THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTING AS AN ART A HANDBOOK OF THE EXHIBITION IN HONOR OF THE BI-CENTENARY OF FRANK- LIN'S BIRTH HELD AT THE BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE SOCIETY OF PRINTERS PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY, NUMBER U BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS JANUARY 1 TO 29, 1906 LECTURES ON PRINTING 'o he given in the Lecture H^ll of the Boston Public Library {Boylston Street Entrance) on Thursday e'vertingSy at eight o'clock January 4 What Constitutes Style in Printing By C. HOWARD WALKER January 11 Benjamin Franklin: the Printer By LINDSAY SWIFT February i Illumination and its Relation to Book Decoration By WILLIAM DANA ORCUTT March I Influences for the Advancement of Printing By henry turner BAILEY April 5 Decorative Printing By henry lewis JOHNSON THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTING AS AN ART iiS-/"? JOHN HENRY NASH THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTING AS AN ART A HANDBOOK OF THE EXHIBITION IN HONOR OF THE BI-CENTENARY OF FRANK- LIN'S BIRTH HELD AT THE BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE SOCIETY OF PRINTERS 31 PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY, NUMBER II BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS JANUARY 1 TO 29, 1906 Copyrighty igo6 By The Society of Printers THE SOCIETY OF PRINTERS FOR THE STUDY AND ADVANCEMENT OF THE ART OF PRINTING OFFICERS AND COUNCIL PRESIDENT WILLIAM DANA ORCUTT VICE-PRESIDENT BRUCE ROGERS SECRETARY HENRY LEWIS JOHNSON TREASURER J. ALBERT BRIGGS HENRY TURNER BAILEY GEORGE FRENCH D. B. UPDIKE C. H. HEINTZEMANN C. HOWARD WALKER EXHIBITION COMMITTEES Manuscripts and Incunabula WILLIAM DANA ORCUTT LINDSAY SWIFT WINTHROP AMES Modem Books BRUCE ROGERS D. B. UPDIKE Commercial Printing HENRY LEWIS JOHNSON J. ALBERT BRIGGS Processes in Illustration ARTHUR ALLEN T. B. HAPGOOD, JR. SIDNEY A. KIMBER Paper JOHN ALDEN LEE ROGER DAY SMITH Hand-Book and Labels EDWIN T. STIGER ALLEN M. SUMNER Descriptive Lectures WILLIAM DANA ORCUTT F. A. WHITING HENRY TURNER BAILEY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/developmentofpriOOsocirich THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTING AS AN ART This Exhibition is made by the Society of Printers, Boston, in connection with the celebration of the two hundredth anniversary of the birth of Benjamin Franklin. It is planned on lines differing from any which has been held heretofore. There have been in- teresting and important exhibitions of books and book- bindings under the auspices of various clubs and literary organizations, and general displays of contemporaneous work at the Columbian, Pan-American, and Louisiana Purchase Expositions. The present active interest in printing is such that this exhibition, arranged upon definite and comprehensive lines, has been determined upon. The general purpose is to arrange exhibits in definite sequence, beginning with manuscripts and in- cunabula, showing the evolution from the written to the printed book, together with a few examples of printing representative of the centuries which followed, illus- trating the development in types, format, and other features. This leads naturally to a carefully chosen display in modern printing, and progressive processes showing how illustrations and paper are made. These are displayed in proper sequence, carefully numbered and labelled, so that the visitor can understand and follow the meaning of each example. The interest and educational value of the exhibits will be greatly strengthened by following them with this Handbook, which contains a running synopsis, showing the bearing which each exhibit has upon the Development of Printing as an Art. Dept. A, No. x] THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MAKING OF EARLY BOOKS Xhe MSS. and early printed books exhibited are not intended to comprise a representative collection of the work of the old-time scribes and master printers, but rather to show the influence which the making of books during these periods has exerted upon modern book- making. It is a common impression that the Art of Printing dates from Gutenberg, and that it sprang "fully armed, like Minerva, from the brow of Jove." In reality the printed book was an evolution from the written book, and for that reason one should begin by studying the conditions and tendencies of the century which preceded Gutenberg in order to understand what influences necessitated Gutenberg's practical application of the marvellous latent power of movable types, which the Greeks and the Romans, the Chinese and the Koreans, had failed to appreciate. The examples of German printing, which are the earliest known, were immediately surpassed in excel- lence by the work executed in Italy, then the home of scholarship, whither the German printers naturally carried it. It is Italy, therefore, which exerted the first great influence in the Development of Printing as an Art, and the exhibition begins with books produced in this country. THE WRITTEN BOOK Department A, No. i, is a small Book of Hours, hand-written upon uterine parchment (the skin of still- born kids), by a Humanistic scribe. Its school repre- sents the highest point of perfection ever reached in hand-lettering. Its date is about 1485, — after the date of the invention of printing. One would naturally suppose that the art of hand- lettering would decline upon the introduction of the PRINTING A6 AN ART [Dept. A, No. » new art, but as a matter of fact illumination and hand- lettering received a tremendous impetus from the oppo- sition of the wealthy patrons of MS. books to the new discovery. Until Gutenberg, the possession of libraries was confined to the rich, and to their minds to have books become common meant the degradation of book- making and danger to the State : degrading because these wealthy patrons were true lovers of literature and regarded the gems of thought as the most precious of all gems, and far too precious to be put before the world in a cheapened form ; dangerous because they foresaw that the printed book would place science and literature in the hands of the masses, that it would make men think and argue and gain self-reliance from their new intellectual development. The opposition of these wealthy patrons took the form of an increased encouragement of the scribes and illuminators. The great Humanistic movement which had swept over the world, preparing it for the Renais- sance which was to follow, released the Classics from the ban which the Church had placed upon them. Until then libraries were made up chiefly of religious books. The patrons, therefore, at the time of Gutenberg's dis- covery, encouraged the scribes and illuminators by ordering written copies of the Classics to such an ex- tent that hand-lettering, as an art, reached its highest point of perfection. Dept. A, No. 2, is a reproduction of an illuminated Italian manuscript of the fifteenth century. The text is the Humanistic hand-lettering, the same school as is shown in Dept. A, No. i, though by a different hand; and the ornamentation is of the highest class. The most characteristic feature is the interlaced white-vined tendril design, standing out in seeming relief upon a ground of blue, green, and pink, this style being, in a measure, a revival of that of the twelfth century. Note the introduction of the coat-of-arms and figures of birds. 3 Dkpt. a, No. 3] THE DEVELOPMENT OF The multitude of small-rayed golden discs is said to have been a favorite design of Lorenzo de Medici, whose patronage of art and letters at this period was munificent. Dept. A, No. 3, is a Latin Choir Book of the same period. Here the illumination is in pen and ink. The solids are painted in. The red ink is made of minium and the blue of crushed lapis-lazuli stone. The style of lettering is Gothic. From this style have been cut the best Gothic type-faces of to-day. ^he Written Book — Summary of Exhibits No. I. Book of Hours, in Humanistic hand- lettering. Date, about 1485. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 2. St. Augustine, "de Civitate Dei." Repro- duction of an illuminated Italian MS. of the XV century. Illuminator and scribe unknown. Date, 1484. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 3. Latin Choir Book, in Gothic hand- lettering, illuminated in blue and red. Date, about 1480. Lent by the Harvard College Library {Norton Collection), THE SUPREMACY OF ITALY, 1470-1530 When the wealthy patrons found that they could not suppress the new invention of printing, they endeavored to effect a compromise. They arranged with the printer to leave a large square blank for the initial, and wide margins, so that the illuminator could decorate the page with gorgeous ornamentation. An example of this is shown in PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. A, Nos. 4-6 Dept. A, No. 4. This shows a reproduction of a page of an early printed book in which the wealthy patron (in this case Ludovico Sforza il Moro) sought to overwhelm the printed page by the magnificence of the illuminator's art. The volume from which this is taken was printed in Milan in 1490 by Antonio Zarotto, of Parma. The name of the illuminator is unknown, but he must have been one of the best of the Milanese school. The work of the early Italian printers shows that in cutting their types they adopted the restored book- hand, imitated from the MSS. of the time of Charle- magne, which had come into use in Italy at the end of the previous century. But it was in Venice, whither Nicolas Jenson came from France about 1470, that this Roman type attained its greatest beauty. An example of this is shown in Dept. A, No. 5, which is one of the earliest books Jenson printed (1470). The design and cut of the letters, and the paper, which is almost vellum, combine to produce a superb volume. The presswork does not run as evenly as in the next exhibit. Jenson's Gothic type, which also became famous, is shown in Dept. A, No. 6. This volume was printed in 1475. It shows careful typography, excellent presswork, and ink and paper which have successfully stood the test of over four centuries. Aldus Manutius, whose name is perhaps best known after that of Gutenberg, established a press in Venice in 1490. He cut no less than nine varieties of Greek type and fourteen of Roman letters. He designed the first font of Italic (so named because originated in Italy), said to be based upon Petrarch's pecuHar form of hand- writing. He was an ardent Humanist, and he wished 5 Dkpt. A, Nos. 7-8] THE DEVELOPMENT OF to make his books accessible to the people. To accom- plish this he issued a pocket series of Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, beautifully made, which sold at the equivalent of fifty cents each. He was among the first to print on parchment, and did much to improve the quality of paper. Dept. A, No. 7, shows perhaps the most famous book which issued from Aldus' press. It was printed in 1499, in his most beautiful Roman font, the typog- raphy and presswork, combining woodcuts and letter- press, being particularly noteworthy. The ending of the chapter, approaching the half-diamond formation, the spacing of the capital letters below, the initial letter and the first line in capitals, on the left-hand page shown, evince great thought and care in the composition. Dept. A, No. 8, is another production of the Aldine Press in the same year, 1499. Note the blank space left for the illuminator. There are no regular folios, but at the foot of the last page of each signature is a catch- word, or richiamoy for the guidance of the binder, in this case"IVLII." ^he Supremacy of Italy y i^yo-i^jo — Summary of Exhibits No. 4. La Historia delle cove facte dallo in- victissimo Duca Francesco Sforza. Printed by Antonio Zarotto, of Parma, in Milan in 1490. Illuminator unknown. Reproduction of a page showing effort to overshadow the printing by the illumination. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers. No. 5. Eusebius Pamphili de evangelica. Printed by Nicolas Jenson in Venice in 1470, showing the best Roman face of the period. Lent by William G. Shillaber^ Esq, 6 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dkpt. A, Nos. 9-10 No. 6. Augustinus Aurel. de Civitate Dei. Printed by Nicolas Jenson in Venice, in 1475, showing one of the best Gothic types of the period. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers. No. 7. Hypnerotomachia Poliphili. Printed by Aldus Manutius in Venice in 1499. The most famous of Venetian illustrated books. Lent by the Harvard College Library {Norton Collection). No. 8. Julius Firmicus Maternus. Printed by Aldus Manutius in Venice in 1499. Shows his best Roman face. Lent by the Harvard College Library {Norton Collection). THE SUPREMACY OF FRANCE, 1 530-1 570 To understand the direction given to the press in France at this period, we must remember that two principal influences operated upon it simultaneously, but not in the same way. These two influences were identical with those which gave Italy her earlier pre- eminence which had passed from her to France with the death or downfall of her noble patrons : namely, the demand of the public and the patronage of the Court. Francis I. of France successfully exerted his patronage to develop the material beauty and splendor of books. Grolier was encouraged to bind, and Robert Stephens (or Estienne) to print. A magnificent Greek type was cast at the cost of the royal treasury. When a sumptuary law prohibited gilding in houses and fur- niture, book-binding was by a special clause exempted from its operation. All that promoted that exterior luxe which the French " Librairie " has always courted, — the expanse of margin, the thick wove paper, and brilliant types, — that was the idea which the master of 7 Dept. A, Nos. 9-IO] THE DEVELOPMENT OF Rosso and Cellini formed of his patronate of letters. The magnificence of the Revival has left its mark be- hind it in the Greek editions which issued from the press of Robert Stephens, " printer to the king." On the other hand, the spirit of curiosity, which had arisen among the public, made far other demands upon the press. It wanted to learn. It desired books not to place in a cabinet, but to read, in order to know. As in Italy, it wanted to know, first and foremost, the truth in the matter of religion ; next, to know the cause and remedies of moral and material evils, by which the people felt themselves crushed. But .the press as the medium of knowledge was not the press which the gov- ernment of Francis I. would encourage. This is why some historians invoke this monarch as the Father of Letters, the Maecenas of the Arts, while others brand him as a bigot and a persecutor. The truth is that Francis I. was both these at once. Emulous of the credit which the Italian princes had acquired by their patronage of art, he munificently encouraged letters and learned men. He would have his own printer and his own type, which should give editions that would eclipse anything that had been done in Italy. Yet he would annihilate the art of printing sooner than allow it to become a vehicle of opinion. Hence the senseless edict of 13 January, 1534, by which the Protector of Letters forbade any printer to print anything whatever without the royal license, under pain of death. In 1526 Robert Stephens came into possession of the printing establishment founded by his father in Paris. Between that date and 1559, when he died, not a year elapsed in which he did not turn out several volumes, some of them treasures of art, all of them far surpassing anything that had been before seen in France. Some- times it was a pocket Greek Testament in minion let- ters, yet as clear as the largest pica, sometimes a Bible in three massive folios, with notes and various readings ; 8 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. A, Nos. 9-10 sometimes an " editio princeps " of a Greek classic, or an entirely new Latin lexicon. It must be remembered that in most of these publications the modest imprint on the title conceals instead of proclaims the part which ought to be credited to himself. He was at once printer, corrector, publisher, author. The examples of Stephens* work is shown in Dept. A, No. 9. This is a copy of Cicero's " Epis- tolae," printed in Paris in 1538. By this time books had titlepages, and printers were required by law to place their imprints upon them. The Stephens mark, originated by Henry (I) and made famous by his son Robert and his grandson Henry (II), was an olive-tree with spreading boughs and the motto, " Noli altum sapere sed time." This appears upon the titlepage of this volume. The type is almost an exact copy of Aldus' best Roman font. Folios are employed. Dept. A, No. 10. The Stephens Press commissioned Angel o Vergecio to design and Garamond, the first French engraver of the day, to cut the Greek fonts which became famous as the " Royal Greeks.'