German kindergarten manuals. 
 She also wrote a series of articles concerning the kinder- 
 garten for a magazine called The Friend of Progress. 
 
 To familiarize the public still further with the kinder- 
 garten and with the educational principles that it repre- 
 sents. Miss Peabody wrote for the New York Herald, in 
 1867-1868, a series of articles upon the subject. The 
 following year Miss Peabody, Mrs. Mann, the Baroness 
 von Buelow, and others wrote a series of articles on the 
 kindergarten and child culture in general for The Herald 
 of Health. The editor of this magazine was Dr. M. L. Hol- 
 brook, " the first journalistic friend of the kindergarten." 
 He had been connected with Dr. Dio Lewis in his efforts
 
 PERIOD OF introduction; early literature 29 
 
 for the advancement of physical cuhure, and was at that 
 time connected with the Hygienic Institute of New York 
 City, which advocated the cure of the sick by hygiene and 
 right living — a new idea at the time. These articles did 
 much to acquaint a progressive class of people with methods 
 of child rearing more rational then those which had thus 
 far prevailed. 
 
 Among the leading contributors to the advancement of the 
 kindergarten idea at this time was Professor John Kraus, 
 a friend of Froebel, who had settled in San Antonio, Texas, 
 in 185 1. Professor Kraus had contributed to American 
 journals frequent articles upon the Froebel-Pestalozzian 
 methods, a series in The Army and Navy Gazette having at- 
 tracted considerable attention. Recognizing the value of 
 his acquaintance with the educational thought of Germany, 
 Dr. Barnard had invited him in 1867 to become a member 
 of the staff of the Bureau of Education. During the year 
 he had contributed to the Washington papers a valuable 
 series of articles upon the nature and purposes of the kin- 
 dergarten. In 1870 and 187 1 he translated a pamphlet 
 by the Baroness von Buelow, and made an elaborate report 
 upon the kindergarten for the Report of the Commissioner 
 of Education. In this and other ways he helped to keep 
 the kindergarten cause before the public. 
 ^To acquaint the public with the value of the new system 
 of child training was one of the purposes of the friends of 
 the movement during the early years, but another need 
 speedily developed. As the demand for kindergartners 
 increased and adequate opportunities for kindergarten
 
 30 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 training were still lacking, many with little or no prepara- 
 tion attempted to open kindergartens. It soon became 
 evident that if these were to continue, technical instruction 
 in the use of the kindergarten instrumentalities was needed. 
 It was to meet this need that Mrs. Pollock had translated 
 one of the German manuals in 1865, and that Edward 
 Wiebe had prepared his "Paradise of Childhood" in 
 1869. It was because Professor Kraus and Mrs. Kraus- 
 Boelte felt that these books did not sufficiently indicate 
 the use of the materials and meet the needs of the many 
 partially trained kindergartners that they undertook later 
 what is undoubtedly their most important contribution to 
 the movement, the "Kindergarten Guide," the first 
 installment of which appeared in 1877. 
 
 During the decade between 1870 and 1880 several im- 
 portant books were written and translated. The first 
 of these in order of time was "The Kindergarten ; A Man- 
 ual for the Introduction of Froebel's System of Primary 
 Education into the Public Schools," by Dr. Adolph 
 Douai of Newark, N.J., the principal of one of the first 
 German-English institutions in the United States to adopt 
 the kindergarten. In 1872, Madam Matilde Kriege 
 made a free translation of the Baroness von Buelow's 
 "The Child," and in 1873 Professor William N. Hailman 
 wrote his " Kindergarten Culture." The lectures by which 
 the Baroness von Buelow had converted Paris to the 
 kindergarten cause were translated in 1876 under the title 
 "Education by Labor," and her "Reminiscences of 
 Froebel" was translated by Mrs. Mann the following year.
 
 PERIOD OF introduction; EARLY LITERATURE 3 1 
 
 Madam Kraus-Boelte's "Guide" also appeared during 
 1877. Several of Miss Peabody's lectures had appeared 
 from time to time in pamphlet form. Through the trans- 
 lations of Miss Josephine Jarvis and Miss Fanny Dwight 
 in 1879, Froebel's "Mother Play and Nursery Songs" 
 was made accessible to English readers- The same year 
 Dr. Holbrook translated and published "From Cradle to 
 School" by Bertha Meyer, and Mrs. Pollock a collection 
 of "Kindergarten Songs and Games." All these helped 
 to satisfy the increasing demand for a fuller knowledge 
 of the kindergarten, and the philosophy of which it is the 
 embodiment. 
 
 An important step in the advancement of the kinder- 
 garten was taken in 1873, when Miss Peabody estab- 
 lished The Kindergarten Messenger, a monthly magazine of 
 twenty-four octavo pages. This was especially needed 
 at this time, as it acquainted the scattered workers with 
 each other, and afforded a means of communication be- 
 tween them. In addition to reports from leading workers, 
 correspondence, and general educational intelligence, it 
 contained original articles, theoretical and practical, by 
 leading kindergartners. The translation of "Reminis- 
 cences of Froebel," "Education by Labor," and other 
 books appeared first in its pages. It gives a vivid picture 
 of kindergarten conditions during this introductory period, 
 and the personality of the gifted editor is felt in every page. 
 It is a veritable mine of data for the future historian of the 
 movement. 
 
 The fortunes of the little magazine were varied. In the
 
 32 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Peabody number of The Kindergarten Review, Miss Emilie 
 Poulsson says: "Miss Peabody had her struggle in main- 
 taining the Messenger. The list of subscribers was never 
 long, and not all of these were so good as to pay their dues. 
 The editor records that one year it covered its own expenses, 
 but that did not happen twice. Although all her own 
 service was given free there was much financial worry 
 connected with the enterprise, and she was often grateful 
 for the kind help received from one or another of her 
 friends." The Messenger continued through 1873, 1874, 
 and 1875, but the next year it became a department of 
 The New England Journal of Education. This arrange- 
 ment, however, did not satisfy Miss Peabody, and in Janu- 
 ary, 1877, sh^ again took the magazine into her own hands 
 and ran it to the end of the year. As the thousand sub- 
 scribers needed to meet expenses could not be obtained, it 
 was merged in The New Education conducted by Professor 
 Hailman, then of Milwaukee. 
 
 The kindergarten interest that Professor Hailman had 
 found existing in Milwaukee, and the financial support 
 offered by Mr. Carl H. Doerflinger of that city, had enabled 
 him to establish in 1876 the periodical in which The Kin- 
 dergarten Messenger had now been merged. The New 
 Education was an eight-page magazine, issued monthly. 
 In the first number Professor Hailman thus stated the 
 purpose of the new publication. ''Froebel and Herbert 
 Spencer are the principal exponents of the new education; 
 the kindergarten, Froebel's great gift to man, is the first 
 decisive practical step toward a realization of its require-
 
 PERIOD OF introduction; early literature 33 
 
 ments. To aid in the propagation of the views of Froebel 
 and Spencer on education ; to render the former, particu- 
 larly, better known; to contribute in spreading the bless- 
 ings of kindergarten culture in its genuine form and to 
 make war upon all efforts for establishing spurious systems 
 under cover of the honored name, — are the purposes of 
 The New Education ^ Like The Kindergarten Messenger 
 it contained practical articles for mothers and kindergart- 
 ners, news concerning the spread of the new educational 
 gospel, translations from standard German educators, dis- 
 cussions of current educational questions, and vigorous 
 and incisive editorials. Its scope was broader than that 
 of its predecessor, and it played a most important part in 
 advancing the kindergarten cause and in shaping the 
 educational policy of the Northwest during its formative 
 period. Professor Hailman modestly ascribed much of 
 the credit to the unwearying generosity of the publisher, 
 Mr. Doerflinger, who for years sent the periodical free to 
 the leading school men of the state. He says: "We have 
 little doubt that to this generosity, aided by his personal 
 effort as a member of the State Board of Normal Regents, 
 Wisconsin is largely indebted for her present advanced 
 position on the questions discussed in The New Education.'^ 
 After six years of existence it went the way of its predeces- 
 sor, and was merged in The Public School of Boston. 
 Like its predecessor it is invaluable for the educational 
 historian. 
 
 The record of the kindergarten literature of the period 
 would be incomplete without reference to the annual school
 
 34 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 reports of the superintendents in those cities which had 
 adopted the kindergarten. Dr. Richard G. Boone consid- 
 ers that "the reports of school officers and educators in- 
 clude by far the largest part of America's contribution to 
 the literature of education." He says : " But the most com- 
 plete and systematic presentation of educational philos- 
 ophy is to be found in the annual reports of Superintendent 
 William T. Harris, while superintendent of the St. Louis 
 schools, from 1867 to 1880." Three of these dealt with 
 the kindergarten. That of 1875-1876 discussed its philos- 
 ophy; that of the following year the results of the kin- 
 dergarten in the St. Louis schools, and that of 1878-1879 
 the history of the St. Louis kindergarten system. Although 
 these reports seldom reached the general public, they were 
 read by the leading school men of the country, and did 
 much to shape educational opinion. The same is true 
 of the articles on the kindergarten read before the National 
 Educational Association, and embodied in the reports of 
 that organization. 
 
 No statement concerning kindergarten progress in the 
 United States during this period would be complete with- 
 out a reference to the two principal kindergarten supply 
 and publishing companies, the Milton Bradley Company, 
 of Springfield, Mass., and the Steiger Company, of New 
 York City. Mr. Bradley's life experience had prepared 
 him for conversion to the kindergarten cause in 1869, 
 and through the improvement he has made in kinder- 
 garten material and the assistance rendered in the publica- 
 tion of kindergarten literature, he has won deserved rec-
 
 PERIOD OF introduction; early literature 35 
 
 ognition among kindergarten workers. Mr. Steiger, too, 
 rendered valuable assistance during the early years. 
 His confession of kindergarten faith was made in the 
 publisher's preface to Madam Kriege's translation of 
 "The Child." He says: "The publisher of this book 
 is resolved to expend his best energies in the interest of 
 education. He has witnessed with lively satisfaction the 
 progress of education in this country; but while appre- 
 ciating the good that has been done, he agrees with the 
 opinion of many that the system is capable of improvement. 
 He has, therefore, embraced the cause of the kindergarten, 
 as best calculated in his judgment to inaugurate a thorough 
 educational reform; and he will gladly entertain pro- 
 posals for the publication of other works on the subject 
 and cheerfully cooperate with school authorities, associa- 
 tions, and individuals whose aim is the amelioration of 
 existing modes of instruction." 
 
 If the friends of the kindergarten had reason to rejoice 
 at the progress of the institution itself during the decade 
 under consideration, they had no less reason for satis- 
 faction at the increase in its literature. In 1870, there were 
 in the English language, as far as known, but four books 
 on the kindergarten, — Madam Ronge's "Practical Guide 
 to the English Kindergarten," Miss Peabody's "Kinder- 
 garten Guide," Mrs. Pollock's translation of a German 
 manual, and Wiebe's "Paradise of Childhood," a com- 
 pilation from several such manuals. During the decade 
 five important books had been translated in the United 
 States, — the Baroness von Buelow's "The Child,"
 
 36 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 " Education by Labor," and "Reminiscences of Froebel" ; 
 Froebel's "Mother Play and Nursery Songs," and Bertha 
 Meyer's "From the Cradle to the School." Four books 
 had been written, — Douai's "The Kindergarten," Hail- 
 man's "Kindergarten Culture," Madam Kraus-Boelte's 
 "Guide," and Mrs. Pollock's "Kindergarten Songs." 
 In addition to this, hundreds of articles had appeared in 
 newspapers and magazines, and several pamphlets had 
 been printed, — some for free distribution. The Kinder- 
 garten Messenger and The New Education had scattered 
 the new ideas still farther. The seed-sowing was surely 
 plentiful. The harvest will be traced in succeeding chap- 
 ters.
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 The Period of Extension; General Character- 
 istics 
 
 The recognition that the kindergarten had thus far 
 obtained had made its extension a mere matter of time, 
 but the history of its progress since 1880 has been inex- 
 tricably interwoven with the history of American Hfe and 
 thought as a whole, and with that of elementary education 
 in particular. Until that time the progress of the move- 
 ment had been measured mainly by the increasing number 
 of kindergartens opened; while such increase continued 
 during the period in question, it constituted but one phase 
 of kindergarten progress. The great advance made during 
 the period was the general incorporation of the kinder- 
 garten into the school system, and the application of its 
 principles to elementary education. This was not accom- 
 plished in a day or even in a decade. Even the quarter 
 century that had passed since the date mentioned has not 
 brought about the general adoption of the kindergarten 
 as an institution or the general application of its principles 
 to primary education. If the new movements which the 
 Philadelphia Exposition had suggested could, with the dawn 
 of the new decade, have been introduced into every city 
 in the land by royal edict or magic power ; if fully equipped 
 
 37
 
 38 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 kindergartens and complete drawing and manual training 
 courses could have been put into operation everywhere by 
 the pressing of a magic button at the stroke of an imperial 
 clock, it would doubtless have retarded instead of advanced 
 the ultimate progress of the kindergarten, the school and 
 the American people. Insight into the new tendencies 
 could not but be superficial at first, and the deepening of 
 insight was a need that required time before the many- 
 sided significance of the new movements could be grasped. 
 This has been proved by the experience of more than one 
 city in organizing its art and manual training courses, 
 for example, upon a practical rather than upon a psy- 
 chological basis. Some of these found themselves upon 
 the wrong track after a time, and adopted a new course. 
 Some are on the wrong track still, and have never dis- 
 covered it. What has proved true of drawing and manual 
 training has proved equally true of kindergartens pre- 
 maturely introduced. Some of these that have deteriorated 
 into a mechanical routine may be seen even now. This 
 is also true of the so-called "kindergarten methods in 
 primary work." This was too often a superficial manipu- 
 lation of kindergarten material with older children, with- 
 out adequate insight into the principles that underlie 
 kindergarten procedure. Premature adoption and formu- 
 lation have been the cause of many a failure, not in edu- 
 cation alone. The apparent lagging of the footsteps of 
 progress was therefore in many respects a blessing in dis- 
 guise. 
 The remedy was time, and the influences that were at
 
 PERIOD OF extension; characteristics 39 
 
 work among the American people deepening their intellec- 
 tual and spiritual life in spite of other influences that were 
 tending to its deterioration. "Few quarter centuries in 
 the world's life bristle with salient events as does that 
 following 1870," says E. Benjamin Andrews in discussing 
 the political significance of the period. An estimate of 
 its significance in the history of American thought would 
 accord it a like commendation. There was a new stir 
 in the pulses of the nation when the more immediate and 
 vexing problems resulting from the Civil War were dis- 
 posed of. The great development of the nation's indus- 
 trial resources was increasing its wealth, and this increase 
 in turn was developing the intellectual and spiritual 
 power of the people. In response to the increasing de- 
 mand for higher education, a veritable renaissance set in. 
 Colleges multiplied alike for men and women. Graduate 
 departments came into existence to meet the need for 
 advanced and specialized instruction. New sciences 
 opened up attractive vistas and promises of almost un- 
 limited power. The new psychology and the newly 
 organized social sciences led into absorbing fields of thought 
 hitherto practically unknown. New ideals had dawned 
 upon the colleges themselves and the passion for social 
 service was born. 
 
 But this was merely one phase of the general enrich- 
 ment of life. There had been art and artists during the 
 earlier part of the century, as the names of Copley, West, 
 and Stuart testify, but art had never been an organic part 
 of the national life. "The Puritan immigrants of New
 
 40 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 England had all the abhorrence of art which had marked 
 the followers of the Reformation, and for two centuries 
 the bare, whitewashed walls of their plain meeting-houses 
 were eloquent in protest against the art adornment of 
 ancient church or chapel," says Isaac Clarke in "Educa- 
 tion in the United States." "Nor did the long, hard 
 struggle to wrest sustenance from stony soil or stormy 
 sea afford any space of leisure for those artistic occupa- 
 tions that to the stern Puritan were worse than folly," 
 he says further. As a result, however, of indirect causes 
 too complex for analysis here, and the immediate stimulus 
 of the Philadelphia Exposition, an immediate wave of 
 art enthusiasm spread over the country, which during the 
 past quarter century has been steadily increasing. In 
 1870 there were but ten institutions in the country that 
 gave any form of art instruction, but four art museums, 
 and a complete poverty of art treasures of any kind. In 
 1880 the number of art schools had increased to over 
 thirty, and there had been a corresponding increase in 
 the number of museums and galleries. Before the cen- 
 tury closed one hundred seventeen art schools and forty- 
 one art galleries had been established. Some of the schools 
 and galleries have an international reputation. 
 
 The demand for art knowledge and instruction that had 
 brought about such results had been fostered in part by 
 the schools themselves, in part by art exhibitions and 
 lectures, and in part by the first-hand acquaintance with 
 the world's great masterpieces, gained by the increasing 
 army of tourists to the historic galleries of Europe. It
 
 PERIOD OF extension; characteristics 41 
 
 was strengthened by the growing number of American 
 students who sought abroad the opportunities that their 
 own country did not yet afford, and who upon their return 
 taught in new forms the great ministry of beauty to the 
 Ufe of humanity. This sudden awakening of thousands 
 to the significance of the world's art treasures can only be 
 compared to that other period in the world's life when a 
 young and virile people came into unexpected possession 
 of the priceless heritage of Greek and Roman thought. 
 Samuel Isham says in the "History of American Painting" : 
 "Taking a whole nation whose ideals, although high, had 
 hitherto been purely material, intellectual, and moral, 
 and endowing it with a perception of the beauties of art 
 is an accomplishment without any parallel — at least on 
 so large a scale." That the art appreciation of the people 
 as a whole is still undeveloped must be admitted, but the 
 value of art as a stimulus to the higher spiritual life will 
 never again be questioned. 
 
 Along with the awakening to the value of pictorial and 
 decorative art came a like awakening in the world of 
 music. The value of music as a factor in elementary 
 education had been recognized for a generation before 
 pictorial art had been accorded such recognition, and 
 there had been a gradual growth in musical taste and 
 feeling instead of a sudden awakening to its significance. 
 There had been much seed-sowing in the musical field 
 during the generation that had passed since Lowell Mason 
 had secured the introduction of music into the public 
 schools of Boston in 1838, and the harvest surpassed in
 
 42 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 richness the hopes of even the most sanguine. "There 
 are few periods in the history of any country in which the 
 progress of art has been so rapid as the progress of music 
 since the Civil War," says Mathews in the "History of 
 American Music." The war had beert a great awakener 
 of mind and it had stirred the emotional life of the people 
 to its very depths. This gave a power of interpretation 
 that comes only from profound spiritual experiences. 
 Before this time the centers of musical life and interest 
 had been in the East — in New York and Boston chiefly. 
 The interest now spread to all parts of the country, and it 
 was not long before Cincinnati and Chicago rivaled their 
 sister cities in musical appreciation and in the opportunities 
 offered for musical study. Musical societies were organ- 
 ized everywhere, and the musical masterpieces of the world, 
 like the great masterpieces of painting and sculpture, 
 came to have a significance for thousands to whom they 
 had hitherto been but names. It was at this time that the 
 conservatories and colleges of music now to be found in 
 every large city, were founded and began to vie with the 
 art schools in interest and prophecy of a fuller develop- 
 ment for the youth of the land. "In these musical ambi- 
 tion and talent found opportunity for improvement, and for 
 the acquisition of knowledge of the higher walks of art," 
 says Mr. Mathews again. Residence and study in the 
 musical centers of Europe on the part of many added to the 
 insight gained, and raised the general standard of musical 
 intelligence among the people at large. Since the themes 
 of the great masterpieces deal with the fundamental ex-
 
 PERIOD OF extension; characteristics 43 
 
 periences of human life or portray vital facts of Chris- 
 tianity, this growth of art insight could not but deepen and 
 enrich the emotional and spiritual life of the people. In 
 the growing insight into and appreciation of the aesthetic, 
 the foundations for a more fundamental education were 
 being laid. 
 
 While the life of the people was thus gaining in emotional 
 power along the aesthetic lines, it was taking on added 
 richness in another direction, having apparently little 
 relation either to art or to education, but in reality having 
 the most profound significance for both. The ethical 
 and religious life of the people was undergoing a gradual 
 change, — one that to many seemed an undermining of the 
 very foundations of the social order, but that to others 
 meant the reestablishing of faith and virtue upon a deeper 
 and firmer foundation. Ever since civil authority had 
 supplanted ecclesiastical authority in the control of educa- 
 tion, fears had been expressed for the moral safety of 
 American life. A half century or more of nonsectarian 
 education had, however, shown no such falling off in public 
 morals as might have been expected if morality were de- 
 pendent upon instruction in religious dogma. But while 
 such instruction is no guarantee of character there must be a 
 foundation of spiritual life, both in the individual and in the 
 nation — a recognition of the moral law and an obedience 
 to it. That the religion of creeds and observances is on 
 the wane — among Protestants at least — none will deny ; 
 that there has been a compensating gain is becoming 
 increasingly evident to all who are in touch with ethical
 
 44 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 and religious thought and the appUcation of that thought 
 to social conditions and problems. This gain has come in 
 large part from the gradual reconstruction of religious 
 thought necessitated by the doctrine of evolution. A new 
 order of thinking and new motives to conduct could not 
 but result from the acceptance of the view that man, as 
 the highest expression of the omnipresent and eternal 
 energy manifested in the universe, is ideally akin to that 
 energy — God, and "if not made, at least making in the 
 divine image;" that the moral law is the law of man's 
 highest nature, and that the existence of such a law is 
 evidence of a moral order in which humanity is grounded ; 
 that sin had its origin in the animal inheritance from which 
 man is gradually emerging; and that redemption is the 
 perfect and final emergence from the animal into the 
 spiritual state. Such an interpretation of the fundamental 
 doctrines of Christianity carried with it social implications 
 that are far reaching in their consequences. It gave a 
 new dignity to humanity, and brought with it a new sense 
 of human brotherhood. It created a clearer vision of the 
 kingdom of God on earth, and carried with it the conviction 
 that the coming of that kingdom depended upon the agencies 
 that society could put into operation, and could be hastened 
 in no small degree. It brought with it a new and deepened 
 sense of social obligation and a broader recognition of 
 human rights. It resulted in the extension of social 
 interest that is expressed in the social settlement and 
 kindred institutions. Combined with influences from other 
 sources it set the currents of present-day thought in the
 
 PERIOD OF extension; characteristics 45 
 
 direction of social betterment and thus created the "social 
 movement." 
 
 It is the new insight into the social significance of Christ's 
 teaching that has brought the church face to face with new 
 and intricate problems. To the question whether the 
 church could, if she would, undertake the whole problem 
 of man's salvation — material as well as spiritual — to 
 which the interpretation in question seems to point, the 
 institutional church is the provisional answer. Rev. 
 Josiah Strong says in a recent article on the institutional 
 church in Current Literature: "Many fail to perceive the 
 profound importance of the religious changes which are 
 taking place or to suspect that they are destined to produce 
 a new type of civilization. For many years the church 
 laid emphasis on man's relation to God, and forgot to 
 emphasize his relation to man. The new emphasis laid 
 upon the social teachings of Jesus is bringing a new order 
 of civilization." The present problems of the church are 
 therefore twofold : She must interpret her fundamental 
 principles upon a new basis ; and she must reorganize and 
 enlarge her forms of activity. The passing from the old to 
 the new ideals and forms of effort is no easy process, but 
 the end toward which present thought is tending is becom- 
 ing increasingly clear and results cannot but follow. 
 
 It is in part because the program of social reform that 
 present conditions demand could not be undertaken by 
 any church or federation of churches; and in part be- 
 cause of the growth of social interest and responsibility 
 among the people at large, that philanthropic work.
 
 46 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 public and private, has assumed increasing importance and 
 aroused increasing interest during the past few years. 
 Charity had always existed and agencies for the relief of 
 suffering in some of its many forms had been organized 
 from time to time. But the increasing need for philan- 
 thropic effort which is due to a multiplicity of causes tend- 
 ing to the deterioration of life in the large cities, could not 
 but challenge the thoughtful to a study of the conditions 
 and spur to more serious effort the increasing enthusiasm 
 for social reform. A study of conditions so complex 
 called, however, for training of the highest order, and the 
 rendering of efficient social service required a preparation 
 not to be acquired by ordinary courses or methods. The 
 growing recognition of these facts resulted in the establish- 
 ment of departments of sociology in all the larger universi- 
 ties, and in gradually adding courses in social economics. 
 This movement, combined with that successfully carried 
 out in all the larger cities, — the organization of all relief 
 agencies, secular and religious, into a Charity Organization 
 Society, — will ultimately create a system of social better- 
 ment commensurate with the importance of the task. As 
 the social and industrial life becomes more integrated, 
 the improvement in material conditions is so interwoven 
 with the development of higher ideals and the enrichment 
 of the spiritual life that the two cannot be effectively pro- 
 vided for except through the cooperated effort that such 
 an organization implies. Tenement and sanitary reform, 
 improvement in the conditions of labor, protection from 
 communicable diseases, the care of the destitute sick —
 
 PERIOD OF extension; characteristics 47 
 
 these and other forms of effort for social betterment are 
 not only good in themselves, but also serve as important 
 means of strengthening the moral and spiritual nature. 
 The agencies that would relieve the spiritual poverty that 
 causes in part the material ills; that would substitute 
 thrift, sobriety, and virtue for incompetence, intemperance, 
 and vice — do not they contribute materially to the better- 
 ment of the life that now is? Philanthropy so organized 
 will become what it should be, — one of the great forces 
 for the world's salvation. 
 
 It would be little to the credit of the social economist 
 and his practical co-worker if the futility of work merely 
 curative had not been forced upon him, and if the impor- 
 tance of preventive measures had not been recognized. 
 That the cure of evil is indirectly preventive must be 
 admitted, and much of the work mentioned has been and 
 will be preventive in the large sense. But preventive 
 work must be positive and direct as well as indirect. 
 Such work must always be educational in character, and 
 must begin with the children, the true subjects of education. 
 It is not strange therefore that philanthropic interest 
 should have centered in childhood and in the agencies for 
 its salvation. The story of the efforts by which the rights 
 of childhood — neglected, dependent, and delinquent — 
 have come to be recognized is too long for recital here, 
 and the list of charities, public and private, undertaken in 
 its behalf too long to enumerate. The founding of societies 
 for the prevention of cruelty to children — a check upon 
 the ill temper of parents, the passage of laws preventing
 
 48 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 child labor, and the adoption of the probation system for 
 juvenile offenders are of special significance. Childhood 
 has other needs, however, than these, — the need for activity, 
 inspiration, joy. These, too, modern philanthropy is 
 increasingly providing. The city boy is no longer obliged 
 to live in the streets ; public playgrounds are being conceded 
 as his right. He is not driven to crime from sheer ennui ; 
 library doors swing open, and settlement clubs and classes 
 invite him to interesting forms of activity. Vacation 
 schools, recreation piers, and fresh-air excursions furnish 
 him with new experiences and give him an insight into the 
 great world in which he must soon take an active part. 
 The provision for such needs, pitifully inadequate as it 
 still is, forms one of the most interesting chapters in the 
 story of "the battle with the slum." Agencies for the 
 relief of other kinds of need might have been organized at 
 other periods in the world's history; those for furnishing 
 childish happiness could only have been devised in recent 
 years. It is significant that all these movements in the 
 direction of constructive and preventive philanthropy 
 had their origin in this country or were adopted from other 
 countries during the years between 1870 and 1890. To- 
 gether they contribute an influence for the upbuilding and 
 ennobling of character that cannot but produce gratifying 
 results in the near future. 
 
 The relation of the movements that have characterized 
 American life during the past twenty-five years to ele- 
 mentary education in general and to the progress of the 
 kindergarten in particular can be readily traced. The
 
 PERIOD OF extension; characteristics 49 
 
 new spirit in the universities and the consequent enrich- 
 ment of the spiritual life of the people was loosening the 
 hold of traditionalism and strengthening the new con- 
 ception of education. The new sciences in the univer- 
 sities and new methods in history and literature revealed 
 the emptiness of the elementary curriculum, based upon 
 the disciplinary conception of education alone, and the 
 need of "content studies" in the grades. The "new 
 psychology" and the introduction of courses in education 
 into the university curriculum not only gave a more funda- 
 mental insight into the nature of the educational process, 
 but it dignified education and placed it upon a scientific 
 basis. These new insights gave an added significance 
 to the kindergarten which embodies the views that were 
 coming into the educational consciousness. Up to this 
 time educational effort had centered itself mainly with 
 the problems incident to the period of organization. From 
 1880 on it began to occupy itself fundamentally with the 
 problems of educational theory. The last two decades of 
 the century became periods of reform and transformation. 
 
 The general development of artistic taste and musical 
 intelligence was tending also toward educational reform. 
 It seconded the dissatisfaction with the curriculum of 
 the Three R's where such a curriculum still prevailed; 
 it encouraged the introduction of the aesthetic element 
 into education; and it showed an appreciative interest 
 in the true purpose of the new studies where these had 
 already been introduced. As the kindergarten had 
 emphasized the value of beauty in developing the ideal
 
 50 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 side of a child's life and had insisted upon plants and 
 pictures in the kindergarten when there were none as yet 
 in the school, its doctrines found particular favor, and an 
 era of decorating schoolrooms and beautifying school 
 grounds set in. The kindergarten therefore rose in favor 
 and its doctrines aroused a new interest. 
 
 But the awakening of the public to the value of beauty 
 as a factor in the child's development was not the greatest 
 service that the kindergarten rendered to art education. 
 The disciples of Froebel had urged their fundamental 
 doctrine of creative activity, but the school had been slow 
 to understand, and slower still to accept a doctrine so at 
 variance with its traditional form of procedure. When 
 artists, however, not only recognized the correctness of the 
 principle but insisted that all art instruction should be 
 based upon it, the public began to wake up. Verily, the 
 stone that the educational builders rejected has become 
 the head of the corner in the educational structure. It 
 is in this particular respect that the kindergarten has 
 been a positive influence in the transformation of the 
 school. 
 
 The advancing musical intelligence likewise made 
 itself felt in elementary education. The early musical 
 work in the public schools had been confined almost 
 wholly to teaching the musical notation. It was now 
 seen that this was not the true foundation for a musical 
 education, that music must be given a meaning to the 
 child, and that a love of song must be developed before 
 instruction in musical notation could have any signifi-
 
 PERIOD OF extension; characteristics 51 
 
 cance. In other words, it was recognized that music, 
 like representative art, must begin in feeling and intelli- 
 gence, and not in technique. Although the music of the 
 kindergarten left much to be desired in the early da>s of 
 the movement, it was sufficiently different from that of 
 the school to attract the attention of musical people and 
 to indicate that it was based upon different principles. 
 They recognized in the child's song, taught by rote, a 
 means of cultivating his love of music, and in the various 
 piano exercises a means of cultivating his musical intelli- 
 gence and power of interpretation. For this reason also 
 the kindergarten rose in public esteem. The musical 
 teaching of the school has been reconstructed within 
 recent years, and the kindergarten has been the determin- 
 ing element in that reconstruction. 
 
 Although the new views in religion and ethics and the 
 new interest focused upon child saving have influenced 
 school work and school methods less directly than have 
 the more fundamental study of educational theory and 
 the appreciation of the value of the aesthetic, the indirect 
 influence of these new views has already been far-reaching. 
 The opponents of the public school system have frequently 
 pointed out the danger to American life from an education 
 without religion. But as the new conceptions prevail, 
 they will increasingly pervade educational thought and 
 literature, and interpret the educational process as a 
 spiritual one. When education has been so conceived, 
 every study in the curriculum will contribute to the de- 
 velopment of the higher life and the Power that makes
 
 52 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 for righteousness will be increasingly felt in and through 
 the whole educational process. When teachers are 
 inspired by such an insight, the absence of dogmatic in- 
 struction will not even be felt, for the purpose of education 
 — the development of character — will have been at- 
 tained. When this view of education — essentially the 
 Froebelian view — was first presented, it seemed visionary 
 and impracticable to all but the illumined few; the 
 Froebelian emphasis upon the divinity of human nature 
 seemed little short of sacrilege to those who had been 
 accustomed to the doctrine of innate depravity only. 
 Current interpretations of Christianity are quite in accord 
 with the views which the kindergarten presents, however, 
 and the kindergarten student not infrequently hears the 
 doctrine presented in the class room reenforced from the 
 pulpit. The larger acceptance of these views has given 
 added weight to the philosophy of Froebel and to the 
 kindergarten as its embodiment. Here, too, the kinder- 
 garten has been a positive influence. In the stimulus it 
 has given to the progress of liberal views and to the study 
 of the idealistic philosophy of which it is the outcome, it 
 has not only paid a debt to philosophy and religion, but 
 it has also been a means of enriching the life and thought 
 of the country of its adoption. 
 
 The "social movement" with its interest in the agencies 
 for child saving has had a more direct bearing upon the 
 methods of the school than have the newer interpretations 
 of religious doctrine. That a child's school work is 
 affected by the character of his home and environment
 
 PERIOD OF extension; characteristics 53 
 
 every teacher knows. That teachers have any moral 
 responsibility for the lives of their pupils outside of 
 schoolroom walls and schoolroom hours, that they have any 
 responsibility for the social regeneration of the neighbor- 
 hood in which their work lies, should such regenerating 
 be needed, many of them, principals and superintendents 
 included, would practically deny. It is not so specified 
 in the bond of the school rules. It is just this responsi- 
 bility that the forces organized for the betterment of child- 
 hood are trying to bring home to the conscience of the 
 school. That the school has advanced by leaps and 
 bounds during the past quarter century is readily granted. 
 That its organization is on the whole good; that its 
 curriculum possesses an interest it did not possess during 
 the earlier period; and that its spirit and methods are 
 constantly improving, none will deny. Its weakness lies 
 in its failure to recognize its social and moral obligation 
 to the neighborhood of which it is a part. Its aim is still 
 largely intellectual and its duties too largely the duties 
 of the schoolroom only. That social settlement clubs 
 and classes, summer camps, vacation schools, and other 
 similar agencies, frequently reach and quicken the lives 
 of children with whom the school has failed is a matter 
 of frequent comment. With due recognition of the diffi- 
 culties of philanthropic effort arising from the limitation 
 of the teacher's time and strength, the question may still 
 be asked whether the passion for human betterment that 
 has made itself so noticeably felt in the life of the people 
 at large during the past two decades has permeated the
 
 54 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 school to the extent that it should. That something has 
 come of the public agitation and interest is evident. The 
 changes in the curriculum — the introduction of sewing, 
 cooking, and manual training in general — are in part 
 a response to this spirit. School authorities have aided in 
 securing child labor legislation and in enforcing its appli- 
 cation. They have cooperated with probation officers 
 in eliminating juvenile crime, and with municipal author- 
 ities for the establishment of public parks and play- 
 grounds. They have given active support to school 
 decoration and outdoor art societies in beautifying school- 
 rooms and grounds, and in some instances have assisted 
 in organizing school children's lunch stations. They 
 have cooperated with social settlements and women's 
 clubs in carrying on vacation schools and in many instances 
 have eventually assumed their support. But the cry of 
 the children is still heard. Here too the kindergarten 
 has been a positive influence. In creating a new attitude 
 toward childhood ; in cooperating with the home to secure 
 the best conditions for the child's development ; in active 
 efforts for the establishment of playgrounds, vacation 
 schools, and similar agencies for children of all ages, the 
 kindergartners of the country have contributed in no 
 small degree to the cultivation of the philanthropic spirit 
 in the teaching ranks. A more complete discussion of the 
 service the kindergarten has rendered to education in this 
 respect is reserved for the following chapters.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 The Period of Extension; Kindergarten Associa- 
 tions AND Women's Clubs 
 
 The kindergarten in the early eighties was still in its 
 experimental stage; it had demonstrated its value, but 
 as yet to the few only. Before its general acceptance by 
 the school system could be expected, an important work 
 still needed to be done in its behalf. The movement 
 needed to be illustrated on a large scale in strategic localities, 
 and the value of the kindergarten as a child-saving agency 
 demonstrated. To meet this need a new agency came 
 into existence in all the larger cities, and in many of the 
 smaller ones — the kindergarten association. Now that 
 kindergartens have become general and departments for 
 kindergarten training have been established in many state 
 normal schools and other educational institutions, the 
 important part that kindergarten associations have played 
 in furthering the kindergarten movement is in danger of 
 being lost sight of. The history of kindergarten progress 
 would neither be intelligible nor complete, however, 
 without a record of the service that such associations have 
 rendered, not to the kindergarten alone but to education 
 in general. They have differed in aim and scope, in the 
 degree of influence exerted, in the method of procedure, 
 
 55
 
 56 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 and in the results accomplished, but their service in 
 awakening educational thought and stimulating educa- 
 tional progress has been of inestimable value in American 
 life. Some of these associations considered their work 
 done when the kindergarten was incorporated into the 
 school system. This was the case in Philadelphia, 
 where thirty kindergartens were turned over to the city 
 authorities by the Sub-Primary School Society, after six 
 years of effort. Some associations affiliated themselves 
 with the school authorities of their locality when these 
 were ready to adopt the kindergarten, and cooperated 
 with them in kindergarten maintenance and supervision, 
 considering the cause best served in this manner. This 
 plan has been successfully carried out by the Pittsburg 
 and Allegheny Kindergarten Association. Still others 
 organized to undertake a work supplementary to that of 
 the school, whether or not the kindergarten was included 
 in the school system. Such was the purpose for which 
 the two associations in San Francisco were formed. 
 Many of the associations formed in the early eighties are 
 still in existence, although as a result of changed conditions 
 their work has changed materially. 
 
 Kindergarten associations had been organized in a few 
 cities before 1880, but the decade between 1880 and 1890 
 may appropriately be called the Association Decade in 
 kindergarten history. Such associations had been or- 
 ganized in Milwaukee in 1870, and the establishment of 
 kindergartens in the three German-English academies of 
 that city was the result of their effort. As far as can be
 
 PERIOD OF extension; associations and clubs 57 
 
 learned, California was the next to organize associations 
 for the advancement of the kindergarten cause. The 
 San Francisco Public Kindergarten Society was formed 
 in 1878, and the Golden Gate Kindergarten Association 
 of the same city two years later. The Cincinnati Kinder- 
 garten Association was organized in 1879, and the Froebel 
 Association and the Free Kindergarten Association of 
 Chicago in 1880. From that date on kindergarten associa- 
 tions were organized in the larger cities of the country, 
 as nearly as can be learned, in the following order; The 
 Sub-Primary School Society of Philadelphia in 1881 ; 
 the Des Moines Kindergarten Association in 1882; the 
 Indianapolis Free Kindergarten and Children's Aid 
 Society, the Milwaukee Mission Kindergarten Association 
 and the Kindergarten Association of Portland, Oregon, 
 in 1884; the Los Angeles Kindergarten Association in 
 1885; the Kindergarten Association of St. Paul, Minn., 
 of Providence, R.I., and of Cleveland, Ohio, in 1886; 
 the Free Kindergarten Association of Louisville, Ky., in 
 1887 ; the Kindergarten Association of Albany, N.Y., 
 and of New Orleans, La., in 1888 ; the New York Kinder- 
 garten Association, the Detroit Day Nursery and Kinder- 
 garten Association, the Denver, Col., Kindergarten As- 
 sociation, and the Kindergarten Association of Asheville, 
 N.C., in 1889; the Kindergarten Association of Grand 
 Rapids, Mich., and that of Chattanooga, Tenn., in 1890; 
 the Kindergarten Association of Buffalo, N.Y., and of 
 Minneapolis, Minn., in 189 1 ; the Kindergarten Associa- 
 tion of Galveston, Texas, of Charleston, S.C., and the
 
 58 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Pittsburg and Allegheny Associations in 1892 ; the Isabel 
 Crow Kindergarten Association of St. Louis, Mo., the 
 Kindergarten Association of Spokane, Wash., and the 
 Columbian Kindergarten Association of Washington, 
 D.C., in 1893. As the movement progressed other 
 cities too numerous to mention organized similar associa- 
 tions. In 1897 the Commissioner of Education gave a 
 list of over four hundred, and stated that a very large 
 number of others had failed to respond to the request 
 for information. 
 
 In spite of the differences in plan and purpose already 
 referred to, the general aims of the kindergarten associa- 
 tions, wherever located, were much the same. These 
 were at least threefold : to furnish helpful suggestions 
 to young mothers in meeting the problems that their own 
 children presented ; to establish kindergartens and thus 
 to advance the kindergarten cause; and to carry out 
 a philanthropy that was increasingly felt to be necessary. 
 These purposes were more or less interwoven. The 
 study of childhood from the standpoint of Froebel's 
 philosophy could not but lead to a higher appreciation 
 of the kindergarten, and a desire for its extension and the 
 establishment of kindergartens in needy districts was the 
 most effective method at that time devised to carry out 
 the desired philanthropy. The work of a kindergarten 
 association, therefore, appealed to different classes of 
 people and satisfied several different interests. Its work 
 was shaped by these interests, though one phase or the 
 other usually predominated.
 
 PERIOD OF extension; associations and clubs 59 
 
 Among the lines of work carried on, the mothers' classes 
 must be given the first place. The serious discussion of 
 the fundamental problems of motherhood and childhood 
 from the viewpoint of Froebel opened up a new world of 
 thought to many. It gave a new meaning to life and led 
 to the formation of higher ideals and nobler purposes. 
 The inspiration that the kindergarten association gave to 
 thousands of young mothers was one of the reasons for its 
 success. But this was not all. From the impulse first 
 given by kindergarten associations to the study of child- 
 hood and the training for motherhood have come move- 
 ments of national importance. The growing interest in 
 the problems of child training led to the holding of a 
 Mothers' Conference in Chicago in 1894, lasting for several 
 days, under the auspices of the Chicago Kindergarten 
 College. This proved so valuable that several similar 
 conferences have been held since. The National Con- 
 gress of Mothers, which held its first meeting in Washing- 
 ton, D.C., in 1897, was the indirect outgrowth of the 
 interest thus aroused. Work of this character, whether na- 
 tional or local, could not but lead to a study of educational 
 problems from other viewpoints than that of the home. 
 It brought parents and teachers together for the discussion 
 of mutual problems and enlarged the views of each. The 
 results of this movement and the women's club move- 
 ment of more recent years have given to American women 
 an insight into educational problems that has done much 
 to further the interests of education in the school. 
 
 The deepening insight into the problems of childhood
 
 6o THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 to which the mothers' study classes gave rise during the 
 early years of the kindergarten movement was the founda- 
 tion for the enthusiasm with which the second purpose 
 of the kindergarten association — the establishment of 
 kindergartens — was carried on. The whole kindergarten 
 movement in Chicago has grown out of a class formed by 
 Mrs. Alice H. Putnam in 1874 for the study of Froebel. 
 The class grew into a kindergarten association whose two 
 hundred members were "all intelligent students of the 
 kindergarten philosophy and practice." An acquaintance 
 with the practical working of a "mission kindergarten" 
 would not fail to give these early students a new insight 
 into the meaning of the kindergarten as an institution and 
 lead them to place a higher estimate upon its principles. 
 It could not but stimulate an interest in the kindergarten 
 as such, its success elsewhere and its ultimate adoption 
 by the school. It invited comparison between the methods 
 of the kindergarten and those of the school, and thus gave 
 an added impetus to the influences that were already 
 tending toward its transformation. 
 
 The acquaintance with the work of mission kinder- 
 gartens for which the kindergarten association gave the 
 opportunity had other results of an entirely different 
 character but of the greatest importance to the develop- 
 ment of American womanhood and the ideals of American 
 life. The general public of the early eighties was not so 
 familiar with the story of poverty in the large cities as it 
 has since become, and the contact with poverty-stricken 
 childhood, incompetent motherhood, and homes that were
 
 PERIOD OF extension; associations and clubs 6 1 
 
 hardly such even in name brought to many women a reve- 
 lation of existing social conditions that was nothing less 
 than startling. "The story of the slum was beginning to 
 be told," but its significance had not been realized. The 
 stirrings of the "social movement" were beginning to be 
 felt, however, and the desire to know "how the other half 
 lives" was awakening. No adequate agencies had existed, 
 however, by which that desire could be gratified, — 
 slumming parties belonging to a later date, — and no 
 satisfactory means had seemed to be at hand to relieve 
 the conditions which were said to exist. The kinder- 
 garten association seemed therefore to meet the need of 
 the hour. It afforded opportunity in part for the ac- 
 quaintance with conditions that must precede intelligent 
 effort for relief, and furnished an agency by which an 
 amelioration of some of the conditions could be effected. 
 An idea of this phase of association work can be gained 
 from the following description by Miss Constance 
 Mackenzie of work done in Philadelphia during the 
 early years of the kindergarten movement. 
 
