WWt?K: UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY, LOS ANGELES COLLEGE LIBRARY This book is due on the last date stamped below. Book Slii)-25(n-9,'59(A4772s4)4280 A HISTORY OF THE MENTAL GROWTH OF MANKIND IN ANCIENT TIMES BV JOHN S. HITTELL VOLUME I. SAVAGISM NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY T893 334 &G Copyright, 1889, 1893, BY JOHN S. HITTELL. ^ 4-0 c PREFACE. _. A good record of the mental growth of mankind ^ would comprehend all the highly important lessons of ~^ human experience, and would be the most valuable of ^ all histories ; but as it would be precious, so it is difficult -^ of composition. Many authors have undertaken it; many others may undertake it before one produces a work worthy of the subject; and as failure may help to \ clear the track for success, I venture to offer my contri- (i bution in this matter to the public. According to my _i conception of the history of culture, it should give solu- *^ tions to such queries as these: — "* Is man the direct product of natural evolution or of supernatural creation? Are all men descendants of one primary human stock ? Were the first men black, yellow, or white? In what part of the earth and in what geological period did they make their appearance? Is N — : the intellectual development of man a necessary result of ^- "his nature in such an environment as that in which he ^ exists and has existed in historical times? Has his s" progress been continuous? Has it shown itself in all the departments of life? Has it been governed exclu- sively by natural causes and uniform law? Has it always (3) 4 PREFACE. been beneficent? What are its main branches ? How has each of them advanced in different ages and coun- tries? How has each of them affected the general wel- fare? Into what categories should we divide the mental growth of mankind for the purpose of getting the clear- est and most correct conceptions of its advances ? What are the most important branches of industry? How did the arts of kindling fire, cooking and preserv- ing food, chipping stone into edge tools, shaping spears, bows, and arrows, tanning leather, weaving cloth, burn- ing pottery, plaiting baskets, building huts and boats, tilling land, domesticating herbivorous animals, smelting, casting, and forging metals, — how did these arts begin and advance? How did edge tools of stone, bronze, and iron become characteristic features of certain stages in human culture? How, when, and where did the great inventions have their origin and development, and what influence did they exert on human society? How, and to what extent, has the productive power of industry increased? Has the increase added to the comfort of man and to what extent? Has any one of the main branches of industry ever made much progress without stimulating many of the others? Do increasing wealth, abundant machinery, and cheap transportation contribute to the greatest good of the greatest number? What were the social customs of the earliest times and how did they change into those of the present age ? How did phrases of salutation and forms of obeisance PREFACE. 5 and prostration begin ? Was dress first used for orna- ment, for comfort, or for the gratification of modesty and what changes has it undergone? What matrimonial system existed among the earliest men ? Did promiscuity ever prevail extensively? When, where, and how did polygyny, polyandry, and monogamy begin and spread? Is articulate speech of natural or supernatural origin ? Were its first forms simple or complex? How have words been changed in length and in inflection ? What relations do figurative bear to literal meanings, and abstract to concrete terms in the various conditions of speech ? What are the main classes of language, and how have they arisen ? What are the causes of simplicity and complexity in grammatical construction ? How did the art of writing begin? How did it advance from signs for ideas to others for words, for syllables, and for letters? How did printing commence, and how has it grown? How was education, by the aid of books, established? What are its main branches? How has it been affected by general progress ? What nations have taken the lead in it? What places in it have been occupied in various centuries, by law, medicine, surgery, physical science, engineering, mathematics, metaphysical philosophy, the- ology, philology, history, ethnology, and ancient and modern literature ? When religion first appeared on the earth, was it a complete system of supernatural revelation, needing no 6 PREFACE. modification in creed or discipline to adapt it to the wants of men in all ages and countries? Or, like other branches of culture, did it appear at first in mere rudi- ments, and did it grow gradually into many complex and highly differentiated forms ? How did low savages come to adopt the belief that the spirits of their relatives continue to live after the death of the body, with the same needs, passions, and occupations as in the corporeal life, demanding offerings to preserve their favor? How did this belief lead to the erection of shelters over graves, and to the construction of temples, to the establishment of periodical sacrifices, and to the installation and endow- ment of priests, and how did the divine ancestor of a family become the partial god of a tribe, and then of a nation, and finally the impartial god of all mankind? What are the main features of the leading religious sys- tems of past and present times, and what are and have been their influences on mankind ? Have all men accepted the same ideas of ethical obli- gation? Have they believed that slavery, retaliation, des- potic government, superior political privilege of a small class, torture, and religious persecution were right, and if various ethical theories have prevailed in different times and countries, have the differences been marked by con- tinuous improvement? Have they been affected, and in what manner, by the changes in industrial and political conditions? Is our moral code the product of intuitive perception, or of experience guided by reason ? PREFACE. 7 What nations have excelled in war, and how did they attain superiority ? What influence have they exerted on the world ? What were the main characteristics of their militar>' systems ? How has the military art been changed by the introduction of metallic weapons, gun- powder, and other developments in the industrial arts ? How did political organization begin and advance from the small group without a chief, to the tribe with a chief, to the kingdom with a hereditary sovereign, to the city with an aristocratic government, and to the nation which grants equal civil and political rights to all its adult male residents born on its soil? What have been the main steps in the development of constitutional, civil, criminal, international, and parliamentary law? What have been the most important contributions to culture, and to what ages, continents, and races are we indebted for them ? What do we owe to the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Chaldeans, Hindoos, Chinese, Greeks, Romans, Jews, Arabs, Italians, Frenchmen, Spaniards, Portuguese, Germans, Hollanders, Scandinavians, Slavs, English, Scotch, and Americans ? What geographical conditions are most favorable to culture, and in what countries has it reached its highest developments ? Is it because of inherent capacity or of peculiar envi- ronment that different peoples have excelled in certain departments of culture? If, at the age of five years, a thousand Athenian boys had been adopted in Spartan families, trained in the Spartan system, and in every 8 PREFACE. manner treated as if they had been the children of their foster parents, would they have acquired the Spartan characteristics? If an equal number of Spartan boys had been brought up in Athens as the children of Athe- nian parents, would they have grown to be like the native Athenians? Is one Euraryan nationality more compe- tent than the others, to excel, in either the fine arts, poetry, science, philosophy, industry, polity or war? Has the Celt any natural fitness for free government? Is he superior to the Teuton in delicacy of sentiment? Are the nations of Southern Europe superior to those of the North in artistic genius? Are those of the North superior in mental and physical energy? To these questions, which have never been answered satisfactorily, I shall offer replies, which, however weak they may be in many points, will yet, I hope, contribute a little to the stock of historical truth. I shall try to throw light on human nature as it is, by showing some- thing of what it has been,^ and to trace in the remote past the origins of some of our present institutions.^ I believe that continuous progress has prevailed through- out the past ; and that the irrepressible progressiveness of humanity is one of the great facts, or laws in nature, deserving to be classed with the inherence of force in matter, the definiteness of chemical proportions, cosmic evolution, biological evolution, the conservation of en- ergy, and the invaluable correlation of the physical and psychical forces. PREFACE. 9 I expect to follow up this book with other volumes in which the course of human progress will be traced down to the present time. Besides giving information as full and correct as I can about my subject, I shall call attention to the ablest authors who have written about various branches of culture, and wherever I can find material suitable for my purpose, I shall quote their language for the purpose of enlivening my work with their brilliancy and stimulating the reader to examine their books. Several words of my own coinage occur in this book; others used here are not defined clearly in the dictionaries, or are not accepted by uniform usage in the meanings in which I employ them, and it seems proper that I should give definitions in such cases. I use culture only in the sense of the mental growth of mankind; culturestep from the G&xxnzw kulhu'stufe , as a grade of culture;^ and culture-historical from the Ger- man kulturhistoriscli as relating to the history of culture.* I divide culture into three main culturesteps, — sav- agism, barbarism, and civilization. Savagism is the con- dition of the North American Indians, the Australians, the natives of the Pacific Islands, and the negroes gener- ally. They have not risen to city life and national organization. Barbarism is the condition of the Aztecs, Quichuans, ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Persians, and Hindoos, the Chinese and the Mohammedan nations. They have cities and natural governments, but lO PREFACE. lack a high intellectual life. Civilization is limited to the ancient Greeks, and Romans, and the modern Christian nations. To the Aryans in Europe — that is the Celts, Greeks, Latins, Slavs, and Teutons — and their descendants in other parts of the world, I give the name Euraryans. The best word to comprehend productive toil of all kinds, — commerce, transportation of passengers and freight, banking, agriculture, mining, metallurgy, and manufactures, — is industry.* Since the word polygamy means plural marriage, and may indicate the marriage of one woman to several men, or of several women to one man, polygyny is here preferred to signify a matrimonial system in which one husband has several wives. John S. Hittell. San Francisco^ September p, i8gj. CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. Section. Page. 1. !Man's Antiquity... 17 2. Simian Relations 20 3. Size, etc 23 4. Acute senses 24 5. Vitality 25 6. Habits 27 7. Savagism disappearing 27 8. Savage history 29 CHAPTER II. ETHNOLOGY. 9. Races 32 10. Australians, etc 34 11. Negroes, etc 35 12. Malays 35 13. Polynesians 36 14. Americans 37 15. Mound-builders 3S 16. Aleut Mounds 40 17. Pleistocene Europeans 44 18. Danish Mounds 46 19. Swiss Pile Dwellers 47 CHAPTER III. INDUSTRY. 20. Fire 51 21. Non-tilling culture 52 22. Tilling savagism 54 23. Spear, bow, etc 56 (11) 1 2 CONTENTS. Section. Page. 24. Clubs, etc 58 25. Omnivorous 61 26. Bread and meat 62 27. Daintiness 64 28. Salt and clay 65 29. Cannibalism 66 30. Cooking 70 31. Meals 73 32. Grinding 73 33. Water and milk 74 34. Beer, etc 75 35. Narcotics 77 36. Hunting 79 37. Birds 80 38. Fishing 81 39. Bees 85 40. Villages 85 41. Huts 87 42. Furniture 90 43. Baskets and mats 92 44. Dogs 93 45- Pigs 94 46. Tillage 95 47. Implements 98 48. Milk-yielders 99 49. Boats 100 50. Pottery 104 51. Thread, cloth, etc 105 52. Leather 107 53. Traffic 108 54. Metals 109 55. Industrial achievements no 56. Industrial development 118 57. Natural progress "8 CONTENTS. 13 CHAPTER IV. SOCIAL LIFE. Section. Page. 58. Promiscuous group 121 59. Relationship Nomenclature 124 60. Feminine clan 126 61. Totem 128 62. Australian Exogamy 130 63. Feminine clan survivals 132 64. Masculine clan 136 65. Capture 138 66. Polyandry 139 67. Polygyny 141 68. Girl's position 142 69. Wife's position 142 70. Marriage, etc 145 71. Brother adoption 147 72. Couvade 149 73. Infancy..... 147 74. Son-in-law shyness 151 75. Womanhood 152 76. Modesty 152 77. Nudity 153 78. Clothing 154 79. Ornaments 156 80. Hair-dressing 157 81. Oil and paint 159 82. Tattoo 160 83. Mutilation 162 84. Social d(^vdopnient... 168 14 CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. INTELLECTUAL LIFE. Section. Page, 85. Capacity 170 86. Preponderant present 175 87. Early maturity 176 88. Jollity 176 89. Politeness 178 90. Salutations 179 91. Education 182 92. Morality 184 93. Amusements 186 94. Poetry 187 95. Music 189 96. Medicine, etc 193 97. Vocabulary 195 >(<' 98. Sounds and si^jns 199 99. Grammar 203 100. Rapid chang^e 204 loi. Intellectual development 205 CHAPTER VI. POLITY. 102. Headless group 207 103. Freedom 207 104. Unstable headship 210 105. Stable headships 211 106. Industrial chiefs 212 107. Assemblies, etc 212 108. Confederacies. 213 109. Retaliation 215 lie. Retaliation restricted 218 111. Despotic chiefs 220 112. Succession 221 113. Ordeals 222 114. Property 224 115. Slavery 226 116. Nobility 228 117. Political development 229 CONTENTS. 15 CHAPTER VII. MILITARY SYSTEM. Section. Page. iiS. War 231 119. Battle 233 120. Trophies 236 121. Fortifications 237 122. Initiation 239 CHAPTER VIII. RELIGION. 123. Spirits 245 124. Imaginary world 247 125. Devout fear 250 126. Next life 254 327. Burial, etc 257 21S. Mourning 259 129. Soul worship 262 130. Totemism 265 131. Fetishism 266 132. Ancestor worship 269 133. Offerings 270 134. Sacrifices 272 135. Human sacrifices 273 136. Gods 278 137. Idolatry 282 138. Divine intercourse 284 139. Worship 287 140. Priests 291 141. Sensitives, etc 295 142. Sorcerers 297 143. Sacerdotal functions 300 144. Areoi 302 145. Revenue, etc 304 146. Taboo 305 147. Omens 309 148. Temples 311 149. Religious development 316 l6 CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. REVIEW. SECTION PAGE 150. Culture services 319 151. Grades of culture 320 152. Some characteristics 322 153. Departmental relations 325 154. Queer customs 328 155. Benefits of war 330 156. Benefits of slavery, etc 333 157. Benefits of religion 334 158. Uses of evil 336 APPENDIX 338 Notes .. 339 List of authorities 373 A HISTORY OF MANKIND, CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. Section i . Man's Antiquity. — Man has existed on the earth certainly forty thousand and perhaps two hundred thousand years/ In the pleistocene era, when periods of subtropical warmth, continuing each for thousands of years, alternated with others of glacial cold in central Europe, he dwelt there. In the last of at least four warm intcrglacial periods of that era, the climate of the Northern Hemisphere was so mild that the vegetation in latitude 75° N. was about the same as that now found twenty degrees nearer to the equator; and the lion, the hippopotamus, the kafifir cat, the hyena, and many plants of subtropical character lived as far north as England. The woolly elephant or mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros and the sabre-toothed tiger were also there, but these animals, now extinct, may have been able to endure the severe winters of the northern temperate zone. The era or the last era of the subtropical mammals in northwest- ern Europe was followed by the reapi)carance of the great ice sheet, at which time the land there had a con- (17) 1 8 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. siderably higher elevation than now ; and then the land sank, the climate became milder and the ice melted, but the elephant, the hippopotamus, the rhinoceros, the lion, and the tiger did not return. Another subsidence of the land occurred and in the midst of this era, man, with pol- ished stone tools and presumably with tillage, made his appearance. Again the land in England rose, this time to an elevation about fifty feet above its present level, and numerous small glaciers appeared in the British and Scandinavian mountains. Still later the land sank to thirty feet below its present level, and then Europe took its present shape, but this occurred so long before our time that no record or tradition of the changes in the form and area of the continent has been preserved among its people. Geikie, Croll, Lyell, and other learned and able schol- ars who have written about the antiquity of mankind, believe that our species has existed on the earth at least two hundred thousand years. Some authorities who have investigated the history of oriental nations tell us that presumably not more than fifteen thousand and per- haps not more than ten thousand years have elapsed since the introduction of bronze tools began to lift men from savagism into barbarism. Not three thousand years have passed since some of the Greek states emerged from barbarism into civilization. All mankind spent perhaps one hundred and eighty thousand years in savagism ; and during part of the last twenty thousand years, a small proportion of our race has been in higher conditions of culture. The development of tilling from non-tilling culture was an achievement of greater difficulty and demanded more time than that of barbar- ism from savagism. SEC. I. MAX'S ANTIQUITY. I9 The earliest traces of men hav^e been found in Europe and North America, because in those continents there has been the greatest amount of mining and excavation, under the inspection of highly educated men ; but it does not follow that the earliest men lived in those continents. On the contrary, there is reason to believe that the human race first appeared in the torrid portions of Africa or Malaysia,* where the black race, the nearest human rela- tiv^es of the highest brutes, the anthropoid apes — and pre- sumably older than the more highly developed yellow and white races, are indigenous. Reasoning from the changes observed in later ages, we infer that these primi- tive black men were smaller in body and brain, and more ape-like in their forms and faces, than the Africans of modern times. Of the men who lived more than twenty thousand years ago, it may be said that we know nothing save that they lived and had edge-tools of stone. We find their bones, their arrowheads, their flint knives or scrap- ers, and the marks of their tools or weapons on fossil wood or bone, and very little more. These remains fur- nish much material for remark to the archaeologist, but little for the historian. All men belong to one species. All races of humanity are indefinitely fertile in their crosses with one another. In all tribes and nations and in all stages of culture, man has the same general features of physical form and men- tal character. He has the same number of pulse beats and of inhalations in a minute, the same average temper- ature, the same wants, the same passions.* In his most primitive condition he contained the potentialities of speech, industry, society, polity and religion, as they now appear. He was a struggling, toiling, reasoning animal, 20 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. with a capacity for and an irresistible impulse towards con- tinuous and unlimited mental progress. He was so con- stituted that he could enjoy keen pleasures and endure bitter sorrows ; that his days should be fringed with smiles and tears ; that life should be dear to him ; and that his attachment to it should increase as his genera- tions multiplied. By his physical and intellectual qualities, man is enabled to obtain his food, to preserve his life, and to make his permanent home in every zone, and in every continent. He can live where ether boils and where mercury freezes in the open air. The land animals, the birds, the aquatic mammals, and the fishes of every zone furnish food nutritious to him. He can reach all parts of the earth's surface save those within a few detrrees of the poles. He dominates over the globe, occupies most of it, and it is by his sufferance that many of the other occupants are permitted to live. Sec. 2. Simian Relations. — The negro's skeleton is relatively heavier than that of the white man ; his skull is thicker, and sometimes in Uahomy has no sutures.^ In fighting, black men often butt each other like rams, and they break a stick over the head rather than over the knee. The swords of the Spaniards were often broken on the heads of the aborigines in Jamaica.^ The Australians break sticks over their heads,^ and they have duels, in which the combatants exchange alternate blows on the head with stout clubs, each standing still in his turn to give his enemy a fair chance, until one is stun- ned. Every blow would disable if not kill a European. The tibia and fibula in the shin are sometimes united into one bone through tlicir whole length in the black and more rarely in the yellow man, as they always are in the SEC. 2. SI.MIAX RKLATIONS. 21 ape, Sif/i/a troglodytes. The arch of the negro's instep is low and his foot flat, resembhng the foot of the ape and suggesting the exaggeration of the burlesque song, " The hollow of his foot makes a hole in the ground." His heel projects more than the white man's, so that he needs a different shoe.* Often when standing, instead of throw- ing his weight squarely on his flat sole, he rests on the outer edges of his feet, as do the large apes.* The sesa- moidal bones at the joints of the thumb and great toe are found rarely in Europeans and often in negroes.** The legs are shorter relatively in the savage than in the civilized man ;^ and in the African the lower arm and hand are longer. When standing upright he can touch his knee-cap with the point of his middle finger, while the white man cannot come within two inches of it.* In the civilized man the tibia is round ; in many savages, including Michigan mound-builders ^ and European cave dwellers,'" it is flat or platecnymic. The perforation of the lower end of the humerus for the passage of the great nerve is found in all the quadrumana, in one-third of the Europeans of the reindeer period, and in one per cent, of the modern Europeans." While the finger bones are longer in the negro, the fingers down to the separation between them are shorter, the flesh or skin e.xtending fartlier from the knuckles,'"' and one of the most strongly marked lines of the P'uro- pean hand, that of the last three fingers, is wanting in the blacks, and is slightly marked in the yellow and red men.'* In the narrowness of the pelvis'* and in the breadth and arched form of the chest, the negro occupies an interme- diate position between the white man and the apc."^ A comparison of the profiles of the heads of different races 22 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. shows that in prognathism or projection of the lower part of the face, the black man is nearest to, and the white man farthest from the ape, with the yellow in the inter- mediate position. Flatness of nose and projection of teeth accompany general prognathism. The negro's occiput, instead of projecting beyond his thick neck, is on a line with it, and the same peculiarity is found in some Polynesians. The flat nasal bones are ossified with the adjacent bones in some Africans as they are in apes.^^ The women of the Bushmen tribe have a remarkable development of fit on the hips which in some cases pro- jects out backwards six inches or more, with a nearly even horizontal upper surface. This hump, — of which engravings may be found in many scientific works, from drawings of the woman who attracted great attention at Paris in the last century as " the Hottentot Venus," — has its counterpart in some of the female apes." NeoToes and Australians have little calf on the lesf , and anatomists say that the calf is one of the peculiar features of humanity. One of the most remarkable peculiarities of the black men, is the woolly character of the hair. Instead of being long and straight, or curly, as in white men, it is either short or kinky. In many tribes it does not exceed three inches in length, and gathers in little rope-like twists about a third of an inch in diameter. In the Hottentots, Bushmen and Papuans, the hair grows in tufts with intervening bare patches of scalp, and instead of gradually diminishing in length and thickness of growth on the temples and neck, as in the white man, it ceases abruptly, suggesting to the inexperienced Euro- pean observer, the idea that it must be a wig.^* In many tribes, the women are more muscular than the men. They carry heavier burdens, and can swin), SEC. 3. SIZE, ETC. 23 farther.'' The}^ are accustomed to steady ton, while the men are iu)t. And )-et, in consequence of very early' marriages and the custom of suckling their children for at least three years, with occasional subjection to excess- ive fatigue and insufficient food supply, they are wrinkled before they reach twenty-five. In several tropical coun- tries, they cease to bear children before they have reached that age."" With rare exceptions, they have neither finely- shaped features nor charming expression ; and the round- ness of youth disappears before they are out of their teens. The beauty of the mature woman is a product of civilization. In certain tribes nearly all the children are born at one season of the year, as in many species of brutes. These physical variations between savages and civil- ized men are, nearly all, caused by differences in culture. They are results of intellectual development accompanied by different modes of life, and as such must be considered as belonging to the history of the mental growth of the species. Sec. 3. Size, etc. — The primitive negroes were prob- ably smaller than modern savages, who generally are smaller than civilized men. The average height of the Dokos, Akkas and Abongos is four feet and one inch; of the Bushmen four feet and a half; of the Veddahs and Andamanese, less than five feet ; and of the Brazil- ian Indians, the Aleuts, the Eskimos and some savage tribes of Northern Asia, less than five feet four inches.^ The prehistoric cave dwellers of Europe were small, and the hilt of the swords of the bronze age are too short for the modern European hand. The savage has relatively a larger alimentary system than the civilized man, nnd can cat more at a meal. 24 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. The Bushmen have " powers of stomach similar to beasts of prey, both in voracity an 1 in the power of supporting hunger."^ A Yakoot or a Tungoos can devour forty pounds of meat in a day.' Wonderful stories are told of the capacity of stomach in Comanches, Eskimos, and Australians.'^ Though the savage is tough an i under great stimulus can travel fast and far, he dislikes steady toil and is, perhaps, unfitted for it by the irregularity of his food supply if not by the character of his digestive system or of his mind. After gorging himself he wants a prolonged period of rest. The Hottentots have been described as " the laziest people under the sun."* In con- sequence of irregularity in exertion, the Bushmen are usually suffering with famine or stuffing themselves with a feast.® The Bhils " will half starve rather than work."' The Kirghiz are exemplary idlers.^ The North Ameri- can Indians hate and despise regular work of every kind. They act as if they had inherited a constitutional unfit- ness for steady toil. Sec. 4. Acute Senses. — In acuteness of sight, hearing, and smell, the savages approach the brutes. The North American Indian can see objects at a distance as dis- tinctly with the naked eye as a white man can with an opera glass. There are tribes in which every individ- ual can recognize, by its odor, the ownership of an arti- cle of clothing recently worn by any intimate acquaint- ance. When meeting a stranger they want to smell him^ as an aid to identification. They can discover the ap- proach of a white man in the dark by his odor, which is offensive to them as it is to their horses and dogs. Some tribes can distinguish the sexes by the smell. ^ Savage.s dislike odors imperceptible to the average white nostril, and they like or are indifferent to some such as that of SEC. 5. VITALITY. 25 the stoat, very ofTensive to the ci\ihzed olfactories. Man\- of the favorite perfumes of the black and red man fill the European with repugnance. To most savages putrid meats and vegetables and unwashed intestines of animals are not rendered unwelcome as food by their odor.* Sec. 5. Vitality. — In the toughness of his vitality, the savage resembles a brute. The healing power of nature is stronger in him than in the civilized man. A severe bullet wound that would immediately prostrate a white man, and prove fated to him, despite the best surgical care, will not prevent a Redman from keeping on his horse to ride thirty or forty miles and finally recovering without the aid of a surgeon.' An Australian had his skull frac- tured to the length of three inches on the temple by a blow which entirely severed the temporal artery, and yet the next day he took an active part in a public gathering. Another Australian had the ulna and radius of one arm shattered so th.it the splinters of bone were driven down into his hand, and yet his wound healed without bandage or operation, and notwithstanding the fact that many maggots hid mads their appearance on its surface.^ In Abyssinia death seldom ensues when a hand or foot is cut oT in the punishment of crime.* Moors, Arabs, Malays, and ReJmcn recover from wounds that would be fatal to Europeans/ Savage women in Africa, in the Pacific Islands and in both Americas give birth to chil- dren with little i^ain, ancl \\\X\\ very brief interruption, usually of not more than an hour or two, to their ordi- nary occupations. Of the relative insensibility of savages to pain, we shall find many proofs in the sections rclatin ;■ t > lli ii- tattooings, cicatrizations and ceremonies of initiation into 26 A HtSTORV OF MANKIND. the classes of adults, warriors and priests. Monteiro observed in Angola that negroes suffered little pain from large wounds, and that their systems felt no such shock as do those of whites from severe amputa- tions.* Moselcy says " negroes are void of sensibility to a surprising degree. They are not subject to nervous diseases. They sleep soundly in every disease, nor does any mental disturbance ever keep them awake. They bear chirurgical operations much better than white peo- ple ; and what would be the cause of insupportable pain to a white man a negro would almost disregard."" Savages are also relatively insensible to the discom- forts of cold. The Fuegian when nearly naked seemed almost indifferent to sleet, while Cook's sailors, with all their clothing, were suffering intensely. The Yakootcan sleep without injury while the frost forms on his naked legs ; and the North American Indian does not need one-fourth as much clothing as does his white neighbor in the winter of Dakota. The red children of that re- gion go naked in cold weather, a practice which would soon be fatal to white boys and girls of the same age.'' The Bushman has little feeling for changes of tempera- ture, and the Abipone is " extremely tolerant of the in- clemencies of the sky."* The colored races are less susceptible than white peo- ple to various forms of malarious disease. In the Gulf States east of the Mississippi, pure negroes seldom die of yellow fever ; the larger the proportion of white blood in the mixed breed, the greater the mortality from that epidemic. The dark hill tribes of Hindostan suffer less with malaria than do the Europeans in the same region. Gout, apoplexy and dropsy were unknown among the aborigines of Lower California.^ Sec. 7. SAVAGisM DisAt'iPEARiNG. 57 Sec. 6. Habits. — Some savage habits, unknown to civ- ilization, may deserve mention here. The Hottentots and Bushmen sleep on their sides with the knees touch- ing the breast, and the ceilf touching the thigh ; and the Australian sleeps rolled up like a hedgehog.^ The Poly- nesians generally, the Malays and some Africans, as well as the poorer Chinamen frequently rest by sitting on their haunches, with all their weight on their feet." In the Soudan and other parts of Africa a man may some- times be seen resting while standinsf erect, with one foot on the other leg above the knee, steadying himself with his spear.^ In the midst of a tiresome march, the Aymara prepares himself for continuing his journey by standing for a few minutes on his head.* Sec. 7. Savagisiii Disappearing. — Savagism is dimin- ishing rapidly in its numbers and area ; and at the end of the next century will probably have few living repre- sentatives. Since 1500 A. n., many tribes have died out; many have greatly decreased, and none have gained much in number. The rapid diminution has been ob- served under the dominion of the Spanish, Portuguese, French, P^nglish, Russian, American and aboriginal gov- ernments ; under the Catholic, Protestant, Greek and heathen religions; under civil, military and sacerdotal rule ; in tropical, temperate and frigid climes ; in Polyne- sia, Micronesia, Melanesia, Australia, Tasmania, the Aleutian Islands, the United States, Canada, South America, the Antilles, and Africa.^ The last aboriginal Cuban died in 1700;'' the last Tasmanian in 1869;* the last of many tribes once numerous cast of the Missis- sippi in unrecorded years. There arc not now one- twentieth as many Redmcn in the United States as there were three centuries since.* Cook estimated the 2S A HISTORV OF MAXKlXD. number of the Hawaiians about 1775 at four hundfed thousand, and now the census shows about forty thou- sand. The Tahitian islands had sixteen thousand inhab- itants in 1797 an J have now six thousand.* In 1820 the Mariana group had twenty thousand; in 1880 not two thousand.® Lavavai had one thousand two hundred in 1822 and in 1830 only one hundred and twenty. In 1822 there were twenty thousand Indians at the missions of California, and the descendants of those people pure in their blood, do not now number one thousand, and their descendants of mixed blood are few. The main causes of the decrease are the inability of the savages to adopt a civilized mode of life, the diminu- tion of their food supplies, their inability to restrain their longing for intoxicating liquors, the introduction among them of new diseases, their disastrous wars with the more numerous white men, and their expulsion from their an- cestral homes by advancing civilization. Nowhere has a considerable community, savage three centuries since, risen without admixture with white blood, to a culture of unquestionable civilization. Large areas occupied ex- clusively by savages in 1500 are now occupied exclu- sively by civilized white men, and other such areas are under the dominating control of the Europeans. In the early part of the last century, the buffalo ranged over one million five hundred thousand square miles of North America, and was the chief reliance of three hun- dred thousand Redmen for their food, clothing, bedding, and tent covering. The total number of these animals was presumably not less than ei;^ht million or ten million, so that two million could die annually without diminu- tion of the stock. Those immense herds have now dis- appeared,' as a source of food. Under the influence of fire SEC. 8. SAVAGE HISTORY. 