EVERYBODY'S 
 CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 A concise and accurate compilation of the world's knowledge, 
 prepared from the latest and best authorities in every department 
 of learning; including a 
 
 Chronological History of the World 
 
 graphically represented by colored charts, showing the most 
 important epochs and events of history, from the earliest times 
 to the present day. 
 
 And a Treasury of Facts 
 
 containing much valuable information often in demand, but not 
 usually found in a single collection. Also 
 
 A Statistical Record of the World 
 
 which includes latest figures from the recent United States Census. 
 
 PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF 
 
 CHARLES LEON ARD-STUART,B. A. GEORGE J.HAGAR,M. A. 
 
 of the New International. Americana. Special Expert on the International, 
 Britannica, Current Cyclopedia, etc. People's, Imperial, etc. 
 
 EDITORS-IN-CHIEF 
 
 Assisted by a corps of eminent editors, educators, scientists, 
 inventors, explorers, etc. 
 
 New Y ' o r k 
 
 SYNDICATE PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 12 and 14 West 32d Street
 
 Copyright, 1911, by F. E. Wright 
 Copyright, 1912, by F. E. Wright
 
 Preface 
 
 For" an encyclopedia to attain the dignity of a standard work of 
 reference, and to maintain that position, certain distinctive features are 
 essential. The chief of these, outside variety of topics and accuracy, are 
 independence, originality, progressiveness, convenience, lucidity, and 
 brevity. 
 
 Independence and originality cannot be acquired without departing 
 from the old-time methods of pedantic Latinity, unfamiliar scientific and 
 technical terms, and diffusiveness, which, even in modern times, still 
 seek to make knowledge the prerogative of a privileged class. Progress- 
 iveness is obtained by adopting up-to-date methods of organization, 
 preparation, and production, and employing the ingenious principle of 
 the expansive card-index, so that the latest data may be added until the 
 very day of printing each edition. Convenience is found in the concise 
 disposition of matter, and its arrangement in the form of compact 
 volumes, of handy size for ready reference, in place of large and clumsy 
 volumes, inconvenient to handle on account of their size and weight, 
 which are by many supposed to represent the correct style for all ency- 
 clopedic works of reference. Lucidity and brevity are attained by the 
 development, through the patient and laborious work of editors and 
 compilers, of the fine and difficult art of condensation, in which the 
 constant aim is to synthesize or crystallize the ever-growing mass of 
 ancient and modern information into the concrete and attractive form 
 of "race knowledge." This term was introduced by Professor Patton, of 
 Princeton University, to distinguish the sifted and verified knowledge 
 of a subject useful to the whole world from the detailed knowledge 
 required by specialist cr expert, and indicates a simple and concise 
 handling which, while meeting all reasonable demands of scholarship, 
 brings the profoundest learning within the comprehension of any 
 attentive or thoughtful mind. 
 
 Since the beginning of the twentieth century there has been 
 enormous activity among the publishers of leading nations to produce 
 new encyclopedias, with the purpose of presenting the whole range of uni- 
 versal information according to modern standards and requirements, and 
 of exhibiting the wonderful progress made in all departments of human 
 knowledge and endeavor during the last quarter of a century. Praise- 
 worthy arrangements were formulated to embody in these works the 
 qualities enumerated above as essential to the production of a standard
 
 Preface 
 
 work of reference. But, without exception, whether American or Euro- 
 pean, these remain In great part revised editions of old encyclopaedias. 
 In the American works, all based on European models, old matter, bodily 
 lifted from the editions of preceding centuries, appears instead of a 
 modern presentation of the subject; while even in the new matter sup- 
 plied, all the old defects of elaborate and diffuse treatises, adapted only 
 for the use of specialists, experts, or professional men, are retained 
 along with the inconvenience of bulky form, to which the present small, 
 handy volumes afford a delightful contrast. 
 
 In the making and distribution of encyclopaedias, the need of a 
 popular reference work of more compact form than those in ordinary 
 Use was made strikingly apparent both to editor and publishers, by the 
 thousands of questions poured daily into the offices of magazines and 
 journals, which, by arrangement, were referred to the encyclopaedists for 
 reply. In the majority of instances, the answers could have been found 
 by reference to the venerable and ponderous types of encyclopaedias. But 
 these, wherever possessed, apparently had been relegated to the repose 
 of library shelves, after the novelty of possession had worn off, while 
 the trouble attendant on disturbing them for research was, apparently, 
 greater than the slight inconvenience caused by writing and waiting for 
 a brief answer to a simple question. 
 
 Under these circumstances, the conviction grew that a more con- 
 venient form of reference work was necessary for ordinary use, one 
 which, if kept In the home on the reading-table, in the student's room 
 on a handy shelf, or in the office or store on the work-desk, would 
 become an indispensable and authoritative source of the information 
 needed in connection with the current news of every-day life. 
 
 The ordinary skip method of reading newspapers, magazines, etc., 
 Is not conducive to self-culture, unless the reader is accustomed to 
 regard this reading as a test of Ignorance or knowledge. Then it 
 becomes of inestimable service. Every day interesting information is 
 given about places and subjects of which most people know very little 
 and remember less from the knowledge acquired in school days. But 
 a ready dip into a convenient reference work will put one in possession 
 of the necessary Information, and if the knowledge is acquired at the 
 time when the subject Is a topic of general discussion, it Is likely to be 
 permanently retained. 
 
 The "reference habit" is one of the most delightful and profitable 
 that can be inculcated in young persons or cultivated by men and women 
 for the worthy purpose of extending education throughout the whole of 
 adult life. The more convenient the form of reference work at hand, 
 the oftener it will be used, and when this can be done with the least
 
 Preface 
 
 possible waste of time, the reference habit frequently changes the whole 
 mental attitude, transforming an ordinary into a well-informed person. 
 
 With the conviction fully confirmed that such a convenient work of 
 reference was urgently needed, the publishers, after mature deliberation, 
 decided upon a striking departure and a revolution in the ordinary 
 methods of encyclopedia making. Adopting a novel and original plan 
 which would allow them to make use of the latest sources of information 
 right up to the date of publication, they determined to build a work 
 which should present the modern, solid, alive, and up-to-date American 
 view of everything worth knowing in the fewest possible words; a work 
 for the use of students and others which would fit them to take part in 
 the conversation or enjoy the society of any well-informed circle. 
 
 The result, as embodied in the present work, exhibits the truly 
 American characteristic of the exact knowledge sought; giving the pith 
 of each subject, the essential facts, condensed to the plainest terms 
 consistent with accuracy and clearness, and presented in a convenient 
 form for ready reference. The salient features of each topic treated and 
 its modern aspect follow the title and impress themselves at once upon 
 eye and mind. Nothing of value is omitted. The old, stereotyped, 
 pompous, so-called encyclopedic style gives way to a bright, modern 
 presentment of knowledge and facts. Without needless wading through 
 a mass of words, the reader immediately grasps the knowledge sought. 
 Every subject is condensed or distilled to an essence of crystal clearness, 
 in order to secure the compact and convenient size aimed at. Moreover, 
 this plan of condensation or crystallization has allowed the inclusion of 
 a greater number of titles than are to be found in the larger works of 
 reference, for over 150,000 separate titles will be found in the various 
 sections of this work, as compared with the 50,000 or 60,000 subjects in 
 the ordinary encyclopedias. 
 
 The publishers have also aimed at making the work doubly attractive 
 by reason of its illustrations. Text-cuts, half-tones and artistic three- 
 color page plates, considerably beyond the plane of the average encyclo- 
 paedic illustrations, contribute largely to a full understanding of the crisp 
 descriptive matter. Special attention was also directed towards providing 
 a clear type, easy for reading and restful to the eyes, instead of the 
 small, fatiguing, eye-straining type, so frequently complained of in the 
 larger forms of encyclopaedic dictionaries. 
 
 The whole work, modern in conception and treatment, accurate, 
 clear, concise, and up-to-date in a thoroughly practical sense, is a 
 standard, ideal reference library, providing a short cut to all knowledge. 
 No work on a similar scale of convenience has been attempted hitherto, 
 and the publishers, gratified by its comprehensive scope and reliability,
 
 Preface 
 
 feel confident that its compact form will make it, though small, a powerful 
 rival for preferential and general use in school, home, store, or office, 
 over the larger types of encyclopaedias, gazetteers, or dictionaries. 
 
 The editor and publishers take the opportunity here to acknowledge 
 their indebtedness to the contributors whose names appear on the title- 
 page and appended to articles in the work. 
 
 They also extend their thanks to chief clerks and statisticians, to 
 E. Dana Durand, Director of the Thirteenth Census; George E. Roberts, 
 Esq., Director of the Mint; the Hon. James Wilson, Secretary, and 
 George Wm. Hill, Esq., Editor-in-Chief, of the Department of Agriculture; 
 and to numerous other federal and state officials, for special reports 
 and important bulletins of latest information. They would also extend 
 their thanks to the Librarian of Columbia University, New York City, 
 and members of the library staff; to members of the staff of the Public 
 Library, New York City; to many statesmen, scientists, authors, editors, 
 and officers of corporations, companies, etc., for courteous information 
 and suggestions which have enhanced the accuracy of the text and 
 illustrated features of this Reference Library.
 
 a, the first letter in the 
 English and other alpha- 
 bets, ultimately derived 
 from the Phoenician, is 
 traced by some to a char- 
 acter belonging to the Egyptian h : er- 
 atic alphabet. Alpha, the Greek 
 name of the letter, corresponds closely 
 to aleph ("an ox"), the Phoenician 
 name (see ALPHABET). The form 
 which it has as a capital is the earliest. 
 The sound which originally belonged 
 to it, and which is still its character- 
 istic sound except in English, is that 
 heard in far, farther, palm, etc. A, in 
 music, is the sixth note in the diatonic 
 scale of C. 
 
 Aard-vark, (that is, "earth-pig"), 
 a burrowing insect-eating animal of 
 the order Edentata found in South 
 
 AABD-VABK. 
 
 Africa. The name -"pig" is given to 
 it from the shape of its snout. It is 
 about 5 feet long, with a thin tapering 
 tail, and long upright ears. It is noc- 
 turnal in its habits and very timid. 
 Its flesh is considered a delicacy. 
 
 Aard-wolf, a singular carnivorous 
 animal, first brought from South Af- 
 rica by the traveler Delalande. Its 
 
 size is about that of a full grown for, 
 which it resembles in both its habits 
 and manners, being nocturnal, and con 
 structing a subterraneous abode. 
 
 Aargau, or Argovie, a canton of 
 Switzerland, bounded on the N. by the 
 Rhine, which separates it from the 
 grand-duchy of Baden, elsewhere by 
 the cantons Zurich, Zug, Lucerne, 
 Bern, Solothurn, and Basel; area, 543 
 square miles. Pop. (1900) 206,498, 
 more than half of whom are Protes- 
 tants. The capital is Aarau. 
 
 Aarhans, a city of Denmark, capi- 
 tal of a division of the same name. It 
 is situated on the Cattegat, and has 
 an excellent and safe harbor, which 
 admits vessels of light draught, the 
 construction of such craft being the 
 chief industry of the place. It has 
 considerable manufacturing and is the 
 centre of a large trade, being connect- 
 ed with the rest of the Jutland region 
 by the State railway, and regular 
 steamers to Copenhagen and Great 
 Britain. The town is among the old- 
 est in Denmark, and is noted as being 
 the site of the first Christian church 
 in the kingdom. Its bishop's see 
 dates from 948. It has a cathedral 
 commenced in 1201, which is a fair 
 example of early 13th century Gothic 
 architecture. Pop. in 1901, 51,909. 
 
 Aaron, son of Amram (tribe of 
 Levi), elder brother of Moses, and di- 
 vinely appointed to be his spokesman 
 in the embassy to the court of Pha- 
 raoh. By the same authority, avouched 
 in the budding of his rod, he was 
 chosen the first high-priest. He was 
 recreant to his trust in the absence 
 of MOSPS upon the Mount, and made 
 the golden calf for the people to wois
 
 Aaron 
 
 ship. He died in the 123d year of his 
 age, and the high-priesthood descended 
 to his third son, Eleazar. 
 
 Aaron's rod, in architecture, is a 
 rod like that of Mercury, but with 
 only one serpent twined around it. 
 
 Ab, the eleventh month of the civil 
 year of the Hebrews, and the fifth of 
 their ecclesiastical year, which begins 
 with the month Nisan. It answers to 
 the moon of July, that is, to part of 
 our month of July and to the begin- 
 ning of August ; it consists of 30 days. 
 
 Abaca, or MANILA HEMP, a strong 
 fibre yielded by the leaf-stalks of a 
 kind of plantain (Musa textilis) 
 which grows in the Indian Archipel- 
 ago, and is cultivated in the Philip- 
 pines. The outer fibres of the leaf- 
 stalks are made into strong ropes, the 
 inner into various fine fabrics. 
 
 Abaco, GREAT and LITTLE, two is- 
 of the Bahamas group. 
 
 Abacus, a Latin term applied to 
 an apparatus used by the Chinese for 
 facilitating arithmetical operations, 
 consisting of a number of parallel 
 cords or wires, upon which balls or 
 beads are strung, the uppermost wire 
 
 oooo 
 
 o 
 
 ooooooo 
 
 ooooo 
 
 ooooooooo- 
 
 oooooooo 
 oooooo 
 -ooooooooo 
 
 ooo 
 
 ooocx> 
 
 o- 
 
 being appropriated to units, the next 
 to tens, &c. In classic architecture 
 it denotes the tablet forming the up- 
 per member of a column, and sup- 
 porting the entablature. In Gothic 
 architecture the upper member of a 
 column from which the arch springs. 
 
 Abaddon,, in the Bible, and in ev- 
 ery rabbinical instance, means the an- 
 gel of death, or the angel of the abyss 
 or " bottomless pit." 
 
 Abalone, a Californian name for 
 the ear-shells or sea-ears, a gastropod 
 of the family Haliotidae. The animal 
 feeds on sea-weeds, creeping along the 
 rocks. When in repose it draws all 
 its parts under the saucer-like shell, 
 and clings like a limpet to whatever it 
 is attached. The Chinese use the body 
 for food, and the" shell is employed in 
 
 Abbey 
 
 making buttons, inlaying, and all pur- 
 poses for which mother of pearl is used. 
 
 Abatis, or Abattis, in military 
 affairs, a kind of defense made of felled 
 trees. In sudden emergencies, the trees 
 are merely laid lengthwise with the 
 branches pointed outward to prevent 
 the approach of the enemy. 
 
 Abba, Guiseppe Cesare, an Ital- 
 ian poet ; born in 1838 at Cairo Monte- 
 notte. He took part in the expedition 
 of Garibaldi into Sicily in 1860, which 
 he celebrated in his poem "Arrigo." 
 
 Abbas Pasha Hilmi, Khedive of 
 Egypt, born in 1874, oldest son of the 
 Khedive Mehemet-Tewfik. He studied 
 at the Theresianum at Vienna. On his 
 father's death in 1892 he became Khe- 
 dive. He has given an example to 
 other rulers by having only one wife. 
 
 Abbas I., surnamed the GREAT ; 
 born in 1557, was the seventh Shah or 
 King of Persia of the dynasty of the 
 Cufis. He died Jan. 27, 1628, having 
 reigned over Persia 41 years. 
 
 Abbassides, the name of a race 
 who possessed the caliphate for 524 
 years. There were 37 caliphs of this 
 race who succeeded one another with- 
 out interruption. They drew their de- 
 scent from Abbas-ben- Abd-el-Motallib, 
 Mahomet's uncle. Their empire ter- 
 minated in Mostazem, who fell in bat- 
 tle in 1257. 
 
 Abbe, originally the French name 
 for an abbot, but often used in the 
 general sense of a priest or clergyman. 
 
 Abbe, Cleveland, an American 
 meteorologist, born in New York city, 
 Dec. 3, 1838. Since 1871 he has been 
 meteorologist in the Weather Bureau. 
 
 Abbey, a monastery or religious 
 community "of the highest class, gov- 
 erned by an abbot, assisted generally 
 by a prior, sub-prior, and other subor- 
 dinate functionaries ; or, in the case of 
 a female community, superintended by 
 an abbess. Abbeys or monasteries first 
 arose in the East. The abbeys in Eng- 
 land were wholly abolished by Henry 
 VIII. at the Reformation. In the 
 United States the word "monastery" 
 is generally used for male religious 
 houses ; "convent" for female. 
 
 Abbey, Edwin Austin, an Amer- 
 ican artist, born in Philadelphia, April 
 1, 1852. Besides illustrating many 
 books and painting a number of no- 
 table pictures, he designed a series of
 
 Abbot 
 
 paintings for the walls of the Boston 
 Public Library, on the subject of the 
 "Holy Grail." He was commissioned 
 by King Edward VII. to paint the cor- 
 onation scene in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Abbot, the" superior of a monastery 
 of monks erected into an abbey or 
 priory. Abbot is also a title given to 
 others besides the superiors of monas- 
 teries ; thus, bishops, whose sees were 
 formerly abbeys, are called abbots. 
 Among the Genoese, .the chief magis- 
 trate of the republic formerly bore the 
 title of "Abbot of the People." 
 
 Abbot, Ezra, an American Greek 
 scholar, born at Jackson, Me., April 
 28, 1819. He was one of the Amer- 
 ican committee of New Testament re- 
 visers. He died at Cambridge, Mass., 
 March 21, 1884. 
 
 Abbot, Henry Larcom, an Amer- 
 ican military engineer, born in Bever- 
 ly, Mass., Aug. 13, 1831 ; graduated at 
 the United States Military Academy in 
 1854 ; became brevet Major-General of 
 Volunteers in the Civil War, and sub- 
 sequently Colonel and Chief of Engi- 
 neers of the United States army, and 
 was retired in 1895. 
 
 Abbot, Willis John, an Amer- 
 can journalist and author, born in 
 Connecticut in 1SC3. With the excep- 
 tion of a "Life of Carter Harrison," 
 his works consist principally of popu- 
 lar histories for young people. His 
 editorial writings are graceful and cul- 
 tured in style, and powerful in expres- 
 sion. 
 
 Abbotsford, the home of Sir Wal- 
 ter Scott, situated on the S. bank of 
 the Tweed a few miles above Mel- 
 rose. At the time Scott bought the es- 
 tate in 1811, it was called Clarty Hole, 
 but his antiquarian spirit moved him to 
 connect the place with the old monks 
 of Melrose Abbey, who formerly cross- 
 ed the river near the house. He re- 
 tained all of the ancient Scotch archi- 
 tecture that could be used, and en- 
 larged the building to its present di- 
 mensions. The property remains in 
 the possession of the author's descend- 
 ants to the fourth generation. 
 
 Abbott, Charles Conrad, an 
 American archaeologist, born at Tren- 
 ton, N. J., 1843. He has discovered 
 pala?olithic human remains in the Del- 
 aware valley, and shown the likeli- 
 hood of the early existence of the Eski- 
 
 Abbott 
 
 mo race as far south as New Jersey. 
 A large collection of archaeological 
 specimens made by him is now in the 
 Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass., 
 where he was stationed in 1876-1889. 
 
 Abbott, Edwin Abbott an En- 
 glish theologian and Shakespearean 
 scholar, born in London, Dec. 20, 1838. 
 From the City of London School he 
 passed, in 1857, to St. John's College, 
 Cambridge. 
 
 Abbott, Emma, American dra- 
 matic soprano, born in Chicago, 111., 
 in December, 1849. After years of 
 hard work, she went abroad in 1872 
 and studied with Sangiovanni at Mi- 
 lan, and Delle Sedie in Paris, and aft- 
 erward sang in opera with great suc- 
 cess. In 1878 she married E. J. Weth- 
 erell, of New York. She died in Salt 
 Lake City, Utah, Jan. 5, 1891. 
 
 Abbott, Jacob, an American 
 writer of juvenile stories, born in Hal- 
 lowell Me., Nov. 14, 1803; died Oct. 
 31, 1879. He graduated from Bow- 
 doin College, studied for the ministry, 
 was professor of mathematics at Arn- 
 herst for four years, and in 1834 es- 
 tablished the Eliot Church in Roxbury, 
 after having been principal of a girls' 
 school in Boston. After 1839 he de- 
 voted his whole time to literature and 
 wrote and published more than 200 
 volumes, among them the famous Rol- 
 lo Books. In collaboration with his 
 brother John, he wrote a number of 
 histories for juvenile readers, with 
 whom he was a great favorite. His 
 works have a considerable sale in the 
 first years of the 20th century. 
 
 Abbott, Sir John Joseph Cald- 
 well, a Canadian statesman, born in 
 1821. He took an active part in the 
 Senate, leading the Conservative side. 
 On the death of Sir John Macdpnald, 
 in 1891, he become Premier, resigning 
 in the following year on account of ill- 
 health. He died in 1893. 
 
 Abbott, John Stevens Cabot, an 
 American author, born at Brunswick, 
 Me., Sept. 18, 1805; brother of Jacob 
 Abbott ; author of "History of Napo- 
 leon ; "History of the Civil War ;" 
 "History of Frederick the Great:" and 
 numerous other works on kindred 
 themes. He died, 1877. 
 
 Abbott, Lyman, an American 
 clergyman, born at Roxbury. Mass., 
 Dec. 18, 1835. At first a lawyer, he
 
 Abbott 
 
 Abbreviation* 
 
 was ordained minister of the Congrega- 
 tional Church in 1800. After a pas- 
 torate of five years, in Indiana, he 
 went to New York, and rose rapidly: 
 to distinction through his contributions 
 to periodical literature. He was pas- 1 
 tor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, ini 
 1888-1898, being the immediate suc- 
 cessor of Henry Ward Beecher. He 
 was associated with Mr. Beecher in the I 
 editorship of the " Christian Union," 
 and is now editor of " The Outlook," 
 formerly the " Christian Union." 
 
 Abbott, Russell Bigelow, an 
 American educator ; born in Brookville, 
 Ind., Aug. 8, 1823; was graduated at 
 the University of Indiana in 1847 ; and 
 received the degree of D. D. from 
 Galesville University in 1884. After 
 serving for several years as principal 
 of public schools in Muncie and New 
 Castle, Ind., and of Whitewater Pres- 
 byterian Academy, he was ordained in 
 the Presbyterian Church in 1857 ; held 
 pastorates in Brookville, Ind., seven 
 years, in Knightstown, Ind., two years, 
 and in Albert Lea, Minn., 15 years ; 
 and, founding Albert Lea College in 
 the latter city, became its president i , 
 1884. Dr. Abbott served as moderator 
 of the Presbyterian Synod of Minne- 
 sota and several times as a delegate to 
 the General Assembly of his church. 
 
 Abbreviations, or " shortenings," 
 are used in writing to save time and 
 space, or, it may be, to ensure secrecy 
 In the following list most of the abbre- 
 viations that are likely to be met with 
 by modern readers are alphabetically 
 arranged : 
 
 A. or Ans. Answer. 
 A. A. G. Assistant Adjutant-General. 
 A. A. A. G. Acting Assistant Adju- 
 tant-General. 
 A. A. P. S. American Association for 
 
 the Promotion of Science. 
 A. A. S. Academics Americans $o- 
 cius, Fellow of the American Acad- 
 emy (of Arts and Sciences). 
 A. A. S. S. Americans Antiquarianw 
 Societatis Socius, Member of the 
 American Antiquarian Society. 
 'A. B. Able-bodied seaman. 
 A. B. Artium Bawalaureus, Bache- 
 lor of Arts. 
 
 A. B. C. F. M. American Board of 
 Commissioners for Foreign Missions. 
 Abl. Ablative. 
 Abp. Archbishop. 
 k Abr. Abridgment, or Abridged. 
 
 A. B. S. American Bible Society. 
 
 A. C. Ante Christum, before the 
 birth of Christ. 
 
 Acad. Academy. 
 
 Acad. Nat. Sci. Academy of Natural 
 Sciences. 
 
 Ace. Accusative. 
 
 Act. Active ; Acting. 
 
 Acct. Account. 
 
 A. C. S. American Colonization So 
 ciety. 
 
 Advt. Advertisement. 
 
 A. D. Anno Domini, in the year of 
 the Lord. 
 
 A. D. C. Aide-de-camp. 
 
 Adj. Adjective. 
 
 Adjt. Adjutant. 
 
 Adjt.-Gen. Adjutant-General. 
 
 Ad lib. Ad libitum, at pleasure. 
 
 Adm. Admiral ; Admiralty. 
 
 Admr. Administrator. 
 
 Admx. Administratrix. 
 
 Ad v. Ad valorem, at (or on) the 
 value. 
 
 Adv. Adverb. 
 
 .-^Et. A'Hatis, of age ; aged. 
 
 A. F. B. S. American and Foreign 
 Bible Society. 
 
 Af r. African. 
 
 A. G. Adjutant-General. 
 
 Agl. Dept. Department of Agricul- 
 ture. 
 
 Agr. Agriculture. 
 
 A. G. S. S. American Geographical 
 and Statistical Society. 
 
 Agt. Agent. 
 
 A. H. Anno Hegirce, in the year of 
 the Hegira. 
 
 A. H. M. S. American Home Mis- 
 sionary Society. 
 
 Al. Aluminium. 
 
 Ala. Alabama. 
 
 Alas. Alaska. 
 
 Alb. Albany. 
 
 Aid. Alderman. 
 
 Alex. Alexander. 
 
 Alf. Alfred. 
 
 Alg. Algebra. 
 
 Alt. Altitude. 
 
 A. M. Anno mundi, in tht year of 
 the world. 
 
 A. M. Ante meridiem, before noon; 
 morning. 
 
 A. M. Artium Magistcr, Mast;r of 
 Arts. 
 
 Am. Ass. Adv. Sci. American Asso- 
 ciation for the Advancement of Sci- 
 ence. 
 
 Am. Assn. Sci. American Association 
 for the Advancement of Science. 
 
 Amb. Ambassador.
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Amer. American. 
 
 Amer. Acad. American Academy. 
 
 A. M. E. Z. African Methodist Epis- 
 copal Zion. 
 
 Amt. Amount. 
 
 An. Anno, in the year. 
 
 An. A. C. Anno ante Christum, ia 
 the year before Christ. 
 
 Anal. Analysis. 
 
 Ann. Annales; Annals. 
 
 Anat Anatomy. 
 
 Anc. Ancient ; anciently. 
 
 And. Andrew. 
 
 Ang.-Sax. Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Anon. Anonymous. 
 
 Ans. Answer. 
 
 Ant., or Antiq. Antiquities. 
 
 Anth. Anthony. 
 
 A. O. S. S. Americanos Orientalis 80- 
 cietatis Socius, Member of the Amer- 
 ican Oriental Society. 
 
 Ap. Apostle ; Appius. 
 
 Ap. Apud, in writings of ; as quoted 
 by. 
 
 Apo. Apogee. 
 
 Apoc. Apocalypse. 
 
 Apocr. Apocrypha. 
 
 App. Appendix. 
 
 Apr. April. 
 
 Aq. Water (aqua). 
 
 A. Q. M. Assistant Quartermaster. 
 
 A. Q. M. G. Assistant Quartermas- 
 ter-General. 
 
 Ao R. Anno regni, year of the reign. 
 
 A. R. A. Associate of the Royal 
 Academy. 
 
 Ara. Arabic. 
 
 Arch. Architect ; Architecture. 
 
 Archd. Archdeacon. 
 
 Ari. Arizona. 
 
 Arith. Arithmetic. 
 
 Ark. Arkansas. 
 
 Arr. Arrive; Arrival. 
 
 A. R. S. A. Associate of the Royal 
 Scottish Academy. 
 
 A. R. S. S. Antiquariorum Regice 
 Societatis Socius, Fellow of the 
 Royal Society of Antiquaries. 
 
 Art. Article. 
 
 Artil. Artillery. 
 
 A.-S. Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 A. S., or Assist. Sec. Assistant Sec- 
 retary. 
 
 A. S. A. American Statistical Asso- 
 ciation. 
 
 Ass., Assn. Association. 
 
 A. S. S. U. American Sunday-School 
 Union. 
 
 A. T. S. American Tract Society. 
 
 Atty. Attorney. 
 
 Atty.-Gen. Attorney-General. 
 
 A. U. A. American Unitarian Asso- 
 ciation. 
 
 Aub. Theql. Sem. Auburn Theologi- 
 cal Seminary. 
 
 A. U. C. Anno urbis conditce, or 06 
 urbe condita, in the year from the 
 building of the city (Rome). 
 
 Aug. August. 
 
 Aus. Austria ; Austrian. 
 
 Auth. Ver., or A. V. Authorized 
 Version (of the Bible). 
 
 Av. Average ; Avenue. 
 
 Avdp. Avoirdupois. 
 
 Avoir. Avoirdupois. 
 
 A. Y. M. Ancient York Masons. 
 
 B. Born. 
 
 B. A. Bachelor of Arts. 
 Bal. Balance. 
 
 Bait. Baltimore. 
 
 Bapt Baptist. 
 
 Bar. Barometer. 
 
 Bart, or bt. Baronet 
 
 BbL Barrel. 
 
 B. C. Before Christ. 
 
 B. C. L. Bachelor of Civil Law. 
 
 B. D. Baccalaureus Divinitatis, Bach* 
 elor of Divinity. 
 
 Belg. Belgic; Belgiaa Belgium. 
 
 Benj. Benjamin. 
 
 B. I. British India. 
 
 Bib. Bible; Biblical. 
 
 Biog. Biography ; Biographical. 
 
 Bisc. Biscayan. 
 
 B. LL. Baccalaureus Leguni, Bach- 
 elor of Laws. 
 
 B. LL. Same as LL. B. 
 
 Bis. Bales. 
 
 B. M. Baccalaureus Medicines, Bach- 
 elor of Medicine. 
 
 B. M. Same as M. B. 
 
 Bot. Botany. 
 
 Bp. Bishop. 
 
 Br. British. 
 
 Br. Univ. Brown University. 
 
 Braz. Brazil ; Brazilian. 
 
 Brig. Brigade ; Brigadier. 
 
 Brig.-Gen. Brigadier-General. 
 
 Brit. Mus. British Museum. 
 
 Bro. Brother. 
 
 B. S. Bachelor in the Sciences. 
 
 Bush. Bushel ; Bushels. 
 
 B. V. Bene vale, farewell. 
 
 C. Cent 
 
 C. Consul. 
 
 C., or Gels. Celsius's Scale for the 
 
 thermometer. 
 C., or Cent Centum, a hundred; 
 
 Century. 
 C., Ch., or Chap. Chapter.
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Ca. sa. Capias ad satisfaciendum, a 
 legal writ. 
 
 C. A. Chief Accountant ; Commis- 
 sioner of Accounts. 
 
 Ca. resp. Capias ad respondendum, a 
 legal writ. 
 
 Cast. par. Cceteris paribus, other 
 things being equal. 
 
 Cal. California ; Calends. 
 
 Cam., Camb. Cambridge. 
 
 Can. Canon. \ . 
 
 Cant. Canticles. 
 
 Cantab. Of Cambridge (Cantabriff- 
 iensis) . 
 
 Cantnar. Of Canterbury. 
 
 Cap. or C. Caput, capitulum, chap- 
 ter. 
 
 Caps. Capitals. 
 
 Capt. Captain. 
 
 Capt.-Gen. Captain-General. 
 
 Car. Carat. 
 
 Card. Cardinal. 
 
 Cash. Cashier. 
 
 C. B. Cape Breton. 
 
 C. B. Companion of the Bath. 
 
 C. C. County Commissioner ; County 
 Court. 
 
 C. C. Cubic centimeter. 
 
 C. C. P. Court of Common Pleas. 
 
 Cd. Cadmium. 
 
 C. D. V. Carte-de-Visite. 
 
 C. E. Civil Engineer. 
 
 C. E. Christian Endeavor (Young 
 People's Society of). 
 
 Cel., or Celt. Celtic. 
 
 Cent. Centigrade, a scale of 100 
 from freezing to boiling. 
 
 Cert. Certify. 
 
 Certif. Certificate. 
 
 C. G. Commissary-General ; Consul- 
 General. 
 
 C. G. EL Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 C. H. Court house. 
 
 Ch. Church: Chapter; Charles. 
 
 Chald. Chaldea ; Chaldean ; Chal- 
 daic. 
 
 Chanc. Chancellor. 
 
 Chap. Chapter. 
 
 Chem. Chemistry. 
 
 Ches. Chesapeake. 
 
 Chic. Chicago. 
 
 Chr. Christ : Christian. 
 
 Chr. Christopher. 
 
 Chron. Chronicles. 
 
 Cin. Cincinnati. 
 
 Circ. Circuit. 
 
 Cit. Citation ; Citizen. 
 
 C. J. Chief-Justice. 
 
 Cl. Chlorine. 
 
 Clk. Clerk. 
 
 C. M. Common Meter. 
 
 C. M. G. Companion of the Order of 
 St. Michael and St. George. 
 
 Co. Company ; county. 
 
 Coch., or Cochl. A spoonful (coch- 
 leare). 
 
 C. O. D. Cash (or collect) on deliv- 
 ery. 
 
 Col. Colorado; Colonel; Colossians. 
 
 Coll. Collector ; Colloquial ; College ; 
 Collection. 
 
 Com. Arr. Committee of Arrange- 
 ments. 
 
 Com. Commerce ; Committee ; Com- 
 missioner ; Commodore. 
 
 Com. & Nav. Commerce and Naviga- 
 tion. 
 
 Comdg. Commanding. 
 
 Coinrn. Commentary. 
 
 Coinp. Compare ; Comparative ; Com- 
 pound ; Compounded. 
 
 Com. Ver. Common Version. 
 
 Con. Contra, against ; in opposition. 
 
 Con. Cr. Contra, credit. 
 
 Conch. Conchology. 
 
 Con. Sec. Conic Sections. 
 
 Confed. Confederate. 
 
 Cong. Congress. 
 
 Conj. or conj. Conjunction. 
 
 Congl. Congregational ; Conglomerate. 
 
 Conn, or Ct. Connecticut. 
 
 Const. Constable ; Constitution. 
 
 Cont. Contra. 
 
 Cop., or Copt. Coptic. 
 
 Corn. Cornwall ; Cornish. 
 
 Cor. Corinthians. 
 
 Cor. Mem. Corresponding Member. 
 
 Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secretary. 
 
 Coss. Consuls (consules). 
 
 C. P. Common Pleas. 
 
 C. P. Court of Probate. 
 
 C. P. S. Gustos Privati Sigilli. 
 Keeper of the Privy Seal. 
 
 Cr. Chromium. 
 
 Cr. Creditor ; credit. 
 
 C. R. Gustos Rotulorum, Keeper of 
 the Rolls. 
 
 Cs. Cases. 
 
 C. S. Court of Sessions. 
 
 C. S. Gustos Sigilli, Keeper of the 
 Seal. 
 
 C. S.A. Confederate States of Amer- 
 ica ; Confederate States Army. 
 
 C S. B. Bachelor of Christian Science. 
 
 C g. ix Doctor of Christian Science. 
 
 Csk. Cask. 
 
 C. S. N. Confederate States Navy. 
 
 C. Theod. Codice Theodosiano, in 
 the Theodosian Code. 
 
 Ct. Court. 
 
 Cts. Cents.
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Cub. Cubic. 
 
 Cub. Ft. Cubic Foot. 
 
 Cur. Currency. 
 
 C. W. Canada West 
 Cwt. Hundredweight. 
 Cyc. Cyclopedia. 
 
 D. Died. 
 
 D. Five hundred. 
 
 D. Penny; pence (denarius). 
 
 D. A. G. Deputy Adjutant-General. 
 Dak. Dakota. 
 
 Dan. Daniel ; Danish. 
 
 Dat. Dative. 
 
 D. B. or Domesd. B. Domesday- 
 Book. 
 
 D. C. District of Columbia. 
 
 D. C. L. Doctor of Civil Law. 
 
 D. C. S. Deputy Clerk of Sessions. 
 
 D. D. Divinitatis Doctor, Doctor of 
 Divinity. 
 
 D. D. S. Doctor of Dental Surgery. 
 
 Dea. Deacon. 
 
 Dec. December ; Declination. 
 
 Dec. of Ind. Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 Def. Definition. 
 
 Def., Deft. Defendant. 
 
 Deg. Degree ; degrees. 
 
 Del. Delaware ; Delegate. 
 
 Del., or del. Delineavit, he (or 'she) 
 drew it. 
 
 Dem. Democrat ; Democratic. 
 
 Dep. Deputy. 
 
 Dept. Department. 
 
 Deut. Deuteronomy. 
 
 D. F. Defender of the Faith. 
 
 D. G. Dei gratia, by the grace of 
 God. 
 
 D. G. Deo gratias, thanks to God. 
 
 D. H. Dead-head. 
 
 Diam. Diameter. 
 
 Diet. Dictionary ; Dictator. 
 
 Dim. Diminutive. 
 
 Diosc. Dioscarides. 
 
 Disc. Discount. 
 
 Diss. Djssertation. 
 
 Dist. District. 
 
 D5st.-Atty. District-Attorney. 
 
 Div. Division. 
 
 D. L. O. Dead-Letter Office. 
 
 D M. Doctor of Music. 
 
 Do. Ditto, the same. 
 
 Doc. Document. 
 
 Dols. Dollars. 
 
 D. O. M. Deo optima maxima, to 
 God, the best, the greatest. 
 
 Doz. Dozen. 
 
 D. P. Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 Dpt. Department. 
 
 Dr. Debtor ; Doctor. 
 
 Dr. Drams ; Drachms. 
 
 D. Sc. Doctor of Science. 
 
 D. T. Doctor of Theology (doctor, 
 
 theologies). 
 Duo. Duodecimo, twelve folds. 
 
 D. V. Deo volente, God willing. 
 Dwt. Pennyweight. 
 
 Dyn. Dynamics. 
 
 E. East 
 
 E. by S. East by South. 
 
 E. & O. E. Errors and omissions ex 
 cepted. 
 
 E. B. English Bible. 
 
 Eben. Ebenezer. 
 
 Ebor. York ( E boracum ) . 
 
 Eccl. Ecclesiastes. 
 
 Ecclus. Ecclesiasticus. 
 
 E. D. Eastern District 
 
 Ed. Editor; Edition. 
 
 Edin. Edinburgh. 
 
 Edm. Edmund. 
 
 Edw. Edward. 
 
 E. E. Errors excepted. 
 
 E. E. T. S. Early English Text So- 
 ciety. 
 
 E. G. Exempli gratia, for example. 
 
 E. G. Ex grege, among the rest 
 
 E. Fl. Ells Flemish. 
 
 E. Fr. Ells French. 
 
 E. I. East Indies or East India. 
 
 E. I. C,, or E. I. Co. East India 
 Company. 
 
 E. I. C. S. East India Company's 
 Service. 
 
 Eliz. Elizabeth. 
 
 E. Lon. East longitude. 
 
 E. M. Mining Engineer. 
 
 Emp. Emperor ; Empress. 
 
 Encyc. Encyclopedia. 
 
 Eng. Dept. Department of Engineers. 
 
 Eng. England ; English. 
 
 E.-N.-E. East-North-East. 
 
 Ent, Entom. Entomology. 
 
 Env. Ext. Envoy Extraordinary. 
 
 E. o. w. Every other week. 
 
 Ep. Epistle. 
 
 Eph. Ephesians ; Ephraim. 
 
 Epis. Episcopal. 
 
 E. S. Ells Scotch. 
 
 Esd. Esdras. 
 
 E.-S.-E. East-South-East 
 
 Esq. Esquire. 
 
 Esth. Esther. 
 
 E. T. English Translation. 
 
 Et al. Et alii, and others. 
 
 Etc., or &c. Et ctfteri, et c&tera, et 
 c&tera. and others ; and so forth. 
 
 Eth. Ethiopic : Ethiopian. 
 
 Et seq. Et sequentia,. and what fol- 
 lows.
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Etym. Etymology. 
 
 E. U. Evangelical Union. 
 Ex. Example. 
 
 Ex. Exodus. 
 
 Exc. Excellency; exception. 
 Exch. Exchequer ; Exchange. 
 Ex. Doc. Executive Document. 
 Exec. Com. Executive Committee. 
 Execx. Executrix. 
 Ex. gr. For example (exempli gra- 
 tia). 
 
 Exr. or Exec. Executor. 
 Ez. Ezra. 
 Ezek. Ezekiel. 
 
 F. and A. M. Free and Accepted 
 Masons. 
 
 P., or Fahr. Fahrenheit (thermome- 
 ter). 
 
 F. A. S. Fellow of the Antiquarian 
 Society. 
 
 F. B. S. Fellow of the Botanical 
 Society. 
 
 F. C. Free Church of Scotland. 
 
 Fcap, or fcp. Foolscap. 
 
 F. C. P. S. Fellow of the Cambridge 
 Philological Society. 
 
 F. C. S. Fellow of the Chemical So- 
 ciety. 
 
 F. D. Defender of the Faith. 
 
 F. E. Flemish ells. 
 
 Feb. February. 
 
 Fee. Fecit, he did it. 
 
 Fern. Feminine. 
 
 F. E. S. Fellow of the Entomological 
 Society ; Fellow of the Ethnographi- 
 cal Society. 
 
 Ff. Following. 
 
 Ff. The Pandects. 
 
 F. F. V. First Families of Virginia. 
 
 F. G. S. Fellow of the Geological 
 Society. 
 
 F. H. S. Fellow of the Horticultural 
 Society. 
 
 Fi. Fa. Fieri facias, cause it to be 
 done. 
 
 Fid. Def. Defender of the Faith. 
 
 Fig. Figure. 
 
 Fin. Finland. 
 
 Finn. Finnish. 
 
 Fir. Firkin. 
 
 F. K. Q. C. P. I. Fellow of King's 
 and Queen's College of Physicians, 
 Ireland. 
 
 Fl. E. Flemish ells. 
 
 Fla. Florida. 
 
 F. L. S. Fellow of the Linnsean So- 
 ciety. 
 
 F.-M. Field-Marshal. 
 
 F.-O. Field-Officer. 
 
 Fol. Folio. 
 
 For. Foreign. 
 
 F. P. S. Fellow of the Philological 
 Society. 
 
 Fr. France ; French. 
 
 Fr. Francis. 
 
 Fr. From. 
 
 F. R. A. S. Fellow of the Royal As- 
 tronomical Society. 
 
 F. R. C. P. Fellow of the Royal Col- 
 lege of Physicians. . 
 
 F. R. C. S. L. Fellow of the Royal 
 College of Surgeons, London. 
 
 Fred. Frederick. 
 
 Fr. E. French ells. 
 
 Fr., Frs. Franc ; Francs. 
 
 F. R. G. S. Fellow of the Royal 
 Geographical Society. 
 
 F. R. Hist. Soc. Fellow of the Royal 
 Historical Society. 
 
 Fri. Friday. 
 
 F. R. S. Fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety. 
 
 F. R. S. S. A. Fellow of the Royal 
 Scottish Society of Arts. 
 
 F. R. S. E. Fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety, Edinburgh. 
 
 F. R. S. L. Fellow of the Royal So- 
 ciety, London. 
 
 F. S. A. Fellow of the Society of 
 Arts, or of Antiquaries. 
 
 F. S. A. E. Fellow of the Society of 
 Antiquaries, Edinburgh. 
 
 F. S. A. Scot. Fellow of the Society 
 of Antiquaries of Scotland. 
 
 F. S. S. Fellow of the Statistical 
 Society. 
 
 Ft. Foot; feet; Fort. 
 
 Fth. Fathom. 
 
 Fur. Furlong. 
 
 F. Z. S. Fellow of the Zoological So- 
 ciety. 
 
 Ga. Georgia. 
 
 G. A. General Assembly. 
 Gal. Galatians ; Gallon. 
 Galv. Galvanism. 
 
 Galv. Galveston. 
 
 G. B. Great Britain. 
 
 G. B. & I. Great Britain and Ire- 
 land. 
 
 G. C. Grand Chapter; Grand Con- 
 ductor. 
 
 G. C. B. Grand Cross of the Bath. 
 
 G. C. H. Grand Cross of Hanover. 
 
 G. C. K. P. Grand Commander of: 
 the Knights of St. Patrick. 
 
 G. C. L. H. Grand Cross of the Le- 
 gion of Honor. 
 
 G. C. M. G. Grand Cross of St. 
 MichaeJ and St. George.
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 G. C. S. I. Grand Commander of the 
 Star of India. 
 
 G. D. Grand Duke ; Grand Duchess. 
 
 G. E. Grand Encampment. 
 
 Gen. Genesis ; General. 
 
 Gen. Genus ; Genera ; Genealogy. 
 
 Gent. Gentleman. 
 
 Geo. George. 
 
 Geog. Geography. 
 
 Geol. Geology. 
 
 Geom. Geometry. 
 
 Ger. German ; Germany. 
 
 GI. Glossa, a gloss. 
 
 G. L. Grand Lodge. 
 ' Gr. M. Grand Master. 
 
 G. M. K. P. Grand Master of the 
 Knights of St. Patrick. 
 
 G. M. S. I. Grand Master of the Star 
 of India. 
 
 G. O. General Order. 
 
 Goth. Gothic. 
 
 Gov. Governor. 
 
 Gov.-Gen. Governor-General. 
 
 Govt. Government. 
 
 G. P. Gloria patri (" Glory be to the 
 Father"). 
 
 G. P. O. General Post-Office. 
 
 G. R. Georgius Rex, King George. 
 
 Gr. Greek ; Gross. 
 
 Gr., Grs. Grain : Grains. 
 
 Grad. Graduated. 
 
 Gram. Grammar. 
 
 Grot. Grotius. 
 
 G. S. Grand Secretary ; Grand Sen- 
 tinel ; Grand Scribe. 
 
 G. T. Good Templars ; Grand Tyler. 
 
 Gtt. Drop i drops (gutta or ffuttce) . 
 
 H. A. Hoc anno, this year. 
 
 Hab. Habakkuk. 
 
 Hab. corp. Habeas corpus, you may 
 have the body. 
 
 Hab. fa. poss. Habere facias posses- 
 sionem. 
 
 Hab. fa. seis. Habere facias seisinan. 
 
 Hag. Haggai. 
 
 Hants. Hampshire. 
 
 H. B. C. HTldson Bay Company. 
 
 H. B. M. His or Her Britannic Maj- 
 esty. 
 
 H. C. House of Commons ; Herald's 
 College. 
 
 H. C. M. His or Her Catholic Maj- 
 esty. 
 
 H. E. Hoc est, that is, or this is. 
 
 Heb. Hebrews. 
 
 Heb. Hebrew. 
 
 H. E. I. C. Honorable East India 
 Company. 
 
 H. E. I. C. S. Honorable East In- 
 dia Company's Service. 
 
 Her. Heraldry. 
 
 Hf.-bd. Half-bound. 
 
 Hg. Hydrargyrum, mercury. 
 
 H.-G. Horse-guards. 
 
 H. H. His or Her Highness ; His 
 Holiness (the Pope). 
 
 Hhd. Hogshead. 
 
 Hier. Jerusalem ( Hierosolyma) . 
 
 H. I. H. His or Her Imperial High- 
 ness. 
 
 Hind. Hindu ; Hindustan ; Hindu- 
 stance. 
 
 Hipp. Hippocrates. 
 
 Hist. History. 
 
 H. J. S. Hie jacet sepultus. Here 
 lies buried. 
 
 H. M. His Majesty. 
 
 H. L. House of Lords. 
 
 H. M. P. Hoc monumentum posuit, 
 erected this monument. 
 
 H. M. S. His or Her Majesty's Ship. 
 
 Holl. Holland. 
 
 Hon. Honorable. 
 
 Hort. Horticulture. 
 
 Hos. Hosea. 
 
 H.-P. High - priest ; Horse - power ; 
 Half-pay. 
 
 H. R. House of Representatives. 
 
 H. R. E. Holy Roman Empire. 
 
 H. R. H. His Royal Highness. 
 
 H. R. I. JP. Hie requiescit in pace, 
 Here rests in peace. 
 
 H. S. Hie situs, Here lies. 
 
 H. S. H. His Serene Highness. 
 
 H. T. Hoc tieulum, this title ; hoc, 
 tituli, in or under this title. 
 
 Hund. Hundred. 
 
 Hung. Hungarian. 
 
 H. V. Hoc verbum, this word; his 
 vefbis, in these words. 
 
 Hyd. Hydrostatics. 
 
 Hypoth. Hypothesis ; Hypothetical. 
 
 la. Iowa. 
 
 Ib., or ibid. Ibidem, in the same 
 place. 
 
 Icel. Iceland ; Icelandic. 
 
 Ich. Ichthyology. 
 
 Icon. Encyc. Iconographic Encyclo- 
 pedia. 
 
 I. Ch. Th. U. S. (Ix^ys) Jesus Christ 
 the Son of God, the Saviour (7esr-<? 
 Christos Theou Huios Soter). 
 
 Ictus. J ' urisconsultus. 
 
 Id. Idaho. 
 
 Id. Idem, the same. 
 
 Id. The Ides (Idus). 
 
 I. E. Id est, that is. 
 
 I. H. S. Jesus the Saviour of Men 
 (Jesus Hominum Salvator).
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 I., II., III. One, two, three, or first, 
 second, third. 
 
 Ij. Two (med.). 
 
 111. Illinois. 
 
 Imp. Imperative ; imperfect. 
 
 Imp. Imperial; Emperor (Impera- 
 tor). 
 
 In. Inch ; inches. 
 
 In. Indium. 
 
 Incog. Incognito, unknown. 
 
 Incor. Incorporated. 
 
 Ind. Ter. Indian Territory. 
 
 I. H. P. Indicated horse power. 
 
 I. N. D. In nomine Dei, in the name 
 of God. 
 
 Ind. Indiana ; Index. 
 
 Indef. Indefinite. 
 
 Inf. Infra, beneath, or below. 
 
 In f. In fine, at the end of the title, 
 law, or paragraph quoted. 
 
 Inhab. Inhabitant. 
 
 In lim. In limine, at the outset. 
 
 In loc. In loco, in the place ; on the 
 passage. 
 
 In pr. In principio, in the beginning 
 and before the first paragraph of a 
 law. 
 
 I, N. R. I. Jesus Nazarenus, Rex 
 Judceorum, Jesus of Nazareth, King 
 of the Jews. 
 
 Inst. Instant, of this month ; Insti- 
 tutes. 
 
 Inst. Institute ; Institution. 
 
 Jn sum. In summa, in the summary. 
 
 Int. Interest. 
 
 Interj. Interjection. 
 
 In trans. In transitu, on the pas- 
 sage. 
 
 Int. Dept. Department of the Inte- 
 rior. 
 
 Int. Rev. Internal Revenue. 
 
 Introd. Introduction. 
 
 I. O. O. F. Independent Order of 
 Odd Fellows. 
 
 Ion. Ionic. 
 
 I. O. S. M. Independent Order of 
 the Sons of Malta. 
 
 I. O. U. I owe yon. 
 
 Ipecac. Ipecacuanha. 
 
 I. Q. Idem quod, the same as. 
 
 Ire. Ireland. 
 
 I. R. O. Internal Revenue Office. 
 
 Isa. Isaiah, 
 
 Is., Isl. Island. 
 
 I. T. Inner Temple. 
 
 It Italy. 
 
 Ital. Italic ; Italian. 
 
 IV. Four or fourth. 
 
 I. W. Isle of Wight 
 
 IX. Nine or ninth. 
 
 J. Justice, or Judge. 
 
 J. One (med.). 
 
 J . A. Judge-Advocate. 
 
 Jaa Jacob. 
 
 J. A. G. Judge Advocate-General, 
 
 Jam. Jamaica. 
 
 Jan. January. 
 
 Jas. James. 
 
 J. C. D. Juris Civilis Doctor, Doctor 
 
 of Civil Law. 
 J. C. Jurisconsult (Juris Consul' 
 
 tus) . 
 
 J, D. Junior Deacon. 
 Jer. Jeremiah. 
 
 J. G. W. Junior Grand Warden. 
 JJ. Justices. 
 Jno. John. 
 Jona. Jonathan. 
 Jos. Joseph. 
 Josh. Joshua. 
 J. P. Justice of the Peace. 
 J. Prob. Judge of Probate. 
 J. R. Jacobus Rex, King James. 
 Jr., or Jun. Junior. 
 J. U. D., or J. V. D. Juris utriusque 
 
 Doctor, Doctor of both laws (of tha 
 
 Canon and the Civil Law). 
 Jud. Judicial. 
 Jud. Judith. 
 Judg. Judges. 
 Judge-Adv. Judge-Advocate. 
 Jul. Per. Julian Period. 
 Jus. P. Justice of the Peace. 
 Just. Justinian. 
 J. W. Junior Warden. 
 
 K. King. 
 
 K. A. Knight of St. Andrew, in Rus- 
 sia. 
 
 Kal. The Kalends (Kalendw), 
 
 K. A. N. Knight of Alexander Nev- 
 skoi, in Russia. 
 
 Kan. Kansas. 
 
 K. B. King's Bench. 
 
 K. B. Knight of the Bath, 
 
 K. C. King's Counsel. 
 
 K. C. B. Knight Commander of the 
 Bath. 
 
 K. G. Knight of the Garter. 
 
 Kg., Kgs. Keg ; Kegs. 
 
 K. G. C. Knight of the Grand Cross. 
 
 K. G. C. B. Knight of the Grand 
 Cross of the Bath. 
 
 Kil. Kilometer. 
 
 Kilo. Kilogram. 
 
 Kingd. Kingdom. 
 
 K. L. Knight of Labor. 
 
 K. L. H. Knight of the Legion of 
 Honor. 
 
 K. M. Knight of Malta. 
 
 K. Mess. King's Messenger.
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Knick. Knickerbocker. 
 
 Knt. or Kt. Knight. 
 
 K. P. Knight of St. Patrick ; Knight 
 of Pythias. 
 
 K. S. M. & S. G. Knight of St. 
 Michael and St. George of the Io- 
 nian Islands. 
 
 K. T. Knight of the Thistle ; Knight 
 Templar. 
 
 Kt. Knight. 
 
 Ky. Kentucky. 
 
 L. Fifty, or fiftieth. 
 
 L. Liber, book. 
 
 L., 01 f. s. d. Pounds, shillings, 
 ?ence. 
 
 , or 1. Pounds, English currency 
 (libra). 
 
 T. Pounds, Turkish currency. 
 
 La. Louisiana. 
 
 It. A. W. League of American Wheel- 
 men. 
 
 Lam. Lamentations. 
 
 Lang. Language. 
 
 Lat. Latitude ; Latin. 
 
 Lapp. Lappish. 
 
 Lb., or Ib. Libra, or libra;, pound or 
 pounds in weight. 
 
 L. C. Lower Canada ; Lord Cham- 
 berlain ; Lord Chancellor. 
 
 L. C. B. Lord Chief Baron. 
 
 L. C. J. Lord Chief-Justice. 
 
 Ld. Lord : Limited. 
 
 Ldp. Lordship. 
 
 Leg. Legate. 
 
 Legis. Legislature. 
 
 Leip. Leipsic. 
 
 Lev. Leviticus. 
 
 Lex. Lexicon. 
 
 L. G. Life Guards. 
 
 L. H. A. Lord High Admiral. 
 
 L. H. C. Lord High Chancellor. 
 
 L. H. D. Doctor of Literature. 
 
 L. H. T. Lord High Treasurer. 
 
 L. I. Long Island. 
 
 Lib. Liber, book. 
 
 Lieut.-Col. Lieutenant-Colonel. 
 
 Lieut.-Gen. Lieutenant-General. 
 
 Lieut.-Gov. Lieutenant-Governor. 
 
 Lieut. Lieutenant. 
 
 Lin. Lineal. 
 
 Linn. Linnaeus ; Linnsean. 
 
 Liq. Liquor ; Liquid. 
 
 Lit. Literally ; Literature. 
 
 Lith. Lithuanian. 
 
 L., , or 1. Libra or librce, pound or 
 pounds sterling. 
 
 L. Lat. Low Latin : Law Latin. 
 
 LL. B. Lefjum Bowalaureus, Bache- 
 lor of Laws. 
 E -2. 
 
 LL. D. Legum Doctor, Doctor of 
 
 Laws. 
 
 LL. M. Master of Laws. 
 L. M. S. London Missionary Society. 
 Loc. cit. Loco citato, in the place 
 
 cited. 
 
 Lon. Longitude. 
 Lond. London. 
 L. P. Lord Provost. 
 L. P. S. Lord Privy Seal. 
 L. R. C. P. Licentiate of the Royal 
 
 College of Physicians. 
 L. R. C. S. Lincentiate of the Royal 
 
 College of Surgeons. 
 L. S. D. Pounds, shillings, and pence. 
 L. S. Locus sigilli, place of the seal. 
 Lt. Lieutenant. 
 LX. Sixty, or sixtieth. 
 LXX. Seventy, or seventieth. 
 LXX. The Septuagint (Version of 
 
 the Old Testament). 
 LXXX. Eighty, or eightieth. 
 
 M. Married. 
 
 M. Mile. 
 
 M. Meridies, noon. 
 
 M. Mille, a thousand. 
 
 M., or Mons. Monsieur. 
 
 M. A. Master of Arts. | 
 
 M. A. Military Academy. 
 
 Mace. Maccabees. 
 
 Maced. Macedonian. 
 
 Mad. Madam. 
 
 Mag. Magazine. 
 
 Maj. Major. 
 
 Maj.-Gen. Major-GeneraL 
 
 Mai. Malachi. 
 
 Man. Manassas. 
 
 Mar. March. 
 
 March. Marchioness. 
 
 Marg. Margin. 
 
 Marg. Tran. Marginal Translation. 
 
 Marq. Marquis. 
 
 Masc. Masculine. 
 
 Mass. Massachusetts. 
 
 Math. Mathematics ; Mathematician. 
 
 Matt. Matthew. 
 
 Max. Maxim. 
 
 M. B. Medicine? Baccalaureus, Bach- 
 elor of Medicine. 
 
 M. B. MusiccB Baccalaureus, Bache- 
 lor of Music. 
 
 M. C. Member of Congress ; Master 
 of Ceremonies ; Master Commandant. 
 
 Mch. March. 
 
 M. C. S. Madras Civil Service. 
 
 M. D. Medicines Doctor. Doctor of 
 Medicine. 
 
 Md. Maryland. 
 
 Mdlle. Mademoiselle. 
 
 Mdpn. Midshipman.
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 M. E. Methodist Episcopal ; Military 
 or Mechanical Engineer. 
 
 M.E.,S. Methodist Episcopal, South. 
 
 Me. Maine. 
 
 Mech. Mechanic ; Mechanical. 
 
 Med. Medicine. 
 
 M. E. G. H. P. Most Excellent 
 Grand High Priest. 
 
 Mem. Memorandum. 
 
 Mem. Memento, remember. 
 
 Merc. Mercury. 
 
 Mess. & Docs. Messages and Docu- 
 ments. 
 
 Messrs., or MM. Messieurs, Gentle- 
 men. 
 
 Met. Metaphysics. 
 
 Metal. Metallurgy. 
 
 Meteor. Meteorology. 
 
 Meth. Methodist. 
 
 Mex. Mexico, or Mexican. 
 
 Mfd. Manufactured. 
 
 Mfs. Manufactures. 
 
 Mic. Micah. 
 
 M. I. C. E. Member of the Institu- 
 tion of Civil Engineers. 
 
 Mich. Michaelmas. 
 
 Mich. Michigan. 
 
 Mil. Military. 
 
 Min. Mineralogy. 
 
 Min. - Minute. 
 
 Min. E. Mining Engineer. 
 
 Minn. Minnesota. 
 
 Min. Plen. -Minister Plenipotentiary. 
 
 Miss. Mississippi. 
 
 M. L. A. Mercantile Library Asso- 
 ciation. 
 
 MM. Their Majesties. 
 
 MM. Messieurs ; Gentlemen. 
 
 Mme. Madame. 
 
 M. M. S. Moravian Missionary So- 
 ciety. 
 
 ;M. M. S. S. Massachusettensis Medi- 
 cince Societatis Socius, Fellow of the 
 Massachusetts Medical Society. 
 
 Mn. Manganese. 
 
 M. N. A. S. Member of the National 
 Academy of Sciences. 
 
 Mo. Missouri ; Month. 
 
 Mod. Modern. 
 
 Mon. Montana ; Monday. 
 
 Mons. Monsieur ; Sir. 
 
 Mont. Montana. 
 
 Morn. Morning. 
 
 Mos., or mth. Months. 
 
 Mos. Months. 
 
 M. P. Member of Parliament ; Mem- 
 ber of Police ; Methodist Protestant. 
 
 M. P. S. Member of the Philological 
 Society ; Member of the Pharma- 
 ceutical Society. 
 
 M. R. Master of the Rolls. 
 
 Mr. Mister. 
 
