/v /; Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/denglerslessonseOOdengrich DENGLER'S ■> » » ■» 1 » » ■» > J LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH BY WALTER E. DENGLER, M.E. INTRODUCTION by Doctor Philips, Principal State Normal School, West Chester, Pa. THE H. M. ROWE COMPANY HARLEM SQUARE BALTIMORE, MD. Copyright 1914 BY H. M. RowE Co. COMPOSED AND PRINTED AT THF, WAVERLY PRESS By the Wiluams & Wilkins Company Baotimore, U. S. a. PREFACE The lessons-and exercises of this book are the result of eighteen years' teaching of Enghsh by the author in pubHc and private schools of grammar and high school grades. The inability of the author to obtain a Grammar book that was suited to the needs of his classes caused him to write the following book in which he embodies a choice of subject matter that is sensible and follows a method of presentation that differs greatly from that of most grammars. Any effective presentation of English grammar involves the sensible selection of subject matter and the intelligent arrangement of this material. Subject Matter and Method are the vital elements. SUBJECT MATTER The author believes that the first essential in the teach- ing of correct expression of thought, is to create in the mind of the student the sentence-sense; consequently, in the first lessons of this book, the sentence is made the subject of study. By analysis, the characteristics of each kind of sentence are taught. Because speaking and writing, however, are synthetic, each exercise in analysis is followed by an exercise in the con- structing of sentences. As the different kinds of sentences are developed, the punctuation of each kind of sentence is taught. In selecting the subject matter, the author has endeavored to treat fully the essentials and to omit the non-essentials. The book contains abundant exercises so that the gather- ing of supplementary material is reduced to the minimum. The author, however, believes in the use of well selected sup- plementary work. ^ -. ^ IV PREFACE The vocabulary building exercises of the book, which re- quire the student to select the correct word to be used in a given sentence, develop the language judgment of the student and, in the opinion of the author, meet an imperative necessity in our teaching of English. METHOD Every technical term used in this book is developed logi- cally and defined clearly before it is used. The structure of sentences and the different grammatical constructions are taught by example and analysis. Every lesson is followed by an exercise that is constructive or svnthetic. The student is made to understand correct expression and then is aided by abundant exercises to form the habit of correct speech. By comparison, errors of construction and expression are treated fully and carefully with the purpose of correcting the source of error — teaching the principle that is violated. In preparing these lessons and exercises, the author did not have in mind an ideal student, coming from an ideal home, attending an ideal school. He did try to provide for the wants of the real boy and girl of flesh and blood coming from the representative American home, attending the representative American school. The author has not sacrificed the meat for the sugar coat- ing, nor has he substituted the shadow for the substance. He has striven to write a sane, simple and sensible English Grammar. These lessons and exercises have been ''tried out" many times in the classroom before appearing in this book. In the hands of the teacher who has a reasonable interest in his subject and a reasonable enthusiasm for his work, tlie author knows that the following lessons and exercises are teachable, efficient, and result-getting. Philadelphia, W. E. D. April 22, 1914. INTRODUCTION The publishers^ shelves are full of English grammars, and a new book on Grammar must have a reason for its being. I believe that this book has such a reason. It is not a book of language lessons, although its aim is to give students a better use of the English language. It suggests, and indeed requires, a large amount of original work in com- position, the most important work which a grammar can do; and I believe that this will be found to be done in an unusually intelligent way. Its large numbers of fresh and everyday illustrations will appeal to teachers. It leads up to definitions by simple and natural steps, and at the end of each section repeats these definitions so as to bring them together and im- press them upon the mind of the student after he has learned their meaning and their use. The careful drill in distinguish- ing between the use of words often mistaken for each other is an important feature, and the large amount of space given to it is wisely used. James Russell Lowell saj'S somewhere that the great art of writing is to know what to leave in the inkstand, which wise suggestion the makers of modern grammars seem too often to have forgotten. A large amount of details with many fine distinctions encumber many text-books on this subject, waste the student's time, and prevent many students from getting a real grip on the subject. There is a science of grammar, and it is an important science, but it does not belong to the ordinary school nor does the ordinary student need it. This book, it seems to me, to an unusual and wise extent, omits the unneces- sary detail and gives its space to the essentials, and the student's "Vl INTRODUCTION time to useful drill. I belive that there is a place for it, and that it will find this place, and will be heartily welcomed by- many teachers. G. M. PHILIPS, State Normal School, West Chester, Pa. April 16, 1914. CONTENTS Preface iii Introduction v Lesson 1. The Declarative Sentence 9 Lesson 2. The Interrogative Sentence 12 Lesson 3. Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences 14 Lesson 4. Modifying Element 16 Lesson 5. The Simple Sentence 18 Lesson 6. The Complex Sentence 21 Lesson 7. The Compound Sentence 23 Lesson 8. Parts of Speech 28 Lesson 9. Capitalization of Proper Nouns 32 Lesson 10. Nouns Sometimes Misused 36 Lesson 11. Nouns Sometimes Misused — Continued 40 Lesson 12. Nouns Sometimes IMisused — Continued 43 Lesson 13. Nouns Sometimes ]\Iisused — Continued 47 Lesson 14. Nouns Sometimes Misused — Continued 50 Lesson 15. Nouns Sometimes Misused — Continued 54 Lesson 16. Pronouns , 57 Lesson 17. Adjectives 62 Lesson 18. Adjectives Sometimes Misused 67 Lesson 19. Adjectives Sometimes Misused — Continued 71 Lesson 20. Adjectives Sometimes Misused — Continued 74 Lesson 21. Verbs 79 Lesson 22, Verbs Sometimes Misused 83 Lesson 23. Verbs Sometimes Misused — Continued 86 Lesson 24. Verbs Sometimes Misused — Continued 90 Lesson 25. Adverbs 94 Lesson 26. Adverbs Frequently Misused 98 Lesson 27. Adjectives and Adverbs 103 Lesson 28. Prepositions 106 Lesson 29. Prepositions — Continued 110 Lesson 30. Prepositions — Continued 116 Lesson 31. Prepositions — Continued 120 Lesson 32. Conjunctions 122 Lesson 33. Conjunctions — Continued 125 vii Vlll CONTENTS Lesson 34. Lesson 35. Lesson 36. Lesson 37. Lesson 38. Lesson 39. Lesson 40. Lesson 41. Lesson 42. Lesson 43. Lesson 44. Lesson 45. Lesson 46. Lesson 47. Lesson 48. Lesson 49. Lesson 50. Lesson 5L Lesson 52. Lesson 53. Lesson 54. Lesson 55. Lesson 56. Lesson 57. Lesson 58. Lesson 59. Lesson 60. Lesson 6L Lesson 62. Lesson 63. Lesson 64. Lesson 65. Lesson 66. Lesson 67. Lesson 68. Lesson 69. Lesson 70. Lesson 71. Lesson 72. Lesson 73. Lesson 74, nterjections 128 nflection of Kouns 133 nflection of Kouns — Continued 134 nflection of Nouns — Continued 136 nflection of Nouns — Continued 140 nflection of Nouns — Continued 141 nflection of Nouns — Continued 143 nflection of Nouns — Continued 145 nflection of Pronouns 149 nflection of Pronouns — Continued 152 nflection of Pronouns — Continued 158 nflection of Verbs 161 nflection of Verbs — Continued 168 nflection of Verbs — Continued 173 nflection of Verbs — Continued 175 nflection of Verbs — Continued 185 nflection of Verbs — Continued 187 nflection of Verbs — Continued 191 nflection of Verbs — Continued 194 nflection of "\"erbs — Continued 197 nflection of Verbs — Continued 202 nflection of Verbs — Continued 207 nflection of Verbs — Continued 209 nflection of Verbs — Continued 211 nflection of Verbs — Continued 213 nflection of Verbs — Continued 225 nflection of Adjectives 230 nflection of Adjectives— Continued 234 nflection of Adverbs 236 Different Uses of Some of the Parts of Speech 237 Dependent Clauses 239 Dependent Clauses — Continued 241 Dependent Clauses — Continued 243 Punctuation 246 Punctuation — Continued 249 Punctuation — Continued 251 Punctuation — Continued 253 Punctuation — Continued 257 Punctuation — Continued 260 Punctuation — ^Continued 271 Punctuation— Continued 275 LESSON 1 THE DECLARATIVE SENTENCE Every complete expression of thought in words either affirms or denies something. In expressing the thought, we must have words to repre- sent that concerning which the affirmation or denial is made, and words to express the affirmation or denial. In the expression, ''Knowledge is power," "Knowledge" names that concerning which something is affirmed and is called the subject idea or simply the subject. The words, ''is power," affirm something concerning the subject and, therefore, form the 'predicate. A group of related words, containing a subject and a predi- cate and asserting that something is true or not true, is a declara- tive sentence. We see that the two essential elements or parts of a sentence are the subject and the predicate. In the declarative sentence, the subject is that part of the sentence about which the predicate affirms or denies something; the predicate is that part which affirms or denies something of the subject. The subject usually precedes the predicate; but the order is sometimes changed so that the predicate precedes the sub- ject, as in the sentence, ''Fallen, fallen is Babylon." Not position in the sentence, but rneaning and use deter- mine which part of the sentence constitutes the subject and which part, the predicate. When spoken, the inflection of the voice shows differences in the meanings of sentences; but when ^\Titten, marks of 9 10 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH punctuatiqri aj6 used to indicate to the reader the differences in meaning. Punctuation. — A period (.) should follow every declara- tive sentence. EXERCISE 1 Divide a page into two parallel columns and write in one column all the subjects, and in the other all the predicates of the following sentences, as suggested by model given below. The cows are in the corn. SUBJECT The cows 1. Milton was a poet. 2. The Romans built ships. 3. Bees collect honey. 4. The king was a tyrant. 5. They found the journey long. 6. The problem seems easy. 7. The dish is old-fashioned. 8. The rain refreshes the grass and flowers. 9. We attended the lecture. 10. The house is red. 11. Gold glitters. 12. The people elected him presi- dent. 13. Napoleon died in exile. 14. The ant is industrious. 15. The men were prisoners. 16. The English conquered the French. 17. Disease made the man poor. 18. Frost makes the leaves yellow. PREDICATE are in the corn 19. Mr. Jones owns a yacht. 20. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. 21. The sea is fascinating and treacherous. 22. They call the town Bellevue. 23. They crowned Edward King. 24. The ocean appears blue. 25. Slang is vulgar. 26. A light was burning in the house. 27. He has lost his book. 28. The sun sets in the west. 29. The clock has stopped. 30. The work is done. 31. Mr. Smith has lost his money 32. The horse has broken loose. 33. The man lost his way. 34. The mast has fallen overboard. 35. The industrious boy will suc- ceed. Supply subjects for the following predicat(\s and indicate each as suggested below. Example. were an ancient people. The Egyptians were an ancient people. THE DECLARATIVE SENTENCE 11 SUBJECT PREDICATE The Egyptians | were an ancient people. 1. was a great general. 2. shade the streets. 3. are found in the woods. 4. is a beautiful poem. 5. was very neatly written. 6. is the President of the United States, 7. are buzzing. 8. are chirping. 9. are croaking. 10. laid the wall. 11. built the house. 12. — made the furniture. 13. — ■ — — ■ — was a great commander. 14. • — ■ — ■ — — ^grow in a conservatory. 15. • — ■ — float in with the tide. Write predicates of more than one word for the following subjects and indicate each as suggested by model. Example. — The birds. The birds sing sweetly. SUBJECT PREDICATE The birds sing sweetly 1. The mountains 9. Kindness 2. Benjamin Franklin 10. Honesty 3. Columbus 11. My photograph 4. A looking-glass 12. The owl 5. Drops of water 13. The ant 6. A boat on the lake 14. The Chinese 7. Huge waves 15. Hie United States 8. Anger 12 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH LESSON 2 THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE The word sentence has a broader use, however, than a com- plete expression of thought in words. In the sentence, *'Does he study?" "he" is the subject of inquiry, not of assertion; and the sentence is, therefore, inter- rogative. A group of related words, containing a subject and a pred- icate and asking a question, is an interrogative sentence. We need to study two forms of the interrogative sentence. The first form is used in such questions as may be answered by yes or no; the second in questions which cannot be answered in this way. The change from a declarative sentence to an interrogative sentence of the first form is one of arrangement only, the sub- ject and the predicate being transposed. In interrogative sentences of this form, the subject /o/Zou^s at least a part of the predicate. Example. — Does he study? (interrogative) He does study, (declarative) The interrogative sentence of the second form is used in such questions as may not be answered by yes or no. The question is asked usually by placing certain Avords at or near the beginning of the sentence. Example. — Where did he go? What did you see? Who is that man? Punctuation. — The construction of the interrogative sentence is such that its punctuation requires particular care. Have you visited Independence Hall in Philadelphia? He asked if I had visited Independence Hall in Philadephia. A comparison of the above sentences will show that the first sentence requires an answer and that the second cannot be THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE 13 answered. The first sentence asks a direct question, one that re- quires an answer, and is an interrogative sentence. The second sentence expresses an indirect question, one that does not require an answer. It merely asserts that a question has been asked, and is, tlierefore, a declarative sentence. An interrogation point (?) should follow a direct question, hut should not follow an indirect question. ''Wiiy do you not visit Independence Hall?" he said. This sentence is declarative, but it contains a, direct question. An viterrogation point (?) should follow a direct question that forms a part of a declarative sentence. When a direct question is asked in the exact words of an- other, the question must be inclosed within quotation marks C ") and the first word capitalized, as illustrated in the above sentence. If the sentence just given is made to read. He said, ''Why do you not visit Independence Hall?" a somewhat unusual thing takes place. A declarative sentence is followed by the interrogation point. EXERCISE 2 Indicate the subjects and the predicates of the following sentences of the first form (those that can be answered with yes or no) as suggested in Exercise 1. Copy the sentences of the second form and underscore the question word. 1. Did you come from home? 2. Which is the crest of a mountain? 3. Do you know that man? 4. Where are the bounds of America? 5. Do the diligent pupils love their school? 6. Why have logs been rolled into t!io fire? 7. How are oxen hitched together? 8. Did Cyrus Field lay the Atlantic Cable? 9. WTiere do the daisies grow? 10. Shall we send the goods? 14 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 11. Why are the hounds baffled? 12. Did Elias Howe invent the sewing machine? 13. What does the man wish? 14. Which boat won the race? 15. When should the note be paid? 16. Do you love your enemies? 17. Where did the swallow build her nest? 18. Can he call to-morrow? 19. How many books are here? 20. Did he work satisfactorily? 21. TOiere did you find the money? 22. Why is the farmer under the tree? 23. Did the lazy man fail? 24. Will you call for me at ten o 'clock? 25. How should birds be treated? 26. When do grass and grain need rain? 27. What is the price of this book? 28. Where are you going? 29. How soon will you pay me? 30. Will you sign this petition? Write interrogative sentences containing each of the follow- ing words used as a question word: Why, whither, when, where, how, who, which, what. Write interrogative sentences using the following words: Must study, can teach, is, has, did die, will choose, did see, do grow, are used, took. LESSON 3 IMPERATIVE AND EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES A sentence may be used to express a command or an entreaty. "Be ambitious" expresses a command. "Give us, this day, our daily bread" expresses an entreaty. A word or a grouj) of related words expressing a command or an entreaty is an imperative sentence. Since a command implies that the ])(M'son commanding speaks directly to the person or persons commanded, the im- perative sentence usually has the subject thou or you understood. IMPERATIVE AND EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE 15 When the subject is expressed, the sentence is in the trans- posed order. Example. — Praise ye the Lord. In the sentence, '^John, come, here," ''John" is not the subject of the sentence. The word "John" is used to attract the attention of the person whom we wish to command, and it is said to be used independently. Punctuation. — A period (.) should follow every imperative sentence. Sentences belonging to any one of the classes that we have studied may be used to express strong feeling, or emotion ; and when so used, they are called exclamatory sentences. Example. — How beautiful this night! Who would have done so! Kill me not! Although any sentence may, without change of order, become exclamatory, exclamatory sentences frequently begin with how or what and are usually in the transposed order. Example. — -How beautiful this night! What visions have I seen! Punctuation. — 'An exclamation point (!) should follow every exclamatory sentence. We may now say that a sentence is a word or a group of related ivords used to express a complete thought, to ask a question, to give a command, or to express some emotion. The first loord in every sentence should be capitalized. EXERCISE 3 Copy the following sentences using periods, interrogation points, exclamation points and quotation marks where they should be used. 1. Did you enjoy your trip 2. They asked me how I enjoyed nw trip '^. Shall we send the goods 4. Have you anything else to offer 16 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 5. Shall we resort to dishonesty 6. He asked if dishonesty ever pays 7. Have you always been honest he asked 8. He said have you always been honest 9. They inquired what time the star appeared 10. Are your parents willing that you should do so 11. I asked him whether he intended to go 12. He asked me whether I would call to-morrow 13. The question shall we live is an important one 14. He said who goes there 15. The question who goes there was not answered 16. Is he not able to pay the money asked Portia 17. What have you to say the la^vyer asked 18. The laAV}XT asked the prisoner what he had to say 19. Were you injured in the accident 20. Do you still expect an advancement 21 . How did that happen he asked 22. He asked me how it happened 23. The question is how can we get home 24. When shall we three meet again 25. Can you effect a settlement 26. Must you keep the book or can it be exchanged 27. Which shall we ship first the coal or the lumber 28. Shall we ship the goods to-day or to-morrow 29. Did they buy the red one or the blue one 30. Did you buy the house or do you rent it Using the following words, write ten imperative sentences: choose, use, obey, strive, devote, live, love, lend, listen, remember. LESSON 4 MODIFYING ELEMENT In the sentence, ''The white flowers of the lilac grew by the cottage door," ''flowers" is the subject; but not all flowers grew — ^the white flowers and those of the lilac. "White" and "of the lilac" are called modifying elements or simply modifiers. Likewise, "grow" is the predicate and "by the cottage door" is a modifier. MODIFYING ELEMENT 17 In addition to the subject and the predicate, a sentence may contain modifiers. A word or a, group of related words joined to any pai^t of a sentence to change or liinit its meaning is a modifier. '' Of the lilac " and " by the cottage door " are called phrases. A group of related ivords that does not contain a subject and a predicate is called a phrase. EXERCISE 4 Indicate the subjects, predicates, and modifiers in the following sentences, as suggested below. The white flowers of the lilac grew by the cottage door. I I PREDI- SUBJECT i ' GATE SUBJECT MODI- FIERS flowers The white of the lilac PREDI- CATE grew MODI- FIERS by the cottage door 1. The book lies on the table. 2. Many msects are decorated with 1 brilliant colors. 3. A statue of Justice stood in the market place. 4. A clock of brass ticked on the mantel. 5. We go to school in the morning. 6. During the day, he wTote many letters. 7. In the beginning, God created the earth. 8. They turned abruptly . 9. The lo^Aang herd ^nnds slowly o'er the lea. 10. The curling blue smoke rises in the air. 11. A fire of coals burned in the grate. 12. The leaves of the maple are falling. 13. The dreamy murmur of insects was heard over our heads. 14. An ancient and stately hall stood near the village. 15. His trusty sword lay by his side. 16. The ^\ild monkeys of South America climl^ ^^^th great agility. 17. The buffaloes of the prairies are almost extinct. 18. A red squirrel on an oak tree conversed pleasantly with a grey squirrel. 18 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 19. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land 20. A fertile valley lies between the two momitains. 21. He went for the doctor. 22. England was conquered by the Normans in the eleventh centuiy. 23. A breezy morning died into silent noon. 24. The Delta of the Mississippi was once at St. Louis. 25. Columbus discovered America in 1492. Write sentences containing the following phrases : In the near future; along the shores of the Atlantic; without many friends; in the center of the solar system; after very long delay; after a cold journey in the rain; with few signs of success; near the bank of the river; in pine forests; on high mountains. LESSON 5 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE From the point of view of use, we have learned that sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. We shall now study sentences to see how they are classified from the point of view of structure. In the sentence, ^'Efficiency is the new virtue, " ''efficiency " is the subject; and "is the new virtue" is the predicate. In the sentence, "The heavens and the earth were created by God," "were created" is the predicate; and it is affirmed of both "heavens" and "earth." "Heavens" and "earth" form a compound subject. Two or more united subjects, having the same -predicate, for in a co7npound subject. The sentence, "John reads and writes," contains one subject only, "John;" but it contains two predicates, "reads" and "writes." "Reads" and "writes" form a compound predicate. Two or more united predicates having the same subject form a compound predicate. The sentence, "The men and women of the doomed city THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 19 wept and prayed/^ contains a compound subject "men and women," and a compound predicate, ''wept and prayed." A sentence containing hut one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound, is a simple sentence. EXERCISE 5 Indicate the subjects, predicates, and modifiers in the following sentences, as suggested below. 1. The heavens and the earth were created by God. 2. The industrious boy reads and \vrites well. SUBJECT SUBJECT MODI- FIERS PREDI- CATE PREDI- CATE MODI- FIERS 1. heavens and earth The the were created by God 2. boy The industrious reads and WTites well 1. James and William study diligently. 2. Mary sings and plays. 3. Education and Love rule in the end. 4. Ralph rides in the morning and walks in the evening. 5. Harry and William go to school. 6. The children hop, skip, and jump. 7. The trees and the grass are growing. 8. John stays at home and worlds in the garden. 9. Teachers and pupils study and play. 10. The boys and the girls of this school behave well. 11. Fish and frogs Hve in the ponds. 12. Friend and foe applauded. 13. He and I have finished the work. 14. Empires rise, flourish, and decay. 15. Anxious men, women, and children waited for the news. 16. The owl sleeps during the day and flies at night. 17. The man hurried from the house and ran to the barn. 20 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 18. Judges and senates have been bought \vith gold. 19. Time and tide wait for no man. 20. Father and son were injured. Express in a simple sentence the thought suggested by each of the following exercises. Example. — ^Albany is the capital of New York. It stands on the bank of the Hudson River. It is about one hundred miles from its mouth. Sentence. Albany, the capital of New York, is situated on the Hudson River about one hundred miles from its mouth. 1. The doctor was reading a book. The doctor had a pleasant smile on his face. The doctor was seated in an easy chair. 2. Columbus set sail in the morning. The day was Friday. It was the 3rd of August. It was the year 1492. 3. A company of merchants took possession of the place. They formed a settlement there. They intended to trade with the natives. 4. He obtained the service of two guides. These guides were experienced men. He began his march to the fort. He took with him his entire force. 5. It was a magnificent palace. A cottage stood near the en- trance. The cottage was old and in ruins. A weaver lived in it. He was poor. He was contented. 6. The room was only twenty feet square. The ■\\'indows were small and obstructed. It was the middle of summer. The number of prisoners was one hundred forty-six. 7. The adventurers returned to France the next year. The}- carried off the king with them. This caused great grief to his subjects. 8. I had a cap. It was high and shapeless. It was made of a goat 's skin. It had a flap hanging down behind. 9. I had a pair of breeches. These were likewise of goatskin. They were short. They were open-loieed. They were made of the skin of an old he-goat. 10. I had on a belt. It was broad. It was of goatsldn dried. This belt I chew together with two thongs of the same. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 21 LESSON 6 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE The sentence, ''The boj^ who is ambitious will succeed," consists of two groups of related words, ''The boy will suc- ceed'' and ''who is ambitious," each containing a subject and a predicate. "The boy will succeed" and "who is ambitious" are called clauses. A part of a sentence that contains a subject and a predicate is called a clause. If we examine the clauses, "The boy will succeed" and "who is ambitious," carefully, we shall see that they are not of equal importance. "Who is ambitious" describes the sub- ject " boy " of the clause, " The boy will succeed. " The sentence is equivalent to "The ambitious boy will succeed." The clause, "The boy will succeed," expresses a coinplete thought; but the clause, "who is ambitious," expresses an incomplete or related thought, and is a modifying element. "The boy "v^ill succeed" is called an independent clause, and "who is ambitious" is called a dependent clause. A clause that expresses a complete thought in itself is an iyidependent clause; a clause that does not express a complete thought is a dependent clause. A dependent clause may he used to modify the subject or the predicate. A sentence that contains but one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses, is called a complex sentence. EXERCISE 6 Copy the following sentences, doubly underscore the in- dependent clauses, singly underscore the dependent clauses, and indicate whether the dependent clause modifies the subject or the predicate, as suggested below. Example. — The boy who does not respect his parents, \\'ill not succeed, (subject) 22 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 1. The man who hesitates is lost. 2. Fools who came to scoff remained to pray. 3. Washington was a man who achieved greatness. 4. The man who is diligent in his business Tvdll succeed. 5. When the horse ran away, the boy was hurt. 6. If wishes were horses, beggars might ride. 7. The house, in which I was born, still stands. 8. The man who works is a happy man. 9. When the sun rose, the flag was still there. 10. The boy who loves his school behaves well. 1 1. As soon as the king died, the strife was renewed. 12. When the train started, the men cheered. 13. When Moses smote the rock, the water gushed forth. 14. The evil that men do lives after them. 15. It was Noah Webster who compiled the dictionary. 16. The city to which I refer is New York. 17. The fur which warms the monarch warmed the bear. 18. If we look for it, beauty is everywhere. 19. He who would search for pearls must dive below. 20. He jests at scars who never felt a wound. 21. If a man empties his purse into his head, no man can take it away from him. 22. When faith is lost, the man is dead. 23. I venerate the man whose heart is kind. 24. The man whom you saw is my brother. 25. The seed which was planted, has become a large tree. Express in a complex sentence the thought suggested by each of the following exercises. 1. A poor woman heard of his generosity. She wrote him a letter. In it she urged him to send her something for her son. Her son was ill. He was imable to work. 2. The long quarrel commenced. It began in India. It was afterward renewed in England. The most eminent states- men took part in it. They were on one side or the other. 3. A bold plan occurred to him. Many persons would have hes- itated to attempt it. He carried it through successfully. 4. His reputation is blemished by great crimes. It is impos- sible to deny this. However, he had rendered great pub- lic service. In justice to him this should be borne in mhid. The compound sentence 23 5. I had also a jacket. This jacket was short. It was of goat- skin. Its skirts came down to about the middle of my thighs. LESSON 7 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE In the sentence, *'Mary studies, but John plays," there are two independent clauses, ''Mary studies" and 'Mohn plays," connected by the word 'M3ut. " A sentence may contain any number of independent clauses, combined for the sake of brevity; such a combination of clause s is said to form a coinpoiind sentence. A sentence that contains two or more independent clauses is a compound sentence. The sentence, *'The boy who was here went home, but his brother went to the city," is a compound sentence. ''The boy who was here went home" is one independent clause, and "his brother went to the city" is another. The clause, "The boy who was here went home," when considered alone, is complex, "The boy went home" is the independent clause, and "who was here" is the dependent clause. Such a sentence is called a compound-complex sentence. Any one, or all, of the independent clauses of a compound sentence may be complex. Punctuation. — -The meaning of a sentence depends vitally on the grouping of words that are related in thought. In writing, we use certain 7narks of punctuation to show word grouping. We shall study now a few of these marks of punctuation as they are used in compound sentences. Letter received; goods will be shipped immediately. A connecting word is not used in the above sentence. The clauses are connected in thought by position, and they are separated by a semicolon (;) 24 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Independent clauses of a compound sejite^ice, connected by position, without a connecting ivord, are separated by a semicolon. "Death entombs the body; but hfe, the soul. '' The word ''but" connects the clauses ua the sentence just given. One of the clauses, however, is divided into parts by a comma (,); and the clauses are separated from each other by the semicolon. When one or more independent clauses of a compound sen- te7ice are divided into parts by the comma, a semicolo7i should separate the independent clauses of the sentence. " Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness well." The clauses of the above sentence are connected by the word ''or," and the clauses are separated by a comma. When a connecting word is used, and no one of the independent clauses is divided by the comma, the independent clauses are separated by the comma. (If the connecting word, however, is one of the following words: so, therefore, hence, however, nevertheless, moreover, accordingly, besides, also, thus, then, still, and otherwise, the semicolon is frequently used.) Example. — The president bowed; then the people began to shout. The sentence, "Did you buy the house? or do you rent it? " is a compound sentence, each clause of which asks a direct question; and each part of the sentence that asks a direct question is followed by the interrogation point. In a compound sentence, an interrogation point should fol- low each part that asks a direct question. If the meaning of a sentence is not complete until the end of the sentence is reached, the interrogation point is placed at the end of the sentence only. Example. — When did he arrive, yesterday or to-day? THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 26 EXERCISE 7 Copy the following sentences and separate the independent clauses in each by using the correct marks of punctuation. 1. The man dies but his memory lingers. 2. Example is better than precept inspiration is better than instruction. 3. Labor is life repose is suicide. 4. Wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought. 5. Be temperate in youth or you must be abstinent in old age. 6. Nothing is denied to honest labor nothing is ever to be attained without it. 7. The moon had sunk below the hill and the stars came out doubly bright. 8. Of thy unspoken word, thou art master thy spoken word is master of thee. 9. Blessed is the man who has found his work he should ask for no other blessing. 10. Have patience with me and I ^vill pay thee all. 11. Every day is a little life and our whole life is but a day re- peated. 12. They toil not neither do they spin. 13. It is one thing to be wx41 informed it is another to be wise. 14. The ravine is full of sand now but it had once been full of water. 15. Charm strikes the sight but merit wins the soul. 16. A soft answer turneth away wrath but grievous words stir up anger. 17. Ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free. 18. Learning is one thing but wisdom is quite another. 19. The king must win or he must forfeit his crown. 20. Our representative, Mr. Jones, ^vill call on you next w^eek and w^e hope you will favor him with an order. 21. We have just received your order goods will be shipped at once. 22. We do not need the goods at present but we should like to know wiien they will be shipped. 23. We have received your letter of the loth inst. and w^e shall be pleased to comply with your request. 24. We do not doubt that you paid tiie bill l^ut we should like to see the receipt. 26 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 25. We will draw on you at ten days' sight and you, no doubt, will honor the draft. Express in a compound sentence the thought suggested by each of the following exercises. 1. The sailors were unable to remain on deck. They climbed into the rigging. They saw no way of escape. They gave themselves up for lost. 2. One day a violent storm arose. It came up suddenly. It drove the men from their work. Their ladder was fas- tened to the cliff. They had to leave it there. 3. He passed through many trials. He assumed many disguises. He wandered about in great peril for forty days. He es- caped in a sloop from Mobile. Mobile is in Alabama. He arrived in a few days at Savannah. Savannah is in Georgia. 4. They saw their leader fall. They thought him killed. They gave up the contest at once. This had been the practice of their ancestors. 5. Two Englishmen traded there for many years. Their name s were Elliot and Thorne. They were under the protection of the king. They obtained many valuable furs. They got them from the Indians. ERRORS IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES 1. Do not capitalize and punctuate dependent clauses like independent clauses. Example. — Incorrect: Among her books were two she en- joyed most. One a novel, the other a history. Correct: Among her books were two she enjoyed most; one a novel, the other a history. 2. Be sure to finish a grammatical construction. Example. — -Iiicorrect: Any boy who could solve the prob- lem, the whole class would think he was a good student. (The word '^boy'^ with its modifying clause, ^'who could work the problem, " has no grammatical construction.) Correct: Any boy who could solve the problem, the whole class would think a good student. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 27 3. Do not use a sentence (except a (juotcd sentence), as the subject of is or was. Example. — Incorrect: The boy did not study is the reason he failed. Correct : The boy did not study, that is the reason he failed. DEFINITIONS A sentence is a word, or a group of related words, used to express a complete thought, to ask a question, to give a com- mand, or to express some emotion. A declarative sentence is a group of related words containing a subject and a predicate, and asserting that something is true or not true. An interrogative sentence is a group of related words con- taining a subject and a predicate, and asking a question. An imperative sentence is a word or a group of related words expressing a command or an entreat}^ An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses strong feel- ing or emotion. A modifier is a word, or a group of related words, joined to some part of a sentence to change or limit the meaning of the sentence. A phrase is a group of related words that does not con- tain a subject and a predicate. A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate. An independent clause is one that expresses a complete thought. A dependent clause is one that does not express a complete thought. A simple sentence is one that contains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound. A complex sentence is one that contains but one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. 28 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH A compound sentence is one that contains two or more independent clauses. A compound-complex sentence is a compound sentence, one or more clauses of which are complex. I. Sentences as to wse. < OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 1. Declarative 2. Interrogative 3. Imperative f Declarative 4. Exclamatory^ ^ Interrogative [ Imperative 1. Simple II. Sentences as to structure. III. Sentences as to elements. 1. Subject 2. Predicate 2. Complex 3. Compound 4. Compound-complex 1. Simple 2. Compound 1. Simple 2. Compound LESSON 8 PARTS OF SPEECH We have learned that the two essential elements of the sentence are subject and predicate, and that the subject and the predicate may contain phrases and clauses used as modifiers. We shall now see that the sentence finally divides into words. According to their uses in sentences, words are divided into classes called parts of speech. Since the part of speech of a word is determined by its use in a sentence, we cannot name the part of speech of a word until we know how it is used in a sentence. Do not ask what a word is, but, what it does. PARTS OF SPEECH 29 There are many words, however, that usually have the same use; and their part of speech, therefore, is fairly uniform. In the sentence, ''New York is a large city," "New York" and ''city" are used as names and are called nouns. A word that is used as the name of anything is a noun. The name, ''New York," is given to a particular city and is called a proper noun. The name of a particular person, place, or thirig is a proper noun; as, William, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. A proper noun is an individual name that distinguishes the thing named from others of the same class. In the sentence, " Old Winter is a sturdy fellow, " " Winter " is used as a particular name of a thing spoken of as a person. Such use of a noun is called personification, and the noun so used is called a proper noun. Proper nouns, and the words derived from them, should he capitalized. The name "city" is common to all cities and is called a common noun. All names, other than proper nouns, are called common noims. It is possible to use a particular name as a common noun. In the sentence, *'He is the Webster of his age," "Webster" is used as a class name, meaning he possesses the qualities of all men who are like Webster. A particular name, used as a class name, should be capitalized. ^ „ , fl. Class nouns Commons nouns are generally sub- ^ ^ ,, ^. ,..,,., i 2. Collective nouns divided into o i i ^ 3. Abstract nouns In the sentence, "The horse is a noble animal," "horse" distinguishes that animal from all other animals; but it does not distinguish one horse from another — it is conwion to all animals of the class. Horse is called a class noun. A ivord used to denote the class to which a thing belongs is a dass noun. 30 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH In the sentence, ''The army advanced rapidly," "army'^ has the singular form; but it denotes a collection of persons looked upon by the mind as one group. "Army" is called a collective noun. A noun which, in the singular form, denotes a collection of persons or things of the sarne kind is a collective noun. In the sentence, "The whiteness of the snow was beautiful, " "whiteness" is spoken of as abstracted from the snow — as if "whiteness" had a separate existence. "Whiteness" is called an abstract noun. A noun which na^nes a quality, a condition or an attribute that is thought of as abstracted from the object to which it belongs is an abstract iioun. Many abstract nouns are formed from other words by the use of such endings as ness, th, ery^ hoodf head. In contrast with abstract nouns, we sometimes speak of concrete nouns, which are names of material things; such as, chair, desk. Sometimes two or more words make up one name. Some of these names are written with a hyphen (-) between them; as, sailor-boy, merchant-tailor. Some of them are written as one word; as, sunrise, blackberry. The tendency of good authors is to omit the hyphen. When the name formed is a proper noun, the words form- ing the name are written as separate words; as. Gulf of Mexico. EXERCISE 8 Classify the nouns in the folloA\ing sentences, as suggested by model. PROPER COMMON Class Collective Abstract PARTS OF SPEECH 31 1. The congregation is small. 2. The family is large. 3. The army marched slowly. 4. The audience is large. 5. The eggs of the ostrich are hatched by the raj's of the sun. 6. Cowards die many times before their deaths. 7. Some persons do not loiow the value of a dollar. 8. Education is a better safe-guard of liberty than a standing army. 9. London is the capital of England. 10. Caesar was the conqueror of Gaul. 11. Wisdom is better than strength. 12. James was declared a bloody enemy. 13. Many persons know the value of a dollar, ])ut do not appre- ciate the value of one hundred cents. 14. Nature is but the name for an effect, of which the cause is God. 15. The people elected him governor. 16. Time makes the worst enemies friends. 17. Charity covers a multitude of sins. 18. His soul was like a star and dwelt apart. 19. Industry is the demand of nature, of reason, and of God. 20. The President granted the prisoner a full pardon. 21. Daniel Webster was an American statesman. 22. The Thames is a beautiful river. 23. The emperor of Russia is called Czar. 24. History casts its shadow far into the land of song. 25. The child's illness is of an alarming nature. Write sentences containing each of the following collectiv(^ nouns; so construct the sentence as to show of what kind of objects each collection is composed. Example. — team The team of horses ran awaiy. 1. family 6. gang 11. committee 2. nation 7. swarm 12. fleet 3. army 8. flock 13. suite 4. tribe 9. herd 14. group 5. crowd 10. class 15. colony Write sentences containing an abstract noun formed from each of the following words. 32 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Example. — -weak- came alarming. 1. bright 2. warm 3. honest 4. wise 5. innocent 6. dull 7. pure 8. hard -The weakness of the patient be- 9. high 10. just 11. true 12. courageous 13. deceive 14. learn 15. judge 16. please 17. long 18. proud 19. sweet 20. temperate 21. industrious 22. conceal 23. white 24. brave 25. beautiful LESSON 9 CAPITALIZATION OF PROPER NOUNS With the hope of simplifying the rule, that 'proper nouns and words derived from them should be capitalized, let us consider the following classes: 1. The names of persons; such as, John, Ed^vin, Samuel, William Shakespeare. 2. Places. The accepted names of places, local or geo- graphical; such as, Baltimore, Howard Yard : Political divisions; such as, Fifth Ward, Fourth Congressional District: Names of streets, parks, buildings, etc.; such as. Chestnut Street, Botan- ical Gardens, White House, Grant's Tomb. 3. Titles of honor, office, and respect, when preceding the names; such as, President Wilson, Colonel Roosevelt, Professor Isaac Sharpless. An official title, other than that of a potentate, following the name, is not capitalized; such as, B. F. Jones, city engineer; James Smith, professor of history. Only the first meml)er of a compound word, occurring in a proper name, is capitalized; such as, Know-nothing Party. 4. Names of religious, political, social, commercial, ed- CAPITALIZATION OF PROPER NOUNS 33 ucational organizations; such as, Young Men's Christian Association, Baltimore Board of Trade, Clover Club, Teachers' Reading Circle. 5. Names of the days of the week, civic and ecclesias- tical holidays, months of the year; such as, Monday, Memorial Day, Easter, September. The names of the seasons are not capitalized unless they are personified. 6. Geographical terms; such as, the Equator, Delaware River, etc. The points of the compass should not be capitalized unless they denote definite parts of the country. Example. — Before the war, his family settled in the South. 7. The important words in the subject of a composition or in the title of a book; such as, A Trip to the Canal Zone, Heroes and Heroism in Common Life. 8. Personified nouns; such as. Grim War unfolds his flag. 9. Names referring to the Deity; such as. Father of All, Ruler of the Universe. 10. Books and divisions of the Bible; such as, Gospel of Matthew, New Testament. 11. Names of religious denominations, political parties, etc.; such as. Episcopalian, Catholic, Republican, Democratic. 12. Names of historical events and epochs; such as, War of Independence, Age of Elizabeth. 13. Names of governmental departments; such as. De- partment of Public Works, Supreme Court, House of Representatives. 14. Principal words in addresses; such as. Custom House, Philadelphia. 15. Compound proper names: In a compound proper name, only the part which would form a proper name, if used alone, should begin with a capital letter; as. New York city, Jersey city. (This rule, however, is not strictly followed by all wTiters.) 34 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH EXERCISE 9 Copy the following sentences and capitalize the words that should be capitalized. 1. the providence of god will not be denied to his people. 2. george Washington was the first president of the united states. 3. the monument of general grant is in riverside park, n. y. 4. we reckon longitude east or west from greemvich, 5. he was a man of herculean strength. 6. the north "will not oppose the bill. 7. Chicago is west of Philadelphia. 8. he lives in the west. 9. alexander the great founded alexandria. 10. the president arrived at the executive mansion on Wednesday. 11. it was reported that colonel smith was wounded. 12. Joseph addison, the english poet and essayist, was born at milton, Aviltshire, may 1, 1672. 13. he lived south of mason and dixon's line. 14. it is reported that senator jamcs will speak to-morrow. 15. ex-president taft now lectures at yale. 16. the mint is located on spring garden street. 17. longfellow is america's most popular poet. 18. they live in a little \dllage in the south. 19. the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. 20. the secretary of state holds a responsible position in the united states government. 21. many students attend the summer school of the university of Pennsylvania. 22. he was elected a member of congress from the fourth con- gressional district. 23. the panama canal is a marvelous example of american achieve- ment. 24. our english teacher suggested that we read scott 's lady of the lake. 25. the Walton liotel is on broad street. 26. the ohio river has overflowed its banks. 27. lieutenant Peary discovered the north pole. 28. d. d. philips, care of kennett national bank, kennett square, pa. 29. every young man should read (^morson 's american scholar. 30. o death where is thy sting? o grave where is thy victory? CAPITALIZATION OF PROPER NOUNS 35 On Monday, the 12th of december (old stjio), on the day of the \\'inter solstice, the exploring party of the forefathers landed at pljTnouth. That day is kept as the origin of new england. The spot, when examined, promised them a home, and on the loth the mayflcwer was safely moored in its harbor. In memory of the hospitalities which the company had received at the last english port from which they had sailed, this oldest new england colony took the name of pl3Tnouth. The system of civil govern- ment had been adopted by agreement ; the church had been organ- ized before it left ley den. As the pilgrims landed, their institutions were already perfected. Democratic liberty and independent christian worship started into being. DEFINITIONS A noun is a word that is used as the name of anything. A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing. A common noun is a word that does not apply to a par- ticular person, place, or thing. A class noun is a common noun that represents a class of things. A collective noun is a common noun that represents a group of persons or things considered as a unit. An abstract noun is a common noun that represents a qual- ity, a condition, or an attribute. OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS I. Proper II. Common 1. Class 2. Collective 3. Abstract 36 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH LESSON 10 NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED The author is of the opinion that the best results are to b(^ obtained from the following missing-word exercises in the book by having the student write on paper the number of the sentence and the word or words he thinks should be used in the sentence. As an incentive for home study and as an aid to the development of independence in oral expression on the part of the student, the papers should be collected at the beginning of the class period. The student should report in class on these exercises without the aid of paper. When it seems advisable, the student should give reasons and explanations for the choice of words he may make. The tactful teacher, however, will think of many methods of conducting recitations based on these exercises. ACCESS, ACCESSION Access means admittance, way of entrance, a sudden attack of disease or passion. Accession means an addition, the at- tainment of a possession or of a right. AMATEUR, NOVICE, NOVITIATE An amateur is one who practices an art not as a livelihood but as a pastime. A novice is one who is inexperienced in any business, occupation or art. A novitiate is a period of preparation or the time during which one is a novice. AUDIENCE, SPECTATORS An audience is an assembly of persons to listen to something. A building in which an audience meets is an auditorium. Spec- tators are those who assemble to see; they are eye-witnesses A building in which spectators meet is a spectatorium. NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED 37 ALLUSION, ILLUSION, DELUSION An allusion is an indirect and incidental reference to some- thing. An illusion is an error of one of the senses, usually sight. A delusion is an error of judgTuent or a mental deception. ADHERENCE, ADHESION Adherence is the act, state or condition of adhering and is used of moral relations. Adhesion is usually used of physical connection. ACT, ACTION An act is a single thing done, or that which is done by a single effort. Action is the method by which a thing is done, and it may consist of several acts. ADVANCE, ADVANCEMENT Advance is the act of moving forward physically, mentally, morally or socially. Advancement is the act or state of being moved forward; promotion. BALANCE, REMAINDER, REST Balance means the difference between two sides of an ac- count. Remainder is that which is left after a part has been removed. Remainder applies to things only and implies a comparatively small part. Rest applies to persons or things and is used of large as well as of small parts. CHARACTER, REPUTATION Character lies in the man; it is what he is. Reputation depends upon others; it is what they think he is. EXERCISE 10 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. ACCESS, ACCESSION 1. An ■ of anger killed Dame Van Winkle. 