29 arms and of the high prices offered for pelts, many large animals, including deer, antelope, elk and moose, hav^e en- tirely disappeared from extensive regions now occupied by white men, and have greatly diminished in regions still inhabited exclusively by Redmcn. Under the de- mand for the oil and skin of seals, and for the ivory of walruses, those aquatic mammals have been greatly re- duced in numbers, and the Eskimos are thus deprived of their previous supply of food. The Indians on the banks of the Columbia and Fraser have been deprived by white fisheries, of much of the salmon which formerly as- cended to the upper portions of those rivers. Various contagious and infectious diseases previously unknown to the aboriginal Americans and Pacific Island- ers, were introduced among them by the Europeans. The smallpox swept away entire tribes, and the measles proved fatal to many. Forms of throat disease previously unknown or unimportant became widely destructive in Polynesia after the people began to wear clothes. While under the control of the Franciscan friars, the Mission Indians of California diminished rapidly; and th )se In- dians taken while children as servants into American fam- ilies in California, generally died of consumption before reaching the age of thirty. Wherever civilized settlers have established thamselves in savage territory, the aborigines have been driven back and in many cases have been expelled by force from their ancestral Homes. War, the practically unavoidable ac- companiment of the spread of civilization, was in many cases provoked much more by the savages than by the civilized men, and the general result has been beneficial to mankind.^ Sec. 8. Sai'agc History. — As a necessary result of the 30 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. character of the material, a large part of this volume will be a description of the arts and institutions of different tribes, with little information about the circumstances of their development. In savagism, progress is so slow and so hidden from observation, that we must learn its growth only by comparison of the various conditions, successive in culture, not in the same territory, but in different countries. It has not been given to any one politi- cal organization to march, in the plain view of history, through all grades of past progress, nor to be its leading exponent for many ages. As compared with the long existence of humanity, nations generally have short lives. They strut far a few years on the scene and then, make their exit, to appear no more forever. A Celtic, a Ro- man, and a Teutonic Gaul have occupied the territory and contributed to the population of modern France. A Numidian, a Carthaginian, a Roman, a Vandal, and a Mohammedan state ruled successively before the French established their present dominion in Algiers. In Egypt, Judea, Greece, Italy, Spain, Germany, England, Russia, and Hindostan, we find revolution after revolution. Among peoples in the lower culturesteps, generally, the warfare is more bitter and continuous, the military or- ganization less compact, and the political community smaller., Such influences are unfavorable to the long duration of tribal life, and to the production of many grades of culture in any one nationality ; and they ren- der it impossible to trace much mental growth in any one savage community. Every savage tribe has remained through its whole known career, in the same or nearly the same culture- step. If it had no tillage when first observed by white men, then it has not adopted tillage yet. If it had no SEC. 8. SAVAGE HISTORY. 3I slaves, then it has no slaves yet. No tribe has a tradi- tion of inventing or adopting pottery, weaving, or sail canoes. Such improvements were made in the past, but at a time so remote that the memory of their first intro- duction has been lost. The Australians, Kaffirs, and Redmen of North America, after being familiar for gen- erations with civilized arts, are still savages. Tlie account of the manners and customs of savages at the beginning of a history of mankind may be prop- erly historical, though it does not trace distinctly the development of the higher from the lower conditions. It is sufficient to show how one tribe lived on wild plants and animals; and how another obtained some of its food from land tilled by women ; and how still an- other had large stocks of food grown with the help of slaves ; and how one of these forms followed another in the natural course of progress. Of the advance of hu- manity before the time of written records, we must form our conceptions, to a large extent, by inferences from later conditions. Such inferences, though very different from the proofs obtainable for most of the facts in civil- ized culture, are safe guides when used with knowledge and judgment, and are indispensable aids in searching for light upon the childhood of humanity. In the accounts given here of the savages and their culture, the present tense will be used for convenience of expression even in reference to tribes which, in modern times, have died out or have abandoned the arts, customs, and ideas of their forefathers. CHAPTER II. ETHNOLOGY. Section 9. Races. — Men may be divided into three main races, the black, the yellow, and the white. The black race, in physical organization nearest to the ape, and in mental capacity the lowest, numbers perhaps two hundred and fifty million persons, and occupies Australia, Melanesia, most of Africa, and a small part of Asia. Most of the blacks are in the torrid zone, and more than any other, they are a tropical race. They have never produced a great inventor, merchant, states- man, conqueror, orator, author, or religious teacher, nor built a splendid city, nor maintained a durable govern- ment over millions of people, nor made an important contribution to progress in historical times. The ne- groes and Congoese, ever since they became known to white men, have been recognized as the fittest of all families for bondage, and have furnished most of the material for the slave trade. Too lazy to apply them- selves steadily to labor without compulsion, too stupid to form powerful military organizations, and too spirit- less to make stubborn resistance to oppression, they have in all ages submitted t(i servitude. (32) SEC. 9. RACES. 33 The yellow race, in physical organization between the black and the white races, numbers perhaps six hundred million persons, and occupies eastern and northern Asia, both Americas, the Malay archipelago, Polynesia, Mi- cronesia, and Madagascar. It is found in the torrid, temperate, and frigid zones. Most of the yellow men are barbarous, many are savage, none are civilized. The white race numbers perhaps five hundred and fifty million persons, and includes the Hindoos, Persians, Afghans, Belooches, Armenians, Georgians, Circassians, Slavonians, Celts, Greeks, Latins and Teutons, who are classed together as Aryans, and theJiebrewTS, Arabs, As- syrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Copts, Fellahs, Abyssinians and Berbers, ^Vho are classed to- gether as Semites. The white ^nen belong to the tem- perate zone and all civilization belongs to them, but not all of them are civilized. Besides races of different colors, mankind is divided into archaeological classes of the prehistoric and the his- toric. The prehistoric savages of most interest to us are the pleistocene European cave dwellers and drift men, the Danish shell-mounders, the Swiss pile dwellers, who may have belonged to the white race, and the Aleutian echi- nus-eaters, who were yellow. Although geographical circumstances have great in- fluence on the progress of civilized communities, they have relatively little on tribes in low conditions of cult- ure. The small and isolated group of the Tahitian Isl- ands with only six hundred square miles of area in the tropics, without an indigenous cereal or quadruped, was the home of the highest development of modern savag- ism, and decidedly superior to Samoa, Tonga, and New Zealand, each of which had a greater area, larger popula- 3 34 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. tioii, and greater natural resources in charge of the same Polynesian race. Sec. io. Australians, etc. — The black race is divided into the Australian, Melanesian, Negro, Congoese, and Kaffir families. The Australians have no tillage, no pottery, no cloth, no permanent chiefs, and in most districts, no huts and no canoes. In competition with all other families, they can claim the distinction of hav- ing the largest number of people and the most extensive territory in the lowest condition of culture. Their continent, the only one exclusively savage, that is, savage in its aboriginal population, is also the poorest of the continents in soil, rainfall, botany, and zoology. It has no indigenous cereal or placental mammal. The greater part of its area is an arid desert. It has no great navigable river, no large fertile valley. Africa has a ma- jority of the savages of the globe, and as compared with the other continents, has the shortest coast line in pro- portion to area, the fewest good harbors, and the most oppressive climate. The Polynesian, Micronesian and Melanesian Islands are generally small, and lacking in cereals and in indigenous ruminants, and most of them have neither clay suitable for pottery, nor flint suitable for stone knives. America is poor in indigenous cereals and ruminants. The Melanesians, called also Papuans or negrillos, number perhaps two hundred thousand and occupy Mel- anesia or the tropical Pacific Islands, extending through fifty degrees of longitude from Fiji to Wagen in the south- ern hemisphere. There are also a few small communities of Melanesians in the Malay archipelago, and these are about as low in culture as the Australians. The Papuans generally are in the tillage culturestep. They have dogs, SEC. 12. MALAYS. 35 pigs, chickens, huts, and canoes. They have few slaves and no hereditary nobility.. In industrial skill, political organization and general culture, the Fijians are much superior to the other Melanesians. Sec. ir. Negroes, etc. — The Kaffirs occupy Africa from iO° S. latitude to the Cape of Good Hope. From their line to 17° N. are the Congoese, between whose terri- tory and the Sahara are the negroes. The Bushmen, few in number, and on the same level in culture with the Australians, belong to the Kaffir family. The African blacks generally are in a condition of impure savagism. By intercourse with white men they have learned the arts of metallurgy and pasturage, and have acquired consid- erable stocks of iron and of milk-yielding animals ; but their polity, religion, social institutions and general mental state are savage. They have no public records, no art of writing, no orderly government, and no noteworthy ac- cumulation of property increasing from generation to gen- eration. They have pottery, woolen cloth, large canoes and permanent dwellings. Many of their tribes have des- potic chiefs, and slaves ; few have a well organized nobility. Sec. 12, Malays. — The Malays occupy the islands west of New Guinea and north of Australia, besides part of the peninsula of Malacca. Their territory is nearly all insular and, except Madagascar, all in the tropics. Their sea-coast is extensive in proportion to the area of the land, and their islands are near together, so that their situation is favorable to maritime commerce. As boat- builders, mariners, explorers and colonists, they and their descendants, the Polynesians^ and Microncsians, have sur- passed all other savage families. They sailed far to the west, to the east and to the north. The name Mala- gasy indicates that the inhabitants of Madagascar immi- 3^ A HISTORY OF MANKIND. grated from Malacca; and numerous words prove the relationship of their speech with that of the Malays in Java and Borneo, and with that of the Polynesians and Micronesians. Though thirty degrees of longitude sep- arate Tahiti from New Zealand, a native of the former group could serve as interpreter in the latter, for Captain Cook. Traditions of the first colonizing expeditions are preserved in many of the islands; and the names of their former homes were carried with them to the new islands. The word Hawaii — or its equivalent, evidently of the same origin, — is derived from the old name of Java, and is found in Samoa, Tonga, Roratonga and New Zealand.'^ Since ancient times, the Malays of Malacca, Sumatra and Java have been influenced by communication, more or less direct, with China, Siam and Burma, from which they learned to smelt iron, to tame the buffalo, and to use letters, so that they or most of them long since rose into barbarism. There are however many Malays who are still savages, and of these the general cultural condi- tion is very similar to that of the Polynesians. Sec. 13. Polynesians. — The most interesting sub-family of the Malays is the Polynesian, which occupies New Zealand, Tucopia, the Ellice group, and the tropical islands of the Pacific east of longitude 180°. Except New Zealand, all this territory is in the tropics, and con- sists of numerous insular groups. The largest island has less than eight thousand square miles and fewer than twenty-five thousand inhabitants now, and probably had fewer than eighty thousand people when first known to European navigators. The larger islands of tropical Polynesia are volcanic and rise in their center to high peaks, with narrow belts suitable for tillage near the sea shore. Many of the smaller islands are of coral rock, SEC, 14. AMERICANS, 37 and rise only a few feet above the level of the ocean. The Polynesians and the Micronesians west of them have no metals, no potter}^ no weaving, no public records and no herds of ruminant animals, but their lack of metals, ruminants, pottery and cloth should be charged to the poverty of their country, not to their want of enterprise. They have tillage, slaves, hereditary nobles and priests, despotic chiefs, ancestral gods and national divinities. Their general culture is the highest in modern savag- ism and in a comparison of their tribes with one an- other, the Tahitians are entitled to the first, and the Maori to the last plate, notwithstanding the great advantages of New Zealand over every other Polynesian group, in larger population, greater area, more varied' natural resources, and the stimulating influence of a temperate climate.^ Sec. 14. Americans. — The Americans of aboriginal blood now living may number twenty-five million, many of them mixed with black or white blood. They have no influential nucleus of pure stock or strong aboriginal government ; and those tribes which have kept their blood pure or nearly so, are rapidly decreasing in number. They are presumably descended from Asiatic immigrants who may have crossed to America by way of the Aleu- tian Islands or by Behring Strait.' Similar arts and in- stitutions are found on both shores of the North Pacific ; '^ and the languages of the New World, from the extreme north to the extreme south, all belong to the same poly- synthetic class which is akin to the agglutinative tongues of Northern Asia.* For convenience of description, the term Redmen will be given here to the aboriginal North Americans between the territories of the Aztecs and of the Eskimos. All the Redmen east of the Mississippi, are in the tillage cul- 2,S A HISTORY OF MANKIND. ture step, many possessing pottery, cloth, canoes, and dogs ; many of the tribes west of the Mississippi are in the non-tiUing condition ; and the lower Californians and some tribes in Central California are so low that they have no canoes, no huts, and not even dogs. Thus in the last point they are even lower than the Australians. None of the Redmen have slaves, nobles, despotic chiefs, ancestral or national gods. The mound-builders, who were Redmen, the same in family and general culture as the tribes east of the Mississippi in modern times, will be the subject of another section. The Caribs in the region north of the Orinoco are the most advanced savages of South America. They have slaves, nobles, and sail canoes. In these they venture to all parts of the Caribbean Sea. Most of the South American tribes in the basins of the Amazon and La Plata have torpid minds and low culture. The Eskimos, who occupy the entire northern shore of North America from Hudson's Strait to Point Barrow, spend most of their time in the snow. They live in snow huts through more than eight months of the year, and depend for food mainly on the blubber of the seal, walrus and whale. Tillage is impossible in their frozen soil, and they have no domestic animal save the dog. They neither weave cloth nor burn pottery. From the seal they get clothing, bedding, tent-covers, boat-covers, cur- tains, leather, waterproof garments, oil bottles, thread and oil for light and cookery. Sec. 15. Mojuid-Bjtildcrs. — Neither history nor tra- dition gives us any account of the origin of numerous earthworks found over much of the Mississippi basin and several adjacent regions. These structures, mostly mounds, have never been counted with precision, but the SEC. 15. MOUND-BUILDERS. 39 total number has been estimated at fifty thousand. In Ohio there are thirteen thousand ; in a semi-circle east of the Mississippi River, with a radius fifty miles long from the mouth of the Illinois river as a center, there are five thousand/ The works are most numerous in or near fertile valleys and were found on the sites of many now flourishing cities, including Chicago, St, Louis, Cincin- nati, Milwaukee and Dayton. Of these works a majority are conical mounds, erected for sepulchral or military purposes, ranging from five to ninety feet in height and averaging perhaps twenty. Some of the larger mounds of irregular shape must have been intended for public worship. The largest of these, at Cahokia, Illinois, is seven hundred feet long, five hundred wide, and at the highest point, ninety feet high. It covers six acres, and its solid contents are estimated to be seven hundred and forty thousand cubic yards. Many of the mounds are shaped like animals ; and one resembles a mammoth. As a general rule the material of the mound is exactly the same as that of the adjacent soil. Besides the mounds, there are numerous walls evi- dently constructed for the purposes of fortifications. These, when first observed by the white men,, were usually from ten to fifteen feet wide, and in the middle about a foot or two feet above the level of the adjacent soil. The walls inclosed squares, circles, long parallelo- grams, octagonal or irregular plots, and many were on hill-tops near water suitable for military purposes. The enclosed areas vary from ten to two hundred acres. The material of the walls is usually earth, rarely rough stone, never cut .stone. In the mounds are found many tools and ornaments of stone, vessels of unglazed pottery, net sinkers of galena, 40 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. awls of bone, beads of shell, bracelets, pendants, beads' and knives of beaten copper, simple ornaments of silver, and pieces of obsidian. The copper, silver and obsidian are rare. There is no cast copper, no bronze, no iron, no cut stone, no lime mortar. There is nothing to indicate a culture different from that found in the same regions of the first European explorers. The size and multitude of the mounds indicate either that the population was much denser formerly than in the last century, or that many successive generations toiled in piling up the earth. If it be true, however, as reported, that De Soto at one place marched for two leagues through a continuous field of maize, in what is now northern Florida, that region may then have been as densely populated as was the Miami Valley when the mounds were built. Lapham, Carr and Jones, who are among the most trustworthy writers on the mounds of the Redmen, believe the modern Indians are the descend- ants of the mound-builders. Lapham found that the bones in some of the mounds were not more than four centuries old. Many of the military and ecclesiastical usages of the mound-builders are found among the recent Redmen. The embankments of the Iroquois to sustain their palisades have made walls like those of the mound- builders ; and the Natchez and Creeks have erected mounds since the white men settled on the continent. Sec. 1 6. Aleut Mounds. — In many countries, the sites of ancient savage villages are marked by mounds, made by the gradual accumulation of refuse from their meals, their fires, and their mechanical labors. Such mounds consist of ashes, wood, coal, bone, shell, fragments of stone and dirt. On the banks of some rivers and tide- waters rich in moUusks, a great part of the material is SEG. 1 6. ALEUT MOUNDS. 4I shell, suggesting the name of shell mounds used in por- tions of the United States and Australia. Other names for such accumulations are, village mounds and kitchen heaps. The Aleutian Indians have a multitude of village mounds, extending through thirty-five degrees of longi- tude from the island of Attn to Cook's Inlet on the American Continent. W. H. Dall, to whom we are indebted for our knowledge of them, opened some in Attn, Amchitka, Adakh, Akka, Unalashka, Amukna, and the Shumagin group, and he made slight excavations in many other places.^ These excavations were remark- able on account of finding no trace of fire ; and many of the mounds had strata indicating that the savages used no fish, bird or mammal as an article of food. The mounds are slight elevations near fresh water, and near harbors where canoes could land in rough weather, and consist of three strata. Of these the first and lowest was deposited when the people ate nothing but the echinus, a shell- fish ; the second, when their food consisted exclusively of fish ; and the third, when they had added birds and mammals to their list of provisions. The echinus is a marine mollusk which spends part its life in deep v/ater, but comes to the shore at all seasons of the year. Having neither acute senses nor means of speedy movement, it does not readily discover nor easily avoid its enemies, and can be taken with little effort by the rudest savages. In all the Aleut mounds opened by Mr. Dall, the layer of echinus shells was found.'' In most cases it was two or three feet deep, and in one mound covered an area of four acres. Nine-tenths of the material in this layer consists, as he says, " of the broken test and .spines of the echinus," and the other tenth con- 42 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. sists of the shells of other mollusks intermingled with some few fish bones. There are no ashes nor coal, nor much soil or decayed vegetable matter. Neither is there any knife, awl, stone, bone, or shell shaped artificially to an edge or point; no skin-scraper; no whorl for a spindle; no hook ; no pottery ; no trace of fire or cooking. The only articles shaped by art are some hammer stones, with slight hollows on opposite sides, for thumb and finger. These were used, perhaps, for breaking the shells of the echinus.^ Near the top of the stratum are some few net sinkers of stone. The second layer made up of fish bones, commences abruptly as if the echinus-eater had disappeared com- pletely and had been succeeded by a different commu- nity who depended on fish exclusively for their food. As the lowest layer contains little except echinus shells, so the second is made up, at least in its lower portion, almost entirely of the bones offish, and of species now found in the vicinity. As in the first stratum, so in the second, there is no trace of fire. The condition of the bones suggests that the fish were eaten raw as they now are occasionally by the Aleuts. Old men among them attribute the fre- quency of disease to the degenerate custom of cooking. The fish bone stratum has an average thickness of two feet. It contains numerous net sinkers and some few spear-heads of stone, but no trace of houses. Two skulls of adults found in this stratum have a mean capacity of one thousand three hundred and twenty cubic centimetres, indicating very small brains. The second stratum gradually changes into the third or mammal layer, which contains bones of the hair seal, the fur seal, the sea lion, the walrus, the whale, and many birds. In the lower portions of the stratum SEC. 1 6. ALEUT MOUNDS. 43 are found lance-heads of stone, and in the upper portion, lance-heads of bone, and of bone and stone combined, some with a cord attached for fastening to a shaft. Be- sides these, there are awls, skin-scrapers, stones for rub- bing skins, lamps of stone and of unburned clay, remains of houses and rare traces of fire. In some mounds the last stratum is ten feet thick, and in one, it covers an area of twenty acres. Twenty skulls of adults taken from this highest stratum have a mean capacity of one thousand four hundred and eighteen cubic centimetres, or six per cent, more than the mean of the two skulls in the fish bone str^tum.^ One stone celt was found in these Aleut mounds ; no axe, or gouge. Mr. Dall thinks that a thousand years should be allowed for the accumu- lation of the echinus layer and twice as long for each of the two later strata. Many of these Aleut islands are distant twenty miles or more from the nearest land, and their inhabitants must have had boats, the possession of which in modern times has been accompanied in every case by edge tools, weapons and fire. If any quadruped or bird had the habit of carrying mollusks to a common feeding place on the shore of tide water, we might doubt whether the lower stratum of these mounds were of human origin. But no brute has such a habit. The exclusive dependence of the Aleuts of the first stratum on the echinus for food, suggests that they were lower in culture, at least in some respects, than any tribe that has existed in historical times. It is worthy of remark that the largest plants on these islands are bushes not more than four feet high. Dall supposes that after the people began to kill seals, and to cover themselves with skins, they may have warmed themselves occasion- 44 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. ally by standing over grass fires with skin cloaks round them in such a way as to shut in the smoke and heated air." Sec. 17. Pleistocene Europeans. — The white race com- prises the civilized Euraryans, some civilized and many barbarous Asiatic Aryans, and some barbarous and some savage Semites in Arabia and Abyssinia. Whether the prehistoric Europeans of the pleistocene age and of the later periods of tillage and bronze culture were white men, is doubtful. Between two glacial periods man lived in Switzerland ;^ and there were men in California before the rivers flowed in their present beds and before the Sierra Nevada had received its present shape by the aid of elevation, eruption and erosion.'' Perhaps the earliest men of whom we have numerous traces were the drift Europeans, so called because their remains are found in the drift or gravel of the ancient river channels in France and England, at elevations eighty or one hundred feet above the level of the present streams. The erosion of the soil or perhaps rock to such a depth suggests the probability of the lapse of hun- dreds of thousands of years, but there is no distinct proof of the length of the intervening period.^ In the pleistocene geological age the reindeer, the musk ox, the marmot, the arctic fox, the snowy owl, and other animals similar to those now found in Lapland, and other lands equally near to the pole, existed in Cen- tral Europe, while that region had a subfrigid climate. With them were the hairy mammoth and man. These pleistocene Europeans dwelt in caves, and had neither tillage nor polished stone tools, nor pottery, nor woven cloth, nor domestic animals. They did not bury nor SEC. I/. PLEISTOCENE EUROPEANS. 45 burn their dead. They had axes and chisels of flint, bows, arrows, arrow-straighteners, barbed fishing and fowhng spears, daggers, marrow spoons, needles, skin- scrapers and amulets like those of the Eskimos, whom they resembled in lack of tillage and of pottery, in indif- ference to the dead and in skill as draughtsmen. Unlike the Eskimos, they were cannibals and had no dogs. The bones of those animals are not found in their caves, and such small bones as dogs chew up and swallow are numerous. They understood the value of flint as a ma- terial for stone knives and arrowheads, and flaked off chips from cores. Their food was mostly animal and they cooked their meat with hot stones, whether by boil- ing or baking or both, is uncertain. They broke the marrow bones of large quadrupeds and of men for the purpose of digging out the fat contents.* The cave men continued to live in Central Europe from the subfrigid pleistocene to the subtropical or trop- ical pleistocene period, when the arctic mammals had disappeared and had been succeeded by the elephant, the hippopotamus, the rhinoceros, the hyena, and the cave lion. During the thousands of years which had elap.sed in the meantime, there was no perceptible im- provement in culture. The later cave dwellers of the pleistocene age were like their predecessors in the lack of tillage, pottery, and ])olished .stone. Rude as were their lives, they were not without a taste for art. In France, Britain and Switzerland, the cave men made drawings of animals and hunting scenes on bone, horn, ivory, and stone, with remarkable action, accuracy of proportion, and steadiness of outline — at least, as com- pared with similar productions by other savages.* They have left us sketches of the woolly mammoth, of the 46 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. reindeer feeding, of a horse with a short upright mane, of the stag, of the ibex, of the Irish elk, of the cave bear, of the seals, and of men. Sec. 18. Danish Mounds. — The earliest traces of men who had polished stone tools are found in the peat bogs and village mounds of Denmark. These bogs contain the remains of three distinct botanical periods. The highest stratum has trunks of the beech, which is now, as it was two thousand years ago, the characteristic tree of the country. Under the beech, is an oak stratum, with the pedunculated oak in the upper and the sessile oak in the lower portion. Still lower is a third stratum of the scotch fir, containing many trunks three feet thick. This tree is not now found in Denmark, and when planted there does not thrive. The climate must have changed since the Scotch fir grew there in forests of large trees. Under one of the logs in a Danish bog was found a flint shaped by man — proof that men lived in the Scotch fir period. Contemporaneous, presumably, with the fir, are some of the shell mounds, now from one foot to twenty feet above the level of high tide. Some of them are three hundred yards long, sixty wide and three high. Their material is a mixture of shells, bones, ashes, charcoal and earth. The shells of the oyster are abundant though that mollusk does not live in the modern Baltic, the water of which is too brackish for it. The shells of the cockle, mussel, and periwinkle are much larger than the shells of the same species found now in the same waters. This is another evidence that when these mounds were built up, the Baltic had a larger proportion of salt in its water and had a wider connection with the ocean than at present. SEC. 19. SWISS LAKE nWELLINGS. 4/ Among the common birds was the penguin, which long since disappeared from Europe, but survives in Greenland. The Danes of the fir period had edge tools of polished stone, but no metals, no cultivated plants, and no domestic animal save the dog. They caught the cod, herring and flounder in the sea, and they killed the capercailzie or grouse that eats the buds of the Scotch fir. No bones of mammoth, elephant, rhinoceros or reindeer are found in these mounds. The skulls of the people are small and similar to those of the Lapps.' Sec. 19. SiL'iss Lake Divcllings. — The largest body of information about prehistoric savages in any part of the world, is derived from relic beds found in various lakes of Switzerland. There archaeologists have found tools and weapons of stone, bone, horn, and wood, household utensils of wood, pottery, and stone, the re- mains of houses and their furniture, the refuse of kitch- ens and stables, besides boats, baskets, mats, cloth, nets, thread, leather, toys and ornaments. These things had lain there undisturbed for thousands of years, until they were discovered, collected, studied and described, about the middle of the Nineteenth century. One hundred and thirty-three prehistoric village sites in sixteen Swiss lakes are known. Of such villages the lake of Neuchatel has thirty-six, the lake of Geneva twenty-four, and other lakes, smaller numbers. Of the total number, thirty-three when last inhabited were in the culturestep of stone; twenty-two in that of bronze; seventeen it that of iron ; and in regard to sixty-one, there is no distinct statement of the cultural condition, perhaps, because since their discovery, their sites have always been too deeply covered with water to permit a satisfactory examination. 48 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. Most of these villages were built on piles in water from two to twelve feet deep, when the lakes were at their lowest level. The piles were from three to eight inches thick, and were driven from three to five feet into the mud. In the villages of the stone culturestep, the only ones to be considered here, the piles before driving were sharpened at the bottom with fire or by stone axes ; and at the top were morticed to hold beams on which were laid floors of poles or rude planks. The houses were of poles wattled with twigs, plastered on the sides with clay, and on the roof thatched ^^■ith straw. The outer rows of piles were wattled, and in some villages stones were placed around them to steady them. Walks on piles led from the land to the platform. Such a pile foundation not only cost much labor, but after completion, was, in many respects, less convenient than the shore for a village site. In case of fire it was difficult to save young children, cattle and food, which were kept there ; and through holes in the floors, tools, cattle, and children would occasionally fall. Such ob- jections were doubtless evident to the villagers, but they were more than counterbalanced by the importance of having sites relatively secure against sudden attacks of human enemies. These villages were built for constant residence, not for occasional refuge. In some few cases, the lake villages, instead of stand- ing on piles, were supported by an artificial foundation made by sinking rafts of brush loaded with stone or gravel, and kept in place by piles. Of the thirty Swiss villages known to be of the stone age, mentioned by Keller, fifteen are in the lake of Con- stance, seven in that of Neuchatel, and one each in :i number of other lakes. SEC. 19. SWISS LAKE DWELLINGS. 