 M. R. A. S. Member of the Royal 
 Asiatic Society ; Member of the Roy- 
 al Academy of Science. 
 
 M. R. C. C. Member of the Royal 
 College of Chemistry. 
 
 M. R. C. P. Member of the Royal 
 College of Preceptors. 
 
 M. R. 0. S. Member of the Royal 
 College Of Surgeons. 
 
 M. R. C. V. S. Member of the Royal 
 College of Veterinary Surgeons. 
 
 M. R. G. S. Member of the Royal 
 Geographical Society. 
 
 M. R. I. Member of the Royal Insti- 
 tution. 
 
 M. R. I. A. Member of the Royal 
 Irish Academy. 
 
 Mrs. Mistress. 
 
 M. R. S. L. Member of the Royal 
 Society of Literature. 
 
 M. S. Memoriw sacrum, Sacred to 
 the memory. 
 
 M. S. Master of the Sciences. 
 
 MS. Manuscriptum, manuscript. 
 
 MSS. Manuscripts. 
 
 Mt. Mount, or mountain. 
 
 Mus. B. Bachelor of Music. 
 
 Mus. D. Doctor of Music. 
 
 M. W. Most Worthy ; Most Worship- 
 ful. 
 
 M. W. G. C. P. Most Worthy Grand 
 Chief Patriarch. 
 
 M. W. G. M. Most Worthy Grand 
 Master; Most Worshipful Grand 
 Master. 
 
 M. W. P. Most Worthy Patriarch. 
 
 Myth. Mythology. 
 
 N. North ; Number ; Noun ; Neuter. 
 
 N. Note. 
 
 N. A. North America. 
 
 Nah. Nahum. 
 
 Nap. Napoleon ; Napoleonic. 
 
 N. A. S. National Academy of Sci- 
 ences. 
 
 Nat. Ord. Natural Order. 
 
 Nat. Natural. 
 
 Nat. Hist. Natural History. 
 
 Nath. Nathanael, or Nathaniel. 
 
 Naut. Nautical. 
 
 Naut. Aim. Nautical Almanac. 
 
 N. B. North Britain. 
 
 N. B. New Brunswick ; North Brit- 
 ish. 
 
 N. B. Nota "bene, mark well; take 
 notice. / 
 
 N. C. North Carolina. 
 
 N. D. North Dakota. 
 
 N. E. New England ; North-east. 
 
 Neb. Nebraska.
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Neh. Nehemiah. 
 
 It, e. i. Non est inventus, he is not 
 found. 
 
 Nem. con., or nem. diss. Nemine con- 
 tradicente, or nemine dissentiente, no 
 one opposing ; unanimously. 
 
 Neth. Netherlands. 
 
 Neut. Neuter (gender). 
 
 Nev. Nevada. 
 
 New Test., or N. T. New Testament. 
 
 N. F. Newfoundland. 
 
 N. G. New Granada ; Noble Grand. 
 
 N. H. New Hampshire ; New Haven. 
 
 N. H. H. S. New Hampshire His- 
 torical Society. 
 
 Ni. pri. Nisi prius. 
 
 N. J. New Jersey. 
 
 N. 1. Non liquet, it does not appear. 
 
 N. lat. North latitude. 
 
 N. M. New Measurement. 
 
 N. M. New Mexico. 
 
 N.-N.-E. North-north-east. 
 
 N.-N.-W. North-north-west. 
 
 N, O. New Orleans. 
 
 No. Numero, number. 
 
 NoL Pros. Nolle prosequi, unwilling 
 to proceed. 
 
 Nom., or nom. Nominative. 
 
 Non con. Not content; dissenting 
 (House of Lords). 
 
 Non cul. Non culpabilis, Not guilty. 
 
 Non obst. Non obstante, notwith- 
 standing. 
 
 N. o. p. Not otherwise provided for. 
 
 Non pros. Non prosequitur, he does 
 not prosecute. 
 
 Non seq. Non sequitur, it does not 
 follow. 
 
 No., or Nos. Numbers. 
 
 Nov. November. 
 
 N. P. Notary Public. 
 
 N. P. D. North Polar Distance. 
 
 N. s. Not specified. 
 
 N. S. New Style (after 1752) ; No- 
 va Scotia. 
 
 N. S. J. C. Our Saviour Jesus 
 Christ (Noster Salvator Jesus 
 Christus). 
 
 N. T. New Testament. 
 
 N. u. Name or names unknown. 
 
 Num. Numbers ; Numeral. 
 
 N. V. New Version. 
 
 N. V. M. Nativity of the Virgin 
 Mary. 
 
 N.-W. North- West 
 
 N.-W. T. North- West Territory. 
 
 N. Y. New York. 
 
 N. Z. New Zealand. 
 
 O. Ohio. 
 
 Ob. Ob fit, he or she died. 
 
 Obad. Obadiah. 
 
 Obs. Obsolete ; Observatory ; Obser- 
 vation. 
 
 Obt., or Obdt. Obedient. 
 
 Oct., or 8vo. Octavo, eight pages. 
 
 Oct. October. 
 
 O.-F. Odd-Fellow, or Odd-Fellows. 
 
 Okl. Oklahoma. 
 
 O. G. Outside guardian. 
 
 O. H. M. S. On his or her Majesty's 
 Service. 
 
 Old Test., or O. T. Old Testament. 
 
 Olym. Olympiad. 
 
 O. M. Old Measurement. 
 
 Ont. Ontario. 
 
 Opt. Optics. 
 
 Or. Oregon. 
 
 Orig. Originally. 
 
 Ornith. Ornithology. 
 
 Os. Osmium. 
 
 O. S. Old Style; Outside Sentinel. 
 
 O. T. Old Testament. 
 
 O. U. A. Order of United Americans. 
 
 Oxf. Gloss. Oxford Glossary. 
 
 Oxf. Oxford. 
 
 Oxon. Oxonia, Oxonii, Oxford. 
 
 Oz. Ounce. 
 
 P. Pondere, by weight. 
 
 P., or p. Page ; Part ; Participle. 
 
 Pa., or Penn. Pennsylvania. 
 
 Pal. Paleontology. 
 
 Par. Paragraph. 
 
 Par. Pas. Parallel passage. 
 
 Parl. Parliament. 
 
 Pat. Of. Patent Office. 
 
 Pathol. Pathology. 
 
 Payt. Payment. 
 
 P. B. Primitive Baptist. 
 
 P. B. Philosophic Baccalaureus, 
 Bachelor of Philosophy. 
 
 P. C. Patres Conscripti, Conscript 
 Fathers ; Senators. 
 
 P. O. Privy Council; Privy Coun- 
 cilor. 
 
 P. C. P. Past Chief Patriarch. 
 
 P. C. .S. Principal Clerk of Sessions. 
 
 P. D. Philosophic Doctor, Doctor 
 of Philosophy. 
 
 Pd. Paid. 
 
 P. E. Protestant Episcopal. 
 
 P. E. I. Prince Edward Island. 
 
 Penn. Pennsylvania. 
 
 Pent. Pentecost. 
 
 Per. Persia; Persian. 
 
 Per, or pr. By the, or per Ib. 
 
 Per an. Per annum, by the year. 
 
 Per cent. Per centum, by the hun- 
 dred. 
 
 Peri. Perigee. 
 
 Peruv. Peruvian.
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Pet. Peter; Petrine. 
 
 P. G. Past Grand. 
 
 Phar. Pharmacy. 
 
 Ph. B. Philosophies Baccalaureus, 
 Bachelor of Philosophy. 
 
 Ph. D. Philosophies Doctor, Doctor 
 of philosophy. 
 
 Phil. Philip ; Philippians ; Philos- 
 ophy ; Philemon. 
 
 Phila., or Phil. Philadelphia. 
 
 Philem. Philemon. 
 
 Philom. Philomathes, a lover of 
 learning. 
 
 P h i 1 o m a t h. Philomathematicus, a 
 lover of the mathematics. 
 
 Phil. Trans. Philosophical Trans- 
 actions. 
 
 Ph ren. Ph renology. 
 
 Pinx., or pxt. Pinxit, he (she) paint- 
 ed it. 
 
 P.-L. Poet-Laureate. 
 
 PL, or Plur. Plural. 
 
 Plff. Plaintiff. 
 
 Plupf. Pluperfect. 
 
 P. M. Post meridiem, afternoon, 
 evening. 
 
 P. M. Postmaster ; Passed Midship- 
 man. 
 
 P. M. G. Postmaster-General. 
 
 P. O. Poet-Office. 
 
 P. of H. Patrons of Husbandry. 
 
 Pop. Population. 
 
 Port. Portugal, or Portuguese. 
 
 P. P. Parish priest. 
 
 P. P. C. Pour prendre conge, to take 
 leave. 
 
 Pp., or pp. Pages. 
 
 PP. Patres, Fathers. 
 
 Pph. Pamphlet. 
 
 P. Q. Previous Question. 
 
 P. R. Populus Romanus, the Roman 
 people. 
 
 P. R. Prize Ring; Porto Rico; the 
 Roman People (Populus Romanus). 
 
 P. R. A. President of the Royal 
 Academy. 
 
 P. R. C. Post Romam conditam, 
 from the building of Rome. 
 
 Preb. Prebend. 
 
 Pref. Preface. 
 
 Pref. Preferred. 
 
 Prep. Preposition. 
 
 Pres. President. 
 
 Presb. Presbyterian. 
 
 Prin. Principally. 
 
 Prob. Problem. 
 
 Proc. Proceedings. 
 
 Prof. Professor. 
 
 Pron. Pronoun ; Pronunciation. 
 
 Prop. Proposition. 
 
 Prot. Protestant. 
 
 Prot. Epis. Protestant Episcopal. 
 
 Pro tern. Pro tempore, 'for the time 
 being. 
 
 Prov. Proverbs ; Provost. 
 
 Prov. Province. 
 
 Prox. Proximo, next (month). 
 
 P. R. S. President of the Royal So- 
 ciety. 
 
 Prs. Pairs. 
 
 Prus. Prussia ; Prussian. 
 
 P. S. Post scriptum, Postscript. 
 
 P. S. Privy Seal. 
 
 Ps. Psalm, or Psalms. 
 
 Pt. Part; Pint; Payment; Point; 
 Port. 
 
 Pt. Platinum. 
 
 P. T. O. Please turn over. 
 
 P.-twp. Post-township. 
 
 Pub. Publisher ; Publication ; Pub- 
 lished ; Public. 
 
 Pub. Doc. Public Documents. 
 
 P. v. Post-village. 
 
 P. W. P. Past Worthy Patriarch. 
 
 Pwt. Pennyweight ; pennyweights. 
 
 Q Quasi, as it were ; almost. 
 
 Q. Queen. 
 
 Q. Question. 
 
 Q. d. Quasi dicat, as if he should say ; 
 
 quasi dictum, as if said; quasi dix- 
 
 isset, as if he had said. 
 Q. e. Quod est, which is. 
 Q. e. d. Quod erat demonstrandum, 
 
 which was to be proved. 
 Q. e. f. Quod erat faciendum, which 
 
 was to be done. 
 Q. e. i. Quod erat inveniendum, 
 
 which was to be found out. 
 Q. 1. Quantum libet, as much as you 
 
 please. 
 
 Q. M. Quartermaster. 
 Qm. Quomodo, how ; by what means. 
 Q. M. G. Quartermaster-General. 
 Q. p., or q. pi. Quantum placet, as 
 
 much as you please. 
 Qr. Quarter. 
 Q. S. Quarter Sessions. 
 Q. s. Quantum sufficit, sufficient 
 
 quantity. 
 Qt. Quart. 
 
 Qu., or qy. Quaere, inquire ; query. 
 Quar. Quarterly. 
 Ques. Question. 
 Q. Mess. Queen's Messenger. . 
 Que. Quebec. 
 Q. v. Quod vide, which see ; quantum 
 
 vis, as much as you will. 
 
 R. Recipe, take. 
 
 R. Regina, Queen. 
 
 R. River ; Rood ; Rod.
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 R. A. Royal Academy ; Royal Aca- 
 demician. 
 
 R. A. Royal Arch. 
 
 R. A.- Royal Artillery. 
 
 R. C. Roman Catholic. 
 
 RC. Rescriptum, a counterpart. 
 
 R. D. Rural Dean. 
 
 R. E. Reformed Episcopal. 
 
 R. E. Royal Engineers. 
 
 Rec. Recipe, or Recorder. 
 
 Reed. Recei ved. 
 
 Rec. Sec. Recording Secretary. 
 
 Rect. Rector ; Receipt. 
 
 Ref. Reference. 
 
 Ref. Reformed ; Reformation ; Ref- 
 erence. 
 
 Ref. Ch. Reformed Church. 
 
 Reg. Register ; Regular. 
 
 Reg. Prof. Regius Professor. 
 
 Regr. Registrar. 
 
 Regt. Regiment. 
 
 Rel. Religion. 
 
 Rep. Representative ; Reporter. 
 
 Repts. Reports. 
 
 Retd. Returned. 
 
 Rev. Reverend; Revelation (Book 
 of) ; Review ; Revenue ; Revise. 
 
 Rhet. Rhetoric. 
 
 R. H. S. Royal Humane Society ; 
 Royal Historical Society. 
 
 R. I. Rhode Island ; in stock reports, 
 Rock Island, a railway. 
 
 R. I. H. S. Rhode Island Historical 
 Society. 
 
 R. M. Royal Marines ; Royal Mail. 
 
 R. M. S. Royal Mail Steamer. 
 
 R. N. Royal Navy. 
 
 R. N. R. Royal Navy Reserve. 
 
 Ro. Recto, right-hand page. 
 
 Robt. Robert. 
 
 Rom. Romans (Epistle to the). 
 
 Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic. 
 
 R. P. Reformed Presbyterian. 
 
 R. P. Regius Professor, the King's 
 Professor. 
 
 R. R. Railroad. 
 
 R. R. June. Railroad Junction. 
 
 R. R. Sta. Railroad Station. 
 
 R. S. Recording Secretary. 
 
 Rs. Responsus, to answer ; Rupees. 
 
 R. S. A. Royal Society of Anti- 
 quaries : Royal Scottish Academy. 
 
 R. S. V. P. Repondez, s'il vous plait, 
 answer, if you please. 
 
 R. T. S. Religious Tract Society. 
 
 Rt. Hon. Right Honorable. 
 
 Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. 
 
 Rt. Wpful. Right Worshipful. 
 
 Russ. Russia : Russian. 
 
 R. V. Revised Version. 
 
 R. W- Right Worthy. 
 
 R. W. D. G. M. Right Worshipful 
 
 Deputy Grand Master. 
 R. W. G. R. Right Worthy Grand 
 
 Representative. 
 R. W. G. S. Right Worthy Grand 
 
 Secretary. 
 R. W. G. T. Right Worthy Grand 
 
 Treasurer ; Right Worshipful Grand 
 
 Templar. 
 R. W. G. W. Right Worthy Grand 
 
 Warden. 
 R. W. J. G. W. Right Worshipful 
 
 Junior Grand Warden. 
 R. W. S. G. W. Right Worshipful 
 
 Senior Grand Warden. 
 Ry. Railway. 
 
 S. Solidus, a shilling. 
 
 S. South ; Saint ; Scribe ; Sulphur ; 
 Sunday ; Sun ; Series. 
 
 S. Afr. South Africa. 
 
 S. A. South America ; South Austra- 
 lia. 
 
 S. a. Secundum artem, according to 
 art. 
 
 Sam. Samuel. 
 
 Sansc., or Sansk. Sanscrit, or Sans- 
 krit. 
 
 Sard. Sardinia. 
 
 S. A. S. Societatis Antiquanorum 
 Socivs, Fellow of the Soc. of An- 
 tiquaries. 
 
 Sat. Saturday. 
 
 Sax. Saxon ; Saxony. 
 
 Sax. Chron. Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 S. C. Senatus Consultum, a decree 
 of the Senate ; South Carolina 
 
 Sc. Sculpsit, he (or she) engraved it. 
 
 Sc. B. Bachelor of Science 
 
 Sc., or scil. Scilicet, namely. 
 
 Scan. Mag. Scandalum magnatum, 
 scandal of the great or prominent. 
 
 Schol. Scholium, a note. 
 
 Schr. Schooner. 
 
 Sclav. Sclavonic. 
 
 Scot. Scottish ; Scotland 
 
 Scr. Scruple. 
 
 Scrip. Scripture. 
 
 Sculp. Sculpsit, he (or she) en- 
 graved it. 
 
 S. D. Salutem dicit, sends health ; 
 South Dakota. 
 
 S.-E. South-East. 
 
 Sec. Secretary ; Second. 
 
 Sec. Leg. Secretary of Legation. 
 
 Sec. leg. Secundum legem, according 
 to law. 
 
 Sec. reg. Secundum rcgulam, accord- 
 ing to rule. 
 
 Sect. Section. 
 
 Sem. Semble, it seems.
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Sem. Seminary. 
 
 Sen. Senate ; Senator ; Senior. 
 
 Sept. September ; Septuagint. 
 
 Seq. Sequentia, following ; sequitur, 
 it follows. 
 
 Ser. Series. 
 
 Serg. Sergeant. 
 
 Serg.-Maj. Sergeant-Major. 
 
 Servt. Servant. 
 
 Sess. Session. 
 
 S. G. Solicitor-General. 
 
 Shak. Shakespeare. 
 
 S. H. S. Societatis Historic^ Socius, 
 Fellow of the Historical Society. 
 
 Sic. Doubtful ; literally. 
 
 S. I. M. Soc. for Increase of the 
 Ministry. 
 
 Sing. Singular. 
 
 S. I si. Sandwich Islands. 
 
 S. J. Society of Jesus. 
 
 S. J. C. Supreme Judicial Court. 
 
 S. lat. South latitude. 
 
 S. M. State Militia; Short Meter; 
 Sergeant-Major; Sons of Malta. 
 
 S. M. Lond. Soc. Cor. Societatis 
 Medico; Londonensis Socius Cor., 
 Corresponding Member of the Lon- 
 don Medical Soc. 
 
 Soc. Isl. Society Islands. 
 
 Sol. Solomon ; Solution. 
 
 SoL-Gen. Solicitor-General. 
 
 S, of Sol. Song of Solomon. 
 
 Sp. Spain ; Spanish. 
 
 S. P. A. S. Societatis Philosophicw 
 Americana} Socius, Member of the 
 American Philosophical Society. 
 
 S. P. G. Society for the Propagation 
 of the Gospel. 
 
 Sp. gr. Specific gravity. 
 
 S. P. C. A. Society for the Preven- 
 tion of Cruelty to Animals. 
 
 S. P. C. C. Society for the Preven- 
 tion of Cruelty to Children. 
 
 S. P. Q. R. Senatus Populusque Ro- 
 manus, the Senate and people of 
 Rome. 
 
 S. P. R. L. Society for the Promo- 
 tion of Religion and Learning. 
 
 Sq. ft. Square foot, or square feet. 
 
 Sq. in. Square inch, or inches. 
 
 Sq. m. Square mile, or miles. 
 
 Sq. yd. Square yard. 
 
 Sr. Senior. 
 
 S. R. I. Sacrum Romanum Impe- 
 rium. Holy Roman Empire. 
 
 S. R. S. Societatis Reaiw Socius, 
 Fellow of the Royal Society. 
 
 S. S. Sunday-school. 
 
 SS. Saints. 
 
 SS., or ss. Scilicet, to wit. 
 
 Ss. Semis, half; Sessions. 
 
 S.-S.-E. South-south-east 
 
 S.-S.-W. South-south-west. 
 
 St. Saint; Street; Strait. 
 
 Stat. Statute. 
 
 S. T. B. Bachelor of Sacred Theol- 
 ogy. 
 
 S. T. D. Sacrce Theologies Doctor, 
 Doctor of Divinity. 
 
 Ster., or Stg. Sterling. 
 
 S. T. P. Sacrw Theologies Profess< 
 or, Professor of Divinity. 
 
 Str. Steamer. 
 
 Subj. Subjunctive. 
 
 Subst. Substantive. 
 
 Sun., or Sund. Sunday. 
 
 Sup. Supreme. 
 
 Sup. Supplement ; Superfine. 
 
 Supt. Superintendent. 
 
 Surg. Surgeon ; Surgery. 
 
 Surg.-Gen. Surgeon-General. 
 
 Surv. Surveyor. 
 
 Surv.-Gen. Surveyor-General. 
 
 S. v. Sub verbo, under the word or 
 title. 
 
 S.-W. South-west. 
 
 Sw. Swiss. 
 
 Swe. Sweden ; Swedish ; Sweden- 
 borg ; Swedenborgian. 
 
 Switz. Switzerland. 
 
 Syn. Synonym ; Synonymous. 
 
 Syr. Syriac. 
 
 T., or torn. Tome, volume. 
 
 Tab. Table; Tabular. 
 
 Tan. Tangent. 
 
 T. E. Topographical Engineers. 
 
 Tenn. Tennessee. 
 
 Ter. Territory. 
 
 Tex. Texas. 
 
 Text. Rec. Textus Receptus, Received 
 Text. 
 
 Tf. Till forbid. 
 
 Th., or Thurs. Thursday. 
 
 Theo. Theodore. 
 
 Theol. Theology ; Theological. 
 
 Theoph. Theophilus. 
 
 Thess. Thessalonians. 
 
 Tho'. Though. 
 
 Thos. Thomas. 
 
 Thro'. Through. 
 
 Tim. Timothy. 
 
 Tit. Titus. 
 
 T. O. Turn over. 
 
 Tob. Tobit. 
 
 Topog. Topography ; Topographical. 
 
 Tp. Township. 
 
 Tr. Transpose ; Translator ; Trans- 
 lation ; Trustee. 
 
 T r a n s. Translator ; Translation J 
 Transactions ; Transpose. 
 
 Treas. Treasurer.
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Abbreviations 
 
 Trin. Trinity. 
 Tues., or Tu. Tuesday. 
 T. S. Twin screw. 
 Tr. S. Triple screw. 
 Tur. Turkey. 
 Typ. Typographer. 
 
 U. Union. 
 
 TJ. B. United Brethren. 
 
 U. C. Upper Canada. 
 
 U. C. Urbe condita, year of Rome. 
 
 U. J. C. Utriusque Juris Doctor, 
 Doctor of both Laws. 
 
 U. K. United Kingdom. 
 
 U. K. A. Ulster King-at-Arms. 
 
 Ult. Ultimo, last ; of the last month. 
 
 Unit. Unitarian. 
 
 Univ. University. 
 
 Univt. Universalist. 
 
 U. P. United Presbyterian. 
 
 U. S. United States. 
 
 U. s. Vt supra, or uti supra, as 
 above. 
 
 U. S. A. United States Army. 
 
 U. S. A. United States of America. 
 
 U. S. M. United States Mail. 
 
 U, S. M. United States Marines. 
 
 U. S. M. A. United States Military 
 Acad. 
 
 U. S. M. C. United States Marine 
 Corps. 
 
 U. S. M. H. S. United States Ma- 
 rine Hospital Service. 
 
 U. S. N. United States Navy. 
 
 U. S. N. A. United States Naval 
 Acad. 
 
 U. S. S. United States Senate. 
 
 Ut. Utah. 
 
 V. Village. 
 
 V., or vid. Vide, see. 
 
 V. Violin. 
 
 Vt. Vermont. 
 
 V., or vs. Versus, against ; Versicu- 
 lo, in such a verse. 
 
 Va. Virginia. 
 
 Val. Value. 
 
 Vat. Vatican. 
 
 V. C. Victoria Cross; Vice-Chair- 
 man ; Vice-Chancellor. 
 
 V. D. L. Van piemen's Land. 
 
 V. D. M. Verbi Dei Minister, Minis- 
 ter of God's word. 
 
 Ven. Venerable. 
 
 Ver. Verse. 
 
 V. G, Vicar General. 
 
 V. g. Verbi gratia, as for example. 
 
 Vice-Pres., or V. P. Vice-President. 
 
 Vise. Viscount. 
 
 Viz., or vL Videlicet, to wit ; name- 
 ly; that is to say*. 
 
 Vo. Verso, left-hand page. 
 Vol.-*- Volume. 
 
 V. R. Victoria, Regina, Queen Vic- 
 toria. 
 
 V. S. Veterinary Surgeon. 
 Vul. Vulgate ( Version ) . 
 
 W. West. 
 
 Wash. Washington. 
 
 W. B. M. Woman's Board of Mis- 
 sions. 
 
 W. C. A. Woman's Christian Asso- 
 ciation. 
 
 W. C. T. U. Women's Christian 
 Temperance Union. 
 
 Wed. Wednesday. 
 
 Wf. Wrong font. 
 
 W. F. M. S. Woman's Foreign Mis- 
 sionary Society. 
 
 W. H. M. A. Woman's Home Mis- 
 sionary Association. 
 
 W. I. West Indies. 
 
 Wis. Wisconsin. 
 
 Wisd. Wisdom (Book of). 
 
 Wk. Week. 
 
 W. M. Worshipful Master. 
 
 Wm. William. 
 
 W. M. S. Wesleyan Missionary So- 
 ciety. 
 
 W. N. C. T. U. Woman's National 
 Christian Temperance Union. 
 
 W.-N.-W. West-north-west. 
 
 W.-S.-W. West-south-west. 
 
 Wt. Weight. 
 
 Wyo. Wyoming. 
 
 W. Va. West Virginia. 
 
 X., or Xt. Christ. 
 Xmas., or Xm. Christmas. 
 Xn., or Xtian. Christian. 
 Xnty., or Xty. Christianity. 
 Xper., or Xr. Christopher. 
 
 Yd. Yard. 
 
 Ym. Them. 
 
 Y. M. C. A. Young Men's Christian 
 Association. 
 
 Y. M. C. U. Young Men's Christian 
 Union. 
 
 Yn. Then. 
 
 Yr. Year. 
 
 Yrs. Years ; Yours- 
 
 Y. W. C. A. Young Women's Chris- 
 tian Association. 
 
 Zach. Zachary. 
 Zech. Zechariah. 
 Zeph. Zephaniah. 
 Zool. Zoology. 
 
 &. And.
 
 ALdallali 
 
 Abdul-Medjid 
 
 Abclallalv-Ibn-Yaziiii, Moham- 
 medan conqueror of Spain, known as 
 "Theologian." He died 1058. 
 
 Abd-cl-Kacler, very renowned by 
 the persevering courage with which he 
 opposed the aggressions of the French 
 against his country, was the third 
 son of a marabout of the Arab tribe 
 of Hashem, who had risen to influence 
 through his rank, coupled with a great 
 sanctity of demeanor. Born in Oran in 
 1807, the early days of Abd-el-Kader 
 are lost in obscurity, but by 1828 he 
 had not only acquired the reputation 
 of a scholar, but that of a saint, from 
 his having twice made, a pilgrimage to 
 Mecca, the birthplace of the Prophet. 
 Accompanied by his father, he preach- 
 ed a holy war against the French oc- 
 cupation of Algiers, and called upon 
 the fa'ithful to rise and expel the in- 
 fidels. For a period of 15 years he 
 contrived to defend his country, and 
 fight against the encroachments of 
 France ; but in 1847 he was compelled 
 to surrender himself a prisoner. He 
 died in Damascus, May 26, 1883. 
 
 Abd-er-Rahnian I., a Caliph of 
 Cordova, born in Damascus in 731. 
 He founded a Moorish dynasty in 
 Spain, made Cordova his capital and 
 became an independent sovereign. The 
 mosque at Cordova (now used as a 
 cathedral), ornamented with rows of 
 cupolas, supported by 850 pillars of jas- 
 per, was built by him. He died in 787. 
 
 Abd-er-Raliman III., a Caliph 
 of Cordova, born in 891. His long 
 reign of 42 years is pronounced the 
 glorious epoch of Moorish sway in 
 Spain. He died in 9G1. 
 
 Abduction, the act of abducing 
 or abducting ; a taking or drawing 
 away, and specifically an unlawful 
 taking away of women or girls. 
 
 In law", the forcible and fraudulent 
 taking away of women or girls. Com- 
 monly applied to the criminal offense 
 of misleading a female under the age 
 for marriage. 
 
 Abd-ul-Aziz, the 32d Sultan of 
 the Ottoman Turks, was born Feb. 9, 
 1830, and succeeded his brother, Abd- 
 ul-Medjid, in 1861. His government 
 had great difficulties to contend with 
 in the Cretan insurrection, the strug- 
 gle of Rumania and Servia for full 
 autonomy, and finally the outbreak of 
 Mohammedan fanaticism. In 1871 the 
 
 Sultan strove to get the succession 
 settled upon his son, instead of hia 
 nephew Murad, in accordance with 
 Turkish custom. At last a conspiracy 
 forced him to abdicate the throne, 
 May 30, 1876. Four days later, the 
 unhappy Sultan was found dead, it is 
 almost certain by foul play. 
 
 Abdul-Hamid II., 34th Sultan 
 of Turkey, born Sept. 22, 1842, the 
 second son of Sultan Abdul-ul-Medjid ; 
 succeeded to the throne in 1876, on 
 the deposition of his brother, Murad 
 V. Defeated in the war of 1877-1878 
 with Russia, he was compelled by the 
 Treaty of Berlin to surrender a small 
 portion of territory in Europe and 
 Asia, to recognize the independence of 
 the vassal States in Europe, and to 
 acknowledge Bulgaria as a tributary 
 principality. In 1895-1896, during the 
 massacres of the Armenians, he took 
 an active part in the negotiations 
 with the European powers. In 1897, 
 Greece forced war on Turkey in be- 
 half of the Cretans, and in 1898, after 
 another uprising in Crete, Great 
 Britain and Russia forced Turkey to 
 evacuate the island. A constitution 
 granted Turkey in 1876, before his 
 accession, was quickly suppressed -by 
 him, and he ruled despotically until 
 
 1908, when he was forced to restore 
 it by a revolutionary party known as 
 the Young Turks. A legislative as- 
 sembly was elected and a large meas- 
 ure of liberty granted, but in April, 
 
 1909, a reactionary movement at Con- 
 stantinople led to the occupation of the 
 city by troops favoring the Young 
 Turks party, and the deposition and 
 exile to Salonica of the Sultan. He was 
 succeeded by his brother, Mohammed- 
 Reshad, under the title of Mohammed 
 V. At the outbreak of the war of the 
 Balkan States against Turkey, in 1912, 
 Abdul-Hamid was removed to Con- 
 stantinople, through fear that Russia 
 might restore him to the throne dur- 
 ing the excitement of the war. 
 
 Abdnl-Medjid, a Sultan of Tur- 
 key, born April 23, 1822 ; succeeded to 
 the throne July 1, 1839, at the early 
 age of 17. The great event of his 
 reign was the Crimean War, in which 
 France and England allied themselves 
 with Turkey against the encroach- 
 ments of Russia, and which was ter- 
 minated by the fall of Sebastopol af- 
 ter a long siege, in 1856. He was sue-
 
 Abdurrahman Khun 
 
 Abelard 
 
 ceeded by his brother, Abdul Azia 
 Khan. He died June 25, 1861. 
 
 Abdurrahman Khan, Ameer of 
 'Afghanistan ; born in Kabul in 1844 ; 
 was the eldest son of Ufzul Khan, and 
 nephew of the Ameer Shere Ali. In 
 July of 1880 he was formally chosen 
 by the leading men of Kabul and ac- 
 knowledged by the British Indian Gov- 
 ernment as Ameer of Afghanistan. 
 From the British Indian Government 
 he received a subsidy of $800,000 a 
 year, with large gifts of artillery, ri- 
 fles, and ammunition to improve his 
 military force. In March, 1900, he 
 declared his sympathy with England. 
 He died in Kabul, Oct. 3, 1901. 
 
 Abel, the Second son of Adam and 
 brother of Cain. The latter was a 
 tiller of the ground ; Abel a shepherd. 
 Both brought their offerings before 
 the Lord ; Cain, the first-fruits of the 
 ground ; Abel, the firstlings of the 
 flock. God accepted the offering of 
 Abel ; the offering of Cain he rejected. 
 The latter, instigated by envy, mur- 
 dered his brother in the field. 
 
 Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus, 
 an English chemist, born in London 
 in 1827. Was president of the Brit- 
 ish Association in 1890. Died London, 
 Sept. 8, 1902. 
 
 Abel, Niels Henrik, a Norwe- 
 gian mathematician, born at Findb", 
 Aug. 5, 1802. He became a lecturer 
 at the University of Christiania, and 
 the school of engineering there. His 
 works deal mainly with the theory of 
 elliptical functions, which his discov- 
 eries greatly enriched. He died young, 
 April 6, 1829. 
 
 Abelard, (or Abailard), Pierre, 
 a monk of the order of St. Benedict, 
 equally famous for his learning and 
 his passion for Heloise; born in 1079, 
 near Nantes, in the little village of 
 Pallet, which was the property of his 
 father Berenger. His inclination led 
 him to prefer a literary life ; and in 
 order to devote himself fully to philos- 
 ophy he ceded his patrimony to his 
 brothers. He studied poetry, rhetoric, 
 philosophy, jurisprudence, and theol- 
 ogy, the Greek, Hebrew, and Latin 
 languages ; but scholastic philosophy 
 chiefly engaged his attention. Having 
 learned all that Brittany could teach 
 him, he went to Paris, the university 
 of which attracted students from all 
 parts of Europe, Guillaume de Cham- 
 
 peaux, a follower of Anselm and an 
 extreme Realist, was the most skillful 
 disputant of his time, and Abelard, 
 profiting by his instructions, was often 
 victorious over his master in contests 
 of wit and logical acumen. The 
 friendship of Champeaux was soon 
 succeeded by enmity ; and Abelard, 
 who had not yet completed his 22d 
 year, removed to Melun, whither he 
 was soon followed by a multitude of 
 young men, attracted from Paris by 
 his great reputation. Hostility still 
 pursued him, but he left Melun for 
 Corbeil, nearer the capital, where he 
 was still more admired and persecuted. 
 Soon after he ceased teaching to re- 
 cruit his strength ; and after two 
 years returned to Paris, and found 
 that his former teacher had removed 
 to a monastery outside the city. 
 
 He again joined issue with him and 
 gained so complete a triumph that he 
 opened in Paris a school of rhetoric, 
 the fame of which soon deprived all 
 the others of their pupils. Shortly 
 afterward he was appointed to his ri- 
 val's chair in the cathedral school of 
 Notre Dame, where he educated many 
 distinguished scholars, among whom 
 were the future Pope Celestin II., Pe- 
 ter of Lombardy, Bishop of Paris, Be- 
 renger, Bishop of Poictiers, and St. 
 Bernard. 
 
 At this time there resided close to 
 Notre Dame a young lady, by name 
 Heloise, niece of the canon Fulbert, 
 then of the age of 17, and remarkable 
 for her beauty, genius, and varied ac- 
 complishments. Abelard became in- 
 spired with such violent love for He- 
 loise as to forget his duty, his lectures, 
 and his fame. Heloise was no less 
 susceptible. Under the pretext of fin- 
 ishing her education, he obtained Ful- 
 bert's permission to visit her, and 
 finally became resident in his house. 
 His conduct in abusing the confidence 
 which had been placed in him opened 
 the eyes of Fulbert. He separated the 
 lovers, but too late. Abelard fled with 
 her to Brittany, where she was de- 
 livered of a son, who died early. Abe- 
 lard now resolved to marry her secret- 
 ly. Fulbert gave his consent, the mar- 
 riage was performed, and in order to 
 keep it secret Heloise remained with 
 her uncle, while Abelard retained his 
 former lodgings, and continued his 
 lectures. Abelard, however, carried
 
 Abercrombie 
 
 Abercrombie 
 
 her off a second time, and placed her 
 in the convent of Argenteuil. 
 
 Fulbert erroneously believed it was 
 intended to force her to take the veil, 
 and under the influence of rage sub- 
 jected Abelard to mutilation. He be- 
 came, in consequence, a monk in the 
 abbey of St. Denis, and Heloise took 
 the veil at Argenteuil. After time had 
 somewhat moderated his grief he re- 
 sumed teaching. At the Council of 
 Soissons (1121), no defense being per- 
 mitted him, his " Essay on the Trin- 
 ity " was declared heretical, and he 
 was condemned to burn it with his 
 own hands. Continued persecutions 
 obliged him at last to leave the abbey 
 of St. Denis and to retire to a place 
 near Nogent-sur-Seine, where he built 
 a rude hut in which he determined to 
 live a hermit's life. Even here, how- 
 ever, students flocked to him, and they 
 built him an oratory, which he dedi- 
 cated to the Holy Ghost and hence 
 called Paraclete. Being subsequently 
 appointed abbot of St. Gildas de Ruys, 
 in Brittany, he invited Heloise and her 
 religious sisterhood, on the dissolution 
 of their monastery at Argenteuil, to re- 
 side at the above oratory, and re- 
 ceived them there. He lived for some 
 10 years at St. Gildas. Ultimately, 
 however, he fled from it and lived 
 for a time in other parts of Brittany. 
 
 St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the lead- 
 ing opponent of the rationalistic school 
 of Abelard, laid his doctrines before 
 the Council of Sens, in 1140, had them 
 condemned by the Pope, and obtained 
 an order for his imprisonment. Abe- 
 lard appealed to the Pope, published 
 his defense, and went to Rome. Pass- 
 ing through Cluny, he visited Peter the 
 Venerable, who was abbot there. This 
 humane and enlightened divine effect- 
 ed a reconciliation between him and 
 his enemies, but Abelard resolved to 
 end his days in retirement. The se- 
 vere penances which he imposed upon 
 himself, together with the grief which 
 never left his heart, gradually con- 
 sumed his strength, and he died, a pat- 
 tern of monastic discipline, in 1142, 
 at the abbey of St. Marcel, near Cha- 
 lon-sur-Saone. Heloise begged his 
 body, and had him buried in the Para- 
 clete, of which she was at that time 
 the abbess, with the view of reposing 
 in death by his side. In 1800 the 
 ashes of both were carried to the 
 
 Museum of French Monuments at 
 Paris, and in November, 1817, were 
 deposited under a chapel within the 
 precincts of the church of Monamy. 
 The small chapel, in the form of a 
 beautiful marble monument, in which 
 the figures of the ill-fated pair are 
 seen reposing side by side, is now one 
 of the most interesting objects in the 
 Parisian cemetery of Pere la Chaise. 
 
 Abelard was distinguished as a 
 grammarian, orator, logician, poet, 
 musician, philosopher, theologian, and 
 mathematician. As a philosopher he 
 founded an eclectic system commonly, 
 but erroneously, termed Conceptual- 
 ism, which lay midway between the 
 prevalent Realism, represented in its 
 most advanced form by William of 
 Champeaux, and extreme Nominalism, 
 represented in the teaching of his other 
 master Roscellin, and largely ap- 
 proached the Aristotelian philosophy. 
 In ethics Abelard placed much empha- 
 sis on the subjective intention, which 
 he held to determine the moral value 
 as well as the moral character of man's 
 action. Along this line his work is 
 notable, owing to the fact that his 
 successors did little in connection with 
 morals, for they did not regard the 
 rules of human conduct as within the 
 field of philosophic discussion. His 
 love and his misfortunes have secured 
 his name from oblivion ; and the man 
 whom his own century admired as a 
 profound dialectician is now celebrated 
 as the martyr of love. The letters of 
 Abelard and Heloise have been often 
 published in the original and in trans- 
 lations. Pope's poetical epistle 
 " Eloisa to Abelard " is founded on 
 them. Abelard's autobiography, en- 
 titled " Historia Calamitatum," is still 
 extant. The chief work on the life 
 of Abelard is Remusat's " Abelard " 
 (two vols. Paris, 1845). See also 
 Compayre's " Abelard and the Origin 
 and Early History of Universities " 
 ( 1893 ; series of " Great Educators " ) . 
 A complete edition of his work was 
 published by Cousin (two vols. Paris, 
 1849-1859). 
 
 Abercrombie, John, in his day 
 the most eminent of Scottish physi- 
 cians, was born in 1780, at Aberdeen, 
 where his father was a parish min- 
 ister. His principal professional writ- 
 ings were treatises on the pathology of 
 the brain and on diseases of the stom-
 
 Abercrombie 
 
 Abiathar 
 
 ach. Dr. Abercrombie died suddenly, 
 Nov. 14, 1844. 
 
 Abercrombie, Sir Ralph, a Brit- 
 ish general, born jn 1738. He was 
 cotnmander-in-chief in the West Indies, 
 in 1795 ; in the attempt against Hol- 
 land, in 1799, and in the expedition 
 to Egypt. Mortally wounded in the 
 beginning of the battle of Alexandria 
 (March 21, 1801), tile general kept 
 the field during the day, and died some 
 days after his victory. 
 
 Aberdeen, the chief city and sea- 
 port in the North of Scotland, lies at 
 the mouth and on the N. side of the 
 river Dee, 111 miles N. of Edinburgh. 
 Population of the parliamentary burgh 
 (1901) 153,108. 
 
 Aberdeen, George Hamilton 
 Gordon, Earl of, born in 1784. He 
 took office as Secretary of State for 
 Foreign Affairs in 1828, in the min- 
 istry formed under the Duke of Wel- 
 lington, and in 1843 in the Peel min- 
 istry. Entering public life as a Tory, 
 his policy was that of non-interference 
 in the affairs of foreign states. In 
 1853, Earl Aberdeen was selected to 
 head a new ministry, which for some 
 time was extremely popular. He en- 
 deavored to prevent the country from 
 entering upon the conflict with Rus- 
 sia, but all his efforts were unavail- 
 ing. Failing to receive sufficient sup- 
 port to carry out his measures, he re- 
 signed in 1855. Died Dec. 14, 1860. 
 
 Aberdeen, Sir John Campbell, 
 Hamilton Gordon, seventh Earl 
 of, born in 1847. He served as Gov- 
 ernor-General of Canada (1893-1898), 
 and as Lord-Lieuteiiaiit of Ireland 
 in 1886 and after 1905. His wife, 
 born in 1857, is a daughter of Lord 
 Tweedmouth and a direct descendant 
 of Robert Bruce. She is an accom- 
 plished orator, and organized the Irish 
 Village at the Columbian Exposition 
 in Chicago in 1893. For many years 
 she has been conspicuous in plans for 
 promoting the welfare of women. 
 
 Abernethy, James, a Scotch 
 civil engineer, born in Aberdeen in 
 1815. As a boy he assisted his father 
 on the extension of the London docks, 
 and afterward designed and built the 
 lock and dock at Aberdeen, the docks 
 at Swansea, Newport, Cardiff and 
 Hull, and the Cavour canal in Italy; 
 designed the accepted plan for the im- 
 
 provement of the Danube at Vienna; 
 reclaimed Lake Aboukir, in Egypt, 
 and proposed the Manchester ship- 
 canal and was its consulting engineer. 
 He was the first to apply hydraulic 
 power for working lock-gates. 
 
 Abernethy, -John, an eminent 
 English surgeon, founder of the School 
 of St. Bartholomew's ; born in London, 
 April 3, 1764. He died at Enfield, April 
 28, 1831. 
 
 Abert, John James, an American 
 military engineer, born in Virginia in 
 1788; served in the War of 1812; 
 was made chief of United States to- 
 pographical engineers in 1838 ; assist- 
 ed in developing important canals and 
 other works ; member of the Geo- 
 graphical Society of France. He died 
 in 1863. 
 
 Abesta, or Avesta, the name of 
 one of the sacred books of the Persian 
 magi, which they ascribe to their great 
 founder Zoroaster. 
 
 Abgar, or Abgarns, is the name 
 or title of 28 princes of Edessa, in 
 Mesopotamia. The most notable of 
 these princes is the 14th of the name, 
 a contemporary of Jesus, and was said 
 to have written a letter to Jesus and 
 to have received an answer from Him. 
 These letters, translated into Greek 
 from the Syriac by Eusebius of Csesa- 
 rea, were denounced as spurious by 
 Pope Gelasius in 494 and soon lost all 
 credit. The letter - from Abgar con- 
 tains a request that Jesus should visit 
 him, and heal him of a certain dis- 
 ease. In the reply, Jesus is repre- 
 sented as promising to send a disci- 
 ple to heal him after His ascension. 
 What purported to be copies of this 
 correspondence came to light in 1900. 
 For other fables in this connection, see 
 Lipsius' " Die Edessenische Abgar- 
 sage" (1880). 
 
 Abgillus, surnamed Prester John, 
 a king of the Frisons. He attended 
 Charlemagne to the Holy Land, and 
 did not return with him, but made 
 great conquests in Abyssinia, which 
 was called, from him, the empire of 
 Prester John. He lived in the 8th 
 century. 
 
 Abiathar (the father of abun- 
 dance), a high-priest of the Jews, son 
 of Ahimelech, who had borne the same 
 office, and received David in his house. 
 This so enraged Saul that he put Ahim-
 
 Abib 
 
 Aboukir 
 
 elech and 81 priests to death ; Abi- 
 athar alone escaped the massacre. He 
 afterward was high-priest, and often 
 gave King David testimonies of his 
 fidelity. But after this he conspired 
 with Adonijah, in order to raise him 
 to the throne of King David, his fa- 
 ther, which so exasperated Solomon 
 against him that he divested him of 
 the priesthood, and banished him A. M. 
 3021 (B. c. 1014). 
 
 Abib, a name given by the Jews 
 to the first month of their ecclesiasti- 
 cal year, afterward called Nisan. It 
 answered to the latter part of March 
 and beginning of April. 
 
 Abigail, the beautiful wife of Na- 
 bal, a wealthy owner of goats and 
 sheep in Carmel. When David's mes- 
 sengers were slighted by Nabal, Abi- 
 gail took the blame upon herself, and 
 succeeded in appeasing the anger of 
 David. Ten days after, Nabal died, 
 and David sent for Abigail and made 
 her his wife. (I Sam. xxv: 14, etc.) 
 
 Abilene, city and capital of Tay- 
 lor county, Tex.; on the Texas & 
 Pacific railroad; 200 miles N. of 
 Austin; has flour, cotton-seed oil, and 
 planing mills, machine shops, cream- 
 ery, chair and mattress factories, and 
 large cattle trade. Pop. (1910) 9,204. 
 
 Abishai, son of David's sister 
 Zeruiah, and brother to Joab. 
 
 Ablution, literally, a washing away. 
 A ceremony consisting in bathing the 
 body, or a part of it, in water, which 
 has been practiced more or less ex- 
 tensively by the disciples of almost 
 every form of faith. 
 
 Abo, Archipelago of, an exten- 
 sive group of low, rocky islands in 
 the Baltic Sea, spreading along the 
 S. arid W. coasts of Finland, opposite 
 the city of Abo, rendering the naviga- 
 tion difficult and dangerous. 
 
 Abo, Peace of, a treaty concluded 
 Aug. 17, 1743, between Russia and 
 Sweden, by which Russia retained a 
 part of Finland and "restored to S.we- 
 den the remainder on condition that 
 the latter power should elect the Prince 
 of Holstein-Gottorp successor to the 
 throne. 
 
 Abolitionists, in United States 
 history, those who advocated the abo- 
 lition of African slavery in the South- 
 ern States. The anti-slavery agita- 
 tion dates back even to colonial days. 
 
 Agitation became acute after the set- 
 tlement of the war troubles of 1812- 
 1815. In 1833, the formation of a Na- 
 tional Anti-Slavery Society took place 
 in Philadelphia, and in 1848 of the 
 Free Soil Party. The abolition move- 
 ment was powerfully promoted by 
 William Lloyd Garrison, who issued 
 a newspaper, " The Liberator," for 
 the better dissemination of his views ; 
 and also by Wendell Phillips, Charles 
 Sumner and others. The more extreme 
 agitators among them denied the duty 
 of obedience to the Constitution, since 
 it contained the clause warranting the 
 Fugitive Slave Law, and they de- 
 nounced it as " a covenant with death 
 and an agreement with hell." In prac- 
 tice they violated it by systematically 
 assisting in the escape of runaway 
 slaves. A line of stations known as 
 the " Underground Railroad " was se- 
 cretly arranged, along which the fu- 
 gitives were passed from point to 
 point, concealed from pursuers, and 
 cared for until they reached safety in 
 Canada. In Boston, Garrison was 
 mobbed, and the abolition cause in 
 the United States counted among its 
 martyrs Elijah Lovejoy, shot in Al- 
 ton, 111., in 1837, and John Brown, 
 hanged in Virginia in 1859. In 1840 
 the abolitionists divided on the ques- 
 tion of the formation of a political 
 anti-slavery party, and the two wings 
 remained active on separate lines to 
 the end. It was largely due to the 
 abolitionists that the Civil War, when 
 it came, was regarded by the North 
 chiefly as an anti-slavery conflict, and 
 they looked upon the Emancipation 
 Proclamation as a vindication of this 
 view. 
 
 Aboma, a large and formidable 
 American snake, called also the ringed 
 boa. Anciently it was worshipped by 
 the Mexicans. 
 
 Aborigines. (1) An old tribe in- 
 habiting Latium. (2) The earliest 
 known inhabitants of any other land. 
 
 Abonkir, a small village on the 
 Egyptian coast, 10 miles E. of Alex- 
 andria. Aboukir bay is celebrated for 
 the naval battle in which Nelson an- 
 nihilated the French fleet on Aug. 1-2, 
 1798. This decisive victory gained 
 Nelson the title of Baron Nelson of 
 the Nile ; and the battle is often spo- 
 ken of as the battle of the Nile.
 
 About 
 
 About, Edmoutl, a French novel- 
 ist, born in Dieuze, Lorraine, Feb. 
 14, 1828; died in Paris, Jan. 17, 1885. 
 
 Abra, a province of Luzon, Philip- 
 pine Islands; on the N. W. coast; 
 area, 1,484 square miles; pop. (1903) 
 51,860, of whom 14,037 were wild; 
 capital, Bangued. 
 
 Abracadabra, a magical word 
 among the ancients, recommended as 
 an antidote against several diseases. 
 It was to be written upon a piece of 
 paper as many times as the word 
 contains letters, omitting the last let- 
 ter of the former every time, and sus- 
 pended from the neck by a linen 
 thread. It was the name of a god wor- 
 shipped by the Syrians, the \vearing 
 of whose name was a sort of invoca- 
 tion of his aid. 
 
 ABRACADABRA 
 
 ABRACADABR 
 
 ABRACADAB 
 
 ABRACADA 
 
 A B R A C A D 
 
 A B R A C A 
 
 A B R A C 
 
 ABRA 
 
 A B R 
 
 A B 
 
 A 
 
 At present, the word is used chiefly in 
 jest, to denote something without 
 meaning. 
 
 Abraham, son of Terah, and 
 brother of Nahor and Haran, the 
 progenitor of the Hebrew nation and 
 of several cognate tribes. At the 
 goodly age of 175, he was " gathered 
 to his people," and laid beside Sarah, 
 in the tomb of Machpelah, by his sons 
 Isaac and Ishmael. 
 
 A b r a h a in, Plains of and 
 Heights of, a table-land near Que- 
 bec, rising above the St. Lawrence, 
 wher the battle of Quebec was fought 
 between the British and French 
 (1759). 
 
 Abranyi, Kornel, a Hungarian 
 poet, novelist, and publicist ; born in 
 Budapest, Dec. 31, 1849. As a mem- 
 ber of the Hungarian diet and as ed- 
 itor of the " Pesti Naplo," he is an 
 important political figure in Hungary. 
 
 Abrogation. The term is used 
 popularly as the equivalent of repeal, 
 whether by statute or contrary usage. 
 
 Abrnzzi, Prince I/nigi Amadep, 
 Duke of, Italian explorer ; born in 
 Rome, Jan. 30, 1873 ; a nephew of 
 
 Abstinence! 
 
 King Humbert*; in May, 1899, he 
 started on an expedition, in the spe- 
 cially prepared steamer " Star of 
 Italy," for Franz Josef Land, intend- 
 ing, when frozen in, to use sledges in 
 a search for the North Pole and the 
 balloon explorer, Dr. Andree. He re- 
 turned to Norway in September, 1900, 
 after having reached a point in lati- 
 tude 86 33' N., surpassing Nansen's 
 furthest N. record by 19'. 
 
 Absalom, the third son of David, 
 king of Israel, remarkable for his 
 beauty and for his unnatural rebel- 
 lion against his father, which led to 
 his untimely death. L 
 
 Abscess, a gathering of pus in any 
 tissue or organ of the body. Abscesses- 
 may occur in almost any portion of the 
 body. They are of three types : the acute 
 abscess, or phlegmon, arising from an 
 inflammatory tendency in the part ; the 
 chronic abscess, connected with scrof- 
 ulous or other weakness in the con- 
 stitution ; and the diffused abscess, due 
 to contamination in the blood. 
 
 Absenteeism, a term applied to 
 the owners of estates in a country 
 who habitually absent themselves from 
 that country, and spend the income 
 of their estates in it in another coun- 
 try. Used more particularly regard- 
 ing Irish landlords who live elsewhere. 
 
 Absinthe, a liqueur made princi- 
 pally in Switzerland, and much used 
 by the French ; composed of volatile 
 oil of wormwood, oil of anise and oth- 
 er ingredients mixed in alcohol. It is 
 an intoxicant, more agreeable to the 
 taste than usual alcoholic beverages, 
 but its persistent use leads to extreme 
 phy-?-'.->al and. mental disorders. 
 
 Absolution. The Roman Catholic 
 Ch'7-f"'' "'ice the fourth Lateran coun- 
 cil in lislo A. D., invests the priesfcwith 
 power in his priestly office to pro- 
 nounce absolution from sins that have 
 been confessed. In most other Church- 
 es, absolution is no more than 
 a general or formal declaration that 
 God will forgive the sins of penitents, 
 with exhortation to seek such forgive- 
 ness. 
 
 Abstinence, the act or habit of 
 refraining from something to which 
 we have a propensity, or in which we 
 find pleasure ; but it is more particu- 
 larly applied to the privation or spar- 
 ing use of food. Abstinence has been 
 enjoined and practiced for various
 
 Abt 
 
 ends, as sanitary, moral, or religious. 
 Abstinence of flesh on certain days is 
 obligatory in the Roman Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 The time during which life can be 
 supported under total abstinence from 
 food or drink, is usually stated to vary 
 from eight to ten days ; the period 
 may, however, be greatly prolonged. 
 Total abstinence, as a term, has also 
 special reference to alcoholic drinks. 
 
 Abt, Franz, a German song 
 writer ; born in Saxony, Dec. 22, 1819. 
 He studied theology at Leipsic, but 
 abandoned it for music. He is well 
 known as composer of the favorite 
 song, " When the Swallows Homeward 
 Fly." He visited the United States 
 in 1872. He died March 31, 1885. 
 
 Abu-Klea, a place in Egypt, on 
 the route across the country between 
 Korti and Metammeh, both on the 
 great bend of the Nile below Khar- 
 tum ; was the scene of a battle on Jan. 
 17, 1885, in which Sir Herbert Stew- 
 art defeated the Mahdi's forces. 
 
 Abul-Abbas, Abd-Allah, the 
 first of the Arabian dynasty of Ab- 
 bassides ; a caliph of incredible cruel- 
 ty, on account of which he was called 
 "al Suffah" ("The Sanguinary"). 
 On assurances of amnesty, he be- 
 guiled 90 members of the Ommiad fam- 
 ily (the preceding dynasty) into a 
 hall, where they were slain with whips 
 and rods. He died in 754. 
 
 Abuna, the title given by the Ethi- 
 opian Christians to their metropolitan. 
 He is the chief of the secular clergy. 
 
 Abn-Simbel, Tbsambul, or Ip- 
 sambnl, th site of two temples on 
 the Nile, constructed by .Rameses II. 
 The principal beauties of the facade of 
 the larger temple (139 feet broad, and 
 more than 100 feet high) are the four 
 sitting colossi,, each more than 65 feet 
 to height. 
 
 Abydos, a town and castle of Na- 
 'tolia, on the Straits of Gallipoli. In 
 its neighborhood Xerxes, when he in- 
 vaded Greece, crossed with his im- 
 mense army the Hellespont, on a 
 bridge of boats. Memorable also from 
 being the scene of the loves of Hero 
 and Leander, and from Byron having 
 adopted its name in his " Bride of 
 Abydos." Also an ancient city of Up- 
 per Egypt, supposed to hare beeu the 
 ancient This, and to have been sec- 
 ond only to Thebes. 
 
 Abyssinia 
 
 Abyssinia, or Habesh, an ancient 
 kingdom of Eastern Africa, now un- 
 der a -monarch who claims the title of 
 emperor. Abyssinia may be said to 
 extend between lat. 8 and 16 N., 
 and Ion. 35 and 41 E., having Nu- 
 bia N. and W., the Sudan W., the Red 
 Sea littoral (Erythrsea, Danakil coun 
 try, etc.), E., and to the S. the Galla 
 country. The area within these limit? 
 is about 160,000 square miles, but th 
 present ruler claims a much more ex 
 tensive territory ; and latterly Abys 
 sinia has come to be surrounded by re- 
 gions belonging to or influenced more 
 or less by Italy, France, and Great 
 Britain. The principal divisions of 
 Abyssinia are the provinces or king- 
 doms of Shoa in the S., Amhara in the 
 center, and Tigre" in the N., to which 
 may be added Lasta, Gojam, and other 
 territories. Addis Abeba in Shoa is 
 the present residence of the ruler, but 
 the Abyssinian royal residences large- 
 ly consist of houses very slightly built, 
 and thus resemble more or less perma- 
 nent camps rather than towns. Other 
 towns are Gondar, Adua, Aksum, An- 
 talo, and Ankpber, none with a pop- 
 ulation exceeding 7,000. 
 
 The Abyssinians are of mixed Semi- 
 tic and Hamitic descent. They were 
 converted to Christianity in the time of 
 the Emperor Constantine, by some mis- 
 sionaries sent from Alexandria. In the 
 6th century the power of the sover- 
 eigns of their kingdom had attained 
 its height; but before another had ex- 
 pired the Arabs had invaded the coun- 
 try, and obtained a footing in Adel, 
 though they were unable to extend 
 their conquests farther. For several 
 centuries subsequently the kingdom 
 continued in a distracted state, being 
 now torn by internal commotions and 
 now invaded by external enemies (Mo- 
 hammedans and Gallas). To protect 
 himself from the last the Emperor of 
 Abyssinia applied, about the middle 
 of the 16th century, to the King of 
 Portugal for assistance, promising, at 
 the same time, implicit submission to 
 the Pope. The solicited aid was sent, 
 and the empire saved. The Roman 
 Catholic priests having now ingrati- 
 ated themselves with the emperor and 
 his family, endeavored to induce them 
 to renounce the tenets and rites of the 
 Coptic Church, and adopt those of 
 Rome. This attempt, however, was
 
 Acacia 
 
 Academy of Fine Arts 
 
 resisted by the ecclesiastics and the 
 people, and finally ended, after a long 
 struggle, in the expulsion of the Ro- 
 man Catholic priests about 1630. The 
 kingdom, however, gradually fell into 
 a state of anarchy, which, about the 
 middle of the 18th century, was com- 
 plete. The king, or negus as he was 
 called, received no obedience from the 
 provincial governors, who, besides, 
 were at feud with one another, and 
 severally assumed the royal title. 
 
 Abyssinia thus became divided into 
 a number of petty independent states. 
 A remarkable, but, as it proved, quite 
 futile attempt to resuscitate the unity 
 and power of the ancient kingdom was 
 commenced about the middle of the 
 19th century by King Theodore, who 
 aimed at the restoration of the an- 
 cient kingdom of Ethiopia, with him- 
 self for its sovereign. He introduced 
 European artisans, and went to work 
 wifely in many ways, but his cruelty 
 and tyranny counteracted his politic 
 measures. In consequence of a slight, 
 real or fancied, which he had re- 
 ceived at the hands of the British gov- 
 ernment, he threw Consul Cameron 
 and a number of other British sub- 
 jects into prison in 1863, and refused 
 to give them up. To effect their re- 1 
 lease an army of nearly 12,000 men, ' 
 iupder the command of Sir Robert Na- 
 pier, was dispatched from Bombay in 
 1867. The force landed at Zoulla on 
 the Red Sea in November, and march- 
 ing up the country came within sight 
 of Magdale, the capital of Theodore, 
 in the beginning of April, 1868. Af- 
 ter being defeated in a battle Theodore 
 delivered up the captives and shut 
 himself up in Magdala, which was 
 taken by storm on April 13. Theo- 
 dore was found among the slain, the 
 general opinion being that he had 
 fallen by his own hand. 
 
 In 1885 Italy asserted a protectorate . 
 with disastrous results ; defeat by 
 Menelek's troops at Adowa in 1896 
 made them abandon all claims except 
 to the Eritrean colony on the Red 
 Sea. Menelek transferred his capital 
 to Adis Abeba, where British, Ameri- 
 can and French interests became 
 active. In 1903, Mr. R. P. Skinner, 
 of the U. S. Dept. of State, effected a 
 commercial treaty, since when over 
 $1,000,000 of cotton goods are im- 
 ported annually from the U. S. The 
 
 city has telegraphic and telephonic 
 connection with Jibutil on the Gulf of 
 Aden, whence a railway to Harar and 
 Dire Dawa, 186 in., will eventually 
 reach Adis Abeba. Pop., 3,500,000. 
 