2. The king's to the throne was followed with a brilliant reception. 38 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 3. All but members of the court were denied ■ — — — — to the king. 4. The only' to the robbers' cave was a rope ladder. 5. The of the United States have increased the respon- sibilities of ihe government. 6. to the prison was through an iron door. 7. Columbus finally gained — — ■ to Ferdinand and Isabella. 8. A sudden- -of feeling overcame the prisoner 's aged mother. 9. Sudden of wealth are seldom followed with good consequences. AMATEUR, NOVICE, NOVITIATE 1. He was inexperienced and a • in the business. 2. This is the abbey in which he served his - — — - — - — . 3. Only • • were admitted to the gam(\ 4. When he was a • — in the abbey he studied diligently. 5. Sometimes • — — play ball better than professionals. 6. Washington Irving saw a beautiful • — enter a convent to begin her . 7. Grover Cleveland served a long in public office be- fore he was nominated for the Presidency. AUDIENCE, SPECTATORS 1. The was disappointed because the speaker did not arrive. 2. Many of the — fainted when they saw the aviator fall. 3. The listened attentively during the debate. 4. The — — — — were surprised at the spec^d of the automobiles. ALLUSION, ILLUSION, DELUSION 1. Many of the — of the concave and convex mirrors are very funny. 2. The of the bent appearance of the sticlc when one end was placed in water, was explained by the teacher. 3. Some of the in the lecture were not understood by all. 4. A fanatic is oftt^n the subjt^ct of many . 5. That W(^ could have liberty before having union was a . ADHERENCE, ADHESION 1. His to the political doctrines of Thomas Jefferson was plainly seen. NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED ' 39 2. The judge 's ■ ■- to the principles of justice was commend- able. 3. The • of the mortar and brick was satisfactory. 4. The permanency of our buildings depends upon the attraction of . ACT, ACTION 1 . Sergeant Jasper performed a brave at Fort Moultrie. 2. Admiral Dewey's in dealing with the Filipinos was diplomatic. 3. The assassination of President McKinley was a treacher- ous . 4. The • — of Parliament form a large part of the English Constitution. 5. Another mode of ■ — ■ — — — was proposed by Henry Clay. 6. I cannot do so cruel an — — — — . ADVANCE, ADVANCEMENT 1. Under the rules of Civil Service, ■ is based on merit. 2. The of the army was retarded by the heavy rains. 3. During the • of the army, so many superior officers were killed that there were many opportunities for the ■ • — ■ of subordinate officers. 4. His position offers little hope for . 5. ■ in the army is slow. 6. The of the army was rapid. BALANCE, REMAINDER, REST 1. The boys spent the • of the day fishing. 2. He did not know his • in bank. 3. If sea water be evaporated, the yields salt. 4. Religion gives part of its reward now; for the ■ — , it offeis the security of Heaven. 5. Armed like the , the prince appeared. CHARACTER, REPUTATION 1. His saved him from suspicion. 2. Lincoln is a great historical . 3. Washington had a great — as a general. 4. Tlu^ man saw that his — — ■ was at stake. 40 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH LESSON 11 NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED— Continued ABILITY, CAPACITY Ability is the power of doing. Capacity is the power of receiving and containing. Ability may be either mental or phys- ical. When applied to persons, capacity is mental only. AVOCATION, VOCATION An avocation is a diversion, that which calls one away from one's regular work. A person's vocation is his regular business or profession. AMOUNT, NUMBER, QUANTITY Amount means the sum total and applies to quantity and number. Number applies to things which may be counted; quantity to that which may be measured. ANSWER, RESPONSE, REPLY An answer is given to a question. A response is made to assert or affirm and is in accordance with the words of another. A reply is made to an assertion. We answer letters and reply to arguments and statements. ADMITTANCE, ADMISSION Admittance is the right or permission to enter, it refers to place.. Admission not only refers to place but also to position or favor. ARGUMENT, PLEA A plea is a defendant 's answer of fact before a trial and is addressed to the court. An argument is the reasons offered for or against an opinion. An argument may be addressed to the Court or to the Jury. NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED 41 ASSERTION, STATEMENT An assertion is a declaration without proof. A statement is a formal narration of facts. ACCEPTANCE, ACCEPTATION Acceptance means the act of accepting, or a favorable reception. Acceptation is the state of being accepted; also the sense in which an expression is generally accepted. Words and expressions acquire their acceptation from the manner in which they are generally used. EXERCISE 11 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. ABILITY, CAPACITY 1. His to write a good letter secured for him the position. 2. The • of the theatre is not great. 3. He has much • as a student but not much as a teacher. 4. The chairman did not have the to control the convention. 5. The test will show your • as a stenographer. 6. The work requires a particular kind of — — . AVOCATION, VOCATION 1. In the selection of a a young man should use great care. 2. Trout fishing is a pleasing . 3. Lawn tennis was the young doctor's • . 4. The doctor was v-ery successful in his . 5. While in college, base-ball was his ; but later in life, it became his . 6. Golf is the of many professional men. AMOUNT, NUMBER, QUANTITY 1 . The government employs a large of persons. 2. What of coal did j^ou burn last year? 3. We saw a of children playing in the street. 42 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 4. What of money did you lose? 5. The storm destroyed a of houses. 6. Brazil exports a large • — of coffee. 7. A great of persons visited Chicago in 1893. 8. The man bought a ■ of books and a of paper. 9. A large of butter is made "in New York State. 10. Delaware produces a large ~ — of peaches. 11. The of hogs killed annually in Chicago is more than eight million. ANSWER, RESPONSE, REPLY 1. His — to the question was correct. 2. The lawyer's • to the argument was impressive. 3. This • — will confirm the settlement that you suggest. 4. The • to the question was short, but the • to the objection was long. 5. We shall • your letter to-morrow. ADMITTANCE, ADMISSION 1. The thief gained to the house through an open door. 2. The requirements for to colleges vary. 3. He gained — — ■ — — to the best society. 4. Apply for — — to the show at the office. 5. The — — of the territory as a state was opposed. ARGUMENT, PLEA 1. The — of the prisoner to the court was self defence. 2. During the la\vyer's — to the jury the prisoner wept. 3. Some lawyers can outline a strong — • but cannot present it forceiuUy to the jury. ASSERTION, STATEMENT 1. This needs some better proof than mere to make us believe it. 2. The of the bank was satisfactory to the stock- holders. 3. We have heard strong ■ without proof. 4. The prisoner's — — was found to be untrue. 5. The petition contain(.'d a clear of their objections. NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED 43 ACCEPTANCE, ACCEPTATION 1. The- of the gift places you under obligations to him. 2. The — — ■ — - of his resignation is expected. .3. In its common '^by and by" means never. 4. Time l)rings about a change in the — ■ ■ of many words. 5. The lawyers did not agree concerning the legal of many words. 6. The — of the terms of peace ended the hostilities. 7. The of a draft makes the acceptor liable for its payment. S. The character of the members of the committee justifies our — of their report. LESSON 12 NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED— Continued CENTER, MIDDLE Center is a point equally distant from the extremities of a line or from all parts of the circumference of a circle. Middle is not so definite. COMPLEMENT, COMPLIMENT Complement is that which completes; full quantity, number, or amount. A compliment is an expression, by word or act, of praise or approbation. COUNCIL, COUNSEL A council is an assembly of persons convened for delib- eration. Counsel is advice or one who gives advice, especially in legal matters. CUSTOM, HABIT A custom is the frequent repetition of some act. Habit is the involuntary tendency to do certain acts, acquired by their frecjuent I'epetition. 44 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH COUPLE, PAIR Couple means two of the same kind connected or con- sidered together. Pair is apphed to two correspondent parts or things that depend on each other. CONSCIENCE, CONSCIOUSNESS Our conscience is our judgment of right and wrong. Con- sciousness is the state of knowing one's own existence/ sen- sations, etc. COMPLETION, COMPLETENESS Completion is the act or process of making complete. Completeness is the state of being complete. DECEPTION, DECEIT Deception refers to the act of deceiving. Deceit is a trait of character. DEPOT, STATION A depot is a place for the storage or transfer of goods. A station is an established place or building serving as a starting- point, or stopping place, as on a railway. EMIGRATION, IMMIGRATION, MIGRATION Emigration is the moving from one country for the purpose of settling in another. Immigration is the moving into a country for the purpose of settling in that country. A person who leaves his fatherland is an emigrant from it and an immigrant to the country in which he settles. Migration refers to the change of dwelling-places, usually for short periods only, and applies to animals as well as to persons. EXERCISE 12 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. CENTER, MIDDLE 1. There is a crack running down the of the wall. 2. A table stood in the — of the room. NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED 45 3. A path runs througli the of the park. 4. In the of the garden was a fountain. 5. The arrow struck the of the target. COMPLIMENT, COMPLEMENT 1. The captain has obtained the of his crew. 2. The of an angle is the difference between the angle and a right angle. 3. Present my to Mr. Brown. 4. The ship has its of stories. COUNCIL, COUNSEL 1. He is a member of the common 2. All the priests and elders took against him. 3. The king found his — as refractory as his judges. 4. The for the defense filed many exceptions. 5. He gave us wise . CUSTOM, HABIT 1. The observance of Mothers' Day is a beautiful — . 2. Cigarette smoking is a very injurious . 3. It is good — to speak softly; it will soon become a . 4. It was the of Scotch Highlanders to go bareheaded. COUPLE, PAIR 1. The girl had a of apples in her basket. 2. He bought a of new shoes. 3. A ■ of spectacles lay on the table. 4. Did 3'ou see the bridal ? CONSCIENCE, CONSCIOUSNESS 1. Many believe that is our highest guide. 2. The pain was so great that the injured man lost 3. The of ^^Tong caused the prisoner to confess. 4. Our is accompanied A\dth feeling of approbation and condemnation. COMPLETION, COMPLETENESS 1. We hope for the of the new railroad by January. 2. The comfort of passengers is secured by the of the equipment. 46 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 3. The of his collection of books was suprising. 4. The of the tunnel was celebrated by a banquet. 5. The — of the canal was a great stimulus to commerce. DECEPTION, DECEIT 1. • — ■ — ■ is no longer considered a good business i:)rinciple. 2. The beauty of his character was destroj^ed by . 3. The man won our confidence by . 4. He was friendly to man and far from — . 5. Talleyrand was despised for his 6. The American Indian was a master in the art of — • — . 7. • is of the very nature and essence of sin. DEPOT, STATION 1. We arrived at the after the train had departed. 2. Our goods are now in the . 3. The new — in New York is a magnificent building. 4. The , with all its stores, was destroyed. 5. Our train left Grand Central , New York at 10.45. EMIGRATION, IMMIGRATION, MIGRATION 1 . Some European countries encourage to the United States. 2. Some persons think that unrestricted is one of the perils of our nation. 3. — is one of the causes of the increase in our pop- ulation. 4. Pericles tried to get rid of the superabundant population by encouraging . 5. — of a foreign population is not always a benefit to the moral condition of a nation. 6. • has reduced the population of Ireland. 7. from Italy is filling the Argentine Republic with Italians. 8. The of birds is an interesting study. NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED 47 LESSON 18 NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED— Continued EKROR, MISTAKE, BLUNDER An error is an unintentional deviation from correctness. A mistake is an error in judgment, or perception. A blunder is a gross error resulting from carelessness, stupidity and unex- cusable ignorance. ENORMITY, ENORMOUSNESS Enormity is used of deeds that are opposed to order, right, or decency. Enormousness is used of things of unusual size. ESTIMATION, ESTIMATE Estimation and not esteem should be used in the sense of ''opinion" or "regard." An estimate is an approximate judgment. FALSITY, FALSENESS Falsity is that Avhich is untrue without suggesting Vjlame. Falseness is nonconformity to truth and usually implies blame. HESITATION, HESITANCY Hesitation is slowness in forming an opinion or in reach- ing a decision. Hesitancy is the habit of hesitating. IMPORT, IMPORTANCE Import refers to meaning; importance refers to the quality of being important. INVENTION, DISCOVERY Invention is used of that which is new or jiroduced for the first time. Discovery applies to that which existed before but which was unknown. 48 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH IDENTITY, IDENTIFICATION Identity means the condition of being the same. Iden- tification is the act of determining what a given thing, or who a given person is. LIMIT, LIMITATION Limit means the utmost extent. Limitation means the act of limiting or a restriction. MAJORITY, PLURALITY Majority means more than half of a given number. Plu- rality means the excess of the highest number of votes cast for any one candidate over the next highest number. EXERCISE 13 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. ERROR, MISTAKE, BLUNDER 1. The bookkeeper found the in his work. 2. The stenographer made several in transcribing her notes. 3. The business man will not employ a bookkeeeper who makes 4. The of the inexperienced man were very funny. ENORMITY, ENORMOUSNESS 1. The of the building surprised the visitors. 2. The of the prisoner 's crimes caused the lynching. 3. The of the Titanic caused some to think the boat would not sink. 4. The of the murder of the German minister in Pe- king is unparalleled. 0. The of the project to build a railway across Siberia did not deter Russia from building it. ESTIMATION, ESTIMATE 1 . The of the cost of doing the work seems reasonable. 2. The advance of civilization is marked by a more reasonable of women. NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED 49 3. He was held in high by those who knew him. 4. What was the of the cost of New York's under- ground railway? FALSITY, FALSENESS 1. Truth is the opposite of , but error is the same as 2. Captain Carter 's placed him in prison. 3. Arnold was despised for his . 4. We have seen the of that supposition. 5. The of his reasoning is evident. 6. Piety is opposed to . HESITATION, HESITANCY 1. When angry, in reaching a decision is wise. 2. is the cause of many failures. 3. The of the prisoner in answering questions made an unfavorable impression. 4. He was a man of indecision and . IMPORT, IMPORTANCE 1. The prisoner did not know the of the judge's sentence. 2. The deliberations of the Paris Peace Commission were of the highest to Cuba. 3. They were engaged in work of the highest . 4. She heard the tolling of the bell and trembled at its . 5. This is a serious business and of great . 6. The Eastern question was of grave and serious . INVENTION, DISCOVERY 1. The of America by Columbus was an important event. 2. The steam engine is one of the greatest . 3. The of the law of gravitation was made by Newton. 4. Before the of the telescope little was known of astronomy. 5. The of electricity has revolutionized our methods of transportation. 6. Gold was in California in 1848. 7. GaHleo is celebrated for his of the laws of the pendulum and for his of the telescope. 50 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH IDENTITY, IDENTIFICATION 1. In the destruction of the building, many bodies were so badly burned that their ■ was impossible. 2. Peter the Great concealed his and learned snip- building. 3. The check will not be paid unless you establish your . LIMIT, LIMITATION 1 . We still have a of the right to vote. 2. The students were permitted to walk within certain , but the time for their so doing was subject to . 3. Washington was given command of the army with few • — — . 4. Power upon which no are imposed soon becomes tjTannical. 5. As we advance in life, we learn the of our abilities. 6. The Council established a — — — — upon the sale of intox- icating liquors within certain . MAJORITY, PLURALITY 1. Brown received 67 of the 89 votes, a good 2. If Brown received 51 votes, Smith 48, and Jones 40, Brown is elected by a not by a . 3. A candidate who is elected by a ■ may not have received a . LESSON 14 NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED— Continued NEGLECT, NEGLIGENCE Neglect is the act of neglecting. Negligence is the habit or trait of neglecting or omitting to do things NEWS, TIDINGS News is general in its nature and singular in number. Tidings are personal and the word is used usually in the plural sense. NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED 51 OBSERVANCE, OBSERVATION Observance is the act of celebrating. Observation is the act of taking notice or looking at intently. PARTY, PERSON A party is a number of persons. In legal usage, however, party means a person wlio enters into a contract or an agree- ment with another. A person is a human being. PART, PORTION Part is that which is less than the whole. Portion suggests the idea of an assignment, an allotment or a share. PRETENCE, PRETENSION Pretence is that which is advanced or displayed to conceal that which is real. Pretension is that which is intended to dis- play that which is good. PATRON, CUSTOMER We should associate patron with the arts. Customer is a commercial word and means one who gives his custom or trade to another. PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE Principal means the chief or leader; one who takes a lead- ing part. Principle is a general truth. PROPOSITION, PROPOSAL A proposition is that which is proposed for discussion. A proposal is that which is offered for acceptance or rejection. EXERCISE 14 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. NEGLECT, NEGLIGENCE 1. Through — — • to do our duty, we form the habit of 52 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 2. The house showed many signs of 3. is a costly habit. 4. — ■ is the cause of many accidents. 5. Without their the money was lost. 6. President Taylor's grave in Richmond shows evidence of 7. is an unfortunate trait of character. NEWS, TIDINGS 1. The public was eager for from the disaster. 2. The persons who had friends on the Titanic awaited anxiously for from them. 3. I bring you good of great joy, which shall be to all the people. OBSERVANCE, OBSERVATION 1. A strict of the policies of the corporation was required. 2. Some savages have marvelous powers of . 3. The of the rules of health is necessary for success. 4. After his of the eclipse, he wrote a scholarly paper on the subject. 5. The ■ — of Mothers' Day is a beautiful custom. 6. Sailors develop high powers of . 7. A party went from Harvard University to Georgia for the of the Solar Eclipse. PARTY, PERSON 1. It seems necessary that free government should be admin- istered by . 2. He is a of excellent reputation. 3. He is a member of which . 4. Only a is capable of a moral act. 5. One of the to the contract did not appear in court. 6. Two in our were lost. 7. How many are there in the ? 8. The of the first part hereby agrees. PART, PORTION 1. A -^ of the building was destroyed. 2. He squandered his of the estate. NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED 53 3. The whole is equal to the sum of all its . 4 A Qf the crew was saved. 5. What part of the play did you enjoy best? PKETENCE, PRETENSION 1. The goods were obtained under false ■ — . 2. Some of the nobility conspired to support the prince's to the throne. 3. Under the • of friendship he obtained my consent. 4. With a few, religion may be a mere . PATRON, CUSTOMER 1. The merchant's — had confidence in his honesty. 2. We desire to thank our for their loyal support. 3. Cromwell, a farmer in early life, was a of agri- culture. 4. In the age of Augustus, sculpture had many . 5. J. Pierpont Morgan has been declared a of art and letters. PRINCIPAL, PRINCIPLE 1. The ■ — ■ — rejoiced at the success of his students. 2. In studying a , we should not lose sight of its application. 3. Both and agent were found guilty. 4. The had difficulty in teaching the students the of cube root. 5. Socrates was declared a teacher of false . PROPOSIHON, PROPOSAL 1. His of marriage was accepted. 2. The that all men are created equal is not under- stood by all. 3. The student demonstrated the of geometry very well. 4. Sealed for paving the streets were received by the committee. 5. The that the men receive an increase in wages was accepted. 6. The contractors submitted a for street cleaning. 54 ■ LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH LESSON 15 NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED— Continued EEQUIREMENT, REQUISITE, REQUISITION A requirement is a necessary condition required by a person or persons. A requisite is a condition necessitated by the nature of things or by circumstances. A requisition is an authoritative demand or an official request. RELATIVE, RELATIONSHIP, RELATION A relative is one connected by blood or marriage. Re- lationship is the state of being related by kindred or alliance. Relation is the state of being related but is broader than re- lationship and does not necessarily imply kinship. SEWAGE, SEWERAGE Sewage is the waste matter carried off by the sewers. Sewerage is the system of sewers. SITE, SITUATION Site is applied to the ground on which something is erected or on which something reposes. Situation includes the local aspects and surroundings SOLICITUDE, SOLICITATION Solicitude is the state of being uneasy of mind or anxious. Solicitation is the act of soliciting or earnestly asking. STIMULUS, STIMULANT, STIMULATION Stimulus is anything that rouses the mind or spirits to in- creased activity. Stimulant usually has a medical use and means that which excites any of the organs of the body. Stim- ulation is the act of stimulathig or the condition of being stim- ulated. NOUNS SOMETIMES MISUSED 55 SERIES, SUCCESSION Series is an arrangement of one thing after another accord- ing to a law or rule related to the nature of the things. Suc- cession is the following of the things, one after another, with- out implying a relation or connection. TESTIMONY, EVIDENCE, VERDICT Testimony is the expression of persons given to convince. Evidence is that which convinces and includes not only the testimony of witnesses but also all facts tending to prove a thing true. A verdict is the decision of a number of persons acting as one body. EXERCISE 15 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word REQUIREMENT, REQUISITE, REQUISITION 1. The ■ for admission to college are more difficult than they once were. 2. One of the ■ — ■ — • — — • of success is good health. 3. That students of stenography have a good English educa- tion is a wise . 4. The work of the stenographer is such that a practical knowl- edge of English is a — — ■ — ■ — -. 5. The governor issued a for the escaped prisoner. 6. The agent sent a monthly ■ — — — ■ — • for supplies. 7. Honesty is one of the first for success in business. 8. A sound body is one of the first for success in the army. 9. The general made frequent — on the commissary department. RELATION, RELATIONSHIP, RELATIVE 1. We should confine our cares to ourselves and — . 2. He has many — — ■ — — ■ living in the cit}'. 3. There is a vital between experience and knowledge, 4. The of mother to child is sacred. 5. The of the moon to tides is not definitely known. 56 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 6. President Lincoln and Colonel John Hay always had very pleasant with each other. 7. Abigail Dodge was one of James G. Blaine's . SEWAGE, SEWERAGE 1. To dispose of the of a large city is a great problem. 2. Many rivers receive the of large towns. 3. Fifty thousand dollars was spent to improve the of the city. 4. The heavy rain damaged the greatly. 5. Boston has an elaborate system. 6. The Chicago Drainage Canal takes the of that great city away from Lake Michigan. SITE, SITUATION 1. The school building has a pleasant . 2. In selecting the of a building, the should be considered. 3. New York has an excellent — ■ for foreign trade. 4. The of the fortifications has been fixed. 5. The of Rouen is wild and picturesque. 6. Beverly Farms, Massachusetts, has a charming . SOLICITUDE, SOLICITATION L After frequent the man was given employment. 2. The of a mother for her child is not appreciated by all. 3. Each pang was soothed with fond . 4. It is our duty to resist the of evil. 5. Mary made threats and in many instances caused me great STIMULUS, STIMULANT, STIMULATION 1. Competition is sometimes a to greater effort. 2. His nerves were shattered by the constant use of 3. The of conscience is always beneficial. 4. The woman who fainted was given a . 5. Ambition is a to great action. 6. They gave the exhausted swimmer brandy, as a 7. Whiskey, ordinarily a , is, when taken in excess, a powerful narcotic. PRONOUNS 57 SERIES, SUCCESSION 1. This bank note belongs to the • of 1912. 2. A of festivities followed the signing of the treaty. 3. A — of promotions followed the change of manage- ment. 4. A of storms followed the hot day. 5. The man's arrest followed a • of thefts. TESTIMONY, EVIDENCE, VERDICT 1 . The of the witnesses was contradictory. 2. The — — - of the jury was thought to be just. 3. An alibi was the that cleared the accused man. 4. The of the alienists differed surprisingly. LESSON 16 PRONOUNS PERSONAL PRONOUNS In the expression, *'I saw him yesterday," "1'' points definitely to a single person, the one speaking, without naming the person. In the sentence, ''You should answer the letter imme- diately," "you" specifies one particular person, the one whom the speaker addresses. Likewise, ''he" in the sentence, "He did his duty," sig- nifies one particular person who may have been named before, not the speaker, however, nor the person to whom something was said. In each of the above illustrations, a single word has, like a proper noun, indicated a person without naming the person. The words I, you, he, she, it, and they, since they take the place, either of a proper or of a common noun, have been called pronouns. A word that is used in place of a noun or another pronoun is a pronoun. With the exception of "it," and sometimes "they," the 58 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH pronouns, given above, refer directly to some person or persons and are, therefore, personal pronouns. A pronoun which represents the speaker or speakers; the per- son or persons spoken to; or the person or persons, the thing or things spoken of, is a personal pronoun. The pronoun "I" should be capitalized always. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS In the sentences, "Who goes there?'* "Which is the larger?" "What is the thing we have missed? "the words, ''who,"" which" and "what," take the place of common nouns and their modifiers; such as, "what person," "which object," "what thing." In the above sentence, "who," "which," and "what" are interrogative pronouns. A pronoun that is used in asking a question is an interrog- ative pronoun. Interrogative pronouns are used also in indirect questions; that is, questions quoted from the original speaker in sentences suggesting, but not asking, questions; as, "He asked who had done the work." RELATIVE PRONOUNS In the sentences, "They found the book that was lost" and "The trees which bend over the river are willows," the words, "that" and "which," connect the dependent clauses to the words modified by the clauses, and are relative pronouns. A pronoun that joins a dependent clause to the noun or pro- noun that the clause modifies, is a relative pronoun. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS In the sentences, "This is the one I like," "That is your duty," "These are mine," "Those are yours," the words, "this, "that," "these," and "those" simply point out the thing which the subject represents, "This book, " "That act, " PRONOUNS 59 ''These apples," ''Those pears," or whatever noun may be understood. These words are called demonstrative pronouns. A pronoun used to point out the person or thing spoken of, is a demonstrative pronoun. "This" usually refers to a person or a thing near at hand or near in thought; likewise, ''these" refers to persons or things. "That" is used to direct attention to a person or a thing more remote in position or in thought; similarly, "these" refers to persons or to things. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS In the sentences, "Everybody did his duty," "Nobody failed to pass the examination," "Something has happened," the words "everybody," "nobody," and "something" rep- resent not a definite person or thing; but they represent an indefinite number of persons or things. Such words are called indefinite pronouns. A pronoun that represents an indefinite number of persons or things, is an indefinite pronoun. Among the indefinite pronouns are the following: each, either, neither, some, any, many, few, all, both, aught, naught, such, other, each other, one another; also the compounds of some, any, every, and no with one, thing, and body; as, some- thing, anyone. EXERCISE 16 Classify the pronouns in the following sentences, as sug- gested by model. PER- SONAL INTER- ROGATIVE RELA- TIVE DEMON- STRATIVE INDEFI- NITE 1. Who fears to soeak the truth? 2. Which is it to be? 3. What is the dawn without the view? 60 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 4. What can I do for you? 5. I mean to stand upon the Constitution. 6. We are sure to find something here. 7. He was ever precise in promise keeping. 8. She was admired by all who knew her. 9. They say best men are molded out of faults, to. This is not a fit place for you. U. Those who have known grief seldom seem sad. 12. They had few books, but those were of the best. 13. We work, and that is godlike. 14. All would live long, but none would be old. 15. Each shall give us a grain of gold. 16. All are not taken. 17. Much may be said on both sides. 18. None but the brave deserve the fair. 19. Nothing is rarer than a word in its right meaning. 20. Who was Stonewall Jackson? 21. What was the dying order of Captain Lawrence? 22. Which is the larger planet, Venus or the Earth? 23. What is opportunity to the man who can't use it? 24. Man cannot cover what God would reveal. 25. I that speak unto you am he. 26. Employ anyone who applies. 27. Regions that have no vegetation are called deserts. 28. Both went to the war, but neither returned. 29. Show me the butterfly which you caught. 30. I saw what he was doing. ERRORS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS 1. Do not use the pronouns this and that with weak reference. Example. — Incorrect: The judge asked where the witness was. The lawyer could not answer that. Correct: The judge asked where the witness was. The lawyer could not answer the question. 2. Do not use a pronoun followed by its antecedent in parentheses. Example. — Incorrect: If Brown struck Smith, there is no objection to his (Smith's) action in the matter. PRONOUNS 61 Correct: If Brown struck Smith, there is no objection to Smith *s action in the matter. 3. A pronoun should not be used to refer to a word or phrase that has not been expressed. Example. — Incorrect: John is a pianist, the study of which instrument he began when he was a boy. Correct: John is a pianist. He began the study of the piano when he was a boy. 4. A pronoun should not be used to refer to a noun sub- ordinate in use. • Example. — Incorrect: In Dickens' David Copperfield, he relates incidents in his own life. Correct: Dickens, in David Copperfield, relates incidents in his owTi life. 5. You and they should not be used indefinitely. Poor: They had a wreck on the railroad. Good: There was a wreck on the railroad, (or) A wreck occurred on the railroad. 6. A pronoun should not be placed too far from the noun to which it refers. DEFINITIONS A pronoun is a word used to represent a noun or another pronoun. A personal pronoun is one which represents the speaker or speakers; the person or persons spoken to; the person or persons, the thing or things spoken of. An interrogative pronoun is one which is used in asking a question. A relative pronoun is one that joins a dependent clause to the noun or pronoun that the clause modifies. A demonstrative pronoun is one which points out the person or thing spoken of. An indefinite pronoun is one which represents an indefinite number of persons or things. 62 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS 1. Personal 2. Interrogative Classes ^j 3. Relative 4. Demonstrative 5. Indefinite LESSON 17 ADJECTIVES From our previous study of modifying elements, in lesson 4, we have learned that a single word may be used as a modifier. We shall now study words which modify nouns and pronouns. In the sentences, "Diligent students are successful," ''Dil- atory students are unsuccessful," the words, ''diligent" and "dilatory," divide into two classes the persons represented by the class name students. The words, "diligent" and "dilatory," limit the application of the word "students" by expressing certain qualities or charac- teristics of the students. Diligent students or dilatory students applies to fewer per- sons than students alone. A word that liynits a noun by expressing quality or charac- teristic, is a descriptive adjective. We should note that adjectives which denote qualities that always belong to the noun do not limit; as, white snow, blue sky. If we say, "the," "that" student, or "some," "many," "ten" students, we do not name any quality or character- istic of students; but "the," "this," or "that" points out a particular student and limits the word student to the one pointed out; "some," "many," or "ten" limits the words in respect to the number of students that it denotes. A word that limits a noun by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity is a definitive adjective. ADJECTIVES 63 Definitive adjectives may be divided into two classes: 1. Numerals — The numerals are the adjectives which express number. . The numerals are divided into: Cardinals or the ones used in counting; as ten, forty, etc. ; ordinals, those that show the order of anything in a series; as tenth, fortieth; fractional those that denote one of a certain number of equal parts; as a tenth, a fortieth; multiplicatives, those which show how many times anything is taken; as, forty-fold, fifty-fold. 2. Pronominals — The pronominal adjectives are pronouns which are used as adjectives. Pronominal adjectives are divided into: demonstrative, interrogatives, relative, and indefinite. The demonstrative adjectives are this, that, these, those, yon, yonder. Example. — Each man did his duty. The interrogatives are which and what. Example. — Which lesson did you study? The relatives are which and what. Example. — I know which lesson you studied. Most of the indefinite pronouns, with a few other similar words, may be used as indefinite adjectives. The most com- monly used are the following: Each, every, either, neither, some, any, many, few, all, both, no, such, and other. Adjectives derived from proper nouns are called proper adjectives; such as, American, Bostonian. (Proper adjectives should be capitalized.) Any descriptive adjective which is not proper is said to be common. Sometimes two or more words are used as an adjective; and, when so used, they are said to form a compound adjec- tive. The words forming a compound adjective should be joined with a hyphen; as, first-class students, long-distance runner. 64 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH ARTICLES A, AN, THE The definitive adjectives *'a," ''an/' and *'the'' are called articles. *' An" is used before a vowel sound; *'a'' before a consonant. Some writers use ''an" before words beginning with a pro- nounced h; as, an historian an hjrpothesis; but present use favors a. ''An" or "a" is used to limit a noun to one thing of a class. "The" is used to distinguish one thing or several things from others, and one class of things from other classes. We may say "a. book, " meaning any one book; but we can- not say "This is a good kind of a book,'^ because "book" is here meant to denote the whole of a class, and "a" limits its noun to one thing of a class. We should say "This is a good kind of book.'' "A" or "an" should not be repeated before the second term of a comparison when both terms refer to the same person or thing; as, "He is a better scholar than teacher." If two or more connected adjectives modify different nouns, expressed or understood, "an," "a," or " the " should be used before each adjective; if the adjectives modify the same noun, the article should not be repeated. "A red and a white flag" means two flags — one red and the other white. "A red and white flag" means one flag partly red and partly white. Connected nouns naming things that are to be distinguished should each be preceded with an article; as, "a noun and a pronoun are alike in use. " "A" has a peculiarity when used before "few" and "little." "Few" means not many^ but "a few" means some. "Little" means 72ot much, but "a little" means so?ne. ADJECTIVES 65 EXERCISE 17 Classify the adjectives in the following sentences, as sug- gested by model. DESCRIPTIVE ! DEFINITIVE common l proper article numerals pronominal 1. Every hour of every day has its duty. 2. Both candidates are good men. 3. Iron pillars support many heavy structures. 4. Swedish iron makes the best steel. 5. The army had rations for two days only. 6. The storm lasted three days. 7. The necessity for haste seemed to cause a hundred-fold dela}^ 8. What is the name of yonder mountain? 9. What book have you? 10. He believes whatever idle rumor he may hear. 11. Both doctors said the same thing. 12. Which states were admitted during Grant's administration? 13. Much harm may be done by a few thoughtless words. 14. We saw five tall soldiers in gay red uniforms. 15. These tall shrubs bear many large white flowers. 16. Few persons are good economists of their fortune. 17. The first step to greatness is to be honest. 18. The rugged cliff has a thousand faces. 19. These little things are great to little men. 20. Every flock contains some black sheep. 21. Both rivers rise in the same plateau. 22. This park contains forty-four acres. 23. Eight men were on that committee. 24. No man knows all things. 25. There are no shade trees on either side of that street. 26. Few and short were the prayers he said. 27. The Christian religion is spreading rapidly. 28. The British colonies are loyal to the crown. 29. The Persian rug was beautiful. Write the following sentences making the needed cor- rections. 66 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 1. We saw a strange kind of a bird. 2. There is a difference between the sin and sinner. 3. Woman is the equal of a man. 4. Do you like this kind of a pen? 5. He always has some kind of an explanation. 6. There are a few pleasant days in March, because it is a stormy month. 7. Idlers always have some sort of an excuse. 8. Distinguish carefully between an adjective and adverb. 9. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the cat tribe. 10. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere. 11. The right and left hand. 12. The fourth and fifth verse. 13. Oak is harder than the maple. 14. Dog is a quadruped. 15. Churchill received the title of a duke. Indicate whether "a'' or ^'an" should be used with each of the following, and give reason. hero uniform inheritance account umpire hundred university enemy heir usurper hook yew tree owl hour , history historian unit umbrella hysterical laugh ocean hypothesis honest man hard apple DEFINITIONS An adjective is a word which modifies the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. A descriptive adjective limits a noun by expressing quality or characteristic. A proper adjective is a descriptive adjective derived from a proper noun. A definitive adjective is one that limits a noun by point- ing out, numbering, or denoting quantity. A numeral adjective is one that expresses number. A pronominal adjective is a pronoun used as an adjective. ADJECTIVES SOMETIMES MISUSED 67 OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES I. Descriptive 1. Common 2. Proper 1. Numerals II. Definitive < 2. Pronominals (a) Cardinals (b) Ordinals (c) Fractionals ^ (d) Multiplicatives (a) Demonstrative (b) Interrogative (c) Relative ^ (d) Indefinite LESSON 18 ADJECTIVES SOMETIMES MISUSED AVERAGE, ORDINARY Average implies an arithmetical computation. Ordinary implies that which is usual or common. APT, LIKELY, LIABLE Apt implies a natural tendenc3^ Likely refers to a con- tingency regarded as very probable and usually favorable. Liable refers to a contingency as unfavorable. AGGRAVATING, IRRITATING Aggravating means making more intense, burdensome, heinous, etc. It should not be used for irritating or provoking. BOUND, DETERMINED Bound means having one's course directed; being obliged, or under necessity. Determined means resolved or decided. 68 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH CONTINUAL, CONTINUOUS Continual means renewed in regular succession; often re- peated; very frequent. Continuous is said of that which is extended or prolonged without separation or interruption; unbroken. CHILDISH, CHILDLIKE, PUERILE Childish means immature or weak ; and when applied to a mature person, it is used with an unfavorable meaning; child- like is usually used in the moral sense, and expresses the moral simplicity of a child. Puerile like childish, when said of mature persons, is uncomplimentary. CREDIBLE, CREDITABLE That which may be believed is credible; that which is worthy of approbation is creditable. COURAGEOUS, BRAVE Courageous means characterized by courage ; brave, charac- terized by bravery. Courage is mental or moral; bravery is physical. CONTAGIOUS, INFECTIOUS Contagious applies to that which is transmissible b}^ contact. Infectious applies to that which is transmissible by contact or through the medium of water, air, clothing, etc. CONTEMPTUOUS, CONTEMPTIBLE That is contemptuous which shows or expresses contempt; that which deserves contempt is contemptible. EXERCISE 18 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. ■AVERAGE, ORDINARY 1. The • length of human life is increasing. 2. The • man has many things for which to be thank- ful. ADJECTIVES SOMETIMES MISUSED 69 3. The : age of the signers of the Declaration of Independence was nearly forty-four. 4. The ■ • yearly income of dentists is $1000.00. 5. Their ■ — duties were not difficult. APT, LIKELY, LIABLE 1. Iron is to rust. 2. An impetuous speaker is to say more than he can prove. 3. The ship was to sink at any moment. 4. An industrious worker is — — — to succeed 5. Rulers are ■ • to be killed. 6. Youth is • to err. 7. An intoxicated engineer is to cause a wreck. 8. John is to learn German. AGGRAVATING, IRRITATING 1. His manner was . 2. The remarks of the student were ■ to the teacher. 3. The crime was committed under circumstances. 4. The officer said the prisoner's conduct had been very BOUND, DETERMINED 1. Because the people were not to use stamps, the revenue was small. 2. We are • to maintain the principles of public liberty. 3. He is to succeed. 4. We are ■ to keep our engagement. 5. We have promised; therefore, we are to keep our engagement. CONTINUAL, CONTINUOUS 1. Space and time are . 2. The speaker was confused by the interruptions. 3. His life was a ■ pra^-er. 4. A • beach is exposed to the beating of the waves. 5. Few persons have the power of study. 70 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 6. A procession of soldiers marched up Pennsylvania Ave. 7. A siege of ten months caused the surrender. CHILDISH, CHILDLIKE, PUERILE 1. When I became a man, I put away things. 2. Some of the excuses given were . 3. Dr. Eliot is a man of • • simplicity. 4. One should approach him with • faith 5. in a youth does not surprise us. 6. The old man showed impatience. 7. We are surprised to see what is in a man. CREDIBLE, CREDITABLE 1. The sinking of the Merrimac was a act. 2. Some of the narratives of social conditions are not • . 3. The young man did some writing. 4. The story told by the prisoner was not . 5. Although he failed, his efforts were . COURAGEOUS, BRAVE 1. Words that Raleigh spoke. 2. The soldier should be ; the office-holder . 3. Many men were slain in battle. 4. His refusing the bribe was a act CONTAGIOUS, INFECTIOUS 1. Fear is more than ambition. 2. The garments were burned. 3. Some ■ diseases are not . 4. Laughter and good humor are . CONTEMPTUOUS, CONTEMPTIBLE 1. It is for a man to take advantage of a child. 2. The man's face bore a look. 3. Stealing is a ■ act. 4. The look of the speaker was understood by the audience. ADJECTIVES SOMETIMES MISUSED 71 LESSON 19 ADJECTIVES SOMETIMES MISUSED— Continued DECIDED, DECISIVE Decided means unwavering, resolute, emphatic. De- cisive is said of that which is conclusive; that which decides. DEATHLY, DEADLY Deathly means having the appearance of death; death- like. Deadly is said of that which is capable of producing death. DESIROUS, ANXIOUS Desirous means having a desire or experiencing a wish; anxious means feeling a painful or a disturbing suspense. DUMB, STUPID That which has no power of speech is said to be dumb; that which is slow of apprehension or understanding is stupid. EMINENT, IMMINENT Eminent means high in merit or estimation, distinguished ; imminent means threatening to happen at once, dangerous and close at hand. EXTANT, EXISTING That is extant which has escaped the destroying power of time; that is existing which has existence. FUNNY, ODD Funny means comical, provoking laughter; odd means unusual, peculiar. HUMAN, HUMANE Human means pertaining to mankind; humane means compassionate, showing helpfulness. 72 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH HEALTHY, HEALTHFUL, WHOLESOME That which is in good health is said to be healthy. That which has a tendency to promote health is healthful or whole- some. Wholesome is commonly applied to food. IDEAL, BEAUTIFUL, PRETTY Ideal means pertaining to or existing in ideas; beautiful means having the qualities of beauty. Pretty means pleasing in form, feature, arrangement or design. EXERCISE 19 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. DECIDED, DECISIVE 1. Meade won a victory at Gettysburg. 2. The man spoke in a • manner. 3. The • • victory of the war came when Richmond fell. 4. Have you read Creasy's *' Fifteen Battles of the World?'' 5. He felt a aversion to going on the water. DEADLY, DEATHLY 1. All the seven sins have claimed to be agents of progress. 2. The stillness was broken by the caw of a crow. 3. Strychnine is a • poison. 4. There was a ■ stillness in the house. 5. Your hands are cold. 6. The bite of the copperhead is . DESIROUS, ANXIOUS 1. None are so as those who watch and wait. 2. The most • period of the war was during the battle of Gettysburg. 3. I am ■ to have the debt paid. 4. My brother is ■ ■ of buying the new book. 5. He was concerning his father's health. ADJECTIVES SOMETIMES MISUSED 73 DUMB, STUPID 1 God is not , that he should speak no more. 2. A boy that can't learn to spell must be . 3. The man was deaf and . 4. I was struck with fear. 5. As a sheep before her shearers is , so He openeth not his mouth. EMINENT, IMMINENT 1. Daniel Webster was an — — - — ■ — statesman. 2. The foreign ministers in Peking were in danger of massacre. 3. When the wall fell the firemen were in danger. 4. Lincoln was man. 5. men are usually simple in their manner. EXTANT, EXISTING 1. The catalogues still show how extensively the sciences were pursued. 2. Several authentic portraits of Washington are . . 3. Many of Cicero's letters are . 4. God created all • things. 5. Many social evils should be eliminated. FUNNY, ODD 1. It is that you did not receive an invitation. 2. He told us a story. 3. The — — ■ — — dresses of the foreigners attracted much attention. 4. The picture of "Uncle Sam" and ''John Bull" was . 5. It is that we do not hear from father. HUMAN, HUMANE 1. A great library contains the history of the race. 2. ''To err is ; to forgive, divine." 3. Was Christ or divine? 4. The Society tries to prevent cruelty to children. HEALTHY, HEALTHFUL, WHOLESOME 1. Mutton is food. 2. Tennis is a recreation for a business man. 74 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 3. To make beef, a steer should be 4. A man to be — - — - — — should eat ■ food and live in a ■ climate. 5. Farming is a ■ occupation. IDEAL, BEAUTIFUL 1. This is a, an day. 2. The best judges of art alwa3^s see possibilities not yet attained. 3. This is a — — - — ■ — - specimen in botanj^ 4. Gray's elegy is a poem. 5. The landscape was . 6. A vase of flowers sat on the table. LESSON 20 ADJECTIVES SOMETIMES MISUSED— Continued IDLE, INDOLENT A person who does nothing useful is idle; one who does nothing at all is indolent. IMPERATIVE, IMPERIOUS That which is authoratative or obligatory is imperative; that which is domineering or overbearing is imperious. LATEST, LAST Latest is said of that which comes after all others in time; last is said of that which remains after all others in space or in a series. LENGTHY, LONG Lengthy is used commonly of discussions, sermons, and discourses, and usually suggests tediousness. Long is said of anything that has length or relatively great line or extension. LESS, FEWER, SMALLER Less applies to quantity, fewer to number, smaller to size. ADJECTIVES SOMETIMES MISUSED 75 MAD, ANGRY Mad means insane; angry means feeling anger, moved by violent resentment. MUCH, MANY Much is said of quantity; many is said of num])er. MUTUAL, COMMON Mutual means reciprocal and is said of something relating to two persons, sides, or parties. Common is said of some- thing relating to more than two persons, sides, or parties alike. NEW, NOVEL New is said of anything recently come into existence, of that which is not old; novel is said of that which is strange or unusual. NOTABLE, NOTORIOUS That which is distinguished or worthy of note is notable; that which is widely but unfavorably known is notorious. ORAL, VERBAL Oral is used of that which is spoken; verbal is said of that which is expressed in words either spoken or written. PITIABLE, PITIFUL That which may be or should be pitied is pitiable; that which is compassionate is pitiful. PRACTICABLE, PRACTICAL That which can be put into practice is practical)le; that which is not theoretical only is jDractical. PROBABLE, PLAUSIBLE Probable is said of that which is likely to happen; plausible is said of that which is seemingly true but open to doubt. 7C) LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH PROMINENT, PREDOMINATE Prominent means conspicuous, standing out so as to be easily seen; predominate means having control, suj^erior in number, power, influence. EXERCISE 20 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. IDLE, INDOLENT 1. An man may be willing to use his mind; an man will use neither his mind nor body. 2. Rip Van Winkle was an — — - — — fellow. 3. An man does nothing useful; an man does nothing at all. 4. There is some hope for the man, but very little for the one. IMPERATIVE, IMPERIOUS 1 . To earn a living is — — ■ — - — ■. 2. Napoleon's orders were — -, and his manner . 3. The general spoke in an tone. 4. It is that immediate action be taken. 5. That we study diligently is . LATEST, LAST 1. What time does the — — train leave? 2. Have you read ''The ■ of the Mohicans?" 3. Do not be ashamed to say you have not read the novel. 4. What is the news? 5. We saw the automobile race. LENGTHY, LONG 1. His address was a composition. 2. The walk from home to school is not a one. 3. We were wearied by the — ■ — ■ sermon. 4. The journey seemed . 5. We took a — walk after dinner. ADJECTIVES SOMETIMES MISUSED 77 LESS, FEWER, SMALLER 1. There are no than ten volcanoes in Mexico. 2. I have ■ books than you. 3. He has ■ ■ money than you. 4. Not ■ than twenty persons were hurt in the wreck. 5. This is the • • number of the two. 6. You waste • • time than he. 7^ . . students attended the banquet than I expected. 8. I saw not • than ten birds on the tree. MAD, ANGRY 1. The candidate became very . 2. The ■ man died in an insane asylum. 3. His bad conduct makes me . 4. Great suffering sometimes makes men . 5. Why are you ? MUCH, MANY 1. • inventions are patented each year. 2. NegUgence is the cause of — accidents. 