49 Wheat, barley, millet, caraway and poppy were culti- vated ; the seeds of the poppy and caraway being used for flavoring. Tillage seems to have received much attention, for manure was saved for agricultural purposes. Wild fruits, berries and nuts, including apples, pears, plums, cherries, grapes, strawberries, blackberries, beech- nuts and walnuts, were gathered for food. Domestic animals were numerous. The cow, the urus, the horse, the sheep, the goat and the pig were stabled occasionally at least, and perhaps every night in the pile villages. A large part of the animal food of the people was however obtained by the chase of wild animals. Pottery shaped by hand was abundant. In some cases the clay for it was mixed with powdered charcoal, or with small pieces of granite, silicious rock or partially burned limestone. Many of the pots for cooking had conical bottoms which rested in a clay ring, a pattern adopted perhaps for the purpose of diminishing the danger of burning the cooked food. Bowls and platters were made of wood and steatite. Large pans were perforated as if for making cheese. Pieces of yarn, thread, cord, rope, cloth woven on different methods and matting are found. Some houses had large stocks of flax, as if belonging to professional weavers. Fishing lines were made of flax, and were set with baited hooks. For raising such lines, the prehis- toric Swiss lake dweller had thearpion, a peculiar dredg- ing hook, now u.sed for the same purpose in the same place. Among the relics are netting pins, crochet hooks, hairpins, and combs. Glass and nephrite from Asia, flint from Germany or France and amber from the shores of the Baltic furnish evidence of traffic with remote lands. These Swiss lake dwellers of the stone culturcstep were 4 50 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. superior to any modern savages. Their possession of* the cow, sheep, goat, pig and horse as domestic animals ; their system of keeping them in stables ; their cultivation of wheat, barley and flax ; and the construction of their pile houses, when considered together, indicate that they had advanced much farther than the Tahitians. The wheat, barley and flax cultivated by the Swiss lake villagers had been brought from Asia, and probably the cow, the horse, the sheep, the goat and the pig, bred in stables on piles, were first domesticated systematically on the same continent. Possibly the lake dwellers were Aryans who, accustomed to cultivating the soil and keep- ing herds in their Asiatic home, brought animals and seeds with them in their westward migration, and thus introduced them into Europe. The small proportion of bronze and iron relics found in most of the Swiss lake villages which were occupied after the introduction of metals, implies that these settle- ments had continued in the stone culturestep for many centuries. The moor villages of Italy, the Scotch and Irish crannoges or strongholds built in swamps, are, in many points, analogous to the Swiss lake villages, but do not give us any important additional information about the stone age. CHAPTER III. INDUSTRY. Sec. 20. Fire. — Of the important arts acquired by man, the earliest may have been those of making edge-tools, of using articulate speech and of taming fire/ Some Australians and Tasmanians'' are the only modern sav- ages who have not known how to kindle fire* but they possessed it, kept it burning continually, and carried it it with them carefully, when moving. There are many countries where fire may be obtained from natural sources, but to get it occasionally by accident and then to use it for only a few hours is very different from taming it so that it shall always be ready to render service in every hut or group of people. Without such taming, man would perhaps never have ventured far from the tropical region in which he had his origin. If he had not estab- lished himself in the temperate zone he never would have reached his present intellectual development. Besides protecting him against cold and carnivorous beasts, fire rendered many kinds of food more palatable and more digestible to him, and stimulated him to carry his provisions to a place of assemblage and companionship where the cooking could be done conveniently. Thus it became a great aid to sociability, and gave a higher value to the woman who became its custodian and the chief advocate of the social feelings connected with the do- (5 5^ A HISTORY OF MANKIND. mestic hearth.^ The construction of the kindhng appa-* ratus, the precautions necessary to keep it ready for immediate use, the necessities of borrowing and of trans- porting fire, and the inconveniences resulting from its occasional extinction, when it could not be kindled again soon, were stimulants to thought, and to mutual helpfulness. There was presumably a condition in which the lack of fire was the characteristic feature of an early culturestep, but of this stage of human growth we have no certain remains. In Australia fire is kindled by rubbing a hard stick in the groove of a stick of soft wood, until enough heat is evolved to set fire to wood dust, shavings or tinder. The fire drill, of hard wood pressing on a hole in soft wood, is turned between the palms in Polynesia ; by a string pulled first one way then the other in Dakota and the Eskimo region ; like a carpenter's brace in the Iroquois region, and in some countries by a loose bowstring fast- ened to the top and worked pump fashion. In western Africa the necessary heat is obtained by rubbing stone on wood with sand between them ; in Malaysia, by strik- ing a bamboo splinter with flint. The taming of fire was a necessary result of the custom of making tools and weapons of wood and stone.* Sec. 2 1 . Non-tilling Culture . — Many eminent archaeol- ogists have followed Lubbock in dividing savages into the paleolithic and neolithic, those of the old or rough, and those of the new or polished stone. The former shaped their stone tools entirely by fracture ; the latter rounded and polished off the fractured surface of certain tools. The distinction between savage tribes on this point has small influence on their manner of life, and little cul- ture-historical importance. After taking a comprehen- SEC. 21. NON-TILLING CULTURE. 53 sive view of the savages known to civilized observation, we shall find that they properly belong to two main classes ; those who do not and those who do till the ground. If some civilized men were cast, without any product of art, on an uninhabited island similar in its geological, botanical, and zoological features to Great Britain, the tool for which they would first feel an urgent want would be a knife, and the material of which they would first make it would probably be the shell of a mollusk or the bone of a mammal, either of which they could find without long search. The bone would be better in its form, the shell in its hardness. As these materials would furnish the first knives to civilized men, under the cir- cumstances supposed, so they presumably supplied the first to primitive men. But after a time, those savages discovered that various kinds of stone could be shaped into knives with less labor, or would take a sharper or harder edge and a more con- venient form, than shell or bone. Many centuries elapsed, perhaps, before it was found that from a rough c}'l- inder of flint, chert or obsidian, eight inches long and six inches thick, a hundred knives as long as the block and an inch and a half wide, with a sharp edge on each side, could be split off in half an hour by one man. Some flakes were shaped into chisels, awls, borers, scrapers, arrowheads, and spear-heads ; and when the lump was too small for splitting again, it was made into an axe.' Obsidian made the sharpest but least durable of the flake knives, the material being much more brittle than flint. Flake razors of obsidian were used by Aztec bar- bers, but a dozen were sometimes ruined in shaving one man, Flint and chert were at first obtained for knives 54 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. from loose lumps found on the surface of the ground or in the beds of streams ; but at a later time were dug from quarries."'' Flake knives were never polished, even after the custom of polishing stone chisels and axes was well established. Sec. 22. Tilling Savagisui. — The introduction of till- age had an immense influence on savage culture. It gave an increased stock, and a regular supply of food, and a permanent home ; it led to an increased density of population ; it accumulated property and furnished men to defend it ; it made a demand for systematic and divided labor. It served as a foundation for many other indus- trial arts. If it did not give birth to canoe building, pot- tery, weaving, stone polishing, and the breeding of do- mestic animals, it at least furnished the means and motives under which they reached their highest develop- ment in savage culture. Whether men tilled the ground before they polished stone is doubtful, but the two arts were not far apart in the time of their origin. The first stone tools to be pol- ished were perhaps chisels, and after them may have come axe heads. Unlike knives, the^e could not be flaked off by a single blow or one movement of pressure, nor could a satisfactory edge be given to them by fracture; nor was the amount of stone so small that it could be thrown away with indifference. It was easier to make a new knife of obsidian or flint than to sharpen an old one; not so with an axe head or a large chisel. The flake knives were thin and at their edges brittle, and therefore soon worn out. But the axe was relatively thick and blunt, and could be made of hard, tough stone that would not flake off into knives. The stone axe head was a notable contribution to savage culture. On account of SEC. 22. TILLING SAVAGISM. 55 its weight, it could be used in a blow with considerable momentum. Although a poor implement for cutting wood, it was through a long era the best obtainable, and in the process of making clubs, canoes, poles and spears, was especially serviceable in clearing away coal and half- burned wood. The perforations in axe heads for the handles, were made by dropping water on the hot stone in some cases, in others by hammering and grinding. The battle-axes of the aborigines of New Britian were made in the former manner. By attaching a handle to it, the axe head was conv^erted into an axe, with an important addition to its impetus and efficiency, and by turning the edge in an- other direction, it could be changed into an adze. Many writers have accepted the idea that pasturage precedes tillage in the development of culture, but they produce no proof, and the best direct evidence, that of the Redmen, is against them. In the basin of the Missis- sippi we find great numbers of large indigenous rumi- nants — buffalo, elk, deer, antelope and goat — animals well fitted by nature for domestication, in the midst of tilling savages, who never domesticate them. An early Spanish writer, Gomara, asserts that the buffalo was tamed on the basin of the Rio Grande, and Alexander Humboldt men- tioned his statement as perhaps correct ; but it lacks con- firmation and deserves no credence. Pastoral communi- ties are usually lower in culture than those which de- pend for their support on tillage ; but it does not follow that pasturage is the earlier occupation. In some coun- ties, herds are considered preferable as property to tilled fields, because they can be driven away from marauding enemies or because they are better adapted to a dry climate or mountainous surface, In many extensive re- 56 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. gions tillage has preceded pasturage ; it cannot be proved that in any has pasturage preceded tillage. It seems that the habits of economy that grew up with thecultiva- vation of the soil, were necessary to convert pet animals into herds. Sec. 23. Spear, Bozv, etc. — The savage tools of the chase and of war, distinctively classed as weapons, are the inventions of long experience and much ingenuity. The Kaffirs and many Negro and Polynesian tribes take no offensive weapon into battle save the spear, which on the other hand is not used by the Bushmen and had an inferior place among the American savages. In portions of Polynesia it was thrown so dexterously, that its aim was more accurate at fifty yards than that of the musket in the hands of Cook's sailors. Some tribes have discovered that the whirling of a spear or arrow on its longitudinal axis corrects the deflecting influences of bends and unequal weights on the sides. The whirl is given by a twist in the shaft, in the head, or in feather attachments, or by an unwinding thong, which last serves also, as if it were a prolongation of the arm, to give additional impetus.^ Instead of thongs, some tribes use a stick two feet long, or a stick and thong together, all of which devices are akin to slings in their influence on the missile.^ The common sling is little used by most savage tribes, but is a favorite with the Fuegians, New Caledonians and Hawaiians. The New Caledonians give an acorn shape to their sling stones as the ancient Greeks and Romans did to their leaden sling shots.^ Sling balls of burned clay were made by the tilling prehistoric Europeans, perhaps for the purpose of throwing them red-hot into the huts of their enemies,* SEC. 23. SPEAR, BOW, ETC. 57 The thong-balls or bolas, stone balls two inches and a half in diameter, fastened together in couples or triplets, by a thong about six feet long attached to each ball, are used by the Patagonians, Araucans and some other South Americans with much effect in the chase of the guanaco, ostrich and horse, being thrown so as to tie up the ani- mal's legs. The long sling and considerable weight of the balls make them effective at a distance of a hun- dred yards.^ The Eskimos have a similar implement called the birdsling, consisting of six or seven oval weights, an inch long and half an inch thick, each attached to a cord thirty inches long, all the cords being fastened together at the other end. These birdslings tie up the wings of geese and ducks as the bolas tie up the legs of South American game. The combination of strength with elasticity required for the bow is not found in the timber of some regions, and there bows are not made, or the wood is brought from other places. Most of the savage bows are of the ordi- nary size and pattern, but some in the valley of the Parana are so large that the Indian when he shoots lies down, and uses both feet and both hands in shooting heavy arrows headed with burning cotton to set fire to the enemy's huts. The Veddahs of Ceylon have bows which they stretch in the same way. The cross-bow is known to few savages, but the Fans have it. The Abipones have a bow with a cup in the cord to throw a bullet an inch and a half in diameter." The bow is not used by the Australians, Tasmani- ans, Kaffirs, Dinkas, aboriginal Cubans, Jamaicans or Pampas. In most of Polynesia, it is a plaything for boys, not a weapon for men. The Redmen, Bushmen and some negro tribes use it more than the spear. 58 A HISTORY OF MANKIND, Small arrows eight inches long are thrown through blow-tubes, ordinarily for killing game and on rare occa- sions for war, in Malaysia, Melanesia, Brazil, Paraguay, the valley of the Orinoco, Mexico, Central America, Chile and Peru. The tube is about eight feet long and has a caliber of a quarter of an inch. The utmost range is forty yards, and there is little accuracy of aim beyond twenty. The blow-tube arrow is tipped with virulent poison, so that a very small quantity of it will quickly prove fatal to a large quadruped. Poisoned arrows are thrown from the bow by the Bushmen, Bechuanas, Congoese, Kordofanese, Fans, An- damanese, Ajitas, Melanesians, Malays, Floridians, Pimos, and Californians. Poisoned stakes and spears are set in paths for enemies and game of Bushmen and Hottentots. Poison, on the point of the spear or arrow, though most frequently used in the chase, is also employed in war by many tribes. Creases in the head of the weapon protect the venom against loss by rubbing, without pre- venting its solution in the warm blood. The poisons are taken from many sources, including serpents, insects, and the seeds and juices of plants. One of the simplest methods of obtaining arrow poison is that of certain Cal- ifornian tribes, which irritate rattlesnakes with a deer's liver until they bite it repeatedly, throwing their venom into it every time. This liver is allowed to putrefy, and then the arrowhead is thrust into it. All poisons used for killing game are of kinds fatal in the blood but not in the stomach ; yet the part struck by the weapon is usu- ally thrown away. Sec. 24. Clubs, etc. — Clubs are of many kinds, heavy or light, long or short, to be kept in the hand or to be thrown, and made of wood, bone, or stone. Heavy SEC. 24. CLUBS, ETC. 59 clubs are used mainly in war; the lighter ones in the chase. A long, heavy club is carried by many Polyne- sian nobles as a symbol of their rank, on all ceremonial occasions. The characteristic weapon of New Zealand is the merai or patoopatoo, eighteen inches long, five inches wide in the blade which is shaped like a beaver's tail, and two inches thick in the handle, tapering to half an inch at the point of the blade. A cord at the end of the handle slips over the wrist to prevent loss. The preferred material is jade, though to shape and polish it without metal requires the labor of months.^ Sometimes it is made of a bone of a whale. The Quichuans made a like weapon of brown jasper. The kerry, the chief weapon of the Quaiquai Hotten- tot, with a stem about three feet long and a round knob, nearly three inches in diameter at the end,"* is thrown with much effect in the chase. The rackum, a club a foot long with pointed ends, is used for the same purpose by the same tribe. A throw-club of the Parana valley is two feet long and thicker at the ends than in the mid- dle. The Fannese have stone throw-clubs, a foot long, pointed at both ends, and two inches wide and an inch thick in the middle. Neither the sword nor any weapon similar to it in form and methotl of use, is known to the non-tilling sav- ages. Its vahie in war does not become evident until warriors learn to charge in compact masses. Then long flat stones, and bones witli sharp edges, and clubs into which sharks teeth and thin pieces of bone, stone or shell are fastened, become weapons similar to swords. The boomerang is a flat or flattish crooked throw-club, about thirty inches long, with two arms of equal or un- 6o A HISTORY OF MANKIND, equal length, uniting at an angle varying from ninety to one hundred and seventy degrees. The width may be two inches and the thickness half or three-quarters of an inch. One side is usually flat, and the other curved or beveled to the edge. Held by the longer arm, if one be longer than the other, with the flat side down, and thrown with much force, it flies away whirling round on its corner, as a center of rotation, resembling in its motions the flight of a dodging bird, usually pursuing a curved course, now going nearly straight, then turning short corners, and sometimes coming back and falling to the ground very near the point from which it is thrown. The principles involved in the movement of this weapon are so abstruse that they have never been explained satis- factorily, and of course they were never understood by savages. No two boomerangs take exactly the same course, even when thrown at the same angle and with the same power ; and it is impossible for anyone, unless familiar with the special implement, to know how to avoid it. The skillful thrower must often dodge quickly to escape a blow from its return. On account of its winged flight and the impossibility of calculating its course, it is an effective weapon for striking flocks of birds in the air. The boomerang is the characteristic throw-club of the Australians; and a crooked throw-club is also known to the Lower Californians,^ the Moquis,* the Soudanese,^ and was used by the ancient Egyptains,*' and Assyrians.' Shields are made of wood, or of wooden frames cov- ered with hide. Lengths vary from two to six feet ; and widths from five to twenty-four inches. Some long New Guinea shields have sharp points suitable for inflicting a fatal wound on a prostrate enemy. The very light shield SEC. 25. OMNIVOROUS. 6 1 ma)^ be used either to stop the approaching weapon or to touch it and divert its course. Generally savages wear no defensive armor fastened to the body, but the New Zealanders and some Africans have coats of thick matting or padding, and the Haidahs have breastplates of twigs interwoven with rawhide. Sec. 25. Omnivorous. — Man is the distinctively om- nivorous animal. His dentition, his palate, and his di- gestive organs prepare him to eat all those animals and plants which contain much starch, sugar or albumen, without poison. Lean meat, fat, gristle, skin, grain, fruit, legume, tuber, nut, bark and insects are all welcome to his stomach. The nitrogenous character of grain and lean meat make them indispensable to his high develop- ment ; and on the other hand, his digestiv'e organs have not the large size and peculiar form suitable to deriv^e great activity from a diet consisting exclusively of fruit or grass. He must have grain or meat, and since the former could not be obtained in regular supply by sav- ages, meat was necessary for them, and until population became dense, and game scarce, they always had it. In every clime, in e\-ery continent, and in every grade of culture his preferred food is supplied by the animal king- dom; and not satisfied with the meat of brutes, many .savage tribes have delighted in feasts on the flesh of their own species. By his mental and physical capaci- ties, man is impelled to attack and enabled to slay the most ferocious carnivores and the largest pachyderms. He .strikes the bird in the air and the fish in the water; he takes the rabbit in its burrow, the seal on the ice, and the whale in the open sea. Against his attack neither the shell of the moUusk, the quill of the porcupine, nor the venom of the rattlesnake gives secure protection. 62 A HISTORY OF MANltl^fD. The excitement of the chase is one of his greatest pleas- ures, and it increases with the activity and defensive power of the game. In many countries where there is Httle division of labor, and no systematic exchange of products between different regions, the people must derive their food from local and often from indigenous products, and may be limited for a considerable part of the year to a single ar- ticle, such as the seal in arctic America, the salmon on the banks of the Columbia, the buffalo in the basin of the Missouri, the lichen in Iceland, taro, breadfruit, or pan- danus fruit in portions of Polynesia and Micronesia, cas- sava in some, and yucca in other parts of South America, sago in Malaysia, shell-fish in many sea-coasts, reindeer in subarctic lands, cow's milk in some African, and mare's milk, or buffalo's milk, or camel's milk in some Asiatic districts. Uniformity of diet becomes offensive to palate and stomach, and makes a demand for many fla- voring substances that are offensive to the civilized man who is accustomed to a considerable variety of food in every season. After having eaten nothing but blubber and oil for months, the Eskimo becomes hungry for meat, as the Gaucho, after an exclusive diet of lean meat, longs for fat, and the negro, who has tasted nothing save fruit for months, has an extreme craving for animal food. Sec. 26. Bread and Meat. — Many savage tribes make bread of acorns or seeds, but none have made their loaves light by leaven, unless they had learned the art of bread-making from people in a higher stage of culture. Cakes are made from cassava by the aborigines of the Amazon and Orinoco, and from pine tree moss in sea- sons of scarcity, by those of the Upper Columbia. East of the Mississippi, maize is eaten in the green ear, sEc. 26. Bread and meat. 63 roasted or boiled ; in succotash, a mixture of the grain in the milk cut from the ear and boiled with beans ; in mush, in hominy and in bread. Many different flavors are used, including maple syrup, walnut oil, hickory milk, and bear's fat. Hickory milk, made by mashing hick- ory nuts and mixing with water, is added to the dough intended for bread, and also to mush and homin\\^ Maize meal is made either from the ripe grain or from that cooked in the milk, dried and pulverized in a mor- tar. Concha, a mixture of roasted maize and lime pre- pared by the Indians of the Amazon, is by Herndon praised as superior in flavor to green maize roasted. Mushrooms are a staple article of diet among the Fue- gians, and the fern root among the Ahts of Vancouver Island and the Maoris. The Indians of California like to have their wild lettuce flavored by the acidulous secre- tion from the bodies of red ants. They lay the vegeta- ble where the insect will run over it, or they pound an ant's nest, and when the irritated inmates come to the surface, hold the lettuce over them and the liquid is thrown upon it. Meat and fish are often eaten raw. The liver of the deer and the antelope, and the marrow of the elephant, fresh from the carcase, and still warm with the heat of life, are delicacies to many white hunters, as to all savages familiar with them. In Abyssinia there are feasts in which the chief dish is raw beef, cut from a cow tied at the door. By savages generally, blood as it flows from the living quadruped or bird is considered a delicious beverage. In many countries the preferred method of killing an animal is to cut its throat so that the blood shall flow about as fast as a man can drink, and then apply the 64 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. mouth to the wound. The Gallas and some other Afri- cans open veins in the necks of their cows, and, after sucking as much blood as they wish, sew up the cut. Other tribes bleed their herds into buckets, at regfular periods, and drink the blood mixed with milk. After killing an ostrich, the Bushman turns the blood from its carotid artery into its crop, the contents of which are eaten while still warm, after they have been mixed by rolling the body from side to side. The Araucan hangs up a live sheep by its forelegs, cuts its carotid ar- tery, which he turns into the windpipe, and after the lungs have thus been filled with blood, flavors them with salt and pepper, and eats them raw and warm with the heat of life. Sec. 27. Dai)iti)icss. — The savage eats all the accessi- ble kinds of food which are used on the tables of civili- zation, and many others. Being unable to command a constant supply of clean and fresh provisions, he has oc- casionally accepted filth and putridity, until, by custom and inheritance, they have become welcome to his eyes, nose and palate, and in some cases he has even learned to prefer them. Many of the Pacific islanders are in the habit of burying cooked breadfruit, taro, sweet potatoes, and other vegetables, and thus keeping them for months, to be eaten after passing the sour stage of fermentation. The Otomacs of South America keep their beans in a similar manner. A preparation made from the decom- posed Afiti fruit, is a favorite sauce in Dahomey. In subarctic countries, in portions of Africa and in the Solomon Islands, meat enclosed in sealskins is kept for a year underground, and when far advanced in decomposi- tion, is eaten with relish.^ By many tribes, monkeys, opossums, ducks, pigeons and other birds and quadru- SEC. 28. SALT AND CLAY. 65 peds are cooked and eaten with their entrails. A favor- ite chowder of the Phihppine Islands is made by boiling the material from a goat's stomach with fish. The green matter found in the intestines of large ruminants below the stomach is used as a sauce, and the half digested herbage from the paunch of an ox is a delicacy to a Bongo, as that from a sheep's stomach is to an Abys- sinian, and that from a reindeer's stomach to a Chook- chee or a Lapp. By the savage, as by the carnivorous quadruped, the entrails are eaten in preference to the muscular fibre, and are the first to be consumed when, in hunger, he obtains possession of a carcass. The large intestine, just below the stomach, is to him the choice part of an herbivorous animal, and after it has been once pressed out rapidly between the fingers, is eaten without washing. A small portion of the green matter improves the flavor ; and the same material with gall, is used by the Abyssinians as a sauce upon bits of the raw stomach and raw liver of the ox mixed together. Earthworms, slugs, caterpillers, larvae, dragonflies, bee- tles, moths, ants, parasitic insects from the human head and body, spiders and maggots all contribute to the sav- age bill of fare. Near Moorzuk, on the northern edge of the Sahara, a species of worm is prized as an appetizer ; at Nyassa, gnats are pressed into cakes to be used as a relish ; and in South Africa, the Waiyari eat cakes made of an insect similar in appearance to a tick. In Manyuema, swarming ants are cleansed of their wings and legs by fire and then eaten. White ants are a relish in East Africa ; and the Monbuttoos make a fat for the table from the male termites. Sec. 28. Salt and Clay. — A demand for salt, being a re- 5 66 A HISTORY O? MANtCtND. suit of a vegetable diet, is not found among the Eskimos, Gauchos and many Malay, Papuan, African and North American tribes. In portions of Africa and Malaysia, the ashes of saline plants are used directly as a substi- tute for salt or are leached out and the salt obtained by evaporation. Many Polynesian and Melanesian tribes, when eating raw fish dip them into sea water, to get the saline flavor. Clay, red ochre, pulverized soapstone and other kinds of earthy matter are eaten as part of their ordinary diet by savages in every quarter of the globe. Some tribes eat clay only when they have little or no nutritious food or when having none save meat, they need something else to distend the stomach. When going far to sea, the Dyaks take along red ochre to eat if they should catch no fish. Edible clay is sold in the markets of Java. The Otomacs mix an unctuous clay with other food ;^ in Gam- bia a clay, with a piquant odor, is eaten with rice ; and in Brazil a saline clay serves as a substitute for salt. Quids of clay are chewed by the Wanyamwuezi, and quids of clay mixed with ashes by the Somali. Sec. 29. Cannibalisjii. — Cannibalism prevails exten- sively among savages, so extensively that Andree calls it one of the characteristic diseases of the childhood of our race. There are four kinds : the starving, the mili- tary, the ecclesiastical and the gourmand. The cannibal- ism of starvation is found in the highest as well as in the lowest grade of culture. Military cannibalism is the eat- ing of a small part of his slain enemy by the successful warrior, either as an expression of hatred, as a method of appropriating the victim's courage, or as a protection against the persecution of the victim's spirit which is for- ever destroyed when his heart, his eye or his brain is SEC. 29. CANNIBALISM. 6/ eaten. In cases of great animosity, slices of flesh are cut from the body of the liv'e prisoner and consumed raw and warm before his eyes, while he is taunted and his tribe cursed by the captors. We have accounts of such tor- tures by Fijians,^ Tonkaways,'' Apaches* and Batta Ma- lays.* Ecclesiastical cannibalism requires priest or people to eat part of the human victim sacrificed to the gods, and induces the family to eat the body of their relative, whether parent or child, brother or sister, who has died naturally. The Tarianos and Tucanos of South America bury their dead friends, after several months dig them up, dry the decomposed flesh over a fire, pulverize it and mix it with their drink. The Australians near Carpenteria Bay eat the warriors of their own tribe slain in battle, but do not taste the corpses of their enemies. Gourmand cannibalism, the eating of human flesh as an article of ordinary diet when other food is abundant, prevails among the Melanesians generally, the Maoris, the Marquesans, the Botocudos, the Tupis, the Caribs, the Fans, the Niamniams, the Monbuttoos, the Mandingoes and the Bonny negroes. Its existence in prehistoric Europe is proved by the finding of human bones cracked for their marrow in the caves of France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Belgium and Germany. The threat to " eat up " an enemy common in many African, American, and Polyne- sian tribes which have not been cannibals in modern times, is doubtless an inheritance from cannibal ancestors. Human sacrifices as a part of worship is a survival of gourmand cannibalism. That meat which was most palatable and most honorable in the feasts of men must also be given to the gods ; and the wide prevalence of such sacrifices is one of the most striking proofs of 68 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. the equally wide existence of the custom out of which they grew."* The name of the Atacapa tribe in Louisiana, of the Mohawk in New York, of the Puru in South America, and of the Windigo clan of the Chippeways near Lake Superior, all mean man-eater. The Fijians carry gourmand cannibalism to its high- est development. They call human flesh "long pig;" they use special and sacred forks for lifting it ; and one chief among them had the credit of having eaten por- tions of nine hundred persons. At one Fijian feast, two hundred human victims were eaten ; at another twenty- eight captives, after being stunned, were thrown into an oven to be roasted alive. At one New Zealand festival after a great battle, more than a thousand captives were cooked and eaten. The Tupis and some Congoese fatten prisoners before killing them ; the Tupinamboos breed them for the shambles, and eat the children of male slaves by free women of their own tribe or village. Human fat and flesh are offered for sale in the Niamniam villages, and human flesh is dried for future use by the Caribs, Monbuttoos and some Melanesians. All savage tribes, accustomed to cannibalism, consider human flesh a delicacy. The highest chiefs and most active warriors eat most of it ; the very old men and boys get a little ; the women none. In Equatorial Africa, as in New Caledonia, the palms of the hands are considered the most delicious morsels, and in the latter country are reserved for the priests who, there as elsewhere, demand and often obtain the best. The thigh of the man and the breast of the woman are preferred in New Britain f the arm above the elbow and the thigh, in Fiji.' In New Ireland men are baked in covered pits for three days, and then to use a native expression, become as " tender as SEC. 29. CANNIBALISM. 69 grease." The brains are mixed with sago and cocoa-nut for the feast.^ A peculiar cannibal custom exists in parts of western Australia where the bunyabunya grows. About once in three years the trees bear an abundant crop of fruit, much more than the tribes occupying those districts can con- sume. They allow friendly tribes in the vicinity to share their fruit harvest, subject to the condition that every outside tribe while staying in their domain shall kill one of their own number, as proof that they are not destroy- ing any of the quadrupeds, birds or insects of the district, and thus diminishing the local stock of animal food, which is not offered to the strangers, as there is not more than enough for home consumption.' The tribes noted for cannibalism, generally bury their dead relatives with respectful ceremony, and depend for their supply of human flesh exclusively upon enemies, slaves or strangers. In some regions, however, any per- son not belonging to the same clan or village may be eaten. Thus the Fans and Wabembe sell the corpses of their friends who die a natural death to the people of the next village, where they may be eaten without offense. The Fans, Vateans, Fannese and Fijians, not content with eating fresh corpses of those who die a natural death, occasionally feast on bodies after they had been buried for several days. Cannibalism when practiced extensively is an indica- tion of superior activity and courage, and is most com- mon in tribes which are far from the lowest phases of savagism. The Bushmen, Andamanese, Australians gen- erally and aborigines of Lower California are not noted for fondness for human flesh, though some of them taste it occasionally. Among the islanders of the Pacific, 70 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. the Fijians and Maoris are distinguished as cannibals and warriors ; so are the Fans, Niamniams and Monbuttoos in Africa. It would be impossible for poor fighters to obtain large supplies of human flesh. Habitual success in war implies energy in industrial occupations and com- pactness in political organization, and these are to be found among the most noted cannibal tribes as compared with their neighbors generally. Sec. 30. Cooking. — Man is a cooking animal. Every tribe known to modern observers prepares some of its food with fire. Broiling, the simplest method of cooking processes, is rarely practiced in many countries and is impossible in the snow hut of the Eskimos, where the only artificial heat is that of a small, smoky lamp, which could not be used for any method of cooking save boil- ing. Tradition says that Mohammed prohibited the singeing of meat by fire, and perhaps for this reason, many Arabs and some negro tribes under Arab influence never broil or fry meat or bake it before an open fire. Roasting in hot ashes or under coals, was perhaps the second cooking process in the order of its discovery. Before roasting their fish, the western Australians wrap it in aromatic bark which gives it a delicate flavor.