 Acacia, plants which abound in 
 Australia, in India, in Africa, tropical 
 America, and generally in the hotter 
 regions of the world. Nearly 300 spe- 
 cies are known from Australia alone. 
 They are easily cultivated in green- 
 houses, where they flower, for the most 
 part, in winter or early spring. In 
 Calfornia several species are cultivated 
 in the open for tannin and for timber. 
 The Black Watte has in its bark four 
 times as much tannin as the best oak. 
 
 Academus, a Greek mythical hero 
 who upon the Tyndaridean invasion 
 to rescue Helen after her abduction by 
 Thesues, revealed her hiding-place and 
 was thenceforth held in honor by the 
 Lacedaemonians. The term 'academy' 
 is derived from his name. 
 
 Academy, the gymnasium in the 
 suburbs of Athens in which Plato 
 taught, and so called after a hero, 
 by name Academus, to whom it \vas 
 said to have originally belonged. The 
 word is also applied to a high school 
 designed for the technical or other in- 
 struction of those who have already 
 acquired the rudiments of knowledge ; 
 also a university. 
 
 Academy, French, an institution 
 founded in 1635 by Cardinal Riche- 
 lieu for the purpose of refining the 
 French language and style. It became 
 in time the most influential of all lit- 
 erary societies in Europe. Together 
 with the Academy of Inscriptions and 
 Belles Lettres, the Academy of Moral 
 and Political Sciences and the Acad- 
 emy of Sciences, it composes the Na- 
 tional Institute of France. 
 
 Academy of Arts, The Royal, a 
 British institution for the encourage- 
 ment of painting, sculpture, and de- 
 signing ; founded in 1768 by George 
 III., with Sir Joshua Reynolds as 
 president. 
 
 Academy of Design, National, 
 an American institution, in New York 
 city, founded in 1826, conducting 
 schools in various branches of the fine 
 arts, and holding semi-annual exhibi- 
 tions at which prizes are awarded. 
 
 Academy of Fine Arts, The, a 
 French institution, originally founded
 
 Academy of France 
 
 Acanthus 
 
 in 1648 at Paris under the name of 
 the Academy of Painting and Sulp- 
 ture. In 1795 it was joined to the 
 Academy of Architecture, and has 
 borne its present name since 1819. 
 
 Academy of France at Rome, 
 an institution for the advanced study 
 of the fine arts in Rome, Italy, found- 
 ed by Colbert in 16G6, during the reign 
 of Louis XIV. It was at first estab- 
 lished in the ruined villa Mancini on 
 the Cprso, and, in 1803, at the villa 
 Medicis. The young artists, painters, 
 sculptors, architects, engravers and 
 musicians who secure the annual prizes 
 of the Academy of -Fine Arts in Paris 
 spend four years there, with an an- 
 nual pension of 3,500 francs and trav- 
 eling expenses. 
 
 Academy of Inscriptions and 
 Belles Lettres, an institution found- 
 ed at Paris by Colbert in 1663, under 
 the name of Petite Acade'mie. Com- 
 parative philology. Oriental, Greek, 
 and Roman antiquities and epigraphy 
 have received the attention of the 
 Academy, which has published a series 
 of invaluable records and works. 
 
 Academy of Medicine, a French 
 institution, founded in Paris in 1820, 
 for the purpose of keeping the gov- 
 ernment informed on all subjects ap- 
 pertaining to the public health. 
 
 Academy of Moral and Politi- 
 cal Science, founded at Paris in 
 1795, is composed of 30 members, di- 
 vided into 5 sections, with 5 free acad- 
 demicians, 5 foreign associates, and 
 SO corresponding members. 
 
 Academy of Natural Sciences 
 of Philadelphia, an institution 
 founded in 1812. 
 
 Academy of Political and So- 
 cial Science, American, an insti- 
 tution organized at Philadelphia in 
 1889 and incorporated in 1891. 
 
 Academy of Sciences, an insti- 
 tution founded at Paris, in 1666, by 
 Colbert and approved by Louis XIV. 
 in 1699, has now 66 members, in 11 
 sections, with two perpetual secreta- 
 ries and 100 corresponding members. 
 
 Academy of Sciences and Arts, 
 American, an academy established 
 in Boston in 1780 by the Council and 
 House of Representatives of Massa- 
 chusetts; the successor of an institu- 
 tion founded by Franklin, 
 
 Academy of Sciences, The Im- 
 perial, a Russian institution, found- 
 ed in St. Petersburg by Catherine I., 
 in 1725, and largely endowed by Cath- 
 erine II. 
 
 Academy of Sciences, The Na- 
 tional, an American institution, 
 founded in 1863, consisting of 100 
 members, elected from among the most 
 distinguished scientific men of the 
 United States; analogous to the Roy- 
 al Society of London. 
 
 Academy of Sciences, The Roy- 
 al, a German institution, in Berlin, 
 founded by Frederick I., in 1700; is 
 divided into four sections, devoted to 
 mathematics, physics, philosophy, and 
 history. 
 
 Acadia, a former French colony in 
 North America, including Nova Scotia 
 and nearly all of New Brunswick, set- 
 tled in 1604. It grew so slowly that 
 it numbered only 900 inhabitants in 
 1684. When, by the peace of Utrecht 
 (1713), it was given to the English, 
 the inhabitants, having refused to take 
 the oath of allegiance, were ordered 
 to leave their homes, and 5,000 emi- 
 
 rated to Louisiana and Georgia, and 
 ,000 were transported and scattered 
 over New England. The story of their 
 sorrow is touchingly introduced into 
 Longfellow's " Evangeline." 
 
 Acanthus, the name rf three an- 
 cient cities of Egypt, of Caria and of 
 Macedonia. The latter is noted for 
 
 COIN OF ACANTHUS. 
 
 the canal across the peninsula of Mt. 
 Athos through which Xerxes sailed on 
 his way to Greece. 
 
 Acanthus, a genus of herbaceous 
 shrubs, order Acanthacese, mostly trop- 
 ical, two species of which, A. mollis 
 and A. spinosus (the bear's-breech or 
 brankursine), are characterized by 
 large white flowers and deeply indent- 
 ed shining leaves. They are favorite or- 
 namental plants in gardens. In archi- 
 tecture the name is given to a kind of 
 foliage decoration said to have been
 
 . Acapnloo 
 
 'suggested by this plant, growing 
 Brourd a basket, and much employed 
 in Roman and later styles. 
 
 Acapnlco, a seaport of Mexico, on 
 the Pacific, with a capacious, well- 
 sheltered harbor ; a coaling station for 
 steamers, but with no great trade. 
 Pop. 4,000. 
 
 Acclimatization, the process of 
 (accustoming plants or animals to live 
 and propagate in a climate different 
 from that to which they are indige- 
 nous. The numerous varieties which 
 many species of plants and animals 
 present are sufficient in any view to 
 afford considerable scope for adapta- 
 tion to climate. 
 
 Accolade, in heraldry, the cere- 
 mony by which in mediaeval times one 
 was dubbed a knight. 
 
 Accolti, Bernardo, an Italian 
 poet (1465-1535. Leo X. esteemed 
 him highly, and made him apostolic 
 secretary, cardinal, and papal legate 
 at Ancona. He drew up the papal 
 bull against Luther (1520). 
 
 Accordion, a well-known keyed 
 Instrument with metallic reeds. The 
 accordion was introduced into Amer- 
 ica from Germany about 1828. ^ Im- 
 provements have been made on it in 
 the flutina, the organ-accordion, and 
 the concertina. 
 
 Account, in banking, commerce 
 law, and ordinary language, a regis- 
 try of pecuniary transactions. 
 
 Aceldama, a field purchased by the 
 Jewish chief priests and elders with 
 the 30 pieces of silver returned by 
 Judas. It was used as a place of in- 
 terment for strangers. The tradition- 
 ary site is on a small plateau half way 
 np the southern slope of the valley of 
 Hinnom, near the junction of the lat- 
 ter with the valley of Jehoshaphat. 
 (See Matt, xxvii: 3-10; Acts i: 18. 
 
 Acetic Acid, an acid produced by 
 the oxidation of common alcohol, and 
 of many other organic substances. 
 Pure acetic acid has a very sour taste 
 and pungent smell, burns the skin, and 
 is poisonous. From freezing at ordi- 
 nary temperatures (58 or 59) it is 
 known as glacial acetic acid. Vinegar 
 is simply dilute acetic acid. Acetic 
 acid is largely used in arts, in medi- 
 cine, and for domestic purposes. 
 
 Acetylene, a gas composed of car- 
 bon and hydrogen, colorless a_id with 
 
 E. 3 
 
 Aclierusia 
 
 a disagreeable odor, suggesting garlic. 
 Subjected to pressure it will liquefy at 
 a weight of 68 atmospheres. It is best 
 produced by the action .of water on 
 carbide of calcium, and is used thus in 
 bicycle lamps. The production of the 
 gas is attended with considerable risk, 
 as a too sudden application of water 
 to the carbide will generate enormous 
 quantities which is liable to explode 
 when mixed with air and subjected to 
 the slightest heat, even rubbing the 
 vessel in which it is contained being 
 sufficient to produce an explosion. The 
 gas is much less poisonous than the or- 
 dinary illuminating gas, and under 
 proper conditions can be used as a safe 
 and cheap illuminant. 
 
 Acliaeans, one of the four races 
 into which the ancient Greeks were di- 
 vided. In early times they inhabited 
 a part of Northern Greece and of the 
 Peloponnesus. They are represented 
 by Homer as a brave and warlike 
 people. A confederacy or league ex- 
 isted among the twelve towns of this 
 region. 
 
 Achard, Franz Karl, a German 
 chemist, born in Berlin in 1754. He 
 devoted himself to the development of 
 the beet-sugar manufacture, and, after 
 six years of laborious endeavor, he dis- 
 covered the true method of separating 
 the sugar from the plant. He was ap- 
 pointed director of the class of physics 
 in the Academy of Science, in Berlin, 
 and died in 1821. 
 
 Achard, Louis Ante dee, a French 
 novelist and publicist, born in 1814. 
 He died in 1875. 
 
 Achates, a friend of JEneas, whose 
 fidelity was so exemplary that fidus 
 Achates (the faithful Achates) be- 
 came a proverb. 
 
 Achenwoll, Gottfried, a German 
 scholar, born in Elbing, Prussia, Oct. 
 20, 1719 ; became professor at the Uni- 
 versity of Gottingen, first of philoso- 
 phy and afterward of law ; is regarded 
 as the founder of the science ot statis- 
 tics. He died in Gottingen, May 1, 
 1772. 
 
 Acheron, the river of sorrow, 
 which flowed around the infernal 
 realms of Hades, according to the 
 mythology of the ancients. 
 
 Aclierusia, a lake of Campania, 
 near Capua. Diodorus mentions that, 
 in Egypt, the souls of the dead were
 
 
 Achilles 
 
 conveyed over a lake called Acherusia, 
 and received sentence according to the 
 actions of their lives. The boat which 
 carried them was called Baris, and the 
 ferryman Charon, etc. 
 
 Achilles, son of Peleus, king of 
 the Myrmidons, in Thessaly, and of 
 Thetis. His mother's desire for his 
 safety made her try to make him in- 
 vulnerable when a child by anointing 
 him with ambrosia, and again by dip- 
 ping him in the river Styx, from 
 which he came out proof against 
 wounds, all but the heel, by which she 
 held him. He was the bravest of the 
 Greeks in the Trojan War, in which he 
 was slain. He is the hero of Homer's 
 Iliad, and was said to be invulnerable. 
 
 Achilles' Tendon, TENDON OF 
 ACHILLES, the strong tendon which 
 connects the muscles of the calf with 
 the heel, and may be easily felt with 
 the hand. The origin of name will be 
 understood from the above article. 
 
 Achmet Tewfik Pasha, a Turk- 
 ish statesman, born in 1818, at Con- 
 stantinople. His father was a Greek 
 convert ; his mother was a Jewess. In 
 1877 the Sultan appointed him Presi- 
 dent of the first Turkish Chamber of 
 Deputies ; then he became Governor- 
 General of Adrianople, and showed 
 himself a stern ruler in the war of 
 1877. In 1878 he was Premier and 
 signed the Peace of Santo Stefano. 
 He died in June, 1891. 
 
 Achromatic, in optics, transmit- 
 ting colorless light, that is, not de- 
 composed into the primary colors, 
 through having passed through a re- 
 fracting medium. A single convex lens 
 does not give an image free from the 
 prismatic colors, because the rays of 
 different color made up of white light 
 are not equally refrangible, and thus 
 do not all come to a focus together, 
 the violet, for instance, being nearest 
 the lens, the red farthest off. If such 
 a lens of crown-glass, however, is 
 combined with a concave lens of flint- 
 glass the curvatures of both being 
 properly adjusted as the two mate- 
 rials have somewhat different optical 
 properties, the latter will neutralize 
 the chromatic aberration of the form- 
 er, and a satisfactory image will be 
 produced. Telescopes, microscopes, &c., 
 in which the glasses are thus com- 
 posed are called achromatic. 
 
 Acoustics 
 
 Acids, in chemistry, a salt of hy- 
 drogen in which the hydrogen can be 
 replaced by a metal, or can, with a 
 basic metallic oxide, form a salt of 
 that metal and water. Many organic 
 acids occur in the juices of vegetables, 
 some in animals, as formic acid in ants. 
 
 Acland, Christina Harriet Car- 
 oline Fox, daughter of the Earl of 
 Ilchester, born in 1750 ; died at Tet- 
 ten, near Taunton, England, July 21, 
 1815. Her husband, Major John Dyke 
 Acland, of the British Army, was cap- 
 tured with Burgoyne at Saratoga. He 
 being severely wounded, she joined 
 him in the American lines, and ten- 
 derly nursed him. Major Acland was 
 so touched by the kindness of the 
 Americans to himself and wife that, 
 after his return to England he fought 
 a duel with an officer who spoke in- 
 sultingly of Americans. 
 
 Acne, a genus of skin diseases con- 
 taining those characterized by pustules, 
 which, after suppurating imperfectly, 
 become small, hard, red, circumscribed 
 tubercles on the skin. 
 
 Acolyte, Acolyth, and Acolo- 
 thist, in the Roman Catholic Church, 
 one of the inferior orders of the clergy, 
 whose office it is to attend upon the 
 deacons and subdeacons in the minis- 
 try of the altar, to light and hold the 
 candles, to bear the incense, to present 
 the priest with wine and water, etc. 
 
 Aconite, a plant familiarly known 
 as the monk's-hood, or wolf's-bane. 
 Its active principle is aconitine. 
 
 Acorn, the well known fruit of the 
 oak. In the early ages, acorns consti- 
 tuted a principal part of the food of 
 man. At present they are used for the 
 feeding of pigs, etc. 
 
 Acosta, Joseph, a Spanish Jesuit, 
 who, from being a missionary in Peru, 
 became provincial of his order ; born 
 at Medina del Campo in 1547 ; died at 
 Salamanca in 1600. His "History of 
 the West Indies," first printed in 
 Spanish, is universally known. 
 
 Acoustics, the science of sound. 
 We are sensible of sound when we are 
 affected by certain vibrations in the 
 air or other matter in contact with our 
 orgams of hearing. In ordinary cases 
 of hearing the vibrating medium is air, 
 but fishes hear under water, and all 
 substances that vibrate may be em- 
 ployed to propagate and convey sound.
 
 Acre 
 
 Actinism 
 
 Sound is reflected in a manner anal- 
 ogous to the reflection of light. When 
 it is reflected from a plain surface the 
 reflected sound comes as if it was prop- 
 agated from a point beyond the sur- 
 face at a distance equal to the dis- 
 tance of the real point of propagation 
 from the surface. Sounds produced 
 in one focus of a hollow ellipsoid are 
 reflected to the other focus. Whisper- 
 ing galleries are instances of the re- 
 flection of sound to a focus, or to form 
 sound caustics. Echoes are familiar 
 instances of reflection of sound. Lens- 
 es have been formed of collodion filled 
 with different gases, and by means of 
 these sound has been refracted in a 
 manner which is analogous to the re- 
 fraction of light by glass lenses. 
 
 Acre, an American and English 
 measure of land, containing 4,840 
 square yards. 
 
 Acre, or St. Jean d'Acre, a sea- 
 port of Syria, formerly called Ptole- 
 mais ; on a promontory at the foot of 
 Mount Carmel. This town, capital of 
 the pashalic of the same name, is fa- 
 mous for the memorable sieges it has 
 sustained. 
 
 Acropolis, the high part of any 
 ancient Greek city, usually an emi- 
 nence overlooking the city, and fre- 
 quently its citadel. Notable among 
 such citadels were the Acropolis of 
 Argos, that of Messene, of Thebes, and 
 of Corinth, but pre-eminently the Ac- 
 ropolis of Athens, to which the name 
 is now chiefly applied. 
 
 Acrostic, a poetical composition, 
 disposed in such a manner that the 
 initial letters of each line, taken in or- 
 der, form a person's name or other 
 complete word or words. 
 
 Act, in dramatic language, a por- 
 tion of a play performed continuously, 
 wifter which the representation is sus- 
 pended for a little, and the actors have 
 the opportunity of taking a brief rest. 
 Acts -are divided into smaller por- 
 tions called scenes. (See Shakespeare 
 throughout.) 
 
 In parliamentary language, an ellip- 
 sis for an act of congress, legislature, 
 etc. 
 
 In law: (1) Anything officially done 
 by the court. (2) An instrument in 
 writing for declaring or proving the 
 truth of anything. Such is a report, a 
 certificate, a decree, a sentence, etc. 
 
 In bankruptcy, an act, the commis- 
 sion of which, by a debtor, renders him 
 liable to be adjudged a bankrupt. 
 
 Act of Settlement, an act of the 
 Parliament of England in 1701, vest- 
 ing the hereditary right to the English 
 throne in Sophia, Electress of Han- 
 over, and her Protestant descendants, 
 constituting the source of the sover- 
 eignty of the house of Hanover or 
 Brunswick, the present ruling line. 
 
 Act of Supremacy. (1) An act 
 of the Parliament of England, in 1534, 
 by which the king was made the sole 
 and supreme head of the Church of 
 England. (2) A re-enactment of the 
 above, with changes, in 1559. 
 
 Act of Toleration, an act of the 
 reign of William and Mary, granting 
 freedom of religious worship, under 
 certain comparatively moderate con- 
 ditions, to all dissenters from the es- 
 tablished Church of England, except 
 Roman Catholics and persons denying 
 the Trinity. 
 
 Act of Uniformity. (1) An act 
 of the Parliament of England (1559), 
 adopting a revised liturgy for the 
 Church of England, entitled "An Act 
 for the Uniformity of Common Prayer 
 and Service in the Church, and Admin- 
 istration of the Sacraments." (2) An 
 act of Parliament (1662), requiring 
 that the revised Book of Common 
 Prayer and Ordination of Ministers, 
 and no other, should be used in all 
 places of public worship and be assent- 
 ed to by clergymen. By this test more 
 than 2,000 non-conforming clergymen 
 were ejected from their churches. 
 
 Acta Sanctorum, or Martyrum, 
 the collective title given to several old 
 writings, respecting saints and mar- 
 tyrs in the Greek and Roman Catholic 
 Churches, but now applied especially 
 to one extensive collection begun by 
 the Jesuits in the 17th century. 
 
 Actinic Rays, rays capable of 
 producing chemical decomposition, as 
 in photography, in the coloring of 
 flowers and fruit. All ether waves, 
 from all sources and of all lengths, 
 may now be considered as actinic, some 
 substances being decomposed by cer- 
 tain wave lengths and other substances 
 by different wave lengths. 
 
 Actinism, the chemical principle 
 of light. Three distinct principles ema
 
 
 Actium 
 
 nate from the sun light, heat, and 
 actinism. Numerous examples of the 
 effects of their influence occur daily, 
 which are erroneously attributed to 
 the light which we see. It is actinism 
 which fades colors, bleaches linen, rots 
 fabrics, tans the human skin, puts out 
 the fire, and performs the operations of 
 photography. It acts principally by 
 abstracting oxygen from the bodies 
 which it affects. There may be actin- 
 ism without light, or vice versa. Yel- 
 low glass transmits the latter, but 
 stops the former. Dark blue glass, 
 which transmits but little light, is 
 quite pervious to actinism. Blue ob- 
 jects reflect great quantities of it, 
 while red or yellow ones reflect but 
 little or none. The electric and lime 
 lights give out great quantities of ac- 
 tinism from their blue tinge; and gas 
 and candles but very little, from their 
 yellow color. The amount of actinism 
 received from the sun differs consider- 
 ably, according to the time of year, 
 being at its maximum about the end of 
 March, and gradually diminishing un- 
 til the end of December, when it ar- 
 rives at its minimum. Actinism, in 
 large quantities, is necessary to the 
 proper condition of the human system. 
 
 Actium, a promontory on the W. 
 coast of Greece, jutting out on the 
 N. W. extremity of Acarnania, not far 
 from the entrance of the Ambracian 
 Gulf (Gulf of Arta), at present called 
 La Punta. It is memorable on ac- 
 count of the naval battle fought here 
 between Antony and Octavianus Sept. 
 2, 31 B. C., ending in victory for Octa- 
 vianus. 
 
 Actor, in the drama, one who rep- 
 resents some part or character on the 
 stage. 
 
 Acts of the Apostles, the fifth 
 book of the New Testament. It con- 
 tains a "narrative of the achievements 
 of the leading apostles, and especially 
 of St. Paul, the greatest and most suc- 
 cessful of them all. Its author was 
 St. Luke (compare Luke i : 1-4 with 
 Acts i: 1), who was Paul's companion 
 from the time of his visit to Troas. 
 (Acts xvi : 8-11) to the period of his 
 life, when he penned the second epis- 
 tle to Timothy (II Tim. iv : 11). 
 
 Adab. See UD-NUN-KI. 
 
 Adalbert, a great German eccle- 
 siastic, born of a noble family about 
 
 Adams 
 
 1000 ; was appointed Archbishop of 
 Bremen and Hamburg in 1045, and 
 papal legate to the North in 1053. He 
 soon extended his spiritual sway over 
 Scandinavia, and carried Christianity 
 to the Wends. He died at Goslar, 
 March 16, 1072. 
 
 Adam and Eve, the names of the 
 first pair of human beings in the ac- 
 count of the creation given in the book 
 of Genesis. Adam is strictly a generic 
 name, applicable to both man and 
 woman, as used in the book of Genesis, 
 but it came to be a proper name, used 
 with the article, as in chapters ii, iii, 
 and iv. The origin of the name is un- 
 certain, but is usually connected with 
 the Hebrew root Adam, "to be red." 
 It is often derived from Adamah, "the 
 ground," but this is taking the simpler 
 from the more developed form. 
 
 Adam, Juliette (Mme. Edmond 
 Adam, ne'e Lamber), a French jour- 
 nalist and author of many works ; 
 born Oct. 4, 1836 ; editor of the "Nou- 
 velle Revue" (the organ of the Ex- 
 treme Republicans), which she found- 
 ed in 1879. Her second husband, Ed- 
 mond Adam, was a prominent politi- 
 cian; became a life senator, and died 
 in 1877. She retired from journalism 
 in 1899. 
 
 Adam's Apple, in botany (1) 
 the name given by Gerarde and other 
 old authors to the plantain tree, from 
 the notion that its fruit was that sin- 
 fully eaten by Adam in Eden. (2) 
 The name given, for the same reason, 
 to a species of citrus. 
 
 In anatomy, a protuberance on the 
 fore part of the throat, formed by the 
 " os hyoides." The name is supposed to 
 have arisen from the absurd popular 
 notion that a portion of the forbidden 
 fruit, assumed to have been an apple, 
 stuck in Adam's throat when he at- 
 tempted to swallow it. 
 
 Adam's Peak, a mountain in the 
 middle of the island of Ceylon. It is 
 a resort of Moslem and Buddhist pil- 
 grims, and "also notable on account of 
 an upright shadow which it casts, ap- 
 parently projected on vapor. Height, 
 7,420 feet. 
 
 Adams, Abigail, wife of John 
 Adams, second President of the United 
 States; ',orn at Weymouth, Mass., 
 Nov. 23, 1744. Her letters, containH
 
 
 Adams 
 
 in "Familiar Letters of John Adams 
 and His Wife, Abigail Adams, during 
 the Revolution," evince keen political 
 sagacity, and throw valuable light upon 
 the men and the public affairs of the 
 time. She died at Quincy, Mass., Oct. 
 28, 1818. 
 
 Adams, Brooks, an American es- 
 sayist and politician, born at Quincy, 
 Mass., 1848. He is the son of Charles 
 Francis Adams, and a lawyer by pro- 
 fession. Besides contributions to mag- 
 azines, he has written "The Emanci- 
 pation of Massachusetts" (1887), and 
 *'The Law of Civilization and Decay." 
 Adams, Charles, an American his- 
 torical and religious writer, born in 
 New Hampshire in 1808 ; was a Meth- 
 odist clergyman. He died in 1890. 
 
 Adams, Charles Francis, an 
 American statesman, born in Boston, 
 Aug. 18, 1807 ; was candidate for Vice- 
 president in 1848, twice elected to 
 Congress, was Minister to England 
 from 1861 to 1868, and member of the 
 Geneva Arbitration Commission of 
 1871. His chief literary work was 
 "Life and Works of John Adams" ( 10 
 vols., 1850-1856), his grandfather. He 
 also edited the writings of his father, 
 John Quincy Adams. He died in Bos- 
 ton, Nov. 21, 1886. 
 
 Adams, Charles Francis, Jr, an 
 American soldier and writer, born in 
 Boston, May 27, 1834. He graduated 
 from Harvard in 1856, served in the 
 Civil War from 1861 until 1866 when 
 he retired with the brevet rank of 
 brigadier-general in the regular army. 
 Since 1874 he has given his attention 
 to historical and financial questions, 
 everything he publishes attracting 
 widespread attention. He was presi- 
 dent of the Union Pacific Railroad un- 
 til 1890, and is regarded as one of the 
 chief living authorities on railroad 
 matters. 
 
 Adams, Charles Kendall, an 
 
 American educator and historian, born 
 at Derby, Vt., Jan. 24, 1835; died, 
 July 26, 1902. After graduating from 
 the University of Michigan in 1861, he 
 studied abroad, and after holding vari- 
 ous professorships, became president of 
 Cornell University in 1885. In 1892, 
 he became President of the University 
 of Wisconsin. He was editor of John- 
 ston's Encyclopaedia. 
 
 Adams 
 
 Adams, Henry, an American his- 
 torian, born in Boston, Mass., Feb. 16, 
 1838 ; grandson of J. Q. Adams. He 
 was for some time editor of the "North 
 American Review," and Professor of 
 History in Harvard College. Hia 
 principal work is the "History of the 
 United States from 1801 to 1817." 
 
 Adams, John, 2d President of the 
 United States ; born in Braintree, 
 Mass., Oct. 19, 1735. He was educat- 
 ed at Harvard and adopted the law as 
 a profession. His attention was di- 
 rected to politics by the question which 
 began to excite the colonies as to the 
 right of the English Parliament to im- 
 pose taxation upon them, and he took 
 up a position strongly opposed to the 
 claims of the mother country. In 1765 
 he published in the Boston "Gazette" 
 some essays, which were reprinted in 
 London in 1768, under the title of "A 
 Dissertation on Canon and Feudal 
 Law," the subject really treated in 
 which was the government of the colo- 
 nies and the rights of the colonists. 
 In 1774 he was chosen a delegate from 
 Massachusetts to the 1st Continental 
 Congress. On his return he was ap- 
 pointed a member of the Provincial 
 Congress, which had already begun to 
 take aggressive measures against the 
 home government. In 1775 he again 
 attended the Continental Congress at 
 Philadelphia, in which he set himself 
 in determined opposition to all at- 
 tempts at reconciliation with the home 
 government, and succeeded in persuad- 
 ing Congress to take means of national 
 defense. To secure the good-will of 
 Virginia he proposed Washington for 
 the command of the army. Next ses- 
 sion he was appointed a member of 
 committee on naval affairs and drew 
 up the regulations which still form the 
 basis of the American naval code. At 
 the beginning of 1776 he accepted the 
 post of chief-justice of Massachusetts, 
 but he soon after resigned the ap- 
 pointment. He published at this time 
 "Thoughts on Government, applicable 
 to the Present State of the American 
 Colonies," in which he supported self- 
 government by the different colonies 
 with confederation. He seconded the 
 motion for a declaration of independ- 
 ence proposed by Richard Henry Lee 
 of Virginia, and was appointed a mem- 
 ber of committee to draw it up. He
 
 
 Adams 
 
 was a signer of the Declaration. 
 He was also appointed a member of the 
 Committee on Foreign Relations. He 
 was next appointed chairman of the 
 board of war and ordnance, a position 
 which he held for 18 months. Near 
 the end of 1777 he was sent to France 
 on a special mission, and for 10 years 
 he resided abroad as representative of 
 his country in France, Holland, and 
 England. He succeeded in negotiating 
 various loans with Holland, and after 
 taking part in the peace negotiations 
 was appointed, in 1785, the first min- 
 ister of the United States to the court 
 of St. James. He was recalled in 1788 
 and elected Vice-President of the re- 
 public under Washington. In 1790 he 
 published "Discourses on Davila," in 
 which he opposed the principles of the 
 French revolution. In 1792 he was 
 reflected Vice-President, and at the 
 following election he became President. 
 The country was then divided into two 
 parties, the Federalists, who favored 
 aristocratic and were suspected of 
 monarchic views, and the Republicans. 
 Adams adhered to the former party. 
 Hamilton did his utmost with his own 
 party to prevent the election of Ad- 
 ams, and his term of office proved a 
 stormy one, which broke up and dis- 
 solved the Federalist party. His re- 
 election was again opposed by Hamil- 
 ton, which ended in effecting the 
 return of the Republican candidate 
 Jefferson. Living to a great age he be- 
 came, as one of the last survivors of 
 the Revolution, a hero to the following 
 generation. In 1820 he became a mem- 
 ber of a State convention to revise the 
 constitution of Massachusetts. He died 
 July 4, 1826, on the 50th anniversary 
 of the Declaration of Independence, 
 and on the same day as Jefferson. 
 Adams's works were ably and care- 
 fully edited by his grandson Charles 
 Francis Adams. 
 
 Adams, John Quincy, 6th Presi- 
 dent of the United States, son of John 
 Adams, 2d President ; born in Brain- 
 tree, Mass., July 11, 1767. In his llth 
 year he accompanied his father on his 
 first embassy to France, and was 
 placed at school near Paris. He re- 
 turned with his father in about 18 
 months, but soon went back to Europe, 
 and attended school in Holland and at 
 the University of Leyden. At the age 
 
 Adams 
 
 of 15 Francis Dana, his father's secre- 
 tary of legation, who had been ap- 
 pointed on a diplomatic mission to 
 Russia, took him with him as his pri- 
 vate secretary. After 14 months' stay 
 in Russia he traveled back alone 
 through Sweden and Denmark to The 
 Hague. Soon after his father's ap- 
 pointment as ambassador at London 
 he returned home to complete his 
 studies. He graduated at Harvard in 
 1788, entered the office of Theophilus 
 Parsons, and in 1791 was admitted to 
 the bar. He now began to take an 
 active interest in politics. He wrote 
 a series of letters to the Boston "Sen- 
 tinel" under the signature of "Publi- 
 cola," in reply to Payne's "Rights of 
 Man," and in 1793 defended Washing- 
 ton's policy of neutrality under the 
 signature of "Marcellus." These let- 
 ters attracted attention, and in 1794 
 Washington appointed him minister to 
 The Hague. In 1798 he received a 
 commission to negotiate a treaty of 
 commerce with Sweden. On the acces- 
 sion of Jefferson to the presidency he 
 was recalled. The Federalist party 
 had still sufficient influence in Massa- 
 chusetts to elect him to the Senate in 
 1803. On the question of embargo, he 
 abandoned his party. Having lost his 
 reelection on this account, be immedi- 
 ately resigned his seat and retired to 
 the professorship of rhetoric at Har- 
 vard, which he held from 1806 to 1809. 
 On the accession of Madison he was 
 appointed (1809) ambassador to Rus- 
 sia. He assisted in negotiating the 
 peace of 1814 with England, and was 
 afterward appointed resident minister 
 at London. On the accession of Mon- 
 roe to the presidency he was offered 
 and accepted the post of Secretary of 
 State, and at the expiration of Mon- 
 roe's term of office he succeeded him 
 in the presidency (1825). In 1831 he 
 was returned to Congress by Massa- 
 chusetts, and represented that State 
 till his death, Feb. 21, 1848. 
 
 Adams, Julius Walker, an 
 American civil engineer, born in Bos- 
 ton, Mass., Oct. 18, 1812 ; took part of 
 the course at the United States Mili- 
 tary Academy ; was Colonel of the 
 67th New York Volunteers in the Civil 
 War ; and was the pioneer engineer ol 
 the East River bridge. He died Dec, 
 13, 1899.
 
 Adams 
 
 Adelsberg 
 
 Adams, Maude, an American act- tured on the improvement of the con* 
 ress, born at Salt Lake City, Nov. 11,! dition of the poor in great cities. 
 1872 ; daughter of an actress who was Adder, etymologically, nadder, the 
 leading woman of a stock company in n having been attracted to the article 
 that city, under the stage name of Ad- a nd lost. The adder has a broad, tri- 
 ams. At 16 years of age Miss Adams angular head and a short tail. It rare- 
 joined E. H. Sothern's company in the j y exceeds two feet in length. In the 
 '; Midnight Bell;" afterward she was United States the name is popularly 
 in Charles Frohman's stock company, I applied to several snakes, but the true 
 and later supported John Drew. She adder does not occur. 
 
 made a great success in J. M. Barrie's 
 " Little Minister " in 1899-1900. 
 
 Adams, Oscar Fay, an American 
 compiler and miscellaneous writer, 
 born in Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Adams, Samuel, an American 
 statesman and Revolutionary patriot, 
 born at Boston, Mass., in 1722. He 
 was elected to the Massachusetts legis- 
 lature in 1765, was a delegate to the 
 
 Addison, Joseph, an English es- 
 sayist, son of the Rev. Lancelot Addi- 
 son, subsequently dean of Lichfield; 
 born at his father's rectory, Milston, 
 Wiltshire, May 1, 1G72. Died at Hol- 
 land House, June 17, 1719. He was 
 one of England's greatest writers. 
 
 Beside the independent efforts of his 
 own he aspired to be a judge and cen- 
 sor of the literary productions of oth- 
 
 first Continental Congress in Philadel- ers, and he was, perhaps, beyond any 
 phia, and a signer of the Declaration! man of his day, well qualified for the 
 of Independence.' He was active in! task. Certainly his judgments had 
 framing the constitution of his native; less force and perhaps less depth than 
 state, which he served as President' Johnson's, but they had much more 
 of the Senate, Lieutenant-Governor' breadth, harmony, and completeness, 
 (1789-1794), and Governor (1794- were woven with more art into a sys- 
 1797). He was zealous for popular tern depending on theoretical princi- 
 rights, and fearless in his opposition to P les and were delivered with a grace 
 monarchism. He died in 1803. an( * eloquence of which the oracular 
 
 Adams, Sarah Flower, an Eng- moralist was no master. If his system 
 lish hvmn^writer; born at Great liar- * ras somewhat shallow, it had probably 
 low, Essex, Feb. 22, 1805. In 1834 l he m *f* of directing attention more 
 she was married to William Bridges * c ' 1Sm ' / Preparing the way 
 Adams, a noted inventor. She wrote * or ***** and m . or ,? Philosophic stan- 
 many lyrics and hymns, the most pop-; dard * 9 f appreciation. Addison waa 
 ular of which is " Nearer, My God, to buned m Westminster Abbey. 
 Thee." She died in August, 1848. Ade, George, an American jour- 
 
 Adams, William Taylor, an nalist and author, born in Indiana in 
 American author and editor, best, 1866. He has published fables, 
 known by the pseudonym " Oliver Op- 
 tic ; " born July 30, 1822. He was a 
 voluminous and highly popular writer 
 
 and is a popular writer. 
 
 Adee, Alvey Augustus, Second 
 Assistant Secretary of State of the 
 
 of fiction for young readers, his works j United States since 1886, born in As- 
 including several series of travel and) toria, N. Y., Nov. 27, 1842; appointed 
 adventure. He died March 27, 1897. Secretary of Legation at Madrid, 
 Addams, Jane, an American phi- I} 8 ; S?? e ! / PiP^atic Bureau, 
 lanthropist, born in Cedarville, 111., . 38<8; Third Ass.ist.ant Secretary of 
 Sept 6, 1860. She was graduated at State, 1882; Second Assistant Secre- 
 
 Rockford College in 1881, and after 
 post-graduate studies in Europe and 
 the United States, became an active 
 
 tary of State, 1886. Appointed Secre- 
 tary of State ad interim to fill vacan- 
 cy, Sept. 17 to Sept. 29, 1898; waa 
 
 social reformer. She inaugurated in i acting Secretary of State during a 
 1889 the establishment known as Hull i critical period of theChmese troubles 
 House, an adaptation of the " social m Au S- and Bept 1! 00. 
 settlemeat " plan to Chicago condi- Adelsberg, a town of Austria- 
 tions. She has acted as street clean- j Hungary, remarkable for stalactical 
 ing inspector in Chicago, and has lep-i caves in its vicinity. The principal
 
 Adelnng 
 
 one, in the mouth of which the Poik 
 disappears in a vast chasm, extends to 
 the distance of two or three miles, and 
 is found to terminate in a lake. After 
 proceeding 200 yards into it a vast 
 gloomy space, called the Dome, form- 
 ing a hall 300 feet long by 100 feet 
 high, is entered. The river is heard 
 rushing below, and on crossing it by a 
 i wooden bridge and ascending a flight 
 of steps cut in the rock, a series of 
 lofty halls, supported by gigantic con- 
 cretions resembling lofty Gothic col- 
 umns, and apparently filled with stat- 
 ues of exquisite whiteness and delicacy, 
 meets the view. 
 
 Adelung, Johann Christopli, a 
 German philologist and lexicographer ; 
 born in Spantekow, Aug. 8, 1732. His 
 life was devoted to an exhaustive in- 
 vestigation of his native language, 
 which he traced to its remotest origins 
 with a patience and a thoroughness 
 that have remained unsurpassed. He 
 died in Dresden, Sept. 10, 1806. 
 
 Aden, a peninsula and town be- 
 longing to Great Britain, on the S. W. 
 coast of Arabia, 105 miles E. of the 
 strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the entrance 
 to the Red Sea. The peninsula is a 
 mass of volcanic rocks, 5 miles long 
 from E. to W., and rising to 1,776 
 feet. It is joined to the mainland by 
 a narrow, level, and sandy isthmus. 
 The town is on the eastern shore of the 
 peninsula, stands in the crater of an 
 extinct volcano, and is surrounded by 
 barren, cinder-like rooks. Frequently 
 the heat is intense; but the very dry, 
 hot climate, though depressing, is un- 
 usually healthy for the tropics. It has 
 a garrison and strong fortifications, 
 and a population of over 41,000. 
 
 Adirondack Mountains, the 
 highest range in New York State, 
 covering an area of about 12,500 
 square miles, and occupying parts 
 of Clinton, Essex, Franklin, and 
 Hamilton counties. These mountains, 
 the geological formation of which are 
 chiefly granite, run in five parallel 
 ranges ; the highest range, or Adiron- 
 dack proper, is on the E. side of the 
 district, and the peaks rise to a great 
 height. Mt. Marcy is 5,345 feet ; Gray 
 peak, 4,900 feet; White Face, 4,870 
 feet, etc. This whole district, some- 
 times called the Adirondack Wilder- 
 ness, is covered with dense forests, ex- 
 
 Administration 
 
 cept the tallest peaks, and some o 
 these forests are still unexplored. The 
 1,000 lakes in the valleys beautifully 
 diversify the scenery. 
 
 Adirondack Park, a large district 
 principally forest land, set apart by 
 the State of New York, in 1892, for 
 the protection of the watershed of the 
 Hudson and other rivers of the State, 
 for public recreation, and for the prac- 
 tical study of forestry. It covers 
 Hamilton county, and parts of Essex, 
 Franklin, Herkimer and St. Lawrence 
 counties, and contains many moun- 
 tains and lakes. Area, 4,387 square 
 miles. 
 
 Adjutant, in military language, in 
 the United States army, an officer se- 
 lected by the colonel, whose duties in 
 respect to his regiment are similar to 
 those of an adjutant general with an 
 army. Adjutant general : tke principal 
 organ of the commander of an army in 
 publishing orders. The same organ of 
 the commander of a corps, or depart- 
 ment, is styled assistant adjutant gen- 
 eral. The adjutant general has charge 
 of the drill and discipline of the army. 
 
 Adjutant Bird, a large grallato- 
 rial or wading bird of Asia belonging 
 to the stork family. 
 
 Adler, Felix, an American lecturer 
 and scholar, born at Al/ey, Germany, 
 1851. The son of an eminent Jewish 
 rabbi, he emigrated when young to the 
 United States, where, and &c Berlin 
 and Heidelberg, he was educated. Af- 
 ter being for some time professor afr 
 Cornell University, he founded in New 
 York (1876) the Society of Ethical 
 Culture, of which he is lecturer. Sim- 
 ilar societies have been established 
 elsewhere in the United States and in 
 other countries. He is an effective 
 writer and speaker. He has published 
 "Creed and Deed" (1878); "The 
 Moral Instruction of Children " 
 (1892). In J.une, 1902, he was called 
 to the newly-created professorship of 
 social and political ethics in the de- 
 partment of philosophy in Columbia 
 University. 
 
 Adler, Hermann, a German writ- 
 er, born in Hanover, May 29, 1839. 
 He has lived most of his life in Eng- 
 land, having been, since 1891, Chief 
 Rabbi of the British Empire. 
 
 Administration, in law, the man- 
 agement of the personal estate of any-
 
 Admiral 
 
 one dying intestate, or without an 
 executor. The word is also applied to 
 the official terms of the President of 
 the United States, and the Governors 
 of States, mayors, etc., and to their 
 official advisers. 
 
 Admiral, the title of the highest 
 rank of naval officer. The term is de- 
 rived from the Arabic amir, or emir. In 
 entomology, a large butterfly common 
 throughout America and Europe ; in 
 conchology, a shell, formerly valuable 
 because of its rarity. 
 
 Admiralty Inlet, a narrow body 
 of water, connecting Puget Sound with 
 the Strait of Juan de Fuca. 
 
 Admiralty Island, a mountain- 
 ous island, 90 miles long, off the W. 
 coast of Alaska, to the N. E. of Sitka ; 
 belongs to the United States. 
 
 Admiralty Islands, a group of 
 40 islands, to the N.E-. of New Guinea ; 
 Basco, the largest of them, being GO 
 miles in length, and is mountainous, 
 but fruitful. The total area of the 
 islands is 878 square miles. Together 
 with New Britain and some adjoining 
 groups, they were annexed by Ger- 
 many, in 1885, and now form part of 
 the Bismarck Archipelago. 
 
 Adobe, the name given in south- 
 western America to sun-dried bricks, 
 and the structures built of them. 
 
 Adonai, a Hebrew name for the 
 Supreme Being ; a plural form of 
 Adon, "lord," combined with the pro- 
 noun of the first person. In reading 
 the Scriptures aloud, the Jews pro- 
 nounce "Adonai" wherever the old 
 name "Jhvh" is found in the text, 
 and the name Jehovnh has risen out 
 of the consonants of "Jhvh," with the 
 vowel points of Adonai.. 
 
 Adonis, a pheasant's eye. A genus 
 of plants so called because the red 
 color of the species made them look as 
 if they had been stained by the blood 
 of Adonis. It is a beautiful plant, 
 with bright, scarlet flowers, and hav- 
 ing very markedly composite leaves, 
 with linear segments. Plants of this 
 genus are easily cultivated. 
 
 Adoption, the act of taking a 
 Stranger into one's family, as a son or 
 daughter ; or the taking of a person, a 
 society, etc., into more intimate rela- 
 tions than formerly existed with an- 
 other person or society ; or the taking 
 
 Adrian IV. 
 
 as one's own, with or without acknow- 
 ledgment, an opinion, plan, etc., orig- 
 inating with another ; also the selecting 
 one from several courses open to a 
 person's choice. 
 
 Adrian, or Hadrian, Publins 
 JElius, a Roman emperor, born at 
 Rome, 76 A. D. Entering the army 
 quite young, he became tribune of a 
 legion, and married Sabina, the heiress 
 of Trajan, whom he accompanied on 
 his expeditions, and became successive- 
 ly praetor, governor of Pannonia, and 
 consul. On Trajan's death, in 117, he 
 assumed the government, made peace 
 with the Persians, and remitted the 
 debts of the Roman people. In his 
 reign, the Christians underwent a 
 dreadful persecution. He built a tem- 
 ple to Jupiter, on Mount Calvary, and 
 placed a statue of Adonis in the 
 manger of Bethlehem ; he also had im- 
 ages of swine engraved on the gates 
 of Jerusalem, all of which acts indi- 
 cate a contempt for Christianity. Ad- 
 rian died at Baiae, in 139. 
 
 Adrian I., Pope, born at Rome; 
 succeeded Stephen III. in 772. Adrian, 
 died after a pontificate of nearly 24 
 years, 795. 
 
 Adrian II., born at Rome; suc- 
 ceeded Nicholas I. in the papal chair 
 in. 8G7. He had been married, and 
 had a daughter by his wife Stephania, 
 from whom he afterward separated in 
 order to live in celibacy. During the 
 pontificate of Adrian, Photius, Patri- 
 arch of Constantinople, withdrew from 
 the Church of Rome, from which time 
 the ^ schism between the Greek and 
 Latin Churches dates, which continues 
 to this day. Adrian died in 872, and 
 was succeeded by John VIII. 
 
 Adrian IV., the only Englishman 
 who was ever raised to the dignity of 
 the papal chair, succeeded Anastasius 
 IV. in 1154. His name was Nicholas 
 Breakespere ; and for some time he 
 filled a mean situation in the monas- 
 tery of St. Albans. Being refused the 
 habit in that house, he went to France, 
 and became a clerk in the monastery 
 of St. Rufus, of which he was after- 
 ward chosen abbot. Eugenius IIL 
 created him cardinal, in 1146, and, in 
 1148, made him legate to Denmark 
 and Norway, which nations he con- 
 verted to the Christian faith. When 
 nominated pope, he granted to Henry
 
 Adriatic Sea 
 
 II. a bull for the conquest of Ireland. 
 In 1155, he excommunicated the King 
 of Sicily ; and, about the same time, 
 the Emperor Frederic, meeting him 
 near Sutinam, held his stirrup while 
 he mounted his horse. Adrian took 
 the Emperor with him, and conse- 
 crated him King of the Romans, in 
 St. Peter's church. The next year the 
 King of Sicily submitted, and was ab- 
 solved. Died, supposed of poison, in 
 1159. 
 
 Adriatic Sea, a large arm of the 
 Mediterranean Sea, extending, in a 
 N. W. direction, between the E. coast 
 of Italy and the W. coast of the Bal- 
 kan peninsula, being terminated to the 
 S. by the Strait of Otranto, 45 miles 
 wide. In the N. it forms the Gulf of 
 Venice, and in the N. E. the Gulf of 
 Trieste. The W. coast is compara- 
 > tively low and has few inlets, and the 
 N. is marshy and edged with lagoons. 
 On the other side, the coasts of Illyria, 
 Croatia, Dalmatia, and Albania are 
 steep, rocky, and barren, with many 
 inlets, and begirt with a chain of al- 
 most innumerable small, rocky islands. 
 
 Adulteration, a term applied to 
 the fraudulent mixture of articles of 
 commerce, food, drink, drugs, seeds, 
 &c., with noxious or inferior ingre- 
 dients. The chief objects of adultera- 
 tion are to increase the weight or vol- 
 ume of the article, to give a color 
 which either makes a good article more 
 pleasing to the eye or else disguises 
 an inferior one, to substitute a cheap- 
 er form of the article, or the same 
 subtances from which the strength has 
 been extracted, or to give it false 
 strength.' Laws against the practice 
 have existed since the 13th century; 
 it is forbidden in civilized countries. 
 
 Advent, a term applied to cer- 
 tain weeks before Christmas. An- 
 ciently, the season of Advent con- 
 sisted of six weeks, and this is 
 still the duration of it in the 
 Greek Church. In the Roman Cath- 
 olic Church, however, and in the 
 Protestant Churches that observe Ad- 
 vent, it only lasts four weeks, begin- 
 ning with the Sunday nearest St. An- 
 drew's Day (Nov. 30), either before 
 or after. 
 
 Adventists, a sect in the United 
 States, founded by William Miller, 
 tnd sometimes called Millerites, which 
 
 JBglaa 
 
 believed that Christ's second coming 
 would occur in October, 1843. When 
 their hopes were not realized, the num- 
 ber of believers decreased. The Ad- 
 ventists still look with certainty for 
 the coming of Christ, but not at a 
 fixed time. They are now divided into 
 the following bodies : Evangelical, Ad- 
 vent Christian, Seventh Day, Church 
 of God, Life and Advent Union, and 
 Churches of God in Jesus Christ. The 
 following table gives a summary of the 
 various Adventist Churches in the 
 United States as reported by the 
 Census Bureau in 1910 for 1906: 
 
 Com. 
 
 Minis- muni- 
 
 Denominations ters Churches cants 
 
 1. Evangelical 8 16 453 
 
 2. Advent Christian. 528 428 24,987 
 
 3. Seventh Day 488 981 58,923 
 
 4. Church of God... 20 3 S54 
 
 5. Life and Advent 
 
 Union 40 6 509 
 
 6. Churches of God 
 
 in Jesus Christ. 56 37 1,916 
 
 7. Unattached congs 12 167 
 
 Total Adventists. 1.152 1,473 87.309 
 
 Advocate. (1) Originally one 
 whose aid was called in or invoked; 
 one who helped in any business mat- 
 ter ; (2) In law, at first, one who 
 gave his legal aid in a case, without, 
 however, pleading. 
 
 Now, in English and American law, 
 one who pleads a cause in any court, 
 civil or criminal. It is not, properly 
 speaking, a technical word, but is used 
 only in a popular sense, as synony- 
 mous with barrister or counsel. 
 
 In the army the judge-advocate is 
 the officer through whom prosecutions 
 before courts-martial are conducted. 
 There is also a judge-advocate-general 
 for the army at large. 
 
 -ZEdile, in ancient Rome magis- 
 trates who had charge of public and 
 private buildings, of aqueducts, roads, 
 sewers, weights, measures, the national 
 worship, and, specially when there 
 were no censors, public morality. 
 
 .ffigean Sea, the old name of the 
 gulf between Asia Minor and Greece, 
 now usually called the Grecian Archi- 
 pelago. 
 
 .ZEgina, a Greek island about 40 
 square miles in area, in the Gulf of 
 JDgina.
 
 Photo E. Levick, N. Y. 
 
 WRIGHT BIPLANE FLYING NEAR THE MEXICAN BORDER 
 
 FARMAN BIPLANE 
 
 DIRIGIBLE BALLOON ' CLEMENT-BAYARD 
 
 CLEMENT-BAYA 
 
 Photo E. Levicl 
 DEMOISE1 
 
 AERONAUTICS (AEROPLANJ
 
 'GRASSHOPPER 
 
 CURTISS BIPLANE IN FULL FLIGHT 
 
 DNOPLANE. 
 
 MONOPLANE. 
 
 ANTOINETTE MONOPLANE 
 
 DIRIGIBLE BALLOON "ZEPPELIN l" LENGTH 460 FEEX. 
 
 , DIRIGIBLE B'ALLQONS, ETC.)
 
 '
 
 JEgis 
 
 JEgis, the shield of Zeus, which had 
 been fashioned by Hephaestus (Vul- 
 can). It was the symbol of divine 
 protection. 
 
 JEneas, a Trojan prince, the hero 
 of Virgil's great epic. 
 
 JEneid, one of the great epic poems 
 of the world. It was written in Latin 
 by Virgil, and published after his 
 death, which took place about 16 B. c. 
 
 JEolian Harp, a harp played by 
 JEolus in other words, by the wind. 
 It is made by stretching strings of cat- 
 gut over a wooden sound-box. 
 
 JfEolus, the god of the winds, who 
 was fabled by the early poets to have 
 his seat in the floating island of 
 JEolia ; but the Latin and later Greek 
 poets placed him in the Lipari isles. 
 
 JEpinus, Francis Maria Ulric 
 Theodore, a distinguished electricinn, 
 who was the first to see the affini.. 
 between magnetism and electricity in 
 its full extent. Born at Rostock, Ger- 
 many, in 1724 ; died at Dorpat, in Li- 
 vonia, in 1802. 
 
 Aerodynamics, the science which 
 treats of the force exerted by air when 
 in motion. 
 
 Aeronautics, the art of aerial 
 navigation by ballooning and aviation. 
 Ballooning involves the use of a bag- 
 like receptacle which is made in vari- 
 ous shapes, of silk or other material, 
 rendered impervious by a coating of 
 rubber, linseed oil or suitable varnish, 
 and inflated with hydrogen, coal-gas, 
 or other gaseous matter, specifically 
 lighter than air. Aviation discards 
 anything in the shape of a balloon 
 and utilizes aeroplanes or lifting and 
 sustaining surfaces, with apparatus 
 heavier than air. Aerostation or 
 aerostatics, the science of weighing 
 air, has, somewhat erroneously become 
 a synonym for aeronautics. 
 
 The first form in which the idea of 
 aerial locomotion naturally suggested 
 itself was that of providing men with 
 wings, and the myths of Daedalus and 
 Icarus show that the attempts of man 
 to soar above the earth commenced in 
 prehistoric times. A wooden pigeon 
 which sustained itself in the air for a 
 few minutes is recorded as having 
 been invented by Archytas of Taren- 
 tum, 400 years B. c. Suetonius states 
 that Simon Magus was killed in Rome 
 
 Aeronautic* 
 
 during the reign of Nero by attempt- 
 ing to fly from one house to another. 
 Friar Roger Bacon, (1214-94) con- 
 strv-ted a machine consisting of a 
 pair of hollow copper globes, ex- 
 hausted of air, which could rise in the 
 air supporting a man seated on a 
 chair. In the 13th century, Elmerus, 
 a monk, is said to have flown more 
 than a furlong from the top of a tower 
 in Spain. Father Francesco Lana 
 (1631-87), an Italian physicist, de- 
 scribes an ingenious but impracticable 
 flying machine. Giovanna Batista 
 Dante, a mathematician of Perugia, 
 made several flights above Lake 
 Thrasimene by means of artificial 
 wings attached to the body, near the 
 close of the 15th century, but dis- 
 continued them after an accident. In 
 the 17th century, Besnier, a locksmith 
 of Sable, France, prudently began to 
 leap from one story windows, and at 
 last ventured safely on flights from ele- 
 vated positions, passing over houses, 
 and over rivers of considerable breadth, 
 Bishop Wilkins, Sir George Caylay 
 and others, towards the end of the 
 18th century, busied themselves with 
 speculation and experiments on the 
 subject of aviation. 
 
 Henry Cavendish, about 1766, dis- 
 covered the great levity of hydrogen 
 gas slightly over 14 times less than 
 that of atmospheric air and the fol- 
 lowing year Dr. Black, of Edinburgh, 
 announced in his lectures that a thin 
 bladder, filled with this gas, must 
 ascend into the air. Cavallo made the 
 requisite experiments in 1782, and 
 found that a bladder was too heavy, 
 paper not air-tight, but that soap-bub- 
 bles filled with hydrogen rose to the 
 ceiling of the room, where they burst. 
 The first successful balloon was made 
 by the Montgolfier brothers, sons of 
 Peter Montgolfier, a paper manufac- 
 turer of Annonay, France. It was 
 a parallelepiped or six-sided bag of 
 silk, containing 40 cubic ft. ; inflated 
 with hot air from burning paper it 
 rose to a height of 36 ft. The broth- 
 ers, after seeing a petticoat sail to the 
 ceiling when left to dry by a fire, had 
 conceived the idea that a bag filled 
 with a cloud-like substance, such as 
 smoke, would float in the air. Larger 
 machines were constructed with great- 
 er success in ascension, a straw fire, 
 fed by chopped wool from time to
 
 Aeronautics 
 
 time, being kindled under the aper- 
 ture of the balloon to produce the 
 smoke cloud ; the true cause of ascen- 
 sion, the rarefaction of the heated 
 air, was not discovered till a later 
 period. The Montgolfier successes led 
 to Charles' experiments with hydrogen 
 gas. Within a short time several cap- 
 tive ascents by human beings were 
 successfully made in heated air bal- 
 loons, and on Nov. 21, 1783, Pilatre 
 de Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes 
 made the first independent aerial ex- 
 pedition rising 3,000 ft. and descending 
 safely, though not without being ex- 
 posed to considerable danger, 9,000 ft. 
 from their starting point. Ten days 
 later, on Dec. 1, Messrs. Charles and 
 Roberts ascended in a hydrogen bal- 
 loon fitted with a safety valve, and 
 travelled over 31 miles. Over 52 bal- 
 loon ascents are recorded in 1784. 
 Blanchard, the first professional aero- 
 naut, with Dr. John Jeffries of Bos- 
 ton, crossed the English Channel from 
 Dover to France, in a heated air bal- 
 loon, Jan. 1, 1785. On June 14, 1785, 
 Pilatre de Rozier with Mr. Romain at- 
 tempted to cross from the French side, 
 in a combination hydrogen and heated- 
 air balloon, but the machine caught 
 fire 3,000 ft. in the air and both men 
 were killed. The disaster was caused 
 through unfortunate negligence and 
 the cause of aeronautics did not suffer. 
 The parachute (q. v.) was invented by 
 Garnerin, who first made a descent 
 Oct. 22, 1797. 
 
 Following these early experiments, 
 among notable ascensions during the 
 19th century taken in the interests of 
 science were those of Messrs. Robert- 
 son and Lhoest in 1803-04, of Gay 
 Lussac ^nd Biot in 1804, of Carlo 
 Brioschi and Andreani in 1806, of 
 Green, the English aeronaut, with 
 Messrs. Holland and Mason in 1836, 
 of Bixio and Barral in 1850, of Messrs. 
 Glaisher and Coxwell in 1862, when 
 they reached a height of 7 miles, and 
 of Messrs. Camille Flammarion, W. 
 de Fonvieville, and Gaston Tissandier, 
 1867-69. In July, 1859, Mr. John 
 Wise, the American aeronaut with 
 Mr. John La Mountain and two 
 others made a remarkable journey 
 from St. Louis, Mo., to Henderson in 
 Jefferson Co., N. Y., a distance of 
 1,150 m., in 19 h. 50 m., or at an aver- 
 age speed of nearly a mile a minute. 
 
 Aeronautics 
 
 Since the beginning of the 20th cent, 
 this has been exceeded only by Count 
 de la Vaulx's flight of 1,200 m. from 
 Paris to Russia. 
 
 Regular balloon corps are attached 
 to the armies of leading nations, and 
 in their interests numerous attempts 
 have been made to construct dirigible 
 balloons. Gaston and Albert Tissen- 
 dier achieved some success in 1884, 
 but the first notable dirigible flight 
 was that of Col. Renard on Apr. 9, 
 1884, when, in a cigar-shaped balloon, 
 with a powerful motor and a front 
 screw, he left Chalais-Meudqn, and re- 
 turned to his starting point in 23 min- 
 utes after describing an. oblong course 
 of five miles. 
 
 Since then aerial navigation has de- 
 veloped along the lines of dirigible 
 balloons and motor aeroplanes. Not- 
 able successes in dirigible balloons 
 ' .ve been achieved since 1900, chiefly 
 by Santos-Dumont (q. v.), Count de 
 la Vaulx of Paris, Count Almerigo of 
 Italy, etc.; but although perfect con- 
 trol has been attained in a wind vary- 
 ing from 9 to 11 miles an hour, bulk, 
 fragility, structural weakness, unreli- 
 ableness, and inability to carry heavy 
 loads have to be overcome before prac- 
 tical value is ensured. Besides San- 
 tos-Dumont's and other dirigible bal- 
 loons, " La Patrie," built for the 
 French government by M. Lebaudy, 
 made a successful flight of more than 
 80 miles in 1906. Another powerful 
 airship is the dirigible balloon designed 
 by Louis Godard for the Wellman 
 Polar Expedition in 1907. 
 
 Improvements also have made the 
 pear-shaped balloon much lighter than 
 formerly, in proportion to the area 
 of surface, while increasing its safety, 
 and_ success has been attained in ar- 
 resting the balloon's progress over 
 water by means of floating anchors. 
 These improvements have done much 
 to promote the sport of ballooning and 
 aero-clubs exist in the principal coun- 
 tries, allied for the purpose of inter- 
 national contests. In 1906 the inter- 
 national race for the James Gordon 
 Bennett Cup began at Paris Sept. 30, 
 and ended in England the next day. 
 The winners were Lieut. Frank P. 
 Lahm, United States, member of the 
 Aero-Club of America, 1st ; Alfredo 
 Vonmiller, Italy, 2d ; Count de la 
 Vaulx, France, 3d.
 