 "The touch of the kindergarten upon the home had 
 a humanizing effect which appeared nothing short of 
 remarkable. One short street, at that time reputed to be 
 among the worst in the city, was in some respects practi- 
 cally transformed by the home visits and the reflex in- 
 fluence of the kindergarten children. At the time when 
 the kindergarten began its unobtrusive cmsade in that 
 neighborhood, to walk through the street meant to invite 
 an assault upon four of the five senses, as well as upon
 
 62 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 one's sense of decency. The place and the people were 
 filthy ; the conversation was unfit to listen to ; the odors 
 were appalling. By and by, however, a change became 
 noticeable. The newspapers, apologetic substitutes for 
 glass, disappeared from many broken window-panes, and 
 old cans, sweet with green things growing, took their 
 places. Chairs were cleaned when 'teacher' was an- 
 nounced, and by and by the rooms were kept brushed up 
 to greet her unexpected coming. After a while the 
 children's work, first discarded as trash, began to assume 
 an extrinsic value — the walls must be fresh to receive it. 
 The children insisted upon clean clothes to be worn to 
 kindergarten, and a general if dingy wash followed. In 
 the evening fathers found a sufficient entertainment in 
 the children's singing to keep them home from the grog 
 shop; then the beer money was diverted, and found its 
 way to the Penny Savings' Fund, through the child's 
 little bankbook. The street people began to hush their 
 talk as the kindergartner or the neighborhood visitor went 
 by. The kindergarten children could be distinguished 
 in the street, singing the songs and playing the games, 
 and so potent was the effect of their small public opinion 
 that their refusal to enter into the coarser street romps 
 with the non-kindergartners brought many a child into 
 the kindergarten who had been wont to stand at the door 
 to hoot and run. Lessons of cleanliness, thrift, and trust 
 were learned through experience and communicated to 
 the homes through the insistence of the children and the 
 friendly home talks of the kindergartners. The early
 
 PERIOD OF extension; associations and clubs 63 
 
 stony indifference of the parents gave way to mild curiosity 
 as to 'what the kindergartner would do next.' This 
 melted into astonishment that she could make Johnny 
 mind without using the strap. Then followed interest 
 in John's gentler manner, compunction over his uncon- 
 scious condemnation of the mother's way of doing things, 
 and a shamefaced determination to do as 'the kindergar- 
 ten teacher did,' until a new atmosphere pervaded many 
 a home which at first sight had seemed irredeemable." 
 
 The face-to-face contact with social conditions which 
 the work of a kindergarten association thus occasioned 
 could not fail to awaken new interest and shape action in 
 new directions. As the child study work had led associa- 
 tion members into the field of general education and to an 
 acquaintance with the leaders of educational thought, 
 so the first-hand acquaintance with the problems of pov- 
 erty led to a study of sociological literature and to a 
 cooperation with philanthropists and social reformers. 
 The interests thus developed have contributed materially 
 to the growth of the social movement and to the ad- 
 vancement of philanthropy. Women have played no 
 small part in the establishment of the newer forms of 
 philanthropic work of the preventive and constructive 
 kind, such as vacation schools, playgrounds, and social 
 settlements. The kindergarten association was in fact 
 a social settlement in embryo, and the kindergarten as 
 such forms one of the chief agencies in the social settle- 
 ment as it now exists. 
 
 The practical work for which a kindergarten associa-
 
 64 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 tion was organized could not be adequately carried on 
 without the organization and maintenance of a training 
 school from which its supply of kindergarten workers 
 could be recruited. The successful management of 
 a mission kindergarten demanded a kindergartner of 
 experience and more than ordinary ability, but young 
 women without previous experience or training and of 
 a lesser degree of ability could serve in the capacity of 
 assistants. The novelty and interest of the work led 
 many young women to offer themselves as candidates for 
 kindergarten training in the early days, not alone such as 
 hoped to find in kindergartning the means of gaining 
 a livelihood, but those who undertook the work from 
 philanthropic motives only, and who expected no re- 
 muneration for their services. The work of the training 
 course shaped itself to meet these conditions. Since 
 workers were needed in the kindergartens and practical 
 experience with the children must necessarily constitute an 
 important part of the training, the candidates were as- 
 signed to actual work in the kindergarten from the time 
 that they entered the course, and continued such work 
 until it was finished. This necessitated the placing of all 
 the studies of the course in the afternoon and in placing 
 the emphasis upon the technical ones, — the mother plays, 
 and the gifts and occupations. As the main purpose of 
 these studies was to meet the immediate needs of the 
 students in their work with the children, the work was of 
 necessity fragmentary. As kindergarten training schools 
 grew, instruction in music and drawing was added ; later,
 
 PERIOD OF extension; ASSOCIATIONS AND CLUBS 65 
 
 courses in nature study, physical culture, and story-telling 
 were introduced and, later still, courses in psychology, 
 literature, and other subjects. 
 
 The establishment of kindergarten training departments 
 in normal schools and other institutions in recent years 
 has opened up a whole series of questions concerning the 
 organization of kindergarten training courses. From 
 the standpoint of pedagogical principle the apprentice 
 form of training, which the exigencies of a kindergarten 
 association necessitated, cannot be defended, and it has 
 of late received no little criticism. The training of this 
 character was the only form of training to be had until 
 recently, however, as the private training schools were 
 organized upon the same basis. What the instruction in 
 such schools lacked in scholarship, however, it made up 
 in other respects. Judged by the spirit of the kinder- 
 gartner toward childhood and her skill in meeting its 
 problems; by her enthusiasm for the cause under whose 
 banner she had enlisted ; and by her spirit of helpfulness 
 toward those who needed help, the training was successful 
 in its highest sense. The young women who took the 
 training found in it both inspiration and help. It im- 
 pressed upon them the need and value of preparation for 
 motherhood, and the necessity for courses in domestic 
 science and child study in women's colleges. The train- 
 ing received in the association training schools was an 
 indirect training in philanthropy, and impressed the 
 students with their moral obligation to chi'dhood and to 
 the community. That the work was felt to be valuable
 
 66 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 is shown by the fact that many schools, organized originally 
 to meet local needs, outgrew these and attained a wide 
 reputation. Students came from enlarging areas, and 
 graduates from the larger schools may be found in nearly 
 every state in the union. The names of Mrs. Alice H. 
 Putnam, Kate Douglas Wiggin, Patty S. Hill, Caroline 
 M. C. Hart, Mrs. Eliza A. Blaker, and many others, 
 superintendents of kindergarten associations and principals 
 of association training schools, are known to every kinder- 
 gartner in the land. 
 
 In building up kindergarten sentiment throughout the 
 country perhaps no one person has done more than Mrs. 
 Kate Douglas Wiggin, and the work of no kindergarten 
 associations is better known that that of the two San 
 Francisco associations identified respectively with the 
 names of Mrs. Wiggin and Mrs. Sarah B. Cooper, now 
 deceased. The kindergarten had gained a foothold in 
 Los Angeles in 1875. One of the first young women to 
 take a kindergarten course was Kate Douglas Smith, 
 now known the world over as Kate Douglas Wiggin. 
 When in 1878 the San Francisco Kindergarten Society 
 was organized, Miss Smith was called to take the leader- 
 ship. "That interest in the kindergarten grew under 
 the direction of this gifted leader was but natural," says 
 Miss Fisher in the Report of the Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion. "No single individual has done more to spread 
 kindergarten influence and to gain friends for the cause 
 than the author of * The Story of Patsy.' No kindergarten 
 has enjoyed a wider celebrity and achieved greater success
 
 PERIOD OF extension; associations and clubs 67 
 
 among the children and in their homes than the celebrated 
 Silver Street Kindergarten, conducted by Mrs. Wiggin 
 and her sister, Nora A. Smith. The work done at Silver 
 Street v^^as the mainspring of all subsequent work in 
 California." 
 
 The work so auspiciously begun by Mrs. Wiggin was 
 the stimulus to the organization of the Golden Gate 
 Kindergarten Association, identified in the public mind 
 with the name of its founder and president, Mrs. Sarah B. 
 Cooper. Mrs. Cooper was a woman of rare power and 
 influence, who had been identified with every phase of 
 philanthropic work, but whose great mission — "to lay 
 the foundation for a better national character by founding 
 free kindergartens for neglected children" — was re- 
 vealed to her by a single morning's visit to the Silver 
 Street Kindergarten. Under her auspices a kindergarten 
 was organized and was supported by the members of her 
 Bible class. As the work grew, the association con- 
 nected with her name was formed. Her influence brought 
 legacies and donations from many sources. No phil- 
 anthropic association has supported so many kinder- 
 gartens or expended so much money. The first legacy 
 of $20,000 was followed by an endowment fund of $100,000 
 from Mrs. Leland Stanford, who later contributed $20,000 
 more. Mrs. Phoebe A. Hearst was equally generous. 
 In 1891, $30,000 was contributed to this association alone; 
 in I goo it was estimated that the association had received 
 in legacies and donations not less than $500,000. At 
 the time of its greatest prosperity it supported forty-four
 
 68 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 kindergartens, and at the time of Mrs. Cooper's death, 
 in 1896, it had conferred its benefits upon eighteen thou- 
 sand children. The effect of such work upon the educa- 
 tional tone of California is incalculable. 
 
 The work of kindergarten associations in illustrating 
 kindergarten ideals and methods, in organizing an 
 effective means for the moral salvation of neglected child- 
 hood, and in securing the incorporation of the kinder- 
 garten into the school system, has been admirably sup- 
 plemented by the efforts of individuals in different parts of 
 the country. The work of some of these antedated the 
 foundation of all but the earliest kindergarten associa- 
 tions, and doubtless stimulated their formation and growth. 
 The first charity kindergarten in the United States was 
 established in 1870, as has been stated, in connection with 
 the Poppenhausen Institution at College Point, New York. 
 The kindergartners employed were trained in Germany, 
 and the provision was the most liberal in every way. In 
 1874 Mr. S. H. Hill, of Florence, Mass., contributed 
 funds to open a charity kindergarten and later placed 
 in trust a sum sufficient to sustain and extend the work. 
 The largest and most significant individual charity in 
 behalf of the kindergarten cause was that supported by 
 Mrs. Pauline Agassiz Shaw of Boston, the daughter of 
 Louis Agassiz. Having opened two kindergartens during 
 the summer of 1877, and having satisfied herself of their 
 value, Mrs. Shaw concluded that the kindergarten cause 
 needed her support. "This was the beginning of a work 
 unparalleled for public spirit and liberality and to which
 
 PERIOD OF extension; ASSOCIATIONS AND CLUBS 69 
 
 must be attributed the growth and final adoption of the 
 kindergarten throughout New England," says Miss Fisher. 
 Under the guidance of Miss Laliah B. Pingree, and sup- 
 ported by Mrs. Shaw's UberaUty, the kindergartens grew 
 and prospered and became a power in the community. 
 In 1883 Mrs. Shaw supported thirty-one kindergartens in 
 Boston, Cambridge, and BrookUne. No effort was 
 spared to make these kindergartens the best of their kind. 
 Through lectures by specialists on many subjects the 
 kindergartners were provided with opportunities for 
 advanced study. After supporting these kindergartens 
 for ten years, Mrs. Shaw invited the school board of Boston 
 to investigate their value and to consider their adoption 
 into the public schools. As they had shown their value 
 with the children, the board assumed the responsibility, 
 and in 1888 kindergartens became an integral part of the 
 Boston public school system. The report of the Boston 
 School Committee says: "The wise and far-sighted 
 generosity of these public-spirited women deserves to 
 place them among the greatest benefactors of our schools. 
 The school board has especially conveyed to them its 
 grateful appreciation of their noble work, and the com- 
 munity which receives the benefit of all that they have 
 accomplished should hold their memory in lasting regard." 
 This in substance is the story of the kindergarten in Bos- 
 ton, as told by Miss Fanny L. Johnson, in The Kinder- 
 garten Review. 
 
 The city of Washington has also profited by the public 
 spirit of a noble woman. Kindergarten effort at the
 
 yo THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 national capital dates back to the early years of the move- 
 ment, but it has received special reenforcement during 
 the last decade of the century through the generosity of 
 Mrs. Phcebe A. Hearst. The introduction of the kinder- 
 garten into the Washington public schools is the result 
 of two influences, — that of Mrs. Louisa Mann, daughter- 
 in-law of the great educator, and that of the Columbian 
 Kindergarten Association, organized in 1893 for the 
 purpose of inducing Congress to effect legislation to that 
 end. Mrs. Hearst, Mrs. Cleveland, and several other 
 prominent women were active members of this associa- 
 tion, and it was in connection with it that Mrs. Hearst's 
 greatest gift to the kindergarten cause was made. Her 
 donations to the cause had already been scattered far and 
 wide. Seven of the kindergartens of the Golden Gate 
 Kindergarten Association of San Francisco, and many 
 others in other western states, were supported by her. 
 Among her gifts to San Francisco was a perfectly equipped 
 building for training purposes. Her principal gift to 
 Washington was a training school, opened in 1897. The 
 home of this school was described by a recent writer as 
 attractive and artistic. It had an excellent reference 
 library, and the course of training was supplemented by 
 lectures given by the best specialists in the country. As 
 these lectures were open to the kindergartners of the city, 
 as well as to the students in training, the school became 
 the center of kindergarten interest in Washington. Mrs. 
 Hearst was obliged to withdraw her support from the 
 undertaking in 1905, but the results remain.
 
 PERIOD OF EXTENSION; ASSOCIATIONS AND CLUBS 71 
 
 Although these contributions to the kindergarten cause 
 are doubtless the most notable ones, many a city in the 
 land can point to evidences of contributions as generous 
 in proportion to the donor's means. Some of these dona- 
 tions have been made independently, v/hile others have 
 been made in connection with kindergarten associations, 
 churches, or charitable organizations. The William N. 
 Jackson Memorial Building, the permanent home of the 
 Indianapolis Free Kindergarten Association, vi^as a gift 
 to the cause. Beautiful buildings for kindergarten 
 purposes have been contributed to the cause also in 
 Asheville, N.C., in Youngstown, Ohio, and in Spokane, 
 Wash. In Topeka, Kan., a building for kindergarten 
 purposes w^as given to a church which had organized and 
 supported a kindergarten and training school. Memorial 
 and endowed kindergartens are by no means uncommon. 
 In 1903 Mrs. Leland Stanford supported six memorial 
 kindergartens in San Francisco. The endowment fund 
 of nearly $200,000 which Mrs. Stanford contributed to 
 the Golden Gate Kindergarten Association has already 
 been mentioned. "A generous friend of the children," 
 who did not wish his name mentioned, recently gave 
 $75,000 as an endowment fund for the Brooklyn Kinder- 
 garten Society. These instances are given as illustrations 
 of what people of wealth and character have thought it 
 worth while to do for the kindergarten movement. 
 
 Similar in general character to the work done for the 
 kindergarten movement by kindergarten associations and 
 individuals has been the work done by women's clubs.
 
 72 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Elizabeth Peabody, the apostle of the kindergarten move- 
 ment, was a member of the New England Woman's Club, 
 the first club of the kind organized in the United States, 
 and at one of the earliest meetings presented the kinder- 
 garten as a topic in which women should be fundamentally 
 interested. Many other women prominent in kinder- 
 garten circles have been equally prominent in club organi- 
 zation and club effort. Miss Annie Laws, who was for 
 two years the president of the International Kindergarten 
 Union, was at the same time an officer of the General 
 Federation of Women's Clubs. Many clubs l^ve made 
 a study of the kindergarten and others have taxen the re- 
 sponsibility of kindergarten organization and support, 
 either independently or in connection with kindergarten 
 associations. Many facts of interest pertaining to the 
 work of particular clubs might be cited. The kindergar- 
 ten established by the Woman's Club of Chicago was 
 declared to be "the nurse and feeder of the intellectual 
 and practical life of the club." The organization of the 
 General Federation of Women's Clubs has been a great 
 stimulus to work of this character, and the systematic 
 study of the whole field of education by that great body 
 promises much for the newer movements in education in 
 the near future. Mrs. Henrotin's report to the National 
 Educational Association in 1897 on "What Women's 
 Clubs have done for Education" contains some interesting 
 data. She reports kindergartens as having been estab- 
 lished in several cities through the agency of women's 
 clubs, and systematic action having been taken to acquaint
 
 PERIOD OF extension; associations and clubs 73 
 
 the uninitiated among club members with the principles 
 which underlie kindergarten procedure. The last object 
 was accomplished at one state federation meeting by the 
 setting apart of a day for the visiting of the kindergartens, 
 and following this by a discussion of their value. In 
 New Jersey, kindergartens were organized and supported 
 through the agency of women's clubs until the school 
 boards were sufficiently convinced of their value to adopt 
 them as a part of the school system. The women's clubs 
 of the District of Columbia appointed a committee to 
 present to both houses of Congress a bill to make the 
 incorporation of kindergartens into the school system 
 possible. This has since been accomplished. In Colo- 
 rado the adoption of the kindergarten into the school 
 system of several cities has been effected through club 
 agency. In Arkansas the State Federation has worked 
 in connection with the State Kindergarten Association 
 to secure the establishment of a kindergarten training 
 school supported by the state. In Beloit, Wis., kinder- 
 gartens were established and supported by the Woman's 
 Club until the school authorities were ready to adopt 
 them. The Woman's Club of Houston, Texas, has 
 carried on a kindergarten for several years. Within the 
 past few years the Southern Federation of Colored Women, 
 of which Mrs. Booker T. Washington was then president, 
 adopted the kindergarten as the chief line of work and 
 study. In 1902 the colored Women's Clubs of Chicago 
 organized kindergartens in several different sections of 
 the city, locating them in the colored churches. At least
 
 74 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 nine kindergartens were thus established and supported. 
 Whatever its immediate prospects the kindergarten move- 
 ment may certainly hope for ultimate success, having such 
 allies as the National Council of Women, the National 
 Congress of Mothers, and the General Federation of 
 Women's Clubs. 
 
 The value of these efforts of associations, clubs, and in- 
 dividuals can hardly be overestimated. In an editorial in 
 The Kindergarten Magazine, when there were but seventy- 
 five kindergarten associations. Miss Amalie Hofer said: 
 "There are seventy-five thoroughly organized kinder- 
 garten associations in our states, all existing for the purposes 
 of further study, for extending the work in new fields, or 
 maintaining its sincerity in old fields. Some of these 
 associations comprise prominent citizens who lend their 
 influence and money to the movement ; others are com- 
 posed of kindergartners and teachers who meet under the 
 Froebel banner for self-education ; others consist of groups 
 of earnest parents who are aiming to create public interest 
 in this vital work of child training. These working centers 
 form a network from city to city across our continent. 
 The self-appointed stewards of the new education are a 
 thoroughly organized force, six thousand strong, pledged 
 to a modern reformation. The seventy-five officered 
 kindergarten associations form a ganglia of vitalizing 
 centers throughout our country and constitute what we 
 name the kindergarten movement. These centers, each 
 of which is illumined by the dedicated lives of strong, 
 earnest, aggressive women, push their energies in many
 
 PERIOD OF EXTENSION; ASSOCIATIONS AND CLUBS 75 
 
 directions." The number of kindergarten associations 
 has muhipHed many times, and much has been accom- 
 phshed for the kindergarten cause since these words were 
 written. Women's organizations have done much to 
 further the kindergarten movement, but other agencies 
 still have contributed to its growth. The service that they 
 have rendered will be discussed in succeeding chapters.
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 The Period of Extension; The Kindergarten in 
 Church, Sunday School, and Mission Work 
 
 It is no small testimony to the many-sidedness of the 
 kindergarten that organizations differing widely in aim and 
 character should have adopted the kindergarten as an 
 agency for the furthering of their own particular aims. 
 That the church should consider it a valuable means of 
 carrying on its own work ; that the temperance workers 
 should hold it well-nigh indispensable; and that business 
 firms should consider it a valuable phase of their welfare 
 work, — these things cannot but surprise the uninitiated. 
 Each of the agencies named has adopted the kindergarten 
 to some extent, and has thereby become unconsciously 
 a kindergarten propagandist. That kindergartners and 
 kindergarten associations should advocate the kinder- 
 garten cause is not surprising. The acceptance of the 
 kindergarten by the above-named agencies was, however, 
 unlooked-for testimony to its value, and an unsolicited 
 aid in acquainting the public with its principles. 
 
 Among the first of the above-named agencies to adopt the 
 kindergarten was the church. One of the first churches 
 of the country to adopt the kindergarten, if not the first, 
 was Trinity Church of Toledo, Ohio, which in 1877 es- 
 
 76
 
 PERIOD OF EXTENSION; CHURCH WORK, ETC. 77 
 
 tablished a kindergarten as a part of its parish work. 
 The Anthon Memorial Church of New York City, of which 
 the Rev. R. Heber Newton was pastor, estabHshed a kin- 
 dergarten in 1878, and the work done under its auspices 
 is a striking example of what a church may accomplish 
 through kindergarten agency. While the adoption of the 
 kindergarten by the church was slow during the early years, 
 the movement was steady and quiet, as is shown by the 
 fact that during the next decade kindergartens were es- 
 tablished in several important foreign mission stations. 
 The Golden Gate Kindergarten Association of San 
 Francisco, organized in 1880, had its origin in a kinder- 
 garten supported by a Bible class connected with the 
 Howard Presbyterian Church, under the leadership of 
 Mrs. Sarah B. Cooper; and from that time on, until her 
 death in 1896, Mrs. Cooper was one of the strongest 
 advocates of this phase of church work. The kinder- 
 garten has become an accepted agency in the institutional 
 church, as it has in the social settlement which is akin to 
 it, and the increase in the number of institutional churches 
 has in a measure marked the increasing number of church 
 kindergartens. There are many churches that support 
 kindergartens which are not strictly institutional, but as 
 a rule the two go hand in hand. 
 
 That the kindergarten has become an agency in church 
 and mission work, and that kindergarten principles are 
 being accepted and applied in the Sunday school, is gen- 
 erally known, but little is known concerning the extent to 
 which it has been thus adopted. In the list of over four
 
 78 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 hundred kindergarten associations already referred to, 
 over sixty are church associations. This does not, how- 
 ever, indicate the number of church kindergartens. In 
 the same report, confessed as inadequate, since "a very 
 great number of associations failed to respond to the re- 
 quest for information," Dr. Harris states that at least three 
 thousand kindergartens not supported by public school 
 funds are known to be in existence, although but about 
 half of that number replied to the circular sent out. In a 
 list of kindergartens compiled by Miss Clara Louise 
 Anderson in 1903, inadequate also for similar reasons, 
 the kindergartens not supported by public funds are 
 divided into two nearly equal classes, those that are private 
 in the sense that tuition is charged or that they are intended 
 for a given class of children only ; and those that are free, 
 in the sense of being charitable or missionary in character. 
 Supposing this proportion to hold in regard to the three 
 thousand mentioned, there must be nearly fifteen hundred 
 of the mission or charitable class. There is no known 
 source of information from which the number of these 
 supported by churches can be inferred, but there is evidence 
 that three hundred would be a conservative estimate. 
 A little definite information comes from Dr. Josiah Strong, 
 of the American Bureau of Social Service. He admits 
 that "no statistics concerning the number of churches 
 throughout the country having kindergartens have ever 
 been collected," but states that there are fifty-four such in 
 Greater New York, twenty-seven in Philadelphia, and 
 twelve in Chicago. A recent item in one of the kinder-
 
 PERIOD OF extension; church work, etc. 79 
 
 garten periodicals states that there are ten such in Louis- 
 ville, Ky. From the data given by Dr. Harris and Miss 
 Anderson it appears that churches in fifty or more cities 
 support kindergartens as a part of their church work. 
 Every denomination seems represented, — the Roman 
 Catholic, the Lutheran, the Jewish, the Friends, the 
 Swedenborgian, the Unitarian, and the Christian Scientist, 
 as well as the better known Protestant denominations, such 
 as the Methodist, Baptist, Congregational, and Presby- 
 terian. The Protestant Episcopal Church seems to be in 
 the lead in the number of churches supporting kinder- 
 gartens. Among the conspicuous examples of churches 
 carrying on such work are : the Anthon Memorial Church, 
 already mentioned ; St. Bartholomew's Protestant Epis- 
 copal, and the Manhattan Congregational of New York 
 City; the Every Day Church of Boston; the Central 
 Church of Topeka, Kan. ; and the People's Church of 
 Kalamazoo, Mich. Of special interest is a Chinese 
 Presbyterian Mission Church in New York City that sup- 
 ports a flourishing kindergarten for Chinese children. 
 
 The auxiliary organizations of the church, such as the 
 Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor, or such 
 organizations as the King's Daughters or the Young 
 Women's Christian Association, have also in many instances 
 supported kindergartens. This seems to have been a 
 favorite form of effort for bands of King's Daughters to 
 undertake. In Peoria, III., there were at one time ten 
 such bands, eight of which directed their efforts toward 
 kindergarten advancement. In Syracuse, N.Y., the
 
 8o THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Solvay Guild of King's Daughters rendered the kinder- 
 garten movement effective service. Very successful work 
 has been done by this organization also in Des Moines, 
 Iowa, and in Knoxville, Tenn. In Austin, Texas, a 
 colored band of King's Daughters did admirable work 
 in behalf of the kindergarten. There are doubtless many 
 other places where such work has been done. In James- 
 town, N.Y., in Richmond, Va., and in Lansing, Mich., the 
 kindergarten movement was given its initial impetus by 
 the Young Women's Christian Association. In Toledo, 
 Ohio, the Unitarian and Episcopal churches at one time 
 joined hands with the Women's Christian Temperance 
 Union and the local kindergarten workers to further 
 the movement. In Birmingham, Ala., a kindergarten is 
 supported by a Young Women's Guild. In Detroit a 
 kindergarten association has been organized by the Young 
 Men's Guild of St. John's Episcopal Church. May 
 their names be blazoned abroad and their example widely 
 followed. In 1902 the colored women's clubs of Chicago 
 established kindergartens in nine of the colored churches. 
 In Birmingham, Ala., the Baptist churches support two 
 kindergartens. In several instances the work inaugurated 
 by the church or some other religious organization has later 
 been adopted by the public school authorities. In New 
 Orleans the diocese supported a kindergarten and kinder- 
 garten training school for five years until the school 
 authorities were ready to assume it. In Rochester, N.Y., 
 St. Andrews Church for several years likewise supported a 
 kindergarten and training school, which the establishment
 
 PERIOD OF extension; church work, etc. 8i 
 
 of kindergartens in the public schools later made unneces- 
 sary. The kindergartens of Toledo, Ohio, became a 
 part of the city school system after having been fostered 
 for several years by religious organizations. In James- 
 town, N.Y., in Kalamazoo, Mich., and doubtless in many 
 other places public school kindergartens owe their origin 
 to church initiative. 
 
 The adoption of the kindergarten as a church agency will 
 be determined largely in any given case by the church's 
 conception of its mission in a large city. *'In a city there 
 are two kinds of fields," says the Rev. Edward Judson in 
 his book "The Institutional Church." "In one the social 
 current seems to converge in favor of the church. Decent, 
 Sunday-observing, church-going people are living in the 
 neighborhood and all you have to do is to throw open the 
 doors of your beautiful church and the people flock in to 
 hear your fine preacher and your artistic music. Their 
 social life is not complete without a pew in the neighboring 
 house of worship. But there is another kind of field. 
 Who has not stood aghast and felt in despair as he has 
 stopped in one of our great thoroughfares and watched 
 the great tide of foreigners streaming ashore from some 
 emigrant ship ; alien men, women, and children, chattering 
 in a strange language, and bearing uncouth burdens on 
 their heads and shoulders. They have come to stay. In 
 solid phalanx they take possession of wide stretches of our 
 city. They form an impregnable mass of humanity, 
 swayed by un-American ideas and habits. Our churches 
 retreat before this inflowing tide. But if our aim is to 
 
 G
 
 82 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 change the character of our community, then we should 
 bring to bear upon these masses our best Gospel appliances ; 
 our most effective measures will be preventive and educa- 
 tional, and our most enduring work will be with the 
 children. The key to the hard problem of city evangeli- 
 zation lies in the puny hand of the little child." Dr. 
 Judson speaks further of the Sunday school as "the church 
 with its gearing adapted especially to work with little 
 children," and pays high tribute to its power of reaching 
 the children in such localities. "But the Sunday school 
 alone is inadequate," he continues. "The sessions are too 
 short and too far apart. Currents of sin and worldliness 
 sweep between the Sundays and wash away holy impres- 
 sions. What headway would we make in teaching arith- 
 metic or geography if the lesson came once a week, occupied 
 half an hour, and was taught by such incompetent, un- 
 trained, and unpaid teachers as are to be found in our 
 Sunday school? If we would redeem the children the 
 church must have her day school. Let her have a kinder- 
 garten which will embrace children from three to seven. 
 These are too young to be admitted into the public schools 
 and here is a providential opportunity which the church 
 has of gathering them into her fold day by day. Let her 
 employ a devout and trained kindergartner who shall not 
 only educate the child's mind and body with the charming 
 symbolic exercises of the kindergarten, but will tell each 
 day a little of the story of the life of Christ, and teach the 
 children Christian prayers and hymns." 
 Views similar to those expressed by Dr. Judson have
 
 PERIOD OF extension; church work, etc. 83 
 
 been voiced by Dr. R. Heber Newton and others. Dr. 
 Newton has been one of the most earnest advocates of the 
 kindergarten as a church agency. His faith was based 
 upon the resuhs accomplished in his ovm church. Not 
 only was the effect of the kindergarten upon the children 
 remarkable, but the influence of the kindergarten was 
 extended and deepened by means of a training class and 
 mothers' meetings until it was recognized as one of the 
 most helpful means of building up the church and the 
 neighborhood. The social settlement has found the kin- 
 dergarten well-nigh indispensable, not only in building up 
 character in the children, but also as a means of reaching 
 homes that would otherwise be closed, and of bringing 
 other members of the family under its influence. Had the 
 church realized its social mission there would have been 
 little need of settlements. These are doing what the church 
 has too frequently failed to do, and they are suggesting ways 
 and methods which the church would do well to heed. 
 
 But the kindergarten has a value not alone to the church 
 of the kind described, but to the church on the avenue of 
 the smaller city. Some of the most admirable examples 
 of the church kindergarten are to be found among churches 
 of this kind. One of the best examples of the kinder- 
 garten in church work is to be found in Topeka, Kan. 
 The Central Congregational Church of that city organized 
 a kindergarten as one of its working agencies in 1892. 
 In discussing the step taken by this church the pastor, 
 the Rev. Charles W. Sheldon, said: "When we consider 
 the value to a church of work done for children by holding
 
 84 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 their growing life in close sympathy with church life and 
 so educate future supporters of the church, it is surprising 
 that the kindergarten has not found its way more quickly 
 and generally into church activity. That this lack will 
 soon be supplied in the city churches at least, the writer 
 is ready to predict with much hopefulness." In describing 
 the work of this kindergarten for The Kindergarten Review, 
 Dr. Sheldon stated further: "An auxiliary composed of 
 ladies of the neighborhood managed the details of ex- 
 pense. But the church considers the kindergarten as her 
 own child, and is as much in touch with it as it is with the 
 Sunday school which is carried on in the same room on 
 Sundays. It may be said in this connection that all the 
 young life of the church, the Endeavor Society and other 
 organizations like it, center in this room together with the 
 prayer circle of the church, and thus the room is constantly 
 used and permeated with the spiritual energy which stamps 
 all the work done there as distinctly and distinctively 
 Christian. 
 
 "It is difficult to estimate the value to a church of 
 regular kindergarten work carried on under its own roof," 
 continues Dr. Sheldon. "The stimulus to the Sunday 
 school, to the home, to the mothers, to every part of the 
 church life, is instantly and continuously felt. It is the 
 great hope and prophecy of the Central Church that other 
 churches throughout the state will adopt this youngest 
 child of Christian education, the church kindergarten. 
 There is a positive advantage to any church to have its 
 doors open every day of the week. But more than any-
 
 PERIOD OF extension; CHURCH WORK, ETC. 85 
 
 thing else is the immense value to all church growth and 
 power gained from the daily presence within its walls and 
 surrounded by its spiritual atmosphere, of the children who 
 are the hope of the world and the future of the kingdom 
 of God." 
 
 This kindergarten is an example for other church kinder- 
 gartens in many respects. It has a model room of its own, 
 a gift to the church from Mrs. T. E. Bowman, in memory 
 of her husband. A training class has been carried on with 
 marked success, and the kindergarten movement in the 
 state has been materially advanced by the work it has 
 done. The Central Congregational Church of Dallas, 
 Texas, is organizing a similar work, and there are doubtless 
 many other churches that could tell of like work success- 
 fully accomplished. The People's Church of Kalamazoo, 
 Mich., has had a successful kindergarten in operation for 
 several years. This was inaugurated during the pastorate 
 of the Rev. Caroline Bartlett Crane, and under her leader- 
 ship mothers' meetings were held and well attended. A 
 special kindergarten is held during the Sunday morning 
 service, that mothers who must either take the children to 
 church or remain at home may have the benefit of the 
 service. That the kindergarten as a phase of church work 
 will increase in the near future can no longer be doubted. 
 The tendency of the time is toward the establishment of 
 institutional churches. In these the kindergarten will 
 occupy an increasingly important place. 
 
 The reconstruction of religious thought that has been 
 taking place in recent years has been discussed in a pre-
 
 86 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 vious chapter. The acceptance of rehgious views akin to 
 those of Froebel and the growing recognition of the social 
 mission of the church have been influences tending to the 
 adoption of the kindergarten as a church agency. But 
 such reconstruction of thought has done more; it has 
 revolutionized views and methods of religious instruction, 
 and therefore affected the church's main agency for such 
 instruction, — the Sunday school. The leaders of the 
 kindergarten movement have been deeply religious, almost 
 without exception, and recognizing that existing forms 
 of religious instruction were at variance with the laws of 
 the child's spiritual development, have from the beginning 
 aimed at the improvement of Sunday school methods. 
 The evidences of their success are apparent on every hand ; 
 the up-to-date Sunday school now has either a kinder- 
 garten department for children of kindergarten age or a 
 primary department conducted externally at least on kin- 
 dergarten principles. That the kindergarten Sunday school 
 or the Sunday school kindergarten is wholly successful 
 can as yet hardly be claimed. To substitute spiritual 
 development for the traditional religious instruction in the 
 Sunday school involved as great a change in Sunday 
 school ideals and methods as the substitution of the idea 
 of intellectual development for that of the traditional 
 instruction in the school arts in the ordinary school work. 
 In attempting such changes in Sunday school work, many 
 mistakes have been made. Spiritual truths cannot 
 always be expressed in material form, and the shortness 
 of the Sunday school program will not permit of many
 
 PERIOD OF extension; CHURCH WORK, ETC. 87 
 
 features that are permissible and proper in a day kinder- 
 garten. Some of the kindergarten instrumentalities — the 
 songs, finger rhymes, pictures, and stories — are as valuable 
 and appropriate in a Sunday school kindergarten as in 
 any other, but it is a question whether the gifts and oc- 
 cupations have a place there. The Sunday school teacher 
 who had the children sew a black heart to represent the 
 original sinful condition of that organ, and a white one to 
 show the effect of Christ's atoning sacrifice, had not yet 
 comprehended the true principles of kindergarten proce- 
 dure in its application to Sunday school work. If kinder- 
 garten training is necessary to carry on the ordinary kin- 
 dergarten, it cannot be less necessary to carry on that highest 
 of all kinds, the church or Sunday school kindergarten. 
 As it is frequently impossible to secure a trained kinder- 
 gartner, much of the so-called kindergarten Sunday school 
 work is form rather than substance. That so much has 
 been done is occasion for congratulation, but it is only a 
 beginning. 
 
 The value of the kindergarten for the children and of 
 kindergarten training for the teacher is being increasingly 
 recognized in missionary work — that among special 
 peoples in our own country, such as the Indians, Mexi- 
 cans, Negroes, and Chinese — and in the foreign field. 
 Information concerning the extent to which kindergarten 
 work has been so adopted has been difficult to obtain. 
 Some denominations appear to have taken up the kinder- 
 garten as a missionary agency to a greater extent than have 
 others. The Roman Catholic Church has as yet done
 
 88 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 little apparently in this direction, probably for the reason 
 that teaching both at home and in the mission fields is 
 confined to certain religious orders. The members of 
 these orders would hardly be likely to have taken kin- 
 dergarten training before entering upon the religious 
 life, and could not do so afterwards unless the church itself 
 were to establish a kindergarten training school. The 
 Lutherans as a denomination seem to have done little 
 toward the adoption of the kindergarten as a church or 
 missionary agency. The Protestant Episcopal Church 
 seems to have recognized the value of the kindergarten to 
 an unusual degree, probably because it emphasizes the 
 building up of Christian character from infancy. 
 
 The information on the subject of the kindergarten in 
 missionary work given in the following pages is recognized 
 as inadequate. It has been obtained from scattering notices 
 in the kindergarten periodicals, from the missionary 
 reports and magazines of some of the leading denomi- 
 nations, and from replies to letters. The field is not ade- 
 quately covered, but all the information that was obtain- 
 able is given. Some conspicuous examples are given as 
 illustrations of what is known to have been accomplished 
 in some instances and of what may therefore be done in 
 others. 
 
 That the demand for kindergartners in missionary 
 work is constantly greater than the supply is a most 
 gratifying symptom. ' A kindergartner who recently 
 attended the sessions of the Executive Committee of the 
 Women's Foreign Missionary Society of the Methodist
 
 PERIOD OF extension; church work, etc. 89 
 
 Church wrote to The Kindergarten Review not long since, 
 as follows: "I met missionaries who were home from 
 many different countries, and as I conversed with one and 
 another, they almost unanimously expressed a present 
 and instant need for trained kindergartners. From 
 Japan, India, Peru, Mexico, and China come similar 
 tales of efforts made to start kindergartens, where furnish- 
 ing and materials were at hand, and pupils and native 
 assistants eager to learn, but no competent, thoroughly 
 trained kindergartners able to train native girls were in 
 the field. Doubtless others had appreciated as little as I 
 the special adaptability of the kindergarten idea in the 
 training of little ones in the foreign lands, and the immense 
 advantage which a kindergartner has because her methods 
 may be easily applied without waiting to overcome the 
 obstacles of language and custom which cause the teachers 
 of older children to stumble most grievously. Now the 
 thought that occurred to me, knowing that three of my 
 own class in training were already in foreign lands, was 
 this : Do the girls who are studying in our training schools 
 and emerging year after year filled with the spirit of the 
 child lover, intensified by the knowledge gained of ways 
 of child gardening, know that other countries are pleading 
 for the services which our country values so lightly be- 
 cause so easily obtained?" Kindergartners are hearing 
 the call, "Come over and help us," from the foreign 
 field with increasing frequency. At the Milwaukee 
 meeting of the International Kindergarten Union there 
 was an urgent call for a kindergarten training teacher to
 
 90 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 go to Tokyo to assume a position of great strategic impor- 
 tance, but the proper person could not be found. Miss 
 Montgomery of the Oberlin Kindergarten Training School 
 states that during the past five years she has had demands 
 for kindergarten teachers for the foreign field which she 
 has been utterly unable to supply. To meet such demands 
 missionary training schools are establishing kindergarten 
 departments in their institutions. Mrs. J. N. Crouse, of 
 Chicago, president of the Baptist Woman's Home Mis- 
 sionary Board, stated in 1892, that she had found it ad- 
 visable to provide at least partial kindergarten training for 
 all the students in the Missionary Training School, and 
 during the year fifty-six students in that institution had 
 attended the mothers' meetings at Chicago Kindergarten 
 College. The Baptist Training School for Christian Work 
 at Philadelphia, and the Deaconesses' Training School at 
 Grand Rapids, Mich., have adopted a like policy. The 
 Folts Mission Institute at Herkimer, New York, an 
 institution under the management of the Woman's Foreign 
 Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 has a regularly organized kindergarten training depart- 
 ment of its own because of the need of trained kinder- 
 gartners in missionary fields. 
 
 As has been stated, definite information concerning 
 the number of mission stations that include the kinder- 
 garten has been difficult to obtain. The Woman's Board 
 of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church in 1906 
 made the following statement in reply to inquiry. "We 
 heartily approve of kindergarten methods and kindergarten
 
 PERIOD OF extension; CHURCH WORK, ETC. 9 1 
 
 training, but as our work is almost entirely with exceptional 
 peoples, we are unable to conduct many kindergartens. 
 In our primary work we always give preference to teachers 
 having the kindergarten training. The gifts, the weaving, 
 and the games are introduced into most of the schools under 
 the care of Miss Goodrich in North Carolina. We are 
 hoping to establish a kindergarten in Havana, Cuba, 
 next fall as a part of our mission work there. I can assure 
 you that the fact that wc do not hav^ many kindergartens 
 in our schools is not due to our lack of interest in these 
 methods of work, but rather to the demand for other work 
 being so great that we have not had the funds for distinctive 
 kindergarten work." The American Missionary Associa- 
 tion of the Congregational Church, whose work is among 
 the negroes, Indians, Chinese, and similar peoples, makes 
 a reply to nearly the same effect. The Protestant Epis- 
 copal Church also has kindergartens in connection with its 
 mission schools of this character. Kindergartens are 
 maintained as a part of the mission work in the Hawaiian 
 Islands and in Mexico also. The Presbyterian Board 
 of Missions in 1896 sent a kindergartner to Bahia, Brazil, 
 and the reports of her work have been most encouraging. 
 
 The kindergarten has become a part of the mission work 
 in several different portions of Asia, Africa, and Australasia. 
 The Woman's Board of the Interior of the Congregational 
 Church maintains kindergartens in four out of its five 
 mission stations in Benguella, Portuguese West Africa. 
 The Methodist Episcopal Church supports at least one in 
 Umtali, Rhodesia. Others are reported at Cisambia and
 
 92 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Bailundu, Africa, but by what denominations they are 
 maintained could not be learned. There are kindergartens 
 in the Samoan Islands, and at least one at Ruk, Mi- 
 cronesia. This was organized in 1897 by Miss Logan, 
 whose father, the Rev. Robert Logan, gave his life to 
 missionary effort in the Mortlock Islands. There is 
 one kindergarten under the auspices of the Congregational 
 Church at Kankesandurai, and another at Columbo, 
 Ceylon. Several kindergartens are maintained in Burma 
 by the Woman's Baptist Foreign Missionary Society. 
 One of these is at Rangoon, one at Moulmein, and one at 
 Bassein. This society also maintains a kindergarten at 
 Mandelay, one at Huchow, China, and at least four in 
 connection with its missions in Japan. In connection 
 with two of these at Tokyo and at Kobe, training classes 
 have been organized for the instruction of native girls. 
 
 The kindergarten has been adopted as an agency in the 
 mission work in India by several denominations, but 
 information concerning the extent to which it has been so- 
 adopted has been exceedingly difficult to obtain. A mis- 
 sionary recently returned from India is authority for the 
 statement that the mission schools of all denominations 
 are required by law to adopt certain features of the kinder- 
 garten in their elementary schools to secure certain privi- 
 leges from the government. In the thirty girls' schools 
 supported by the Foreign Missionary Society of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church in that country, these features 
 are emphasized, and in several schools trained kinder-; 
 gartners are employed. ' A kindergarten department was
 
 PERIOD OF EXTENSION; CHURCH WORK, ETC. 93 
 
 organized in Thoburn College at Lucknow, the principal 
 institution of the Methodist Church for the training of 
 young women, ten or more years ago, in which many 
 native young women have been trained. A kinder- 
 garten is maintained by the Friends Mission at Nowgong, 
 Bundelkhand, and several are maintained by the Con- 
 gregational Church. One of these is at Bombay, and 
 another at Sholapur. At the last-named place a kinder- 
 garten training school has been organized under the direc- 
 tion of Miss Mary B. Harding, in which many native young 
 women have been prepared for kindergarten work in other 
 mission fields. Miss Harding has rendered an important 
 service to the kindergarten cause in India by translating 
 into one of the native languages the books collectively 
 termed "The Republic of Childhood," by Kate Douglas 
 Wiggin and Nora A. Smith. Calcutta, Cawnpore, Ali- 
 garh, and Madras are also known to be kindergarten 
 centers, but the denominations under whose auspices the 
 work was inaugurated and maintained could not be learned. 
 Punclita Ramabai considered kindergarten training a 
 necessary preparation for the work that she hoped to do for 
 her own countrywomen. In the school which she es- 
 tablished upon her return to her native country, in 1888, 
 the kindergarten forms an important part. 
 