^ The Polynesians bake pigs, dogs, men, taro and other food in pits which on rare occasions may be eight feet deep and fifteen feet in diameter. Red-hot stones at bottom, sides and top supply the heat; which is retained by a cov- ering of earth, and the baking may continue from two hours to three days.' The Patagonians cook the Ameri- can ostrich in the open air by putting hot stones in the cavity of the body after the entrails have been taken out.^ The Danakils of Africa cover a hen, feathers entrails and all, with wet clay, and put the lump in the fire to cook.* SEC. 30. COOKING. 71 Among the Aleuts meat to be cooked is put between two concave and platter-like stones, the joint being covered with wet clay, before the vessel is put in the fire.* Water is raised to the boiling point for cooking pur- poses with hot stones in cocoa-nut shells by the Kings- mill Islanders;® in gourd shells by the Georgia Indians; in birch bark pots by some Missouri tribes ;^ in wooden troughs by the Kamtschatkans, Columbia River and Van- couver Island tribes ; in watertight baskets by the Hai- dahs, Yukons, Ostiaks and Californians ; in skins with the hair side down resting in earth holes, by various North American tribes, including the Assiniboins, whose tribal name means skin-boiler, and in earth holes lined with clay by the Australians of the lower Murray valley.^ The Malays sometimes boil their food in a joint of bam- boo, resting with its closed end on the ground, and lean- ing over the fire so that it does not burn through. All the methods of preserving food known to civilized men are represented by similar processes among savages. The latter do not can provisions, but they cover them with mud, coat them with tallow or bury them in the earth. They smoke, salt, and freeze. They dry fruits in the sun and meat in the sun or over fire. They boil, dry and pulverize green corn, or they bake it in pits un- til it loses its moisture while preserving its flavor. The sap of the cocoa tree is boiled into a syrup by the Gilbert Islanders and by some Africans. Fish are dried, beaten into a powder and packed away in sacks by Columbia River Indians, Kamtschatkans and various tribes of Africa and South America. It is said that in the valley of the Zambesi, fish is preserved for years without loss of its wholesome and nutritious qualities, by covering it with the poisonous juice of the mandioca.^ 72 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. After drying the meat of the buffalo, the Redmen pack it in a bag of hide, which they fill with melted tallow. This pemmican keeps more than a year.'" In California grasshoppers and in parts of Africa grasshoppers and winged ants are singed, cleansed of wings and legs and mashed into cakes. Locusts are treated in a similar manner by Kaffirs. The Redmen east of the Mississippi dry plums, persim- mons, pumpkins, green corn, deer meat, muscles, oysters and eels. They boil the sap of the maple tree into a syrup, into a wax-like candy, and into crystallized sugar. Near Lake Superior, the pulp of wild plums is boiled with maple syrup until it will harden when cold, and is then called maple-plum-leather.^' Plum leather is made by boiling the plum pulp without syrup. In the same region, wild cherries are boiled down to a cherry-butter which is buried in the earth for winter use.'" Green maize is boiled, dried and pulverized by the Redmen east of the Mississippi. The Chippeways dry whortleberries and wild roots over a fire.'^ The Californians soak their acorns in two waters to take out their bitterness and then dry them.'* Sweet potatoes are dried by the Maoris, and ombova leaves by the Damaras. Many fruits and tubers which are poisonous in their natural condition are converted by savage art into whole- some food. The cassava root abounds in a strong poison, which comes out when the fibre has been rasped, and freed from its juice by pressing and boiling in two waters. Of all the tropical tubers it is the most extensively used for food. The discovery of the method of fitting it for the table, and the invention of the processes of rasping and pressing it, do much credit to the ingenuity of the South American Indians.'" Among the other poisonous SEC. 32. GRINDING. 73 or acrid vegetables made nutritious by savage processes of cooking or soaking, are an African yam, the Tangare bean of South Africa,'" the karaka berry of New Zealand," the arisarum vulgare root of Morocco,'^ a tuber of Virginia and another of Utah, the leaves of the taro ;'' the root of the ti,^° the soap root and the horse chestnut of California, and the cycas fruits of New Guinea."'^ Sec. 31. Meals. — In most savage tribes, it is the cus- tom to have two formal meals in the day, the breakfast in the middle of the forenoon, and the dinner about sunset, but some tribes have only the latter, eating at other times as hunger and the food supply may suggest. Having no chairs, tables, tablecloths or plates, their manners at meals are unceremonious. The men eat by themselves ; the women and children afterwards. If there is a cooking pot, it is usually left on the fire or near it, and around it the eaters squat or sit down. With unwashed hands they reach in, drag out the meat, and throw it back after cutting off a portion or tearing it off with their teeth. The pot and the cook are seldom washed. Forks are used with human flesh in Fiji, and spoons with porridge and soup by the Redmen, but are unknown to savages generally. Poi or taro porridge, a favorite dish in Polynesia, is taken from the bowl by a quick turn of the figures and then held over the open mouth which catches the drip. According to its thick- ness and the method used in getting a mouthful, the dish is called two-finger or three-finger poi. Sec. 32. Grinding. — Seeds and nuts are crushed or ground for bread or porridge in mortars or on flat stones. The mortars are hollowed out in loose stones, in the bed- rock where it appears on the surface of the earth, or in the stumps of trees. The movable stone mortar has its 74 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. place by the domestic fire, and like the latter is under the charge of the woman, and adds to her social influence/ Numerous half oval stones, shaped by hand by prehis- toric savages, were presumably used for crushing seeds. '^ In the Soudan, a woman grinds in one day as much grain as a man can eat in six days.^ Sec. 33. Water and Milk. — Although many tribes are in the habit of preparing fermented liquors, still the common beverage, at or rather after meals, for while eating they rarely drink, is water, which they get at some adjacent stream, lifting it to the mouth in the hollow of the hand, bringing the face down to its level, or wad- ing in and flinging it into the mouth by a rapid motion of the fingers. The process last mentioned is common in New Caledonia and Kaffirland.^ In some arid regions, savages show much ingenuity in finding and storing water. The Bushmen have learned that they can suck up water through a reed from sand several feet below the surface, where there is so little moisture that if a well were dug no water would collect in the hole. If water is wanted for future use, a woman fills her mouth, the contents of which are then allowed to trickle down a straw into a small hole in the empty shell of an ostrich Qgg. Such shells are buried at marked spots on a long journey in a desert, for use on the return.^ Roots abounding with moisture are found by the Kaffirs with the help of thirsty tame apes, which, led about by a string, hunt for the scent of the water-root until they find it, and then begin to dig, whereupon the master unearths the prize and rewards the finder v/ith a portion.* Africa also has a water tree, which preserves the precious fluid in its cavities and yields it up to the experienced traveler. Among the Eskimos one of the occupations of the SEC. 34. BEER, ETC. - 75 women is the melting of snow over a lamp, to furnish water for drinking and cooking. Washing is a rarity, and when that operation is applied to the face another liquid is used. Modern savages have no milk-yielding animals save those obtained from men in higher conditions of culture. The cows and goats of the Africans are not indigenous in their continent, or certainly not in the equatorial or southern portions of it, and were presumably obtained from Western Asia. The wealth of the Kaffirs and of many other African tribes is mosth' in their cows, and for them cow's milk is the staff of life, as camel's milk is for some Arabs ; mare's milk for some Central Asiatics ; and buffalo's milk for some tribes in Hindostan. All the milk-drinking Afri- can tribes milk into wooden buckets or water-tight bas- kets, which are never washed, and from which in a few minutes a sour fermentation is communicated to the liquid. When away from his milk buckets, the Afri- can may suck the sweet milk from the cow, but he pre- fers it sour.* The Kalmucks do not drink their mare's milk until it has turned sour. Sec. 34. Beer, etc. — In lands where the cocoa-nut grows, its juice is a favorite drink, equally palatable and nutritious. The fresh saps of the maple, birch, palm, and American aloe are used as beverages, but are too insipid to reach high favor, and are more prized for fermentation or for conversion into syrups by boiling. The Soudanese have a nutritious and acidulous drink called abrey, made by mixing doora (which has been ground, made into dough, allowed to turn sour and dried) with water.' In the valley of the Amazon, the nut of the guarana tree is made into paste, dried, grated, and mixed with water y^ A HISTORY OF MANKIND. to make a common and much prized drink. The paste sometimes sells to civilized visitors for sixteen dollars a pound/ The Australians drink an infusion of the blos- soms of a species of eucalyptus. Whether savages origi- nated the use of any hot decoction as a beverage is doubt- ful. No hot drink was in use among the savage tribes of Africa, America, or Polynesia when they first became known in modern times to European travelers. The natives of the arctic and subarctic climes drink the oil of fish and marine mammals, either fresh or ran- cid ; and some tropical savages drink butter which after being well boiled and skimmed, is a liquid at a warm temperature and remains sweet for a long time. Fermented drinks are unknown to the Australians, Fuegians, Patagonians, Eskimos, and most Redmen in their aboriginal condition, but are extensively used among most other savages. Beers, if that name may properly be given to such beverages, are made from the saps of the cocoa palm, date palm, sugar cane, and Amer- ican aloe, from the milk of the cocoa-nut, from the juices of various berries and fruits, from infusions of honey, from various tubers and grains.^ Some African and South American savages make their beer from grain which, after sprouting, has been killed by heat, a process per- haps learned from civilized men. In Africa and South America maize and cassava cakes, and in Polynesia and the West Indies sweet potatoes are chewed and spit out into vessels in which the masticated material with some water is allowed to ferment. The beer thus made is con- sidered much superior to that prepared from the same material without saliva. The favorite and only stimulating drink of many Poly- nesian and other Pacific islands is made from the ava <■ oe:C. 35. NARCOTICS. 77 root, by spittiiiLj the masticated material into bowls (the weight being doubled by the saliva)* adding water and straining. The liquid without fermentation is then immediately ready for drinking. The flavor is compared by one European to soapsuds with a touch of essence of ginger ;^ by another to a mixture of rhubarb and mag- nesia." In small quantities the effect is exhilarating ; in large quantities, intoxicating. When much used for a long time it causes a skin disease suggestive of leprosy. It is a sacred beverage prohibited to women and slaves, prominent in religious festivals, and never prepared except with solemn ceremonies, including an invocation and libation to the gods. Sec. 35. Narcotics. — Tobacco, now the leading nar- cotic of the world, was known in the time of Columbus from Patagonia to Hudson's Bay. The aboriginal Ameri- cans smoked it in pipes and cigars, chewed it, and snuffed its dry powder or its infusion into the nostrils. The use last named has been adopted as an original dis- cover}- in Ujiji, Africa.^ The dried leaves and bark of many other plants were smoked by certain tribes of Northwestern America which did not possess tobacco.^ The favorite narcotic of the Malays and of various other races inhabiting the islands or mainland near the Malay archipelago is the betel nut, the name given to the quid prepared by sprinkling powdered lime on the pared nut of the areca palm, and wrapping it in the leaf of the betel pepper. Tennent, who studied its effects in Ceylon, thinks that " no medical prescription could be more judiciously compounded than this combination of the antacid, the tonic and the carminative " to supply the nitrogen lacking in the ordinary food of many rice- eating Asiatics.^ Lime is an important part of the betel- 7^ A HISTORY OF MANKIND. nut quid, as it is also of the coca-leaf quid of Peru, of the gambier-leaf quid of Mandaheling/ of the tobacco quid of South Africa/ of narcotic-leaf quids of the Thlinkeets,® some Californians, and some South Ameri- cans/ and of a narcotic snuff of the Otomacs.* For chewing, tobacco is mixed with soda by the Wadai, and with ashes by the Somali. In Central Africa, the bitter and astringent kola-nut is chewed for its stimulant influences. Among the Fulahs it is offered to male guests, as is a cigar in Europe.^ In the basin of the Amazon, parica snuff, prepared from the ashes of three plants gives a brief but convulsive intoxication.'" Among the Hottentots, delirium and un- consciousness are produced by chewing the kanna root. Besides their fungus, the Kamtschatkans use the leaves of a willow-like bush to produce intoxication ;" and the Olooches eat a kind of hemlock for the same purpose.'^ In South America, the stimulant effects of the cocoa leaf are obtained by chewing it or by drinking its hot decoction ; and in Abyssinia and Arabia the leaf of the kaat {Cclastnis cdnlis) is used in the same methods for the same purpose.'^ The Chaymas chew a leaf which first exhilarates and then stupefies,'* and the Australians are similarly affected by eating pitcherie leaves.'^ Opium, the strongest of the narcotics, is eaten or smoked by relatively few savages and those mostly in the Malay archipelago. The opium poppy was culti- vated (probably for its seeds which are not narcotic) by the prehistoric lake-dwelling savages of Switzerland. Next to opium in strength, and to tobacco in extent of consumption, is hasheesh or bhang, which has spread from Hindostan over many islands near Asia, and over much of Africa. In a remote antiquity the Hindoos SEC. 36. HUNTING. JT^ chewed its leaves ; and the Scythians intoxicated them- selves with its fumes in their religious ceremonies. Another strong narcotic, a Kamtschatkan fungus, causes convulsions, and is used in a disgusting natural distilla- tion.^® A similar distillation with delirious influences is familiar to the Cape Flattery Indians." The Angolese also have a narcotic fungus.'* Sec. 36. Hiintijig. — Many savage tribes are skillful hunters. Dependent on the chase for much of their food, they have carefully observed the habits of wild animals, and have mastered the arts of taking them by nooses for the neck or foot, catching in pitfalls, luring by decoys and imitation calls, surrounding, driving into pens, nets, or narrow ravines, or over precipices, and killing by poison, by fire, by set spears, by falling lances, and by spring bows. All the traps and weapons made without metals are known to them. They attack and kill the lion, the tiger, the elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the buffalo, the grizzly bear, the white bear and the crocodile without fire-arms. The largest beasts are slain by setting fire to the dry brush or high grass in which they are sometimes found ; or by letting a heavy lance fall from a trap. For the white bear, a strong piece of whalebone with sharp ends is bent double, and tied together, wrapped with strips of meat or blubber, and exposed to freezing cold. The meat when frozen being .strong enough to hold the whalebone in its bent shape, the string is cut, then the bait is set for the bear, and soon after he swallows it, the meat loosens and the whale- bone straightens, cuts through the stomach and kills the game. The elk, the deer, the moose, the African and Ameri- can buffalo, and many other quadrupeds, and the ostrich, Bo A HISTORY OF MANKIND. allow hunters disguised in the skins of their respective kinds to come near enough for fatal shots. Many tricks are used to attract game into places where it can be killed. When a buffalo calf is attacked by a wolf it utters a distressful bawl which calls to its aid all the herd within hearing. The Indians take advantage of this habit. One Redman dressed as a buffalo calf, attacked by another dressed as a wolf, bawls and draws a herd into an ambush or pen.^ The savage hunter, knowing the curiosity of the antelope, lies on his back in sight of his game and waves a stick with a colored rag at the end until one of the herd comes near enough to be shot.'' The Aleut lies among rocks, showing only his head covered with a seal-head mask and, by the call of the female seal, attracts the male within killing distance.* Converging fences of brush or net several miles long* are built leading to narrow ravines, pits, precipices or inclosures, and a whole tribe with hundreds of men assemble on an appointed day to drive the game to the fatal place. The Shoshone Indians have no material for high fences, and they undertake drives only when a soft, deep snow or deep mud, makes the antelope averse to high jumps. The game in the inclosure is chased until tired out and then killed with clubs.* The Derr negro gets fresh meat by catching a poison- ous serpent, punching its tail, passing a cord through the hole and tying the serpent in a trail frequented by ante- lopes on their way to water.® Sec. 37. Birds. — On the coast of Northwestern Amer- ica, a net is stretched across a narrow opening in a forest, on a route of ducks and geese, flying from one body of water to another. The fowl scared in the twilight, fly against the net, which is hidden from them by the smoke SEC. 38. FISHING, ETC. Si from a .smouldering fire. When they fall to the ground, they are immediately captured b\' the watchful savages.^ Similar nets are used in Polynesia.' In California, a net thrown across a stream is supported by high poles, to one of which it is fastened, while the other end is al- lowed to slide down till the net lies in the water. When game worthy of the trouble comes, a quick pull on the loose rope raises the net, and the bird striking it, falls into the water and is there caught by the hunter.' The Tungoos sets a net in shallow water over fish roe, and the duck diving for his food, is caught in the mesh. At a place frequented by birds, the Eskimo builds a snow hut with a small opening through which he can thrust out his hand to catch and pull in his game.* The Aus- tralian lies as if dead with a fish in his hand, and thus catches the hungry bird.* At Lake Winnipeg, it was observed that ducks approached a shore on which a dog ran backward and forward ; so dogs are trained to make such movements, Avhile the master is hidden near enough to shoot his birds.® The Tongan ties a male bird near a light cage containing a hen, in a place where they will be seen and heard by wild birds of the same species, and where from a concealed position he can shoot the game attracted by the calls and movements of the captives.' The Lower Californian catches a pelican, ties it fast to the beach, and then issues from concealment when com- passionate pelicans bring pouch loads offish to the strug- gling captive. ** The Hawaiians and Veddahs catch small birds with birdlime.® Sec. 38. Fishing, etc. — In spearing large fish and aquatic mammals, the sav^age observed that if the point of the weapon were firmly fastened to the shaft, the weapon would often be thrown out of the wound or broken ; and he de- 6 82 A HISTORY OF MANKIND, vised a loose point attached to the shaft by a cord iii such a manner that so soon as the pull is felt, the point turns crosswise in the flesh. ^ The game is not only held more securely but the shaft becomes a buoy to exhaust the strength of the game and to indicate its place. Seal ar- rows are attached to the point by two strings, one run- ning to each end, so that the swimming animal has the heavy drag of the arrow crosswise in the water. Blad- ders full of air are attached as floats to the harpoons used in killing whales, seals and other aquatic animals. Fish can be seen at a depth of forty feet in clear water through holes cut in ice, and at that depth sturgeon are speared in Lake Superior. The game is attracted by the bait of imitation fish to the best place." Spears seventy feet long are used on Puget Sound to strike fish felt and not seen.^ The Haidahs have a lath fifteen feet long with barbed nails for striking the water in a shoal of oolakans, and catch a dozen at a blow.* The Andamanese shoot fish with loose-point arrows. Many tribes spear fish at night from a boat carrying a torch. In Georgia, after the fish approach the light, the river is beaten with a bush, and many of the frightened fish jump out of the water, to fall into the boat. The turtle of the Amazon is killed by an arrow which having been shot up into the air, falls vertically on the animal's back and thus can pierce his hard shell.* In some of the Australian waters, a sucking fish, fond of attaching himself to the turtle, is tied to a long cord and allowed to swim off to a turtle, which is then drawn to the fisher- man's canoe and dispatched." Savages have dip nets and seines, some of the latter several hundred yards long. In casting his seine, the Kanembo of Lake Chad sits on a pole attached at each end to a gourd buoy. SEC. 38. FISHING, ETC. S3 This allows him to sink to his waist in the water, leaving his arms out, so that he can use them freely." The seine knot of the Maoris is the same as that of the modern Europeans.* In Georgia and portions of South America an Indian dives with a net, and comes to the surface with a fish in it.' In Australia and California, the native di\-es with a spear and brings up a fish on its point.'* The Patagonian, Carib, Brazilian, Maori and Andaman- ese dive and catch the finny game in their hands. Savage fish traps are of many kinds. One of the most curious is found in New Britain. Made of rattan, conical in shape, and a little heavier than water, it has at the sharp end a string and a wooden float. A stone a little heavier than the float is laid on the string, and when a fish is caught its movement throws off" the stone, and the float announces the capture.'^ The hook is so simple in construction and so effective in catching fish, that it is known to most savage tribes, but not to the Tasmanians, the Lower Californians and the Chippeways.^^ The savage hook made of bone, shell, wood or stone is necessarily clumsier than the metallic hook. The barb is sometimes lacking and sometimes is attached to the shaft, not to the point. In several Pacific Islands the native hook is considered superior to any other for catching fish.'^ In South America artificial flies, and in many Pacific Islands, imitation fish of lus- trous shell, are used for bait. Catching the shark with a noose is a favorite amuse- ment in many parts of Polynesia and Micronesia. When gorged with food, he likes to sleep or doze in a coral cave, where he may frequently be seen from a canoe. If out searching for something to eat, the savages throw packages of food, consisting of a mixture of fish and 84 A itiStORY OF MANKHSfO. vegetables, sometimes with an addition of the narcotic ava, which stupefies brute as well as man. When gorged and perhaps partially intoxicated, the shark lies on the sand or goes into a cave ten or twenty feet below the surface. A diver slips a noose over the projecting tail of the game, and if the head instead of the tail be at the mouth of the cave, the diver taps him on the nose with a stick, whereupon the drowsy monster, to escape from the annoyance, turns round and presents his tail to his enemy.'* When the noose has been fixed, the diver rises, gets into a canoe, and then several canoes drag the game to the shore where it is killed. The o-orsfingf is sometimes done at night, and then the game is not dragged ashore until daylight, as the few intervening hours tend to render the shark more helpless. If the shark be large, the death scene on the beach is an occa- sion of great enjoyment for all the people in the vicinity. The Gilbert Islanders catch the gorged shark with a tail noose, and also take the hungry shark with a head noose. In the latter case a baited hook attached to a small line drags behind a boat, and when it has attracted the attention of the game it is pulled forward until it passes through a noose of strong cord. The greedy shark follows, without observing the noose, which is suddenly tightened when his head has passed through. His career then soon comes to an end.'" The aborigines of New Britain rub cups of cocoa-nut shell together in imitation of the sound of the bonito fish, and when the shark is attracted by the noise, the fishermen slip a noose ov^er his head and drag him up within reach of their clubs. "^ The same fishermen sneak up to the large turtle in the sea and catch him by throwing a lasso over his head and one fin." SEC. 40. VILLAGES. 85 Captive turtles are kept in lagoons for meat and eggs by the Cubans, Fijians, and Amazon valley tribes.^^ Crocodile eggs are gathered, and allowed to hatch on the shore of a pond, in which the young reptiles stay until their masters, the Congoese negroes, see fit to eat them.'' Fish taken with the hook are carried to ponds where they can be caught easily whenever needed,'" in Hawaii and Georgia. The female herring likes to deposit her roe in shallow water on fir boughs, and on the coast of Northwestern America, the Indians put such boughs in the water, and from them get large quantities of the herring roe.'^ In every quarter of the globe fish are stupefied by throwing vegetable narcotics or poisons into the water and are then easily caught." Sec. 39. Bees. — For the purpose of finding the tree in which bees have their stores, the North American In- dian puts honey on a small flat stone with white gum on the edge, to which the bee goes to get a start for his flight. Some of the gum sticks to him, distinguishes him from other bees, and shows his course direct to the hive. At the same time another Indian has done the same thing several hundred yards away. The two courses show the situation of the tree. The Australian bee hunter stuns a bee by squirting water on it, catches it, touches it with gum and white down, and follows it thus burdened to its home.' Sec. 40. Villages. — The non-tilling savages generally have no permanent villages. Without a stock of food for the next week, or in some instances even for the next day, they move about frequently in search of something to eat. In portions of Australia, Tasmania, and Lower California, there is not more than one inhabitant for sixty 86 A HISTORY OF MANKTVO. square miles and a tribe or group of thirty persons oc- cupy a district sixty miles long and thirty wide. Every year they make a circuit of their district, exhausting birds, quadrupeds, reptiles, vermin, insects, roots, fruits, seeds, and nuts in their round as they go, stopping a week or a day at a place. In other countries the natives might go to the rivers in the spring for fish ; to the val- leys in the summer for grass seeds ; to the swamps in the early autumn for roots and aquatic birds ; and to the hills in the late autumn for nuts, nut-eating birds and quadrupeds. Tribes which live on large game are in many cases nomadic because the animals on which they depend migrate or have different haunts at different sea- sons. The Dakotas, Crows and Blackfeet have station- ary villages in the winter, but move half a dozen times in the remainder of the year, so as to be near the buffalo. At three hours' notice, their village can be on the road.^ The only Indians with permanent villages in the basin of the Missouri river are the Mandans, and they are also the only tribe in that basin with tillage and with fortifica- tions. Many of the littoral tribes of Australia and Lower California, depending mostly or wholly on shell-fish for food, move as often as once in three months. A village of non-tilling savages rarely has more than fifty inhabitants ; one of tilling savages has usually at least three times as many, sometimes far more. Some of the Iroquois villages had each several thousand peo- ple. Hochelaga in Canada was laid out systematically with a well-constructed palisade wall." The Maoris and many Africans have carefully-built fortifications. The Pelew Islanders, when first found by white men, had paved streets.* SEC. 41. HUTS, ETC. 87 Sec. 41. Huts, etc. — The Tasmanians/ Andamanese,'' Bushmen, Lower Cahfornians, Hill Veddahs, Fuegians, and some Piutes,' Australians and Papuans never erect huts or tents, and have no better protection against wind and rain than mere shelters open on at least one side. The Bushman digs a hole at the side of a bush, or sets up a small mat, supported by sticks. The Australian makes a little shed with bark or bushes. The Fuegian shelter is a little better, but partly open. The Alforese of the interior of Ceram often spends his night in a tree- top, where he makes a little roof to keep him dry when it rains.* The low savage in the interior of Sumatra, Borneo, and Luzon sleeps in the top or hollow trunk of a tree. A structure too rude to be called a house, and too good to be styled a shelter, is the dwelling of most sav- ages. Its covering is usually thatch or bark ; its floor is always the ground. There is a hole in the roof but no chimney ; and no window. The doorways in Central and Southern Africa are not more than two feet high, and to enter them the man must go down on his hands and knees. A Kaffir hut thatched with coarse grass on a frame of light poles, can be built by three persons in two hours ; and such a structure can be given to the flames at the end of three months for the sake of getting rid of its insect occupants. In extensive regions of Africa, every tribe has a pecul- iar hut pattern which may be recognized from a distance, so that a glance at a village informs the traveler whether he has crossed a tribal boundary. The shapes most common are those of hemispheres, half ovals, cones, and acorns. Each wife has a hut for herself and her children ; the husband has none for himself; except at night and at 88 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. meals, he expects to find shelter in the assembly hut of the village.'' The Polynesian hut has a bamboo frame, a thatch of pandanus leav-es, and open sides which can be closed with mats in chilly weather. In those North American regions where the birch tree is abundant, its bark fur- nishes a convenient covering for huts.^ The Pimas and some Australians make winter huts by covering their thatch or wattle with a thick coat of clay. The Mandan has a hut forty or even sixty feet in diameter, with a thick clay roof supported by heavy poles.' Some Sibe- rians have similar huts but smaller. The Central Califor- nian has a pit-hut fifteen or twenty feet in diameter for his winter home.^ Stanley found pit-huts in Africa ;' and the Britons/® while tilling savages, and the barbarous ancient Teutons^' had such dwellings, and the Lapps have them now. Some Shoshone Indians go into burrows in the winter.^'" The winter huts of the Eskimos are made of cakes of hard snow shaped with the knife, and laid up in the form of a low dome or section of a sphere. At the joints loose snow is pressed in and water poured on slowly in freezing weather until ice fills the space that was open. When the dome has received its shape, a piece is cut out to allow the insertion of a slab of clear ice ::s a window. The entrance is through a long, low passage which excludes the intensely cold outer air. The tem- perature of the interior m.ust never exceed thirty-two degrees ; so soon as it does the structure begins to melt. The only artificial heat used is that of a lamp. Tents made of skin or felt, supported on poles are used extensively by savages. In North America the tent skins are obtained from buffalo, elk, moose and deer ; in I; SEC. 41. HUTS, ETC. 89 Patagonia from the horse ; in Eskimo regions from the seal, sea lion and walrus; in Siberia and Lapland from the reindeer. Felt made of hair is used for tents in Central Asia, the Sahara and some wooded districts of Africa. The covering is sometimes double or triple for protection against intense cold.'