 Aeronautics 
 
 Among interesting attempts to solve 
 the problem of aviation or flight with 
 apparatus heavier than air, towards 
 the close of the 19th century, were 
 those of Otto Lilienthal of Germany, 
 of Hiram S. Maxim, inventor of the 
 Maxim gun, and of Prof. S. Langley 
 of the Smithsonian Institution. Lilien- 
 thal's apparatus consisted of a system 
 of light and extended aeroplanes at- 
 tached to his person, with which he 
 could make soaring flights against the 
 wind from the summit of a hill, the 
 greatest horizontal distance passed 
 being about 1,000 ft. His experiments 
 were ended by a fatal fall from his 
 machine, Aug. 11, 1896. Maxim's 
 air-ship (see FLYING MACHINE) con- 
 sists of a system of superposed aero- 
 planes, mounted on a car driven by a 
 steam engine. Prof. Langley's " aero- 
 drome " made successful flights in 
 model form, but the experiments for a 
 practical machine ended in failure. 
 
 The problem of aerial navigation 
 lies as much in the question of equi- 
 librium as in the principle of flight ; 
 scientific design and better methods of 
 balancing and guiding have diminished 
 the earlier difficulties, and consider- 
 able advance has been made in rising, 
 steering, remaining in the air, weight- 
 carrying and landing without mishap. 
 Authorities seem to confirm the opin- 
 ion that Orville and Wilbur Wright, 
 brothers, of Dayton, O., have solved 
 the problem of aviation. For the pur- 
 poses of protection, details of their 
 machine are kept secret, but their 
 success is attested by the Aero Club 
 of America. Their longest flight, re- 
 corded in 1906, was 24J m. in 38 min. 
 3 sec. 
 
 Since then about every kind of avi- 
 ation record has been broken, and 
 many new and astonishing ones made. 
 In a long list of remarkable achieve- 
 ments the following are the most 
 noteworthy : 
 
 Jan. 13, 1908. Henri Farman won 
 the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of $10,- 
 000, flying a kilometer in a closed cir- 
 cuit. 
 
 Oct. 6, 1908. Wilbur Wright, in 
 France, made first flight of more than 
 1 h. with a passenger. 
 
 Oct. 30, 1908. Farman, in France, 
 made first cross-country flight, 20 
 miles in 17 m. 
 
 July 25, 1909. Louis BlSriot made 
 
 Aeronautics 
 
 first flight across English Channel in 
 31 m. 
 
 Aug. 28, 1909. Glenn H. Curtiss, 
 at Rheims, won first Gordon-Bennett 
 Aviation Cup, by 12.42 miles in 15 
 m. 50% s. 
 
 Oct. 19, 1909. Count Charles de 
 Lambert made first flight over a city, 
 at Paris, rounding the Eiffel Tower at 
 height of nearly 1,500 feet, making 
 journey of 50 kilometers in as many 
 minutes. 
 
 Nov. 4, 1909. Farman took Miche- 
 lin Cup from Wilbur Wright, with 
 flight of 145 miles in 4 h. 17 m. 
 
 Jan. 7, 1910. Hubert Latham, at 
 Mourmelon, France, broke height rec- 
 ord with 3,600 feet. ^ 
 
 Jan. 11, 1910. Curtiss, at Los An- 
 geles, Cal., broke record flight with 
 passenger, 55 miles an hour. 
 
 April 19, 1910. Louis Paulhan, at 
 Rheims, made new cross-country aero- 
 plane record, 130 miles. 
 
 April 28, 1910. Paulhan won $50,- 
 000 prize for flight from London to 
 Manchester, Eng., 185 miles, in 3 h. 
 56 m.' 
 
 May 29, 1910. Curtiss won $10,- 
 000 prize for flight from Albany to 
 Governor's Island, N. Y., 150 miles, in 
 2 h. 32 m. ; also making both an 
 American cross-country record and the 
 world's speed record for such flights. 
 
 June 2, 1910. Sir Charles S. Rolls 
 made first round-trip flight across 
 English Channel without stop, 42 
 miles in 90 m. He was killed in a 
 flight, July 12, following. 
 
 June 13, 1910. Charles K. Hamil- 
 ton, the " trick aviator." made flight 
 from New York to Philadelphia and 
 return, 175 m. : time in air, 3 h. 34 m. 
 
 June 22, 1910. Count Zeppelin 
 opened the first regular airship pas- 
 senger service with his " Deutsch- 
 land," and carried 20 passengers from 
 Friedrichshaven to Diisseldorf, 300 
 miles, in 9 h. On the 28th the air- 
 ship was wrecked in a gale. 
 
 July 7, 1910. Latham broke pre- 
 vious height record with over 5,000 
 feet 
 
 July 7, 1910. M. Olieslagers, at 
 Rheims, made new world's endurance 
 record, 158 miles without stop, in 
 2 h. 35 m. 30 s. 
 
 July 9. 1910. M. Labouchere, at 
 Rheims, made world's record for dis- 
 tance, 211.14 miles, in 4 h. 37 m. 45 s.
 
 Aeronautics 
 
 July 9, 1910. Leon Morane, at 
 Rheims, made new speed record, 6.20 
 miles, in 5 m. 27 s. 
 
 July 9, 1910. Walter Brookins, at 
 Atlantic City, N. J., broke world's 
 record for height, 6,100 feet. 
 
 July 10, 1910. Olieslagers, at 
 Rheims, covered 393 kilometers in 5 
 h. 3 m. 5 s., and Morane made 5 
 kilometers at rate of 68.42 miles per 
 hour. 
 
 July 15, 1910. J. Armstrong Drexel, 
 at Bournemouth, Eng., made an over- 
 sea flight of 21 miles in 34 m., and 
 Morane covered the distance in 25 m. 
 
 Aug. 11, 1910. Drexel, at Lanark, 
 
 Scotland, made height of 6,750 feet. 
 
 Sept. 23, 1910. Chavez crossed 
 
 the Alps between Switzerland and 
 
 Italy and died from injuries, 27th. 
 
 Oct. 15, 1910. Walter Wellman, 
 with five others, attempted to cross 
 the Atlantic from Atlantic City, N. 
 J., in the dirigible balloon " America," 
 but was compelled by storm to 
 abandon the balloon off Cape Hat- 
 teras on the 18th, having been in 
 the air nearly 72 hours and covered 
 about 850 miles. 
 
 Oct. 17-19, 1910. Alan R. Haw- 
 ley and Augustus Post, in balloon 
 " America II.", made record for sus- 
 tained flight, from St. Louis, Mo., to 
 Chicoutimi county, Quebec, Canada, 
 about 1,350 miles. 
 
 Oct. 29, 1910. Grahame-White, at 
 Belmont Park, won the Bennett cup, 
 beating world's speed record for 100 
 kilometers (62.1 miles) in 61 m., 
 4 74-100 s. 
 
 Oct. 31, 1910. Ralph Johnstone, at 
 Belmont Park, made biplane height 
 record, 9,714 feet ; was killed in 
 flight at Denver, Nov. 17. 
 
 Nov. 7, 1910. Phil O. Parmelee 
 made fastest cross-country flight and 
 was the first to carry freight : Dayton 
 to Columbus, O., 65 miles, in 65 m. 
 
 Nov. 23, 1910. Drexel, at Phila- 
 delphia, Pa., claimed height of 9,970 
 feet, world's record ; claim rejected 
 by Aero Club, but accepted by U. S. 
 Weather Bureau. 
 
 Dec. 9, 1910. M. Legagneux, at 
 Pau, France, in monoplane, made 
 height of 10,499 feet ; world's record. 
 
 Dec. 10, 1910. Captain Bellanger, 
 French Army Aviation Corps, broke 
 speed records, Vincennes to Mour- 
 melon, 100 miles, in 70 m. 
 
 Afghanistan 
 
 The steady continuance of speed 
 records makes it impossible to give a 
 complete account. Following is a list 
 of a number of notable records which 
 show the remarkable advance of avia- 
 tion : 
 
 April 12, 1911. Prier flew from 
 London to Paris (251 miles) in 2 h. 
 
 56 m. with stop. 
 
 Aug. 2, 1911. Vedrines, from Lon- 
 don to Dieppe to Paris (267 miles) 
 in 3 h. 50 m. 
 
 Sept. 2, 1911. Fourny, speed on 
 a given distance ; Buc, France 
 (434.96 miles) in 10 h. 43 m. 
 
 Dec. 2, 1911. Prevost, with one 
 passenger, made altitude flight at 
 Courcy, France (9,840 ft.). 
 
 Feb. 17, 1912. Tabuteau broke the 
 world's record for 2 hours' flight by 
 covering a distance of 227 kilom. 454 
 metres (141^ miles). 
 
 March 14, 1912. Salmet flew from 
 London to Paris (222 miles) in 2 h. 
 
 57 m., taking this short route with- 
 out stop. He also beat the fastest 
 passenger route from London to Paris, 
 by an average speed of over 73 miles 
 an hour. 
 
 Afghanistan, the land of the Af- 
 ghans, a country in Asia, bounded 
 on the E. mainly by India, S. by 
 Baluchistan, W. by Persia, and N. by 
 the Russian Transcaspian territory, 
 Bokhara and the Russian Pamir 
 territory ; length about 560, breadth 
 about 450 miles ; area about 225,000 
 square miles ; pop. about 5,000.000. 
 
 The inhabitants belong to different 
 races, but the Afghans proper form 
 the great mass of the people. These 
 call themselves Pushtaneh or Pukta- 
 neh. Afghans being the Persian 
 name. They -are an Iranic race, and 
 are divided into a number of tribes, 
 among which the Duranis and 
 Ghilzais are the most important, the 
 latter being the strongest of all the 
 tribes. A tradition, evidently mod- 
 ern and legendary, gives them an 
 Israelitish origin. The- Afghans are 
 bold, hardy, and warlike, fond of 
 freedom and resolute in maintaining 
 it, but of a restless, turbulent tem- 
 per, and much given to plunder. In 
 religion the Afghans are Mohamme- 
 dans of the Sunnite sect. 
 
 The boundary between Afghanistan 
 and British India was long uncertain, 
 but in 1893 an arrangement was come
 
 A CAPE TOWN WHARF 
 
 TOWN HAIL, PORT ELIZABETH 
 
 stereographs Copyright by H. C. White Co., X. Y. 
 
 SOUTH AFRICA
 
 Africa 
 
 Africa 
 
 to between the Ameer Abdur-Rah- 
 man, and Sir Mortimer Durand. 
 The boundary then agreed on was 
 demarcated shortly afterward and 
 is so drawn as to leave Chitral, 
 Bajaur, Swat, Chilas, and Wazir- 
 istan to Great Britain, while Af- 
 ghanistan is given the territories of 
 Asmar, Birmal, and Kafiristan. The 
 Ameer's annual subsidy was also in- 
 creased from 12 to 18 lacs, and restric- 
 tions on the import of arms, etc., were 
 removed. Abdur-Rahman died in Ka- 
 bul, Oct. 3, 1901. He was succeeded 
 by his son, Habibulla Khan, who is 
 said to be more friendly to Russian 
 influence than his father was, a fact 
 which excites much anxiety in Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Africa, one of the three great di- 
 visions of the Old World, and the 
 third in area of the five continents, 
 lies nearly due S. of Europe and S. 
 W. of Asia. It is of a compact form, 
 being nearly equal at its extreme 
 points in length and breadth. The N. 
 section of the continent, however, has 
 an average breatlth of nearly double 
 the S. This great change of form 
 arises mostly from the greater pro- 
 jection of the upper part toward the 
 W., and the transition on this side 
 from the broad to the narrow section 
 is effected suddenly by an inward turn 
 of the W. coast, which faces S. for 
 nearly 20 of longitude, forming the 
 Gulf of Guinea, the greatest indenta- 
 tion of the coast. 
 
 Africa is united to Asia at its N. E. 
 extremity by the Isthmus of Suez, 
 now crossed by a great ship canal. 
 From this point the coast runs in a 
 W. and somewhat N. direction to the 
 Strait of Gibraltar, the point of great- 
 est proximity to Europe. This N. 
 coast forms the S. shore of the Med- 
 iterranean Sea, and brings all the N. 
 countries of Africa into close proxim- 
 ity with the European and Asiatic 
 countries lying contiguous to that 
 great ocean highway, which formed 
 the chief medium of communication 
 between the principal divisions of the 
 ancient world. 
 
 The center of Africa possesses an 
 exuberant tropical vegetation. The 
 open pastoral belt at the extremities 
 of the tropics is distinguished by a 
 rich and varied flora. A special char- 
 acteristic of the vegetation of the S. 
 
 extremity of Africa is the remarkable 
 variety, size, and beauty of the heaths, 
 some of which grow to 12 or 15 feet, 
 in the fertile parts of Nubia. 
 
 The fauna of Africa is extensive 
 and varied, and numerous species of 
 mammals are peculiar to the conti- 
 nent. According to a common view of 
 the geographical distribution of ani- 
 mals, the N. of Africa belongs to the 
 Mediterranean sub-region, while the 
 rest of the continent forms the Ethi- 
 opian region. Africa possesses nu- 
 merous species of the order quadru- 
 mana (apes and monkeys), most of 
 which are peculiar to it. They abound 
 especially in the tropics. The most 
 remarkable are the chimpanzee and 
 the gorilla. Th* lion is the typical 
 carnivore of Afrrea. Latterly he has 
 been driven from the coast settlements 
 to the interior, where he still reigns 
 king of the forest. There are three 
 varieties, the Barbary, Senegal, and 
 Cape lions. The leopard and pan- 
 ther rank next to the lion among car- 
 nivora. Hyenas of more than one 
 species, and jackals, are found all 
 over Africa. Elephants in large herds 
 abound in the forests of the tropical 
 regions, and their tusks form a prin- 
 cipal article of Qommerce. These are 
 larger and heavier than those of 
 Asiatic elephants. The elephant is 
 not a domestic animal in Africa as it 
 is in Asia. The rhinoceros is found, 
 like the elephant, in Middle and 
 Southern Africa. Hippopotami abound 
 in many of the large rivers and the 
 lakes. The zebra and quagga used to 
 abound in Central and Southern Af- 
 rica, but the latter is said to be now 
 entirely extinct. Of antelopes, the 
 most numerous and characteristic of 
 the ruminating animals of Africa, at 
 least 50 species are considered pecu- 
 liar to this continent, of which 23 
 used to occur in Cape Colony. The 
 giraffe is found in the interior, and is 
 exclusively an African animal. Sev- 
 eral species of wild buffaloes have 
 been found in the interior, and the 
 buffalo has been naturalized in the 
 N. The camel, common in the N. as 
 a beast of burden, has no doubt been 
 introduced from Asia. The horse and 
 the^ass (onager) are natives of Bar- 
 bary. The cattle of Abyssinia and 
 Bornu have horns of immense size, 
 hut extremely light. In Barbary and
 
 Africa 
 
 the Cape of Good Hope the sheep are 
 broad-tailed ; in Egypt and Nubia 
 they are long-legged and short-tailed. 
 Goats are in some parts more nu- 
 merous than sheep. The ibex breed ex- 
 tends to Abyssinia. Dogs are numer- 
 ous, but cats rare, in Egypt and 
 Barbary. 
 
 There is a marked distinction be- 
 tween the races in the N. and E. of 
 the great desert and those in the Cen- 
 tral Sudan and the rest of Africa and 
 the S. The main elements of the 
 population of North Africa, including 
 Egypt and Abyssinia, are Hamitic 
 and Semitic, but in the N. the Ham- 
 ite Berbers are mingled with peoples 
 of the same race as those of prehis- 
 toric Southern Eu*qpe, and other 
 types of various of%ins, and in the 
 E. and S. E. with peoples of the negro 
 type. The Semitic Arabs are found 
 all over the N. region, and even in 
 the Western Sahara and Central Su- 
 dan, and far down the E. coast as 
 traders. The Somalis and Gallas are 
 mainly Hamitic. In the Central Su- 
 dan and the whole of the country 
 between the desert and the Gulf of 
 Guinea the population is pure negro 
 people of the black, flat- or broad- 
 nosed, thick-lipped tvpe, with narrow 
 heads, woolly hair, liigh cheek-bones, 
 and prognathous jaws. Scattered 
 among them are peoples of a probably 
 Hamitic stock. Nearly the whole of 
 the narrow S. section of Africa is in- 
 habited by what are known as the 
 Bantu races, of which the Zulu or 
 Kaffir may be taken as the type. 
 The languages of the Bantu peoples 
 are all of the same structure, even 
 though the physical type vary, some 
 resembling the true negro, and others 
 having prominent noses and compara- 
 tively thin lips. The Bushmen of 
 South Africa are of a different type 
 from the Bantu, probably the remains 
 of an aboriginal population, while the 
 Hottentots are apparently a mixture 
 of Bushmen and Kaffirs. Scattered 
 over Central Africa, mainly in the 
 forest regions, are pigmy tribes, who 
 are generally supposed to be the re- 
 mains of an aboriginal population. 
 The bulk of the inhabitants of Mada- 
 gascar are of Malay affinities. The 
 total population is estimated at about 
 175,000,000. 
 
 As regards religion, a great pro* 
 
 portion of the inhabitants are heath- 
 ens of the lowest type. Mohamme- 
 danism possesses a large number of 
 adherents in Northern Africa and 
 is rapidly spreading in the Sudan. 
 Christianity prevails chiefly among 
 the Copts of Egypt, the Abyssinians, 
 and the natives of Madagascar, the 
 latter having been converted in recent 
 times. Elsewhere the labors of the 
 missionaries have also been attended 
 with promising success. Over a great 
 part of the continent, however, civil- 
 ization is at a low ebb, and in the 
 Kongo region cannibalism is exten- 
 sively prevalent. Yet in various re- 
 gions the natives who have not come 
 in contact with a higher civilization 
 show considerable skill in agriculture 
 and various mechanical arts, as in 
 weaving and metal working. Among 
 articles exported from Africa are gold 
 and diamonds, palm oil, ivory, wool, 
 ostrich feathers, esparto, cotton, ca- 
 outchouc, etc. The total annual trade 
 has been estimated at $500,000,000. 
 
 Political Divisions. By recent ar- 
 rangements, mainly since 1884, great 
 areas in Africa have been allotted to 
 Great Britain, France, Germany, Por- 
 tugal, Belgium, and Italy, as coming 
 within their respective spheres of in- 
 fluence, in addition to colonial pos- 
 sessions proper. The areas claimed 
 by the European powers are estimated 
 as follows: France, 4,000,000 square 
 miles; Great Britain, 2,700,000; Ger- 
 many, 1,000,000; Portugal, 825,000; 
 Kongo Free State, 900,000; Italy, 
 200,000; Spain, 80,000. In 1910 the 
 former British colonies of Cape Col- 
 ony, Natal, Transvaal, and Orange 
 .River were federated as provinces in 
 a Union of South Africa, with Gen. 
 Louis Botha as the first premier, and 
 the seat of the executive government 
 at Pretoria and the legislative at Cape 
 Town. Other British colonies are 
 Lagos, Gold Coast, Gambia, Sierra 
 Leone, and Mauritius. Although 
 Egypt, like Tripoli, is nominally un- 
 der the Turkish rule, it is actually 
 under British suzerainty. The Kon- 
 go Free State now belongs to Bel- 
 gium. Abyssinia and Morocco are 
 the chief native African independent 
 States. 
 
 Commercial Conditions. The an- 
 nual commerce of Africa amounts to 
 over $700,000,000, of which $429,000,-
 
 'Agamemnon 
 
 000 represents the value of the im- 
 ports. Necessarily in so large an area 
 'with so many tribes and peoples who 
 keep no records of their transactions, 
 a considerable amount of commerce 
 ,must pass without being recorded in 
 iany way. 
 
 Railroad development in Africa has 
 Jbeen rapid in the past few years and 
 seems but the beginning of a great 
 Bystem which must contribute to the 
 frapid development, civilization, and 
 enlightenment of the " Dark Conti- 
 nent." Already railroads run N. from 
 Cape Colony about 1,500 miles and S. 
 from Cairo about 1,200 miles, thus 
 completing 2,700 miles of the proposed 
 " Cape to Cairo " railroad, while the 
 intermediate distance is about 3,000 
 miles. At the N. numerous lines skirt 
 the Mediterranean coast, especially in 
 the French territory of Algeria and 
 in Tunis, aggregating about 2,500 
 miles; while the Egyptian railroads 
 are, including those under construc- 
 tion, about 1,500 miles in length. 
 Those of Cape Colony are over 3,000 
 miles in length, and those of Portu- 
 guese East Africa and the Transvaal 
 are another 1,000 miles in length. In- 
 cluding all of the railroads construct- 
 ed or under actual construction, the 
 total length of African railways is 
 nearly 12,500 miles, or half the dis- 
 tance around the earth. A large pro- 
 portion of the railways thus far con- 
 structed are owned by the several 
 colonies or states which they traverse, 
 about 2,000 miles of the Cape Colony 
 system and nearly all of that of Egypt 
 belonging to the state. 
 
 That the gold and diamond mines 
 of South Africa have been and still 
 are wonderfully profitable is beyond 
 .question. The Kimberley diamond 
 'mines, about GOO miles from Cape 
 Town, now supply 98 per cent, of the 
 diamonds of commerce, though their 
 existence was unknown prior to 1867, 
 and the mines have thus been in op- 
 eration but about 30 years. It is esti- 
 mated that $350,000,000 worth of 
 rough diamonds, worth double that 
 sum after cutting, have been produced 
 from the Kimberley mines since their 
 opening in 1868-1869, and this enor- 
 mous production would have been 
 greatly increased but for the fact that 
 the owners of the various mines there 
 [formed an agreement to limit the out- 
 " - 
 
 Agapemone 
 
 put so as not to materially exceed 
 the world's annual consumption. 
 
 Equally wonderful and promising 
 are the great Witwatersrand gold 
 fields of South Africa, better known 
 as the Johannesburg mines. Gold 
 was discovered there in 1883, and in 
 1898 before the Boer War, which 
 temporarily suspended work, the an- 
 nual yield had reached over $55,000,- 
 000. Since the opening of the 20th 
 century, the development of the prin- 
 cipal European colonies has progressed 
 more rapidly than previously, not- 
 withstanding the Herreros war in Ger- 
 man S. W. Africa, and the maladmin- 
 istration of the Congo Free State. The 
 projection of railroads into the inte- 
 rior from seaboard towns, many to 
 eventually connect with the Cape to 
 Cairo route, is a powerful factor in 
 internal development. On that line, at 
 the great Victoria Falls of the Zambesi 
 River, a cantilever bridge, 560 ft. long, 
 built across the gorge by the American 
 Cleveland Bridge Co., was opened in 
 1905. Works, costing $3,000,000, 
 develop electric power at the falls and 
 operate railroads, copper and coal 
 mines, within a radius of 600 miles. 
 
 Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and 
 Argos, son of Atreus and Eriphyle, 
 brother of Menelaus and commander- 
 in-chief of the Grecian army at the 
 siege of Troy. Returning from Troy, 
 Agamemnon was treacherously mur- 
 dered by his wife ; who, during his 
 absence, had formed an attachment 
 with ^gisthus, son of the noted Thy- 
 estes. This catastrophe is the sub- 
 ject of the " Agamemnon " of ^schy- 
 lus, one of the most sublime composi- 
 tions in the range of the Grecian 
 drama. 
 
 Agami, a ' bird, called also the 
 trumpeter from the sound which it 
 emits. It is about the size of a large 
 fowl, is kept in Guiana, of which it is 
 a native, with poultry, which it is said 
 to defend, and shows a strong attach- 
 ment to the person by whom it is fed. 
 
 Agape, a love feast, a kind of feast 
 held by the primitive Christians in 
 connection with the administration of 
 the sacred communion. 
 
 Agapemone, the name given by tha 
 Rev. Henry James Prince, a clergy- 
 man who seceded from the Englfeh 
 Church, to a religious society founded
 
 Agassiz 
 
 on the principle of a community of 
 goods, which he established at Char- 
 linch, near Taunton, England, in 
 1845. New attention was called to 
 this sect in September, 1902, when J. 
 I H. Smyth Piggott, successor to Prince, 
 'publicly declared in the church of the 
 sect at Clapham, near London, that 
 he, in his own person, was Christ, 
 who had come again, and was received 
 as such by his congregation. An 
 angry mob sought to attack him, but 
 he was protected by the police. 
 
 Agassiz, Alexander, an Ameri- 
 can zoologist and geologist, son of J. 
 L. R. Agassiz, born in Neuchatel, 
 Switzerland, Dec. 17, 1835. He came 
 to the United Sfotes with his father 
 in 1849 ; graduated from Harvard in 
 1855 ; and received the degree of B. S. 
 from the Lawrence Scientific School 
 in 1857. In 1859 he went to Cali- 
 fornia as assistant on the United 
 States Coast Survey. From 1860 to 
 18G5 he was assistant curator of the 
 Museum of Comparative Zoology at 
 Harvard University ; and, from I860 
 to 18G9, superintendent of the Calu- 
 met and Hecla mines, Lake Superior. 
 On the death of his father in 1873, he 
 was appointed curator of the Museum 
 of Comparative Zoology, holding that 
 position until he resigned hi 1885. In 
 1900 he completed a series of deep sea 
 explorations for the United States 
 government. His chief works are 
 "List of Echinoderms" (1863); 
 " Exploration of Lake Titicaca " 
 (1875-1876) ; "Three Cruises of the 
 Blake" (1880). He died at sea, 
 March 28, 1910. 
 
 Agassiz, Jean Louis Rodolphe, 
 a Swiss naturalist ; born in Motier, 
 Switzerland, May 28, 1807. In 1846 
 he came to the United States on a 
 lecturing and exploring tour. The 
 professorship of zoology and geology 
 in Harvard College was offered him in 
 1847, and as he had previously been 
 offered the use of the United States 
 survey vessels for exploring purposes 
 he accepted the offer. While at Har- 
 vard he wrote several volumes, some 
 of which were of a popular nature, 
 but most of them were devoted to 
 scientific research. 
 
 Among his more important works 
 were : " Principles of Zoology," in 
 connection with Dr. A. Gould (1848) ; 
 " Lake Superior, its Physical Char- 
 
 Agave 
 
 acter" (1850); "Contributions to 
 the Natural History of the Unitea 
 States " (4 vols. 1857-1862) ; " Zo- 
 ologie GSnerale" (1854); "Methods 
 of Study in Natural History " 
 (1863). His contributions to the de- 
 velopment of the principles of natural 
 science in his special departments are 
 very numerous and of high authority. 
 In 1855 he was enabled by the liber- 
 ality of Nathaniel Thayer to make, 
 for the sake of his failing health, a 
 long-contemplated voyage to Brazil. 
 He was accompanied by his wife, who 
 wrote an account of the voyage. In 
 1871 he visited the S. shores both of 
 the E. and of the W. coast of North 
 America. After some years of un- 
 successful efforts to get a government 
 marine station established, he was en- 
 abled by private munificence to fit up 
 one on Penekese Island in Buzzard's 
 bay. Agassiz's last work was the or- 
 ganization of this establishment, of 
 which he wrote an account in 1873 
 to the British Association. He died 
 in Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 14, 1873. 
 
 His widow, ELIZABETH GARY AGAS- 
 SIZ, was born in Boston, Mass., in 
 1823; died June 27, 3907. She closely 
 identified herself with her husband's 
 scientific work, accompanying him on 
 many of his travels, and supplement- 
 ing his researches with her own lit- 
 erary work. Probably she will be best 
 remembered for her early agitation 
 for the collegiate education of women, 
 and as the president of the Harvard 
 Annex, now Radcliffe College, from 
 its institution till November, 1899, 
 when she resigned. Mrs. Agassiz pub- 
 lished " Louis Agassiz ; His Life and 
 Correspondence," and was joint au- 
 thor, with Alexander Agassiz, of 
 "Seaside Studies in Natural History." 
 
 Agate, a mineral classed by Dana 
 as one of the cryptocrystalline vari- 
 eties of quartz, some of the other min- 
 erals falling under the same category 
 being chalcedony, carnelian, onyx, 
 hornstone, and jasper. 
 
 Agave, an extensive genus of 
 plants. The best-known species is the 
 American aloe, called maguey by the 
 Mexicans. Its hard and spiny leases 
 form impenetrable hedges. The fiber 
 makes excellent cordage. The expressed 
 juice is employed as a substitute for 
 soap ; also manufactured into a cider-
 
 Age 
 
 like liquor, called pulque by the Mexi- 
 cans. 
 
 Age, any period of time attributed 
 to something as the whole, or part, 
 of its duration ; as the age of man, the 
 several ages of the world, the golden 
 age. 
 
 Ageda, the name .of a plain, 90 
 miles from Buda, where the Jewish 
 rabbis held a meeting, in 1650, to de- 
 bate whether the Messiah had come ; 
 the question was decided in the nega- 
 tive. 
 
 Agesilaus, King of Sparta (397- 
 360 B. c.), was elevated to the throne 
 chiefly by the exertions of Lysander. 
 He was one of the most brilliant sol- 
 diers of antiquity. He died in his 
 84th year. 
 
 Agincourt, now Azinconrt, a 
 small village in the center of the 
 French department of Pas-de-Calais, 
 celebrated for a bloody battle between 
 the English and French, Oct. 25, 
 1415. The battle lasted three hours, 
 and was a signal victory for the Eng- 
 lish, due mainly to the archers. 
 
 Agnew. Cornelias Rea, an 
 American physician, born in New 
 York, Aug. 8, 1830 ; Professor of Dis- 
 eases of the Eye and Ear in New 
 York College of Physicians and Sur- 
 
 feons. He was a graduate of Colum- 
 ia College, and later studied in Eu- 
 rope; was surgeon-general of the 
 State of New York at the beginning 
 of the Civil War, when he became 
 medical director of the New York 
 State Volunteer Hospital. As mem- 
 ber of the United States Sanitary 
 Commission, he contributed largely to 
 its success. In 1868, he founded the 
 Brooklyn Eye and Ear Hospital. He 
 was interested in the public schools of 
 New York ; became founder of the 
 Columbia College School of Mines, 
 and, in 1874, one of the trustees of 
 the college. His writings are chiefly 
 monographs on diseases of the eye and 
 ear. He died April 8, 1888. 
 
 Agnew, David Hayes, an Amer- 
 ican surgeon and medical writer, born 
 Nov. 24, 1818; for many years Pro- 
 fessor of Surgery at the University of 
 Pennsylvania. He died 1892. 
 
 Agnosticism, a word used by 
 Professor Huxley, to express the 
 thought, that beyond what man can 
 know by his senses, or feel by his 
 
 Agrarian 
 
 higher affections, nothing can be 
 known. Facts, or supposed facts, 
 both of the lower and the higher life, 
 are accepted, but all inferences de- 
 duced from these facts as to the ex- 
 istence of an unseen world, or of 
 beings higher than man, are consid- 
 ered unsatisfactory, and are ignored. 
 Agnostics, positivists, and secularists 
 have much in common, and many peo- 
 ple exist to whom any one of the three 
 names might be indifferently applied. 
 
 Agouti, a South American animal. 
 The agoutis live for the most part 
 upon the surface of the ground, not 
 climbing nor digging to any depth; 
 and they commonly sit upon their 
 haunches when at rest, holding their 
 food between their forepaws, in the 
 manner of squirrels. By eating the 
 roots of the sugar-cane, they are often 
 the cause of great injury to the plant- 
 ers. The ears are short, and the tail 
 rudimentary. The animal is nearly 2 
 feet long. It is found in Guiana, 
 Brazil, Paraguay, and some of the 
 Antilles. It feeds voraciously on veg- 
 etable food. 
 
 Agra. (1) A former division of 
 British India; now a part of the 
 United Provinces of Agra and Oudh; 
 area, 83,198 square miles; pop. (1901) 
 34,858.705. (2) The capital of Agra 
 district, on the right bank of the 
 Jumna, 139 miles S. E. of Delhi, by 
 rail, and 841 miles N. W. of Cal- 
 cutta. The city is considered espe- 
 cially sacred through Vishnu's incar- 
 nation there as Parasu Rama. Pop. 
 (1901) 188,300. 
 
 Agrarian, as adjective (1) gener- 
 al, pertaining to fields or lands; (2) 
 special, pertaining to laws or cus- 
 toms, or political agitation in connec- 
 tion with the ownership or tenure of 
 land. 
 
 The agrarian laws, in the ancient 
 Roman . republic, were laws of which 
 the most important were those carried 
 by C. Licinius Stolo, when tribune of 
 the people, in B. c. 367. The second 
 rogation, among other enactments, 
 provided (1) that no one should oc- 
 cupy more than 500 jugera (by one 
 calculation, about 280, and by an- 
 other, 333, acres) of the public lands, 
 or have more than 100 large and 500 
 small, cattle grazing upon them; (2) 
 that such portion of the public lands 
 above 500 jugera as was in possession,
 
 Agricola 
 
 Agricultural Colleges 
 
 of individuals should be divided 
 among all the plebeians, in lots of 
 seven jugera, as property; (3) that 
 the occupiers of public land were 
 bound to employ free laborers, in a 
 certain fixed proportion to the extent 
 of their occupation. When, at a later 
 period, efforts were made to revive the 
 Licinian rogations, such opposition 
 was excited that the two Gracchi lost 
 their lives in consequence, and this, 
 with their other projects, proved 
 abortive. It is important to note 
 that the land with which the Licinian, 
 or agrarian, laws dealt was public 
 land, belonging to the State, and not, 
 as is popularly supposed, private prop- 
 erty. The homestead laws of the 
 United States are inspired by a pur- 
 pose similar to the old Roman agrarian 
 agitation the distribution of lands 
 among the people. " Agrarian " in 
 Germany is the name of a political 
 party which seeks to secure special 
 protection for agricultural products. 
 
 Agricola, Cnaeus Julius, Roman 
 statesman and general, born in 37 
 A. D. He went to Britain in 77 A. D., 
 strengthened the Roman power, and 
 extended it to the Scotch Highlands. 
 He died in 93. 
 
 Agricola, John, a polemical 
 writer of celebrity, born at Eisleben, 
 Saxony, in 1492 ; died at Berlin, in 
 1566. From being the friend and 
 scholar, he became an antagonist, of 
 Martin Luther. He entered into a 
 dispute with Melanchthon, advocating 
 the doctrine of faith in opposition to 
 the works of the law, whence the sect 
 of which he became leader received 
 the name of Antinomians. 
 
 Agricola, Rudolphus, the fore- 
 most scholar of the " New Learning," 
 in Germany, was born near Gron- 
 ingen, in Friesland, Aug. 13, 1443. 
 His real name, ROELOF HUYSMANN 
 (husbandman), he Latinized into Ag- 
 ricola ; and from his native place he 
 was also called Frisius, or Rudolf of 
 Groningen. He died at Heidelberg, 
 Oct. 28, 1485. 
 
 Agricultural Chemistry, that 
 department of chemistry which treats 
 of the composition of soils, manures, 
 plants, etc., with the view of improv- 
 ing practical agriculture. The sci- 
 ,ence is comparatively young. The 
 .most important bases of agricultural 
 
 chemistry to-day are the experimental 
 stations which are found in agricul- 
 tural colleges, and in many of the 
 universities in the United States and 
 elsewhere. The literature on the sub- 
 ject is particularly rich. 
 
 Agricultural Colleges, educa- 
 tional institutions, chiefly under gov- 
 ernment patronage, for the promotion 
 of scientific farming. In 1862, the 
 United States Congress passed a so- 
 called land grant act, by which land 
 scrip, representing 30,000 acres for 
 every Senator and Representative, was 
 issued to the States and Territories, 
 the object being to provide a special 
 fund for the creation of State and 
 Territorial agricultural colleges. The 
 land granted to the States by the act 
 of 1862 amounted to somewhat more 
 than 10,000,000 acres, which by 1900 
 had produced a permanent fund of 
 $10,262,944, with lands still unsold 
 of the estimated value of $4,062,850, 
 the entire proceeds being in round 
 numbers somewhat over $14,250,000. 
 To this have been added other land- 
 grant funds amounting to $1,441,577 ; 
 other permanent funds, $14,442,194 ; 
 farms and grounds, $5,543,108; 
 buildings, $16,274,000 ; apparatus, 
 $1,955,859 ; machinery, $1,373,696 ; 
 libraries, $1,854,942; and miscellane- 
 ous equipment, $1,997,690, making a 
 grand total of permanent plant of the 
 value of $58,944,13J. On this basis 
 65 of these institutions have been es- 
 tablished. 
 
 Three of the land-grant colleges in 
 Southern States (Mississippi, North 
 Carolina, and South Carolina), have 
 recently established courses of study 
 in textile industry, with special ref- 
 erence to the manufacture of cotton 
 goods. These institutions have pro- 
 vided buildings of regular cotton-mill 
 design, equipped with machinery and 
 apparatus for textile work. 
 
 The Act of 1862 was supplemented 
 by a second (Aug. 30, 1890), so that 
 under both acts, each State and Terri- 
 tory having an agricultural college re- 
 ceives an appropriation annually from 
 the United States treasury for its sup- 
 port. The past few years have wit- 
 nessed the establishment of short 
 courses of study in agriculture, dairy- 
 ing, mechanic arts, household econ- 
 omy, etc., for persons who cannot 
 take a regular course.
 
 " 
 
 HARVESTING V 
 
 HARVESTING WHEAT WITH REAPING HOOK 
 
 of th< It>rn>Uol Iitrour Co. at Amnio* 
 
 MODERN HARVESTING MACHINES 
 
 HAR VESTING OL
 
 -T WITH CRADLES 
 
 FIRST REAPING MACHINE 
 
 VND NEW METHODS 
 
 MOWERS AND HAY RAKB
 
 F/Gi/fiEJ /V STATES PEP/tESEAfT VALVE //V M/LL/O/VS OS DOLLARS 
 
 ** I * 
 
 FARM PROPERTY 
 
 t/mt/tr /~>f t man tf%if\ 
 
 MILUONS OfDOLLAM 
 
 UNITED JTATlf 
 
 F/GUREf /N STATES KEPAESZNT AfffA /A/ THOUSANDS OF AC8EJ 
 
 ALL LAND IN FARMS 
 
 AREA 1910 
 
 THOUSANDS OF ACRES 
 
 UN/TED STATES 
 I7&7M moUSAMO 
 
 tenet
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Agriculture, the art of cultivating 
 the ground more especially with the 
 plow and in large areas or fields, in 
 order to raise grain and other crops 
 for man and beast ; including the art 
 of preparing the soil, sowing and plant- 
 ing seeds, removing the crops, and also 
 the raising and feeding of cattle or 
 other live stock. This art is the basis 
 of all other arts, and in all countries 
 is coeval with the first dawn of civiliza- 
 tion. At how remote a period it must 
 have been successfully practised in 
 Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China we 
 have no means of knowing. Egypt 
 was renowned as a wheat country in 
 the time of the Jewish patriarchs, who 
 themselves were keepers of flocks and 
 herds rather than tillers of the soil. 
 During the Middle Ages agriculture ad- 
 vanced but slowly, the tools remained 
 unchanged, and the work was done la- 
 boriously and by rule of thumb, with- 
 out thought of scientific methods. The 
 first treatise on farming in English, 
 was published in 1534, but it was not 
 until more than 200 years later that 
 real progress was made, after the 
 introduction of clover into English 
 fields. Potatoes were cultivated in the 
 16th century, and early in the 17th 
 the Dutch gave particular attention to 
 the cultivation of root crops. So each 
 decade saw some improvement and 
 growth, but it was not until the devel- 
 opment of the virgin lands of the 
 United States called for improved ma- 
 chinery and methods, that agriculture 
 advanced with leaps and bounds. Un- 
 der scientific culture, old lands are re- 
 claimed and made as fruitful as ever ; 
 irrigation and the choice of crops 
 suited to the soil, bring into profitable 
 use lands once so hopeless as to be 
 called desert, and the world's food sup- 
 ply promises to keep up with the 
 growth of population. 
 
 As a result of the new conditions, to 
 be a thoroughly trained and competent 
 agriculturist requires a special educa- 
 tion, partly theoretical, partly practi- 
 cal. In particular, no scientific culti- 
 vator can now be ignorant of agricul- 
 tural chemistry, which teaches the con- 
 stituents of the various plants grown 
 as crops, their relation to the various 
 soils, the nature and function of differ- 
 ent manures, &c. In most countries 
 there are now agricultural schools or 
 colleges supported by the state. In the 
 
 Aguardiente 
 
 United States nearly all the states 
 have colleges, or departments of col- 
 leges, devoted to the teaching of agri- 
 culture, and large allotments of public 
 land have been made for their support. 
 In Germany such institutions are nu- 
 merous, and highly efficient. For teach- 
 ing agriculture practically model farms 
 are commonly established. In many 
 countries too there is a ministry of ag- 
 riculture, one of the important depart- 
 ments of government as in the United 
 States, where latest available statistics 
 show the quantities of the chief crops 
 raised each year to be approximate- 
 ly: wheat, 737,189,000 bushels; corn, 
 2,772,376.000 bushels; rye, 32.239,000 
 bushels; barley, 170.284,000 bushels; 
 oats, 1,007,353,000 bushels; potatoes, 
 376,537.000 bushels; cotton, 13,241,- 
 799 bales (500 pounds); tobacco, 
 949.357,000 pounds, and hay, 64,- 
 938,000 tons. 
 
 Agriculture, Department of, 
 an executive department of the United 
 States Government, established by 
 Congress in 1889; originally a bureau. 
 It disseminates throughout the United 
 States, by daily, monthly, and annual 
 reports, the latest and most valuable 
 agricultural information, and intro- 
 duces and distributes new and desir- 
 able seeds, plants, etc. It includes the 
 Weather Bureau, Bureau of Animal 
 Industry, an herbarium, a museum, a 
 laboratory, propagating gardens, a 
 library, and other useful adjuncts. 
 
 Agrippa H., Herod, tetrarch of 
 Abilene, Galilee, Iturea and Trachon- 
 itis, born in 27 A. D. During his 
 reign he enlarged Caesarea Philippi 
 and named it Neronias, in honor of 
 Nero. He also beautified Jerusalem 
 and Berytus, making the latter his 
 capital. Maintained in his power by 
 the Romans, he remained faithful to 
 their interests, and tried to dissuade 
 the Jews from rebelling. After the 
 fall of Jerusalem he retired to Rome, 
 where he died. Before him the Apos- 
 tle Paul made his memorable defense. 
 
 Aguardiente, a popular spirituous 
 beverage of Spain and Portugal, a 
 kind of coarse brandy, made from red 
 wine, from the refuse of the grapes 
 left in the wine press, etc., and gener- 
 ally flavored with anise. The same 
 name is also given to a Mexican alco- 
 holic drink distilled from the fer- 
 mented juice of the agave.
 
 Ague 
 
 Ague, an intermittent fever, in 
 whatever stage of its progress or 
 whatever its type. A person about to 
 be seized by it generally feels some- 
 what indisposed for about a fortnight 
 previously. Then he is seized with a 
 shivering fit, which ushers in the cold 
 stage of the disease. This passes at 
 length into a hot stage, and it again 
 into one characteristic of great per- 
 spiration, which carries off the disor- 
 der for a time. The remedy is quinine 
 or some other anti-periodic. 
 
 Agnilar, Grace, an English .^- 
 elist, born at Hackney, June 2, 1810 ; 
 was the daughter of Jewish parents of 
 Spanish origin. She died in Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Main, Sept. 1C, 1847. 
 
 Aguinaldo, Eiuilio, a leader in 
 the Philippine insurrection of 1896, and 
 their chief in the Spanish-American 
 War of 1898. He was born at Imus, 
 in the island of Luzon, in 1870, and 
 received all the advantages of such 
 educational facilities as existed in 
 Manila under the Spanish rule. In 
 course of time he became mayor of 
 Cavite Yiejo, and because of the inter- 
 est he took in the troubles of 1896, 
 was forced to go to Hong Kong, re- 
 maining there in exile on condition of 
 a considerable payment by Spain. Ke 
 returned in 1898, and succeeded in rais- 
 ing a revolt against Spain. He or- 
 ganized a provisional government in 
 June 1898, of which he became presi- 
 dent later. During the next year he 
 attacked the American troops, and aft- 
 er many conflicts was captured by a 
 stratagem, and in 1901 took the oath 
 of allegiance to the United States and 
 ceased to be a troublesome factor in 
 the Philippine problem. He proved 
 himself to be a man of great cunning, 
 of marked ability, and of extraordi- 
 nary personal magnetism. 
 
 Aliasuerus, a King of Persia, the 
 husband of Esther, to whom < the 
 Scriptures ascribe a singular^ deliver- 
 ance of the Jews from extirpation, 
 which they commemorate to this day 
 by the annual feast of Purim. 
 
 Ahmedabad, (better Ahmadabad) , 
 chief town of a district in Guzerat, 
 India, second among the cities of the 
 Province of Bombay. Pop. 148,412. 
 
 Aliriman, a Persian deity, the_de- 
 mon or principle of evil, the principle 
 of good being Oromasdes or Ormuzd. 
 
 Air-engine 
 
 Ai, a species of sloth, with three 
 toes, on each foot, in this respect dif- 
 fering from the unau, which has but 
 two. It extends from Brazil to Mexico. 
 
 Ailanthus, Aliantus, or Aliaii- 
 tlius, a tree introduced into the Uni- 
 ted States in 1784. During the first 
 half-dozen years it outstrips almost 
 any other deciduous tree, the leading 
 stems grow 12 or 15 feet in a single 
 season. In four or five years, there- 
 fore, it forms a bulky head, but after 
 that period it advances more slowly. 
 The odor of ailanthus trees is disgust- 
 ing to many persons, and for this rea- 
 son they are not so much in favor as 
 when first introduced. 
 
 Ainu, or Aino, the name of an un- 
 civilized race of people inhabitating the 
 Japanese island of Yezo, as also Sag- 
 halien, and the Kurile Islands, and be- 
 lieved to be the aboriginal inhabitants 
 of Japan. They do not average over 5 
 feet in height, but are strong and ac- 
 tive. They have matted beards 5 or 6 
 inches in length, and. black hair which 
 they allow to grow till it falls over 
 their shoulders. Their complexion is 
 dark brown, approaching to black. 
 They worship the sun and moon, and 
 pay reverence to the bear. They sup- 
 port themselves by hunting and fishing, 
 
 Air, the gaseous substance of which 
 our atmosphere consists, being a me- 
 chanical mixture of 79.19 per cent, by 
 measure of nitrogen and 20.81 per 
 cent, of oxygen. The latter is abso- 
 lutely essential to animal life, while 
 the purpose chiefly served by the nitro- 
 gen appears to be to dilute the oxygen. 
 Oxygen is more soluble in water than 
 nitrogen, and hence the air dissolved 
 in water contains about 10 per cent. 
 more oxygen than atmospheric air. The 
 oxygen therefore available for those 
 animals which breathe by gills, is very 
 much diluted with water. 
 
 Air-brake. See BRAKE. 
 
 Air-engine, an engine in which air 
 heated, and so expanded, or compressed 
 air is used as the motive power. They 
 may be said to be essentially similar m 
 construction to the steam-engine, 
 though the expansibility of air by heat 
 is small compared with the expansion 
 that takes place when water is con- 
 verted into steam. Engines working 
 by compressed air have been found 
 very useful in mining, tunneling, &c.,
 
 Air-gun 
 
 and the compressed air may be con- 
 veyed to its destination by means o 
 pipes. In such cases the waste air 
 serves for ventilation and for reducing 
 the oppressive heat. 
 
 Air-gran, an instrument for the 
 projection of bullets by means of con- 
 densed air, generally in the form of an 
 ordinary gun. 
 
 Air-pump, an apparatus by means 
 of which air or_other gas may be re- 
 moved from an inclosed space ; or for 
 compressing air within _an inclosed 
 space. An ordinary suction-pump for 
 water is on the same principle as the 
 air-pump ; indeed, before water reaches 
 the top of the pipe the air has been 
 pumped out by the same machinery 
 which pumps the water. An ordinary 
 pump consists essentially of a clyinder 
 or barrel, having a valve opening from 
 the pipe through which water is to 
 rise and a valve opening into the out- 
 let pipe, and a piston fitted to work in 
 the cylinder. 
 
 Airships. See AERON AtJTiCS ; 
 AEROPLANE ; BALLOON ; FLYING MA- 
 CHINE. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle (Ger. Aachen), 
 the capital of a district in Rhenish 
 Prussia, situated in a fertile hollow, 
 surrounded by heights, and watered by 
 the Wurm, 39 miles W. by S. of 
 Cologne. Pop. 135,250. 
 
 Ajaccio, the chief town of the 
 Island of Corsica, which forms a De- 
 partment of France. It is the hand- 
 somest city of Corsica, and the birth- 
 place of Napoleon I., whose house is 
 still to be seen. Pop. 18,846. 
 
 Ajax, the name of two heroes of 
 the Trojan War. Ajax, son of Tela- 
 mon, King of Salamis, was next in 
 warlike prowess to Achilles. 
 
 Akecl, Charles F., Baptist minis- 
 ter, born in Nottingham, England, in 
 1864. He visited the U. S. several 
 times, and in 1907 became pastor of the 
 Fifth Ave. Baptist Church, N. Y. C. 
 
 Akron, city and capital of Sum- 
 mit county, Ohio; on the Ohio canal 
 and the Baltimore & Ohio and other 
 railroads; 40 miles S. E. of Cleve- 
 land. It is the trade center of a 
 large farming and manufacturing 
 section; has one of the largest pri- 
 ^ vate printing offices in the world and 
 extensive manufactories of rubber 
 {roods; is the seat of Buchtel College 
 
 Alabama 
 
 (Universalist); and has a property 
 valuation exceeding $27,500,000. 
 Pop. (11)10) 69,067. 
 
 Akers, Benjamin Paul, an 
 American sculptor, born in 1825. 
 Studied in Florence and was espe- 
 cially noted for the rapidity of his 
 work. He died in May, 1861. 
 
 Alabama, a State in the South 
 Central Division of the North Amer- 
 ican Union ; bounded by Tennessee, 
 Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, and the 
 Gulf of Mexico; gross area, 52,250 
 square miles, admitted into the Union, 
 Dec. 14, 1819 ; seceded, Jan. 11, 1861 ; 
 readmitted, June 25, 1868; number of 
 counties, 66; pop. (1900) 1,828,697; 
 (1910) 2,138,093; capital, Montgomery. 
 
 The State has large wealth in its 
 mineral resources, which include coal, 
 iron, asbestos, asphalt, pottery and 
 porcelain clays, marble, granite, phos- 
 phates, natural gas, gold, silver, and 
 copper. The most valuable of these 
 at present are coal and iron. The 
 coal is all bituminous, and the iron is 
 red and brown hematite. 
 
 In the S. part of the State the soil 
 is a light alluvial and diluvial ; in the 
 central, the cotton belt, limestone and 
 chalk lands predominate ; and in the 
 N. part, which contains the Tennessee 
 valley, there are very rich mineral 
 lands. Besides the agricultural, min- 
 eral, and grazing lands, there are large 
 tracts of valuable yellow pine forests. 
 The most valuable productions are cot 
 ton and corn. 
 
 The school population is estimated 
 at 621,600, of whom nearly 350,000 
 are enrolled in the public schools, and 
 over 222,000 are in daily attendance. 
 There are over 7,000 public schools, 
 white and colored pupils being taught 
 separately ; 7,500 teachers ; public 
 school property valued at $1,500,000. 
 For higher instruction, there are 48 
 public high schools ; 66 private sec- 
 ondary schools ; 6 public and 3 private 
 normal schools ; 9 universities and col- 
 leges for men and for both sexes; 9 
 colleges for women ; and a State Agri- 
 cultural and Mechanical College at 
 Auburn. The principal universities 
 and colleges are the University of Ala- 
 bama (opened 1831 ; non-sectarian) ; 
 the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial 
 Institute (1881) ; Blount College 
 (1890; non-sectarian); Howard Col- 
 lege (1841; Baptist) ; Southern Uni-
 
 Alamo 
 
 versity (1859; Methodist Episcopal, 
 South); Lafayette College (1885; 
 non-sectarian) ; Lineville College 
 (1890; non-sectarian); St. Bernard 
 College (1892; Roman Catholic); 
 Alabama Baptist Colored University 
 (1878; Baptist) ; Bailey Springs Uni- 
 versity (1893; non-sectarian); Jud- 
 gon Female Institute (1839; Bap- 
 tist); Isbell College (1849; Presby- 
 terian) ; Athens Female College 
 (1842; Methodist Episcopal, South) ; 
 jind the Alabama Conference Female 
 College (1855; Methodist Episcopal). 
 
 The strongest denominations numer- 
 ically in the State are the Baptist ; 
 Methodist Episcopal, South; Roman 
 Catholic ; Methodist Episcopal ; and 
 the Protestant Episcopal. 
 
 The total length of railroads within 
 the State, Jan. 1, 1900, was 4,226 
 miles, of which 141.35 miles were con- 
 structed during the previous year stim- 
 ulated by the great development in the 
 coal, iron, and manufacturing indus- 
 tries. A. ranks fifth among coal-pro- 
 ducing states with an annual output 
 of nearly 10,000.000 short tons; iron 
 yields nearly 3,000,000 tons. The cot- 
 ton crop is over 1,010,000 bales an- 
 nually. 
 
 The new constitution adopted in 
 1901, restricts the suffrage in several 
 ways, and provides for the election of 
 State officers and legislators once 
 every four years. 
 
 Alabama Claims, a series of 
 claims made in 1871 by the United 
 States against the English Govern- 
 ment for damages done to shipping 
 during the Civil War, after a formal 
 discussion between the two govern- 
 ments in 1865, and fruitless conven- 
 tions for their settlement in 1868 and 
 1869. These damages were inflicted 
 chiefly by the " Alabama," an armed 
 vessel of the Confederate States, 
 which was fitted out in a British port 
 and permitted to sail in violation of 
 existing international law. A tribunal, 
 created in 1871 to pass upon these 
 claims, held its sessions in Geneva, 
 Switzerland, during the year 1872, 
 and awarded the United States the 
 sum of $15,500,000 in gold, in satis- 
 faction of all claims at issue. The 
 Geneva tribunal was important as es- 
 tablishing an example of arbitration 
 in place of war in the settlement of 
 international differences, which, in this 
 
 case, barely averted a war, and in de- 
 fining the attitude of neutrals toward 
 nations at war. 
 
 Alabama, The, a Confederate 
 cruiser which devastated American 
 shipping during the Civil War. She 
 was a bark-rigged steamer of 1,040 
 tons, built under secret instruction* 
 at Birkenhead, England. Her desti- 
 nation was suspected by the United 
 States minister, but when orders for 
 her detention were finally obtained, 
 she had departed (July 31, 1862). 
 She made for the Azores, where she 
 was equipped and manned by an Eng- 
 lish crew, under the command of Capt. 
 Raphael Semmes, of Maryland. She 
 then proceeded to capture and bum 
 vessels bearing the American flag, and 
 the destruction wrought in less than 
 two years amounted to 65 vessels, and 
 about $4,000,000 in property. In 
 June, 1864, she put into Cherbourg, 
 France, for repairs. Here she was in- 
 tercepted by the Federal corvette 
 " Kearsarge," Captain Winslow, and, 
 after an hour's severe battle, the Ala- 
 bama was sunk. The vessel was vir- 
 tually a British privateer, and the 
 course of the British authorities in 
 permitting her to leave on her mission 
 of piracy showed connivance and sym- 
 pathy with the Confederacy (see Ar :x 
 BAMA CLAIMS preceding). When 
 the Alabama was sinking, a private 
 British yacht, in rescuing survivors 
 (including Captain Semmes), also 
 saved them from capture by the Fed- 
 eralists. 
 
 Alabaster, In mineralogy, mas- 
 sive gypsum, white, delicately shaded 
 or banded. 
 
 Aladdin, the hero of an Arabian 
 Nights' tale. A poor boy in China, he 
 secures possession of a lamp and ring 
 possessing magical powers. Rubbing 
 the lamp brings to the service of the 
 owner the powers of the slave of the 
 lamp, who gratifies every desire. The 
 lamp is lost, but the slave of the ring 
 enables Aladdin to recover it, and he 
 lives happily ever afterwards, enjoying 
 wealth and health. 
 
 Alamo, The, a mission church at 
 San Antonio, in what is now Bexar 
 co., Tex. ; converted into a fort. In 
 1836 it was occupied by about 150 of 
 the revolutionists in the Texan War 
 of Independence. Though attacked
 
 GOLD MIXERS AT WORK 
 
 Stereographs Copyright by B. L. Singley, N. Y. ATA ^\T^ A
 
 Alarcon 
 
 Albania 
 
 by 4.000 Mexicans under Santa Ana, 
 the Texans held it from Feb. 23 to 
 March 6, when Santa Ana took it by 
 storm. All but seven of the garrison 
 perished, six of these being murdered 
 after their surrender, and one man 
 escaping to report the affair. In this 
 garrison were the celebrated David 
 Crockett and Col. James Bowie, in- 
 ventor of the bowie-knife. The mem- 
 ory of this massacre became an incite- 
 ment to the Texans in subsequent 
 encounters, and " Remember the 
 Alamo ! " became a war-cry in their 
 struggle for freedom. 
 
 Alarcon, Hernando, a Spanish 
 navigator; nourished in the 16th cen- 
 tury ; leader of an expedition to Mex- 
 ico, which set sail in 1540. He proved 
 that California was a peninsula and 
 not an island, as had been supposed 
 previously. He penetrated in boats a 
 considerable distance up the Colorado 
 river. On his return to New Spain 
 he made a valuable map of the Cali- 
 fornia peninsula. 
 
 Alaric, a celebrated conqueror, 
 King of the Visigoths. In 410 he cap- 
 tured Rome, and his troops pillaged 
 the city for six days, Alaric, who was 
 an Arian Christian, like his people, 
 forbidding his ' soldiers to dishonor 
 women or destroy religious buildings. 
 He died, the same year, at Cosenza, in 
 Calabria, only 34 years of age. Legend 
 tells that, to hide his remains from 
 the Romans, they were deposited in 
 the bed of the river Busento, and that 
 the captives who had been employed 
 in the work were put to death. 
 
 Alaska, an unorganized Territory 
 in the Western Division of the North 
 American Union, comprising the ex- 
 treme northwestern part of the Amer- 
 ican continent ; bounded by the Arctic 
 and Pacific Oceans, Bering Sea, Brit- 
 ish Columbia, and the Northwest Ter- 
 ritories of Canada ; gross area, as far 
 as determined, 581,107 square miles ; 
 purchased from Russia, in 1867, for 
 $7,200,000; given a territorial dis- 
 trict government in 1884. The popu- 
 lation by the 1900 census was 63,592, 
 and by that of 1910, 64,356, show- 
 ing a gain of only 764. 
 
 Gold, copper, coal and iron de- 
 posits abound and with the building 
 of railroads^ smelters and towns, in 
 1906-07, the yield of valuable 
 
 minerals has risen in value to over 
 $20,000,000 annually. 
 
 The waters of Alaska contain over 
 100 species of food fish, but the 
 principal fisheries are those confined 
 to salmon, cod and herring. In con- 
 nection with the Alaska coast there 
 are at least 125,000 square miles 
 of cod fishing banks, the greater 
 part of which still awaits develop- 
 ment. Whales and halibut also 
 abound, but as yet they do not sup- 
 port distinct industries. 
 
 When the United States acquired 
 this region, and till gold mining 
 set in, fur sealing was the only 
 industry. So far there has been but 
 little done in the line of systematic 
 farming. Congress made an appro- 
 priation in 1897 to investigate agri- 
 cultural possibilities. Oats, wheat,, 
 rye, barley, and buckwheat, among 
 cereals ; potatoes, turnips, peas, 
 onions, and many minor vegetables; 
 a variety of fruit and excellent hay 
 are grown to advantage. 
 
 The government is of a tentative 
 character, under the authority of 
 a governor appointed by the Pres- 
 ident for a term of four years, at 
 an annual salary of $3,000. There 
 are judicial, customs, and military 
 officers, and, excepting where other- 
 wise provided, the general laws are 
 those established in Oregon. 
 
 Alaska was discovered by Bering 
 in 1741, and Russian settlements 
 were made to a considerable dis- 
 tance southward. In 1799 the Terri- 
 tory was granted to a Russian com- 
 pany by the Emperor Paul VIII. 
 
 __ Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposi- 
 tion, an international exhibition held 
 at Seattle, Wash., from June 1 to 
 Oct. 16, 1909, to exploit the re- 
 sources of Alaska and Yukon terri- 
 tories. 
 
 Albani, Marie Emma (Lajen- 
 nesse), a dramatic soprano and opera 
 singer, born in 1852, at Chambly, 
 near Montreal, Canada. After study- 
 ing with Lamperti, at Milan, she made 
 her debut at Messina (1870), in "La 
 Sonnambula," under the name Albani, 
 in compliment to the city of Albany, 
 where her public career began. In 
 1878 she married Ernest Gye, of the 
 Covent Garden Theater. 
 