 China, too, is beginning to feel the beneficent influence 
 of the kindergarten. Although little definite information 
 could be obtained concerning the extent to which it has 
 been adopted there, it is known to have become a part of 
 the work of three great denominations, — the Baptist, the 
 Methodist Episcopal, and the Congregational.
 
 94 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 The kindergarten has become a conspicuous part of 
 mission work in Turkey and in Japan, and an account of 
 the work in these two countries cannot fail to be of interest. 
 In 1896 there were twenty-eight kindergartens that had 
 been established in Turkey by the Woman's Board of the 
 Interior of the Congregational Church, and several that 
 had been established through other agencies. The whole 
 movement in Turkey grew out of the establishment of a 
 kindergarten in the American School for Girls in Smyrna, 
 in 1885. Miss Nellie S. Bartlett, who undertook the work 
 there and who has seen it grow to its present proportions, 
 thus spoke of it some years ago in The Kindergarten 
 Magazine : 
 
 "The kindergarten was opened with seven children in 
 the sunny room of the Girls' School. This proved to be 
 the most attractive place in the building, judging from the 
 eagerness with which the older pupils flocked to the 
 windows and doors during the recess time. Erelong the 
 room was crowded with thirty children, and still later as 
 the number continued to increase, a part of them were 
 accommodated in the chapel. It was a joyful day when 
 the department was transferred to the beautiful building 
 of the Woman's Board of Missions. The large hall is 
 used for the general exercises and the Sunday school, and 
 there are four airy class rooms. The training school is 
 well accommodated here. In the pleasant garden each 
 child has a small flower-bed to dig, plant, and water as 
 he likes. 
 
 "The success of the Smyrna kindergarten created a
 
 PERIOD OF extension; CHURCH WORK, ETC. 95 
 
 demand for a like blessing in other places," continues Miss 
 Bartlett, "but this was out of the question without thor- 
 oughly prepared kindergartners. Hence young ladies 
 from different parts of Turkey were sent to Smyrna for 
 the needed training, which has been, and still is, a most 
 important part of the work." In view of the importance 
 of the work several additional American kindergartners 
 were sent to Turkey. Miss Saunders, who was sent to 
 Smyrna to assist Miss Bartlett, "was loaned to Constanti- 
 nople after a year of faithful service, where in the midst 
 of great difficulty on account of the condition of the country, 
 she conducted a kindergarten training class and superin- 
 tended several kindergartens by sending them plans of 
 work." In Cesarea excellent work of the same kind was 
 done by Miss Burrage, in Mardin by Miss Graf, in Van by 
 Miss Huntington, and in Trebizond by Miss Halsey. 
 Kindergarten training is carried on in the Girls' College 
 at Marash by a native kindergartner, one of Miss Bartlett's 
 graduates. Such training is also given in the Girls' Board- 
 ing School at Marsovan. 
 
 Miss Bartlett stated further that in the twelve years that 
 had passed since the work was undertaken about fifty 
 young women and two young men had taken a course in 
 kindergarten training. The number of kindergartens 
 had increased until at the time that the article was written, 
 in 1896, there were twenty-eight, as has been stated, in 
 Asiatic Turkey alone. A number of these soon became 
 self-supporting. One, that at Yozgat, was supported by 
 the local Y. P. S. C. E. Some of them received more or
 
 96 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 less help from America. All but two were carried on in 
 the Turkish or Armenian language. English is used in 
 the one connected with the American College for Girls 
 at Constantinople, and the Greek children in the school at 
 Smyrna are taught in their own language. Miss Bartlett 
 concludes her article by saying: "If kindergartens are 
 desirable in America, they are tenfold more so in this 
 country. The kindergarten is now believed to be a neces- 
 sity in every mission station and there is a greater demand 
 for well-trained kindergartners than can be supplied." 
 
 Missionary effort in Japan has called the kindergarten 
 to its aid with most gratifying results. "The time was," 
 says a recent writer, "when missionaries worked mostly 
 for grown-up people, but the children are getting their 
 share, or a little of it these days, and kindergartens, Sunday 
 schools, Young People's Societies of Christian Endeavor, 
 and orphanages are helping to make life happier and better 
 for the children of Japan." Kindergartens were established 
 as a part of the Japanese public school system in 1876, 
 and in 1904 it was estimated that there were one hundred 
 eighty-two public and ninety-eight private kindergartens 
 in the country. The very fact of the ready acceptance of 
 the kindergarten by the Japanese people suggested their 
 value as a missionary agency. In 1889 Miss Annie L. 
 Howe, of Chicago, was sent to Japan by the American 
 Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions of the 
 Congregational Church, to open a kindergarten and a 
 kindergarten training department in Kobe College, one 
 of the most important centers for the training of girls.
 
 PERIOD OF EXTENSION; CHURCH WORK, ETC. 97 
 
 The kindergarten, called the Glory Kindergarten, was 
 immediately successful and has more than realized the 
 hopes of its founders. It now has two admirable build- 
 ings of its own, one for the kindergarten proper, and one a 
 home for the students in training. The latter was the 
 gift of Chicago friends, among whom was that stanch 
 friend of the kindergarten, Mrs. E. W. Blatchford. A 
 writer in Life and Light thus speaks of this kindergarten : 
 ''The most fascinating place in Kobe, and I except not 
 even the curio shops, the waterfall, or the walk over the 
 hills, is the dainty little kindergarten which Miss Howe 
 has mothered and which she is still mothering. Sight- 
 seers come, and usually before they left England or Amer- 
 ica some one had told them to look up the kindergarten. 
 But if, as sometimes happens, they do not know about it, 
 some one here is sure to say : ' Have you seen the kinder- 
 garten? Then you must go.' And go they do, only to 
 come away saying, as I myself heard at least two people 
 say recently, 'It is the most fascinating place in Japan.' 
 I have seen the kindergartens in Boston and other cities 
 and enthused over them, but all in all I still commend the 
 Glory Kindergarten." After commenting on the pictur- 
 esque costumes and the exquisite manners of the Japanese 
 children, the writer continues : " The rooms are large, 
 airy, and sunny, and filled with every kindergarten neces- 
 sity and many a luxury. Out in the yard each child has 
 his own fiower garden, which he cares for from the begin- 
 ning, and his flowers adorn the school and go out to visit 
 sick fellow-pupils. In winter each child has a plant and
 
 98 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 this he cares for in true kindergarten style, with song and 
 marching ; and he learns its habits as he watches its growth, 
 its budding, its blooming, and seeding from day to day. 
 The children also have birds belonging to the school to care 
 for, and in caring for them learn neatness and tenderness. 
 Each child, too, at one time or another, has his paste- 
 board and gauze box containing silkworms, and these he 
 feeds and watches through all their changes. In the cabi- 
 net in one of the rooms is a skein of silk spun, from the chil- 
 dren's own cocoons. It is not worth while going into further 
 details. All that is done at home is done here, and they 
 are not one whit behind in modern improvements." 
 
 Miss Howe herself thus speaks of the work: "When 
 the children who go to the public school stand up to receive 
 the certificate which they must take to their future teachers, 
 they will feel, and we shall too, that a step upward has been 
 taken. They will take with them the memory of the 
 many prayers, the songs about God, the Christmas songs, 
 the Bible stories they have come to know so well, the bless- 
 ing asked at luncheon time, the ideas they have gained of 
 the connection between flowers, fmit, grain, trees, — yes, 
 and even stones, and the God who made all these things 
 for us. They will keep on going to Sunday school, many 
 of them, and I am sure that all this they have learned in 
 a Christian kindergarten will influence them as long as they 
 live." In 1904 she said: "Kindergartens which have 
 won the confidence of the Japanese are very popular, and 
 it is not unusual to have applications filed two years in 
 advance, to secure a child's admission when he becomes
 
 PERIOD OF EXTENSION ; CHURCH WORK, ETC. 99 
 
 three years of age. A list of nearly two hundred applica- 
 tions has been known to be in waiting in October for 
 twenty vacancies which would occur in April, the time 
 when kindergarten children of six, according to Japanese 
 law, pass up to the elementary school." 
 
 In the first six years of its existence this kindergarten 
 had taught hundreds of children, the average attendance 
 being about seventy, and had graduated twenty-three 
 young women from the training course. The Congre- 
 gational Church in Japan had in 1903 twelve mission 
 stations, and four of these have adopted the kindergarten 
 as a regular part of their work. All of these have build- 
 ings of their own and are well equipped. Dr. Gordon, 
 one of the missionaries, wrote as follows some time ago 
 concerning one of the Kyoto kindergartens: "It has been 
 my privilege to be associated with one (kindergarten) 
 established here in connection with our 'Airinsha,' or 
 House of Neighborly Love, our headquarters for philan- 
 thropic and evangelical work in the city. The printed 
 account of the origin of the Airinsha stated that the kinder- 
 garten had added much to the reputation of the house, 
 and promised to be one of its most permanent attractions. 
 Since then the kindergarten has marched right along on 
 the road to success, so that we have now one head teacher 
 and two assistants, and the limit of pupils that we have 
 set is entirely filled. This kind of work appeals especially 
 to the Japanese, and now that sentiment is not so favorable 
 to Christianity as it was a few years ago, I know of no 
 other method equally helpful in reaching Japanese homes.
 
 lOO THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 The children are a delight to see. Nearly all of them 
 attend the Sunday school and help to make it the success 
 it is. The older brothers and sisters of the pupils, and 
 in some cases their nurses, come with them to the Sunday 
 school. The success of this kindergarten, as well as Miss 
 Howe's good work in Kobe, has called attention to its 
 importance." Here as elsewhere, in Japan and in other 
 countries, the opportunities of the work are limited only 
 by the lack of means and of teachers. 
 
 One of the greatest services that Miss Howe is rendering 
 the cause of kindergarten advancement in Japan is the 
 translation of Froebelian literature into Japanese. It 
 is difficult to realize the difficulty of training kindergartners 
 in a country where customs are strange, where the language 
 is unfamiliar, and where there are no helps of any kind, — 
 text-books, song books, or story books. " Miss Howe has a 
 genuine Japanese mother-play book of which she is very 
 proud," said a writer in speaking of her work in 1896. " She 
 says, 'I have proved over and over again that Froebel's 
 principles are as true in Japan as they are in Germany 
 and America, and since the best kindergarten work is 
 based upon that book, that book must be Japanned with- 
 out delay. It is now finished.' In translating and pub- 
 lishing the book, a young man, Sadato San, was her inval- 
 uable assistant ; and after nearly five years of effort it is 
 safely through the press. The Japanese artist conformed 
 the mother-play pictures to native canons and put in 
 many pretty and suggestive touches of the life of Japan, 
 yet he preserved the spirit of the subject wonderfully
 
 PERIOD OF extension; church work, etc. IOI 
 
 well. A song book adapting many kindergarten songs 
 from Eleanor Smith's and other song books in use in 
 American kindergartens has also been published in 
 Japanese." Another such book has since been pubished, 
 and in 1904 Froebel's "Education of Man," and several 
 other books, had been translated and were awaiting pub- 
 lication. The preparation of these books will be of value 
 to every kindergartner in the Japanese Empire. 
 
 The adoption of the kindergarten as a missionary 
 agency in Japan will have a most important influence 
 upon the character of mission work in the Orient, now 
 that that nation has assumed the leadership in the Far 
 East. In Japan, as in other countries where the kinder- 
 garten has been adopted, its value is twofold. It influences 
 the children at an age when impressions are most lasting, 
 and it proves to be one of the most effective agencies for 
 reaching the homes of the people. For these reasons 
 the social settlement considers the kindergarten one of 
 its strongest agencies. The most successful church work 
 at home and missionary work abroad is that which is 
 adopting settlement methods. The Protestant Church 
 is beginning to take to heart the lesson contained in a 
 conversation reported by Julian Ralph. " Do the materi- 
 alistic tendencies of the times weaken the Catholic Church 
 in America?" I once asked of a Paulist Father whom 
 I met on a railway train. "Oh, no," said he; "we 
 Catholics catch our people young and they never get away 
 from us. We hold that if we can have the care and 
 guidance of a child under seven years of age, it will always
 
 102 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 come back to the church in after years, in every important 
 crisis of grief or joy in Hfe. That is why our great church 
 is unaffected by the godlessness that alarms others. We 
 make Catholics of little children, and they never cease 
 to grow as the twig is bent."
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 The Period of Extension; The Kindergarten in 
 Temperance, Settlement, and Welfare Work 
 
 The adoption of the kindergarten by religious organi- 
 zations of different kinds brouglit it to the attention of 
 many people who might not otherwise have made its 
 acquaintance. It was brought to the notice of a still 
 larger class through its adoption by the temperance workers 
 of the country. The Woman's Christian Temperance 
 Union must therefore be given an important place among 
 the agencies that have aided in advancing the kindergarten 
 cause. This organization has been conspicuous for its 
 efforts to correct the evils resulting from the liquor traffic, 
 and to reform lives and homes blasted by the drink habit, 
 yet it has realized fully that the ultimate foundation for 
 temperance must be laid in education, and the value of 
 its educational work — less conspicuous than its corrective 
 efforts — has been beyond estimate. The organization 
 felt that intemperate husbands and fathers must be re- 
 claimed and poverty-stricken, discouraged mothers helped 
 to a higher plane, but that if the homes of the future were 
 to be safe, the mothers of the present, whether the victims 
 of intemperance or free from its blighting touch, must be 
 taught such methods of child training as will make their 
 
 103
 
 I04 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 children safe against the temptations of the lower senses. 
 It felt also that mothers must be awakened to their respon- 
 sibility for the kind of education provided in the school, 
 and to the need of cooperation with those who are working 
 for its improvement. 
 
 With these ideas in mind, the W. C. T. U. marked out 
 two special lines of w^ork that had an important bearing 
 upon kindergarten progress. To acquaint mothers with 
 the fundamental principles of child rearing as these are 
 embodied in the theory and practice of the kindergarten 
 was one; to stimulate them to effort in the direction of 
 kindergarten advancement, such as the incorporation of 
 the kindergarten into the school or the establishment of 
 mission kindergartens in localities where the drink habit 
 had worked the greatest havoc, was another. These 
 lines of work could not be successfully carried out, how- 
 ever, without carefully organized effort, and the coopera- 
 tion and leadership of kindergarten experts. The need 
 of a kindergarten department in W. C. T. U. work was 
 therefore felt, and such a department was subsequently 
 added to those already organized. Since the work with 
 mothers was felt to be of the greatest importance, a care- 
 fully planned course of study in Froebelian literature was 
 outlined, and local unions were urged to organize classes 
 for systematic work in this direction. The movement 
 was undertaken with much enthusiasm all over the land, 
 and its influence and value cannot be overestimated. As 
 a means of creating sentiment in favor of the kindergarten 
 nothing better could have been devised. Existing kinder-
 
 PERIOD OF extension; temperance work, etc. 105 
 
 garten literature was made the basis of the work done in 
 these study classes, and the W. C. T. U. itself published 
 several valuable pamphlets on the subject. Mrs. E. 
 G. Greene, who occupied the position of Superintendent 
 of the Kindergarten Department of the National 
 W. C. T. U. during the eighties, issued a pamphlet of 
 directions for local workers, called "Golden Keys," which 
 is a complete manual on the subject. It gave the reasons 
 why the W. C. T. U. had taken up the kindergarten as a 
 department of its work, the aims of the department, the 
 list of books to be read, and suggestions for conducting 
 the local study classes. 
 
 No less valuable for the kindergarten cause was the 
 work done by the W. C. T. U. in establishing kinder- 
 gartens. Owing to the fact that statistics concerning 
 the number so established or still maintained have been 
 difficult to obtain, some of the most important ones may 
 have been omitted in the list given below. The Central 
 W. C. T. U. of Chicago established such a kindergarten 
 in Bethel Mission in 1883, and maintained it for years. 
 The South Side Union also maintained one for years. 
 Other cities in which W. C. T. U. kindergartens are known 
 to have been established are : Evanston, 111., Philadelphia, 
 Pa., Grand Rapids, Battle Creek, and Big Rapids, Mich., 
 Albany, N.Y., Springfield, Vt., Portland, Me., Balitmore, 
 Md ., Toledo and Youngstown, O ., Minneapolis, Minn. , Lex- 
 ington, Ky., and Los Angeles, Lakeport, Berkeley, San 
 Francisco, National City, and San Jose, Cal. In the last- 
 named city the kindergarten was inaugurated by the W. C.
 
 I06 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 T. U. and later taken up by the public school authorities 
 The amount of work done by local, state, and national 
 workers in securing the incorporation of the kindergarten 
 into the school system cannot be ascertained or estimated. 
 Suggestions concerning the methods of effecting this are 
 frequent in W. C. T. U. literature. While Miss Mary 
 E. McDowell was superintendent of the kindergarten 
 department of the W. C. T. U., a department was edited 
 in The Kindergarten News under the heading " W. C. T. U. 
 Kindergartens." In this the following suggestions were 
 made. " By offering to support a kindergarten in a public 
 school building for a year you will be giving an ignorant 
 public and an indifferent school board an object lesson 
 which may result in the adoption of the system as a part 
 of the school work." A later suggestion is to the effect 
 that "Legislation needs influencing also." "Laws incor- 
 porating the kindergarten as a part of the state public 
 system should be passed by every state." Such legislation 
 was effected through the efforts of the W. C. T. U. in at 
 least two states, — Vermont and Michigan, — in the 
 former in 1887 and in the latter in 1891. The discussion 
 of kindergarten work in local, state, and national 
 W. C. T. U. conventions, the addresses delivered by 
 the superintendents of the kindergarten department, state 
 and national, the published reports of the work accom- 
 plished by the kindergarten department, added to the 
 influence of the kindergartens established and the mothers' 
 clubs conducted, combine to form an influence that to a 
 greater or less degree penetrated to every city, town, and
 
 PERIOD OF EXTENSION ; TEMPERANCE WORK, ETC. 107 
 
 hamlet in the country. The kindergartners of the country 
 owe to the W. C. T. U. a great debt of gratitude for the 
 work that organization has effected in behalf of the kinder- 
 garten cause. 
 
 Among the newer agencies to acquaint the public with 
 the kindergarten and its work is the social settlement. 
 The growing desire to render needed social service was 
 one factor in the organization of kindergarten associa- 
 tions and like forms of philanthropic effort. The desire 
 to minister to those in social, intellectual, and spiritual 
 need gave birth likewise to the settlement, — the agency 
 that more than any other expresses the spirit of the present 
 age. So akin are the social settlement and the kinder- 
 garten in spirit that several head residents of settlements 
 were originally kindergartners, and several well-known 
 settlements began as mission kindergartens and became 
 settlements by the natural expansion of their work. This 
 is true of the Neighborhood House in Chicago, of the East 
 Side Settlement in Detroit, of the Neighborhood Settle- 
 ment in Milwaukee, of Bissell House in Grand Rapids, 
 of Kingsley House in New Orleans, and of several others 
 that might be named. Other settlements are still in the 
 process of evolution from the kindergarten stage. In 
 Boston the day nurseries have grown into settlements. 
 The kindergarten places emphasis upon the natural 
 instincts of childhood, — upon its love of companionship, 
 its desire for activity, its love for the beautiful, and its 
 yearning for knowledge. The educational process as 
 interpreted by the kindergarten consists in the direction
 
 Io8 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 and utilization of these instincts for the furthering of the 
 child's intellectual and moral development. The settle- 
 ment recognizes the validity of these instincts in children 
 of a larger growth, and seeks to develop and direct them 
 in like fashion. The settlement has therefore been termed 
 a kindergarten for adults. It is the recognition of these 
 principles that gives form and purpose to settlement work. 
 Is the neighborhood in which it operates lacking in oppor- 
 tunities for social enjoyment? The settlement must 
 provide means and occasions to meet that need. Is there 
 intellectual hunger which the locality has no means of 
 satisfying? Study classes must be formed and other 
 avenues to knowledge opened. Is appreciation of art 
 needed, and are standards in its expression lacking? 
 Art appreciation must be awakened and cultivated by 
 exhibits or class instruction, and by concerts and musical 
 societies. Like the kindergartner, the settlement worker 
 must find the point of contact in those with whom she is 
 working and through spontaneous interest and active 
 effort lead to an appreciation of fundamental truths and 
 governing principles. The settlement has, as a rule, no 
 dogma to inculcate, like the church ; no doctrine to which 
 it wishes to convert the public, like the kindergarten 
 association, and no special purpose to accomplish, like 
 the W. C. T. U. As the kindergarten furnishes an all- 
 round development because it meets the child's varied 
 needs, so the settlement aims to develop the community 
 to which it ministers by providing for its many-sided needs. 
 In this lies both its strength and its limitation. The
 
 PERIOD OF extension; TEMPERANCE WORK, ETC. lOQ 
 
 settlement did not adopt the various forms of manual 
 training for its clubs and classes from a desire to further 
 the manual training movement, although it is aiding the 
 progress of manual training as a factor in education. It 
 did not teach art or music for the sake of advancing the 
 cause of art education, although it is doing so most effec- 
 tively. It did not include the kindergarten among its 
 agencies from a desire to promulgate the doctrines of 
 Froebel, although it is doing much for their acceptance. 
 It recognized the kinship between the spirit and method 
 of the kindergarten and those of its own, and adopted that 
 institution as a perfect instrument for the accomplish- 
 ment of its own ends. It has advanced the cause of the 
 kindergarten, but in its own way. The settlement move- 
 ment is not centrally organized. It has no machinery 
 like the W. C. T. U. by means of which it can instill a 
 given doctrine into the minds of the many. It has no 
 work mapped out by a central authority which each 
 settlement is supposed to take as a working guide. Each 
 settlement is an independent unit, working in fraternal 
 relation to other settlements, but acknowledging no central 
 authority. And yet the settlement has rendered a great 
 service to the kindergarten cause and to the cause of the 
 new education. It has taken a strong hold upon the public 
 imagination. Its residents, mostly young college men and 
 women, are those who will aid in shaping the educational 
 thought and practice of the future. The young men and 
 women now in college, however, are still largely the product 
 of the old educational regime, and the college ideal is
 
 no THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 still mainly the intellectual one. Since child study is 
 not an integral part of the average college course, few 
 college students have an acquaintance with the nature 
 and needs of early childhood, or a knowledge of the new 
 educational movements. Few of those who undertake 
 residence in a settlement have come into working contact 
 with a kindergarten, or with children's clubs, playgrounds, 
 and vacation schools in which its principles are applied. 
 That the aim of the settlement and that of the kindergarten 
 are identical, that successful settlement work is that which 
 is based upon the methods employed in the kindergarten 
 — these are arguments in favor of the kindergarten that 
 are convincing and unanswerable. The settlement may 
 not have intentionally preached the doctrines of Froebel, 
 but it has practiced them in every phase of its work. In 
 the playground, the children's club, the vacation school, 
 nay, in the very settlement itself, one may read the phi- 
 losophy of the kindergarten writ large. The settlement 
 has baptized many a college man and woman into a new 
 spirit ; it has given them a new insight into the meaning 
 of education and of Christianity. It has lent an interest 
 to work with children that is liable to be sadly lacking in 
 college graduates. If it had done nothing more for the 
 kindergarten than to introduce it thus to college people, it 
 would deserve the gratitude of every friend of the kinder- 
 garten movement. But it has done more, — it is inter- 
 preting Froebel anew to the kindcrgartners themselves. 
 At the Chicago meeting of the International Kindergarten 
 Union, Miss Jane Addams told the kindcrgartners there
 
 PERIOD OF extension; temperance work, etc. Ill 
 
 assembled that if Froebel were to come back to earth he 
 would be distinctly disappointed to find the kindergartners 
 so largely occupied with children only, since his is a 
 theory of life, and not of child education alone. The 
 follower of Froebel who is not making the kindergarten 
 a center for neighborhood work has not, in Miss Addams' 
 judgment, grasped the whole significance of Froebel's 
 doctrine. That she needs to look away from the details 
 of kindergarten technique and study the social significance 
 of Froebel's philosophy is the message of the settlement 
 to the kindergartner of to-day. By its adoption of the 
 kindergarten the settlement has interpreted it to the public 
 in a larger and higher sense. It is the kindergartner's 
 duty to see that the public is not disappointed. 
 
 It is of interest to know that the first two settlements 
 opened in the United States, the University Settlement in 
 New York and Hull House in Chicago, have had kinder- 
 gartens from the beginning, and that nearly if not quite 
 half of the two hundred settlements listed in the "Bibli- 
 ography of Settlements" for 1905 include the kindergarten 
 among their agencies. Here, too, incomplete returns 
 make a complete statement impossible. There can be 
 no question concerning the place that the kindergarten 
 occupies in the estimation of Hull House. Its equipment 
 for the work with children is exceptionally complete, and 
 its Children's Building, erected in 1896, for the special 
 use of the neighborhood children may well serve as a 
 model for other settlements. It is four stories high, and 
 contains completely equipped club rooms, a nursery, a
 
 112 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 general playroom, and a kindergarten room that is a model 
 of beauty and convenience. The superintendent of the 
 nursery is a trained kindergartner who also superintends 
 the games and plays, the playgrounds, the children's 
 clubs, and all matters pertaining to the child life of the 
 neighborhood. The kindergarten has been at different 
 times in the hands of the most choice and talented kinder- 
 gartners of Chicago. One of the oldest kindergarten 
 training schools in the West, that conducted for more than 
 thirty years by Mrs. Alice H. Putnam, gathered its students 
 under the Hull House roof for several years, in the con- 
 viction that the contact with the social conditions of a 
 settlement would add to the practical value of professional 
 kindergarten training. Other settlements too have served 
 the kindergarten cause in this manner. The classes of 
 the Chicago Kindergarten Institute met for several years 
 at the settlement conducted under the auspices of the 
 University of Chicago, and Chicago Commons is the per- 
 manent home of the Pestalozzi-Froebel Training School. 
 In giving the kindergarten students an insight into child 
 life in large cities and in acquainting them with kinder- 
 garten principles in this larger interpretation, these settle- 
 ments ha"° rendered an additional service to the kinder- 
 garten cause. 
 
 Closely allied to settlement work in many respects is 
 the welfare work now being undertaken by many large 
 business firms with the cooperation and for the benefit 
 of their employees. Employers are beginning to recognize 
 — apart from any moral concern that they may feel for
 
 PERIOD OF extension; temperance work, etc, 113 
 
 those in their employ — that clean and wholesome con- 
 ditions of labor will attract a better class of workers and 
 produce more and better work than will the opposite; 
 in consequence, a general improvement in factory condi- 
 tions is taking place. Attractive lunch and rest rooms 
 are being provided, factory grounds are being beautified, 
 educational facilities are being offered, and wholesome 
 and helpful recreation is being furnished. The benefit 
 does not as a rule extend beyond the employees themselves 
 excepting indirectly, but in several conspicuous instances 
 direct provision has been made for the welfare of the 
 families of the employees, and in some cases such benefit 
 has been extended to the community. Herbert H. Vree- 
 land, Chairman of the Welfare Department of the National 
 Civic Federation, says: "Realizing that men could not do 
 their best work unless their homes were what they should 
 be, classes in domestic science have been organized to 
 teach the proper preparation and serving of food, how 
 to buy groceries, the desirability of cleanliness in the 
 house, and how to make comfortable and economical 
 clothing. It goes without saying that a good wholesome 
 meal will make a more contented and efficient workman, 
 and that the disappearance of slovenliness from the house- 
 hold will make the fireside an attractive and winning 
 competitor of the saloon when the day's work is over." 
 The National Cash Register Company of Dayton, Ohio, 
 maintains "a model cottage such as working people can 
 provide for themselves, which serves as an object lesson 
 of how to make such a home pretty and attractive." It
 
 114 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 is presided over by a deaconess and operates as a sort of 
 social settlement. This "House of Usefulness," as it is 
 deservedly called, has indirectly taught many a lesson in 
 home making and keeping, and has been of the greatest 
 service in many wa,ys. 
 
 To increase the happiness and efficiency of the worker, 
 provision must also be made for the welfare of his children. 
 Playgrounds, gardens, clubs, and classes of different 
 kinds have therefore been provided in several instances, 
 to occupy the hours that the older children spend out of 
 school, and kindergartens have been established and 
 maintained for the benefit of the younger children. The 
 National Cash Register Company already mentioned has 
 maintained for several years a kindergarten in which a 
 hundred or more children are enrolled. The author of 
 "Factory People and Their Employees" describes the 
 work of this company at some length. He says, quoting 
 the reasons given by President Patterson, of the company 
 named, for the establishment of the kindergarten: "An 
 employer of a large number of men owes it to himself to 
 obtain the very best men possible, and to his employees 
 to give them and their families every opportunity for their 
 best development. If the city in which the factory is 
 placed does not itself offer complete forms of education, 
 then it is within his province to set an example showing 
 what can be done by the best schools. His purpose in 
 carrying out these ideas is not to do these things per- 
 manently but to show his own city their value." This 
 Mr. Patterson has done so fully, in the judgment of the
 
 PERIOD OF extension; temperance work, etc. 115 
 
 author quoted, that the city of Dayton now has a complete 
 system of kindergartens, all the result of the example 
 of the kindergarten connected with his factory. The 
 author quoted adds: "Mr. Patterson believes that he 
 is in business not for a few years but for many, and that 
 the diflficulties of the past in obtaining workmen with 
 bright ideas may be overcome by training the children of 
 the present. Since 92 per cent of them will earn their 
 living by manual labor, it is certainly proper to give them 
 that early training which will make them the best work- 
 men when they are grown. In short he expects his factory 
 to need skilled labor and more of it for many years to 
 come, and thinks that it is wisdom to assist in preparing 
 for the future. He finds, too, that even so-called unskilled 
 labor gives better service when the early training has been 
 along right lines." "He also recognizes," continues the 
 author in question, "that in his efforts to win the good-will 
 of his operatives nothing will be more successful than 
 opportunities given to the children of these men. Men 
 of all classes appreciate what is done for their sons and 
 daughters more than any other favors shown. Thought- 
 fulness, therefore, on the part of the employers for the fam- 
 ilies of the operatives must receive large returns in more 
 kindly feelings on the part of the men themselves. Expe- 
 rience, not only in this factory but in others, has proved 
 this to be a true statement of the purpose of this work." 
 The kindergarten conducted by this company is held 
 in the model cottage mentioned. In it the children's 
 clubs and classes also meet, as well as the cooking and
 
 Il6 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 sewing classes, the kindergarten association, the women's 
 guilds, and other associations. So valuable does Presi- 
 dent Patterson consider kindergarten training and the 
 kind of education of which it is the type, that a rule has 
 been made that after 191 5 no one shall be employed in 
 the factory who has not had kindergarten training. Such 
 endorsement of the kindergarten by practical business 
 men is worth much to the kindergarten cause, and it 
 cannot fail to call the kindergarten to the attention of 
 others, either as a feature for adoption in the welfare 
 work of business firms, or for adoption into the school 
 system of such cities as have not yet given it consideration. 
 That the action of the National Cash Register Company 
 has done much to further educational progress in the city 
 of Dayton cannot be questioned. It has not only set the 
 seal of its approval upon the kindergarten, but upon man- 
 ual training, gardening, and playgrounds, which are its 
 legitimate outgrowths. 
 
 The business firm that must be awarded the banner for 
 the extent to which it has adopted the kindergarten as a 
 feature of its welfare work is the Colorado Fuel and Iron 
 Company, of Pueblo, Col. This company owns forty 
 properties consisting of coal, manganese, and iron mines, 
 and coke camps, in Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, and New 
 Mexico. It employs about fifteen thousand men, 
 speaking not less than twenty-seven different languages. 
 It carries on a completely organized system of welfare 
 work, the outgrowth of a kindergarten started in one of 
 the mining camps in 1892 by Mrs. J. A. Kebler, the wife
 
 PERIOD OF extension; TEMPERANCE WORK, ETC. II 7 
 
 of the general manager of the company, who afterward 
 became the president. This was before the legislature 
 had enacted a law making the maintenance of public 
 kindergartens possible. The success of this first kinder- 
 garten was such that others were soon opened, with which 
 certain features of welfare work were connected. This 
 phase of work has grown until there are thirteen kinder- 
 gartens in as many localities, each the center of work of 
 the social settlement type. The company has organized 
 a department called the sociological department, which 
 carries on a complete system of work for the social better- 
 ment of the sixty thousand or more people that it reaches. 
 The company received a gold medal at the St. Louis 
 Exposition for the exhibit of the kindergartens in its 
 mining camps, and several other medals for other features 
 of its work. 
 
 The work of this company is unique in many particulars, 
 and deserves the highest commendation from many stand- 
 points. It recognized the importance of education for 
 its employees and their wives as well as for their children, 
 and it has therefore taken an active interest in the schools 
 of the forty different communities in which it operates. 
 These communities are mostly small towns of from five 
 hundred to four thousand inhabitants, in which, through 
 the cooperation of the company, the school has become 
 the social and intellectual center to an extent that would 
 delight the advocates of the larger use of school buildings. 
 The schoolhouses are built with this purpose in mind. 
 They are two stories in height, and in addition to the class
 
 Il8 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 rooms, contain a kindergarten room and a hall, where the 
 lectures, concerts, and social gatherings of the community 
 are held. "The credit for building and inspiring these 
 modern schoolhouses must be given to the Colorado 
 Fuel and Iron Company, in whose camps they are found 
 and at whose request they were built," says Dr. R. W. 
 Corwin, the superintendent of the sociological depart- 
 ment. " In a number of instances the plans of the build- 
 ings were furnished by the company, and when the school 
 fund was inadequate the company advanced thousands 
 of dollars for the erection and equipment of the structure. 
 The buildings in the southern fields are likely to be models 
 of all future schools in the coal camps." 
 
 This company has made a new application of the idea 
 of making the school the center of its community life, 
 in setting apart special houses for the use of the teachers. 
 These serve a double purpose. Dr. Corwin says again: 
 "One of the problems which has long confronted the de- 
 partment is that of providing for its teachers and workers 
 permanent boarding places and rooms. It is desired 
 furthermore to have some place in each camp which may 
 serve as a model for camp housekeepers, and which may 
 be a sociological headquarters and a center for social 
 work. In view of these needs the company has set aside, 
 or built in a number of camps, houses for distinctly 
 sociological purposes. As many rooms as are necessary 
 for the accommodation of teachers and workers are 
 furnished, leaving the remainder of the house to a family 
 for occupancy, so that the teachers may not live entirely
 
 PERIOD OF extension; temperance work, etc. 119 
 
 alone. The furnishings of the teachers' rooms are thor- 
 oughly practical and sanitary, and are intended to serve 
 as a standard of taste from which housekeepers may 
 realize how much may be accomplished with compara- 
 tively small expenditure." 
 
 It is in these homes that many of the women's and 
 children's clubs and classes are held. "At first the people 
 seemed reluctant about coming to the house to receive 
 lessons in cooking and sewing," says Dr. Corwin. "This 
 feeling, however, soon wore away and they now begin to 
 feel that the house is for their benefit as well as for the 
 teachers. They are much interested in the furnishings, 
 and take special care to notice the arrangement and 
 quality of the furniture; the condition of the cupboards, 
 dresser-drawers, etc. Such details as the folding of the 
 towels, table linen, and bed linen are also particularly 
 noted. The sanitary couch has caused much comment. 
 Many have expressed a wish to have their houses papered 
 just like the teacher's house." 
 
 But it is the work of the kindergartens themselves that 
 is of the greatest interest. As stated, these are thirteen 
 in number, and accommodate nearly if not quite five 
 hundred children. Some of them are located in buildings 
 erected especially for this purpose, but for the most part 
 they have comfortable rooms in the public school. The 
 enrollment varies from twenty-five to sixty-three. With 
 one exception they have a morning session only, the kinder- 
 gartner's time in the afternoon being given to club and 
 class work with the older children. Of the work in the
 
 I20 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 kindergartens themselves the superintendent, Mrs. Mar- 
 garet Grabill, says: "Our constituency makes necessary 
 a few noteworthy differences in methods from those of 
 the ordinary kindergartens. Many of the children come 
 to us with no knowledge of English. This makes the 
 first work with them difficult, but it is astonishing how 
 soon they learn to speak and sing. Because of the de- 
 ficiency in language a greater degree of occupation and 
 constructive work is given, since the children can imitate 
 the teacher's work long before they can understand or 
 follow language. An extensive use is made of pictures and 
 objects. The kindergartner is obliged to employ more 
 than the usual amount of rhythm and physical culture 
 work, as the little bodies are stiff and untrained. Many 
 more than the usual number of games are played, and 
 here again the progress is remarkable. Much time has 
 been devoted to nature study, illustrated by construction 
 work, in many cases exceptionally good considering 
 the little hands that made it. Fairy stories, patriotism, 
 courage, kindness, and gentleness have been illustrated 
 in this way, and also by free-hand cutting, drawing, and 
 water coloring. 
 
 "In 1903 an exhibit of kindergarten work was made at 
 the Colorado State Fair held in Pueblo, and the diploma 
 awarded for the best work was given to our display. 
 A much more complete display was sent to St. Louis, where 
 it attracted considerable attention because of its unique 
 character and excellent workmanship. Whole mining 
 camps, farmyards, houses and barns, gardens, windmills,
 
 PERIOD OF extension; temperance work, etc. 121 
 
 kindergarten rooms, four and five roomed houses, each 
 room furnished appropriately, and all made by the little 
 children, were among the features of the display." 
 
 The benefit that the children derive from the work of 
 the kindergarten is not the only one aimed at in such work 
 as this. "From two standpoints the kindergarten is a 
 factor of more than average importance," says one of the 
 reports. "Not only does it begin the all-round develop- 
 ment of the child at the most impressionable period, but 
 it is in this field the master key to the whole social better- 
 ment situation. The kindergarten has had far more 
 success than any other institution in dealing with our 
 foreign people. By careful and tactful visitation and 
 invitation the kindergartner dispels suspicion and secures 
 the patronage of all nationalities. It enables her to get 
 into the homes and win the confidence of the mothers. 
 Then mothers' clubs are formed. In one camp there is 
 a club of fifty members. In another a child study club 
 is successfully carried on. This is composed entirely 
 of English-speaking mothers. In still other camps 
 mothers' meetings are carried on, foreign mothers attend- 
 ing, and music and industrial work supplying the place of 
 papers and discussions. In nearly every instance the 
 foreign mothers have taken an interest in this social better- 
 ment work as far as they have been able to understand, 
 and especially have the calls of the kindcrgartners and 
 the little entertainments of the kindergarten children been 
 instrumental in winning the way to their hearts." With 
 such a variety of nationalities it is not strange that a
 
 122 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 knowledge of Spanish and Italian should be required on 
 the part of the kindergartners. 
 
 One is tempted to dwell at too great a length upon the 
 admirable work done by this company. "The spread 
 of the kindergarten movement during the past twenty or 
 thirty years had been a significant part in the educational 
 life of America. But kindergartens in a mining com- 
 munity supported entirely by a mining corporation are, 
 as far as we know, unknown outside the camps of the 
 Colorado Fuel and Iron Company," says Dr. Corwin, 
 with justifiable pride. The company thoroughly under- 
 stands the principles upon which the kindergarten is 
 based, and appreciates the fact that by its means from 
 one to two years are added to the children's school life. 
 Since at least 25 per cent of the camp children do not 
 complete the eighth grade, this is of the greatest value. 
 The work done by this company is an object lesson to the 
 whole country of what may be done in an industrial 
 community in the direction of educational and social 
 betterment, by wisely directed humanitarian effort. 
 
 Within recent years the kindergarten has also been 
 taken up by several of the cotton mill owners of the 
 Southern states. Detailed information concerning these 
 has been difficult to obtain. Among the mills in which 
 kindergartens are known to have been established are 
 the Elsas, and the Exposition Cotton Mills of Atlanta, 
 the Millingham Mills of Columbus, Ga., the Avondale 
 Mills in Alabama, the Richland, Olympia, and Granby 
 Mills of Columbia, S.C., and the Pelzer Mills of Pelzer,
 
 PERIOD OF EXTENSION ; TEMPERANCE WORK, ETC. 1 23 
 
 in the same state. The Eagle and Phoenix Company 
 has opened two kindergartens within the past three years, 
 one in Girard and one in Phoenix City, each of which 
 will accommodate seventy-five or more children. The 
 building at Girard was recently described as elegant and 
 attractive, an ornament to the part of the city in which 
 it is situated. The interior is of Georgia pine and the 
 furniture is of the same material and finish. It has the 
 needed cloakrooms, a bathroom, an anteroom, and a 
 raised platform in the main room for the accommodation 
 of visitors. The provision for the comfort and happiness 
 of the children is not confined to the building alone. 
 An outdoor gymnasium, equipped with all necessary 
 apparatus, and flower and vegetable gardens, give the 
 children opportunity for play and exercise out of doors. 
 The grounds are ornamental as well as ample, and 
 serve as an ideal for the beautification of lawns and 
 dooryards. 
 
 Judging from an item that appeared in one of the kinder- 
 garten periodicals shortly before these kindergartens were 
 opened, the idea originated at least in part with the opera- 
 tives themselves. It stated that "the Central Federation 
 of Labor, composed of representatives of all the labor 
 unions of Columbus and of the Alabama suburbs of 
 Phoenix and Girard, is planning with the aid of Mr. 
 George J. Baldwin, a prominent Savannah capitalist 
 who has extensive interests in Columbus, to start a kinder- 
 garten for the children of the working population. This 
 is, so far as known, the first attempt made anywhere by
 
 124 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 trades' unions to promote an educational idea." In 
 these kindergartens, as in others of the kind, the company 
 pays all the expense, the salaries of the kindergartners 
 included. Other business firms that are known to sup- 
 port kindergartens as a part of their welfare work are the 
 Solvay Process Company, of Syracuse, N.Y., the Illinois 
 Steel Company of Joliet, 111., the Plymouth Cordage 
 Company of Plymouth, Mass., and the Bardeen Paper 
 Company of Otsego, Mich. With the present interest 
 in welfare work, the example of these firms will doubtless 
 be followed by others in the near future. 
 
 The adoption of the kindergarten by these different 
 agencies, religious, philanthropic, and educational, has 
 been of the greatest value to the kindergarten and to 
 education in general. It has interested thousands of 
 women in education that would not otherwise have made 
 a study of educational problems. It has given them nobler 
 conceptions of motherhood and childhood, and acquainted 
 them with the fundamental principles of child training. 
 The connection with an organization interested in kinder- 
 garten advancement has broadened the range of many 
 women's interests. It acquainted them with the problems 
 of the city, social, economic, educational, and religious. 
 It showed them the need for philanthropic effort, and led 
 them to an appreciation of the character that such effort 
 should assume. It awakened many to the appeal that 
 beauty makes to a little child and, as a result, to the value 
 of art in popular education. It did much to bring about 
 the acceptance of the new educational ideals and un-
 
 PERIOD OF EXTENSION ; TEMPERANCE WORK, ETC. 1 25 
 
 doubtedly influenced the character of education in women's 
 colleges. 
 