3. — failure is caused by ill health. 4. How • apples did you buy? 5. He blames his brother for of his misfortune. MUTUAL, COMMON 1 . David loved Jonathan, and Jonathan loved David ; therefore, their love was ■ . 2. His trouble is yours, and your trouble is mine; therefore, our trouble is ■ •. 3. The individual is sometimes sacrificed for the good of all. 4. I have learned, Mr. Jones, that we have some • friends. NEW, NOVEL 1. The idea of having a ''Carnation Day" was a one. 2. We had many ■ experiences in the crystal maze. 3. John has bought a ■ • overcoat. 4. A ■ • star has been discovered. 5. The school building is beautiful. 78 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH NOTABLE, NOTORIOUS 1. Jesse James was a • criminal. 2. Max Miiller was a • philologist. 3. Richard Croker was a politician. 4. Washington was a statesman. ORAL, VERBAL 1 . Contracts may be • or written. 2. Many believe in the — — ■ — — inspiration of the Bible. 3. Not having time to write, the general sent an — — command. 4. A few • changes have beem made in the last edition of the book. PITIABLE, PITIFUL 1. When you see a person in trouble be . 2. The condition of the exiles at St. Helena is . 3. The condition of the poor is often 4. The lost child was a ■ sight. 5. The most sight one ever sees is a young man doing nothing. PRACTICABLE, PRACTICAL 1. The world wants men who have a education for work. 2. Many now think aerial navigation . 3. Communication across the Atlantic by wireless telegraphy seems a ■ • scheme. 4. This plan of work is not . 5. Edison's inventions are of a nature. PROBABLE, PLAUSIBLE 1. The story sounded , but we did not believe it. 2. It is by this mixture of truth that error seems • . 3. It is • that the patient will die. 4. Sometimes impossibilities seem . ' 5. It is • • that we shall go. PROMINENT, PREDOMINATE 1 . The English settlers were in America. 2. Frogs have • eyes. VERBS 79 3 A . man is usually censured. 4. The Indian race is marked by a ■ — ■ of the cheek- bones. 5. Of his many faults, which is ? LESSON 21 VERBS So far, we have considered the predicate as a unit, one of the two essential elements of the sentence. If we study the predicate more closely, we shall see that it may be divided frequently into two distinct parts. One of these parts either represents an act in a general way or shows a relation between the remaining part of the predicate and the subject of the sentence; the other may represent certain mod- ifying powers or name the person or thing acted upon. If we say *'John cuts," the word ''cuts" does not express all we mean to say concerning John. The predicate is incomplete. If we say *' John cuts wood," the word *'wood" completes the predicate by naming that which receives the action expressed by the other part of the predicate. *'Wood" is said to be an object complement and ''cuts," a transitive verb. A word that completes a predicate by naming that which re- ceives the action expressed by the verb is called an object comple- ment. The object complement is also called the direct object of the verb. A word that expresses an action and requires an object com- plement to complete the meaning, is a transitive verb. If we say "This rose smells," the predicate is incomplete. If we say "This rose smells sweet/' the word "sweet" completes the predicate and modifies the subject of the sentence. " Sweet " is a subjective complement and "smells," a copulative verb. 80 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH A word that completes the predicate and refers to the subject is a subjective complement. A verb that merely asserts relation between its subject and a subjective complement is a copulative verb. The different forms of the verb ''to be" — am, is, are, was, were, will be, shall be, have been, has been, had been — suggest action less apparently than other verbs; and because of this fact, the verb ''to be" is called the copula. Not only adjectives but also nouns may be used as sub- jective complements. Example. — This is a man. An adjective used as a subjective complement is called a predicate adjective; a noun so used, a predicate noun. Iri the sentence, ''John made the knife sharp," "sharp" not only completes the meaning of the predicate but also mod- ifies the object complement "knife." A word that completes the predicate and modifies the object complement is an objective complement. Such verbs as make, choose, call, and name, frequently have objective complements. Sometimes we have t\vo or more of the same kind of com- plements used in the same sentence forming a compound complement. Example. — The sun gives light and heat. Wm. McKinley was a statesman and a diplomat. They elected John Smith secretary and treasurer. Frequently a verb represents an action complete in itself; such a verb is said to be intra7isitive. Example. — John studies. A verb that does not require an object complement to com- plete the meaning of the sentence is an intransitive verb. Some verbs may be used either transitively or intran- sitively. Example. — The boy ran (intransitively). VERBS 81 The boy ran the horse (transitively). In the sentence, ''The teacher gave John a book, " "l)ook" is the direct object of the verb; John, however, names the per- son to ivhom the book was given, and we call "John" the in- direct object. A word representing the person or thing to or for whom or which an action is performed, is an indirect object. Verbs that express the acts of givino:, bringing, showing, refusing, telling, sending, lending, ctc.jfrequentl}^ have indirect objects associated with them. We may now say that a verb is a word that affirms the action or existence of some subject. EXERCISE 21 Classify the verbs and the complements in the following sentences, as suggested below. Example. — -John gave Mary a book. Subject Intransi- tive Verb Transitive Verb Object Comple- ment Indirect Object Subjective Comple- ment Objective Comple- ment 1 . John gave book Mary 1. The sea is fascinating. 2. The major handed the servant his card. 3. The lad told the father a falsehood. 4. Every teacher has a diligent pupil. 5. The Turks call their ruler Sultan. 6. We found the journey long. 7. They named the state New York. 8. We gathered her a bouquet. 9. The stranger asked the inn-keeper many questions. 10. Tubal Cain was the first blacksmith. 11. The longest life is short. 12. They made him umpire. 13. Napoleon was a great general. 14. I will write him a receipt. 15. This apple is sweet. 16. Napoleon died in exile. 82 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 17. He paid the men the wages. • 18. They called him chief. 19. Custom renders feelings blunt. 20. The church appointed the pastor delegate. 21. John told us strange stories. 22. The clerk wrote many letters. 23. The owl has very large eyes. 24. Elizabeth made Raleigh a knight. 25. The mountains are grand and tranquil. 26. Madame de Stael called architecture frozen music. 27. The ant is never idle. 28. Peter Minuit was the first governor of New York. 29 Washington was a punctual man. 30. The indulgent father bought the boy a watch. 31. James studies grammar 32. The president appointed General Grant commander-in-chief. 33. The task was difficult. 34. They painted the house red. 35. Victor Hugo was a French author. Use each of the following words as the subject of a sentence; and in each sentence, use two appropriate adjectives as sub- jective complements: T^ i-ii f brittle 1 Glass is brittle and Example.— Glass ( ^ ^ f ^ [ transparent J transparent. Flowers, iron, coal, war, peace, education, wood, gold, water, leather. Using the following verbs, as predicates, compose sentences containing objective complements: Choose, appoint, make, name, elect, find, consider, call. Using the following verbs, as predicates, compose sentences containing indirect objects: Ask, read, tell, unite, give, buy, teach, bring, offer, forward. DEFINITIONS A verb is a word that affirms the action or existence of some subject. A transitive verb is one that requires an object comple- ment to complete its meaning. VERBS SOMETIMES MISUSED 83 An intransitive verb is one that represents an act com- plete in itself. The copula is the verb "to be/' which represents existence or state of being. An object complement is a word that completes the pred- icate by naming that which receives the act expressed by the verb. An indirect object is a w^ord which represents the person to or for whom an act is performed. A subjective complement is a word that completes the predicate and refers to the subject of the sentence. Intransi- tive verbs only have subjective complements. An objective complement is a word that completes the predicate and refers to the object complement. LESSON 22 VERBS SOMETIMES MISUSED ALLOW, THINK To allow is to grant or permit. To think is to produce or form by mental processes. ACCEPT, EXCEPT To accept means to take that which is offered. To except means to leave out or exclude. ACCREDIT, CREDIT To accredit means to invest with authority, to furnish with credentials. To credit means to accept as true; to give credit in an account. ARGUE, AUGUR To argue is to give reasons for or against. To augur is to foretell, to predict. 84 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH ADMIT, CONFESS To admit is to concede or grant to be true; to acknowledge the truth or correctness of anything. Admit does not imply guilt. To confess means to admit one's guilt. We confess a sin, crime, weakness, etc. ALLEVIATE, RELIEVE To alleviate means to make less burdensome, less hard to bear. To relieve means to free wholly or in large measure. AFFECT, EFFECT To affect means to influence, to change or pretend. To effect means to cause or to bring about. Effect used as a noun means the result. ADVERTISE, ADVISE To advertise is to make known ])y public notice. To advise is to give an opinion by way of counsel; to give advice. CONVINCE, CONVICT To convince is to satisfy by evidence in respect to truth or falsity. To convict is to prove or pronounce guilty. CONVOKE, CONVENE To convoke means to call together by summons. To convene is to come together. EXERCISE 22 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. ALLOW, THINK 1 He would not her to go. 2. 1 — • she will go. 3. The judge ■ an appeal. 4. Vanity relates to what we would have others of us. 5. The captain did not • the soldiers to cheer. •6. I there will be a good game to-morrow VEKBS SOMETIMES MISUSED 85 ACCEPT, EXCEPT 1 . Spain would not the $100,000,000 oiTered for Cuba by our government. 2. Jefferson Davis was ■■ — from the Amnesty Procla- mation. 3. Will you this gift from me? 4. It is a pleasure to your invitation. 5. In saying that the students are industrious, I • a few. ACCREDIT, CREDIT 1. Mr. Edwin H. Conger was as minister to China. 2. We could not ■ the story of the battle. 3. We have • ■ you with the payment of ten dollars. 4. The reputed agent of the Boer Republic did not come properly — — -. 5. John Brown was not for his payment. ARGUE, AUGUR 1. E'en though vanquished, he could ■ still. 2. The sudden cloud • • a coming tempest. 3. To the questions at this time is useless. 4. This change in policy ■ better things. 5. I will not the question with you. ADMIT, CONFESS 1 . The sentence I is difficult. 2. I that I spoke too hastily. 3. He ■ that he had stolen the coat. 4 I ■ • that John stole the coat. 5. James that he could not work the problem. ALLEVIATE, RELIEVE 1. Anaesthetics pain. 2. Water thirst. 3. The widow's cares were by the kindness of her friends. 4. He gave me a powder to my headache. f). Much is being done to ■ the wants of the poor. 86 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH AFFECT, EFFECT 1. The Panama Canal will • great change in trade between the Atlantic and Pacific ports. 2. To • a favorable verdict, we must the minds of the jury men. 3. Measles sometimes ■ ■ the eyesight. 4. He was greatly ■ • by the election. 5. What he planned, he • — . 6. The report of the cannon my hearing. ADVERTISE, ADVISE 1. When I hear from him, I shall you. 2. The doctor exercise in the open air. 3. The meeting was widely ■ . 4. The play was ■ ■ to begin at half-past eight o'clock. 5. us when payment is due. CONVINCE, CONVICT 1 . We succeeded in him of his error. 2. The judge was ■ that the man was guilty, but the jury did not • ■ the prisoner. 3. In order to persuade a man, you must first him. 4. He is of folly by his own speech. 5. We were unable to the man that he was wrong. CONVOKE, CONVENE 1. A special session of the Council at 8 o'clock. 2. The president of the class a special meeting. 3. At what time shall we ■ — ? 4. Congress will • in special session April 7. 5. Xerxes a meeting of the Persian counsellors. LESSON 23 VERBS SOMETIMES MISUSED— Continued CONSTRUCT, CONSTRUE To construct means to build, to fashion, to devise. To construe is to interpret, to explain. VERBS SOMETIMES MISUSED 87 CALCULATE, INTEND To calculate means to compute mathematically. To intend means to be intent upon; to have in view as a purpose. CAPTIVATE, CAPTURE To captivate means to charm, win, fascinate. To cap- ture means to take prisoner. CARRY, BRING To carry means to take with in going. To brings means to take with in coming. DRIVE, RIDE We drive in a vehicle drawn by horses or other animals. We ride on a horse or other animals. DISCOVER, DISCLOSE To discover is to get first sight or knowledge of that which was previously unknown. To disclose is to bring into view, to uncover. DETECT, DISCRIMINATE To detect is to find out or to determine the existence or presence of. To discriminate is to note difference or to distinguish. DOMINATE, DOMINEER To dominate is to control, to rule, to govern. To dom- ineer is to rule or to control unjustly. DEPRECIATE, DEPRECATE To depreciate is to lower the price or value of. To dep- recate is to plead or argue earnestly against. DEMAND, ASK To demand means to ask for by right or authority to in- sist upon. To ask is to make a request, to express a desire to or for. 88 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH ELICIT, ELIMINATE To elicit is to draw out by some inducement. To elim- inate is to remove or to cast out. EXPOSE, EXPOUND To expose is to bring forth, to show. To expound is to explain. EXERCISE 23 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. CONSTRUCT, CONSTRUE 1. If a sentence is not well — — - — — -, its meaning is obscure. 2. How do you ■ ■ this passage in Shakespeare? 3. You might ■ ■ his remarks in a bad sense. 4. God gives man facts; and out of these facts, man the sciences. CALCULATE, INTEND 1. You may the area of the field. 2. I • to do my duty. 3. He • to go to New York to-morrow. 4. Bradley ■ the velocity of light. 5. We • to get a good price for the potatoes. CAPTIVATE, CAPTURE 1. Mark Anthony was by the personal attractions of Cleopatra. 2. The soldiers Lone Star, the Indian Chief. 3. Lieutenant Gillmore was ■ by the Filipinos. 4. The fort was after a heavy bombardment. 5. The style of Washington Irving • our attention. CARRY, BRING 1. The newspapers of the day the letter of Washing- ton into every home. 2. When he dieth, he shall • ■ nothing away. 3. What shall I — you from the store? 4. The Spartan was to his shield home, or to be borne home on it. VERBS SOMETIMES MISUSED 89 DRIVE, RIDE 1 . I went ing with John in his new carriage. 2. The children enjo^^ed ing in the pony cart. 3. While —ing in the race, the man was thrown from his horse. 4. This horse was always ; he has never been in har- ness. T). The twenty miles to Winchester was by Sheridan at fearful speed. DISCLOSE, DISCOVER 1. The detectives the plot to kill the President. 2. Did the man • to you his intentions. 3. The mists rolled away ing fertile fields. 4. Columbus ■ America. DETECT, DISCRIMINATE 1. Careful writers the merits of words. 2. A good cashier is able to ■ • counterfeit money. 3. I cannot • the error in my account. 4. The inspector a flaw in the steel. 5. It is sometimes difficult to between right and wrong. DOMINATE, DOMINEER 1. The English in the new world. 2. Three powers there are that the world; Fraud, Force, and Right. 3. To is an ungentlemanly act. 4. The man ■ • his servants. DEPRECIATE, DEPRECATE 1 . Both parties war. 2. Do not his honor by what you say. 3. There is a tendency to • the works of great men. 4. Those who fail usually ■ ■ the work of those who succeed. DEMAND, ASK 1. The mob the release of the prisoner. 2. He ■ me where I lived. 90 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 3. The price is so low that we must • payment in advance. 4. The robber • their money. ELICIT, ELIMINATE 1. Moral beauty a tribute of reverence. 2. If we should ■ from history all its heroism, the record would be barren. 3. The lawyer had much trouble to the facts of the case. 4. We should all strive to ■ the worst elements from society. EXPOSE, EXPOUND 1. Daniel Webster the constitution of the United States. 2. Martin Luther the Scriptures. 3. The Lexow Committee — sl great deal of vice in New York. 4. • this matter more fully to me. 5. The police should • vice. LESSON 24 VERBS SOMETIMES MISUSED— (Continued ESTEEM, ESTIMATE To esteem is to value highly. To estimate is to assign a value. HIRE, LET, LEASE To hire means to obtain the use of a thing or the services of a person. To let is to give the use of. To lease means to grant the use of by written contract. IMPUTE, IMPUGN To impute means to ascribe or attribute to. To impugn means to call in question. INSURE, SECURE To insure is to guarantee indemnity in case of loss or dam- age. To secure is to guard from danger, to make safe. VERBS SOMETIMES MISUSED 91 INVESTIGATE, INQUIRE To investigate is to examine with care. To inquire is to ask for information. LET, LEAVE Let means to permit, to allow. Leave means to go away from, to let remain, to let stay or continue. LOCATE, FIND To locate means to place, to designate the site or place of. To find means to come upon by seeking, to arrive at. PURPOSE, PROPOSE To purpose means to intend, to resolve. To propose is to offer for consideration or acceptance. PREDICT, PREDICATE To predict is to tell or declare beforehand. To predicate is to assert as a quality or an attribute. PRESCRIBE, PROSCRIBE To prescribe is to lay down as a guide, or rule of action. To prbscribe is to denounce, to condemn, to exile. PERSUADE, ADVISE To persuade is to influence, to convince. To advise is to give advice, to give counsel. REPULSE, REPEL To repulse means to drive back and usually implies hos- tility. To repel means to force or keep back but it does not imply hostility. SUSPECT, EXPECT, ANTICIPATE, INAUGURATE To suspect means to surmise, to mistrust. To expect is to look forward to as certain or probable. To anticipate 92 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH means to have a foretaste of, to realize beforehand. To in- augurate means to invest with an office. EXERCISE 24 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. ESTIMATE, ESTEEM 1 . That which is highly ■ — among men is an abomina- tion in the sight of God. 2. I shall — — — — it a favor, if you will write me. 3. The case of the cable was ■ at ^900,000. 4. At what amount do you • ■ the cost of the building? HIRE, LET, LEASE 1. Rooms to . 2. We will ■ — — ■ — — our house during the summer. 3. Automobiles to . 4. We a good horse. 5. Teams to . G. Boats to • — . IMPUTE, IMPUGN 1. The happy all their success to prudence and merit. 2. We cannot deny the conclusion without ing the axioms which are the basis of its demonstration. 3. The judge • the man's honesty. 4. He ■ ■ his promotion to faithfulness. INSURE, SECURE 1. The building was ■ against loss by fire. 2. The canal is • by strong fortifications. 3. Many devices are now used on the railroads to ^— safety to the passengers. 4. How can v/e happiness? 5. JMany persons were not • against the losses in the Chicago fire. INVESTIGATE, INQUIRE 1. Then David • of the Lord. 2. Franklin the nature of lightning. 3. The committee the officer's conduct. VERBS SOMETIMES MISUSED 93 4. — — ■ the way, that we may not lose ourselves. 5. A committee was appointed to the matter. LET, LEAVE 1 . Therefore shall a man ■ his father and mother and shall cleave unto his wife. 2. The grape gatherers some grapes on the vines. 3. Pharaoh said, *'T will ■ you go. " 4. Rise up, us go. 5. us - — — ■ him to himself. 6. I will ■ • you know my answer to-morrow. 7. • the dog alone. 8. me out here. 9. They — ■ the decision to the judges. LOCATE, FIND 1. The police the missing man in New York. 2. He — - — ■ ■ his nephew in the railway station. 3. The part of to^\Ti in which the capital is is de- lightful. 4. The emigrants were in the Italian quarter. PURPOSE, PROPOSE 1. I to relate the history of the people of New Eng- land. 2. I to work earnestly this term. 3. I that we go fishing. 4. He doesn't to fail this time. 5. He a toast to the President of the United States. PREDICT, PREDICATE 1. The astronomers the return of the comet. 2. Ambition may be ■ as the predominate trait in Napoleon 's character. 3. The old man — — ■ — -s that the winter will be cold. 4. Failure to the campaign was • by the council of war. PRESCRIBE, PROSCRIBE 1 . The Puritans theatres. 2. Sulla and Marius • — - each other's adherents. 3. The doctor ■ quinine. 94 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 4. The number of electors is by law. 5. It is the duty of each state to the manner of vot- ing and to provide the ballot. PERSUADE, ADVISE 1. I the young man to go to college, but I could not him to do it. 2. I am almost to follow his advice. 3. We were — — of the risk. 4. I shall no more thee. REPULSE, REPEL 1 . Evil thoughts should be . 2. The charge of the troops was 3. The maiden • the entreaties of her lover. 4. Like magnetic poles each other. 5. General Meade General Lee at Gettysburg. SUSPECT, EXPECT, ANTICIPATE, INAUGURATE 1 . I shall the maturity of the note by paying it now. 2. I that he is deceiving me. 3. The President will be March 4th. 4. All men to die. 5. If I know your sect, I your argument. 6. I • my brother to visit me to-morrow. 7. I a letter from father today. 8. In several respects, the Mosaic Law modern science. 9. Do you to go? LESSON 25 ADVERBS We shall now study another class of modifiers, which we call adverbs. In the sentence, "The horse ran rapidly," the word ''rap- idly" tells the manner in which the action represented by the verb is performed; and we call ''rapidly" an adverb of maimer. In the sentence, "The man conducts his business very ADVERBS 95 successfully," the word ''very" modifies the adverb ''success- fully" and it is an adverl) of degree. In like manner, a descriptive adjective may be modified by an adverb; as, "That is a ve^y beautiful picture." We may now say that a word that modifies the meanijig of a verhy an adjective, or another adverb, is an adverb. Adverbs may have a somewhat broader use, however, than the above definition permits. In the sentence, "The land was almost out of sight," "almost" modifies the meaning of the phrase, "out of sight." In the sentence, "He does exactly as he pleases, "exactly" modifies the meaning of the clause, "as he pleases." It is difficult to classify adverbs satisfactorily. The following classification based on meaning, however, should be studied. 1. Adverbs of time (answering the question, when?) . Now, today, soon, lately, never, yet, when, as, after, before, hitherto, etc. 2. Adverbs of place (answering the question, where?). (1) (From w^hich?) whence, thence, hence, etc. (2) (To which?) whither , thither, hither, elsewhere. (3) (At w^hich?) here, there, yonder, near, within, without, wherein, whereat, etc. 3. Adverbs of number (answ^ering the question, how often?). Once, daily, repeatedly, again, often, etc. 4. Adverbs of manner (answering the question, how?). Well, so, ill, however, slowly, etc. 5. Adverbs of degree (answering the question, how much?) . Much, little, almost, nearly, too, verj^, quite, partly, etc. 6. Adverbs of assertion (To what extent is asserton true or untrue?) . Surely, probably, possibly, certainly, not, perhaps, trul}^, indeed, etc. According to use we have the following classification : 96 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 1. Responsives — (Adverbs used in responding to questions). Yes, yea, no, nay. 2. Interrogatim adverbs — (Adverbs used in asking ques- tions) . When, where, why, how, etc. 3. Conjunctive adverbs — (Adverbs which join dependent clauses to the words which the clauses modify) . When, where, while, why, than, since, till, before, etc. A conjunctive adverb used with the value of a relative pronoun is called a relative adverb. Example. ^ — I will praise thee while (at the time in which) I live. He died in the house where (in which) he was born. The adverb "there" is often used idiomatically in the position of the grammatical subject; and when so used, the subject of the sentence /oZ/oit's the verb. Example.— There is no royal road to learning. EXERCISE 25 Name and classify the adverbs in the following sentences. time place manner degree assertion interrogative conjunctive 1. A great writer reveals himself everywhere. 2. Can one desire too much of a good thing? 3. The plague of gold strikes far and near. 4. How far is it to the next station? 5. The boats moved slowly down the river. 6. The boy does not behave well. 7. The man very nearly missed the train. 8. He is due now. 9. The work was performed skillfully. 10. He converses fluently in English. 1 1 . The work is not nearly finished. 12. This hat is too small. 13. Men can be great when great occasions call. 14. No nation can be destroyed while it possesses a good home life. ADVERBS 97 15. Why should the spirit of mortal be proud? 16. It is certainly true that very few birds of richly colored plumage are found here. 17. Almost all men will admit that. 18. It is always morning somewhere in the world. 19. He who judges least, I think, is he who judges best. 20. The brook still flows seaward. 21. We were clearly shown how the work was done. 22. Still waters are commonly deepest. 23. Brighter days are coming soon. 24. Lately the shops have been closed at six o'clock. 25. The sun is always shining. 26. We looked overhead, and stars were visible. 27. The ships sailed thence at daybreak. 28. Nowhere has the fountain of youth been found. 29. The heart often becomes weary. 30. Temptations are repeatedly testing us. 31. The head should daily grow wiser. 32. Men move lazily upon the wharf. 33. The train rushed rapidly through the darkness. 34. The plans were promptly executed. 35. The sun had almost set. 36. Our ogre was only a tow-headed bo3^ 37. The engineer was somewhat troubled by smoke. 38. Chance, perhaps, is not so blind as it is all-seeing. 39. He was, indeed, a man of sterling worth. 40. His rights, accordingly, were respected. ERRORS IN THE USE OF ADVERBS Every adverb should be so placed that the reader may associate it immediately with the word it -modifies. 1. The adverbs only, merely, just, almost, ever, hardly, scarcely, quite, and nearly should be placed next to the words they modify. Incorrect: I only saw two. Correct: I saw only two. 2. It sometimes makes a better sentence to place however, therefore, nevertheless, moreover, etc. within the sentence they introduce rather than at the beginning. 98 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Incorrect: Mary was studious. However, Mary's brother was indolent. Correct: Mary was studious. Mary's brother, however, was indolent. 3. Adverbs that are appropriate in meaning should be used. Incorrect: It is awfully nice. Correct: It is very nice. 4. The adverbs too, pretty, very, and exceedingly may modify only adjectives and adverbs. Incorrect: I was very pleased to hear from you. Correct: I was very much pleased to hear from you. DEFINITIONS An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS [l. Time I 2. Place 3. Number I . According to meaning. II. According to use. 4. Manner 5. Degree 6. Assertion 1. Responsive 2. Interrogative 3. Conjunctive [4. Relative LESSON 26 ADVERBS FREQUENTLY MISUSED ALONE, ONLY In earlier English alone is used for the adverb only; it is now usually used in the sense of unaccompanied by other persons or things. Onhj may be used both as adjective and as adverb. ADVERBS FRP]QUENTLY MISUSED 99 FIRST, SECOND, SECONDLY, ETC. First may be used as either an adjective or an adverb. Second, third, etc. are adjectives; secondly, thirdly, etc. the corresponding adverbs. GOOD, WELL Good is an adjective; well is almost always used as an ad- verb. Well may be used, however, as an adjective. It is correct to say '' I feel well, " because " I feel good " means " I feel righteous. " LIKELY, PROBABLY Likely is used as an adjective only, except in the phrase, "as likely as not. " Probablj^ is an adverb. MOST, MOSTLY Most denoted tlie greatest number, quantity-, or degree. Almost is used in the sense of nearly. NEAR, NEARLY Near is an adjective; nearly is the corresponding adverb. REAL, REALLY Real is an adjective and means having actual existence. Keally is an adverb. SOME, SOMEWHAT Some is an adjective; somewhat is an adverb. TWO, TOO, TO Too is an adverb and means in excessi\'e quantity, number or degree. We must not confuse the adverb "too" with the adjective "two" or the preposition "to." 100 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH EXERCISE 26 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. ALONE, ONLY 1. Man cannot live by bread — . 2. Not • King Humbert but also President Carnot was assassinated. 3. Washington — — • seemed to have the qualifications. 4. Robinson Crusoe communed with nature. 5. Virtue — — - — — • makes us happy. 6. Expectation ends ■ in heaven. 7. It is not good that man should be . 8. The citizens — should be at the expense. 9. These books are sold in sets . 10. By chance ■ did he escape death. FIRST, SECOND, SECONDLY, ETC. 1. There are two cases: ■ , when the terms are alike; ■ when they are unlike. 2. After the Black Death, the following changes took place: • , a scarcity of workers caused wages to rise; • — , this rise in w^ages caused employers to seek relief from Parliament. 3. My • proposition is that the measure is unneces- sary; my • , that it is unjust; my •, that it is unconstitutional. 4. Let us consider ■ how we shall go; , when we shall go; , where we shall go. 5. I shall explain first the essentials; the non-essen- tials. 6. The • essential is honesty; the , efficiency, the ■ , promptness. 7. He- 'Suggested that we rent the house; , that we buy it. 8. Our consideration should be the investment; the • the expense. GOOD, WELL 1 . This cake tastes • ■ — . 2. He recites •. 3. You do not look • today. ADVERBS FREQUENTLY MISUSED 101 4. Do you feel ? , : ; 5. Your hat does not fit — ■ — — - — ■. (). The men have done the work ■ — ■. '•, > \ 7. John ran in the race; he is a — ' ^ ruTiner. 8. He ran as — — ■ as we could expect. 9. This is not • writing because the pen does not write ■ . 10. She sings very LIKELY, PROBABLY 1. It will • ■ rain. 2. There will be • one hundred men present. 3. It seems • that he will go. 4. — — • he will go. 5. The child is to die. 6. The child will ■ ~ die. 7. The industrious man is • to succeed. 8. The lazy student will • • fail. 9. As ■ as not you will miss the train. 10. • you will miss the train. MOST, ALMOST 1. Florida is • as large as Michigan. 2. I am ■ • persuaded to go. 3. all flowers are beautiful. 4^ . flowers are beautiful. 5. He goes to the ball game • every day. 6. The boy was ■ drowned. 7. We study our lessons ■ every evening. 8. I ■ • caught the ball. 9. boys like to go to the circus. 10. • all girls like to play with dolls. NEAR, NEARLY 1. The work is -finished. 2. We are • the end of our journey. 3. Our school term is ■ over. 4. I was — — — — - dro\^Tied. 5. He is not ■ so heavy as you. 6. The new house is not — - — — — finished. 102 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 7. Ws are —■ — — — the end of our vacation; our pleasure is — — — - — over. 8. The man : missed the train. 9. It is not — ' • so dangerous to travel on water now as it was years ago. 10. Draw the line as ■ straight as possible. REAL, REALLY 1 . ^— — heroes do not boast of their deeds. 2. This is not — — ■ ■ amber, but only something like it. 3. This is a — — ■ — — - instance of success. 4. I am — — ■ glad to see you. 5. He has gone. . 6. He is — — - dead. 7. This problem is • difficult. 8. We had a — — — — ■ delightful time. 9. Protestants believe that the bread of the Lord's supper is not • changed, but remains ■ ■ bread. 10. I am worn out. SOME, SOMEWHAT 1. They were tired. 2. It was ■ difficult to ascend the mountain. 3. We arrived sooner than we expected. 4. good has been done. 5. The patient is better this morning. 6. You resemble your sister . 7. The speaker was confused. 8. The man spoke hastily. 9. The — — — ■ — steep path over the hill was little trodden. 10. The automobile was damaged in the accident. TOO, TWO, TO 1. • much of joy is sorrowful. 2. This pencil is short. 3. We arrived at the station • late. 4. The woman was beautiful and good 5. There are ways of working the problem. 6. Boys are eager to be men. 7. They live long who outlive happiness. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 103 8. Can one desire • much of a good thing? 9. He was — — ■ — — much astonished to reply. 10. The procession moved ■ slowly. 11. John went ■ ■ school. 12. He went ■ — ■ town yesterday. LESSON 27 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS Because some adverbs are formed by suffixing "\y'' to adjectives of quality, we must not think that all words ending in "ly" are adverbs nor that all adverbs end in ^'\y.'^ We must ever remember that the use of a word determines its part of speech. We have learned that adjectives modify nouns and pro- nouns, and that adverbs modify verbs, adverbs, and adjectives. We are sometimes in doubt, however, whether to use an adjective or an adverb after the verbs look, appear, seem, smell, feel, taste, sound. Each of the above named verbs is almost alwa^^s followed w4th an adjective that modifies the meaning of the subject. As a rule, when some form of the verb, *'to he,'^ can be substituted for the verb given, the adjective should be used; when such substitution can not be 7nade, the adverb should be used. ''He looks cold" means ''He is cold;" but "He looked coldly on the suggestion" means his manner of looking was cold. It is correct to say ''I feel badly" for '1 feel ill," because ''I feel bad" means ''I feel wicked." It is correct to say ''I feel well," because ''I feel good" means "I feel righteous." EXERCISE 27 Indicate the words modified and the modifiers in the fol- lowing sentences, as suggested below. The procession moved (slow) (slowly.) 104 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH WORD MODIFIED MODIFIERS Noun Pronoun Verb Adverb moved Adjective Adjective ' Adverb slowly 1. Return (quick) (quickly). 2. Lightning flashed (vivid) (vividly) in the clouds. 3. Raise your umbrella (quick) (quickly). 4. The street was washed (bad) (badly). 5. The sun shone (bright) (brightly). 6. It disappeared (sudden) (suddenly). 7. The birds sang (joyous) (joyously). 8. Everybody was sleeping (sound) (soundly). 9. We were (serious) (seriously) alarmed at your absence. 10. My efforts proved to be (uncommon) (uncommonly) suc- cessful. 11. Speak very (distinct) (distinctly). 12. You read too (rapid) (rapidly). 13. How (quiet) (quietly) that train runs. 14. Our exercises must be more (neat) (neatly) written. 15. She looks (beautiful) (beautifully). 16. His voice sounds (harsh) (harshly). 17. Are you doing (nice) (nicely) at your school? 18. It looks (bad) (badly) to see a young man wasting his time. 19. I feel (bad) (badly) over the matter. 20. Velvet feels (smooth) (smoothly). 21. How (sweet) (sweetly) these roses smell. 22. How (different) (differently) the place looks now. 23. Speak (slow) (slowly) and (distinct) (distinctly). 24. Are you feeling (well) (good) this morning? 25. John looks (bad) (badly). 26. Arrange the words (alphabetical) (alphabetically). 27. He breathes (free) (freely). 28. The goods are selling at a (remarkable) (remarkably) low price. 29. The price is (considerable) (considerablj^ reduced. 30. They considered the application (favorable) (favorably) . 31. He is a (remarkable) (remarkably) good boy. 32. Under his management the business was managed very (suc- cessful) (successfully). ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 105 33. You should have explained your proposal more (definite (definitely) . 34. Arrange the facts (chronological) (chronologically). 35. Do not decide the matter too (quick) (quickly). 36. Run (fast) (fastly). 37. Write us (occasional) (occasionally). 38. Send the goods (direct) (directly) to us. 39. The boat was sailing (slow) (slowly). 40. The boy was in a (terrible) (terribly) dangerous position. 41. I am getting along (tolerable) (tolerably) well. 42. You write (plainer) (more plainly) than I. 43. You have been (wrong) (wrongly) informed. 44. I live (free) (freely) from care. 45. Walk (quiet) (quietly). 46. The prisoner acted (independent) (independently). 47. He was (ill) (illy) prepared to take the examination. 48. The river was raging (furious) (furiously). 49. This orange tastes (sour) (sourly). 50. The firemen worked (gallant) (gallantly). 51. The work was done (easy) (easily). 52. The hound bayed (loud) (loudly). 53. This is an (exceeding) (exceedingly) cold day. 54. How (beautiful) (beautifully) Melba looked, and how (sweet) (sweetly) she sang. 55. I have a (tolerable) (tolerably) heav}- load of coal. 56. (Sure) (surely) you can do it. 57. This is a (remarkable) (remarkabl^^) concise report. 58. The prisoners suffered (terrible) (terriblj-). 59. The work is (ill) (illy) done. 60. This is a (decided) (decidedly) good plan. 61. The Spanish War was managed (bad) (badly) from the begiiming. 02. Speak (quiet) (quietly). 63. Sit (quiet) (quietly) ; make no noise. 64. John writes (good) (well). 65. The stars look (cold) (coldly) to-night 66. Your hat fits 3'ou (good) (well). 67. The w^ind blew (cold) (coldly) yesterday. 68. I feel (bashful) (bashfully) among so many strangers. 69. We reached home (safehO (safe) and (sound) (soundly). 70. The young man appeared (awkward) (awkwardly). 106 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 71. The fruit looks (good) (well), but it tastes (bad) (badly). 72. Matters look (bad) (badly) for him. 73. How (strangely) (strange) your voice sounds. 74. He stood (silent) (silently) and alone. 75. The bells sound (harsh) (harshly). 76. The river ran (smooth) (smoothly). 77. The engine ran (smooth) (smoothly). 78. The lady looked (cold) (coldly) as she passed by. 79. The lady looked (cold) (coldly) at me as she passed. 80. You behave very (proper) (properly). 81. The boy acted (wild) (wildly). 82. The dead man looked (fierce) (fiercely . 83. The fire burns (bright) (brightl}^). 84. The tone of his language was (decided) (decidedly) harsh. 85. She is a (remarkable) (remarkably) beautiful person. 86. The soldiers load their guns (careful) (carefully''. 87. The stream flow (rapid) (rapidly). 88. The orator spoke (warm) (warmly) on the subject. 89. Your voice sounds (different) (differently) from your broth- er 's. 90. I arrived (safe) (safely). LESSON 28 PREPOSITIONS In studying tiie modifying elements of a sentence, we have learned that one of these elements is the phrase. In the sentence, "The sting of the hornet is painful," the phrase, ''of the hornet," serves as an adjective to modify the meaning of the noun ''sting." In the sentence, "The man went into the house,'' the phrase, "into the house," serves as an adverb to modify the verb. The above phrases are called prepositional phrases. If we analyze prepositional phrases, we see that each phrase contains a noun or a pronoun, the noun frequently being mod- ified by an adjective. Each phrase also contains a small word such as "of," "into," ''by," "with. " These small words, which PREPOSITIONS 107 introduce the phrase, will be found to show somewhat closely the manner in w^hich the phrase modifies the noun or verb to which the phrase is related. A "prepositional phrase is a group of related words consisting of a preposition and a noun or a pronoun, with or without modi- fiers, and having the use of an adjective or an adverb. If a prepositional phrase modifies the meaning of a noun or a pronoun, it is called an adjective phrase; as, "People of in- telligence live here." If the phrase modifies a verb, it is called an adverbial phrase; as, ''He came in hasted An adjective phrase may be used as a subjective complement ; as in the sentence, '' I am out of money. '' An adjective phrase may also be used to denote possession; as in the sentence, ''The farm of John Smith w-as sold. " The words most commonly used as prepositions are the following: about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beside, between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, in, into, of, off, on, over, past, round, since, through, till, to, toward, under, until, up, upon, with, without, within. Sometimes tw^o or more words are taken together and form a phrase preposition. The phrase prepositions most commonly used are: ''ac- cording to," "in front of," '^instead of," "account of," "with regard to" "by means of," "on account of," "by virtue of," "in consideration of," "from in between." EXERCISE 28 Classify the prepositional phrases in the following sentences, as suggested below. Behind the wall, a line of soldiers stood. ADJECTIVE PHRASE ADVERBIAL PHRASE 1. of soldiers I behind the wall 108 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 1. The chimney of a factory loomed against the sky. 2. A chain of iron fastened the boat to the shore. 3. They stayed until night at the house of a friend. 4. A child of poverty went along the street in the cold. 5. A brigade of three Hessian regiments was stationed at Trenton. G. By his side, stood a cabinet of ebony and silver. 7. In the morning, a message was sent to the General. 8. At ten o'clock, the peoi^le of Boston assembled in the Old South Church. 9. Flocks of birds were flying through the air. 10. In the spring, they sailed across the sea and found homes in the New World. 11. Many water-lilies with broad green leaves grew in the stream. 12. Judgment is forced upon us by experience. 13. A pound of pluck is worth a ton of luck. 14. Labor was appointed at the creation. 15. Nothing great was ever achieved without enthusiasm. 16. Journeys into the interior are rarely made. 17. Icebergs from the Arctic Ocean melt in the Gulf Stream. 18. The city of Rome is the capital of Italy. 19. The road up the mountain is very rocky. 20. Goods for that firm were shipped yesterday. 21. The fort near the city was captured first. 22. Success without effort is impossible. 23. Admission to college depends on attainments. 24. The planet with the rings is Saturn. 25. The town beyond Lexington is Concord. Punctuation. — The natural position of the prepositional phrase is following the word it modifies; the phrase, however, can be made more emphatic sometimes by being placed in some other position. A prepositional phrase out of its natural position or not closely connected with the word it modifies should be set off by the comma. Example. — In the evening, he goes home. The boy, in the meantime, had found his hat. PREPOSITIONS 109 Punctuate the following sentences : 1. In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. 2. The man having gro^\^l weary rested in the shade. 3. Will you call for me at ten o'clock? 4. Notwithstanding the rain we started on our journey. 5. Behind the wall a line of soldiers stood. 6. In a prepositional phrase the principal word is a noun or a pronoun. 7. Out of the depths have I cried. 8. During the day he wrote many letters. 9. As to this man I have nothing to say. 10. Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley. 1 1 . Of the scenery along the Rhine many travelers speak with enthusiasm. 12. He went at the urgent request of the stranger for the doctor. 13. He went from New York to Philadelphia on Monday. 14. In the dead of night with a chosen band under the cover of a truce he approached. 15. England in the eleventh century was conquered by the Normans. 16. Amid the angry yells of the spectators he died. 17. For the sake of emphasis a word or a phrase may be placed out of its natural order. 18. In the Pickwick Papers the conversation of Sam Weller is spiced with wit. 19. New York on the contrary abounds in men of wealth. 20. It has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest times to the present day. 21. Birds in great numbers fly over this grove. 22. Some with blue plumage have dropped a handful of feath- ers for me. 23. Quail from the north meet jays from the south. 24. There are eggs in the nest near the vine. 25. The mother bird is mottled at the throat and along the breast. 110 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH LESSON 29 PREPOSITIONS— Continued words combined with prepositions (for reference) Accept, with or without of. Access to. Accommodate one thing to another; a person with a thing. Accompanied by, with. Accuse of (not with) . Acquit of. Adapted to, sometimes for. Admission to (access), into (entrance). Admit to, into, of. Advantage of, over. Agree with (a person), among (ourselves), to (proposal), upon (a thing), in (doing something). Amuse with, at, in. Angry with (a person), at (a thing). Anxious for, about, sometimes on. Appropriate to. Approve, with or without of. Arrive at, in, from. Ask of (a person), for, sometimes after (a person or thing). Attend to (listen) , upon (await) . Bestow on or upon. Call on or upon (a person), for (a person or thing), at (a house), in (question), after (a person), by (a name). Care for, about, of. Charge a crime against or on a person, a person with a crime. Coincide with. Compare with (in quality), to (for illustration). Comparison with, between. Concur with (a person), in (an opinion). PREPOSITIONS 111 Confide in (a person), (a thing to a person). (Congratulate on or upon. Connect with (an equal), to (a superior). Contend with (a person), for (an object), against (an obstacle). Convert into, sometimes to. Copy from (a thing), after (a person). Correspond with, to. Covered by, with. Danger of, sometimes from. Deal with, rarely by. Defend from, sometimes against. Demand of, from. Depend on or upon. Dependent on. Desire for, of, sometimes after. Devolve on or upon. Die of, sometimes with or from (a disease) , by (an instrument) . Differ among (ourselves), from (one another), from, sometimes with (in opinion), about, concerning (a question), from (in qualit}^. Difference with (a person), between (two tlnngs). Direct to, toward. Disagree with (a person) , to (a thing proposed) . Distinguished for, from, sometimes by. Enter into, in, on, upon. Entertain by (a person) , with (a thing) . Equal to, with. Escape from, sometimes out of. FamiHar to (us), with (a thing). Favorite of, with. Followed by. Frightened at. Glad of, rarely at. Graduate at, from, in. 112 LESSONP. AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Grieve at, for. Hatred to, of. Impatient with (a person), at (one's conduct), of (restraint), under (affliction), for (sometliing expected). Incorporate into, with. Indulge with (one thing), in (habit). Inquire after, about, concerning, for, into, of. Insight into. Introduce to (a person), into (a place). Intrust to (a person), with (a thing). Irritated by (a person), by, sometimes at (an action). Join with (an equal), to (a superior). Killed by (a person), with (a thing). Listen for (something to be heard), to (something heard;. Love of, for. Make of, out of, from, with, for. Married to. Mix with, in. Mortified with, at. Name after, from (not for). Necessary to, for. Necessity for, of. Need of (not for). Objection to, sometimes against. Oblivious of. Obtain from, of. Occupy with, by, in. Offended with, at, by. Opinion on, about. Opportunity for, of. Opposition to. Originated with, in. Parallel to, with. Partake of. PREPOSITIONS 113 Partiality to, for. Pity on. Possessed of, by, with. Prefer to, rarely before. Prejudice against (not to, for, or in favor of). Present to. Protect from, against. Punish by (a person), with (a penalty), for (a crime). Put into, in. Receive of, from. Recline upon, on. Rely on or upon. Remedy for, sometimes against. Repine at (w^hat is), for (what is not). Respect for, to. Search for, after, out. Seized by (a person), with (illness). Sick of, with. Situated on (a road) , in (a street) . Smile at (frequently unfavorably), upon, or on (favorably). Surprised at, by, sometimes with. Surrounded by, with. SjTiipathize with (a person), in (his sorrow). Sympathy with, between, sometimes for. Think of, about, sometimes on. "V^exed with, at. Wait for (await), on or upon (attend). AVant of, with. Yoke with. EXERCISE 29 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. 1 . He died ■ a fever. 2. The weather was conducive • ■ my pleasure. 3. The storm was followed a calm. 114 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 4. The soil of Cuba is adapted the production of sugar cane. 5. He was accused • • the crime. 6. She died • starvation. 7. You may rely ^— — — ■ — - what he says. 8. May I confide — — ■ — ■ — • his honesty? 9. He felt an abhorrence • • snakes. 10. There is need ■ great care. 11. Compare your work his and you will see the dif- ference. 12. The sinner had been compared — • a goat. 13. He went in search • ■ gold. 14. The man should attend — — - his business. 15. He was accompanied — ■ his parents. 16. Fondness ■ flowers was his leading trait. 17. I do not agree you; therefore, I cannot agree • • your proposal. 18. The queen bestowed ■ Tennyson the title of baron. 19. The University conferred • him the degree of Doc- tor of Laws. 20. The two generals conferred each other. 21. She is conversant • several languages. 22. I dissent ■ ■ that proposition. 23. She has a taste ■ ■ poetry. 24. Colonel Waring died — — — — fever in Havana. 25. Major Logan met death — — - a bullet. 26. General Grant died ^- — ■ the effect of a tobacco cancer. 27. John P. Altgeld differed Theodore Roosevelt on a financial policy. 28. Cyrus Field was vexed the delay caused by the breaking of the cable. 29. President McKinley was vexed Senator Mason for his opposition. 30. The man was sick - — — — — - typhoid fever. 31. Abraham Lincoln was a martyr • the cause of Eman- cipation. 32. President McKinley prevailed Secretary Root to retain his position. 33. The captain was overwhelmed attentions. 34. General Miles was justifiably offended ■ — — ■ the attack on his character. PREPOSITIONS 115 35. The child was named his distinguished uncle. 36. Chief Justice Fuller dissented ■ ■ the opinion of his associates. 37. The Transvaal abounds • gold. 38. Diamonds abound Brazil. 39. Washington could accommodate himself poor sur- roundings. 40. The prisoner was acquitted ■ the charge. 41. General Miles was adapted — — - — — - Indian fighting. 42. The man was angry his coachman, and angry ■ his horses. 43. Gladstone may be contrasted Bismarck. 44. We were entertained the captain a story. 45. Satan is compared — • a raging lion. 46. The rapid-fire gun is adapted • • mountain fighting. 47. I infer • — ■ what you say that you are pleased. 48. This apple differs • that one. 49. I differ • — you on these questions. 50. We were disappointed • • the play. 51. Franklin could accommodate himself the most pinching circumstances, and even then accommodate a friend ■ his last shilling. 52. Indirectly you will be able to exert a good influence ■ — • him, because you have so much influence ■ • his employer. 53. He arrived • ■ time to take the steamer, but the steamer never arrived • its destination. 54. Let us communicate • • the chairman of the com- mittee; and have him communicate our desires the other members. 55. A taste • one good author, often lays the foun- dation • • a taste good literature. 56. A man ■ • keen foresight has the advantage — — • an}^ one who tries to take advantage ■ him. 57. A lazy farmer is always disappointed ■ his crops, and his landlord is consequently disappointed him. 58. They intruded • my time. 59. He is expert — — — — - doing some things, but he is not expert • foot-ball. 116 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 60. It is difficult to distinguish a mushroom a toad- stool, but they may generally be distinguished their color. 61. Defend me the attacks of enemies that wear the garb of friendship, and I can defend myself • all harm. 62. Agree • an adversary, even if you must agree his proposal. 63. He will not argue you, but I have heard him argue ■ the measure you propose. 64. The guilty prisoner is impatient • • restraint, while the innocent one is impatient ■ — — • his trial. 65. I am familiar ■ ■ the poem, but that line is not familiar me. 66. Air consists • • oxygen and nitrogen; breathing consists separating the oxygen from a quan- tity of air. 67. They placed a crown his head, and they placed a sparkling jewel the crown. 68. One servant attends • his master constantly; the other stays at home, and attends his master 's affairs. 69. John lives ■ the cross-roads, and William lives the village; they both live ■ ■ meagre incomes. 70. Provide • your future comforts by providing • • yourself all the necessaries of life. 71. I will accompany you to call — — a friend, if you will call me. 72. His father is growing anxious him, because he has lately grown so anxious — • wealth and luxury. LESSON 30 PREPOSITIONS— Continued We should not omit a preposition that is necessary to make the meaning of a sentence clear; nor should we use a preposition that is not needed. 1. A preposition should be used with a noun to indicate the time of an occurrence. PREPOSITIONS 117 Incorrect: The preceding year, he went to France. Correct: In the preceding year, he went to France. 