^ The Kirghiz have matting under their felt." Dwellings supported over the water on piles exist now Ij in Malaysia, Melanesia, Central Africa, the Aino district of Japan and the Kuki district of Hindostan. They were found in Venezuela and Vancouver Island by early European navigators. As early as 5,000 b. c, there were two hundred pile villages, occupied by tilling savages, in the Swiss lakes ; and Herodotus mentions such villages as existing in his time in Southeastern Europe and in Western Asia. In the valley of the Niger, the floor of the hut should be three feet above the ground to give protection against snakes, ants and moisture. On the southern shore of the Caspian and in portions of Africa and Melanesia, a height of at least ten feet is necessary to keep the sleeper above the range of certain troublesome insects. In Kim- reland, the huts have floors twelve feet above the ground with space on them for goats, dogs and chickens. The Caribs have huts in trees forty feet up to escape the floods of the Orinoco; an 1 the Murray Islanders have their homes fifty feet above the earth. Houses each large enough t > hold from five to twenty families, were common among most of the American tribes cast of the Mississippi, and arc found now among the Dyaks of Malaysia.'' In certain tribes of Africa, North America, Polynesia and Malaysia, custom requires ever)' village to have a go A HISTORY OF MANKIND. large building for political, religious, social or hygienic purposes. Among the Mandans, this structure is exclu- sively ecclesiastical ; among the Pueblos, it is ecclesias- tical, social and hygienic, being used as a sweat or bath house at times ; among the Mundrucus, it is the place where the warriors usually sleep ; and among the Malays it is the repository for the scalp, jawbones, dried heads or other trophies of the village. In many tribes, it is used for entertaining friendly strangers. A hut built for the use of unmarried women and their lovers is one of the institutions of many African villages. Sec. 42. Furniture, etc. — In ordinary savage life, the household furniture is scanty. The Australian, Tasma- nian, Bushman and Californian sleep on the bare ground, with little or no covering in the coolest weather. Tribes a little higher in their culture have mats, bark, cloth and furs. The hammock, invented by South Americans as a protection against insects and moisture, is simple and serviceable, and it has the distinction of being the only piece of furniture adopted by civilization from sav- agism in modern times. The Polynesians, Malays and some Africans have a little wooden trestle for supporting the head or neck while sleeping. The savage woman, in the migratory tribes, has a basket or bag for carrying tools, ornaments and food, and a flat stone or a mortar for crushing seeds. In the higher grades of savage culture, she has several earthen pots for cooking. She keeps oil in a skin, gourd, jar or hollow sea weed. In the Haoussa country jars for fat and honey are made by covering a lump of moist clay with rawhide, and sewing the seams tightly ; ^ and in Kafifirland bottles for similar purposes are made by plastering a mixture of rawhide scrapings and blood SEC. 42. FURNITURE, ETC. QI with a little clay over a clay mould.' Drinking cups of eourds. cocoa-nut shells and marine shells are found in a few tribes. Spoons of buffalo horn or wood are used with soups and stews by many North American tribes. Boxes or baskets to protect grain from insects, mice and monkeys are made of a bitter bark by the Badema negroes ; and grain sacks are made by other tribes from the bark of a tree. A trunk six inches thick is cut to a length of fourteen feet, the bark is beaten for a distance of eleven feet from the larger end, so as to loosen, and stretch it sidewise; it is then stripped back, and the eleven feet of bare pole cut off, leaving a sack about six feet long, and a foot and a half in diameter, on a pedestal three feet high.* A considerable part of the furniture of the Bushman consists of the mats behind which or under which he sleeps, and of the ostrich egg shells in which he keeps water. The non-tilling tribes generally have no cooking utensils. Some savages of South America knew the peculiar properties of caoutchouc, and made it into rings and bottles ;* and tool handles of gutta-percha were in •use among Malays before it was known to civilized men. Savages generally have no artificial light save that from a fire. The pine knot is however used for a torch in hunt- ing and fishing at night by the Redmen. The Malay torch for similar purposes is made with a lump of pitch or combustible gum in the end of a piece of bamboo. Oleaginous nuts on a wooden skewer serve as a substi- tute for a candle in Polynesia,* and with a piece of dry bark through it as a wick, the oolakan or candlefish gives light at night to the Haidahs. A hollow stone, a wick of moss, and oil, obtained by chewing blubber, make up the Eskimo's lamp. 92 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. Sec. 43. Baskets and Alats. — Except in regions where the materials are lacking, no tribe is without baskets and mats. The aborigines of Central California are among the lowest of savages, and yet they make beautiful water- tight baskets in which they can boil porridge, throwing in red-hot stones for heat. The New Zealanders possess superior skill in making mats, for which an excellent material is furnished by their indigenous fla.x, and for which they have much need on account of the coolness of their climate, their ignorance of weaving, their lack of a tree from which they could make bark cloth, and the scarcity of large skins. Their only quadruped larger than a rat is the dog, and they have few dogs. They make mats for clothing, bedding, hut walls, hut par- titions, sails and platters. Of their clothing mats some are waterproof, others are vety light and a third kind thick and fur like. When the season for mat plaiting comes, the Maoris like to collect in parties, and while en- gaged in their work, listen to some bard who recites the legends and poems of their race. It is perhaps largely to these mat-]3laiting parties, that they owe the wealth of their legendary lore. The tropical Polynesians hav- ing an abundance of bark suitable for cloth and no wild flax and, needing no warm dress, made mats for bedding but not for clothing. In America and Africa, where large quadrupeds furnish skins for leather, there is rela- tively little need for mats and few are made. The Chippeway Indians, however, make handsome mats of reeds growing in the waters of Lake Superior. These reeds are cut at a certain season of the year, and are boiled for three-quarters of an hour to make them tough, then bleached, and dyed, and are plaited only in rainy weather or in the morning while the air is damp.* SEC. 44. DOGS. 93 Sec. 44. Dogs. — Many species of mammals and birds are caught so easily; they attach themselves to man so readily; and he takes such pleasure in their companion- ship, that he must have begun, in a very early condition of his culture, to make pets of them. Such pets are found in most savage tribes. B}' the aboriginal North Americans the buffalo, the moose, the bear, the wolf,^ the deer, the eagle, the crane, the crow ;" the squirrel and the raccoon were tamed occasionally ; by the negro tribes, the lion, the panther, the wild cat, the jackal, the ante- lope, the ostrich and the monkey f by the South Ameri- cans, the tapir, the peccary, the agouti, the monkey, the opossum,* the parrot, the woodhen and the tortoise; the seal, and the kite by some Australians;*' and the casso- wary in part of Melanesia.' But in all these cases the object was to get a pet and nothing more. Such tame animals were kept without companions of their own spe- cies, and w^ere not used to breed a stock of descendants, inheriting the habits and tastes of domesticity. After the petting of individual brutes, the next step in the domestication of animals was the breeding of the dog, which on account of his keen scent and hearing, his vigilance, swiftness, intelligence, courage, and fidelity is valuable as a sentinel, as an aid in hunting and as a playmate for children. He requires less attention and labor in guarding and feeding than any other brute ; he is more serviceable in the chase, and he is more prompt and efficient in defending man against other animals. In many countries, he not only supplies himself with food but brings some to his master. He learns to catch fish in the water ; he scares fish into the net of the Fue- gian ; he serves as a beast of burden dragging the tent poles of the Missouri Indian, and as a beast of draught 94 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. when hitched to the sled of the Eskimo, traveling fifty miles or more in a day. The dog is the most widespread of the domestic ani- mals ; he is found among the savages in every climate, in every continent, and on every large island. Where he is missing, man has no brute companion. The Anda- manese, Tasmanians,* some Micronesians, Aleuts,' Bush- men and Californian tribes have no tame dogs. Among the tribes which have the dog and no other domestic animal are the New Zealanders," the Niamniams, some Micronesians, and the savages generally of North and South America ; and all these occasionally eat dog meat. Sec. 45. Pigs, etc. — The pig was presumably the sec- ond animal in point of time to be domesticated by man, and was certainly the second in the breadth of area over which he was bred by savages. In most of the Pacific islands, he was the only tame quadruped besides the dog ; in Asia and Africa he was common ; in the Swiss pile villaees of the stone age he was at home ; but he was • 1 not known to the New Zealanders before Cook's time. His stupidity, his sluggishness when well fed, and his ability to find food where many other herbivorous ani- mals would starve, make him valuable. He was un- known in America, and the peccary, a kindred animal, found wild in the basin of the Amazon, would not breed except in its wild condition. In many regions, the sheep, goat, cow and horse were not tamed until after the pig had been man's companion for centuries. The relative dates of the domestication of the chicken, the goose, the duck and the pigeon are unknown, but all were domesticated before men came into possession of metallic tools. The natives of Funa- fate, a Polynesian island, have tame frigate-birds which Sec. 46. TILLAGE. 95 when the vinds are favorable, visit other parts of the group, and by tying things to the necks of these birds, at such times, presents are sent to distant friends. Sec. 46. Tillage. — Tillage is the characteristic feature of hieher sava^ism. Its introduction into culture was more important than that of stone-polishing, canoe-build- ing, weaving or pottery, and was earlier in time and more fruitful in great results than the domestication of the ruminant animals. It gives to man a steady supply of food, a habit of providing for the distant future, the idea of accumulation, fixed residence, dense population, and higher political and military organization. It teaches him to live by the toil not of the day but of the year. It prepares the savage for a life of peaceful labor and constant industry.^ The chief articles of cultivation are maize in North America and Peru ; cassava and the plantain in the hot districts of South America ; the banana in tropical Africa ; the doora in South Africa ; rice and the sago palm in Malaysia ; taro in tropical Polynesia, and the sweet potato in New Zealand. In the time of Columbus, the Indians east of the Mississippi planted maize, beans, peas, melons, pumpkins, gourds, sunflowers and tobacco / and though they did not plant the black walnut, the butternut, the shellbark hickory, the persimmon, the black mulberry and the wild plum, these trees were saved in fields where other trees were killed. Some tropical South Americans had cultivated the papunha, a fruit resembling an (i^^g plum, so long before the time of Columbus that when white men first saw it, it was occasionally seedless.^ Long cultivation is also implied by the lack of seeds in the Brazilian breadfruit* and in the Brazilian manioc* 96 A HISTORY OF MANKIlSfD. The Polynesians plant bananas, breadfruit, cocoa-nut, taro, sweet potato, ginger ava, and the paper mulberry. The Maoris make fences, dig up the soil with pointed sticks hardened in fire, and put sand on heavy soils. The taro in tropical Polynesia requires careful and liberal flooding. The Wanyikas cultivate a cucumber for its seeds from which they make a salad oil. As the North Americans have their fields of tobacco, so have the Africans theirs for Indian hemp, the Malagasies theirs for betel pepper,* and the South Americans theirs for cocoa.' Wheat, barley, flax, apples, pears and poppies, all brought from Asia, were cultivated by the Swiss lake dwellers in the stone age. After it had been proved by experience that edible fruits, seeds and tubers could be obtained by cultivation, the spread of tillage was obstructed by nomadic hab- its, the difficulty* of protecting fields against marauding animals, the disgrace attached to the man engaged in agricultural labor, the custom of treating all large stocks of food as common property, the dislike of steady toil, the general disposition to strive for nothing save imme- diate results. Although many tribes till the ground, the field work is done by women, serfs or slaves. It would dishonor the noble or freeman. The Creek warrior may gather the maize when it is ripe, but he must not plant it or hoe it. The Kaffir warrior drives the cows to and from the pasture, puts them in the pen at nightfall, lets them out in the morning, and milks them, but he must not touch the digging stick. Many of the obstacles to the spread of tillage were removed by a strong political organization, in which chiefs defended property rights ; by a strong ecclesiasti- cal organization which sanctified slavery ; and by a SEC. 46. TILLAGE. 9/ strong military organization which repelled alien enemies, and kept a large stock of slaves in subjection. Protected by such institutions, slavery repaid them by giving them greater strength. It accustomed the masters to study and the slaves to practice steady toil ; taught many dis- tinct occupations ; gave density of population ; and made men familiar with the accumulation of large stores of pro- vision and other property. It was especially prosper- ous in temperate climes where energy is not oppressed by enervating heat, ani where the struggle of agricul- ture against the luxuriance of wild vegetation, is less difficult than in torrid regions. The temperate zone also yields most abundantly the nitrogenous cereals, contain- ing a large amount of food for the muscles, in the smallest space, and in forms that can be preserved for a long time without change, ani that can be transported over long distances with relatively little expense. As nutriment for men of higli physical and intellectual energy, the typical cereals of the temperate zone — .vheat, barley, rye, oats and maize — are far superior to the banana, plantain, breadfruit, cocoa-nut, taro, yam, cassava, sago and rice of the tropics, to the date of the subtropical lands and to the blubber of the polar regions. With the aid of tillage, culture began to move away from the equator, and its march in that direction has been continous ever since. Among the tilling tribes of the Redmen it was the custom that there should be one field near each vil- lage, and in that field every family should have a patch as large as it could cultivate. The record of DeSoto's expedition says he traveled for two Spanish leagues or more than five English miles in one field, the magnitude of wliich implied a dense population and general confi- dence in the security of property. Irrigation was not 7 98 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. used in America by savages ; it was applied in Polynesia, especially in the fields of taro, which without it would not thrive. The Maoris fertilized their fields and carried sand to mix with clay soils. The cultivation of maize and tobacco did not arise simultaneously in all parts of America, but each must have started in a small district from which it was spread by savage enterprise over extensive regions ; as in mod- ern times those plants and cassava have been carried by savages over much of Africa. The cocoa-nut, banana and various palms owe their introduction in many dis- tricts to the same influence. Most hill tribes of Hindostan move their villages once in three years, and after tilling a field for a season or two, desert it for another. The abandoned tract is soon cov- ered with bushes, which, after a good rest, are burned to enrich the soil and prepare it for another crop. Many negro tribes have a similar rotation of fields.* Sec. 47. Implemoits, etc. — The simplest and proba- bly the earliest implement, used in loosening the soil and preparing it for the reception of seeds, is the digging stick, a sharp pole, six feet long. Four or five of these are driven aslant into the ground round a circle a foot and a half in diameter, the points directed towards a common center, and the enclosed circle is pried up by concert of action. Such digging sticks are used in Africa. A great improvement upon this is made by using a flat pole or wooden spade with a cross piece near the point for the foot, such as was observed by Cook in the Tongan group and also in New Zealand.^ Hoes are made in Africa, Polynesia and North America with blades of stone, shell, wood and bone; and the shoulder blade of the deer was in common use for a hoe blade in SEC. 48. MILK-YIELDERS. gg Georgia. Stone adzes were also much used as substi^ tutes for hoes. Sec. 48. Milk-yielder's. — The pile-dwelHng Swiss of the stone culturestep had the cow and sheep, and therefore the domestication of those ruminants belongs perhaps to savagism. The sheep was not indigenous in Europe and must have come from Asia, as perhaps did the cow. Whether, in other regions, the goat, ass, horse and camel were domesticated as early as the cow and sheep, is uncertain. The cow of the savage is a very different animal from that of the highly civilized man. To the Damara she yields three pints of milk a day ; * to the European thirteen times as much. The tame milk-yielding animal increased the stock of food and of property, contributed to maintain a denser population, provided a medium of exchange, and sup- plied nourishment to infants, which had previously de- pended exclusively on the mother's breast for three or four years.' When iialf of the previous period of lacta- tion was cut off for the woman, and the drain for the other half much diminished, her social value rose. Her life was rendered easier. She became more attractive to her husband. She could rear more children. One of the chief excuses for polygamy was destroyed, and the domestic circle was .strengthened. The only use for butter among many African tribes is to anoint their bodies, and the ancient Teutons and Slavonians applied it to a similar purpose.^ In Kaffra- ria and other regions of South Africa, the dairy work and herding are done by the men/ The cow, which was a common domestic animiil of Egypt in 4,000 b. c, is superior to all the other ruminants as a niilk- yieldcr, is unsurpassed for meat and for leather, and is loo A HISTORY OF MANKIND. equaled by few animals in docility of disposition. The dromedary of Arabia, the camel of Bactria, the horse of Turkestan or Persia — called by the early Assyrians " the pack animal of the East " ^ — ^and the goat of Western Asia were presumably each first domesticated in their indige- nous regions. Our sheep has lost, more than any other domestic ani- mal, its fitness for a wild life. Its dependence on man for food and protection, and the excellence of its meat and wool, secure favor for it among savages as well as among civilized nations. In low culture, its wool is not shorn but is plucked out as it was by the Romans in Pliny's time.® The goat is better adapted than the sheep to bush-covered and steep mountains, and in portions of Africa uninhabitable for the cow or horse on account of the tzfetse fly, and too warm for the sheep, the goat is the only milk-yielder. The cow, horse, camel and buffalo are used for burden but not for draught among savages, but their chief value to them is for milk and meat. A small herd of either of these animals is sufficient to maintain a savage family, and its possession stimulates its owner to adopt habits of economizing and providing for the distant future. He studies the habits of his beasts, learns to treat their dis- eases, erects shelter and stores food for them, becomes skillful in training them, trades with them, makes them a source of accumulating wealth and rises more and more above the rude modes of life prevalent among the lowest savages. Sec. 49. Boats. — The simplest form of the incipient boat is a floating log on which a man sits astride pro- pelling himself with legs and arms. On such supports, Australians visited European ships in the last century. SEC. 49. BOATS. lOI The next step in the art of navigation was to fasten two or more logs side by side, or to tie a number of reeds or canes together in a raft. A great advance was made when some man hollowed out a log, to reduce its weight, increase its buoyancy, and make a dry place for himself, his food, his weapons, and his clothing. Such boats with square ends, and semicircular bottoms as if made from a tree trunk split through in the middle, have been foimd in European mounds. One such boat had two handles at each end, so that it could be carried conven- iently on land.' The next improvement was to sharpen the end so that the boat would mov^e easily through the water ; and another was to change the shape of a cross section from a semicircle to the transverse section of a long oval. Many modern tribes never learned to make anything better than a raft for navigation. Among them were the Californians on San Francisco Bay and its tributaries, the Tasmanians and many Australians, though all of them had easy access to large trees well suited for canoes.^ The boats of savages may be classified as dugouts, plank canoes, bark canoes, and skin boats. The dugouts are made from the trunk of a tree with the aid of fire, by the Andamanese, the Rcdmen east of the Rocky moun- tains south of latitude forty -two degrees, and many others. Pitch is put on the wood to be burned out and wet ckiy on that to be protected.* Stone axes are used in cutting away the charred material, and several men work for months in making a small c uioe.* In recent years, dugout canoes si.xty feet long and six feet wide have been made by the Haidahs,* who after doing all the other work, use hot water to make the wood pliable, so that they can give the desirable width to the upper part of the sides. I02 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. Bark canoes are used on the St. Lawrence and its trib- utary waters, the upper Mississippi, the upper Missouri, the Yukon, and many other streams of Northern Amer- ica ; and also in Guiana,^ Ugogo,' and parts of AustraHa.^ A tough and flexible bark, such as that of the birch — perhaps the best of all barks for canoe purposes — is peeled from the tree in a single piece, sewed together at the ends, covered with pitch at the seams, and stiffened with a light wooden frame.' A birchbark boat carries ten times its own weight, will last for three or four years and can be made by one man in a week. The Maoris have canoes of wood and also of mats,'" and mat boats are made in California. '^ For the savage, without metallic tools, it was far more difficult to make a plank boat than a dugout. He could not saw out a board ; he had no accurate scale of meas- urement ; and he had no nails. Nevertheless he accom- plished the task. He made planks by burning and chip- ping with a stone adze ; he fitted the pieces together by his eye; he sewed them together with twine or rattan; and he covered the seams with pitch. Thus he made boats thirty yards long and two wide, with room for more than a hundred men. The largest plank boats of savages in stone culture were those of the Fijians and Polynesians. The Micronesians, Malays and Fuegians make their boats in the same manner, but the Fuegian boats are small. Boats of skin stretched on wooden frames are made by the Missouri Ri\'er Indians, by the Abipones of South America, and by the Eskimos. The boat used by the Eskimo for seal hunting is admirably adapted to its purpose, and is one of the wonders of marine archi- tecture.^'' Although, so small that it cannot carrj^ more SEC. 49. BOATS. IC3 than one person, and that its upper surface is only six inches above the water, yet in it the Eskimo can venture far out to sea in rough weather. It has a close deck, with which the dress of the boatman is so connected, that the water can wash over him without getting into the boat. For propulsion, the chief dependence is the paddle. The oar and scull are known to few savages. A sail of matting or of skin is used by the Pacific Island- ers, Malays, Caribs, Floridians, and some African tribes. The outrigger, a substitute for ballast, peculiar to the aborigines of the Pacific and Indian oceans, is a log or bamboo stem resting in the water, parallel with the canoe, six, eight or even twelve feet from it, and at- tached to it by crosspieces above the level of the water. The outrigger is on the windward side, and in case of change in the wind or in the course of the boat, the sail and perhaps the mast is shifted. When the breeze be- comes so strong that the outrigger is lifted nearly out of water, men go out on it or weights are placed on it to preserve the equilibrium. Alone among the Polyne- sians, the Maoris had no outriggers.'^ The Samoans considered it impossible for sail boats to live in a rough sea without them, and they wondered at the prediction of one of their priests in the last century, that a large boat, without an outrigger, would arrive with people different from any they had ever seen.'* A pole projecting out to windward serves instead of an outrigger in small canoes.^* The Solomon Islanders have a double out- rigger, that is, one on each side of the canoe. The Tahitians, New Caledonians, Malays,"' and some Congoes" occasionally attach two canoes together, side by side, but from six to twelve feet apart, either with two cross-pieces or with an intervening deck. 104 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. Rude as are the Polynesian boats, many of them make voyages of more than a thousand miles, sailing from Tahiti to Hawaii and back with confidence based on ex- perience, and trusting to the stars for guidance. The Micronesians and Malays make similar voyages. To such ventures much of the original settlement of the Pacific isles is due. The Indians of Florida sail in their boats to the Bahamas. The sled, the only vehicle made by savages for land transportation, is used by them only on snow or ice. Constructed of wood or bone, and weighing perhaps not more than twenty pounds, it can carry a load of two hundred. It is drawn by reindeer or dogs, and the only harness is a single rope or trace for each animal ; for the reindeer a cord is attached to his head. The cart wheel was unknown to the Americans and Polynesians when these people were discovered by the modern Europeans. Sec. 50. Pottery. — Pottery was unknown to the Poly- nesians who had no potter's clay, to the Eskimos who had no fuel for kilns, and to the non-tilling savages generally. In shaping their clubs, spears, paddles and poles, as in making canoes, mud was used to protect por- tions of the wood from burning. Such applications sug- gested that wet clay should be plastered over a basket or a gourd that was to be set on a fire to heat water. In 1503, Capt. Gonneville found South Americans boiling water in wooden pots so protected.^ Gourds and bas- kets for use on the fire were covered with clay in Aus- tralia.^ Pots were moulded over gourds in Georgia,^ and others bearing the marks of the baskets on which they were moulded have been found in Illinois, Georgia, and Brazil.* Indeed this method of shaping pots was not abandoned by the Cherokees when white men first SEC. 51. THREAD, CLOTH, ETC. I05 became familiar with them. Some of the pottery of the tilHng Swiss lake dwellers was marked with the thumb- nail in imitation of basketwork, suggesting that pots had previously been made in or over baskets. A considerable advance was made; it was found that the clay could be shaped and burned as well without a wooden frame. Many different materials were tried. Some clay cracked in drying; some broke very easily after being burned. Different kinds of clay were mixed together, or silicious or calcareous matter was added to the paste.* The Kaffirs make pots of the hills of the white ants.® The Redmen generally burn their pottery in the open air; among the tribes which understood the advantages of the oven were the Arowaks of South America.' Out of burned clay the North American Indians made pipes, idols, cups, water bottles, jars, and cooking pots, including some holding ten gallons or more for boiling down maple sap or salt water. Large pots to be used over a fire had holes in the sides for a suspending pole which was protected against the flames by wet clay.^ The Fijians made jugs with hollow handles for spouts. Soapstone or steatite was fashioned into cooking pots in Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Michigan, New England, in Catalina Island, and in the land of the Eskimos. The Eskimos also make pots of flat stones on which they build up a rim of other stones fastened together with a cement compounded with grease and lampblack. The Aleuts make pots with rims of clay on a bottom of stone.' Sec. 5 I . Thread, Cloth, etc. — The art of spinning is known to all savages. The Australians practice it in its rudest form ; they twist the fibers by rolling them on the knee under the hand.^ The Redmen and the more I06 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. advanced tribes use a spindle with a weight or whorl attached to save labor. The sinews of large mammals are split up into fine threads, but they are not well suited for use in garments or weapons often exposed to the water, and for these, thread of vegetable fibre is pre- ferred. Sewed clothing is unknown to savages generally, but is found among the American Indians east of the Rocky Mountains, who wear sewed leggins, moccasins, and cloaks. It exists also among the Eskimos who use the needle in preparing all their garments. Some of the Es- kimo thread made of whole sinew is as delicate in fibre as fine sewing silk. The prehistoric European cave dwellers lived in a subfrigid climate and had bone nee- dles suggestive of sewed clothing. In Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia, and portions of Central Africa and South America, cloth made of bark is used for clothing and bedding. In Polynesia it is made from paper mulberry saplings about two inches in diameter. Each sapling supplies a piece of bark about six inches wide and six feet long. After the hard outer coat has been scraped off, the bark is beaten till it spreads out to a width of two feet ; several pieces are glued together at the sides ; the joints are beaten till they are invisible ; and the manufacture ends with print- ing in colors and varnishing. Such cloth, though easily torn and soon spoiled when exposed to the rain, is pro- duced with little labor and is well suited to the wants of a tropical climate. In its origin, weaving was much later than .spinning. It was unknown to the non-tilling savages generally, and also to the Polynesians, Melanesians, Fuegians, Kaf- firs and many other Africans, and though known to SEC. 52. LEATHER. lO/ many Nortli American tribes, was little practiced among them. The simplest weaving known was done by the Xootka Indians with unspun fibres of fir bark. The same process was known to the various other Redmen, and also to the tilling savages of the Swiss pile villages. The Haidah Indians beat the inner bark of the cedar tree, spin it and weave it. They, and many other tribes, pluck or shear their dogs every spring for the wool. Cloth is made of buffalo hair in the basin of the Missis- sippi. The cloth of the savages is usually made by hand weaving or stick weaving — that is, the tram is passed under and over alternate warp threads by the fingers or by a stick. The Chippeways had an upright frame with horizontal rollers about five feet long and four feet apart. A single thread wrapped over these rollers formed the warp, and after the tram had been woven in, a cut through the warp made a piece of cloth five feet wide and eight feet long. The device of raising all the alternate threads at one movement and lowering them at another, so that the tram could be passed rapidly from side to side, was known to very few savages, and the shuttle to none. In portions of America, a mat-like cloth is made by cutting the skins of rabbits or wild geese into strips,^ and then plaiting these strips together. In Tahiti and Hawaii beautiful feather mantles, to be worn by the high chiefs, are woven. A thin flexible mat serves as a basis and, on the outside, is hidden by the feathers. ■Sec. 52. LcatJicr. — The process of tanning with astrin- gent substances is certainly unknown to most and perhaps to all savages save those tribes which have learned it from nations in a higher culturestep ; but I08 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. many tribes are familiar with other modes of dressing hides so as to make them soft, phable and warm for purposes of clothing. Stretching, scraping, rubbing, chewing, smoking and soaking with various liquid or semi-liquid substances, are among the methods em- ployed. The skins are rubbed with brains of buffalo or deer by the North American Indians ;' with chewed liver by the Patagonians ;" with clotted milk and flax- seed by the Abyssinians f and with willow bark and a fetid liquid by the Chookchees.* The seal skins of the Eskimos are rendered pliable by soaking in household lye followed by chewing. In the Soudan, hides are made waterproof with milk.