 As to the kindergarten itself, one can only guess what 
 its present status would have been had not the influence 
 of these different agencies — the church, the settlement, 
 and others of a like character — been exerted in its behalf. 
 The footsteps of its progress would have been slow indeed 
 to all appearances, had it depended upon the school 
 alone. It would have lacked, also, the many-sided inter- 
 pretation that has made it a significant influence in Ameri- 
 can life. The church has called attention to the religious 
 aspect of its doctrine; philanthropic organizations have 
 called public attention to its social significance; and the 
 school has pointed out the educational value of its under- 
 lying principles. But each is a part of the whole, and in 
 emphasizing the different aspects of the Froebelian doc- 
 trine, each of these agencies has aided in interpreting 
 the whole. It is the Froebelian doctrine in its entirety 
 that is making the kindergarten the influence in American 
 life that it is to-day. 
 
 But these facts, which are gratefully acknowledged by 
 every intelligent kindergartner, should not blind the stu- 
 dent of the movement to certain disadvantages that have 
 resulted from the adoption of the kindergarten as a phil- 
 anthropic agency. One of these disadvantages arises 
 from the close connection that has been established in 
 the public mind between the kindergarten and the creche 
 or day nursery. The two have frequently been estab- 
 lished together, both serving a philanthropic purpose.
 
 126 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 In consequence the kindergarten is regarded by thousands 
 as being little if anything more than an advanced form 
 of the day nursery, whose purpose is served if the children 
 are kept clean, happy, and off the streets. Many mission 
 kindergartens unfortunately justify this impression. The 
 large number of children frequently enrolled, — much 
 too large for effective work, — the economy exercised in 
 the use of material, the low salaries paid, — these and 
 other conditions that too frequently prevail in philanthropic 
 work, have done much to obscure the real educational 
 value of the kindergarten. In speaking of the kinder- 
 garten as a charity agency, and having in mind the con- 
 ditions mentioned. Professor Earl Barnes says, "A silver 
 spoon may be a very good instrument to scrape an iron 
 kettle with, but it is very hard on the spoon." 
 
 The deterioration of the kindergarten itself under the 
 conditions too frequent in the charity kindergarten and 
 the obscuring of its educational significance to the public 
 are not the only disadvantages arising from its adoption 
 as a charity agency. The mission kindergartner often 
 undertook her work as a labor of love and asked for no 
 remuneration. If salaries were paid they were wholly 
 out of proportion to the services rendered. The kinder- 
 gartners' services therefore did not reach a true valuation 
 in the educational labor market. When the kindergarten 
 became a part of the public school system this occasioned 
 difficulties that in many places have not even yet been 
 satisfactorily adjusted. Salary conditions are improving 
 in the kindergarten world, but many kindergartners are
 
 PERIOD OF EXTENSION ; TEMPERANCE WORK, ETC. 1 27 
 
 Still suffering from the conditions that first determined 
 the salaries paid. 
 
 The adoption of the kindergarten as a charity had 
 another result from which the kindergarten of the present 
 is suffering. That the kindergarten training could not 
 be other than superficial when the purpose of the organi- 
 zation that provided it was fundamentally philanthropic 
 has been elsewhere stated. The standard of entrance 
 could not be high under such conditions, or the number 
 of students would be too small to carry out the philan- 
 thropy in question. The training teacher or teachers 
 employed could not be of the best, as the conditions of the 
 treasury made it impossible. The time for theoretical 
 training must be limited, since the students were needed 
 for practical work in the kindergartens. In consequence 
 many poorly trained kindergartners were sent out. To 
 bring kindergarten training out of the condition which 
 gave it its present form, and to place it on a level with 
 training given to other teachers, is one of the pressing 
 problems in the kindergarten to-day. 
 
 The disadvantages which the kindergarten has suf- 
 fered from its adoption by some of the agencies named 
 are, however, more than offset by the advantages it derived 
 from such adoption. Had it not been for the kindergarten 
 association, the church, and the settlement, the circle of 
 those to whom the kindergarten is known would have 
 been a limited one; as a result of the efforts of these 
 agencies, it is known to every person of intelligence 
 throughout the country. In this and other respects too
 
 128 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 many to be enumerated the services which philanthropy 
 and religion have rendered the kindergarten cause can- 
 not be overestimated and kindergartners everywhere are 
 grateful that their beloved institution has been deemed 
 worthy of such support.
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 The Period of Extension; The Kindergarten and 
 Educational Organizations and Exhibitions 
 
 The growing appreciation of the kindergarten during 
 the first few years of the new decade recorded in the last 
 chapters was mainly outside of the teaching ranks. It 
 was natural and fitting that the doctrines of Froebel 
 should appeal first to mothers, and proof of their funda- 
 mental value that such was the case. But a movement 
 of such vigor and power could not fail to make an impres- 
 sion upon educators, and even if they had turned a deaf 
 ear to kindergarten appeals, the insistence of the kinder- 
 garten advocates within the teaching ranks, cooperating 
 with the body of enthusiasts in the larger world, would 
 eventually have compelled them to listen. The increasing 
 Froebel ian literature, the growing approval of kinder- 
 garten theory, the proved adaptability of the kinder- 
 garten to public school conditions, and the increasing 
 emphasis upon the aesthetic element in education, — 
 all these were influences tending toward its ultimate 
 adoption by the school. 
 
 But the educational leaders themselves began to take 
 steps to bring the kindergarten before the teachers of the 
 country. The educational press and educational organi- 
 K 129
 
 130 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 zations — state and national — have played a most impor- 
 tant part in advancing the kindergarten cause. At 
 its first meeting in 1872 the National Educational Associa- 
 tion had presented the doctrines of Froebel to the con- 
 sideration of the American educational public, and before 
 1880 the cause of the kindergarten had been given several 
 hearings before that body. But something more was 
 needed than an occasional presentation of the kindergarten 
 on the general program, and at the meeting at Madison, 
 in 1884, steps were taken by which a kindergarten depart- 
 ment was created. This was an important step for both 
 kindergarten and general education. The program of 
 the National Educational Association had not been of 
 such a character as to attract kindergartners to its meet- 
 ings, and such meetings as the kindergartners had held 
 themselves had been attended by few if any of the teachers 
 and superintendents of the country. The organization 
 of the kindergarten department of the National Educa- 
 tional Association was therefore an important step in 
 taking the kindergarten out of its isolation and giving 
 it a place in the general educational system. If the kinder- 
 gartners hoped for the ultimate adoption of the kinder- 
 garten by the school, they needed to acquaint themselves 
 further with school problems and conditions and if the 
 school was to incorporate the kindergarten into the general 
 system of education, the teachers needed an added famil- 
 iarity with its aims and methods. What better means 
 could be devised to acquaint each with the purposes of 
 the other? At the first meeting of the department at
 
 PERIOD OF extension; organizations, etc. 131 
 
 Saratoga, the president, W. N. Hailman, thus stated the 
 main purpose of those who had taken the initiative in 
 bringing about its organization. "To secure a thorough 
 testing and sifting of kindergarten principles and methods, 
 and to devise ways and means for the full and generous 
 application of what may be found valuable and available 
 in the ' educational work of the school. The efficiency 
 of the kindergarten in the unfolding and filling of child 
 life in its earliest stages has been brought to the petitioners 
 (for the creation of the department) so unmistakably, 
 that they yearn to secure for the school the powerful and 
 beneficent influences involved. The chief problems which 
 they hope the kindergarten department to solve are : 
 
 First: What are the principles and methods by which 
 the kindergarten arouses even in little children, so deep, 
 broad, and generous an interest in life and the things of 
 life ? How does it at so early a period in child life secure 
 that thoughtful mastery of self and surroundings which 
 is the root of all character and efficiency in life? How 
 does it secure that rounded and complete living that 
 neglects no faculty, strains no faculty, docs violence to no 
 faculty, but leads them all into a healthy growing activity 
 that makes life consciously worth living at every step? 
 
 Second : To what extent do these principles and methods 
 apply to the period of school life? 
 
 In the twenty-two years that have passed since the or- 
 ganization of the department, the National Educational 
 Association has met in the following cities, in the order 
 named: Saratoga, Topeka, Chicago, San Francisco,
 
 132 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Nashville, St. Paul, Toronto, Saratoga, Milwaukee, 
 Washington, Asbury Park, Denver, Buffalo, Los Angeles, 
 Charleston, Detroit, Minneapolis, Boston, St. Louis, 
 New York, and Los Angeles. The benefit of these 
 meetings to the kindergarten cause is simply incalculable. 
 The importance of the occasion and the character of the 
 audience has stimulated every kindergartner who has 
 appeared on the program to her very best effort. The cause 
 of the kindergarten has been strengthened in every com- 
 munity in which the meetings have been held, because of the 
 presence of the leaders in the movement. The thousands of 
 programs sent out and reports published have familiarized 
 the public with every phase of kindergarten effort. Oppor- 
 tunity has been afforded the kindergarten leaders to 
 become personally acquainted with the men and women 
 who are shaping the direction of general education. To 
 the Association it brought the stimulus of fresh and vital 
 problems; the reenforcement resulting from the influence 
 of a new and enthusiastic body of workers ; and a general 
 increase in educational intelligence and interest. The 
 reports of the early meetings indicate that the car of kinder- 
 garten progress did not always move as smoothly and 
 rapidly as its friends could have wished. "The new 
 department was forced to work its way in the midst of 
 great discouragements, outside as well as inside the edu- 
 cational profession," said one writer. "It was brought, 
 like all similar reform movements, face to face with 
 prejudice, skepticism, ignorance, and ridicule. It held its 
 own, however, from year to year, presented an annual
 
 PERIOD OF extension; organizations, etc. 133 
 
 program to its members, gaining here a little more respect, 
 there a trifle more encouragement and vantage ground. 
 One by one progressive educators paused in passing by 
 the kindergarten door to hear what was being said inside." 
 But the interest continued to grow, and at the Nashville 
 meeting the attendance is said to have exceeded that at 
 the general meeting. In connection with the Toronto 
 meeting the department was spoken of as the live depart- 
 ment of the Association, The kindergarten did not fail 
 to utilize the increasing interest, and the cause prospered. 
 
 During recent years the kindergarten cause has been 
 materially strengthened in the South by the addition of a 
 kindergarten department to the Southern Educational 
 Association, the second largest educational organization 
 in the United States. The first meeting of the newly 
 organized department was held in connection with the 
 meeting at New Orleans in 1898. Other meetings of that 
 body have been held in Memphis, Richmond, Columbia, 
 S.C., and in other of the larger Southern cities. The 
 program of the kindergarten department has been most 
 excellent in every case, and the influence of the meetings 
 upon the growth of kindergarten sentiment in the South 
 has been very marked. They have brought into promi- 
 nence the kindergarten workers of the South, who have 
 been too far removed from the kindergarten centers in 
 other sections of the country to be adequately known 
 and recognized. 
 
 The Saratoga meeting of the National Educational Asso- 
 ciation in 1892 is a memorable one in the annals of kinder-
 
 134 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 garten history, since it was at that time and place that 
 the International Kindergarten Union was organized, — 
 now the third largest educational organization in the 
 country. This was brought about as a result of a two- 
 fold need. The first was that of a greater consolidation of 
 the growing kindergarten interests than even the National 
 Educational Association could offer; and the second was 
 the making of a convincing presentation of the kinder- 
 garten cause at the approaching Columbian Exposition. 
 The official report of the organization of the International 
 Kindergarten Union reads as follows : "At the time of the 
 thirty-second annual meeting of the National Educational 
 Association held at Saratoga Springs, in July, 1892, a 
 meeting of kindergarten training teachers, presidents of 
 kindergarten associations, and others actively interested 
 in the kindergarten movement, was held in the Baptist 
 Church on the morning of July 15th to consider a propo- 
 sition made by Miss Sarah A. Stewart, of Philadelphia, 
 to make some formal organization of the kindergarten in- 
 terests throughout the country and also to prepare the 
 way for a fitting representation of this department of 
 work at the Columbian Exposition in 1893. ^^ ^^^ 
 unanimously resolved at this meeting that such an organi- 
 zation was desirable and that a committee of seven be 
 elected by ballot to take the matter under further consider- 
 ation ; to prepare plans for the organization, and to report 
 at the afternoon session of the kindergarten department 
 of the National Educational Association. The committee 
 consisted of the following members: Mrs. Ada Marean
 
 PERIOD OF extension; ORGANIZATIONS, ETC. 135 
 
 Hughes, Toronto; Miss Angeline Brooks, New York 
 City; Miss Sarah A. Stewart, Philadelphia; Miss Mary 
 C. McCulloch, St. Louis; Miss Annie Laws, Cincinnati. 
 The remaining two members who were elected, Mrs. 
 Sarah B. Cooper, San Francisco, and Miss Lucy Wheelock, 
 Boston, were unfortunately absent. 
 
 At the afternoon session of the kindergarten department, 
 the report of the committee was read by the chairman, 
 Miss Stewart, recommending the organization of a Na- 
 tional Kindergarten Union which would in no way antag- 
 onize the kindergarten department of the N. E. A. but 
 would act in sympathy and harmony with it, only extend- 
 ing the field of work more widely than the department of 
 the N. E. A. had as yet been able to do. The report was 
 accepted, and it was decided to form a temporary organ- 
 ization to further consider the matter. Miss Stewart 
 was made chairman and Miss Laws secretary of the tem- 
 porary organization. 
 
 After some discussion it was decided that an association 
 be formed under the name of the "International Kinder- 
 garten Union." The aims of the Union were to be as 
 follows: — 
 
 1. To gather and disseminate knowledge of the kinder- 
 garten movement throughout the world. 
 
 2. To bring into active cooperation all kindergarten 
 interests. 
 
 3. To promote the establishment of kindergartens. 
 
 4. To elevate the standard of professional training of 
 kindergartners.
 
 136 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 The special aim for 1893 will be to give as complete 
 an exhibition as possible of kindergarten progress in the 
 world, at the Columbian Exposition. 
 
 The officers elected were, — President, Mrs. Sarah B. 
 Cooper, San Francisco; First Vice President, Miss Sarah 
 
 A. Stewart, Philadelphia; Second Vice President, Miss 
 Laliah Pingree, Boston; Corresponding Secretary, Miss 
 Caroline T. Haven, New York; Recording Secretary, 
 Miss Mary McCuUoch, St. Louis; Treasurer, Miss Eva 
 
 B. Whitmore, Chicago. 
 
 In commenting upon the step taken. Miss Hofer, of The 
 Kindergarten Magazine, said: "Great credit is due Miss 
 Sarah Stewart of Philadelphia, who so ably proposed and 
 outlined such action, and who, as temporary chairman, car- 
 ried the proceedings of organization in the most creditably 
 parliamentary manner. Mr. W. E. Sheldon, of Boston, 
 was also largely instrumental in securing so strong a plan 
 of organization, having offered many valuable and practical 
 suggestions. It is due to his foresight and knowledge 
 of the minor details of the Association at large, that the 
 Union placed itself in the proper relation to the N. E. A., 
 as well as to the World's Auxiliary Congress, to both of 
 which it must needs be subject in its efforts to push the 
 educational exhibit of 1893." '^^^ work done through 
 the combined efforts of these organizations will be dis- 
 cussed under another heading. 
 
 The I. K. U. thus owes its immediate origin to the 
 stimulus of a great occasion, but the recognized need of 
 an organization of the kindergartners of the country to
 
 PERIOD OF extension; ORGANIZATIONS, ETG. 137 
 
 further the general interests of the kindergarten move- 
 ment would doubtless have led to the formation of such 
 an organization at no distant date. There had been two 
 earlier organizations with aims almost identical. The 
 first of these was the American Frocbel Union, which 
 was organized in Boston in 1877 by Miss Peabody. It 
 had held several meetings in Boston and one in New York. 
 In Detroit in 1879 a Western Kindergarten Association 
 was organized, the meetings of which were held in Chicago 
 and Detroit alternately. The organization of the kinder- 
 garten department of the N. E. A. in 1884 had, however, 
 seemed to make the continuance of these organizations un- 
 necessary, and for eight years the N. E. A. meetings had 
 furnished the means of furthering the progress of the kin- 
 dergarten movement, which had been the avowed purpose 
 of both. The kindergarten cause had made great progress 
 during these years, and the newly formed I. K. U. started 
 on its career with a promise of success and influence that 
 would have been impossible to the earlier organizations. 
 
 During the year following the Columbian Exposition 
 no meeting of the I. K. U. was held. In 1895 it was an 
 affiliated body with the National Council of Women on 
 the one hand, and with the N. E. A. on the other, and a 
 meeting was held with each of these organizations during 
 the year. The first was held in Washington in the early 
 spring. The National Council of Women devoted one 
 day to this department, which took its place as one of the 
 great national bodies which compose that Federation. 
 The leading kindergartners of the country addressed large
 
 138 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 and appreciative audiences upon subjects of kindergarten 
 interest. At the meeting of the N. E. A. at Denver, 
 "the regular kindergarten department of the N. E. A. 
 proved so very full and interesting under the able manage- 
 ment of Miss Amalie Hofer," says the secretary, Miss 
 Stewart, "that the I. K. U. seemed in danger of losing 
 its separate existence. However, a grand rally was made 
 at the close of the convention and very stalwart work 
 was done in the line of business." 
 
 The secretary says, further: "The crowded condition 
 of the programs of the N. E. A., owing to the large and 
 growing number of its departments, made it seem necessary 
 to appoint a separate time and place of meeting for the 
 I. K. U. The Denver meeting forms the point of depar- 
 ture. It takes its place in the history of the organization 
 only as a business meeting, where the effort was made 
 simply to make time, and to appoint strong officers to 
 organize and maintain a separate existence. Whether 
 the separation from the two large bodies with which it 
 had been afiEiliated was wise or unwise, as a settled policy, 
 remains to be seen." 
 
 The first occasion at which the I. K. U. met as a sep- 
 arate organization was the meeting held at Teachers 
 College, New York, February 14, 1896. This was the 
 first meeting at which the general work for which it was 
 organized was taken up, and its present working machinery 
 evolved. It was a meeting of a handful of leaders only, 
 but it was fruitful in suggestions for future work. The 
 meeting at St. Louis the following year was the first of
 
 PERIOD OF extension; organizations, etc. 139 
 
 the larger meetings which have since come to have a 
 value for the kindergartner in the ranks as well as for the 
 leaders who are shaping the course of kindergarten prog- 
 ress. This meeting was made memorable by the presence 
 of the Baroness von Buelow-Wendhausen, the niece of 
 Froebel's foremost disciple and co-worker. 
 
 The succeeding meetings of the I. K. U. have been held 
 as follows: In Philadelphia in 1898; in Cincinnati in 
 1899; in Brooklyn in 1900; in Chicago in 1901 ; in Boston 
 in 1902; in Pittsburg in 1903; in Rochester in 1904; 
 in Toronto in 1905; in Milwaukee in 1906; and in New 
 York City in 1907. The growing numbers and the in- 
 creasing size of the meetings have given it an added impor- 
 tance in recent years, and it is now ranked as the third 
 largest educational organization in the country. 
 
 That the I. K. U. has done much to give unity, dignity, 
 and momentum to the kindergarten movement all will 
 admit. The adaptation of the kindergarten to American 
 life and education was no simple problem. Experiments 
 were being made in different sections of the country, by 
 independent workers, under conditions totally different. 
 An all-round development of the kindergarten idea could 
 be secured only by a comparison of these experiments. 
 A premature and one-sided crystallization of kindergarten 
 interpretation and procedure could only be avoided by 
 the same agency. The I. K. U. furnished the oppor- 
 tunity for comparisons; it acquainted each with the work 
 that others were doing. The kindergarten of the future 
 is being slowly evolved from the comparison of these ex-
 
 140 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 periments, and not the kindergarten only, but a complete 
 system of primary education grounded in the principles 
 of Froebel. In furthering this evolution the I. K. U. 
 has rendered a lasting service to the kindergarten and to 
 general education. But it has done more. It has unified, 
 strengthened, and dignified kindergarten training. It has 
 brought increasing inspiration to the kindergartner in 
 the ranks by the increasing value of its meetings. Much 
 remains to be done along the lines of investigation and 
 propagation, and though the kindergarten department 
 of the N. E. A. and the I. K. U. have rendered magnifi- 
 cent service in furthering the kindergarten movement, 
 neither can as yet rest upon its oars in the satisfaction of 
 labor accomplished. 
 
 Among the many agencies for bringing the kindergarten 
 to the attention of the public, the summer schools that have 
 sprung up everywhere of recent years must be given an 
 important place. These have been of many kinds and 
 have met varying needs. Some have offered instruction 
 in some one line; the curriculum of others rivals in com- 
 plexity that of the modern university. At the head of 
 the list stands Chautauqua. To some Chautauqua is 
 little more than a beautiful summer resort; to others 
 it is a place for intellectual stimulus and recreation; to 
 still others it is the opportunity for quiet, purposeful study. 
 When, in 1879, Chautauqua added its "Teachers' Retreat" 
 to its many attractions, it set into operation a most effec- 
 tive agency for influencing the educational thought of 
 the country. For here teachers could see and hear the
 
 PERIOD OF EXTENSION; ORGANIZATIONS, ETC. 141 
 
 leaders of the new educational gospel, here they could 
 acquaint themselves with the new methods that were 
 growing in favor in every progressive community; here 
 many saw a kindergarten in operation for the first time, 
 and realized the difference between its spirit and method 
 and that in vogue in the school. A kindergarten depart- 
 ment was added to the educational attractions of Chau- 
 tauqua in 1881, and as the local Chautauquas, now three 
 hundred or more in number, were organized, they too 
 included the kindergarten in their list of agencies for 
 popular instruction. 
 
 The Chautauqua kindergartens serve a double purpose. 
 Even if they had not been established for the purpose of 
 instruction in the newest form of educational procedure, 
 they would have been organized as a practical necessity. 
 Chautauqua aims to provide enjoyment and profit for 
 all who enter its gates, and shall the children who fre- 
 quently must accompany their parents be denied their 
 share in the generous provision? Kellogg Hall is as 
 popular with Chautauqua children as is the Hall of Phi- 
 losophy with adults, and the kindergarten circle is always 
 filled. The children are not the only ones to be found in 
 the kindergarten rooms. Every available space is occupied 
 with the mothers of the children, members of the obser- 
 vation or training classes, or with casual visitors. Here 
 is a mother from a distant state eager to have her child 
 enjoy the advantages of the wonderful institution of which 
 she has heard and read so much. There sits a minister 
 from a Western city who had intended to stay through the
 
 142 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 opening exercises only, but who has forgotten the flight 
 of time in his interest. In a corner sits a young woman 
 recording every detail of the morning's work. She has 
 come all the way from South America. "The Chau- 
 tauqua plan is perhaps farther reaching in its effects 
 than any other, since the entire country contributes its 
 spectators," says a recent writer, and even the slightest 
 acquaintance with the scope of work at any of the larger 
 Chautauquas will demonstrate the fact that as a missionary 
 agency for the kindergarten cause, it is unequaled. In 
 addition to the kindergarten proper, there are classes for 
 at least three groups of people. There is always a class 
 for mothers, some of whom come for the special purpose 
 of getting the help they need in the work with their children. 
 There is a course for such kindergartners already trained, 
 who wish a broader outlook and the opportunity which 
 the occasion affords of interchange of views with fellow- 
 workers. And last but not least is the observation class, 
 which includes teachers and not infrequently ministers 
 who wish to acquaint themselves with kindergarten pro- 
 cedure and the principles that underlie it. Chautauqua 
 brings many interested and interesting visitors from all 
 parts of the world. Among the many present during one 
 summer the follow^ing were reported as belonging to one 
 or the other of the three classes : a young woman from 
 South America who at one time had charge of a kinder- 
 garten in the gardens of the Emperor of Brazil ; a kinder- 
 gartner from one of the leading cities of Canada who 
 wished suggestions for enlarging the scope of her work;
 
 PERIOD OF extension; organizations, etc. 143 
 
 the principal of a colored school in the South; a kinder- 
 gartncr from India ; a home missionary from New Mexico ; 
 a teacher in a government Indian School in Indian Terri- 
 tory; a missionary from China; a young woman from 
 South Africa; and the principal of a state normal school. 
 A list as varied and interesting could doubtless be compiled 
 each season. It is because of the presence of such people 
 that a course for kindergartners in normal schools and 
 primary and kindergarten supervisors has been organized 
 of late for the consideration of the larger kindergarten 
 problems. 
 
 The advantages which Chautauqua offers to mothers, 
 kindergartners, and teachers are not confined to the work 
 of the kindergarten department only. The provision 
 made for grade teachers is as ample as that made for 
 kindergartners and mothers, and many courses are offered 
 which are of equal interest to all. Courses in educational 
 psychology and child study, in children's music and in 
 art in the kindergarten and primary grades, given by 
 specialists, attract both kindergartners and teachers and 
 broaden the views of both. Primary teachers acquire 
 a knowledge of the kindergarten almost unconsciously, 
 since modern methods in primary work are based upon 
 kindergarten principles. The work at Chautauqua 
 has, perhaps, more than any other agency, introduced 
 the kindergarten to ministers and Sunday school workers 
 of the country. Froebel's views concerning the child's 
 spiritual nature are being increasingly accepted, and in 
 consequence more wholesome methods of religious in-
 
 144 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 struction have come to prevail. Through the Chautauqua 
 lectures and conferences on the problems of the child's 
 spiritual development and the application of kindergarten 
 principles to Sunday school work, kindergarten depart- 
 ments are becoming the rule in the Sunday schools of 
 the country, and religion is taking its true place as a 
 means toward the child's highest development. In all 
 these ways Chautauqua must be considered as one of the 
 great influences in furthering the kindergarten movement. 
 
 The kindergarten cause in the South has been mate- 
 rially advanced during the past six years by the establish- 
 ment of the Summer School of the South, at Knoxville, 
 Tenn. In addition to the kindergarten which is in session 
 for the entire six weeks it has provided courses in child 
 study and kindergarten literature for kindergartners and 
 primary teachers, and holds kindergarten and other con- 
 ferences for the discussion of problems relating to kinder- 
 garten work. In 1905 a Southern Kindergarten Associa- 
 tion was formed for the purpose of discussing the problems 
 peculiar to kindergarten work in the South and making 
 plans for its more general introduction in that section. 
 
 The many summer schools of methods, held in different 
 sections of the country during recent years, have been 
 among the indirect means of advancing the kindergarten 
 cause, and frequently the direct means as well. The first 
 of these was Martha's Vineyard Summer Institute, the 
 Mecca of progressive teachers for many years. Dexter 
 says of this, "It must be placed second only to the great 
 assemblies at Chautauqua in the breadth of its influence
 
 PERIOD OF EXTENSION; ORGANIZATIONS, ETC. 1 45 
 
 and the number of students who have attended. During 
 its history nearly every educator of note in the country 
 has appeared upon its platform." Kindergarten speakers 
 always occupied a place on its programs. In 1885 the 
 Saratoga National Summer School of Methods was 
 organized. This was later combined with a similar 
 school held at Round Lake, N.Y., and later still with the 
 one at Glens Falls, N.Y., where it continued its work 
 until 1897. The Cook County Summer Normal, at 
 Chicago, was of the same character. Like Chautauqua, 
 these schools drew the progressive and aspiring teachers 
 by the courses of improved methods in teaching the com- 
 mon school branches, and by the opportunity afforded 
 for acquaintance and conference with other progressive 
 teachers. The leading kindergartners of the country 
 gave lectures and courses of work, and the principles of 
 the kindergarten were recognized and applied in the 
 methods of teaching grade work. The summer school 
 held at La Porte, Ind., by Professor and Mrs. Hailman, 
 aimed directly at this. In this, as well as in several other 
 summer schools, direct and special courses of instruction 
 in kindergarten work as such were given. This was 
 true of the summer schools held under the auspices of 
 the Chicago Free Kindergarten Association, of the Chicago 
 Kindergarten College, of the Grand Rapids Kindergarten 
 Association, and several others. Through attendance at 
 these schools thousands of teachers and school principals 
 gained new educational ideas and an insight into the new 
 educational doctrines. Though the work done could not
 
 146 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 but be superficial in many instances, the summer schools 
 must be considered as an influence of great value in 
 furthering the new education. 
 
 The service that expositions and exhibits of kinder- 
 garten work could render the cause of kindergarten prog- 
 ress was recognized by the experiences of the Philadel- 
 phia Exposition. Since that date the friends of the 
 movement have not been slow to avail themselves of the 
 opportunities that have presented themselves. One of 
 the first opportunities utilized was the Madison meeting 
 of the N. E. A., already mentioned as marking a mile- 
 stone in kindergarten progress. This was the first time 
 in the history of the N. E. A. that an organized exhibit 
 of school work had been made, and the kindergarten 
 exhibit was "one of the most extensive and complete 
 which has ever been made of kindergarten work," says 
 the N. E. A. record, "a surprise to every one." The 
 work of the kindergarten exhibit came from eighteen 
 different cities, and comprised a wide range of institu- 
 tions. The system that was seen to underlie kinder- 
 garten work impressed every one, and many additions 
 were made to the roll of its advocates. Exhibits of school 
 work have been among the most interesting and instruc- 
 tive features of the succeeding meetings of the N. E. A., 
 and the kindergarten has been more or less adequately 
 represented at each one. The I. K. U. has made inter- 
 mittent and spasmodic efforts to have an exhibit of work 
 in connection with its meetings, but in the judgment of 
 many it has not risen to its opportunities in this respect.
 
 PERIOD OF extension; organizations, etc. 147 
 
 The matter of an exhibit has too frequently been left to 
 the ambition of individual workers, cities, or training 
 schools, and there has been no concerted effort to secure 
 a general representation of kindergarten work, or to 
 bring the work of different schools of kindergarten inter- 
 pretation into comparison. This is one of the directions 
 in which the I. K. U. can profitably direct its energy in 
 the near future. 
 
 The great expositions that have been held in the dif- 
 ferent sections of the country during the past quarter 
 century have furnished many opportunities for acquaint- 
 ing the general public with the merits of the kinder- 
 garten, and in the case of the Chicago Exposition, at least, 
 these were most admirably utilized. The New Orleans 
 Exposition in 1885 furnished the first of these occasions. 
 A kindergarten was conducted by Mrs. Anna J. Ogden 
 and Miss Mary Crosby, both of Washington, during the 
 entire period that the exposition was in session, and 
 attracted great and favorable attention. A kindergarten 
 exhibit had also been prepared, but the organization of 
 educational exhibits on a large scale had not received the 
 attention at that time that it has received since, and the 
 exhibit was not so organized and placed as to attract 
 the attention that it deserved. The kindergarten and the 
 exhibit combined did much to awaken kindergarten in- 
 terest, however, in the South particularly. As a result 
 of the effort made, and of the place given the kindergarten 
 on the program of the International Congress of Educa- 
 tion held in connection with the exposition, one of the
 
 148 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 friends of the kindergarten cause said that "the kinder- 
 garten as such had been clearly raised from its former 
 questionable isolation into the genial and friendly com- 
 panionship of established educational forces." 
 
 What the New Orleans Exposition accomplished in 
 behalf of the kindergarten for one section of the United 
 States, the Columbian Exposition at Chicago did on a 
 large scale for the whole country. The I. K. U. was 
 organized, as has been stated, for the purpose of cooper- 
 ating with the Board of Lady Managers in devising a plan 
 that should accomplish the purpose desired. No ade- 
 quate presentation of the kindergarten could be made that 
 did not portray it in its relation to the whole life of the 
 child from the modern-day standpoint. A most com- 
 prehensive plan was therefore formulated, which is 
 indicated in part from the official circular, which read 
 as follows: "Although the world has known many large 
 expositions at various times in its history, in none of these 
 have the interests of children received the full represen- 
 tation that they deserved. Such great progress having 
 been made during the present century in the methods 
 of educating, amusing, and caring for the physical 
 well-being of the coming men and women, it seems desir- 
 able that an illustration of the best methods should be so 
 grouped that they may be easily assimilated by, and 
 made useful to, the vast number of people who will visit 
 the World's Fair. In many cases it will be impossible 
 for the mothers to visit the exposition without taking their 
 children, and in so doing they will wish the little ones as
 
 PERIOD OF extension; organizations, etc. 149 
 
 well as themselves to take the fullest advantages of the 
 educational facilities offered. With these ends in view 
 the Children's Building has been designed, which will 
 give to mothers the freedom of the exposition while the 
 children themselves are enjoying the best of care and 
 attention." 
 
 The beautiful Children's Home, "built by the women 
 of the world for the world's little ones," was ninety by one 
 hundred and fifty feet, and perfectly adapted to the pur- 
 poses it was intended to serve. The ground floor con- 
 tained the reception rooms, an assembly room, a com- 
 pletely equipped gymnasium, and several nursery rooms; 
 and the second the kindergarten room, a manual training 
 room, a court for a playground, and several other rooms. 
 " Thinking of the myriad miles of bare schoolroom walls 
 that belt the country, and are daily gazed at by thousands 
 of impressionable school children, the committee sought 
 to give illustrations of appropriate art for children; con- 
 sequently, on ceiling, window, frieze, and panel were 
 pictures of child life and pastime, or representations of 
 the world-old stories that all children love to hear." The 
 decorating of the interior of the building was put into the 
 hands of kindergartners, the making typically beautiful 
 the Children's Palace, and displaying the possibilities 
 of wall decorations, for school and home, being considered 
 a part of the occasion. 
 
 In the building was presented the best thought on every 
 phase of child life. A series of manikins was shown, to 
 represent the manner of clothing infants in the different
 
 150 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 countries of the world, and demonstrations were made of 
 the most heahhful and natural methods of feeding, dress- 
 ing, and caring for children, according to modern scientific 
 theories. The nurseries were models of their kind, and 
 gayly decorated booths showed the toys and games of all 
 nations. Stereopticon talks upon foreign countries were 
 given to the older children by trained kindergartners, who 
 then took them in groups to see the exhibits from the 
 countries in question. The younger children were taken 
 charge of in the beautiful kindergarten rooms, and the 
 mothers given an opportunity to see a real kindergarten 
 in operation. The Kindergarten Literature Company 
 had its headquarters here, and distributed much valuable 
 information concerning the kindergarten. Another op- 
 portunity to see a kindergarten in operation was given in 
 the Illinois State Building, where a kindergarten was 
 conducted for the entire six months by the joint effort of 
 the two kindergarten associations of Chicago, the Froebel 
 Association and the Free Kindergarten Association. 
 "Two equally great purposes are to be served in the 
 public presentation of the kindergarten at the World's 
 Fair," Miss Amalie Hofer had said in The Kindergarten 
 Magazine. "First, the attention of the world at large 
 is to be called to the fact that the new education is opera- 
 tive, and the public is to be shown what it is and does. 
 Second, the facts illustrating what it has already accom- 
 plished are to be arrayed before those already intelligent 
 on the subject." The Children's Building was one of 
 the means of accomplishing both purposes. Visiting
 
 PERIOD OF extension; organizations, etc. 151 
 
 kindergartners and teachers were invited to make the 
 building their headquarters while at the exposition, and 
 the opportunity for observation which it afforded, com- 
 bined with the lectures there given on different phases 
 of child culture, gave to many a teacher an entirely new 
 view of child life and of the educational process. 
 
 The Children's Building furnished one of the means of 
 acquainting the public with the new gospel of childhood. 
 The exhibits and the congresses furnished others. At 
 the time the educational exhibits seemed quite wonderful, 
 although the better organization of such exhibits at the 
 St. Louis Exposition reveals their crudity and lack of 
 organization. The kindergarten exhibits w^re generously 
 sprinkled in among the general school exhibits, some of 
 them isolated, and others in relation to the school work 
 of which the kindergartens formed a part. The casual 
 visitors could not fail to be impressed by the frequency 
 with which the kindergarten announced its presence. 
 That it had come to stay was evident; that it had made 
 its impression upon grade work was equally evident. 
 The kindergartner learned many lessons by seeing her 
 own work in its general educational perspective. The 
 school principal and grade teacher could not but marvel 
 at the general progress of the kindergarten movement. 
 The student of educational progress who had seen the 
 kindergarten exhibits of earlier years, could not fail to 
 note that great influences were at work in the kindergarten 
 world. The larger free work that appeared in some of 
 the exhibits seemed ugly and inartistic to many in con-
 
 152 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 trast with the small exact work to which they were accus- 
 tomed. Others saw in this work a prophecy for the 
 future. The evidences of the new movement have been 
 accumulating in recent years, and discussions concerning 
 it wax warm in kindergarten circles. But of this, more 
 later. 
 
 To many kindergartners the educational congresses 
 furnished the crowning inspiration of the exposition. The 
 I. K. U. held a department meeting in the World's Con- 
 gress of Representative Women, to set forth its own work 
 and to discuss topics connected with it. There were 
 two kindergarten congresses under separate management, 
 and varying largely in scope and character. The first 
 of these was the special kindergarten congress, which 
 held its sessions the week beginning July 17th. This 
 was presided over by Wilham N. Hailman. The second 
 was the meeting of the kindergarten section of the Inter- 
 national Congress of Education, held July 25th to 28th, 
 under the auspices of the N. E. A. This was in charge 
 of Mrs. Ada M. Hughes, president of the kindergarten 
 department of the N. E. A. Both congresses brought 
 an earnest body of workers from far and near, who spoke 
 with sincerity and conviction. The Special Kindergarten 
 Congress opened with a paper on Froebel and his work, 
 by William N. Hailman. Among the topics and speakers 
 during the week were the following: "Every mother 
 a kindergartner," Mrs. Sarah B. Cooper, San Francisco. 
 "The place of music in the kindergarten," W. L. Tomlins, 
 choral director of the World's Fair. "The professional
 
 PERIOD OF extension; organizations, etc. 153 
 
 training of kindergartners," Mrs. Eudora L. Hailman, 
 La Porte, Ind. "The relation of play to work," Miss 
 Angeline Brooks, New York. " Froebel's religious views," 
 a discussion. "The influences of home and school upon 
 child character," Miss Constance Mackenzie, Philadelphia. 
 "Elementary science teaching," Professor Edward G. 
 Howe. "Physical culture," Baron Nils Posse and 
 Margaret Morley. A full morning was given to the dis- 
 cussion of art in the kindergarten, Miss Mary Dana Hicks 
 leading. For one day the kindergartners and the manual 
 training and art teachers met in joint session. The sub- 
 ject "Symbolism in early education" was discussed by 
 Mrs. Marion Foster Washburne, and other appropriate 
 topics were presented by Mrs. Louise Parsons Hopkins 
 of Boston and Professor James L. Hughes of Toronto. 
 The closing session of the week was held on Sunday 
 afternoon, when Miss Lucy Wheelock of Boston, Miss 
 Anna Bryan of Chicago, and Miss Annie Howe of Japan 
 discussed the relation of the kindergarten to church and 
 Sunday school work. 
 
 The kindergarten section of the International Congress 
 of Education held three forenoon sessions. The topics 
 for discussion had been carefully outlined by Commissioner 
 William T. Harris, under whose general direction the con- 
 gresses were held. The general topic selected for dis- 
 cussion at the first meeting was "The essential character- 
 istics of the kindergarten as distinguished from the primary 
 school." Under this the following sub-topics were con- 
 sidered : "The gifts and occupations of the kindergarten."
 
 154 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 "Should the kindergarten attempt to teach reading and 
 writing?" "Should the games invented by Froebel be 
 modified or added to?" "What is the place of song in 
 the kindergarten and what degree of the dramatic element 
 should accompany it?" These topics were discussed 
 by Mrs. Alice H. Putnam of Chicago, Mrs. Sarah B. 
 Cooper of San Francisco, Miss Sarah A. Stewart and 
 Miss Constance Mackenzie of Philadelphia, Miss Mary 
 C. McCulloch of St. Louis, Professor WilUam N. Hailman 
 of La Porte, and others. The topic selected for the second 
 session was "Kindergarten training," the many aspects 
 of which were discussed by Mrs. Eudora L. Hailman, 
 Mrs. J. N. Crouse of Chicago, and others. .The subject 
 of "Symbolism" was selected for the last session, and was 
 discussed by Miss Elizabeth Harrison of Chicago, Pro- 
 fessor Earl Barnes of Leland Stanford University, Pro- 
 fessor Hailman, and others present. No description of 
 the congresses or of the exposition as a whole can convey 
 an idea of the inspiration that the occasion gave to the 
 kindergartners of the country. To the younger kinder- 
 gartners just entering the ranks it was an inspiration to 
 see and hear the leaders of their cause. To the older 
 workers the enthusiasm of their younger sisters was the 
 prophecy of what might be accomplished in the future. 
 The extent to which the kindergarten had invaded the 
 educational territory was a surprise to all and a promise 
 of the ultimate surrender of the forces of conservatism 
 in the teaching ranks. The kindergarten seed had been 
 scattered broadcast, and they knew that the harvest would
 
 PERIOD OF extension; ORGANIZATIONS, ETC. 1 55 
 
 be forthcoming. They had made a great effort. The 
 passing years have proved that it was not in vain, and that 
 the kindergarten entered upon an enlarged sphere of 
 influence from that date. 
 
 The work of the Chicago Exposition for the kindergar- 
 ten cause was so thoroughly done that succeeding ex- 
 positions have found it unnecessary to make a correspond- 
 ing effort in its behalf. The educational work done in 
 connection with the Cotton States and International 
 Exposition held in i.\tlanta in 1895 was of great value to 
 the South, however, since the new education had not 
 secured so strong a foothold in that section at that time 
 as it had in other sections. The educational committee, 
 composed largely of Atlanta teachers, cooperated with 
 the managers of the Woman's Building to erect a Model 
 School Building and to maintain a kindergarten and 
 a primary department during the time that the exposi- 
 tion was open. The kindergarten was conducted by 
 Miss Mary Hill of the Louisville Free Kindergarten 
 Association, and the primary department by Miss IMinnie 
 Holman of the Peabody Normal at Nashville, Tcnn. 
 The exhibits of school work were of value, but the inter- 
 est centered in the work done with the children. The 
 kindergarten was in the most conspicuous part of the 
 Woman's Building, which in turn was situated in the 
 most central and conspicuous part of the grounds. In 
 consequence, says a writer, "the crowds in the kinder- 
 garten were continuous; two or three hundred passing 
 would step in for a while and then pass on, only to be
 
 156 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 replaced by a crowd equally large." It was unfortunate 
 for the kindergartners and for the cause, however, that 
 the children were those taken from a charitable institution, 
 and that results were not what might have been hoped 
 for. In spite of discouraging conditions, however, much 
 was accomplished, and Miss Hill had occasion to explain 
 the principles and methods of the kindergarten to hundreds 
 of interested visitors. 
 
 The new education was well represented at the Trans- 
 Mississippi Exposition at Omaha in 1898, although the 
 kindergarten was not emphasized. The Exposition mana- 
 gers gave into the hands of the Omaha women all interests 
 of an educational nature, the erection of the children's 
 building, the organization of the school exhibits, and the 
 management of the educational congresses. The kinder- 
 garten received its share of attention in each of these lines. 
 It was not due to lack of interest on the part of the Omaha 
 women, however, that more effort was not centered on 
 the kindergarten, as they had tried without success to 
 secure the I. K. U. meeting for their city on that occasion. 
 They were successful, however, in securing the meeting 
 of the National Congress of Mothers, and since the 
 emphasis of its meetings was placed upon the study of 
 childhood and the importance of training for motherhood, 
 it accomplished much for the kindergarten indirectly. 
 Among the speakers were several prominent kindergart- 
 ners. Miss Caroline M. C. Hart of Baltimore and Miss 
 Amalie Hofer, and Miss Frances Newton of Chicago, 
 being among them.
 
 PERIOD OF extension; organizations, etc. 157 
 
 The Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo in 1901 
 furnished another occasion for acquainting the general 
 public with the kindergarten idea. The Buffalo Kinder- 
 garten Union utilized the opportunity and held a Kinder- 
 garten Convocation lasting for three days, July 1-3. It 
 is not often that the president of a great exposition is also 
 the president of a kindergarten association, but Mr. John 
 G. Milburn, president of the exposition, who welcomed 
 the visiting kindergartners and the many interested out- 
 siders at the first meeting, spoke in the capacity of presi- 
 dent of the Buffalo Free Kindergarten Association as well. 
 The leading speakers were Dr. Wilham N. Hailman, Miss 
 Virginia Graeff of Cleveland, Miss Rosemary Baum of 
 Utica, Mrs. Mary Boomer Page of Chicago, Mr. Percival 
 Chubb of New York, and Col. Francis W. Parker. An 
 attractive exhibit from the kindergartens of Buffalo added 
 to the interest. 
 