2. Before ''home" the preposition at should never be omitted, but the preposition to is always omitted. Incorrect: He is home. Correct: He is at home. Incorrect: I am going to home. Correct: I am going home. EXERCISE 30 Insert the correct prepositions in the following sentences: 1. His efforts w^re not for the great, but the lowly. 2. Egypt is on the west side of the Red Sea. 3. He was banished the country. 4. He is unworthy our charity. 5. What use is this to him? 6. He is worthy our help. 7. I was prevented going. 8. He received letters from England and France. 9. He is not home, but he is coming to-night. 10. Religion is a comfort in youth as well as old age. 11. It's no use to do that. 12. There is no use going there. 13. He was born the 20th September, 1875. 14. Adam and Eve were expelled the garden. 15. Ignorance is the mother of fear as well as admiration. 16. These oranges are not for me, but you. 17. What use is that to me? 18. I am going to the store and post-office. 19. It is no use to me. 20. They were prevented coming. 21. Is he worthy our confidence? 22. I was home. 23. He lives the other side of the river. 24. It's no use to give up. 25. Wealth is more conducive to worldliness than piety. Strike out the unnecessary prepositions in the following sentences. 118 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 1. Keep off of the grass. 2. In what latitude is New York in? 3. He started a week ago from last Saturday. 4. I went there at about noon. 6. To what may Italy be likened to? 6. In about April, the farmer plants his seed. 7. The boy is like to his father. 8. They offered to him a chair. 9. Where have you bee a to? 10. This is the subject of which I intended to write about. 11. He went to home. 12. By what state is Kentucky bounded by? 13. Where are you going to? 14. Butter brings forty cents for a pound. 15. John's favorite sport was in robbing orchards. 16. He lives near to the river. 17. The man fell off of the ladder. 18. At about what time did he go? 19. Look out of the window. 20. Turn around the corner. 21. The plan was approved of by all of the men. 22. I have a brother of five years old. 23. Before answering of you, I must think. 24. He admitted of the fact. 25. You can tell by trjdng of it. 26. At what hotel does your friend stay at? 27. Rob pushed me off of the doorstep. 28. I went out for to have a walk. 29. Lend to me your knife for a while. 30. I bought three bushels of timothy seed off of Neighbor Clark. 31. What for book is that you are reading? 32. Where did he get all these sentences from? 33. He worked very hard for to accomplish his purpose. 34. To what store do you go to? 35. Three times five equals to fifteen. 36. From what source does petroleum come from? 37. Had you ever met with his father before? 38. Where are you going to? 39. John and James were given thirty-eight cents for to divide equally among themselves. 40. One-half of thii'ty-eight equals to nineteen. PREPOSITIONS 119 ERRORS IN THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS 1. Do not use unnecessary prepositions. Incorrect: He came at about noon. Correct: He came at noon. 2. Do not omit necessary prepositions. Incorrect: I could not refrain shedding tears. Correct: I could not refrain from shedding tears. 3. Do not use "in" for "into. " Incorrect: Put money in your pocket. Correct: Put money into your pocket. DEFINITIONS A preposition is a word used to connect a noun or its equiv- alent with some other part of speech in the sentence. A simple preposition is a simple word used as a preposition. A compound preposition is one formed by combining two or more words, usually an adverb and a simple jDreposition. A phrase preposition is two or more words taken together to form a preposition. A prepositional phrase is a group of related words consist- ing of a preposition and a noun, or a pronoun, with or without modifiers, and having the use of an adjective or an adverb. An adjective phrase is a i^repositional phrase used to mod- ify a noun or a pronoun. An adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase used to modify a verb. CLASSIFICATION OF PREPOSITIONS fl. Simple I. As to form. \ 2. Compound 3. Phrase 120 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH II. As to kind of relation indicated. 1. Adverbial 1. Place from which 2. Place in which 3. Place to which 4. Origin, source, separation 5. Means or instru- ment, agent 6. Cause 7. Manner, time, price, specification 2. Adjective (i-Q"^"*y [ 2. Possession LESSON 31 PREPOSITIONS— Continued AMONG, BETWEEN If reference is made to more than two persons or things, or groups of persons or things, mnoyig should be used; if reference is made to two only, between is the proper word. AT, IN When a place is thought of as a mere point or landing place, at should be used before the name of the place. When we desire to express the idea "within the bounds of, " in should be used. BESIDE, BESIDES Beside means "by the side of;" besides means "in addition to," "other than." BY, WITH To introduce the doer or agent of an act by is now generally used; to introduce tlie means or instrument with which some- thing is done ivtth is commonly used. • PREPOSITIONS 121 IN, INTO In denotes the presence within the bounds of; into is used with ver])S of motion and suggests movement to the inside of. IN, ON Before names of streets, in suggests something of the sur- roundings; on indicates location only. EXERCISE 31 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. AMONG, BETWEEN 1. There is a bad feeling the two bo3's. 2. Divide the candy the three cliildren. 3. - — ■ — ■ the many applicants, good will existed. 4. I have no preference — — the six books. 5. The honors were equally divided the tliree con- testants. C). Peace Great Britain and the United States is very desirable. 7. Divide the money — the crew. AT, IN 1. When did he arrive ■ New York? 2. We shall visit the British Museum — — — ■ — • London. 3. He is now living Baltimore. 4. Shakespeare was born ■ — — Stratford-on-Avon. 5. Milton was educated — — ■ — — - Christ's College. C). We are staying — — ■ — - — ■ the hotel Walton Phila- delphia. BESIDE, BESIDES 1. An oak tree stood — - — — - — - the gateway-. 2. . working during the day, he attended Night School. 3. The boy sat ■ his father. 4. Have you nothing to give • advice. 5. An old-fashioned clock stood — ■ — ■ the open fireplace. 122 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH* BY, WITH 1. Lieutenant Peary was accompanied — - his wife. 2. The capture of New Orleans was attended man}' difficulties. .3. Alexander Hamilton was killed ■ a pistol. 4. The hunters were surrounded — — - — ■ — - savages. 5. The Great Charter was signed ■ — — ■ — — - King John. (). The door was fastened • • nails — — the car- penter. 7. I was initiated carelessness. 8. The war was accompanied enormous drafts on the Treasury. IN, INTO 1. He put his hand ■ my pocket. 2. The day was stormy, and I walked my room for exercise. 3. He stepped — — ■ — — ■ the water and waded — • it for some time. 4. Go • the house. 5. He threw the paper • the fire. 6. Put the money ■ your pocket. 7. It began to rain and we ran the house. 8. He put a book ■ my hand. IN, ON 1. what steamer did he go? 2. The children were playing — — ■ — - — the street. 3. His office is ■ Chestnut Street. 4. There were many automobiles the street. 5. He lives Walnut Street No. 4115. 6. Ex-president Roosevelt embarked the Oceanic. LESSON 32 CONJUNCTIONS The compound sentence, ^'The}^ spoke, and we listened," consists of two independent clauses. These clauses are con- nected by the word ''and. " ''And" is called a conjunction. A word that is used to connect ivords or groups of words is called a conjunction. CONJUNCTIONS 123 In the sentence just given, '^and" not only connects the (lauses, but also shows a relation of agreement. The con- junction "and" always suggests the idea of the addition of one tiiought to another. In the sentence "Charles was large, but Orlando was slender," the conjunction "but" suggests a relation of oj)- jMsit'on or contrast. If we say, "The man must pay the fine or go to jail," the conjunction "or" implies that of the two possible situations, one of which, but only one, can be realized. And, but, and or, are called coordinate conjunctions. Words that join words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank ore called coordinate conjunctions. In the sentence, "When the sun rose, the flag was still tliere, " "when" introduces the dependent clause, "when the sun rose." "When" is called a subordinate conjunction. A subordinate conjunction is one used to introduce a depend- ent clause. In the sentence, "Either you must leave, or I shall go," the conjunction "or" is intensified by "either." Either — or are called correlative conjunctions. Coordinate conjunctions used in pairs are called correlative conjunctions. The correlatives most commonly used are: either — or; neither — nor; both — and; at once — and; alike — and; not only — but also; as Avell — as; whether — or. (Nor is the correlative of neither, but it is used sometimes with other negatives.) When both — and, either^ — or, neither — nor, and not only — but also, are used, the part of the sentence that follows the first term of the correlatives should be similar in construction to the part following the second. The following sentences are correct : "I will meet you either at Baltimore or at Philadelphia.^' "I will meet you at either Baltimore or Philadelphia.^^ 124 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH '^I will either meet you at Baltimore or meet you at Phila- delphia.^^ The sentence, ''I will either meet you at Baltimore or Phila- delphia" is incorrect. EXERCISE 32 Correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. The old man was weak both in body and mind. 2. John either is stupid or lazy. 3. The man was not only guilty of robbery but of murder, 4. Adversity both teaches to think and to be patient. 5. Hamlet was either insane, or he feigned insanity. G. Either the fault is mine or yours. 7. I have had both experience in sickness and in health. 8. They are either to meet us in Paris or in London. 9. Either you must be quiet or leave the room. 10. Flattery both corrupts the receiver and the giver. 11. Neither give me poverty nor riches. 12. Few errors were made either by the boys or the girls. 13. Such rules are useless both for teachers and pupils. 14. We should work not only to provide for the future but also for the present. 15. We are neither acquainted with Mr. Smith nor with his family. 16. He not only gave me advice, but also money. 17. She not only dressed richly but tastefully. 18. He neither was rich nor poor. 19. His failure is either the result of laziness or of carelessness. 20. I am neither an ascetic in theory nor practice. 21. He neither yields to force nor to persuasion. 22. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature, but also for his moral wisdom. 23. He likes either eggs poached or fried. 24. He neither answered my letter nor my card. 25. There is either nothing good nor bad in him. CONJUNCTIONS 125 LESSON 33 CONJUNCTIONS— Continued AND A7id usually suggests the meaning ''In addition to." AS, LIKE , Like should not be used as a conjunction; therefore, i*} should not be used instead of as to introduce a clause. BECAUSE, SINCE Because and since are used to show the relation of cause and effect. Because is used to emphasize the cause; since to emphasize the effect or result. For may be used to show re- lation of cause and effect. BUT But implies a relation of opposition or contrast. EXCEPT, WITHOUT, UNLESS Except and without should be used as prepositions. U?iless is a conjunction. OR Or implies that of two possible situations only one can be realized. WHEN, WHILE When means ''at the time that;" while, "during the time that." EXERCISE 33 Write the number of each sentence and the correct word. Do not confine your choice to the words given in Lesson 33. 1. Caesar put the proffered crowm aside, ■ he would fain have had it. 2. Take awa}^ honor and imagination and poetry from war, ■ it becomes carnage. 3. His crime has been discovered, he must flee. 4. You must eat, • • you ^\nll die. 126 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 5. Wisdom is the principal thing, • ■ get wisdom. 6. Let but the commons hear this testament, • they would go and kiss dead Caesar's wounds. 7. Take away the grandeur of his cause, ■ Washington is a rebel instead of the purest of patriots. 8. The diamond is a sparkling gem, ■ • it is i^ure carbon. 9. The ostrich is a bird, • it cannot fly. 10. Not a sparrow falls ■ God wills it. 11. No man is wicked he loves virtue. 12. He is liberal, ■ he is not generous. 13. They are poor, they are not needy. 14. Both he and I are going. 15. The book is not perfect; it is very helpful. 16. The sea is rough, I hear the surf. 17. We cannot go, should you. 18. He is a genius, he does not seem so. 19. I admire his courage, I detest his cruelty. 20. Do not go the sun has set. 21. Think twice you speak. 22. I have not seen my friend he returned from Dublin. 23. Caesar loved me, I weep for him. 24. spring is without blossoms, autumn will be with- out fruit. 25. He failed in business he was dishonest. 26. The floods came, the winds blew. it fell not. 27. We must overcome evil, it will overcome us. 28. ■ we are nearest the sun in winter, the atmosphere at that season is coldest. 29. ■ I knew you were not at home, I did not call. 30. It is not money, the love of money, which is the root of all evil. 31. you would learn the value of money, go and try to borrow some. ERRORS IN THE USE OF CONJUNCTIONS 1. Or is the correct correlative of either and whether; nor of neither. 2. Than and not huty should follow eUe, other, and likewise to denote comparison. CONJUNCTIONS 127 Example. — Incorrect: He could do nothing else but j^ay the bill. Correct: He could do nothing else than pay the bill. 3. Like is never used as a conjunction. Example. — Incorrect: Do like I do. Correct: Do as I do. 4. Except and without are prepositions and should not })e used for unless. Example. — Incorrect: I cannot go except he comes. Correct: I cannot go unless he come. 5. "But what" should not be used for but or that. Example. — Incorrect: I cannot believe but what he is living. Correct: I cannot believe but (or but that) he is living. 6. Do not use conjunctions in place of other parts of speech. Example. — Incorrect: Try and do good work. Correct: Try to do good work. 7. Do not use and or but to join an adjective clause to its principal clause. Ex.\mple. — Incorrect: He received a good salarj^, but which he soon spent. Correct: He received a good salar}^, which he soon spent. 8. Than and as are not prepositions; they are conjunctions used to introduce subordinate clauses. When a noun or pro- noun follows than or as, the noun or pronoun is not the object of a preposition; the noun or pronoun is a part of a clause the remainder of w^hich is omitted. Example. — I am taller than he (than he is tall). I would aid you more willingly than her (than I would aid her). DEFINITIONS A conjunction is a word or words used to join clauses or similar parts of the same sentence. A coordinate conjunction is one used to join words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank. II. Subordinate. < 128 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH A subordinate conjunction is one used to introduce a sub- ordinate clause. Correlative conjunctions are coordinate conjunctions used in i^airs. OUTLINE CLASSIFICATIONS OF CONJUNCTIONS I. Coordinate. 1. Correlative. 1. Temporal 2. Place 3. Cause 4. Condition 5. Concession 6. Result 7. Manner LESSON 34 INTERJECTIONS A word used to express emotion or intense feeling is called an interjection . All interjections and all exclamatory expressions except the exclamatory sentence, have no grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence; that is, they are always mdependent. The following parts of speech may be used as interjections: 1. Nouns; as, Peace! Be still. 2. Pronouns; as, What! You laugh. 3. Adjective; as, Welcome! 4. Verbs; as, Behold! The hero comes. 5. An adverb; as, Away! 6. Phrases and other expressions also may be used as in- terjections; as, On my honor! I declare! PUNCTUATION Interjections and all exclamatory expressions should be followed by the exclamation mark (!). INTERJECTIONS 129 If an interjection begins an expression that should be fol- lowed with an exclamation mark, a comma should follow the interjection; as, Oh, how it rained! A distinction should be made in the use of ''O" and ''Oh. " ''O" should always be a capital letter, and the exclamation mark should never be placed immediately after it. EXERCISE 34 Copy and punctuate the following sentences. 1. o taste and see that the lord is good 2. knock knock knock whos's there 3. how amiable thou art o virtue 4. o virtue how amiable thou art 5. selling off below cost 6. ah there's a deathless name 7. oh how it hurts 8. rouse ye romans rouse ye slaves 9. woe unto thee bethsaida 10. oh how beautiful is the sky 11. oh see the beautiful sky 12. w^here did you find your ball 13. i hear in the chamber above me the patter of little feet 14. charge Chester charge on Stanley on 15. beneath her torn hat glowed the wealth of simple beauty and rustic health 16. beneath her torn hat the wealth of simple beauty and rustic health glowed MANY WORDS ARE FREQUENTLY USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH The following words illustrate the truth that the part of speech of a w^ord is determined by its use in a sentence. The student should find not only profit but also pleasure in adding other words to this list. Above. (1) Prep.: The stars above us. (2) Adj.: The above remarks are startling. (3) Adv. : The clouds float above. (4) Noun: Every good gift is from above. 130 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH About. (1.) Prep.: The belt about 3^our waist. (2) Adv.: About five were injured. Adieu. (1) Interj.: Adieu! Adieu! (2) Noun: He l^ade us adieu. After. (1) Prep: After seeing us, he went away. (2) Adv.: He left soon after. (3) Conj. adv.: He left after we came. Alike. (1) Adj.: They are ahke. (2) Adv.: They walk alike. All. (1) Pronoun : All went away . (2) Noun: The money was his all. (3) Adj.: All this advice was vain. (4) Adv.: Your work is all wrong. (5) Noun: Our little all is lost. Alone. (1) Adv.: The child played alone. (2) Adj.: He is alone. As. (1) Adv.: It is as hard as rock. (2) Conj. adv.: They came as we left. (3) Pel. pronoun: Such as I have, I give thee. (4) Prep. : I consulted him as a lawyer. Both. (1) Adj.: Both boys are here. (2) Pronoim: Both are mine. (3) Adv. : He is both wise and virtuous. Any. (1) Adj.: Any one may go. (2) Pronoun: Any of us can do that. (3) Adv.: Is the man any better? Before. (1) Adv. : He went before. (2) Prep. : Go before us. (3) Conj. adv.: He left before we came. Below. (1) Prep.: The gardens below us. (2) Adj.: The gardens below are beautiful. (3) Adv.: We went below. (4) Noun: He came from below. But. (1) Conj.: He is poor, but he is honest. (2) Prep. : All but him had gone. (3) Adv. : There is but one God. (4) Rel. pronoun: ''There is no fire-side, howsoe'er defended, but has one vacant chair." (5) Noun: He struck the butt of the tree. Best. (1) Adj.: This is best. (2) Adv.: What can you do best? By. (1) Prep.: We went by the brook. (2) Adv.: They passed by. INTERJECTIONS 131 Either. (1) Adj.: Give it to either boy. (2) Conj.: The work was done either by John or by James. (3) Adj. pronoun: Either will go with you. Else. (1) Adj.: Nobody else can do it. (2) Adv.: How else can we go? Enough. (1) Noun: I have enough. (2) Adj.: Men enough have come. (3) Adv. : He is old enough. Far. (1) Adj.: They journeyed into a far country. (2) Adv. : They went far away. (3) Noun : They came from far and near. Fast. (1) Noun: A few days fast is sometimes bene- ficial. (2) Verb: We sometimes fast. (3) Adv.: The horses ran fast. (4) Adj . : These are fast colors. First. (1) Adv.: Advise me first. (2) Adj.: I was first. Full. (1) Adj.: We saw the full moon. (2) Adv.: "Full many a gem. '^ Hard. (1) Adj.: The work is hard. (2) Adv.: Hard by yon brook, we saw him. High. (1) Adj.: The balloon is high. (2) Noun: Our blessings come from on High. Like. (1) Noun: We shall not see his like again. (2) Adj. : He is like a lion. (3) Adv. : He ran Uke a deer. Much. (1) Adv.: He plays much. (2) Noun: They made much of my mistake. (3) Adj.: "Much learning hath made thee mad. " Near. (1) Adj.: Christmas is near. (2) Adv.: Remain near. (2) Verb : The boat nears the wharf. No. (1) Adj.: No person was injured. (2) Adv.: We shall see thy face no more. Only. (1) Adj.: This is your only opportunity. (2) Adv.: He only pla3^s. (3) Conj.: I should have gone, only it rained. Since. (1) Adv.: It happened ten 3'ears since. (2) Prep.: 132 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Since the accident, we have not heard from him. (3) Conj. adv.: Since you ask, I will go. So. (1) Adv.: They were so tired. (2) Adj.: Is that so? (3) Noun: He gave me a dollar or so. Still. (1) Adj.: The leaves are still. (2) Adv.: The trees is still standing. (3) Noun: In the still of the night, the rob- bers worked. (4) Conj. adv.: He is old, still he is strong. Than. (1) Conj.: He is a better student than I. (2) Prep.: Than whom, none higher sat. That. (1) Rel. pronoun: It was he that did it. (2) Adj.: That man did the work. (3) Adj. pronoun: That is desirable. The (1) Adj.: The day is rainy. (2) Adv.: The more, the merrier. Then. (1) Adv.: Then we shall know. (2) Conj. adv.: If you still insist, then I will go. Which. (1) Interrog. pronoun : Which is the better? (2) In- terrog. adj.: Which book do you like? (3) Rel. pronoun: The book which was lost is found. Where. (1) Interrog adv.: Where did he go? (2) Rel. adv. : Walk where it is safe. While. (1) Noun: Come in for a while. (2) Conj. adv.: He will study while we play. (3) Verb: How shall we while away the time? INFLECTIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH THE NOUN We have learned that the meanings of the different parts of speech may be changed by the use of modifying words, phrases, and clauses. We shall now learn that a change in the forni of the word itself, without the use of modifiers, may indicate certain changes in meaning. When the form of the word ''heir" changes to ''heiress," INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS 133 we know that the meaning also has changed, the one form in- dicating a male and the other, a female who inherits property after the death of the owner. A change in the form of any part of speech to indicate a change in its meaning or use in the sentence is called inflection. A change in the meaning or use of a word is sometimes shown by the use of a different word instead of by a change in the form of the word; as son, daughter. In English, therefore, inflection has a somewhat l:)roader application than the definition, just given, suggests. We shall now study the inflection of the noun. (Every student should own a dictionary, and should ac- quire the *' dictionary habit.'' When in doubt concerning the spelling, pronunciation, moaning, or inflection of any word, he should consult the dictionary.) LESSON 35 INFLECTION OF NOUNS NUMBER When a noun represents any one member of a class, it is said to be in tiie singidar number; w^hen a noun represents more than one member of its class, it is said to be in the plural numljer. THE REGULAR FORM OF THE PLURAL The plural of nouns is generally formed by suffixing '^s" to the singular form ; as friend, friends. IRREGULAR FORMS OF THE PLURAL Nouns ending in an '^s" sound. When the singular form of any noun ends in ''s" or a similar sound; as, ''ss," *'ch, " "sh, " *'x, " or ''z," ''es" is suffixed to the singular form of the noun and is pronounced as another s^^llable; as churches, grasses, boxes, larches, topazes. " The following nouns ''v'' and suffixing '^s" or Sing. Plural loaf loaves self selves sheaf sheaves shelf shelves thief thieves wife wives wolf wolves 134 Lessons and exercises in English Nouns ending in '^f" or '^fe. form their plurals by changing '^f to ^'es:'' Sing. Plural beef beeves calf calves elf elves half halves knife knives leaf leaves life lives The plural of wharf may be either wharfs or wharves. The plural of staff, meaning a body of officers, is staffs. In most of its other meanings, staff has the plural staves. Compounds of staff suffix ''s" to form the plural; as flag-staffs. All other nouns ending in an ''f" sound form their plurals by suffixing *'s." EXERCISE 35 Write the plural of each of the following nouns: Ax, arch, adz, box, brush, cage, cow, chaise, cross, cafe, ditch, dog, engine, face, gas, glass, hedge, house, imp, lamb, lash, lens, niche, owl, prize, quail, race, stag, topaz, uncle, vote, wedge, belief, brief, chief, cliff, dwarf, fife, grief, giraffe, gulf, hoof, kerchief, proof, quaff, reef, roof, safe, scarf, serf, strife and turf. LESSON 36 INFLECTION OF NOUNS— Continued Nouns ending in ''y. '' If the singular form of the noun ends in "y" and is preceded by a consonant, change the "y" to *'ie" and suffix ''s" to form the plural; as, city, cities. Words like soliloquy form their plurals in this way (so- liloquy, soliloquies), ''qu" being equivalent to a consonant. If the singular form ends in '^y " and is preceded by a vowel, suffix *'s" to form the plural; as, day, days. INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS 135 Nouns ending in '^o." All nouns ending in '^o'* preceded by a vowel and some nouns ending in '^o" preceded by a con- sonant suffix ''s" only to form their plurals; as cameo, cameos; ])iano, pianos. Some nouns ending in *'o" preceded by a consonant suffix *'es" to form their plurals without increase of syllables; as, hero, heroes. Study the following: BY SUFFIXING ''s" banjos cantos chromos contraltos dominos dynamos grottos halos mementos virtuosos octavos pianos porticos provisos sopranos solos trios BY SUFFIXING '^Es" buffaloes cargoes desperadoes heroes innuendoes negroes potatoes tomatoes volcanoes calicoes echoes embargoes mosquitoes mottoes mulattoes tornadoes vetoes EXERCISE 36 Write the plurals of the following nouns: Alle}^, alh', attor- ney, body, beauty, boy, city, charity, chimne}", colloquy, countr}^, candy, company, colony, century, daisy, day, ditty, donkey, essa^^, fairy, fancy, glor}^, jockey, journey, jury, lad\', lily, mercy, money, monkey, mystery, majority, penny, pony, pulley, penalt}', sky, soliloquy, study, s^Tnpathy, story, society, sherry, turkey, turnkey, theory, valley, vanity. Albino, baml:)oo, bravo, buffalo, banjo, calico, canto, cargo, cameo, domino, duodecimo, echo, embryo, flamingo, fresco, grotto, halo, hew, innuendo, junto, lasso, manifesto, 136 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH momento, mosquito, motto, mulatto, negro, no, palmetto, piano, portfolio, portico, potato, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, stiletto, tomato, tornado, two, trio, volcano, zero. LESSON 37 INFLECTION OF NOUNS— Continued Some nouns are very irregular; their plurals are formed by an internal change. Examples : Singular Plural Singular Plural child children mouse mice foot feet ox oxen goose geese tooth teeth louse Hce woman women man men NOUNS HAVING TWO PLURALS OF DIFFERENT MEANINGS Singular brick brother cannon cloth die fish foot Plural bricks (individuals) brick (a collection) brothers (by birth) brethren (by association, as in a religious organization) cannons (individuals) cannon (a collection) cloths (of different kinds) clothes (garments) dies (for stamping) dice (for playing) fishes (individuals) fish (a collection) feet (the lower parts of the body) foot (foot-soldiers) INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS 137 fowl genius head horse index penny pea sail shot summons staff . r fowls (individuals) [fowl (the species) /geniuses (persons of uncommon talent) \ genii (spirits) r heads (individuals) \ head (a number of cattle) /horses (animals) \ horse (soldiers) / indexes (in books) I indices (in algebra) pennies (separate coins) pence (taken collectively, used chiefly speaking of English money) /peas (individuals) \ pease (collectively) / sails (pieces of canvas) /sail (ships) / shots (a number of discharges) / shot (number of balls) / summons (in non-legal sense) / summonses (in legal sense) /staffs (military sense) \ staves (in most meanings) ui NOUNS HAVING THE SAME FORM FOR SINGULAR AND PLURAL NUMBER Some nouns have the same form in both numbers; as, deer, corps, Chinese, cod, elk, grass, grouse, heathen, moose, series, sheep, salmon, perch, species, shad, sw4ne, trout, odds, vermin. When used with numerals, the following nouns have the same form in both numbers; otherwise, they suffix "s'^ to form their plurals: brace, couple, dozen, pair, score, hundred, thou- sand, yoke. 138 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH NOUNS WITH NO PLURAL FORMS Some abstract nouns, and the names of many materials, have no plural forms; such as, wisdom, patience, fortitude, luck, righteousness, purity, temperance, gold, silver, iron, steel, mercur}^, aluminum. NOUNS WITH THE PLURAL FORM BUT SINGULAR MEANING Some nouns are plural in form but singular in meaning; such as, acoustics, amends, athletics (may be used as a plural), bellows, civics, gymnastics (may be used as a plural), dynamics, economics, ethics, hydraulics, mathematics, metaphysics, mea- sles (disease), molasses, news, optics, phonetics, physics, politics (now used as a plural), statics. United States. NOUNS WITH NO SINGULAR FORM Some nouns which represent two or more objects alwaj^s associated have no singular form; such as, assets, arms (in the military meaning), ashes, annals, archives, bitters, breeches, billiards, cattle, dregs, draughts, eaves, (by derivation singular, by present use plural) , entrails, means (income), measles (larvae), mumps, nuptials, oats, overalls, pincers, proceeds, premises (real estate), riches (by derivation singular, by present use plural), greens, scales, scissors, shears, snuffers, suds, statistics (facts), thanks, tongs, trappings, trousers, tweezers, vitals, victuals. The followiug nouns have no singular corresponding in meaning: colors (flag), compasses (dividers), goods (property), grounds (dregs), letters (literature), manners (behavior), matins (morning service), morals (character), remains (dead body), spectacles (glasses), vespers (evening service). EXERCISE 37 Write the following nouns in five lists; in the first list, place those having two plurals of different m(\anings; in the INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS 139 second^ those having the same form for singular and plural numbers; in the tliird, those having no plural forms; in the fourth, those having the plural form but the singular meaning; in tlie fifth, those having no singular form. brick elk sheep apparatus entrails metaphysics assets means scissors luck gold pea bellows gymnastic salmon arms fowl shears brother grass disease deer silver snuffers ashes measles sail wisdom dynamics suds cannon genius perch annuals mumps statics corps nuptials molasses patience grouse thanks archives iron shot acoustics economics tongs cloth head trappings bitters oats shad Chinese pincers summons righteousness overalls news amends heathen species breeches steel trousers die horse swine cod ethics optics cattle moose trout billiards proceeds tweezers purity riches phonetics athletics mercury physics fish hydraulics vitals dregs index odds eaves series politics duck premises vermin draughts greens tidings temperance aluminum United States civics mathematics victuals foot penny 140 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH LESSON 38 INFLECTION OF NOUNS— Continued PLURALS OF COMPOUND NOUNS Some compoiind nouns form their plurals by pluralizing the principal word; as, attorneys-at-law, brothers-in-law, sisters- in-law, sons-in-law, daughters-in-law, fathers-in-law, mothers- in-law, attorneys-general, postmasters-general, commanders-in- chief, generals-in-chief , aides-de-camp, courts-martial, hangers-on, knights-errant, men-of-war. Most compounds form their plural by pluralizing the last word; as, pailfuls, greenhouses, handfuls, court-yards, major- generals, four-in-hands, three-per-cents, forget-me-nots. A few compounds pluralize both words; as, man-child, men-children; man-singer, men-singers. The following nouns are not considered compounds of man and they form their plurals by suffixing ''s;" Brahman, German, Mussulman, Norman, Ottoman, talisman. PROPER NOUNS Proper nomis generally follow the same rule as common nouns; as, Beechers, Johnstons, Adamses. When compounds are made up of a surname and a title, either the surname or the title may be pluralized; as, the Mr. Clarks or the Messrs. Clark. The title, however, is usually pluralized. The plural of Mr. is Messrs. ; of Miss, Misses. The title Mrs. has no plural form. A title should be plural when used with several names; as, the Misses Brown, Smith, and Jones; Messrs. Wanamaker and Brown. EXERCISE 38 Write the plurals of the following nouns in four lists; in the first, place those that plurahze the principal word; in the INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS 141 second, those that plunihze the last word; in the third, these that are not considered compounds of man; in the fourth, those that pluralize both words. Handkerchief, aid-de-camp, Englishman, attorney-at-law, workman, goose-quill, boot-jack, talisman, Brahman, adjutant- general, brother-in-law, son-m-law, captain, castle-clock, French- man, cayman, lord-justice, chess-man, sister-in-law, coach- ful, woman-clerk, Dutchman, coming-in, brigadier-general, commander-in-chief, churchman, court-martial, countryman, cousin-German, knight-templar, cupful, lord-lieutenant, des- man, lieutenant-colonel, doctor, doorwa}', fireman, foeman, five-year-old, general, German, going-out, going-forth, hanger- on, knight-errant, leger-de-main, lieutenant, main-spring, major, man-child, man-of-war, man-servant, man-singer, mouse-trap, Mussulman, Norman, Ottoman, ox-cart, pocket- book, postmaster-general, forget-me-not, good-for-nothing, handful, spoonful, father-in-law, court-yard, maid-servant, tooth-brush. LESSON 39 INFLECTION OF NOUNS— Continued FOREIGN NOUNS There are some nouns in the English language derived from foreign languages. Some still retain their foreign plurals; others have two plurals, one foreign, the other English. FOREIGN NOUNS WITH FOREIGN PLURALS Singular Plural Singular Plural alumna alumnae basis bases alumnus alumni crisis crises analysis analyses criterion criteria antithesis antitheses datum data axis axes desideratum desiderata arena arenae ellipsis ellipses amanuensis amanuenses erratum errata - bacterium bacteria fibula fibulae 142 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Singular Plural Singular Plural hypothesis hypotheses parenthesis parentheses matrix matrices radius radii metamorphosis metamorphoses synopsis synopses nebula nebulae stimulus stimuli nucleus nuclei thesis theses oasis oases terminus termini phenomenon phenomena vertebra vertebrae FOREIGN NOUNS WITH BOTH FOREIGN AND ENGLISH PLURALS Singular Foreign form English form apex apices apexes appendix appendices appendixes automaton automata automatons beau beaux beaus bureau bureaux bureaus bandit banditti bandits cherub cherubim cherubs curriculum curricula curriculums dogma dogmata dogmas dilettante dilettanti dilettantes formula formulae formulas focus foci focuses fungus fungi funguses genus genera genuses (rare) index indices indexes libretto libretti librettos larva larvae larvas madam mesdames madams mademoiselle mesdemoiselles mademoiselles monsieur messieurs messrs. medium media mediums memorandinn memoranda memorandums INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS 143 Singular l)ortmanteau rostrum seraph stamen stratum tableau virtuoso vortex gymnasium If letters, figures, they are pluralized by as, t's, 3's, + 's. Foreign form portmanteaux rostra seraphim stamina strata tableaux virtuosi vortices gymnasia English form portmanteaus rostrums seraphs stamens stratum s tableaus virtuosos vortexes gymnasiums and other characters are used as nouns, suffixing the apostrophe and "s" ('s); EXERCISE 39 The teacher should assign a certain number of nouns, in lesson 39, to be spelled correctly and defined. LESSON 40 INFLECTION OF NOUNS— Continued GENDER IN NOUNS Nouns are inflected to denote the sex of the person or thing represented. A noun which represents a person or an animal of the male sex is said to be of the masculine gender. A noun which rep- resents a person or an animal of the female sex is said to be of the feminine gender. Gender is distinguished in three ways: 1. By the use of different terminations; as, baron, baroness; host, hostess; lion, lioness; priest, priestess; prince, princess. ''Ess" is the termination mostly used. The mascuhne termination is sometimes dropped before ''ess" is suffixed; as, abbot, abbess; duke, duchess; marquis, marchioness. 144 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH The vowel of the mascuHne termination is often dropped and '^ess" is then suffixed; as, actor, actress; emperor, empress; governor, governess; master, mistress; tiger, tigress; negro, negress. A few words derived from the Latin have the feminine ending in trix; as, testator, testatrix; administrator, admin- istratrix; executor, executrix. A few foreign words have the feminine ending in "a;" as, infante, infanta; sultan, sultana; Augustus, Augusta; Louis, Louisa. ^'Ine" or '4na" is the feminine termination for a few nouns; as, hero, heroine; czar, czarina; Joseph, Josephine; Paul, Paulina. 2. By the use of different words; as, bachelor, maid; earl, countess; king, queen; lord, lady; monk or friar, nun; sir, madam; stag, hind; wizard, witch; youth, maiden; beau, belle. 3. By words prefixed or suffixed to nouns; man-servant, maid-servant. Some nouns have the same form for both sexes, and are said to be of the comiuon gender; as, poet, editor, doctor, author, cousin, friend, child, parent. There are classes of things that have 7io sex; therefore, the nouns wiiich represent them are said to be of the neuter gender; as, table, hat, book. EXERCISE 40 Write the feminine of each of the following words : actor baron canon adjustor beau caterer administrator benefactor chanter adulterer billy-goat Charles arbiter boy coadjutor auditor bridegroom cock-sparrow Augustus brother colt author buck conductor ambassador buck-rabbit count bachelor bullock czar INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS 1-15 dauphin hunter preceptor deacon husband peer don idolater poet drake infante porter drone instructor priest duke inventor prince earl Jesse prior editor Jew prophet elector John protector emperor Joseph peacock enchanter Julius ram Englishman lad signore (signoij equestrian landgrave sir executor landlord sire father lion shepherd Francis lord son friar Louis songster gander Lucius sorcerer gentleman man sultan George man-servant stag giant marquis swain god mayor steer governor master tailor grandfather merman testator hart milter tiger he-bear monitor traitor heir Mr. tutor Henry Mr. Jones victor heritor negro viscount hero nephew widower horse ogre wizard host papa patron LESSON 41 youth INFLECTION OF NOUNS- -Continued POSSESSIVE FORMS Nouns are inflected to indicate possession. Nouns haA^e two forms, the common form, for all uses of the noun in the sen- 146 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH tence but one; and the possessive form, used to show ownership or possession. To make the possessive form of the singular number, suffix to the common form of the noun, an apostrophe and ^'s" ('s); as, boy, boy's. If the singular number ends in "s, " or any hissing sound, the (^s) is pronounced as ''es"; as, fox, fox's (pronounced foxes) ; grass, grass's (pronounced grasses); church, church's (pro- nounced churches). Good usage seems to favor the ''s" in such proper names as James's, Evans's, King Charles's. To make the possessive form of the plural number, when the plural number does not end in "s, " suffix an apostrophe and *'s" ('s); as, men, men's; oxen, oxen's. To plural nouns, ending in ''s", suffix an apostrophe only, and pronounce like the plural form; as friends', days'." (In the phrases, for Jesus' sake, for conscience' sake, for goodness' sake, for righteousness' sake, the "s" is omitted both in spelling and in pronouncing.) In forming the possessive of compound nouns, the posses- sive sign is always placed at the end; as, brc ther-in-law 's, brothers-in-law 's. If two or more nouns are taken together to indicate joint ownership, the possessive sign is suffixed to thelast of these nouns only; as, *' Sadler and Rowe's Bookkeeping." If each of the nouns denoting joint o^^^lership is preceded by an adjective, or if they are placed in contrast, the posses- sive sign is suffixed to each noun; as, *'It was the motorman's and not the conductor 's duty; " " He is the poor man 's, as well as the rich man 's, friend. " If two or more nouns are taken together to indicate sep- arate ownership, the possessive sign should be suffixed to each; as, *' Anderson's and Hull's Arithmetic." (Anderson's mod- ifies Arithmetic understood; if we say, Anderson's and Hull's Arithmetics, both nouns modify Arithmetics.) INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS 147 A noun in the possessive case is usually equivalent to an adjective phrase, formed of the preposition '^of " and the com- mon form of the noun. In the expression, the store of Mr. Brown, "of IMr. Bro^vn" is equivalent to Mr. Brown's store. (A noun in the possessive case, however, is not always equivalent to an adjective phrase. *'The principal's reception" means the reception given by the principal; ''the reception of the prin- cipal" means the reception given to the principal.) The noun which governs the possessive case is sometimes omitted; as, "I bought this pencil at the bookseller's," meaning ''at the bookseller's store." Sometimes, instead of suffixing the possessive sign to a group of words, it is better to indicate the possessive by using the adjective phrase; as, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court's case, the case of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. If an appositive is used, the appositive usually is given the pos- sessive sign; as, ''This is Mr. Smith, the teacher's, book;" "This is Mr. Smith, our teacher and friend's book." If the appositive has a long modifier, the principal noun should have the possessive sign, and the name of the thing possessed should follow it; as, "This is Mr. Smith's book, the teacher in our school." A noun in the possessive case does not always indicate possession. It may express: 1. Origin or source; as, Dr. Rowe's Bookkeeping and Accountancy. 2. Kind or fitness of a thing; as, a woman's voice, men's shoes. 3. Periods of time in certain uses; as, a year's interest, five days ' work. 4. Personification; as. Fortune's smile. (Personification is a form of expression in which life is attributed to inanimate objects or the characteristics of persons are attributed to ob- jects, animals or abstract ideas.) 148 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Good usage seems to favor the phrase rather than the possessive sign in comiection with inanimate objects; as, the monuments of Baltimore rather than Baltimore's monuments. EXERCISE 41 Write the possessive singular and the possessive pli each of the following nouns : actor chief tyro negro child ally volcano goose cuckoo elephant beau attorney king genius elf monkey horse fairy calf buffalo thief woman wolf wife seraph lion deer swine princess sheep farmer hero fish dwarf junto ox waif mosquito mouse Use in a sentence each of the following expressi denote possession : father-in-law princess Wilham the Conqueror book King of Great Britain chair Henry the Eighth Jefferson attorney-at-law somebody else to 1. Change the following expressions so that they will show joint possession: Gilbert's and Sullivan's operas Hay's and Nicolay's "Life of Lincoln" Beaumont's and Fletcher's dramas Spain's and Portugal's alliance Grant's and Sherman's friendship Warner's and Twain's ''Gilded Age" Woodward's and Brown's pianos 2. Change the follo^ving expressions so that they will show separate ownership: INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS 14*.) Green and Macaulej-'s '^HiGtory of England" Webster and Worcester's dictionaries Do you prefer Greenleaf or Wentworth's arithmetics? Webster and Worcester's ''Unabridged Dictionary" Bancroft, Prescott, and INIotley's History Steinway and Chickering's pianos Lowell and Holmes's poems LESSON 42 INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS NUMBER Personal Pronouns: Personal pronouns, like nouns, have a singular and a plural form. ^'1" is singular; ''we" is plural. In common usage, "you" is both singular and plural. "He," "she," and "it," are singular; "they" is plural. When the personal pronouns are compounded with "self," l)oth parts of the compound change their form in tlie plural. Singular Plural myself ourselves thyself yourselves himself herself themselves itself Relative and Interrogative Pronouns: "Who," "which," "what," and "that," used as relative pronouns, have the same forms for both numbers. "Who," "which," and "what," used as interrogative pronouns, have the same forms for both numbers. The Demonstrative Pronouns: "This," and "that," have the plurals " these" and "those" respectively. Only two indefinite pronouns have plural forms; one, ones; other, others. 150 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH GENDER Personal Pronouns: The personal pronouns have an inflection to indicate gender. ''He" represents a male, and is of the 7nasculi7ie gender; ''she" represents a female, and is of the f 67711711726 gcndcr; ''it" represents that which has no sex and is said to be of the neuter gender. "I," ''we," "you," and "they" are applied to persons of either sex and are said to be of the conwion gender. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns: "Who" used as a relative pronoun and as an interrogative pronoun is of the common gender. The relative pronoun "that" is of either common or neuter gender. The relative pronouns, "which" and "Avhat, " and the interrogative pronouns, "which" and "what," are of the neuter gender. The demonstrative pronouns and the indefinite pronouns have no inflection to show gender. ANTECEDENT A noun, or an equivalent expression, used to either name or designate the person or thing to whom or to which the pronoun refers is called the a7itececlent of the pronoun. Some Grammarians restrict the application of antecedent to the word represented by a relative pronoun. The antecedent of a relative pronoun usually immediately precedes the pronoun. "Who" is generally used with reference to persons. "Which" is apphed to living creatures, that are 7iot persons, and to things. "That" may be used instead of either "who" or "which," referring to either persons or things. Euphony decides between "who" or "which" and "that." When the antecedent includes both persons and things, the relative pronoun "that" should be used; as, The soldiers and cannon that you saw were captured in the battle. "What" does not have an antecedent expressed in the sen- tence, but it contains within itself both antecedent and relative INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS 151 being equivalent to 'Hhat which" (that, demonstrative; and which, relative). The proper relative after ''such" is as; after "same" either as or that may be used. ''Same as" usually expresses identity of kind; "same that" absolute identity. EXERCISE 42 Use the correct relative pronoun in each of the following sentences, and name the antecedent. 1. Time • ■ is lost is never found again. 2. There are many saw the accident. 3. The horse ■ • I bought ran away. 4. We saw the cannon and soldiers — ■ were captured. 5. The man • is reading the book is my brother. 6. Tennyson, ■ — • was the foremost poet of England. died in 1892. 7. Was it he did the work? 8. This is the book I w^ant. 9. She is the same lady — ■ sang yesterday. 10. Fools came to scoff remained to pray. 11. Life is a bubble ■ any breath may dissolve. 12. The man • loves and laughs must surely do well. 13. He sleeps feels not the toothache. 14. In life there are meetings seem like fate. 15. Our chief want in life is somebody ■ ■ — — ■ shall make us do what we can. 16. All men have sense and feeling are being helped. 17. Goodness is the only investment never fails. 18. He only is exempt from failure ■ makes an effort. 19. I know happened to the king's arm3^ 20. The man hesitates is lost. 21. Abraham Lincoln is the greatest character the nineteenth century produced. 22. We sent it by the boy carries papers. 23. They live in glass houses must not throw stones. 24. The horse refused to go knew mpre than he. 25. Man is the only animal ■ can blush. 152 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 26. Newspapers — — ■ allow partisan politics to color the news — they print, exercise a dangerous influence. 27. Do not spend all - — — you earn. 28. The dogs and men — — ■ — ■ — • were here were put out of the room. 29. Ben Hur is one of the books — ■ — • Lew Wallace Avrote. .30. He likes his dog, • • is a spaniel. 31. Socrates was one of the greatest philosophers Greece produced. 32. Nero's was a reign ■ shocks us with its horrors. o3. We acquire the strength • w^e overcome. 34. Life is we make it. 35. He ■ • fights and runs away maj^ live to fight another day. 36. The day had ])een appointed for the race was stormy. 37. Many animals live in the Arctic region have white fur. 38. They found arrow-heads were made b}- the Indians. 39. ■ is right must be done. 40. You see — — — — comes of disobedience. 4L I love such • love me. 42. Give such things — — you can spare. 43. He is not the same boy • ■ he was. 44. This is the same man - — — — — ■ I saw yesterday. 45. He held the same religious opinions — — ■ — — • his friend. LESSON 43 INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS— Continued CASE The personal pronouns and the pronoun 'Svho" (whelbf/ relative or interrogative) liave inflection to denote different uses in the sentences. The inflection of the ])ronouns to show tlieir uses in the sen- tence is called ca.se. INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS 153 A pronoun is said to be in the nominative case when it is used as the subject of a sentence or as the subject of a chiuse; as, -'He did tlie work,'^ ''The boy who was here is my brother." A pronoun is said to be in the objective case when it is used as the direct or as the indirect object of a verb, or when it is used as the principal word in a prepositional phrase; as, ''I saw him;^' ''He gave her a book;" ''Give the pencil to ???e. " (Other illustrations of the nominative and the ol)jective case will be given later.) A pronoun is said to be in the possessive case when it in- dicates possession; as, ''The boy lost his hat." We may now say that the personal pronouns and the pronoun "who" have three cases; the nominative, possessive, and objective. The apostrophe is not used in forming the possessive of the personal pronouns. ExAMFLE.