° The Monbuttoo Africans are distinguished by their ignorance of all methods of dressing hides into leather. Out of salmon skin, the Chookchees make a leather for woman's clothincr." Sec. 53. Traffic. — The aboriginal Californians gener- ally, the Australians, the Tasmanians, the Andamanese, the Bushmen, the Fuegians, and other non-tilling sav- ages have no medium of exchange, no professional trader, no habit of depending on traffic for acquiring any neces- sary of life, no custom of assembling for commercial purposes, no accumulation of articles intended for barter or sale, and no such division of labor that any man could consider himself secure from the toil of hunting up food for himself The first separate occupation seems to have been that of the priest ; next, perhaps that of the knife maker, and then of the chief Unless brought into contact with people in a higher culturestep, there is very little traffic among non-tilling savages. The mounds of Central California contain few articles brought from distant regions. But the tribes in New York had obsidian knives from Mexico ; those in SEC. 54. METALS. lOQ Ohio had redstone pipes from Minnesota, and copper from Michigan ; those in Tennessee had marine shells and shark's teeth from the Atlantic; and those in many dis- tricts east of the Mississippi had greenstone axe-heads and chert arrowheads brought from distant regions. As mediums of exchange, we find cowries in Western Africa^ and New Britain ;' shell beads or wampum east of the Mississippi and in Northern California,^ salt in portions of Africa, various ornaments of shell or crys- tal in other parts of the world, and domestic animals wherever they exist. Coin is not a product of savagism. Fairs, for purposes of traffic, are common in many tribes of the Pacific, of Africa, and of Malaysia, and are held at regular intervals. Such gatherings in the Hawaiian and Fijian groups attract visitors from distant islands. In some portions of Polynesia, the privilege of trading with people from a distance belongs exclu- sively to the nobles ; in others to the chiefs. Sec. 54. Metals. — The Australians, Tasmanians, Pa- cific Islanders, Californians and many other savages, when first observed by civilized travelers, had no metal. Some American tribes east of the Mississippi had pieces of native copper which they had pounded into knives, chisels, arrowheads, spear heads, awls, daggers, and orna- ments. Thev know nothinir of the arts of smeltinir or casting metals. Gold has been used for ornament by several tribes which could not melt it, but could shape it by hammering. Meteoric iron, though known to savages, was unman- ageable for them. From barbarous or civilized visitors, many African tribes have learned the arts of smelting and forging iron, but its possession has not sufficed to raise them out of tJie general customs of savagism. lib A HISTORY OF MANKIND. Sec. 55, Industrial Achievements. — Having thus con- sidered the industry of savages in its details, let us look back for a comprehensive idea of their contributions to the useful arts. They made themselves familiar with the habits of animals and the qualities of plants and miner- als. They tried every kind of stone to see whether it would make good knives, and every kind of wood to find whether it would do for kindling sticks, bows, spears and canoes; and every kind of fibre to make twine. They discovered the palatable and nutritious character of all the products now used as food. By cooking, soak- ing, or grating and pressing, they converted many vege- tables, naturally poisonous, into wholesome food. They invented all the main processes of cooking. They grilled, baked, boiled, and stewed. They preserved food by dry- ing, smoking, salting, freezing, covering with melted fat, and by burying in the ground. They prepared hard seeds for food by grinding in mortars, and by soaking. We owe the idea but not the modern pattern of mill, oven and cooking pot to our savage ancestors. They observed the stimulant or sedative quality in every narcotic plant now in use. They are possibly and in most cases certainly entitled to the credit or dis- credit of first making use of tobacco, betel, opium, hasheesh, coca, kola-nut, ava, Kamtschatkan fungus, mate, cocoa, coffee, and tea. One of the latest of these narcotics to come into use was coffee, which began to attract attention in the Middle Ages among the Arabians, who heard of it from the Abyssinans, and they were induced to try it by a traveler from Central or Western Africa, who while there had tasted a decoction made from a similar bean but of different species. The Swiss pile dwellers in the stone age drank warm decoctions, SEC. 55. INDUSTRIAL ACHIEVEMENTS. Ill and it is possible, though not proved, that the Paraguay-' ans did so too before the time of Columbus. Savages extracted, by chewing from raw leaves and seeds, a little of those stimulating alkaloids which we obtain, in greater quantity and more palatable form, by steeping in hot water. They learned how to make and to polish edge tools of stone, and in every region they used the stone that combined in the highest degree, the qualities of desira- ble fracture with toughness. They perceived the value of missile weapons which should strike at a distance, and they devised unsurpassed patterns for the arrow, the spear, the throw-club, and the sling-stone. They pre- served the aim of the spear and the arrow by giving them a whirling motion. They attached a loose point to the spear for fish and aquatic mammals, so that the shaft should not be broken, and that it should offer the great- est possible resistance to the escape of the wounded ani- mal. They gave greater impetus to the spear by using a sling or throw-stick, and to the axe by fastening it on a handle, thus gaining an advantage similar to that from a prolongation of the arm. They poisoned the head of the arrow and spear, and thus got game which would have escaped with an unpoisoned wound. They were skillful hunters and fishermen. They invented pit-falls, nooses, box-traps, fences, decoys and disguises. They imitated the calls of the game animals with wonderful fidelity. They stalked quadrupeds by day and dazzled them with fire by night. They attacked and killed the lion, tiger, grizzly bear, hippopotamus, rhinoceros and elephant. They took fish with hooks, seines, hand nets, traps, nooses, harpoons, and poison. They bated their hooks with worms, meat, and genuine 11^ A HISTORY OF MANKIND. *and imitation flies and fish. They practiced deception on brutes as well as on their fellow-men. Civilization has added much to the implements of the hunter but nothing to his skill. From cold and heat, from rain and wind, they sought shelter in caves and hollow trees and under projecting ledges of rock. Then they dug holes in cliffs and steep banks of hard earth or soft stone; made shelters of branches or mats ; and afterward advanced to the con- struction of huts. They covered a frame of light poles with thatch, bark, clay-smeared wattle, or of heavy poles plastered with a thick layer of clay. They built dome- shaped huts of clay or hardened snow. They drove piles in shallow water as a support for villages relatively secure acj-ainst the attacks of enemies. They acquired high skill in making mats. They tried the bark of many plants, and different layers of the bark so that they might reject all save that which would yield the largest and toughest fibre. They used matting for clothing, bedding, sacks, shelter and sails. They made it thick like fur, and thin like light muslin. They also produced somewhat similar fabrics from the inner bark of certain trees by beating it until it became soft, flexible and suitable for clothing. The art of making baskets arose with that of making mats. Both were carried to high excellence by rude savages. A little later was the discovery that a long and strong cord could be made by twisting together many short pieces of animal or vegetable fibres. The vegetable fibres, having been previously known in mat- ting, were the first used in spinning, and were found to be the best for nets and cords to be used in the water. It was for fishing that there was the most demand for SEC. 55. llSfDUStRIAL ACHIEVEMENTS. II3 twine among savages. After twine had been made, it was woven into cloth, by a process similar to that in the plaiting of mats. As it may be said that cloth was developed out of the mat, so pottery grew out of the basket. A basket cov- ered with clay set on the fire to heat water, turned into a piece of burned pottery which proved to be more val- uable than the original basket, and other pots were made on baskets until it was discovered that the pot could be made better without the help of the basket. They learned to dress skins so that they should be pli- able, soft, warm, and valuable for clothing and bedding and also for tent covering. Whether they discovered the tanning qualities of the bark of the oak and of vari- ous other trees is doubtful ; perhaps they found that they could dress skins with less labor by other proc- esses. Certain it is that, for many purposes, they pre- fer the leather prepared by their methods to that from the civilized tanyards. The lowest phase of navigation is that of the Austra- lian who sits, astride, on a log, and propels it by paddling with hands and feet. A better conveyance is the raft of reeds on which the aboriginal Californian crosses San Francisco Bay or some of its tributary waters. A step higher is the log canoe with square ends, and a great im- provement is made on that conveyance by sharpening the ends. In about the same stage of development with this form, are the canoes made of bark, mats or skins, stiffened with a wooden frame. Much higher arc the large canoes made of planks sewed together, provided with outriggers, masts and sails, and capable of carrying fifty or a hundred persons on long voyages. Savages tilled the soil. They loosened it with a dig- 8 il4 A HISTORY OF MAiSfKIND. ging stick, a hoe, or a rudimentary spade. They cidti- vated cereals, legumes, tubers, and fruit trees. They introduced valuable plants into regions far from their indigenous habitats. They observed the superior fitness of certain soils for certain plants and by putting manure, sand, ashes, or muck on their fields, they got better crops. They irrigated and flooded their land. They allowed their fields to rest, and thus in a certain sense rotated their crops. They domesticated all the animals of much value to man. They began with pets of many kinds ; then do- mesticated the dog, then the pig, and finally the sheep, goat, cow, horse, camel, buffalo, reindeer, ass, duck, goose, and chicken. They taught the dog and reindeer to draw sleds, the horse, ass, cow, buffalo and camel to carry burdens, and the sheep, goat, cow, camel, rein- deer and buffalo to stand still to be milked.' They differentiated occupations. They had classes of men who devoted their time exclusively to boat build- ing, knife making, fishing, and tilling the soil. They had a traffic of barter, and used domestic animals a's a medium of exchange. They had periodical fairs and made long voyages to attend them. When we take into account the circumstances in which they lived, the frequent famines, the bitter wars, and the other dangers to which they were frequently exposed; when we keep in mind their lack of metal, of letters and of scientific knowledge; when we think of all these drawbacks, it seems wonderful that they should have achieved so much. If all the inhabitants of an English village containing a thousand adult men were, in our time, set down without tools or books in an island such as England was before men occupied it, and had no SEC. 56. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. II5 communication with other men, many years would elapse before they or their descendants would live as securely and comfortably as many savages did. Sec. 56. Industnal Development. — Archaeology is a witness that culture has steadily advanced. Wherever the remains of the habitations, implements and food of man have been found in the strata deposited in a remote age, whether in the drift, gravel or caves, or in village mounds, there the earlier the date of deposit, the ruder and simpler the life. In no continent have the products of the modern inhabitants generally been ruder than those of its occupants in the remote past. The aborig- inal Australians of the last century had no tillage or polished stone, and there is no reason to believe that either was known to the Australians of preceding ages. Bronze and iron were not known to the Redmen east of the Mississippi in the last century nor at any earlier time. When Columbus discovered the New World, the Aztecs and Quichuans had no iron, nor was it known to their ancestors or predecessors. The Gauls and Britons who submitted to Caesar were as far advanced in culture as any people who had occupied the same regions before them. No remains of a printing press, steam engine, railroad or magnetic telegraph has been found in the excavations of ancient cities or mounds in any part of the globc.^ If the tunnels, the embankments, the deep cuts, the roads cut into the sides of cliffs, the mine excavations, the canals, the sea-walls, and the walls of brick, and stone, and mortar, made within the last eighty years, — if all these should be abandoned to-morrow to the corrod- ing and eroding and other destructive forces of nature for two thousand years, after the lapse of so long a period, Il6 ' A HISTORY OF MANKIND. they would still be plainly visible, and then would far surpass in magnitude and significance everything that we now know as prehistoric remains Etymology is another witness against retrogression. Her evidence is complex and weighty. She has word lists in hundreds of tongues all indicating the advance of man from a simple to a complex life, from concrete to abstract ideas, from low to high industry. The English word " pecuniary " takes us back to the time when not metallic coin but the cow was the chief medium of com- mercial exchange. The English word " estimate " is the survival of a period when a thing was worth so much in " aes " or bronze. The Basque word for knife is a rem- nant of a period when the common edge tools were of stone. Philosophy is full of such traces of lower culture, and contains no evidence of retrogression. If we had no other proof, a comparison of the French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and Roumanian tongues, all daughters of the Latin, would suffice to convince us that the ancient Romans had no printing press, no steam engine, no railroad, no steamboat, no sawmill, no rolling mill, no chemical analysis. As the modern romance tongues came from the Latin, so the Sanscrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Celtic, Slavonic, and Teutonic tongues come from an early Aryan language, which was lacking, as we know from a comparison of the derivative tongues, in many of the ideas and comforts of Greek civilization. Even our alphabet contains survivals of a period when men not having yet devised letters, wrote with hieroglyphics. Our A was once the picture of an ox ; and if we extend its cross-piece on each side and turn it upside down we have the rudely drawn head of the ox with ears and horns. SEC. 56'. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. 11/ The oldest records, including the papyrus rolls and monumental inscriptions of Egypt, the clay tablets of Assyria and Babylonia, the Vedas, the Avesta and the Pentateuch abound with evidence, that in the times when they were written, culture was much ruder than at present in all the main departments of life. There was no coined money; traffic was unimportant; bronze was the most common metal ; crime was punished by retal- iation ; adult males captured in battle were slain ; women and children captives were enslaved; and in religion, sacrifices, idolatry and polytheism were prominent. A few cases of retrogression in human society are known, but they are so few, so relatively small, so un- important in the general history of culture, and so plainly traceable to causes of limited influence, that they may be considered as illustrations of the general principle of advancement. The Bakalahari tribe in South Africa lost their cattle in war and are now poorer and lower in cul- ture than were their ancestors, several generations since.^ Some Tungoos communities of Northeastern Asia hav- ing lost their herds of reindeer, and some Kalmucks hav- ing lost their's of cows, have been compelled to live with less comfort, by fishing.* Some Snake Indians west of the Rocky Mountains have been driven by stronger tribes from hunting grounds which their forefathers occupied, and so have been compelled to depend on smaller game for subsistence.* In Mesopotamia, Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Syria, Central America, Cambodia and Java the buildings of .several later centuries are decidedly inferior, in magnitude, durability and architectural skill, to those erected there in the remote past. The overthrow of the Roman empire was accompanied by a great decline in literature and ornamental art over a large part of Europe. 1 1 8 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. But in all these cases, the decay in one place, or in some departments of life, is insufficient to prove a general retrogression for even a brief period. Even in the Dark Ages, culture continued her general onward march. Sec. 57. Natural Progress. — By a large accumulation of evidence from many different sources, history shows that savage industry was originated and developed through its whole course by man's innate capacity ; and that this development was governed by natural and uni- form laws, which were the same as those which have been observed in barbarous and civilized life In preceding sections we considered the different phases in the arts of tillage, spinning, pottery, navigation and the domestication of animals. We found that these phases have every appearance of being the successive steps in the slow and gradual development of skill, under influences similar to those which we observe at work in the industrial progress of our own time. Many of the products of human labor are intelligible with and not without the theory of natural growth. Let us now consider the origin of one of the most ingenious and important products of civilized industry, the steam engine. It drives other machines ; unlike them generally, it is power-producing rather than a labor-saving invention. If there be any possession of man that by the mightiness of its power, by the magni- tude of its size, the complexity of its construction, the abstruseness (to the savage mind) of the principles on which it is constructed, the precision with which its parts are adapted to one another, and the vastness of its influ- ence on life; — if there be any industrial possession of man that would deserve to be considered a supernatural production, it would assuredly be a steam engine of 188^. SEC. 57. NATURAL PROGRESS. 1 19 Aiid such the AustraHan or the Arab has often beheved it to be ; but not so the civiHzed man, who knows the history of the invention and of its inventors, of the experiments, disappointments, trials, toils and numerous improvements, many small and some great, made by those men who have contributed to produce this great machine. The record of the development of this marvel of industrial genius is within reach of all ; it shows an unbroken series of natural steps, without any commencement, or subsequent interruption, by a super- natural jump. The steam engine is natural not only in its origin but also in its method of working. It demands food or fuel, and fresh air, and these must be combined In active combustion, with a development of heat which is converted into mechanical power in strict proportion to the amount of fuel consumed and heat evolved, in accordance with physical laws . Other great products of human genius, inferior to the steam engine in some respects, but nevertheless marvel- ous, are the puddling furnace, the rolling mill, the Besse- mer converter, the steam spinning jenny, the steam loom, the steamboat, the railway, and the electric tele- graph, each of which was the result of long studies and numerous experiments. If we be convinced that all these are the natural products of the human mind, consistency will require us to believe that the simpler, smaller, and less efficient implements of our prehistoric ancestors had a like natural origin. Besides, it does not agree with our ideas of divine dignity that the gift of the gods should be superseded by the superior device of man. If Neptune had given the pattern and rig of the ancient galley to the Greeks, he would have kept up his credit by building the modern schooner, ship and steamship. I20 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. If Ceres had made the first hoe, she would also have made the first iron plough. If she had made the flail, she would also have invented the threshing machine. The gods do not give such gifts to us, nor did they give inferior ones to our ancestors. By his wants and his surroundings, man is compelled to work ; and by his intellectual constitution he is stim- ulated and enabled to devise methods of making his labor more convenient and efficient. There is no end to his improvements, and every one in its turn is prized, copied, and made the base of new improvement. The ingenuity of one becomes the treasure of all. An art of value to the multitude, and once widely known among them, has never been lost. No large branch of industry became perfect or reached its present stage of develop- ment among savages. CHAPTER IV. SOCIAL LIFE, Sec. 58. Promiscuous Group. — Among savages gen- erally, life is made insecure by frequent warfare; and as a rule, the lower the culture, the greater the insecurity. It was unsafe for the pri iiitix-e man to dwell at a distance from friends. Regard for his own safety, compelled him to make his home with others in a group, bound together by the obligation of mutual defense. All the non-tilling and most of the tilling tribes known to civilized observa- tion consist of small defensive groups, which we may presume are the successors of groups organized, for the purpose of protecting their members, in the beginning of human society. There is reason to believe that for thousands of years and over a large part of the earth, in the primitive defensive groups, all the men were common husbands and all the women common wives. There was no idea of the relationship of uncle, nephew, father-in-law, son-in- law or brother-in-law, or of their feminine equivalents, and of course, without tlic ideas, there were no words to express them. Tlie cliild gave the name of father to every man in the grouj) or village; and in return, the man called every boy, son. The m.iternal relation was (121) 122 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. of course as well known then as at any later time, but it did not find so distinct a recognition in common speech. Every woman was called mother by all the children, and every child was called son or daughter by all the moth- ers. There was no word to describe a collateral relation- ship or to convey the idea of exclusive sexual possession. The only relationships recognized in common speech were fraternal and parental, including brother, sister, parent, grandparent, great-grandparent, child, grand- child and great-grandchild. In all these cases the blood was traced exclusively through the mother. Paternity was considered too uncertain to be taken into account in the pedigree. There was no word for husband, save man ; none for wife, save woman. ^ In the course of time, the promiscuous or consanguine group was overthrown by influences ascertainable only by inference. Bachofen believes that the main cause was the sentiment of the women against intercourse with brothers ; '^ but this explanation is improbable when we remember that no such feeling prevented the marriage of full brother and sister in the royal families of the Quichuans, and ancient Egyptians and Persians, in bar- barous culture ; nor of the half brother and sister, chil- dren of the same father, in many countries, including some in civilized culture. Peschel attributes the reform to the conviction that long interbreeding has a pernicious effect on the physi- cal and mental constitution of humanity, and even pre- vents continuous fertilization ; ^ but this explanation, like the preceding one, is not in harmony with customs that have been long maintained over extensive areas. According to Lubbock, the promiscuous group was overthrown by the men who wanted wives as exclusive SEC. 58. PROMISCUOUS GROUP. 1 23 possessions and as trophies of their mihtary prowess ; and having got these by capturing women from other groups, they gradually adopted the opinion that it was discreditable to take wives among the women of their own villages.* This theory is however unsatisfactory on many points, and especially in these that after the over- throw of the consanguine group, the husband did not take his wife into his village but he went into hers, and that he went for his wife not to a hostile tribe but to a friendly clan. The promiscuous group was a scene of continuous quarreling between brothers and sisters in the presence of fathers and mothers who were called upon and could not refuse to interfere. There was only one remedy for this evil and that was that the man should marry, in another village; and as the idea of sexual exclusiveness had not obtained a strong foothold, and was perhaps without any influence on the majority of the community, the only safe plan for the man was to leave his native village and make his home in another where all the women belonged to a different stock. The first change from the consanguine group was a prohibition of matrimonial relationship between all per- sons descended from a common mother in the female line. This was the basis of the feminine clan, to be considered hereafter. The second change was that the head chief required his wife or wives to be true to him, as among some Polynesians and troglodytes,^ while the other women were subject to little restriction. The tiiird reform was that nobody but a relative or guest of the husband was entitled to the wife'.s favor, as in many Arab tribes.® Many other customs relating to the wed- ding day,^ and to the collection of a dowry, found in Egypt, 124 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. Libya, Quichuan Peru and Hindostan,^ must be consid- ered survivals of the consanguine group. In Babylon, every woman before marriage was required to make a sacrifice in the grove of the temple of Astarte.® Of the Britons, Caesar wrote : " By tens and twelves, husbands possessed their wives in common, and especially brothers with brothers, and parents with children."^" Sec. 59. Relationship Nomenclature. — In terms of kin- ship, the most primitive language known, is that of the Polynesian island of Rotuma. It recognizes no col- lateral relation, such as uncle, nephew or cousin, and n6 relation by affinity save brother-in-law and sister-in-law. To his mother's brother, the Rotuman gives the title of father ; to his father's sister, that of mother ; to her son that of brother; to his sister's son, that of son. To us, who have frequent and important use for the distinctive titles of uncle, aunt, nephew, niece and cousin, it seems strange that people could have done without words for those relations. In many other respects the language of Rotuma is not meager, and its extreme poverty in rela- tionship of affinity and its lack of all terms of collateral kin, is inexplicable upon any theory save that of the promiscuous group. One grade higher than the tongue of Rotuma is that of Hawaii, which has no terms for collateral relation, but in addition to those of brother-in-law and sister-in-law has those of father-in-law and son-in-law, with their fem- inine equivalents. One grade higher is that of the Mohawks, who besides having brother-in-law, father-in- law and son-in-law, and their feminine equivalents, have the word uncle to designate the mother's brother. This term is not given to the father's brother ; for he is still called a father, as in the consanguine group, and his rela- SEC. 59. RELATIONSHIP NOMENCLATURE. 1 25 tion to the woman is very similar to that in the earher social condition. After Rotuman, Hawaiian and Mo- hawk nomenclature, we come to a fourth stage of devel- opment in the Micmacs, a tribe whose remnant is now found in Eastern Canada. To the distinctive terms in the lower forms of speech, they have added uncle for father's brother as well as for the mother's, and nephew and niece for some, but not for all, children of broth- ers and sisters. Thus to the man his brother's sons, and to the woman, her sister's sons are her only nephews ; while to the man, his sister's sons, and to the woman her brother's sons are not nephews but sons. The Bur- mese go a step further and use the word nephew in the same sense as we do. The sixth step is that of the \V}'andots who use the word cousin, unknown to Rotuma, Hawaii, Mohawk, Micmac, and Burma, but apply it not as we do, but only among males to the mother's brother's son and to the father's sister's son, while the father's brother's son and the mother's sister's son continue to be brothers, as in the earlier phases of speech. The Karens in the seventh step above the pro- miscuous group give the title of cousins to the children of all those whom we call uncles and aimts. The Kingsmill Islanders have the same nomenclature as the Hawaiians ; the Oneidas the same as the Mohawks ; the Japanese the same as the Burmese; the Senecas the same as the Wyandots ; and the Eskimos the same as the Karens. All these tribes give the title of grandfather to the grandfather's brother ; of grandmother to the grand- father's sister ; of grandson to the brother's son's son, and to the sister's son's son. Since in the consanguine group, our first cousin was their brolhcr, and retained that title among the Hawaiians and Mohawks; so in 136 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. those tribes, the son of the first cousin was called a son, and the cousin's grandson was called a grandson. According to the development of speech in the mat- ter of relationship nomenclature, a man may have a dozen fathers and no uncle; a dozen mothers and no aunt ; a dozen grandfathers and no grand uncle ; several uncles who have sisters, wives and children, but no aunt or cousin ; and several brothers and sisters with children, but no nephew or niece. In certain tribes the same title is given to a cousin's son and to a grandson ; and in Latin as in some romance languages of modern Europe, the same word may mean either nephew or grandson, as it did in England three centuries ago. The appendix contains several tables presenting, in tabular form, some of the information already given here about relationship nomenclature, with additional evi- dences in favor of the theory that, at one time, the promis- cuous group was widely prevalent, if not universal in human society. By comparing as to certain tribes, the titles of uncles and aunts with those of their children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren, Lubbock found that out of two hundred and eleven points in Morgan's tables of con- sanguinity, two hundred and seven contain evidence of progress from the promiscuous group to the modern family; as against four on the other side. The evidences are as fifty to one. Comparing other relationships, such as uncle with father, aunt with mother, granduncle with grandfather, grandaunt with grandmother, nephew and cousin with second cousin, and grandnephew with grandchild, the evidences are a thousand to one. Sec. 6o. Feminine Clan. — From the promiscuous SEC. 60. li'EMINiNE CLAN. lUf gfoup, the matrimonial system advanced to the next higher step, the feminine clan, which traces descent exclusively through the mother, forbids the man to have any intimacy with a woman who has inherited the same blood in the female line, and requires the husband to transfer his residence to the village, and his allegiance to the clan, of his wife. It retains all its daughters and drives away all its sons. The women are its only per- manent element. They own the territory, the dwellings, the furniture and the food; and the privilege of divorce belongs to them and to them exclusively. The husband may abscond but he cannot drive the woman from the common home. A clan is a division of a tribe ; and in a North American tribe there are at least three clans. While all the women of the clan are born in it, all their husbands must have come from other clans, perhaps six or eight others. The tribe is never exogamous ; it never compels its young men to seek wives in other tribes. The feminine clan prevails among the Iroquois, the Creeks and their related tribes, the Delawares, the Mun- cies, the Mohicans, most other tribes east of the Missis- sippi, the Mandans, the Otoes, the Minitarees,^ and among most of the Australians. In every quarter of the globe it has left traces of its former prevalence. Wherever the feminine clan exists, it is the main feat- ure of the social and political organization. It claims the highest allegiance, gives the most efficient protection, and is the basis of the only common worship. In the feminine clan, the family or group of a man with his wife or wives and children has not attained prominence and influence. So far as there is an inheritance, the clan is the chief heir of its dead member, taking precedence of brother, nephew, or son. Generally in the feminine clan 12§ A HISTORY OF MANKIND. the man is supposed to have only one wife, but the rela- tions are very loose for both man and woman. No marriages or sexual intercourse between children of the clan is possible without incest ; no robbery or murder without sacrilege. No homicide by an outsider can be left unavenged without disgrace. A man owes to his fellow clansmen, and to them alone, fraternal affection, cordiality, fidelity, and mutual helpfulness. All others are beyond the protection of any strong obligations of morality. There being no pedigree in the male line, a man can marry his half-sister on the father's side with- out offense to public opinion ; and the maternal uncle has more authority over his nephew than has the boy's father whose claim to the paternity cannot be proved and, according to the general custom of the clan, may be very doubtful. Sec. 6i. Totem. — The feminine clan comprises the female descendants, in the direct female line, from a com- mon ancestress, and also all those male descendants, in the same line, who have not yet married into another clan. The ancestress called the totem, is divine, and the worship of her, though not prominent, is one of the bonds of clan union. In most cases she was a brute ; in some a plant, a mineral object, or a meterological phe- nomenon. The savages did not undertake to explain how a bear, a plum or a flash of lightning could be the mother of men. They accepted the assertion as a matter of tradition, to be accepted without question. The mem- bers of the clan venerate not only their mythical ances- tress but all natural objects or phenomena of her class, and treat all of them as totems of the clan. Thus not only the mythical mother black bear of the black bear clan is sacred to all its members, but so are all black bears. No ( SEC. 01. TOTEM. 1 29 animal of that species must be killed or hurt or eaten, nor approached without a show of reverence. The name of the totem is the name of every member of the clan. Thus in the black bear clan, every boy is called a black bear, and he has besides a personal name, but no name inherited from his father. He draws the figure of his totem on his club, canoe, deerskin, shield or tent, or wears it tattooed on his breast. In the totem clans of America and Australia, one of the first questions to be asked when strangers meet is " What is your totem? " ; and from their replies, they know their relationship. If of the same totem, they are brothers. At Mt. Gambler and presumably in other parts of Australia, many animals, plants, heavenly bodies and meteorological phenomena, not recognized as totems, are yet recognized by the aborigines as belonging to certain totems and sharing their sacredness in a minor degree. Thus the dog, the blackwood tree, fire, and frost belong to the pelican totem ; the duck, the wallaby, the owl and cra)'fish to the tea tree totem ; the bustard, the quail, and the dolvich to the murna (a plant) totem. The average number of clans in the tribes east of the Mississippi is perhaps eight. The Chippeways have twenty-three ; the Creeks twenty-two ; the Pottawatomies fifteen ; the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Tuscaroras, and Choctas each, eight, the Oneidas and Mohawks each three. Among the totems of the Creeks are wolf, alligator, cougar, bear, deer, fox, skunk, raccoon, wild- cat, toad, hickory-nut and maize.' The Chippeways have five kinds of fish, three kinds of tortoise, eight kinds of bird, eight kinds of quadruped and one of snake. The Pawnees west of the Mississippi, have buffalo, beaver, deer, eagle, and owl.' 9 130 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. In many tribes, besides the clan there is a grand-clan or association of clans, reminding us of the " curia " or grand-clan of the Romans and the "phratria" or grand- clan of the Greeks. It seems to have been formed out of a clan which grew so large that convenience demanded a subdivision. The Mohicans have wolf, turtle, and tur- key, grand-clans ; the first comprising the wolf, bear, dog and opossum clans ; the second comprising the little tur- tle, mud turtle, great turtle and yellow eel ; and the last the turkey, crane and grouse clans. The functions of the grand-clan are mainly ceremonial, including the pres- ervation of peace among its subordinate clans. Sec. 62. Australian Exogamy. — A large part of Aus- tralia is occupied by feminine clans with sacred totems, supreme allegiance and the obligation of mutual defense, as in North America ; and besides with peculiar subdi- visions, limiting the right of marriage. These subdivis- ions extend through many tribes, some of them separated by a thousand miles of distance, as well as by ignorance of each other's speech. By gestures however they can ascer- tain their relationship in the clan and subdivision of the clan, the first points of inquiry among them when they meet as strangers. These Australian classes are the high- est development of the exogamic principle, but under their influence there is less approach towards monogamous life than in North America.