* The second exhibit shows a volume printed in this type, which is particularly important, as it fixed the forrti which the Greek press all over Europe followed for more than two centuries. The imprint bears the names of Charles Stephens, a brother of Robert, and a physi- cian, who had taken nominal possession of the property when Robert fled to Geneva to escape the persecution of the Sorbonne. Henry (II) Stephens, son of Robert, continued his father's business in Geneva, his most famous work being his " Thesaurus " in five volumes, which proved his financial ruin. Dipt. A, No. ii] THE DEVELOPMENT OF ^he Supremacy of France ^ 1530-1^70 — Summary of Exhibits No. 9. M. Tullii Ciceronis Epistolae. Printed by Robert Stephens in Paris in 1538. Lent by the Harvard College Library. No. 10. AnniANOT AAEHANAPEHS PHMAIKHN. Printed by Charles Stephens in Paris in 1551. Shows the " Royal Greeks." Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, THE SUPREMACY OF BELGIUM, 1 570-1600 The name of Christophe Plantin (1514-1581) stands out pre-eminently at the end of the sixteenth century. The early volumes which came from his press are dis- tinguished for their accuracy, beautiful workmanship, and finish. The most noted is the "Biblia Polyglotta," Dept. A, No. II (8 vols., 1569-1573), which was printed at Antwerp under the special supervision of Arias Montanus, Court Chaplain of Philip II. of Spain. This was not a financial success, and Plantin turned to cheaper work in his later volumes. 'The Supremacy of Belgium, i^y 0-1600 — Summary of Exhibits No. II. Biblia Polyglotta, Vol. I. Printed by Christophe Plantin in Antwerp in 1569. Lent by the Boston Public Library. THE SUPREMACY OF HOLLAND, 1 600-1 700 Henry Stephens' death marked the decline of good printing in France, and for the next one hundred and thirty years there was nothing to equal the standard of work already set. This condition of affairs is per- 10 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dkpt. A, Nos. 12-14 haps better understood when one remembers that the experience of the printing presses so far was a warning that an ambition to execute the best work led to cer- tain commercial failure. Sweynheim and Pannartz had ruined themselves by Greek. The Aldine Press had been saved from bankruptcy only by the intervention of Paul IV. The market for learned books was limited in point of numbers, and still more limited in respect to means. The scholars were few and they were poor. Public libraries did not exist. A book, no matter what its size, must be sold for a small sum, if it was to be sold at all. Plantin of Antwerp was almost brought to ruin by his " Polyglott," but he retrieved himself by meaner publications, and died rich. Many of the books of this period are printed upon Swiss unbleached paper, which was less expensive than the French and ItaUan ; and the types were worn down almost to the bone. Out of this deluge of poor printing which appeared from 1570— 1700 the work of Bonaventura and Abraham Elzevir stands out in greater relief because of the con- trast. The Elzevirs first became known in Holland as book-binders in 1540, but it was not until 16 17 that Isaac Elzevir set up his first printing press, which may be considered as the beginning of the Elzevir work. The twenty-six years which followed the purchase of this press were for the Elzevirs years of glory and success. The early books produced were by no means masterpieces, but following their work, step by step, we find them to have reached the summit of their excellence in the " Caesar," the " Terence," and the "Pliny" of 1635. The question as to who was the maker of the type punches used by the Elzevirs has caused much discus- sion, and has never been definitely determined ; but it is known that the engraver was a Dutchman named Christopher Van Dyke. Dbpt. A, Nos. 12-14] THE DEVELOPMENT OF The examples of work from the Elzevir Press are as follows : — Dept. A, No. 12. A copy of " Italiae Hodiernae," containing excellent maps of the various Italian cities, with description in Latin. This volume was printed by Bonaventura and Abraham Elzevir, in Leyden, in 1627. The cut of the type, the presswork, and partic- ularly the paper, are very inferior, but the engraving of the maps shows much more skilful workmanship. Dept. A, No. 13. This is a copy of the 1635 Terence which brought the Elzevirs to the height of their fame. In this example will be noted the evident inferiority of the ink, but the typography, the presswork (in two colors), and the general format mark a distinct and interesting superiority to the work of other printers of the period. Dept. A, No. 14. This little copy of John Owen's " Epigrams ** was printed at the Elzevir Press in 1647. It is in the smaller size volumes that the work of the Elzevirs shows to best advantage, but even in this will be noticed inferiority in presswork, ink, and paper, although the composition itself shows considerable thought. ^he Supremacy of Holland^ 1600-1'/ 00 — Summary of Exhibits No. 12. Italiae Hodiernae. Printed by Bona- ventura and Abraham Elzevir in Leyden in 1627. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 13. Pub. Terentii Comoediae Sex. Printed by Bonaventura and Abraham Elzevir in Leyden in 1635. No. 14. Owen (J.) " Epigrammatum.'' Printed by Bonaventura and Abraham Elzevir in Leyden in 1647. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 12 PRINTING AS AN ART [D»t. A, Nos. 15-23 THE SUPREMACY OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND i7oc3-i8oo The family of Didot made its typographical appear- ance in France in the person of Fran9ois (i 689-1759), and during the eighteenth century he and his descend- ants succeeded in restoring to their native country the pre-eminence which it had lost. The best publication of Fran9ois Didot was the " Histoire generale des Voy- ages," by his friend, the Abbe Prevost, a work in twenty volumes, perfect in text and enriched with many en- gravings. His son Fran9ois Ambroise (i 720-1 808) issued the famous Delphin classics, and another son, Pierre-Fran9ois (173 2-1 795), did much to improve type-founding and paper-making. The best productions of the press under him were the " Imitation de Jesus- Christ," " Telemaque," and the " Tableau de TEmpire Ottoman." Henri (1765-1852), eldest son of Pierre- Fran9ois, made himself famous as an engraver and letter founder, producing the famous " microscopic " types. [See Dept. A, Nos. 22, 23.] It remained, however, for the two sons of Fran9ois- Ambroise, Pierre Taine (i76o-i853)and Firmin (1764- 1836), to raise the family name to the pinnacle of professional eminence. Pierre Taine carried to comple- tion the beautiful Louvre collection of Latin and French classics which his father had begun for the use of the Dauphin. He was acknowledged the first printer in France, and he aspired to the distinction of being the first printer in Europe. Italy at this time boasted of Bodoni at Parma and England of Baskerville at Birmingham. Firmin Didot revived and developed stereotyping, cut and cast new type faces, and ably seconded his brother's efforts. The " Racine," which they jointly produced in 1 801, was pronounced by a French jury to be " the most perfect typographical production of any country or of any age." 13 Dept. A, Nob. is-iS] THE DEVELOPMENT OF An anecdote apropos of the present bi-centennial exhibition is that of Benjamin Franklin's visit to the Didot Press in 1780. The American ambassador ap- proached one of the presses, and after having examined it, he seized the bar and printed several sheets with an ease which surprised the onlookers. " Do not be as- tonished, gentlemen," said Franklin, " this is my own trade." The first example of the Didot work is Dept. A, No. 15. It was printed by Fran9ois Didot in 1747. Compared with the Stephens work a century earlier, it is poor, but coming as it did out of the mass of wretched printing of the period, Fran9ois* efforts were hailed by France with joy, because of their promise, — which was amply justified. The next two exhibits are of particular interest, as they afford an excellent opportunity of comparison. Dept. A, No. 16, is a copy of Fenelon's Works, printed by Fran9ois Ambroise Didot in 1787. The paper marks a distinct advance, largely due to his ex- periments. The type is distinctive, the composition good, and the presswork shows an advance, although the color varies. Dept. A, No. 17, is a later volume in the same series, which was completed in 1792 by Pierre Didot Taine, son of Fran9ois Ambroise. The type and paper are the same, but Pierre has substituted a single rule for the Oxford, a lighter and smaller face for the headings, and his presswork is much cleaner and more even in color. Dept. A, No. 18. This copy of Boileau is one of the Louvre editions. It is printed in types engraved and cast by Firmin Didot. This type marks the turn- ing point between the ancient and the modern fonts. The paper is good and the presswork careful. H PRINTING AS AN ART [D»t. A, Nos. 19-43 Note. For convenience of arrangement, the exhibits of the Didot Press are all included in Dept, A, although the following examples properly belong among the modern books {Dept. B). Dept. A, No. 19. Pierre Didot, Taine, and his son Jules issued this sample book of a new series of type in 18 19. The type itself and the style of composition are practically identical with Bodoni*s work. Dept. A, No. 20. This little volume of "Tasso," printed by Pierre Didot, Taine, in 1820, shows more than the influence of Bodoni, being rather the result of collaboration. The type is the same cut, the orna- mental rule at the head of the page is identical, and the general style of typography is that shown in the earlier Italian volumes. Dept. A, No. 21, shows a volume printed in Greek in 1823 by Jules Didot, son of Pierre Didot, Taine. A comparison with the Bodoni Greek shown in Depart- ment B is interesting. The format of this volume, even to the ornamental rule, is reminiscent of the Italian influence. The famous "microscopic" type, produced by Henri Didot, is shown in Dept. A, No. 22. This copy of "Horace" was printed by Firmin Didot in 1855, and is a superb example of engraving, typography, presswork, and paper. Dept. A, No. 23. These two sheets show the " bril- liant " size of the " microscopic " types. John Baskerville (1706-1775), upon whom Eng- land's claim for consideration in eighteenth-century typography rests, was at first a footman, then a writing- master, and later carried on the business of japanning with great success. About 1750 he began to make laborious and costly experiments in letter-founding, 15 Dipt. A, Nos. 24-25] THE DEVELOPMENT OF and succeeded in producing results which, although not now admired as they once were, showed a revival of interest in printing as an art. Macaulay says of his " Virgil," printed in 1756, that.it " was the first of those magnificent editions which went forth to astonish all the librarians of Europe," and which, fifty-five in all, include Milton, Juvenal, Congreve, Addison, the Bible, a Greek New Testament, Horace, and Catullus. The examples of Baskerville*s work shown are as follows : Dept A, No. 24. A copy of the " Virgil," showing his early work. [1757.] Benjamin Franklin, in pre- senting a copy of this volume to the Harvard College Library, wrote (April 28, 1758) : "It is thought to be the most curiously printed of any book hitherto done in the world." Dept. A, No. 25. A copy of the " Horace," printed in 1770, near the close of his life. Both volumes are printed in the same type, which is admirably cut. The composition is carefully considered, and the paper fair, the ink poor. The presswork is not so good as in the earlier volume. A comparison of the productions of the Didots and of Baskerville convinces one that the Didots* contribution to typography was the most important of the eighteenth century. ^he Supremacy of France and England^ iyoch-1800 Summary of Exhibits No. 15. Histoire generale des Voyages. Vol. IV. Printed by Fran9ois Didot at Paris in 1747. Lent by the Boston Athenaum, No. 16. CEuvres de Fenelon. Vol. I. Printed by Fran9ois Ambroise Didot in Paris in 1787. Lent by the Harvard College Library, 16 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. A, Nos. 17-25 No. 17. CEuvres de Fenelon. Vol. IX. Printed by Pierre Didot, Taine, in Paris in 1792. Lent by the Harvard College Library, No. 18. Poesies de Boileau. Printed by Pierre Didot, Taine, in Paris in 1781. One of the Louvre editions. Lent by the Harvard College Library, No. 19. Specimen des Nouveaux Caracteres de Pierre Didot, Taine. Printed in Paris in 1819. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 20. La Gerusalemme Liberata. Vol. I. Printed by Pierre Didot, Taine, in Paris in 1820. Lent by the Harvard College Library, No. 21. Poetae Graeci Gnomici. Printed by Jules Didot in Paris in 1823. Lent by the Harvard College Library, No. 22. Quinti Horatii Flacci Opera. Printed by Firmin Didot in Paris in 1855. It shows the "microscopic" type. Lent by the Harvard College Library, No. 23. Two sheets showing the " brilliant " size of Henri Didot's " microscopic " types. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers. No. 24. Publii Virgilii Maronis Bucolica, etc. Printed by John Baskerville in Birmingham in 1757- Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 25. Quintus Horatius Flaccus. Printed by John Baskerville in Birmingham in 1770. Lent by the Harvard College Library, 17 MODERN BOOK-PRINTING c. 1 800-1 905 Though the division of printing into periods is more or less arbitrary, modern book-printing is here con- sidered as beginning with the introduction of the so- called " modern-faced " types ; roughly speaking about 1800. During the last part of the eighteenth century the Old Style Caslon forms of type became more and more refined, — a progression shown in the specimen sheets of Baskerville and of Moore of Bristol, who afterward became foreman to the Frys, and in such types as were used by Bulmer at The Shakespeare Press (see Dept. B, under Bulmer). An impetus to the use of very light type had been given by the delicate engraved work of Thomas Be- wick as early as 1780. Meanwhile in Italy, Bodoni of Parma; in France, Didot; and in England and Scot- land, Whittingham and Constable, were all working on the same lines. In 1 8 1 1, when Didot cut his modern types on a point system, based on metric measurements, this fashion was well under way. The weakness of much of this type was, however, soon felt ; the reaction from which may be seen in the exaggerated black types cut by Jacquemin in 181 8 and the ugly variations of them cut at London in the same year. In 1844 a sounder taste was encouraged by the return to the old-face fonts by The Chiswick Press, which in the " Diary of Lady Willoughby " reintroduced these admirable types to the booklover. From that time to the present day, excellent work has been done in these types by all the leading presses ; and in the best of the " modern- faced " type under the name of Scotch-face — a revival 19 D«PT. B, Nos. i-iaa] THE DEVELOPMENT OF abroad due chiefly to Constable and other printers in Scotland and to one or two Presses in this country. In 1 89 1 a marked influence was felt from the books which William Morris began to print at The Kelmscott Press, Hammersmith (i 891-1898). His types, de- signed and cut especially for his books, together with the illustrations and decorations, designed by and for him, the hand-made paper which he adopted, and the hand presswork by which the books were executed taught certain lessons of harmony and unity to print- ers which are, perhaps, his most valuable contribu- tion to printing as an art. At the time of his death considered the leading printer of the period, a retro- spect of ten years has placed him rather with those great decorators who have turned their attention to the printed book. The work of his Press has been followed by numbers of experiments in the cutting and designing of special types, both English and American, many of which have been eminently successful; and during the last few years the somewhat Gothic feeling of the Kelmscott Press books has been slowly abandoned for the lighter and more classical styles of type founded on Italian models of the fifteenth century, — a movement in which The Doves Press, London, has been chiefly instrumental, ably seconded by several American and English printers and designers. The influence of these English Presses has been, however, very strongly felt in America in all classes of work^ indeed more strongly than in England, where their influence is much more limited. The mass of American commercial book-print- ing still remains inferior to the English printing of the same class, which for beautiful, readable, and sober volumes holds pre-eminence at the present moment; though that country has not produced as yet any one volume on printing so magnificent as is the " Histoire de rimprimerie en France," by Claudin, printed at the national French printing-house. 