^ — ^The wind has lost its (not it 's) force. The adjective *'o^\'n" sometimes follows the possessive for emphasis; as, "This is my own hat." In the singular and in the plural, the personal pronouns have two forms for the possessive case. One form is used when the name of the thing possessed follows immediately the pro- noun; the other form is used when the name of the thing pos- sessed is not given, or when the name of the thing possessed does not follow the pronoun; as, "My book is lost;" "Mine is lost ; " " The book is inine. " In the sentence, " This is a book of mine, " we have a double possessive. This type of double possessive is a well established idiom. (An idiom is an expression that violates a rule of the language in which it is used; but the e?q3ression is considered correct because of long and respectable usage.) The expression, "A picture of the queen's,"' implies that this is one of a number of pictures that belong to the queen, "A picture of the queen" means a portrait of her. 154 LESSONS AND. EXERCISES IN ENGLISH RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS As we have noted, "who'* used as a relative pronoun, and as an interrogative pronoun, has inflection to indicate case; as, '^ I know the man who was here; " *' I do not know whose book this is;'' ''I know whom I serve;" ^'Who is that man?" " Whose book is this? " *' Whom did you see? " If the relative pronoun *'who" is compounded with ever or soeveVf the pronoun changes its form as it would if it were not compounded; as, "Whosoever will, may come;" ''Tell whom- ever you see. " The relative pronouns, "that," "which," and ''what" and the interrogative pronouns, "which" and "that," have no inflection. "Whose" is sometimes used as a possessive of ''which" but the best authorities favor " of which; " as, "A book the back of which was torn; " rather than, "A book whose back was torn. " The possessive of one is one's; as, "One should do one 's duty." "Other" and "another" have the possessive forms, other 's and another 's, respectively. The possessive of any one, no one, everyone and similar expressions, however, is his; as, "Everyone loves his mother." This, that, those, these, have no possessive forms. In such expressions as, "everybody else's" business, "anybody else's" business, the possessive sign is suffixed to "else." Either 's and neither 's are sometimes used; but the phrases, "of either," "of neither," are better. Some grammarians say that nouns as well as pronouns have the inflection called case. Of the ten possible uses that the noun may have in the sentence, it changes its form to indicate but one — its use as a possessive; consequently, it would be of little profit to study the nominative and objective cases of nouns at this time. INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS 155 PERSON The inflection of a pronoun to indicate whether it represents the speaker or speakers (I — ^we) ; the person or persons spoken to (thou — you); or the person or persons, the thing or things spoken of (he, she, it^ — -they), is cahed person. Nouns do not change their form to indicate person; they are used, however, to refer in meaning to any one of the three persons. Nouns are usually used in the third person; they are used in the first or second person only, when in apposition with pronouns of the first or second person. Example. — ^'I, the King of England, command you." ''I pray you, my lord and master, to do this thing." The inflection of pronouns is called declension, DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS PERSONAL PRONOUNS FIRST PERSON Singular Plural Nom. I we Poss. • my, mine our, ours Obj. me SECOND PERSON (Solemn style) us Singular Plural Nom. thou ye Poss. thy, thine 3'our, yours Obj. thee (Common style) 3^0 u Nom. you you Poss. your, yours your, 3'ours Obj. you you 156 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH THIRD PERSON Masc. Fern. Neut. All genders Nom. he she it they Poss. his her, hers its their, theirs Obj. him her it them COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS FIRST PERSON Nom. and obj. myself ourselves SECOND PERSON Nom. and obj. thyself, yourself ' j^ourselves THIRD PERSON Masc. Fem. Neut. Nom. and All genders obj. himself, herself itself, themselves THE RELATIVE AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN Singular and Plural Nom.. who which Poss. whose of which (whose) Obj . whom which COMPOUND RELATIVES Singular a7id Plural Nom. whoever, whosoever Poss. whosesoever Obj. whomever, whomsoever The pronouns ''one," ''other," "another," have possessive forms. Singtdar. one, one's; other, other's; another, another's. Plural, ones, ones'; others, others'. INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS 157 EXERCISE 43 Giving the classification, naming the inflections, and tell- ing the use of a word in a sentence, is called parsing the word. Parse the pronouns in the following sentences, as indicated below: 1. My mind to me a kingdom is. 2. He that would have the kernel must crack the shell. pronoun kind 1. my personal 2. he personal 3. that relative antecedent person j number 1 gender case use represents first sing. common poss. modifies the speaker "mind" represents third sing. masc. nom. subj. of person "must spoken to 1 crack" he 1 subj. of "would have" 1 . He most lives, who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best. 2. Our affections are our life; they supply our warmth. 3. They wondered at the beauty of the flowers. 4. He had a sister, who was a child too, and his constant companion. 5. All the people who lived in the village went to the church. 6. The gunner whose negligence had caused the accident killed himself. 7. It was her beauty that attracted the attention of Prince John. 8. When all was ready, each took his place. 9. No one expected Ivanhoe to ^^dn. 10. Each met the other nobly. 11. The others retreated into the fort. 12. America, my native land, I love thee. 13. Happy is that people whose annals are brief. 14. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. 15. I see in thy gentle e^^e a tear; They turn to me in sorrowful thought ; Thou thinkest of friends, the good and dear, Who were for a time, and now are not, Like these children of cloud and frost, — That glisten a moment and then are lost, — Flake after flake. 158 I^ESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH LESSON 44 INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS— Continued We learned that the antecedent of a pronoun is the word or words to which the pronoun refers. We shall now learn that a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, person, and gender. When a pronoun represents two or more nouns connected by ^'and, '^ and the nouns denote different persons or things, the pronoun should be plural; as, '^John and James looked for their father. " When a pronoun represents two or more nouns connected by ''and, '^ and the nouns denote the same thing, the pronoun should be singular; as, *' The secretary and treasurer (one person) has resigned his office. '' If a pronoun represents two or more singular nouns con- nected by ''and," and each noun is preceded by "each," "every," or "no," the pronoun should be singular; as, "Every oak and every elm has shed its leaves. " If a pronoun represents two or more nouns connected by "and," and the nouns are of different persons, the pronoun agrees with the first person rather than with the second, and with the second rather than with the third; as, "James and I have our tickets with us;" '^William and you have lost your tickets." The fact, that there is no singular personal pronoun of common gender in English, is somewhat confusing at times. In the sentence, "Each boy and girl may keep — — book," the meaning of the sentence seems to require both "his" or "her;" but this sounds awkward. Many good authorities use the plural pronoun in such sentences; as, "Every boy and girl may keep their book. " If a pronoun represents two or more singular nouns of the same gender, connected by " or " or " nor, " the singular pronoun should be used; as, "Either the motorman or the conductor lost his hat; " " Neither Mary nor Alice knew her lesson today. " INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS 159 The absence of a personal pronoun of common gender gives us trouble in singular nouns of different genders, connected by ''or" or ''nor." Of course, it is wrong to say, "Every boy or girl may keep their book. " We may say " Every boy or girl may keep his or her book, " or change the form of the sentence and say ''AH the boys and girls may keep their books. " When a pronoun represents a collective noun, the pronomi should be singular and should be in the neuter gender if the idea expressed by the noun is singular; as, "The jury has done its duty;" if the idea expressed by the noun is plural, the pronoun should be plural; as, " The jury have gone to their homes. " Sometimes the pronoun "it" is used indefinitely without representing any particular noun; as, "It rains." In personification, a masculine or a feminine pronoun may ])e used w^ith a neuter noun; as, " The ship lost her anchor. " If the antecedent is a singular noun used to represent both sexes, the masculine form of the pronoun is used; as, "Every student knew his lesson. " Such expressions as " every , " "either," "each," "anyone," "nobody," "man after man," are singular. When only two persons or things are spoken of, "either" or "neither," should be used; when more than two persons or things are spoken of, "any one" or "no one" should be used. The rule that "each other" should be used in speaking of two persons or things and "one another," in speaking of more than two is not followed by all good writers. EXERCISE 44 Indicate on paper the correct pronoun and its antecedent for each of the following sentences, as suggested. "Has everybody finished • lesson?" PRONOUN ANTECEDENT 1. Everybody his 160 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 1. Has everybody finished ■ — ■ — lesson? 2. Poverty and wealth have each ■ — — - own temptations. 3. Neither had discovered mistake. 4. If any one has not finished, let • hold up hand. 5. My classmate and companion had completed studies. 6. Everybody should think for • . 7. Each contributed what could. 8. Every steamer and every train had ■ complement of passengers. 9. Either James or William will let 3'ou use — — — ■ — book. 10. The elephant is distinguished for — — — — • strength and sagacity. 11. Everyone stoutly maintained ■ — — innocence. 12. The husband and father cannot support — ■ — — ■ — - family. 13. Let each take • • turn. 14. The bat is nocturnal in habits. 15k The beaver shows great skill in constructing dwellings. 16. The committee has handed in • report. 17. The dog is faithful to ■ master. 18. Each officer and each soldier wall be permitted to retain • • arms. 19. Everybody must look out for 20. A person should control • wrath. 21. When one is ill ■ • will call a physician. 22. The child was unconscious of danger. 23. The fox is noted for ~ cunning. 24. Spring comes forth, — • work of gladness to contrive. 25. A person who is rude in manners, will be disliked. 26. Each of the men did - — — — — ■ duty. 27. Truth is fearless, yet • is meek and modest. 28. Ever}^ tree* is known by — ■ — ■ fruit. 29. This is such bad news that I can not believe . 30. Each of the women did — — — — — - duty. 31. If a boy or girl be sent to the principal, should be ashamed. 32. England expects every man to do duty. 33. A person's manners frequently show ■ morals. 34. Everv one did • — dutv. INFLECTION OF VERBS 161 35. Each workman must provide ■ — ■ ■ — • own tools. 36. Sharpen my shears so that ■ ■ will cut. 37. A person who knows own mind, is generally successful. 38. No one is to leave ■ seat, without permission. 39. Let each of the girls take • — place. 40. Envy and hatred make - — — - — — possessor unhappy. 41. If any one knows, — — ■ — — - must not tell. 42. Many a man will sacrifice — • reputation for a trifle. 43. Every lady and every gentleman must register name. 44. Each member of the class should do — ■ duty. 45. Every city and village and farm furnished ■ quota of soldiers. 4B. Joseph and Benjamin rejoiced to see father. 47. Henry and James will do — work. 48. Henry or James will do ■ ■ work. LESSON 45 INFLECTION OF VERBS NUMBER AND PERSON Part I When we see or hear the verb '' is, " we know, w^ithout hear- ing or seeing the rest of the sentence, that its subject must be in the singular number, third person. The verb, "am'' suggests a subject which must be of the singular number, first person. ''Are" suggests a subject which may be of the singular number, second person, or of the plural number, first, second, or third person. Verbs change their form (have an inflection) to show the number and the person of their subjects. The verb ''be," has more changes to show number and person than any other verb. Compare the following: 162 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH '> VERB "be Singular 1st person: I am 2nd person : You are 3rd person: He, she, or it is Plural We are You are They are If past time is referred to by the verb, the correct forms are: Singular 1st person: I was 2nd person : You were 3rd person: He, she, or it was Plural We were You were They were VERB ''see'' 1st person: I see We see 2nd person: You see You see 3rd person : He, she, or it sees They see In the verb ''see/' as in almost all other verbs, only tHe third person, singular, differs in form from the other persons and numbers. The third person, singular number, of most verbs ends in "s. " (The verbs, "need" and "dare," when followed with an infinitive, do not have the "s" ending in the third person, singular number; as, " He dare not go;" " He need not do it. ") In making the "s" form of verbs, the same rules generally apply as in suffixing " s " to nouns to form the plural; as, finish, finishes; marry, marries; journey, journeys. A verb must agree (must be 'of the same number and person) with its subject in number and person. To decide whether a subject should be considered singular or plural, we must look beyond the form of the subject to its meaning. The following should be studied very carefully: 1. The verb must agree with tlie meaning of the subject; as, "He is a student;" "They ore students." 2. A collective noun requires a verb in the plural number if INFLECTION OF VERBS 163 the individuals in the collection are considered; as, ''The committee are eating dinner. " The committee, not as a whole but as individuals, are eating. If the collection is thought of as a whole, the verb should be in the singular number; as, "The committee was in session all night. '' The committee, as a body, was in session. 3. If a subject is plural in form but singular in meaning, its verb should be singular; as, ''Five dollars is the price." 4. If the subject consists of singular nouns that refer to tlie same person or thing, the subject is considered singular; as, "The secretary and treasurer (one person) was absent;" "A red and white flag (one flag) was seen;" "My friend and neigh- bor (one person) was there. " 5. If the subject consists of singular nouns so modified as to mean different persons or things, the subject is considered plural; as, "The secretary and the treasurer (two persons) were absent;" "A red and a white flag (two flags) were seen;" "My friend and my neighbor (two persons) were there yesterday." 6. Possessive modifiers may change the meaning of the sub- ject; as, "John and Henry's (joint ownership) knife is lost;" "John and Henry's knives are lost;" "John's knife and Henry's are lost. " (The noun knife is understood after Henry's.) 7. Sometimes two or more things are so related in thought that they are thought of as one; as, "Bread and milk is a wholesome diet;'* "Bread and milk are sold in this store." In the first illustration, bread and milk is the name of a kind of food; in the second, bread and milk are spoken of as different things. 8. If the subject is a word that means a part and the subject is followed by " of , " the number of the verb is determined by the number of the word following "of;" as, "Three-fourths of his time is wasted;" "Three-fourths of the students li^ere absent." A noun that expresses a part is called a partitive noun. The words "plenty," "abundance," "variety," etc., are in the 164 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH singular number and are not strictly partitive words ; but they are sometimes so used; as, ''There is plenty of time;" ''There are plenty of apples." 9. The word "number" when preceded by "the" is con- sidered singular; as, "The number of pupils enrolled was large;" "A number of pupils were absent. " 10. Frequently errors are made in sentences such as, " There are more than one student in the office." The subject of the sentence just given is more (meaning more students): conse- quently, the verb should be plural. "There are more students than one in the office " is, however, a much better sentence. Part II 11. Two or more singular subjects connected by "and" usually have their verb in the plural; as, "John and I are in the same class. " 12. Two or more singular subjects connected by "and" require a singular verb if they are preceded by "each," " every," ''many a," "no," "not," or some other disuniting word; as, "Every house and barn was destroyed." 13. If one of two subjects connected by "and" is negative, the verb agrees with the affirmative; as, "Books, and not pleasure, are his defight." 14. If several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be emphasized by having the verb agree with the first; as, "Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory, forever. " 15. If the subjects are connected by "as well as," "and also," "and too," "with," "in addition to," the verb must agree with the first; as, "I, as well as he, a?n a student." 16. If two or more subjects are connected by "or" or "nor, " the verb agrees with the nearest; as, "Either the teacher or the pupils are to blame;" "Either the pupils or the teacher is to blame;" "I or you are going;" "You or I am going." 17. Since a relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in number, person and gender, it follows^ that a verb, having a INFLECTION OF VERBS 165 relative pronoun for its subject, must agree with the antecedeni of the relative pronoun; as, ''The boy who was here went home;" ''The boys who loere here went home;'' *'This is the only one of the boys who loas here. " Because of the use of ''only'' one, and not boys, is the antecedent. ''This is one of the boys who were here.'' "Boys," and not one, is the antecedent. 18. Care should be exercised in the use of mathematical expressions. The names of numbers used abstractly are con- sidered nouns in the singular number; as, "Fifty is one-half of one hundred." Fractions are usually singular; as, "Two- thirds of nine is six." "J bushel," "J dollars," etc., are some times written; but in construing the words, "of" should be supplied; as, "J of a bushel, f of a dollar." In reading equations, "equals" is to be preferred to "is;" "4 -^ 6 = 10" should be read "four plus six equals ten." "Equal" and "are," however, are sometimes used by good authorities. Some authorities make a distinction in the multiplication tables; as, "Five times one is five, " "Five times two are ten. " In the first sentence, they consider the subject to be "one" (unit or thing) taken five times. In the second sentence, they consider the subject to be "two" (units or things) taken five times. "25 -j- 5 = 5" should be read "twenty-five divided by five equals five. EXERCISE 45 Part I Write the subject, or the part of the subject, that governs the number and the person of the verb in each of the following sentences and the correct form of the verb, as suggested. ''Nothing but singing (was, were) heard." SUBJECT 1. Nothing VERB was 166 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 1. Nothing but singing (was, were) lieard. 2. Her food (was, were) berries. 3. The army (was, were) defeated. 4. The committee (is, are) to be commended. 5. Three-fourths of the students (was, were) absent. 6. Three-fourths of the work (is, are) done. 7. When (was, were) you in the city? 8. His desire and ambition (is, are) to get money. 9. One of you (are, is) mistaken. 10. You (are, is) mistaken. 11. There (is, are) several persons present. 12. A number of men (was, were) discharged. 13. There (is, are) no data on this subject. 14. (Was, were) either of you there? 15. The memoranda (was, were) destroyed. 16. Neither of the men (was, were) hurt. 17. One of the books (was, w^ere) lost. 18. Our class (is, are) waiting for an examination. 19. A black and white horse (was, were) sold. 20. Five hundred dollars (is, are) a large sum. 21. The jury (was, were) discharged. 22. The jury (was, were) eating dinner. 23. Your pen, ink, and paper (is, are) on the desk. 24. The committee (was, were) unable to agree. 25. Two dollars (is, are) a good price. 26. Two hours (is, are) a long wait. 27. The scissors (is, are) not in their place. 28. Every one (is, are) accountable for his own acts. Part II 29. Where (was, were) you? 30. The public (is, are) invited. 31. Our nation (is, are) prosperous. 32. Men, as well as money, (was, were) needed. 33. Money, as well as men, (was, were) needed. 34. Two years' interest (is, are) due. 35. The wages of sin (is, are) death. 36. How (is, are) your father and mother? 37. Every one of the prisoners (is, are) to be set free. 38. The class (is, are) delighted with the prospect of a vacation. 39. The power and the influence (is, are) very great. INFLECTION OF VERBS 167 40. A great variety of flowers (was, were) seen in the garden. 41. There (seem, seems) to be no others here. 42. In his mind there (seem, seems) to be few ideas of honesty. 43. There (come, comes) the girl. 44. One or more persons (was, w^ere) killed. 45. A man or two (was, were) lost. 46. The son, as well as the father, (was, were) pleased. 47. Problem after problem (was, were) given by the teacher. 48. James, if not Henry, (was, were) at the meeting. 49. James, and Henry too, (was, were) at the meeting. 50. James, and not Henry (was, were) at the meeting. 51. Neither James nor Henry (was, w^ere) at the meeting. 52. James or Henry (was, were) at the meeting. 53. There (come, comes) the girls. 54. Three hundred dollars (was, were) paid to the injured man. 55. The red and white dog (is, are) lost. 56. The red and the white dog (is, are) lost. 57. Where (is, are) my hat and coat? 58. A number of persons (w^as, were) injured. 59. The nmnber of persons injured (was, were) large. 60. Give me one of the books that (is, are) lying on the desk. 61. Every one of the students who (was, were) absent rnll ])v punished. 62. One times three (is, are) three. 63. Two times two (is, are) four. 64. There (come, comes) the boys. 65. My room is one of those that (overlook, overlooks) tlie street. 66. My room is the only one that (overlook, overlooks) the street. 67. He gave us one of the most difficult examinations that (was, were) given this term. 68. Bring me one of the chairs that (is, are) on the veranda. 69. One times six (is, are) six. 70. Neither poverty nor riches (is, are) hurtful to him. 71. No care, no money, no time (was, were) spared. 72. No sound but their own voices (was, were) heard. 73. For the result of this wreck he or they (are, is) responsible. 74. Two times three (is, are) six. 75. Twice as much (is, are) too much. 76. Every book and every paper (was, were) lost. 168 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 77. Either the teacher or the pupils (is, are) to blame. 78. Neither the pupils nor the teacher (is, are) to blame. 79. He, and not I, (is, am) going. 80. I, and not he, (is, am) going. LESSON 46 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued TENSE Verbs have an inflection to indicate the time at which the being or the action that they express, takes place. Study the following sentences. 1. The boy sees. 2. The boy saw. 3. The boy will see. In the first sentence, the act of seeing is represented as continuing at the present time; the verb "sees" is said to be in the prese7it tense. The act of seeing in the second sentence, is represented as having taken place in past time; the verb "saw" is said to be in the past tense. In the third sentence, the act of seeing is represented as about to take place in time succeeding that in which the sentence is spoken; the verb "will see" is said to be in the future tense. The inflection of the verb to indicate time is called tense. The present tense is used not only to represent an action as continuing at the present time but also to denote : 1. General truths; as, "The sun gives fight." 2. What occurs frequently or habitually; as, "Mr. Smith teaches in our school." 3. What is to occur in the future; as, "We start for Florida tomorrow. " 4. Past acts as if seen at present; (this is called the histori- cal present) as, "Washington crosses the Delaware amid the floating cakes of ice. " INFLECTION OF VERBS 169 In addition to representing an action as having taken place in past time, tlie past tense is used to denote what occurred frequently or habitualty in the past; as, ''He always took a walk before breakfast. " The future tense is sometimes used to express what occurs frequently; as, '' He will sit by the hour watching the children. " The present, past, and future tenses are called the simple or primary tenses. The following are the forms of the verbs, "be" and "see," that indicate differences in time. •THE VERB "be" Singular Plural Present Tense I am We are You are You are He is They are Past Tense I was We were You were You were He was They were Future Tense I shall be We shall be You will be You will be He will be They will be THE VERB "see" Singular Plural Present Tense I see We see You see You see He sees They see Past Tense I saw We saw You saw You saw He saw They saw 170 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Future Tense I shall see We shall see You will see You will see He will see They will see *' Shall" and 'Svill" are both used in forming the future tense of verbs, but they have somewhat different meanings; as, I shall go. (Speaker expects to go) I will go. (Speaker determines to go) You shall go. (Speaker determines that you shall go) You will go. (Speaker expects you to go) He shall go. (Speaker determines that he shall go) He will go. (Speaker expects him to go) 1. In declarative sentences, to express expectation or futurity on the part of the speaker, use *' shall " in the first person and ''will" in the second and third. In declarative sentences, to express determination or prom- ise on the part of the speaker, use ''will" in the first person and *' shall" in the second and third. 2. In interrogative sentences, "shall" is always used in the first person. When the subject is in the second or the third person, the word should be used in asking the questions that is required in the answer; as. Shall I go tomorrow? (You shall) Shall you be able to go tomorrow? (I shall) Will you promise to go tomorrow? (I will) 8. If a condition is referred to, over which the speaker has no control, "shall" should be used in the first person and "will, " in the second and third; as, I shall be disappointed if you do not go. I shall be obliged to 3'ou if you go. I shall be glad to have you go. I shall be pleased if you go. He will be pleased if he goes. I think I shall be ill. I think he will be ilL INFLECTION OF VERBS 171 4. In direct quotations (those in which the exact language is reported), *' shall" and 'Svill" are used the same as in de- clarative forms; as, He said, " I will go without fail. " (Promise) He said, " I shall be a])le to go. " (Expectation) 5. In indirect quotations (those in which the exact language is not reported), if the subjects do not refer to the same person, ''shall " and " will " are used the same as in the declarative form ; as, "Father says, I shall go." (Futurity) ''Father says, John will go. " (Futurity) In indirect quotations, if the subjects refer to the same person, "shall" is used in all persons to express futurity; and " will " is used in all persons to express determination or promise; as, " Father says, he shall be able to go. " (Futurity) " Father says that he will go. " (Promise) ''You say that you shall go." (futurity) "You say that you will go." (promise) 6. In dependent clauses introduced by "if," "though," "although," "until," "who," "that," etc., "shall" should be used in all persons to express futurity ; and "will" should be used in all persons to express the idea of willingness^ consenting, or wishing on the part of the person represented by the subject of the clause; as, " If he will go, I shall be glad. " (Willingness) EXERCISE 46 Write the number of and the correct word for each of the following sentences. SHALL, WILL 1 . I think it rain soon. (Futurit}^ 2. I go to prepare a place for you, but I come again. (Promise) 3. We never regTet helping a brother in distress. (Futurity) 4. AVhen we see you again? 5. The umbrella ■ be returned this evening, I assure you. (Promise) 6. I go or not? 7. You hear of his success to-morrow, I think. (Futurity) 172 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 8. I ■ — • be pleased to hear from you. (Futurity) 9. I think we — have a heavy storm to-day. (Fu- turity) 10. ■ ■ we go w^ith you to the station? 1 1 . ■ I send these books by the American Express? 12. • • you go this evening or to-morrow? 13. Though he slay me, yet I trust in him. (Deter- mination) 14. • • you be of age this year? 15. Nothing make me break my word. (Determi- nation) 16. I • never see him again! Never! (Futurity) 17. He — ■ — — — • pay me immediately. (Determination) 18. Help me, or I — ■ — ■ — — drown. (Futurity) 19. Though I die, yet I not deny thee. (Promise) 20. I ■ ■ be obliged to you if you do me this favor. (Futurity) 21. Hear me, for I ■ speak. (Determination) 22. we be there in time? 23. I fear I ■ ■ be too late for the lecture. (Futurity) 24. I • suffer if I do not do as I am requested. (Fu- turity) 25. ■ • I return your magazine to you? 26. Where • • I meet you? 27. We — — reward her if she remains faithful. (Promise) 28. I think we • — - have rain to-day. (Futurity) 29. I • ■ not tolerate his insolence. (Determination) 30. I ■ • be very anxious until I hear from you. (Fu- turity) 31. If you call, I accompan}^ you. (Promise) 32. I have permission to go? 33. • ■ I meet you on Wednesday? 34. We ■ — — do our duty. (Promise) 35. When • ■ we three meet again? 36. We — — — — be disappointed. (Futurity) 37. We — - — — — be pleased to have you call. (Futurity) 38. Do you think we ■ ■ — ■ have rain? 39. He fears that he ■ — • miss the train. (P^uturity) 40. ■ ■ I find you at home? 41. he have time to get his ticket? INFLECTION OF VERBS 173 42. you be surprised to hear it? 43. I hope he be in time to get good seats. (Fu- turity) 44. He has resolved that he not answer the letter. (Determination) 45. Howard thinks his brother probably live to old age. (Futurity) 46. We • find ourselves much mistaken. (Futurity) 47. John thinks he • be sick to-morrow. (Futurity) 48. If you • call for me, I be glad to go with you. (Futurity) 49. • you be at leisure after dinner? 50. ■ you have time to get your ticket? ^l . yQ^ fjo me the favor to reply by return mail? 52. ■ there be time to get our tickets? 53. He says James be sick to-morrow. (Futurity) 54. Howard thinks he — • probably live to old age. (Futurity) 55. I ■ be obliged to you, for A^our autograph. (Fu- turity) 56. Yes, I fear that he -— - — — miss the train. (Futurity) 57. You • not enter the house again. (Determination) 58. I — go; nobody hinder me. (Determi- nation) 59. I trust I remember the password. (Futurity) 60. he be allowed to join the club? LESSON 47 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued SHOULD WOULD 7. Historically ''should" and "would" are the past tenses of ^' shall " and '' will ; " and consequently, in corresponding uses they follow the same rules. ''Should," however, sometimes means ''ought" and is used in the meaning of propriety or obhgation with all subjects alike; as, "I should do my duty;" "He should do his duty." "Would" may be used to express a wish; as, "I would that I had gone." "Would" is also used 174 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH in all three persons to express willingness, habit, or custom; as, I would give it to you if I could. (Willingness) *'He would often go to sleep in class. " (Habit) '^He would go to church on Sunday. " (Custom) EXERCISE 47 "Write the number of and the correct wor.l for each of the following sentences. SHOULD, WOULD 1. I ■ • like to attend the meeting. 2. If the horse were to run away, I — — • be frightened. 3. You obey your teacher. 4. I — — ■ — ■ — ■ have gone if it had not rained. 5. I never have consented to such an agreement. 6. He ~~ ■ — ■ support his family. 7. If I had known this, I not have given him the money. 8. If he • find it, I • rejoice. 9. A man who — — ■ — ■ — - do such a thing • be punished. 10. The Indians — ~ suddenly spring upon the settlers. 11. He said he — go if it please me. 12. If he succeeded, I ' b ^ happy. 13. Grandmother — - knit for hours at a time. 14. She — not work so hard. 15. If you — — hear of a situation, I Avish you — — — - let me know. 16. If it — — ■ • rain, you • — — — — need your umbrella. 17. I ■ — — - be glad if it • ■ stop raining. 18. I — — ■ — ■ — that my father were here. 19. I — — — — • like to see you soon. 20. I knew I — — — — ■ dislike the cit}-. 21. If I were you, I not do that thing. 2*^. I never — - — — — consent to do that. 23. If I were to offer him water, he ■ — ■ — — — ■ drink it. 24. Were he to see me, he • ■ know me. 25. If John knew it, he • be provoked. 26. Father thought he ■ be able to go, but mother said he : not go. 27. I • like to have the goods shipped at once. INPXECTIOX OF VERBS 175 2S. I hoped that they ■ accept the offer. 29. I — — ■ — ■ — ■ be sorry to have you go. 30. He — — ■ — — - be sorry to hear this. 31. The teacher said that you be promoted. 32. If I knew his address, I ■ write to him. 33. We prefer to go to the theatre. 34. I feared that he • not come. 35. John feared that he • — ■ — ■ — ■ — - miss the boat. 36. — — ■ ■ you go if you were I? 37. I — — think you not go. 38. We ■ — — — — enjoy the ride. 39. He — — • not flatter himself with that delusion. 40. I never was what I — • be. 41. She ■ not walk, he said, through the dust and heat of the noonday. 42. If he invite us, we • have to decline. 43. He • not like to be left behind. 44. She ■ be allowed to go. 45. I feared that they — • refuse to do it. 46. It • be delivered at once. 47. If it ■ — ^ — — ■ — be as hot as it is to-day, we -not go. 48. I — — — — ■ do it if they • pay me for it. 49. George -^ not be found in such company. 50. You laugh if you hear the story. 51. She ■ ■ not work so steadily. LESSON 48 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued In addition to indicating the time of the action, verbs ma}^ suggest something of the condition of the action that they represent. Study the following sentences : 1. I have seen the picture. 2. I had seen the picture before you came. 3. I shall have seen the picture before to-morrow. In the first sentence, the action is represented as completed ])revious to the time of speaking, Ijut as extending up to it; the verb, ^'haA^e seen, " is said to be in the present perfect tense. 176 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH In the second sentence, the action is represented as com- pleted in past time which does not extend to the present but which does extend to some past time understood or indicated in the sentence (before you came); the verb, ''had seen, '^ is said to be in the past 'perfect tense. In the third sentence, the action is represented as completed, not in the past or in the present time, but at some future time understood or expressed in the sentence (before to-morrow) ; the verb, ''shall have seen," is said to be in t\\Q Juture perfect tense. The present, past, and future perfect tenses are called the perfect or secondary tenses. The following are the forms of the verbs, ''be" and "see," in the perfect tenses. THE VERB "be" Singular Plural Present Perfect Tense I have been We have been You have been You have been He has been They have been Past Perfect Tense I had been We had been You had been You had been He had been They had been Future Perfect Tense I shall have been We shall have been You will have been You will have been He will have been They will have been THE VERB "see" Singular. Plural. Present Perfect Tense I have seen We have seen You have seen You have seen He has seen They have seen INFLECTION OF VERBS 177 Past Perfect Tense I had seen We had seen You had seen You had seen He had seen They had seen Future Perfect Tense I shall have seen We shall have seen You will have seen You will have seen He will have seen They ■\\dll have seen An examination of the perfect tense forms just given, will show that the perfect tenses of these verbs are formed by using ''have/' *'had," and *'has'' (forms of the verb have), and the forms ''been" and "seen" of the verbs *'be" and "see." " Been " and " seen " are called past participles of these verbs. The past participle of a verb is the form of the verb that is used with some form of the verb *'have" to constitute the per- fect tenses. "Have," "had," and "has" are called helping or auxil- iary verbs. Any verb that is used to help in forming the dif- ferent mode and tense forms of other verbs, is called an auxiliary verb. The common auxiliary verbs are "be," "do," "have," "will," "can," "may," "shall," and "must." The present tense of "have" is used to form the present perfect; the past, to form the past perfect; and the future, to form the future perfect. Following are the forms of have : Singular Plural Present Tense I have We have? You have You have He has Past Tense They have I had We had You had You had He had They had 178 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Future Tense I shall have We shall have You will have You will have He will have They will have Past participles differ in the manner in which they arc formed from their verbs, and we classify verbs according to the manner in which their past tense and past participle are formed. If the past tense and the past participle of a verb are form^ed by suffixing *'d'* or ''ed'' to the present tense form, the verb is called a regular verb; as, walk, walked, walked. The verbs that do not form their past tense and past parti- ciple in this manner are called irregular verbs; as, see, saw, seen. The present tense form of some regular verbs undergoes a slight change, however, in forming the past tense and the past participle. If the verb ends in ''y" preceded by a consonant, the ''y" is changed to "i" and '*ed" is suffixed; as, imply, implied; cry, cried. If the verb ends in ''e, " ^'d" only is suffixed; as, introduce, introduced. If the verb ends in "^y," the "y" is changed to *'i" and ^'d'^ only is suffixed; as, lay, laid; say, said. In a few verbs, the ''d" takes the place of the final vowel or consonant of the present; as, sell, sold; shoe, shod. Some verbs ending with '^d" in the present change the "d" to "t-/' as, lend, lent; build, built. The present tense, the past tense, and the past participle are called the 'pri?icipal parts of the verb. The following are the principal parts of some of the verbs in common use. INFLECTION OF VERBS 179 {For reference) Present Past Past Participle arise arose arisen awake awok(^, awaked awaked abide abode abode alight alighted, alit alighted, alit bear (bring forth) bore borne, born bear (carry) bore borne be (am, is, are) was been begin began begun beat beat beaten, beat bend bent bent bereave bereft, bereaved bereft, bereaved behold beheld beheld beseech besought besought bet bet bet bid (command) bade bidden bid (offer money) bid bid bite bit bitten bind bound bound blend blent, blended blent, blended bleed bled bled blow blew blown bless blessed, blest blessed, blest breed bred bred break broke, broken buy bought bought build built, builded built, builded burst burst burst bring brought brought catch caught caught cast cast cast cleave (split) clove, cleft cloven, cleft, cleaved choose chose chosen 180 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Present Past Past Participle chide chid chidden, chid cleave (to cling to) cleaved cleaved climb climbed climbed cling clung clung come came come cost cost cost creep crept crept crow crowed, crew crowed cut cut cut clothe clad, clothed clad, clothed dare dared, durst dared do did done dive dived, dove dived deal dealt, dealed dealt, dealed dig dug dug, digged dream dreamed, dreamt dreamed, dreamt draw drew drawn drink drank drunk, drunken dwell dwelt, dwelled dwelt, dwelled dress drest, dressed drest, dressed drive drove driven eat ate eaten freeze froze frozen forget forgot forgotten, forgot forsake forsook forsaken forbear forbore forborne find found found fling flung flung fly flew flown flee fled fled feed fed fed fight fought fought feel felt felt INFLECTION OF VERBS 181 Present Past Past Participle fall fell fallen fling flung flung give gave given gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt gird girded, girt, girded, girt get got got, gotten grave graved graved, graven go went gone grind ground ground grow grew grown heave hove, heaved hove, heaved have had had hear heard heard hang hung, hanged (in legal sense) hung, hanged hold held held hide hid hidden hit hit hit hew hewed hewn, hewned hurt hurt hurt keep kept kept knit knit, knitted knit, knitted kneel knelt, kneeled knelt, kneeled know knew known lend lent lent lead led led leave left left lay laid laid lade laded laded, laden lie (to recline) lay lain lean leaned, leant leaned, leant learn learned, learnt learned, learnt light lit, lighted lit, lighted 182 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Present Past Past Participle leap leaped, leapt leaped, leapt lose lost lost let let let mean meant meant make made made mow mowed mowed, mown meet met met plead pleaded, plead pleaded, plead pay paid paid put put put pen pent, penned pent, penned quit quit, quitted quit, quitted rend rent rent read read read ring rang rung ride rode ridden rid rid rid run ran run rive rived riven, rived rise rose risen rot rotted rotten, rotted saw sawed sawn, sawed say said said seek sought sought sell sold sold see saw seen seethe seethed, sod seethed, sodden send sent sent sew sewed sewed, sewn set set set shake shook shaken shed shed shed shear sheared sheared, shorn INFLECTION OF VERBS 183 Present Pad Past Par'tidple shine shone shone shoot shot shot shoe shod shod shrink shrank, shrunk shrunk, shrunken shave shaved shaven, shaved show showed shown shred shred, shredded shred, shredded shrive shrived, shrove shriven shrived shut shut shut sink sank sunk sing sang sung sit sat sat sleep slept slept sling slung slung slay slew slain slink slunk, slank slunk, slank smell smelt, smelled smelt, smelled slit slit, slittod slit, slitted slide slid slidden, slid sow sowed sown smite smote smitten speak spoke spoken spell spelled, spelt spelled, spelt spill spilled, spilt spilled, spilt speed sped sped spend spent spent spin spun spun spit spit, spat spit, spat split split split spread spread spread spoil spoiled , spoilt spoiled, spoilt stand stood stood spring sprang sprung 184 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Present Past Past Participle stave stove, staved stove, staved steal stole stolen sting stung stung stick stuck stuck stay stayed, staid stayed, staid strew strewed strewn, strewed strike struck struck, stricken stride strode stridden strive strove striven string strung strung swear swore sworn sweep swept swept sweat sweated, sweat sweated, sweat swell swelled swelled, swollen swing s^vung swung s\vim swam swum take took taken tell told told teach taught taught tear tore torn thrive throve, thrived. thriven, thrived throw threw thrown think thought thought tread trod trod, trodden thrust thrust thrust wear wore worn wake woke, waked woke, waked weep wept wept weave wove woven whet whet, Avhetted whet, whetted win won won wet wet, wetted wet, wetted work worked, wrought worked, wrought INFLECTION OF VERB^ 185 Present Past Past Participle wind wound wound wring wrung wrung write wrote written can could may might must shall should will would ought quoth beware methinks methought EXERCISE 48 Either by an oral or by a written exercise the teacher should satisfy himself that the student knows the principal parts of the verbs given in Lesson 48. LESSON 49 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued SEQUENCE OP TENSES The tense of a verb in a dependent clause usually depends upon that of the verb in the independent clause ; this dependence is called the law of the sequence of tenses. The following sentences illustrate this dependence of tense : I think he will go. I thought he would go. I have co7ne that he 77iay go. I had come that he might go. John will he frightened if he sees that. John would be frightened if he saw that. John would have been frightened if he had seen that. 186 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH If the verb in the independent clause is changed from the present to the past, the present tense in the dependent clause should be changed to the past, and the present perfect tense to the past perfect. Study the following examples : Present: I write when I am not busy. Past : I wrote when I was not busy. Present: Father says we may go. Past: Father said we might go. Present: You knoio he has gone. Past: You knew he had gone. EXERCISE 49 Rewrite the following sentences changing the verb in the independent clause to the past tense. 1. He thinks he will go. 2. He thinks I have gone. 3. William is absent whenever it rains. 4. She studies hard because she desires to succeed. 5. He gives money to all who ask him. 6. Where is the chair in which the boy is sitting? 7. We are sorry there has been any misunderstanding, and hope that you will not be inconvenienced. 8. All orders that reach us before the first of the month will be filled. 9. We find that John Smith has failed to account for the money. 10. I desire to get a position where there is a good opportunity for advancement. 11. It seems to me that the}^ have misrepresented the subject. 12. We know where the flowers grow. 13. I think that you are correct. 14. His debts, which are many, are paid by his father. 15. The star which shines in the evenino; is almost red. ■■& Rewrite the following sentences changing the verb in the independent clause to the present tense. 1. William gave me the book that I might read it. 2. I thought I could go, but I was mistaken. INFLECTION" OF VERBS 187 3. He was delighted when he thought of what we had accom- pUshed. 4. He studied the lesson so well that he could not fail. 5. The horse ran away because he saw the engine. 6. The verdict was, that he was guilty. 7. He left New York, where he was doing well. 8. There is an elevator which carries freight. 9. The flowers that came in the spring were very welcome. 10. The house that was freshly painted shone in the sunlight. LESSON 50 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued MODE Mode is a classification of verb forms according to the man- ner of assertion. We must remember that tlie mode of a verb depends on the manrier in which the thought expressed by the verb is under- stood rather than on the foi^m of the verb. Thought and not form should be considered in determining the mode of a verb. As a matter of fact, there are few changes in the form of the verb to indicate mode. There are many forms of the verb which may be used in more than one mode; the mode of such forms is determined by the thought expressed by these forms. INDICATIVE MODE A verb that represents an action as real or certain is said to be in the indicative mode; as, ''He studies;'^ ''He will study. ^^ That a sentence has the interrogative form, does not affect the mode of the verb. The mode is the same as that of the declarative form; as, *'Does he study?" SUBJUNCTIVE MODE A verb, however, may express a condition, the contrary of which, it implies to be true; or a wish; or an action as desired, 188 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH or feared, or as untrue; as, *'//! ^vere in his place, I would go. " " I wish my father were here. '^ When the verb indicates certain phases of condition, un- certainty or unreality, the verb is said to be in the subjunctive mode. A comparison of the indicative forms with the subjunctive forms of the verb *M3e " will show that the present tense indicative and the present tense subjunctive have no forms in common. (For all reference to verb forms, see Lesson 58, p. 213.) In the past tense, *'If we were/' *'If you were/' and '^If they were, '' are the same in both modes. In the present perfect tense, third person, singular number, the subjunctive differs from the indicative. SUBJUNCTIVE OF CONDITION Not all conditions, however, are expressed in the sub- junctive mode. If a supposition or a condition is assumed to be true or is expressed without any suggestion as to its truth, the verb should be in the indicative mode; as, ''If he is old (and he is), he is still active;'' ''If he is guilty (I don't know whether he is or not), he should be punished." If a supposition or condition is looked upon by the speaker as untrue, unlikely, or doubtful, the verb should be in the subjunctive mode; as, "If father were here (he is not), he would enjoy this;" "If the weather be clear to-morrow (I am not sure that it will be), we shall go." We need to distinguish between general and particular conditions. When "if" is equivalent to "whenever," the con- dition is said to be general; as, "If (whenever) it snows, we go sleighing." General conditions have their verbs in the in- dicative mode. Particular conditions are usually expressed in the sub- junctive mode; as, " If it snow, we shall not go. " When "if" is omitted, the verb stands before the subject; as J " Were he here. I should be pleased. " INFLECTION OF VERBS 189 When the truth of a condition is doubtful, the verb should be in the present or present perfect tense subjunctive mode; as, "If he be here (we doubt that he is) we shall see him." "If he have been here (we doubt that he has) we regret it.'' When the supposition was untrue in the past, the past perfect subjunctive should be used; as, "If he had been there (he was not), he would not have done so. '* A comparison of the indicative forms wdth the subjunctive forms will show that, wdth the exception of the verb *'be/' the forms of the subjunctive, active and passive, are like those of the indicative except in the third person singular in the present and present perfect tenses. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF DESIRE, WISH, OR PURPOSE Wishes are expressed in the subjunctive mode; as, "I wish my mother were here. " To express a wish that may be fulfilled, the present tense subjunctive should be used; as, "God help you," "Peace be with us." The sentence, "He studies that he may be wise/' expresses a desire in the form of a purpose and the verb "may be" is in the subjunctive mode. Anything that is desired must necessarily be regarded as a non-actuality at the time the desire is expressed ; consequent^, the verb expressing the desire must be in the subjunctive mode. Some authorities would say "may be," in the sentence just given, is in the potential mode. We shall consider this matter more fully under subjunctive of possibility which follows. EXERCISE 50 Indicate the form of the verb that should be used in each of the following sentences, by writing the number of the sentence and the word, and give reason. 1. If he (were, was) kind to them, they would not be un- happy. 190 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 2. If I (be, am) in the wrong, I will confess it. 3. Though he (swear, swears) it, they will not believe him. 4. If thine enemy (hunger, hungers) feed him. 5. Though he (be, is) dead, we shall find him. 6. Even if he (fail, fails) he will not despair. 7. If he (was, were) willing, I would help him. 8. If he (was, were) severe, he was not unjust. 9. If the truth (is, be) known, no harm can result. 10. Though she (was, were) there, I did not see her. 11. If it (be, is) fair, we shall go. 12. Though he (slay, slays) me, yet will I trust in him. 13. If he (study, studies), he will improve. 14. You speak as if I (was, were) your slave. 15. (Was, were) I to speak, I (should, would) denounce him. 16. If I (were, was) he, would you do it? 17. If this (was, were) true, the difficulty would vanish. 18. If he (was, were) there, I did not see him. 19. Though this (seem, seems) improbable, it is true. 20. If my friend (is, be) in town, he will call this evening. 21. If he (is, be) guilty, the evidence does not show it. 22. If I (was, were) he, I would do differently. 23. If to-morrow (is, be) fine, I will walk with you. 24. If I (was, were) manager, it should not be. 25. If I (be, am) poor, I am honest. 26. Suppose Canada (was, were) annexed to the United States. 27. If a man (is, be) happy, he need not try to prove it. 28. If I (was, were) you, I would buy that book. 29. If my mother (was, were) here, I should be happy. 30. If your father (was, were) here, you would not do that. 31. If your brother (come, comes) let me know. 32. If it (rain, rains) to-morrow, I can not go. 33. Though he (was, were) honest, he was poor. 34. If I (was, were) he, I would go. 35. If it (rains, rain) the work is delayed. 36. If he (return, returns), give him the book. 37. He cannot enter unless he (pay, paj^s). 38. (Was, were) he to show me the proof, I would not believe him. 39 If this (be, is) all, let us go. 40. (Was, were) he to go, I could not go with him. 41. If he (suspect, suspects) the man, he should not employ him. INFLECTION OF VERBS 191 42. I wish I (was, were) well. 43. I wish my father (was, were) here. 44. She said she washed she (was, were) an angeh 45. I wish I (was, were) in Paris. 43. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin (surprise, surprises) thee. 47. I wish it (was, were) in my power to help you. 4S. I wish I (was, were) in his place. 49. Help him lest he (die, dies). 50. Beware that he (bring, brings) his book. 51. See that he (tell, tells) no man. 52. I would he (was, were) here. 53. I w^ould that I (was, w^ere) as he. 54. Hurry lest we (be, are) late. 55. Would that I (was, were) there to help him, 56. Take heed lest you (be, are) discouraged. 57. Oh! how I wish she (was, were) here. 58. Suppose he (was, were) here, what could he do? 59. If he (oppresses, oppress) the needy, he shall not live. 60. Even if I (was, were) disposed, I could not satisfy you. LESSON 51 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued SUBJUNCTIVE OF POSSIBILITY OR POTENTIALITY Some very good authorities use the term, 'potential mode, rather than the term, subjunctive of possibility^ or some other corresponding expression, in connection with certain auxiliaries which we shall now consider. If thought or ineaning is the basis of classification in mode, all the auxiliaries that are classified as potential mode forms can be classified as indicative or subjunctive forms. We have already learned that, excepting the verb ^'be, " the forms of the subjunctive are like those of the mdicative except in the third person singular number in the present and the present perfect tenses. In other words, mode depends more upon the manner in which the thought expressed by the verb is miderstood, than it does upon the form of the verb. 192 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH ''I may go" suggests the idea of uncertainty; consequently, "may go" is in the suhjundive mode. ''May" is used with reference to the present or the past. In the sentence, ''Father says I may go,'' *' may" is equiv- alent to *'am permitted" and ''may go" is in the indicative mode. "Might" follows the same rule as "may" and is used with present or future meaning; as, " Oh, that it 77iight be true ! " ''I think he 7night do the work." "I can do the work," expresses a fact; therefore, the verb "can do" is in the indicative mode. "He could do the work easily," also expresses a fact and "could do" is indicative. In the sentence, "If I could stand the pain, I would have the tooth extracted," "could stand" expresses a condition, and is, therefore, in the subjunctive mode. When used to express a future condition, "should" and " would " are subjunctive] as, " If he should come, he will see me. " When "should" is equivalent to "ought," it is indicative; as, "You should study.'' "Would" also may be used in the indicative; as, "John woidd not study." "Must" and "ought" may be either indicative or subjunc- tive; as, "He must go" (indicative); "He could go if he must.'