 Albania, the name given to a re- 
 gion of West European Turkey be-
 
 Alban 
 
 tween the Adriatic Sea, Greece, Mace- 
 donia, and Montenegro. The inhab- 
 itants form a peculiar people, the 
 'Albanians, called by the Turks Ar- 
 nauts, and by themselves Skipetar. 
 The Albanians are half civilized 
 mountaineers, frank to a friend, 
 vindictive to an enemy. They are 
 constantly under arms, and are more 
 devoted to robbery than to cattle 
 rearing and agriculture. They live 
 in perpetual anarchy, every village 
 being at war with its neighbor. 
 Many of them serve as mercenaries 
 in other countries, and they form the 
 best soldiers of the Turkish army. At 
 one time the Albanians were all Chris- 
 tians ; but after the death of their last 
 chief, the hero Skanderbeg, in 1467, 
 and their subjugation by the Turks, a 
 large part became Mohammedans. They 
 have taken a terrible part in the mas- 
 sacres in Macedonia of September, 
 1903. 
 
 Alban, St., the first Christian mar- 
 tyr in Great Britain, lived in the 3d 
 century. After having served seven 
 years as a soldier under the Emperor 
 Diocletian, he returned to Britain, 
 embraced Christianity, and suffered 
 martyrdom in the great persecution of 
 Diocletian. 
 
 Albany. A city of the United 
 States, capital of the State of New 
 York, with a population (1910) of 
 100,253. Settled by the Dutch in 1610- 
 14. The State capitol is one of the 
 grandest buildings in America, Al- 
 bany has a university, an observatory, 
 and a State Library with over 90,000 
 volumes. 
 
 Albany Congress, an assembly of 
 representatives of the most important 
 British North American colonies, which 
 was called together in 1754 by the 
 British Government to consult in re- 
 gard to the threatening French war. 
 Two plans were proposed : First, a 
 league with the Indians, which was 
 carried out, and, second, a proposal 
 offered by Franklin for a political 
 union. In this a common president 
 was proposed and a great council, rep- 
 resenting the different colonies. This 
 plan was rejected by the British crown, 
 because it gave too much power to the 
 colonies, and by the colonies because 
 it gave too much power to the crown. 
 The significance of this congress lies 
 in the fact that it stimulated the union 
 
 Alberta 
 
 of the colonies which was afterward 
 accomplished. 
 
 Albany, The, one of two cruisers 
 built in Newcastle, England, for the 
 Brazilian Government and purchased 
 by the United States Government just 
 before the declaration of war against 
 Spain in 1898. 
 
 Albatross, a genus of natatorial 
 birds. It is one of the largest of ma- 
 rine birds, as its wings, when extend- 
 ed, measure from 10 to 12 feet from 
 tip to tip. 
 
 Albay, a province in the S. E. part 
 of Luzon, Philippine Islands, and the 
 richest hemp-growing district on the 
 island. Pop. (1903) 239,434 
 
 Albert I., Margrave of Branden- 
 burg, surnamed the BEAR, from his 
 heraldic emblem, was the son of Otto 
 the Rich, Count of Ballenstadt. In 
 1164 he went on a crusade to the Holy 
 Land. He died in 1170. The origin 
 of Berlin, Kb'lln, Aken on the Elbe, 
 and other towns, is attributed to the 
 colonies founded by him. 
 
 Albert, Prince (Albert Francis 
 Augustus Charles Emmanuel), 
 Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, hus- 
 band of the late Queen Victoria, 
 of England ; the second son of Er- 
 nest I., Duke of Saxe-Coburg, and 
 of his first wife Louise, only 
 daughter of the Duke of Saxe- 
 Gotha; born Aug. 26, 1819. He died 
 Dec. 14, 1861, after a short illness, 
 and was buried in St. George's Chapel, 
 Windsor, whence his remains were 
 afterward removed to the mausoleum 
 built by the queen at Frogmore. 
 
 Alberta, a n. w. province of Can- 
 ada (the former Territory of Alberta 
 with parts of Athabaska and Assini- 
 boia, organized 1881), admitted to the 
 Federation, Sept. 1, 1905. It lies n. 
 of Montana, U. S., and e. of British 
 Columbia, with the Rocky Mountains 
 on the w. Area, 253,540 sq. m. ; pop. 
 (1910) 321,862. From the peaks 11,- 
 000 to 13,000 ft. high, with abundant 
 forests, coal and other minerals in the 
 foothills, the land slopes n., e., and s., 
 to well-watered rolling prairies, con- 
 taining the great cattle ranges of 
 Canada, of which the chief centres are 
 McLeod, and Calgary, the capital. 
 Sheep are raised in the south and cat- 
 tle and horses in the north. Around 
 the growing towns of Lethbridge and
 
 Albert 
 
 Raymond, Mormons from Utah and 
 Idaho, with irrigation works, have 
 placed large tracts under wheat and 
 beet cultivation, and facilitated by 
 neighboring coal fields work flour and 
 sugar mills, exporting the products. 
 The Canadian Pacific R. R. Co. is 
 placing 1,500,000 acres of land under 
 Irrigation between Calgary and Medi- 
 cine Hat, and is offering advan- 
 tageous inducements for practical 
 farmers to settle in the province. In 
 1901-10 the population increased 
 nearly 250,000. 
 
 Albert Coal or Albertite, a 
 pitch-like mineral first discovered in 
 Albert Co., New Brunswick. It occurs 
 in the lower carboniferous group 
 and is lighter in weight per bulk com- 
 pared to coal ; it is used for fine var- 
 nishes, for enriching gas, etc., and its 
 Belling price in Boston reached $45 
 per ton. It is not a true coal. It will 
 ignite from a match and burn like a 
 candle, leaving a fine, almost impal- 
 pable residue. It was named after 
 Albert, Prince Consort. 
 
 Albert Edward, Prince of 
 Wales, from 1841 to 1901, the name 
 and title of Edward VII. (q. v.). 
 
 Albert!, Leone Battista, an em- 
 inent Italian architect, philosopher, 
 writer on art, and poet ; born in Ven- 
 ice, Feb. 18, 1404; died in Rome, 
 April, 1472. 
 
 Albertns Magnus, or Albert 
 the Great, Count of Bollstadt, Bish- 
 op of Ratisbon, a distinguished scholar 
 of the 13th century ; born in Lauin- 
 gen, Suabia, in 1193, or according to 
 some authorities in 1205. Among the 
 sciences studied or illustrated by him 
 were chemistry, botany, mechanics, 
 optics, geometry, and astronomy. He 
 fell into dotage some time previous to 
 his death, in 1280. Albertus was 
 probably the most learned man of his 
 age, and of course did not escape the 
 imputation of using magical arts and 
 trafficking with the Evil One. 
 
 Albigenses, a religious sect op- 
 posed to the Church of Rome, coming 
 first into prominence in the 12th cen- 
 tury, and taking its name from Albiga, 
 the old form of Albi, a city of South- 
 ern France, now capital of the de- 
 partment of Tarn. What their doc- 
 trines were has not been determined, 
 as no formal statement of them was 
 
 Albret 
 
 ever drawn up. They inveighed against 
 the vices and worldliness of the clergy, 
 and there was sufficient truth in their 
 censures to dispose their hearers to be- 
 lieve what they advanced, and reject 
 what they decried. They had increased 
 very much toward the close of the 
 12th century in the S. of France, 
 about Toulouse and Albi, and in Ray- 
 mond, Count of Toulouse, they found 
 a patron and protector. As the con- 
 demnation of their doctrines by the 
 Church produced no effect, ecclesias- 
 tical officials were specially sent by 
 the Pope to endeavor to extirpate the 
 heresy. The assassination of the 
 papal legate and inquisitor, Peter of 
 Castelnau, in 1208, led to the procla- 
 mation of a crusade against them by 
 Pope Innocent III., and after a strug- 
 gle of many years, in which hundreds 
 of thousands perished, they were vir- 
 tually extirpated by the sword and the 
 Inquisition. 
 
 Albinos, the name given to those 
 persons from whose skin, hair, and 
 eyes the dark coloring matter is ab- 
 sent. The skin of albinos, therefore, 
 no matter to what race they belong, is 
 of a pale milky hue, their hair is 
 white, while the iris of their eyes is 
 pale rose color. Their eyes are not 
 well suited to endure the bright light 
 of day, and they see best in shade or 
 by moonlight. The peculiarity of al- 
 binism or leucopathy is not confined to 
 the human race, having been observed 
 in horses, rabbits, rats, birds, and fishes. 
 
 Albion, the oldest name by which 
 the island of Great Britain was known 
 to the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 Alboni, Marietta, an Italian 
 contralto, born in Romagna, 1823. 
 She made her debut as Orsini in " Lu- 
 crezia Borgia." After singing in Eu- 
 rope for some years, she made a suc- 
 cessful tour of the United States. On 
 the death of her husband, Count Pe- 
 poli, in 1866, she left the stage, and 
 in 1877 she married M. Ziegir, a 
 French officer. She died in France 
 in 1894. 
 
 Albret, Jeanne d% daughter of 
 Margaret, Queen of Navarre, born in 
 1528. She married Antoine de Bour- 
 bon in 1548; gave birth in 1553 to a 
 son, who was afterward Henry IV. of 
 France; and on the death of her 
 father, in 1555, became Queen of Na-
 
 Albright 
 
 varre. She lost her husband in 1562, 
 and eagerly began to establish the 
 Reformation in her kingdom. Being 
 invited to the French court to assist 
 at the nuptials of her son with Mar- 
 garet of Valois, she suddenly expired, 
 not without suspicion of having been 
 poisoned. Died in 1572. 
 
 Albright, Jacob, an American 
 minister of the Methodist Church, 
 born in 1759. His work lay among 
 the Germans of Pennsylvania. Be- 
 coming impressed with the decline of 
 religious life and of the doctrines and 
 morals of the surrounding churches, 
 he began a work of reform in 1790. 
 He traveled about the country at his 
 own expense, preaching his mission, 
 until he founded in 1800 the EVAN- 
 GELICAL ASSOCIATION. He died in 
 1808. 
 
 Albuera, a village of Spain, in the 
 province of Badajoz, on the Albuera 
 river ; 13 miles S. E. of Badajoz. 
 Here (May 16, 1811) a British and 
 Portuguese army of 32,500, under 
 General Beresford, defeated in a san- 
 guinary battle a French army of 23,- 
 000 under Marshal Soult, the total 
 loss being 16,000, about equally di- 
 vided. 
 
 Albumen, or Albumin. In chem- 
 istry, the name of a class of albumin- 
 oids that are soluble in water, as 
 serum and egg albumen. 
 
 Albnminuria, a disease character- 
 ized by the presence of albumen in the 
 urine. It may be acute or chronic. 
 Acute albuminuria is a form of in- 
 flammation of the kidneys. Chronic 
 albuminuria, the commoner and more 
 formidable malady, arises from grave 
 constitutional disorders. It is often 
 attended by cf produces dropsy. 
 Whether acute or chronic, but espe- 
 cially when the latter, it is generally 
 called Bright's disease, after -Dr. 
 Bright, who first described it with ac- 
 curacy. 
 
 Albuquerque, AfFonso d', " the 
 Great," Viceroy of the Indies, was 
 born in 1453, near Lisbon. Albuquer- 
 que landed on the Malabar coast in 
 1503, with a fleet and some troops ; 
 conquered Goa, which he made the 
 seat of the Portuguese Government, 
 and the center of its Asiatic com- 
 merce ; and afterward Ceylon, the 
 Sunda Isles, the Peninsula of Malacca, 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 and (in 1515) the Island of Ormuz at 
 the entrance of the Persian Gulf. He 
 died at sea near Goa, Dec. 16, 1515. 
 
 Alcsens, a Greek lyric poet ; native 
 of Mitylene ; flourished in the 6th cen- 
 tury B. c. Of his poems we have only 
 fragments. 
 
 Alcala de Henares, a town in 
 Spain, Cervantes' birthplace, on the 
 Henares, 21 miles E. of Madrid by 
 rail. Here was printed in 1517, 
 in six folio volumes, at an expense of 
 80,000 ducats, the great Compluten- 
 sian Bible. 
 
 Alcazar, the name of many castlea 
 and palaces in Spain. Ciudad-Ro- 
 drigo, Cordova, Segovia, Toledo and 
 
 ALCAZAR IN SEGOVIA. 
 
 Seville have alcazars. The one at 
 Seville is an imposing relic of the Arab 
 dominion. 
 
 Alcibiades, a famous Grecian 
 statesman and warrior, son of Clinias 
 and Deinomache, born in Athens about 
 450 B. c. After a brilliant and erratic 
 career, distinguished equally by great 
 achievements and lack of moral prin- 
 ciple he was assassinated in 404. 
 
 Alcohol, a colorless, inflammable 
 liquid, of agreeable odor, and burning 
 taste, termed also spirit of wine, and 
 ethylic or vinic alcohol.
 
 Alcohol 
 
 Aldrich 
 
 Alcohol, Denatured, alcohol for 
 use in the industries, in which medi- 
 cinal properties have been destroyed; 
 authorized by Congress in 1905. 
 
 Alcott, Amos Bronsoii, an 
 American philosophical writer and 
 educator, one of. the founders of the 
 transcendental school of philosophy 
 in New England, born in Wolcott, 
 Conn., Nov. 29, 1799. -He died in 
 Boston, March 4, 1888. 
 
 Alcott, Louisa May, an Ameri- 
 can author, daughter of the preced- 
 ing, born in Germantown, Pa., Nov. 
 29, 1832. She died in Boston, Mass., 
 March 6, 1888. Few writers are 
 more popular with children than Miss 
 Alcott 
 
 Alcnin, an English ecclesiastic, 
 born at York in 735. He died in 
 804. He made with his own hand a 
 copy of the Scriptures, which he pre- 
 sented to Charlemagne, and which be- 
 came of great assistance to later ed- 
 itors. 
 
 Alden, Henry Mills, an Ameri- 
 can editor and prose writer, born at 
 Mount Tabor, Vt., Nov. 11, 1836. He 
 was graduated at Williams College 
 and Andover Theological Seminary ; 
 settled in New York in 1SG1, became 
 managing editor of " Harper's 
 Weekly " in 1864. and editor of "Har- 
 per's Monthly Magazine " in 1868. 
 He has published " The Ancient Lady 
 of Sorrow," a poem ; " God in His 
 World " ; etc. 
 
 Alden, John, a magistrate of the 
 Plymouth colony, born in 1599. His 
 name is familiarized by the poem of 
 Longfellow, " The Courtship of Miles 
 Standish." He was originally a 
 cooper of Southampton, was employed 
 in making repairs on the ship " May- 
 flower." and came over in her with 
 the Pilgrim Fathers. By some ac- 
 counts he was the first to step ashore 
 at Plymouth. In Longfellow's poem 
 he is in love with and eventually mar- 
 ries Priscilla, with whom he had previ- 
 ously pleaded the cause of Miles 
 Standish. He was for over 50 years 
 a colonial magistrate. He died in 
 1687. 
 
 Alden, William Livingston, an 
 American humorous writer and jour- 
 nalist, born at Williamstown, Mass., 
 Oct. 9, 1837. He was for a time 
 
 United States Consul-General at 
 Rome. He died Jan. 14, 1908. 
 
 Alder, the common name for a 
 genus of plants (alnus), of the oak 
 family. In the Eastern United States 
 it is a very common shrub, branching 
 freely from the roots, and forming 
 dense clumps along the banks of 
 streams and in other wet places. On 
 the W. coast it often attains a height 
 of from 40 to 60 feet in favorable loca- 
 tions. It is found in temperate and 
 cold regions. 
 
 Alderman, a "title pertaining to an 
 office in the municipal corporations of 
 the United States and England. 
 
 Alderman, Edwin Anderson, an 
 American educator, born in Wilming- 
 ton, N. C., May 15, 1861. In 1896 he 
 was chosen President of the Univer- 
 sity of North Carolina; in 1900, 9f 
 Tulane University (New Orleans); in 
 1904, of the University of Virginia. 
 
 Alderney, a British island in the 
 English channel. 
 
 Aldershot Camp, a permanent 
 camp of exercise on the confines of 
 Hampshire, Surrey, and Berkshire, 35 
 miles S. W. of London. 
 
 Aldine Editions, the books print- 
 ed by Aldus Manutius and his family, 
 in Venice (149071597). They com- 
 prise the first editions of Greek and 
 Roman classics ; others contain cor- 
 rected texts of modern classic writers, 
 carefully collated with the MSS. 
 
 Aldrich, Nelson Wilmarth, 
 United States senator from Rhode Is- 
 land, recognized as the leading Ameri- 
 can authority on the protective tariff, 
 and generally, understood to be the real 
 author of the McKinley Law as 
 adopted. Born, Foster, R. I., No- 
 vember 6, 1841. President Providence 
 Common Council, 1871-73 ; Speaker 
 R. I. General Assembly, 1876 ; in Con- 
 gress 1879 to 1883, when he resigned 
 to take seat in Senate, in which he 
 has since represented his State. 
 
 Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, an 
 American poet, essayist, 'and writer of 
 fiction, born in Portsmouth, N. H., 
 Nov. 11, 1836. He spent his early 
 youth in Louisiana, but at the age of 
 17 entered a mercantile house in New 
 York. Removing to Boston in 1866, 
 he became editor of " Every Satur- 
 day," and, in 1881, editor of the " At-
 
 Ale 
 
 lantic Monthly." He became equally 
 eminent as a prose writer and poet. 
 He died March 19, 1907. 
 
 Ale, a malt liquor, stronger than 
 ordinary beer. It was the current 
 name in England for malt liquor in 
 general before the introduction of "the 
 wicked weed called hops " from the 
 Netherlands, about the year 1524. 
 The two names, ale and beer, are both 
 Teutonic, and seem originally to have 
 been synonymous. 
 
 Alemanni, or Alamanni, a con- 
 federacy of several German tribes 
 which, at the commencement of the 3d 
 century after Christ, lived near the 
 Roman territory, and came then and 
 subsequently into conflict with the 
 imperial troops. It is from the Ale- 
 manni that the French have derived 
 their names for Germans and Ger- 
 many in general, namely, Allemands 
 and Allemagne, though strictly speak- 
 ing only the modern Suabians and 
 Northern Swiss are the proper de- 
 scendants of that ancient race. 
 
 Alembert, Jean le Roiid d', one 
 of the most distinguished mathema- 
 ticians and literary characters of the 
 18th century ; born in Paris, Nov. 1G, 
 1717. He died Oct. 29, 1783. 
 
 Alembic, a simple apparatus some- 
 times used by chemists for distillation. 
 
 Aleppo, a city of Turkey in Asia, 
 in Northern Syria, and capital of the 
 vilayet of Aleppo ; on the Koeik river, 
 71 miles E. of the Mediterranean. 
 The foundation of Aleppo dates back 
 to about 2,000 years B. c. It was 
 nearly destroyed by an earthquake 
 in 1822, when it lost two-thirds of its 
 250,000 inhabitants. The present in- 
 habitants are Turks, Greeks, Arme- 
 nians, and Jews. Pop. about 127,000. 
 
 Aleutian Islands, or Catherine 
 Archipelago, a group of about 150 
 islands, extending W. from Alaska pen- 
 insula for a distance of 1,050 miles; 
 belongs to Alaska Territory. The is- 
 lands are mountainous, with several 
 volcanic peaks. The principal islands 
 are Umnak and Unalaska. The in- 
 habitants are nearly all Aleuts, a peo- 
 ple allied to the Eskimos. These is- 
 lands were discovered by Bering in 
 1728. Pop. about 3,000. 
 
 Alewife, a North American fish, 
 belonging to the same family as the 
 herring and the shad. 
 
 Alexander 
 
 Alexander VI., Pope, Rodrigo Len- 
 zuoli Borgia, a Spaniard, of Valencia, 
 son of Isabelle Borgia, whose family 
 name he took, born Jan. 1, 1431. At 
 first he studied law, and then was ap- 
 pointed by his uncle, Pope Calixtus 
 III., a cardinal before he was 25 years 
 old. In 1458 he was made Archbishop of 
 Valencia. After the death of Innocent 
 VIII. he was crowned Aug. 26, 1492, 
 with great pomp and solemnity. Te 
 his son John, Duke of Gandia, he pre- 
 sented the duchy of Benevento, in 
 1487, which was separated from the 
 estates of the Church. His daughter, 
 Lucretia Borgia, was married to Gio- 
 vanni Sforza, Lord of Pesarp, after- 
 ward to Alfonso di Biseglia, then 
 thirdly to' Alfonso d'Este, Prince of 
 Ferrara. His son, Caesar, who after- 
 ward got complete control of him, was 
 made Archbishop of Valencia, and, in 
 1493, was appointed cardinal. After- 
 ward, in order to create for him a 
 secular principality, he made an alli- 
 ance with Louis XII. of France. 
 Caesar Borgia, therefore, left the 
 Church and became Duke of Valen- 
 tinois. In 1501 he became Duke of 
 the Romagna. On May 4, 1493, Alex- 
 ander issued a bull dividing the New 
 World between Spain and Portugal ; 
 on May 23, 1498, the execution of Sa- 
 vonarola took place by his order ; and 
 in 1501 he instituted the censorship 
 of books. Alexander died Aug. 18, 
 1503, from poison said to have been 
 intended for Cardinal Corneto. 
 
 Alexander I., Emperor of Russia, 
 son of Paul I. and Maria, daughter of 
 Prince Eugene, of Wurtemberg ; born 
 Dec. 23, 1777. On the assassination 
 of his father, March 24, 1801, Alex- 
 ander ascended the throne. One of 
 the first acts of his reign was to con- 
 clude peace with Great Britain, 
 against which his predecessor had de- 
 clared war. In 1803 he offered his 
 services as mediator between England 
 and France, and two years later a 
 convention was entered into between 
 Russia, England, Austria, and Sweden 
 for the purpose of resisting the en- 
 croachments of France on the terri- 
 tories of independent States. He was 
 present at the battle of Austerlitz 
 (Dec. 2, 1805), when the combined, 
 armies of Russia and Austria were de- 
 feated by Napoleon. Alexander was 
 compelled to retreat to his dominions
 
 Alexander 
 
 at the head of the remains of his 
 army. In the succeeding campaign 
 the Russians were again beaten at 
 Eylau (Feb. 8, 1807), and Friedland 
 (June 14), the result of which was 
 an interview, a few days after the 
 battle, on a raft anchored in the Nie- 
 men, between Alexander and Napo- 
 leon, which led to the treaty signed at 
 Tilsit, July 7. The Russian emperor 
 now for a time identified himself with 
 the Napoleonic schemes. The seizure 
 of the Danish fleet by the British 
 brought about a declaration of war by 
 Russia against Great Britain and 
 Sweden, and Alexander invaded Fin- 
 land and conquered that long-coveted 
 duchy, which was secured to him by 
 the peace of Friedrichshamn (1809). 
 His having separated himself from 
 Napoleon led to the French invasion 
 of 1812. In 1813 he published the fa- 
 mous manifesto which served as the 
 basis of the coalition of the other Eu- 
 ropean powers against France. After 
 the battle of Waterloo, Alexander, ac- 
 companied by the Emperor of Austria 
 and the King of Prussia, made his sec- 
 ond entrance into Paris. He died in 
 the Crimea, Dec. 1, 1825. 
 
 Alexander II., Emperor of Rus- 
 sia ; born April 29, 1818 ; succeeded 
 his father Nicholas in 1855, before 
 the end of the Crimean War. After 
 peace was concluded the new emperor 
 set about effecting reforms in the em- 
 pire, among the first being the putting 
 of the finances in order. The greatest 
 of all the reforms carried out by him 
 was the emancipation of the serfs by 
 a decree of March 2, 1861. The czar 
 also did much to improve education in 
 the empire, and introduced a reorgan- 
 ization of the judicial system. During 
 his reign the Russian dominions in 
 Central Asia were considerably ex- 
 tended, while to the European portion 
 of the monarchy was added a piece of 
 territory, S. of the Caucasus, formerly 
 belonging to Turkey in Asia. A part 
 of Bessarabia, belonging since the Cri- 
 mean War to Turkey in Europe, but 
 previously to Russia, was also restored 
 to the latter power. The latter addi- 
 tions resulted from the Russo-Turkish 
 War of 1877-1878, in which the Turks 
 were completely defeated, the Russian 
 troops advancing almost to the gates 
 of Constantinople. Toward the end 
 of the czar's life several attempts at 
 
 Alexander 
 
 his assassination were made by Ni- 
 hilists, and at last he was killed by an 
 explosive missile flung at him in a 
 street in St. Petersburg, March 13, 
 1881. He was succeeded by his son, 
 Alexander III 
 
 Alexander III., of Russia, son of 
 Alexander II., was born Match 10, 
 1845, and married the daughter of the 
 King of Denmark in 1866. After his 
 father's death, through fear of assas- 
 sination, he shut himself up in his 
 palace at Gatschina. His coronation 
 was postponed till 1883, and was cele- 
 brated with extraordinary magnifi- 
 cence, and with national festivities 
 lasting several days. Through the fall 
 of Mery, the subjugation of the Turk- 
 omans in Central Asia was completed. 
 In 1885 hostilities with England with 
 regard to the defining of the frontier 
 between the Russian territories and 
 Afghanistan, for a time seemed immi- 
 nent. In European affairs he broke 
 away from the triple alliance between 
 Russia, Germany, and Austria, and 
 looked rather to France. He was ag- 
 grieved by the new Bulgarian spirit. 
 His home policy was reactionary, 
 though strong efforts were made to 
 prevent malversation by officials, and 
 stern economics were practiced. The 
 liberties of the Baltic Provinces and 
 of Finland were curtailed, the Jews 
 were oppressed, and old Russian or- 
 thodoxy was favored. Several Ni- 
 hilist attempts were made on his life, 
 and he kept himself practically a pris- 
 oner in his palace. He died at Li- 
 vadia, Nov. 1, 1894. 
 
 Alexander III., King of Scot- 
 land, born in 1241, in 1249 succeeded 
 his father, Alexander II. Riding on 
 a dark night between Burntisland and 
 Kinghorn, he fell with his horse and 
 was killed on the spot, March 12, 1286. 
 A monument (1887) marks the scene 
 of his death. His death led to the at- 
 tempt of Edward I. of England to 
 destroy the liberties of Scotland, which 
 resulted in the crushing defeat of the 
 English under Edward II. at Ban- 
 nockburn. 
 
 Alexander I., King of Servia, 
 born Aug. 14, 1876 ; son of King Milan 
 I. In 1889 Milan abdicated and pro- 
 claimed Alexander king, under a re- 
 gency till he should attain his ma- 
 jority (18 years). On April 13, 1893, 
 when in his 17th year, Alexander sud-
 
 Alexander 
 
 Alexander the Great 
 
 denly took the royal authority into his 
 own hands, and summarily .dismissed 
 the regent. On Aug. 5, 1900, he mar- 
 ried Mme. Draga Maschin, He was 
 the fifth of his dynasty, which was 
 founded by Milos Todorovic Obrenovic 
 in 1829. On the night of June 10, 
 1903, the military at Belgrade re- 
 volted, soldiers surrounded the palace, 
 and the leaders broke into the royal 
 apartments and murdered King Alex- 
 ander and Queen Draga, and also two 
 brothers of the Queen and members of 
 the Cabinet. This extinguished the 
 Obrenovitch dynasty, except as repre- 
 $ented by a natural son of former King 
 Milan, whom the latter had acknowl- 
 edged and made legitimate. 
 
 Alexander, Archibald, an Amer- 
 ican clergyman, of Scottish de- 
 scent, was born in Virginia, April 17, 
 1772, and died at Princeton, N. J., 
 Oct. 22, 1851. He studied theology, 
 and performed itinerant missionary 
 work in various parts of Virginia ; be- 
 came president of Hampton-Sidney 
 College in 1796, and pastor of a Pres- 
 byterian church in Philadelphia in 
 1807. On the establishment of Prince- 
 ton Theological Seminary in 1812, he 
 was appointed its first professor, a 
 position which he held till his death. 
 His eldest son. JAMES WADDELL ALEX- 
 ANDER (1804-1850), was a Presbyte- 
 rian minister in Virginia, New Jer- 
 sey, and at New York ; and afterward 
 professor in Princeton Theological 
 Seminary. He contributed to the 
 " Princeton Review," wrote more than 
 30 children's books, a life of his father, 
 and miscellaneous works. JOSEPH 
 ADDISON ALEXANDER, third son (1809- 
 1860), graduated at Princeton in 
 1826, lectured there on Biblical Criti- 
 cism and Ecclesiastical History, and 
 for the last eight years of his life filled 
 the chair of Biblical and Ecclesiastical 
 History. He was engaged at the time 
 of his death, along with Dr. Hodge, on 
 a commentary of the New Testament. 
 He is best known by his commentaries 
 and "Prophecies of Isaiah" (1846- 
 1847; revised edition, 1864), and the 
 " Psalms Translated and Explained " 
 (3 volumes, 1850), both of which have 
 had a large circulation, and have been 
 reprinted in England. 
 
 Alexander Archipelago, or Al- 
 exander Islands, a group of islands 
 on the W. coast of North America, 
 
 extending from 54 40' N. to 58 25' 
 N. ; belong to Alaska Territory. 
 
 Alexander Jarostowitz Nevski, 
 St., Grand Duke of Vladimir and 
 Prince of Novgorod, born in 1219 ; a 
 Russian national hero and patron 
 saint of St. Petersburg, where Peter 
 the Great founded in big honor the 
 magnificent monastery and the reli- 
 gious order that bear his name. He 
 died in 1263. 
 
 Alexander, John W., an Amer- 
 ican portrait painter, born in Pitts- 
 burg, Pa., Oct. 7, 1856 ; studied at Mu- 
 nich, Paris, and in Italy ; became a 
 societaire of the Beaux Arts in Paris ; 
 was appointed one of the American 
 jurors on paintings for the Paris Ex- 
 position in 1900. 
 
 Alexander of Hales, a noted 
 English philosopher and theologian, 
 born at Hales, Gloucestershire. He 
 died in Paris, 1245. 
 
 Alexander Severus, (in full, 
 MARCUS AURELIUS ALEXANDER SEV- 
 ERUS) , a Roman emperor ; born in Ace 
 (the modern Acre), Phoenicia, in A. D. 
 205. Alexander was favorable to 
 Christianity, following the predilec- 
 tions of his mother, Julia Mamma^a, 
 and he is said to have placed the 
 statue of Jesus Christ in his private 
 temple, in company with those of Or- 
 pheus and Apollonius of Tyana. He 
 was murdered A. D. 235. 
 
 Alexander the Great, the 3d 
 King of Macedon bearing the name 
 which he made so famous ; born in 
 Pella, 356 B. c. 
 
 Alexander first appeared on the 
 stage of universal history in 339 B. c. 
 At the age of 16 the regency of Greece 
 was intrusted to him by Philip when 
 he set out on an expedition against 
 Byzantium; and in that capacity it 
 fell to his lot to lead his first army 
 against an Illyrian rising, to -found his 
 first Alexandria in the upper valley 
 of the Strymon, and to receive a depu- 
 tation of envoys from the King of Per- 
 sia. In the year after his appoint- 
 ment to the regency Alexander snowed 
 eminent military capacity at the battle 
 of Chseronea (338) , and, on the mur- 
 der of Philip, ascended the throne in 
 336, before he had reached his 20th 
 year. 
 
 In the autumn of 336 Alexander 
 marched into Greece, and was con-
 
 Alexandria 
 
 Alexandrian Library 
 
 firmed iu the chief command against 
 Persia by the Amphictyones at Ther- 
 mopylae. In 335 he advanced to the 
 Haemus range (the Balkans), and 
 showed great ability in his campaign 
 against the Thracians, crossing the 
 Danube apparently out of mere 
 bravado in the face of the enemy 
 without losing a single man. He had 
 no real friends among the Greek 
 States. The Thebans, hearing a false 
 report of his death, became overt ene- 
 mies, proclaimed their independence, 
 and slew some Macedonian officers. 
 Alexander appeared in Boeotia with 
 amazing dispatch, and took Thebes by 
 storm on the third day of the siege. 
 
 Leaving Antipater to govern in Eu- 
 rope, he crossed over into Asia in the 
 spring of 334 with 30,000 foot and 
 5,000 horse. The Persian empire, the 
 conquest of which he undertook, was 
 at least 50 times as large as his own 
 and numbered about 20 times as many 
 inhabitants. It extended from the 
 Hellespont to the Punjab, from Lake 
 Aral to the cataracts of the Nile. But 
 it was a vast congeries of subject prov- 
 inces having no internal bond, and no 
 principle of cohesion but the will of 
 the king. Alexander entirely subdued 
 Persia, and formed the idea of con- 
 quering India. He passed the In- 
 dus in 327, and made an alliance 
 with Taxiles, under whose guidance 
 he reached the Hydaspes (modern 
 Jhelum). Here, after a severe strug- 
 gle, and unsatisfactory victory, he 
 built a fleet, in which he sent part 
 of his army down the river, while the 
 rest proceeded along the banks. 
 
 In 323 Alexander arrived at Baby- 
 lon, where he found numberless envoys 
 from nations near and far, come to 
 pay their homage to the young con- 
 queror. He was engaged in very ex- 
 tensive plans for the future, including 
 the conquest of Arabia and the reor- 
 ganization of the army, when he fell 
 ill of a fever. He died in 323, after 
 a reign of 12 years and eight months. 
 The day before a rumor had gone 
 abroad that the great general was 
 dead, and that his friends were con- 
 cealing the truth. The dying king 
 caused his army to defile past his bed, 
 and feebly waved them a last farewell. 
 
 Alexandria, a city of Egypt, 
 founded by Alexander the Great in 
 331 B. c. The situation of the city, 
 
 E. a. 
 
 at the point of junction between the 
 East and West, rendered it the center 
 of the commerce of the world, and 
 raised it to the highest degree of pros- 
 perity. In the Middle Ages it suf- 
 fered reverses, and gradually declined, 
 and when, in 1517, the Turks took 
 the place, the remains of its for- 
 mer splendor wholly vanished, walls 
 and buildings being reduced to ruins. 
 It is now again one of the most impor- 
 tant commercial places on the Medi- 
 terranean. Recent improvements, 
 to cost $10,000,000, are expected to 
 make the western harbor one of the 
 best on the Mediterranean. 
 
 Of the few remaining objects of an- 
 tiquity the most prominent is Pom- 
 pey's Pillar, as it is erroneously called. 
 Of the so-called Cleopatra's Needles 
 two obelisks of the 16th century 
 B. c., which long stood there one 
 was taken to England and erected on 
 the Thames Embankment in 1878; 
 and the other was set up in Central 
 Park, New York. top. 319,766. 
 
 Alexandria, independent city and 
 port of entry of Virginia; on the Po- 
 tomac river and the Baltimore & 
 Ohio and other railroads; 6 miles S. 
 of Washington; has a good harbor, 
 large shipments of grains, and con- 
 siderable manufacturing interests; is 
 the seat of the Virginia Theological 
 Seminary (P. E.) and was the 
 headquarters of General Braddock in 
 1775. Pop. (1910) 15,329. 
 
 Alexandrian Codex, an impor- 
 tant manuscript of the sacred Scrip- 
 tures in Greek, now in the British Mu- 
 seum. It is written on parchment, in 
 finely formed uncial letters, and is 
 without accents, marks of aspiration, 
 or spaces between the words. Its 
 probable date is the middle of the 5th 
 century. 
 
 Alexandrian Library, a remark- 
 able collection of books, the largest of 
 the ancient world, was founded by the 
 first Ptolemy. Theodosius the Great 
 permitted all the heathen temples in 
 the Roman empire to be destroyed, the 
 magnificent temple of Jupiter Serapis, 
 containing the library, was not spared. 
 A mob of fanatic Christians, led on 
 by the Archbishop Theophilus, stormed 
 and destroyed the temple, together, it 
 is most likely, with the greater part 
 of its literary treasures, in 391 A. D. 
 It was at this time that the destruc-
 
 Alexius Comnenus 
 
 Alge> 
 
 tion of the Library was begun, and 
 dot at the taking of Alexandria by the 
 Arabs, under the Caliph Omar, in 641, 
 when its destruction was merely com- 
 pleted. 
 
 Alexius Comnenus, Byzantine 
 Emperor,, was born in 1048, and died 
 In 1118. He was a nephew of Isaac 
 the first emperor of the Comneni, and 
 attained the throne in 1081, at a time 
 when the empire was menaced from 
 Carious sides, especially by the Turks, 
 the Normans and the Crusaders. From 
 these dangers he extricated himself 
 by policy or warlike measures, and 
 maintained his position during a reign 
 \>f thirty-seven years. 
 
 Alfalfa, a prolific forage plant 
 belonging to the Legume family, large- 
 ly grown in the United States, and in 
 parts of Spanish America. Crops are 
 gathered three or four times a season. 
 Alfieri, Vittorio, Count, an 
 Italian dramatist, born in 1749; died 
 1803. His style founded a new school 
 in Italian drama. 
 
 Alfonso X., surnamed " the As- 
 tronomer," " the Philosopher," or 
 "the Wise" (El Sabio), King of 
 Leon and Castile, born in 1226 ; suc- 
 ceeded his father, Ferdinand III., in 
 1252. Alfonso was the founder of a 
 Castilian national literature. He died 
 in 1284. 
 
 Alfonso XII., King of Spain, the 
 only son of Queen Isabella II. and her 
 cousin, King Francis of Assisi, was 
 born Nov. 28, 1857. He left Spain 
 with his mother when she was driven 
 from the throne by the revolution of 
 1868. His mother had given up her 
 claims to the throne in 1870 in his 
 favor, and in 1874 Alfonso came for- 
 ward himself as claimant, and in the 
 end of the year was proclaimed by 
 Gen. Martinez Campos as king. Al- 
 fonso was successful in bringing the 
 Carlist struggle to an end (1876), and 
 henceforth he reigned with little 
 disturbance until his death in 1885. 
 He married first his cousin Maria de 
 las Mercedes, daughter of the Duke 
 de Montpensier; second, Maria Chris- 
 tina, Archduchess of Austria. 
 
 Alfonso XIII., King of Spain, son 
 of the late Alphonso XII. and Maria 
 Christina, daughter of the late Karl 
 Ferdinand, Arch-Duke of Austria, born 
 after his father's death, May 17, 1886. 
 
 as a male, becoming heir to the throne. 
 During his minority his mother was 
 made Queen Regent and directed his 
 education with great care. He form- 
 ally ascended the throne May 17, 1902. 
 On May 31, 1906, he married the 
 British Princess Victoria Ena of Bat- 
 tenberg. The wedding festivities were 
 marred by an attempt to assassinate 
 the royal pair, several persons being 
 killed by a bomb. On May 11, 1907, 
 their son Alfonso Pio Cristino Ed- 
 uardo, the heir-apparent, was born. 
 
 Alford, Henry, an English poet 
 and miscellaneous writer, philologist, 
 critic, artist, and preacher, born in 
 London, Oct. 7, 1810. He died at Can- 
 terbury, Jan. 12, 1871. 
 
 Alfred the Great,. King of Eng- 
 land, and one of the most illustrious 
 rulers on record; born in Wantage, in 
 Berkshire, 849 A. D. He defeated the 
 Danes, who were allotted that portion 
 of the E. of England which is now oc- 
 cupied by the modern counties of Nor- 
 folk, Suffolk, Cambridge, and Lincoln. 
 Alfred occupied himself with great 
 zeal in literary pursuits and in the 
 advancement of learning. This illus- 
 trious prince died, Oct. 28, 901, in the 
 30th year of his reign. 
 
 Algae, the general name for the 
 sea- weeds and similar plants, mostly 
 growing in salt and fresh water. 
 
 Algebra, that department of math- 
 ematics which enables one, by the aid 
 of certain symbols, to generalize, and, 
 therefore, to abbreviate, the methods 
 of solving questions relating to num- 
 bers. It is now regarded as the most 
 extensive department of mathematics. 
 
 Alger, Cyrus, an American in- 
 ventor, born in West Bridgewater, 
 Mass., Nov. 11, 1781. He learned the 
 iron foundry business, and in 1809 es- 
 tablished himself in South Boston, 
 where he soon made himself widely 
 known by the excellence of the ord- 
 nance he manufactured. He supplied 
 the United States Government with a 
 large quantity of cannon-balls during 
 the war of 1812 ; produced the first 
 gun ever rifled in America, as well as 
 the first perfect bronze cannon; and 
 supervised the casting of a mortar 
 which was the largest gun of cast-iron 
 that had then been made in the United 
 States. Subsequently he made im- 
 provements in the construction of timo
 
 Alger 
 
 fuses for bomb-shells and grenades ; 
 patented a method of making cast-iron 
 Chilled rolls; and was the original de- 
 signer of the cylinder stove. He died 
 in Boston, Mass., Feb. 4, 1856. 
 
 Alger, Horatio, an American 
 writer of juvenile books, born at Re- 
 vere, Mass., Jan. 13, 1834. He died 
 in Natick, Mass., July 18, 1899. 
 
 Alger, Russell Alexander, an 
 American merchant, capitalist, and 
 politician, born in Lafayette, O., Feb. 
 27, 1836. He served in the Civil War, 
 rising from a captaincy to the rank 
 of brevet Major-General of Volunteers. 
 He acquired a large fortune in West- 
 ern enterprises, particularly the lum- 
 ber business. He was Governor of 
 Michigan from 1885 to 1887; a candi- 
 date for the Republican presidential 
 nomination in 1888; Commander-in- 
 Chief of the Grand Army of the Re- 
 public 1889-90 ; U. S. Secretary of War 
 1897-99; published "The Spanish- 
 American War," 1901 ; became U. S. 
 Senator for Michigan 1902 ; re-elected 
 1903; died suddenly Jan. 24, 1907. 
 
 Alger, William Rouiiseville, an 
 American Unitarian clergyman and 
 writer, born at Freetown, Mass., Dec. 
 30, 1822. His chief works are " His- 
 tory of the Doctrine of a Future 
 Life" (1863) ; "Genius of Solitude" 
 (1865) : and "Friendships of Wom- 
 en" (1867). He occupied pulpits in 
 New York, Denver, Boston, and San 
 Francisco. He died Feb. 7, 1905. 
 
 Algeria, a French colony in the N. 
 of Africa; bounded on the N. by the 
 Mediterranean, on the E. by Tunis, on 
 the W. by Morocco, and on the S. by 
 the desert of Sahara. The country 
 now Algeria was for many years the 
 seat of a piratical despotism, tribu- 
 tary to the Sultan of Turkey, but 
 virtually independent. After the 
 Americans had gained independence 
 the Algerians were encouraged by the 
 British to prey on American com- 
 merce, so that the United States 
 might be prevented from rivalling 
 Great Britain in the Mediterranean. 
 American merchantmen were cap- 
 tured by the Algerian pirates, and 
 the crews were ransomed or enslaved. 
 In November, 1795, the United States 
 made a humiliating treaty agreeing 
 to pay to the Dey of Algiers a tribute 
 .equal to $22,000 yearly for " protec- 
 
 Algonkian 
 
 tion " to American commerce. When 
 the War of 1812 broke out the Dey 
 of Algiers ignored the treaty, and at- 
 tacked and plundered American ves- 
 sels. Promptly upon the conclusion 
 of peace with England the American 
 government proceeded to take ven- 
 geance on the Algerians, and a 
 powerful squadron under Captains 
 Decatur and Bainbridge was sent to 
 the Mediterranean. The Algerians 
 had a strong navy, and met the Amer- 
 icans with a superior force in ves- 
 sels and guns. The Mashouda, the 
 Algerian flagship, was captured after 
 a sanguinary struggle. The Dey in 
 terror acceded to all American de- 
 mands, agreed to forego tribute, and 
 gave up the American captives, who 
 kissed the American flag and wept 
 for joy. In the following year, 1816, 
 the British bombarded Algiers, and 
 forced the Dey to agree to put a stop 
 to piracy an agreement that was 
 not kept. In 1827 the French began 
 the work of conquering Algiers, and 
 after a struggle of about thirty years 
 they completely subdued the country, 
 and made it a peaceful and flourishing 
 colony of France. Algeria is govern- 
 ed by a governor-general, who is assist- 
 ed by a council appointed by the 
 French government. The settled por- 
 tion of the country, in the three de- 
 partments of Algiers, Constantine, and 
 Oran, is treated much as if it were a 
 part of France and each department 
 sends two deputies and one senator to 
 the French chambers. The rest of the 
 territory is under military rule. The 
 colony costs France a considerable sum 
 every year. Pop. of civil territory, 3,- 
 636,967; of military territory, 487,- 
 765; total 4,124,732. Algiers, the 
 capital is a growing city with a flour- 
 ishing trade and a population of about 
 100,000 in 1904. 
 
 Algonkian, or Algonquin, an 
 Indian linguistic stock, originally the 
 most extensive in North America. 
 The constant wars with the English. 
 French, and Dutch colonists depleted 
 their numbers. Filled at first with 
 the idea of freeing the soil from the 
 whites, they afterward degenerated 
 into mere mercenaries, fighting on 
 either side for revenge or gain. After 
 the War of 1812, in which they took 
 the side of the British, the United 
 States Government resolved to send
 
 Alliainbra 
 
 them as far W. as possible. After 
 1840, few of them remained E. of the 
 Mississippi. In Canada, they were 
 not removed from their homes, but 
 were limited as to territory. War and 
 disease have thinned their number, 
 until only 37,000 remain in the 
 United States, and 63,000 in Canada. 
 The chief occupations of the Algon- 
 kians were hunting, fishing and corn 
 raising. In character they were brave, 
 strong, and intelligent, but lacking in 
 steadfastness. They were not so united 
 as the Iroquois, owing to the multipli- 
 city of their languages. 
 
 Alhantbra, the famous palace of 
 the Moorish kings of Granada, situat- 
 ed on a hill N. of the town of Gra- 
 nada. In spite of its neglected condi- 
 tion, the Alhambra is the most re- 
 markable and most perfect specimen 
 of Moorish art to be found in Europe. 
 
 Alien and Sedition Acts, a series 
 of enactments during the administra- 
 tion of John Adams, the purpose of 
 which was to restrain the activity of 
 those who sympathized with France. 
 The extreme partisan spirit of these 
 acts caused a reaction, which was ex- 
 pressed in the Kentucky and Virginia 
 resolutions. 
 
 Alimentary Canal, the alimen- 
 tary tube ; the great tube or duct by 
 which food is conveyed into the stom- 
 ach, and from which the waste and 
 undigested food is excreted. 
 
 Alison, Sir Archibald, a Scot- 
 tish historian and writer, born at 
 Kenley, Shropshire, Dec. 29 1792. 
 His mangum opus "The history of 
 Europe from 1789 to 1815" was first 
 issued in 10 volumes in 1833-1842. He 
 subsequently brought down the narra- 
 tive to 1852, the date of the birth of 
 the second French empire. Died 1867. 
 
 Alizarine, a substance contained 
 In the madder root, and largely used 
 In dyeing reds of various shades. Form- 
 erly madder root was largely employ- 
 ed as a dye-stuff, but the use of the 
 root has been almost superseded by the 
 employment of alizarine, prepared arti- 
 ficially from one of the constituents of 
 coal-tar. It forms yellowish-red pris- 
 matic crystals, nearly insoluble in cold, 
 but dissolved to a small extent by boil- 
 Ing water, and readily soluble in alco- 
 hol and ether. It possesses exceeding- 
 ly strong tinctorial powers. 
 
 Allegheny 
 
 Alkali, a strong base, capable of 
 neutralizing acids, so that the salts 
 formed are either completely neutral, 
 or, if the acid is weak, give alkaline 
 reactions. It was formerly restricted 
 to the hydrates of potassium, sodium, 
 lithium and ammonium, but now in- 
 cludes the hydrates of alkaline earths 
 (baryta, strontia and lime) and many 
 organic substances. Alkalies are more 
 or less soluble in water. Caustic pot- 
 ash is used in surgery as a cautery. 
 
 Alkaloid, a term applied to a class 
 of nitrogenized compounds having cer- 
 tain alkaline properties, found in liv- 
 ing plants, and containing their active 
 principles, usually in combination with 
 organic acids. Their alkaline quali- 
 ties depend upon the nitrogen they 
 contain. Their names generally end 
 in ine, as morphine, quinine, acon- 
 itine, caffeine, &c. Most alkaloids oc- 
 cur in plants, but some are formed by 
 decomposition. The only property com- 
 mon to all alkaloids is that of combin- 
 ing with acids to form salts, and some 
 exhibit an alkaline reaction with col- 
 ors. Alkaloids form what is termed 
 the organic bases of plants. Although 
 formed originally within the plant, it 
 has been found possible to prepare 
 several of these alkaloids by purely 
 artificial means. 
 
 Allah, compounded of the article 
 al and ilah i. e., "the god," a word 
 cognate with the Hebrew Eloah), the 
 Arabic name of the supreme god among 
 the heathen Arabs, adopted, by Mo- 
 hammed for the one true God. See 
 MOHAMMED and MOHAMMEDANISM. 
 
 Alleghanies, a word used as syn- 
 onymous with the APPALACHIAN 
 MOUNTAINS (q. v.), sometimes ap- 
 plied only to that portion of the sys- 
 tem which extends from Pennsylvania 
 to North Carolina, and which forms 
 the watershed ^between the Atlantic 
 and the Mississippi. 
 
 Allegheny, a former city in Alle- 
 gheny co., Pa.; at the confluence of 
 the Allegheny and Monongahela riv- 
 ers, which here form the Ohio; and 
 on several railroads; opposite the 
 city of Pittsburg, the county-seat. 
 
 Allegheny was laid out as a town in 
 1788; created a borough in 1828, and 
 consolidated with Pittsburg in 1907. 
 Pop. (1890) 105,287; (1900) 120,- 
 896. See PITTSBUEQ.
 
 Allegheny River 
 
 All-Hallows' Eve 
 
 Allegheny River, a river of Penn- 
 sylvania and New York ; a headstream 
 of the Ohio. Its length is about 400 
 miles, and it is navigable for about 
 150 miles above Pittsburg. 
 
 Allen, Charles Grant Blairfin- 
 dle, generally known as Grant Allen, 
 an English author, born 1848, died 
 1899. His best known and most pop- 
 ular works are on scientific subjects, 
 although he also wrote many novels. 
 
 Allen, Charles Herbert, an 
 American diplomatist, born in Lowell, 
 Mass., April 15, 1848; was graduated 
 at Amherst College in 1869 ; became 
 associated with his father in the lum- 
 ber business in Lowell ; served in both 
 branches of the State Legislature, and 
 in Congress in 1885-1889 ; was defeat- 
 ed as the Republican candidate for 
 governor of Massachusetts in 1891 ; 
 and succeeded Theodore Roosevelt as 
 Assistant Secretary of the Navy, in 
 May, 1898. On the passage by Con- 
 gress of the ' Porto Rico Tariff and 
 Civil Government bill, in April, 1900, 
 the President appointed him the first 
 civil governor of Porto Rico, an office 
 which he resigned in July, 1901. 
 
 Allen, Edward P., an American 
 Roman Catholic clergyman, born in 
 Lowell, Mass., March 17, 1853 ; now 
 fifth Bishop of Mobile, Ala. 
 
 Allen, Elizabeth Akers, an 
 American poet, born (ELIZABETH 
 CHASE) at Strong, Me., Oct. 9, 1832. 
 She was married in 1860 to Paul 
 Akers, the sculptor, who died in 1S61, 
 and in 1865 to E. M. Allen, of New 
 York. 
 
 Allen, Ethan, an American Revo- 
 lutionary hero, born at Litchfield, 
 Conn., Jan. 10, 1737. His services in 
 the War of Independence, as Colonel 
 of the " Green Mountain Boys," cap- 
 turing Fort Ticonderoga " in the name 
 of the Great Jehovah and the Conti- 
 nental Congress," his attack on Mon- 
 treal, sufferings as a prisoner in Eng- 
 land, skillful diplomacy in behalf of 
 Vermont, etc., are well known. He 
 died near Burlington, Vt, Feb. 12, 
 1789. 
 
 Allen, James Lane, an Amer- 
 ican novelist, born near Lexington, 
 Ky., in 1850. His fame rests mainly 
 upon his powerful and popular novels 
 of manners and people in the " blue 
 grass " region and elsewhere. 
 
 Allen, Joel Asaph, an American 
 mammalogist, born in Springfield, 
 Mass., July 19, 1838. He went with 
 Agassiz on his expedition to Brazil in 
 1865 ; became assistant in ornithology 
 at the Cambridge Museum of Compar- 
 ative Zoology in 1870, and was ap- 
 pointed curator of the department of 
 vertebrate zoology in the American 
 Museum of Natural History, New 
 York, in 1885. 
 
 Allen, Joseph Henry, an Amer- 
 ican Unitarian minister, educator, his- 
 torian, and essayist, born at North- 
 borp, Mass., Aug. 21, 1821. He was 
 senior editor of the " History of Uni- 
 tarianism." He died in 1898. 
 
 Allen, Thomas, an American 
 landscape and animal painter, born at 
 St. Louis, Mo., Oct. 19, 1849. After 
 an education in St. Louis, he grad- 
 uated from the Royal Academy at 
 Diisseldorf, Germany. He 'studied in 
 France; exhibited his first picture at 
 the Academy of Design in New York, 
 and at the salons at Paris ; became 
 vice-president of the Boston Art Stu- 
 dents' Association ; member of the 
 committee of the School of Drawing 
 and Painting of the Boston Museum 
 of Fine Arts. 
 
 Allen, "William, an American 
 preacher and miscellaneous writer, 
 born at Pittsfield, Mass., Jan. 2, 1784; 
 died at Northampton, Mass., July 16, 
 1868. 
 
 Allen, William Henry, an Amer- 
 ican naval officer, born at Providence, 
 R. I., in 1784. He entered the navy 
 in 1800, and was in some of the great- 
 est naval battles in Amei lean history. 
 He died Aug. 15, 1813, from a wouud 
 received the previous day in a naval 
 fight, and was buried in England. 
 
 Allentown, city and capital of 
 Lehigh county, Pa.; on the Lehigh 
 river and canal and several rail- 
 roads; 60 miles N. W. of Philadel- 
 phia. It has large manufacturing in- 
 terests, including iron, silk, hardware, 
 furniture, shoes, wire, hosiery, and 
 thread; is the seat of Muhlenberg 
 College (Luth.) and Allentown Col- 
 lege for Women (Ref.); and has a 
 property valuation exceeding $35,- 
 000,000. Pop. (1910) 51,916. 
 
 All-Hallows' Eve, the 31st of Oc- 
 tober, the evening before All-Hallowi 
 (commonly known as Hallow E'en).
 
 Alliance 
 
 Alliance, a city in Stark county, 
 O., on the Mahoning river and the 
 Pennsylvania Co.'s railroad; 57 miles 
 S. E. of Cleveland; has large rolling 
 mills, steel-casting and boiler works, 
 and manufactories of gun-carriages, 
 steam hammers, and electric cranes; 
 seat of Mt. Union College (M. E.). 
 Pop. (1910) 15,083. 
 
 Allibone, Samuel Austin, an 
 American bibliographer, born at 
 Philadelphia, April 17, 1816. He was 
 at one time librarian of the Lenox 
 Library, New York. He died at 
 Lucerne, Switzerland, Sept. 2, 1889. 
 
 
 Allison, William Boyd, an 
 American legislator, born in Perry, O., 
 March 2, 1829 ; was brought up on a 
 farm ; and subsequently educated at 
 Allegheny College, Pa., and Western 
 Reserve College, O. He practiced law 
 in his native State till 1857, when he 
 removed to Dubuque, la. In the early 
 part of the Civil War he served on 
 the governor's staff, and was actively 
 engaged in raising troops for the 
 Union army. In 1863--1871 he was a 
 representative in Congress ; and on 
 March 4, 1873, entered the United 
 States Senate as a Republican, to 
 which he was re-elected in 1878, 1884, 
 1890, and 1896. He was a delegate to 
 the Republican National Convention 
 in Chicago, in 1860 ; and several times 
 has been a conspicuous candidate for 
 the presidential nomination of his 
 party. He died Aug. 8, 1908. 
 
 Allopathy, a system of medicine 
 the object of which is to produce in 
 the bodily frame another condition of 
 things than that in or from which the 
 disease has originated. Allopathy is 
 opposed to homreopathy, which aims 
 at curing diseases by producing in 
 antagonism to them symptoms similar 
 to those which they produce. Up-to- 
 date doctors practise what they believe 
 to be good in both systems, and the 
 distinction is now largely nominal. 
 
 Alloy, a compound or mixture of 
 two or more metals. 
 
 All-Saints' Bay, in the State of 
 Bahia, on the coast of Brazil, forms 
 a superb natural harbor, in which the 
 navies of the whole world might ride 
 at anchor. Its length from N. to S. 
 is 37 miles ; its breadth from E. to W., 
 27. The town of Bahia lies just with- 
 in it. 
 
 Almagro 
 
 All-Saints' Day, a festival insti- 
 tuted by Pope Boniface IV., early in 
 the 7th century, on the occasion of 
 his transforming the Roman heathen 
 Pantheon into a Christian temple or 
 church, and consecrating it to the Vir- 
 gin Mary and all the martyrs. 
 
 Allspice, a kind of pepper, consist- 
 ing of the dried berries of pimenta 
 officinalis, a tree belonging to the or- 
 der myrtaceae (myrtle blooms). It 
 is imported almost entirely from Ja- 
 maica, and is hence called Jamaica 
 pepper. 
 
 Allston, Washington, an emi- 
 nent American painter, poet, and ro- 
 mancer, born at Waccamaw, S. C., 
 Nov. 5, 1779 ; graduated at Harvard 
 in 1800 ; studied at the Royal Acad- 
 emy, London, and in Rome, and re- 
 turned to Boston in 1809. He died in 
 Cambridge, Mass., July 9, 1843. 
 
 Alma, a river in the Crimea, Rus- 
 sia, flowing westward into the Bay of 
 Kalamita, about half way between Eu- 
 patoria and Sebastopol. On the steep 
 banks of the stream, through the chan- 
 nel of which the British troops waded 
 amid a shower of bullets, a brilliant 
 victory was won on Sept. 20, 1854, 
 by the allied armies of England and 
 France, under Lord Raglan and Mar- 
 shal St. Arnaud, over the Russian 
 army commanded by Prince Menschi- 
 koff. It was the first battle of the 
 Crimean War. 
 
 Almaden, a town in Spain, 50 
 miles S. W. of Ciudad Real, situated 
 in the chain of the Sierra Morena. It 
 is famous for its 12 rich quicksilver 
 mines, employing about 4,000 miners, 
 and yielding an annual output of 2,- 
 500,000 pounds. 
 
 Almagro, Diego d', a Spanish 
 conquistador, was born in 1464 or 
 1475, and was a foundling who de- 
 rived his name from the town near 
 which he was found. After serving 
 in the army, he sailed to seek his for- 
 tune in the New World, where he 
 amassed considerable wealth by plun- 
 der, and became one of the leading 
 members of the young colony of Dar- 
 ien. In 1522 he formed, with Pizarro, 
 the design of conquering Peru an 
 undertaking crowned 10 years after- 
 ward with marvellous success. Receiv- 
 ing permission from the Spanish court 
 to conquer for himself a special prov-
 
 Almanac 
 
 ince S. of Pizarro's territory, he 
 marched on Chile in 1536, penetrated 
 as far as the Coquimbo, and returned 
 in 1537, just when the Peruvians had 
 flown to arms and shut up the Span- 
 iards in Cuzco and Lima. As these 
 towns lay S. of Pizarro's district, they 
 were claimed by Almagro. He dis- 
 persed the Peruvian army before Cuz- 
 co, and advanced against Lima, hoping 
 to make himself sole master of the 
 country. But on April 6, 1538, he 
 was defeated in a desperate engage- 
 ment with the Spaniards under Pizar- 
 ro near Cuzco ; and on the 26th he was 
 strangled in prison, and his corpse be- 
 headed in the market place of Cuzco. 
 His half-caste son, Diego, collecting 
 some hundreds of his father's follow- 
 ers, stormed Pizarro's palace, and 
 slew him (1541) ; then proclaimed 
 himself captain-general of Peru ; but, 
 defeated in the bloody battle of Chu- 
 pas, Sept. 16, 1542, he was executed 
 along with 40 of his companions. . 
 
 Almanac, an annual compilation, 
 based on the calendar, embracing in- 
 formation pertinent to the various 
 days of the year, the seasons, etc., 
 with astronomical calculations and 
 miscellaneous intelligence more or less 
 detailed, according to the special pur- 
 pose for which it is prepared. 
 
 Alma-Tadema, Sir Laurenz, dis- 
 tinguished figure painttr, born in 
 Friesland, Jan. 8, 18oO; educated 
 principally at the Antwerp Academy; 
 elected to the Royal Academy, London, 
 in 1879; officer of the Legion of Honor, 
 1878; and member of the leading 
 academies of Europe; studio in Lon- 
 don. He died June 24, 1912. 
 
 Almoliades, the name of a Mos- 
 lem dynasty that ruled in Africa and 
 Spain during the 12th and 13th cen- 
 turies. 
 