^ Some tribes have two and some four of these classes. A tribe at Mt. Gambler has two clans each of which has two classes, the Kumite and the Kroki. In the former the man is Kumite and the woman Kumitegor ; in the latter the man is Kroki and the woman Krokigor. The final " gor " is a feminine termination. The Kumite must mate with a Krokigor of the other clan and all her SEC. 62. AUSTRALIAN EXOGAMY. l^I children are Krokis and Krokigors. Her son Kroki must mate with a Kumitegor of the other clan. The Kamilaroi tribe has six clans, of which three (Iguana, Kangaroo and Opossum) have the Muri (female Matha) and Kubi (female Kubitha) classes ; and the other three (Emu, Blacksnake and Bandicoot) have the Kumbu (female Butha) and the Ipai (female Ipatha) classes. There are thus six clans and four classes in the tribe. The name of the feminine class is derived from that of the masculine class, with or without other change, by adding the feminine termination " tha." In the widely separated regions of Queensland, West Australia, Central Australia and Herbert River Valley, various tribes have the same four classes ; but perhaps, in the whole continent, a greater number of tribes have only two classes. In the four-class tribes, the man is limited in the choice of a wife to a single class. Thus Muri nmst mate with Butha; Kubi wih Ipatha; Kumbu with Matha ; and Ipai with Kubitha. The child never belongs to the class of either father or mother, but always to her clan. The sons and daughters of Kubitha are Muris and Mathas ; those of Matha are Kubis and Kubithas ; those of Butha are Ipais and Ipathas ; those of Ipatha are Kumbus and Buthas. Ipatha is the mother of Butha and Butha of Ipatha. A similar alter- nation appears in the classes of father and son. The system is so arranged that the blood of the tribe shall flow continuously and evenly through all the classes. Thus, Kumbu's children are Kubis ; his grandchildren, through his daughter, are Muris; and his great-grand- children, through his daughter's son, are Ipais. In four generations, each of the four classes is represented. The class has no distinctive totem nor duties of a 132 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. political or religious character; it is exclusively a limita- tion, with correlative privilege, in the sexual relations.^ Sec. 6^. Fcniininc Clan Survivals. — Many countries which have not had the feminine clan in historical times, yet have traces of it in their customs or traditions. The totem, one of its peculiar features, is found in many African^ and Dyak tribes;^ and it reminds us of the brute deities of the districts of ancient Egypt, where the sister's son inherited the office of district prefect, in accordance with a rule inherited from very early times.^ Inheritance in the female line prevailed in the chieftain- ship of the ancient Picts,* as it does now in that of the Batta Malays,'' Tongans,^ Ashantees, Mandingoes and Loangoes,' and in the transmission of property among the Berbers, the Malagasies, the Bantars of Hindostan, the Wamoima, some Nubians, the Angolese,* the Island Malays,® the Marquesans, the Tahitians and the Fijians. Both rank and property descend to the sister's son among the Bangalas and many Micronesian tribes. Rela- tionship is traced mainly in the feminine line among the Kasias, Kocchs, Nairs, Malabars and Padang Malays. The Banyars have elective chiefs, the choice usually fall- ing on the sister's son of the predecessor,'" and a similar rule prevailed in electing the emperor of the Aztecs. '^ The Kasia husband moves to the house of the wife; and among the Scandinavian Lapps in the last century, the newly-married man had to live for a year with his father- in-law. The modern Chinaman who has migrated to a remote country sends his savings to his mother, rather than to his wife. In ancient Spain, the Iberian daughters inherited all the property of the family and provided for the sons. In Fiji, the eldest son of the eldest sister can go to the SEC. 63. FEMININE CLAN SURVIVALS. 1 33 village of the chief who is his maternal uncle and there take anvthins;' save the wives, and house of the chief He is the heir of the whole village and, when he pays a visit, must be received with great festivity .^^ Among the Kaffirs and many tribes of Eastern Africa, the maternal uncle has more authority over the child than the father; and among the Bondas'^ and Kimbondas^* he has exclu- sive power to sell his maternal nephew or niece. On the other hand, the Bondas hold the nephew responsible for the crimes and debts of his maternal uncle. '^ Various traces of feminine descent are found among the Senegal Moors and the Guajuro Indians of South America.'" In the Egyptian and Etruscan tombs, the name of the dead man's mother, not of his father, is given ;'' and in the Hebrew book of Chronicles, the name of the king's mother is associated with his, as if she were the second person in authority. The king's mother is prominent in Burma, Ashantee, Magira, Bagirmi and Madai. Aristotle remarked that the most warlike tribes were under the rule of women, and among them he included, presumably, the Celts, the Scythians and the Thracians, who had survivals of the feminine clan, and had women noted for courage. In the time of Tacitus, the Teutonic Sithoncs had women chiefs ; and among the Teutons generally, the best hostage, for the good conduct of a ruler, was not his son, but the son of his sister. The Lycians of Asia Minor derived ihcir pedigree and took their name from the mother exclusively. Among the Southern Slavonians of this century, the chief obligation of avenging a murder rests not on the father, but on the brother or maternal uncle.'* Among the Arabs and the Gonds, the young man has a jjrior right to marry the daughter of his paternal uncle; whereas it would be 134 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. improper for him to solicit the hand of a cousin on his mother's side. The greater sacredness of the maternal relationship is a survival of exclusive feminine descent. So also is the rule requiring the monarch in ancient Egypt and Persia, in modern Quichuan Peru, Madagas- car and various African countries, to marry his sister, so that his son should inherit through both parents. Many Arab tribes are named after brutes such as lion, wolf, dog, gazelle, calf, dove or eagle, or as tradition says, after founders who bore the names of those animals. The dove tribe does not eat the dove ; the other tribes attach no sacredness to the animals after which they are named. As we find many other traces of the feminine clan in Arabia, we may presume that all the tribes had their respective totems in remote times. Speaking of some Arabs at the beginning of the Christian era, Strabo said : " All have one wife in common. . . Adultery is punished with death, but it can be committed only with a woman of another tribe." There is here no definition of the tribe within which intercourse was per- missible ; and the language is not inconsistent with the supposition that all the husbands were, by birth, mem- bers of a clan different from that of the wives. The word for tribe in the language of the Arabs, and that for fellow-clansman in the tongues of the Malays and Alfuras of Celebes are survivals of a condition in which descent was traced in the female line only. Some Arab tribes are named after women. Thus the Banu- Chindif, the Banu-Ocda, and Banu-Mozaina are the descendants of the women Chindif, Ocda and Mozaina. The Bedouins of Southern Arabia accept sons-in-law, who are to settle in the wife's village or group, a custom that has sur\'ivcd from the time of the feminine clan. SEC 6t,. feminine clan survivals. 135 In the opinion of the Arabs the character of the man bears more resemblance to that of his chahl or maternal uncle, than to that of his father ; and for his good or bad deeds, the people bless or curse his chahl, even if the latter died twenty years before. A proverb says, " When a mule was asked ' Who is your father?' he answered, * The horse is my chahl.' " When Mohammed wanted to honor Wakkaz he took his hand and said to his friends " Behold my chahl ! " An Arab chief describing another chief to Mohammed said, " He has little capacity and less generosity; his children are stupid and his chahl is bad." An Arab chief of the Taglib tribe offered his wife to the Calif Al-Mansur, who excused himself and ex- plained to his servant that his only reason for rejecting the match was the passage in a poem by Jarir who wrote, " Seek no chahl among the Taglib. The negroes are nobler chahls." The importance thus attributed to the chahl, as Wilken remarks, can be well explained as a survival of exclusive maternal relationship. Among the Hebrews, who are akin to the Arabs, we find traces of feminine descent. Abraham married his half-sister, daughter of his father, and so did Moses. Amnon violated his half-sister, also a child of David, and could have married her, but neglecting to do so, was slain. Such marriages were permitted in the time of Ezekiel.'' The purchase money for Rebecca went not to her father but to her brother and her mother,'"'*' and the duty of blood revenge belonged to the relatives on the mother's side.^^ Robertson Smith has made the remark that " the use of a participle [in the Hebrew tongue] to mean a physical father must, beyond all doubt, have been developed in a condition of life in which physical fatherhood was not the basis of any important social relation."" 136 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. Marriages between brothers and sisters of the half blood by different mothers were reputable among the Athenians in the time of Solon, and were tolerated as late as Pericles. Before Cecrops the Athenians took their names from their mothers as did also the Lycians in 450 B. c, and the early Cretans and Etruscans, and the Locrians of Italy. In Madagascar now the Hovas permit the marriage of brother and sister by different mothers. The feminine clan did not permit the father to sell the daughter. She belonged more to her mother and maternal uncle than to her father ; and if there was any article of purchase in the matrimonial bargain, it was rather the husband than the wife. He, not she, changed residence. His title in her was not permanent enough nor exclusive enough to induce him to pay for her. Sec. 64. Masculine Clan. — The feminine clan was probably universal or nearly universal at one time among the non-tilling tribes ; but it became less and less suited to the wants of society. The warrior sometimes found himself compelled to fight with the clan of his wife and daughters against that of his mother and sisters. His companions in the field had not the same blood as he, nor the same early training, nor the same traditions, nor the same sympathies, nor the same life-long interests. They had not been bred in the clan ; they had no secure place in it. They might be divorced and driven to seek homes elsewhere. All the improvements in the useful arts in government, in the military art, and in religion tended to weaken the feminine clan. The advance of cultivation, the establish- ment of slavery, nobility, powerful chieftainship, and he- reditary priesthood, and the introduction of new tactics SEC. 64. MASCULINE CLAX. 1 37 were adverse influences. Some of them could not gain a foothold until the rule of maternal descent was over- thrown. The successful military leader saw the impor- tance of having soldiers educated from boyhood in the same drill, accustomed to trust one another, with the same life-long allegiance, and the same general perma- nent interests. The men wanted to be masters, not slaves of their wives; owners, not tenants at will of their homes. By such influences, the feminine clan was overthrown over a large part of the globe, but precisely how or where the change was first made we do not know. So soon as one tribe had been well organized on the basis of masculine pedigree, the advantages of its social system were proved by its superior militar}'- strength, — the chief test of human institutions, in the early grades of culture. When the wife became faithful to a single husband, when paternity became comparatively certain, and when degrees of relationship were traceable as distinctly on the side of the father as on that of the mother, there was no longer social need of the clan. Now, for the first time, the idea of the family began to be conceived as an association of a man with a wife or several wives and his children, under his control, all the members of the asso- ciation being related to others in the community by definite grades of affinity or of lineal or collateral con- sanguinity, on both sides of the parentage. The recog- nition of these degrees suggested better limitations, than tho.se of clan exogamy, in the choice of spouses. There was much more reason to be governed by regard for descent from a common grandparent or great-grandpar- ent, than for that from a very remote and perhaps mythical ancestor on only one side. 138 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. If the clan had been exclusively social in its charac- ter it would have disappeared with feminine descent. But it was also political and religious, and its influences in these respects had not diminished. It was still the sovereign political organization, with the only power of giving efficient protection to individuals; and in many places it was indispensable for that purpose. Besides, its importance had been increased by the development of a system of public worship of which it became the chief custodian. Such influences in favor of the clan were sufficient to maintain it long after the abandonment of feminine descent on which it was originally founded. Thus the masculine clan succeeded to the feminine clan, preserving the same principle of exogamy. It took possession of most of North America west of the Mis- sissippi, of part of Australia, and of part of Asia. It ex- isted in Ancient Greece and Italy. Remains of it are found in Hindostan and China, where persons of the same family name are not permitted to marr>^ In all China there are only four hundred family names, with five hundred thousand persons to each on an average. Sec 65. Capture. — The rule of male descent may have been recognized first in the children of women taken from hostile tribes by chiefs or distinguished warriors. Such captives became the exclusive property of their captors, and their children, distinguished by a known posterity, became the favorites of their fathers. As such wives were desirable, and yet were not obtainable in war by the majority of men, a custom of obtaining women by simulation of capture from friendly clans or tribes arose, and spread over many countries.^ In parts of Australia, all wives are obtained by cap- ture. The man who wants a wife, watches the young SEC. 66. POLYANDRY. 1 39 women of the suitable clan and class until he finds a fa- vorable opportunity to seize the one he chooses ; he knocks her senseless with his club, and then, perhaps with the assistance of some friends drags her away. This is the only wedding ceremony. The assent of the woman is not asked, and if asked could not be granted without gross violation of the proprieties. She expects and desires to be treated in this wav, because it is the only respectable method of matrimony. Brides are taken by force or with show of force among the Eskimos at Cape York, the Armenians, the Kaffirs, the Mandin- goes, the Tungooses, the Kamtschatkans, some Bed- ouins, and some tribes in the Amazon valleys. The pretense of force is a survival of the custom of real capture ; which latter, however, was, in most cases, a custom recognized by the comity of clans or tribes. It was not like murder, something to be avenged to the death. No tribe depended for wives exclusively on women taken in real warfare; and the masculine clan could never have been organized, if it had waited until it could take all its women by hostile force. The polyandrous and polygynous habits of the femi- nine clan were not in harmony with the spirit of the mas- culine clan, under the influence of which they gradually diminished. Society advanced towards the idea of the family, but for long ages the idea remained vague, and its adoption in general practice was subjected to many limit- ations. The modern family has risen on the ruins of the clan ; so long as the latter was potent, the former was weak. Sec. 66. Polyandry. — Although abandoned in many tribes when the feminine clan was overthrown, in others polyandry continued to maintain its existence. It is 140 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. now the dominant matrimonial system among the Cash- merians, the Thibetans, the Nairs, the Todas/ and the Coorgs, and it is tol erated among the Kalmucks, Aleuts, Eskimos, Orinocos, Maypures, and Hottentots. It was found occasionally among the Maoris, Marquesans and many North American tribes east of the Rocky Moun- tains, as well as among the nobles of ancient Sparta and mediaeval Venice. Among the Nairs, Thibetans, and Cashmerians all the husbands of one wife are usually brothers. After the eldest brother marries, the younger ones live in his house. When polyandry is the general rule of the community, it is accompanied by the habit of exposing many of the female infants, as among the Todas and Marquesans; when it is the rule only of a dominant class, as among the Spartans and Venetian nobles, it grows out of the inability of some men to maintain separate families in the style demanded of their rank. The communities in which polyandry now exists con- tain about seven million people in the aggregate. Most of the Toda families are polyandrous, but po- lygyny is also found among them. As the man, who marries the eldest of several sisters, is entitled to all the younger ones, so under some circumstances, the woman who marries the eldest of several brothers, can take the others. In the Parana valley. South America, marriage contracts frequently stipulate that the husband may have several wives or that the wife may have several husbands. ■* Among the Maoris, Marquesans, Bafiotes and Nat- chez, the privilege -of having several husbands belongs only to the women of noble rank. In Congo, and the Mariana Islands, the noble women can divorce husbands SEC. dj. POLYGYNY. I^.I of inferior rank at pleasure, and for this reason prefer in- feriors. The daughter of a Bechuana head chief cannot marry an inferior, but while unmarried, she can have as many lovers as she wishes.^ In Ashantee, Congo, Loango, and Akka, many daugh- ters of high chiefs refuse to marry but make frequent changes in their lovers so that no one shall presume on the favor shown to him. Custom in Dahomey permits the king's daughter to invite any ma,-"" to her chamber. Sec. (>y. Polygyny. — The masculine clan soon checked and finally suppressed the polyandrous customs inher- ited from the feriiinine clan, and established the polyg- ynous family in which the wives were required, under ordinary circumstances, to be faithful to the husband. This polygynous family prevailed so expensively and so long, down to our own time, that it may be considered one of the ordinary features of savage and barbarous life. Out of hundreds of tribes, not half a dozen are monoga- mous. Indeed, to many savages, polygyny seems equally necessary to the women and to the men ; to the former because of the excess of their number, many of the men being killed in war ; and to the latter because there must be an interval of f )ur years after the expectation of a birth before the child shall be deprived of a mother's milk by another child.' On this point public opinion is strict in some savage regions of Africa and Polynesia ; as it is in various modern, and was in many ancient bar- barous, countries. The Congoese husband must keep away from his wife until her child can carry a calabash of water without spilling. In Fiji, if a woman has a child before its predecessor is four years old — the age for weaning — her relatives take great, and sometimes mortal offense at the husband. h2\-en in the tribes possessing 142 A HISTORY OF MANKIND, milk-yielding animals, monogamy would be considered discreditable to a chief.^ The red warrior, who buys the eldest in a group of several sisters, has a recognized claim to buy the younger ones when they arrive at womanhood. For the sake of domestic harmony, he prefers that all his wives should be sisters. The Cherokee man must add his mother-in- law to his list of wives when she becomes a widow. Sec. 68. Girl's Position. — In most tribes of Africa, Polynesia, and America, custom places no restriction save those of rank and blood relationship, on unmarried women. Every village of the Tongans^ and Wanyam- wuezi^ has a large hut with a single room for the exclu- sive use of the girls and their lovers. In eastern Equa- torial Africa, the Foosa girl has a hut for herself and her visitors.^ Among the Kamtschatkans the girl boasts of the number of her lovers, and so in certain cases does the woman among the Dakotas.* The Santals, Gonds and Wanikas have festivals for the unmarried women and their favored adorers. Among the exceptional tribes, which demand strict conduct from their unmarried women, are the Cheyennes, Apaches, Abipones, Fans, and some Patagonians. Sec. 69. Wife's Position. — The overthrow of the femi- nine clan led to the custom of buying wives. Youth, beauty, noble blood, membership in a powerful clan, and skill in fishing or diving for mollusks, are among the ele- ments of a girl's marketable value. In many tribes, the possession of a number of daughters is a source of wealth. The purchaser is entitled to a return of his money if the woman should be sterile, if she should elope, or if she should die before having a child. Some customs permit her to leave her husband, whenever she SEC. 69, wife's position. 143 finds a preferred lover who will pay her original price. Her relatives by blood retain an interest in her, avenge her murder by anybody but her husband, and in some tribes can demand payment from him when he kills her. Generally in savage tribes, not organized on the basis of feminine descent, the husband is the absolute owner of the wife. He can divorce, sell, mutilate, or kill her without the least responsibility to anyone. He has the same ownership and control of his children. If his wife be entitled by local customs to a divorce and she wishes one, she cannot leave him while she expects or suckles a child ; for the children belong to the father and must be delivered to him in such condition that they can live without further assistance from the mother. In countries where a comfortable hut can be erected by the labor of one person in a few hours, each wife has her separate dwelling, and the husband makes his home for alternate days or weeks in each. Jealousy is per- haps not more frequent in polygynous than in monoga- mous families, and the first wife is pleased when her hus- band marries again. The possession of several is a mark of the man's dignity. He is subject to no penalty for paying attention to women not in his family. A Kaffir proverb expresses the idea accepted in some of the more advanced tribes, " Man is for all women ; woman is for her husband alone." Among the Redmen, the man lives with all his wives and children in one room. The husband does not converse with his wife before company ; he does not eat with her ; he treats her as an inferior being, or slave. When she goes with him, she must walk at a distance behind him. If there be a bur- den for one, she carries it ; if a horse for one, he rides it. In many tribes, even in seasons of superabundance, 144 ^ HISTORY OF MANKIND. she is forbidden to eat certain delicacies. To her, ava, turtle, pork, and cocoa-nut are prohibited in parts of Polynesia ; chicken and goat in Ishogoland; pork among the Khonds ; certain fish in some parts of Australia ; human flesh and various other delicacies in Melanesia, and in the Mbaya region, monkey and capibara to the married woman ; and all quadrupeds, birds and large fish to the girls. In the countries where these prohibitions respectively prevail, they belong to the local ecclesiasti- cal systems and the priests threaten violators with the terrors of divine wrath. In Dahomey and Cueva where the woman are efficient soldiers, in Balondaland where they own and till the fields, and in those regions where they get food supplies of shell-fish by diving, or fish by angling, or roots by digging, they are treated by the men as social equals. In those tribes which require the husband to capture his wife or to elope with her, he must nevertheless pay for her ; and if he cannot pay at once, he may be bound, so long as he lives, to give to her father part of every large animal killed by him. Among the Garos and Bhinyas of Hindostan, some peninsular Malays, and the Ahitas of the Philippine Islands, some liberty of choice is allowed to the girl, but after she has accepted the suitor, he must nevertheless pay for her. In Casemanche, the girl may be betrothed , in infancy, and married when she becomes a young woman. On her wedding day she receives a chemise which she must wear with the obligation of fidelity, the obligation expir- ing when the o-arment is worn out. As beating with a club or stone is part of the process of washing in that country, the young married woman may often be seen pounding part of her wardrobe very industriously be- SEC. 70. MARRIAGE, ETC. 1 45 tween two rough stones.^ In certain Malagasy tribes \s'hile the husband is absent from his village, his wife must be true to him." In Dahomey, Japan, and parts of Hindostan and Malaysia, the occupation of the public woman is not disreputable, and many poor girls adopt it for a time for the purpose of learning the habits of po- lite society, and collecting money for a dowry. A hos- pitality more generous than that of civilized communities is common among savages in all the continents. Sec. 70. Marriage, etc. — Savage tribes generally have no wedding ceremony, the importance of which, in civil- ized society grows out of the permanence of the matri- monial relation, the chastity or supposed chastity of the average bride, and the husband's promise to love and cherish her. The unrestricted or extensive promiscuous- ness in the early culturesteps, and the capture, purchase and enslavement of the women, tended to prevent display on the occasion of a marriage. In very few savage tribes is there any serious ceremony ; among the exceptions are the weddings of chiefs and nobles before priests in Tahiti/ and of warriors before chiefs in New England.^ The Andamanese man and women may treat each other as husband and wife through a season or two, but after the birth of a child, they separate and select other partners.^ Marriages for a few days are permitted among the Piutes ;* for a week or month among the Hurons f without obligations of fidelity on either side among the Akkas,® and on probation among the Todas, Congoese, Greenlanders, and many North Americans. In some Polynesian groups there is no permanence in the sexual relation until the couple have a child which they agree to rear/ The Hassaniyeh Arab marriage contract binds the wife 10 14^ A HISTORY OF MANKIND. to conjugal fidelity for a certain number of days — usually four — in every week. In making the bargain the hus- band haggles for five or six ; the father for two or three days.^ The man's privilege of divorce is often used, especially by the poor man who can have only one wife at a time. When he sends her back to her father, he cannot reclaim the price paid, and the father does not object, as he can sell her again. The matrimonial relation is usually brief among the Damaras, Kasias and Aleuts. The Guaycurus and Chiriguanas of South America and the Eskimos often trade wives. Among the Chippewyans and the Bush- men, the strongest man is allowed by custom to take the wife of the weaker. The question of relative strength is solved by wrestling. Divorce costs a camel in Arabia, and many men there have paid the price over and over again. Burckhardt saw a man forty-five years old who had had fifty wives, and only one at a time.^ Ali, son-in-law of Mohammed, had two hundred wives in all, at different times ; and a dyer of Bagdad, is famous for having wedded nine hun- dred different women. ^° In those regions where the wife is bought, there is no limitation to the age at which she may be delivered to her husband. Often she is paid for when not more than six or eight years old, and sometimes at such a tender age she is taken to the home of the purchaser. Some travelers attribute the early fading and common sterility of savage women to the abuses accompanying their pre- mature marriage.^^ As there are child wives, so there are child husbands. The latter are found now among some hill tribes of Hindostan,^' and among the Kirghiz,'^ as they were in the last century among the Russians. By SEC. 72. COUVADE. 1 47 marrv'ine his child son to a vounsr woman, the Russian farmer obtained a cheap servant and concubine. Sec. 71. BrotJicr Adoption. — The custom of adopting a brother by a mixture of blood prevails over much of Africa, Polynesia and ^Malaysia, and is found in North and South America and Western Asia. It existed also in ancient Europe. The methods of making the mixture are numerous, including simultaneous sucking of the blood from cuts in the upper right arms of the two who adopt each other, and the smearing of the blood of both on bread which is eaten by both ; and putting it in beer which is drunk, and mixing it with tobacco which is smoked. Among the Wanyamwuezi, powder is rubbed into the cuts so they shall remain x'isible reminders of the relationship. The Syrians smear some of the blood on paper which is enclosed in a little case and carried on the neck as a sacred amulet. The brothers adopted by a mixture of blood, owe the highest dev^otionto each other; must defend each other at the risk of their lives ; must regard each other as having almost equal rights in their property and wives ; must av^enge the wrongs done to each other ; and in some tribes must exchange names, so that each abandons his own former name and assumes that of the other. Sec. J2. CoHvadc. — The couvade, a custom requiring the father to lie abed for a week or two after the birth of his child, prevails or prevailed extensively among many savage tribes, including the Lower Californians, the Sho- shones, some New Mexicans, the Arowaks, the Abiponcs, the Coroados, the Caribs, the Greenlanders, the Kam- tschatkans, and some Congocs, and Dyaks, as well as among some barbarous peoples of Asia Minor in the time of Xcnophjn, among some people in modern China, 14^ A HISTORY OF MANKIND. and among the civilized Corsicans and Basques of the XlXth century.' A kindred custom limiting the diet of the father for a few weeks exists in Fiji, Borneo, Mada- gascar and Kaffirland.^ While in bed during the cou- vade, the Abipone father is carefully protected against cold breezes, so that he shall not take a catarrh ; he is restricted in his diet, and his eyebrows are pulled out. A neglect of these precautions exposes the child to great danger of early death or life-long misfortune. Even after rising from his bed, the father must not exert himself much. During the first three weeks after the birth, he must not cut down a tree, nor catch a large fish nor kill a large quadruped nor even shoot off a gun.* Similar restrictions rest on the father of the newly-born child among the Land Dyaks.'' If a man disregards the rules of the couvade, among the Mundrucus, he is not con- sidered the father of the child.* This custom had its origin presumably in the idea that the father must do penance to appease the spirits or gods who are trying to take the life of the infant ; and it perhaps did not begin until after the overthrow of the feminine clan, when the father by laying claim to the child, became, to a certain extent, responsible for the preservation of its life. We do not find the couvade in any of the tribes organized in feminine clans. In the Bi- ble we read that " the Lord struck the child, that Uriah's wife bare unto David, and it was very sick. David therefore besought God for the child; and David fasted, and went in and lay all night upon the earth. "^ The motive of the Jewish monarch in this penance was to induce Yahveh to spare the life of the child,^ and as the procedure in the couvade is analogous to that of David, so we may presume that the custom had its origin in a SEC. yi- INFANCV, ETC. 1 49 similar motive. The father does not wait until his in- fant falls sick, but performs his penance partly for the purpose of protecting it, in its first days, against the at- tacks of the evil spirits. In some tribes both the mother and her new-born child are unclean, and it is sacrile- gious for the villagers generally to touch them or go near them until they are purified, the couvade of the father being part of the ceremony of purification.^ Sec. 73. Infancy, etc. — To the savage woman, parturi- tion is seldom prolonged, painful, or debilitating.^ She does not take to her bed, nor make an outcr}% nor need assistance. Among the Dakotas, a child is disgraced by the mother who shrieks or even groans in gi\ing it birth. In many regions, the woman, who expects to have a child, goes away alone and in an hour comes back with it in her arms. In Tasmania and parts of New Guinea, the new-born in- fant is buried to its neck in warm ashes or sand. In most North American tribes, it is tied on a board covered with a layer of moss, and there it is kept for more th u\ a year, though taken off every day for the purpose of washing.^ A string at the top of the board serves to hang up the baby, and when this is attached to the flex- ible limb of a tree and also to the big toe of the mother, she can rock the cradle while sitting at licr household work. Savage population is nearly stationary in number. A large increase cannot be continuous because there is no rapid development of industry to supply an increased stock of food. Children arc not numerous. A mother with five living children is rare ; with eight, very rare. Among the causes of tiie paucity of offspring in tribes which have not begun t(j die out, arc the frequency of 150 A HISTORi' OF MANKIND. famines and of seasons with scanty supplies of nutritious food ; the excessive toil imposed on the women, and the customs of early marriages, of abortion and of suckling three or four years. Infanticide is not prohibited by any savage govern- ment. It is rare in Africa, common in Australia and America, frequent in Melanesia, and very frequent in Micronesia and Polynesia. In the Hawaiian group, two children out of three, on an average, were abandoned at birth f and the proportion was equally large in some other Polynesian groups. In Ratak, no woman, unless a chiefs wife, was permitted to rear more than three children.'' In the Kingsmill Islands, after a woman had two living children, she usually prevented the birth of others.^ The Tukopians did not allow more than two boys to grow up in a family." A child of cross-blood, that is one whose parents were of different ranks, was dispatched in Polynesia and Micronesia, as was one of half white blood in Australia.' Many Abipone women abandon their new-born infants for fear that otherwise their husbands will take additional wives or run after other women.