* (subjunctive). The person who classifies "I can see" in the potential mode, but "I am able to see" in the indicative mode, is guided not by meaning but by form. We repeat that mode depends on meaning rather than on form. Whether we use the potential mode or not, "may, " "can, " and "must," are present; "might," "could," "should," and "would," are past; "may have," "can have," "must have," are present perfect; "might have, " "could have," "would have," "should have," are past perfect. INFLECTION OF VERBS 193 IMPERATIVE MODE A verb may be used to express a command or that which is strongly desired by the speaker; as, "Promise me that you will study. '* 'SStudy your lesson. '' "Promise'^ and "study" are said to be in the iinjyerntive mode. A verb that exyresses a command or a request is said to he in the imperative mode. The subject of a verb in the imperative mode is "thou" or "you," usually not expressed but understood. Since a command is always given in the present tense, second person, the imperative form of the verb is found in the present tense, second person only. EXERCISE 51 Name and classify the modes of the verbs in the following sentences. 1. Bring me the book that I may read to you. 2. I rise that I may be heard. S He feared he might lose the way. 4. Had I your chance, I would go. 5. May he rest in peace. 6. Walk carefully lest you fall. 7. He died that we might live. 8. John would not go. 9. If he still wishes to go, he may go with me. 10. It was possible that he might be right. 11. Had he followed my advice, he would be here. 12. This unsettled state of affairs may pass away in time. 1 3 . Let us rest that we may be ready for the fray. 14. We doubt whether it can be done. 15. Honor thy father and thy mother that thy da^'S may be long in the land. 16. If I should go abroad, I should see Paris. 17. If this should be said, deny it. 18. Oh, that I might see Paris! 19. Speak clearly, if you speak at all. 20. If you suspect a man, do not employ him. 194 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 21. Should you desire it, I will remain. 22. Should you see my father, give him my message. 23. See that the letter be written. 24. If he had loved her before, he now adored her. 25. If you employ a man, do not suspect him. - LESSON 52 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued We have learned that, according to their use, verbs are either transitive or intransitive. A few verbs, however, which are always transitive and a few which are always intransitive are sometimes misused. Study the following carefully : INTRANSITIVE (hAVE NO OBJECT COMPLEMENT) Lie (reclining) lay, lain, lying. Rise (getting up) rose, risen, rising. Sit, sat, sat, sitting. Awake, awoke, awaked. TRANSITIVE (mUST HAVE AN OBJECT COMPLEMENT) Lay (to place) laid, laid, laying. Raise (to lift) raised, raised, raising. Set (to place) set, set, setting. Set is sometimes used intransitively; as, ''The sun sets;" **He set out for Baltimore." Wake, woke, waked. EXERCISE 52 Write the number of and the correct word for each of the following sentences. SIT, SET 1. An old man — ■ — ■ by the roadside. 2. . down and tell me about it. 3. He has • — • there all the morning. INFLECTION OF VERBS 195 4. We ■ ■ — — ■ by the window and watched the parade. 5. He — ■ — - — ■ — • out for Washington yesterday. 6. Where do you — — ■ — — - ? 7. How long have you — there? 8. The girls were — — ■ — ■ — -ing by the brook. 9. We • the hen yesterday. 10. The hen wants to ■ . 11. The hen has ■ • on the nest a week. 12. — • the table. 13. His wife was • ing the table, when he entered. 14. The sun — — ^ — — in the west. 15. John and James — — - — — - together in school. 16. Have you ■ — • here long? 17. A robin — ■ — — — on the tree near the house. 18. We ■ • at the table for a long time. 19. The poet — — — — in his study. 20. The bird is • ing on her eggs. 21. We ■ " on the veranda and saw the sun . 22. • • the basket on the table. 23. The basket is ■ ing on the table. 24. They are — — - — —ing poles for the telephone line. 25. ■ • up straight. 26. Come into the • — • room. 27. The mother-bird is ~ • in her nest. 28. We — ■ — — — out twelve elms last arbor-day. 29. Where did he — ? 30. I — — • it on the shelf, and there it • now. 31. Won't you- -here? 32. He ■ motionless for an hour. 33. I have been ■ • in the arbor while you have been — - out your plants. 34. The court will • in June. 35. Was he ■ ■ — ing there then? LIE, LAY 1. The traveler told me to the book on the desk. 2. I • the book on the desk. 3. The doctor told me to • down and I down. 4. I have • ■ down and I feel better. 5. Has the man — ■ there long? 6. After the days' work is over, they down to rest. 196 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 7. John • in bed too late in the morning. 8. The cows — — under the tree all morning. 9. You had better • — do^\Ti until you feel better. 10. ■ • the paper on the table. 11. You did not — — — — the paper on the table. 12. Have you — — — — ■ the paper on the table? 13. ''Now I — — — — me down to sleep." 14. John — — down an hour ago. 15. Has James — — - — — down? 16. Tell James to — — down. 17. A tree was ing by the roadside. 18. The snow ■ in great heaps on the mountain side, 19. He told the men to • ■ the stones carefully. 20. They ■ ■ the stones with great care. 21. The men were ing rails for the track. 22. After they had been ■ ing silent for an hour, the command was given to march. 23. They ran so far they had to — down to rest. 24. His hat was — — - — - — ^ing on the floor. 25. ■ • your hat on the table. 26. Where did you ■ it? 27. How long has it ■ — - — • — — • there? 28. At what wharf does your yacht ? 29. It ■ — • on the grass yesterday. 30. It has — — — — there for years. 31. They have ■ ■ the corner-stone. 32. He — ■ — ■ — — in bed till nine o'clock. 33. A thousand miles of pipe have been -. RISE, RAISE 1. The price of eggs has • . 2. The river • during the night. 3. A cloud is ing in the west. 4. • • the window. 5. The bread would not , 6. The bread has ■ . 7. The committee has ■ five hundred dollars. 8. I fear the heavy rain will cause the river to ■ . 9. I — • so that I may be heard. 10. I • so that I might see better. 11. They — • a flag during the night. INFLECTION OF VERBS 197 12. The sun in the east. 13. I think the fog will ■ . 14. Great clouds of dust • as the army marched. 15. The injured man could not ■ ■ . AWAKE, WAKE 1. I — when the bell rang. 2. The ringing of the bell ■ ■ me. 3. Have you — — — • John? 4. I every morning early. 5. He had — • before I called him. 6. Christmas morning the children • — ■ at five o 'clock. 7. I have • — - early every morning this week. 8. The noise of the wind ■ • me. 9. The birds — • before sunrise and — us with their singing. 10. Lord Bja'on ■ one morning to find himself famous. 11. The noise of the burglar them. 12. The prisoner ■ — many times during the night. 13. The fog whistle — — — — us. 14. You • me an hour too soon. 15. ■ your brother. LESSON 53 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued VOICE In the sentence, ''I see the boy, '^ ''I,'* the subject of the sentence, represents the agent or the doer of the act. In the sentence, "The boy is seen by me," "boy," the subject of the sentence, represents the receiver of the act. The verb "see" is said to be in the active voice; the verb, "is seen," in the passive voice. // the form of the verb represents the subject as acting, the verb is said to be in the active voice; if the verb represents the subject as acted upon, the verb is said to be in the passive voice. That inflection of a transitive verb which represents the subject as acting or as acted upon is called voice. 198 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH The passive voice form of the verb is obtained by using some form of the verb *'be" as an auxihary and the past participle of the principal verb; as, "I am seen/' "you are seen," ''he is seen." Any form of the verb ''be" used as an auxihary and the past participle of a transitive verb used as a principal verb give the passive voice form of the verb. The tense, mode, and number of a verb in the passive voice are shown by the form of the verb ''be" that is used as an auxiliary. If we compare the sentences, *'I see the boy" and ''The boy is seen by me, " we shall see that in changing from the ac- tive to the passive voice, the following changes take place : 1. The verb changes to the passive form (is seen). 2. The subject "I" of the active becomes the object "me" of the preposition "by" in the passive, but it still names the agent or the doer of the act. 3. The object " boy " of the active becomes the grammatical subject "boy "in the passive, but it still names the receiver of the action expressed by the verb; and consequently, it is still the object of the verb. The changes just given characterize what is known as the first regular passive construction. Since the grammatical subject of a verb in the passive voice names the receiver of the action expressed by the verb and is, therefore, the object of the verb, it follows that only transitive verbs have voice. In poetry, intransitive verbs are sometimes given passive voice form by using the present tense instead of the present perfect; as, "Winter is come" instead of "Winter has come." To determine whether an expression having the passive voice form really is a verb in the passive voice, apply the fol- lowing tests : 1. Does the subject of the verb name the receiver of the action? INFLECTION OP VERBS 199 2. Is the meaning expressed when the passive form is fol- lowed by the preposition ''by" and the agent? 3. Is the word that seems to be the past participle of a transitive verb really an adjective used as a subjective com- plement? In the sentence, "They elected him principal," "principal" is an objective complement. The corresponding passive is, " He was elected principal by them. " In changing to the passive, the verb takes the passive form (was elected); the subject "they" of the active becomes the agent "them" after "by;" the object "him" of the active becomes the grammatical subject "he" of the passive; the objective complement "principal" becomes the subjective complement. The changes just given constitute the second regular pas- sive construction. There are certain passive constructions that do not conform to the changes just explained; but these constructions are used by good writers and good speakers and are, therefore, permis- sible; they are idioms. In the sentence, "The teacher asked the students many questions," "students" is the indirect object and "questions" is the direct object. Good usage permits "The students were asked many questions by the teacher." The irregularities are: 1. The subject "students" does not name the receiver of the action. 2. A verb in the passive voice has an object complement "questions." When the indirect object of the active becomes the subject of the passive and the direct object is retained, the object is called the retained object. The irregularities just given constitute the first idiomatic passive construction. 200 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH The sentence, *'Ten miles was run in an hour/' is con- sidered correct; it is, however, an idiom. The irregularities are: 1. The subject "miles" does not name the receiver of the action. 2. An intransitive verb is given passive voice form to which there is no corresponding active. This construction may be called the second idiomatic pas- sive construction. The sentence, ''The teacher sent for the student," has no corresponding regular passive. It does have, however, an idiomatic passive. We may say ''The student was sent for." This may be called the third idiomatic passive construction. The irregularities are: 1. An intransitive verb is given passive voice form. 2. The passive has no corresponding active. 3. An inseparable adverb is used to give a transitive mean- ing to the passive form. EXERCISE 53 Rewrite the following sentences changing the verbs to the passive voice. Do not change the tense. Explain the idiomatic passives. 1. We saw the mountains in the distance. 2. The teacher raised the American flag. 3. We told our friends of our arrival. 4. The guide knew the way across the mountains. 5. The boy broke the window\ 6. James entered the house. 7. Miss Jones teaches German. 8. Miss Jones taught us German. 9. John wrote this composition. 10. WilHam Penn founded Philadelphia. 11. The student laid the book on the desk. 12. The wind blew many trees down. 13. The students gave the teacher a present. 14. The horse drew the wagon. INFLECTION OF VERBS 201 15. The dog bit the cat. 16. We saw many birds this morning. 17. Time conquers all. 18. President Wilson appointed Dr. Van Dyke Minister to Holland. 19. He named his dog Trix. 20. Father gave me a new hat. 21. The child ate bread and miilk. 22. We call the undue exercise of authority tyranny. 23. He told me the story of Jack and the Beanstalk. 24. They elected John president of the class. 25. W^e laughed at the teacher. 26. They sent for the doctor. 27. We walked twenty miles yesterday. 28. The man fell fifty feet. 29. They stand the chairs in a row against the wall. 30. The man believes everything you say. Write the following sentences so that the intransitive verbs will be in the present perfect tense and the transitive verbs will be in the passive voice, same tense as the active 1. Mr. Smith bids fifty dollars for the table. 2. The teacher bids us good morning. 3. The leaves begin to fall. 4. The dog bites the cat. 5. The wind blows furiously, 6. John breaks the window. 7. Henry buys a pencil. 8. The cat catches a mouse. 9. I choose this book. 10. I do the work easily. 11. The child draws a picture in his book. 12. The kittens drink the milk. 13. The man drives the horse. 14. The boys eat their dinner. 15. The cold freezes the orange trees. 16. The father forsakes his child. 17. The birds fly southward. 18. He flees at the sight of the accident. 19. The apple falls from the tree. 20. lie gives me a book. 202 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 21. John goes to town. 22. Flowers grow by the cottage. 23. The dog hides the bone. 24. John lends his knife to me. 25. The book lies on the table. 26. William mows the grass in the meadow. 27. The teacher rings the bell. 28. James rides the pony. 29. The horse runs away. 30. The river rises. 31. The wind shakes the trees. 32. The sun shines. 33. This man shoes my horse. 34. Mary shows me the book. 35. The vessel sinks. 36. She sings sweetly. 37. We sit with our friends. 38. Savages slay their prisoners. 39. He speaks well. 40. The tiger springs on the man. 41. The boy strikes the ball. 42. The man swears that it is true. 43. The boy swims to the shore. 44. He takes the book. 45. He throws the ball to first base. 46. The philosopher thinks much. 47. He wears a brown hat. 48. The birds awake early. 49. Silas weaves carpet. 50. He wins the prize. 51. He writes a good story. LESSON 54 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES We have learned that a verb which is used as the predicate of a sentence must agree with its subject in number and person. Because predicate verbs are so limited by their subjects, they are said to be finite. INFLECTION OF VERBS 203 There are two classes of words, which are forms of the verb, that do not have all the limitations of agreement of the finite forms. One class, we call the infinitive', the other, the participle. THE INFINITIVE The form of the verb which is not limited by its subject in number and person and names an action or state without assert- ing it of the subject^ is called the infinitive for7n of the verb. The infinitive form of the verb is frequently used without a subject. A verb has three infinitive forms; the present infinitive of the verb "see'^ is '' to see; " the perfect infinitive, " to have seen; " and the infinitive in "ing" also called the gerund, *' seeing. " The gerund is used as a noun only. Transitive verbs have infinitive forms in the passive voice ; the present, *'to be seen;'* perfect ^'to have been seen." The gerund has two forms in each voice, the present, and the perfect. Present Perfect Active voice seeing having seen Passive voice being seen having been seen In old English, *'to" was used before the present infinitive with a real prepositional value, meaning "for the purpose of," ''in order to;" as, *'Breadisgood to eat." At the present, *'to" is not a part of the infinitive; but we frequently use it as a sign of the infinitive to point out that the word following is an infinitive. The sign, however, is omitted BO frequently that we must learn to recognize the infinitive by its use. "To" is frequently omitted when the infinitive follows may, can, must, might, w^ould, could, should, bid, feel, hear, need, dare, help, please, observe, make, see and a few other verbs; as, I may go; He might go; He dared not leave; Please read to me. Although the infinitive may be used in the sentence as 204 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH some of the parts of speech, the infinitive is not considered a part of speech. USES OF THE INFINITIVE The infinitive may have the following uses of the noun: 1. As the subject of a sentence; as, To teach lazy pupils is a difficult task. 2. As an object complement; as, He tries to learn. 3. As a subjective complement; as, To labor is to pray. 4. As an objective complement; as, The teacher com- pelled the student to study. 5. As an appositive; as. The opportunity, to attend school, is not enjoyed by all. An expression used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun by giving another name for the same thing, is an appositive. 6. As the object of a preposition; as, I have no choice but to go. The infinitive with the preposition ''to " used as a noun, is called the infinitive phrase. The best writers do not place an adverb between *'to" and the infinitive; as, ''He promised to earnestly try to do better. " *' He promised to try earnestly to do better " is correct. The infinitive with its subject may be used as the subject of a sentence introduced by "for; '^ as, "For him to do so is not right. " This use of the infinitive is really an idiom of our language. The infinitive may be used as an adjective; as, "The at- tempt to cheat failed;" "I have a book to sell;'^ "He has work to do.'' The infinitive may be used as an adverb. There are two classes of adverbial infinitives; the infinitive of purpose; and the complementary infinitive. The infinitive of purpose is equivalent to the subjimctive clause of purpose; as, "He studies to succeed" means "He stud- ies that he may succeed. " INFLECTION OF VERBS 205 The complementary infinitive is used as a part of the vert); as, I am compelled to study. We must be particularly careful when the complementary infinitive is used with the so-called potential forms. *'I can see " is equivalent to *' I am able to see. '^ '' I could see " means "I was able to see." In each sentence "see'' is an infinitive. When *'may" suggests mere possibility; as, I may go, (I am not sure), it is an auxiliary. When ''may" expresses permission; as, '^ Father says I may go" (Father says I am per- mitted to go), it is used as a separate verb and ''go" is an in- finitive. May, might, would, and should may be used as auxiliaries or as separate verbs with the complementary infinitive. "Will" may be used as a part of the future tense of a verb or as a verb expressing determination in the present; as, "I will see" meaning " I am determined to see. " Whatever mode form the verb may have, in uses similar to the ones just given, we have the complementary infinitive. The infinitive may be used independently; as, "To tell the truth, John does not stud^^" The verb nature of the infinitive is seen in its derivation (it is a form of the verb) and in the fact, that it may be modified by any adverb; as, " To study diligently is necessary for success. " The verb nature is also seen in the fact, that the infinitive form of a transitive verb takes an object complement; as, "To study Greek is difficult." The noun, adjective, and adverb nature of the infinitive is seen in its use. EXERCISE 54 In the following sentences, name and classify the infinitives and tell how each is used. 1. Mother gave us a book to read. 2. I should like to ride the horse. 3. We have plenty of coal to burn. 4. The girl tried to sing. 206 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 5. To see is to believe. 6. To tell the truth, he is lazy. 7. The sign, boats to let, was blown down. 8. The farmer has hay to sell. 9. Give me a picture to admire. 10. The apples are hard to sell. 11. He appears to be ill. 12. Try to succeed. 13. He is ready to run. 14. I hope to hear from you. 15. They were delighted to see me. 16. The judge began to charge the jury. 17. We could not hear you talk. 18. I cannot make the top spin. 19. I dare do it. 20. Let him go. 21. Both horses seemed to fall at the same time. 22. Bid him take the money. 23. I felt something touch me. 24. Let him die. 25. You must study diligently to succeed. 26. Let him go. 27. You must go to-day. 28. Help me lift this box. 29. I felt the branch touch my cheek. 30. Tell her to come to class. 31.1 like to watch the birds. 32. We heard you sing. 33. We saw the men pass down the street. 34. He sprang to defend the child. 35. She believes him to be the thief. 36. It is not easy to understand this. 37. Once to every man and nation comes the moment to decide. 38. I tried to reach the station on time. 39. Mary began to sing a song. 40. We have plenty of coal to burn. 41. Father gave us a book to read. 42. Mr. Smith has a house to sell. 43. I am grieved to see this. 44. I am ready to go. 45. This is easy to do. INFLECTION OF VERBS 207 4G. We came to see you. 47. I should like a book to read. 48. You ought to be careful. 49. John should be careful. 50. I enjoy reading this book. 51. Walking in the open air is heathful exercise. 52. We spend much money in building ships. 53. Seeing is nob always beheving. 54. We enjoy travelling by rail. 55. Reading good books promotes knowledge. 56. Running a locomotive is dangerous work. 57. Avoid eating too fast. 58. We grow tired of doing nothing. 59. Young persons are corrupted by reading bad books. 60. Walking rapidly is good exercise. LESSON 55 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued USES OF THE PRESENT AND THE PERFECT INFINITIVES Care should be had in using the present and the perfect infinitive. The present infinitive should be used to denote action which is incomplete at the time denoted by the principal verb; as, ''I hope to see him.'' The perfect infinitive should be used to denote action w^hich is completed at the time denoted by the principal verb; as, *'I am glad to have seen him." The verb *'ought" and the verbs ''must/' ''need," and '' should, " when used in the sense of *' ought, " have no change of form to denote past time. We denote present time with these verbs by using the present infinitive; as, ''You ought to study. " Past time is denoted by using the perfect infinitive; as, "He ought to have studied. " We have a similar use of the present and the past infinitive after "could" and "might" in some of their meanings; as, " I could stud3^ " "I could have studied. " Punctuation.— The infinitive phrase, when used independ- ently, when used as an appositive, or when out of its natural 208 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH position, should be marked off by the comma; as, *'To speak plainly, I do not believe you;" ''The task, to teach diligent students, is delightful." EXERCISE 55 In each of the following sentences, use either the present or the perfect infinitive, and explain why. 1. He feels himself (to be, to have been) in the way. 2. I should like (to go, to have gone) yesterday. 3. I should have hked (to go, to have gone) yesterday. 4. I intended (to go, to have gone) yesterday. 5. I meant (to write, to have written) yesterday. 6. He was supposed (to build, to have built) the house. 7. Your father is pleased (to hear, to have heard) of your success. 8. Will you be willing (to go, to have gone)? 9. Would he have been willing (to go, to have gone)? 10. It was your duty (to prevent, to have prevented) this. 11. It would have been impossible (to escape, to have escaped) the punishment. 12. It was more difficult than I thought it would (be, have been). 13. When I reached home, I intended (to lie, to have lain) down. 14. He did no more than it was his duty (to do, to have done) . 15. He expected (to meet, to have met) you to-morrow. 16. We expected (to win, to have won) the game. 17. It would have pleased me (to see, to have seen) you. 18. It would have been wiser (to go, to have gone). 19. I should like (to have heard, to hear) from you. 20. The house was (to be, to have been) sold. Write at least five sentences illustrating each of the different uses of the infinitive in the sentence. INFLECTION OF VERBS 209 LESSON 56 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued THE PARTICIPLE The form of the verl) which is used as an adjective is called the participle; as, Working all day, I finished in time. Every verb has three participles; the present participle of the verb *'see" is, ''seeing;" the past participle, "seen;" the perfect participle ''having seen." Transitive verbs have participles in the passive voice also; the present '' being seen; " the past, '' seen; " the perfect, ''having been seen." As the definition suggests, the uses of the participle in the sentence are limited to those of the adjective: These uses are as follows: 1. Subjective complement; as, We sat imtching the game. 2. Objective complement; as, We saw the horse running away. 3. Common use of the adjective; as, Having worked so hard, he is entitled to a vacation. A participle with its assumed subject used independently is called the nominative absolute construction; as, The child being ill, they sent for the doctor. The assumed subject is that about which an infinitive or a participle assumes its action, being or condition. The participle may also be used independently without its assumed subject; as, considering his advantages, he is well educated. To distinguish this construction from the nominative absolute, we call it the independent participial phrase. The participle may be used as an adjective more loosely attached to the noun than ordinarily; as. The enemy, beaten, fled. We see the verb nature of the participle in its derivation and in the fact, that it may be modified with an adverb; as, 210 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Running rapidly down the steps, the child fell. The adjective nature of the participle is seen in its uses. Punctuation.— When the participle is used independently or when it is used as an adjective modifier, the participle with the words belonging to it, should be set off by the comma unless restrictive in meaning; as, *'The man being ill, they sent for the doctor;'^ *'The spinal cord, proceeding from the brain, extends downward through the back bone. " EXERCISE 56 In the following sentences, name and classify the participles and tell how each is used. 1. Having told the story, Mr. Jones departed. 2. He saw a dog eating a bone. 3. He kept us waiting an hour. 4. Having failed to prove his innocence, he was sent to jail. 5. My health permitting, I shall go. 6. Vessels carrying lumber are constantly arriving. 7. Lifting the injured man, John carried him into the house. 8. The gun being fired, they ran away. 9. Happiness, shared, is perfect. 10. The fleet, shattered and disabled, returned to Spain. 11. Our boats being lost, we were in danger of drowning. 12. Edward dying without heirs, Harold was crowned. 13. Attempting to cross the street, the boy was hurt. 14. The sky being overcast, the fishing was excellent. 15. The philosopher sat buried in thought. 16. We saw the train moving away. 17. The workman, spent with fatigue, fell into a deep sleep. 18. Driven by the gale, the vessel was dashed against the rocks. 19. Having led his soldiers over the Alps, Hannibal entered Italy. 20. I saw the man entering the house. 21. I saw the flowers dancing in the breeze. 22. Standing in the doorway, we saw the parade. 23. War having been declared, the fleet departed. 24. The book, having been found, was given to the owner. 25. Having seen the play, we returned home. 26. Having mended the machine, we droA^e on. 27. The machine having been mended, we drove on. INFLECTION OF VERBS • 211 28. Their captain dying, the soldiers dispersed. 29. Their captain being killed, the soldiers dispersed. 30. This work having been done, the men went home. 31. The child having died, the doctor went home. 32. Having finished my lesson, I shall go with you. 33. Dropping the bone, the dog ran home. 34. The rope tripping the man, he fell. 35. I saw him being hurt. Write at least five sentences, illustrating each of the dif- ferent uses of the participle in the sentence. LESSON 57 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued VERBAL NOUNS There are three classes of words formed from verbs by the suffixing of "ing. " 1. The participle. In the sentence, ''We found John studying English," '' studying '^ is used as an adjective; but it has the verb nature in its derivation and in its being followed with a direct object English. '' Studying '^ is a participle. 2. The gerund. In the sentence, ''Studying English in- creases one's chances for promotion, " "studying'' is used as a noun; it also partakes of the nature of a verb in derivation and in being followed with a direct object English. "Studying" is a gerund, or the infinitive in "ing. " A noun or a pronoun used before a gerund to denote the subject of the action should be in the possessive case; as, "John's studying English pleased his father. " 3. The abstract verbal noun. In the sentence, "A diligent studying of the classics improves one's style," "studying" is a noun; but it has no verbal character. "Studying" is modified by an adjective, and is followed by a prepositional phrase instead of by a direct object. Studying is an abstract verbal noun. 212 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH If the word ending in ''ing" is modified by some adjec- tive (generally the), it is an abstract verbal noun and cannot have a direct object. If the abstract verbal noun is followed by a prepositional phrase introduced by *'of," it should be modified by some adjective. An abstract verbal noun may be preceded by a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case; as, ''John's diligent studying of the classics improved his style." EXERCISE 57 Tell which form in each of the following sentences is cor- rect and give the reason. 1. Pardon (my, me) asking if you like the book. 2. The (king, king 's) persisting in such plans was the height of folly. 3. (You, your) coming to our house is always a pleasure. 4. (My, me) speaking to the boy pleased his father. 5. (Him, his) going back so soon was a mistake. 6. Trust to (us, our) being on time. 7. We saw the (man, man's) riding the horse. 8. We saw the (woman, woman's) sitting alone. 9. There is no doubt of (his, him) being guilty. 10. We found (him, his) studying his lesson. 11. (Him, his) getting a position is doubtful. 12. (Him, his) playing ball attracted much attention. 13. We did not know of (his, him) going away. 14. The (robber, robber's) breaking into the house woke me. 15. (You, your) writing the letter was appreciated. 16. (Him, his), being elected caused great excitement. 17. (Him, his) being ill caused the delay. 18. We remember (you, your) being here last year. 19. There is no doubt of (him, his) being an able man. 20. The trouble ended with the (student, student's) being expelled. 21. His parents are opposed to (him, his) going with us. 22. The (man, man's) winning the race is my brother. 23. The (man, man's) winning the race delighted me. 24. (We, our) missing the train was caused by you. 25. (You, your) being so young was the cause of (you, your) not being appointed. INFLECTION OF VERBS 213 LESSON 58 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued Conjugation of the Verb "Be" indicative mode Principal parts: Pres., be or am; Past, was; Perf. Part., been. Present Tense Singular Plural I am We are You are You are He is They are Past Tense 1 was We were You were You were He was They were Future Tense (Indicating futurity) 1 shall be We shall be You will be You will be He will be They will be Future Tense (Indicating promise, determination, etc.) I will be We will be You shall be You shall be He shall be They shall be Present Perfect Tense I have been We have been You have been You have been He has been They have been 214 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Past Perfect Tense Singular Plural I had been We had been You had been You had been He had been They had been Future Perfect Tense I shall have been You will have been He will have been We shall have been You will have been Thev will have been SUBJUNCTIVE MODE Present Tense If, though, If, though, If, though, If, though. If, though. If, though. etc., I be etc., you be etc., he be etc., we be etc., you be If, though. If, though. If, though, etc., they be Past Tense etc., I were etc., you were etc., he were If, though. If, though, If, though. etc., we were etc., you were etc., they were Future Tense If, though, etc., I should be If, though. If, though, etc., you should be If, though. If, though, etc., he should be If, though. Present Perfect Tense etc., we should be etc., you should be etc., they should be etc., I have been etc., you have If, though. If, though, been If, though, etc., he have been If, though, If, though, etc., we have been etc., you have been If, though, etc., they have been INFLECTION OF VERBS 215 Past Perfect Tense Singular Plural If, though, etc., I had been If, though, etc., we had been If, though, etc., you had been If, though, etc., you had been If, though, etc., he had been If, though, etc., they had been Future Perfect Tense If, though, etc., I should have been If, though, etc., you should have been If, though, etc., he should have been If, though, etc., we should have been If, though, etc., you should have been If, though, etc., they should have been IMPERATIVE MODE Thou or you be Infinitives Present Perfect To be To have been Being Having been Participles Present Past Perfect Being Been Having been Conjugation of the Verb ''See" Active Voice indicative mode Present Tense Singular Plural I see We see You see You see He sees They see 216 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Past Tense Singular Plural I saw We saw You saw You saw He saw Future Tense They saw (Indicating futurity) I shall see We shall see You will see You will see He will see They will see Future Tense (Indicating promise, determination, etc.) I will see You shall see He shall see We will see You shall see They shall see Present Perfect Tense I have seen You have seen He has seen We have seen You have seen They have seen Past Perfect Tense I had seen You had seen He had seen We had seen You had seen They had seen Future Perfect Tense I shall have seen You will have seen He will have seen We shall have seen You will have seen They will have seen INFLECTION OF VERBS 217 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE Present Tense Singular Plural If, though, etc., I see If, though, etc., we see If, tliough, etc., you see If, though, etc., you see If, though, etc., he see If, though, etc., they see Past Tense If, though, etc., I saw If, though, etc., we saw If, though, etc., you saw If, though, etc., you saw If, though, etc., he saw If, though, etc., they saw Future Tense If, though, etc., I should see If, though, etc., we should see If, though, etc. you should If, though, etc., you should see see If, though, etc., he should If, though, etc., they see should see Present Perfect Tense If, though, etc., I have seen If, though, etc., we have seen If, though, etc., you have If, though, etc., you have seen seen If, though, etc., he have . If, though, etc., they have seen seen Past Perfect Tense If, though, etc., I had seen If, though, etc., we had seen If, though, etc., you had If, though, etc., you had seen seen If, though, etc., he had seen If, though, etc., they had seen 218 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Future Perfect Tense Singular If, though, etc., I should have seen If, though, etc., you should have seen If, though, etc., he should have seen Plural If, though, etc., we should have seen If, though, etc., you should have seen If, though, etc., they should have seen IMPERATIVE MODE Thou or you see Infinitives Present Perfect To see To have seen Seeing Participles Having seen Present Past Perfect Seeing Seen Having seen Conjugation of the Verb ''See" Passive Voice indicative mode Principal parts: Pres., see; Past, saw; Perf. Part., seen. Present Tense . Singular I am seen You are seen He is seen Plural We are seen You are seen They are seen INFLECTION OF VERBS 219 Past Tense Singular Plural I was seen We were seen You were seen You were seen He was seen They were seen Future Tense (Indicating futurity) I shall be seen We shall be seen You will be seen You will be seen He will be seen They will be seen Future Tense (Indicating promise, determination, etc.) I will be seen We will be seen You shall be seen You shall be seen He shall be seen They shall be seen Present Perfect Tense I have been seen We have been seen You have been seen You have been seen He has been seen They have been seen Past Perfect Tense I had been seen We had been seen You had been seen You had been seen He had been seen They had been seen Future Perfect Tense I shall have been seen We shall have been seen You will have been seen You will have been seen He will have been seen They will have been seen (Indicating promise, determination, etc.) 220 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Singular If I be seen If you be seen If he be seen If I were seen If you were seen If he were seen If I should be seen If you should be seen If he should be seen SUBJUNCTIVE MODE Present Tense Plural If we be seen If you be seen If they be seen Past Tense If we were seen If you were seen If they were seen Future Tense If we should be seen If you should be seen If they should be seen Present Perfect Tense If I have been seen If you have been seen If he have been seen If we have been seen If you have been seen If they have been seen Past Perfect Tense If I had been seen [f you had been seen If he had been seen If we had been seen If you had been seen If they had been seen Future Perfect Tense If I should have been seen If you should have been seen If he should have been seen If we should have been seen If you should have been sch'u If they should have been seen INFLECTION OF VERBS "221 IMPERATIVE MODE Thou or you be seen Infiriitives Present Perfect To be seen To have been seen Being seen Participles Having been seen Present Past Perfect Being seen Seen Having ])een seen THE PROGRESSIVE CONJUGATION The verb forms that imply the continuance of the action are said to be in the progressive conjugation. The progressive form of the verb is obtained by using some form of the verb *'be, " as an auxiUary, followed by the present l)articiple of the principal verb; as, ''I am studying/' INDICATIVE MODE Present Tense Singular I am seeing You are seeing He is seeing I was seemg You were seeing He was seeing Past Tense Plural We are seeing You are seeing They are seeing We were seeing You were seeing They were seeing Future Tense (Indicating futurity) I shall be seeing You will be seeing He will be seeing We shall be seeing You will be seeing They will be seeing 222 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Future Tense (Indicating promise, determination, etc.) Singular Plural I will be seeing We will be seeing You shall be seeing You shall be seeing He shall be seeing They shall be seeing Present Perfect Tense I have been seeing We have been seeing You have been seeing You have been seeing He has been seeing They have been seeing Past Perfect Tense I had been seeing We had been seeing You had been seeing You had been seeing He had been seeing They had been seeing Future Perfect Tense I shall have been seeing We shall have been seeing You will have been seeing You will have been seeing He will have been seeing They will have been seeing SUBJUNCTIVE MODE Present Tense If, though, etc., I be seeing If, though, etc., we be seeing If, though, etc., you be If, though, etc., you be seeing seeing If, though, etc., he be If, though, etc., they be seeing seeing INFLECTION OF VERBS 223 Past Tense Singular Plural If, though, etc., I were If, though, etc., we were seeing seeing If, though, etc., you wore If, though, etc., you were seeing . seeing If, though, etc., he were If, though, etc., they were seeing seeing Future Tense If, though, etc., I should be If, though, etc., we should l;e seeing seeing If, though, etc., you should be If, though, etc., you should seeing be seeing If, though, etc., he should be If, though, etc., they should seeing be seemg Present Perfect Tense If, though, etc., I have been If, though, etc., we have been seeing seeing If, though, etc., you have If, though, etc., you have been seeing been seeing If, though, etc., he have If, though, etc., they have been seeing been seeing Past Perfect Tense If, though, etc., I had been If, though, etc., we had seeing been seeing If, though, etc., you had If, though, etc., you had been seeing been seeing If, though, etc., he had been If, though, etc., they had seeing been seeing 224 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Future Perfect Tense Singular Plural If, though, etc., I should have If, though, etc., we should been seemg have been seeing If, though, etc., you should If, though, etc., you should, have been seeing have been seeing If, though, etc., he should If, though, etc., they have been seeing should have been seeing THE PROGRESSIVE PASSIVE CONJUGATION The progressive passive is obtained by using the progressive forms of the verb "be" followed by the past participle of the principal verb; as, Present Tense Singular Plural I am being seen We are being seen You are being seen You are being seen He is being seen They are being seen EMPHATIC FORMS "Do" and "did" are sometimes used to express emphasis; as, "I do study," "I did study." INTERROGATIVE FORMS In asking questions, the subject of the verb is placed after the first auxiUary; as, "Will you study?" In the indicative mode, the emphatic forms are generally used in the present and past tenses in asking questions; as, "Did he study?" EXERCISE 58. A sufficient drill on the conjugations of verbs should be given to assure the teacher that tlie student is entirely familiar with the conjugations given in Lesson 58. INFLECTION OF VERBS 225 1. Give complete conjugation of the verb study. 2. Conjugate the verb know in the indicative mode, passive voice. 3. Conjugate the verb run in the progressive conjugation, active voice. LESSON 59 INFLECTION OF VERBS— Continued THE NOMINATIVE AND THE OBJECTIVE CASES We should be very careful to use the nominative and the objective forms of pronouns correctly. Study carefully the following : 1. Subjects of finite verbs and words used in the 7iom- inative absolute coiistruction, should have the nominative form; as, ''He is ill,'' "He being ill, they sent for the doctor. " 2. Objects of verbs and prepositions j and the subjects of infinitives f should have the objective form; as, "We saw him/' ''Give the book to we," *'We thought him to be the man." 3. Words in apposition are in the same case; as, *'It was the king, he who was beheaded," "1 saw John, him whom you know. " 4. A word that follows any formof the verb ''be" is in the sa7ne case as the subject of the verb; as, "It w^as he, " "I know it to be hv7i'^ (him agrees with it, the subject of the infinitive form of the verb), "The man is thought to be /ie, " (when the infinitive does not have a subject of its own, the word following it agrees with the subject of the finite verb). The compound personal pronouns have but two legitimate uses in the sentence. They may be used for emphasis; as, "He himself did the work;" they may be used reflexively ; as, "Re hurt himself.'' A pronoun is said to be used reflexively when it is the ob- ject of the verb and names the same person that is named b}^ the subject. 226 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH In the sentence, "He was beside himself ^'^ we have an idiomatic use of the personal pronoun. EXERCISE 59 Write the number of, and the correct word for, each of the foUowing sentences. I, ME, MYSELF 1. Nothing must come between you and . 2. May Mary and • — — go? 3. It could not have been • . 4. Did you think it was ■ ? 5. Is she taller than ? 6. He and ■ — • are going home. 7. They saw John and ■ at the game. 8. John and • • walked to school together. 9. The walk gave pleasure to both John and ■ •. 10. This composition was written by ■ . 11. May Henry and • • go to the concert? 12. Let Henry and • ■ go to the concert. 13. It was ■ whom you saw. 14. If you were ■ -y would you go? 15. Was it) • whom you saw? 16. You study more diligently than . 17. All have gone except you and . 18. He said that you and • should come to see him. 19. He shook hands with the delegates ■ • among the rest. 20. Father gave sister and tickets. 21. She is a better student than . 22. You can do that as well as . 23. Father punished brother and ■ . 24. Get a book for James and ■ — ■ — ■. 25. You are older than either William or . 26. She invited John and • . 27. James and ■ are in the same class. 28. The teacher told you and ■ • to bring books. 29. This is between you and 30. The tickets are for you and 31. I • did the work. 32. I hurt . INFLECTION OF VERBS 227 WE, US, OURSELVES 1. No one expected ■ • to win the game. 2. • girls are happy o 3. He would not beheve boys. 4. They and are going to the game. 6. They are better players than because they practice more. 6. He was disappointed as well as . 7. The teacher punished him as well as . 8. It was whom you saw. 9. ■ — should do our duty at all times. 10. It may have been ■ whom he wanted. 11. He knew that it was — . 12. He knew it to be • . 13. Father and will go with you. 14. He will not let sit together. 15. Give the candy to • • girlso 16. Will you give that to ? 17. Did you see at the theatre? 18. Were you talking to ? 19. They did as well as . 20. We • can do that. 21. We injured • on the journey. 22. The Germans are better plodders than — c 23. It couldn 't have been ■ . 24. Is it ■ ■ you wish to see? 25. It was ■ — • — who called to see you. SHE, HER, HERSELF 1. Is that- ? 2. Yes, that is ■ — . 3. If I were • , I would attend school. 4. I know that it was • — ■ — . 5. I knew it to be ^ . 6. and I are going. 7. He plays the piano as well as — . 8. lb might have been — — ■ — — ■. 9. Give the flowers to and me. 10. Mary blamed • ■ for the accident . 11. Girls like always succeed. 228 LESSONS AND EXEECISES IN ENGLISH 12. You are as tall as 13. This is for you and — . 14. John and— -are in the play. 15. You are as old as- . 16. It was ■ -who was hurt in the accident. 17. • and the children have gone to the park. 18. This letter is from ■ . 19. We did not expect • • this evening. 20. You should not criticize ■ so severely. HE, HIM, HIMSELF 1. Let — : — • and me do the work. 2. I can write as well as . 3. It is not ■ — — whom I met, 4. • — " and his brother are coming to-morrow. 5. I think is the man. 6. I beUeve — to be the man. 7. It cannot be •. g^ . and I are classmates. 9. All had gone except ■ . 10. They wrote to both and me. 11. He ■ was ignorant of the disaster. 12. has no one but — — ■ — — to blame. 13. We think — • will be elected. 14. We know the man to have been • . 15. His mother writes to ■ every week. 16. Where is — ■ ■ employed. 17. There is an agreement between ■ — ■ and his employers. 18. My friend and are in business together. 19. The police are searching for • . 20. They have found . THEY, THEM, THEMSELVES 1 . -; and their friends have gone fishing. 2. We shall soon be with • ■. 3. • , as well as we, will be glad. 4. I have known for a long time. 5. I know — to be honest. 6. I think — ■ — ■ ■ are honest. 7. It was — ■- who were embarrassed. 8. that do wrong should bo punished. INFLECTION OF VERBS 229 9. that do wrono; we must punish. 10. It will not be easy for — — - to change their manner of living. 11. • who are honest will be rewarded. 12. — • and their teacher took a holiday. 13. The teacher gave ■ — — ■ some good advice. 14. - — • should be ashamed of . 15. The boys you speak of could not have been . WHO, WHOM, WHOEVER, WHOMEVER 1. How can we tell — is honest? 2. How can we tell — — - — ■ — to trust? 3. • • did you call on? 4.. ■ ■ do you think will go? 5. do you think they w^ill take? 6. Give the book to — — does the best work. 7. • do you think I saw? 8. A man • ■ they say is poor was injured. 9. That is for- ? 10. I do not know • you mean. 11. He takes after • ? 12. We do not know • it could have been. 13. • he selects we shall be satisfied. 14. Do you know ■ took the money? 15. To — ■ did he refer? 16. ■ ■ do you think he looks like? 17. Do you know — will be elected? 18. — • shall we elect? 19. For did he vote? 20. To • should the letter be sent? 21. • did he recommend? 22. • are the applicants? 23. ■ • was appointed? 24. This is my friend ■ — I want you to meet. 25. He has two brothers, with one of ■ I am acquainted 26. You have some friends — — • I know. 27. ■ • do you think was present? 28. ■ should I meet but my old friend. 29. I refer to my old friend of — ■ I often speak. 30. — did he choose? 31. We will refer it to you may choose. 230 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH S2. 83. 84. 35„ 36. 37. ■ the Court favors is safe. -— — — ■ — ■ did 3^ou suppose it to be? — ■ — ■ • did you suppose it was? He is a man — — — — I respect. The child I know a man I know loves animals. ■ I think will do the work. 38. We like those persons ■ we find interested in us. 39. — — - do men say that I am. 40. James is a boy — 41. That is the man 42. 43. 44. 45. I believe will succeed. I was speaking about. — have we here? W\ . — — — . — knew her spoke highly of her. This is our friend - — we saw in New York. — ■ — ■ — — is that man? LESSON 60 INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES NUMBER Any adjective denoting number should agree in number with the noun it modifies; as, ''He ordered six barrels of sugar" not *'He ordered six barrel of sugar. " "A'* and ''an'^ are used with singular nouns only. A plural adjective is sometimes used with a singular noun to form a compound word; as, *'A three-foot stick." "This" and ''that" have the plurals ''these" and "those." "These" and "those" are frequently misused. Incorrect: I do not like those kind of pens. Correct: I do not like that kind of pens. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES Adjectives change their form (have an inflection) to denote different degrees of quahty, quantity, or number. The inflection of the adjective to denote different degrees of quality, quantity, or nuinher is called comparison. The form of the adjective that simply names the quality, INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES 231 quantity, or numl^er is called the positive degree ; as, "The man is strong.'^ That form of the adjective which denotes that, of two things, one has a certain quahty in a higher degree than the other, is called the comparative degree; as, ''The man is stronger than I." The form of the adjective which denotes that, of more than two things, one has a certain quality in a greater degree than the others, is called the superlative degree oi the adjective; as, "This man is the strongest of the three. " HOW THE DEGREES ARE FORMED To form the comparative of adjectives of one syllable, we suffix "er" to the positive; as, stronger. To form the superlative of adjectives of one syllable, we suffix "est'* to the positive; as, strongest. To adjectives of two syllables, we suffix "er" and "est," when the words thus formed are euphonious and easily pro- nounced; as, merry, merrier, merriest; but not awful, awfuler, awfulest. When the word formed by using "er'* and "est" is not euphonious, we use the adverbs "more" and "most;" as, more awful, most awful. When the adjective ends in "e, " the "e" is dropped be- fore the ending is suffixed; as, wise, wiser, wisest. When the adjective ends in "y " preceded by a consonant, the "y" is changed to "i" before the ending is suffixed; as, merry, merrier, merriest. Most adjectives ending in a single consonant preceded by a single short vowel, double the final vowel before the ending is suffixed; as, sad, sadder, saddest. To form the comparative and superlative of adjectives of more than two syllables, we use the adverbs more and most; as, beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. 