20 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dipt. B, Nos. i-6 1-6. STAMPERIA REALE, PARMA GiAMBATTisTA BoDONi (1740-1813), the Celebrated director of this Press, issued his first volume as early as 1768. But the character of Bodoni's types and the effect of his books are distinctly of the modern school in printing. This Press became known throughout Europe for the brilliancy of its work ; it was visited by all the notables of the day who were making the "grand tour " ; and at Bodoni*s death he was, in public estimation, the first typographer of his time. His extraordinary collec- tion of Roman, Greek, and "exotic" types was probably unequalled, and his " Manuale TIpografico," completed by his widow in 1 8 1 8, is one of the very finest specimen books extant. He printed in Greek, Latin, Italian, French, Russian, German, and English — Walpole's " Castle of Otranto " (1791), Gray's Poems (1793)5 and Thomson's "Sea- sons" (1794) being among the English books. He died, after a life full of honors, at Parma in 18 13. In connection with this exhibition the following letter is of interest: Philadelphia, Oct. 14, 1787. Sir: I have had the very great pleasure of receiving and perusing your excellent Essai des Caracteres de P Imprimerie. It is one of the most beautiful that Art has hitherto producM. I should be glad to see a specimen of your other Founts besides this Italic & Roman of the Letter to the Marq^ de Cubieres ; and to be informed of the price of each kind. — I do not presume to criticise your Italic Capitals ; they are gen- erally perfect : I would only beg leave to say, that to me the form of the T in the word LETTRE of the Title Page seems preferable to that of the T in the word Typographie in the next Page, as the down- ward stroke of T, P, R, F, B, D, H, K, L, I, and some others, which in writing we begin at the top, naturally swells as the pen de- scends; and it is only in the A and the M and N that those strokes are fine, because the pen begins them at the bottom. With great esteem I have the honour to be, M. Bodoni, Sir, Your most obedient & most humble servant, B. FRANKLIN 21 Dipt. B, Nos. 1-5] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. I. La Giuditta. Bodoni, Parma. 1813. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 2. In Morte del Cavaliere Giambattista Bodoni Sommo Tipografo Avvenuta. Parma. 1814. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers. No. 3. Brief of Pope Pius VI. to Bodoni. Parma. 1792. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, One of the twelve copies printed of the brief of Pius VII., complimenting Bodoni on his work. This was accompanied by two medals from the Pope — one of gold and one of silver. When the Pope saw the form in which Bodoni had printed this brief, he said to the bearer of it, who had presented it to him in the name of Bodoni, " Now one wishes for another brief to praise the first one." This copy was formerly the property of A. A. Renouard, author of "Annales de Tlmprimerie des Aide." No. 4. Oratio Dominica in CLV Lingvas versa et Exoticis Characteribvs Plervmqve Expressa. Bodoni, Parma. 1806. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, This book was dedicated to Eugene Beauharnais, vice- roy of Italy ; and this particular copy was given by him to Firmin Didot, January 20, 1809, as will be seen by the autograph inscription, in Didot's hand, facing the titlepage. No. 5. Anacreon. Bodoni, Parma. 1791. One of the rarest of Bodoni's productions. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 22 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. B, Nos. 6-7 No. 6. Callimachus. (In Greek and Italian.) Bodoni, Parma. 1792. Shows Bodoni's Greek types. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 7-10. THE SHAKESPEARE PRINTING OFFICE (WILLIAM BULMER), LONDON William Bulmer was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and early formed a friendship with Thomas Bewick. After an apprenticeship in Newcastle, he went to Lon- don, and with the help of Boydell and of Nicols, Libra- rian to George III., established the Shakespeare Printing Office under the style of W. Bulmer & Co. There he issued the famous Boydell Shakespeare (1794), a folio Milton, and in 1795 ^^ edition of Goldsmith and Parnell's Poems, — a volume "particularly meant to combine the various beauties of printing, type- founding, engraving, and paper-making, as well as with a view to ascertain the near approach to perfection which those arts have attained in this country.'* Bulmer*s ornaments were engraved by Bewick, his paper made by What- man. Among his other publications were Dibdin*s " Bibliographical Decameron " and Claude's " Liber Veritatis." Bulmer retired from business in 18 19, and died eleven years later. This somewhat full notice of this Press is given as an interesting reminder that, at a period certainly not generally associated with fine book- making, serious efforts were made in that direction which met with appreciation and success. No. 7. Poems of Goldsmith and Parnell. Lon- don, W. Bulmer. 1795. A special effort was here made to produce a perfect book. The types were cut by George Martin. The illustrations are the work of the Bewicks. (See note on Bulmer.) Lent by the Boston Public Library, Dept. B, Nos. 8-ii] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 8. The Chase. By William Somerville. With illustrations designed and cut by Bewick. London, W. Bulmer. 1796. Shows Bulmer's typography in relation to illustrations. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 9. Dramatic Works of Shakespeare. Folio Edition. London, W. Bulmer, Shakespeare Printing Office. 1802. To be examined for its brilliant presswork and typography in the taste of the day. The types in general effect resemble Baskerville. Lent by the Boston Public Library, No. 10. Bibliographical Decameron. By T. F. Dibdin. W. Bulmer, Shakespeare Printing Office, London. 18 17. A "book-lover's book'' of the first part of the nineteenth century. Lent by the Boston Public Library, II-13. LEE PRIORY PRESS, ICKHAM, ENGLAND In 1 8 13 this Press was established at Ickham, near Canterbury, by Sir Egerton Brydges. It produced some rather interesting volumes. The compositor for this Press was John Johnson, author of " Typographia, or the Printer's Instructor" (1824). No. II. Excerpta Tudoriana. Lee Priory Press, Ickham, England, [c] 181 3. The borders and general effect show the influence of Bodoni and Didot. Lent by the Boston Public Library, 24 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. B, Nos. 12-16 No. 12. Dunluce Castle. Lee Priory Press, Ickham, England. 1814. Lent by the Boston Public Library. No. 13. The Brother-in-Law. A Comedy. Lee Priory Press, Ickham, England. 1 8 1 7. Lent by the Boston Public Library, 14-16. THOMAS BENSLEY, LONDON (and R. ACKERMANN, LONDON) This printer carried on an office in London in the early years of the nineteenth century, and his chief pro- ductions were Macklin's Folio Bible, Hume's "His- tory of England," and an octavo Shakespeare. He will be chiefly remembered, however, for the letterpress of those volumes, with charming colored illustrations, pub- lished by Rudolph Ackermann, who established artistic lithography in England. Bensley died about 1833. His work represents the output of the substantial printer of the period. It is interesting to note that his printing office was in Bolt Court, Fleet Street, near the lodgings occupied by Dr. Johnson. Nos. 14-15. Microcosm of London. Printed by T. Bensley for Ackermann. London. 1808— 11. The architectural portion of the plates of this book was designed by the elder Pugin (1762- 1832), and the figures by Rowlandson (1756- 1807). No. 16. Antiquities of Westminster Abbey. Ackermann, London. 18 12. Showing Acker- mann's lithographic work. Dipt. B, Nos. i7-a6] THE DEVELOPMENT OF 17-26. THE CHISWICK PRESS, LONDON This Press is famous in the annals of English typog- raphy, the soundest traditions of which it has consist- ently upheld for over a century. It was founded by Charles Whittingham (b. 1767) about iSioand was first started at Chiswick. He continued the work of this Press until his death in 1840. His nephew Charles Whitting- ham was associated with him from 1824 to 1830, but in 1828 he established himself in the premises occupied by Valpy at Tooks Court, Chancery Lane. Here he began to print for Pickering. He succeeded to his uncle^s busi- ness in 1840, and carried on both establishments. On his death, the business became the property of his sons. After 1876 this Press passed into the hands of Mr. George Bell, the publisher, though still retaining the Whittingham name. The present manager, Mr. C. T. Jacobi, is known as the author of several useful books on typography. It was at The Chiswick Press that the use of the old- face Caslon type was revived in 1 843 in " The Diary of Lady Willoughby " ; a revival followed by printers throughout England. The volumes in sexto-decimo and octavo printed for William Pickering are perhaps the most characteristic productions of this Press — charming little volumes, which for utility and beauty have not been surpassed in modern times. The splendid series of black letter Prayer Books, the octavo Milton, Taylor, Herbert, and the British Poets are all worthy of study. The decorations of many of these books were designed and cut on wood by Whittingham's niece, Mary Byfield. Of late years, by its excellent work for Messrs. Bell and many other publishers, this Press has maintained its place in the first rank of English printing-houses. Emblem : A lion holding a shield^ on which is an Aldine anchor and dolphin, 26 I PRINTING AS AN ART [Dipt. B, Nos. 17-23 No. 17. Breviarium Aberdonense. Printed by Whittingham for The Bannatyne Club. London. 1854. Fine specimen of liturgical printing. Lent by the Boston Public Library, No. 18. Sallust. Pickering, London. 1863. Printed by C. Whittingham, Tooks Court. London. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 19. Book of Common Prayer of 1662. London, Pickering. 1844. One of a series of folio Prayer-books printed at the Chiswick Press for Pickering. Initials and borders are cut on wood. Lent by the Boston Public Library, No. 20. Diary of Lady Willoughby. London. 1844. Printed at the Chiswick Press by Whit- tingham, in Caslon Old Style type — a revival in the use of these types after many years of disuse. Lent by tht Boston Public Library, No. 21. Table-Talk of John Selden. London, Pickering. 1847. One of the i6mo volumes printed at the Chiswick Press for Pickering. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 22. Milton's Works (8 vols., octavo). Lon- don, Pickering. 1 8 5 1 . Printed by Whittingham. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 23. Poems of Henry King. London, Picker- ing. 1843. ^ 1 6 mo volume of poetry printed by Whittingham. Lent by a Member of Tht Society of Printers, 27 DBPT. B, Nos. H-aS] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 24. Bacon's Novum Organum. Printed for Pickering by C. Whittingham. 1850. Shows decorative titlepage of one of the Chiswick Press volumes. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 25. Anthony Van Dyck. By Lionel Cust. Bell, London. 1900. A modern Chiswick Press book. Lent by the Boston Public Library, No. 26. Walton's Lives. New York, Scott- Thaw Co. 1904. A good example of modern work from the Chiswick Press, London. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 27-28. THE DANIEL PRESS, OXFORD The books issued under this imprint are arranged and printed by Rev. C. H. O. Daniel, Provost of Worces- ter College, Oxford, from the well-known Fell types (presented to The University Press by Dr. Fell, Bishop of Oxford before 1687) secured by Dr. Daniel for this purpose. Printer* s Mark : J figure of Daniel and a liony with the motto "Misit Angelum Suum '* (He sent his angel). No. 27. Songs. By Margaret L. Woods. Daniel Press, Oxford. 1896. No. 28. Fancy's Following. Anon. Daniel Press, Oxford. 1896. 29-31. THE UNIVERSITY PRESS (CLARENDON PRESS) OXFORD Xhe University Press began its printing in 1585, and as early as 1629 some Greek matrices had been given 28 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. B, Nos. 29-30 to It by Sir Henry Savile. Its charter was granted in 1682 and a few years later this charter was enlarged by the privilege of printing Bibles. Already aided by Arch- bishop Laud, in 1666-72 a valuable gift of matrices, largely Dutch in origin, was made by Dr. Fell, then Dean of Christ Church, and later Bishop of Oxford — the Dr. Fell of Shakespeare's rhyme. Of late years the use of these beautiful Fell types has been revived with great success. Typefounding began there as early as 1667 ; and about the same time Dr. Fell promoted the establishment of the paper-mill at Wolvercote — an establishment now owned by the University, where the beautiful Oxford India paper is made. The first " specimen " of type published in England was issued from this Press in 1693. In 17 13 the Clarendon Building began to be utilized as a printing office. This building (designed by Vanbrugh, who built Blenheim) was so called because partly built from the copyright profits of Clarendon's " Rebellion," which are the property of the University. The Press was formerly in two departments, the Bible Press and the Learned or Classical Press. But in 1883 these were united under the management of Mr. Horace Hart, the present controller. Emblem : The arms of the University of Oxford, Motto : Dominus Illuminatio Me a {God is my light J) No. 29. Early English Printing-types. By E. Gordon DufF. London. 1896. Printed at the University Press, Oxford, from the Fell types. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 30. Oxford Book of English Verse. Claren- don Press, Oxford. 1901. Show^ing use of Fell types. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 29 Dkpt. B, Not. 31-33] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 31. Coronation Prayer Book. University Press, Oxford. 1902. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 31 a. Oxford Caxton Memorial Bible. Printed (from type) and bound in 12 hours. It contains 1052 pages and loi persons were em- ployed upon it. Oxford. 1877. 32-35. THE KELMSCOTT PRESS, HAMMERSMITH (LONDON) This famous Press was started by the late William Morris (i 834-1 896) in the year 1890. For it he de- signed three fonts of type, the Golden, Troy, and Chaucer, and an immense number of borders and initials — of which the blocks were deposited after his death in the British Museum. Between April, 1891, and March, 1 898, fifty-three books were produced. His Chaucer (i 896) is generally considered the great achieve- ment of this Press, which has had a most potent influ- ence on printing as an art. [See also notice on " Modern Printing " above.'] No. 32. Worksof Geoffrey Chaucer. Kelmscott Press, Hammersmith. 1896. The pictures are engraved on wood after designs by Sir Edward Burne-Jones ; the borders and initials are by William Morris ; and the type is the " Chaucer," a variant of the Troy font. It is considered the masterpiece of this Press. Lent by the Boston Public Library, No. 33. Chronicles of Fraunce. By Sir John Froissart. Trial pages on vellum. Kelmscott 30 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. B, Nos. 34-35 Press, Hammersmith. 1 897. Owing to the death of Mr. Morris, this work was never completed. Lent by the Boston Public Library, No. 34. Recuyellof theHystoryesofTroye. By Raoul le Fevre. Translated by William Caxton. Kelmscott Press, Hammersmith. 1892. This shows Mr. Morris's Troy type. The decorations are by Mr. Morris. Lent by the Boston Public Library, No. 35. The Golden Legend of J. de Voragine. Translated by William Caxton and edited by F. S. Ellis. Kelmscott Press, Hammersmith. 1892. This shows William Morris's Golden type, and the decorations are also his. Lent by the Boston Public Library. 36-38. THE VALE PRESS, LONDON The Vale Press, the labors of which are now brought to a close, is not in the strict sense a Press at all, but a name applied to that output of The Ballantyne Press which was executed under the direction of Charles Ricketts and printed from type, and with decorations, designed by him. Its work is more classical in feeling than that of Morris, and less severely classical than that of The Doves Press. The decorative designs employed are generally most admirable and the books are always interesting. Mr. Ricketts' font of Vale type (in two sizes) has been used in most of these publications. The Kings font, a newer venture, though based upon very early models, can scarcely be called satisfactory to the average eye. Mr. Ricketts has here reverted to half uncial forms and discarded some letters in favor of an earlier type of letter. 31 D«PT. B, Nos. 36-38] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 36. Bibliography of the Vale Press. London. 1904. A page showing the King's font, designed by C. Ricketts. Lent by the Boston Public Library. No. 37. De la Typographie et de T Harmonic de la Page Imprimee. William Morris et son Influence sur les Arts et Metiers. Vale Press (Ballantyne Press). 1898. Printed in Vale type, showing arrangement of rules and florets by Mr. Ricketts. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers. No. 38. The Rowley Poems. By Thomas Chat- terton. Vale Press, London. 1898. (2 vols.) Lent by Harvard College Library, 39-41. THE DOVES PRESS, HAMMERSMITH, LONDON This small but most distinguished Press has achieved, after The Kelmscott Press, the highest reputation in England among the so-called private presses, and to it, indeed, may be said to have descended the mantle of Morris. Mr. Emery Walker, by whose taste and prac- tical knowledge much of Mr. Morris's work was made possible, and Mr. Cobden-Sanderson, chief of the Doves Bindery, are the owners of this Press. They have designed for it the admirable type based on that of Nicolas Jenson, in which all books published by them have been printed. The Doves Press has had great in- fluence in directing the taste of the booklover from the somewhat heavily decorated books of Morris to the simpler and sounder beauties of severely elegant type, elegantly disposed, upon paper which in quality and proportion leaves little to be desired. 