 Almond, the fruit of the almond 
 tree, which grows usually to the height 
 of 12 or 14 feet. Its pink flowers, 
 composed of five petals, grow in pairs, 
 and appear very early in spring. The 
 almonds which are consumed in the 
 United States are imported, some~ 
 times in the shell, and often without, 
 from France, Spain, Italy, and the 
 Levant. 
 
 Almonte, Juan Nepoinuceno, a 
 Mexican general, believed to be the 
 eon of the priest Morelos, bom in 
 
 1804. As a boy he took part in the war 
 for independence. He took part in the 
 battles of Buena Vista and Ccrro Gor- 
 do in 1847. In 1861, when Juarez at- 
 j tained power, he deposed Almonte, 
 who, led by party hatred and ambi- 
 tion, invited the French expedition to 
 Mexico. In the beginning of 1862 he 
 joined the French troops of occupation 
 at Vera Cruz ; but, as the Mexicans 
 saw in him only a tool of the French 
 plans, they renounced the idea of 
 making him French dictator, support- 
 ed by French bayonets. The French 
 general, himself, deprived him of pow- 
 er, but when, on the 10th of June, 
 1863, he reached the Cit- of Mexico 
 with the French, he-was placed by the 
 conquerors at the head of the Regency 
 of the Mexican Empire. The Emperor 
 Maximilian appointed him field-mar- 
 shal, but, after Maximilian's death, he 
 fled to Europe, and died in Paris, 
 March 22, 1869. 
 
 Almqnist, Karl Jonas Ludvig, 
 a notable Swedish poet, novelist and 
 miscellaneous writer, born in Stock- 
 holm, Nov. 28, 1793. He died in Bre- 
 men, Sept. 26, 1866. 
 
 Aloe, any species of the genus de- 
 scribed under botany (below), or even 
 of one, such as agave, with a close an- 
 alogy to it. The American aloe is 
 the agave americana, an amaryllid. 
 The aloe of Scripture is probably the 
 agallochum. 
 
 Alopecia, a variety of baldness in 
 which the hair falls off from the beard 
 and eyebrows, as well as the scalp. 
 
 Alpaca, the name given to a spe- 
 cies of llama, which has for a long 
 time back been domesticated in Peru. 
 
 Alpha and Omega, the first and 
 last letters of the Greek alphabet, 
 \ sometimes used to signify the begin- 
 ning and the end, or the first and the 
 last of anything ; also as a symbol of 
 the Divine Being. They were also 
 formerly the symbol of Christianity, 
 and engraved accordingly on the tombs 
 of the ancient Christians. 
 
 Alphabet, so called from alpha 
 and beta, the first two Greek letters, 
 is the name given to a set of graphic 
 ; signs, called letters, denoting element- 
 ary sounds, by the combination of 
 , which words can be visibly repre- 
 sented. Nearly 200 alphabets, ancient 
 i and modern, are known, of which
 
 Alpine Plants 
 
 Altar 
 
 about 50 are now in use. Most of 
 them are developments from the prim- 
 
 cations connect it with nearly all the 
 mountain systems of Europe. The 
 culminating peak is Mont Blanc, 15,- 
 781 feet high, though the true center 
 is the St. Gothard, or the mountain 
 mass where it belongs, from the slopes 
 of which flow, either directly or by 
 affluents, the great rivers of Central 
 Europe, the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, 
 and Po. 
 Alsace-Lorraine (German, El- 
 sass-Lothringen) , since its cession by 
 France, in 1871, a State or " imperial 
 territory" (Reichsland) of the Ger- 
 man empire. Area, 5,580 square 
 miles ; population, 1,719,470, of whom 
 eighty per cent speak German. It 
 is governed as a subject province. 
 On May 9, 1902, Emperor William 
 directed that a bill be laid before 
 the Federal Council abolishing para- 
 graph 10 in the imperial constitution, 
 which imposed practically a dictator- 
 ship on the reichsland of Alsace-Lor- 
 raine. This imperial action was 
 wholly unexpected, and excited the 
 marked gratitude of the people 
 affected. The bill was passed. 
 Altar, an erection made for the of- 
 fering of sacrifices for memorial pur- 
 poses, or for some other object. An 
 
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 VIII 
 
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 ALPHABETS. 
 
 itive Phoenician alphabet, which was 
 itself ultimately derived from the 
 Egyptian hieroglyphic picture-writing. 
 
 Alpine Plants, the name given 
 to those plants whose habitat is in 
 the neighborhood of the snow, on 
 mountains partly covered with it all 
 the year round. As the height of the 
 snow-line varies according to the lati- 
 tude and local conditions, so also does 
 the height at which these plants grow. 
 
 Alps, the highest and most exten- 
 sive system of mountains in Europe, 
 included between lat. 44 and 48 N., 
 and long. 5 and 18 E., covering the 
 greater part of Northern Italy, several 
 departments of France, nearly the 
 whole of Switzerland, and a large part 
 of Austria, while its extensive ramifi- 
 
 GOTHIO ALTAB. 
 
 altar designed for sacrifice is men- 
 tioned in Scripture as early as the
 
 Alterative 
 
 time of Noah (Genesis viii : 20). 
 Abraham, Isaac and Jacob built sev- 
 eral altars in places where for a brief 
 or more lengthened period they so- 
 journed. Most of these appear to 
 liave been for sacrificial purposes,and 
 one or two seem to have been for me- 
 morial ends; but the most unequivocal 
 case of the memorial altar was subse- 
 quently. (Josh, xxii: 10-34; Gen. 
 xii: 7, 8; xiii: 4, 18; xxii: 9; xxvi: 
 25; xxxiii: 20; xxxv: 1, 7.) 
 
 Alterative, a kind of medicine 
 which, when given, appears for a time 
 to have little or no effect, but which 
 ultimately changes, or tends to change, 
 a morbid state into one of health. 
 
 Altgeld, John Peter, author, 
 lawyer, and judge, born in Germany, 
 in December, 1847. When but a few 
 months old he was taken to Mansfield, 
 Ohio. He was Judge of the Supreme 
 Court at Chicago, in 1886-1891, and 
 Governor of Illinois in 1893. His 
 pardon of the Anarchists caused much 
 controversy. He died March 12, 1902. 
 
 Altitude, ni mathematics the per- 
 pendicular height of the vertex or 
 apex of a plane figure or solid above 
 the base. In astronomy it is the ver- 
 tical height of any point or body 
 above the horizion. 
 
 Alton, city in Madison county, 
 111.; on the Mississippi river and sev- 
 (eral trunk line railroads; 3 miles 
 above the mouth of the Missouri, 25 
 miles N. of St. Louis. It is built on 
 a high bluff, with picturesque sur- 
 roundings; has a costly bridge span- 
 ning the Mississippi; contains the 
 Cathedral of Sts. Peter and Paul 
 (R. C.) and several collegiate and 
 charitable institutions; and <|hip3 lime, 
 coal, and stone. Pop. (1910) 17,528. 
 
 Altoona, city in Blair county, 
 Pa.; on the Pennsylvania railroad, 
 at the '. . base of the Alleghany 
 mountain-; 117 miles E. of Pitts- 
 burg. It is a mining, manufactur- 
 ing, lumbering, and farming trade 
 center for Central Pennsylvania; \ 
 and, besides extensive machine shops 
 of the Pennsylvania railroad, has 
 large car works, rolling and planing 
 mills, and other industrial plants, 
 with annual product valued at over 
 $15,000,000. Pop. (1910) 52,127. 
 
 Altranstadt, an important village 
 in the Prussian Province of Saxony, 
 
 Alv 
 
 near Lutzen. Through the Treaty of 
 Altranstadt of Aug. 30, 1707, Charles 
 XII. obtained from the Emperor Jo- 
 hann Joseph I. religious liberty and 
 toleration for the Protestants of Si- 
 lesia. 
 
 Altruism, a term used in psychol- 
 ogy and ethics to denote disposition 
 and conduct directed toward the well- 
 being of others. It is contrasted with 
 egoism, or self-seeking disposition and 
 conduct. 
 
 Alnm, the name given to double 
 salts of sulphate of aluminum with 
 sulphates of potassium, sodium, am- 
 monium, or of other monatomic met- 
 als, as silver, thallium, caesium, ru- 
 bidium. They crystallize in octo- 
 hedra. Alnm has a sweet astringent 
 taste, reddens litmus paper, and dis- 
 solves in its own weight of boiling 
 water. 
 
 Aluminum, a metal discovered by 
 Wohler in 1827, as a gray powder, but 
 in 1847 in the form of small, glittering 
 metallic globules. It is a white metal, 
 somewhat resembling silver, but pos- 
 sessing a bluish hue, which reminds 
 one of zinc. It is very malleable and 
 ductile, in tenacity it approaches iron, 
 and it takes a high polish. 
 
 Alva, or Alba, Ferdinand Al- 
 varez de Toledo, Duke of, prime 
 minister and general of the Spanish 
 armies under Charles V. and Philip 
 II., was born in 1508, of one of the 
 most illustrious families of Spain. 
 He entered the army a mere youth, 
 and fought in the wars of Charles V. 
 in France, Italy, Africa, Hungary, 
 and Germany. He is more specially 
 remembered for his bloody and tyran- 
 nical government of the Netherlands 
 (1567-1573), which had revolted, and 
 which he was commissioned by Philip 
 II. to reduce to entire subjection to 
 Spain. Among his first proceedings 
 was to establish the " Council of 
 Blood," a tribunal which condemned, 
 without discrimination, all whose 
 opinions were suspected, and whose 
 riches were coveted. The present and 
 absent, the living and the dead, were 
 subjected to trial and their property 
 confiscated. Many merchants and me- 
 chanics emigrated to England ; people 
 by hundreds of thousands abandoned 
 their country. The most oppressive 
 taxes were imposed, and trade was
 
 Alvary 
 
 Amazon 
 
 brought completely to a standstill. As 
 a reward for his services to the faith, 
 the Pope presented him with a conse- 
 crated hat and sword, a distinction 
 previously conferred only on princes. 
 Resistance was only quelled for a 
 time, and soon the provinces of Hol- 
 land and Zealand revolted against his 
 tyranny. A fleet which was fitted out 
 at his command, was annihilated, and 
 he was everywhere met with insuper- 
 able courage. Hopeless of finally sub- 
 duing the country, he asked to be re- 
 called, and, accordingly, in December, 
 1573, Alva left the country, in which, 
 as he himself boasted, he had executed 
 18,000 men. He died Jan. 12, 1582. 
 
 Alvary, Max, a German tenor, 
 son of the painter, Andreas Achen- 
 bach, whose name, however, he never 
 used, born at Diisseldorf, May 1, 1858. 
 He was first a merchant ; then an 
 architect in Cologne ; studied singing 
 with L*mperti in Milan, and with 
 Stockhausen in Frankfort-on-the- 
 Main ; and joined the court opera in 
 Weimar. In 1884 he went to New 
 York, where for five years he distin- 
 guished himself as " Tannhauser," 
 " Siegfried," " Tristan," " Loge," 
 " Walter Stolzing," and other Wag- 
 nerian characters. In 1890, he re- 
 turned to Germany and sang at the 
 City Theater in Hamburg. He re- 
 turned to the United States again in 
 1896. He died near Grosstabarz, Nov. 
 7, 1898. 
 
 Amadens, a common name in the 
 house of Savoy. Amadeus I., of Spain, 
 born in 1845, brother of King Victor 
 Emmanuel of Italy, was elected King 
 of Spain in 1870, abdicated in 1873, 
 and died in 1890. 
 
 Amalfi, a city and seaport, in the 
 Province of Salerno, Italy ; on the 
 Gulf of Salerno; 22 miles S. E. of 
 Naples. It contained a cathedral 
 with bronze doors cast in Constanti- 
 nople in 1066, and a Capuchin mon- 
 astery, which, in recent years, became 
 a popular hotel. On Dec. 24, 1899, a 
 portion of the rocks and land facing 
 the Gulf suddenly slid into the water, 
 carrying down the ancient monastery 
 building and other structures. 
 
 Amalgam, the union or alloy of 
 any metal with quicksilver (mercury). 
 
 Amaiia, a communistic German col- 
 ony in Iowa, 28 miles W. of Iowa 
 
 City, founded by the Amanites, who 
 branched out from the so-called " In- 
 spiration Congregation," consisting of 
 seven villages, with over 2,000 inhabi- 
 tants, which, through agriculture, wool 
 and cotton spinning, have attained 
 great prosperity. 
 
 Aiuanita, a genus of fungi, nearly 
 allied to the mushrooms. Several of 
 
 YOUNG AMANITA. ADULT AMANITA. 
 
 the species are edible, notably the de- 
 licious orange (A. csesarea), but the 
 majority are poisonous. 
 
 Amarillo, city and capital of Pot- 
 ter county, Tex.; on the Fort Worth 
 & Denver City railroad; 82 miles N. 
 W. of Memphis; is in a stock raising 
 and farming section; and is a ship- 
 ping point for cattle and horses. 
 Pop. (1910) 9,957. 
 
 Amaryllis, a genus of plants, the 
 typical one of the order amaryllida- 
 ceae. 
 
 Amati, a family of Cremona, in 
 the 16th and 17th centuries, famous 
 for their violins, which are at the 
 present time valued very highly on ac- 
 count of their tone, which is beautiful 
 and pure, though not very strong. 
 They are sometimes called Cremona 
 violins. 
 
 Amanrosis, a disease of the eye, 
 arising from impaired sensibility of 
 the retina. 
 
 Amazon, a river of South America, 
 the largest in the world, formed by a 
 great number of sources which rise in 
 the Andes ; general course N. of E. ;
 
 Amazon 
 
 length, including windings, between 
 3,000 and 4,000 miles; area of drain- 
 age basin, 2,300,000 square miles. 
 
 Amazon, or Amazone (from a = 
 without, and mazos=the breast, from 
 the story that the Amazons cut off 
 their right breast to prevent its inter- 
 fering with the use of the bow), a na- 
 tion on the river Thermodon, the mod- 
 ern Termeh in Pontus, in Asia Minor, 
 said to consist entirely of women re- 
 nowned for their love of manly sports, 
 and as warriors. Men were excluded 
 from their territory, and commerce 
 was held only with strangers, while all 
 male children born among them were 
 killed. 
 
 Amber, as a mineral, called also 
 succinite, from Latin succinum Cam- 
 ber. Its color is generally yellow, but 
 sometimes reddish, brownish, or whit- 
 ish and clouded. It is resinous in lus- 
 ter, always translucent, and sometimes 
 transparent. It is brittle, and yields 
 easily to the knife. 
 
 Ambergris, a substance derived 
 from the intestines of the sperm whale, 
 and found floating or on the shore. 
 
 Ambos Camarines, a province 
 of Luzon, Philippine Islands, com- 
 prising two former provinces, and 
 forming a long peninsula with its 
 main frontage on the Pacific Ocean 
 facing X. E. and E.; area, with de- 
 pendent islands, 3.161 sq. m.; pop. 
 (1903) 239,405, of whom 5,933 were 
 wild; race, chiefly Vicoles. 
 
 Ambrose, St., a celebrated father 
 of the Church; born in 333 or 334 
 A. B., probably at Treves, where his 
 father was prefect; died in 397. He 
 introduced the Ambrosian chant, and 
 compiled a ritual known by his name. 
 
 Ambrosia, in Greek mythology, 
 the food of the gods, as nectar was 
 their drink. 
 
 Ambrosian Library, a public li- 
 rary in Milan, founded by the Cardi- 
 nal Archbishop Federigo Borromeo, a 
 relation of St. Charles Borromeo, and 
 opened in 1609 ; now containing 160,- 
 000 printed books and 8,000 MSS. It 
 was named in honor of St. Ambrose, 
 the patron saint of Milan. 
 
 Ambrosins, Johanna, a German 
 poet and story writer, born at Leng- 
 wethen, East Prussia, Aug. 3, 1854. 
 Daughter of an artisan, and married 
 in 1874 to a peasant's son by the name 
 
 America 
 
 of Voigt, she led the hard life of a 
 peasant woman till, in middle age, she 
 wrote verses, which were published in 
 a weekly newspaper ; their success led 
 to the publication of other poems and 
 stories of hers, which have had ex- 
 tremely wide circulation. 
 
 Ambulance, a hospital establish- 
 ment which accompanies an army in 
 its movements in the field for the pur- 
 pose of providing assistance and surgi- 
 cal treatment to the soldiers wounded 
 in battle. The name is also given to 
 one of the carts or wagons used to 
 transfer the wounded from the spot 
 where they fell to the hospital. Also 
 to the vehicles used in cities to con- 
 vey the very sick or injured to 
 hospitals. 
 
 Amen, a Hebrew word of assever- 
 ation, equivalent to " Yea," " Truly," 
 which has been commonly adopted in 
 the forms of Christian worship. It is 
 also used by the Mohammedans. 
 
 Amendment, in law, the correc- 
 tion of any mistake discovered in a 
 writ or process. 
 
 In legislative proceedings, a clause, 
 sentence, or paragraph proposed to be 
 substituted for another, or to be in- 
 serted in a bill before Congress, and 
 which, if carried, actually becomes 
 part of the bill itself. As a rule 
 amendments do not overthrow the 
 principle of a bill. 
 
 In public meetings, a proposed alter- 
 ation of the terms of a motion laid 
 before a meeting for acceptance. 
 
 A Mensa et Thoro, a legal term 
 used when a wife is divorced from her 
 husband (as far as bed and board are 
 concerned), liability, however, re- 
 maining on him for her separate main- 
 tenance. 
 
 Amentb.es, the unseen world of 
 the ancient Egyptians, the Hades of 
 the Greeks, who borrowed their ideas 
 about the lower world from Egypt. 
 
 America, or the New World, the 
 largest of the great divisions of the 
 globe except Asia, is washed on the 
 W. by the Pacific, on the E. by the At- 
 lantic, on the N. by the Arctic, and on 
 the S. by the Antarctic Ocean. On 
 the N. W. it approaches at Bering 
 Straits within 48 miles of Asia, and 
 on the N. E. Greenland approaches 
 within 370 miles of the European is- 
 land Iceland; but in the S. the dis-
 
 America 
 
 tance between the American mainland 
 and the E. continent is much greater, 
 the shortest distance between its E. 
 coast and the W. coast of Africa being 
 1,600 miles, and between its W. coast 
 and the E. coasts of Asia and Aus- 
 tralia from six to eight times more. 
 The extreme points of America are 
 N., the point of Boothia Felix, in the 
 Strait of Bellot, lat. 71 56' N., Ion. 
 94 34' W. ; S., Cape Froward, lat. 
 53 53' 45" S., Ion. 71 18' 30" W., 
 or, if the archipelago of Tierra del 
 Fuego is included, Cape Horn, lat 55 
 59' S., Ion. 67 16' W. ; W., Cape 
 Prince of Wales, lat. 65 33' N., Ion. 
 167 59' W. ; and E., the Point de 
 Guia, lat 7 26' S., Ion. 34 47' W. 
 The entire American continent has a 
 length of about 9,500 miles ; a maxi- 
 mum breadth, between Cape Prince of 
 Wales and Cape Charles in North 
 America, of 3,500 miles ; a coast-line 
 of 43,200 miles ; and a total area, in- 
 cluding the islands, estimated at about 
 15,896,000 square miles. 
 
 The climate of America, even in the 
 equatorial regions, is characterized as 
 comparatively cool and humid. This 
 is justly ascribed to the vast extent 
 of territory that may be classed as 
 insular to the copious waters , of 
 the interior, together with the mag- 
 nificent vegetation produced by them 
 to the configuration of the surface 
 and the nature of the soil to the 
 possession of a polar shore and to 
 the prevailing winds. The rainy zone 
 is disproportionately extended in 
 America ; and as the continent 
 stretches over all the zones, the vege- 
 tation is remarkably diversified, from 
 the lowly moss of the N. to the lord- 
 ly banana of the tropics. The giant 
 coast chain of the Andes everywhere 
 rises above the snow-line. From the 
 sterile Peruvian coast, burned up by 
 tropical heats, one can look up to 
 summits covered with perpetual snow 
 and ice ; and one may climb from the 
 gigantic equatorial vegetation of Qui- 
 to to heights where only the condor 
 testifies to the existence of organic 
 life, and wings his flight over snow 
 fields and glaciers. In Peru the cul- 
 ture of cereals is carried on at the 
 height of 12,000, and near Quito at 
 9,000 feet. The N. and S. of Amer- 
 ica have the same length of day ; out 
 in the seasons, which depend not mere- 
 
 America 
 
 ly on astronomical but on a variety 
 of local causes, the analogy does not 
 hold, and very remarkable discrepan- 
 cies appear. Thus, for example, the 
 E. coast of Brazil has the rainy sea- 
 son from March to September, while 
 Peru, lying under the very same lati- 
 tude, has it from November to March. 
 Within the tropics the transition from 
 the rainy to the dry season takes place 
 almost instantaneously ; but in re- 
 ceding from the tropics on either side 
 the change of seasons becomes more 
 and more gradual, till at last in the 
 polar zones, nature, bound in icy 
 chains, affords for living existence 
 only a short awakening out of a long 
 winter sleep. 
 
 If America, in respect of the devel- 
 opment of vegetable life, takes prece- 
 dence of all other quarters of the 
 globe, it cannot advance the same 
 claim in respect of the animal world, 
 though it must be admitted that here 
 too it has its own peculiar features. 
 The American jaguar and cougar, or 
 puma, have not the majesty of the 
 Asiatic tiger or the African lion ; the 
 tapir is only a very humble represen- 
 tative of the elephant or hippopota- 
 mus, and the llama falls far short of 
 the camel. Still, America has many 
 animals which belong only to itself. 
 It has its own species of bears (the 
 grizzly being most formidable) , wolf, 
 and deer, the bison and musk ox, 
 with special kinds of squirrels, etc. 
 To it also belong the Virginia stag, 
 the wild sheep of California, the opos- 
 sum, and raccoon. Characteristic of 
 Central and South America are sloths, 
 ant-eaters, and armadillos, the con- 
 dor among the heights of the Andes, 
 the most beautiful parrots as well as 
 peculiar monkeys in the woods, the 
 humming bird with its rich metallic 
 plumage, the rattlesnake, the alliga- 
 tor or cayman on the banks of the 
 streams, the electrical eel in the trop- 
 ical waters, swarms of mosquitoes on 
 the wide plains, and sea fowl in such 
 numbers on the W. coast as to have 
 furnished large deposits of guano, to 
 which some of the richest countries 
 of Europe are indebted for the means 
 of extending and largely increasing 
 the product of their agriculture. 
 
 The independent States of both 
 North and South America are now 
 all republican in their form of
 
 American Federation 
 
 Americanisms 
 
 government, though it was only in 
 1889 that Brazil became a republic 
 instead of an empire. The differ- 
 ent independent States are as 
 follows : In NORTH. AMERICA 1. 
 The United States; 2. Mexico; 3. Ni- 
 caragua ; 4. Honduras ; 5. Guatema- 
 la; 6. Costa Rica; 7. (San) Salva- 
 dor. In the WEST INDIES 8. Cuba ; 
 9. Haiti ; 10. San Domingo. In 
 SOUTH AMERICA 11. Venezuela ; 
 12. Colombia ; 13. Peru ; 14. Ecuador ; 
 15. Bolivia ; 16. Argentine Republic ; 
 17. Uruguay; 18. Paraguay; 19. Chi- 
 le; 20. Brazil: 21. Panama. The 
 European colonies in America are : the 
 Dominion of Canada, including the 
 provinces of Ontario, Quebec. Nova 
 Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba, 
 British Columbia. Prince Edward Is- 
 land, and the Northwest Territories, 
 etc. ; Newfoundland ; and the Bermu- 
 das, all belonging to Great Britain ; 
 Greenland, belonging to Denmark ; 
 and St. Pierre and Miquelon to 
 France. The WEST INDIAN ISLANDS 
 comprise the republics of Haiti, San 
 Domingo, and Cuba ; Porto Rico, for- 
 merly Spanish, is now a territory of 
 the United States; the British pos- 
 sessions of Jamaica, Trinidad, Bar- 
 bados, Grenada, St. Vincent, Tobago, 
 St. Lucia, Antigua, Montserrat, St. 
 Christopher, Anguilla, Nevis, Virgin 
 Islands, Dominica, the Bahamas, 
 Turk's Island, etc. ; the French pos- 
 sessions of Guadeloupe and depen- 
 dencies (including St. Bartholo- 
 mew's), Martinique, the N. part of 
 the island of St. Martin's ; the Dutch 
 possessions, the S. side of St. Mar- 
 tin's Curasao and its dependencies; 
 Santa Cruz, St. Thomas and St. 
 John's, possessions of Denmark 
 which agreed by treaty (Jan. 24, 
 1902) to sell them to the United 
 States. In South America the Brit- 
 ish possess (besides the Falkland 
 Islands) an important part of Gui- 
 ana, the remaining portions being 
 owned respectively by the French and 
 Dutch. 
 
 The merit of first unlocking the 
 American continent to modern 
 Europe belongs to the Genoese 
 Christopher Columbus, who, after a 
 voyage of discovery as dangerous 
 as it was fortunate, discovered, in 
 October, 1492, Guanahani, one of 
 the Bahamas, and named it San 
 
 Salvador. It is certain, however, 
 that Europeans had in the earlier 
 part of the Middle Ages, and on dif- 
 ferent occasions, discovered the 
 American coasts. Northmen proceed- 
 ing from Iceland discovered the N. 
 polar land of Greenland. The Ice- 
 lander Bjorne Herjulfson in 986, got 
 a glimpse of the coasts of Massachu- 
 setts and Rhode Island, which in the 
 year 1000 were visited by Leif the 
 Lucky, and named by him Vinland. 
 In 1388 and 1390 Niccolo and Anto- 
 nio Zeni undertook voyages to the 
 North Atlantic Ocean, and were 
 wrecked on Frieslanda, probably the 
 Faroe Islands ; thereafter they saw 
 a part of the N. E. coast of Amer- 
 ica, probably Nova Scotia, which they 
 named Drogno. These discoveries, 
 however, had no influence on the en- 
 terprise of Columbus, and cannot de- 
 tract in the least from his merit ; 
 they were forgotten, and had never 
 been made known to the inhabitants 
 of the S. of Europe. Though Colum- 
 bus was the first of his time who 
 set foot on the New World, it has 
 taken its name not from him, but 
 from Amerigo Vespucci. The main- 
 land was first seen in 1497 by Sebas- 
 tian Cabot, who sailed under the 
 patronage of Henry VII. of England. 
 
 American Federation of La- 
 bor, a general representative organ- 
 ization of the labor unions and socie- 
 ties of the United States; founded at 
 Columbus, O., in December, 1886, as 
 the successor of a somewhat similar 
 association which dated back to 1866. 
 Its principal objects are to promote 
 the interests and influences of trades 
 unions, to aid in creatiag new unions, 
 and to advance the general cause of 
 organized labor. It does not under- 
 take, however, to exercise any ab- 
 solute authority over affiliated socie- 
 ties, as is done by the Knights of 
 Labor. It has been especially active 
 in agitating Jior " eight-hour " legis- 
 lation. The Federation is composed 
 of 118 affiliated national unions, 38 
 state branches, 594 city central 
 unions, and 27,000 local unions, and 
 had a membership of over 2,000,000. 
 
 American Indians. See INDIANS, 
 AMERICAN. 
 
 Americanisms, a word defined aa 
 a term, phrase, or idiom of the Eng- 
 lish language as spoken in America
 
 Americanisms 
 
 Americanisms 
 
 (or in the United States) which either 
 (a) originated in America; or, (b) 
 is peculiar to America; or, (c) is 
 chiefly employed in America. The fol- 
 lowing is a list of a few of the more 
 noteworthy Americanisms : 
 
 Around or round. About or near. 
 To hang around is to loiter about. 
 
 Backwoods. The partially cleared 
 forest regions in the western states. 
 
 Bayou. In Louisiana, a term given 
 to a small stream. The same as ' 'creek." 
 
 Bee. An assemblage of persons to 
 unite their labors for the benefit of 
 an individual or family or to carry 
 out a joint scheme. 
 
 Bogus. False ; counterfeit. 
 
 Boss. An employer or superinten- 
 dent of laborers ; a leader. 
 
 Bulldoze, to. To intimidate. 
 
 Bunco. A swindling game. 
 
 Buncombe or Bunkum. A. speech 
 made solely to please a constituency ; 
 calking for talking's sake, and in an 
 inflated style. 
 
 Calculate. To suppose, to believe, 
 to think. 
 
 Camp-meeting. A meeting held in 
 the fields or woods for religious pur- 
 poses, and where the assemblage en- 
 camp and remain for several days. 
 
 Car. A carriage or wagon of a 
 railway train. The Englishman "trav- 
 els by rail," the American takes, or 
 goes by, the cars. 
 
 Carpet-bagger. A needy political 
 adventurer who carries all his earthly 
 goods in a carpet-bag; originally ap- 
 plied to politicians from the Northern 
 States who sought offices in the South 
 after the Civil War. 
 
 Caucus. A private meeting of the 
 leading politicians of a party to agree 
 upon the plans to be pursued in an 
 approaching election. 
 
 Chunk. A short, thick piece of 
 wood or any other material. 
 
 Corn. Maize. In England, wheat 
 or grain in general. 
 
 Corn-husking or Corn-shucking. 
 An occasion on which a farmer invites 
 his neighbors to assist him in strip- 
 ping the husks from his corn. 
 
 Creek. A small tributary of a large 
 river. Used chiefly in the West. 
 
 Dead-heads. People who have free 
 admission to entertainments, or who 
 have the use of public conveyances, or 
 the like, free of charge. 
 
 Down East. In or into the New 
 
 England States. A down-easter is a 
 New Englander. 
 
 Drummer. A commercial traveler. 
 
 Dry goods. A general term for 
 such articles as are sold by linen- 
 drapers, haberdashers, hosiers, etc., in 
 England. 
 
 Fix, to. To put in order, to pre- 
 pare, to adjust. To fix the hair, the 
 table, the fire, is to dress the hair, lay 
 the table, make up the fire. 
 
 Fixings. Arrangements, dress, em- 
 bellishments, luggage, furniture, gar- 
 nishments of any kind. 
 
 Fork. Used in the Southwes' in a 
 similar sense to " creek." 
 
 Freeze out. To get rid of objec- 
 tionable persons. 
 
 Gerrymander. To arrange politi- 
 cal divisions so that in an election one 
 party may obtain an advantage over 
 its opponent, even though the latter 
 may possess a majority of votes. 
 
 Grab. To gain a privilege without 
 proper payment. 
 
 Greenback. A former kind of pa- 
 per money. 
 
 Guess, to. To believe, to suppose, 
 to think. 
 
 Gulch. A deep, abrupt ravine, 
 caused by the action of water. 
 
 Happen in, to. To happen to come 
 in or call. 
 
 Hatchet, to bury or take up the. 
 To end or begin war. 
 
 Help. The labor of hired persons 
 collectively ; the body of servants be- 
 longing to a farm or household or fac- 
 tory. 
 
 Hoe-cake. A cake of corn meal 
 baked on or before the fire. 
 
 Hoodlum. A rough. 
 
 How! Indian abbreviation of "How 
 do you do?" 
 
 Jolly, to. To flatter, to tease, to 
 poke fun at. 
 
 Johnny cake. A cake made of corn 
 meal mixed with milk or water. 
 
 Log-rolling. The assembly of sev- 
 eral parties of wood-cutters to help 
 one of them in rolling their logs to 
 the river after they are felled and 
 trimmed ; also employed in politics to 
 signify a like system of mutual co- 
 operation. 
 
 Lynch law. An irregular species 
 of justice executed by the people or a 
 mob, without legal authority or trial. 
 
 Mail letters, to. To post letters. 
 
 Make tracks, to. To run away.
 
 American Municipal League 
 
 American Party 
 
 Mush. A kind of hasty-pudding. 
 
 Nickel. A five-cent coin. 
 
 Notions. A term applied to every 
 variety of small wares. 
 
 One-horse. A one-horse thing is a 
 thing of no value or importance ; a 
 mean or trifling thing. 
 
 Oxbow. The bend in a river or 
 the land inclosed within such a bend. 
 
 Peart (in the South). Equal to 
 smart or well. 
 
 Piazza. A veranda. 
 
 Picayune. A trifle. 
 
 Pickaninny. A negro child. 
 
 Pile. A quantity of money. 
 
 Planks. In politics, the several 
 principles which appertain to a party ; 
 " platform " is the collection of such 
 principles. 
 
 Pull. A special individual favor. 
 
 Reckon, to. To suppose, to think. 
 
 Right smart. Very well. 
 
 Roast, to. To criticise severely. 
 
 Scab. A non-union workman. 
 
 Scalawag. A scamp, a scapegrace. 
 
 Shake. To leave a person. 
 
 Skedaddle, to. To run away, a 
 word introduced during the Civil war. 
 
 Smart. Used in the sense of con- 
 siderable, a good deal, as a smart 
 chance ; also equal to well, as " right 
 smart," very well. 
 
 Stakes, to pluck or pull up. To 
 remove. 
 
 Stampede. The sudden flight of a 
 crowd, or of cattle or horses. 
 
 Stiff . In medical schools, a corpse. 
 
 Store. Same as shop in Great 
 Britain; as a book store, a grocery 
 store. 
 
 Strike oil, to. To come upon pe- 
 troleum ; hence, to make a lucky hit, 
 especially financially. 
 
 Stump speech. A speech calcu- 
 lated to please the popular ear, such 
 speeches in newly settled districts 
 being often delivered from the stumps 
 of trees. 
 
 Ticker. A watch ; also a telegraph 
 receiver. 
 
 Ticket, to vote the straight. To 
 vote for all the men or measures on 
 the ticket. 
 
 Truck. The small produce of gar- 
 dens ; truck patch, a plot in which the 
 smaller fruits and vegetables are 
 raised. 
 
 Turn down, to. To reject or ig- 
 nore ; used of office seekers especially. 
 
 Vamose, to. To run off. 
 
 Vendue. An auction ; to vendue, 
 to sell at auction. 
 
 Whoop it up. To create an ex- 
 citement. 
 
 Wilt. To become soft or languid, 
 to lose energy, pith, or strength. 
 
 American Municipal League, 
 an organization with branches in all 
 important American and Canadian 
 cities, founded for the promotion of 
 municipal administration. 
 
 American Party, The, the name 
 of three separate organizations which 
 at different times held a prominent 
 place in the political affairs of the 
 United States. The first, organized 
 about 1852, at a time when the Whig 
 Party was near its dissolution was, 
 in fact, a secret society, and was bet- 
 ter known in later years as the "Know 
 Nothings," from the assumed ignor- 
 ance of its members when questioned 
 in regard to the objects and name of 
 the order. Its principal doctrine was 
 opposition to all foreigners and Ro- 
 man Catholics, and its motto was 
 " Americans must rule America." The 
 first National Convention of the Par- 
 ty was held in February, 1856, at 
 which resolutions were adopted, de- 
 manding a lengthening of the resi- 
 dence necessary to naturalization, and 
 condemning President Pierce's admin- 
 istration for the repeal of the Mis- 
 souri Compromise. A number of the 
 members withdrew because of the re- 
 fusal to consider a resolution regard- 
 ing the restriction of slavery. Millard 
 Fillmore, of New York, was nominated 
 for President, and Andrew Jackson 
 Donelson for Vice-President, which 
 nominations were subsequently in- 
 dorsed by a Whig Convention. Fill- 
 more carried but one State, Maryland ; 
 his popular vote being about 850,000. 
 The party was successful in carrying 
 the State elections in Rhode Island 
 and Maryland in 1857, but never 
 gained any popularity in the Western 
 States. A second party, bearing the 
 same name, but directly adverse to the 
 first in that it was founded in opposi- 
 tion to secret societies, was organized 
 for political purposes by the National 
 Christian Association, at the adjourn- 
 ment of a convention held by the lat- 
 ter body at Oberlin, O., in 1872. The 
 organization was completed and the 
 name adopted at a convention in Syra- 
 cuse, N. Y., in 1874. At Pittsburg,
 
 American Protective Asso. 
 
 America's Cup 
 
 June 9, 1875, a platform was adopted 
 in which were demanded recognition 
 of the Sabbath, the introduction of 
 the Bible into public schools, prohibi- 
 tion of the sale of liquors, the with- 
 drawal of the charters of secret socie- 
 ties, and legislative prohibition of 
 their oaths, arbitration of internation- 
 al disputes, the restriction of land 
 monopolies, resumption of specie pay- 
 ment, justice to the Indians, and a 
 direct popular vote for President and 
 Vice-President. James B. Walker of 
 Illinois was nominated for President. 
 In 1880, the party again made nom- 
 inations, and in 1884, S. C. Pomeroy 
 was nominated, but withdrew in favor 
 of John P. St. John, the Prohibition 
 candidate. The third party to be called 
 by the name of American Party was 
 organized at a convention held at Phil- 
 adelphia, Sept. 16-17, 1887. Its .prin- 
 cipal aims, as set forth in its plat- 
 form, were, to oppose the existing 
 system of immigration and naturaliza- 
 tion of foreigners ; to demand its re- 
 striction and regulation so as to make 
 a 14-years' residence a prerequisite of 
 naturalization ; to exclude from the 
 benefits of citizenship all anarchists, 
 and other dangerous characters ; to de- 
 fend free schools ; to condemn 
 alien proprietorship ; to declare for 
 the permanent separation of Church 
 and State, and in favor of the enforce- 
 ment of the Monroe Doctrine. But 
 little has been heard of the American 
 Party in the past few years. 
 
 American Protective Associa- 
 tion, popularly known as the " A. P. 
 A.," a secret order organized through- 
 out the United States, with branches 
 in Canada, which has attracted much 
 attention by its aggressive platform 
 and active agitation. Its chief doc- 
 trine, as announced in its declaration 
 of principle, is that " subjection to 
 and support of any ecclesiastical pow- 
 er not created and controlled by Amer- 
 ican citizens, and which claims equal, 
 if not greater, sovereignty than the 
 Government of the United States of 
 America, is irreconcilable witli Amer- 
 ican citizenship ; " and it accordingly 
 opposes " the holding of offices in Na- 
 tional, State, or Municipal Govern- 
 ment by any subject or supporter of 
 such ecclesiastical power." Another 
 of its cardinal purposes is to prevent 
 all public encouragement and support 
 
 of sectarian schools. It does not con- 
 stitute a separate political party, but 
 seeks to control existing parties, and 
 to elect friendly and defeat objection- 
 able candidates, by the concerted ac- 
 tion of citizens affiliated with all par- 
 ties. The order was founded March 
 13, 1887, and claims a membership of 
 about 2,000,000. 
 
 American Psychological Asso- 
 ciation, an organization founded in 
 1892 for the advancement of psychol- 
 ogy as a science. 
 
 American Social Science Asso- 
 ciation, a society organized in 1865. 
 
 American Society of Civil En- 
 gineers, an association instituted in 
 1852 ; holds two meetings each month 
 (excepting in July and August) at 
 headquarters, 220 W. 57th St., New 
 York city ; membership, 2,200. 
 
 American Society of Mechani- 
 cal Engineers, an organization char- 
 tered in 1881 ; annual dues, members 
 and associates, $15 ; juniors,$10 ; en- 
 trance fee, members and associates, 
 $25, juniors, $15 ; membership unlim- 
 ited ; holds two meetings annually ; 
 headquarters, 12 W. 31st St., New 
 York city. 
 
 American System, a term used 
 by Henry Clay and applied to his plan 
 of protective duties and internal im- 
 provements, as proposed in the de- 
 bates in Congress which resulted in 
 the tariff law of 1824. At present it 
 is used to denote the policy of protec- 
 tion to home industries by means of 
 duties on imports. 
 
 America's Cup, a yachting trophy, 
 originally known as the Queen's Cup, 
 offered as a prize to the yachts of all 
 nations by the Iloyal Yacht Squadron 
 of Great Britain, in 1851. The first 
 contest for it was held Aug. 22 of that 
 year, when it was won by the Ameri- 
 can yacht " America," whose owners 
 deeded it in trust to the New York 
 Yacht club. The subsequent success 
 of American yachts in keeping the cup 
 caused it to become known as the 
 " America's " Cup. 
 
 In 1903 Sir Thomas Lipton pre- 
 sented Shamrock III. as challenger 
 for the America's Cup, Reliance, built 
 by the Herreshoffs, being presented as 
 defender of the Cup by an American 
 syndicate, with Mr. Iselin as manager. 
 Several of the races were called off
 
 America's Cup 
 
 America's Cup 
 
 RECORD OF CONTESTS FOR THE AMERICAS CUP. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Names of Yachts. 
 
 Course. 
 
 Time. 
 H. M. S. 
 
 Aug. 22, 1851 
 Aug. 8, 1870 
 Oct. 16, 1871 
 Oct. 18, 1871 
 Oct. 19, 1871 
 Oct. 21, 1871 
 Oct. 23, 1871 
 Aug. 11, 1876 
 Aug. 12, 1876 
 Nov. 9, 1881 
 Nov. 10, 1881 
 Sep. 14, 1885 
 Sep. 16, 1885 
 Sep. 9, 1886 
 Sep. 11, 1886 
 Sep. 27, 1887 
 Sep. 30, 1887 
 Oct. 7, 1893 
 Oct. 9, 1893 
 Oct. 13, 1893 
 Sep. 7, 1895 
 Sep. 10, 1895 
 Sep. 12, 1895 
 Oct. 20, 1899 
 Oct. 3, 1901 
 Oct. 4, 1901 
 Sep. 3, 1903 
 
 America 
 
 From Cowes, around the Isle of ) 
 
 10 37 00 
 
 
 1 N. Y. Y. C. course, about 39 miles 5 
 1 N Y Y C course \ 
 
 3 58 21 
 4 37 38 
 6 10 44 
 6 46 45 
 3 07 41 
 3 18 15 
 4 02 25 
 4 17 35 
 5 39 02 
 6 09 23 
 4 16 17 
 5 11 55 
 5 23 54 
 5 34 53 
 7 18 46 
 7 46 00 
 4 17 00 
 4 45 39 
 4 54 32 
 5 33 47 
 
 6 06 05 
 6 22 24 
 5 63 14 
 5 04 52 
 5 26 41 
 5 38 43 
 6 49 10 
 7 18 09 
 4 53 18 
 5 12 41 
 5 42 56 
 5 54 45 
 4 05 47 
 4 11 35 
 3 25 01 
 3 55 36 
 3 24 3f." 
 3 25 1S> 
 4 59 54 
 5 08 44 
 3 55 56 
 3 55 09 
 4 48 48 
 
 3 38 09 
 3 44 43 
 3 12 35 
 3 16 10 
 4 32 57 
 4 33 38 
 4 00 23 
 t 
 
 
 Columbia 
 
 
 ( 20 miles to windward off Sandy ) 
 'J Hook lightship, and return ) 
 ( N. Y. Y. C. course Columbia 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 29 miles to windward off Sandy 7 
 < Hook lightship and return ) 
 I N. Y. Y. C. course j 
 
 
 Sappho 
 
 Livonia 
 Madeleine 
 
 N Y Y C course 5 
 
 Countess of DuJferin. 
 Madeleine 
 Countess of Dufferin. 
 Mischief 
 
 5 20 miles to windward off Sandy ) 
 ( Hook lightship, and return 
 [ N Y Y C course | 
 
 
 ( 16 miles to leeward from buoy 5 -\ 
 } off Sandy Hook lightship, and (. 
 ( return \ 
 
 
 
 Puritan 
 
 1 N Y Y C course ( 
 
 Genesta 
 
 ( 20 miles to leeward off Sandy i 
 1 Hook lightship, and return y 
 t N. Y. Y. C. course 5 
 
 
 Mayflower 
 
 Galatea 
 
 i20 miles to leeward off Sandy > 
 Hook lightship, and return ) 
 N. Y'. Y. C. course i 
 
 
 Volunteer 
 
 Thistle 
 Volunteer 
 
 i 20 miles off Scotland lightship, ) 
 
 Thistle 
 
 Vigilant 
 
 ( 15 miles to windward off Sandy ) 
 
 Valkyrie 
 
 Vigilant. 
 
 (Irregular course: 10 miles to a) 
 > length f 
 
 Valkyrie 
 
 
 e 15 miles to windward off Sandy ) 
 
 
 Defender 
 Valkyrie III 
 
 j 15 miles to windward off Sandy ) 
 
 Defender 
 
 1 15 miles to windward off Sandy [ 
 ( Hook, and return ) 
 
 Valkyrie III 
 
 Defender 
 Valkyrie III 
 
 ( 15 miles to windward off Sandy ) 
 I Hook, and return ) 
 
 Columbia 
 Shamrock 
 
 ( 15 miles to windward off Sandy ? 
 1 Hook, and return ) 
 
 
 >30 miles triangular course j 
 
 
 
 Shamrock II 
 
 5 15 miles to leeward off Sandy ) 
 ( Hook, and return J 
 
 
 Shamrock III 
 
 * Did not finish. 
 
 Shamrock II. finished first, but lost race on time allowance of 43 seconds. 
 
 t Reliance won by 1 1 minutes.
 
 Amerigo Vespucci 
 
 Ainliario 
 
 on account of the time limit, Reliance 
 being ahead in all of them, as well as 
 in the three races which decided the 
 contest. In the final race, Thursday, 
 Sept. 3, Reliance started at 1:01:56 
 
 THE AMERICA'S CUP. 
 
 p.' m., Shamrock at 1 :02 :00 p. m. Re- 
 liance turned the outer mark at 
 3 :49 :30, to Shamrock III.'s 3 :51 :40. 
 Reliance won the race in four hours 
 and twenty-eight minutes. 
 
 Amerigo Vespucci. See VES- 
 PUCCI. 
 
 Ames, Adalbert, an American 
 military officer, born in 1835 ; gradu- 
 ated at West Point, 18G1; became 
 Brigadier-General and brevet Major- 
 General United States Volunteers, in 
 the Civil War; Provisional Governor 
 of Mississippi, 18G8 ; resigned army 
 commission, 1870 ; United States Sen- 
 ator from Mississippi, 1870-1873, 
 Governor 1874-1876; and Brigadier- 
 General United States Volunteers in 
 the war with Spain, 1898. 
 
 Ames, Charles Gordon, an 
 American clergyman, editor, and lec- 
 turer, born in Dorchester, Mass., Oct. 
 
 3, 1828. He graduated at the Geauga 
 Seminary, Ohio ; was ordained in 1849 
 as a Free Baptist, but later became a 
 Unitarian, and pastor of the Church 
 of the Disciples, Boston. He was eu- 
 itor of the Minnesota " Republican " 
 and the " Christian Register," of Bos- 
 ton. He wrote " George Eliot's Two 
 Marriages," some poems, etc. 
 
 Ames, Eleanor Kirk, an Ameri- 
 can author, born at Warren, R. I., 
 Oct. 7, 1831. Among her many 
 books are " Information for Authors," 
 " Beecher as a Humorist," " The In- 
 fluence of the Zodiac on Human Life," 
 etc. She died June 24, 19C#. 
 
 Ames, Fisher, an American ora- 
 tor and statesman, born in Dedham, 
 Mass., -April 9, 1758. Admitted to the 
 bar in 1781, he became a member of 
 Congress in 1789, where he gained a 
 national reputation by his oratory. 
 Two of his finest efforts were in sup- 
 port of John Jay's treaty with Great 
 Britain, and a eulogy on Washington, 
 before the Massachusetts Legislature. 
 He was elected president of Harvard 
 College in 1804, but declined. A bril- 
 liant talker, he was distinguished in 
 conversation for wit and imagination, 
 while his character was spotless. His 
 works consist of orations, essays, and 
 letters (2 vols., 1854). He died in 
 Dedham, July 4, 1808. 
 
 Ames, Mary Clemmer, an Amer- 
 ican author, born in Utica, N. Y., in 
 1839 ; was a frequent contributor to 
 the Springfield " Republican," and 
 afterward to the New York " Inde- 
 pendent." Married to and divorced 
 from the Rev. Daniel Ames, she be- 
 came, in 1883, the wife of Edward 
 Hudson at Washington. Among her 
 works are a volume of " Poems " 
 (1882) ; and biographies of Alice and 
 Phoebe Gary. She died in Washing- 
 ton, D. C., Aug. 18, 1884. 
 
 Ametabola, a class of wingless in- 
 sects, which do not undergo metamor- 
 phosis. They include bird lice, etc. 
 
 Amethyst, a precious stone, a va- 
 riety of quartz, named by Dana ame- 
 thystine quartz. The Oriental amethyst 
 is a rare purple variety of sapphire. 
 The best specimens are brought from 
 India, Armenia, and Arabia. 
 
 Amharic, or Amarinna, a Se- 
 mitic language with an intermixture 
 of African words; since the 14th cen-
 
 Amherst College 
 
 Ammonite 
 
 tury the court and official language 
 of Abyssinia. 
 
 Amlicrst College, an educational 
 institution in Amherst, Mass. ; found- 
 ed in 1821 and incorporated in. 1825. 
 
 &miel, Henri Frederic, a dis- 
 tinguished Swiss essayist, philosophi- 
 cal critic, and poet, born at Geneva, 
 Sept. 27, 1821. He died in Geneva, 
 March 11, 1881. 
 
 A in men, Daniel, an American na- 
 val officer, born in Brown county, O., 
 May 15, 1820; entered the United 
 States navy, July 7, 1836. He was 
 executive officer of the North Atlantic 
 Blockading Squadron at the outbreak 
 of the Civil War. From 1861 to 1865 
 he rendered signal service in the at- 
 tacks on Port Royal, Fort Macallister, 
 Fort Fisher, and both the ironclad at- 
 tacks on Fort Sumter. On June 4, 
 1878, he was retired with the rank 
 of Rear-admiral. He was the designer 
 of the Ammen life raft and harbor de- 
 fense ram. Among his works are "The 
 Old Navy and the New," and " Navy 
 in the Civil War" (1883). He died 
 in Washington, D. C., July 11, 1898. 
 
 Ammergau, Ober- and Unter, 
 two adjoining villages in Upper Ba- 
 varia, in the higher part of the valley 
 of the Ammer, 42 miles S. W. by S. of 
 Munich. Ober-Ammergau is noted for 
 the performance of the " Passion 
 Play," a series of dramatic represen- 
 tations of the sufferings of Christ, 
 which is produced every tenth year 
 by about 500 performers, in. accord- 
 ance w'ta a vow made at the time of 
 the pestilence of 1634. During the in- 
 tervening years, the actors give a 
 series of representations of Old Tes- 
 tament legends. The performance gen- 
 erally lasts seven or eight hours, often 
 without intermission, and is partly a 
 religious service and partly a popular 
 festival. In 1889, a theater was built 
 just outside the place, with a stage 
 and auditorium capable of seating 
 6,000 persons. On the height near by 
 is a colossal memorial of " Christ on 
 ,the Cross, with Mary and John," 
 modeled by Halbig, the gift of King 
 Ludwig II. 
 
 Ammianus Marcellinns, a Ro- 
 man historian, born of Greek parents 
 at Antioch, in Syria, about 330. 
 
 Ammon, the eponymic ancestor of 
 ft people, known in Hebrew and Bibli- 
 
 cal history as the " children of Am- 
 mon " or Ammonites ; frequently men- 
 tioned in the Old Testament, Ac- 
 cording to the account in Genesis 
 ( xix : 38) , Ammon was the son of 
 Lot. 
 
 Ammon, a god of the ancient 
 Egyptians, worshipped especially in 
 Thebes (No-Ammon), and early rep- 
 resented as a ram with downward 
 branching hprns, the symbols of pow- 
 er ; as a ma'n with a ram's head ; and 
 as a complete man with two high 
 feathers on bis head, bearded, sitting 
 on a throne, and holding in his right 
 hand the scepter of the gods, in his 
 left the handled cross, the symbol of 
 divine life. The worship of Ammon 
 spread at an early period to Greece, 
 and afterward to Rome, where he was 
 identified with Zeus and Jupiter. 
 
 Ammonia, a colorless, pungent 
 gas, with a strong alkaline reaction. 
 It can be liquefied at the pressure of 
 seven atmospheres at 15. Ammonia 
 is obtained by the dry distillation of 
 animal or vegetable matter containing 
 nitrogen ; horns, hoofs, etc., produce 
 large quantities ; hence its name of 
 spirits cf hartshorn. Guano consists 
 chiefly of urate of ammonia. But 
 ammonia is now obtained from the 
 liquor of gasworks, coal containing 
 about 2 per cent, of nitrogen. It is 
 used in medicine as an antacid and 
 stimulant ; it also increases the secre- 
 tions. Fxternally, it is employed as a 
 rubefacient and vesicant. Ammonia 
 is used as an antidote in cases of poi- 
 soning by prussic acid, tobacco, and 
 other sedative drugs. 
 
 AMMONITES. 
 
 Ammonite, a large genus of fossil 
 chambered shells.
 
 Ammonites 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Ammonites, a Semitic race of 
 people, living on the edge of the Syr- 
 ian Desert ; according to Gen. xix : 38, 
 the descendants of Lot, and closely 
 akin to the Moabites. They inhabited 
 the country lying to the N. of Moab, 
 between the rivers Arnon and Jabbok. 
 Their chief city was Rabbath-Ammon. 
 The Israelites were often at war with 
 them. From the name of their 
 princes, it is evident that their lan- 
 guage was closely akin to Hebrew. 
 Their chief deity was Moloch. 
 
 Amnesty, an act of oblivion passed 
 after an exciting political period. Its 
 object is to encourage those who have 
 compromised themselves by rebellion 
 or otherwise to resume their ordinary 
 occupations, and this it does by giving 
 them a guarantee that they shall never 
 be called upon to answer for their 
 past offenses. 
 
 Amor, the god of love among the 
 Romans, equivalent to the Greek Eros. 
 
 Amorites, a powerful tribe of Ca- 
 naanites, who inhabited the country 
 N. E. of the Jordan, as far as Mount 
 Hermon. 
 
 Amos, one of the so-called minor 
 prophets of the Hebrews, was a herds- 
 man of Tekoa, in the neighborhod of 
 Bethlehem, and also a dresser of syca- 
 more trees. During the reigns of 
 Uzziah in Judah, and Jeroboam II. in 
 Israel (about 800 u. c.), he came for- 
 ward to denounce the idolatry then 
 prevalent. 
 
 Amoy, a seaport town and one of 
 the treaty ports of China ; on a small 
 island of the same name in the Prov- 
 ince of Fukien ; 325 miles E. by N. E. 
 of Canton, and directly opposite the 
 island of Formosa. During the in- 
 ternational military operations in 
 China, in 1900, the city was occu- 
 pied by the Japanese. 
 
 Ampere, the practical unit of elec- 
 tric current strength. It is the mea- 
 sure of the current produced by an 
 electro-motive force of one volt through 
 a resistance of one ohm. In electric 
 quantity it is the rate of one coulomb 
 per second. 
 
 Ampere, Andre Marie, a French 
 mathematician and physicist, was 
 born at Lyons in 1775. He died at 
 Marseilles, June 10, 1836. 
 
 Amphibia, in zoology, animals 
 Which can live indiscriminately on 
 
 land or water, or which at one part 
 of their existence live in water and 
 at another on land. 
 
 Amphictyonic Council, a cele- 
 brated council of the States of ancient 
 Greece. The members of this confed- 
 eration bound themselves by an oath 
 not to destroy any city of the Am- 
 phictyons, nor cut off their streams 
 in war or peace, and to employ all 
 their power in punishing those who 
 did so, or those who pillaged the prop- 
 erty of the god, or injured his temple 
 at Delphi. 
 
 Amphion, in mythology, the son 
 of Jupiter and Antiope ; the eldest of 
 the Grecian musicians. To express 
 the power of his music, and, perhaps, 
 of his eloquence, the poets said, that, 
 at the sound of his lyre, the stones 
 voluntarily fornfed themselves into 
 walls ; that wild beasts, and even 
 trees, rocks, and streams, followed 
 the musician. 
 
 Amphipolis, an important city of 
 Thrace or Macedonia ; at the mouth 
 of the Strymon river ; 33 miles from 
 the JEgean. The site is now occupied 
 by the Turkish town of Yenikeui. 
 
 Amphitheater, a double theater. 
 The ancient theaters were nearly semi- 
 circular in shape ; or, more accurately, 
 they were half ovals, so that an am- 
 phitheater, theoretically consisting of 
 two theaters, placed with their 
 concavities meeting each other, was, 
 loosely speaking, a nearly circular, or, 
 more precise 1 y, an oval building. The 
 Romans built amphitheaters wherever 
 they went. Remains of them are still 
 to be found in various parts of Eu- 
 rope; but the most splendid ruins ex- 
 isting are those of the Coliseum at 
 Rome, which was said to have held 
 87,000 people. 
 
 Amsterdam, a city in Montgom- 
 ery county, N. Y. ; on the Mohawk 
 river and several trunk line rail- 
 roads; 33 miles N. AY. of Albany; is 
 especially noted for its manufactures 
 of knit goods, carpets, steel springs, 
 and paper. Pop. (1910) 31,267. 
 
 Amsterdam ("dam" or "dike of 
 the Amstel ") , the capital of the 
 Netherlands. Almost the whole city, 
 which extends in the shape of a cres- 
 cent, is founded on piles driven 40 or 
 50 feet through soft peat and sand to 
 a firm substratum of clay.
 
 Amulet 
 
 The population, which from 217,024 
 in 1794, sank to 180,179 in 1815, rose 
 steadily to the present figure of over 
 half a million, of whom the ma- 
 jority belong to the Dutch Re- 
 formed Church. Of the remainder, 
 about 80,000 are Catholics, 30,000 
 German Jews, and 3,200 Portuguese 
 Jews. The, chief industrial establish- 
 ments are sugar refineries, engineer- 
 ing works, mills for polishing dia- 
 monds and other precious stones, dock- 
 yards, manufactories of sails, ropes, 
 tobacco, silks, gold and silver plate 
 and jewelry, colors, and chemicals, 
 breweries, distilleries, with export 
 houses for corn and colonial produce ; 
 cotton-spinning, bool-printing, and 
 type-founding are also carried on. The 
 present Bank of the Netherlands dates 
 from 1824, Amsterdam's famous bank 
 of 1609 having been dissolved in 179G. 
 
 Amulet, anything hung around the 
 neck, placed like a bracelet on the 
 wrist, or otherwise attached to the 
 person, as an imagined preservative 
 against sickness, witchcraft, or other 
 evils. Amulets were common in the 
 ancient world, and they are so yet in 
 cations where ignorance prevails. 
 
 AMPHORAE. 
 
 Amur, a river formed by the junc- 
 tion (about 53 N. lat., and 121 E. 
 long.) of the Shilka and the Argun, 
 which both come from the S. W. 
 the former rising in the foothills of 
 the Yablonoi Mountains. From the 
 junction, the river flows first S. E. 
 and then N. E., and, after a total 
 course of 3,060 miles, falls into the 
 Sea of Okhotsk, opposite the island of 
 Sakhalin. Its main tributaries are 
 the Sungari and the Ussuri, both from 
 the S. Above the Ussuri. the Amur 
 is the boundary ' between Siberia and 
 
 Anabaptists 
 
 Manchuria; below it, the river runs 
 through Russian territory. 
 
 Amylic Alcohol, one of eight al* 
 cohols having the same chemical formu- 
 la, but with different properties. Two 
 of these are large constituents of 
 fusel oil. The union of some of these 
 alcohols with the compound ethers, 
 produce odors resembling pineapple, 
 strawberries, etc. Therefore fusel oil 
 is often used^in making artificial fruit 
 flavors. The poisonous properties of 
 fusel oil, make such products highly 
 dangerous and justify the prohibitive 
 legislation which has been enacted in 
 some of the States. 
 
 Anabaptists, a name given in re- 
 proach A. D. 253 by Stephen, Bishop of 
 Rome, to the Christians of Asia Minor, 
 Cappadocia, Galatea and Cilicia, who 
 held that no baptism was valid but that 
 administered to adults by immersion. 
 They are mentioned by Tertullian and 
 Agrippinus. The sect appeared in 
 1520. The most eminent of its early 
 leaders were Thomas Munzer Mark 
 Stubner, and Nicholas Storck. They 
 had been disciples of Luther; but, be- 
 coming dissatisfied with the moderate 
 character of his reformation, they cast 
 off his authority, and attempted more 
 sweeping changes than he was pre- 
 pared to sanction. During his ab- 
 sence, they, in 1521, began to preach 
 their doctrines at Wittenberg. Laying 
 claim to supernatural powers, they 
 saw visions, uttered prophecies, and 
 made an immense number of prose- 
 lytes. The ferment which the exciting 
 religious events taking place in Cen- 
 tral Europe had produced in men's 
 minds, had made them impatient of 
 social or political as well as of spir- 
 itual despotism ; and, in 1525, the 
 peasants of Suabia, Thuringia, and 
 Franconia, who had been much op- 
 pressed by their feudal superiors, rose 
 in arms, and commenced a sanguinary 
 struggle, partly, no doubt, for religious 
 reformation, but chiefly for political 
 emancipation. The Anabaptists cast 
 in their lot with the insurgent peas- 
 antry, and became their leaders in 
 battle. After a time the allied princes 
 of the empire, led by Philip, Land- 
 grave of Hesse, put down the rebellion, 
 and Munzer was defeated, captured, 
 put to the torture, and ultimately be- 
 headed. In 1532, some extreme Ana*
 
 Anabasis 
 
 Anam 
 
 baptists from Holland, led by a baker 
 called John Matthias, and a tailor, 
 John Boccoldt, called also, from the 
 place whence he came, John of Ley- 
 den, seized on the city of Munster, in 
 Westphalia, with the view of setting 
 up in it a spiritual kingdom, in which, 
 at least nominally, Christ might reign. 
 The name of Munster was changed to 
 that of Mount Zion, and Matthias be- 
 came its actual king. Having soon 
 after lost his life in a ftad, warlike 
 exploit, the sovereignty devolved on 
 Boccoldt, who, among other fanatical 
 freaks, once promenaded the streets of 
 his capital in a state of absolute nud- 
 ity. On June 24, 1535, the Bishop of 
 Munster retook the city by force of 
 arms, and Boccoldt was put to death 
 in the most cruel manner that could 
 be devised. The excesses of the Ana- 
 baptists were eagerly laid hold of to 
 discredit the Reformation. 
 