 By the time that the Louisiana Purchase Exposition of 
 1904 was held, the kindergarten was no longer a waif 
 seeking adoption into the educational family, but a child 
 accorded full rights and privileges. The exhibits of the 
 Palace of Education showed kindergarten work in its 
 natural relations to other school work; the kindergarten 
 took its turn with the cooking schools and manual training 
 classes in exhibiting its work in actual operation ; and the 
 N. E. A. and other educational congresses gave it adequate 
 recognition on their programs. In theory the battle for 
 the incorporation of the kindergarten into the school 
 system has been won ; in practice much still remains to be
 
 158 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 accomplished. The great popular movements above 
 mentioned have been noble allies and they will continue 
 to do service in behalf of the kindergarten. But new 
 problems are arising that call for new solutions. The 
 discussion of these problems will be taken up in later 
 chapters.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 The Period of Extension; Progress in Literature 
 
 The literature of the kindergarten has been one of the 
 sources from which the new educational thought has been 
 derived. It struck a higher note in the gamut of educa- 
 tion than had hitherto been sounded, and the whole 
 educational symphony is being gradually modulated to 
 the new key. Its beginnings have been noted, but an 
 appreciation of its progress and influence requires a glance 
 at the literature of general education. At the time that 
 the kindergarten made its appearance in the United 
 States the school was a dreary place, and it is not surprising 
 that the literature of education, — what there was of it, 
 — should have been lacking in inspiration and value. 
 Barnard's American Journal of Education was established 
 in 1855, and this, with a few other educational journals, 
 devoted to the practical problems of school organization 
 and administration, practically occupied the field. As 
 early as i860 Mr. Barnard published a series of books 
 called "Papers for the Teacher," consisting of articles 
 reprinted from the Journal, bearing upon the practical 
 problems of the schoolroom. He also published separately 
 in pamphlet form, many of the articles that had appeared 
 in the Journal. With this exception, the only book of 
 
 IS9
 
 l6o THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 direct value to teachers published before the Civil War 
 was Page's "Theory and Practice of Teaching." This 
 was published in 1847, ^.nd is of great value still. Until 
 education began to be considered as a process of develop- 
 ment instead of a process of instruction only, no books 
 on elementary education were written. As has been 
 stated elsewhere, this change of view was due to the grow- 
 ing acquaintance with the principles of Pestalozzi, and 
 the center of Pestalozzian influence was the Oswego 
 Normal School. In this school and among its graduates, 
 sympathy with the joyous, overflowing life of childhood 
 began to take the place of the repression that had hitherto 
 prevailed, and the child's interest in the things of sense 
 began to be recognized as having an educational value. 
 An acquaintance with things began to be considered 
 a necessary preliminary to the teaching of words, and 
 objective teaching became the watchword of the new 
 thought. The "object lesson" became the center of 
 educational interest, and a course in object lessons was 
 scheduled in every progressive school curriculum and 
 program. This occasioned a demand for literature upon 
 the subject, and Dr. Sheldon's books on "Object Lessons" 
 and "Elementary Instruction," written in response to the 
 demand, were widely read both in the United States and 
 in England. Dr. A. E. Winship says in reference to Dr. 
 Sheldon's work: "A general desire to know about the 
 new ideas led to the preparation of the first books printed 
 in America upon the adaptation of Pestalozzian principles 
 to our school work. These books marked an era in
 
 PERIOD OF extension; literature i6i 
 
 American education. This was really the birth of educa- 
 tional literature in America." Calkins' "Manual of 
 Object Teaching," published later, was a part of this same 
 movement. 
 
 During the decade between 1870 and 1880 several 
 additions were made to the literature of education. Ab- 
 bott's "Gentle Measures in the Management of the 
 Young" was published in 1872. This was of great 
 value to mothers as well as teachers and did much to 
 change the general attitude toward childhood. In 1874 
 Professor William N. Hailman published his "History of 
 Pedagogy," which gave to many their first insight into 
 the historic development of the new educational views. 
 His "System of Objective Teaching" was published soon 
 after. Two other books of importance were Wicker- 
 sham's "School Management" and "Methods of Instruc- 
 tion." Of the first of these, Dr. Winship says that it 
 "was probably the best professional book issued up to 
 that time, and remained a standard for a quarter of a 
 century." He adds the interesting fact that it is the 
 only American professional book ever translated into 
 Japanese and used by the government of Japan as the 
 official book for teachers to study. Both of these books 
 were used as text-books in many of the normal schools of 
 the United States for many years. 
 
 The stock of pedagogical literature was being aug- 
 mented also from other sources. Krusi's "Life of Pesta- 
 lozzi" appeared in 1875 and Dr. Barnard's "American 
 Pedagogy," "English Pedagogy," and "German Teachers
 
 362 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 and Reformers," reprints also of articles that had ap- 
 peared in the Journal, were issued soon after. Johon- 
 not's "Principles and Practice of Teaching," published 
 in 1878, was a book of great value. The educational 
 literature of the present still leaves much to be desired, 
 but its relative abundance compared with the scarcity 
 of books before 1880 makes one forget how recent is the 
 new educational thought, and how gradual has been its 
 development. Probably no one person has contributed 
 more to the transformation of education than Colonel 
 Francis W. Parker, but his first work, "Talks on Teach- 
 ing," was not published until 1883, and the pen pictures 
 of his work at Quincy, Mass., under the name of "Quincy 
 Methods," was not given to the public until 1885. The 
 first volume of the International Education Series, 
 Rosenkranz' "Philosophy of Education," was not pub- 
 lished until 1886. In fact few if any of the books that 
 for years constituted a part of every pedagogical library, 
 — Rousseau's " Emile," Payne's " Lectures on Education," 
 White's "Elements of Pedagogy," Fitch's "Lectures on 
 Teaching," Compayre's "History of Pedagog}%" W. H. 
 Payne's "Contributions to the Science of Education," 
 were available before 1885. "The literature of pedagogy 
 is still in its infancy in the English language," said an 
 educator of note in 1885. And so indeed it seemed. 
 
 Against this general background of pedagogical litera- 
 ture the increasing literature of the kindergarten is to be 
 placed if it is to be rightly comprehended. It is astonish- 
 ing but true that more books were translated and written
 
 PERIOD OF extension; literature 163 
 
 concerning the kindergarten during the decade between 
 1870 and 1880 than were translated or written on the 
 whole of general education besides. The progress in 
 kindergarten literature during the period following can- 
 not fail to interest all who are interested in the progress 
 of education. The first notable contribution of the new 
 decade was Barnard's "Kindergarten and Child Culture 
 Papers," published in 1881, — a reprint, like his other 
 volumes, of articles that had appeared in the Journal. 
 Some important translations appeared during the decade, 
 — "Goldammer's Manual," an English translation of 
 the Mother Plays, by the Misses Lord, and Froebel's 
 "Education of Man," translated first by Miss Jarvis and 
 later by W. N. Hailman. This was the first volume of 
 Froebelian literature to appear in the International Series. 
 "The Hand Book of Froebel's System" was also trans- 
 lated, as was the "Autobiography of Froebel," the former 
 by Miss Wheelock, and the latter by Miss Emelie Michaelis 
 and Mr. H. Keatley Moore of London. Some of the 
 most important of Froebel's works were not translated 
 until after 1890. A volume of Froebel Letters was trans- 
 lated by A. H. Heineman in 1893. In 1895 the volume 
 of essays known as "Pedagogics of the Kindergarten" 
 was translated by Miss Jarvis, and the same year Miss 
 Blow made a new translation of the Mother Plays. This 
 was published in two volumes, the first of which was 
 entitled "Mottoes and Commentaries of Froebel's Mother 
 Play," and the second, "Songs and Music of Froebel's 
 Mother Play." The three volumes appeared in the
 
 164 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 International Series, as did a later volume of essays, 
 entitled "Education by Development," translated by 
 Josephine Jarvis in 1899, Another volume of letters, 
 entitled "Froebel's Letters on the Kindergarten," was 
 translated by Miss Michaelis and Mr. Moore in 1896, and 
 the translation and adaptation of Hanschman's "Life of 
 Froebel" by Fanny Franks, known as the "Kindergarten 
 System," in 1897. With the translation and publication 
 in 1901 of the "Life of the Baroness von Buelow," written 
 by her niece, the most important of Froebel's own works 
 and those of his intimate successors have been made 
 available to the English reading public. 
 
 The books above mentioned vary in value and popu- 
 larity, but all have contributed something to the advance- 
 ment of the new educational views. Some are of general 
 educational interest and are therefore to be found in every 
 up-to-date pedagogical library. Others concern them- 
 selves with the details of kindergarten procedure and are 
 therefore of value to the professional kindergartner mainly. 
 The general deepening of insight into the principles of 
 the kindergarten among the great body of kindergartners 
 has rendered the specific kindergarten manuals less 
 necessary than they were in the earlier years of the move- 
 ment, and has occasioned an increasing demand for the 
 books that embody the fundamental principles of the 
 kindergarten and of education in general. The "Mother 
 Play Book" and the "Education of Man" are used as 
 text-books in every kindergarten training school in the 
 country worthy of the name, and the "Pedagogies of the
 
 PERIOD OF extension; LITERATURE 165 
 
 Kindergarten" and others are used as reference books in 
 most of them. The first two have been translated into 
 many languages, and are known the world over. Froebel's 
 "Autobiography," the two volumes of "Letters," the 
 "Life of Froebel," and the "Life of the Baroness von 
 Buelow" are used in every class in the history of educa- 
 tion that places emphasis upon the historical development 
 of the new educational movement. 
 
 But the public has not depended wholly upon the works 
 of Froebel himself for an acquaintance with the principles 
 embodied in the Froebelian philosophy. One of the 
 greatest services that the kindergarten has rendered to 
 American education is the stimulus that it has given to 
 original work. The kindergarten has been a fruitful 
 theme for the essayist and author, and the list of books 
 written within recent years as a result of kindergarten 
 inspiration is a creditable one. Such books may be 
 divided into two general classes, — those whose aim is 
 the interpretation of the kindergarten, and those whose 
 purpose is to discuss the development of childhood in 
 general. These aims overlap in most cases, but the 
 emphasis is usually upon the one or the other. Of the 
 thirty or more books on the kindergarten written since 
 1880 not more than six appeared during the decade be- 
 tween 1880 and 1890. The new institution needed to 
 be tested under the varying conditions of American life 
 and education before its advocates could speak with 
 the authority they wished, and those who were gaining 
 the needed experience were at first too occupied vidth the
 
 1 66 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 experience itself to enter the field of authorship. Of the 
 six books mentioned, Professor W. N. Hailman's "Law 
 of Childhood," published in 1880, was the first. This 
 was a series of essays that had appeared in The New Edu- 
 cation. The second was Miss Peabody's "Lectures to 
 Kindergartners," which was given to the public in 1886. 
 This consisted of a series of lectures w^hich for nine or 
 ten years she had delivered before the kindergarten train- 
 ing classes in Boston and other cities. 
 
 The third book, published the same year, was entitled 
 "The Kindergarten and the School." It consisted of 
 articles by four active workers, on the relation of the kin- 
 dergarten to the school. The fourth volume was " Con- 
 scious Motherhood" by Miss Emma Marwedel, published 
 in 1887. This was an application of Froebel's doctrine 
 to the development of childhood, based on such observa- 
 tions as had been recorded by Preyer in his "Mind of the 
 Child." As the means of arousing an interest in genetic 
 psychology among kindergartners, this book was of more 
 than ordinary value. The next book published during 
 the decade was Mrs. Susan Pollock's "National Kinder- 
 garten Manual." This was practical in character. The 
 last one was Kate Douglas Wiggin's "Story of Patsy." 
 
 To make even a brief analysis of all the books that have 
 appeared since 1890 would require more space than can 
 be given here. The time of their appearance is of interest, 
 and certain ones call for special consideration. The 
 first book of the new decade was Miss Elizabeth Harrison's 
 "Study of Child Nature," which was published in 1890.
 
 PERIOD OF extension; LITERATURE 167 
 
 The next was Bowen's " Froebcl and Education by Self- 
 activity," an English book pubhshed in the Great Edu- 
 cator Series in 1892. A volume of essays entitled ''The 
 Kindergarten," by Mrs. Wiggin and other prominent 
 kindergartners, was published the same year, as was also 
 the volume of essays called "Children's Rights," by Mrs. 
 Wiggin and her sister, Nora A. Smith. Miss Jeannette 
 R. Gregory's "Practical Suggestions to Kindergartners, 
 Primary Teachers and Mothers" appeared in 1893, and 
 Mrs. Mary C. Foster's "The Kindergarten of the Church" 
 in 1894. The year 1895 was made memorable by the 
 appearance of several books. One of these was Susan 
 E. Blow's "Symbolic Education." Another was "Froe- 
 bel's Mother Play Songs, A Commentary," by Denton J. 
 Snider. A third was Airs. Wiggin and Miss Smith's 
 "Kindergarten Gifts," the first of the three volumes 
 collectively termed "The Republic of Childhood." The 
 second volume, "Kindergarten Occupations," and the 
 third, "Kindergarten Principles and Practice," followed 
 the next year. In 1896 Miss Katharine Beebe's "Home 
 Occupations for Little Children" was published, and also 
 Miss Frederica Beard's "Kindergarten Sunday School." 
 In 1897 another book on the application of kindergarten 
 principles to Sunday school work appeared, Miss Mabel 
 Wilson's "Love, Light, and Life for God's Little Children." 
 Mrs. Andrea Hofer Proudfoot also published "A Mother's 
 Ideals," and Professor J. L. Hughes' "Froebel's Educa- 
 tional Laws for All Teachers." The volume called " Out- 
 lines for Kindergarten and Primary Classes," by Misses
 
 1 68 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Maud Cannell and Margaret E. Wise, was also published 
 at about this time. Several additional books appeared 
 in 1899. One of these was Miss Blow's "Letters to a 
 Mother," another was Miss Emelic Poulsson's "Love and 
 Law in Child Training," another w^as Miss Smith's 
 "Kindergarten in a Nutshell," and still another was Fred- 
 erick Burk's "Kindergarten Problem." The follow- 
 ing year Mr. Snider's "Psychology of Froebel's Play 
 Gifts " and Miss Harrison's "Two Children of the Foot- 
 hills " were published, and also "The Message of Froebel " 
 and "Children of the Future," by Miss Smith. Mr. 
 Snider has since published the "Life of Froebel," and 
 Miss Harrison "The Building Gifts" and "Some Silent 
 Teachers." 
 
 Of the long list of books mentioned, all of which have 
 served to further the kindergarten cause in some degree, 
 a few call for special mention as indicating a special line 
 of influence or illustrating a particular tendency. One 
 of these is Miss Harrison's "Study of Child Nature," 
 which has been translated into several languages, and is 
 probably as widely known as any book on kindergarten 
 subjects. This book was "the outcome of many years 
 of experience in teaching young mothers to train their 
 children in the home according to kindergarten principles," 
 and although critics have declared it overdrawn, lacking 
 in psychological value, and devoid of literary style, it 
 meets the practical needs of the average mother better 
 than many more pretentious books that have been written 
 since its publication. The topics treated are such as
 
 PERIOD OF extension; LITERATURE l6g 
 
 appeal to mothers, and they are treated in a simple, practi- 
 cal manner. The chief value of the book, however, lies 
 in the fact that it points out the advantage of building up 
 the positive side of a child's nature. It has probably 
 done as much as any one book on the list to acquaint 
 mothers with kindergarten principles, and is an excellent 
 one to awaken interest in the study of childhood. 
 
 Differing widely in content and literary merit, but 
 similar in their appeal to the public outside of the teach- 
 ing profession, are the books by Mrs. Kate Douglas 
 Wiggin and Miss Nora A. Smith. These, too, were the 
 outgrowth of experience, — "of talks and conferences on 
 Froebel's educational principles with successive groups 
 of earnest young women, here, there, and everywhere, 
 for fifteen years." The purpose of the books was to 
 acquaint the public with the kindergarten, its instrumen- 
 talities, — the gifts, games, songs, occupations, and stories, 
 — and the method and purpose of their use. They were 
 "purposely divested of technicalities and detail, in the 
 hope that they would thus reach not only kindergarten 
 students, but the many mothers and teachers who really 
 long to know what Froebel's system of education is, and 
 what it aims to do." These hopes have been more than 
 realized. The public already familiar with "The Story 
 of Patsy," and articles from the pen of its author, wel- 
 comed anything that the gifted sisters might produce, and 
 the charming style in which the books are written made 
 them welcome additions to any library. They have prob- 
 ably done more to popularize the kindergarten than have
 
 170 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 any other books written. They are of a kind that cannot 
 grow old, and will continue their beneficent service to the 
 cause of childhood for all time. 
 
 Quite different in its aim and scope, but far-reaching 
 in its results, is the modest little book, "The Kindergarten 
 Sunday-School," by Miss Beard. That the kindergarten 
 had a message for the religious teachers of childhood had 
 been recognized from the beginning, and the expression 
 of Froebel's views concerning the child's spiritual nature, 
 at Chautauqua and other gatherings, had led, as has been 
 stated, to important changes in Sunday school method. 
 But few of the many admirable things that had been said 
 had got into book form, however, and Aliss Beard's book 
 was a real contribution to Sunday school literature. It 
 contains a discussion of kindergarten principles in their 
 application to Sunday school work, and outlines a series 
 of lessons for a Sunday school kindergarten that deserves 
 commendation because it is based on the children's power 
 of comprehension, not upon a church calendar, nor upon 
 a plan of lessons made out for adults. While Miss Beard 
 might profitably have made her book larger, it has been 
 of great value, and has had a great influence in establish- 
 ing the principle, now generally recognized, that a peda- 
 gogical foundation is as essential in religious instruction 
 as in any other. 
 
 While certain books were thus meeting the needs of 
 certain classes of people, a book appeared that most ad- 
 mirably met the needs of school men, — whether or not 
 they recognized that fact, — to many of whom the kinder-
 
 PERIOD OF extension; literature 171 
 
 garten still seems puerile, and Froebel without a message 
 to any save kindergartners. That book is Professor 
 Hughes's "Froebel's Educational Laws for all Teachers." 
 Since Froebel has been exploited mainly in connection 
 with the kindergarten, the educational public is inclined 
 to forget that he was the principal of a boys' school for 
 nearly twenty years before the idea of the kindergarten 
 even occurred to him, and that his educational views were 
 worked out with boys of varying ages before they were 
 applied to the education of little children at all. Mr. 
 Hughes says : " ' The Education of Man ' w^as written in 
 1826, fourteen years before he opened his first kinder- 
 garten, but if he had died in 1827 his contribution to 
 educational thought would have given him a foremost 
 place among educational reformers." Mr. Hughes em- 
 phasized the universal character of Froebel's principles, 
 and the effect of their application to grade work, in the 
 most admirable manner. The book is written from the 
 standpoint of a school man, for other school men, and it 
 has done much to bring about a more general recognition 
 of Froebel's principles. 
 
 Among the books claiming special attention is Miss 
 Blow's "Symbolic Education," in the estimation of many 
 the most noteworthy contribution to the literature of the 
 kindergarten since Froebel. To it one must go for the 
 philosophic interpretation of kindergarten principles and 
 practice. It is not a book to appeal to the superficial, 
 however, and its full significance will hardly dawn upon 
 even the most thoughtful, without careful study. It is
 
 172 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 a book for the educational expert, and challenges the 
 attention of the ablest thinkers. "It is one of the mile- 
 stones in educational literature," says Miss Amalie Hofer 
 in The Kindergarten Magazine. Miss Blow's later book, 
 "Letters to a Mother," is along the same line, as are also 
 the commentaries on Froebel by Denton J. Snider. They 
 constitute an interpretation of Froebel, — an interpreta- 
 tion against which there is a growing reaction. For 
 the philosophy of the eighteenth and early nineteenth 
 centuries, which shaped to a large extent the theory and 
 the practice of the kindergarten, has been replaced by a new 
 interpretation of man and the universe, — the inter- 
 pretation to which modern psychology gives the cue. 
 The books in question present the theory of the kinder- 
 garten from the philosophical viewpoint most admirably, 
 but that presentation is not one with which current edu- 
 cational thought is in sympathy. 
 
 As indicating the most extreme protest against the 
 philosophical interpretation of the kindergarten, the 
 unassuming little book by Frederick Burk, entitled 
 "The Kindergarten Problem," is worthy of notice. While 
 few kindergartners at the present time would be willing 
 to cast kindergarten tradition aside to the extent that 
 Mr. Burk has done, yet the book is stimulating and 
 worthy of study, as an indication of the tendency that has 
 been slowly coming to consciousness among the kinder- 
 gartners of the country. 
 
 Resulting in part from the kindergarten movement is 
 a group of books written mainly by mothers familiar with
 
 PERIOD OF extension; literature 173 
 
 the new spirit in education and dealing principally with 
 the problems of child training in the home. They are to 
 be found in any list of books on child study, but differ 
 from many of those classed under that head, since their 
 aim is not merely the observation of facts in a child's 
 development, but the application of the discovered prin- 
 ciples of child training to the individual child in the in- 
 dividual home. The familiarity that most of these show 
 with the child study movement as well as with other 
 current educational movements is significant in showing 
 the kind of motherhood the age is producing. Mr. John 
 Brisben Walker considers that one of the six distinct lines 
 in which women have progressed since the Chicago Expo- 
 sition is "the acceptance of motherhood as a profession." 
 The books in question are proof that motherhood is being 
 so considered. The books of this character were later 
 in appearing than those on the kindergarten as such, but 
 by their insight into its purposes and the tacit approval 
 of its principles they have been of great value in further- 
 ing the kindergarten movement. 
 
 Among them are the following : " Children, their Models 
 and Critics," by Mrs. Aldrich, published in 1892; "Beck- 
 onings from Little Hands," by Patterson Du Bois, 1894; 
 "Child Culture in the Home," by Mrs. Martha Mosher, 
 and "The Study of a Child" by Mrs. Louise Hogan, 
 both of which appeared in 1898; "Nursery Ethics" and 
 "From the Child's Standpoint," by Mrs. Florence Hull 
 Winterburn, published in 1899; "Concerning Children," 
 by Mrs. Charlotte Perkins Oilman, and "Childhood" by
 
 174 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Mrs. Theodore W. Birney, published in 1900; Grinnell's 
 "How John and I Brought up the Child " and Chenery's 
 "As the Twig is Bent " also belong to this class, as do several 
 of the books by kindergartners already named, — par- 
 ticularly Miss Blow's "Letters to a Mother," Miss Smith's 
 "Children of the Future," Mrs. Proudfoot's "A Mother's 
 Ideals," and Miss Harrison's "A Study of Child Nature." 
 Since these were not inspired by the kindergarten move- 
 ment, and cannot be considered its product, no mention 
 is made of a long list of books on child study and genetic 
 psychology as such, whose purpose is scientific observa- 
 tion. Most of these, however, have reenforced the funda- 
 mental conclusions concerning childhood which underlie 
 kindergarten procedure, and have therefore served an 
 excellent purpose in advancing the kindergarten cause. 
 The increasing influence of the kindergarten was not 
 due wholly to the increasing literature of the kind men- 
 tioned. The appreciation of the kindergarten for school 
 purposes came rather through practical than through 
 theoretical lines. The things which the kindergarten had 
 emphasized at first, — the gifts and occupations, — had 
 appealed to the primary teacher mainly as means of busy 
 work. But when the story began to claim a larger place, 
 when gardening and nature excursions became a part of 
 the kindergarten program, and when the child's song be- 
 gan to receive increasing attention, she began to wake up. 
 The kindergarten song book contained songs of a quality 
 not to be found in the primary school repertoire. The 
 stories designed for kindergarten use appealed to the
 
 PERIOD OF extension; literature 175 
 
 children's interest as her own, if she had any, did not. 
 Why should the kindergarten song or story book be con- 
 fined to kindergarten use alone? Until the kindergarten 
 came, the rote song was almost unknown in school work. 
 The story, too, was barely recognized as an educational 
 instrument. There may have been a carefully graded 
 course in music, but the children were drilled in the 
 elements of musical notation, and seldom sang the songs 
 that they really loved. There were courses in reading and 
 language, but little or no telling of the stories dear to the 
 heart of every child. Children were taught to read, write, 
 and spell, but were given no food for the imagination. 
 
 The need of new and better songs, and of more and 
 better stories for kindergarten use, had made itself felt in 
 the early years of the movement. When that need was 
 supplied for the kindergarten, it was supplied in large 
 measure for the primary school as well. Perhaps none 
 of the kindergarten instrumentalities has received a greater 
 measure of criticism than the songs originally devised for 
 kindergarten use. Without denying the value of song in 
 connection with the gift plays, it must be admitted that the 
 conditions for true musical feeling and real musical ex- 
 pression are lacking in most of these. The composition 
 of songs truly musical and childlike in thought, word, and 
 melody was one of the tasks to be accomplished if the 
 kindergarten was to further the child's musical develop- 
 ment to the degree that it should. That this was recognized 
 is shown by the large number of kindergarten song books 
 that have been published since 1880. The first of these in
 
 176 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 order of time was Clara Beeson Hubbard's "Merry Songs 
 and Games," published in 1881. Next came Mrs. Wig- 
 gin's "Kindergarten Chimes," published in 1885. Miss 
 Eleanor Smith's "Songs for Little Children" and Mrs. 
 Mailman's "Songs, Games, and Rhymes" for kindergarten 
 and primary school appeared in 1887. These seemed to 
 meet the demand for a few years, and then came "Stories 
 in Song," by Misses Emerson and Brown, in 1890. " Songs 
 and Games for Little Ones," by Misses Jenks and Walker, 
 in 1892, and "Song Stories for the Kindergarten," by 
 Misses Patty and Mildred Hill, in 1893. From 1896 on 
 several others appeared. Among these are: "Song 
 Echoes," by the Misses Jenks and Rust; "Small Songs 
 for Small Singers," by Professor Neidlinger; "Songs for 
 the Child World," by Mrs. Jessie L. Gaynor, and " Holiday 
 Songs," compiled by Miss Emelie Poulsson. Miss Clara 
 L. Anderson's "Instrumental Characteristic Rhythms" 
 and Miss Mari Ruef Hofer's " Music for the Child World " 
 have met an additional musical need of the kindergarten, 
 — that for appropriate marches and other forms of in- 
 strumental music. They have furnished a stimulus to 
 musical interpretation on the part of children, and have 
 given the kindergartner's musical repertoire a richness that 
 it did not have in the earlier years. By the publication of 
 her two books on traditional games, the one entitled 
 "Singing Games," published in 1896, and the other, 
 "Popular Folk Games," published in 1907, Miss Hofer 
 has rendered the kindergarten an additional service. 
 The customary kindergarten games had been criticised
 
 PERIOD OF extension; literature 177 
 
 as being too largely symbolical and lacking in the ele- 
 ments that constitute a good game. The application 
 of the kindergarten idea to school and playground showed 
 the need of games of a different kind, and the books in 
 question are a response to that need. Although many 
 of the games are intended for children beyond the kinder- 
 garten age, the spirit of the books has brought about a new 
 attitude toward the games of the kindergarten proper, — 
 an attitude that promises well for the future. 
 
 Considering the recognition given to the child's love 
 of rhyme and story, it is somewhat surprising that the 
 kindergarten story book should have been nearly a decade 
 later than the song book in making its appearance. Miss 
 Poulsson had published her "Finger Rhymes" in 1889, 
 but no story books appeared until the following year. 
 During the year no less than four appeared, — Miss 
 Sara E. Wiltse's "Kindergarten Stories and Morning 
 Talks"; Mrs. Van Kirk's "Stories for the Kindergarten 
 and Home"; "The Story Hour" by Mrs. Wiggin and 
 Miss Smith; and "Kindergarten Gems" by Misses 
 Ketchum and Jorgenson. Others soon followed — " Child's 
 Christ Tales" and Miss Wihse's "Stories for Kinder- 
 garten and Primary School" in 1892, the "Boston Collec- 
 tion of Kindergarten Stories," Miss Poulsson's collection 
 entitled, "In the Child's World," and Miss Howliston's 
 "Cat Tails and Other Tales" in 1893. The last-named 
 book was not distinctively a kindergarten collection, though 
 it belongs to the kindergarten story books in spirit. Miss 
 Harrison's "In Story Land" appeared in 1895, and since
 
 178 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 that date a number of others have been published. Among 
 these are Mrs. Clara Dillingham Pierson's collections of 
 animal stories, — "Among the Meadow People," "Among 
 the Farmyard People," etc.. Miss Madge Bigham's " Stories 
 of Mother Goose Village," and Miss Maud Lindsay's 
 "Mother Stories." The number of good collections of 
 stories for use in the primary grades has become too large 
 to mention. 
 
 The publication of the above-named story books, 
 particularly the earlier ones, had a special value at the time 
 of their appearance, in the early nineties. The story has 
 come to hold an important place as an educational instru- 
 ment in the primary grades, but as before stated, its 
 use was but beginning at the time in question. The 
 kindergarten story has been peculiarly the vehicle of the 
 kindergarten thought, and has come to have definite and 
 easily recognized earmarks of its own. The fact that there 
 were practically no other collections of stories in the educa- 
 tional market at the time gave the kindergarten story books 
 a special value, and obtained for them a large use among 
 primary teachers. The service that the kindergarten 
 song book rendered in acquainting primary teachers with 
 the kindergarten principles has been mentioned, but the 
 service that the collections of kindergarten stories ren- 
 dered was no less marked. 
 
 No record of kindergarten literature during the period 
 under consideration would be complete that did not 
 include a mention of the kindergarten periodicals, — The 
 Kindergarten Magazine, The Kindergarten Review, and The
 
 PERIOD OF extension; LITERATURE 179 
 
 Child Garden. The story of The Kindergarten Messenger, 
 and of The New Education has been told in an earlier 
 chapter. When the latter became merged in The Public 
 School of Boston in 1883, the kindergarten movement was 
 left without representation in the field of educational 
 journalism, and remained so until 1888 when The Kinder- 
 garten Magazine was founded by Mrs. Alice B. and Miss 
 Cora L. Stockham of Chicago. The new magazine was 
 carried on under their management until August, 1892, 
 when it was purchased by Miss Amalie Hofer and Miss 
 Andrea Hofer, now Mrs. Proudfoot. The following year 
 it became the organ of the Kindergarten Literature Com- 
 pany, a stock company that had been organized by a 
 number of the leading kindergartners of the country for 
 the promotion of the kindergarten cause. Miss Amalie 
 Hofer retained the editorship of The Kindergarten Maga- 
 zine and Miss Andrea Hofer assumed the responsibility 
 of The Child Garden, a new magazine of story song and 
 play, established in 1892 and published by the same com- 
 pany. This magazine did excellent service in furnishing 
 stories and suggestions during the ten or more years of 
 existence, but it was finally discontinued. The Kinder- 
 garten Magazine continued under the able leadership of 
 Miss Amalie Hofer until 1903, when it was transferred to 
 Miss Bertha Johnston and Miss Minerva Jourdan. In 
 1906 it became the property of Dr. E. Lyell Earle of New 
 York City. It is now The Kindergarten and Primary 
 Magazine. 
 
 The Kindergarten Review, which for the past nine years
 
 l8o THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 has shared the field of kindergarten journaUsm with The 
 Kindergarten Magazine, began its existence as The Kinder- 
 garten News in Buffalo in 1890. It was edited by Louis 
 H. Allen and published as the organ of the Buffalo Free 
 Kindergarten Association. It ev^entually became the 
 property of the Milton Bradley Company of Springfield, 
 Mass., and was ably edited by Henry W. Blake. When the 
 Misses Emelie and Laura Poulsson succeeded to the 
 editorship upon Mr. Blake's death in 1897, the publica- 
 tion was enlarged and its name changed to The Kinder- 
 garten Review. The Misses Poulsson continued the 
 editorship until 1904, when it was assumed by Miss May 
 Murray, who still conducts it. 
 
 It would be well-nigh impossible to estimate the value of 
 the service that these publications have rendered the kin- 
 dergarten and the cause of American education in general. 
 The Kindergarten Magazine appeared when the movement 
 was still largely unorganized, and public opinion on the 
 subject was still in the process of formation. 
 
 During the important period from 1890 to 1900, when 
 the movement was spreading out and assuming definite 
 character, the editor traveled at her own expense, orga- 
 nizing kindergartens, associations, and training schools, 
 following up every symptom of interest that manifested 
 itself. A similar service was rendered by Mrs. Lucretia 
 Willard Treat. By reports of the work in the different 
 kindergarten centers, by accounts of meetings of interest 
 to kindergartners, and by articles along kindergarten and 
 allied lines, The Kindergarten Magazine gave unity to the
 
 PERIOD OF extension; literature i8i 
 
 movement and served as a watch tower from which the 
 field of kindergarten progress could be scanned. The 
 splendid enthusiasm shown by the kindergartners of the 
 country at the time of the Columbian Exposition was 
 augmented by and reflected in The Kindergarten Maga- 
 zine, and the success which the kindergarten scored on that 
 occasion was due in no small degree to its efforts. From 
 1888 to 1 90 1 not less than two thousand articles on the 
 kindergarten and allied phases of elementary education, 
 written by the ablest educators of the country, had ap- 
 peared in its pages. By its practical suggestions no less 
 than by its reports from the kindergarten field, it has 
 translated the kindergarten ideal into actual kindergarten 
 procedure, not only to young kindergartners but to mothers 
 and educators all over the land. It has had a positive 
 tone, moreover, and has spoken in no uncertain voice on 
 questions of educational policy. It has reflected the social 
 movement and has interpreted educational progress anew, 
 in terms of the great West. It has furthered the kinder- 
 garten cause in a material way, — the Kindergarten 
 Literature Company having, during a particular period of 
 four years, earned and spent $10,000 in sending out liter- 
 ature and establishing kindergartens. 
 
 The Kindergarten Review came into the field later, when 
 much of the pioneer work had been done, but it has ren- 
 dered a like service during the years of its existence. The 
 bound volumes of these publications are indispensable 
 to any one wishing to gain an insight into the origin and 
 growth of the kindergarten movement in the United States.
 
 1 82 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 The literature of the kindergarten, both periodical and per- 
 manent, has won a place for itself in American life and 
 thought. The library of the teacher is incomplete without 
 an infusion of Froebelian doctrine; the church worker 
 unfamiliar with it is out of touch with current problems; 
 the home that has not felt its influence lacks some of the 
 qualities the ideal home possesses. Horace Scudder 
 says that the literature of the world has been greatly en- 
 riched since poverty and childhood have been annexed 
 to its domain. The educational literature of America has 
 been greatly enriched by the contribution of the kinder- 
 garten; the kindergarten, the kindergarten child, and the 
 kindergartner herself have gained entrance to the field of 
 general literature, there to do service in the cause of human 
 advancement.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 The Kindergarten in the Public School System 
 
 That the kindergarten had been well recommended 
 by means of the agencies described in preceding chapters 
 cannot be questioned, and its speedy adoption by the school 
 was anticipated by the oversanguine. During the first 
 decade of the period under consideration such adoption 
 was far from being as rapid as some had hoped, however, 
 although this was not wholly an unmixed evil. The rea- 
 sons for such tardiness were not far to seek. The kinder- 
 garten associations were only beginning their work and 
 required time to make their influence felt. The other 
 agencies that have aided in building up sentiment favorable 
 to the kindergarten either did not come into existence until 
 the decade between 1880 and 1890 or were not strong 
 enough to exert the influence which they exercised later. 
 The church needed a deeper insight into the social signifi- 
 cance of Christianity before it could advocate the kinder- 
 garten with vigor. The Woman's Christian Temper- 
 ance Union, organized in 1874, did not undertake work 
 bearing upon the kindergarten until nearly the middle of 
 the next decade. Women's clubs, the first of which was 
 organized in 1878, did not undertake the study of education 
 until many years later. The first social settlement in the 
 
 183
 
 184 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 United States was not opened until 1887, ^-nd the study 
 of education in universities and colleges had hardly more 
 than begun. The "new psychology" did not make itself 
 felt until the latter part of the decade under consideration, 
 and the new conception of education did not become 
 sufficiently general to be dynamic until the decade following. 
 While a sufficient number of cities became converted to 
 kindergarten adoption during this decade to prove that the 
 kindergarten was making itself felt, it was not until the last 
 decade of the century that public school kindergartens 
 became common. If there is any appropriateness in 
 calling the decade from 1880 to 1890 the Association 
 Decade in kindergarten history, the decade from i8go to 
 1900 may with equal appropriateness be called the Pubhc 
 School Decade in the kindergarten movement. Kinder- 
 garten associations had been formed before 1880, it is 
 true, and their organization did not cease with the 
 close of the decade. So, too, public school kindergar- 
 tens had come into existence before 1890, and their 
 number is rapidly increasing, although that decade 
 has passed. Each became general, however, during the 
 decade named. The adoption of the kindergarten before 
 1890 was infrequent enough to occasion comment when it 
 occurred. The non-adoption of that institution is likely 
 to occasion comment at the present timej 
 
 .Apart from these general considerations, the main 
 reasons for the slow march of kindergarten progress 
 were two. One was the expense of maintaining kinder- 
 gartens, which was supposed to be much greater than
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 185 
 
 that of maintaining primary schools. This is due in 
 part to the cost of kindergarten material, but in greater 
 measure to the larger number of teachers supposed to be 
 required for a given number of children. "The surprises 
 of experiences," to use Miss Blow's apt phrase, have cor- 
 rected this impression. Her own words on this point are 
 of interest. "In the early days of the kindergarten move- 
 ment we were told over and over again that the Froebelian 
 ideal could not be carried out if th^e were more than ten 
 or fifteen children in a kindergarten. A kindergarten of 
 fifty was condemned by the intolerant as a surrender to 
 the hostile powers, and was excused by the tolerant as 
 perhaps an unavoidable bowing in the house of Rimmon. 
 To-day I do not hesitate in saying that as far as my observ^a- 
 tion goes, the average educational results reached in the 
 larger kindergartens far surpass the average results reached 
 in a kindergarten attended by ten or fifteen children." 
 The bugbear of expense continued to frighten school boards 
 for many years, however, and the objection continues 
 to be raised even now. In 1886 the Commissioner of 
 Education said : "The work of making the kindergarten a 
 part of the school system is only a question of time. The 
 most eminent educators of the day recognize and indorse 
 its principles and methods, but the expense involved 
 prevents its becoming at once the lowest grade of the 
 public school system." Superintendent Seaver of Boston 
 said at about the same time, "The next step forward is to 
 recognize and establish the kindergarten as a part of the 
 system of public instruction."
 
 1 86 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 In spite of the slowness of its adoption by the school, 
 however, the kindergarten was making itself felt, even in 
 those communities that never adopted it as such. Kinder- 
 garten song books found their way to primary teachers' 
 desks; plants and pictures appeared in schoolroom win- 
 dows and on schoolroom walls ; and the presence of scis- 
 sors, folding papers, sewing cards, and modeling clay was 
 pointed to as evidence that "the kindergarten was being 
 introduced." School boards and superintendents were 
 delighted to have the primary teachers assume the kinder- 
 garten manner, and learn something of "kindergarten 
 methods." "Little progress has been made in the establish- 
 ment of kindergartens at public expense," said Dr. Harris 
 towards the end of the decade, "nevertheless the system 
 has had a marked effect in improving the methods in the 
 primary grades." But while many cities thus dabbled in 
 the edges of the kindergarten pool or stood hesitating upon 
 its brink, but few had the courage to take the real plunge. 
 To many the adoption of "kindergarten methods" in the 
 school rather than the adoption of the kindergarten itself 
 seemed quite sufficient. The interest awakened by the 
 kindergarten as a part of the school system, which had 
 made St. Louis the center of educational interest during 
 the seventies, seemed transferred to an interest in the 
 adoption of the characteristic features of the kindergarten 
 in the grades. During the eighties, therefore, educational 
 interest was transferred from St. Louis to La Porte, Ind., 
 and the Cook County Normal School in Chicago, where 
 Professor W. N. Hailman and Colonel Francis W. Parker
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 1 87 
 
 were respectively engaged in the attempt to pour the wine 
 of the new educational thought into the bottles of tra- 
 ditional school conditions. 
 
 The seco;id reason for the slowness of kindergarten 
 adoption by the school was more fundamental. The 
 school laws of most states did not permit of the expendi- 
 ture of public school funds for the education of children 
 of kindergarten age. But three states in the Union have a 
 school age of four years, — Connecticut, Wisconsin, and 
 Oregon. These are, therefore, the only states in which 
 children of kindergarten age can be educated at public 
 expense. Whether kindergarten work may legally be 
 substituted for the customary grade work without legisla- 
 tive action depends upon the school law of the individual 
 states. In two states, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, 
 there is no age limit for entering school. In these states, 
 therefore, the school age furnished no obstacle to the es- 
 tablishment of kindergartens. In eleven additional states 
 — Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, New 
 Jersey, Mississippi, Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas, 
 Nebraska, and the territory of New Mexico — the school 
 age is five years. Children entering school at the age of 
 five are still within the period for which the kindergarten 
 is intended. Whether kindergarten work may be sub- 
 stituted for the customary grade work during the first year 
 depends in these states also upon the school law of the 
 individual states. In Maine, New Hampshire, Kansas, 
 and Nebraska the law allows the local school authorities 
 to determine the character of the school instruction. If
 
 l88 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 they see fit to substitute kindergarten for the customary 
 first-grade instruction, there is nothing in the law to pre- 
 vent their doing so. Unless the admission of children 
 below the legal age is desired, therefore, no legislation is 
 needed in these states to make the kindergarten a part of 
 the school system. This is also true in Nevada and South 
 Dakota, in which the school age is six. In the other states 
 of the group in question legislation was necessary before 
 kindergartens could be legally established. 
 
 In the states in which the school age is six or more the 
 problem is somewhat different. In Alabama and Virginia 
 the school age is seven; in Texas it is eight. In all the 
 other states not already mentioned, it is six. That six- 
 year-old children can still be benefited by attending 
 kindergarten, no one will question. The kindergarten was 
 primarily intended, however, for children below that age, 
 and school authorities may well question the advisability 
 of spending public school money for kindergartens for 
 children of six years. If the children are to gain the real 
 benefit that the kindergarten is intended to confer, a lower- 
 ing of the school age is needed in states of this class. A 
 general lowering of the school age in a given state, for the 
 sake of making the establishment of kindergartens pos- 
 sible, must of necessity impose a hardship, however, upon 
 the localities where kindergartens cannot be established. 
 The legislation to make the establishment of kindergartens 
 possible in states of this class has usually specified that 
 children below the legal age should be admitted in case of 
 the establishment of kindergartens only. Several of the
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 189 
 
 states in question have enacted such legislation. Others 
 have attempted it without success, and some consider that 
 the time to effect it has not yet come. Missouri, the first 
 state to establish public kindergartens, has a school age of 
 six years. When the initial experiment with the kinder- 
 garten was made in St. Louis, children of five years were 
 admitted, but the legal age of entrance has since been 
 insisted upon, and the children in the St. Louis kinder- 
 gartens, as well as those in the kindergartens of Kansas 
 City, are all, therefore, six or more years of age. The 
 attempt to lower the school age has been made several 
 times without success. The children who attended the 
 first kindergartens in New Orleans were six likewise, but 
 the age at which children might be admitted to kinder- 
 gartens was lowered by the Constitutional Convention of 
 1898. In several of the Southern states that have adopted 
 the kindergarten the children are of legal age, — six or 
 more. These facts are mentioned to show the difficulties 
 with which the kindergarten had to contend in becoming 
 a part of the school system. In general, "any city, through 
 powers inherent in its charter, may maintain kindergartens 
 provided they are supported wholly by local taxation." 
 During the decade from 1880 to 1890, as far as known, 
 but three states enacted legislation to make the establish- 
 ment of kindergartens possible. These were Vermont, 
 Indiana, and Connecticut. Cities in other states that 
 adopted the kindergarten during this decade did so through 
 powers inherent in their charters, or because legislation 
 was unnecessary.
 