32 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dipt. B, Nos. 39-43 No. 39. The English Bible. Doves Press, Ham- mersmith. 1903. Showing a page of prose. This book is considered the great achievement of this Press. It is among the most beautiful of modern books. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 40. The English Bible. Doves Press, Ham- mersmith. 1 904. Showing a page of poetry with rubricated initials. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 41. The Ideal Book. By T. J. Cobden- Sanderson. Doves Press. 1900. 42-44. THE ASHENDENE PRESS, (CHELSEA) LONDON This Press, which has been called " the serious play- thing of Mr. Hornby and his family," is the property of Mr. C. H. St. John Hornby. Its' first book was printed in 1894. All the books are printed on a hand- press, on hand-made paper, with strong black inks, by Mr. Hornby himself, with one assistant ; although his wife and sister have aided him in his work at the Press. The number of his books is not great, but they are marked by a distinction and beauty of typography and presswork which is above praise. In them the taste and spirit of the amateur is combined with professional excellence of workmanship. Mr. Hornby has used in his books an interesting form of Gothic type, of which a specimen is shown. Nos. 42-43. Dante's Inferno (1902) andPurga- torio(i904). Ashendene Press, London. Printed 33 D.PT. B, No8. 44-46] THE DEVELOPMENT OF by St. John Hornby and Cicely Hornby, show- ing Ashendene type. Initials are by hand. Lent by Charles Eliot Norton^ Esq, No. 44. Fioretti di San Francesco di Assisi. Ashendene Press, London. 1901. Showing Ashendene types. Illustration is cut on wood. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 45-46. MODERN GREEK TYPES The following fonts of Greek types are indicative of the recent revival of interest in types and printing : No. 45. Macmillan fonts of Greek type designed by Selwyn Image. (2 sizes.) The New Testa- ment, 1895. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers. No. 46. Robert Proctor's font of Greek type. Oresteia of Aeschylus, 1904. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 47-48. THE ERAGNY PRESS, EPPING, ESSEX, ENGLAND, AND THE BROOK, HAMMERSMITH, LONDON This Press, which represents all that is most modern in the English revival under Morris, is presided over by Esther and Lucien Pissarro. The ornaments and illustrations are drawn by Mr. Pissarro and engraved on wood by Esther Pissarro. The first sixteen books pub- lished have been printed in the Vale type lent by its designer, Mr. Charles Ricketts. The latest books are printed in the Brook type, designed by Mr. Pissarro himself. Name : From Eragny in Normandy, Pressmark : A woman seated holding a book inscribed Eragny Press s above a ribbon with the words E, and Z. Pissarro, London, 34 i PRINTING AS AN ART [Dkpt. B, No8. 47-51 No. 47. Les Petits Vieux. Eragny Press, Lon- don. 1 90 1 . Printed in Vale type, with illustrations printed in color, from woodblocks cut by Esther Pissarro. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers. No. 48. A Brief Account of the Origin of the Eragny Press, etc. The Eragny Press, London. 1903. The first book printed in Mr. Pissarro's Brook type. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 49-51. THE ESSEX HOUSE PRESS, CHIPPING CAMPDEN, GLOUCESTERSHIRE, ENGLAND Xhe Essex House Press is, if we are not mistaken, a department of the Guild of Handicraft. Mr. C. R. Ash- bee is the director of this Press. It was founded in 1898 and it has produced a number of books. Formerly in London, it is now at Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire. Mr. Ash bee has designed for the Press the " Essex House " type in which many of its later books have been printed. Emblem: A pink. No. 49. Wren's Parentalia. Essex House Press, London. Lent by the Boston Public Library, No. 50. Prayer Book of Edward VIL Essex House Press, London. Showing Mr. Ashbee's " Essex House " type. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 51. Pilgrim's Progress. Essex House Press, London. 1899. 35 D«PT. B, No8. s»-S4l THE DEVELOPMENT OF 52. IMPERIAL PRESS, CLEVELAND, OHIO X HIS Press is no longer in existence. The attractive little volume shown is arranged by Mr. George French, formerly connected with the Imperial Press. Mr. French's contributions to the literature of typography are familiar to those interested in the history and practice of the art. No. 52. Printing in Relation to Graphic Art. By George French. (One of 15 copies printed on Japan paper.) 1903. 53-56. THE VILLAGE PRESS, HINGHAM, MASS. Xhis interesting little Press was started in the village of Park Ridge, Illinois, by F. W. Goudy and W. H. Ransom ; Mr. Goudy acting as designer and Mr. Ransom as compositor. Later Mr. Ransom's interests were transferred to Mrs. Goudy, who has since then learned to set type. She undertakes the composition of The Village Press books ; the presswork being done by hand by Mr. Goudy. In 1904 the Press was removed to Hingham, Mass. For it Mr. Goudy has designed the Village type, modelled somewhat upon Mr. Morris's Golden font, and in this type ten books have been issued. No. 53. Lamb's Dissertation upon Roast Pig. Village Press, Hingham, Mass. Set in "Village" type. 1904. No. 54. Printing. By William Morris and Emery Walker. Village Press, Hingham. Set in "Village" type. 1903. 36 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. B, Nos. 55-56 No. 55. The Hollow Land. By William Morris. Village Press, Hingham, Mass. Set in "Village" type. 1905. No. 56. Original drawing of " Village " type. By F. W. Goudy. 57-64. THE RIVERSIDE PRESS, CAMBRIDGE The Riverside Press, which is the printing-house of the firm of Houghton, Mifflin & Company, was es- tablished by the late Mr. Henry O. Houghton of Vermont in 1852, and from that day to this has held a place in the first rank of American Presses. Its situation upon the bank of the Charles in Cambridge gives it its name. The quality of its work in the past is shown by the editions of Bacon and of Burton's "Anatomy of Melancholy," which were achievements of importance at the time they were produced. Dur- ing the last five years a special department for the print- ing of fine books — the " Riverside Press Editions " — has been established, under the charge of Mr. Bruce Rogers, which has produced some of the best and most attractive volumes made in this country. Mr. Rogers, whose work shows him to be a careful student of early typography and design, has arranged both type and decorations for these books, many of the latter being cut upon wood. He has also designed a special face of type — the Montaigne — used with great success in the monumental edition of Montaigne in folio published a year or two ago. His work in this department has also been reflected in the other publications of this house, which for consistent and sensible books stands in the front rank. Emblem: A youth playing on pipes. Motto ; Tout bien ou rien {If you do it, do it well), 37 Dirr. B, Not. 57-64] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 57. Boccaccio's Life of Dante. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. 1904. No. 58. Essays of Montaigne. (3 vols.) Folio. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. 1903. No. 59. Chaucer's Parlement of Foulys. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. 1904. No. 60. Fifteen Sonnets of Petrarch. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. 1903. No. 61. Sonnets and Madrigals of Michelangelo. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. 1900. No. 62. The Georgics of Virgil, translated by J. W. Mackail. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. 1904. No. 63. The History of Oliver and Arthur. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. 1904. No. 64. The Declaration of Independence — Broadside. Printed at the Riverside Press, 1905. [Hung on wall.] Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 65-67. THE ELSTON PRESS, NEW ROCHELLE, N. Y. Mr. Clarke Conwell is the proprietor of this Press, which began its work in the summer of 1900 ; the first book being issued in December of the same year. About twenty-five books have been issued by Mr. Conwell which, among their other merits, are remarkable for beauty and evenness of presswork, which is entirely done by hand. The workmanlike qualities of these books are a rebuke to much of the ill-performed work which masquerades as " artistic." 38 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. B, Nos. 65-67 No. 65. The Cenci. Elston Press, New Ro- chelle. 1903. Showing hand-presswork. The text is set in a Caslon " Old Roman " font. Lent by Mr. Clarke ConwelL No. 66. Daphnis and Chloe. Elston Press, New Rochelle. 1904. Lent by Mr, Clarke ConwelL No. 67. Selections from the Hesperides of Her^ rick. Elston Press, New Rochelle. 1903. Lent by Mr, Clarke ConwelL 68-76. THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. This old established Press, dating from 1639, har- ring a break between the years 1701 and 176 1, during which period no printing was done in Cambridge, has an honorable heritage in its traditions of scholar- ship and accuracy of printing. An older generation will remember the high standard of Messrs. Welch, Bigelow & Company, so consistently and faithfully carried on by the well-known firm of John Wilson & Son. The present corporation. The University Press, John Wilson & Son, is in no sense behind these earlier firms in its efforts after typographical perfection — efforts shown in the work of Mr. William Dana Orcutt, its vice-president, and also in its monthly publication, " The Printing Art," edited by Mr. Henry Lewis Johnson. Its imprint will be found upon a wide variety of well-printed books, produced for all the leading publishers in this country, and for many in England, Scotland, and Italy. Its exhibit shows the versatility of its powers. 39 Dk-t. B, Nos. 68-73] THE DEVELOPMENT OF It is an interesting fact that the first Adams press and the first stop-cylinder press made by Hoe were used in this printing-house. No. 68. Artist's Way of Working. By Russell Sturgis. Dodd, Mead & Co. 1905. Printed by The University Press, Cambridge. Showing com- bination of half-tones and letterpress. No. 69. Princess Kallisto. By William Dana Orcutt. Little, Brown, & Co. 1903. Printed by The University Press, Cambridge. Showing the possibility of securing watercolor effects in chil- dren's books. No. 70. Ad Astra. R.H.Russell. 1902. Printed by The University Press, Cambridge. Showing combination of line decoration and letterpress. No. 71. Old Creole Days. By G. W. Cable. Charles Scribner's Sons. 1898. Printed by The University Press, Cambridge. Showing combina- tion of photogravure headpiece and initial with type. No. 72. Robert Cavelier. By William Dana Orcutt; A. C. McClurg & Co. 1904. Printed by The University Press, Cambridge. A " trade " novel, showing heading and initial lettering. No. 73. The Caxton Club Scrap-Book. Caxton Club, Chicago. 1905. Printed by The Univer- sity Press, Cambridge. Showing a typical book of poetry. 40 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dipt. B, Nos. 74-78 No. 74. House of Life. By D. G. Rossetti. Copeland & Day. 1899. Printed by The Uni- versity Press, Cambridge. No. 75. Ruling Cases. Boston Book Co. 1903. Printed by The University Press, Cambridge. A typical law page, representing a side of printing with which the Press has long been identified. No. 76. Humphrey Clinker, by Tobias Smollett. George D. Sproul. 1902. Printed by The Uni- versity Press, Cambridge. Regular novel work, on hand-made paper. 77-79. THE MT. PLEASANT PRESS, HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA The J. Horace McFarland Company are the pro- prietors of this Press, and Mr. J. Horace McFarland is its manager. Its product shows diverse examples of the book-work demanded of a modern establishment devoted to general " outdoor " printing — including ref- erence works and text-books. In many of the volumes the illustrations, as well as the design and printing, have originated at the Press. Emblem: A four-leaf clover. No. 77. A Woman's Hardy Garden. By Helena R. Ely. Macmillan. 1902. Printed at the Mt. Pleasant Press, Harrisburg. Lent by J, H. McFarland, No. 78. Seen by The Spectator. New York, The Outlook Co. 1902. Printed at the Mt. Pleasant Press, Harrisburg. Lent by J, H, McFarland, 41 D«PT. B, Noi. 79-8a] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 79. Getting Acquainted with the Trees. By J. H. McFarland. New York, The Outlook Co. 1904. Printed at the Mt. Pleasant Press, Harrisburg. Lent by J. H. McFarland, 80-82. THE McCLURE PRESS, NEW YORK < The typography of these books is arranged by Mr. W. A. Bradley for McClure, Phillips & Co., New York. His work is interesting, in that he applies, in the making of the " trade " volume, the taste and care which, until recently, was only to be found in the expensive book. No. 80. The Gospel of Life. By Charles Wag- ner. McClure, Phillips & Co., New York. 1 905. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 81. The Rose of Joy. By Mary Findlater. McClure, Phillips & Co., New York. 1902. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 82. Shakespeare's Henry V. Acting Version of Richard Mansfield. McClure, Phillips & Co., New York. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 83-89. THE GILLISS PRESS, NEW YORlT Xhe Gilliss Press, managed by Messrs. Gilliss Brothers, began its work in 1869, as the venture of two brothers, Thomas and Walter Gilliss. In 1884 Mr. Arthur Turnure became a partner, and the style of the house became Gilliss Brothers & Turnure. This partnership terminated in 1890. In 1902 the firm became incor- porated as The Gilliss Press. It has achieved much 42 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dxrr. B, Nos. 83-87 reputation for the care and delicacy with which its work is turned out. Its typography has been especially note- worthy in connection with the engraved and photo- gravure decorations, which have been features of its most important books. The limited editions of the books of William Loring Andrews, and some of its issues for The Grolier Club, are familiar to all American book- lovers. Emblem : A shieldy crowned, within a collar of spirals and cockleshells. Motto : Le Minuzie fanno la Perfezione ma la Perfezione non e una Minuzia (^Trifles make perfection, but perfection is no trifle^. No. 83. Gossip about Book-collecting. ByW. L. Andrews. Dodd, Mead & Co., New York. 1 900. (2 vols.) Printed at the Gilliss Press. Lent by Gilliss Brothers^ New York, No. 84. Paul Revere and His Engraving. By W. L. Andrews. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 1 90 1. Printed at the Gilliss Press. With engravings by French. Lent by Gilliss Brothers^ New Tork. No. 85. Fishing with an Angle. New York, Scribner. 1903. Printed at the Gilliss Press. Lent by Gilliss Brothers^ New Tork, No. 86. Bibliopegy in the United States. By W. L.Andrews. Dodd, Mead & Co. 1902. Printed at the Gilliss Press. Lent by Gilliss Brothers^ New Tork, No. 87. Pictures of Early New York on Stafford- shire Pottery. By R. F. H. Halsey. New York, Dodd, Mead & Co. 1899. Printed at the Gilliss Press. Lent by Gilliss Brothers^ New Tork, 43 Dept. B, Nos. 88-91] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 88. Sextodecimos et Infra. By W. L. Andrews. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. 1890. Printed at the Gilliss Press. Lent by Gilliss Brothers^ New Tork, No. 89. The Story of a Motto and a Mark. By Walter Gilliss. Printed in 1902 at the Gilliss Press. Lent by Gilliss Brothers^ New Tork. 90-91. THE MARION PRESS, JAMAICA, QUEENSBOROUGH, LONG ISLAND, N. Y. This Press was founded in 1890 by Mr. F. E. Hopkins (its owner), formerly of The De Vinne Press, New York. Though limited in its output, its scholarly and careful work has from its start commended it to the conservative booklover ; and it deserves special atten- tion for the great beauty and delicacy of its presswork. Emblem : A book held open by two hands. No. 90. Catalogue of Hasty Pudding Club. Marion Press, Jamaica, L. I. 1902. Showing the delicate presswork for which this Press is known. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 91. Sonnets. By William R. Huntington, D.D. Marion Press, Jamaica, L. I. 1899. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, Other books received too late for insertion in Catalogue. This exhibit is marked by cards laid in the case where the books are displayed, 92-96. THE DE VINNE PRESS, NEW YORK This well-known Press, until very recently presided over by Theodore L. De Vinne, the doyen of American 44 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. B, Nos. 92-95 printers, has achieved a great reputation for its care- ful work — especially its magnificent presswork. Its founder has long been the chief authority in the United States on matters pertaining to printing, and has rendered great service to typography, by his series of learned books about printing and by the high standard set by his work to the whole body of American printers. Many of the publications of The Grolier Club, New York, are the work of this Press. Mr. De Vinne is the author of" The Invention of Printing" (1876), " His- toric Types" (1884), "Christopher Plantin " (1888), "Plain Printing Types" (1900)," Correct Composition" (1901), "Title Pages" (1902), "Book Composition" (1904). He is one of the founders of, and now president of. The Grolier Club. He has practically retired from business, and the printing-house is now managed by the junior partner, Theodore Brockbank De Vinne. No. 92. The History of Helyas, Knight of the Swan. New York, The Grolier Club. 1901. Printed at The De Vinne Press. Lent by Theodore L, De Vinne^ Esq, No. 93. Old English Masters. New York, Cen- tury Co. 1902. Printed at The De Vinne Press. Lent by Theodore L. De Vinne ^ Esq, No. 94. The Tragedie of Macbeth. New York Doubleday, Page & Co. 1903. Printed at The De Vinne Press. Lent by Theodore L, De Vinne^ Esq, No. 95. An Essay on Colophons. By A. W. Pollard. Chicago, Caxton Club. 1905. Printed at The De Vinne Press. Lent by Theodore L, De Vinne^ Esq, 45 Dipt. B, Nos. 96-98] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 96. Brilliants. Printed in 1905 at The De Vinne Press. A miniature volume in " brilliant " type. Lent by Theodore L, De Finne^ Esq. 97-99. IMPRIMERIE NATIONALE, PARIS The French Government Printing Office was estab- lished in 1640 by Louis XIII., at the suggestion of Richelieu, although Royal Printers of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin had been appointed as early as 1538. The famous Greek types {grecs du rot) cut by Garamond for Francis I., as well as the splendid Roman and Italic types (caracteres de V Universitey 1 540), and those types cut by Grandjean and Alexandre {types de Louis XI K), by Louis Luce (types poetiques, 1740), by Fran9ois Didot (18 1 2), by Marcellin-Legrand (1825, 1859), as well as the recent ones by HenafFe (1902 and 1904) have all been cut for this establishment. It has also a magnificent repertoire of about 158 fonts of oriental types, the earliest of which were acquired by Antoine Vitre. For many years occupying the historic Hotel de Rohan, this Press is now to be removed to a new building, with more modern installations, at Grenelle. An interesting adjunct to this establishment is a laboratory for the testing of paper, and other materials employed in its work. No. 97. Histoire de ITmprimerie en France. By A. Claudin. Paris. 1900. Printed at the Imprimerie Nationale. Shows types cut by Gara- mond, about 1 540. Probably the finest work on printing ever produced. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 98. Histoire de ITmprimerie en France. By A. Claudin. Paris. 1900. Printed at the 46 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. B, Nos. 99-100 Imprimerie Nationale. Showing page with illus- trations; types of Grand) ean. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 99. Debuts de Tlmprimerie en France. By A. Christian. Paris. 1905. Printed at the Imprimerie Nationale. Showing "Gothique'* types cut by HenafFe. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 100. IMPRENSA NACIONAL, LISBON Xhe National Printing Office of Lisbon is presided over by Dr. Deslandes. The " Camoens " shown from this Press was published for the Paris Exposition of 1900. No. 100. Camoens: Imprensa Nacional, Lisbon, 1900. The type used in this book was cut and cast at the National Printing-house of Lisbon. Lent by Theodore L, De Vinne^ Esq, Of this volume Mr. De Vinne writes : *' What I admire about the book is the simplicity of its typography, although it tends a little more to feminine delicacy than I like ; but there is a clearness, sharpness, and precision about the type-work not often noticeable in modern editions de luxe. The designs for initial letters are simple and very good. Those made for head-bands and tail-pieces are not so good ; but the presswork of these decorations in exactness of register and evenness of color is admirable. It is not the first time that an < artist * has disfigured the type-work he has tried to improve. Note also that the type-work is wide leaded and thereby made more readable, although this practice is in opposition to some of our modern reformers of typography.** 101. FRATELLI TREVES, MILAN This firm stands among the more progressive of Italian publishers and printers. 47 Dipt. B, No8. 10I-I02] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 101. Francesca di Rimini. By Gabriele d'Annunzio. Fratelli Treves, Milan. 1902. In- teresting as showing the influence of William Morris on Italian printing. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 102. T. & A. CONSTABLE, EDINBURGH Xhis firm stands In the first rank of Scotch printing- houses, and its imprint will be found on many of the best books issued in Great Britain. Mr. W. B. Blaikie arranges the typographical work of this Press, and it is to his scholarship and taste that much of the beauty of its books is due. The revival of Scotch-face type was largely the work of Messrs. Constable, as is specially exemplified in the volumes of Mr. Nutt's Tudor Trans- lations. Emblem : A ship. No. 102. Antwerp Delivered, in 1577. By Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell. Typography by T. & A. Constable, Edinburgh. 1878. A fine example of a luxurious book on hand-made paper. But note the lack of unity between type and decorations, characteristic of books of this period. Lent by the Boston Public Library, 103. R. & R. CLARK, EDINBURGH Xhis well-known firm of Edinburgh printers produced, in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, a series of books for Sir William Stirling- Maxwell, which were among the finest volumes issued at that period. The Clark imprint will be found to-day upon numerous English books, all marked by the quiet good taste and that sense of the "suitable" characteristic of this house. 48 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. B, No. 103 No. 103. Procession of Pope Clement VII. and the Emperor Charles V., etc. By N. Hogen- burg. Edited by Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell. Typog- raphy by R. & R. Clark, Edinburgh. 1875. A fine specimen of typography in color. Lent by the Boston Public Library, 104-106. ISAIAH THOMAS, WORCESTER, MASS. Although Franklin called Isaiah Thomas the "Amer- ican Baskerville," his printing was not in itself re- markable, other than in the light of the period in which he worked and the difficulties which lack of good paper, good ink, and good workmen placed in his way. He was born in 1749, was trained for his trade in Fowle's printing office in Boston,and, after various adventures at Halifax and in North and South Carolina, returned to Boston in 1770. In July he issued the first number of " The Massachusetts Spy," which was so antagonistic to the British government that he incurred the anger of the authorities. In April of 1775 he quietly left Boston and a month or two later he settled in Worcester, where, he remained until the end of his life. It was he who read to the people of Worcester on July 24, 1776, the Decla- ration of Independence, received in Worcester on that day by the hand of a post-rider. It may be added that he was appointed postmaster of Worcester by Franklin, who was the first postmaster-general. Thomas* chief work was a folio Bible published in 1791 — the first folio Bible printed in America. Franklin, to whom Thomas presented a copy, expressed his great admiration for the work. Thomas was also the first printer of music from movable types in America and produced in them the "Worcester Collection of Sacred Harmony." He re- tired from business in 1802 and spent the next eight 49 Dept. B, No8. 104-108] THE DEVELOPMENT OF years of his life in writing his history of printing, pub- lished in 1 8 10. He was the founder of The American Antiquarian Society of Worcester and its first president. He died April 4, 1831. No. 104. The Holy Bible, printed by Isaiah Thomas, Worcester, Mass. (2 vols.) 1791. The first folio Bible printed in America. Lent by Harvard College Library^ to which this copy was presented by Isaiah Thomas* No. 105. Worcester Collection of Sacred Har- mony, printed by Isaiah Thomas, Worcester, Mass. 1786. This book contains the first music printed from movable types in America. Lent by the Harvard College Library. No. 106. History of Printing in America. By Isaiah Thomas. (2 vols.) Worcester. 1810. Lent by the Boston Public Library, IO7-IIO. THE ATHEN/EUM PRESS, BOSTON This Press belongs to Messrs. Ginn & Company, the well-known educational publishers, who established their own Press in Boston as early as 1886. In 1895 they built The Athenaeum Press, which has won a rep- utation for the high character of its product. Every process of manufacture is there represented, and enables the firm to give to the school world publications which modern life and modern methods demand. No. 107. Northern Trails. By W. J. Long. Ginn & Co., Athenaeum Press, Boston. 1905. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers. No. 108. Advanced Algebra. By H. E. Hawkes. Ginn & Co., Athenasum Press, Boston. 1905. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 50 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dbpt. B, Nos. 109-113 No. 109. Innuit Language. By F. Barnum. Ginn & Co., Athenaeum Press, Boston. 1901. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. no. Graded Art Readers. By E. M. Cyr. Ginn & Co., Athenasum Press, Boston, (n. d.) III"Il8. THE MERRYMOUNT PRESS, BOSTON Xhis Press was begun by its owner, Mr. D. B. Up- dike, in a very modest way in 1893 with one compositor and a small hand-press. Slowly a composing-room was organized and equipped, to which a pressroom was added in 1897 and enlarged in 1903. Besides an inter- esting collection of types and ornaments, two fonts of type have been specially cut for this Press — the Merry- mount, designed by Bertram Goodhue, and the Mont- al/egro, dtsign^d by Herbert P. Home. The aim of the Press has been to undertake the work of to-day in the spirit of the best days of printing. Name : Deri'ved from the iph century settlement of 'Thomas Morton^ near Wollaston, Massachusetts. Emblem : A Maypole. Motto : Optimum Fix Satis (The best is but good enough). No. III. Minor Works of Tacitus. Boston. D. B. Updike. The Merrymount Press. 1904. Showing Merrymount type. No. 112. Life of Michael Angelo. By A. Con- divi. Boston. D. B. Updike, The Merrymount Press. 1905. Showing Mr. Home's Montallegro type. No. 113. Arcady in Troy. Privately printed. The Merrymount Press. 1903. 51 Dkpt. B, Nos. 114-120] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 114. Works of Lamb (in 12 vols.). Pafraets Book Co., Troy. (n. d.) Printed at The Merry- mount Press in Scotch-face type, first used in this country by this Press. No. 115. Letters of Rhode Island Children. Privately printed. The Merrymount Press. 1904. No. 116. True Love-Letters. Privately printed. The Merrymount Press. 1905. No. 117. Dedication John Carter Brown Library, Providence. The Merrymount Press. 1905. No. 118. The Holy Bible (in 14 vols.). R. H. Hinkley Co., Boston. 1904. The Merrymount Press. All the above books were lent by a Member of The Society of Printers. 119. THE KIRGATE PRESS Mr. Lewis Buddy, III, was the manager of this Press, which is now, as a separate establishment, given up. Its imprint still appears, however, on volumes for the typographical arrangement of which Mr. Buddy is re- sponsible. It takes its name from Kirgate, Horace Walpole*s printer at Strawberry Hill. The publications of this Press are of serious interest to the student of typography and bibliography, to which subjects they are chiefly devoted. Books arrived too late for insertion in Catalogue, This exhibit is marked by cards laid in case where books are displayed, 120. THE HEINTZEMANN PRESS, BOSTON Mr. C. H. Heintzemann's Press is well-known to Bostonians and to lovers of good printing at large, as one of the most progressive of to-day's commercial 52 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. B, Nos. lai-iaa Presses. The success of Its decorative composition is owing to Mr. Heintzemann's own studious care and thought. His work in book-printing, though somewhat overshadowed by his own reputation in the more ephemeral work for which his Press is noted, is however, a solid and satisfactory accomplishment, rank- ing with the product of the best printing-houses in America. Books received too late for insertion in Catalogue. Exhibit marked by cards laid in case where books are displayed. 121. THE PLIMPTON PRESS, NORWOOD, AND THE TROW PRINTING COMPANY, NEW YORK The books under these imprints are sent by Mr. A. F. Mackay, who superintended their making. Mr. Mackay is one of the progressive men in the printing world. Books received too late for insertion in the Catalogue, This exhibit is marked by cards laid in the case where the books are displayed. 122. THE LAKESIDE PRESS, CHICAGO Messrs. R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company are the proprietors of this Press, which has produced some remarkably good pieces of printing. The Committee regret that owing to the lateness in hearing from this Press, no account of it can be given. Books received too late for insertion in Catalogue, Exhibit marked by cards. 53 COMMERCIAL PRINTING In this department are grouped exhibits of cards, an- nouncements, and catalogue pages. The purpose is to show some of the types which may be regarded as standard displayed in well-balanced forms. The great variety of types offered, the constant effort for originality and for unusual effects have worked against the develop- ment of a high standard in this class of printing. The attention which has recently been given to the use of a single face of type in series, and the careful avoidance of over-display or eccentricity, have resulted in the production of interesting and attractive commercial printing. The most widely used type face, both for text and display, is Caslon Old Style. This letter derives its name from an English typefounder, William Caslon, by whom it was shown first in a specimen sheet issued in 1734. The capitals, being slightly heavier than the majority of text letters, add color and accentuation when used in display. Printed upon antique wove or laid papers, the type gains in strength, so that it serves well for titlepages, running heads and display lines, advertisements and announcement forms. Many at- tractive titles, cards, and small forms are worked out successfully in Caslon capitals, either in panel form or in balanced display, producing results which are some- what classical in effect. Owing to the marked contrast in height between the capitals and lower case letters, this style of display has become a conspicuous feature. The exhibits contain numerous examples composed in Caslon Old Style, illustrating the different ways in which it is used. 55 Dipt. C, Nos. 1-89] THE DEVELOP ME NT OF Another type in which interest has been revived re- cently is Old Style Antique, a heavy faced Roman letter in which all of the elements are of uniform width. The use of this type is prominent in catalogue matter, pamphlets, and small announcement forms upon antique papers in which an effort is made for ecclesiastical style. In display the type is most commonly used in capitals and as a body letter in books, pamphlets, circulars, or announcements. The lower case makes a solid page, yet retains its legibility. In connection with Caslon Old Style and other book faces. Priory and similar black letters are used for display in titlepages and headlines. They are also em- ployed as headings for circulars and announcements set in regular body letters of Old Style Antique. Priory is often used for rubricated lines in ecclesiastical and decorative printing. Gothic letters have been given over to architectural and scientific works as titles or for display, generally restricted to small sizes. The typographical emphasis so conspicuous a short time ago in advertisements and commercial forms, composed in gothics, has been superseded by the use of lighter faced types. A variety of so-called private types and recent type- foundry faces have increased the resources for distinc- tive typographic work, much being produced which has grace in proportion and charm in the lines and color values in the types themselves. The adoption of photo-mechanical processes of en- graving has greatly increased the use of decorative design as a supplement to typography. The revival of borders and decorative initials was greatly stimulated by the work of William Morris and by the product of other private presses under similiar influences. There has been a reaction from heavy borders and profuse rubrication, preference being given now to lettering having plain Roman characteristics, supplemented by 56 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. C, Nos. 1-14 simple decorative treatments, avoiding mediaeval effects. The use of headings, borders, and symbolic devices ap- propriate to the subject matter now gives color and zest to many announcement and catalogue forms. The ex- hibits include several examples of this class of decorative printing. The examples shown in this