232 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH (Strictly speaking this use of ''more" and ''most" is not an inflection.) We may express a decreasing degree of the quality by using less and least instead of more and most; as, beautiful, less beautiful, least beautiful. There are adjectives which express qualities that do not exist in different degrees; as, perfect, straight, round, square, golden, annual; such adjectives do not admit of comparison. Some adjectives, however, that do not admit of com- parison are made to express different degrees of comparison, by being modified by adverbs which are compared; as, more nearly perfect, most nearly perfect. Some adjectives are irregular in comparison; they form their degrees of comparison by the use of different words. Study the following: Positive bad evil ill far fore good well hind late little many much nigh Comparative worse farther former better hinder r later \ latter less more nigher Superlative worst farthest foremost first best hindermost hindmost latest last least most nighest next INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES 233 Positive old top under Comparative r older \ elder Superlative / oldest [ eldest topmost undermost In the following adjectives the positive form is an adverb: (aft) (forth) (in) (out) (up) after further inner r outer \ utter upper EXERCISE 60 aftermost / furthest \ furthermost j inmost \ innermost outmost uttermost utmost / uppermost \ upmost Compare such of the following adjectives as admit of com- parison and explain the method of formation. rich this dead honorable friendly careful strict large daily great open happy giddy sweet empty clean calm distant slender shallow fragrant cheerful agreeable independent wonderful harmless glossy systematic near general excited square weary next little skilful circular after under inner top Roman costly bad thoughtless busy elder ill 234 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH wrong vertical melancholy white endless many perfect last glorious disgusting full sudden merry extreme African clear black natural brazen farther LESSON 61 clean INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES— Continued THE USES OF THE COMPARATIVE AND THE SUPERLATIVE Any sentence that expresses a comparison may be divided into two parts: One part names the thing we are comparing with something else and is called the first term of comparison ; the other part names the something with which we compare the thing named in the first term and is called the second terjji of comparison; as, John (first term) is taller than any other boy I know (second term). If the adjective is in the comparative degree, the second term should not include^ in its meaning, the first term; as, ''John is taller than any other boy I know." If we say, ''John is stronger than any man I ever saw," we say that John is stronger than John, which is absurd. "John is stronger than any other man I ever saw" is correct. When ''than" accompanies the comparative, the words, "any" and "all," should be followed by "other." If the adjective is in the superlative degree, the second term should include, in its meaning, the first term; as, "John is the tallest of all the boys I know." Objects belonging to classes entirely dissimilar should not be compared; as, "There is no occupation more honorable than SL farmer. " In the sentence just given, we compare an occupa- tion and a man. "There is no occupation more honorable than that of a farmer, " is correct. INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES 235 When two things or two sets of things are compared, the comparative degree of the adjective should be used. Double comparatives and superlatives should not be used; as, "A more healthier location cannot be found," "We took the most pleasantest route." EXERCISE 61 Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give your reasons. 1. It has the largest circulation of any daily paper in the state. 2. This lesson is, of all others, the most important. 3. This book is, of all others, the one I like best. 4. This hat of mine I like better than any hat I have. 5. He of all other men ought to be the last to stop work. 6. Solomon was wiser than all men. 7. John has the best disposition of any boy I know. 8. New York is wealthier than any city in the United States. 9. New York is the wealthiest of any city in the United States. 10. Texas is larger than any state in the Union. 11. He was the wisest of all his brothers. 12. Washington was greater than any American statesman. 13. No American statesman was so great as Washington. 14. James w^as the tallest of his playmates. 15. This color is more preferable. 16. Washington is more beloved than any man that ever lived. 17. He was the most active of his companions. 18. This behef is becoming more universal. 19. He was of all others the most honorable. 20. John is the brightest of all his classmates. 21. Nothing pleases me so much as good fishing. 22. The most principal thing was overlooked. 23. This hne is straighter than that one. 24. Grant was the most distinguished of any of his generals. 25. Grant was more distinguished than any of his other generals. 26. Which was the greatest man, Washington or Lincoln? 27. London is the largest of the two cities. 28. Shakespeare is greater than any dramatist that ever lived. 29. This is more prettier than that. 236 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 30. Who is the strongest, you or I? 31. This result, of all others, is most to be dreaded. 32. Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. 33. Which of these two books is the best? 34. Draw that line straighter. 35. All the metals are less useful than iron. 36. These kind of persons are never satisfied. 37. The room is twenty foot square. 38. The farmer exchanged five barrel of potatoes for fifty pound of sugar. 39. These sort of expressions should be avoided. 40. We were traveling at the rate of forty mile an hour. 41. Remove this ashes and put away that tongs. 42. I like those kind of peaches. 43. I dislike these sort of apples. 44. Why should we be annoyed by these sort of men? 45. I admire those sort of people. LESSON 62 INFLECTION OF ADVERBS Some adverbs, like adjectives, can be compared. Some adverbs are compared by suffixing the endiags ''er" and ''est;" as, soon, sooner, soonest; most adverbs, however, are compared by using with them ''more" and "most; "as, slowly, more slowly, most slowly. The following adverbs are irregular in their comparison. Positive Comparative Superlative badly worse worst far farther farthest forth further furthest ill worse worst little less least much more most nigh nigher nighest, next well better best DIFFERENT USES OF SOME PARTS OF SPEECH 23: EXERCISE 62 Compare such of the following adverbs as admit of comparison : soon far brightly little here eagerly never often especially merrily badly directlv whenever exactly fully seldom last frequently worst loud sweetly hard early nearly long really comfortably LESSON 63 DIFFERENT USES OF SOME OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH NOUNS Nouns may be used in the following constructions : 1. As subject of a verb. Example. — Ivanhoe is one of my favorite books. 2. As subjective complement. Example. — Washington was a punctual man. 3. As object complement. Example. — They saw the president. 4. As objective complement. Example. — They elected Smith ca'ptain. 5. Independently. Ex^vMPLE. — Johuy where is your book? 6. As the principal term in a prepositional phrase. Example. — The boy fell into the water. 7. As an appositive. Example. — John, the blacksmith, was injured. 238 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Appositives with the words belonging to them are set off by the comma, unless (1) they are pronomis, or (2) essential modifiers not compound. Example. — I myself did the work (pronoun). His brother James has arrived (essential modifier) . 8. As an adverbial modifier. Example. — He went ho7ne. 9. As an indirect object. Example. — Congress gave Captain Scott a medal. 10. As a possessive. Example.— Jo/in' s arm was broken. PRONOUNS Pronouns may have the following uses: 1. As subject of a verb. Example. — He has gone home. 2. As subjective complement. Example. — It was he. 3. As object complement. Example. — We saw hvm. 4. As the principal term in a prepositional phrase. Example. — We gave the book to him. 5. As an appositive. Example. — It was Joseph, he whom Pharaoh made prhne- minister. 6. As an indirect object. Example. — They gave him a knife. 7. As a possessive. Example. — His hat is lost. adverbs Adverbs may modify: 1. Verbs; as, He ran rapidly. 2. Participles; as, Turning the corner suddenly, we came upon a group of children. DEPENDENT CLAUSES 239 3. Infinitives; as, To act honorably was his desire. 4. Adjectives; as, She was exceedingly kind. 5. Adverbs; as, John studied very dihgently. 6. Preposition; as, The barn stands ji/.si behind the house. 7. Phrases; as, The man was almost out of sight. 8. Clauses; as, He does exactly as he pleases. 9. Conjunctions; as. He goes, just because he must. EXERCISE 63 Write at least two original sentences, illustrating each of the uses of the noun, pronoun and adverb. LESSON 64 DEPENDENT CLAUSES THE NOUN CLAUSE A clause that is used as a noun, is a noun clause. A noun clause may be used in the following difierent ways: 1. As subject. That we should study diligently is not disputed. 2. As object complement. We believe that we should study diligently. 3. As subjective complement. Our belief is, that we should study diligently. 4. In apposition with the subject '' it. " It is accepted that we shoidd study diligently. 5. After a preposition. AVe believed everything he said except that we should not study. 6. In apposition. The belief, that we should study diligently, is accepted by all. 7. As the assumed subject of a participle. That we should study diligently having been accepted, let us act accordingh'. 240 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH PUNCTUATION OF NOUN CLAUSES Rule 1. — If a noun clause is used as a direct quotation, it is set off by the comma, unless the words preceding the quo- tation are such as can be followed only by a direct quotation, under which condition, the quotation is preceded by the colon. Example 1. — Lawrence said, ^' Don't give up the ship." 2. The words of Lawrence were: *' Don't give up the ship. " Rule 2. — A noun clause used as subjective complement is set off by the comma. Example 1. — Our belief is, that we should stud^^ diligently. Rule 3. — A noun clause used as an appositive is set off by the comma, unless the clause is in apposition with the subject '4t." Example 1. — The fact, that we should study diligently, is generally accepted. 2. It is believed that we should study diligently. EXERCISE 64 Punctuate the following sentences and tell how the noun clauses are used. L When letters were first used is not known 2. Tweed's defiant question was what are you going to do about it 3. The question ever asked and never answered is where and how am I to exist in the hereafter 4. The myth concerning Achilles is that he was invulnerable in every part except the heel 5. This we know that our future depends on our present 6. Hamlet's exclamation was what a piece of work is man 7. We believe that the first printing-press in America was set up in Mexico in 1536 8. A man's chief objection to a woman is that she has no respect for the newspaper 9. Froude said that mistakes were often the best teachers 10. Antony's opening sentence was if you have tears to shed prepare to shed them now DEPENDENT CLAUSES 241 11. A part of Plato's l)clief was that the elements were peopled with spirits 1 2. Shakespeare 's words concerning much talking are talkers are no good doers 13. Shakespeare's metaphor night's candles are burnt out is one of the finest in literature 14. A peculiarity of English is that it has so many borrowed words 15. It will ask of you what can you do 16. He remembers what he learns 17. Have you ascertained who wrote the letter 18. ]\Ian can do what man has done 19. Reputation is what w^e seem but character is what we are 20. We shall never know who wrote the book 21. The last words of John B. Gough were young man make your record clean 22. Carljde has wisely said that the greatest of faults is to be conscious of having none 23. It is a law of life that one should not tax his physical strength to its extreme limit 24. There is some disjDute about who was the greatest of American orators 25. We read in the Old Testament that Daniel was thrown into the lions ^ den and that the lions did him no harm Write at least two sentences, illustrating each of the uses of the noun clause. LESSON 65 DEPENDENT CLAUSES— Continued THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE A clause that is used as an adjective is an adjective clause. An adjective clause may be used to modify the meaning of: 1. Subject. Example. — The seed which was planted, has become a large tree. 2. Object. Example. — The heart has eyes that the brain knows not. 3. Noun as subjective complement. 242 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH Example. — Life is a i^lant that grows out of death. 4. Object of a preposition. Example.- — Learning hath gained most by those books which the printers have lost. PUNCTUATION OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES Rule 1. — The adjective clause is set off by the comma, unless it restricts (narrows) the meaning of the word modified. Example L — Water, which is composed of two gases, is a liquid. Example 2. — Water that is stagnant is not healthful. Rule 2. — An adjective clause out of its natural order is set off by the comma. Example. — Whom ye worship, Him declare I unto you. Rule 3. — When the subject of a sentence ends in a verb, or consists of parts separated by commas, it is separated from its predicate by the comma. Frequently an adjective clause used in the sentence causes the subject to end in a verb. Example. — The evil that men do, lives after them. EXERCISE 65 Punctuate the following sentences and tell how the ad- jective clauses are used, and what part of speech each adjective clause modifies. 1. The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing press 2. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures which Samuel Adams framed 3. It was the same book that I referred to 4. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of 5. Gladstone is a man whom I call worthy of the name 6. Andrew Johnson was the President whose wife taught him to read and write 7. Have you ever visited the place where the battle of Gettysburg was fought 8. Do you know the reason why no dew is formed on a cloudy night DEPENDENT CLAUSES 243 9. July is the time thab farmers harvest their grain 10. God wrought a plan whereby all men may be redeemed 11. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid 12. There is nothing in the world but was made by God 13. Youth is the time w^hen the seed of character is sown 14. A depot is a place where stores are deposited 15. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers interesting 16. I have read the book which you lent me 17. The story that it tells is interesting 18. The author who is a woman lives in Texas 19. Help those that are weak 20. Invite the gentleman of whom you spoke 21. He gave all thab he had 22. Those thab are rich should help those that are poor 23. A man who cannot govern himself is a slave 24. Our journey which was very tiresome ended at last 25. The friends whom we visited have come 26. The tomato which is now a common article of food was scarcely known a century ago 27. The poor man that knows him laughs loudest of all 28. The fire-cracker and the sky-rocket which play so important a part in the exhibitions of American patriotism are made by the Chinese 29. My worthy friend has put me under the care of his butler who is a very prudent man 30. They that are accompanied by noble thoughts are never alone Write at least two sentences, illustrating each of the uses of the adjective clause. LESSON 66 DEPENDENT CLAUSES— Continued ADVERB CLAUSES A clause that is used as an adverb is an adverb clause. The common uses of adverb clauses are to express: 1. Time: John was sick ivhen he was in New York, (l^su- ally introduced by w^hen, while, before, often, as soon as, until, since, etc.) 244 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 2. Place: The blood will follow where the knife is draum. (Usually introduced by where, wherever, etc.) 3. Cause: We are happy now because God wills it. (Usu- ally introduced by since, for, because, in order that, so that, etc.) 4. Condition: No education deserves the name unless it develops thought, (Usually introduced by if, unless, except, etc.) 5. Concession: Though he slay ine, yet will I trust in him. (Usually introduced by though, although, notwithstanding, etc.) 6. Result: It rained so that ive did 7iot go. (Usually in- troduced by so that, therefore, etc.) 7. Manner: He does as he likes. (Usually introduced by how, as, etc.) PUNCTUATION OF THE ADVERB CLAUSE Unless the adverb clause is an essential modifier and follows closely the word modified, it is set off by the comma. Example. — ^We ran when we heard the report. When we heard the report, we ran. EXERCISE 66 Punctuate the following sentences, and classify the adverb clauses. 1. A book's a book although there's nothing in it 2. While craving justice for ourselves it is never wise to be unjust to others 3. If we did not flatter ourselves the flatteries of others could do us no harm 4. The flatteries of others could do us no harm if we did not flatter ourselves 5. My chief companion when Sir Roger is diverting himself in the woods or the fields is the chaplain Q. It is the practice of the multitude to bark at eminent men as little dogs do at strangers 7. Gold is green in color when it is thin enough to be transparent 8. If a good face is a letter of reconnnendation a good heart is a letter of credit DEPENDENT CLAUSES 24.5 9. Never eat till you are liungry 10. If the world does not admire you and nie it is because it sees nothing in us to admire 11. Sleep riches and health are only truly enjoyed after they have been interrupted 12. As the upright man thinks so he speaks 13. 31ang is alwa^^s vulgar as it is an affected way of talking 14. We should keep the pores of the skin open for through them the blood throws off" its impurities 15. Since the breath contains poisonous carbonic acid wise people ventilate their sleeping rooms 16. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing because it combines fresh air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits 17. Wheat is the most valuable of grains because bread is made from its flour 18. God was angry with the children of Israel for He overthrew them in the wilderness 19. Tobacco and the potato are American products because Ra- leigh found them here 20. It rained last night because the ground is wet this morning 21. If the air is quickly compressed enough heat is evolved to produce combustion 22. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse always use prose 23. If ever you saw a crow wdth a king-bird after him you have an image of a dull speaker and a lively listener 24. Although the brain is only one-fortieth of the body about one-sixth of the blood is sent to it 25. If the War of Roses did not utterly destroy English freedom it arrested its progress for a hundred years Write at least two sentences illustrating each of the uses of the adverb clause. 246 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH LESSON 67 PUNCTUATION THE PERIOD (.) The period should follow: 1. All declarative and imperative sentences; as, (1) We received your letter yesterday. (2) Write us immediately. 2. Initials and most abbreviations : as (1) R. W. Emerson. (2) Mr. Robert Jones. 3. Figures used to number a list of names or subjects, paragraphs or parts of paragraphs; as, History. 1. Ancient. 2. Mediaeval. 3. Modern. 4. Side-heads of paragraphs, the titles of books, etc., when followed by the name of the author; as, (1) Cost of installation. The cost of installation will not exceed fifty dollars. (2) Bookkeeping and Accountancy. Dr. H. M. Rowe. 5. The introductory address and signature of letters. The period should not follow: 1. Abbreviated forms that are recognized by usage as words in themselves; as, Will, Tom, Ned. 2. Headings of chapters, subheadings, items in tabulated matter, or Roman numerals; as, (1) Chapter V, Lesson six, contracts (2) Please ship us the following: 50 lb. Butter 100 lb. Gem Flour 75 lb. Oatmeal PUNCTUATION 247 (3) Book VI 3. 1st, 2d, 3d, etc. 4. Display lines on title pages; as, Nature and Culture by Hamilton Wright Mabie New York Dodd, IMead & Co. 1903 THE INTERROGATION POINT (?) The interrogation point should follow: 1. A direct question; as, Are these books for sale? 2. A direct question that forms a part of a declarative or an imperative sentence; as, ''Have they gone?" he asked. 3. Each question in a compound interrogative sentence; as. Was the man hurt? or did he escape? The interrogation point should not follow: 1. An indirect question; as. He asked if they had gone. EXCLAMATION POINT (!) The exclamation point should follow: 1. Interjections, exclamatory expressions, and exclamatory sentences; as, (1) Wait! you are in danger. (2) O brave young man! (3) How the wind blows! "Oh" may be followed by either a comma or an excla- mation point; as, 1. Oh! where did he go? 2. Oh, how glad I am to see him! "0" is used in direct address and may be followed by a comma but should never be followed innnediately by an ex- clamation point; as. 248 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 1. O my fellow-citizens! 2. O, come here! EXERCISE 67 Copy the following sentences, and insert periods, interro- gation points, and exclamation points where necessary. 1. How he could trot how he could run 2. How much greater is our nation in poetry than prose how much better, in general, do the productions of its spirit show in the qualities of genius than in the qualities of intelligence 3. Who will bring me into the strong city who will lead me into Edom 4. How can you do this 5. Did you come to get your book 6. Could you find the place 7. Where now be those things of yours that were wont to set the table in a roar your gibes j^our gambols your songs your flashes of merriment 8. Alas what are we doing all through life 9. What sort of a great li terature a literature great in the special qualities of genius, or great in the special qualities of intelligence 10. How art thou fallen from Heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning 1 1 . Say I these things as a man or saith not the law the same also 12. When can you call 13. What a game that was 14. How the wind blows 15. Why will you not ask him IG. How they play ball 17. Wh^t will it cost 18. Can we not see you to-morrow 19. What a time we had 20. Shall we not send you the goods 21. You are a fine fellow 22. How did you get it 23. Shall treachery, shall robbery, shall assassination, shall murder, triumph in this decision 24. Shall treachery triumph in this decision sliall robbery shall assassination shall murder PUNCTUATION 249 25. The question, " What ])ecame of the ten tribes of Israel " has never been satisfactorily answered 2G. Dr Robert B Jones 27. H D Smith, D D 28. James Brown, Esq 29. He is a member of the Y M C A 30. He left at 530 p m; I saw him enter the car 31. He died on the 5th of Jan, 1914 32. He was appointed to a clerkship in the P O department in Wilmington, Del 33. John Smith, Esq was born in Philadelphia, Pa and died in Albany, N Y 34. The NYC and Hudson R R R is the longest railway line in the state of N Y 35. M S Brown, IM D arrived at 630 a m LESSON 68 PUNCTUATION— Continued THE SEMICOLON ( ;) The semicolon is used: 1. To separate the independent clauses of a compound sentence when the conjunction is omitted; as, Order received to-day; goods will be shipped to-morrow. 2. To separate the independent clauses of a compound sentence when the clauses themselves are subdivided by commas ; as, The car of coal was shipped Friday; and the car of lumber, Thursday. 3. To separate expressions in a series, dependent upon the same introductory clause or expression; as, A man's success in business is decided principally by the three following conditions : The character of the man; his mental and business qualifications; and the circumstances by which he is surromided. 4. To separate *' otherwise/' ''also,'' ''therefore," and similar words, with the clauses these words introduce, from the preceding part of the sentence; as, 250 LESSONS AND EXERCISE^ IN ENGLISH (1) If you cannot sell these goods, send them to us; other- wise, send us a check. (2) We did not hear from him; therefore, we shall not go. ^'Namely,'' *'to-wit,'^ ''viz.,'' '^e. g.,'' and similar expres- sions, when used to introduce an example or an illustration, are frequently preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma; as. The teacher made three requests of us; namely, that we be punctual, that we be diligent, that we be manly. EXERCISE 68 Copy the following sentences, and insert periods, interro- gation points, and semicolons where necessary. 1 . Friends may desert him enemies may throng his way disaster may threaten him bodily weakness may assail him but still with heroic courage he keeps on his way 2. Industry is essential to thrift there is no such thing as un- assisted accumulation 3. The entrance of thy words giveth light it giveth understand- ing to the simple 4. A noun is the name of anything that exists, or of which we have any notion as, London, man, virtue 5. Four things are desirable for a good place of residence a good climate, a good soil, pure air, and good water 6. The ancient Greek language has been divided by grammar- ians into four principal dialects viz. Attic, Ionic, Doric and Aeolic 7. Only three persons were engaged in the conflict a stout Englishman, a swarthy Italian, and an excited Frenchman 8. He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors affable, not familiar, to equals and kind, but not condescending or supercilious, to inferiors 9. Patience, 1 say your mind perhaps may change 10. Apply your whole heart to this day 's work you will never have the opportunity again 11. A wise man seeks to shine in himself a fool, in others 12. Hear O my son and receive m}^ sayings and the years of thy life shall be many 13. He had four virtues namely, meekness, patience, temperance, charity PUNCTUATION 251 14. Go to the ant, thou sluggard consider her ways and be wise 15. Caesar was dead the soldiers were dispersed all Rome was in confusion 16. The Lord by wisdom hath founded the earth by understand- ing hath he established the heavens 17. The semicolon is used in contrasts as flattery brings friends truth brings foes 18. Length of days is in her right hand and in her left hand riches and honor 19. The prodigal robs his heirs the miser rol)S himself 20. Trust in the Lord with all thine heart and lean not thine ear unto thine own understanding 21. There is a fierce conflict between good and evil but good is in the ascendant and must triumph at last 22. My son forget not my law but let thine heart keep my commandments 23. Reading makes a full man conference a ready man and writing an exact man 24. The women are generally pretty few of them are brunettes many of them are discreet and a good number are lazy 25. As we perceive the shadow to have moved bub did not perceive it moving so our advances in learning con- sisting of such minute steps are perceivable only by the distance 26. So sad and dark a story is scarcely to be found in any work of fiction and we are little disposed to envy the moralist who can read it without being softened LESSON 69 PUNCTUATION— Continued THE COLON (:) The colon should follow: 1. A formal introduction to a series of items or expressions; as, (1) Please ship us the following: 50 lb. Butter 100 lb. Gem Flour 75 lb. Oatmeal. 252 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH ^2) You should buy this machine for three reasons: First, it will save you time; second, it will save you money; third, it will save you expense. 2. A formal introduction to a quotation. A quotation is said to have a formal introduction when the introductory expression is a complete sentence; as, (1) We received from him this reply: "Shipped goods yesterday." 2. He wired us as follows* ''Consignee refuses to receiv^e goods. " 3. The salutation of a letter and expressions used in forma) address; as, (1) Dear Sir: (2) Gentlemen: (3) My dear Sir: (4) Dear Madam: (5) Mr. Chairman: EXERCISE 69 Copy the following sentences, and insert all the required marks of punctviation. 1. We suggest that you see the following persons William Jones, Wilmington, Del Joseph Smith, York, Pa and Frank Brown, Reading, Pa 2. We offer you the following prices on coal pea $5.25 a ton nut S7.50 a ton stove $7.25 a ton 3. The board of directors elected for the year 1914-15 is aa follows President, Mr. Howard Jones Vice President, Mr. Russell Harris Secretary, Mr. Frank Henry Treasurer, Mr. Marshall Ridgeway 4. Mr. President I move that we adjourn 5. These words were painted on the board Stop, look, and listen 6. Admiral Dewey's explanation was this ''The cable was cut, and I could not report" 7. Ladies and Gentlemen I am delighted etc S. The Hon, William J. Bryan was then introduced and spoke as follows PUNCTUATION 253 9. I was there for two reasons I wanted to see, and I dared not stay away 10. He stated his motion thus Resolved that the matter ])e laid on the table 1 1 . Observe the following rules The pronoun must agree etc 12. We hold these truths to be self-evident That all men, etc 13. These are the present rates To Pittsburg, 35 cents per 100 lbs. to Chicago, 38 cents to Duluth, 45 cents 14. In his last moments, he uttered these words *'I fall a sacrifice" etc 15. Pope makes this remark There never was any part 3^ in which the most ignorant were not the most violent 16. He asked this question Why is it the older I grow the more my faith in religion is confirmed 17. For Addison three defenses may be set up (1) his satire arouses no bitterness (2) it is never personal (3) it is always employed on the side of virtue 18. At the close of the meeting the President arose and said Ladies and gentlemen 19. He put the question thus Can 3"ou do it 20. Cain asked this question Am I my brother's keeper LESSON 70 PUNCTUATION— Continued COMMA (,) 1. A comma should separate words or phrases used in a series; as, (1) Industry, honesty, and temperance are among the cardinal virtues. (2) A calm, serene, cheerful old age is always useful. (3) To work, to pla}', to laugh, to love mean success. 2. An appositive of more than one word is set off by com- mas; as, (1) Baltimore, the Monumeatal cit^^, has grown rapidly. (2) Mr. Smith, our representative, will call to-morrow. 3. Adverbial phrases and clauses, when used at the begin- 254 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH ning of a sentence, and expressions used by way of introduction should be followed by the comma; as, (1) In the evening, they went home. (2) While the sun shines, make hay. (3) Answering your letter of the 15th inst., we say etc. 4. A word, phrase, or clause which may be omitted without destroying the meaning of the sentence, should be marked off by commas; as, (1) The fault, however, is yours. (2) I have, on the other hand, employed him. (3) A. L. Brown, being duly sworn and examined, testifies as follows: (4) Mr. Jones, who is our general manager, is out of town. 5. When no one of the independent clauses of a compound sentence is divided by the comma and connecting words are used, the clauses should be separated by the comma; as, (1) You may go, but I shall remain here. 6. Any w^ord, phrase, or clause that is out of its natural place in the sentence is set oif by commas; as, (1) Upward, the sparks flew. (2) As evidence of our good faith, we submit the following: (3) When he arrives, we shall be there. 7. If the introductory expression of a quotation is not a complete sentence, the comma should follow the expression; as, (1) He replied saying, ''Goods were shipped yesterday." 8. A non-restrictive adjective clause should be set off by commas; as, (1) They all looked at John, who had not spoken. A restrictive adjective clause should not be marked off by commas; as, (1) The student who received the prize was delighted. 9. Certain omissions are shown by the use of the comma; as, (1) In the morning, we went to his office; later, to his home. PUNCTUATION 255 10. A title or a degree should be separated from the noun which it follows by a comma; as, (1) G. M. Philips, Ph. D. (2) J. A. Jones, A. M. 11. If the subject of a sentence ends with a verb, the sub- ject should be followed by a comma; as, (1) What he says, is correct. (2) The land that Penn settled, was called Pennsylvania. 12. Independent elements should be set off by commas; (1) Independent by direct address; as, O Grave, where is thy victory? (2) Independent by pleonasm; as, Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. (3) Independent Infinitive phrase; as, To tell the truth, I regret it. (4) Independent Participial phrases; as. Properly speaking, that is true. EXERCISE 70 Copy the following sentences, and insert commas where needed. 1. By the way did you hear the news? 2. John Milton the author of Paradise Lost was blind. 3. The bridge having been swept away we returned. 4. I rise Mr. President to make a motion. 5. John come here. 6. English grammar the science that teaches us the relation o^ the words of a sentence is helpful to a thorough under- standing of punctuation. 7. Honor lost all is lost. 8. Why how is that? 9. O sir help me. 10. The Nile a large river of Africa makes Egypt fertile. 11. But the wicked they shall be overthrown. 12. Affectation the desire of seeming to be what we are not is the besetting sin of men. 13. Troy being taken by the Greeks Aeneas came to Italy. 256 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 14. The diligent they shall succeed. 15. To confess the truth I did ifc thoughtlessly. 16. Speaking definitely you are the man. 17. All things else being destroyed virtue could sustain herself. 18. The comma generally speaking indicates misplacement or omission. 19. What then is your view of it? 20. To speak plainly your habits are your worst enemies. 21. The cavalry advanced the infantry remaining in the rear. 22. England 's debt to put it in round numbers is four billion dollars. 23. The Franks a warlike people gave their name to France. 24. Slang is always vulgar as it is an affected way of speaking. 25. Maceo the brilliant Cuban cavalry leader was betrayed. 26. Give time to the study of nature whose laws are interesting. 27. Whatever is is right. 28. Paper was invented in China if the Chinese tell the truth. 29. She died at Berhn Germany June 5 1875. 30. John the beloved disciple lay on his Master's breast. 31. He sat in a huge chair of oak hewn in the forest of the Hague. 32. Hamlet exclaimed What a piece of work is man. 33. The books greatly to my disappointment could not be found. 34. If the war continues the national resources will be exhausted. 35. Cromwell made one revolution and Monk made another. 36. Semiramis built Babylon; Dido Carthage; and Romulus Rome. 37. Attention activity energy and determination are essential to success. 38. She was a gentle refined dignified woman. 39. Some one justly remarked it is a great loss to lose an affliction. 40. Neednt. 41 . I would rather be right said Henry Clay than be President. 42. Reading makes a full man; conference a ready man; writing an exact man. 43. Of all our senses sight is the most important. 44. Riches honors and pleasures are fleeting. 45. Learn patience calmness. Copy the following, using the proper mark of punctuation in each of the places indicated. PUNCTUATION 257 I mention this peaceful spot with all possible laudx for it is in such little retired Dutch vallej^Sx found here and there embosomed in the great State of New Yorkx that populatioux mannersx and customs remain fixedx while the great torrent of migration and improvementx which is making such incessant changes in other parts of this restless countryx sweeps by them unobservedx They are like those little nooks of still water which border a rapid stream x where we may see the straw and bubble riding quietly at anchorx or slowly revolving in their mimic harborx undisturbed by the rush of the passing currentx Though many years have elapsed since I trod the drowsy shades of Sleepy Hollowx yet I question whether I should not still find the same trees and the same families vegetating in its sheltered bosomx He looked around for his gunx but in place of the clean well-oiled fowling-pieccx he found an old firelock lying by himx the barrel incrusted with rustx the lock falling off and the stock worm-eatenx He. now suspected that the grave roysters of the momitain had put a trick upon himx andx having dosed him with liquorx had robbed him of his gunx Wolf x toox had dis- appearedx but he might have strayed away after a squirrel or partridgex He whistled after him and shouted his namcx but all in vaiux the echoes repeated his whistle and shout but no dog was to be seeux LESSON 71 PUNCTUATION— Continued DASH The dash should be used with great care. It is used too frequently by many who do- not know punctuation. 1. The dash is used to mark an insertion that breaks ab- ruptly the grammatical construction or the continuity of thought as, Rome — what was Rome? Oh, do not — do not forsake me! 2. The dash is used to indicate the omission of letters, words, or figures; as, INIr. B — • lives on W — • Street; He explained all — not without hesitation — of his business activities: The Chester County Teachers' Institute was held Sept. 20-25, 1914. 258 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 3. The dash is used after subheads and extracts from authors; as, Corn — The market was active, and prices show a substan- tial rise. Men may rise on stepping-stones Of their dead selves to higher things — Tennj'son THE PARENTHESIS () 1. The parentheses are used to set off inserted expressions tliat are foreign to the sentence, but connected in thought; as. The gentleman from Indiana (Mr. Reed) was elected Speaker. 2. The parentheses are used to inclose figures following an expression of the same amount in words; as, Five hundred dollars ($500). BRACKETS 1. An expression other than that of the speaker or writer is inclosed by brackets; such as, I am proud of my records; I defy my accusers. [General applause.] He won the prize. It seems impossible to me according to the report. EXERCISE 71 Copy the following sentences and insert all the necessary marks of punctuation. 1. Every prize that could be Avorth a woman's having and many prizes which other women are too timid to desire lay within Zenobia 's reach 2. Caesar had his Brutus Charles I his Cromwell and George III Treason 3. There were two women in the room one a mere girl with fair hair and white face the other a woman about thirty years old with coarse features. 4. I have seen hundreds or more properly thousands in one place 5. I replied to his question without asking any in return a practice which of course puts an end to talk 6. But the enemies of tyranny their path leads to the scaffold PUNCTUATION 259 7. The fact impressed my childish fancy very much fasci- nated it indeed 8. They are independent by pleonasm a construction used sometimes for rhetorical effect 9. Perhaps their education taught them something something valuable if 3'ou will but one thing it did not do 10. He was born at C 1 1 . Religion who can doubt it is the noblest theme for the ex- ercise of the intellect 12. The most noted kings of Israel were the first three we come to Saul David and Solomon 13. During the winter of 1777 8 W was encamped at ^'alley Forge 14. Assyria Greece Rome Carthage what are they 15. Why did God make you and all things God made me and all things for his own glory 10. We know the uses and sweet they are of adversity 17. I have only poverty and rags 18. Was there ever but I seem to boast 19. To be or not to be that is the question 20. Kings and their subjects masters and their slaves the rich and the poor find a common level at two places at the cross and at the grave 21. The smile of a child always so ready when there is no distress and so soon returning when that distress has passed away is lik^ an opening of the sky showing heaven beyond 22. They hastened onward these three 23. He had no malice in his mind no ruffles on his shirt 24. He gave me a ten dollar bill 25. He built a three story house Cop.y the following using the proper marks of punctuation in each of the places indicated. He had now entered the skirts of thevillagCx A troop of strange children ran at his heelsx hooting after him and point- ing at his gray beardx The dogSx toox not one of which he rec- ognized for an old acquaintancex barked at him as he passedx The very village was alteredx it was larger and more populousx There were rows of houses which he had never seen before x 260 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH and those which had been his f amihar haunts had disappearedx Strange names were over the doorsx strange faces at the windowsx everything was strangex His mind now misgave himx he began to doubt whether both he and the w^orld around him were not bewitchedx Surely this w^as his native village whichx he had left but the day beforex There stood theKaatskillmountainsx there ran the silver Hudson at a distance^ there was every hill and dale precisely as it had always beenx Kip was sorely per- plexedx *'That flagon last night" thought he ''has addled my poor head sadly x" LESSON 72 PUNCTUATION— Continued APOSTROPHE 1. The apostrophe is used to denote the possessive case of nouns. (See page 145.) In such expressions as Adams Express Company, Mechanics National Bank, the apostrophe is not used; the first word is con- sidered an adjective and not a noun in the possessive case. 2. The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters; as, aren't for are not; 'tis for it is. In abbreviations such as Atty., Bldg., Dept., IMdse., Prest., Supt., etc., the apostrophe is not used. 3. The apostrophe is used in forming the plurals of letters and figures; as m's, x's, 50's. QUOTATION MARKS 1. The exact words of a writer or speaker should be inclosed within quotation marks; as, Emerson said, *' Hitch your wagon to a star. " If a quotation consists of more than one paragraph, quo- tation marks should precede each paragraph and follow the last one. PUNCTUATION 261 2. A quotation witliin a quotation should be inclosed in single quotation marks; as, The speaker said, ''We have a prophecy in the words of Burns, 'When man to man the world o'er shall brothers be for aw that.'" 3. Words or expressions used in unusual meaning should be inclosed within quotation marks; as, After the conversation his "hat was in the ring. " 4. The titles of books, articles, etc., used in a sentence, should be inclosed within quotation marks; as, I bought a copy of Emerson's "American Scholar." 5. Quotation marks are used to call special attention to words or expressions; as. The expression "how many" should be set in caps. 6. If the name of the author follows a quotation, the quo- tation marks may be omitted; as. It is not work that kills men; it is worry — Beecher. 7. The period, comma, and semicolon are usually placed within the quotation marks used to inclose any expressions followed by any one of these marks of punctuation; as, "Study your lesson, " he said. He said, " Study your lesson. " If the interrogation point or exclamation point belong to the quoted part only of a sentence, they should be inclosed with- in the quotation marks; as. The teacher asked, "Have you studied your lesson? " If the interrogation point and exclamation point belong to the whole sentence they are not inclosed within the quotation marks; as, Did the teacher ask, " Have you studied your lesson"? EXERCISE 72 Copy and punctuate the following sentences. 1. Henry IV of the House of Bourbon was very wise in coun- cil simple in manners and chivalric in the field 2. Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety men and landed at San Salvador 262 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 3. A young farmer recently l:)ought a yoke of oxen six cows and a horse 4. America has furnished to the world tobacco the potato and Indian corn 5. Cotton is raised in Egypt India and the United States 6. The spirit of true religion is social kind and cheerful 7. All the kings of Egypt are called in Scripture Pharaoh 8. The bamboo furnishes to the native of China shade food houses weapons and clothing 9. The balloon shooting swiftly into the clouds was soon lost to sight 10. The sun rising dispelled the mists 11. The thief being detected surrendered to the officer 12. A shrug of the shoulders translated into words loses much force 13. Virtue diligence and industry joined with good temper and prudence must ever be the surest means of prosperity 14. Edward Wingfield an avaricious and unprincipled man was the first president of the Jamestown colony 15. Towers are measured by their shadows and great men by their calumniators 16. Worth makes the man and want of it the fellow 17. How poor how rich how abject how august how wonderful is man 18. Sir Humphrey Gilbert attempting to recross the Atlantic in his little vessel the Squirrel w^ent clown in mid-ocean 19. The morn in russet mantle clad walks o'er the dew of 3^on High eastern hill 20. The fly sat upon the axle of a chariot-wheel and said What a dust do I raise 21. Strike till the last armed foe expires 22. Thy mercy O Lord is in the heavens and tin- faithfulness reacheth unto the clouds 23. The clouds poured out water the skies sent out a sound the voice of thy thunder was in the heaven 24. The heavens declare his righteousness and all the j^eople see his glory 25. The verdant lawn the shady grove the variegated landscape the boundless ocean and the starry firmament are beau- tiful and magnificent objects PUNCTUATION 263 2G. Liquids when acted upon ])y gravity press downward upward and sidewa^^s 27. You will find that tlie state of Kansas occupies very near- ly the middle spot of North America being equally dis- tant from the Atlantic Ocean on the east and Pacific Ocean on the west from the frozen waters of Hudson's Bay on the north and the tepid gulf stream on the south 28. Michael Angelo used to say Trifles make perfection and perfection is no trifle 29. The surrender of Lee ended the war between the North and South and his soldiers turned homeward no longer Confederate soldiers but American citizens 30. Her favorite maxim was Wilful waste makes woeful want 3L Change Where there's a will there's a Avay to Where there is a will you can find a way 32. Length of days in her right hand and in her left hand riches and honor 33. When thou liest do^vn thou shalt not be afraid yea thou shalt lie down and thy sleep shall be sweet 34. My son forget not my law but let thine heart keep my commandments 35. The prodigal robs his heirs the miser robs himself 36. So sad and dark a story is scarcely to be found in any w^ork of fiction and we are little disposed to envy the moralist who can read it without being softened 37. Caesar was dead the soldiers were dispersed all Rome was in confusion 38. Can great truths after having been once developed die 39. Let us send light and jo}^ if we can to every one around us 40. There w^here knowledge ceases faith should strongest prove 4L Christianity in the highest sense is the religion of sorrow 42. Thou knowest come what may that the light of truth can not be put out 43. Patrick Henry commenced by saying It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope 44. Wirt writes that as a statesman Alexander Hamilton was distinguished for the great extent of his views 45. All cannot be great and nobody may reasonably expect all the world to be engaged with lauding his merits 46. Idleness is the parent of every vice but well directed ac- tivity is the source of every laudable pursuit and worldly attainment 264 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 47. The spirit of true religion inspires magnanimity and mag- nanimity always breathes gentleness 48. An entire retreat from worldly affairs is not what religion requires nor does it even enjoin a long retreat from them 49. Religion must be the spirit of every hour but it cannot lie the meditation of every hour 50. A clownish air is but a small defect yet is enough to make a man disagreeable 51. Endless existence is a great truth but an immortality of pure affections and holy employment is far greater 52. Do not think yourself perfect for imperfection is natural to humanity 53. Pope had perhaps the judgment of Dryden but Dry den certainly wanted the diligence of Pope 54. Life is felt to be a great and gracious boon by all who enjoy its liglit and this is not too much felt 55. Never value yourself upon your fortune for this is a sign of a weak mind 56. Virtue is a real honor whereas all other distinctions are merely titular 57. Reasoning implies doubt and uncertainty and therefore God does not reason 58. Men are not to be judged by their looks habits and ap- pearances but by the character of their lives and con- versations and by their works 59. The noblest prophets and apostles have been children once lisping the speech laughing the laugh thinking the thought of boyhood GO. Prosperity is naturally though not necessarily attached to virtue and merit adversity to vice and foll}^ 61. Everything that happens is both a cause and an effect being the effect of what goes before and the cause of what follows 62. Argument as usually managed is the worst sort of con- versation as it is generally in books the worst sort of reading 63. It is the first point of wisdom to ward off evils the second to make them beneficial 64. Employ your time w^ell if j^ou mean to gain leisure and since you are not sure of a minute throw not away an hour PUNCTUATION 265 65. Stones grow veg('tii])l(^s j2,row aiul live animals grow live and feel 66. Everything grows old ev(M-vthing passes awa}' ever3^thing disappears 67. I have seen charity (If charity it may be called) insulted with an air of pity 68. Know then this truth enough for man to know Virtue alone is happiness below 69. Apply yourself to study it will re])ound to your house 70. As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial but do not perceive it moving and it appears that the grass has grown though nobody saw it grow so the advance we make in knowledge as they consist in such insensible steps are only perceivable })y the distance 71. To read without reflecting says Burke is like eating with- out digesting 72. He rushed amidst them with his sword dra\Mi he threw them into confusion he pushed his advantage and he obtained a complete victory ion Copy the following using the proper marks of punctuati in each of the places indicated. Rip bethought himself a momentx mid inquiredx >^Nicholas Vedderx whyx he is dead and gone these eighteen yearsx There was a wooden tomb- stone in the churchyard that used to tell all about himx but that^^s rotten and gone toox^ >*^Ohx he went off to the army in the beginning of the warx some say he w^as killed at tiie storming of Stony Point x others say he was drowned in a squall at the foot of Anthony >^s Noscx I don^t knowx he never came back agauix^ ^Where^s ^^an Bummelx the schoolmasterx^ ^He went off to the wars toox w^as a great militia generalx and is now in congressx^ Rip^s heart died away at hearing of these sad changes in his home and friendsx and finding himself thus alone in the worldx Every answer puzzled him toox by treating of such 266 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH enormous lapses of timex and of matters which he could not understandx warx congressx Stony Pointx he had no courage to ask after any more friendsx but cried out in despairx ^Does nobody here know Rip Van Wmklcx^ ^Ohx Rip Van Winklcx^ exclaimed two or threcx ^Ohx to be surcx that^s Rip Van Winkle yonderx leaning against the treex^ Copy the following, and place marks of punctuation where needed. After much consideration and a careful examination of your latest work Rowe's Bookkeeping and Accountancy we decided to introduce it here The results obtained thus far fully justify our decision Pedagogically we consider the plan of the work excellent The introduction at the outset of the principal books of record not only gives added interest but also results in a material saving of time The systematic arrangement of the transactions which by the way are of a thoroughly practical nature the con- tinual review by means of questions with explanatory references the ample supplementary work provided practically insure good results The three syllabuses' w^iich give the teacher a choice of three methods of presentation make it readily adapt- able to varying conditions met in day and night schools Last but not least the subject being taken up from the viewpoint of the accountant will make the step to higher account- ing a natural one and will undoubtedly arouse a desire on the part of the student to pursue the study of bookkeeping beyond the limits of the usual course. I believe that in Bookkeeping and Accountancy you are putting out a work that bears the stamp of merit and I heartih' recommend it Copy the following, using the proper marks of pimctuation in each of the places indicated. His schoolhouse was a low building of one large roomx rudely constructed of logSx the windows partly glazed and partly patched with leaves of old copy-booksx It was most ingeniously secured at vacant hours by a ^vithe twisted in the handle of the door and stakes set against the window shuttersx so thatx t^UNCTUATION . 