 190 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 In spite of the difficulties still to be surmounted, the 
 kindergarten made its way into the school from 1880 to 
 1890 with a fair degree of success. Boston had established 
 a public school kindergarten in 1870, which was, however, 
 discontinued after a few years of existence. The organi- 
 zation of the St. Louis kindergartens had been effected in 
 1873, as has been stated. No records can be found to show 
 that it was adopted by any other public school during the 
 decade from 1870 to 1880 with the exception of Forest- 
 ville, 111., a suburb of Chicago and now a part of the city. 
 This was for many years the only public school kinder- 
 garten in Illinois. The cities to adopt it during the decade 
 from 1880 to 1890 were as follows : Milwaukee, Wis., 
 in 1881 ; Fort Collins, Colo., in 1882; Des Moines, la., 
 and Portland, Me., in 1883; Muskegon, Mich., and La 
 Porte, Ind., in 1884; New Orleans, La., Hartford, Conn., 
 and Sheboygan, Wis., in 1886; Boston, Mass., and Phila- 
 delphia, Pa., in 1887; Rochester, N.Y., in 1888; Los 
 Angeles, Cal., in j 889. Several other cities are known to 
 have adopted public school kindergartens during the 
 decade, but the exact date could not be determined. 
 Among these are : Burlington, Bayfield, Baraboo, Lake 
 Geneva, and Hayward, Wis. ; New Rochelle, Mt. Vernon, 
 White Plains, Yonkers, Port Chester, and Carlstadt, 
 N.Y. ; Grand Rapids and Ann Arbor, Mich. ; Providence 
 and Newport, R.I. ; and Pueblo, Colo. This is a fair 
 showing, since it included five of the larger cities of the 
 country, — St. Louis, Milwaukee, Boston, Philadelphia, 
 and New Orleans. Each of these cities was a center
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM I9I 
 
 whose influence could not fail to be widely felt. It must 
 not be supposed, however, that a complete system of 
 kindergartens was established at one stroke in the cities 
 in question. In Philadelphia the thirty kindergartens that 
 had been established and maintained by the Sub-Primary 
 School Society were assumed by the board of education, 
 and in Boston the fourteen that had been established and 
 maintained by Mrs. Shaw. In Los Angeles twelve kin- 
 dergartens were adopted by the school, but in most cases 
 the experiment was made with one or two, and additional 
 ones were opened as these first ones proved successful. 
 
 The acceptance of the kindergarten as a part of the 
 school system during the decade in question was both 
 indicated and advanced by the organization of kinder- 
 garten departments in state and city normal schools. 
 Such departments had been created in the state normal 
 schools at Oshkosh, Wis., and Winona, Minn., in 1880. 
 In 1882 they were added to the normal schools at Os- 
 wego and Fredonia in New York, and at Emporia, 
 Kan. Connecticut added such departments to its normal 
 schools at about the same time, and Michigan did the same 
 in 1889. Other schools may have taken the same action, 
 but the date of the establishment of the kindergarten depart- 
 ments could not be ascertained. The training of kinder- 
 gartners has not been the chief aim of these departments ; in 
 fact some of them make no effort in that direction. They 
 aim in large part to acquaint the students in the general 
 courses with the procedure of the kindergarten and the 
 principles upon which such procedure is based, as a matter
 
 192 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 « 
 
 of educational intelligence. Though not a state institu- 
 tion, the Cook County Normal School, established in 1883, 
 must be included because of its wide influence in this 
 direction, under the leadership of Colonel Parker. A 
 similar influence is exerted by those city normal schools 
 having a general course but including a kindergarten de- 
 partment. Of these, such institutions as the Philadelphia 
 Normal School and the Boston Normal School are con- 
 spicuous examples. "It is through the normal school 
 that the adjustment of Froebel's system to our public 
 schools must be made, if it is to be made at all," said Com- 
 missioner Harris in 1884, commenting on the recent es- 
 tablishment of kindergarten departments in such schools. 
 That they have exerted a marked influence on the spread of 
 Froebelian thought is generally recognized. That they 
 will compel the reorganization of existing forms of kinder- 
 garten training in the near future is evident to those who 
 have made a study of the matter. 
 
 'At the beginning of the last decade of the century the 
 kindergarten outlook was fairly promising, although the 
 clear-sighted realized that much effort was still needed to 
 place it upon the proper basis as a part of the educational 
 system. In the cities where the kindergarten had been 
 adopted it was winning golden opinions, and the results 
 were more than justifying the hopes of its friends. At the 
 Toronto meeting of the N. E. A. in 1891 the following 
 resolutions were passed: "Resolved that we view with 
 pleasure the spread of kindergarten principles and methods 
 and trust that they may be generally introduced into the
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 1 93 
 
 public schools. To this end we recommend that the dif- 
 ferent states secure the necessary legislation that will en- 
 able communities to support and maintain kindergartens 
 at public expense." Such legislation was one of the fea- 
 tures of kindergarten progress during the decade then just 
 entered upon. 
 
 The effort that the kindergartners of the country felt it 
 necessary to make for their cause at the Columbian Ex- 
 position and the organization and unification of the kinder- 
 garten forces that such effort demanded, have been dis- 
 cussed in another chapter. The kindergarten cause would 
 have continued to advance had there been no such event, 
 but ten years of effort without it could hardly have accom- 
 plished as much as was accomplished by its means. 
 Nothing short of an occasion so momentous could have 
 brought the kindergartners from all parts of the country 
 together and nothing less than an opportunity so great 
 could have spurred them on to the effort made. The 
 indorsement and influence of the exposition leaders and 
 managers; the legislation enacted within the next few 
 years ; the books written, and the extension of the kinder- 
 garten into new circles of influence, — all these combined 
 to make the last decade of the century a memorable one in 
 kindergarten history. 
 
 It would be impossible to enumerate even the principal 
 cities that adopted the kindergarten during the decade 
 under consideration, but the fact that nearly all the larger 
 cities did so is significant. Though several strategic 
 cities adopted it before the Columbian Exposition, the
 
 194 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 larger number that did so during the latter part of the 
 decade is a proof of the increasing momentum occasioned 
 by that event. Among those adopting it the first few 
 years of the decade were the following: in 1891, Racine 
 and Dodgeville, Wis., Lexington, Ky., Utica, N.Y., 
 Saginaw, Mich., San Jose, Cal., and Sun Dance, Wyo., 
 the latter being the first public school kindergarten to be 
 established in the state; in 1892, St. Paul, Minn., Chicago 
 and Evanston, 111., Beloit and Superior, Wis., San Diego, 
 Cal., Worcester, Mass., and Cohoes, N.Y. ; in 1893, New 
 York City, Syracuse, and Jamestown, N.Y., Omaha and 
 Lincoln, Neb., and El Paso, Texas, — the first one to be 
 established in that state. During the latter half of the 
 decade the kindergarten gained entrance into the following 
 cities : Sacramento, Cal., Denver, Col., Newark, N. J., 
 Cleveland and Dayton, Ohio, Kansas City, Mo., Council 
 Bluffs, la., Portland, Ore., Washington, D.C., Louis- 
 ville, Ky., Spokane, Wash., Buffalo, N.Y., and doubtless 
 several others. Kindergartens are conducted in seventy 
 or more public schools in Pittsburg and Allegheny, but they 
 are controlled by the Pittsburg and Allegheny Kinder- 
 garten Associations, though the school boards of the two 
 cities contribute generously to their support. In the 
 Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1897-1898, 
 one hundred eighty-nine cities of over eight thousand 
 inhabitants are named as maintaining public kinder- 
 gartens. There are doubtless as many smaller ones doing 
 the same. The number of kindergartens given for these 
 one hundred eighty-nine cities was thirteen hundred sixty-
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM I95 
 
 five, a number known to be much too small. Dr. Harris 
 states that the most difficult statistical work of the Bureau 
 for 1897 and 1898 and the most unsatisfactory in its re- 
 sults was that of collecting information concerning the 
 kindergartens. The proportion of public school kinder- 
 gartens sending returns was doubtless greater than the 
 proportion of private ones. Of the three thousand of 
 the latter known to be in existence nearly one half failed 
 to reply to the request for information. Unsatisfactory as 
 the data are, they form some basis for computing the entire 
 number of kindergartens in the country, public, private, 
 and charitable. By the end of the century, five thousand 
 would be a conservative estimate. In 1903 Miss Ander- 
 son's Annual, already referred to, gave a list of over four 
 hundred forty cities maintaining public kindergartens. 
 The discrepancy between these figures and those given by 
 the Bureau of Education is due in part probably to the 
 increase during the five years that had passed, but more 
 to the other fact that all the cities and towns were given, 
 regardless of their size. According to this the five states 
 having the largest number of cities in which public school 
 kindergartens have been adopted are : New York, 86 ; 
 Wisconsin, 71; New Jersey, 56; Michigan, 43; Massa- 
 chusetts, 34. The increase since the new century opened 
 has been most gratifying, and includes several of the larger 
 cities that had not hitherto adopted them. Among these 
 are Minneapolis, Baltimore, Buffalo, Toledo, Cincin- 
 nati, and Detroit, in the order named. 
 [The progress of the kindergarten in the South since the
 
 196 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 opening of the new century has been particularly gratify- 
 ing. Of the 189 cities mentioned by the Commissioner 
 of Education as maintaining kindergartens in 1897-1898, 
 94 were in the North Atlantic group ; but 2 in the Southern 
 Atlantic ; 8 in the South Central ; 68 in the North Central ; 
 and 17 in the Western. In an article prepared by Miss 
 Eveline A. Waldo of New Orleans for the St. Louis meet- 
 ing of the N. E. A. in 1904, it is stated that public school 
 kindergartens have been established in all the Southern 
 states but four, — South Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, 
 and Arkansas. The conclusion that there were none in 
 these states was based upon the fact that the persons 
 questioned had not replied to her inquiry. In addition 
 to these four, Miss Anderson's Annual indicates that in 
 1903, at least, there were none in Idaho, Delaware, North 
 Dakota, South Dakota, and West Virginia, — a total of 
 nine. In 1907 public school kindergartens had been 
 established in West Virginia also._ 
 
 The kindergarten is becoming a part of the school 
 system also in the countries that have recently come under 
 the control of the United States. It forms an integral 
 part of the school system of Cuba, it has secured a foot- 
 hold in Porto Rico, and is making rapid progress in the 
 Philippines. The report of the Secretary of Public 
 Instruction of the Philippine Islands for 1904 speaks of 
 the kindergartens of Manila in the following words : 
 "This work has been rapidly developed in the past year. 
 Seven kindergartens are maintained, one being for English- 
 speaking children. Seven American teachers are engaged
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 1 97 
 
 in the work in Manila under the direction of a highly quali- 
 fied supervisor. There are twelve Filipino assistants. 
 The attendance has been good and the interest excellent. 
 In many cases there have been applications for member- 
 ship far exceeding the capacity of the schools. Mothers' 
 meetings have been held vi^ith exhibits of the work of the 
 children, and these seem to have been enthusiastically 
 received, the attendance often running as high as fifty. 
 
 "As stated above, the work has as one of its objects 
 the training of young women to give kindergarten instruc- 
 tion in the provinces. The desire is to have a successful 
 kindergarten established in each provincial capital, not 
 only for its value to the children attending, but also as an 
 exhibit to the public of correct teaching principles, and 
 as a feature of the training of the primary teacher." 
 
 The legislation which has enabled the kindergarten to 
 become a part of the school system to this extent is worthy 
 of attention. As already stated, Vermont, Indiana, and 
 Connecticut secured the legislation needed to make 
 kindergartens possible in 1888. The first state to legis- 
 late upon the subject during the decade between 1890. 
 and 1900 was Michigan, which in 1891 passed a law 
 authorizing the establishment of kindergartens for children 
 between the ages of four and seven years. The next state 
 to take action was Ohio, which in 1893 secured the passage 
 of a bill authorizing the establishment of kindergartens 
 for children between four and six years of age, but pro- 
 viding that they must be supported wholly by local taxa- 
 tion. Although bills providing for the establishment
 
 198 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 of kindergartens had been presented to two preceding 
 legislatures, Illinois did not secure the passage of a bill 
 to that effect until 1895. Kindergartens had been opened 
 in Chicago, although there was no legal sanction for this 
 action. The bill referred to provided for the support of 
 the kindergartens, not from the school tax fund of the 
 state, but from the local fund. This meant that the kinder- 
 garten must be submitted to the vote of the people. It 
 was not so submitted, however, until 1899, when unfore- 
 seen circumstances made it inevitable. A shortage of 
 the school funds threatened the abolishing of the sixty- 
 three kindergartens that had been established, and the 
 kindergarten was therefore submitted to the people at the 
 spring election. The 87,000 votes cast in its favor to the 
 15,000 cast against it placed the kindergarten upon a 
 secure footing in that city from that time on. 
 
 The stimulus given to the kindergarten movement by 
 the Chicago Exposition is shown in part by the number 
 of states that passed laws before the decade closed, making 
 the establishment of public school kindergartens possible. 
 These were Washington, New York, Pennsylvania, Iowa, 
 Wisconsin, California, Oregon, Colorado, Louisiana, 
 Minnesota, Montana, New Jersey, the District of Colum- 
 bia, and the territory of Arizona. Several others, Virginia, 
 Oklahoma, Florida, Texas, Utah, and Idaho, have enacted 
 laws to the same effect since the new century opened. 
 Laws authorizing the establishment of public school 
 kindergartens have also been passed in West Virginia, 
 Maryland, and Wyoming, but the date of the legislation
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 199 
 
 in question could not be learned. Since Maine, New 
 Hampshire, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, and 
 Nevada consider that kindergartens may be established 
 without legislation to that effect, and legislation is un- 
 necessary in Massachusetts and Rhode Island because the 
 schools are supported almost wholly by local taxation, it 
 appears that the kindergarten has a legal foothold in all 
 but eleven states. These are Delaware, North Carolina, 
 South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, 
 Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and North Dakota. 
 
 The momentum which the kindergarten gained in the 
 last decade of the century is indicated in part by the 
 increased number of state normal schools which added 
 kindergarten departments during that period. Although 
 the exact number cannot be determined, it is known that 
 a large number did so. Among these were Bridgewater 
 and North Adams among the Massachusetts normal 
 schools; the Providence Normal School in Rhode Island; 
 Albany, Buffalo, Plattsburg, and Cortland, among the 
 normal schools of New York; Slippery Rock and Cali- 
 fornia among those of Pennsylvania; Mt. Pleasant and 
 Marquette among these of Michigan ; Chico, Los Angeles, 
 and San Jose, among those of California; Greely, in 
 Colorado ; St. Cloud and Mankato among those in Min- 
 nesota; Milwaukee and River Falls in Wisconsin; 
 and those at Trenton, New Jersey, Peru, Nebraska, and 
 Salt Lake City, Utah. Kindergarten departments have 
 since been added to the normal schools at Normal, 111. ; at 
 Cedar Falls, Iowa ; at Natchitoches, I>a. ; at Kalamazoo,
 
 200 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Mich, ; at Duluth, Minn. ; at Kirksville, Mo. ; at Lock 
 Haven, Pa. ; at Farmville, Va. ; Stevens Point and Superior, 
 Wis. ; and at the three newly established normal schools 
 in Oklahoma. This list, known to be incomplete, in- 
 cluded twenty-one states and not less than fifty institu- 
 tions. What may not be hoped for from the influence 
 of these institutions for the cause of the kindergarten and 
 of educational progress? The kindergartners belonging 
 to this class show an energy and an alertness as one meets 
 them at I. K. U. gatherings, that testifies to their influence 
 in their own localities, and promises much for the future 
 of kindergarten training. Most of them are relatively 
 young, and have not yet gained a national reputation, 
 but from among them will come some of the future leaders 
 of the movement. 
 
 The student of kindergarten history cannot fail to be 
 impressed by the increasing number of institutions for 
 higher education, not supported by state funds, that are 
 adding kindergarten departments. While the claim to the 
 title of college or university may be somewhat doubtful 
 in the case of a few, the list of such institutions given by 
 Miss Anderson contains several of national reputation. 
 It is as follows : Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, 
 Rock Hill, S.C. ; Stetson University, Deland, Fla. ; Drake 
 University, Des Moines, la. ; Friends University, Wichita, 
 Kansas, and Campbell University, Holton, Kansas; Kee 
 Mar College, Hagarstown, Md. ; Alma College, Alma, 
 Mich.; Wesleyan University, Lincoln, Nebraska; Adelphi 
 College, and Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y. ; Columbia
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 20I 
 
 University, N.Y. ; the University of Chicago; Latter 
 Day Saints University, Salt Lake City, Utah; Stout 
 Manual Training School, Menomonie, Wis. ; Epworth 
 University, Oklahoma City, Okla. ; Valparaiso College 
 and Northern Indiana Normal School, Valparaiso, Ind. ; 
 and Temple College, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 In addition to the departments for kindergarten train- 
 ing in these institutions and in the state normal schools 
 already mentioned, there are not less than one hundred 
 training schools that are either private or supported by 
 cities or associations. This increase in the number of 
 training schools, and the growing necessity for kinder- 
 garten supervision in the larger cities, has given rise to a 
 new need in the kindergarten world, — the need for 
 adequate training for the kindergarten training teachers 
 and supervisors. This need is being admirably met at 
 the present time at Teachers College. The courses of 
 instruction offered by this institution are such as to ac- 
 quaint the would-be leader with the theory and practice 
 of the kindergarten in its relation to the whole of educa- 
 tion, and to familiarize her with the larger problems of 
 kindergarten training and supervision. 
 
 The growing appreciation of the kindergarten as a part 
 of the state educational system was further shown during 
 the last decade of the century by the establishment of 
 kindergartens in state homes for dependent and neglected 
 children, and in institutions for the defective classes — 
 the blind, deaf, and feeble-minded. A beginning had 
 been made in that direction before 1890, but a beginning
 
 202 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 only. The story of dependent and neglected childhood 
 and its care and education is both sad and long. There 
 are in the United States at the present time over six hundred 
 institutions, public and private, for such children, which 
 in 1890 enrolled 65,000 children. How many of these were 
 of kindergarten age no one can tell, but doubtless a goodly 
 number. State provision has been made in a number 
 of instances, either in the form of state homes, county 
 homes, or support in private homes or institutions. When 
 such institutions are near public schools the older children 
 attend these, but the children of kindergarten age cannot 
 easily do so unless the distance is short. The need of a 
 kindergarten in the building thus becomes apparent. 
 Eleven states have made provision for homeless children 
 in state homes, and three in county homes, and in a number 
 of these kindergartens have been established. The first 
 of the state homes to be built was that at Coldwater, 
 Michigan, in 1885. Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Rhode 
 Island made a similar provision the same year, and Kansas, 
 Colorado, and Texas did so soon after. The other states 
 having such institutions are Nebraska, IMontana, Nevada, 
 and Iowa. A kindergarten was connected with the Michi- 
 gan institution almost from the beginning, and with the 
 institutions in Wisconsin and Minnesota soon after their 
 opening. No statistics concerning the number of kinder- 
 gartens in such homes have ever been gathered. Miss 
 Anderson gives but twenty, though this is known to be far 
 too small. The excellent results obtained in the insti- 
 tutions where kindergartens have been adopted cannot 
 but increase their number in the near future.
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 
 
 203 
 
 The value of the kindergarten for defective children had 
 been realized before the last decade of the century, but 
 its general introduction into institutions for the deaf, 
 blind, and feeble-minded belongs to the decade in question. 
 Such introduction is interwoven with the history of the 
 efforts to instruct these different classes of defectives. 
 In the earlier years children were not admitted to the 
 schools for the deaf until the period for which the kinder- 
 garten is intended was over. When this age was lowered, 
 as it has been in recent years, the kindergarten began to 
 be considered, and according to Mr. Edward E. Allen, 
 in Butler's "Education in the United States," "kinder- 
 garten methods have been made use of more and more, 
 although no true kindergarten can be conducted in schools 
 where language comes so late and so hard, where even 
 natural signs are arbitrarily interdicted, and where there 
 can be no music. But the occupations and games are 
 widely applicable, and are universally used." In 1901 
 there were one hundred eighteen institutions for teach- 
 ing the deaf, according to Dexter's " History of Edu- 
 cation in the United States." Of the fifty-seven state 
 institutions, thirty had kindergartens. With the tendency 
 to substitute oral instruction for instruction in the sign 
 language, and day schools for the large institutions, the 
 kindergarten will become still more general. Now that 
 kindergarten departments have been added to so many 
 institutions pupils are urged to enter at an earlier age. 
 
 In the institutions for the blind also, the kindergarten 
 has added much to the children's enjoyment and profit.
 
 204 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Here, too, the age at which children are admitted has been 
 lowered in recent years. Hence kindergartens have been 
 established, and they are proving of the greatest benefit. 
 On this point Mr. Allen says : " Children with good sight 
 and hearing have got along without kindergarten train- 
 ing and so have blind children, but of all the useful means 
 of reaching and developing the average blind child, none 
 is so effective as a properly conducted kindergarten. It 
 is not easy to overestimate the importance of hearing 
 in giving children language and all that this means ; song 
 and the joy it brings and the deep feeling it inspires. 
 The practical knowledge of things comes to the blind 
 through the hand, their fingers being veritable projections 
 of the brain. Thus must not only their hands be trained 
 to sensitiveness of touch, but to be strong and supple, so 
 that they may indeed be dextrous ; for as their hands are, 
 so are their brains. The kindergarten cultivates ear and 
 heart and hand and brain as nothing else does. Even 
 color is not wholly omitted. Kindergartens for the blind 
 may be true kindergartens in every sense of the word. 
 A kindergartner of fully sensed children would miss only 
 the brightness coming from the untrammeled ability 
 to run and play and the absence of all that sight brings. 
 The kindergartens for the blind have as their end and 
 aim this very rousing of children, and the putting them in 
 touch with their surroundings." As Mr. Allen is super- 
 intendent of the Pennsylvania State Institution for the 
 Blind, he knows whereof he speaks. How many of the 
 thirty-nine institutions for the blind have kindergartens
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 205 
 
 could not be ascertained. Mr. Dexter says that "the 
 kindergarten is an almost universal part of such institu- 
 tions and that no other method of education is so effective 
 as the Froebeh'an." He adds that the games and occu- 
 pations seem to meet exactly the needs of the coordinations 
 between the senses still active and that the pupils seem to 
 miss but little that the perfect child gains. 
 
 To no class of defectives has the kindergarten been more 
 of a boon than to the feeble-minded. The story of those 
 lacking in mental capacity is a sad one, and provision for 
 their care and such development as is possible to them is still 
 in its infancy. The present thought concerning the educa- 
 tion of the blind and the deaf, particularly the latter, is that 
 segregation in large institutions apart from normally con- 
 stituted companions is not the best method of education. 
 With respect to the feeble-minded, on the other hand, it is 
 becoming more and more evident that institutional life 
 is the only safe and sensible life. In the existing thirty- 
 two institutions for the feeble-minded, in 1901, kinder- 
 garten instruction plays an important part. "The normal 
 child does not need to be taught every step," says Mr. 
 Allen again. "His powers of attention, his will, his desire, 
 his own originality, enable him to fill the gaps in his 
 instruction from his own daily experiences. In fact he 
 learns more out of school than in. On the contrary the 
 feeble-minded child has to be taught each step, hence his 
 education is extremely slow. The simple occupations 
 of the kindergarten fit the child of from eight to twelve 
 years of age as they do bright children of four or five.
 
 206 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 The teacher clevises all means of busy work for them, 
 using coarse material. No instruction is in more general 
 use or is more helpful to the children than that of the 
 kindergarten. After this their education continues on 
 a very elementary plane beyond which it is impossible 
 for them to go." 
 
 One of the most interesting developments of the decade 
 along kindergarten lines was the introduction of the kinder- 
 garten into the government Indian schools, — the result 
 of Professor W. N. Hailman's appointment to the super- 
 intendency of these schools in 1894. The Indian schools 
 under governmental control are of four classes. To the 
 first class belong the day schools, one hundred forty-three 
 in number, in 1900. These are held in Indian villages 
 or near encampments. They are ungraded in character, 
 and are usually taught by a man and his wife. One of 
 the chief purposes of these schools is to teach better modes 
 of living as well as the rudiments of the school arts. To 
 the second class belong the Reservation Boarding Schools, 
 numbering seventy-five. These are graded schools partly 
 industrial in character, maintained on the reservations. 
 It is in these that the kindergartens have been introduced 
 to the number of forty. Of these Professor Hailman 
 says in Butler's " Education in the United States " : "The 
 experiment (of introducing kindergartens) proved emi- 
 nently successful. The children entered into the work 
 and games with zest and intelligence. Their traditional 
 shyness and reticence yielded naturally and readily to 
 their objective interest in the exercises. They acquired
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 207 
 
 the English idiom with much ease and learned to express 
 their ideas fully and with eagerness. Moreover, the use 
 of the kindergarten methods and of kindergarten materials 
 has entered the primary classes with similar good results. 
 The children spend from one and one half to two hours 
 each day in these kindergartens." In commenting upon 
 this work in 1897, The Kindergarten Review said: "In the 
 Indian schools four years ago there was not a single kinder- 
 garten. Now there are over forty, and the primary work 
 is thoroughly vitalized with the spirit of Froebel." 
 
 To still another class — the highest — belong the 
 Industrial Training Schools, ten in number. This list 
 includes the school at Carlisle, Pa., which enrolls eight 
 hundred students, Haskell Institute, at Lawrence, Kan., 
 and several other institutions of high rank. To three 
 of these a normal department has been added to train 
 Indian young men and women for the work of teaching. 
 The normal courses in these institutions correspond fairly 
 to the courses of other normal schools. At Haskell 
 Institute those who have completed the normal course 
 are given the opportunity of devoting an additional year 
 to kindergarten training under the director of the kinder- 
 gartncr of the institution. 
 
 Considering what has been accomplished in these dif- 
 ferent directions toward the introduction of the kinder- 
 garten into the school system, there seems no good reason 
 for the discouragement that overzealous kindergartncrs 
 occasionally feel, nor does there seem to be any immediate 
 danger that "the kindergarten will have to go," as Polly
 
 2o8 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Oliver said of the boarders, — a prophecy sometimes 
 expressed by its critics. Instead, according to present 
 indications, the school system a few years hence may be 
 voicing the sentiment expressed by a normal school presi- 
 dent w^ho viewed the increasing number of applicants for 
 the kindergarten course with something like alarm, re- 
 marking, "If this keeps on, the rest of the school will soon 
 be little more than an annex to the kindergarten depart- 
 ment." But "new occasions bring new duties," and the 
 twentieth century is bringing problems of its own for the 
 twentieth-century kindergartners to solve. The reorgan- 
 ization of kindergarten thought and procedure that has 
 hardly more than begun will tax the insight of the wisest 
 before it is completed. The effect of the kindergarten 
 upon the school and of current educational thought upon 
 the kindergarten have not yet been clearly perceived or 
 stated because the process is not yet completed. Super- 
 intendent C. B. Gilbert considered the introduction of 
 the kindergarten into the public schools "the greatest 
 step in the educational history of the country, with the 
 exception of the founding of normal schools." But the 
 story of the kindergarten in the school is but partially 
 told with the recital of its introduction. The concluding 
 chapters of the story are those that relate to its effect upon 
 the school itself, and the reaction of the school upon its 
 own thought and procedure. These are the topics that 
 will be discussed in the following pages.
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 Kindergarten Influence in Elementary Education 
 
 •n^HE kindergarten has been one of the vital influences 
 in American education. Its influence has been exerted 
 along many different lines and upon many different groups 
 of people. It forms a happy memory in the lives of the 
 three million or more children who have participated 
 in its procedure since the first kindergarten was opened 
 in America.y It has interpreted life from a higher stand- 
 point to the twenty-five thousand or more young women 
 who have taken courses in kindergarten training. It 
 has aided the thousands of mothers who have made a 
 study of its principles in meeting the daily problems of 
 the home. It has enabled the Sunday school teachers of 
 the land to organize the religious instruction of little 
 children upon a more fundamental basis. It has given 
 teachers of every grade a new insight into the educational 
 process, and has taught them to direct the development 
 of their pupils with more wisdom than before. That the 
 attitude of the world toward childhood has been revolu- 
 tionized during the present generation, that motherhood 
 has taken on a new and higher significance, and that 
 primary education has been transformed in recent years 
 largely as a result of kindergarten influence are facts so 
 p 209
 
 210 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 thoroughly recognized as to need but a passing mention. 
 In enriching the lives of the children who have participated 
 ' in kindergarten procedure, in interpreting the significance 
 of motherhood anew to the women of the land, and in 
 setting a new and different standard for the teacher, the 
 kindergarten has rendered an invaluable service. As 
 the value of its influence is recognized, the extension of 
 the kindergarten has become one of the features of educa- 
 tional progress. 
 
 Great as the value of the kindergarten may be to the 
 children who participate in its exercises, its greatest 
 service to education cannot be rendered by the mere 
 addition of kindergartens to the graded school system. 
 If the principles upon which kindergarten practice is 
 based are valid, they must be valid not alone for the stage 
 of development which the kindergarten covers but also 
 for the other stages as well. jThe powers awakened 
 during the kindergarten years" need progressive and 
 continuous exercise to reach the development of which 
 they are capable, and unless the work that follows is 
 based upon the same general principles the development 
 is arrested. The fruit of the kindergarten tree needs a 
 longer time to ripen than that afforded by the kinder- 
 garten years alone. The transformation that the work, 
 of the primary grades has undergone in recent years bears 
 testimony to the recognition of these facts. The progress 
 of the kindergarten movement is measured in part by the 
 increasing number of kindergartens. It is measured no 
 less by the increasing application of its principles to grade
 
 INFLUENCE IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 211 
 
 work. The multiplication of kindergartens is relatively 
 a simple matter. The reorganization of the elementary 
 school has been a task of far greater complexity. The 
 kindergarten embodied a new ideal of education; it 
 implied a different attitude toward childhood; it utilized 
 for the child's development means other than the tra- 
 ditional ones ; it employed different methods of procedure. 
 The application of kindergarten principles to primary 
 school practice meant nothing less, therefore, than the 
 reorganization of the school, — the reconstruction of its 
 ideals, the enrichment of its curriculum, the adoption 
 of new and different methods. Since the kindergarten 
 embodied the principles of the new educational phi- 
 losophy, it alone would in great measure have effected the 
 transformation of the school. But at the time when its 
 influence began to be felt other forces were at work in 
 American life — forces which created other movements 
 destined to play a part in the transformation of American 
 education. These movements differed in origin, aim, 
 and scope, but all reenforced the influence exerted by the 
 kindergarten and hastened the transformation which it 
 would have effected. The modern primary school is 
 the complex product of these many influences. 
 
 While the present procedure of the primary schools bears 
 the stamp of the kindergarten too unmistakably to leave 
 one in doubt as to the source from which the transforming 
 influence has come, other influences have played their 
 part and have left their impress. Of this the art and 
 manual training movement, which next to the kindergarten
 
 212 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 has been the strongest influence in the transformation 
 of the school, is an illustration. The child study move- 
 ment and the Herbartian movement of a later date are 
 other examples of movements that have influenced the 
 aims and methods of elementary education and left their 
 mark upon school work. Any discussion of kindergarten 
 influence that does not recognize these other movements 
 and their reciprocal influence upon the kindergarten and 
 upon each other must therefore be inadequate. To 
 comprehend the primary school of the present it is neces- 
 sary to glance briefly at its past, and at the movements 
 that have played a part in its transformation. 
 
 The primary school, as that term is now understood, 
 has been in existence but little more than forty years. 
 The system of grading that created it did not come into 
 general use until after the Civil War. The traditional 
 curriculum of the sThree R's with which it began was 
 gradually modified by the adoption of new subjects, and 
 as early as the seventies it showed signs of progress. 
 Object lessons had become general as a result of Pes- 
 jlalozzian influence, emanating from the Oswego Normal 
 School. In 1870 drlwing had been introduced into the 
 schools of Boston. This was the indirect result of the 
 London and Paris expositions in 185 1 and 1867, which 
 had shown the value of art instruction as an educational 
 factor. Although these additions had been made in the 
 more progressive communities, formal instruction was the 
 rule and the repression of childish activity the established 
 form of procedure. The word method of teaching reading
 
 INFLUENCE IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 213 
 
 had, it is true, supplanted the time-honored drill in the 
 A, B, C's, but with few exceptions the methods of instruc- 
 tion had not yet been touched by the new spirit. The 
 musical instruction, for which such books as "Loomis's 
 First Steps" furnished the basis, was formal in the extreme, 
 and the rot^ song was unrecognized. The instruction 
 in drawiflg was based upon geometrical principles, and 
 had no foundation in children's native interests. Form 
 study did not become the basis for art instruction until 
 1880, and not until much later did color work become a 
 recognized feature. The free expression of the children's 
 ideas by means of clay modeling, paper cutting, or paint- 
 ing was unknown in school work. The need of physical 
 activity in the form of play and games and the value of 
 contact with nature were also unrecognized. The teachers 
 having the least training and experience were placed in 
 charge of the youngest children and paid the lowest 
 salaries. Such was the primary school in the early seven- 
 ties, when the kindergarten came. 
 
 As has been stated, the changes that have taken place 
 in elementary education during the past thirty or more 
 years have been the result of many different influences. 
 These influences may be grouped into two periods, — 
 the first beginning at about the time of the Philadelphia 
 Exposition, and continuing until about the time of the 
 exposition at Chicago; and the second beginning with 
 that event and continuing until the present time. The 
 movements exerting the greatest influence during the 
 first of these periods were the kindergarten movement,
 
 214 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 the art and manual training movement, and the nature 
 study movement. These movements continued theii 
 influence during the second period, but they were reen- 
 forced by the new psychology, child study, and Herbar- 
 tianism. The Philadelphia Exposition was a great stimu- 
 lus to art education. As a result "an immediate wave 
 of art enthusiasm spread over the country," and art 
 instruction became a part of the school curriculum in 
 every progressive community. The kindergarten move- 
 ment also felt the stimulus of the exposition. In 1870 
 there were but ten kindergartens in the United States. 
 In 1880 the number had increased to four hundred. In 
 spite of the fact that with the exception of those in St. 
 Louis these kindergartens were all private or charitable, 
 they exerted an influence upon the school system of many 
 a city, even upon those that did not adopt them as a part 
 of the public school system later. 
 
 The nature study movement had a different origin. 
 The introduction of science into the colleges and uni- 
 versities had shown the necessity for cultivating the 
 children's powers of observation during the early years; 
 hence courses in nature study for the grades were advo- 
 cated and attempted. The new interest in literature 
 called also for the beginning of literary instruction in the 
 elementary school, and hence the story began to receive 
 recognition as an educational instrument. The influences 
 that combined to reconstruct elementary education thus 
 came from three different sources: from the industrial 
 world, which demanded art instruction as a preparation
 
 INFLUENCE IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 215 
 
 for industrial life; from the colleges, which insisted 
 that the proper intellectual habits should be formed 
 and formed early; and from the educational reformers, 
 who proclaimed the doctrines of Pestalozzi and Froebel 
 as a means of awakening the people to a realization of 
 education as something more than instruction in the 
 traditional school arts. 
 
 Since it took time for the new influences to make them- 
 selves felt, the breaking up of the old regime did not become 
 general until the decade between 1880 and 1890. That 
 decade may therefore be called the decade of experiment 
 and transition. To the uninitiated it was a decade of 
 confusion. The addition of new subjects meant either 
 the displacing of established ones or the overcrowding 
 of the program, — at least a disturbing of the established 
 order. The new subjects called also for the use of new 
 and unfamiliar methods, — another element of uncer- 
 tainty. Since teachers and even superintendents did 
 not always understand the purposes of the new subjects, 
 their relation to the traditional ones, and the methods to 
 be used in presenting them, it is not strange that the results 
 should have been unsatisfactory many times, and that 
 discontent should have been rife, both in the teaching 
 ranks and in the community. In course of time an adjust- 
 ment to the new conditions was effected. The ideals that 
 called for new subjects and new methods were more 
 clearly apprehended and a new unity was worked out, 
 both in curriculum and methods. The curriculum of 
 the present has an organic unity of its own, based upon
 
 2l6 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 the experiences, the activities, and the interests of children 
 in the different stages of development, but the school in 
 which such a curriculum obtains is separated from the 
 school of the eighties by an immeasurable distance. 
 The progress made since that time is due to the kinder- 
 garten and to the movements that characterized the decade 
 between 1890 and 1900, — the new psychology, child 
 study, and Herbartianism. The effect of these will be 
 touched upon later. There have been three stages, 
 therefore, in the evolution of the modern primary school, 
 — the first, in which the old ideals prevailed ; the second, 
 in which a transition from the old ideals and methods 
 to the new was in progress; and the third, in which the 
 new determine both curriculum and method. But since 
 progress has not been equally uniform in all sections of 
 the country, schools may be found representing each of 
 these stages. Some still embody the old ideals and have 
 not, therefore, progressed beyond the first stage; others, 
 the great majority, in fact, have accepted the new ideals 
 in theory, but are still struggling with the problems of 
 their application; still others, relatively few in number 
 but constantly increasing, have satisfactorily in practice 
 worked out the new ideals. 
 
 The knowledge of educational conditions thus outlined 
 is necessary as a background for the study of kindergarten 
 influence and progress. It is not difhcult to see how the 
 drawing, manual training, or other movements have 
 influenced the character and methods of the school. 
 When the adoption of a new subject was decided upon its
 
 INFLUENCE IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 217 
 
 adaptation to the several grades was carefully considered^ 
 the teachers were given instruction in the methods to be 
 employed, and adequate supervision was provided to 
 meet the problems of administration. In the case of the 
 kindergarten it was very different. When kindergartens 
 were added to the school system, a supervisor was engaged 
 in the larger cities, it is true, but her duties seldom included 
 instruction to the grade teachers in the methods of apply- 
 ing kindergarten principles to their particular work. 
 In fact, so little direct effort was made to bring kinder- 
 garten influence to bear upon school work that one may 
 well ask, What means did the kindergarten adopt to 
 aflfect school procedure so vitally? The introduction 
 of drawing, music, manual training, and physical exercise 
 into the school curriculum lessened the apparent differences 
 between the kindergarten and the school, but did not 
 necessarily carry with it the spirit and method of the kinder- 
 garten, nor did it insure the attitude towards childhood 
 for which the kindergarten stands. The primary teacher 
 of the present has absorbed the spirit of the kindergarten 
 by observation and training, though she may be uncon- 
 scious of that fact. The approval which the kindergarten 
 received compelled the teacher of the early day, steeped 
 in the formalism that characterized the school work of 
 that time, to acquaint herself with kindergarten procedure, 
 and as far as possible to adopt its spirit and method. 
 This was no easy task. Where kindergartens existed 
 teachers diligently visited them; when they did not exist 
 the teachers' only resource was the available literature
 
 2l8 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 of the subject or attendance at some of the summer schools, 
 such as those conducted by Colonel Parker at the Cook 
 County Normal School, or W. N. Hailman at La Porte, 
 Indiana, that made a specialty of the kindergarten and 
 its principles. While the study of kindergarten theory 
 did much to produce the change in attitude, the main 
 source of inspiration was the kindergarten itself. The 
 primary teacher who visited a kindergarten could not 
 fail to be impressed by the kindergartner's attitude toward 
 her children, — by her cooperation with them in the 
 spirit of comradeship and by her sympathetic insight into 
 their interests and needs. She was impressed no less by 
 the children's attitude tow-ard their work, by the spon- 
 taneity of their interest, and by their dehght in the use of 
 the bright-colored material. The games were a revela- 
 tion to her, since they showed that there could be freedom 
 without disorder; the interest which the children took 
 in the kindergarten songs made her own drill on scales 
 and intervals seem little better than drudgery; and the 
 attractiveness of the kindergarten room gave her helpful 
 suggestions concerning the value of beauty as a factor in 
 education. In short, recognizing that there was possible 
 an order of things very different from that to which she 
 was accustomed, she determined to profit by the lesson. 
 If kindergarten procedure could be made so interesting, 
 why not school procedure as well? Why, she asked, 
 should there not be pictures upon the walls and plants 
 in the windows, in the primary room as well as in the 
 kindergarten? Why should the kindergarten children
 
 INFLUENCE IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 219 
 
 have bright-colored material and the primary children 
 none? Why could not the songs and many of the games 
 used in the kindergarten be used also in the primary 
 department? The educational leaders were beginning 
 to ask the same questions, and to urge the utilization of 
 childish activity in the primary grades, but no arguments 
 were half so convincing as the example of the kindergarten 
 itself. As a result the characteristic features of the kinder- 
 garten were to a greater or less degree adopted by the 
 school. Exercises with kindergarten material became 
 common, and kindergarten songs and games were incor- 
 porated into the procedure of the primary school. Since 
 the work in drawing was not based upon form study until 
 1880, and color exercises formed no part of that work 
 until many years after, the kindergarten material was a 
 revelation to the teachers, and the gift and occupation 
 exercises gave to many the first suggestions concerning 
 instruction in form and color. The success of the con- 
 structive exercises carried on in the kindergarten converted 
 many to the value and feasibility of manual training also. 
 The expense involved in the introduction of drawing and 
 manual training as such had delayed that introduction in 
 many instances; but the success of the exercises of a 
 kindergarten character, which involved but little expense, 
 not only familiarized the teachers with the purposes and 
 methods of these subjects, but also prepared the public 
 for their acceptance. Where drawing and manual train- 
 ing had been introduced the efforts toward the adoption 
 of kindergarten principles strengthened the work already
 
 220 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 undertaken. Where they had not, the attempts along 
 kindergarten lines hastened such introduction. The 
 children's interest in doing was in such marked contrast 
 with their interest in mere learning — by the customary 
 methods at least — that teachers and school boards 
 could not fail to see that a new educational force had been 
 discovered and a new vein of childish interest struck. 
 
 It was along such practical lines as these that the in- 
 fluence of the kindergarten upon the primary school was 
 first felt. It is a question whether the so-called applica- 
 tion of kindergarten principles to the work of the grades 
 meant much more to the average teacher, during the 
 decade between 1880 and 1890, than the adoption by the 
 school of the external features of kindergarten procedure. 
 But the mere adoption of these features led to a deeper 
 study of Froebelian doctrine, and this in turn to an insight 
 that resulted in better things. The fact that the kinder- 
 garten could obtain results in the line of art expression 
 that could not be obtained by any other methods had 
 led the advocates of art instruction as early as 1880 to 
 reconstruct the system of art education on a basis Froe- 
 belian to the core. The result was the Prang System of 
 Art Education. The Prang System has been one of the 
 great agencies of educational reform and the most effective 
 ally of the kindergarten in placing the work of the school 
 upon an active instead of a receptive basis. Wherever 
 the Prang System is used the principles of Froebel are 
 disseminated. The success of the system is due in no 
 small degree to its espousal of kindergarten principles.
 
 INFLUENCE IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 221 
 
 It has become one of the great agencies for the spread 
 of the kindergarten gospel. 
 
 But the art instruction was not the only line of work 
 that was reorganized in whole or in part as a result of 
 a growing insight into kindergarten principles. The 
 kindergarten song book rendered an important service 
 in carrying kindergarten influence into the school, as has 
 been stated. Since it was the agency by means of which 
 kindergarten games found their way into the primary 
 schoolroom, the song book did as much as the kinder- 
 garten material to introduce the principle of activity into 
 primary education. But acquainting primary teachers 
 with kindergarten games was but a part of the service 
 the song book rendered. It showed a new conception 
 of the function of music in a child's development, and of 
 the methods by which that development should be secured. 
 The kindergartner maintained that this development de- 
 pended upon the cultivation of musical feeling, and that 
 this made the hearing of good music, adapted to the child's 
 comprehension, indispensable. This practically created 
 the child's song and brought the rote song into use as 
 an educational instrument. She maintained further that 
 the appreciation of rhythmic exercises and participation 
 in them is essential, and that such exercises should there- 
 fore have a place in the kindergarten program. She 
 further insisted that opportunity for the interpretation of 
 music should also be given, and that there should eventually 
 be creative expression in music, as there is such expression 
 in other lines. But if these ideas were to obtain in the
 
 222 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 music teaching of the grades, a new system of ideals and 
 methods was needed. The principles in question were 
 gradually recognized, and a reorganization of the music 
 teaching in the grades was undertaken. Such a recon- 
 struction was hardly more than conceived of, however, 
 during the decade in question; in fact, it has been but 
 partially effected even yet. Because the kindergarten 
 song book suggested such a reconstruction, and introduced 
 games and dramatizations into the grades, it has been 
 one of the main agencies for the spread of kindergarten 
 influence. Wherever it has gone it has carried the kinder- 
 garten spirit — the sympathetic interpretation of child- 
 hood, the love of nature, and respect for human activity, 
 whatever its form. 
 