* Experience has shown that the milk of the mother is insufficient for the maintenance of two children until they are old enough to depend on other food ; and therefore in many tribes the birth of twins is considered unlucky ; and one at least is sacrificed. Among the Arebos both are dispatched.' The cutting of the upper teeth before the lower ones is a cause for condemning children to death among some African tribes ; and turn- ing from side to side in sleep, among some Americans. Deformed children and motherless infants are abandoned everywhere. In the Kingsmill group, poor parents often SEC. 74. SOX-IN-LAW SHYNESS. I5I expose girls because they would need dowries at mar- riaore. The frequency of infanticide among savages must not be attributed to a lack of affection on the part of the women. They are generally kind mothers, and when they have once suckled a child, they rarely consent to its death. In many Polynesian islands, they had to choose between infanticide and the starvation of the adults. * Sec. 74. Son-iii-laio Shyness. — A custom almost as wonderful as couvade, to high civilization, is that of son- in-law shyness, which forbids certain persons related by marriage to see or speak to each other. Among the North American savages generally, the Arowaks, the Caribs, and the Arabs, the son-in-law must not look the mother-in-law in the face ; and if he has anything to say to her, even in her presence, he must tell a third person to tell it to her ; and if there be no third person to serve as a medium of communication, he must look away from her, and talk as if addressing himself to another. When a Kaffir mother meets her daughter's husband she must turn aside and sit with her back to the road imtil he lias passed. The Kaffir wife is not permitted to seethe father or uncle of her husband or to pronounce their names. In some tribes of central Africa, the affianced man must not see the parents of iiis prospective wife. The Mongol or Kalmuck wife must not speak to her husband's father ; and the Chinaman must not see his daughter-in-law. In one of the Gilbert Islands, years elapse after marriage before the wife dares to speak to any man save her hus- band.' The rules of son-in-law shyness vary greatly in tin: ])ers^ns to whom tlic\' a])])l)' and the method of their application in different triljes, and are found extending 152 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. over a large part of the savage world ; but not in any of the tribes composed of feminine clans. They are parts of the system of masculine descent, devised to give to the husband control over his wife, and may have been influenced also by the animosities resulting from the capture of wives. Sec. 75. Womanhood. — Among the tribes which have outgrown the feminine clan, the appearance of woman- hood in the young girl, instead of being reserved as a modest secret, is treated as a proper matter for general notoriety or as an occasion of public festivity. She is regarded as a piece of merchandise to be sold at the first opportunity. Her marketable condition is announced by a distinctive girdle or headdress in part of Pennsyl- vania;^ by tattoo among the Polynesians, Fijians, Pimas and Gonds ; by cicatrices among the Australians ; by filing the teeth among the Batta Malays ; by breaking out a tooth or several teeth among the Tasmanians, Batokas, and many other tribes ; by pulling out the eye- brows and eyelashes among the Apaches ; by inserting an ornament in the lip or nose in certain tribes ; by an invitation to all acquaintances to call at the tent and con- gratulate the family among the Dakotas ; by proces- sion and a feast among the Mandingoes, Fans, Akkas and Cape Palmas negroes ;' by a dance among the Marutse ^ and some Californians ;* by subjecting the girl to a three days' fast among the Yumas; by flogging her among the Campas of South America f by burying to the neck in sand for twenty-four hours near San Diego,® and by imprisoning her for months in Alaska and Cen- tral America.' Sec. 'J^. Modesty. — Modesty is a conventional standard of propriety, harmonizing with customs adapted to the SEC. jy NUDITY. 153 climate, dwellings, customs, laws and superstitions of the country. It varies with time and place and general cul- ture. Those tribes which are ordinarily nude, which have only one small sleeping apartment for a family of six or eight persons, and which attach no value to virginity in the girl or to conjugal chasity in the wife, cannot have the same rules of modesty as other tribes with different customs and ideas. In the valley of the Orinoco, the woman is immodest who appears among strangers with- out a coat of paint. An aboriginal girl there, to please a European visitor, put on a gown, but when some of her tribe appeared she was much abashed and threw off the garment hastily. The scantier the ordinary clothing of the Zulus, the greater their shame when surprised without any. It has been observed that some nude African tribes are less unchaste, and by civilized standards less immodest than other tribes which are habitually clothed. Fashionable styles of dress in certain parts of South America and the Pacific islands are more immodest than absolute nudity. The conversation of savages is often very gross, and the same remarks nia\- be made of man\- of their amuse- ments and customs. I-'roni their earliest infancy, children see sights and hear expressions which are carefully hid- den in civilized countries. At the most fashionable entertainments of Polynesia and Micronesia, the highly- honored Areoi nobles sing the coarsest songs and act most indecent scenes.^ Sec. TJ. Nudity. — Among savages generally the senti- ment that nudity is immodest, if not absolutely lacking, is very weak. In tropical climates throughout the year, and in temperate region ;, in the hot season, the children who have not arrived at puberty are nearl}' all naked. 154 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. and so are the adults in Tasmania, parts of Australia, the Pelew, Mariana and Torres islands, and among the Ovambos, Batokas, Obongos, Bubes, Lufiras, Wakambas, Kaironoos, Goldas, Botocudos, Orinocos, Arowaks, Ta- pajos, Puris, and Coroados of both sexes. To distin- guish himself from his subjects, the chief of the Musgus wears clothes. The men of Shir, Nuehr, Bari, Mahenge, New Caledonia, and California and the Maori warriors, on military expeditions, are nude and so are the married women of Ganguella, Watusi, Uape, Congo, and parts of Australia and Melanesia, and the unmarried women of Fan, Dor, Nuehr, Dinka, Shillook, Ashira, Obbo, Tupi, Guaype, and parts of Australia and South America. The Mandombe bride, without any clothing save a coat of whitewash, calls on her friends to announce her ap- proaching marriage.^ The general rule of savage life is that as the wife must be stricter in her conduct than the girl, so also she shall be more careful to clothe herself In Fiji, the only dress of the marriageable girl is a girdle with fringe three inches long ; of the childless wife a foot long ; of the wife with a child, a foot and a half long. The savage woman usually wears no clothing above the waist in warm weather, and a small motive induces her to throw off that below the waist. Thus if she has to walk across a stream where she will be splashed, she takes it off. A Kaffir girl in a mixed company received a present of a new dress, and immediately took off the old one, so that she could put on the new one. In many tribes the women are dressed while away from home or at home entertaining visitors, and nude at other times. Sec. yS. Clothing. — The most common feminine gar- ment is a fringe girdle, the fringe, from three to eighteen SEC. yS. CLOTHING. 1 55 inches long, consisting of flags, reeds, strips of bark, twine, or leather thongs. If beads are procurable, they are much prized for decorating this simple but important article of apparel. Loin-cloths, aprons, short skirts and cloaks are also fashionable, the preferred materials for them, on account of solidity of texture and fitness for ornamenta- tion, being woven cloth or leather; but for lack of these bark cloth is much used. The Wahehe woman wears a string of beads round her UTiist with a tail hanging down behind; and it would be highly unbecoming for her to go into company with- out the tail. The Watuta, Wanyuema, Shillook and Vatd women have string girdles with an apron or fringe in front and a tail behind, and the tail should be longer than the appendage in front. The dress of the obscurely fair sex in the Apono and Ishogo tribes consists of two pieces of cloth, one on each side of the body from the armpits to the kn jcs. These pieces must meet behind ; whether they meet in front or not is less important. The Dor women comply with the requirements of modesty, as they understand it, by wearing a little twig hanging down in front from a string girdle. An apron six inches square attached to a similar girdle suffices for the mar- ried women of Fan, Shir, Bari, Monbuttoo, Mundrucu and some New Guinea tribes. The savage in the temperate zone bears with compar- ative indifference a degree of cold which would cause great discomfort to the civilized man. He not only seems comfortable when nearly naked in a freezing tem- perature, but when he receives a piece of cloth, he will wear it in cold weather not on the chest or abdomen, wiiich we consider the most sensitive parts to chills, but on the shoulders. Thus arc worn the small and 156 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. solitary deerskin of the aboriginal Californian/ the seal- skin of the Fuegian, and the cloak of the Abipone^ and Mbaya women.^ The Eskimos and many North American tribes make leggings, trousers ; coats and coverings for the feet v/ith the aid of the needle, but savages generally use no sev/ed garments. In Polynesia, Australia and Africa, there is no attempt to fit bark cloth, woven cloth, matting or skins, to the body or limbs. The prehistoric Europeans in tilling culture before the discovery of bronze, wore sewed clothing of skins and linen. Nearly all savages go bareheaded ; and few wear a covering for the feet. Sec. 79. Ornaments. — For the sake of ornament, the savage loads his nose, lips, ears, wrists and ankles with rings, and his arms, legs, neck and waist Avith heavy coils of wire. He sacrifices his comfort to his vanity. He invests a considerable part of his wealth in the purchase of an oppressive burden. A Mittoo man struts about with a chain of half-inch iron welded on his neck, that is if he cannot afford copper or brass, which are more stylish, but are not within reach of people of scanty or moderate means. A Wanyam- wuezi girl, to be in the height of fashion, should have a girdle of half-inch hemp rope hidden under a wrapping of fine brass or copper wire. The Bongo covers both arms from wrist to elbow with brass rings, a quarter of an inch thick. ^ The Chumberi woman, if in moderate station, wears a brass collar, weighing at least twenty pounds, soldered on her neck ; if rich, the weight should be thirty pounds.'^ Among the Dinkas, it is not a rare occurrence to see a person carrying forty pounds of cop- per ornaments.^ If fashionable, a Santal woman should carry thirty-four pounds of metallic ornaments, including StC. 80. HA IK DRESSING. 1 5/ four in each of her bracelets and anklets, and eighteen in her collar.* She would doubtless feel miserable if she should meet a Congo belle with a load of seventy- five pounds, including more than sixty in her collar alone." The Wanika woman wears a quarter-inch brass wire closely coiled around her leg from ankle to knee ; and the Masai girl, besides having such wrappings on her legs, has others of like material on her arms from wrist to elbow. These coils put on tightly when the girl is young, and never taken off, prevent the growth of the muscles, obstruct ablution, cause troublesome sores and hinder all movements. But then it is the fashion. The Taveta girl is content with wire coils from wrist to elbow. The M-teita girl carries twenty or thirty pounds of beads. Such ornaments as are worn in ears, nose, lips and teeth will be mentioned in other sections. Sec. 80. Hair Dressing. — In many savage tribes the hair is dressed elaborately. It is shaved wholly or partly, bleached, dyed, smeared with grease, stiffened with clay or glutinous material, or plaited with its own strands or with twine, in patterns which may be uniform in family, clan or tribe, so as to advertise the wearer's nationality, rank or pedigree. The Andamanese, and some Fijians, Wagogos, Waswahilis and Tasmanians, shave the head clean. Many Redmcn shave off or pull out the hair of the head save a spot on the vertex, where a scalp lock is preserved. Much of the head is shaved by the Ovambos, Batokas, Wagandos, Watusi, Watutas, Wisigas, Zulus, Marquesans, Fijians and Hawaiians, leaving crests, coro- nets, ridges, or spots of hair, or bare spots amidst the hair. The most elaborate hair dressing is that of the La- tookas, whose hair is interwoven with twine and covered 158 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. with beads so elaborately, that years are required to com- plete the work. In one instance the task was not finished until after a lapse of eight years.^ Next to the Latookas, in such extravagance, are the Ishogos, Ashangos, Bornus and Fijians,all of which tribes have large mop-like head- dresses which they cannot comb out nor rest on when lying down. They sleep, not with the head on a pillow, but with the neck on a little trestle. The Fijian head- dress is frequently a foot, and occasionally twenty inches in diameter. The Ishogo wears his hair in a cylinder interwoven with vegetable fibre rising ten inches above the skull ; and all the hair below the base of the cylinder is shaved off." The Ashango man and the Monbuttoo woman wear a tower of hair similar to that of the Ishos-o. but not quite so elaborate. The Bornu woman divides her hair from forehead to the base of the occiput into three parallel sections, each of which is worked up into a hi*h roll and kept in place with a stiffening of wax.^ The wearers of these mops and baskets cannot comb or wash their hair, and for scratching, must use long bod- kins. The Banyai* of South Africa and the Tannese^ di- vide the hair into hundreds of little parcels, and wrap each from end to end with thread, so that the head seems to be covered with twine, six inches long and a sixteenth of an inch thick. The Edeeyah, on the western coast of Africa, makes his hair into curly tufts stiffened with grease and clay, so that his head looks as if covered with a hundred short cigars fastened to the scalp. The Fulah woman has similar tufts colored deep blue. Some Afri- cans shave off part of the hair, and plaster the remainder into clumps, with the shape and size of buffalo horns. Nearly all savages dress thsir hair with some unguent. In Abyssinia the preferred material is mutton suet which SEC. 8l. OIL AND PAINT. 1^9 has been chewed for two hours. Bear's grease is used by the Redmen, palm oil by the negroes, and cocoa-nut oil by the Polynesians. By the help of washes, dyes and paints, the natural black color of the hair is changed to white, gray, yellow, orange, red, brown, purple or blue, according to the custom of the tribe or the caprice of the indivadual. A fashion, that perhaps had its origin in the effort to get rid of troublesome insects,® requires men and women, in many tribes, to carefully pull out or shave off all the hair on body or face, even the eyebrows and eyelashes. Sec. 8 1 . Oil and Paint. — Unable to obtain handsome cloth with which to hide his body, the savage covers it with grease, paint, tattoo and scar. Besides being a pro- tection against cold, insects, sun and rain, a coat of unguent, in most hot countries inhabited by savages, is necessary for full dress. It may indicate the rank of the wearer. Nearly every kind of grease is used for such purposes, including human marrow and kidney fat. The last gives to the Australian the strength and courage of his slain enemy, as well as protection against insects. The Polynesians and Africans perfume their oil, but whether perfumed or not, it soon turns rancid and then, if the man can afford the expense, must be replaced with a new coat. In the Pacific Islands, turmeric is mixed with the anointing oil, to give a rich brownish yellow color to the body. Black is preferred by the Haidahs, soot by the Thlinkeets, black or blue by the Maoris, red by the Indians of the Mississippi basin, red and white by the Australians, Congoese, and Andamanese; and red by the men and blue by the women of Bonny. For festival occasions, the Areoi nobles of Polynesia had scarlet faces l60 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. and black bodies. The Ganguellas paint their faces green. The Gain negroes, cover the front of the body with diamond-shaped blocks of alternating hues. The mili- tary uniform of Obbo is a combination of white, yellow and Vermillion patches or stripes. In some tribes, the skin, whether greased or not, must be stained. Among the Arabs and many African tribes, the palms, soles and finger-nails are dyed brownish red with henna. The body is stained orange and black by the Botocudos, blood red by the Caribs, and blue by the Bornuese, some Brazilians and some Zinder women. The legs are stained red wdth blue spots by the Guiana Indians ; the backs blue by Tahitian women ; the faces yellow by the Aheer women; the lips blue by the Fans, and blue or black by the Maoris ; and the gums black by the Watusi and yellow by some of the people of Sind. Sec. 82. Tattoo. — In ornamentation of the savage per- son, tattoo comes next to oil and paint. It is used wath the greatest liberality in the tropics where the general nudity allows it to be seen at all seasons, but is also found in very cold climates, where it is ordinarily restricted to the face. However, it is not always intended for the inspection of strangers. The most complete tat- too is that of the Marquesans, whose bodies, face, scalp, neck and limbs to the tips of the fingers and toes, are covered, the scalp being shaved for the purpose. The Maoris and Mundrucus also indulge in elaborate tattoo. Most of the tattoo of the Fiji woman is between the waist and mid-thigh, where, after she has children, it is con- cealed by the fringed girdle. The Kayan Dyak woman has a similar decoration, but to exhibit it, she wears a skirt open at the sides. In many tribes, the tattoo is in beautiful lace-like patterns. An imitation stocking SEC. 82. TATTOO. 161 covers the legs of the Pelew and Tahitian women. The tattoo of the Bari negro is like a covering of the fish scales; that of the Kanowit Dyak like chain armor. The tattoo of the Red Karen is limited to the back ; that of the Tongataboo woman to the palm ; that of the Ratak woman to the neck and bosom ; that of the Nono- mea woman to the shoulder and abdomen ; that of the Fan woman to the breast and abdomen ; that of the Tahi- tian man to the breast, leg, arm and hand ; that of the Ta- hitian woman to the leg below the knee and to the arm; that of the Micronesian man to the body and limbs ; that of the Toda woman to the chest, leg and arm ; that of the Nuehr chief to horizontal wrinkle-like lines on the forehead ; and that of the Eskimos, Aleuts, Chookchees and Tungooses to the face. Besides its purpose of decoration, tattoo serves in vari- ous tribes to designate blood or rank,^ to give a ferocious expression to the warrior,^ to make a record of some brave exploit or notable experience ; to consecrate the wearer to a fetish * ; to mark the ownership of a slave ; to announce the arrival of a girl or boy at puberty, or the admission of a young man into the warrior class ; or, as is supposed, to protect the persons against chills.* In Polynesia the process of tattooing is a religious ceremony, and is performed by priests, while the sub- ject is under a taboo or ecclesiastical consecration. Without tattoo the man has no favor with the gods; and he cannot enter a temple ; in Pelew the girl cannot marry.* Among the Rcdmcn, the warrior is often seen with his totem tattooed on his breast. The tattoo of the totem of a hostile tribe under a tomahawk or knife shows that he has shiin an enemy. A Tahitian had all the islands known to him tattooed on his body, and thus II 1 62 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. he carried his map of the world with him. A Polynesian wife was tattooed with the emblems of the male ances- tors of her husband ; she was a heraldic record.* Many tribes require their members to be marked with scars, usually made by rubbing a cut through the skin with some pigment or acrid mineral, or by searing it with red-hot stone or metal. The breast and shoulders are the parts on which the scars are placed by most of the scari- fying tribes ; but the face, abdomen, shoulders, hips, arms and legs are also used. The patterns include straight lines, crescents, circles, and stars on a level with the adjacent skin, and lumps like peas, small and large beans, fingers, and eggs. They are produced in many different ways, one process being to thrust a needle through the skin, twist it and fasten it in the twisted position until the lump becomes permanent.^ The great- est number of scars habitually worn by the average man is perhaps in Bornu, where he has ninety-one, including twenty on each side of the face, between the mouth and the ear, six on each arm and leg, nine on each side above the hips, and one in the center of the forehead.* The cicatrices of the Rubengas are compared in size to hen's eggs f those of the Kordofanese to pigeon's eggs ;^** those of New Guinea to fingers." Sec. St,. Mutilations. — In Africa, Australia and Mi- cronesia, we find the habits of breaking out, chipping and filing the teeth. Among the reasons given for these customs are the desire for a fashionable lisp,^ the dis- grace of having mouths like those of apes,^ or of eating with all one's teeth like a horse,' and the duty of making one's mouth resemble that of a cow.* Some of the tribes which draw their reasons from cows do not possess those animals; as they break out teeth in both jaws, so they do SEC. 83. MUTILATIONS. 163 not imitate their pretended models closely. Among the causes that ma)- have led to the origin of these customs are the marking of captives, mutilation in mourning, or the subjection of young people to tests of endurance. The canine teeth are taken out by the Penangs ; the two upper middle incisors by the Micronesians, Batokos, Aponos, Ambriz, Missurongos, Ishogos, Wagogos, Ma- tongas, Marutse men and Ashango women ; the two lower middle incisors by the Bongos, Dinkas, Shirs, Wanyamwuezi, and many other tribes of Equatorial Africa ; the four lower incisors by the Shillooks, Wan- yoros, Latookas, and Bari men ; the four upper incisors by the Mushukulumbos, and the four incisors ant! two canine teeth of the lower jaw by the Karagwahs. By the Fans, Mushukungus, Apongos, Ashiras, Bush- ingas, some Congoese, and various tribes of New Guinea, all the front teeth, not broken out, are filed to points, " making their smile like that of a crocodile," as Liv- ingstone says. The corners of the lower incisors are chipped off, and those of the upper incisors are filed off by the Niamniams, for the purpose, as they explain it, of catching secure hold of their enemies in battle. In sev- eral tribes of the Congo basin, a diamond-shaped optn- ing is broken out between the middle upper and lowcr incisors, perhaps, as Burton thinks, to make a place for a pipe. Triangular openings are broken in the incisors by the Damaras and the Gan":uellas. Among the Eskimos, Greenlanders, Fuegians and many North American savages who ha\e reached mid- dle life, the teeth arc worn nearly to the level of the gums, probably in consequence of the sand and dirt in their food. The custom of filing down the teeth how- ever is practiced by the women of Timorlaut* and Suma- 164 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. tra®, and by some Indians of California'. Teeth worn to the level of the gums have been found in the skulls of the prehistoric inhabitants of France, Belgium and Denmark, and of the ancient Egyptians. Brass rivets in the teeth and little copper plates fast- ened, with rivets, on the teeth, are found among the Dyaks.' The teeth are stained blue, yellow or purple by the Fulah women, the three colors being sometimes found in one mouth. The Dyaks stain theirs black in mourn- ing ; and teeth stained red or black are not rare in the Micronesian and Melanesian islands. The teeth of. Malays are prepared for taking dye, by filing off the enamel, and are generally discolored by the betel quid.^ The custom of flattening the infantile skull, between boards, has prevailed among the Samoans, Hawaiians, Nicobarese, Caribs, Araucans, Quichuans, and many Redmen of modern times as well as among the ancient Scythians, and the prehistoric inhabitants of France, Belgium, Wales, Hungary, Silesia, Southern Russia and Northern Africa. This distortion of the skull, or unmis- takable traces of it, have be.en found in all the continents save Australia. It may have had its origin in the habit of tying the head as well as the body to a board. Such fastening is convenient when infants are to be carried on horseback,^" and might be useful as a precaution for sud- den attack, when the mother wants to escape leading a child of five or six with one hand while, with the other, she carries a suckling. For the purpose of flattening its skull, the infant is tied with its back on a board on the upper end of which is tied a shorter board which presses on the forehead. The head takes the shape of a wedge with the edge at SEC. 83. MUTILATIONS. 1 65 the vertex. Though this pressure continues for a year, the shape thus given is not permanent, as the skull grad- ually re\-erts towards the natural type, which however it never reaches. After having been accustomed to the pressure, the child cries when it is taken off." In the head-flattening tribes, a head of natural shape is considered ugly; and the privilege of beautification by the flattening process is denied to slaves. The Greenlanders, Hottentots, Tahitians and Suma- trans admire breadth in the nose, and press it flat, and the Botocudos mash down the nasal bones.^^ Besides gashing themselves in mourning, many savages cut ofl'a finger joint until they have lost as many as they can spare. Some Australians tie a string tightly round the little finger of the left hand of the newly-born girl infant, and in a few days it is severed. The reason given for this mutilation is that that finger is in the way when the woman winds up a fish line. The women of the Congo/^ and Loando desire to have pendent breasts, and pull them and tie bands over them so as to make them a foot long. The Wasagara, Sanda and Siamese women wrap cloths tightly round the body just below the armpit, so as to prevent the natural shape of the breast from being seen.'* The Samoan women are nude above the waist and carefully train the nipple so tluit it shall turn up.''' Singular mutilations about which our information is not very full are the amputations of the mammie of male Zingeros in Shoa,'^ and of the Akalunga and Kasangulowa women,'' the boring of the nipples of warriors in Georgia for the insertion of pieces of cane *" ; anrl the piercing of holes in the chest by the Bongos for the purpose of wearing wooden skewers there.'' 1 66 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. Some Sumatrans pull their ears to make them stand out from the head ; and various South American tribes stretch their ears so that it is said in exaggeration that a man can use one ear for a mattress and another for a covering while he sleeps. The Melanesians, the Indians of Georgia, and the Kukis cut out the interior lobe of the ear to make a hole for inserting ornaments. Some tribes pierce a dozen holes for rings round the border of the ear, or cut slits and wrap the separated edge with wire. The weight of the ornaments is so great in many cases that it is necessary to support the ear by strings or chains over the tops of the head.'" Among the articles carried in the ear holes are hollow cylinders three inches in diameter and four inches long by the Caroline Islanders ; tobacco pipes by the Kusaye Melanesians ; pin-cushions by the Arowaks ; nosegays by some Amazon Indians ; fish-bladders, live snakes and feathers by the Indians of Georgia ; shell disks attached to stems four inches long and a quarter of an inch thick by the Marquesans ; pegs like a cigar in size and shape by the Monbuttoos; brass studs by the Waswahili ; large brass disks by the Tavetas ; and gourd-necks full of tobacco by the M'sagara. These methods of ornamenting the ears are not lim- ited to the women, but are practiced as extensively by the men, and are found in nearly all savage tribes. Alone among the Polynesians, the Hawaiians did not punch their ears. The ears of the people in the frigid zone are usually hidden on account of the cold, and therefore are not used as vehicles for ornaments. The savacfe nose carries ornaments thrust through the septum or the wings, and in some few tribes through the bridge. A hole in the septum is decorated with a por- SEC. S^. MUTILATIONS. 1 6/ 1 , CLipine quill, a feather or a stick eight inches long obstructing the nostrils, so that the wearer is compelled to breathe through his mouth f^ or it supports a ring two inches in diameter, and then he cannot eat or drink with- out lifting up the ring; or it offers a passage for a string which is tied at the back of the head."^ The lower part of the septum is cut out by the Klickatats.'"'* The only ornaments worn in the nostrils are rings. In New Zea- land, feathers and sticks decorate a hole in the bridge of the nose,"'^ and in IMallicollo, Cook saw a cylinder of quartz an inch and a half long carried in the same place. Both lips and the cheek, near the corner of the mouth, are pierced for studs, pegs, blocks, rings or bead strings. Double-headed bone studs decorate the mouth corners of the Eskimos, and when the studs are out, the saliva escapes. The lower lip supports a bone stud among the Unalaskans and the Caribs ; a piece of cane among the Georgian Indians ; a cylinder of quartz four inches long among the Latookas ; a cylinder of the same material, three inches long and three quarters of an inch thick among the Mittoos ; a string of beads among the Kodi- aks ; a bung two inches in diameter among the Botocu- dos (so named from "botoque" Portuguese for bung); and block labrets three inches loivj; and two wide amonir the Ahts. Dall mentions one such labret five inches long and two inches wide. This block drags the lip out of place, exposes the teeth and gums to view, and presses the teeth out of place ; and when taken out, the upper portion of the lip hangs down like a string. The Batoka women wear pulley-like rings three inches in diameter in both lips which then .stick out Iiorizontally like the bill of ;i bird; but wluMi the we U'er lauglis, the upper ring assumes a vertical i)osition, partly hiding the eyes and 1 68 A HISTORY OF MANKIND. allowing the end of the nose to be seen through the ring. Circumcision was common in the valley of the Nile as early as 3000 b. c./^ and was practiced by the Arabs, Libyans and other oriental peoples at the earliest date known to history or tradition. By Spencer, its origin is attributed to the policy of taking trophies from male captives without diminishing their value for slave labor. Lippert thinks the sacrifice of blood in worship may have been the main motive. Similar mutilations, some of them more painful and more remarkable, were prac- ticed in Australia and the Pacific Islands."^ Sec. 84. Social Development. — In social life, as in industry, we are not able to trace much development within the limits of any savage tribe. In some few countries we find traditions of customs ruder than those prevalent in modern times, but these traditions are too vague or too doubtful, in the date of origin, to be trust- worthy. In this as in other developments of savage culture, we must find the main traces of progress not in the advance of one tribe, but in the comparison of the various conditions of different tribes. The higher have grown out of the lower phases. We have seen that the family, in the modern sense of the word — that is, the man with his wife or wives and children — as a distinct component part of the State, either does not exist in the lowest known tribes, or oc- cupies a very unimportant place as compared with its position in civilized countries. The earliest social organ- ization, known to us by inference and not by direct ob- servation, was the promiscuous group, which gave way by a small change to the feminine clan. The latter re- tained the group as the main feature of the social organ- SEC. 84. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT. 1 69 ization, preserved the rule of maternal descent, and per- mitted half of the previous promiscuousness. The mod- ification was the least possible to be a substantial modifi- cation ; it was a great reform in the direction of the least resistance. In the course of progress, the feminine clan, having become unsatisfactory, gave way to another institution, a little higher on the scale of social development. Its successor, the masculine clan, retained the rule of trac- ing descent from one parent exclusively, but transferred it from the maternal to the paternal side. It restricted the polyandrous habits of the women in the earlier con- dition, but permitted the men to enjoy most of their previous polygynous privilege. It was another great reform in the direction of the least resistance. It gave the wife as an exclusiv-e possession to the husband, made her chastity precious, and converted her and her virtue into articles of marketable value. It founded the famiK' which, though long subordinate to the masculine clan, finally supplanted it. Monogamy, as the only legal sexual relation, is un- known in the large savage families — including Redmcn, Negroes, and Australians, — and also in those families un- infiuenced by contact with a higher culture. Among other tribes it is rare. Although we may say in general terms, that it does not belong to the domain of savage life, still, attention may here be called to the fact that it continues the policy adopted in savagism, of placing more and more restriction on primitive promiscuousness. The feminine clan, the masculine clan, the polygynous family and the monogamous family form a series of in- creasing checks upon the sexual relation. CHAPTER V INTELLECTUAL LIFE. Section 85, Capacity. — The influence of advanced culture shows itself in many points, including the size of skull, which in the modern Euraryan has an average internal capacity of ninety-one cubic inches ; in the Afri- can eighty-five, and in the Australian seventy-nine/ The first has five and a half per cent, more brain than the second, and twelve per cent, more than the last. Such a cerebral superiority in favor of the white man, and the advantages of his geograjjhical position, accumulating their influences for thousands of years, account for his higher mental development. The gratification of the physical wants, and the exer- cise of the coarser passions in war and the chase, occupy a much larger place relatively in the life of the savage than in that of the civilized man. The former has no occupations or amusements of a refined, intellectual char- acter, no art, no science, no literature, no theater, no book, no philanthropic institution. He lives in a small world.'' Such few pleasures as he has are much \veak- ened by the dominant conditions of insecurity, distrust, and animosity. As compared with the civilized man, the savage spends much of his time in a condition of mental torpor. (170) SEC. 85. CAPACITY. I/I He has little continuity of thought, little depth of sym- pathetic feeling. His mental condition is half-way be- tween that of the civilized man and that of the brute. So soon as a few physical wants are gratified, he be- comes Hstless. Dr. Pickering who, as ethnologist of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition, had become familiar with many tribes, said the Fijians were the only savages, within the range of his observation, " who could give reasons and with whom it was possible to hold a con- n^-xted conversation."'' The average savage mind soon tires when led into new subjects of conversation; and for this reason, the attempts of scholars to investigate the laneuaees, reli