department are in the main simple forms selected for the purpose of display- ing the different types, styles of design, papers, and other details indicative of the application of definite principles to commercial work, rather than to show elaborate ones which, however attractive, are not so fully representative. Commercial Exhibits Nos. I-I2. Circulars and announcement forms, composed in Caslon Old Style type. These show accentuation by the use of large capitals and dif- ferent forms of display by use of capitals, small capitals, and italics. The tone and quality of the papers contribute much to the attractive quality of these examples. Printed by D. B. Updike, The Merrymount Press, Boston. No. 13. Folder. The border line and slight rubrication combine to produce the dainty and pleasing effect of this example. Printed by D. B. Updike, The Merrymount Press, Boston. No. 14. Order of Service pages. The symbolic devices in the border, types used, and rubrication give a distinct ecclesiastical style. Printed by The Gillis Press, New York. 57 Dept. C, Nos. i5-a3] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 15. Circular, showing the introduction of a decorative device in the title. Printed by D. B. Updike, The Merrymount Press, Boston. No. 16. Announcement form, in which rubri- cation and a large initial produce decorative quality. Printed by D. B. Updike, The Merry- mount Press, Boston. No. 17. Ecclesiastical letter, composed in Old Style Antique, with colored initial. Printed by The Heintzemann Press, Boston. No. 18. Announcement form, showing the adap- tation of a missal decorative initial and consistent rubrication. Printed by The Gillis Press, New York. No. 19. Order of Service, with appropriate border and rubrication. Printed by The De Vinne Press, New York. No. 20. Church Bulletin titles, showing simple yet appropriate styles in rule work and display. Composed by Low Brothers, Evanston, 111. No. 21. Programme, in which the border and types are appropriately combined, producing a distinctly mediaeval style. Printed by D. B. Updike, The Merrymount Press, Boston. No. 22. Announcement form, composed in Italic types, with large initial giving accentuation to the form. No. 23. Programme pages, showing tasteful and harmonious display, secured by the use of a single 58 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. C, Nos. 24-31 series of type, in connection with rules and florets. A, Programme cover, composed in Ideal type. B. Composed in Priory. No. 24. Circular, composed in Delia Robbia capitals. Printed by The De Vinne Press, New- York. No. 25. Invitation form, composed in French Script, distinguished by the decorative character of the capitals. Printed by The De Vinne Press, New York. No. 26. Library programme page, exhibiting well-balanced display lines and a slightly decora- tive effect produced by the use of a simple rubri- cated border. From The School of Printing, Boston. No. 27. Programme page of distinctive quality. Composed in Caslon Old Style. Printed by D. B. Updike, The Merrymount Press, Boston. No. 28. Menu page, showing the introduction of symbolic device and the decorative treatment of border in a tint. Printed by The Wayside Department, The University Press, Cambridge. No. 29. Programme titlepage, composed in Old Style Caslon and Flemish Black, with the intro- duction of a symbolic device. * No. 30. Ticket form, composed in Delia Robbia type, with rubricated border. No. 31. Circular, composed in Old Style type, with initial of suitable decorative character. Printed by The De Vinne Press, New York. 59 Dbpt. C, Nos. 32-40] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 32. Pamphlet cover designs, showing ex- cellent lettering combined with simple, decora- tive features. Designed by T. B. Hapgood, Jr., Boston. No. 33. Book circular pages, showing a com- parison of effect with and without rule borders. Composed by The Westminster Printery, New York. No. 34. Introductory page of circular, com- posed in Cheltenham Old Style. Arranged by W. A. Bradley, The McClure Press, New York. No. 35. Titlepages of circulars, showing consist- ency throughout by the use of a single series of type. From The American Book Company, New York. No. 36. Text page of circular, showing use of rubricated borders. Arranged by W. A. Bradley, The McClure Press, New York. No. 37. Pamphlet pages, showing decorative treatment produced by the use of devices appro- priate to the subject matter. From circulars printed by The Patteson Press, New York. No. 38. Oblong pamphlet titlepage, composed in Delia Robbia type, combined with a har- monious border. Printed by The Wayside De- partment of The University Press, Cambridge. No. 39. Pamphlet pages, composed in Avil type by The Wright & Joys Company, Milwaukee. No. 40. Pamphlet page, composed in Caslon capitals and lower case, producing the highest 60 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. C, Nos. 41-48 degree of legibility. From the American Book Company, New York. No. 41. Book circular pages, showing interest- ing variations in the use of rules, typographic arrangement, and two forms of publishers' mark. Arranged by W. A. Bradley, The McClure Press, New York. No. 42. Introductory page of catalogue, show- ing rubrication for border and panel treatment of heading. Composed in French Old Style capitals by The Morril Press, Fulton, N. Y. No. 43. Letter headings, arranged in panel forms. No. 44. Ball order pages, showing the use of Old Style Antique, with contrasting black letter for accentuation. Composed by The Rowe Press, Bath, Maine. No. 45. Programme titlepage, composed in Caslon Old Style, showing the introduction of decorative design. No. 46. Letter headings, composed by The Heintzemann Press, Boston, The White-Evans- Penfold Company, Buffalo, and The University Press, Cambridge. No. 47. Pamphlet cover, showing suitable dec- orative effect produced by large capitals and border. Composed by The Roanoke Press, River- head, N. Y. No. 48. Announcement form, composed in Old Style Antique by The Prairie Press, Chicago. 61 i5bpt. C, Nos. 49-57] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 49. Circular, with head-band in rich color. Printed by The Heintzemann Press, Boston. No. 50. Announcement, having distinction pro- duced by the use of heading and large initial, supplemented by harmonious typographic treat- ment. Printed by The Heintzemann Press, Boston. No. 51. Titlepageof circular, with simple border treatment in tint. Printed by The Wayside De- partment of The University Press, Cambridge. No. 52. Tickets and announcement form, com- posed by the Geo. H. Ellis Company, Boston. No. 53. Announcement card, with decorative initial and rubrication. No. 54. Pamphlet pages, composed by The Patteson Press, New York. No. 55. Announcement page, composed in the Village type, designed by F. W. Goudy, Hing- ham, Mass. No. 56. Engraved title and text page of brochure, designed and composed by The Morrill Press, Fulton, New York. No. 57. Examples of financial advertising pam- phlet pages, showing titlepage, composed in Winchell type, and the use of architectural detail for page decoration. From pamphlet designed and printed by The Matthews-Northrup Works, Buffalo. 62 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dipt. C, Nos. 58-65 No. 58. Examples of financial advertising pam- phlet pages, composed in Cheltenham type. From pamphlet printed by The Cheltenham Press, New York. No. 59. Examples of financial advertising pam- phlet pages, showing a rubrication from pamphlet designed and printed by Robert Grier Cook, New York. No. 60. Pamphlet pages, showing fastidious effect produced by small types and wide margins. From pamphlet* prepared by James Howard Kehler, Chicago. No. 61. Titlepage of prospectus. No. 62. Pamphlet pages, showing the introduc- tion of decorative cut for heading. From pamphlet designed and printed for the Windsor Trust Company, New York, by the Charlton Press, New York. No. 63. Rubricated title and text-page of illus- trated book, designed and printed by Robert Grier Cook, New York. No. 64. Rubricated circular, in which the illus- trations have a rich color effect, due to the double- tone quality of the ink used. Printed by The Wayside Department, The University Press, Cambridge. No. 65. Pamphlet titlepages. A. Composed in Caslon Old Style, showing the introduction, of symbolic device. B, Composed in French Old Style capitals. From pamphlets printed by The 63 Dept. C, Nos. 66-72] THE DEVELOPMENT OF Wayside Department of The University Press, Cambridge. No. 66. Examples of rule borders. Designed by Morgan Shepard, San Francisco. From pamphlet printed by The Stanley-Taylor Company, San Francisco. No. 67. Examples of catalogue typography and illustration, composed in Caslon Old Style and Old Style Antique. Designed and printed by The Southgate Press, Boston. No. 68. Pamphlet pages. Designed and printed by The Cheltenham Press, New York. No. 69. Announcement form, showing attractive typography and the use of color. Printed by The Wayside Department of The University Press, Cambridge. No. 70. Catalogue titlepage, showing good bal- ance of typography design and use of tint. From catalogue printed by The Patteson Press, New York. No. 71. A, Introductory page in which the initial gives decoration and the half-tone shading blends well with the color effect. B. Text page, showing the decorative treatment, foreground, and harmonious adjustment of the illustration to the page. From catalogue designed and printed by The Binner-Wells Company, Chicago. No. 72. Catalogue pages, showing decorative treatment of headings and brilliancy of illustra- tion. Printed by The Southgate Press, Boston. 64 ^ PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. C, Nos. 73-81 No. 73. Examples of make-up of illustrations in text pages. From " Colorado," a pamphlet printed by Rogers & Company, Chicago, for the Burlington Route. No. 74. A, Decorative text page of unusual daintiness in ornament and color scheme. B. An excellent solution of the problem of combining illustrations, title lines, and text. From catalogue printed by the Robert Stillson Company, New York. No. 75. Examples of pamphlet typography and decoration, showing the reproduction of decora- tions in half-tone. Designed and printed by The Typographic Department of The Union Bank Note Company, Kansas City, Mo. No. 76. Examples of decorative titlepage and illustration with tint background. From cata- logue printed by The Morrill Press, Fulton, New York. No. 77. Book circular, with decorations by Bertram G. Goodhue. Printed by The Univer- sity Press, Cambridge. No. 78. Pamphlet pages, composed in French Old Style, with decorations in colors. From pamphlet printed by The Southgate Press, Boston. No. 79. Decorative treatment of folder. No. 80. Announcement form, with designed border and showing the use of a tint background. No. 81. Catalogue cover, showing interesting rule treatment of cover design and simplicity in 65 Dipt. C, Nos. 8x-89] THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTING typographic display. Printed by D. B. Updike, The Merrymount Press, Boston. No. 82. Programme folder, showing the use of borders and color. Designed and printed by The Southgate Press, Boston. No. 83. Catalogue pages, showing the intro- duction of decorative design and color. From catalogue printed by The Southgate Press, Boston. No. 84. Christmas card, printed by D. B. Updike, The Merrymount Press, Boston. No. 85. Circular, composed in Caslon Old Style, with decorative panel. Printed by D. B. Updike, The Merrymount Press, Boston. No. 86. Rubricated letter-heading. Printed by The Heintzemann Press, Boston. No. 87. Announcement form, composed in Caslon Old Style type, in panel form of display. The illustrations printed in a gray-black, approx- imating the original drawing. Printed by The Smith & Porter Press, Boston. No. 88. Decorativetreatment of catalogue pages. The color used for the initial and borders is also used as an underlying tone in the illustration. From pamphlet printed by The Frank Presby Company, New York. No. 89. Music titlepages and pamphlets, show- ing the introduction of decorative details and well-balanced typography. Printed by The Heintzemann Press, Boston. 66 ILLUSTRATIVE PROCESSES The processes for the production of blocks and plates used in the printing press are three in number : (i) Relief Processes ; (2) Intaglio Processes ; (3) Piano- graphic Processes. 'The Relief Processes produce blocks of which those parts which are to carry the printing ink, and thus are to make the print, are left standing in relief above the body of the material out of which they are made, while the parts which are to show white in the printed picture are cut away. Among the relief processes are wood-engraving, relief engraving on metal, line plate etching, half-tone etching. fhe Intaglio Processes produce plates, generally of metal, in which the parts that are to carry the printing ink are cut in or etched, so that they form depressions, while those parts which are to show white in the printed picture are left standing. Such a plate is inked so as to fill the intagliated parts with the ink, and after the surface has been cleaned to remove all superfluous ink, the impression is taken by pressing against it a piece of paper or other suitable material. Among the intaglio processes are copper and steel plate engraving, copper plate etching, dry point en- graving, mezzotint engraving, aquatint engraving, and photogravure. 'The Planographic Processes use printing surfaces that are, essentially at least, flat. The designs produced upon these surfaces accept the printing ink, whereas those parts which are to show white in the printed picture refuse it, — the antagonistic properties of grease and water governing the process. The materials used as printing surfaces in the older planographic processes (>7 Dipt. D, Nos. 1-2] THE DEVELOPMENT OF are stone (lithography) or metal, commonly zinc (zin- cography). To these materials the photo-mechanical processes have added glutinous substances (collo- graphic or photogelatine processes). Aluminum is also employed to some extent as a substitute for lithographic stone. (i) RELIEF PROCESSES Wood-cutting (and Relief Engraving on Metal) Printing from relief blocks cut or engraved for the purpose seems to be the oldest method applied to the production of pictures by mechanical means. The oldest dated pictures printed from relief blocks, so far known, are the "Virgin" of 141 8, in the Brussels Cabinet, and the "St. Christopher" of 1423, in the Rylands Library of Manchester, England. As a rule these blocks, from the beginnings of the art to the end of the eighteenth century, were executed on wood — such as cherry, pear, etc., and in later times boxwood — cut in the direction of the fibre, that is to say, on planks. The tools used were knives. The aim of these woodf«/j, properly so called, was the reproduction of designs in black lines on a light ground, or, in other words, of drawings in lines. The drawings were usually executed upon the plank in pen and ink, or sometimes on thin paper, which was pasted on the wood face down- ward, and the task of the wood-cutter was confined to the cutting away of the wood between the lines of the drawing. Sometimes relief blocks were executed also on metal, in which case gravers were used instead of knives. No. I. Old black-line relief block cut on a plank. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers. No. 2. Impression from block, Dept. D, No. i. 68 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dipt. D, Nos. 3-4 No. 3. Ecce Homo. Facsimile reproduction of Durer's engraving on wood. U^ood-engraving — Old White-line Work The natural result of the graver when used for the production of relief blocks is a white line. The graver removes the wood along its path. If, after a line with the graver has thus been cut, the surface of the block is inked it prints black, while the line, being free from ink, shows white. The white line forms the starting- point of modern wood-engraving. No. 4. Example of w^hite-line vv^ork. Modern Wood-engraving The "^ood-cutter worked with knives on planks. The modern wood-^^^r^'y^r works with gravers and similar tools on wood across the grain (Dept. D, No. 6). The old black-line woodcuts are essentially facsimiles of drawings. With the introduction of modern wood- engraving the white-line came into use, it being the natural result of the graver when used for the produc- tion of relief blocks. Furthermore, the white-line led to the development of tint engraving to render the gradation of shades between black and white. While, therefore, the old ^ood-cutter had only one resource, the black line, the modern wood-engraver has three, — the black line, the white line, and tints in infinite variety. The introduction of the graver and of wood cut across the grain (Dept. D, No. 6) and of their result, the white Hne, is generally credited to Thomas Bewick (b. 1753, d. 1828), who was the first to make extended use of these means. With the introduction of the white line, the methods of placing the design on the block also underwent a change. The drawings in line were first superseded by wash drawings, and these by photographs on the wood (Dept. D, No. 8). 