 The use of the kindergarten game in the primary 
 school led to the reorganization of another line of work 
 also. The physical needs of school children had received 
 but scant consideration at the hands of school authorities ; 
 but about the middle of the decade under consideration, 
 gymnastic exercises were introduced into the schools of 
 all the larger cities. But the spirit with which the children 
 entered into the games, in marked contrast with the 
 spirit manifested in the formal exercises, showed plainly 
 that this branch of school work had not yet been placed 
 upon a proper foundation. That there was needed a 
 course of physical training in which games appropriate 
 to the different grades should have a place was readily 
 seen. Such a course was not worked out during the decade 
 in question. Like the needed reorganization in musical
 
 INFLUENCE IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 223 
 
 lines, it is hardly worked out even yet, but much thought 
 has been given to it in recent years. 
 
 The reorganization of the work in physical training 
 
 was not the only service, however, of the kindergarten 
 
 game to the primary school. The dramatic instinct, 
 
 so strong in childhood, had been refused recognition 
 
 along with other instincts in the school of the early days. 
 
 The kindergarten recognized and utilized these instincts 
 
 and this was one of the reasons for its appeal to childish 
 
 interest. It gave opportunity for picture making and 
 
 building, in the use of the gifts and occupations. It found 
 
 occasion for the exercise of the dramatic instinct in the 
 
 dramatization of human and animal activities. The 
 
 dramatic game is not only an instrument of instruction 
 
 peculiarly adapted to childish needs, but it is a means of 
 
 expression of the greatest value. Like drawing, modeling, 
 
 or building, it is a means of determining the nature of the 
 
 child's mental images. The primary teacher of the early 
 
 day could not fail to see the significance of dramatic and 
 
 imitative play and its value for her own work, but the 
 
 adoption of such play was at first impossible. To carry 
 
 out dramatic games necessitated her becoming like the 
 
 kindergartner, a jumping frog, a galloping horse, or a 
 
 flying bird or butterfly, as occasion demanded, and from 
 
 this a false dignity shrank. If the kindergartner had 
 
 taught the primary teacher no other lesson than that one 
 
 must become a child with the children to succeed with 
 
 them, she would have rendered the school an invaluable 
 
 service. The teacher had stood aloof from the children,
 
 224 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 a being apparently of a different order, and occupying 
 a different plane. The kindergartner taught her to live 
 with the children on their own level, yet above it. The 
 primary teacher of the present has learned the lesson, 
 and her success is measured by her approach to the kinder- 
 garten type. The principle of dramatic expression, in- 
 troduced into the school through the avenue of the kinder- 
 garten game, has had most important results in the 
 primar)' grades. It has given new life and interest to 
 nature work; it has been the principal means by which 
 a knowledge of the trade world has been obtained, and 
 through the dramatization of stories it has vitalized 
 children's interest in literature and history. Dramatic 
 representation has demonstrated from a new standpoint 
 what art and manual training had demonstrated from 
 another, — that activity is the avenue to children's inter- 
 est, and the surest means to their development. 
 
 In the line of nature study, too, the kindergarten has 
 suggested new ideals and methods to the primary school. 
 As stated elsewhere, the nature study movement in the 
 elementary school was the indirect result of the introduc- 
 tion of scientific courses into the colleges and universities. 
 The attempt to teach science to college students revealed 
 a fundamental defect in the educational system. Students 
 were utterly lacking in the knowledge that must form the 
 basis for all scientific study, — the knowledge gained 
 from direct observation. They had, moreover, no con- 
 ception of scientific method, and no power of scientific 
 reasoning. The introduction of the inductive sciences
 
 INFLUENCE IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 225 
 
 into the high schools of the county was the immediate 
 resuh. The high schools, however, declared themselves 
 unable to meet the demand this laid upon them by the 
 higher institutions unless a foundation in the form of nature 
 study was laid in the elementary schools. The stimula- 
 tion from the higher institutions to science teaching in 
 the grades was invaluable, but the organization of a suit- 
 able course of nature study was a difficult matter. The 
 teachers of the period were wholly lacking in scientific 
 knowledge, material adapted to schoolroom conditions 
 was difficult to obtain, and the purposes of the work were 
 but dimly perceived. The movement therefore pursued 
 an uncertain course during the early years. The ad- 
 vocates of art teaching, who had encountered similar 
 difficulties in advancing the cause of art ^dtication, had 
 solved their difficulties by rejecting a course organized 
 from the higher grades downward, and had constructed 
 a new course, as has been stated, which began with the 
 fundamental interests and capabilities of the youngest 
 children, and proceeded upwards. The necessity for 
 a similar reconstruction in the nature work was forced 
 upon the friends of that movement, and it was in this 
 direction that the kindergarten rendered valuable service. 
 Although the kindergarten did not solve all the diffi- 
 culties of the struggling nature study movement, it ex- 
 ercised an appreciable influence upon the selection of 
 subject-matter and upon the methods of work. This 
 influence would doubtless have been more pronounced 
 had the kindergarten in the United States been faithful 
 Q
 
 226 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 to the ideals of its founder. Gardening, nature excur- 
 sions, and other lines of nature work formed an organic 
 part of the curriculum in Froebel's world-famed school 
 at Keilhau ; and every child took part in the garden work 
 that formed a feature of the first kindergarten at Blanken- 
 burg. Miss Elizabeth Harrison said, on her return from 
 a tour in Europe a few years ago, "Nowhere in the land 
 of Froebel did I find a kindergarten without its little plot 
 of ground where the children put their own seedlings, 
 tended their own plants, plucked their own blossoms, 
 and in the autumn gathered and stored their own multi- 
 plied seeds." Gardening for the primary grades, if not for 
 the whole school, should have been the result of kinder- 
 garten influence and example. School gardens form an 
 organic part of the school work in a few cities, but these 
 are the product of the settlement or the Outdoor Art 
 Association rather than of the kindergarten. 
 
 In spite of its failure to realize its own ideals, however, 
 the kindergarten has contributed much that is of value 
 along nature study lines. It has given the kindergarten 
 children the right attitude toward nature. It has taught 
 them to consider plants and animals as friends and helpers, 
 having ways of their own that can only be learned by 
 observation. It has led them to think of the domestic 
 animals as needed helpers, deserving of care and considera- 
 tion. It has given thousands of children an acquaintance 
 with animal life by the care of pets, such as squirrels, 
 rabbits, or doves, which can be kept in or near the kinder- 
 garten room. By means of the aquarium and terrarium
 
 INFLUENCE IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 227 
 
 it has familiarized them with the habits of fish, frogs, 
 insects, and other lower forms. When one has come to 
 recognize the animals of field and forest as governed by 
 motives not unlike his own, nature can never be wholly 
 uninteresting. The bird building its nest or feeding its 
 young, the caterpillar spinning its cocoon, the butterfly 
 emerging from its crysalis, the cricket chirping in the 
 grass — these, and a thousand other things, have become 
 significant to children during recent years. 
 
 The plant world, too, has made its appeal to the child's 
 interest. By means of the window box, if the school 
 garden is impossible, the children have learned of the 
 awakening seed, the slowly forming bud and blossom, 
 and the seed, ripening for the next year's round. The 
 bud and blossom of springtime, the changing foliage and 
 ripening fruit of autumn, and the snow-covered landscape 
 of winter have been interpreted and idealized by means 
 of song, story, and picture, until the whole realm of nature 
 seems to the child a veritable fairyland. The kinder- 
 garten and the school have a different function to perform 
 in the child's development, but in the nature work at 
 least, the school has so completely adopted the aims and 
 purposes of the kindergarten that there are no longer 
 dividing lines. The primary school journals and the 
 song and story books intended for use in the primary 
 grades all reflect the spirit and method of the kindergarten 
 in its attitude toward nature. The study of nature in 
 the grades is successful when the emphasis is placed where 
 the kindergarten places it — upon the care and observa-
 
 228 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 tion of living things, upon functions rather than upon 
 structure. The kindergarten and the art work recon- 
 structed upon kindergarten principles have given nature 
 study the place that it now occupies in the school curricu- 
 lum and in the lives of American children. 
 
 Another line of school work that has felt the influence 
 of the kindergarten is the story. Although the story was 
 the first form of instruction in human history, and story- 
 telling has occupied a place at every fireside since the 
 world began, the story as a school instrument is a thing 
 of the past few years, and story-telling was so rare an art 
 among teachers that its possession was a matter of com- 
 ment. The place that the story now occupies in primary 
 work is due to two influences, that of the kindergarten, 
 and that of Herbart and his American exponents. The 
 Herbartians, like the advocates of nature study in an 
 earlier period, attempted to organize a systematic course 
 of instruction in literature for the whole school. In this 
 the story told by the teacher was to serve as the founda- 
 tion. The kindergarten began as it did in the case of 
 nature study and drawing, from the level of the little 
 child and worked up, leaving the grades beyond to work 
 out their own special problems. The child had had no 
 place in literature until the past century, and literature 
 had made no conscious provision for the child's literary 
 needs. The entrance to the world of fancy — the child's 
 own by natural right — was not until recent years gained 
 through the door of the schoolroom, and to acquaint 
 the child with the best in literature had not been one of
 
 INFLUENCE IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 229 
 
 the recognized aims in the teaching of reading. The 
 school which had rejected the child's desire to picture 
 and dramatize the world about him as of value for educa- 
 tional purposes had failed to recognize no less the educa- 
 tional value of the child's love of stories. Here, too, the 
 kindergarten took the stone which the builders had re- 
 jected and gave it an important place in the new educa- 
 tional edifice. The story, in the estimation of the kinder- 
 gartner, is the means of interpreting to the child the life 
 of which he is a part, and of acquainting him with the 
 motives that actuate conduct. Since the child of kinder- 
 garten age lives in the realm of the imagination, the story 
 that meets his needs must be clothed in the garb of fancy; 
 since action is the first law of being during the early years, 
 it must be dramatic; since his unfolding spiritual nature 
 craves sustenance, it must contain seed truths to germinate 
 and grow into right action ; since his power of com- 
 prehension is limited, the story must be told instead of 
 read. 
 
 The kindergartner's views concerning the story as an 
 educational instrument were impressed upon the primary 
 teachers of the early days by the successful use of the story 
 in the kindergarten; they were spread broadcast by col- 
 lections of stories by kindergartners that later found their 
 way to the educational market. Story-telling became 
 a feature of primary school as well as of kindergarten 
 procedure, and the art of story-telling became one of the 
 tests of a good primary teacher. When the Herbartian 
 movement came somewhat later, the foundation for a
 
 230 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 course of literature for the grades was already laid. The 
 movement to give children a knowledge of the world's 
 best literature, resulting from the combined influence of 
 Froebel and Herbart, has been of inestimable value to 
 American childhood. The supplementary reader and 
 the library as an adjunct to the schoolroom are among 
 its results. In the use of the story, as in the use of song, 
 nature work, or dramatic expression, the line of demarca- 
 tion between the up-to-date kindergarten and the up-to- 
 date primary department is rapidly disappearing. The 
 kindergarten song book has been one means of bringing 
 about the unification of the kindergarten and the school; 
 the kindergarten story has performed a like service. 
 
 The adoption of the story as a feature of primary school 
 work, like the adoption of the other features of kinder- 
 garten procedure, was not accomplished at once. That 
 kindergarten influence made itself felt in the school at 
 first along practical lines has been already stated ; such 
 influence was deepened, however, by the growing insight 
 into the fundamental principles of the Froebelian phi- 
 losophy that came with the growth of the movement. 
 Certain positive results had been realized from kinder- 
 garten influence by the end of the decade from 1880 to 
 1890. The spirit and manner of the kindergartner had 
 become the accepted standard for the primary teacher, 
 because the attitude toward childhood for which the 
 kindergarten stands had been accepted as the true attitude. 
 The fundamental principle of the kindergarten — that 
 of education through activity — had been recognized
 
 INFLUENCE IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 231 
 
 as the principle upon which primary teaching should be 
 based, since an acquaintance with the kindergarten had 
 shown its validity. The external features of the kinder- 
 garten — its hand work, its songs and games, its nature 
 work and its stories, had been adopted in many schools. 
 The method of art education had been radically recon- 
 structed as a result of its influence, and a reconstruction 
 of the methods of teaching music, nature study, and 
 physical training was well under way. The decade 
 between 1880 and 1890 was a significant one in the history 
 of elementary education because it saw the inauguration 
 of many new features in school work. The decade be- 
 tween 1890 and 1900 was even more significant, since it 
 saw the rise of other movements destined to give more 
 fundamental insight into the ends and means of education, 
 and thus into the new movements themselves. To under- 
 stand the later developments of the kindergarten move- 
 ment and the nature of its influence upon the work of. 
 the grades, it is necessary to glance in some detail at the 
 movements in the field of general education that charac- 
 terized that decade.
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 New Tendencies 
 
 The influence of the kindergarten upon the school 
 during the decade from 1880 to 1890 had been mainly 
 external. The form of school work had been affected 
 but the principles underlying the changes of form were 
 but partially grasped. The literature of the kindergarten 
 had familiarized the public with the conception of educa- 
 tion as a process of continuous development, a process 
 in which the child's creative activity must play an impor- 
 tant part. That conception was illustrated in the kinder- 
 garten itself. The adoption by the school of the features 
 that characterized the kindergarten was an attempt to 
 realize this conception in the grades beyond, but the teacher 
 of insight could not fail to see that such adoption alone 
 did not accomplish that purpose. The realization of 
 that conception in the grades called for something much 
 more fundamental, — the reorganization of the school 
 work upon a new basis. Such a reorganization was begun 
 during the last decade of the century and is still in progress. 
 The kindergarten prepared the way for such a reorganiza- 
 tion, but could not have effected it without the aid of the 
 movements in general education that characterized the 
 period, — the new psychology and child study, and in 
 
 232
 
 NEW TENDENCIES 233 
 
 a lesser degree, Herbartianism. As a result of these 
 movements, however, the kindergarten itself was chal- 
 lenged both in its theory and in its practice, and as a result 
 has been materially modified. To understand the kinder- 
 garten situation at the present time, therefore, and the 
 changes that are taking place in the curriculum and 
 methods of the school, it is necessary to consider briefly 
 the movements in question. 
 
 The doctrine of education as a process of development 
 had been theoretically accepted long before the decade 
 now under consideration, but that doctrine did not be- 
 come effective as a reorganizing principle in school work 
 until reenforced by other authority than that of the educa- 
 tional reformer. The rapid development of the biological 
 sciences during the seventies, due to the acceptance of the 
 theory of evolution, had given rise to a new interpretation 
 of life. According to this interpretation both mind and 
 body are the product of the evolutionary processes. A 
 study of the lower forms of life, both plant and animal, 
 had acquainted the scientist with the fundamental laws 
 of life and growth, and the relation between the organism 
 and its environment. The work done in these lines made 
 a study of the mental life from the standpoint of the natural 
 sciences necessary. The "new psychology" evolved 
 in the universities of Germany during the seventies in 
 response to this need, found its way to the leading insti- 
 tutions of America soon after. It was taught at Yale by 
 Dr. George T. Ladd, who published the first American 
 book of importance on physiological psychology. It was
 
 234 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 taught at Harvard by Dr. William James and at Johns 
 Hopkins by Dr. G. Stanley Hall. Other institutions soon 
 followed. The psychological laboratory became a part 
 of every well-equipped educational institution, and re- 
 searches in psychology were carried on by methods ap- 
 proved by the canons of scientific criticism. Since psy- 
 chology in its new aspect emphasized the evolution of 
 mind, the observation of children followed as a natural 
 consequence. Genetic psychology, and in fact the whole 
 child study movement, was therefore a logical outcome 
 of a psychology based upon natural science methods. 
 
 The new psychology differed from the old or rational 
 psychology in attitude, scope, emphasis, and method. Its 
 attitude, as stated, was scientific, not philosophic. It ig- 
 nored metaphysical problems such as the nature of the self 
 and its relation to the universe, and confined itself to a 
 study of mind as a reacting mechanism. It placed em- 
 phasis upon the study of the stream of consciousness in 
 the process of functioning. This called for a study of the 
 neural basis of the conscious states. The emphasis thus 
 necessarily placed upon the study of the nervous system 
 gave rise to the term "physiological psychology" as 
 indicating the character of the new science. The fact 
 that the method adopted was that which obtained in the 
 kindred sciences of biology and physiology, — the method 
 of observation and experiment, led to the use of the term 
 " experimental " or " empirical." These terms failed 
 to indicate the aim of the new psychology however, — • 
 the discovery of the laws of mental life and growth, and
 
 NEW TENDENCIES 235 
 
 the principles that underlie its adjustment to environing 
 forces. The terms in question gave little or no suggestion 
 as to the value of the knowledge which the new psychology 
 aimed at as a basis for a new educational structure. 
 
 The knowledge of the mental life which the new psy- 
 chology demanded called for an acquaintance with the 
 fundamental facts of child life and development, and 
 tended in the direction of child observation and study. 
 The impulse to child study from the genetic standpoint 
 came from Dr. William Preyer of the University of Jena, 
 who in 1 88 1 published a book of notes upon the develop- 
 ment of his own child, called "Die Seele des Kindes." 
 Child study would doubtless have become an important 
 phase of psychological study in the United States apart 
 from this, however, as a result of the impulse which had 
 brought the new psychology into existence. The child 
 study movement of the nineties was instituted for practical 
 rather than for theoretical reasons, however. The new 
 psychology as s;iich was not evolved by the educational 
 reformer as an instrument for the reconstruction of educa- 
 tion, although its fundamental significance for education 
 soon became apparent. The child study movement, on 
 the contrary, was born of the desire to find in the knowledge 
 of the child's development at different stages, the basis 
 for a new educational system. For the conception of 
 education so reconstructed the world is indebted to Dr. 
 G. Stanley Hall, who may appropriately be called the 
 father of the child study movement. In an editorial in 
 The Pedagogical Seminary in 1895, Dr. G. Stanley Hall
 
 236 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 says: "There are two ways of advancing education. 
 The first may be subdivided into what for want of better 
 terms we may roughly call the administrative and the 
 logical, and the second the internal or bio-psychological. 
 The first method works on school laws and organizations, 
 adjustment between grades, the constitution of teachers' 
 societies, and on the logical side draws up courses of study 
 with due correlations, and effects reforms by working 
 from without inwards. The second method, assuming 
 education to be a branch of applied biology and im- 
 pressed with the great difference between logical and 
 psychological methods, gives prominence to the latter, 
 and would work everywhere from within outwards. Our 
 predecessors in this favored land gave us good school 
 laws, organization and grading which we are improving 
 as we are also buildings. Within the past year we have 
 taken up the vast problem of revising the curriculum. 
 Back of all these and other educational problems, however, 
 are the nature and needs of the growing child and youth, 
 and the best sign of the times that the present educational 
 awakening has struck deep root and that the near future 
 will see greater advance than the recent past, is the fact 
 that American teachers are slowly realizing that the only 
 philosophic and even rational and consistent education 
 is ultimately based solely on a knowledge of the growth 
 of the body, brain, and soul of the young of the human 
 species. The Pedagogical Seminary finds its distinctive 
 character and standpoint in striving to aid in the develop- 
 ment of this genetic knowledge of childhood as the con-
 
 NEW TENDENCIES 23) 
 
 dition of all educational progress that is real or can be 
 lasting." 
 
 The child study movement began during the decade 
 between 1880 and 1890, but like the new psychology, 
 did not reach its fullest development until the following 
 one. The desire for the reconstruction of education which 
 brought it into existence shaped the general character 
 of the movement. Its advocates, Dr. Hall and his dis- 
 ciples, aimed to acquaint the public, particularly parents 
 and teachers, with the fundamental facts of child develop- 
 ment by means of personal observation on their part of 
 the children with whom they came into contact, and to 
 lead them to see the nature of an education based upon 
 such fact^. They sought to secure the cooperation of 
 parents and teachers in collecting adequate data con- 
 cerning significant aspects of child growth, and by the 
 sifting and organizing of the data thus obtained, they 
 hoped to obtain a body of principles upon which to base 
 a true educational theory. Under the leadership of Dr. 
 Hall and others, syllabi containing directions and sug- 
 gestions were prepared and sent to interested individuals 
 or to societies organized for the furthering of the move- 
 ment. The topics selected for observation and study 
 covered a wide range. The growth of the child's body 
 at different periods as shown by weights and measure- 
 ments received considerable attention. Because of the 
 interest awakened by the new psychology in the child's 
 native impulses and instincts, and by the motor activities 
 in general, children's plays and games, their toys and play
 
 238 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 material, formed one of the most interesting lines of work. 
 The drawings of children at different ages received special 
 attention for similar reasons. The content of children's 
 minds, their use of language, their interests and ideals, 
 and their moral and religious conceptions at different 
 ages — all these and many other topics were taken up 
 for observation and study. The child study work thus 
 carried the spirit and method of the new psychology into 
 every intelligent home and every up-to-date schoolroom. 
 The interest awakened by the child study movement 
 was nothing short of remarkable. Child study became 
 the principal topic for discussion at teachers' meetings 
 and educational gatherings, and the chief subject of inter- 
 est in the educational journals. It was accorded a place 
 on the program of women's clubs, and became the topic 
 for detailed study in parents' associations, some of which 
 were organized for the pursuit of such study. In the 
 normal schools child study became the avenue of approach 
 to the study of psychology and pedagogy. In the summer 
 schools no courses were more crowded than the child 
 study courses. In the universities child study became 
 a recognized phase of the work in psychology. All the 
 problems, both of the home and of the school, seemed on 
 the way to a happy solution by its means. The wave of 
 immediate interest in the subject has passed, but certain 
 positive results remain. A body of facts concerning 
 child life at different stages has been built up, and although 
 no specific formulation of principles for the guidance of 
 educational procedure has been made on the basis of these
 
 NEW TENDENCIES 239 
 
 facts, enough has been done to produce marked effects 
 in school work. Child study has given parents and teachers 
 a deeper insight into the problems of education, and has 
 brought them into sympathy with the newer movements, 
 — the kindergarten, drawing and manual training, and 
 nature study. It has given the average teacher a new 
 attitude toward children, and has done much to cultivate 
 professional interest. Many books have been written 
 embodying in a manner more or less popular the results 
 of the movement, and these have added to its influence. 
 The child study movement must be considered one of 
 the epoch-making movements in the history of American 
 education. 
 
 The third movement to influence education in the 
 United States during the decade between 1890 and 1900 
 was the Herbartian movement. The character of Ger- 
 man pedagogy during the past quarter century has been 
 shaped largely by the influence of Herbart, and in view 
 of German leadership in education it is not strange that 
 this influence should have extended to the United States. 
 The significance of Froebel's doctrines first became ap- 
 parent through their embodiment in the kindergarten. 
 The educational theories of Herbart made their impres- 
 sion likewise through their application to school work. 
 The centers of Herbartian influence in Germany are the 
 universities of Jena, Leipzig, and Halle. The doctrines 
 taught in the classroom by Stoy and Rein at Jena and 
 by Ziller at Leipzig are applied in the practice schools 
 connected with these institutions, and it is by the illustra-
 
 24© THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 tion of Herbartian principles in these schools that American 
 educators have been converted to the Herbartian faith. 
 
 Among the exponents of the Herbartian doctrines in 
 the United States, Dr. Charles De Garmo and Drs. 
 Charles A. and Frank McMurry take high rank. During 
 the early nineties these men were all connected with the 
 Illinois Normal University at Normal, 111., and that in- 
 stitution therefore became one of the principal centers 
 from which emanated the influence of Herbart in the 
 United States. Not only were the doctrines of Herbart 
 taught in the classroom, but they were applied in the 
 training school. The curriculum of the training school 
 was reorganized on Herbartian principles as far as these 
 were compatible with American school work, and the 
 methods of the recitation were shaped to meet Herbartian 
 demands. The graduates of the school were thus famil- 
 iarized with Herbart's doctrines, both in theory and in 
 practice. Probably nothing contributed more to the 
 spread of these doctrines than the many books written by 
 Dr. Charles A. McMurry. The first of these was " General 
 Method," published in 1892. This is a brief general 
 statement of the doctrines in question. "The Method 
 of the Recitation" shows the application of these doctrines 
 to the work of the classroom. The adoption of Herbartian 
 methods in the schools of the country is due in no small 
 degree to the publication of these books and the series 
 on "Special Methods," in which the application of Her- 
 bartian principles to the different lines of school work is 
 shown.
 
 NEW TENDENCIES 24 1 
 
 The study of Herbart's doctrines was materially fui:- 
 thered by the organization of the National Herbart Society 
 about the middle of the decade under consideration. This 
 society was auxiliary to the National Educational Associa- 
 tion, and its members were mainly the active members 
 of that organization. The meetings held in connection 
 with those of the National Educational Association and 
 the Department of Superintendence attracted attention 
 because of the strength of their programs and the methods 
 of work. The papers prepared for the meetings were 
 printed beforehand in the form of "Year Books," and the 
 discussion of the papers in question formed the program. 
 The publications of this society contain some of the most 
 valuable contributions that have been made to American 
 educational literature, and no educational library is com- 
 plete without them. 
 
 The immediate interest in the doctrines of Herbart has 
 waned, like the interest in child study, but the movement 
 as a whole has contributed much that is of value to 
 American education. The movement did not awaken 
 the interest among parents that child study awakened, it 
 is true, but its interest and value for the teacher cannot 
 be questioned. American educators have never accepted 
 the Herbartian doctrines in their entirety; in fact, that 
 acceptance has been confined mainly to certain practical 
 applications of his doctrines. His psychology has not 
 stood the test of modem scholarship; his doctrine of 
 apperception, however, is conceded to be one of the most 
 important contributions to recent pedagogical science.
 
 242 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 The Culture Epoch Theory associated with Herbart's 
 name has been rejected as the foundation for the American 
 school curriculum; but the thought that the curriculum 
 of the elementary school should have a character-build- 
 ing content has helped to give history, literature, and 
 nature study a permanent place in grade work and made 
 a return to the curriculum of the "Three R's" forever 
 impossible. A school program based upon the Her- 
 bartian principle of correlation has been found impracti- 
 cable ; but the attempts in that direction have done much 
 to emphasize the principle of mental economy and to make 
 the curriculum an organic whole instead of a mere collec- 
 tion of unrelated subjects. The doctrine of interest 
 needed the modification it received at the hands of Ameri- 
 can psychologists; but its discussion did much to give 
 a more fundamental character to education. The move- 
 ment in general reenforced the theory of stages in a child's 
 development, although it considered them from a different 
 point of view — that of the subject-matter of instruction 
 appropriate to each. By its discussion of the essential 
 steps in the teaching process, Herbartianism rendered 
 a most valuable service to pedagogical science and placed 
 classroom instruction upon a new and higher level. The 
 doctrine of creative self-activity this movement did not 
 recognize, and in this respect it was out of harmony with 
 the educational theories in process of formation in Ameri- 
 can education as a result^of other tendencies. In general, 
 however, the Herbartian movement must be considered one 
 of the most stimulating influences in American education.
 
 NEW TENDENCIES 243 
 
 The bearing of these movements upon the kindergarten, 
 and upon the application of the principles underlying that 
 institution to grade work, cannot yet be wholly determined. 
 That Froebel had grasped by intuition and insight the 
 great educational truths which psychology has in recent 
 years been seeking to establish is admitted by all. It 
 is not yet equally recognized, however, that the researches 
 of recent years have thrown a flood of light upon many 
 truths but dimly perceived or wholly unsuspected in Froe- 
 bel's time. That with the advent of this larger knowledge 
 defects would be revealed in the system of procedure which 
 he formulated was unavoidable. The new psychology 
 and child study brought that larger knowledge, and these 
 movements could not fail, therefore, to affect the kinder- 
 garten, — to establish it more firmly than ever in the con- 
 fidence of the people or to impair that confidence. Until 
 the new psychology came there had been little or no criti- 
 cism. During the eighties and the early nineties kinder- 
 garten procedure was considered the ideal which school 
 practice should seek to imitate. It was not until about 
 the middle of the decade between 1890 and 1900 that 
 criticisms of importance began to be heard. The small- 
 ness of the kindergarten material was declared to be 
 injurious to growing nerves and detrimental to youthful 
 eyes. The art teacher began to question the value of the 
 customary gift and occupation exercises as a basis for the 
 art work of the grades, and the physical training teacher to 
 express dissatisfaction with nfany of the games. All 
 these quoted the psychologist as their authority. As the
 
 244 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 kindergarten had heretofore met with approval only, these 
 criticisms were not easy to bear, and they occasioned the 
 friends of the movement no little anxiety. They feared 
 that the criticisms in question would undermine public 
 confidence in their beloved institution and overthrow the 
 movement which they had labored so diligently to establish. 
 These fears not infrequently blinded them to the whole- 
 some nature of the criticisms and to the kindly interest 
 of the critics. They could not then see what has become 
 apparent since, that the new psychology has been of the 
 greatest value to the kindergarten movement, that it was 
 heeded to interpret the principles of Froebel aright even 
 to the kindergartners themselves, and to make possible 
 a fundamental application of those principles to grade work. 
 The new psychology has made necessary many modifica- 
 tions in kindergarten procedure, and will eventually compel 
 a reorganization of its theory. The advent of the psy- 
 chologist, therefore, marked a turning point in the history 
 of the kindergarten movement. That movement could 
 never have attained the influence that it now exerts in the 
 educational world, however, without the sanction of psy- 
 chology and child study. For in spite of the criticism 
 made upon certain phases of kindergarten theory and 
 practice, the psychologist at no time posed as an opponent 
 of the kindergarten as a whole. On the contrary he frankly 
 recognized it as the only attempt thus far made to establish 
 education upon a psychological basis, and commended 
 it as an effort to realize the very ideals that he himself 
 was seeking to establish. As a result the friends of the
 
 NEW TENDENCIES 
 
 245 
 
 kindergarten were stimulated to even greater efforts in its 
 behalf, and many who had thus far given it but little thought 
 were led to give it favorable attention. That education 
 is a process of development rather than a process of in- 
 struction ; that play is the natural means of development 
 during the early years; that the child's creative activity 
 must be the main factor in his education ; and that his 
 present interests and needs rather than the demands of the 
 future should determine the material and method to be 
 employed, — all these principles underlying kindergarten 
 procedure the psychologist approved, not for the kinder- 
 garten alone, but for all education. 
 
 The effect of such approval was apparent in the rapid 
 extension of the kindergarten movement during the latter 
 part of the decade under consideration. As stated else- 
 where, in 1890 the kindergarten had secured a legal foot- 
 hold in less than half a dozen states; at present kinder- 
 gartens can be established at public expense in all but 
 eleven of the states and territories of the Union. In 1890, 
 five or six of the larger cities and twenty-five or thirty 
 smaller ones had adopted the kindergarten as a part of the 
 school system; in 1902 public school kindergartens were 
 reported in four hundred forty. In 1890 not more than 
 six of the state normal schools of the country had established 
 kindergarten training departments; at present such de- 
 partments have been organized in more than fifty. This 
 remarkable extension cannot be attributed wholly to any 
 one influence, it is true, but the emphasis placed by the 
 new psychology upon kindergarten education as a type of
 
 246 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 the education that should prevail throughout the grade? f 
 was a factor of no small importance. 
 
 The strengthening of the kindergarten as such in public 
 favor reenforced the tendency toward the reorganization 
 of primary school work on the basis of kindergarten prin- 
 ciples. A difference in attitude toward the type of educa- 
 tion which the kindergarten represents was clearly discern- 
 ible during the years immediately following the Chicago 
 Exposition. The evidences of kindergarten progress 
 which the exposition afforded were so unmistakable, 
 the approval accorded that institution by the leading 
 educators at the Educational Congresses was so marked,^ 
 and the phases of education for which it stands were seen 
 to be so clearly in line with the most progressive tendencies 
 that even the most skeptical could not fail to be impressed. 
 The hesitation that still existed in the minds of some 
 concerning the adoption of drawing, constructive work, 
 games, and other features that had a kindergarten savor 
 gave way to confidence in their value and enthusiasm over 
 the results. The new movements that had been struggling 
 for recognition and place in the school, — art instruction, 
 manual training, games, nature work, etc., now came in 
 with a rush, and established phases of grade work were 
 either transformed or wholly discontinued. The drill on 
 arithmetical tables gave way to measurement of concrete 
 things ; the learning of the parts of speech as a foundation 
 for language training was icplaced by the reproduction of 
 stories, and the analysis of nature study material gave 
 way to the observation and care of living plants and animals.
 
 NEW TENDENCIES 247 
 
 f During the early period the kindergarten exercises, when 
 such were introduced, served as a pleasant diversion in 
 the customary school grind. The methods now adopted 
 in the regular subjects made these subjects themselves 
 interesting. All this indicated that the principles under- 
 lying the kindergarten were being grasped in their larger 
 sense. The establishment of public playgrounds and the 
 organization of vacation schools gave other evidence of that 
 fact. 
 
 The changes that were gradually taking place in the 
 curriculum and methods of the school indicated a growing 
 ^tomprehension of a fundamental truth proclaimed by 
 Froebel and sanctioned by modern psychology, — that 
 both the matter and the method employed in the different 
 grades must originate in the children's present needs and 
 interests instead of in the interests and needs of the future. 
 In other words, the curriculum must be organized on a 
 psychological basis, not as heretofore on a logical one. 
 This is the gist of the statement so frequently misunder- 
 stood, that education at any stage is a phase of life, not a 
 preparation for it. The work of the kindergarten is psy- 
 chologically organized ; the increasing tendency to organ- 
 ize the work of the school upon the same principle is one 
 of the most gratifying evidences of educational progress. 
 A few schools have grasped this principle fully and are 
 therefore as truly Froebelian as the best kindergartens. 
 The majority are still struggling to carry it into operation. 
 
 The reorganization of the school curriculum from the 
 standpoint of children's present needs is one evidence of
 
 248 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 progress; the reorganization of method from the stand- 
 point of the child's volitional interest is additional evidence. 
 In such a reorganization, too, the kindergarten has led the 
 way, although the new psychology has shown it with added 
 clearness. The distinctive method of the kindergarten is 
 the method of creative self-activity. That which has no 
 root in the child's volition the kindergartner considers with- 
 out value in his development. The fact that expression 
 has become the keynote in primary school method shows 
 that this principle has been accepted by the school as the 
 foundation principle of method. In art and manual train- 
 ing creative self-expression along the line of the children's' 
 fundamental interests is the constant aim. In language 
 originality in the expression of the child's own thought, 
 whether by means of words, pictures, or dramatic action, 
 is constantly striven for. In nature study the method 
 pursued is one in which the child's interest and judgment 
 play an important part. A curriculum based on chil- 
 dren's present needs, and a method growing out of their 
 inherent forms of activity, — these are the fundamental 
 characteristics of kindergarten education that are being 
 slowly but surely adopted by the schools. Dr. Monroe 
 says: "Wherever the emphasis in school work is placed 
 upon the activities of the child rather than upon the tech- 
 nique of the process of instruction, and whenever develop- 
 ment of character and of personality is sought rather than 
 mere importation of information and training of intellectual 
 ability, there the Froebelian influence is to be recognized." 
 The influence of the kindergarten upon the school is
 
 NEW TENDENCIES 249 
 
 clearly recognizable in still another direction. That every 
 child must be educated if social betterment is to be effected 
 has long been conceded. But in the estimation of Frocbel 
 intellectual development as such would not alone prepare 
 the child for the place he is to occupy in society. He 
 maintained that the school should make the practice of 
 the social virtues an organic part of educational procedure. 
 The kindergarten is an illustration of this theory, and the 
 development of the spirit of cooperation is one of the 
 fundamental purposes in many of the kindergarten ex- 
 ercises. Mr. J. L. Hughes thus describes Froebel's 
 initial effort: "Froebel's kindergarten was a little world 
 where responsibility was shared by all, individual rights 
 respected by all, brotherly sympathy developed by all, 
 and voluntary cooperation practiced by all." 
 
 The use of the child's actual relation to his playmates as 
 a means of his social development is exactly in harmony 
 with the selection of the materials of instruction — the 
 curriculum — from the life about him, and with the organi- 
 zation of method on the basis of his immediate volition. 
 According to Froebel, education must begin on the child's 
 level, and with the material, intellectual or social, that has 
 already acquired a meaning to him. It must proceed by 
 the exercise of the power or insight gained. In the 
 social sense therefore, as well as in the intellectual, educa- 
 tion is and must be, even from the beginning, a phase of 
 life, not a preparation for it. 
 
 Until the kindergarten came, the school was individual- 
 istic, not social, in its tendencies. Competition between the
 
 250 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 children rather than cooperation with them was the rule. 
 The value of cooperative effort as a means of developing the 
 right spirit on the part of the children toward each other has 
 been increasingly recognized in recent years. The coopera- 
 tion of the members of a class, of grade with grade, or depart- 
 ment with department for a common end is becoming an 
 established feature in school work. Combined effort on the 
 part of pupils has not only made possible the decoration of 
 schoolrooms and the beautifying of school grounds, but it 
 has brought about a different spirit among the children. 
 Cooperative action, the principle of the kindergarten, is 
 becoming the principle of the school. The school no less 
 than the kindergarten is becoming a miniature society in 
 which the laws of right conduct are learned by practice. 
 "He that doeth shall know" is a great truth that is being 
 increasingly recognized as the basis of educational pro- 
 cedure. That the curriculum must be based on the child's 
 present needs, that method must be founded on his own 
 self-activity, and that the social virtues must be cultivated 
 by practice, — these principles, Froebelian in origin but 
 sanctioned by modern psychology, are bringing about the 
 changes in the elementary schools. 
 
 The doctrines enumerated were brought to bear upon 
 the American school in many ways. They were impressed 
 upon the teachers of the country with rare force and en- 
 thusiasm by Colonel Francis W. Parker, even before the 
 decade now under consideration. Colonel Parker em- 
 bodied in himself the attitude toward childhood which the 
 new education represents, and probably did more than any
 
 NEW TENDENCIES 25 1 
 
 Other single individual in the United States to bring about 
 the acceptance of the doctrines in question and their 
 appHcation to the grades. Toward the latter part of the 
 decade from 1890 to 1900 the views enumerated received 
 a signal reenforcement in the educational philosophy 
 of Dr. John Dewey. That philosophy has been expressed 
 in many books and monographs and need not be dis- 
 cussed here. The Herbartian movement also did much to 
 bring about the acceptance of these views. Herbart, like 
 Froebel, insisted upon organizing the curriculum upon the 
 basis of the children's native interests and experiences. 
 The effort to base the entire course of study upon the 
 Culture Epoch theory is nothing less than an attempt to 
 find material for instruction in the several grades, in har- 
 mony with children's fundamental interests. The correla- 
 tion of studies is nothing more than an attempt to use 
 appropriate material in accordance with the laws of mental 
 economy. The Herbartian doctrine as such does not 
 accept the child's creative self-activity as the underlying 
 principle of method, but in this particular respect American 
 educators have taken issue with those doctrines. The 
 elementary school owes much to the Herbartian move- 
 ment. The addition of literature and history to the cur- 
 riculum of the grades in a form adapted to the children's 
 comprehension is largely the result of that movement. 
 The more fundamental insight that American teachers 
 have gained into the principles of the teaching process, 
 is due in part to that movement likewise. The conviction 
 that the ultimate aim of education is ethical and social
 
 252 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 rather than intellectual has been strengthened by that 
 influence. Herbartianism has been one of the influences 
 in the transformation of the school. That the doctrines 
 of Froebel interpreted, modified, and universalized by 
 modern psychology have exercised an influence more 
 fundamental, however, is generally recognized. 
 
 That the new psychology approved of the kindergarten 
 in general although it objected to some aspects both of its 
 theory and of its practice, has been elsewhere stated. 
 With the growing incorporation of the kindergarten into 
 the school these aspects began to attract attention. Had 
 the kindergarten remained outside of the school system it 
 might have remained uninfluenced by the movements 
 that were shaping general education; its incorporation 
 into that system made its modification inevitable. Until 
 such incorporaition became general the criticisms of the 
 psychologist had not been brought to bear upon either 
 kindergarten theory or practice with any force ; when the 
 school superintendent became a factor in kindergarten 
 procedure the situation changed. From his knowledge 
 of psychology and educational theory in the larger sense, 
 he could point out to the kindergartner the reasons for the 
 criticisms which the customary kindergarten procedure 
 had called forth, and from the standpoint of official 
 authority he could insist upon such a modification of 
 established procedure as the new views demanded. Dur- 
 ing the latter part of the decade, therefore, the movement 
 in the direction of kindergarten modification received 
 a great impetus. When such modifications first began to
 
 NEW TENDENCIES 253 
 
 appear, the kindergartners who had not themselves felt 
 the pulse of the general educational movements considered 
 them as nothing more than "a failure to understand Froe- 
 bel." When the modifications became more general those 
 advocating them were regarded as misguided individuals 
 who had forsaken the true gods and effected an unholy 
 alliance with the worshipers at other shrines. But as 
 the differences between the old forms of kindergarten 
 procedure and the new become more apparent the kinder- 
 gartners of the country began to ally themselves either with 
 those who approved of the changes in progress on the one 
 hand or those who were opposed to them on the other. 
 The ultimate result was the' temporary division of the 
 kindergartners of the country into conservatives and 
 liberals, the former clinging to the established interpreta- 
 tion of Froebelian doctrine and the mode of procedure 
 that Froebel is supposed to have followed, and the latter 
 accepting the interpretation that modern psychology 
 and child study place upon it, and modifying the procedure 
 on the basis of that interpretation. 
 
 Although many kindergartners have not yet accepted the 
 views for which the liberal kindergartners stand, the logic 
 of events points to an ultimate acceptance of those views 
 if the kindergarten is to become an organic part of the school 
 system. The liberal kindergartncr considers that psy- 
 chology and child study are but elaborating the principles 
 which Froebel himself recognized as clearly as the knowl- 
 edge of his time would permit, and that the added insight 
 of the present but furnished the means of perfecting the
 
 254 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMIRICAN EDUCATION 
 
 institution which he did not Hve to complete, ^he there-'* 
 fore welcomes the light which modern science has thrown 
 upon the development of the child's body, even though it 
 may necessitate a reorganization of the games which Froe- 
 bel considered adequate for its development. She rec- 
 ognizes the value of the ide^ upon which the system of 
 gifts and occupations is based — that of carefully org'^- 
 ized impressions followed by adequate expression, but 
 psychology has taught her that much of the customary* 
 work with both gifts and occupations requires an exact- 
 ness injurious to undeveloped nerves and muscles. Her 
 faith in creative self-activity as the fundamental article 
 in the kindergarten creed has not been shaken, but she 
 considers that much of the customary work with the 
 gifts and occupations is not creative in the true sense. 
 She accepts the Froebelian doctrine of the value of beauty 
 in awakening the child's higher nature, but her study of 
 art has shown her that the child's fundamental art in- 
 terests lie along the line of representation, not along that 
 of formal arrangement. She yields to no one in^fer belief 
 that children may be prepared for the appreciation of 
 spiritual truths early, but she can accept the kinder- 
 garten doctrine of the symbol as a means to this end in its • 
 modern interpretation only. In these and many other 
 respects the liberal kindergartner considers that thefe is 
 opportunity for great improvement, both in the theory 
 of the kindergarten and in its practice. In general she is^ 
 willing to submit both to the test of modern educational 
 insight, knowing that what is of true value will not be over- 
 thrown.
 