267 though a thief might get in with perfect eascx he would find some embarrassment in getting outx an idea most probably borrowed by the architectx Yost Van Houtenxfrom the mystery of an eel potx The schoolhouse stood in a rather lonely but pleasant situation just at the foot of a woody hillx Vs'lth a brook I'unning close byx and a formidable birch tree growing at one end of it X From hence the low murmur of his pupils^ voices conning over their lessons might be heard in a drowsy summer^s dayx like the hum of a beexhivex interrupted now and then by the authoritative voice of the master in the tone of menace or commandx orx peradventurcx by the appalling sound of the birchx as he urged some tardy loiterer along the flowery path of knowdeclgCx Truth to sayx he was a conscientious manx and ever bore in mind the golden maxim x ^Spare the rod and spoil the childx^ Ichabod Crane^s scholars certainly were not spoiledx Copy and punctuate the following. My attention has been recently directed to unvaccinated persons attending school and for your information I am en- closing the official form of certificate furnished by the Bureau of Health which can be obtained by applying in person or by mes- senger at Room 712 City Hall between the hours of 9 a m and 4pm and Saturdays 9 a m to 12 m A representative of the Bureau of Health will call at your school at an early date to inspect your school register The folloAving is an extract from the Act of* Assembly governing all public private parochial Sunday and other schools Act of Assembly approved the 18th day of June 1895 ''To provide for the more effectual protection of the pubhc health in the several municipalities of this Commonwealth Section 12 All principals or other persons in charge of schools as aforesaid are hereby required to refuse the admission of any child to the schools in their charge or supervision except upon a certificate signed by a phj'sician setting forth that such child has been successfully vaccinated or that it has previously had smallpox Section 13 The health authorities of said municipalities shall furnish the principal or other persons in charge of said schools and to physicians the necessar}^ certificates or blanks 268 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH for tlie uses and purposes as set forth and required in Sections 111 and 12 of this Act The registry of said schools shall exhibit the names and residences of all children or persons admitted or rejected for reasons set forth in this act and said registry shall be open at all times to the inspection of the health authorities Section 21 Any physician undertaker principal of school superintendent of Sunday School sexton janitor head of family or any other person or persons named in this Act who shall fail neglect or reruse to comply with or who shall violate any of the i:irovisions or reciuirements of this act shall for every such offense upon conviction thereof before any Mayor Burgess Alderman Police Magistrate or Justice of the Peace of the Mu- nicipality in which such offense was committed be liable to fine or penalty therefor of not less than five dollars nor more than one hundred dollars w^iich said fines or penalties shall be paid into the treasury of said municipality and in default of payment thereof such person or persons so convicted shall undergo im- prisonment in the jail of the proper county for a period not exceeding sixty days" Copy the following and place marks of punctuation where needed. We have been using your Bookkeeping and Accountancy- in our school during the past year and I wish to add my tes- timony to the high-grade character of this publication We are getting results that I feel no commercial school could possi])ly get from any of the old publications I consider your work the most valuable ever contributed to the literature of commercial education It is a long step in advance of anything that has been heretofore attempted and those who know the difference between accountancy and ele- mentary bookkeeping cannot fail to appreciate the merit of your work It is a mistake to think that the work is too difficult or too far advanced for those who attend a business college We find that even grammar school graduates are capable of com- prehending the work and that they become intensely interested At the same time the work is of such an analytical character that it will interest a college graduate and give him all he wants to do PUNCTUATION 269 Your work is one that I ha\'e been looking for for the past seven j'ears I have always felt that there was a great waste of time in getting an understanding of the principles and clas- sification of accounts through tl e books published Happily your work bridges the gap which was left betAveen true account- ancy and the incomplete and imperfect sj-stems presented by the old books I cannot understand how any live school man can fail to appreciate 3'our work Copy and punctuate the following: Would you like to receive a copy of a little book about roses for 1914 This years edition just i)ublished is I think the richest and most beautiful I have yet sent out The cover especially is uniquely beautiful a gem of the embossers art And its beauty isnt only skin deep either You were formerly a valued customer and while I have not heard from you of late years I have continued to cast bread upon the waters in the shape of my aimual booklets I would like to contmue to do so but this years edition is too costly to send where it may not be appreciated where it may not bring back material results And yet if you expect to purchase 111 gladly mail you a copy or if j^ou wish to absolve yourself from even this implied promise send ten cents which will help to defray the cost And you neednt write a letter either simply return tl is one if your address as above is correct with a dime or postage stamj s Is it Good-bye I hope not Copy and punctuate the following. I began the use of Rowe's Bookkeeping and Accountancy as you know last 3'ear I was pleased with it from the start and the further I go with it the more enthusiastic I become It cer- tainly is far and away ahead of anything I have ever seen and I have taught from five different systeir s and thoroughly examined several others I fully demonstrated last year that Bookkeeping and Ac- countancy may be satisfactorily taught to the high school fresh- 270 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH man that the principles of accountancy are as easily grasped by the learner as the bookkeeping we have taught so long and are still teaching The principles developed in Dr. Rowe 's work are more easily taught and more readily learned than the book- keeping and the so-called accountancy of any other system I have ever used and the student really has something worth while when he gets it It is the most educational of systems as well as the most practical it really develops It gives a big foundation on which to build and it broadens the mind and the \\e\v instead of nar- rowing them The pupil gets something he will not need to un- learn at a later time no matter how big a proposition confronts him or how big the job may be which he tackles In many respects the work is remarkable for its simplicity and for the good common sense displayed in its arrangement It is right pedagogically psychologically and from a practical viewpoint You will soon hear the song of the imitators and see their handiwork again But I started out to thank you for the Cost Accountancy Set Excuse this long prelude and accept my ex- pressions of appreciation for wiiat they are worth Copy and punctuate the following : We are in receipt of 3^our favor of Apr. 30th asking for an opinion relative to your publications It affords us pleasure to say that we have been using your Bookkeepers and Office Practice continuously for seven years and in our night classes Commercial and Industrial Bookkeeping during the past year Have also used Listers Writing Lessons That Teach for a dozen years or more and in justice to your company will say that we have as yet been unable to find texts of a similar char- acter that are anywhere equal to those from your Publishing House In addition to our experience with them in connection with this school we had the pleasure of teaching those enumer- ated above in a New York school for three years and know where- of we speak If there are any other texts on the market of equal educational value we have not made their acquaintance Wishing you continued success throughout the coming years we remain PUNCTUATION 271 Copy and punctuate the following : Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new nation conceived in liberty and ded- icated to the proposition that all men are created equal Now we are engaged in a great civil war testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure We are met on a great battle-field of that war We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this But in a larger sense we caimot dedicate we cannot consecrate we cannot hallow this ground The brave men living and dead who strug- gled here have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract The world will little note nor long remember what we say here but it can never forget what they did here It is for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fouglit here have thus far so nobly advanced It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remain- ing before us that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom and that government of the people by the people and for the people shall not perish from the earth — ■ Lincoln. LESSON 73 PUNCTUATION— Continued HYPHEN (-) The h^'phen is used to separate S3'llables (ad-mis-si-ble), and to mark the division of a word at the end of a line. Words denoting parts of one hundred, should be connected by the hyphen (twenty-five, sixty-six, etc.). A hyphen should not be used at the beginning of a line to indicate that a word has been divided between two lines. The hyphen is used to compound words (vice-president). The tendency at the present time is to omit the hyphen whenever permissible. 272 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH The student should be famiUar with the following rules for compounds. 1. A word formed by using '^re," ''over, " ''under, " '^ sub," "in," ''out," "up," "down," and similar prefixes should be written as one word; as, reenter, overtake, undermine, subdivide, indoor, outgo, uptown, do^vnstairs. Good usage gives preference to dropping the hyphen when the prefix "re" or "co" is used with words beginning with "e" or " o " ; as, reelect, cooperate. 2. When prefixes or suffixes of one syllable are given to "man," "men," "maker," "keeper," "under," "seeker," "holder, ""yard, "''master," "owner," "house," and "room," the hyphen should not be used; as, warehouse, housekeeper, roommate. 3. When the prefix "inter" or "trans" is used, the word is most frequently written without the hyphen; as, intercollegiate, transatlantic. If words like trans- Atlantic, trans-Missouri, and trans- Ohio are hyphenized, the proper nouns should be capitalized. 4. If "all" is compounded with another word without the hyphen, it drops one "1, " as; almighty, always. If the hyphen is used the " 1 " is nob dropped ; as, all-impor- tant, all-wise. "All right" should not be written "alright." 5. Compound words with the prefixes "ante," "anti," "post," "semi," "self," are hyphenized; as, semi-annual, self- made, post-dated. Postscript is written as one word. 6. When two or more words are used to form a modifier, they should be joined with the hyphen; as, two-story house, up-to-date school, cut-and-dried argument, three-foot rule, 25-yard line. The word "fold" retains the hyphen only in words over ten; as, tenfold, threefold, twenty-fold. If a noun in the possessive case is used in compound, the s" is retained; as, camel's-hair-brush. i( >_ fj PUNCTUATION 273 SYLLABICATION To the typist, especially, correct syllabication is essential. Correct syllabication depends on a knowledge of pronun- ciation. A syllable is a word, or a part of a word, pronounced by a single vocal impulse; as, yes, i-o-ta. 1. If you are writing on a machine, never divide a word in such a manner that you carry but two letters to the next line; as, walk-ed. The hyphen occupies one space and the paper can be moved sufficiently in the machine to make room for the other letter. 2. '^J, " or '^q" should not end a syllable; as, pre-judice, ma-jesty, li-quefy. 3. *'X" should end the syllable; as, complex-ion, anx-ious, vex-ation. 4. ''Er, '' when suffixed to a word ending with a consonant or a silent ''e'^ is always made a syllable; as, mak-er, command- er, back-er. ''Or" is not so separated; as, gover-nor, opera-tor, confes-sor. 5. Make the division where ''i" sounds "y"; as, gen-ius, conven-ient, pavil-ion; except, where double letters precede; as, ruf-fian, rebel-lion. 6. Make the division between double consonants or double vowels when accented separately; as, dif-fer, remit-tance; except where a syllable is suffixed to a word ending with double consonants; as, fall-ing. 7. If a short vowel is accented, make the division after the following consonant; as, sub-urb, mus-ket; except when the following letters produce the sound ''sh;" as, offi-cial, vi-sion. If a short vowel is unaccented, make the division following it; as, di-ploma, pedi-gree. 8. If two vowels coming together are sounded separately, make the division between them; as, sci-ence, ortho-epy. 274 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH 9 . Divide where a combination of letters produces the sound of '^sh," ''ch" or ''j "; as, con-science, conta-gious, sol-dier. 10. All terminations beginning with a vowel suffixed to a word ending with a consonant or silent '' e " should be separated from the word if the position of the accent and the pronunci- ation of the primitive word remain unchanged; as, depend- ence, assist-ant, observ-ance. 11. Make the division between compound words; as, man-* kind, horse-shoe. The foregoing rules are helpful but not exhaustive. The student should use the dictionary when in doubt. EXERCISE 73 Separate the following words into syllables, and quote the rule that applies to each. apostasy dancing maneuver aluminum enhancing malicious allegiance England seller abundance ecstasy secrecy agricultural earnings satchel after earnest salmon advantage intrepidity separate admissible insurance servant active inning service division legislation skaguay director mosquitoes special deficit marvelous Separate the following words into syllables. Some of them are exceptions to the rules given. When in doubt, consult the dictionarv. auspices attributed ascendency ascendant business burglar Britannia brigade billiard bicycle benefited beleaguered bazaar battalion councilor correspondent conferee chancellor carom capture extraordinary - PUNCTUATION expression mustache syndicate Eskimo muskelounge subpoena future mountain traveler furniture neglected tyranny fountain necessary tendency fortune outrageous usually fortunate originate unexceptional former opponents vengeance frontier odd-fellows veranda father progress voluminous farmer produce (verb) Wednesday gypsy produce (noun) William guerrillas process willing governor premium woman gimlet prelate wagon hymeneal plaintiff water Hindoo picture wakeful harangue reference willful halloo rebellion stories LESSON 74 weariness 275 PUNCTUATION— Continued DEGREES, AND HONORARY TITLES A. B. or B. A. Bachelor of Arts A. M. or M. A. Master of Arts Ph. B. Bachelor of Philosophy Dr. Scholastic degree Esq. Esquire Gov. Governor Hon. Honorable Mr. Mister Mrs. Title given a married woman Messrs. Messieurs or Gentlemen Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy Prof. Professor Rev. Title given to clergymen LL.D. Doctor of Laws 276 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH STATES Ala. Alabama Miss. Mississippi Alaska Alaska Mo. Missouri Territory Mont. Montana Ariz. Arizona Neb. Nebraska Ark. Arkansas N. H. New Hampshire Cal. \ California N.J. New Jersey Calif. / V.yCA'iJ.J. V^JL A.XXCA/ N. Mex. New Mexico Colo. \ Colorado N. Y. New York Col. J N. C. North Carolina Conn. Connecticut N. Dak. North Dakota Del. Delaware Okla. Oklahoma D. C. District of Ore., \ Oreg. / Columbia Oregon Fla. Florida Pa. Pennsylvania Ga. Georgia P. I. Philippine Hawaii Hawaii Islands Territory P.P. Porto Rico 111. Illinois R.I. Rhode Island Ind. Indiana S. C. South Carolina Kan. 1 Kansas S. Dak. South Dakota Kans. j Tenn. Tennessee Ky. Kentucky Tex. Texas La. Louisiana Vt. Vermont Me. Maine Va. Virginia Md. Maryland Wash. Washington Mass. Massachusetts W. Va. West Virginia Mich. Michigan Wis. Wisconsin Minn. Minnesota Wyo. Wyoming The names of cities should not be abbreviated. The teacher should dictate the unabbreviateel forms given above and have the student write the correct abbreviation for each. PUNCTUATION 2* COMMON ABBREVIATIONS AND COMMERCIAL SIGNS acct. account cwt. hundredweight a. m. before noon c/o care of amt. amount c, ^ cents asst. assistant C. A. Chartered atty. attorney Accountant Ave. Avenue C. E. Civil Engineer agt. agent c.a.f. cost and freight A. D. Anno Domini c.a.f.e. cost and freight (in the year east of our Lord) c.i.f.,c.f.i. (cost, insurance avg. average and freight) bal. balance Cr. creditor bbl. barrel Dr. debtor or doctor B/L Bill of Lading Deft. defendant Bs/L Bills of Lading deg. degree bldg. building deg., min., (degrees, min- bdls. bundles sec. utes, seconds) bu. bushel do. or " ditto (the same) Bs. Pay. orB/P > Bills Payable dol. or $ doz. dollar dozen Bs, Rec. / Bills receivable dft. draft orB/R Dept. department bot. bought ea. each Bros. Brothers E.&.O.E. errors and omis- brot. brought sions excepted per by etc. et cetera (and X (2 X 4) by (with figures) so forth) C. 0. D. Collect on e. g. exempli gratia Delivery (for example) Cor. Sec. Corresponding et al. et alii (and Secretary others) Co. Company Fahr. Fahrenheit 278 LESSONS AND EXERCISES IN ENGLISH ft. feet or foot No., fig., 1 figs, j figure-s Nos., or ^ , number-s ford. forward 0/T on track f. 0. b. free on board oz. ounce frt. gal, 1 gals. J freight gallon, gallons p., 1 pp. J pkg. page-s package G/A general average pd. paid G. P. 0. General Post pwt. pennyweight office per an. per annum gr. 1 or gro. J gross % P.T. per cent please turn over Hon. Honorable pltf. plaintiff hund. \ orC ] hundred P.M. p. m. Post IVIaster post meridian inst. instant (present (after noon) month) P.O. post office in. ineh-es P. 0.0 post office order i. e. id est (that is) prest. president I. 0. U. I owe you prox. proximo (coming Jr. Junior month) ltd. limited per by (not an lb. pound abbreviation) mdse. merchandise P. S. postscript mfg. manufacturing (written after) MS., 1 MSS. J manuscript prem. P/T premium private terms memo M. memoranda-um Meridian qt., 1 qts. J quart-s N. B. Nota bene (take notice) qr., 1 qrs. J quarter-s N. P. notary public q. question PUNCTUATION 279 R. R. railroad Str. Steamer R. S. V. P. anfswer, if you S. S. Steamship please T. ton Ry. railway M thousand reed. received Treas. treasurer r. p. m. revolutions per tong. tonnage minute ult., \ ultimo (last Rt. Hon. Right Honorable or ulto. / month) Rt. Rev. Right Reverend vs. versus (against) sts. streets viz. videlicit (namely) Supt. Superintendent via by way of (not an Sec., \ Secy. J Secretary vols. abbreviation) volumes sec. section wt. weight Sr. 1 Senior W/B,W/Bj 5 Way Bill-s Senr. J yr. year INDEX References are to pages. Since an exercise follows each lesson, an exercise on any subject may be found b}^ finding that subject in this index. Abbreviations, 260. Abstract noun, 30. Ability, 40. Active voice, 197. Access, 36. Accessio7i, 36. Accept, 83. Acceptance, 41. Acceptation, 41. Accredit, 83. Act, 37. Action, 37. Adjectives, descriptive, 62; definitive, 62; nu- merals, 63; pronominals, 63; proper, 63; confused with adverbs, 103; comparison of, 230; list of irregular, 232; uses of com- Darative and superlative, 234; outline clas- sification of, 67. Adherence, 37. Adhesion, 37. Admission, 40. Admittance, iO- Advance, 37. Advancement, 37. Advise, 84, 91. Advertise, 8i. Admit, 84. Adverbs, defined, 95; errors in use of, 97; con- fusion with adjectives, 103; comparison of, 236; may modify, 238; outUue classifi- cation of, 98. Affect, 84, Agreement, of pronouns and antecedent, 158; of verb and subject, 162; of adjective and noun, 230; of complement and subject of verb, 225. Aggravating, 67. Allusion, 37. Allow, 83. Alleviate, 84. Alone, 98. Almost, 99. Among, 120. Amateur, 36. Amount, 40. Antecedent, of pronouns, defined, 150; agree- ment of pronouns and, 158. Answer, 40. And, 125. Angry, 75. Anxious, 71. Anticipate, 91. Apostrophe, with plurals, 143 ; with possessive nouns, 146; general uses of, 260. Appositive, definition of, 204; case of, 225; punctuation of, 238, 153. Apt, 67. Argument, 40. Argue, 83. Assertion, 41. Ask, 87. As, 125. At, 120. Auxiliary verbs, explained, 177; shall and will, 171; should and would, 173. Augur, 83. Audience, 36. Average, 67. Awake, 194. Balance, 37. Beside, 120. Besides, 120. Between, 120. Because, 125. Beautiful, 72. 281 282 INDEX Blunder, 47. Bound, 67. Bring , 87. Brackets, use of, 258. Brave, 68. But, as conjunction, 125; but what, 127. Bui, 125. Capitalization, rules for, 32, 15. Can, could, uses of, 192. Cases, of pronouns, 152; of nouns, 154; case forms of personal pronouns, 155; case forms of relative and interrogative pro- nouns, 154; case of words in apposition, 155; possessive case of nouns, 145; uses of nominative and objective, 225; case used with gerund, 211. Capture, 87. Captivate, 87. Carry, 87. Calculate, 87. Capacity, 40. Centre, 43. Childish, 68. Childlike, 68. Character, 37. Clauses, defined, independent, dependent, 21; noun, 239; uses of noun, 239; punc- tuation of noun, 240; adjective, 241; uses of, 241; punctuation of, 242; adverb, 243; uses of, 243; punctuation of, 244. Colon, uses of, 251. Comma, uses of, 253. Complement, 43. Compliment, 43. Completion , 44. Completeness, 44 Common, 77. Confess, 84. Convict, 84. Convene, 84. Convince, 84. Convoke, 84. Construe, 86. Construct, 86. Conscience, 44. Consciousness, 44. Continual, 68. Continuous, 68. Contagious, 68. Contemptible, 68. Courageous, 68. Conteynptuous, 68. Council, 43. Counsel, 43. Couple, 44. Common gender, 144. Comparative degree, defined, 231; use of, 234. Comparison, degrees of, 230; how formed, 231 ; uses of comparative and superlative, 234; of adjectives, 230; irregular adjectives, 232; of adverbs, 236; irregular adverbs, 236; terms of, 234. Complements, subjective, 80; object, 79; ob- jective, 80; comjxjund, 80. Complex sentence, 21. Compound sentence, 23; punctuation of, 23. Compound-complex sentence, 23. Compound nouns, 30; plural of, 140; posses- sive forma of, 146; use of hyphen in, 271. Compound pronouns, 149 ; personal, 156 ; rela- tive, 156. Compound subject, 18; agreement of verb with, 163. Compound predicate, 18. Confusion of adjectives and adverbs, 103. Conjunctions, defined, 122; coordinate, sub- ordinate, correlative, 123; errors in the use of, 126; outline classification of, 128. Conjugation, of verb "be," 213; of verb "see," 215; passive, 218; progressive pas- sive, 221; emphatic, 224; interrogative, 224. Copulative verb, copula, 80. Correlatives, placing of, 123. Credible, 68. Creditable, 68. Credit, 83. Custom, 43. Customer, 51. Dash, use of, 257. Degrees of comparison, 230. Dependent Clauses, 21, 239, 241, 243. Declarative sentence, 9. Demonstrative pronouns, 58; number of, 149. Deceit, 44. Deception, 44. Depot, 44. Delusion, 37. Detect, 87. Demand, 87. Depreciate, 87. INDEX 283 Deprecate, 87. Deadly, 71. Deathlij,7l. Decided, 71. Decision, 71. Determined, 67. Desirous, 71 Disclose, 87. Discover, 87. Discriyninale, 87. Discovery, 47. Division of words at end of lines, 273. Dominate, 87. I>omi7teer, 87. Dn'De, 87. Dumb, 71. Each other, use of, 159. E^ec^, 84. Either-or,123. Elements of the sentence, essential elements, subject and predicate, 9; subordinate ele- ments, complements, 79, 80; modifiers, 17. Elicit, 88. Eliminate, 88. Eminent, 71. Emigration, 44. Enormity,'^!. Enormousness, 47. Error, 47. Estimate, 47. Estimation, 47. Esteem, 90. Estimate, 90. Euphony, in choice of pronouns, 150. Evidence, 55. Exclamation point, use of, 247, 128. Sxped, 91. Excep/, 83. ^a:pose, 88. Expound, 88. Extant, 71. Existing, 71. Exclamatory sentence, 15. Fa sz7?/,47. Falseness, 47. Feminine gender, of nouns, 143; of pronouns, 150. Fewer, 74. Fmrf, 91. Funny, 71. Gender, defined, 143; how distinguished, 143 formation of feminine of nouns, 143; of pronouns, 150. Gerund, forms of, 203; confusion with parti- ciple and abstract verbal noun, 211; case used with, 211. Good, 99. Habit, 43. Healthy, 72. Healthful, 72. Hesitation, 47. Hesitancy,^!. Hire, 90. Human, 7 1. Humane, 71. Hyphen, use of, 271. Identify, AS. Identification, 48. Ideal, 72. Idle, 74. Idiom, defined, 153; Idiomatic passives. 199. Illusion, 37. /mporf, 47. Importance, 47. Immigration, 44. Impute, 90. /?/zpwgn,90. /mrwuie/i^71. Imperative, 74. Imperious, 74. Imiperatlve, sentence, 14; subject of , 15; punc- tuation of, 15; mode 193. Infinitive, defined, 203; forms of, 203; uses of, 204; uses of present and perfect, 207; punc- tuation of, 207; gerund, 211. Interrogative sentence, defined, 12; arrange- ment and punctuation of, 12. Interrogative pronouns, defined, 58; number of, 149; gender of, 150; case of, 154. Indefinite pronouns, defined, 59; number of, 149. Interjection , defined, 128 • parts of speech used as, 128 ; punctuation of, 128. Intransitive verbs, 80. Inflection , defined , 133 ; of nouns, 133 ; of pro- nouns, 149; of adjectives, 230; of verbs, 161;of adverbs, 236. Independent expressions, noun, 15, 237; infini- tive phrase, 204; participial phrase, 209. Independent clauses, defined , 21. 284 INDEX Inaugurate, 91. Insure, 90. Intend, 87. Investigate, 91. Inquire, 91. In, 120. Into, 121. Indolent, 74. Infections, 68. Irritating , 67. Kind of a, 64; kind with plural modifiers, 230. Last, 74. La^esi, 74. Lay, 194. Less, 74. Lengthy, 74. Lease, 90. Leave, 91. Lei, 90, 91. Lie and lay, distinguished, 194, Liable 67. Likely, 67. LxTce, 125. LileZj/, 99. Lie, 194. Limit, 48. Limitation, 48. Long, 74. Locate, 91. Masculine gender, 143. May, might, must, 192. iliac?, 75. Many, 75. Majority, 48. MirfdZe, 43 Migration, 44, Mistake, 47. ilfosf, 99. l/os%, 99. Mode, indicative, 187; subjunctive, 187; im- perative, 193. Muc/i. 75. Mutual, 75. A/'ew, 75. A/'ear,99. Neglect, 50. Nearly, 99. Negligence, 50. News, 50. Neither-nor, 123. Neuter gender, 144; of pronouns, 150. Nominative case, of pronouns, 153 ; uses of, 225. Nouns, common and proper class, 29; collec- tive, abstract, 30; number of, 133 ; gender of, 143; possessive forms of, 145; cane of, 154. Notable, 75. Notorious, 75. Novel, 75. Novice, 36. Novitiate, ^6. Niunber, of nouns, 133; of pronouns, 149: of verbs, 161; of adjectives, 230; agreement of verb and subject lu, 162. Number, 40. O and oh, distinguished, 129. Object, 79. Objective complement, 80. Objective case, of pronouns, 153; uses of, 225. Observation, 51. Ofeserm?ice, 51. Odd,7l. On, 121. Only, 98. Oral, 75. Or, 125. Ordinary,^!. Parenthesis, marks of, 258. Parts of speech, 28. Passive voice, 197. Past Participles, defined, 177; list of, 179. Past Tense, 168; use of, 169. Pair, 44. Party, 51. Part, 51. Patron, hi. Participles, defined, 200; use of, 209; participial phrase, 209; punctuation of, 210; confused with gerund, 211. Period, uses of, 246. Personal pronouns, defined, 58; number of, 149; gender of, 150; case of, 152; peison of. 155. Person, 51. INDEX 285 Persuade, 91. Phrase, defined, 17; prepositional, 107; adverb- ial, 107; adjective, 107; position and punc- tuation of prepositional phrase, 108. Pitiful, 75. Piliahle, 75. Plural number, defined, 133; rules for forming plural of nouns, 133 ; of pronouns, 149. Plea, 40. Plurality, 48. Plausible, lb. Positive degree, 230. Possessive, forms cf nouns, 145; case of i)ro- nouns, 153. Portion, 51. Predicate, defined, 9; compound, 18. Pronouns, defined, 57; uses of, 238; classifica- tion of, 57; antecedent of , 150; agreement •with antecedent, 158; number of, 149; gen- der of, 150; case of, 152; declension of, 155. Present tense, 168; uses of, 168. Prepositions, 106; words combined -with, 110; errors in the use of, 116; outline classifica- tion of, 119; omission of, 116; unnecessary use of, 117. Prepositional phrase, 106. Principal parts of verbs, 179. Proper adjectives, capitalization of, 63. Proper nouns, capitalization of, 29. Pretence, b\. Pretension, 51. Prind-palfbl. Principle, 51. Proposition, 51. Proposal, 51. Probably, 99. Practical, 75. Practicable, 75. Pretty, 72. Predominate, 76. Probable, 75. Prominent, 76. Predict, 91. Predicate, 91. Prescribe, 91. Proscribe, 91. Propose, 91. Punctuation, rules of, 216. Puerile, 68. Purpose, 91. Quantity, 40. Questions, directand indirect, 12; punctuation of, 12. Rai^e, 194. Relative pronouns, defined, 58; case of, 154; number of, 149; gender of, 150; antecedent of, 150. Response, A^Q. Reply, 40. Rest, 37. Remainder, 37. Requirement, 54. Requisite, 54. Requisition, 54. Relative, 54. Relationship, 54. Relation, 54. Reputation, 37. Relieve, 84. Repel, 91. Repulse, 91. Real, 99. Really, 99. Rise and raise, distinguished, 194 Rise, 194. Ride, 87. S-Form of verbs, 162. Semicolon, uses of, 249. Sentences, declarative, 9; interrogative, 12; im ; perative and exclamatory, 14; simple, 18- complex, 21; compound, 23. Sequence, of tenses, 185. Set and sit, distinguished, 194. Sewage, 54. Sewerage, 54. Series, 55. Secure, 90. Set, 194. Shall and will, use of, in independent clauses, 170; interrogative sentences, 170; other uses, 170, 171. Should and would, uses of, 173. Since, 125. Site, 54. Situation, 54. Sit, 194. Smaller, 74. Solicitude, 54. 286 INDEX Solicitation, 54. Some, 99. Soniewhat,^9 . Spectators, 36. Stupid, 71. Station, 44. Statement, il. Stimulus, 54. Stim-ulant, 5i. Stim.ulation, 54. Subject, of sentence, 9; compound, 18. Subjunctive mode, 187; of condition, 188; of desire, wish, or purpose, 189; of possibility or potentiality, 191. Superlative degree, 231; use of, 234. Succession, 55. Suspect, 91. Syllables, division of words, into, 273. Syllabication, 273.' Tense, explained, 168; uses of present, 168; uses of past, 168; uses of future, 168; se- quence of, 185. Testimony, 55. Think, m. Titles, abbreviations of, 275. Tidings, 50. To, 99. Too, 99. Transitive verbs, defined, 79; confused with intransitive verbs, 194. Two, 99. Verbs, explained, 79; transitive, 79; intransi- tive- 80: copulative and copula, 80, defin- ition of, 82; number and person of, 161; tense, 168; principal parts of, 179; parts, how formed, 178; regular and irregular, 178; auxi iary 177; voice of, 197; conjuga- tion of, 213; subject of, 225; agreement with subject, 162; infinitives and parti- ciples, 202; gerund, 203. Verbal, nouns, 211. Verdict, 55. Verbal, 75. Voice, defined, 197; active and passive, 197; passive, how formed, 198; regular and irregular passives, 198. Vocation, 40. Wake and awake, distinguished, 194. Wake, 194. Well, 99. When, 125. While, 125. Wholesome, 72. Will and shall, 171. With, 120. Would and should, 173. ^.0(.^^l.'' ■% KEY DENGLEE'S LESSONS AND EXEKCISES IN ENGLISH BY WALTER E. DENGLER THE H. M. ROWE CO. HABLEM SQUARE BALTIMORE, MD. PAGE 37— EXERCISE 10 ACCESS, ACCESSION, 1. access 2. accession 3. access 4. access 5. accession 6. access 7. access 8. access 9. accession AMATEUR, NOVICE, NOVITIATE, 1. novice 2. novitiate 3. amateurs 4. novice 5. amateurs 6. novice, novitiate 7. novitiate AUDIENCE, SPECTATORS, 1. audience 2. spectators 3. audience 4. spectators ALLUSION, ILLUSION, DELUSION, 1. illusions 2. illusion 3. allusions 4. delusions 5. delusion ADHERENCE, ADHESION, 1. adherence 2. adherence 3. adhesion 4. adhesion ACT, ACTION 1. act 2. action 3. act 4. acts 5. action 6. act ADVANCE, ADVANCEMENT, 1. advancement 2. advance 3. advance, advance- ment 4. advancement 5. advancement 6. advance BALANCE, REMAINDER, REST 1. remainder 2. balance 3. remainder 4. rest 5. rest CHARACTER, REPUTATION 1. reputation 2. character 3. reputation 4. reputation PAGE 41— EXERCISE 11 ABILITY, CAPACITY 1. ability 2. capacity 3. capacity, ability 1 4. ability 5. ability 6. ability AVOCATION, VOCATION 1. vocation 2. avocation 3. avocation 4. vocation 5. avocation, voca- tion 6. avocation AMOUNT, NUMBER, QUANTITY 1. number 2. quantity 3. number PAGE 42 4. amount 5. number 6. quantity 7. number 8. number, quantity 9. quantity 10. quantity 11. number ANSWER, RESPONSE, REPLY 1. answer 2. reply 3. response 4. answer, reply 5. answer ADMITTANCE, ADMISSION 1. admittance 2. admission 3. admission 4, admittance 3. compliments 3. deception 5. admission 4. complements 4. deceit ARGUMENT, COUNCIL, 5. 6. deception deception PLEA COUNSEL 1. plea 7. deceit 1. council 2. argument 2. counsel DEPOT, 3. argmnent 3. council STATION ASSERTION, 4. counsel 1, station STATEMENT 5. counsel 2. depot 1. assertion CUSTOM, 3. station 2. statement HABIT 4. depot 3. assertion 1. custom 5. station 4. assertion 2. habit EMIGRATION, 5. statement 3. custom, habit 7 IMMIGRATION, PAGE 43 4. custom MIGRATION ACCEPTANCE, COUPLE, 1. emigration ACCEPTATION PAIR 2. immigration 1. acceptance 1. couple 3. immigration 2. acceptance 2, pair 4. emigration 3. acceptation 3. pair 5. immigration 4. acceptation 4. couple 6. emigration 5. acceptation CONSCIENCE. 7. 8. emigration 6. acceptance CONSCIOUSNESS migration 7. acceptance 1. conscience PAGE 48— 8. acceptance 2. consciousness EXERCISE 13 PAGE 44— 3. consciousness EXERCISE 12 4. conscience ERROR, MISTAKE, CENTER, COMPLETION, BLUNDER MIDDLE ' COMPLETENESS 1. error 1. middle 1. completion 2. error 2. center 2. completeness 3. mistakes PAGE 45 PAGE 46 4. blunders 3. middle 3. completeness ENORMITY, 4. middle 4. completion ENORMOUSNESS 5. center 5. completion 1. enormousness COMPLIMENT, DECEPTION, 2. enormity COMPLEMENT DECEIT 3. enormousness 1. complement 1. deception 4. enormity 2. complement 2. deceit 5. enormousness ESTIMATION, PAGE 50 OBSERVANCE, ESTIMATE IDENTIFY, OBSERVATION 1. estimate IDENTIFICATION 1. observance 2. estimation 1. Identification 2. observation PAGE 49 2. 3. Identity Identification 3. 4. observance observation 3. estimation 5. observance 4. estimate LIMIT, 6. observation LIMITATION 7. observation FALSITY, FALSENESS 1. 2. limitation limits, limitation PARTY, 1. falseness, falsity 3. limitation PERSON 2. falseness 4. limitations 1. parties 3. falseness 5. limitations 2. person 4. falsity 6. limitation, limit 3. party 5. falsity 4. person 6. falseness MAJORITY, 5. parties PLURALITY 6. persons, party HESITATION, 1. majority 7. persons, party HESITANCY 2. plurality, major- 8. party 1. hesitation ity plurality, major- 2. hesitancy 3. PART, PORTION 3. hesitation ity 1. part 4. hesitancy 2. portion PAGE 51 IMPORT, EXERCISE 14 PAGE 53 IMPORTANCE NEGLECT, 3. parts 1. import NEGLIGENCE 4. part 2. importance 1. neglect, negli- o. part 3. importance gence 4. import PRETENSE, 5. importance PAGE 52 PRETENSION 6. importance 2. neglect 1. pretense 3. negligence 2. pretension INVENTION, 4. negligence 3. pretense DISCOVERY 5. neglect 4. pretense 1. discovery 6. neglect negligence 2. 3. inventions discovery 7. PATRON, CUSTOMER, 4. inventions NEWS, 1. customers 5. discovery TIDINGS 2. customers 6. discovered 1. news 3. patron 7. discovery, inven- 2. tidings 4. patrons tion 3. tidings 5. patron PRINCIPLE, PRINCIPAL 1. principal 2. principle 3. principal 4. principal, princi- ple 5. principle PROPOSITION, PROPOSAL 1 . proposal 2. proposition 3. proposition 4. proposals 5. proposal 6. proposal PAGE 55— EXERCISE 15 REQUIREMENT, REQUISITE, REQUISITIONS 1. requirements 2. requisites 3. requirement 4. requisite 5. requisition 6. requisition 7. requisites 8. requisites 9. requisitions RELATION, RELATIONSHIP, RELATIVE 1. relatives 2. relatives 3. relation 4. relationship 5. relation PAGE 56 6. relations 7. relatives SEWAGE, SEWERAGE 1. sewage 2. sewage 3. sewerage 4. sewerage 5. sewerage 6. sewage SITE, SITUATION 1. situation 2. site, situation 3. site 4. site 5. situation 6. situation SOLICITUDE, SOLICITATION 1. solicitation 2. solicitude 3. solicitude 4. solicitation 5. solicitude STIMULUS, STIMULANT, STIMULATION 1. stimulus 2. stimulant 3. stimulation 4. stimulant 5. stimulus 6. stimulant 7. stimulant PAGE 57 SERIES, SUCCESSION 1. series 2. succession 3. succession 4. succession 5. succession 4 TESTIMONY, EVIDENCE, VERDICT 1. testimony 2. verdict 3. evidence 4. testimony PAGE 68— EXERCISE 18 AVERAGE, ORDINARY 1. average 2. ordinary PAGE 69 3. average 4. average 5. ordinary APT, LIKELY, LIABLE 1. apt 2. apt 3. liable 4. likely 5. liable 6. apt 7. liable 8. likely AGGRAVATING, IRRITATING 1. irritating 2. irritating 3. aggravating 4. irritating BOUND, DETERMINED 1. determined 2. determined 3. determined 4. determined 5. l^ound CONTINUAL, CONTINUOUS 1. continuous 2. continual 3. continuous -i. continuous, con- tinual 0. continuous PAGE 70 (). continuous 7. continuous CHILDISH, CHILDLIKE, PUERILE 1. childish 2. childish 3. childlike 4. childlike 5. childishness 6. childlike 7. puerile CREDIBLE, CREDITABLE 1 . creditable 2. credible 3. creditable 4. credible 5. creditable BRAVE, COURAGEOUS 1. courageous 2. brave, courageous 3. brave 4. courageous CONTAGIOUS, INFECTIOUS 1. contagious 2. infectious 3. contagious, infec- tious 4. contagious CONTEMPTUOUS, CONTEMPTIBLE 1. contemptible 2. contemptuous 3. contemptible 4. contemptuous PAGE 72— EXERCISE 19 DECIDED, DECISIVE 1. decisive 2. decided 3. decisive 4. decisive 5. decided DEADLY, DEATHLY 1. deadly 2. deathly 3. deadly 4. deathly 5. deathly 6. deadly DESIROUS, ANXIOUS 1. anxious 2. anxious 3. desirous 4. desirous 5. anxious PAGE 73 DUMB, STUPID 1. dumb 2. stupid 3. dumb 4. dumb o. dumb EMINENT, IMMINENT 1. eminent 2. imminent 3. imminent 4. eminent 0. eminent EXTANT, EXISTING 1. extant 2. extant 3. extant 4. existing 5. existing FUNNY, ODD 1. odd 2. funny 3. odd 4. funny 5. odd HUMAN, HUMANE 1. human 2. human 3. human 4. humane HEALTHY, HEALTHFUL, WHOLESOME 1. wholesome 2. healthful PAGE 74 3. wholesome, heal- thy 4. healthy, whole- some, healthful 5. healthful IDEAL, BEAUTIFUL 1. beautiful 2. ideal 3. beautiful 4. beautiful 5. beautiful 6. beautiful PAGE 76— EXERCISE 2« IDLE, INDOLENT 1. idle, idolent 2. idle 3. idle, idolent 4. idle, idolent IMPERATIVE, IMPERIOUS 1. imperative 2. imperative, im- perious 3. imperious 4. imperative 5. imperative LATEST, LAST 1. latest 2. last 3. latest 4. latest 5. last LENGTHY, LONG 1. lengthy 2. long 3. lengthy 4. long 5. long PAGE 77 LESS, FEWER, SMALLER 1. fewer 2. fewer 3. less 4. fewer 5. smaller 6. less 7. fewer 8. fewer MAD, ANGRY 1. angry 2. mad 3. angry 4. mad 5. angry MUCH, MANY 1. many 2. many 3. much 4. many 5. much MUTUAL, COMMON 1. mutual 2. common 3. common 4. common NEW, NOVEL 1. novel 2. novel 3. new 4. new 5. new PAGE 78 NOTABLE, NOTORIOUS 1. notorious 2. notable 6 3. notorious 4. notable ORAL, VERBAL 1. oral 2. verbal 3. oral 4. verbal PITIABLE, PITIFUL 1. pitiful 2. pitiable 3. pitiable 4. pitiable 5. pitiable PRACTICABLE, PRACTICAL 1. practical 2. practicable 3. practicable 4. practicable 5. practical PROBABLE, PLAUSIBLE 1. plausible 2. plausible 3. probable 4. probable 5. probable PROMINENT, PREDOMINANT 1. predominant 2. prominent PAGE 79 3. prominent 4. prominent .5. prominent, pre- dominant PAGE 84— EXERCISE 22 ALLOW, THINK 1. allow 2. think 3. allow 4. think 0. allow 6. think PAGE 85 ACCEPT, EXCEPT 1. accept 2. excepted 3. accept 4. accept 0. except ACCREDIT, CREDIT 1. accredited 2. credit 3. credited 4. accredited 5. credited ARGUE, AUGUR 1. argue 2. augurs 3. argue 4. augurs 5. argue ADMIT, CONFESS 1. admit 2. confess 3. confess 4. admit 5. admits ALLEVIATE. RELIEVE 1. relieve 2. relieve 3. alleviated 4. relievo 5. alleviate PAGE 86 AFFECT, EFFECT 1. affect 2. effect, affect 3. affects 4. affected 5. effected 6. affected ADVERTISE, ADVISE 1. advise 2. advised 3. advertised 4. advertised 5. advise CONVINCE, CONVICT 1. convincing 2. convinced, con- vict 3. convince 4. convinced 5. convince CONVOKE, CONVENE 1. convened 2. convoked 3. convene 4. convene 5. convoked PAGE 88— EXERCISE 23 CONSTRUCT, CONSTRUE 1. constructed 2. construe 3. construe 4. constructs CALCULATE, INTEND 1. calculate 2. intend 3. intends 4. calculated 5. intend CAPTIVATE, CAPTURE 1. captivated 2. captured 3. captured 4. captured 5. captivates CARRY, BRING 1. carry 2. carry 3. bring 4. bring PAGE 89 DRIVE, RIDE 1. driving 2. driving 3. riding 4. ridden 5. ridden DISCLOSE, DISCOVER 1. discovered 2. disclose 3. disclosing 4. discovered DETEST, DISCRIMINATE 1. discriminate 2. detect 3. detect 4. detected 5. discriminate DOMINATE, HIRE, LET, LOCATE, FIND DOMINEER LEASE 1. found 1. dominate 1. let 2. found 2. dominate 2. lease • 3. located 3. domineer 3. let 4. found 4. domineers 4. hired ^ let PURPOSE, DEPRECIATE, o. ■ 6. let PROPOSE DEPRECATE 1. deprecated 2. depreciate 3. depreciate 4. depreciate 1. 2. IMPUTE, IMPUGN impute impugning 1. purpose 2. purpose 3. propose 4. purpose 5. proposed DEMAND, ASK 3. impugned 4. imputed PREDICT, 1. demanded x^ PREDICATE 2. asked INSURE, 1. predicted PAGE 90 3. demand 4. demanded SECURE 2. predicated 1. 2. 3. insured secured secure 3. predicts 4, predicted ELICIT, 4. secure PRESCRIBE, ELIMINATE 5. insured PROSCRIBE 1. elicits 1. proscribed 2. eliminate INVESTIGATE, 2. proscribed 3. elicit INQUIRE 3. prescribed 4. eliminate 1. inquired 2. investigated PAGE 94 EXPOSE, EXPOUND 3. investigated 4. prescribed 1. expounded PAGE 93 5. prescribed 2. expounded 3. exposed 4. 5. inquire investigate PERSUADE, ADVISE 4. expound 1. advised, persuadr 5. expose LET, LEAVE 2, persuaded PAGE 92— 1. leave 3. advised EXERCISE 24 2. leave 4. advice 3. let ESTIMATE, 4. let REPULSE, REPEL ESTEEM 5. let, leave 1. repelled 1. esteemed 6. let 2. repulsed 2. esteemed 7. let 3 .repelled 3. estimated 8. let 4. repel 4. estimate 9. leave o. repulsed SUSPECT, EXPECT, ANTICIPATE, INAUGURATE 1. anticipate 2. suspect 3. inaugurated 4. expect 5. anticipate 6. expect 7. expect 8. anticipated 9. expect PAGE 100— EXERCISE 26 ALONE, ONLY 1. alone 2. only 3. only 4. alone 5. alone 6. only 7. alone 8. only 9. only 10. only FIRST, SECOND, SECONDLY, ETC. 1. first, second 2. first, second 3. first, second, third 4. first, secondly, thirdly 5. secondly 6. first, second, third 7. first, secondly 8. first, second GOOD, WELL 1. good 2. well 3. well PAGE 101 4. well 5. well 6. well 7. well, good 8. well 9. good, well 10. well LIKELY, PROBABLY 1. probably 2. likely 3. likely 4. probably 5. likely 6. probably 7. likely 8. probably 9. likely 10. probably MOST, ALMOST 1. almost 2. almost 3. almost 4. most 5. almost 6. almost 7. almost 8. almost 9. most 10. almost NEAR, NEARLY 1. nearly 2. near 3. nearly 4. nearly 5. nearly 6. nearly PAGE 102 7. near, nearly 8. nearly 9 9. nearly 10. nearly REAL, REALLY 1. real 2. real 3. real 4. really 5. really 6. really 7. really 8. really 9. really, real 10. really SOME, SOMEWHAT 1. somewhat 2. somewhat 3. somewhat 4. some 5. somewhat 6. somewhat 7. somewhat 8. somewhat 9. somewhat 10. somewhat TOO, TWO, TO 1. too 2. too 3. too 4. too 5. two 6. too 7. too PAGE 103 8. too 9. too 10. too 11. to 12. to PAGE 104— E: XERGISE 27 MODIFIED MODIFIERS WORDS 35. 36. do decide run quickly fast MODIFIED MODIFIERS 37. write occasionally 1. return quickly 38. send direct, directly 2. flashed vividly 39. was sailing slowly 3. raise quickly 40. dangerous terribly 4. was washed badly 41. well tolerably 5. shone brightly 42. write more plainly 6. disappeared suddenly 43. have been ir t- 7. sang joyously formed wrongly 8. was sleeping soundly 44. I free 9. were alarmed seriously 45. walk quietly 10. successful uncommonly 46. acted independently 11. speak distinctly 47. was prepared ill 12. read rapidly 48. raging furiously 13. runs quietlj' 49. orange sour 14. must be writ -,- 50. worked gallantly ten neatly 51. was done easily 15. she beautiful 52. bayed loudly 16. voice harsh 53. cold exceedingly 17. are doing nicely 54. Melba, sang beautiful, 18. it bad sweetly 19. feel badly 55. heavy tolerably 20. velvet smooth 56. can do surely 21. roses sweet 57. concise remarkably 22. place different 58. suffered terribly 23. speak slowly, 59. is done ill distinctly 60. good decidedly 24. are feeling well 61. was managed badly 25. John bad 62. speak quietly 26. arrange alphabetically 63. sit quiet, quietly 27. breathes freely 64. writes well 28. low remarkably 65. stars cold 29. is reduced considerably 66. fits well 30. considered favorably 67. wind cold 31. good remarkably 68. I bashful 32. was managed successfully 69. we safe, sound 70. man awkward 33. PAGE 105 should have PAGE 106 explained definitely 71. fruit, it good, bad 34. arrange chronologically 72. 10 matters bad MODIFIED MODIFIERS MODIFIED MODIFIERS 73. voice strange 82. warrior fierce 74. he silent 83. burns brightly 75. bells harsh 84. harsh decidedly 76. ran smoothly 85. beautiful remarkably 77. ran smoothly 86. load carefully 78. looked cold 87. flowed rapidly 79. looked coldly 88. spoke warmly 80. behave properly 89. voice different 81. acted wildly 90. arrived safely PAGE 113^ 29. by 59. in, at EXERCISE 29 30. 1 of 31- of to PAGE 116 X • XJM. 2. to 32. on 60. from, by 3. by 33. with 61. against, from 34. at 62. with, to PAGE 114 4. to PAGE 115 63. 64. with, against of, at 5. of 35. by 65. with, to 6. of 36. from 66. of, in 7. on 37. with 67. on, in 8. in 38. in 68. on, to 9. of 39. to 69. at, in, on 10. of 40. of 70. for, for 11. with 41. to 71. on, for 12. to 42. with, at 72. about, for 13. for 14. to 15. by 43. 44. 45. with by, with to PAGE 121— EXERCISE 31 16. for 46. to AMONG, 17. with, to 47. from BETWEEN 18. on 48. from 1. between 19. one 49. with 2. among 20. with 21. with 22. from 50. 51. 52. in to, with over, with 3. 4. 5. among among among 23. for 53. in, at 6. between 24. of 25. with 54. 55. with, to for, for, for 7. among 26. of 56. of, over , of AT, IN 27. with 57. of, in 1. at 28. with 58. on 11 2. in 3. in 4. at 5. at 6. at, in BESIDE, BESIDES 1. beside 2. besides 3. beside 4. besides 5. beside PAGE 122 BY, WITH 1. by 2. with 3. with 4. by 5. by 6. with 7. with 8. with 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. IN, INTO into in into, in into into into into into IN, ON 1. on 2. in 3. on 4. on 5. on, in 6. on PAGE 125— EXERCISE 32 1. although 2. and 3. consequently 4. or PAGE 126 5. therefore 6. and 7. and 8. and 9. but 10. unless 11. if 12. but 13. but 14. and 15. although 16. since 17. therefore 18. although 19. although 20. until 21. before 22. since 23. as 24. because 25. because 26. and, and 27. or 28. although 29. because 30. but 31. if PAGE 151— EXERCISE 42 1. that 2. who 3. that 4. that 5. that 6. who 7. who 8. that 9. that 10. who 11. that 12. who 13. who 14. that 15. who 16. who 17. that 18. who 19. what 20. who 21. that 22. who 23. that 24. that 25. that PAGE 152 26. that, which 27. that 28. that 29. that 30. which 31. that 32. that 33. that 34. what 35. who 36. that 37. that 38. that 39. what 40. what 41. as 42. as 43. that 44. that 45. as 12 fAfJb. 160— EXEK LCISE 44 ANTECEDENT PRONOUN ANTECEDENT PRONOUN 37. person his 1. 2. everybody poverty and wealth his their 38. 39. 40. no one each of the girls envy and hatred his her their 3. neither his 41. any one he 4. 5. any one classmate and him, his 42. 43. man lady and his companion his gentleman their, his 6. everybody himself or her 7. each he 44. member his 8. steamer, train its 45. city, village, farm I its 9. James or William his 46. Joseph and 10. 11. elephant everyone his his 47. Benjamin Henry and James their their 12. husband and father his 48. Henry or James his 13. each his PAGE 166— EXERCISE 45 14. 15. bat beaver its his SUBJECT VERB 16. committee its 1. nothing was 17. dog his 2. food was 18. officer and soldier his o army was 19. everybody himself 4. committee is 20. person his 5. three-fourths were 21. one one 6. three-fourths is 22. child its 7. you were 23. fox his 8. desire and ambi- 24. spring her tion is 25. person his 9. one is 26. each of the men his 10. you are 27. truth she 11. persons are 28. tree its 12. number were 29. news it 13. data are 30. each of the women I her 14. either was . 31. boy or girl he or she 15. memoranda were 32. man his 16. neither • was 33. person his 17. one was 34. everyone his 18. class is PAGE 161 19. 20. horse five hundred was 35. workman his dollars is 36. shears thej' 21. jury was 13 SUBJECT VERB SUBJECT VERB 22. jury were 51. James nor Henry was 23. pen, ink and 52. James or Henrj'^ was paper are 53. girls come 24. committee were 54. three hundred 25. two dollars is dollars was 26. two hours is 55. dog is 27. scissors are 56. dog are 28. everyone is 57. hat and coat are 29. you were 58. number were 30. public is 59. number was 31. nation is 60. that are 32. men were 61. who were 33. money was 62. one times three is 34. interest is 63. two times two is 35. wages is 64. boys come 36. father and mother ■ are 65. that overlook 37. every one is 66. that overlooks 38. class are 67. that were 39. power and 68. that are influence are 69. one times six is PAGE WJ 7 70. 71. riches care, money, time are was 40. variety of flowers were 72. sound was 41. others seem 73. they are 42. ideas seem 74. two times three is 43. girl comes 75. twice as much is 44. persons were 76. book, paper was 45. 46. two son were was PAGE 168 1 47. problem was 77. pupils are 48. James was 78, teacher is 49. James was 79. he is 50. James was 80. I am PAGE 171— 5. shall 11. shall EXERCISE 46 6. shall 7. will 12. 13. will will 1. SHALL, WILL will PAGE 172 14. 15. shall shall 2. will 8. shall 16. shall 3. shall 9. shall 17. shall 4. shall 10. shall 18. shall 14 19. will PAGE 174r— 39. should 20. shall, will EXERCISE 47 40. would 21. will 41. should 22. shall SHOULD, WOULD 42. should, would 23. shall 1. should 43. would 24. shall 2. should 44. should 25. shall 3. should 45. would 26. shall 4. would 46. should 27. will 5. would 47. should, would 28. shall 6. should 48. would, would 29. will 7. would 49. should 30. shall 8. should. should 50. would, should 31. will, will 9. would, should 51. should 32. shall 10. would 33. shall 11. would, 1 should PAGE 189— 34. will 12. should. should EXERCISE 50 35. shall 13. would 1. were 36. shall 14. should PAGE 190 37. shall 15. should. would I 38. shall 16. should. would 2. be 39 shall 17. should, should 3. swears 40. shall 18. would 4. hunger 41. will 19. should 5. is 20. should 6. fail PAGE 173 21. would 7. were 42. shall 22. would 8. were 43. will 23. would 9. be 44. will 24. would 10. was 45. will 25. would 11. be 46. shall 26. should. should 12. slay 47. shall 27. should 13. study 48. will, shall 14. were 49. shall PAGE 175 15. were 50. shall 28. would 16. were 51. will 29. should 17. were 52. will 30. would 18. were 53. will 31. should 19. seems 54. shall 32. would 20. be 55. shall 33. should 21. be 56. will 34. would 22. were 57. shall 35. should 23. be 58. will, shall 36. would 24. were 59. shall 37. should. would 25. am 60. shall 38. should 26. were 15 27. be 28. were 29. were 30. were 31. come 32. rain 33. was 34. were 35. rains 36. return 37. pay 38. were 39. be 40. were 41. suspects PAGE 191 42. were 43. were 44. were 45. were 46. surprise 47. were 48. were 49. die 50. bring 51. tell 52. were 53. were 54. be 55. were 56. be 57. were 58. were 59. oppress 60. were PAGE 194— EXERCISE 52 SIT, SET 1. sat 2. sit 3. sat PAGE 195 PAGE 196 4. sat 7. lay 5. set 8. lay 6. sit 9. lie 7. sat 10. lay 8, sitting 11. lay 9. set 12. laid 10. sit 13. lay 11. sat 14. lay 12. set 15. lain 13. setting 16. lie 14. sets 17. lying 15. sit 18. lay 16. sat 19. lay 17. sat 20. laid 18. sat 21. laying 19. sat 22. lying 20. sitting 23. lie 21. sat, set 24. lying 22. set 25. lay 23. sitting 26. lay 24. setting 27. lain 25. sit 28. lie 26. sitting 29. lay 27. sitting 30. lain 28. set 31. laid 29. sit 32. lies, or lay 30. set, sits 33. laid 31. sit 32. sat 33. sitting, setting RISE, RAISE 34. sit 1. risen 35. sitting 2. rose 3. rising LIE, LAY 4. raise 5. rise 1. lay 6. risen 2. laid 7. raised 3. lie, lay 8. rise 4. lain 9. rise 5. lain 10. rose 6. lie 11. raised 16 PAGE 197 19. his PAGE 227 20. student's 12. rises 13. rise 21. his WE, us. OURSELVES 22. man 14. rose . 23. man's 1. us 15. rise 24. our 2, we AWAKE, WAKE 25. your, your 3. us 1. awoke 4. we 2. woke PAGE 226— 5. we 3. waked LESSON 59 6. we 4. awake I, ME, MYSELF 7. us 5. awaked 1. me 8. we 6. awoke 2. I 9. we 7. awaked 3. I 10. we 8. woke 4. I 11. we 9. awoke, woke 5. I 12. us 10. awoke 6. I 13. we 1 1 . woke 7. me 14. us 12. awoke 8. I 15. us 13. woke 9. me 16. us 14. woke 10. me 17. us 15. wake 11. I 18. us 12. me 19. we PAGE 212— 13. I 20. ourselves EXERCISE 57 14. I 21. ourselves 1. my 15. I 22. we 2. king's 16. I 23. we 3. your 17. me 24. we 4. my 18. I 25. we 5. his 19. me 6. our SHE, HER, 20. me / ' ^ HERSELF /. man 21. I 8. woman 22. I 1. she 9. his 23. me 2. she 10. him 24. me 3. she 11. his 25. I 4. she 12. his 26. me 5. her 13. his 27. I 6. she 14. robber's 28. me 7. she 15. your 29. me 8. she 16. his 30. me 9. her 17. his 31. myself 10. her 18. your 32. myself 11. her 17 PAGE 228 12. she 13. her 14. she 15. she 16. she 17. she 18. her 19. her 20. her HE, HIM, HIMSELF 1. him 2. he 3. he 4. he 5. he 6. him 7. he 8. he 9. him 10. him 11. himself 12. he, himself 13. he 14. him 15. him 16. he 17. him 18. he 19. him 20. him THEY, THEM, THEMSELVES 1. they 2. them 3. they 4. them 5. them 6. they 7. they 8. they PAGE 229 9. them 10. them 11. they 12. they 13. them 14. they, themselves 15. they WHO, WHOM, WHOEVER, WHOMEVER 1. who 2. whom 3. whom 4. who 5. whom 6. who, or whoever 7. whom 8. who 9. whom 10. whom 11. whom 12. who 13. whomever 14. who 15. whom 16. whom 17. who 18. whom 19. whom 20. whom 21. whom 22. who 23. who 24. whom 25. whom 26. whom 27. who 28. whom 29. whom 30. whom 31. whom, or whom- ever PAGE 230 32. whomever 33. whom 34. who 35. whom 36. whom 37. who 38. whom 39. who 40. who 41. whom 42. who 43. who 44. whom 45. who 18 THE WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE, UoS. 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