69 DxpT. D, Nos. 5-i6] THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 5. Example of wood-engraving by Thomas Bewick. No. 6. Boxwood block (cut across the grain). No. 7. A photograph after portrait by Sargent. No. 8. Photograph (Dept. D, No. 7) on the wood. No. 9. Engraved block (incised lines filled with chalk). Engraved by T.H. Heard after an etching by Mielatz. No. 10. Proof of block, Dept. D, No. 9. No. II. Original drawing on wood by Francis Lathrop (formerly the engraver would cut directly through the original drawing, but in this case it was preserved by re-photographing on another block). No. 12. Proof of block, Dept. D, No. 11. Nos. 13-16. Proofs by Timothy Cole. No. 13. John Bellini — Old Italian Masters — " Madonna and Child." No. 14. Rubens — Old Dutch and Flemish Masters - — " Jacqueline de Castres." No. 15. Constable — Old English Masters — "The Cornfield." No. 16. Velasquez — Old Spanish Masters — Portrait, Head of a Man. Nos. 6-16 lent by The Century Co,^ New York. 70 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dkpt. D, Nos. ly-zi No. 17. Photograph from fresco and pencil sketch from same, made by Timothy Cole, showing his method of working. Lent by Mrs, John E, Devlin. Wood-engraving — Mechanical Work Xhe ruling machine, a comparatively recent inven- tion, is largely used for engraving straight and waved lines, radiating lines, circles, etc. No. 18. Exhibit of the various kinds of work executed by the ruling machine. No. ig. Original photograph and retouched pho- tograph of machine. No. 20. Proof of block, Dept. D, No. 19. No. 21. Proof from a half-tone relief plate of same subject (Dept. D, No. 19) for comparison. Line Plate (Relief Etching) Process Xhe simplest method of producing blocks printable in the type press without engraving by hand is to etch on zinc or copper the lines and dots composing the design, in relief. In this the metal around the lines is bitten away with a mordant, the lines being protected with a composition capable of resisting acid. Gillet of Paris, who took out a patent in 1850, was the first commer- cially successful operator. The image may be either drawn by hand direct on the metal, or transferred from a prepared paper on which the image is drawn in a fatty ink (transfer ink), or transferred from another metal plate or stone by means of impressions made with transfer ink, or photo-mechanically. The photo- mechanical process is generally employed, and may be briefly described as follows : 71 Dkpt. D, No8. 22-27] THE DEVELOPMENT OF A zinc or copper plate, highly polished, is coated with asphaltum or with albumen mixed with a bichromate and exposed to light under a reversed black and white negative (Dept. D, No. 23) made from the drawing to be reproduced (Dept. D, No. 22). After exposure it is washed with a suitable solvent, which removes the unchanged part of the coating, leaving the Hnes of the design upon the plate in hardened asphaltum or albumen (Dept. D, No. 24). It is then etched in an acid bath (Dept. D, No. 25). The plate is next trimmed to re- move imperfections, and mounted type high on a wood block (Dept. D, No. 26). No. 22. Original drawing by Will Bradley. No. 23. Negative from drawing, Dept. D, No. 22. No. 24. Transfer on zinc from negative, Dept. D, No. 23. No. 25. Transfer on zinc (Dept. D, No. 24) etched only. No. 26. Transfer on zinc (Dept. D, No. 24) trimmed and mounted. No. 27. Proof from block, Dept. D, No. 26. Nos, 2j-2y from Massachusetts Engraving Co.^ Boston, The Line Plate (Relief) Processes Applied to Color^rinting The specimens shown illustrate the method of making prints in colors. For the print in colors (Dept D, No. 32) the drawing which served as an original (Dept. D, No. 28) was reproduced in three printings. In the making of the color blocks the negative of the drawing serves merely as a guide, or key, for etching and cutting the colors required. Each color requires a separate plate 72 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dipt. D, Nos. 28-32 (Dept. D, No. 29). The guide or key may be printed thereon in the same manner as previously described (Dept. D, No. 24)5 or after the key or black plate is etched the drawing may be transferred to separate plates. Those portions of the plate which are required to print in color are drawn or inked in by hand (Dept. D, No. 30)5 and the lines not desired either scraped off the plate or routed off in the routing machine. To produce other than solid tones, grained zinc is sometimes used and the drawing made thereon with a specially prepared fatty crayon. Usually, how- ever, the grain is made on the metal after the drawing has been transferred. This is done by dusting powdered asphaltum on the plate and subjecting the plate to a sufficient amount of heat to partially melt the asphaltum particles to make them adhere. The plates are then etched, trimmed, and mounted on wood blocks (Dept. D, No. 31) and printed in the required colors (Dept. D, No. 32). No. 28. Original drawing of decorative panel by Will Jenkins. No. 29. Three transfers to zinc from drawing, Dept. D, No. 28. No. 30. Three transfers to zinc from drawing (Dept. D, No. 28), two of which have colors filled in on plate. No. 31. The three etched plates from transfers (Dept. D, No. 30), mounted on wood. No. 32. Progressive proofs from plates, Dept. D, No. 31. Nos, 2p-j2/rom Suffolk Engraving & Electrotyping Co.^ Boston, 73 Dipt. D, Nos. 33-40] THE DEVELOPMENT OF Half-tone Relief Plates Xhe aim of this photo-mechanical process is to con- vert a photograph from nature or from a painting into a printable block or plate without the intervention of designer or engraver. It is self-evident that in order to be able to produce a " half-tone " block the flat and gradated tints must be broken up into corresponding masses of lines and dots. This is done by the interposi- tion of a lined or grained " screen " between the sensi- tive plate in the camera and the original to be copied. To make a screen, two perfect plates of glass are cov- ered with a thin film of opaque ground. Then by means of a diamond in an automatically governed ruling machine lines are drawn diagonally across each plate in one direction, just removing the " ground." The glass plates are then etched with fluoric acid, the ground removed, and the bitten lines are niellated (blackened) and polished. These two plates are then joined face to face, so placed that the diagonal lines cross. The lines on the screens are ruled at varying distances apart. The usual screen employed by engravers of to-day measures 150 lines to the inch; its printing quality upon the average coated paper is generally conceded to give the best results. Finer screens than 150 give more detail but less brilliancy, and coarser than 1 50 less detail and more brilliancy. Light can pass only through the innu- merable minute white squares of such a screen. It is placed about a quarter of an inch before the negative in the camera, and the object is photographed through the screen. Consequently the negative (Dept. D, No. 25) is broken up into a great number of minute squares, which are stronger or weaker as the corresponding por- tions of the original object were lighter or darker. This ' negative is placed in contact with a polished sensitized copper (or zinc) plate and exposed to light (Dept. D, No. 2^6), The copper positive is further developed and 74 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. D, Nos. 33-40 etched (Dept. D, No. 37) in an acid bath, and mounted on wood block. No. 33. A print of screens varying from 65 to 200 lines to the inch. One Color (150 Screen) No. 34. Photograph from Sargent's "Prophets." Lent by Curtis dsf Cameron, No. 35. Negative from photograph, Dept. D, No. 34. No. 36. Transfer on copper from negative, Dept. D, No. 35. No. 37. Transfer (Dept. D, No. 36), etched. No. 38. Plate (Dept. D, No. 36 ), finished and blocked. No. 39. Proof from block, Dept. D, No. 38. ■^*^« 35^39 fr'^^ "James S. Conant Co,^ Boston, All half-tone plates are lowered in tone like photo- graphs. No absolute white can be produced, as the vestiges of the screen do not vanish completely. This drawback is partially remedied by re-etching and en- graving by hand such portions of the plate as require to be lightened and burnishing those parts which should be darkened. Dept. D, No. 40 shows a print from a half-tone plate re-etched and engraved. No. 40. Proof of half-tone engraving re-etched and engraved, reproduced from drawing by Karl Anderson. Lent by John Andrew ^ Son^ Boston, 7S Dept. D, Nos. 41-44] THE DEVELOPMENT OF Half-tone Copper Relief Plate Supplemented with Zinc Color Plate Xhe half-tone plate Is prepared as above stated, and the color plate as described under Line Plate Processes Applied to Color Printing. No. 41. Pastel drav^ing with colored tint, by Charlotte Weber. No. 42. Progressive proofs from blocks made from drawing, Dept. D, No. 41. Halftone Process (Duotint) Two plates employed In this process of reproduction two negatives are made of the original, the half-tone screen on each being placed at a slightly different angle. Both plates are usually printed in the same color, but one lighter in tone than the other. Richer and softer effects are obtainable by this process than by the single half-tone plate. No. 43. Screens shown on large scale. No. 44. Progressive proofs from blocks made by half-tone duotint process. Halftone Relief Process (^hree-color Process) This is a photo-mechanical half-tone process for repro- ducing in three colors — yellow, red, and blue — all the colors which may be in an original painting or other object, and is based upon the theory that all colors are formed of yellow, red, and blue. It is first necessary to prepare negatives, one from which the plate to print yellow is made. This is done by specially sensitizing the collodion film and by placing between the picture and the lens a colored filter which neutralizes all the colors but the yellow in the picture. (A filter is a piece 76 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. D, Nos. 45-49 of colored glass, colored gelatine on glass, or colored liquid between two pieces of glass.) For the red plate the filter neutralizes the blues and yellows, and for the blue plate the yellows and reds. Half-tone plates are prepared in the usual manner. (See Half-tone Relief Plates.) The usual sequence of printing the plates is first yellow, then red, and lastly blue. No. 45. Original drawing. ** Design for Church Window.'' No. 46. Three negatives, with color filters, from drawing, Dept. D, No. 45. No. 47. Three finished half-tone plates from negatives, Dept. D, No. 46. No. 48. Progressive proofs from plates, Dept. D, No. 47. Nos, /j.^— ^8 from The Sparrell Print^ Boston. Half-tone Relief Process (Four-color Process) In three-color printing every part of the picture is composed by three colors, and if one of them lacks in- tensity, the character of the picture is impaired. Colors become incorrect and grays are rendered violet or brown. Large surfaces such as backgrounds often have a mottled and crude appearance, due to the imperfec- tions of the working materials and uneven distribution of color. To overcome these defects a fourth printing plate is employed. Properly retouched and printed in a neutral gray or black, this plate increases the depth of the shadows and produces a harmonious color effect. No. 49. Progressive proofs of four-color pro- cess print. Plot's " Youth." Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 77 Dept. D, Nos. 50-59] THE DEVELOPMENT OF (2) INTAGLIO PROCESSES Copper Plate Engraving No. 50. One illustration of the German School, XVI century. No. 51. Four illustrations of the French School, XVIII century. Dry Point Engraving No. 52. Portrait. Aquatint Engraving No. 53. Landscape by Brunet-Debaines. Soft Ground Engraving No. 54. Rouen. Copper Plate Etching No. 55. Threeillustrationsof the Dutch School, XVII century. No. 56. Portrait, "Ralph Waldo Emerson," en- graved by W. H. W. Bicknell. See Dept. D, No. 60, for reproduction by photogravure process. Lent by A, W, Elson & Co,^ Boston, Steel Plate Engraving No. 57. Engraved half-title. No. 58. Portrait in line and stipple. Mezzotint Engraving No. 59. Reynold's "Infant Samuel.'* Engraved by Thomas Lupton, 1822. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, 78 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. D, Nos. 60-67 Photogravure Process No. 60. Portrait, " Ralph Waldo Emerson," re- produced from copper plate etching, Dept D, No. 56. Lent by J, W. Els on & Co.^ Boston. (3) PLANOGRAPHIC PROCESSES Lithography No. 61. Print from pen drawing on polished stone. Lent by The Heltotype Co.^ Boston, No. 62. Print from crayon drawing on grained stone. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers. No. 63. Print from engraving on stone. (This is actually an intaglio process print, though placed among the planographic processes for convenience.) Lent by The Heliotype Co.^ Boston. No. 64. Pen-and-ink drawing by Walter Camp- bell. No. 65. Photo-lithographic reproduction of drawing, Dept. D, No. 64. Lent by Walter Campbell,^ Boston. No. 66. Photo-lithography in color. Progressive proofs of "Columbia's Courtship," by L. Prang & Co. No. 67. Photo-lithography in color. Reproduc- tion of painting by Robert Blum. 79 Dipt. D, Nos. 68-74] THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTING No. 68. Example of chromo-lithography. Re- production of painting by E. A. Abbey. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, Photo-gelatine Process (Heliotype, Albertype, Autoglyph, Collotype) No. 69. A photograph. No. 70. Reproduction of photograph, Dept. D, No. 69. No. 71. Photo-gelatine print direct from origi- nal negative. No. 72. Reproduction of engraving in line. No. 73. Three-color photo-gelatine print, sup- plemented with black print from lithographic stone. Nos, 6g-yj from The Heliotype Co.^ Boston. Heliochrome Process No. 74. Trinity Church, Boston. Progressive proofs. The colored tints vi^ere printed from lithographic stone, and the black gelatine print printed over it. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, ( Further information regarding Illustrative Processes may be obtained from books on the subject at the Boston Public Library and the Print Room of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.) 80 PAPER AND PAPER-MAKING It is not the purpose of this exhibit to cover the tech- nical side of this subject, but merely to give some idea of the kinds of paper in use to-day for printing pur- poses, and to illustrate in a general way the process by which it is manufactured. The first paper of the sort familiar to us (from fibrous matter reduced to a pulp) was made by the Chinese, in the second century b. c, from the bark of the mulberry tree. The branches of the tree were first boiled in lye to remove the bark. Then followed maceration in water for several days, after which the outer part of the bark was scraped off and the inner part boiled in lye until separated into fibres. These were washed in a pan or sieve, then worked by hand into pulp which was spread on a table and beaten fine with a mallet. The pulp thus obtained was placed in a tub containing an infusion of rice and a root called " Oveni " and thoroughly stirred, to mix the materials. The sheets were formed by dipping a mould, made of strips of bulrushes confined in a frame, into the vat containing the pulp. The sheets were then placed one above another between rushes, weights were applied to press them, and they were afterward thoroughly dried in the sun. While the Chinese methods of producing paper and the product itself were of the crudest, yet the principles involved have continued even to the present day, though finer materials and improved processes have made possible the beautiful sheets of hand-made paper with which we are familiar. A limited quantity is still made for De Luxe editions of fine books, note-paper, etc., yet the process is so laborious and expensive as to preclude its use for general commercial purposes. 