 NEW* TENDENCIES 
 
 255 
 
 ^' The kindergarten movementj like all other movements, 
 has at different periods in its history needed a different 
 service at the hands of its friends. During the period of 
 introduction the kindergarten itself and the educational 
 doctrines which it embodies needed to be brought to the 
 .attention of the public; at d later period legislative and 
 otl^ action was needed to make possible its incorporation 
 into the schi^ol system. These. two purposes have been, 
 practically accomplished. The kindergarten is well and 
 favorably known throughout the length and breadth of the 
 land, and kindergartens may be established at public 
 expense in the majority of the states in the Union. A 
 third service is needed before the kindergarten can become 
 t an organic part of the school, however, — a service that the 
 present age and generation must render. A new inter- 
 pretation of the Froebelian gospel is needed, — an inter- 
 pretation which will be in harmony with current educa- 
 *ional thought, and which will serve as the foundation for a 
 practice free from the criticisms to which the customary 
 practice %as given rise. This need is expressed in the 
 closing passage of Dr. John A. MacVannel's " Educational 
 Theories of Herbart and Froebel." He says: "If Froe- 
 bel's thought is to assist in the educational reconstruction 
 as k> should, it must itself be criticised and freed from 
 certain imperfect forms in which it has become embodied. 
 It niust be modified or transformed in the light of truths 
 ;^i^ brought forward by science and by the changed conditions 
 in the Western world, — truths which it cannot afford to 
 neglect. 'We live spiritually,' says Professor Royce,
 
 256 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 ' by outliving our formulas and thus enriching our sense 
 of their deeper meaning.' The thought of Froebel or 
 the thought to which the thought of Froebel has given birth 
 must show itself capable of adaptation to the varied con- 
 ditions of the novel social environment, the needs and 
 aspirations of American life; it must be inclusive, not 
 exclusive; it must show itself capable of reconciling its 
 adherents within themselves, and of lifting their minds 
 beyond the level of controversy; it must be self-assertive 
 and yet self-critical, disowning the unquestioning attitude 
 of the partisan. Then, and then only, can it win the 
 triumphs for which Froebel hoped and labored, and for 
 which his true disciples hope and labor in turn."
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 References on Kindergarten Work in Representative 
 
 Cities 
 Alabama. 
 
 Alabama Notes. Kn. Rev. Vol. XIII, p. 55. 
 
 Birmingham Notes. Kn. Rev. Vol. IX, p. 397. 
 
 California. 
 Early Kindergarten Work in California. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, 
 
 p. 250. 
 The Educational Movement in California. Kn. Mag. Vol. 
 
 V, p. 30. 
 Notes from San Diego. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. 234. 
 The Kindergartens of Los Angeles. Kn. Mag. Vol. VI, p. 
 
 71- 
 Notes from Sacramento. Kn. Mag. Vol. VIII, p. 772. 
 Four Weeks on the Pacific Coast. Kn. Mag. Vol. X, p. 640. 
 Our Work in Los Angeles. Kn. Rev. Vol. VIII, p. 237. 
 Notes from Oakland. Kn. Rev. Vol. IX, p. 121. 
 The Way They do Things in Santa Barbara. Kn. Rev. 
 
 Vol. X, p. 584. 
 Report of the Golden Gate Kindergarten Association. Kn, 
 
 Rev. Vol. XVII, p. 569. 
 
 Colorado. 
 
 Denver Free Kindergarten Association. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, 
 p. 639. 
 
 s 257
 
 258 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Kindergarten Training in Colorado. Kn. Mag. Vol. VIII, 
 
 P- 735- 
 Notes on Colorado. Kn. Mag. Vol. VIII, p. 29. 
 A Summer Kindergarten in Pueblo. Kn. Rev. Vol. IX, p. 
 
 258. 
 Notes from Pueblo. Kn. Rev. Vol. XI, p. 525. 
 Out-of-door Work in Colorado Springs. Kn. Rev. Vol. 
 
 XIV, p. 184. 
 Denver Notes. Kn. Rev. Vol. IX, p. 329. 
 
 Connecticut. 
 Four Months' Progress in Kindergarten Work. Kn. Mag. 
 Vol. XII, p. 396. 
 
 District of Columbia. 
 
 The Establishment of Public School Kindergartens in Wash- 
 ington. Kn. Rev. Vol. IX, p. 200. Kn. Mag. Vol. XIV, 
 p. 290. 
 
 Private Work Leading to the Establishment of Public Kin- 
 dergartens in Washington. Kn. Mag. Vol. XIV, p. 290. 
 
 Kindergarten Appropriation for Washington. Kn. Mag. 
 Vol. XII, p. 58. 
 
 The Phoebe A. Hearst Kindergarten Work in Washington. 
 Kn. Rev. Vol. XI, p. 558. 
 
 Four Months of Progress in Kindergarten Work. Kn. 
 Mag. Vol. XII, p. 452. 
 
 Georgia. 
 Atlanta Notes. Kn. Rev. Vol. IX, p. 461; Vol. XIII, p. 
 427; Vol. XIV, p. 60.
 
 APPENDIX 259 
 
 Eagle and Phoenix Mills Free Kindergarten. Kn. Rev. 
 
 Vol. XV, p. 505. 
 Notes from Savannah. Kn. Rev. Vol. XII, p. 55; Vol. 
 
 XIII, p. 575- 
 Notes from Macon. Kn. Rev. Vol. XII, p. 241. 
 Struggles of an Association in the Southland. Kn. Rev. 
 
 Vol. XV, p. 570. 
 
 Illinois. 
 
 The Evolution of the Kindergarten Idea in Chicago. Mrs. 
 
 Putnam and the Froebel Association. Kn. Mag. Vol. 
 
 V, p. 720. 
 The Chicago Free Kindergarten Association. Kn. Mag. 
 
 Vol. V, p. 734. 
 Miss Harrison and the Chicago Kindergarten College. Kn. 
 
 Mag. Vol. V, p. 729. 
 Kindergarten Representation at the Columbian Exposition. 
 
 Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. 402. 
 The Kindergarten at the Columbian Exposition. Kn. 
 
 Mag. Vol. VI, p. 186. 
 Review of Chicago Kindergartens. Pratt Institute Monthly, 
 
 November, 1895. 
 The Kindergarten in the Chicago Public School System, 
 
 Kn. Mag. Vol. IX, p. 679. 
 Chicago Public Kindergartens. Kn. Rev. Vol. X, p. 568; 
 
 Vol. XI, p. 485- 
 The Keilhau of America. Kn. Mag. Vol. X, p. 619. 
 Chicago Kindergarten Institute. Kn. Mag. Vol. XII, p. 
 
 573- 
 The Work of the Chicago Free Kindergarten Association. 
 
 Kn. Mag. Vol. X, p. 509.
 
 26o THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 Kindergarten Work in the Chicago Ghetto. The Outlook, 
 
 Vol. LVI, p. 212. 
 
 The Galesburg Kindergarten Normal School. Kn. Mag. 
 
 Vol. XI, p. 694. 
 Notes from Moline. Kn. Rev. Vol. XI, p. 58. 
 Report from Peoria. Kn. Rev. Vol. XV, p. 448. 
 
 Indiana. 
 
 Free Kindergarten Work in Indianapolis. Kn. Mag. Vol. 
 
 XI, p. 305. 
 The Kindergarten Movement in Indianapolis. Kn. Mag. 
 
 Vol. XII, p. 440. 
 The Indiana Normal Training School. Kn. Mag. Vol. 
 
 XVI, p. 458. 
 Kindergarten Work in Indianapolis. The Century, October, 
 
 1897- 
 Notes from Logansport. Kn. Rev. Vol. VIII, p. 546. 
 Notes from Evansville. Kn. Rev. Vol. IX, p. 326. 
 
 Iowa. 
 
 Notes from Des Moines. Kn. Mag. Vol. VI, p. 577. 
 Regarding Iowa Kindergartens. Kn. Mag. Vol. IX, p. 531. 
 The Kindergarten in Des Moines. Kn. Mag. Vol. XII, p. 
 
 328. 
 Notes from State Normal School, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Kn. 
 
 Rev. Vol. XVI, p. 126. 
 
 Kansas. 
 
 The Central Church Kindergarten, Topeka. Kn, Rev. 
 
 Vol. VIII, p. 355. 
 Notes from Topeka. Kn. Rev. Vol. X, p. 179.
 
 APPENDIX 261 
 
 Kentucky. 
 Louisville Free Kindergartens. Kn. Mag. Vol. I, p. 281. 
 A Glimpse of Louisville Kindergartens. Kn. Mag. Vol. 
 
 n, P- 383- 
 
 Notes from Louisville. Kn. Mag. Vol. VI, p. 827. 
 
 Notes from Louisville. Kn. Rev. Vol. VIII, p. 444; Vol. 
 
 XIII, p. 574; Vol. IX, p. 201 ; Vol. X, p. 176. 
 Four Months' Progress in Kindergarten Work. Kn. Mag. 
 
 Vol. XII, p. 393. 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 The Kindergarten Outlook in New Orleans. Kn. Mag. 
 
 Vol. X, pp. 227, 352. 
 Notes from New Orleans. Kn. Rev. Vol. VII, p. 397, 445; 
 
 Vol. IX, pp. 132, 398; Vol. XIII, p. 575. 
 
 Maine. 
 Notes from Bangor. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. 310. 
 
 Maryland. 
 Four Months' Progress in Kindergarten Work. Kn. Mag. 
 Vol. XII, p. 456. 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 Review of Boston Kindergartens. Pratt Institute Monthly, 
 
 November 1895. 
 The Kindergarten in Boston. Kn. Rev. Vol. XII, p. 474. 
 Boston Day Nurseries. Kn. Rev. Vol. XII, p. 283. 
 Mornings in Boston Kindergartens. Kn. Rev. Vol. XII, 
 
 PP- 279> 352,432- 
 Four Months' Progress in Kindergarten Work. Kn. Mag. 
 
 Vol. XII, p. 454-
 
 262 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Winchester and its Kindergartens. Kn. Rev. Vol. XI, p. 20. 
 Notes from Worcester. Kn. Rev. Vol. IX, p. 655. 
 
 Michigan. 
 Notes from Grand Rapids Kindergarten Association. Kn. 
 
 Mag. Vol. V, p. 459. 
 Free Kindergarten Work in Detroit. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, 
 
 p. 558; Vol. XI, p. 264. 
 Autumn Work in a Detroit Kindergarten. Kn. Rev. Vol. 
 
 XI, p. 83. 
 
 Sense Training in Detroit Kindergartens. Kn. Rev. Vol. 
 
 XII, pp. 186, 218, 264. 
 
 Notes from Kalamazoo. Kn. Rev. Vol. VIII, p. 195. 
 A Church Kindergarten. Kn. Mag. Vol. IX, p. 572. 
 Notes from Saginaw. Kn. Rev. Vol. XIV, p. 58. 
 Lucretia Willard Treat and Her Work. Kn. Mag. Vol. 
 XIV, p. 482. 
 
 Minnesota. 
 
 Reports from St. Paul. Kn. Mag. Vol. II, pp. 257, 416; 
 
 Vol. VI, p. 835. 
 Reports from Minneapolis. Kn. Mag. Vol. VI, p. 834. 
 Reports from Duluth. Kn. Mag. Vol. X, p. 297. 
 Four Months' Progress in Kindergarten Work. Kn. Mag. 
 
 Vol. XII, p. 459- 
 
 Missouri. 
 
 A Visit to St. Louis. Kn. Mag. Vol. I, p. 266. 
 St. Louis Froebel Society. Kn. Mag. Vol. II, p. 57. 
 St. Louis Kindergartens and Schools. Kn. Mag. Vol. VI, 
 P- 373-
 
 APPENDIX 263 
 
 A Review of St. Louis Kindergartens. Pratt Institute 
 
 Monthly, November, 1895. 
 Four Months' Progress in Kindergarten Work. Kansas 
 
 City. Kn. Mag. Vol. XII, p. 392. 
 Twenty-fifth Anniversary of St. Louis Kindergartens. Kn. 
 
 Rev. Vol. VIII, p. 675. 
 Notes from Kansas City. Kn. Rev. Vol. XII, p. 441 ; Vol. 
 
 XV, p. 578. 
 
 Montana. 
 Notes from Helena. Kn. Rev. Vol. VIII, p. 399; Vol. XIV, 
 p. 665. 
 
 Nebraska. 
 
 Notes from Lincoln. Kn. Mag. Vol. VI, p. 733. 
 
 Four Months' Progress in Kindergarten Work. Kn. Mag. 
 
 Vol. XII, p. 453- 
 Notes from Omaha. Kn. Rev. Vol. VIII, p. 611. 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 Four Months' Progress in Kindergarten Work. Kn. Mag. 
 Vol. XII, p. 459- 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 The Kindergarten in Newark. Kn. Rev. Vol. VIII, p. 292. 
 Notes from Morristown. Kn. Mag. Vol. VHI, p. 606. 
 Notes from Jersey City. Kn. Rev. Vol. VIII, p. 330. 
 Notes from Newark. Kn. Rev. Vol. XI, pp. 187, 316. 
 
 New York. 
 
 The Kindergarten in Rochester. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. S50; 
 Vol. XVI, p. 410. Kn. Rev. Vol. XIV, p. 841.
 
 264 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Brief History of the Kindergarten Movement in James- 
 
 town. Kn. Mag. Vol. XII, p. 305. 
 The Kindergarten in Buffalo. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. 83. Kn 
 
 Rev. Vol. IX, p. 132. 
 The Kindergarten in Brooklyn. Kn. Rev. Vol. X, p 
 
 462. 
 Free Kindergartens in Brooklyn. Kn. Rev. Vol. XVII, p 
 
 471. 
 Public School Kindergartens of Brooklyn. Kn. Rev. Vol 
 
 XVII, p. 478. 
 Public Kindergartens in the Borough of Brooklyn. Kn 
 
 Mag. Vol. XIX, p. 549. 
 The New York Kindergarten Association. Kn. Mag. Vol 
 
 XI, p. 105; Vol. XVI, p. 296; Vol. XIX, p. 574. Kn 
 
 Rev. Vol. XIV, p. 391 ; Vol. XVII, p. 461. 
 Public School Kindergarten in New York. Kn. Mag. Vol. 
 
 XI, p. 105. Kn. Rev. Vol. XV, p. 178. 
 Kindergarten Progress in the Public Schools of New York 
 
 City. Kn. Rev. Vol. XVII, p. 468. 
 History of the Kindergarten in the New York Public Schools. 
 
 Kn. Mag. Vol. XIX, p. 484. 
 Early Kindergarten Work in New York. Kn. Rev. Vol. 
 
 XVII, p. 458- 
 Settlements and Settlement Kindergartens in New York. 
 
 Kn. Mag. Vol. XIX, p. 610. 
 Review of New York Kindergartens. Pratt Institute 
 
 Monthly, November, 1895. 
 Kindergarten Department at Pratt Institute. Kn. Mag. 
 
 Vol. VIII, p. 725. 
 Kindergarten Training at Teachers College. Kn. Mag. 
 
 Vol. XI, p. 574.
 
 APPENDIX 265 
 
 Kindergarten Work in the Ethical Culture Schools. Kn. 
 
 Mag. Vol. XI, p. 433. 
 Kindergarten Training Schools in Greater New York. Kn. 
 Mag. Vol. XIX. 
 
 Adelphi College, p. 521. 
 The Elliman School, p. 538. 
 The Ethical Culture School, p. 511. 
 Teachers College, p. 532. 
 Kraus Seminary, p. 517. 
 Miss Jennie Hunter's School, p. 578. 
 The New York Froebel Normal, p. 540. 
 Pratt Institute, p. 520. 
 The Speyer School Experimental Playroom. Kn. Rev. Vol. 
 XVII, p. 137. 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 Notes from Ashville. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. 234. 
 
 Ohio. 
 Notes from Youngstown. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. 151. 
 A Model Kindergarten Building. Kn. Mag. Vol. XV, p. 
 
 215. 
 Notes from Toledo. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. 456. Kn. Rev. 
 
 Vol. XI, p. 449. 
 Notes from Columbus. Kn. Mag. Vol. VIII, p. 690. 
 Four Months' Progress. Kn. Mag. Vol. XII, p. 398. 
 The Cincinnati Kindergarten Association. Kn. Mag. Vol. 
 
 XI, p. 362. 
 Notes from Dayton. Kn. Rev. Vol. IV, pp. 261, 656. 
 Notes from Cincinnati. Kn. Rev. Vol. XIII, p. 246. 
 Notes from Cleveland. Kn. Rev. Vol. XIII, p. 381.
 
 266 the kindergarten in american education 
 
 Oklahoma. 
 A Kindergarten Training Course as a Department of a Uni- 
 versity. Kn. Rev. Vol. XVII, p. 51. 
 
 Oregon. 
 Notes from Portland. Kn. Rev. Vol. XI, p. 516. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Notes from Altoona. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. 850. 
 
 The Kindergarten Movement in Philadelphia. Kn. Rev. 
 Vol. XV, p. 300. 
 
 Review of Philadelphia Kindergartens. Pratt Institute 
 Monthly, November, 1895. 
 
 Free and Public Kindergartens of Philadelphia. Mono- 
 graph by Mrs. Constance MacKenzie Durham. 
 
 Philadelphia Girls Normal School. Kn. Mag. Vol. X, p. 
 388. 
 
 The Kindergarten in Pennsylvania. Kn. Mag. Vol. XV, 
 p. 489. 
 
 The Pittsburg and Allegheny Free Kindergarten Associa- 
 tion. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. 717; Vol. VII, p. 593; Vol. 
 XI, p. 421. 
 
 Work in Pittsburg. Kn. Rev. Vol. XIII, p. 455. 
 
 Growth of the Kindergarten Movement in Scranton. Kn. 
 Rev. Vol. XIV, p. 667. 
 
 Notes from Erie. Kn. Rev. Vol. VIII, p. 331. 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Charleston and its Kindergartens. Kn. Rev. Vol. IX, p. 
 
 253- 
 Charleston from a Kindergarten Standpoint. Kn. Rev. 
 Vol. X, p. 631.
 
 APPENDIX 267 
 
 Notes from Charleston. Kn. Rev. Vol. XI, p. 57. 
 Notes from Rock Hill. Kn. Rev. Vol. XI, p. 379. 
 
 South Dakota. 
 A Black Hills Kindergarten. Kn. Mag. Vol. XIV, p. 93. 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Notes from Chattanooga. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. 716. 
 
 Texas. 
 
 Notes from Galveston. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. 376. 
 
 Notes from Fort Worth. Kn. Rev. Vol. IX, p. 72; Vol. 
 
 XI, p. 447. 
 Notes from Dallas. Kn. Rev. Vol. XIII, p. 446. 
 
 Utah. 
 
 Kindergarten Training in the University of Utah. Kn. 
 
 Mag. Vol. XI, p. 216. 
 Notes from Salt Lake City. Kn. Rev. Vol. XI, p. 250. 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 Notes from Richmond. Kn. Rev. Vol. XII, p. 179. 
 Public School Kindergartens in Richmond. Kn. Rev. Vol. 
 XV, p. 129. 
 
 Washington. 
 
 Notes from Tacoma. Kn. Mag. Vol. VIII, p. 529. 
 
 Notes from Spokane. Kn. Rev. Vol. X, p. 117. 
 
 Notes from Seattle. Kn. Rev. Vol. XIII, p. 247. 
 
 Four Weeks in the Pacific Coast. Kn. Mag. Vol. XI, p. 30.
 
 268 THE KINDERGARTEN IN AMERICAN EDUCATION 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 Notes from Milwaukee. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. 312; Vol. XI, 
 
 p. 331. Kn. Rev. Vol. XV, p. 180; Vol. XVI, p. 337. 
 Notes from Sheboygan. Kn. Mag. Vol. V, p. 717. 
 Notes from Menomonie. Kn. Mag. Vol. VII, p. 552; Kn. 
 
 Rev. Vol. XI, p. 315. 
 Notes from Wisconsin. Kn. Rev. Vol. XIII, p. 120. 
 The Kindergarten Movement in Wisconsin. Kn. Mag. 
 
 Vol. XIV, p. 165. Kn. Rev. Vol. XVI, p. 400. 
 The Kindergarten Movement in Milwaukee. Kn. Mag. 
 
 Vol. XVIII, p. 385. 
 Milwaukee a Kindergarten City. Kn. Rev. Vol. XVI, p. 
 
 387- 
 The Public School Kindergartens of Milwaukee. Kn. 
 
 Mag. Vol. XVIII, p. 460. 
 Milwaukee Mission Kindergartens. Kn. Mag. Vol. XVIII, 
 
 p. 462. 
 
 Canada. 
 The Kindergarten in Ottawa. Kn. Mag. Vol. Ill, p. 150. 
 The Establishment and Growth of the Kindergarten in 
 
 Ottawa. Kn. Rev. Vol. XVII, p. 497. 
 The Kindergarten in Canada. Kn. Mag. Vol. XVII, p. 
 
 325- 
 The Kindergarten in Canada, Toronto. Kn. Mag. Vol. 
 
 XVII, p. 495- 
 The Kindergarten in Canada. Kn. Rev. Vol. XV, p. 463
 
 INDEX 
 
 [For references to cities see Appendix.] 
 
 Abbott, Jacob, i6i. 
 
 Addams, Jane, no, in. 
 
 Adler, Felix, i8. 
 
 Esthetic element in education, 43, 49, 
 50, SI, 129. 
 
 Africa, kindergartens in, 91, 92. 
 
 Alcott, Bronson, 16. 
 
 Aldrich, Mrs., 172. 
 
 Allen, Edward L., 203, 204, 205. 
 
 Allen, Louis H., 180. 
 
 American Journal of Education, see 
 Barnard, Henry. 
 
 Anderson, Clara L., 78, 79, 176, 195, 
 196, 200, 202. 
 
 Andrews, E. Benjamin, 39 (quoted). 
 
 Art education: beginnings of, 5, 6, 7; 
 stimulus of Philadelphia Exposition 
 to, u, 7, 38, 39, 40; introduction 
 into elementary curriculum, 211, 
 212, 214, 219, 246; kindergarten 
 influence upon, 50, 219, 220, 231, 
 248. 
 
 Art : in American life, 3, 39 ; museums, 
 galleries, and schools, 40, 41. 
 
 Associations, see Kindergarten Asso- 
 ciations. 
 
 Australasia, kindergartens in, 91. 
 
 Baker, George A., 22. 
 
 Baldwin, George J., 123. 
 
 Barnard, Henry, 14, 15, 27, 29, 159, 
 
 161-163. 
 Barnes, Earl, 126, 154. 
 Bardett, Nellie S., 94-96. 
 Baum, Rosemary, 157. 
 Beard, Frederica, 167, 170. 
 Beebe, Katharine, 167. 
 Benefactions to kindergarten cause, 
 
 68-70. 
 Bigham, Madge, 178. 
 
 Biological sciences, 39, 49, 233. 
 
 Birney, Mrs. Theodore, 173. 
 
 Blake, Henry W., 180. 
 
 Blaker, Mrs. Eliza A., 66. 
 
 Blatchford, Mrs. E. W., 97. 
 
 Blind, kindergarten instruction for, 
 201, 203, 204. 
 
 Blow, Susan E. : and St. Louis schools, 
 18, 20; 16, 185 (quoted); 163, 
 167, 168, 171-174. 
 
 Boelte, Maria, 17, 20. 
 
 Boone, Richard G., 34 (quoted). 
 
 Bowen, H. Courthope, 167. 
 
 Bowman, Mrs. T. E., 83. 
 
 Bradley, Milton, 34, 180. 
 
 Brooks, Angeline, 135, 153. 
 
 Brown, Emerson and, 176. 
 
 Bryan, Anna E., 153. 
 
 Bureau of Education, see Commis- 
 sioner of Education. 
 
 Burk, Frederick, 168, 172. 
 
 Burma, kindergartens in, 92. 
 
 Burritt, Ruth, 18. 
 
 Business firms, kindergartens sup- 
 ported by, 112, 114, 116, 117, 122, 
 124. 
 
 Butler, Nicholas Murray, 203, 206 
 (quoted). 
 
 Calkins, N. A., 161. 
 
 Cannell, Maud, 168. 
 
 Ceylon, kindergartens in, 92. 
 
 Charity, see Benefactions, and Phi- 
 lanthropy. 
 
 Chautauqua, kindergarten instruc- 
 tion at, 140-144. 
 
 Chenery, Susan, 177. 
 
 Cheney, Mrs. Edna D., 15. 
 
 Chicago Exposition, influence upon 
 education of, 193, 194, 198, 246. 
 
 269
 
 270 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Chad study movement : origin of, 235- 
 237; spread of, 237-239; effects 
 of, on kindergarten, 8, 243; effect 
 on elementary education, 212-216, 
 246. 
 
 Children's clubs, see Settlements. 
 
 ChDdren's literature, 228, 229, 230, 
 242, 251. 
 
 China, kindergartens in, 93. 
 
 Christian Examiner, 15, 27. 
 
 Chubb, Percival, 157. 
 
 Church: changes in doctrine of, 9, 25, 
 26, 43, 44, 45, 51, 52; kindergarten 
 adoption by, 76, 77, 81; kinder- 
 gartens supported by, 78, 79; 
 value of kindergarten to, 82-85, 
 99; auxiliaries of, and kinder- 
 garten promotion, 79-81. 
 
 Civil War, 4, 9, 25, 39, 160. 
 
 Clarke, Isaac, 40 (quoted). 
 
 Cleveland, Mrs. Grover, 70. 
 
 Clubs, see Women's Clubs. 
 
 Color, use of, in art education, 213, 
 219, 220. 
 
 Commissioner of Education, 11, 19, 
 29, 58, 66, 78, 185, 194, 196; see 
 also Barnard, Henry, and Harris, 
 William T. 
 
 CompajTe, Gabriel, 162. 
 
 Congress of Mothers, 59, 156. 
 
 Cooper, Mrs. Sarah B., 66-68, 77, 
 135. 136. 152. 154. 
 
 Corwin, Dr. Richard W., 118-122. 
 
 Crane, Rev. Caroline Bartlett, 85. 
 
 Crosby, Mary, 147. 
 
 Crouse, Mrs. J. N., 90, 154. 
 
 CurreiU Literature, 45. 
 
 Deaf mutes, kindergarten instruction 
 
 for, 201, 203. 
 De Garmo, Charles, 240. 
 Dependent children, kindergartens in 
 
 homes for, 201, 202. 
 Dewey, John, 251. 
 Dexter, Edwin Grant, 144, 203, 205 
 
 (quoted). 
 Dickens, Charles, 27. 
 Dickinson, J. W., 22. 
 Doerflinger, Carl H., 32. 
 Douai, Adolph, 13, 22, 30, 36. 
 
 Dramatic expression in primary 
 
 grades, 223, 224. 
 Du Bois, Patterson, 173. 
 Dwight, Fanny L., 31. 
 
 Earle, E. Lyell, 179. 
 
 Education : a college study, 49, 184, 
 234, 235, 238; physical, 222, 223, 
 231; moral, 43, 51; religious, 43, 
 51, 77, 86, 87, 143, 144; psycho- 
 logical conception of, 3-5, 9, 49, 
 160, 232, 233. 
 
 Educational Congresses, 147, 152- 
 
 157- 
 
 Educational literature, 34, 159, 162, 
 182. 
 
 Educational periodicals, see Barnard, 
 Henry, Hailman, W. N., Hall, G. 
 Stanley, and Kindergarten peri- 
 odicals. 
 
 Elemenlary school, see Primary school. 
 
 Emerson and Brown, 176. 
 
 Endowed kindergartens, see Bene- 
 factions, and Philanthropy. 
 
 England, and kindergarten move- 
 ment, 6, 14, 27. 
 
 Exhibits, of kindergarten work, see 
 N. E. A., I. K. U., and Exposi- 
 tions. 
 
 Expositions, kindergarten represen- 
 tation at: Philadelphia, 18; New 
 Orleans, 147; Chicago, 148-151, 
 193; Atlanta, 155, 156; Omaha, 
 156; Buffalo, ii;7; St. Louis, 157, 
 158. 
 
 Factories, kindergartens supported 
 by, see Business firms, and Welfare 
 work. 
 
 Federation of Women's Clubs, see 
 Women's Clubs. 
 
 Feeble-minded, kindergarten instruc- 
 tion for, 201, 205, 206. 
 
 Fisher, Laura, 19, 66, 69 (quoted). 
 
 Form study, in art education, 213, 
 219, 220. 
 
 Foster, Mary C, 167. 
 
 Frankenberg, Caroline Louise, 13. 
 
 Franks, Fanny, 164. 
 
 Froebel, Froebelian doctrines, Froe-
 
 mDEX 
 
 271 
 
 belian influence, 2, 4, 8, 9, 11, 14- 
 16, 24, 26, 27, 32, 33, 36, 52, 58, 
 74, 163-166, 172, 185, 192, 215, 
 220, 230, 243, 244. 
 
 Games in primary school, 221-223. 
 
 Gardens, school, 226. 
 
 Gaynor, Mrs. Jessie L., 176. 
 
 German influence in American educa- 
 tion, 12, 13, 14. 
 
 Gilbert, Charles B., 208. 
 
 Gilman, Mrs. Charlotte Perkins, 175. 
 
 "Goldammer's Manual," 163. 
 
 Golden Gate Kindergarten Associa- 
 tion, see Mrs. Cooper. 
 
 Gordon, Dr., 99 (quoted). 
 
 Grabill, Mrs. Margaret, 120. 
 
 Graef, Virginia, 157. 
 
 Greene, Mrs. E. G., 105. 
 
 Gregory, Jeannctte R., 167. 
 
 Grinnell, Elizabeth, 174. 
 
 Gymnastics, see Education. 
 
 Hailman, Mrs. Eudora L., 14, 22, 
 
 145. 153. 154, 176. 
 Hailman, William N., 13,- 17, 21-23, 
 
 30-33. 36. 131. 145. 152. 154, 157. 
 161, 163, 166, 186, 206, 218. 
 
 Haines, Henrietta B., 17. 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley, 8, 234, 235, 237. 
 
 Hancock, John, 22. 
 
 Harding, Alary B., 93. 
 
 Harris, William T., 20-23, 34, 78, 79, 
 153, 186, 192, 195; see also Com- 
 missioner of Education. 
 
 Harrison, Elizabeth, 154, 166, 168, 
 169, 174, 177, 226. 
 
 Hart, Caroline M. C, 66, 156. 
 
 Haven, Caroline T., 136. 
 
 Hawaiian Islands, kindergartens in, 91. 
 
 Hearst, Mrs. Phccbe A., 67, 70. 
 
 Heineman, A. H., 163. 
 
 Henrotin, Mrs. Ellen M., 72. 
 
 Herbart, Herbartian movement, Her- 
 bartian influence, 212, 214, 216, 
 228, 229, 233, 239, 240, 241, 242, 
 250. 
 
 Hicks, Mary Dana, 153. 
 
 Hill, Patty S., 66, 176. 
 
 Hill, Mary D., 155, 176, 
 
 HiU, S. H., 68. 
 
 Hofer, Andrea, 179; see Mrs. Proud- 
 foot. 
 
 Hofer, Amalie, 136, 138, 150, 156, 
 172, 179. 
 
 Hofer, Mari Ruef, 176, 177. 
 
 Hogan, Mrs. Louise, 173. 
 
 Holbrook, Dr. M. L., 28. 
 
 Holman, Minnie, 155. 
 
 Hopkins, Mrs. Louise Parsons, 153. 
 
 Howe, Annie L., 96-100, 153. 
 
 Howe, E. G., 153. 
 
 Howliston, Miss, 177. 
 
 Hubbard, Mrs. Clara Beeson, 176. 
 
 Hughes, Mrs. Ada Marean, 134, 135, 
 152- 
 
 Hughes, James L., 27, 249 (quoted), 
 153. 167. 171- 
 
 Idealistic philosophy, 2, 16, 25, 26, 52. 
 
 India, kindergartens in, 92, 93. 
 
 Indian schools, kindergartens in, 206, 
 207. 
 
 Industrial education : beginnings of 
 manual training, 5, 6, 7; introduc- 
 tion of, into elementary curriculum, 
 38, 157, 211, 214, 216, 219, 246, 248. 
 
 International Education Series, 162, 
 163, 164. 
 
 International Kindergarten Union : 
 predecessors of, 137; formation of, 
 134-136; growth of, 137-139; 
 services to kindergarten cause, 139- 
 140. 
 
 Isham, Samuel, 41 (quoted). 
 
 James, William, 8, 234. 
 
 Japan, kindergarten work in, 96-101. 
 
 Jarvis, Josephine, 31, 163, 164. 
 
 Jenks and Rust, 176. 
 
 Jenks and Walker, 176. 
 
 Johnson, Fanny L., 69. 
 
 Johnston, Bertha, 179. 
 
 Johonnot, James, 162. 
 
 Jorgenson, Ketchum and, 177. 
 
 Jourdan, Minerva, 179. 
 
 Jud.son, Rev. Edward, 81, 82. 
 
 Kebler, Mrs. J. A., 116. 
 Ketchum and Jorgenson, 177.
 
 272 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Kindergarten Associations: organiza- 
 tion of, 56-58; purposes of, 56, 58; 
 work of, 59, 61-63; results of, 59, 
 60, 61. 
 
 Kindergarten legislation in the differ- 
 ent states, 187-189, 192, 193, 197- 
 199. 
 
 Kindergarten literature : beginnings 
 of, 27, 31, 35, 36; progress of, 159, 
 162-174. 
 
 Kindergarten Literature Company, 
 150, 179, 181. 
 
 Kindergarten periodicals : Child Gar- 
 den, 178, 179; Kindergarten Maga- 
 zine, 178-181; Kindergarten Mes- 
 senger, 31-33, 36, 179; Kindergarten 
 News, 180; Kindergarten Review, 
 32, 69, 178-181, 217; New Edu- 
 cation, 32, 33, 166, 179. 
 
 Kindergartens in the public schools: 
 experiment in St. Louis, 20, 21; 
 extension of movement from 1880- 
 1890, 184, 190, 191; from 1890 to 
 present, 192-196. 
 
 Kindergarten training : beginnings of, 
 17, 20, 22; association training 
 schools, 64, 65, 201 ; private training 
 schools, 65, 200, 201; kindergarten 
 training departments in public nor- 
 mal schools, 191, 192, 199, 200. 
 
 King's Daughters and kindergarten 
 promotion, 79. 
 
 Kraus, John, 17, 22, 29, 30. 
 
 Kraus-Boelte, Mrs. Maria, 17, 22, 23, 
 
 30. 31. 36- 
 Kriege, Matilda, 17, 30, 35. 
 Kriisi, 161. 
 
 Ladd, George T., 233. 
 Laws, Annie, 72, 135. 
 Legislation, kindergarten, see Kinder- 
 garten legislation. 
 Lewis, Dr. Dio, 28. 
 Lindsay, Maud, 178. 
 Logan, Miss, 92. 
 Logan, Rev. Robert, 92. 
 Lord, Misses, 163. 
 
 McCulloch, Mary C, 135, 136, 154. 
 McDowell, Mary E., 106. 
 
 Mackenzie, Constance, 61-63 
 
 (quoted), 153, 154. 
 
 McMurry, Charles, 240. 
 
 McMurry, Frank, 240. 
 
 MacVannel, John A., 255 (quoted). 
 
 Mann, Horace, 16. 
 
 Mann, Mrs. Mary, 28, 30. 
 
 Mann, Mrs. Louisa, 70. 
 
 Manual training, see Industrial 
 education. 
 
 Marwedel, Emma, 17, 166. 
 
 Mason, Lowell, 41. 
 
 Mathews, W. S. B., 42 (quoted). 
 
 Mexico, kindergartens in, 91. 
 
 Meyer, Bertha, 31, 36. 
 
 Meyer, Margaretha, 14, 15; see Mrs. 
 Schurz. 
 
 Michaelis, Emelie, 163, 164. 
 
 Micronesia, kindergartens in, 92. 
 
 Milburn, John G., 157. 
 
 Missions, kindergartens as an agency 
 in: in cities, ig, 23, 58, 60-63, 67, 
 68,77-82; among alien peoples, 87, 
 90, 91; in foreign fields, 88-102. 
 
 Monroe, Paul, 248 (quoted). 
 
 Montgomery, B. E., 90. 
 
 Moore, H. Keatley, 163, 164. 
 
 Moral education, see Education. 
 
 Morley, Margaret, 164. 
 
 Mosher, Mrs. Martha, 173. 
 
 Mother-play book, 31, 36, 163, 164, 
 167; 100. 
 
 Mothers' classes, 59, 60, 142, 143, 168, 
 20S. 
 
 Murray, May, 180. 
 
 Music: development of, in United 
 States, 41-43; introduction into ele- 
 mentary curriculum, 40, 50, 213; 
 methods of teaching, influenced by 
 kindergarten, 50, 51, 174-177, 213, 
 
 221-222. 
 
 National Council of Women, 137. 
 
 National Educational Association : 
 organization of, 22, 23, 130; crea- 
 tion of kindergarten department, 
 130, 131; organization of I. K. U. 
 at Saratoga meeting of, 133-136; 
 value to kindergarten movement of, 
 34, 131, 132, 137, 192.
 
 INDEX 
 
 273 
 
 Nature study movement: beginnings 
 of, 214; influence of kindergarten 
 upon, 224-228, 231, 246, 248. 
 
 Neidlinger, W. H., 176. 
 
 Newton, Frances, 156. 
 
 Newton, Rev. R. Heber, 77, 83. 
 
 Normal schools: creation of kinder- 
 garten departments in, 21, 22, 191, 
 192; influence upon kindergarten 
 movement of, 65, 192, 200. 
 
 Object lessons, 160, 161. 
 Ogden, Mrs. Anna, 147. 
 Oswego Normal School, influence of, 
 S, 160. 
 
 Page, David, 160. 
 
 Page, Mrs. Mary B., 157. 
 
 Painting, see Art in American life. 
 
 Paris Exposition, 6, 30. 
 
 Parker, Col. Francis W., 157, 162, 
 
 186, 192, 218, 250. 
 Parsons, Anna Q. T., 15. 
 Patterson, J. H., 114-116. 
 Payne, Joseph, 162. 
 Payne, William H., 162. 
 Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer, 12-16, 
 
 27. 28, 31, 32, 35, 72, 137, 166. 
 Pestalozzi, 5, 160, 215. 
 Philadelphia Exposition, influence 
 
 upon education of, 6, 7, 9, 18, 19, 
 
 23. 37, 41, 57. 78. 
 
 Philanthropy : increasing need of, in 
 cities, 19, 46-48, 60, 61; organiza- 
 tion of agencies for, 46, 47, 53, 54; 
 the kindergarten as a philanthropic 
 agency, 19, 23, 58, 60-63, 67, 68. 
 
 Philippines, kindergartens in, 196, 197. 
 
 Philosophy, see Idealistic philosophy. 
 
 Pierson, Clara Dillingham, 178. 
 
 Pingree, I-aliah, 6g, 136. 
 
 Playgrounds, establishment of, 48, 54, 
 no, 114, 177, 247. 
 
 Pollock, Mrs. Louise, 13, 28, 30, 35. 
 
 Pollock, Susan, 17, 31, 36, 166. 
 
 Posse, Baron Nils, 153. 
 
 Poulsson, Emelie, 32, 168, 176, 177, 
 180. 
 
 Poulsson, Laura, 180. 
 
 Prang system, 220, 221. 
 
 Preyer, William, ri6, 235. 
 
 Primary school : the history of, 3, 4, 
 212, 213, 215, 216; kindergarten 
 influence upon, 50-54, 174, 178, 
 186, 210, 211, 216-231. 
 
 Private kindergartens, 13, 195, 214. 
 
 Proudfoot, Mrs. Andrea Hofer, 167, 
 174, 179- 
 
 Psychological conception of educa- 
 tion, see Education. 
 
 Psychology, the new, 8, 184, 214, 216, 
 232-235, 243-245- 
 
 Putnam, Mrs. Alice H., 18, 60, 66, 
 112, 154. 
 
 Ralph, Julian, 10 1 (quoted). 
 Ramabai, Pundita, 93. 
 Rein, William, 239. 
 Religion, changes in, see Church. 
 Religious education, see Education. 
 Renaissance, educational, 39. 
 Ronge, Bertha, 14, 28, 35. 
 Rousseau, 162. 
 Rozenkranz, 162. 
 
 Salaries of kindergartners, 126. 
 
 Saunders, Miss, 95. 
 
 Schurz, Mrs. Carl, 13-16; see also 
 Meyer, Margaretha. 
 
 Science teaching: in colleges, 224; 
 in secondary schools, 225; in ele- 
 mentary schools, 225; the new 
 psychology a result of, 233; see 
 also Nature study movement. 
 
 Seaver, Superintendent, 185 (quoted). 
 
 Settlements: similarity of kinder- 
 garten association to, 63, 107; 
 methods of kindergarten akin to, 
 108; kindergarten as a feature in, 
 III, 112; value to kindergarten of 
 adoption by, 109, no. 
 
 Shaw, Mrs. Pauline Agassiz (Mrs. 
 Quincy A.), 68, 69, 191. 
 
 Sheldon, E. A., 5, 160. 
 
 Sheldon, Rev. Charles E., 83-85, 
 
 Sheldon, William E., 136. 
 
 Smith, Eleanor, loi, 176. 
 
 Smith, Kate Douglas, 66. 
 
 Smith, Nora A., 67, 167-169, 174, 
 177.
 
 274 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Snider, Denton J., 167, 168, 172. 
 
 Social movement, the : beginnings of, 
 44-46, 61, 63; bearing upon edu- 
 cation, 52-54. 
 
 Sociology, introduction into colleges, 
 39. 46. 
 
 Song teaching, see Music. 
 
 South America, kindergartens in, 91. 
 
 Southern Educational Association, 
 organization of kindergarten de- 
 partment of, 133. 
 
 Spencer, Herbert, 23, 32. 
 
 Stanford, Mrs. Leland, 67, 71. 
 
 Steiger, E., 34, 35. 
 
 Stewart, Sarah A., 134-136, 138, 154. 
 
 Stockham, Mrs. Alice, 179. 
 
 Stockham, Cora S., 179. 
 
 Story, the : a feature in kindergarten, 
 174-178; adoption by primary 
 school, 214, 228-230. 
 
 Stoy, 239. 
 
 Strong, Rev. Josiah, 45, 78 (quoted). 
 
 Summer schools, a means of prop- 
 agating kindergarten doctrines, 
 140-146. 
 
 Sunday school, the, 77, 82, 86, 87, 
 143. 144. 170. 
 
 Supplementary reading, see Children's 
 literature. 
 
 Symbolism, 254. 
 
 Temperance work, a means of 
 kindergarten propagation, 103-107. 
 Theology, the new, 9; see Church. 
 Tomlins, William L., 152. 
 Treat, Mrs. Lucretia Willard, 181. 
 Turkey, kindergartens in, 94-96. 
 
 Vacation schools, 48, 54, 247. 
 
 Van Kirk, Mrs., 177. 
 
 Von Buelow-Wendhausen, Baroness, 
 
 139, 164. 
 VonMarenholz-Buelow, Baroness, 14, 
 
 27. 28, 30, 35, 164, 165. 
 Vreeland, Herbert, 113 (quoted). 
 
 Waldo, Eveline A., 196. 
 
 Walker, John Brisben, 173 (quoted). 
 
 Washburne, Mrs. Marion Foster, 153. 
 
 Washington, Mrs. Booker T., 73. 
 
 Welfare work, the kindergarten a 
 feature in, 1 12-124. 
 
 Wheelock, Lucy, 135, 153, 163. 
 
 White, E. E., 162. 
 
 Whitmore, Eva B., 136. 
 
 Wickersham, J. P., 161. 
 
 Wiebe, Edward, 30, 35. 
 
 Wiggin, Kate Douglas, 66, 67, 166, 
 167, 169, 176, 177. 
 
 Wilson, ISIabel, 167. 
 
 Wilson, Woodrow, 7 (quoted). 
 
 Wiltse, Sara E., 177. 
 
 Winship, A. E., 160 (quoted). 
 
 Vv'interburn, Mrs. Florence Hull, 173. 
 
 Wise, Margaret E., 168. 
 
 Woman's Christian Temperance 
 Union, see Temperance. 
 
 Woman's Clubs, propagation of kin- 
 dergarten movement by, 71-75. 
 
 Young Women's Christian Associa- 
 tion, kindergartens supported by, 
 79- 
 
 Ziller, 239. 
 
 Printed in the United States of America.
 
 JUL 13 1941 
 
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