 Anabasis, the name given by Xen- 
 ophon to his celebrated work describ- 
 ing the expedition of Cyrus the young- 
 er against his brother Artaxerxes 
 Mnemon, King of Persia. 
 
 Anaconda, a large serpent of the 
 boa family, common in inter-tropical 
 America. The head is comparatively 
 small, conical, very flat below, and 
 truncated in front. The color is gray- 
 ish-brown or olive above, with two 
 rows of large black spots running 
 down the back and tail ; the sides are 
 adorned with black rings on a yellow 
 ground ; the under surface is ochre- 
 yellow with black spots. The anaconda 
 is the largest of living snakes, some- 
 times reaching a length of over 80 
 feet. Brazil and Guiana form its 
 chief habitat It always lives in or in 
 the neighborhood of water ; lies in 
 wait for its prey in the water, or 
 stretched on the sand ; seldom attacks 
 man ; and during the dry season buries 
 itself and becomes torpid. 
 
 Anacreon, a renowned lyric poet 
 of Greece, born at Teos in Ionia, 562 
 (?) B. c. He died 477 B. c. 
 
 Anaemia, bloodlessness ; a morbid 
 state of the system produced by loss 
 of blood, by deprivation of light and 
 air. The patient is characterized 
 by great paleness, and blood-vessels, 
 easily traceable at other times, be- 
 come unseen after great hemorrhage, 
 or in cases of anaemia. 
 
 Anaesthesia (Greek, " lack of 
 sensation"), a term used to express 
 a loss of sensibility to external im- 
 pressions, which may involve a part 
 or the whole surface of the body. It 
 may occur naturally as the result of 
 disease, or may be produced artificial- 
 ly by the administration of anaesthet- 
 ics, such as ether, etc. 
 
 The fact that sulphuric ether could 
 produce insensibility was shown by 
 the American physicians, Godwin 
 (1822), Mitchell (1832), Jackson 
 (1833), Wood and Bache (1834); 
 but it was first used to prevent the 
 pain of an operation in 1846, by Dr. 
 Morton, a dentist of Boston. 
 
 The employment o.f general anaes- 
 thetics in surgery has greatly increased 
 the scope of the surgeon's usefulness, 
 and has been a great boon to suffering 
 humanity. It is, however, fraught 
 with a certain amount of danger. 
 However much care may be taken in 
 its administration, an occasional fatal 
 accident occurs from the action of the 
 anaesthetics employed. In these cases, 
 there is generally disease of the heart, 
 or a hyper-sensitive nervous system, 
 predisposing to sudden sinking, or to 
 shock. 
 
 Local anaesthesia, artificially pro- 
 duced, is of great value in minor op- 
 erations, and, in painful affections of 
 limited areas of the body. It may be 
 induced by the application of cold, or 
 of medical agents. 
 
 Anagram, the letters of any word 
 read backward, or transposed to make 
 a new word or sentence, which has 
 some reference to the original. 
 
 Anahnac, a term signifying, in the 
 old Mexican language, " near the 
 water," the original name of the an- 
 cient kingdom of Mexico. 
 
 Analogy, similitude of relations 
 between one thing and other. The 
 thing to which the other is compared 
 is preceded by to or with. When both 
 are mentioned together they are con- 
 nected by the word between. 
 
 Analysis, in ordinary language, the 
 act of analyzing ; the state of being 
 analyzed ; the result of such investi- 
 gation. The separation of anything 
 physical, mental, or a mere conception 
 into its constituent elements. 
 
 Anam. or Annaxn, a name given 
 by the Chinese in the 3d century A. D.
 
 Anara j apnra 
 
 to an empire occupying the E. side of 
 the Indo-Chinese peninsula, along the 
 China Sea. It comprised Tonkin in 
 the N. ; Cochin-China in the S. ; and 
 the territory of the Laos tribes S. W. 
 of Tonkin ; with an aggregate area of 
 196,500 square miles, and a popula- 
 tion of 15,000,000. Since the French 
 occupation in 1884 Anam while theo- 
 retically still a native monarchy, ad- 
 ministratively forms the central divi- 
 sion of French Indo-China with an 
 area of 52,100 square miles. The King 
 rules with a council of six members 
 under the supervision of a French 
 resident at Hu6. Pop. 6,124,000. 
 
 Anarajapnra, or Amiradha- 
 poora, a ruined city, the ancient cap- 
 ital of Ceylon, built about 510 B. c., 
 and said to have covered an area of 
 200 square miles. The spacious main 
 streets seemed to have been lined with 
 elegant structures. There are still 
 several dagobas in tolerable preserva- 
 tion, but the great object of interest 
 is the remains of the sacred Bo-tree 
 planted over 2,000 years ago, and the 
 oldest historical tree in the world. 
 
 Anarchists, a revolutionary sect 
 or body setting forth as the social 
 ideal the extreme form of individual 
 freedom, and holding that all govern- 
 ment is injurious and immoral, that 
 the destruction of every social form 
 now existing must be the first step to 
 the creation of a new world. Their 
 recognition as an independent sect 
 may be dated from the secession of 
 Bakunin and his followers from the 
 Social Democrats at the congress of 
 the Hague in 1872, since which they 
 have maintained an active propaganda. 
 The congress at London in 1881 de- 
 cided that all means were justifiable 
 as against the organized forces of 
 modern society. The Haymarket ex- 
 plosion at Chicago, May 4, 1886, and 
 the assassination of President McKin- 
 ley, Sept, 6, 1901, are the only violent 
 manifestations of anarchism that have 
 been shown in the United States. 
 Their principal journals have been La 
 Revolte (Paris), the Freiheit (New 
 York), Liberty, (Boston), and the 
 Anarchist, '(London). 
 
 Anastasins, the name of four 
 Popes, the first and most eminent of 
 whom held that office for only three 
 years (398-401). He enforced celi- 
 
 Anatomy 
 
 bacy on the clergy, and was an oppo- 
 nent of the Manichseans and Origen. 
 
 Anathema, a word originally sig- 
 nifying some offering or gift to the 
 gods, generally suspended in the tem- 
 ple. It also signifies a thing that 
 has been devoted to destruction (the 
 equivalent of the Hebrew Cherem) ; 
 and was ultimately used in its strong- 
 est sense, implying perdition, as in 
 Rom. ix., 3: Gal, i., 8-9. In the Ro- 
 man Catholi^; Church, from the 9th 
 century, a distinction has been made 
 between excommunication and anathe- 
 matizing ; the latter being employed 
 only against obstinate offenders. 
 
 Anatomy, in the literal sense, 
 means simply a cutting up, but is now 
 generally applied both to the art of 
 dissecting or artificially separating the 
 different parts of an organized body 
 (vegetable or animal) with a view to 
 discover their situation, structure, and 
 economy ; and to the science which 
 treats of the internal structure of -or- 
 ganized bodies. The branch which 
 treats of the structure of plants is 
 called vegetable anatomy or phytotomy, 
 and that which treats of the structure 
 of animals animal anatomy or zootomy, 
 a special branch of the latter being 
 human anatomy or anthropotomy. 
 Comparative anatomy is the science 
 which compares the anatomy of differ- 
 ent classes with quadrupeds, or that of 
 quadrupeds with fishes ; while special 
 anatomy treats of the construction, 
 form, and structure of parts in a sin- 
 gle animal. The history of anatomy is 
 virtually the history of medicine, the 
 practice of which is based upon the 
 revelations of anatomical study. 
 
 Among the ancient writers or auth- 
 orities on human anatomy may be 
 mentioned Hippocrates the younger 
 (460-377 B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 
 B.C.), Herophilus and Erasistratus of 
 Alexandria, (about 300 B.C.,). Celsus 
 (53 B.C. 37 A.D.), and Galen of Per- 
 gamus (140-200), the most celebrated 
 of all the ancient authorities on the 
 science. From his time till the revival 
 of learning in Europe in the 14th cen- 
 tury anatomy was checked in its pro- 
 gress. In 1315 Mondino, professor at 
 Bologna, first publicly performed dis- 
 section, and published a System of 
 Anatomy, which was a text-book in 
 the schools of Italy for about 200 
 years. In the 16th century Fallopio of
 
 Anaxa." oras 
 
 Anderson 
 
 Padua, Eustaohi of Venice, Vesalius 
 of Brussels, Varoli of Bologna, and 
 many others, enriched anatomy with 
 new discoveries. In the 17th century 
 Harvey discovered the circulation of 
 the blood, Asellius discovered the man- 
 ner in which the nutritious part of the 
 food is conveyed into the circulation, 
 while the lymphatic system was de- 
 tected and described by the Dane T. 
 Bartoline. Among the renowned anat- 
 omists of later times we can only men- 
 tion Malpighi, Boerhaave, William and 
 John Hunter, the younger Meckel, 
 Bichat, Rosenmuller, Quain, Sir A. 
 Cooper, Sir C. Bell, Carus, Job, Mul- 
 ler, Hseckel, Owen, and Huxley, and 
 the Americans, Jeffries Wyman, 
 Dwight, Leidy, Marsh, and Cope. 
 
 Anaxagoras, a famous Greek phi- 
 losopher of the Ionic school, born 
 about 500 (?) B. c. He explained 
 eclipses and advanced physical science. 
 
 Anaximander, a Greek mathema- 
 tician and philosopher, successor of 
 Thales as head of the physical school 
 of philosophy, was born at Miletus, in 
 611 B. c. He is said to have discov- 
 ered the obliquity of the ecliptic, and 
 he certainly taught it. He appears to 
 have applied the gnomon, or style set 
 on a horizontal plane, to determine the 
 solstices and equinoxes. The inven- 
 tion of maps is ascribed to him. 
 
 Anaximenes, a philosopher of 
 Miletus, flourished about 556 B. c. 
 Pliny attributes to him the invention 
 of the sun-dial. 
 
 Anchoret, Anachoret, or An- 
 chorite, any person who, from reli- 
 gious motives, has renounced the 
 world, and retired into seclusion. 
 
 Anchovy, a fish which belongs to 
 the herring family. In general, its 
 length is from 4 to 5 inches ; but 
 specimens are found 7% inches long. 
 
 Anchovy Pear, a tree, with large 
 leaves, which grows in the West In- 
 dies. The fruit which is eaten, tastes 
 like that of the mango. 
 
 Ancus Marcius, the fourth King 
 of Rome was the grandson of King 
 Numa Pompilius. He died in 616 
 B. c., after reigning 24 years. 
 
 Andalusia, a large and fertile re- 
 gion occupying the S. of Spain. Its 
 shores are washed both by the Mediter- 
 ranean and the Atlantic ; and, though 
 it is not now a political division of 
 
 Spain, it is more frequently spoken of 
 than the eight modern provinces into 
 which it has been divided. Its 
 breeds of horses and mules have long, 
 been celebrated. The mountains yield 
 silver, copper, lead, iron, and coal ; 
 and some ores are extensively worked. 
 The Andalusians speak a dialect of 
 Spanish, manifestly tinctured with 
 traces of Arabic. Andalusia is divided 
 into the Provinces of Almeria, Jaen, 
 Malaga, Cadiz, Huelva, Seville, Cor- 
 dova, and Granada. The chief towns 
 are Seville, Cordova, and Cadiz. Area. 
 33,663 square miles. Pop. 3,450,209 
 
 Andamans, a group of thickly 
 wooded islands toward the E. side of 
 the Bay of Bengal, about 680 miles S. 
 of the Hooghly mouth of the Ganges, 
 with a British convict settlement. 
 In 1872 Lord Mayo, Viceroy of India, 
 was assassinated on Viper Island, by 
 a Mussulman convict. Pop. 18,190. 
 
 Andersen, Hans Christian, a 
 Danish novelist, poet, and writer of 
 fairy tales : born in Odense, April 2, 
 1805. Hans learned 1 to read and 
 write in a charity school. After 
 many struggles he became a success- 
 ful author, and his fairy tales gained 
 worldwide fame. He died in Roli- 
 ghed, Aug. 4, 1875. Andersen's tales 
 show humor and tenderness. 
 
 Anderson, city and capital of 
 Madison county, Ind.; on a branch 
 of the White river, a notable hydrau- 
 lic canal, and several railroads; 35 
 miles N. E. of Indianapolis; is abun- 
 dantly supplied with natural gas, and 
 manufactures' iron, steel, glass, wire, 
 paper, brass, lumber and machinery. 
 Pop. (1910) 22,476. 
 
 Anderson, Alexander, an Amer- 
 ican wood engraver, born in New York 
 city, April 21, 1775 ; began engraving 
 on copper and type metal when 12 
 years old, without instruction and 
 with a knowledge of the art gained 
 solely by watching jewelers. He pro- 
 duced the first wood engravings ever 
 made in the United States, and for 
 many years was the only engraver on 
 wood in New York. He made the 
 plates for the fractional paper curren- 
 cy issued by the Federal government, 
 and for the cuts in the first editions of 
 Webster's Spelling Book. He died 1870. 
 
 Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett, 
 an English physician, born in London
 
 Anderson 
 
 in 1837. From 1876 to 1898 she was 
 Dean of the London Medical School 
 for Women. 
 
 Anderson, Martin Brewer, an 
 American educator, born in Bruns- 
 wick, Me., Feb. 12; 1815; was chosen 
 President of the newly organized Uni- 
 versity of Rochester (N. Y.), in 1853, 
 holding the post till 1888. He died 
 Feb. 26, 1890. 
 
 Anderson, Mary (Mrs. Navar- 
 ro), an American actress, born in 
 Sacramento, Cal., July 28, 1859. 
 She played for the first time in Louis- 
 ville, in 1875, in the character of Ju- 
 liet. Her success was marked and 
 immediate, and during the following 
 years she played with increasing popu~ 
 larity in the principal cities of the 
 United States in various roles. In 
 1883 she appeared at the Lyceum 
 Theater, in London, and speedily be- 
 came well known in England. Since 
 her marriage in 1890 to Antonio Na- 
 varro de Viana, of New York, she has 
 retired from the stage, but it was 
 stated in September, 1903, that she 
 would probably consent to give the- 
 atrical readings in the United States. 
 
 Anderson, Rasmus Bjorn, an 
 American author, born in Albion, 
 Wis., Jan. 12, 1846, of Norwegian pa- 
 rents. He was educated at Norwegian 
 Lutheran College, Decorah, la. ; be- 
 coming Professor of Scandinavian 
 Languages in the University of Wis- 
 consin in 1875-1884, and United 
 States Minister to Denmark in 1885. 
 
 Anderson, Robert, an American 
 military officer ; born near Louisville, 
 Ky., June 14, 1805 ; was graduated at 
 the United States Military Academy 
 in 1825, and entered the artillery ; 
 was private secretary to the United 
 States minister to Colombia in 1825- 
 1826; instructor at the Military Acad- 
 emy for a while ; on ordnance duty 
 in 1828-1835; served in the Black 
 Hawk War in 1832 as colonel of vol- 
 unteers, taking part in the battle of 
 Bad Axe ; and in the Florida War in 
 1837-1838 on General Scott's staff, 
 and was made assistant adjutant-gen- 
 eral on the staff in May of the latter 
 year. He was with General Scott in 
 his campaign in Mexico, taking part 
 in the engagements at Vera Cruz, Cer- 
 ro Gordo, Amozoque, and at Molino del 
 Rey, where he was severely wounded. 
 
 Aiidcrsouville 
 
 He was commissioned major and was 
 placed in command of Charleston har- 
 bor, to succeed Colonel Gardiner, with 
 headquarters at Fort Moultrie, in 
 
 1860. After arriving at Fourt Moul- 
 trie he informed the government of the 
 weakness of the forts in the harbor, 
 and urged the necessity of immediately 
 strengthening them. As the govern- 
 ment did not respond, and he was left 
 to his own resources, he began to 
 strengthen Castle Pinckney and Fort 
 Moultrie. Fearing that Fort Moultrie 
 would be attacked at any moment he 
 applied to the government for instruc- 
 tions. Receiving none he decided to 
 remove with his garrison tc Fort Sum- 
 ter. This be did on the evening of 
 Dec. 26. The Confederates were much 
 surprised the next day on discovering 
 the change, and asked him to explain 
 his conduct in acting without orders, 
 to which he replied that he did it to 
 save the government works. He was 
 attacked and surrendered the fort after 
 a heavy bombardment, April 12-13, 
 
 1861. In 1861 he was promoted Brig- 
 adier-General, U. S. A., and placed 
 in command of the Department of 
 Kentucky and of the Cumberland, but 
 failing health caused him to retire 
 from active service in 1863, when he 
 was brevetted Major-General. He 
 died in Nice, France, Oct. 26, 1871. 
 
 Anderson, Rufus, an American 
 missionary, born in North Yarmouth, 
 Me., Aug. 17, 1796 ; was graduated at 
 Bowdoin College in 1818, and Andover 
 Theological Seminary in 1822; Assist- 
 ant Secretary of the American Board 
 of Commissioners for Foreign Mis- 
 sions in 1824-1858; a founder of 
 Mount Holyoke Seminary. He died 
 in Boston, May 30, 1880. 
 
 Andersonville, a village in Geor- 
 gia, noted as having been the seat of 
 a Confederate States military prison. 
 Between Feb. 15, 1864. and April, 1865, 
 49,485 prisoners were received, of 
 whom 12,926 died in that time of va- 
 rious diseases. What was formerly a 
 hamlet is now a town adorned .with 
 gravel walks and trees, and containing 
 several churches. The cemetery is laid 
 out in a neat fashion with tablets that 
 mark the burial places of the dead. 
 The long trenches where the soldiers 
 were buried have since been laid crt 
 as a National cemetery, for the bodies 
 of Northern dead.
 
 Andersson 
 
 Andersson, Carl Jan, an African 
 traveler ; born in the province of 
 Wermland, Sweden, in 1827. He died 
 in the land of the Ovampos, in West- 
 ern Africa, in July, 1867. 
 
 Andes, The, or, as they are called 
 by the Spanish in South America, Cor- 
 dilleras, a range of mountains, of 
 such vast extent and altitude as to 
 render them one of the most remark- 
 able physical features of the globe. 
 It follows the whole of the W. coast 
 of South America, from Cape Horn to 
 the Isthmus of Panama and the Car- 
 ibbean Sea. Sometimes it is spoken 
 of as a cbntinuation of the Rocky 
 mountains in North America, but 
 there seems to be no other reason for 
 doing this than the continuity of the 
 two divisions of America, and the fact 
 that both ranges lie in the W. of their 
 respective continents. There is a suf- 
 ficiently marked break between the 
 ridges of the Isthmus of Panama and 
 the range of the Andes of South Amer- 
 ica, and a still more distinct hiatus be- 
 tween the Sierras of Central America 
 and Mexico and the Rocky mountains. 
 
 Andorra, a valley in the Eastern 
 Pyrenees, between the French depart- 
 ment of Arie"ge and the Spanish pro- 
 vince of Lerida, part of Catalonia. It 
 is inclosed by mountains, through 
 which its river, the Balira, breaks to 
 join the Segre at Urgel ; and its inac- 
 cessibility naturally fits it for being 
 the seat of the interesting little re- 
 public which here holds a kind of semi- 
 independent position between France 
 and Spain. Area (divided into six 
 communes), 175 square miles. Popu- 
 lation about 15,000. 
 
 Andover Theological Semi- 
 nary, a noted Congregational institu- 
 tion at Andover. Mass. ; founded in 
 1807. 
 
 Andral, Gabriel, a French phy- 
 sician and pathologist, born in Paris, 
 Nov. 6, 1797. He died Feb. 13, 1876. 
 
 Audi-assy. Julius Count, Hun- 
 garian statesman, born March 8, 1823. 
 He was a conspicuous member of the 
 Congress of Berlin in 1878; negotiat- 
 ed the German-Austrian alliance with 
 Bismarck in 1879 ; and the same year 
 retired from public life. He died Feb. 
 18, 1890. 
 
 Andre, John, a British military 
 officer, born in London in 1751 ; enter- 
 
 Andre 
 
 ed the army in 1771 ; went to Canada 
 in 1774 ; and was made prisoner by the 
 Americans in 1775. After his ex- 
 change, he was rapidly promoted, and 
 in 1780 was appointed Adjutant-Gen- 
 eral, with the rank of Major. His 
 prospects were of the most flattering 
 kind when the treason of Arnold led 
 to his death. The temporary absence 
 of Washington having been chosen by 
 the traitor as the most proper season 
 for carrying into effect his design of 
 delivering to Sir Henry Clinton the 
 fortification at West Point, then un- 
 der his command, and refusing to con- 
 fide to any but Major Andre" the maps 
 and information required by the Brit- 
 ish general, an interview became neces- 
 sary, and Sept. 19, 1780, Andre" left 
 New York in the sloop-of-war " Vul- 
 ture," and on the next day arrived at 
 Fort Montgomery, in company with 
 Beverly Robinson, an American re- 
 siding at the lines, through whom the 
 communications had been carried on. 
 Furnished with passports from Ar- 
 nold, Robinson and Andre" the next 
 day landed and were received by the 
 traitor at the water's edge. Having 
 arranged all the details of the proposed 
 treason, Arnold delivered to Andre" 
 drafts of the works at West Point 
 and memoranda of the forces under his 
 command, and the latter returned to 
 the beach in hopes of being immediate- 
 ly conveyed to the " Vulture." But 
 the ferrymen, who were Americans, re- 
 fused to carry him, and as Arnold 
 would not interpose his authority, he 
 was compelled to return by land. Un- 
 fortunately for him he persisted, 
 against the advice of Arnold, in re- 
 taining the papers, which he concealed 
 in his boot. Accompanied by Smith, 
 an emissary of Arnold, and provided 
 with a passport *under his assumed 
 name of Anderson, he set out and 
 reached in safety a spot from which 
 they could see the ground occupied by 
 the English videttes. At Tarrytown 
 he was first stopped, and then arrested, 
 by three Americans. Andre" offered 
 them his money, horse, and a large re- 
 ward, but without avail. They ex- 
 amined his person, and, in his boots, 
 found the fatal papers. He was then 
 conveyed to Colonel Jameson, com- 
 mander of the American outposts. 
 On the arrival O Washington, Andre 
 was conveyed to Tappan and tried by
 
 Andre 
 
 a board of general officers, among 
 whom were General Greene, the presi- 
 dent, Lafayette, and Knox. Every ef- 
 fort was made by Sir Henry Clinton 
 to save him, and there was a strong 
 disposition on the American side to do 
 so. His execution, originally appoint- 
 ed for Sept. 30, did not take place till 
 Oct. 2. If possession could have been 
 obtained of the traitor, the life of 
 Andr<5 would have been spared. His 
 remains, which were buried on the 
 spot, were afterward removed to Lon- 
 don, and now repose in Westminster 
 Abbey. 
 
 Andre, Louis Joseph Nicolas, 
 a French military officer, born in 
 Nuits, Burgundy, March 29, 1838. He 
 was graduated at the Polytechnic 
 School, and in 1865 became captain, 
 serving in that capacity throughout the 
 Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. 
 He became Major in 1877, Lieutenant- 
 Colonel in 1885, and Colonel in 1888. 
 He was made General of Brigade in 
 1893, and placed in charge of the Poly- 
 technic School. He married, in 1875, 
 Mile. Chapuis, a talented singer of the 
 Opera Comique. On May 29, 1900, he 
 was appointed Minister of War by 
 President Loubet, succeeding General 
 the Marquis de Gallifet , who held the 
 office during the exciting period of the 
 Dreyfus revision. 
 
 Andrea, Jakob, a German Pro- 
 testant theologian, born in Wiirtem- 
 berg, March 25, 1528; died in Tubin- 
 gen, Jan. 7, 1590. 
 
 Andrea, Johann Valentin, a 
 very original thinker and writer, born 
 in 1586, near Tubingen. He studied 
 at Tubingen, became a Protestant pas- 
 tor, and died in 1654 at Stuttgart, 
 where he was chaplain to the court. 
 Eminently practical in mind, he was 
 grieved to see the principles of Chris- 
 tianity made the subject of mere empty 
 disputations, and devoted his whole 
 life to correct this prevailing tendency 
 of his age. 
 
 Andree, Solomon Angustc, a 
 Swedish aeronaut, born Oct. 18, 1854 ; 
 educated for a civil engineer. In 1882, 
 he took part in a Swedish meteoro- 
 logical expedition to Spitzbergen. In 
 1884 he was appointed chief engineer 
 to the patent office, and from 1886 to 
 1889 he occupied a professor's chair 
 at Stockholm. In 1892 he received 
 
 Andrews 
 
 from the Swedish Academy of Sci- 
 ences a subvention for the purpose of 
 undertaking scientific aerial naviga- 
 tion. From that time Dr. Andree de- 
 voted himself to aerial navigation, and 
 made his first ascent at Stockholm in 
 the summer of 1893. In 1895 he pre- 
 sented to the Academy of Sciences a 
 well-matured project for exploring the 
 regions of the North Pole with the aid 
 of a balloon. The estimated cost 
 amounted to about $40,000. A na- 
 tional subscription was opened, which 
 was completed in a few days, the King 
 of Sweden contributing the sum of 
 $8,280. With two companions, Dr. S. 
 T. Strindberg and Herr Fraenckell, he 
 started from Dane's island, Spitzber- 
 gen, July 11, 1897. His balloon was 
 67% feet in diameter, with a capacity 
 of 170,000 cubic feet. Its speed was 
 estimated at from 12 to 15 miles an 
 hour, at which rate the Pole should 
 have been reached in six days, pro- 
 vided a favorable and constant wind 
 had been blowing. Two days after his 
 departure, a message was received from 
 Dr. Andr6e by carrier pigeon, which 
 stated that at noon, July 13, they were 
 in latitude 82.2, and longitude 15.5 
 E., and making good progress to the 
 E., 10 southerly. This was the last 
 word received from the explorer. 
 
 Andrew, the first disciple, one of 
 the apostles of Jesus. His career 
 after the Master's death is unknown. 
 Tradition tells us that, after preach- 
 ing the gospel in Scythia, Northern 
 Greece, and Epirus, he suffered mar- 
 tyrdom on the cross at Patrse, in 
 Achaia, 62 or 70 A. D. 
 
 Andrew I., King of Hungary, in 
 1046-1049; compelled his subjects to 
 embrace Christianity ; he was killed in 
 battle in 1058. 
 
 Andrew, John Albion, war gov- 
 enor of Massachusetts. Was born at 
 Windham in 1818, died 1867. His "Let- 
 ters and Life" was published in 1904. 
 
 Andrews, Christopher Colum- 
 bus, an American diplomat and 
 writer, born at Hillsboro, N. H., Oct. 
 27, 1829; was brevetted Major-Gen- 
 eral in the Civil War; United States 
 Minister to Sweden from 1869 to 1877, 
 and Consul-General to Brazil from 
 1882 to 1885. 
 
 Andrew's, Elislia Benjamin, an 
 American educator, born in lliusdale,
 
 Andrews 
 
 N. H., Jan. 10, 1844; he was grad- 
 uated at Brown University, 1870, and 
 Newton Theological Seminary, 1874 ; 
 President of Brown University in 
 1889-1898; became Superintendent of 
 Public Schools in Chicago in 1898, 
 and Chancellor of the University of 
 Nebraska in 190O; -resigned in 1908. 
 
 Andrews, Ethan Allen, an 
 American educator and lexicographer, 
 born at New Britain, Conn., April 7, 
 1787. He died in 1858. 
 
 Andrews, Jane, an American ju- 
 venile story writer, born in Massachu- 
 setts in 1833. She died in 1887. 
 
 Andrews, John N., an American 
 military officer, born in Delaware, in 
 1838 ; was graduated at West Point 
 in 1860; served with .Iktiaction 
 through the Civil War; commissioned 
 Colonel of the 12th United States in- 
 fantry in 1895; and appointed a Brig- 
 adier-General of Volunteers for the 
 war against Spain in 1898. 
 
 Andrews, Lorrin, an American 
 missionary, born in East Windsor, 
 Conn. , April 29, 1795 ; was educated 
 at Jefferson College and Princeton 
 Theological Seminary, and went as a 
 missionary to the Hawaiian Islands in 
 1827. He founded, in 1831, the La- 
 hainaluna Seminary, which later be- 
 came the Hawaii University, where he 
 served 10 years as a professor. He 
 translated a part of the Bible into the 
 Hawaiian language. In 1845 he be- 
 came a judge under the Hawaiian 
 Government and Secretary of the 
 Privy Council. He produced several 
 works on the literature and antiquities 
 of Hawaii, and a Hawaiian diction- 
 ary. He died in 18G8. 
 
 Andrews, Stephen Pearl, an 
 American writer, born at Templeton, 
 Mass., March 22, 1812; was a promi- 
 i?ent abolitionist, practiced law in the 
 South, and settled in New York in 
 1847. He died at New York, May 21, 
 1886. 
 
 Andromache, a daughter of 
 JEtion, King of Thebes in Cilicia, and 
 wife of Hector. After, the conquest of 
 Troy she became the prize of Pyrrhu?, 
 son of Achilles, who carried her to 
 Epirus and bad three sons by her, 
 but afterward left her to Helenus, 
 brother of Hector, to whom she bore 
 a son. Euripides has made her the 
 chief character of a tragedy. 
 
 Angel 
 
 Andromeda, in classical mythology 
 a daughter of Sepheus, King of Ethi- 
 opia and Cassiope. It was fabled that 
 sne was chained to a rock by order of 
 Jupiter Ammon, and then exposed to 
 the attacks of a monster. Perseus re- 
 leased, and afterward married her. On 
 her death she was changed into the 
 constellation which bears her name. 
 
 In astronomy, a constellation, fanci- 
 fully supposed to resemble a woman 
 chained. 
 
 Andros Islands, a group of islands 
 belonging to the Bahamas. 
 
 Andros, Sir Edmund, an Eng- 
 lish provincial governor, born in 1637 ; 
 was governor of New York in 1674- 
 1682, and of New England, with New 
 York included, in 1686-1689. His 
 harsh execution of the orders of the 
 Duke of York caused him to be gener- 
 ally execrated, and, after his attempt 
 to deprive Connecticut of its royal 
 charter, he was seized by the people 
 of Boston and sent to England under 
 charges. He was also Governor of 
 Virginia in 1692-1698, and of the Is- 
 land of Jersey in 1704-1706. He died 
 in 1714. 
 
 Anemometer, an instrument de- 
 signed to measure the velocity of the 
 wind, on which its strength depends. 
 
 Anemone, a genus of plants be- 
 longing to the crowfoots. 
 
 In zoology, it is a popular name 
 given to various radiated animals 
 which present a superficial resemb- 
 lance to the anemone. 
 
 Anemoscope, an instrument for 
 rendering visible the direction of the 
 wind. In that commonly used there 
 is a vane exposed to the wind acting 
 upon an index moving round a dial- 
 plate on which the 32 points of the 
 compass are engraved. 
 
 Aneroid, not containing any li- 
 quid; used chiefly in the expression, 
 " aneroid barometer." 
 
 Aneurism, a morbid dilation of the 
 aorta, or one of the other great arter- 
 ies of the body. 
 
 Angel, a messenger, one employed 
 to carry a message, a locum tenens, a 
 man of business. 
 
 In a special sense an angel is one of 
 an order of spiritual beings superior to 
 man in power and intelligence, vast in 
 number, holy in character, and thor- 
 oughly devoted to the worship and ser-
 
 Angel Fish 
 
 Angle 
 
 vice of God, wlu employs them as his 
 heavenly messengers. Their existence 
 is made known to us by Scripture, and 
 is recognized also in the Parsee sacred 
 books. 
 
 Angel Fish, a fish of the shark 
 family, the reverse of angelic in 
 its look, but which derived its name 
 from the fact that its extended pec- 
 toral fins present the appearance ot 
 wings. It is called also monk-fish, 
 fiddle-fish, shark-ray, and kingston. 
 
 Angelica, a genus of plants mostly 
 herbaceous and perennial, natives of 
 the temperate and colder regions of 
 the northern hemisphere. Wild angel- 
 ica (A. sylvestris) is a common plant 
 in moist meadows, by the sides of 
 brooks, and in woods. The garden an- 
 gelica is a biennial plant, becoming 
 perennial when not allowed to ripen 
 its seeds. 
 
 Angelico, Fra, the commonest 
 designation of the great friar-painter 
 in full, " II beato Fra Giovanni An- 
 gelico da Fiesole," " the blessed 
 Brother John the angelic of Fiesole." 
 Born in 1387 at Vicchio, in the Tus- 
 can province of Mugello, in 1407, he 
 entered the Dominican monastery at 
 Fiesole, in 1436 he was transferred to 
 Florence, and in 1445 was summoned 
 by the Pope to Rome, where thence- 
 forward he chiefly resided till his 
 death in 1455. 
 
 Angell, George Thoradike, an 
 American reformer, born in 1820. He 
 was graduated at Dartmouth, 1846, 
 and admitted to the bar, 1851. He 
 was active in promoting measures for 
 the prevention of crime, cruelties, and 
 the adulteration of food, and founded 
 the American Humane Educational 
 Society. He died in 1000. 
 
 Angell, James Burrill, an Amer- 
 ican eductftor and diplomatist, born in 
 Scituate, R. I., Jan. 7, 1827; was 
 graduated from Brown University in 
 1850. He assumed the presidency of 
 the University of Vermont in 1866, 
 and that of the University of Michigan 
 in 1871. He was Minister to China, 
 1880-1881, and to Turkey, 1897-1898. 
 In 1900-10 he resumed the presidency 
 Of the University of Michigan. 
 
 Angell, Joseph Kinnicnt, an 
 'American lawyer, born in Providence, 
 R. I., in 1794 ; best known for bis 
 works on " Treatise on the Right of 
 
 Property in Tide- Waters," and " The 
 Limitation of Actions at Law and in 
 Equity and Admiralty." He died in 
 1857. 
 
 Angela (Michelangelo). See MI- 
 CHELANGELO BUONABOTTI. 
 
 Angelns, The, a painting by J. F. 
 Millet. It represents two French 
 peasants who have stopped their work 
 in the field to listen to the Angel us 
 bell, and to pray. The American Art 
 Association bought the picture in 1899 
 for about 580.000 francs, exhibited it 
 about the country and sold it in 1890 
 for $150.000. 
 
 Angelns, in the Roman Catholic 
 Church, a short form of prayer in 
 honor of the incarnation, consisting 
 mainly of versicles and responses. 
 
 Angina Pectoris, the name first 
 given by Dr. Heberden in 1768, and 
 since then universally adopted as the 
 designation of a very painful disease, 
 called by him also a disorder of the 
 breast ; by some others, spasm of the 
 chest, or heart stroke, and popularly 
 breast pang. It is characterized by 
 intense pain in the praecordial region, 
 attended by a feeling of suffocation 
 and a fearful sense of impending 
 death. These symptoms may continue 
 for a few minutes, half an hour, or 
 even an hour or more. During the 
 paroxysm the pulse is low, with the 
 body cold, and often covered with 
 clammy perspiration. Death does not 
 often result from the first seizure, but 
 the malady tends to return at more or 
 less remote intervals, generally prov- 
 ing fatal at last. There are several 
 varieties of it : an organic and func- 
 tional form ; and again a pure or idio- 
 pathic and a complex or sympathetic 
 one have been recognized. Angina is 
 produced by disease of the heart. It 
 especially attacks elderly persons of 
 plethoric habits, men oftener than 
 women, generally coming on when 
 they are walking, and yet more, it 
 they are running up stairs or exerting 
 great effort on ascending a hill. Stim- 
 ulants should be administered during 
 the continuance of a paroxysm ; but it 
 requires a radical improvement of the 
 general health to produce a permanent 
 effect on the disorder. 
 
 Angle, the point where two lines 
 meet, or the meeting of two lines in a 
 point. Technically, the inclination ot 
 two lines to one another.
 
 Angler Fish 
 
 Angler Fish, a fish called also sea 
 devil, frog, or frog fish. It has an 
 enormous head, on which are placed 
 two elongated appendages or filaments, 
 the first of them broad and flattened 
 at the end. These, being movable, are 
 maneuvered as if they were bait ; and 
 when small fishes approach to examine 
 them, the angler, hidden amid mud and 
 Band, which it has stirred up by means 
 of its pectoral and ventral fins, seizes 
 them at once ; hence its name. 
 
 Angles, a German tribe who ap- 
 pear to have originally dwelt on the E. 
 eide of the Elbe between the mouth of 
 the Saale and Ohre, and to have re- 
 moved N. from their old abodes to the 
 modern Schleswig, where they dwelt 
 between the Jutes and Saxons. In 
 the 5th century they joined their pow- 
 erful N. neighbors, the Saxons, and 
 took part in the conquest of Britain, 
 which from them derived its future 
 name of England. 
 
 Anglesey, or Anglesea, an island 
 and county of England, in North 
 Wales, in the Irish Sea, separated 
 from the mainland by the Menai 
 Strait. It is about 20 miles long and 
 17 miles broad. The Menai Strait is 
 crossed by a magnificent suspension 
 bridge, 580 feet between the piers and 
 100 feet above high-water mark, allow- 
 ing the largest vessels which navigate 
 the strait to sail under it ; and also 
 by the great Britannia tubular bridge, 
 for the conveyance of railway trains, 
 Holyhead being the point of departure 
 for the Irish mails. 
 
 HOOKS BAITED WITH WOEMS. 
 
 Anglican Church, The, means 
 collectively that group of autonomous 
 churches which are in communion 
 with, or have sprung from, the mother 
 
 Angling 
 
 Church of England. They are the 
 following: The Church of Ireland, 
 the Episcopal Church of Scotland, the 
 Protestant Episcopal Church of the 
 United States of America, the Church 
 of Canada, the Church of Australia, 
 the Indian Church, and the Church of 
 South Africa, which are all autono- 
 mous bodies under the jurisdiction of 
 their own metropolitans, and not 
 amenable to the ecclesiastical courts 
 of the Church of England, though they 
 all look to the Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury as patriarch. In addition tc 
 these autonomous churches in connec- 
 tion with the Anglican communion, 
 there are 12 missionary bishops, repre- 
 senting the English church in various 
 remote regions of Asia, Africa, and 
 America ; and three or four represent- 
 ing the Protestant Episcopal Church 
 of America. The Reformed Episcopal 
 Church of America and the Free 
 Church of England are not recognized 
 as authentic branches of the Anglican 
 Church. The American Church, le- 
 gally the Protestant Episcopal Church, 
 possesses 84 bishops in 58 dioceses and 
 21 missionary jurisdictions, and 4,776 
 other clergy. It has 680,205 commu- 
 nicants, and property exceeding $90,- 
 000,000 in value. 
 
 -yzm 
 
 ARTIFICIAL FLIES. 
 
 Angling, the art of catching fish 
 with a hook, or angle (Anglo-Saxon, 
 ongel), baited with worms, small fish,
 
 Anglo-American Com, 
 
 Aniline 
 
 flies, etc. We find occasional allusions 
 to this pursuit among the Greek and 
 Latin classical writers ; it is mentioned 
 several times in the Old Testament, 
 and it was practiced by the ancient 
 Egyptians. The oldest work on the 
 subject in English is the " Treatyse of 
 Fyshinge with an Angle," printed by 
 Wynkyn de Worde in 1496, along with 
 treaties on hunting and hawking, the 
 whole being ascribed to Dame Juliana 
 Berners, or Barnes, prioress of a nun- 
 nery near St. Alban. Walton's inim- 
 itable discourse on angling was first 
 printed in 1653. 
 
 Anglo-American Commission, 
 a joint international commission ap- 
 pointed in 1898, by the United States 
 and Great Britain, to negotiate a plan 
 for the settlement of all controversial 
 matters between the United States and 
 Canada. This commission settled the 
 Alaskan boundary. 
 
 Anglo-French Treaty, a diplo- 
 matic agreement between England and 
 France, signed April 8, 1904. By this 
 treaty, France gave up her claims to 
 certain sovereign rights on the New- 
 foundland shore ; the rights and privi- 
 leges of the two nations in Egypt, 
 Morocco, and Africa generally, are set 
 forth, and the position of France in 
 Siam, Madagascar, etc., defined. 
 
 Anglo-Japanese Alliance, a 
 protective agreement for the mutual 
 defense of interests in eastern Asia 
 and India, effected by treaties in 1902 
 and 1905, between Great Britain and 
 Japan. 
 
 Anglo-Saxons, the name used, 
 with doubtful propriety, by modern 
 historians to include the Angles, Sax- 
 ons, and Jutes, who settled in Britain 
 in the 5th and 6th centuries after 
 Christ, and thus became the ancestors 
 of the English people. These tribes 
 came from Germany, where they in- 
 habited the parts about the mouths of 
 the Elbe and Weser, and the first body 
 of them who gained a footing in Eng- 
 land are said to have landed in 449, 
 and to have been led by Hengist and 
 Horsa. The Jutes settled chiefly in 
 Kent, the Saxons in the S. and middle 
 of 'the country, and the Angles in the 
 N. Among the various Anglo-Saxon 
 States that afterwards arose those 
 founded by the Angles first gained the 
 preponderance, and the whole country 
 came in time to be called after them 
 
 Engla-land, that is, the land of the 
 Angles. 
 
 Angora Cat, Goat, etc., a variety 
 of these common animals, generally 
 supposed to have originated in Angora. 
 They are characterized by the length 
 and silkiness of the hair, which makes 
 the goat a valuable animal to raise. 
 In America, each generation of the 
 goat has a poorer fleece, the excellent 
 quality being retained only by frequent 
 crossings with the original stock. 
 
 Angostura Bark, the aromatic 
 bitter medicinal bark obtained chiefly 
 from Galipea officinalis, a tree of 10 
 to 20 feet high, growing in the north- 
 ern regions of South America ; natural 
 order rutacse. The bark is valuable 
 as a tonic and febrifuge, and is also 
 used for a kind of bitters. 
 
 Angonleme, Louis Antoine de 
 Bourbon, Due d', the eldest son of 
 Charles X. of France, and Dauphin 
 during his father's reign, born at Ver- 
 sailles Aug. 6, 1775. On the rev- 
 olution in July, 1830, he signed, 
 with his father, an abdication in 
 favor of his nephew, the Due de 
 Bordeaux ; and when the Chambers 
 declared the family of Charles X. to 
 have forfeited the throne, he accom' 
 panied him into exile, to Holyrood, to 
 Prague, and to Gorz. He died, 1844. 
 
 Anhalt, a duchy of North Ger- 
 many, lying partly in the plains of 
 the Middle Elbe, and partly in the 
 valleys and uplands of the Lower 
 Harz, and almost entirely surrounded 
 by Prussia ; area, 906 square miles. 
 The united principality is now incor- 
 porated in the German Empire, and 
 has one vote in the Bundesrath and 
 two in the Reichstag. Pop. (1900) 
 316,085. The chief towns are Dessau, 
 Bernburg, Kothen, and Zerbst. 
 
 Ani, the name given to a division 
 of the Cuculidse, or cuckoos; the typ- 
 ical anis are found in South America, 
 the West Indies and Florida. They 
 are about the size of our blackbird. 
 
 Anichini, Ludwig, a Venetian, 
 engraver of great celebrity. On see- 
 ing his pieces, Michael Angelo Is said 
 to have exclaimed that the art of 
 engraving had reached perfection. 
 
 Aniline, an organic substance used 
 as the basis of brilliant and durable 
 dyes. It is found in small quantities 
 in coal-tar, but the aniline of com-
 
 Animal 
 
 merce is obtained from benzene or ben- 
 zole, a constituent of coal-tar, consist- 
 ing of hydrogen and carbon. It is 
 a colorless oily liquid somewhat heav- 
 ier than water, with a peculiar vinous 
 smell, and a burning taste. Its name 
 is derived from anil, the Portuguese 
 find Spanish name for indigo, from the 
 dry distillation of which substance it 
 was first obtained by the chemist Un- 
 verdorben in 1826. The manufacture 
 of aniline or coal-tar dyes as a branch 
 of industry was introduced in 1856 by 
 Mr. Perkin of London. 
 
 Animal, an organized and sen- 
 tient living being. Life in the earlier 
 periods of natural history was attri- 
 buted almost exclusively to animals. 
 With the progress of science, how- 
 ever, it was extended to plants. In 
 the case of the higher animals and 
 plants there is no difficulty in assign- 
 ing the individual to one of the two 
 great kingdoms of organic nature, but 
 in their lowest manifestations, the veg- 
 etable and animal kingdoms are 
 brought into such immediate contact 
 that it becomes almost impossible, to 
 assign them precise limits, and to say 
 with certainty where the one begins 
 and the other ends. From form no ab- 
 solute distinction can be fixed between 
 animals and plants. Many animals, 
 such as the sea-shrub, sea-mats, etc., 
 so resemble plants in external appear- 
 ance that they were, and even yet 
 popularly are, looked upon as such. 
 
 Animal Chemistry, the depart- 
 ment of organic chemistry which in- 
 vestigates the composition of the fluids 
 and the solids of animals, and the 
 chemical action that takes place in 
 animal bodies. 
 
 Animal Magnetism. (See HYP- 
 NOTISM). 
 
 Anise, an umbelliferous plant, cul- 
 tivated in Malta and Spain for the 
 sake of its aromatic and carminative 
 seeds which form a profitable article 
 of export and commerce. Its scent 
 tends to neutralize other smells. 
 
 Anjon or Beagne, Battle of, 
 between the English and French ; the 
 latter commanded by the Dauphin of 
 France March 22, 1421. The Eng- 
 lish were defeated ; the Duke of Clar- 
 ence was slain by Sir Allan Swinton, 
 a Scotch knight, and 1,500 men per- 
 ished on the field; the Earls of Som- 
 
 Annato 
 
 erset, Dorset and Huntingdon were 
 taken prisoners. This was the first 
 battle that turned the tide of success 
 against the English. 
 
 Anna Comnena, daughter of Alex- 
 ius Comnenus I., Byzantine emperor. 
 She was born 1083, and died 1148. 
 After her father's death she endeav- 
 ored to secure the succession to her 
 husband, Nicephorus Briennius, but 
 was baffled by his want of energy and 
 ambition. She wrote (in Greek) a life 
 of her father Alexius, which, in the 
 midst of much fulsome panegyric, con- 
 tains some valuable and interesting in- 
 formation. She forms a character in 
 Scott's " Count Robert of Paris." 
 
 Anna Ivanovna, Empress of 
 Russia ; born in 1693 ; the daughter of 
 Ivan, the elder half-brother of Peter 
 the Great. Anna died in 1740. 
 
 Annals, a history of events in 
 chronological order, each event being 
 recorded under the year in which it 
 occurred. The name is derived from 
 the first records of the Romans, which 
 were called annales pontificum as 
 drawn up by the pontifex maximus 
 (chief pontiff). The name was applied 
 in later times to historical works in 
 which the matter was treated with 
 special reference to chronological ar- 
 rangement as to the Annals of Tacitus. 
 
 Annapolis, the capital of Mary- 
 land, on the Severn, near its mouth, 
 about tffo miles from Chesapeake Bay. 
 It contains a college (St. John's), a 
 state-house, and the United States 
 naval academy. It has a fine harbor, 
 and is the seat of an extensive oyster 
 industry. Pop. (1910) 8,690. 
 
 Annapolis Convention, a con- 
 vention that met in Annapolis, Md., 
 Sept. 11, 1786, to consider changes 
 in the Articles of Confederation, but 
 effected nothing. 
 
 Ann Arbor, city and capital of 
 Washtenaw county, Mich.; on the 
 Huron river; 38 miles W. of De- 
 troit; manufactures farm implements, 
 woolen goods, furniture, carriages, 
 and organs; and is the seat of the 
 State University. Pop. (1910) 14,817. 
 
 Annato, or Arnotto, an orange- 
 red coloring matter, obtained from a 
 shrub cultivated in Guiana, St. Do- 
 mingo, and the East Indies. It is 
 sometimes used as a dye for silk and 
 cotton goods, and is much used in
 
 WILD ANIMALS I
 
 GRIZZLY BEAR5 
 
 >E A DL Y COMBAT
 
 Anne of Austria 
 
 Anniversaries 
 
 medicine for tinting plasters and oint- 
 ments, and for giving a rich color to 
 cheese and butter. 
 
 Anne of Austria, daughter of 
 Philip III. of Spain, was born at Ma- 
 drid in 1602, and in 1615 was married 
 to Louis XIII. of France. Richelieu, 
 fearing the influence of her foreign 
 connections did everything he could 
 to humble her. In 1643 her husband 
 died, and she was left regent, but 
 placed under the control of a council. 
 But the parliament overthrew this ar- 
 rangement, and intrusted her with full 
 sovereign rights during the minority 
 of her son, Louis XIV. She, how- 
 over, brought upon herself the hatred 
 of the nobles by her boundless confi- 
 dence in Cardinal Mazarin, and was 
 forced to flee from Paris during the 
 wars of the Fronde. She ultimately 
 quelled all opposition, and was able, 
 in 1661, to transmit to her son, unim- 
 paired, the royal authority. She spent 
 the remainder of her life in retire- 
 ment, and died Jan. 20, 1666. 
 
 Anne, Queen of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, was born at Twick- 
 enham, near London, Feb. 6, 1664 ; 
 the second daughter of James II., then 
 Duke of York, and Anne, his wife, 
 daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. 
 She was educated according to the 
 principles of the English Church. In 
 1683 she was married to Prince 
 George, brother to King Christian V. 
 of Denmark. On the arrival of the 
 Prince of Orange in 1688, Anne wished 
 to remain with her father ; but she 
 was prevailed upon by Lord Churchill 
 (afterward Duke of Marlborough) and 
 his wife to join the triumphant party. 
 After the death of William III., in 
 1702, she ascended the English throne. 
 Her character was essentially weak, 
 and she was governed first bv Marl- 
 borough and his wife, and afterward 
 by Mrs. Masham. Most of the prin- 
 cipal events of her reign are connected 
 with the War of the Spanish Succes- 
 sion. The only important acquisition 
 that England made by it was Gibral- 
 tar, which was captured in 1704. An- 
 other very important event of this 
 reign was the union of England and 
 Scotland, under the name of Great 
 Britain, which was accomplished in 
 1707. She died, July 20, 1714. The 
 reign of Anne was distinguished not 
 only by the brilliant successes of the 
 E.7. 
 
 British arms, but also on account of 
 the number of admirable and excellent 
 writers who nourished at this time, 
 among them Pope, Swift, and Addison. 
 
 Annealing, a process to which 
 many articles of metal and glass are 
 subjected after making, in order to 
 render them more tenacious, and which 
 consists in heating them and allowing 
 them to cool slowly 
 
 Annelida, a class of animals be- 
 longing to the sub-kingdom articulata, 
 the annulosa of some naturalists. 
 They are sometimes called red blooded 
 worms, being the only invertebrated 
 animals possessing this character. 
 
 Annexation, a national acquisi- 
 tion of territory. The term is properly 
 used when adjoining territory is an- 
 nexed, but in a loose way it is applied 
 to the extension of a nation's sov- 
 ereignty over any land. 
 
 Annihilationism, the theory of 
 the utter extinction of man's being, 
 both bodily and spiritual, either at 
 death or at some later period. Arch- 
 bishop Whately says that in the pas- 
 sages in Scripture in which 'death,' 
 'destruction,' 'eternal death,' are men- 
 tioned, the words may be taken as sig- 
 nifying literal death, real destruction, 
 the utter end of things. Of late those 
 who hold to this theory have adopted 
 the term ' conditional immortality.' 
 
 Anniston, city and county seat of 
 Calhoun Co.. Ala. The city is the cen- 
 tre of a region of coal, iron, and tim- 
 ber, and the seat of a large cotton 
 trade. Pop. (1910) 12,794. 
 
 Anniversaries, the yearly recur- 
 rence of the date upon which any past 
 event, of historical or personal in- 
 terest, has taken place. A number of 
 anniversaries of interest to Americans 
 are included in the following : 
 
 Jan. 1, 1863, Emancipation Procla- 
 mation, by Lincoln. 
 
 Jan. 8, 1815, Battle of New Or- 
 leans. 
 
 Jan. 17, 1706, Franklin born. 
 
 Jan. 17, 1781, Battle of the Cow- 
 pens, S. C. 
 
 Jan 19. 1807. Robert E. Lee born. 
 
 Jan. 27, 1859, German Emperor 
 born. 
 
 Feb. 12, 1809, Abraham Lincoln 
 born. 
 
 Feb. 15, 1898, battleship "Maine" 
 blown up.
 
 Anniversaries 
 
 Annunciation 
 
 Feb. 22, 1732, George Washington 
 Tx>rn. 
 
 Feb. 22-23, 1847, Battle of Buena 
 Vista. 
 
 March 5, 1770, Boston massacre. 
 
 March 15, 1767, Andrew Jackson 
 born. 
 
 April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered at 
 Appomattox. 
 
 April 12, 1861, Fort Sumter fired 
 upon. 
 
 April 12, 1777, Henry Clay born. 
 
 April 13, 1743, Thomas Jefferson 
 born. 
 
 April 14, 1865, Lincoln assassinated. 
 
 April 19, 1881, Primrose Day in 
 England, Lord Beaconsfield died. 
 
 April 19, 1775, Battle of Lexington 
 and Concord. 
 
 April 30, 1789, Washington was 
 inaugurated first President. 
 
 May 1, 1898, Dewey destroyed the 
 Spanish fleet at Manila. 
 
 May 13, 1607, first English settle- 
 ment in America, at Jamestown. 
 
 May 13, 1783, the Society of the 
 Cincinnati was organized by officers 
 of the Revolutionary army. 
 
 May 20, 1775, Mecklenburg, N. C., 
 Declaration of Independence. 
 
 June 14, 1777, American flag adopt- 
 ed by Congress. 
 
 June 15, 1215, King John granted 
 Magna Charta at Runnymede. 
 
 June 17, 1775, Battle of Bunker 
 Hill. 
 
 June 18, 1815, Battle of Waterloo. 
 
 June 28, 1776, Battle of Fort Moul- 
 trie, Charleston, S. C. 
 
 July 1, Dominion Day in Canada. 
 
 July 1-2, 1898, general assault on 
 Santiago de Cuba. 
 
 July 1-3, 1863, Battle of Gettys- 
 burg. 
 
 July 3, 1898, Cervera's fleet de- 
 stroyed off Santiago. 
 
 July 14, 1789, the Bastile was de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 July 16, 1898, Santiago surrendered. 
 
 July 21, 1861, Battle of Bull Run. 
 
 Aug. 13, 1898, Manila surrendered 
 to the Americans. 
 
 Aug. 16, 1777, Battle of Benning- 
 ton, Vt. 
 
 Sept. 8, 1781, Battle of Eutaw 
 Springs, S. C. 
 
 Sept. 10, 1813, Battle of Lake Erie, 
 Perry's victory. 
 
 Sept. 11. 1814, Battle of Lake 
 Champlain, McDonough's victory. 
 
 Sept. 12, 1814, Battle of North 
 Point, near Baltimore. 
 
 Sept. 13, 1847, Battle of Chapulte- 
 pec. 
 
 Sept. 14, 1847, City of Mexico 
 taken by United States troops. 
 
 Sept. 17, 1862, Battle of Antietam. 
 
 Sept. 19-20, 1863, Battle of Chick- 
 amauga. 
 
 Sept. 20, 1870, Italians occupied 
 Rome. 
 
 Oct. 7, 1780, Battle of King's Moun- 
 tain, N. C. 
 
 Oct. 8-11, 1871, great fire of Chi- 
 cabo. 
 
 Oct. 12, 1492, Columbus discovered 
 America. 
 
 Oct. 17, 1777, Burgoyne surrendered 
 at Saratoga. 
 
 Oct. 19, 1781, Cornwallis surren- 
 dered at Yorktown. 
 
 Nov. 5, 1604, Guy Fawkes Day in 
 England, the gunpowder plot discov- 
 ered. 
 
 Nov. 9, 1872, great fire of Boston. 
 
 Nov. 25, 1783, British evacuated 
 New York. 
 
 Dec. 14, 1799, Washington died. 
 
 Dec. 16, 1773, Boston "Tea Party." 
 
 Dec. 22, 1620, Mayflower pilgrims 
 landed at Plymouth Rock. 
 
 Dec. 25-26, 1776, Battle of Tren- 
 ton, N. J. 
 
 Anno Domini, A. D., the year of 
 Our Lord, in Latin. The Christian 
 era began Jan. 1, in the middle of the 
 fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, 
 the 753rd year of the building of 
 Rome, and in 4714 of the Julian pe- 
 riod. This era was invented by a 
 monk, Dionysius Exiguus, about 532. 
 It was introduced into Italy in the 
 6th century, and ordered to be used 
 by bishops by the Council of Chelsea, 
 in 816, but was not generally employed 
 for several centuries. Charles III. of 
 Germany was the first who added " in 
 the year of our Lord" to his reign, in 879. 
 
 Annuity, a fixed sum of money 
 paid yearly. In the United States the 
 granting of annuities is conducted by 
 private companies or corporations. 
 The purchase of annuities, as a sys^ 
 tem, has never gained much foothold 
 the endowment plan of life insur- 
 ance, by which, after the lapse of a 
 term of years, the insured receives a 
 sum in bulk, being preferred. 
 
 Annunciation, the declaration 
 of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin
 
 Aiiode 
 
 Mary informing her that she was to 
 become the mother of our Lord. An- 
 nunciation or Lady Day is a feast in 
 honor of the Annunciation, celebrated 
 on the 25th of March. 
 
 Anode, the name given by Fara- 
 day to what is called by Daniell the 
 zincode, and by various other writers 
 the positive pole of an electric bat- 
 tery ; or, more precisely, the " way " 
 or path by which the electric current 
 passes out and enters the electrolyte 
 on its way to the other pole. 
 
 Anodyne, a medicine which alle- 
 viates pain, though, if given in too 
 large doses, it induces stupor. 
 
 Anointing, rubbing the body or 
 some part of it with oil, often per- 
 fumed. From time immemorial the 
 nations of the East have been in the 
 habit of anointing themselves for the 
 sake of health and beauty. In the 
 Mosaic law a sacred character was 
 attached to the anointing of the 
 garments of the priests, and things 
 belonging to the ceremonial of wor- 
 ship. The custom of anointing still 
 exists in the Roman Catholic Church 
 in the ordination of priests and the 
 confirmation of believers and the sac- 
 rament of extreme unction. The cere- 
 mony is also frequently a part of the 
 coronation of kings. _ 
 
 Anoinalure, a genus of rodent an- 
 imals inhabitating the W. coast of Af- 
 rica, resembling the flying-squirrels, 
 but having the under surface of the 
 tail " furnished for some distance from 
 the roots with a series of large horny 
 scales, which, when pressed against 
 the trunk of a tree, may subserve the 
 same purpose as those instruments 
 with which a man climbs up a tele- 
 graph pole to set the wires." 
 
 Anonymous, literally " without 
 name," applied to anything which is 
 the work of a person whose name is 
 unknown or who keeps his name se- 
 cret. Pseudonym is a term used for 
 an assumed name. 
 
 Aiioplotherium, an extinct ge- 
 nus of the ungulata or hoofed quad- 
 rupeds, forming the type of a distinct 
 family, which were in many respects 
 intermediate between the swine and 
 the true ruminants. These animals 
 were pig-like in form, but possessed 
 long tails, and had a cleft hoof, with 
 two rudimentary toes. Some of them 
 
 Anste? 
 
 were as small as a guinea-pig, others 
 as large as an ass. 
 
 Anosmia, a disease consisting in 
 a diminution or destruction of the 
 power of smelling, sometimes constitu- 
 tional, but most frequently caused by 
 strong and repeated stimulants, as 
 snuff, applied to the olfactory nerves. 
 
 Anqnetil-Dnperron, Abraham 
 Hyacinthe, a French orientalist, 
 born in 1731. He died in 1805. 
 