8i Dept. E, Nos. 1-2] THE DEVELOPMENT OF Though the Chinese claim the invention as early as B.C. 123, the substance did not become known to Europe until the period following the conquest of Samarkand by the Arabs (712 a. d.). One of the ear- liest extant paper manuscripts, now in the Royal Library in Paris, bears the date 1050. In 1085 there was a paper mill in Toledo, Spain. In 1221 Frederick II. of Germany, on account of the bad quahty of paper, issued an order nullifying all public acts which should be upon cotton paper, allowing two years to transcribe upon parchment all such as then existed. In 1276 there was a paper mill at Fabriano, in Northern Italy, which is still in operation. In 1325, a century before Gutenberg, there was a paper mill in Mainz. In 1333 the practice began of placing water marks in paper to distinguish the maker, showing that even at that early date there was some competition in the industry. The increasing demand for paper and the lack of adequate facilities for meeting it culminated in the in- vention in England, in 1804, by Henry and Seeley Fourdrinier, of a machine for the making of paper in a continuous web, and the paper machines of to-day, though greatly improved, are still called Fourdrinier machines. The earliest examples of paper available for this exhi- bition are taken from a collection of old papers, the property of the Boston Public Library, the date assigned to the first being 1340. No. X, Specimen of Italian paper made about 1340. It is a rather coarse, thick substance, with a crudely drawn water mark of a bull's head with the horns raised perpendicularly. Lent by the Boston Public Library, No. 2. Paper made about 1401. The wire marks in this specimen are less noticeable, giving a PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. E, Nos. 3-5 better surface for writing. The water mark is a unicorn. Lent by the Boston Public Library, No. 3. Italian paper made about 1509. This specimen is thinner than the others, undoubtedly due to the influence of printing. Lent by the Boston Public Library, No. 4. Paper made about 1556. The wire marks in this paper have been made still finer in the endeavor to make a smoother paper with a better printing surface. The water mark is a hand and a cross, drawn very simply, yet showing far greater care in execution than the previous examples. Lent by the Boston Public Library, No. 5. Paper made about 1575. The water marks from this time on become very much more elaborate and confused. The water mark in this paper is a spread eagle. Lent by the Boston Public Library, In 1690 William Rittinghuysen, a native of Broich, Holland, with 'William Bradford, the printer, estab- lished the first mill in America, in Roxborough, near Philadelphia. In 1730 the first mill in New England went into operation, in Milton, Mass. In 175 1, owing to the limited supply of rags, sundry experiments were made to find a substitute. M. Guet- tard showed that paper could be made from bark, leaves, wood, etc., yet more than a hundred years elapsed before this was done upon a commercial basis. In 1757 a new kind of paper was introduced called " papier velin " (paper like parchment). It afterwards 83 Dept. E, No8. 6-8] THE DEVELOPMENT OF became known as " wove paper " because it was made upon a woven wire mould, a name distinguishing it from "laid paper," made on a mould in which the wires are laid in parallel columns. The paper used in the Vergil printed by Baskerville which is exhibited in Dept. A, No. i6, is said to have been the first wove paper made. In 1776, owing to the scarcity of paper, the Massa- chusetts House of Representatives resolved that the committee of correspondence in the several towns be required to appoint suitable persons to receive rags for the paper mills, and the inhabitants asked to be careful to save even the smallest quantity of rags suitable for making paper. No. 6. A Sermon which required one hour to deliver, closely written on account of the scarcity of paper. Written in 1775. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, No. 7. Another Sermon, written fifteen years later, showing that the scarcity still existed. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers. In 1802 a patent was secured in England by W. Plus for a mode of coloring paper which consisted in mixing with the pulp snuff, bran, hay, and any substance pos- sessing the color which was desired to be imparted to the paper. No. 8. Cover paper in use in 1807, evidently colored by the Plus method. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, In 1785 chlorine was discovered as an agent for bleaching. In 1790 the practice began of putting blu- ing into the pulp to make white paper. Examples of 84 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dsft. E, Nos. 9-10 paper made about this time show a distinct deteriora- tion in quality as a result of inexperience with the use of these new methods. No. 9. Example of paper made about 1796 showing the blue-white color. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers. In 1799 Louis Roberts, at the mill of Fran9ois Didot in France, succeeded in building a device upon which paper could be made in a continuous sheet. In 1804 Henry and Seeley Fourdrinier, of London, purchased the patents of Roberts and Didot and erected a mill at Boxmoor. They expended large sums and the venture proved a financial failure, yet it is this type of machine that is now most used in making paper. The next twenty-five years form an interesting period in the development of paper-making. The paper machine was very imperfect, and required constant manipulation and much patience to keep the pulp flow- ing in a uniform manner. The manufacturers of hand- made paper, on the contrary, had become so skilful that the movements of each workman was almost mechanical. Strangely enough it is now almost impos- sible to tell whether some of the paper made at this time was by hand or by machine. It was not until May 20, 1822, that the Parliamentary papers of the English House of Commons appear on paper made by machinery. The change was evidently not popular, for the next three volumes are printed on hand-made paper, and for a number of years after that reports of special committees were printed upon paper made by the old method. No. 10. Vol. 5, Parliamentary Papers, May 20, 1822. The left-hand page is printed upon hand- made paper, the right-hand page upon machine- 85 I Dept. E, Nos. II-I3] THE DEVELOPMENT OF made paper. It is difficult to distinguish the two except by the feeHng and by the fact that the right-hand page bears no water mark. Lent by the Boston Public Library, In 1830 Thomas Barratt, an English paper maker, obtained a patent for inserting a water mark in paper madfe by machinery, and the next year Jean Jaques Jaquire obtained a patent for making laid paper by machinery. In 1832 Jarvis and French of Tompkins Co., New York, invented a mode of pressing paper by passing it between hollow metallic rollers. No. II. Copy of Homer's Iliad published in 1 84 1 by Pickering, showing smoother finish of paper. Lent by a Member of The Society of Printers, Space does not permit mention of the many inventions made at this time to convert wood into paper pulp, the most important being between 1847 ^"^ 1887. Before the end of the Civil War wood pulp began to be used for the daily newspaper. At first it was mixed in very small quantities with the rag pulp. No. 12. Copy of The Boston Journal printed in i860 upon rag paper. Lent by the Boston Public Library, No. 13. Copy of The Boston Journal printed in 1870 upon wood paper. Lent by the Boston Public Library. Modern printing paper is of almost infinite variety. It can be divided, however, into two classes, hand-made and machine-made. Of the former comparatively little is used except for small special editions ; of machine- 86 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. E, Nos. 14-28 made paper there are six common finishes^ beginning with the roughest and ending with the smoothest, — they are as follows : Antique, Machine, English, Super- calendered, Cameo, Coated. These are commonly made in white, natural, and deep cream (India tint). No. 14. Sample of laid hand-made paper. No. 15. Sample of wove hand-made paper. No. 16. Sample of antique laid paper. No. 17. Sample of antique wove paper. See also paper used for the body of this Handbook. * No. 18. Sample of machine finish paper. No. 19. Sample of supercalendered paper. No. 20. Sample of English finish paper. No. 21. Sample of cameo plate paper. No. 22. Sample of coated or enamelled book paper. No. 23. Sample of antique wove India tint paper. No. 24. Sample of cover hand-made paper. See also cover of this Handbook. No. 25. Sample of cover machine-made paper. No. 26. Old-time mills. Capacity, i, coo pounds daily. Hands employed, about lOO. No. 27. Mould for making paper by hand. No. 28. Pictures: A, Sorting rags. B, Making sheets by hand. C, Drying hand-made sheets. D, Old-time beater. 87 Dkpt. E, No8. 29-31I THE DEVELOPMENT OF No. 29. Modern paper mills. Capacity, over 100 tons daily. Hands employed, about 1,000. No. 30. Pictures: A, Poplar wood pile. B, Rags for making paper as they arrive at the mill. C A Beater. The rags, wood fibre, coloring material, sizing, etc., are mixed in this oval tank, in which re- volves a cylindrical " roll," provided with radial " bars " or knives. These knives tear and reduce the stock to a fine pulp, preparing it for the principal operation — that of forming the sheet. Z). An up-to-date paper-making machine, width 145 inches, capable of making a web of paper 11% feet wide with a product of about 25 tons per day. E. Another view of a paper machine. F. Paper cutters. G. Supercalenders. No. 31. Samples showing different stages in the reduction of linen or cotton rags to fibre for making paper : A. Cotton and Linen Rags These, after having been selected and assorted, are cut up rather finely ; now ready for the boiling or leaching process. B, Rags after Boiling These rags have been treated with a solution of cal- cium hydrate in closed vessels under a pressure of about forty pounds of steam to the square inch. This process has dissolved out any oily matter, and renders the stock more easily washed and bleached. C. Rag Stock This shows rag stock after boiling and washing free from dirt. This is now ready for bleaching. 88 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. E, Nos. 31-33 D. Rag Stock after Washing and Bleaching During the process of washing, the rags are triturated and the fibres separated by means of a grinding process. This is frequently called " half-stuff." E, All Rag Fibres Taken from the beater. No. 32. Samples showing different stages in the reduction of wood to fibre for making paper (poplar by soda process): A, Poplar Wood after Chipping It is necessary to reduce the log to small chips like this before the disintegrating process is begun. B. Poplar Wood Fibre after '-''Cooking " The chips are boiled in a closed vessel with a solution of strong caustic soda and under no pounds steam pressure. The result is like this. C Poplar Fibre after Washing and before Bleaching The shade of this material is lighter than the newly cooked fibre, because the soluble material has been washed out. It is now ready for bleaching. X). Poplar Fibre after Bleaching This is now ready for the beating engines. E. All Wood Fibres Taken from the beater. No. 33. Materials used in paper-making. A, Rosin Size Made by boiling rosin in solution with soda. This is applied to the stock at the beater in order to make the paper less absorbent. 89 Dkpt. E, No. 33] THE DEVELOPMENT OF B, Casein A material prepared from skim milk and used as a substitute for glue in connection with clay for the coating of paper. C. China Clay or Kaoline Carefully prepared and washed to free it from grit, iron, etc., is used in connection with casein or glue for coating papers, also as a " filler " in the body of some paper as an aid to color finish and softness. Z). A Mixture of Rag, Spruce^ and Poplar Fibre after being Mixed in the Beating Engine and Partially Ground or Beaten At this stage of the process the coloring, sizing, etc., are added. E, Fibres Prepared for the Paper-making Machine This exhibit shows the fibres thoroughly reduced and in exactly the consistency in which they flow on to the wire cloth of the paper machine. F. Bleached Sulphite Fibre This is spruce wood fibre treated like the poplar fibre except that a solution of sulphureous acid liquor is used instead of caustic soda. The bleaching process is carried out in large tubs or tanks, the fibres being in suspen- sion in a large quantity of water. A solution of chloride of lime is added, which bleaches the stock to the proper color. G. Laid-Wire Cloth Used for moulds for making paper by hand and for covering dandy rolls for paper machines. H. Wove-Wire Cloth Used for moulds for making paper by hand and for covering dandy rolls for paper machines. 90 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. E, No. 33 Materials for Paper-making The principal fibrous materials used to-day in the manufacture of paper for printing purposes are linen and cotton rags and wood pulp (generally poplar or spruce). Until about 1870 rags were used almost entirely, but at that time wood fibres were introduced and by their use manufacturers were able to meet the demand for good but cheaper paper, and this material has been and is of great commercial value (Dept. E, No. 13). Mould for Making Paper by Hand Moulds are made of laid or woven wire of the same size as the sheet of paper which is to be made, sup- ported by a wooden frame underneath. Above this wire is placed a very shallow and narrow frame known as the " deckle " which in size and shape corresponds exactly with the mould. The sheet is formed by dipping the mould into the mass of pulp and filling it evenly with the top of the deckle, the thickness of the paper being determined by the skill of the workman. The water drains through the wire cloth as the mould is gently shaken by the operator. The deckle is then re- moved and the sheet of paper formed is taken off on a felt and afterwards dried, pressed, and finished according to the purpose for which it is intended. Laid Paper The term " laid paper " was derived from the style of wire upon which the sheet is formed in making paper by hand, and used in making " dandy rolls " for paper machines. The wires are laid very close together and joined and held in position by cross wires at intervals varying from one-half to one inch, as desired (Dept. E, No. 16). 91 Dipt. E, No. 33l THE DEVELOPMENT OF Wove Paper The term "wove paper" was derived from a wire, woven like cloth (first made about 1750), upon which the sheet is formed in making paper by hand and used in making " dandy rolls " for paper machines (Dept. E, No. 17). All previous paper had been made on laid wire. Super calendered Paper SuPERCALENDERED paper is made by passing a con- tinuous web of paper through a stack of heated steel rolls called "super calenders" (name derived from " calendra," a corruption of " cylindrus," a roller or cylinder), driven in perfect contact under pressure and at a speed varying from one hundred to five hundred feet per minute. This process gives the paper a smooth and polished surface which is principally used for the printing of woodcuts, line plates, and other similar processes of illustration in connection with letterpress (Dept. E, No. 19). This method of giving paper a smooth surface was invented about 1830. Coated or Enamelled Book Coated paper is made by applying to the surface of paper a coating generally composed of a mixture of clay and glue or casein, which fills the uneven surface of the paper and makes possible, by calendering, a glossy, even surface (Dept. E, No. 22). First introduced in the early 8o's for book purposes to meet the demands of half-tone printing, the plates for which are very shallow, requiring a paper with a perfectly smooth and uniform finish. Cameo Plate Coated Book Cameo plate paper is surface coated and is receptive to the shallow plates used in half-tone printing. It 92 PRINTING AS AN ART [Dept. E, No. 33 possesses, however, a surface devoid of shine in contrast to the regular enamelled book. (Dept. E, No. 21.) Deckle Edges Deckle edges are the rough edges seen in some sheets of paper. They are made by contact with the "deckle frame" in making paper by hand and on the paper machine by contact with the deckle strap, which con- trols the width of the web being made on the wire. In high-grade machine-made paper this deckle edge is often left on to imitate the hand-made, but is usually trimmed off, so as to leave the edges smooth. Water Mark A WATER mark is a design, word, or letters woven into the laid or wove wire cloth which leaves its imprint in the paper. It is best seen by looking through the sheet. First known use about the year 1330. Dandy Rolls Dandy rolls are hollow cylinders covered'Vith wire cloth, either laid or wove, under which the paper passes before leaving the wire on the paper machine. All water marks, patterns, and designs which it is desired to have appear in the paper are woven into the cover- ing of the dandy roll and impressed upon the soft sheet and are permanently fixed in the fibres. Clay China clay, or kaolin, is used in the manufacture of paper as a " filler " in the body stock to help in color and finish, or as a coating in connection with glue or casein applied to the surface, as in coated or enamelled book paper. Sizing Without sizing all papers would be more or less absorbent like blotting paper. " Size," which is made 93 Dipt. E, No. 33] THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRINTING by dissolving rosin in water containing soda, is generally- used for printing papers, and is applied to the stock at the beaters in quantities as required. Finishing All paper is made on the basis of a given thickness or weight per ream and comes off the paper machine in a compact roll. Antique, ordinary machine finish, and English finished surfaces are obtained on the paper- making machine. Supercalendered and coated surfaces are given to paper by separate processes. If required in roll form for rotary presses the paper is generally rewound when imperfections are cut out. If required in sheets, the rolls are cut to the proper size and the paper is then sorted, counted, and packed by hand in either cases or bundles. Roll paper is sold at the actual weight of the roll at per pound rate. Sheet paper is usually sold at the weight per ream. A ream generally consists of either 480 or 500 sheets. 94 m^r^.