 Anselm of Canterbury, a Chris- 
 tian philosopher and theologian ; re- 
 garded by some as the founder of 
 scholasticism ; born in Aosta, Pied- 
 mont, between April 21, 1033, and 
 April 21, 1034. In 1092 he went to 
 England. In the following year he 
 was nominated by William Rufus 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, and was 
 consecrated on Dec. 4, 1093. He died 
 in Canterbury, April 21, 1109; was 
 canonized in 1494. 
 
 Ansgar, or Anshar, called the 
 Apostle of the North, was born in 801 
 in Picardy, and he took the monastic 
 vows in boyhood. In the midst of 
 many difficulties he labored as a mis- 
 sionary in Denmark and Sweden ; dy- 
 ing in 804 or 865, with the reputation 
 of having undertaken, if not the first, 
 the most successful, attempts for the 
 propagation of Christianity in the 
 North. 
 
 Anson, George, Lord, a cele- 
 brated English navigator, born in 
 1697 ; entered the navy at an early 
 age and became a commander in 1722, 
 and captain in 1724. He was for a 
 long time on the South Carolina sta- 
 tion. His victory over the French 
 admiral, Jonquiere, near Cape Finis- 
 terre in 1747, raised him to the peer- 
 age. He died in 1762. 
 
 Ansonia, a city in New Haven 
 county, Conn.; on the Naugatuck 
 river and the New York, New Haven 
 & Hartford railroad; 10 miles W. of 
 New Haven; is widely noted for its 
 extensive manufactures of clocks, and 
 brass, copper, and woolen goods. 
 Pop. (1910) 15,152. 
 
 Ansted, David Thomas, an Eng- 
 lish geologist, born 1814; died 1880. 
 
 Anstey, F., pseudonym of THOMAS 
 ANSTEY GUTIIRIE, an English humor- 
 ist, born in Kensington in 1856 ; grad- 
 uated from Cambridge in 1875, was 1
 
 Ant 
 
 called to the bar in 1880. and joined 
 " Punch " staff in 1887. 
 
 Ant, the name that is commonly 
 applied to various genera of hymenop- 
 terous or membranous-winged insects. 
 Most of the species live in large com- 
 panies or societies, composed of three 
 sorts of individuals males, females, 
 and neuters. The males and females 
 have long wings, which are not so 
 much veined as in other insects of the 
 same section, and are only temporary ; 
 the neuters, which are simply females 
 with imperfectly developed organs, are 
 smaller than the males and females, 
 and are destitute of wings. The neu- 
 ters perform all the labors of the ant- 
 hill ; they excavate the galleries, pro- 
 cure food, and wait upon the larvae 
 till they are fit to leave their cells, ap- 
 pearing always industrious and solici- 
 tous. 
 
 Male and female ants survive, at 
 most, till autumn, or to the commence- 
 ment of cool weather, though a very 
 large proportion of them cease to exist 
 long previous to that time. The neu- 
 ters pass the winter in a state of tor- 
 por, and of course require no food. 
 The zoological characters of the ant 
 family, which includes the familiar 
 ants, are found in the females _ being 
 of larger size than the males ; in the 
 eexes being winged, while the neuters 
 are wingless ; and in the antennae pos- 
 sessing a long basal joint. 
 
 Antacid, an alkali, or any remedy 
 for acidity in the stomach. Dyspepsia 
 and diarrhrea are the diseases in which 
 antacids are chiefly employed. The 
 principal antacids in use are mag- 
 nesia, lime, and their carbonates, and 
 the carbonates of potash and soda. 
 
 Antananarivo, the capital of 
 Madagascar, situated in the central 
 Province of Imerina ; of late years al- 
 most entirely rebuilt, its old timber 
 houses having been replaced by build- 
 ings of sun dried brick on European 
 models. It contains two royal pal- 
 aces, immense timber structures, one 
 of which is surrounded with a massive 
 stone veranda with lofty corner tow- 
 ers. It has manufactures of metal 
 work, cutlery, silk, etc. Pop. about 
 100,000. See MADAOASCAB. 
 
 Antarctic, relating to the southern 
 pole or to the region near it. The 
 Antarctic Circle is a circle parallel to 
 
 Antelope 
 
 the equator and distant from the south 
 pole 23 28', marking the area within 
 which the sun does not set when on 
 the tropic of Capricorn. The Antarc- 
 tic Circle has been arbitrarily fixed on 
 as the limits of the Antarctic Ocean, 
 it being the average limit of the pack- 
 ice ; but the name is often extended to 
 embrace a much wider area. The south- 
 polar region is much colder than the 
 northern, temperatures of 100 having 
 been frequently noted by the Discov- 
 ery Expedition ( 1902-1904) . The mam- 
 mals in the south polar region are seals 
 and cetaceans. Lieutenant Shackle- 
 ton, in command of a British expedi- 
 tion, reached a point 111 m. from the 
 South Pole in 1908, and discovered 
 the south magnetic meridian. Scme- 
 what later, Captain Robert F. Scott 
 reached a boint still further, and re- 
 turned to England to prepare a second 
 expedition. Meanwhile, early in 1909, 
 the Norwegian, Rcald Amundsen, sailed 
 in the Fram and was lost sight of until 
 Hate in 1011. At that time he was in 
 jthe Antarctic Seas, not far from the 
 I point previously reached by Capt. Scott 
 and Sir Ernest Shackleton. Not long 
 after, he reached the South Pole (Dec. 
 ,14, 1911) and hoisted his country's flag. 
 It was not until March that he could 
 communicate the news of his discov- 
 ery, which he did frcm Tasmania. See 
 SOUTH POLAB EXPLORATIONS. 
 
 Ant-eater, a genus of mammalia, 
 belonging to the order Edentata. This 
 peculiar group of animals is exclusive- 
 ly found in the S. part of the Amer- 
 ican continent, where they aid in di- 
 minishing the numbers of immense 
 hordes of ants, which desolate the 
 country in the vicinity of their dwell- 
 ings. 
 
 Antediluvian, before the flood or 
 deluge of Noah's time ; relating to 
 what happened before the deluge. In 
 geology the term has been applied to 
 organisms, traces of which are found 
 in a fossil state in formations preced- 
 ing the diluvial, particularly to extinct 
 animals such as the paleotherium, the 
 mastodon, etc. 
 
 Antelope, the name given to the 
 members of a large family of rumi- 
 nant ungulata or hoofed mammalia, 
 closely resembling the deer in general 
 appearance, but essentially different in 
 nature from the latter animals. WU
 
 Antennae 
 
 known species are the chamois (Eu- 
 ropean), the gazelle, the addax, the 
 eland, the koodoo, the gnu, the spring- 
 bok, the sasin or Indian antelope, and 
 the prongbuck of America. 
 
 Antennas, the name given to the 
 movable jointed organs of touch and 
 hearing attached to the heads of in- 
 sects, myriapods, etc., and commonly 
 called horns or feelers. They present 
 a very great variety of forms. 
 
 Antenor, a Grecian sculptor, who 
 lived at Athens about 500 B. c. 
 
 Anthclion, a luminous ring, or 
 rings, seen by an observer, especially 
 in Alpine and polar regions, around 
 the shadow of his head projected on 
 a cloud or fog bank, or on grass cov- 
 ered with dew, 50 or 60 yards distant, 
 and opposite the sun when rising or 
 setting. It is due to the refraction of 
 light. 
 
 Anthem, orginally a hymn sung in 
 alternate parts ; in modern use, a sa- 
 cred tune or piece of music set to 
 words taken from the Psalms or other 
 parts of the Scriptures. 
 
 An the miu s, a Greek mathemati- 
 cian and architect of Lydia ; designed 
 the Church of St. Sophia at Constan- 
 tinople, and is credited with the in- 
 vention of the dome ; died A. D. 544. 
 
 Anther, an organized body con- 
 stituting part of a stamen, and gen- 
 erally attached to the apex of the fila- 
 ment. 
 
 Anthology, the name given to sev- 
 eral collections of short poems which 
 have come down from antiquity. 
 
 Anthon, Charles, an American 
 classical scholar, born in New York 
 city, Nov. 19, 1797. He was for many 
 years Professor of Ancient Languages 
 at Columbia College. A beautiful edi- 
 tion of Horace first made him famous 
 among scholars. His best known work 
 was an edition of Lempriere's " Clas- 
 sical Dictionary" (1841). He was 
 also the editor of over 50 classical 
 text-books. He died July 29, 1867. 
 
 Anthony, Henry Brown, an 
 'American legislator, born in 1815 ; 
 was graduated at Brown University 
 in 1833 ; became editor and publisher 
 of the " Journal," in Providence, R. I. ; 
 elected Governor of Rhode Island in 
 1849 and 1850; United States Sen- 
 ator from 1859 till his death ; and 
 
 Anthony 
 
 was elected President pro tern, of the 
 United States Senate in 1863, 1871, 
 and 1884. He died in 1884. 
 
 Anthony, St., the founder of 
 monastic institutions, born near Hera- 
 clea, in Upper Egypt, A. D. 251 ; died 
 356. His day, the 17th of Jan., is a 
 popular celebration in the Church. 
 
 Anthony's Fire, so called from 
 him, a disease of the Middle Ages that 
 dried up and blackened every limb it 
 attacked, as if it were burnt. 
 
 Anthony, St., Falls of, a noted 
 fall in the Mississippi river, DOW 
 within the citv Irnits of Minneapolis, 
 Minn. The perpendicular fall is 17 
 feet, with a rapid below of 58 feet. 
 An island divides the river into two 
 parts. The entire descent of the 
 stream for three-quarters of a mile is 
 65 feet. The falls and surrounding 
 scenery, especially during the spring 
 floods, are exceedingly picturesque. 
 
 Anthony, Snsan Brownell, an 
 American reformer, born in South 
 Adams, Mass., Feb. 15, 1820; was of 
 Quaker parentage ; educated at a 
 Friends' school in Philadelphia, and 
 taught school in New York in 1835- 
 1850. In 1847 she first spoke in pub- 
 lic, taking part in the temperance 
 movement and organizing societies. In 
 1852 she assisted in organizing the 
 Woman's New York State Temperance 
 Society ; in 1854-1855 she held con- 
 ventions, in each county in New York, 
 in behalf of female suffrage. In 1857 
 she became a leader in the anti-slavery 
 movement, and in 1858 advocated the 
 coeducation of the sexes. She was in- 
 fluential in securing the passage by the 
 New York Legislature, in 1860, of the 
 act giving married women the posses- 
 sion of their earnings, and guardian- 
 ship of their children. In 1868, with 
 Mrs. E. C. Stanton and Parker Pills- 
 bury, she began the publication of the 
 " Revolutionist," a paper devoted to 
 the emancipation of woman. In 1872 
 she cast ballots at the State and Con- 
 gressional election in Rochester, N. Y., 
 to test the application of the 14th and 
 15th Amendments of the United States 
 Constitution. She was indicted for 
 illegal voting, and fined, but the fine 
 was never exacted. Her last public 
 appearance of note was as a delegate 
 to the International Council of Wom- 
 en, in London, England, in 1899. In
 
 Anthracene 
 
 1900 her birthday was celebrated by 
 an affecting popular demonstration in 
 Washington, D. C., and she retired 
 from the presidency of the National 
 American Woman Suffrage Associa- 
 tion. She died March 13, 1900. 
 
 Anthracene, a substance obtained 
 in the distillation of coal-tar. 
 
 Anthracite, glance, or blind coal, 
 a non-bituminous coal of a shining 
 luster, approaching to metallic, and 
 which burns without smoke, with a 
 weak or no flame, and with intense 
 heat. It is found in large quantities 
 in the United States, chiefly in Penn- 
 sylvania. 
 
 Anthrax, a fatal disease to which 
 cattle, horses, sheep, and other animals 
 are subject, always associated with the 
 presence of an extremely minute mi- 
 cro-organism (Bacillus anthracis) in 
 the blood. It is also called splenic 
 fever, and is communicable to man, 
 appearing as carbuncle, malignant pus- 
 tule, or wool-sorter's disease. 
 
 Anthropoid, resembling man; a 
 term applied especially to the apes, 
 which approach the human species in 
 the following order: 1st (most re- 
 mote), the gibbons; 2d, the orangs ; 
 3d, the chimpanzee; and, 4th (near- 
 est), the gorilla. 
 
 Anthropology, the science of 
 man in the widest sense of the term. 
 
 Anthropometry, the measure- 
 ment of the human body to discover 
 its exact dimensions and the propor- 
 tions of its parts, for comparison with 
 its dimensions at different periods, or 
 in different races or classes. 
 
 Anti-Christ, anyone who denies 
 the Father and the Son ; or who will 
 not confess that Jesus Christ is come 
 in the flesh, or who, leaving the Church, 
 pretends to be the Christ (or Mes- 
 siah), and thus becomes a rival and 
 enemy of Jesus, the true Christ. 
 
 Anticosti, an island in the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence, which it divides into 
 two channels, with lighthouses at dif- 
 ferent parts of the coast. It is about 
 140 miles long, and 30 miles broad in 
 the center. Pop. (1900) 250. 
 
 Antidote, r, medicine to counteract 
 the effects of poison. For ARSENIC, 
 use tablespoonful of " dialized iron," 
 four doses in two hours, followed by 
 castor oil ; PHOSPHORUS, MATCHES, 
 " ROUGH ON RATS," large amounts of 
 
 Antilles 
 
 gum arable, emetics and epsom salts ; 
 CARBOLIC ACID, use epsom salts, sweet 
 oil, white of eggs ; CHOLORAL, ipecac 
 in water, 25-35 grains, hypodermic in- 
 jection of 20th part of grain of strych- 
 nine, friction, warmth and artificial 
 respiration ; OPIUM, MORPHINE, empty 
 the stomach, inhale ammonia, and give 
 half grain permanganate of potash 
 once an hour. Keep the patient from 
 sleep, and give frequent doses of 30 
 grains tincture of belladona, to keep 
 up circulation. 
 
 Antietam, a small river in Penn- 
 sylvania and Maryland which empties 
 into the Potomac six miles N. of Har- 
 per's Ferry. On Sept. 17, 1862, a bat- 
 tle was fought on its banks near 
 Sharpsburg, between a Federal army 
 of 87,104 men, under General McClel- 
 lan, and a Confederate army variously 
 reported at from 40,000 to 97,000 
 men, under General Lee. The Fed- 
 eral casualties aggregated 12, 469, and 
 the Confederate, from 12,000 to 25,- 
 000. General Lee recrossed the Po- 
 tomac on the following day, and the 
 general consensus is that the battle 
 was a Federal victory. 
 
 Antifebrin, a neutral chemical 
 product derived from acetate of ani- 
 line at an elevated temperature by a 
 dialytic action in which water is set 
 free. 
 
 Anti-Federalists, members of a 
 political party, in the United States, 
 which opposed the adoption and ratifi- 
 cation of the constitution, and failing 
 in this, strongly favored the strict con- 
 struction of that instrument. Thomas 
 Jefferson was its leader, but he par- 
 tially abandoned the principles of the 
 party when he sanctioned the Louisi- 
 ana Purchase. 
 
 Antigua, one of the British West 
 Indies, the most important of the Lee- 
 ward group ; 28 miles long, 20 broad ; 
 area, 108 square miles ; discovered by 
 Columbus, 1493. Pop., including Bar- 
 buda, 36,819. 
 
 Antilles, another name for the 
 West Indian Islands. Subdivided into 
 Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles. 
 
 Antigone, in Greek mythology the 
 daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta, cele- 
 brated for her devotion to her father 
 and to her brother Polynices, for bury- 
 ing whom against the decree of King 
 Creon she suffered death.
 
 Antimachns 
 
 Antimachns, a Greek epic and 
 elegiac poet ; flourished about 400 B. c. 
 
 Anti-Masonic Party, a political 
 organization in opposition to Free- 
 masonry. In 1828 this party polled 
 33,000 in New York State; in 1829, 
 about 70,000 ; and in 1830, about 128,- 
 000. 
 
 Anti-Mission Baptists, a sect 
 in the United States who also called 
 themselves "Old School Baptists," 
 founded about 1835. They do not be- 
 lieve in Sunday schools, colleges or 
 theological seminaries, holding -that 
 the salvation of men does not depend 
 upon human instrumentalities, but 
 upon divine grace only. 
 
 Antimony, in chemistry, a triad 
 metallic element, but in some less sta- 
 ple compounds it appears to be pentad. 
 
 Antinomianism ( Greek, anti, 
 "against," and nomos, "law"), the 
 doctrine or opinion that Christians are 
 freed from obligation to keep the law 
 of God. It is generally regarded, by 
 advocates of the doctrine of justifica- 
 tion by faith, as a monstrous abuse 
 and perversion of that doctrine, upon 
 which it usually professes to be based. 
 
 Antinous, a young Bithynian 
 whom the extravagant love of Adrian 
 has immortalized. He drowned him- 
 self in the Nile in 122 A.D. Adrian 
 set no bounds to his grief for his loss. 
 He gave his name to a newly-discov- 
 ered star, erected temples in his honor, 
 called a city after him, and caused 
 him to be adored as a god throughout 
 the empire. 
 
 Antioch (ancient, Antiochia), cap- 
 ital of the Greek kings of Syria ; on 
 the Orontes ; about 21 miles from the 
 sea. It was founded by Seleucus Ni- 
 cator, in 300 B. c., and was named 
 after his father Antiochus. Famous 
 in ancient times, and the place where 
 the disciples of Christ were first 
 called Christians, it is now a poor 
 place with about 20,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Antiochus III., surnamed the 
 Great, born B. c. 242, succeeded in 
 B. c. 223. The Romans defeated him 
 by sea and land, and he was finally 
 overthrown by Scipio at Mount Sipy- 
 lus, in Asia Minor, B. c. 190, and very 
 severe terms were imposed upon him. 
 He was killed while plundering a tem- 
 ple in Elymais to procure money to 
 pay the Romans. 
 
 Antipope 
 
 Antiochns IV., called Epiphanes, 
 youngest son of the above, is chiefly 
 remarkable for his attempt to extir- 
 pate the Jewish religion, and to es- 
 tablish in its place the polytheism of 
 the Greeks. This led to the insurrec- 
 tion of the Maccabees, by which the 
 Jews ultimately recovered their inde- 
 pendence. He died B. c. 164. 
 
 Antipsedobaptist, one who is op- 
 posed to the doctrine of infant bap- 
 tism. 
 
 Antiparos, one of the Cyclades 
 (islands), in the Grecian Archipelago, 
 containing a famous stalactitic grotto 
 or cave. 
 
 Antipater, a general and friend 
 of Philip of Macedon, father of Alex- 
 ander the Great. He died in B. c. 317, 
 at an advanced age. 
 
 Antipater, procurator of Judea 
 for the Romans from 47 to 43 B. C. 
 He received the appointment from Ju- 
 lius Caesar ; and died from poison in 
 the last mentioned year. He was the 
 father of Herod the Great. 
 
 Antipathy, a special dislike ex- 
 hibited by individuals to particular ob- 
 jects or persons, usually resulting from 
 physical or nervous organization. 
 
 Antiperiodics, medicines which 
 prevent or relieve the paroxysms of 
 certain diseases which exhibit a peri- 
 odic character. 
 
 Antiphlogistic, a term applied 
 to medicines or methods of treatment 
 that are intended to counteract in- 
 flammation, such as blood letting, pur- 
 gatives, diaphoretics, etc. 
 
 Antiphony, opposition or contra- 
 riety of sound ; also the alternate 
 chanting or singing in a cathedral, or 
 similar service by the choir, divided 
 into two parts for the purpose, and 
 usually sitting upon opposite sides. 
 
 Antipodes, the name given rela- 
 tively to the people or places on oppo- 
 site sides of the earth, so situated that 
 a line drawn from one to the other 
 passes through the center of the earth 
 and forms a true diameter. The longi- 
 tudes of two such places differ by 
 180. The difference in their time 
 is about 12 hours, and their seasons 
 are reversed. 
 
 Antipope, a pontiff elected in op- 
 position to one canonically chosen.
 
 Antipyretics 
 
 Antipyretics, medicines which 
 reduce the temperature in fever. 
 
 Antipyrine, an alkaloid exten- 
 sively used in medicine as an antipy- 
 retic, and possessing the valuable 
 property of materially reducing the 
 temperature of the body without the 
 production of any distressing bodily 
 symptoms. Hence, it is much resort- 
 ed to in fevers, pneumonia, acute rheu- 
 matism, phthisis, and erysipelas. To 
 produce a more rapid action the drug 
 is often injected hypodermically. 
 
 Antiquaries, those devoted to the 
 study of ancient times through their 
 relics, as old places of sepulcher, re- 
 mains of ancient habitations ; early 
 monuments, implements or weapons, 
 statues, coins, medals, paintings, in- 
 scriptions, books, and manuscripts, 
 with the view of arriving at a knowl- 
 edge of the relations, modes of living, 
 habits, and general condition of the 
 people who created or employed them. 
 The American Antiquarian Society 
 was organized in 1812, and has its 
 headquarters in Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Antique, a province of Panay, 
 Philippine Islands, on the W. coast; 
 area, with dependent islands, 1,340 
 square miles; pop. (1903) 131,245, of 
 whom 2,921 were wild; chief native 
 race, Visayan: is rich in minerals. 
 
 Anti-Rent Party, a party which 
 gained some political influence in New 
 York, and which had its origin in the 
 refusal of tenants, who were dissat- 
 isfied with the patroon system to pay 
 rent. The matter was settled by com- 
 promise in 1850. The patroons were 
 early Dutch settlers who received vast 
 tracts of land in what is now New 
 York, on conditions which made them 
 virtually feudal lords of the soil. The 
 tenants rebelled against these condi- 
 tions, and popular sympathy being 
 with them, the heirs of the patroons 
 were brought to terms by legislation 
 inimical to the system under which 
 they held their lands, while at the 
 same time the rights of property were 
 sustained. 
 
 Antiscorbutics, remedies against 
 scurvy. Lemon juice, ripe fruit, 
 milk, salts of potash, green vegetables, 
 potatoes, fresh meat, and raw or light- 
 ly boiled eggs, are some of the princi- 
 pal antiscorbutics. 
 
 Antithesis 
 
 Anti-Semites, the modern oppo- 
 nents of the Jews in Russia, Rumania, 
 Hungary, and Eastern Germany. In 
 France the second trial of Capt. 
 Alfred Dreyfus, in 1899, aroused an 
 intense anti-Semitic feeling. The 
 cruel massacre of Jews in Kishineff, 
 Russia, by an anti-Semitic mob, in 
 1903, excited indignation throughout 
 the civilized world. 
 
 Antisepsis, the exclusion of mi- 
 crobes or bacteria from wounds, etc., 
 by the use of antiseptics or other 
 means in order to prevent putrefac- 
 tion, infection, or blood-poisoning. 
 
 Antiseptic, a substance which 
 has the effect of counteracting the ten- 
 dency to putrefaction. Garrod makes 
 disinfectants and antiseptics the sec- 
 ond order of his Division III. Chem- 
 ical agents used for other than their 
 medicinal properties. Antiseptics pre- 
 vent chemical change by destroying 
 the putrefactive microbes or bacteria, 
 the chemical composition of the body 
 still in many cases remaining the 
 same ; while disinfectants decompose 
 and remove the infectious matter it- 
 self. Antiseptics are called also coly- 
 tics. Among them may be named car- 
 bolic acid, alcohol, sulphurous acid, 
 chloride of sodium (common salt), 
 etc. 
 
 Antiseptic Surgery, treatment to 
 kill germs in accidental wounds, and 
 surgical operations. 
 
 Antispasmodics, medicines which 
 are used to prevent or allay spasms. 
 In all spasmodic diseases, cold baths 
 or sponging, sun-baths, moderate exer- 
 cise, and a plain but nutritious diet 
 should be employed ; late hours, a close 
 atmosphere, exhausting emotions, or 
 excessive mental or bodily work should 
 be avoided. 
 
 Antisthenes, a Greek philosopher 
 and the founder of the school of Cyn- 
 ics, born at Athens about 3. c. 444. 
 He held virtue to consist in complete 
 self denial and disregard of riches, 
 honor, or pleasure of every kind. He 
 himself lived as a beggar. He died in 
 Athens at an advanced age. 
 
 Antithesis, a sharp opposition or 
 contrast between word and word, 
 clause and clause, sentence and sen- 
 tence, or sentiment and sentiment, es- 
 pecially designed to impress the lis- 
 tener or reader.
 
 Antitoxine 
 
 Antonins 
 
 Antitoxine, the name given to a 
 new remedy for diphtheria. The de- 
 crease of deaths from this disease 
 since the introduction of this remedy 
 is remarkable, and in most large cities 
 it is provided free to all unable to pay 
 for the medicine. 
 
 Anti-Trade, a name given to any 
 of the upper tropical winds which 
 move northward or southward in the 
 same manner as the trade-winds which 
 blow beneath them in the opposite di- 
 rection. 
 
 Antitrinitarians, all who do not 
 receive the doctrine of the Divine 
 Trinity, or the existence of three per- 
 sons in the Godhead ; especially ap- 
 plied to those who oppose such a doc- 
 trine on philosophical grounds, as con- 
 trasted with Unitarians, who reject the 
 doctrine as not warranted by Scrip- 
 ture. 
 
 Antlers, bony outgrowths from 
 the frontal bones of almost all the 
 members of the deer family. Except 
 in the reindeer, they are restricted to 
 the males. 
 
 Ant Lion, the larva of an insect, 
 of the order of ueuroptera, remarkable 
 for its ingenious methods of captur- 
 ing ants and other insects, on which 
 it feeds, by making pitfalls in the 
 sand. Some species are common in 
 North America. 
 
 Antoinette, Marie (MARIE AN- 
 TOINETTE JOSEPH JEANNE DE LOR- 
 RAINE), Archduchess of Austria and 
 Queen of France ; the youngest daugh- 
 ter of the Emperor Francis I. and of 
 Maria Theresa ; born in Vienna, Nov. 
 2, 1755. She became wife of the dauph- 
 in, afterward Louis XVI. of France, 
 and perished with him in the Revolu- 
 tion. Louis was executed on Jan. 21, 
 1793. The dauphin, their son, who 
 afterward perished miserably in con- 
 finement, was next separated from the 
 queen, and on Aug. 2, 1793, Marie An- 
 toinette was transferred to the Con- 
 ciergerie to 03 brought before the Rev- 
 olutionary tribunal. The act of ac- 
 cusation was completed on Oct. 14. 
 She was condemned at 4 A. M. on Oct. 
 16, 1793. and at 11 A. M. was led from 
 the Conciergerie to the place of exe- 
 cution. She died with the firmness 
 that became her character. 
 
 Antonelli, Giacomo, Cardinal, 
 born 180G ; was educated at the Grand 
 
 Seminary of Rome, where he attracted 
 the attention of Pope Gregory XVI., 
 who appointed him to several impor- 
 tant offices. On the accession of Pius 
 IX., in 1846, Antonelli was raised to 
 the dignity of cardinal-deacon ; two 
 years later he became president and 
 minister of foreign affairs, and, in 
 1850, was appointed Secretary of 
 State. During the sitting of the 
 CEcumenical Council (1869-1870) he 
 was a prominent champion of the 
 papal interest. He strongly opposed 
 the assumption of the united Italian 
 crown by Victor Emmanuel. He died 
 in 1876. 
 
 Antoninns, "Wall of, a barrier 
 erected by the Romans in Britain, 
 across the isthmus between the Forth 
 and the Clyde, in the reign of An- 
 toninus Pius. 
 
 Antoninus Pins (TlTUS AlJRE- 
 LIUS FULVUS), Roman emperor, of a 
 family originally from Nemausus 
 (uow Nimes), in Gaul; was born in 
 Lavinium, in the neighborhood of 
 Rome, A. D. 86. He died A. p. 161. 
 His remains were deposited in the 
 tomb of Hadrian. His adopted sons 
 built a pillar to his memory, the frag- 
 ments of which were found at Rome 
 in 1705. 
 
 Antonins, Marcus (Mark An- 
 tony), Roman triumvir, born 83 B. c., 
 was connected with the family of 
 Caesar by his mother. When war 
 broke out between Caesar and Pompey, 
 Antony led reinforcements to Caesar 
 in Greece, and, in the battle of Phar- 
 salia he commanded the left wing. He 
 afterward returned to Rome with the 
 appointment of master of the horse 
 and governor of Italy (47). In B. c. 
 44 he became Caesar's colleague in the 
 consulship. In the struggle for the 
 empire of Rome which followed the 
 murder of Caesar, Antony was over- 
 come by Octavianus (afterward called 
 Augustus), Caesar's nephew and heir. 
 His passion for Cleopatra, Queen of 
 Egypt, enthralled his faculties, and 
 made him an easy prey to his great 
 political rival. Antony lost, in the 
 naval battle at Actium (B. c. 31), 
 the dominion of the world. He 
 followed Cleopatra to Alexandria, 
 and, on the arrival of Octavianus his 
 fleet and cavalry deserted, and his in- 
 fantry was defeated. Plutarch says 
 that Antony commanded his slave
 
 Ant Tlirusli 
 
 Apartment House 
 
 Eros to slay him, but the slave killed 
 himself instead. Moved by this exhi- 
 bition of heroic affection and deceived 
 by a false report which Cleopatra had 
 disseminated of her death, he fell upon 
 his own sword (B. c. 30). On being 
 told that Cleopatra was still alive, he 
 caused himself to be carried into her 
 presence, that he might die in her 
 arms. 
 
 Ant Thrush, a name given to 
 certain passerine or perching birds 
 having resemblances to the thrushes 
 and supposed to feed largely on ants. 
 
 Antwerp, the chief port of Bel- 
 gium, and the capital of a province 
 of the same name, on the Scheldt, 
 about 50 miles from the open sea. It 
 is strongly fortified, being completely 
 surrounded on the land side by a semi- 
 circular inner line of fortifications, the 
 defenses being completed by an outer 
 line of forts and outworks. The cathe- 
 dral, with a spire 400 feet high, is one 
 of the largest and most beautiful speci- 
 mens of Gothic architecture in Bel- 
 gium. There are numerous and varied 
 industries. Pop. 271,284. The prov- 
 ince consists of a fertile plain 1,093 
 square miles in area ; pop. 784,975. 
 
 Anubis, one of the. deities of the 
 ancient Egyptians, the son of Osiris 
 by Isis. 
 
 Auura, or Anoura, an order of 
 batrachians which lose the tail when 
 they reach maturity, such as the frogs 
 and toads. 
 
 Anus, the opening at the lower 
 or posterior extremity of the alimen- 
 tary canal through which the excre- 
 ment or waste products of digestion 
 are expelled. 
 
 Aorta, the great arterial trunk, 
 which rises from the left ventricle of 
 the heart, and with its branches, ex- 
 tends throughout the whole body. The 
 blood travels through the aorta at the 
 rate of 300 to 500 millimetres a 
 second. 
 
 Aoudacl, a remarkable species of 
 sheep, with certain affinities to the 
 goats. It inhabits mountainous re- 
 gions in Abyssinia and Barbary. 
 
 Apaches, a tribe of North Ameri- 
 can Indians, formerly very fierce and 
 numerous, living in portions of Texas, 
 New Mexico, and Arizona, and belong- 
 ing to the Athabascan family. They 
 
 were long the scourge of the frontiers, 
 and resisted obstinately every attempt 
 to civilize them. Long after the an- 
 nexation of their territory by the 
 United States they continued their 
 raids in spite of severe defeats. An 
 attempt made by the United States 
 Government to confine the Apaches 
 within a reserved territory in Arizona 
 led to bloodshed in 1871. The number 
 of the Apaches proper within the 
 United States may be put at nearly 
 7,000. 
 
 Apartment House, a structure 
 built to accommodate a number of 
 families each in its own set of rooms, 
 which form a separate dwelling with 
 
 AMERICAN APARTMENT HOUSE. 
 
 an entrance of its own. The term is] 
 chiefly used in the United States, 
 where such dwellings are of compara- 
 tively recent introduction ; but houses 
 of this kind have long been built in 
 Europe. In New York and other 
 American cities there are now great 
 blocks of such houses, which provide 
 excellent and commodious dwellings at 
 a lower rent than if each were a sep^,' 
 arate building.
 
 Ape 
 
 Apocalyptic 'Writings 
 
 Ape, a common name of a number 
 of quadrumanous animals, inhabiting 
 the Old World .(Asia and the Asiatic 
 islands, and Africa), and including a 
 variety of species. The word ape was 
 formerly applied indiscriminately to 
 all quadrumanous mammals ; but it is 
 now limited to the anthropoid or man- 
 like monkeys. The family includes 
 the chimpanzee, gorilla, orang-ou- 
 tang, etc. 
 
 Apelles, the most famous of the 
 painters of ancient Greece and of an- 
 tiquity, was born in the 4th century 
 B. C., probably at Colophon. His re- 
 nown was at its height about B. c. 
 330, and he died about the end of the 
 century. 
 
 Apennines, a prolongation of the 
 Alps, forming the " backbone of 
 Italy." On the S. slopes volcanic 
 masses are not uncommon. Mount 
 Vesuvius, the only active volcano on 
 the continent of Europe, is an in- 
 stance. The lower slopes are well 
 clothed with vegetation, the summits 
 are sterile and bare. 
 
 Apepi, in heathen mythology, the 
 Great Serpent or Typhon, the embodi- 
 ment of evil. 
 
 Aperient, a medicine which, in 
 moderate doses, gently but completely 
 opens the bowels ; examples, castor-oil, 
 Epsom salts, senna, etc. 
 
 Aphasia, in pathology, a symptom 
 of certain morbid conditions of the 
 nervous system, in which the patient 
 loses the power of expressing ideas by 
 means of words, or loses the appropri- 
 ate use of words, the vocal organs the 
 while remaining intact and the intelli- 
 gence sound. There is sometimes an 
 entire loss of words as connected with 
 ideas, and sometimes only the loss of 
 a few. In one form of the disease, 
 called aphemia, the patient can think 
 and write, but cannot speak ; in an- 
 other, called agraphia, he can think 
 and speak, but cannot express his 
 ideas in writing. In a great majority 
 of cases, where post mortem examina- 
 tions have been made, morbid changes 
 have been found in the left frontal 
 convolution of the brain. 
 
 Aphelion, that part of the orbit 
 of the earth or any other planet in 
 which it is at the point remotest from 
 the sun. 
 
 Aphis, a genus of insects, the typi- 
 cal one of the family aphid*. The 
 species of aphides are very numerous, 
 and are generaly called after the 
 plants on which they feed. 
 
 Aphonia, in pathology, the great- 
 er or less impairment, or the complete 
 loss of the power of emitting vocal 
 sound. 
 
 Aphrodite, one of the chief di- 
 vinities of the Greeks, the goddess of 
 love and beauty, so called because she 
 was sprung from the foam (aphros) 
 of the sea. Aphrodite has had the 
 most important place in the history of 
 art as the Greek ideal of feminine 
 grace and beauty. 
 
 Apia, the principal town and com- 
 mercial emporium of the Samoan Is- 
 lands in the South Pacific Ocean ; on 
 the N. coast of the island of Upolu, 
 about midway between the E. and W. 
 extremities of the island. It has a 
 small harbor, which is usually a safe 
 one. In 1899, during a hurricane, sev- 
 eral United States' and German war- 
 vessels were wrecked here, a British 
 man-of-war alone escaping. 
 
 Apis, a bull to which divine honors 
 were paid by the ancient Egyptians, 
 who regarded him as a symbol of 
 Osiris. At Memphis he had a splendid 
 residence, containing extensive walks 
 and courts for his entertainment, and 
 he was waited upon by a large train of 
 priests, who looked upon his every 
 movement as oracular. He was not 
 suffered to live beyond twenty-five 
 years, being secretly killed by the 
 priests and thrown into a sacred well. 
 Another bull, characterized by certain 
 marks, as a black color, a triangle of 
 white on the forehead, a white cres- 
 cent-shaped spot on the right side, &c., 
 was selected in his place. His birth- 
 day was annually celebrated. 
 
 Apocalypse, the name frequently 
 given to the last book of the New Tes- 
 tament, in the English version called 
 the Revelation of St. John the Divine. 
 Apocalyptic Number, the mystic 
 number 666 found in Rev. xiii. 18. As 
 early as the 2d century ecclesiastical 
 writers found that the name Antichrist 
 was indicated by the Greek characters 
 expressive of this number. 
 
 Apocalyptic Writings, writings 
 such as, like the prophecies of Daniel, 
 their prototype, set forth in a figura-
 
 Apocrypha 
 
 tive and pictorial manner the future 
 progress and completion of the world's 
 history, especially in its religious as- 
 pects. The two apocalyptic books re- 
 ceived into the canon of Scripture are 
 the books of Daniel and the Apoca- 
 lypse especially so-called, the Revela- 
 tion of St. John* 
 
 Apocrypha, in the early Chris- 
 tian Church, (1) books published 
 anonymously; (2) those suitable for 
 private rather than public reading ; 
 (3) books deemed unauthentic though 
 purporting to be written by sacred 
 authors ; (4) dangerous books written 
 by heretics. 
 
 Apodal Fishes, the name applied 
 to such malacopterous fishes as want 
 ventral fins. They constitute a small 
 natural family, of which the common 
 eel is an example. 
 
 Apogee, that point in the orbit of 
 the moon or a planet where it is at its 
 greatest distance from the earth ; prop- 
 erly this particular part of the moon's 
 orbit. 
 
 Apollinarians, a sect of Chris- 
 tians who maintained the doctrine that 
 the Logos (the Word) holds in Christ 
 the place of the rational soul, and con- 
 sequently that God was united in him 
 with the human body and the sensitive 
 soul. Apollinaris, the author of this 
 opinion, was, from A. D. 362 till at 
 least A. D. 382, Bishop of Laodicea, in 
 Syria. 
 
 Apollo, son of Zeus (Jupiter) 
 and Leto (Latona). From being the 
 god of light and purity in a physical 
 sense he gradually became the god of 
 moral and spiritual light and purity, 
 the source of all intellectual, social, 
 and political progress. 
 
 Apolloclorus, a famous Athenian 
 painter, about B. c. 408. 
 
 Apollodorns, born in Damascus, 
 and lived in the reigns of Trajan and 
 Hadrian. His fame as an architect 
 caused the former to employ him in 
 building a great stone bridge over the 
 Danube, and other works. Apollodor- 
 us subsequently falling into disgrace 
 with the Emperor Hadrian, was put 
 to death by his command. 
 
 Apollonins, a Pythagorean philos- 
 opher, born at Tyana, about the be- 
 ginning of the Christian era. He died 
 at Ephesus about A. D. 97. 
 
 Apoplex^ 
 
 Apollonius of Perga, Greek 
 mathematician, called the " Great Ge- 
 ometer," flourished about 240 B. c., 
 and was the author of many works, 
 only one of which, a treatise on " Con- 
 ic Sections," partly in Greek and 
 partly in an Arabic translation, is now 
 extant. 
 
 Apollonins of Rhodes, a Greek 
 poet, born in Egypt, but long residing 
 at Rhodes, where he founded a school 
 of rhetoric. He afterward became 
 keeper of the famous library of Alex- 
 andria, B. c. 149. 
 
 Apollonins of Tyre, the hero of 
 a Greek metrical romance, very popu- 
 lar in the Middle Ages. 
 
 Apollos, a Jew of Alexandria, who 
 learned the doctrines of Christianity 
 at Ephesus from Aquila and Priscilla, 
 became a preacher of the gospel in 
 Achaia and Corinth, and an assistant 
 of Paul in his missionary work. Some 
 have regarded him as the author of the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews. 
 
 Apollyon, a name used in Rev. ix : 
 11 for the angel of the bottomless pit. 
 
 Apologetics, the department of 
 theology which treats of the establish- 
 ment of the evidences and defense of 
 the doctrines of a faith. Christian 
 apologetics, generally called simply 
 apologetics, treats of the evidences of 
 Christianity, and seeks to establish the 
 truth of the Bible and the doctrines 
 educed from it. 
 
 Apologue, a story or relation of 
 fictitious events intended to convey 
 some useful truths. It differs from a 
 parable in that the latter is drawn 
 from events that pass among mankind, 
 whereas the apologue may be founded 
 on supposed actions of brutes or man* 
 imate things. ^Bsop's fables are good 
 examples of apologues. 
 
 Apology, a term at one time ap- 
 plied to a defense of one who is ac- 
 cused, or of certain doctrines called 
 in question. 
 
 Apoplexy, a serious malady, com- 
 ing on so suddenly and so violently 
 that anciently anyone affected by it 
 was said to be attonitus (thunder- 
 struck), or sidratus (planetstruck). 
 When a stroke of apoplexy takes place, 
 the.re is a loss of sensation, voluntary 
 motion, and intellect or thought, while 
 respiration and the action of the heart 
 and general vascular system still con-
 
 Apostate 
 
 tinue. The disease now described is 
 properly called cerebral apoplexy, the 
 brain being the part chiefly affected. 
 
 Apostate, literally designates any- 
 one who changes his religion, what- 
 ever may be his motive ; but, by cus- 
 tom, the word is always used in an in- 
 jurious sense, as equivalent to one 
 who, in changing his creed, is actuated 
 by unworthy motives. 
 
 Apostle, one who is sent off or 
 away from ; one sent on some impor- 
 tant mission ; a messenger ; a mission- 
 ary. The name given, in the Chris- 
 tian Church, to the 12 men whom 
 Jesus selected from His disciples as 
 the best instructed in His doctrines, 
 and the fittest instruments for the 
 propagation of His religion. Their 
 names were as follows : Simon Peter, 
 Andrew, his brother ; James the great- 
 er, and John, his brother, who were 
 sons of Zebedee ; Philip of Bethsaida, 
 Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew ; 
 James, the son of Alpheus, commonly 
 called James the less ; Lebbeus, his 
 brother, who was surnamed Thaddeus, 
 and was called Judas, or Jude ; Simon 
 the Canaanite, and Judas Iscariot. Of 
 this number, Simon Peter, John, 
 James the greater, and Andrew were 
 fishermen ; and Matthew, a publican 
 or tax-gatherer. When the apostles 
 were reduced to 11 by the suicide of 
 Judas, who had betrayed Christ, they 
 chose Matthias by lot, on the proposi- 
 tion of St. Peter. Soon after, their 
 number became 13, by the mi- 
 raculous vocation of Saul, who, 
 under the name of Paul became 
 one of the most zealous propa- 
 gators of the Christian faith. 
 
 Apostles' Islands, or The 
 Twelve Apostles, a group of 27 
 islands in Lake Superior. They be- 
 long to Wisconsin. They were first 
 settled in 1680 by the French. 
 
 Apostolic, or Apostolical, per- 
 taining or relating to the apostles. 
 
 Apostolic Church. The Church in 
 the time of the apostles, constituted 
 according to their design. The name 
 is also given to the four churches of 
 Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jeru- 
 salem, and i? claimed by the Roman 
 Catholic Church, and occasionally by 
 the Episcopalians. 
 
 Apostolic Constitutions and Canons. 
 A collection of regulations attrib- 
 
 Apostrophe 
 
 uted to the apostles, but generally sup- 
 posed to be spurious. ' They appeared 
 in the 4th century ; are divided into 
 eight books, and consist of rules and 
 precepts relating to the duty of Chris- 
 tians, and particularly to the cere- 
 monies and discipline of the Church. 
 
 Apostolic Delegate. A permanent 
 representative of the Pope in a for- 
 eign country. It is sometimes con- 
 founded with the word ablegate, the 
 latter meaning a temporary represen- 
 tative of the Pope for some special 
 function. 
 
 Apostolic Fathers. The Christian 
 writers who, during any part of theii 
 lives, were contemporary with the 
 apostles. There are five Clement, 
 Barnabas, Hermas, Ignatius, Poly- 
 carp. 
 
 Apostolic King. A title granted 
 by the Pope to the Kings of Hungary, 
 first conferred on St. Stephen, the 
 founder of the royal line of Hungary, 
 on account of what he accomplished 
 in the spread of Christianity. 
 
 Apostolic See. The see of the 
 Popes or Bishops of Rome ; so called 
 because the Popes profess themselves 
 the successors of St. Peter, its 
 founder. 
 
 Apostolic Succession. The uninter- 
 rupted succession of bishops, and, 
 through them, of priests and deacons 
 (these three orders of ministers being 
 called the apostolical orders), in the 
 Church by regular ordination from 
 the first apostles down to the present 
 day. All Episcopal churches hold the- 
 oretically, and the Roman Catholic 
 Church and many members of the Eng- 
 lish Church strictly, that such succes- 
 sion is essential to the officiating 
 priest, in order that grace may be 
 communicated through his administra- 
 tions. 
 
 Apostrophe. In rhetoric, a fig- 
 ure of speech by which, according to 
 Quintilian, a speaker turns from the 
 rest of his audience to one person, and 
 addresses him singly. 
 
 In grammar, the substitution of a 
 mark like this (') for one or more let- 
 ters omitted from a word, as tho' for 
 though, 'twas for it was, king's for 
 kinges. 
 
 The mark indicating such substitu- 
 tion, especially in the case of the pos- 
 sessive.
 
 Apothecary 
 
 Appins 
 
 Apothecary, the name formerly 
 given to members of an auxiliary 
 branch of the medical profession. 
 
 In the United States, state laws 
 generally require that apothecaries 
 shall be duly examined and licensed. 
 
 Apotheosis, a deification ; the 
 placing of a prince or other -distin- 
 guished person among the heathen 
 deities. 
 
 Appalachian Mountains, also 
 failed Alleghanies, a vast mountain 
 range in North America, extending for 
 1,300 miles from Cape Gaspe, on the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence, S. W. to Ala- 
 bama. The highest peaks rise over 
 6,000 feet (not one at all approaching 
 the snow level ) , but the mean height 
 is about 2,500 feet. Lake Champlain 
 is the only lake of great importance in 
 the system, but numerous rivers of 
 considerable size take their rise here. 
 Magnetite, hematite, and other iron 
 ores occur in great abundance, and the 
 coal measures are among the most ex- 
 tensive in the world. Gold, silver, lead, 
 and copper are also found, but not in 
 paying quantities, while marble, lime- 
 stone, fire clay, gypsum, and salt 
 abound. The forests covering many of 
 the ranges yield large quantities oif 
 valuable timber, such as sugar maple, 
 white birch, beech, ash, oak, cherry 
 tree, white poplar, white and yellow 
 pine, etc., while they form the haunts 
 of large numbers of bears, panthers, 
 wild cats, and wolves. 
 
 Appanage, properly, lands as- 
 signed as portions to the younger sons, 
 or sometimes the brothers of the 
 French king, who in general took their 
 titles from the appanages which they 
 held. 
 
 Apparition, according to a belief 
 held by some, a disembodied spirit 
 manifesting itself to mortal sight ;_ ac- 
 cording to the common theory an illu- 
 sion involuntarily generated, by means 
 of which figures or forms, not present 
 to the actual sense, are nevertheless 
 depictured with a vividness and in- 
 tensity sufficient to create a temporary 
 belief of their reality. Such illusions 
 are now generally held to result from 
 an overexcited brain, a strong imagi- 
 nation, or some bodily malady. 
 
 Appeal. The distinction ^between 
 an appeal, which originated' in the 
 civil law, and a writ of error, 
 
 which is of common law origin, is that 
 the former carries the whole case for 
 review by the higher court, including 
 both the facts and the law ; while the 
 latter removes only questions of law. 
 
 Appendicitis, a disease caused by 
 inflammation, suppuration, and conse- 
 quent gangrene in the tissue of the 
 vermiform appendix, usually due to 
 insufficient circulation of blood in the 
 part itself. 
 
 Appendicitis usually occurs between 
 the ages of 10 and 50 years. It is 
 rare above or below those ages. It is 
 more frequently among males than fe- 
 males, the exact proportion being un- 
 known. The probable cause of this 
 difference is of very recent discovery 
 and is not even known generally among 
 the medical profession. Dr. Clado, 
 a French surgeon and investigator, 
 sought an explanation of the compara- 
 tive immunity of the female sex from 
 the malady and discovered that the 
 appendix in woman has an extra 
 blood vessel (a small branch of the 
 ovarian artery) that does not exist in 
 man. This discovery was not only a 
 bit of new knowledge of great value, 
 but was an additional proof of the 
 theory that disease of the appendix is 
 often due in part to its want of vital 
 resistance. 
 
 Appiani, Andrea, a painter, born 
 at Milan in 1754. Napoleon appoint- 
 ed him court painter, and portraits of 
 almost the whole of the imperial fam- 
 ily were painted by him. He died in 
 1817. 
 
 Appian 'Way, the great Roman 
 high\yay constructed by the below- 
 mentioned Appius Claudius, from 
 Rome to Capua, and afterward ex- 
 tended to Brundusiuin, and finished 
 B. o. 312. It was built of stones four 
 or five feet long, carefully joined to 
 each other, covered with gravel, fur- 
 nished with stones for mounting and 
 descending from horseback, with mile- 
 stones, and with houses at which to 
 lodge. 
 
 Appius, Claudius Crassinus, a 
 Roman decemvir (451 to 449 B. c.). 
 Being passionately in love with Vir- 
 ginia, daughter of Virginius, a re- 
 spectable plebeian absent with the 
 army, he persuaded M. Claudius, his 
 client, to gain possession of her, under 
 the pretense that she was the daughter
 
 FIGURES IN STATES REPRESENT PRODUCT/ON IN THOUSANDS Of BUSHELS 
 
 APPLES 
 
 PfiODUCT/ON 1909 
 
 THOUSANDS 
 
 UNITED STATE! 
 
 mstiTmusMo- 
 
 IN STATES REPRESENT PRODUCTION IN THOUSANDS OF BUSHELS 
 
 PEANUTS 
 
 PRODUCTION 1909 
 THOUSANDS OF BUSHELS 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 /9.W6 THOUSAHD 
 BUSHELS
 
 Apple 
 
 of one of his slaves. Virginius, hur- 
 riedly recalled from the army by his 
 friends, appeared and claimed his 
 daughter; but, after a mock trial, she 
 was adjudged to be the property of 
 Marcus Claudius. To save his daugh- 
 ter from dishonor, the unhappy father 
 seized a knife and slew her. The pop- 
 ular indignation excited by the case 
 was headed by the senators Valerius 
 and Horatius, who hated the decem- 
 virate. The army returned to Rome 
 with Virginius, who had carried the 
 news to them, and the decemviri were 
 deposed. Appius Claudius died t in 
 prison, by his own hand (as Livy 
 states), or was strangled by order of 
 the tribunes. 
 
 Apple, the fruit of the pyrus ma- 
 lus, a species of the genus pyrus. All 
 the different kinds of apple trees now 
 in cultivation are usually regarded as 
 mere varieties of the one species which, 
 in its wild state, is known as the crab- 
 tree. The uses of the apple for cul- 
 inary and conserving processes are 
 sufficiently well known. Cider, 4 the 
 fermented juice of the apple, is a 
 favorite drink in some places of the 
 United States. 
 
 Apple of Discord, in Greek my- 
 thology, the golden apple thrown into 
 an assembly of the gods by the god- 
 dess of discord (Eris), bearing the in- 
 scription " For the fairest." Aphro- 
 dite (Venus), Hera (Juno), and Pal- 
 las (Minerva) became competitors for 
 it, and its adjudication to the first by 
 Paris so inflamed the jealousy and 
 hatred of Hera to all of the Trojan 
 race (to which Paris belonged) that 
 she did not cease her machinations till 
 Troy was destroyed. 
 
 Apple of Sodom, a fruit described 
 by old writers as externally of fair ap- 
 pearance, but turning to ashes when 
 plucked; probably the fruit of sola- 
 num sodomeum. 
 
 Appleton, city and capital of 
 Outagamie countr, Wis.; on the Fox 
 river and railroads; 100 miles N. W. 
 of Milwaukee; is in a farming and 
 lumbering section; has excellent 
 water power for manufacturing and 
 large industrial and mercantile inter- 
 ests: and is the seat of Lawrence 
 University. Pop. (lylO) 16,716. 
 
 Appleton, John Howard, an 
 American chemist, born in 1844 ; wus 
 
 Approximation 
 
 graduated at Brown University in 
 1863 ; was instructor in chemistry 
 there in 1863-1868; and in the last 
 year became professor of that depart- 
 ment 
 
 Appleton, Nathan and Samuel, 
 American merchants and philanthro- 
 pists, brothers, born in 1779 and 1766 
 respectively ; engaged in the manufac- 
 ture of cotton goods ; were founders of 
 the city of Lowell, Mass. ; and widely 
 known for their active benevolence. 
 Nathan set up the first power loom 
 ever used in the United States, in his 
 Waltham mill. Nathan died in 1861 ; 
 Samuel in 1853. 
 
 Apppmattox Court House, a 
 village in Appomattox county, Va., 20 
 miles E. of Lynchburg. Here, on April 
 9, 1865, General Lee surrendered to 
 General Grant, and thus virtually con- 
 cluded the Civil War. 
 
 Apportionment Bill, a bill 
 adopted by the United States Con- 
 gress every 10 years, and directly af- 
 ter the completion of the Federal cen- 
 sus, which determines the number of 
 members that each State is entitled to 
 send to the National House of Repre- 
 sentatives, and provides for the neces- 
 sary reorganization of the Congress- 
 ional electoral districts. The appor- 
 tionment based on the enumeration of 
 1910 was one representative to 212,- 
 407 population. 
 
 Apprenticeship, in law, a con- 
 tract by which a person who under- 
 stands some art, trade, or business, 
 and called master, undertakes -to teach 
 the same to another person, commonly 
 a minor, and called the apprentice, 
 who, on his part, is bound to serve the 
 master, during a definite period of 
 time, in such art, trade, or business. 
 
 Appropriation, a specific sum set 
 apart by the legislative power for a 
 designated purpose. In the United 
 States all bills for appropriating 
 money originate in the House of Rep- 
 resentatives ; but may be amended in 
 the Senate. The same procedure is 
 observed in the several States. 
 
 Approximation, a term used in 
 mathematics to signify a continual ap- 
 proach to a quantity required, when 
 no process is known for arriving at it 
 exactly. Although, by such an approx- 
 imation, the exact value of a quantity
 
 Apraxiii 
 
 cannot be discovered, yet, in practice, 
 it may be found sufficiently correct. 
 
 Apraxin, Fcodor Mateievitcli, 
 a Russian admiral, born in 1671. He 
 may be considered as the creator of 
 the Russian navy, and was the most 
 powerful and influential person at the 
 court of Peter the Great, who made 
 him chief-admiral. He died in 1724. 
 
 Apricot, a fruit, that of the 
 prunus armeniaca ; also the tree on 
 which it grows. It is wild in 
 Africa aael in the Caucasus, where 
 the mountains in many places are 
 covered with it ; it is found also 
 in China and some other countries. It 
 is esteemed only second to the peach. 
 
 April, the fourth month of the 
 year. 
 
 April-fools' Day. The first day of 
 April, so called from the old custom of 
 sending any one, on this day, upon a 
 bootless errand. This strange custom 
 of April-fools' day exists throughout 
 Europe, and in those parts of the 
 United States where the traditions of 
 the mother-country prevail. One of 
 the explanations of the custom is as 
 follows : In the Middle Ages, scenes 
 from Biblical history were often rep- 
 resented by way of diversion, without 
 any feeling of impropriety. The scene 
 in the life of Jesus, where He is sent 
 from Pilate to Herod, and back again 
 from Herod to Pilate, was represented 
 in April, and may have given occasion 
 to the custom of sending on fruitless 
 errands, and other tricks practiced at 
 this season. 
 
 APTEBYX OB KIWIKIWI. 
 
 Apteryx, a genus of birds, the 
 typical one of the family apterygidse. 
 Two species are known the A. ans- 
 tralis and A. mantelli, both from New 
 
 Aquarians 
 
 Zealand. The natives call the former, 
 and probably also the latter, Kiwiki- 
 wi, which is an imitation of their pe- 
 culiar cry. The A. australis is some- 
 what less in size than an ordinary 
 goose. It runs when pursued, shelters 
 itself in holes, and defends itself with 
 its long bill ; but unable as it is to fly, 
 its fate, it is to be feared, will soon 
 be that of the dodo it is now almost 
 extinct. 
 
 Apulia, formerly a part of Sapy- 
 gia (so called from Sapyx, son of Da3- 
 dalus), including the modern Italian 
 provinces of Capitanata, Terra di 
 Bari, Terra d'Otranto, etc. Area 7,- 
 376 square miles; pop. (1898) 1,910,- 
 799. 
 
 Apure, a navigable river of Ven- 
 ezuela, formed by the junction of sev- 
 eral streams which rise in the Andes 
 of Colombia ; it falls into the Orinoco. 
 
 Apnrimac, a river of South Amer- 
 ica, which rises in the Andes of Peru ; 
 and being augmented by the Vilca- 
 mayu and other streams forms the 
 Ucayale, one of the principal head- 
 waters of the Amazon. 
 
 Aqua, a word much used in phar- 
 macy and old chemistry. Aqua fortis 
 ( = strong water), a weak and impure 
 nitric acid. It has the power of eat- 
 ing into steel and copper, and hence 
 is used by engravers, etchers, etc. Aqua 
 marina, a fine variety of beryl. Aqua 
 regia, or aqua regalis, a mixture of 
 nitric and hydrochloric acids, with the 
 power of dissolving gold and other no- 
 ble metals. Aqua Tofana, a poisonous 
 fluid made about the middle of the 
 17th century by an Italian woman, 
 Tofana or Toffania, who is said to 
 have procured the death of no fewer 
 than 600 individuals by means of it. 
 It consisted chiefly, it is supposed, of 
 a solution of crystallized arsenic. 
 Aqua vitaj (=water of life) , or simply 
 aqua, a name familiarly applied to 
 whisky, corresponding in meaning with 
 the usquebaugh of Ireland, the eau-de- 
 vie (brandy) of the French. 
 
 Aquamarine, a name given to 
 some of the finest varieties of beryl of 
 a sea-green or blue color. Varieties 
 of topaz are also so called. 
 
 Aquarians, or Aquarii, Chris- 
 tians in the primitive Church who 
 used water instead of wine in the 
 Lord's Supper.
 
 Aquarium 
 
 Aquarium, an artificial tank, 
 pond, or vessel, filled with salt or fresh 
 water, and used, in the former case 
 chiefly for the purpose of keeping 
 alive marine animals in circumstances 
 which render it easy to study their 
 habits, and in the latter for cultivat- 
 ing aquatic plants. 
 
 Aquarius, in astronomy (1) the 
 llth of the 12 ancient zodiacal con- 
 stellations, now generally called signs 
 of the Zodiac. It is generally quoted 
 as " Aquarius, the Water bearer." 
 
 Aquatic Animals, animals living 
 in or about water. 
 
 Aquatic Plants, plants growing 
 in or belonging to water. 
 
 Aqueduct, an artificia.1 channel or 
 conduit for the conveyance of water 
 from one place to another; more par- 
 ticularly applied to structures for con- 
 veying water from distant sources for 
 the supply of large cities. 
 
 There are a number of important 
 aqueducts in America. For 125 years, 
 the city of Otumba, in Mexico, re- 
 ceived its supply of water through the 
 aqueduct of Zempoala, which, how- 
 ever, has not been used since 1700, 
 though the aqueduct is said to be in. 
 almost perfect condition. It is 27 
 miles long. New York is supplied 
 with water from Croton river, which 
 falls into the Hudson above Sing Sing. 
 The first aqueduct was constructed 
 between the years 1837 and 1842, is 
 88 miles long, with a general declivity 
 of 13^4 inches to the mile, and is 8 
 feet 5 inches in height, and 7 feet 
 8 inches in greatest breadth. Stone, 
 brick, and cement are used for the en- 
 casing masonry. When the conduit 
 reaches the Harlem river, the water 
 is conveyed in iron pipes over a splen- 
 did bridge, 150 feet above the river. 
 
 An aqueduct for supplying Boston 
 with water was first built in 1846- 
 1848, and exactly 30 years later a 
 pew aqueduct was built from the Sud- 
 bury river to Boston, and was carried 
 across the Charles river and Waban 
 valley by two fine bridges. As the 
 supply of water did not prove suffi- 
 cient for the growth of the city, a 
 large reservoir was built, taking a 
 large part of the town of Boylston, 
 Mass., so that it was supposed the 
 supply of water, when the valley was 
 filled would suffice for many years. 
 
 E.8. 
 
 Arabesque 
 
 Aqueous Humor, the limpid wa- 
 tery fluid which fills the space between, 
 the cornea and the crystalline lens. 
 
 Aqueous Rocks, mechanically 
 formed rocks, composed of matter de- 
 posited by water. Called also sedi- 
 mentary or stratified rocks. 
 
 Aquifoliaceae, a natural order of 
 plants ; the holly tribe. The species 
 consists of trees and shrubs, and the 
 order includes the common holly and 
 the Paraguayan tea tree. 
 
 Aquila, a native of Pontus, cele- 
 brated for his close translation of the 
 Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. 
 
 Aquila, Kaspar, a German Prot- 
 estant theologian, born in Bavaria, 
 Aug. 7, 1488 ; assisted Luther in the 
 translation of the Old Testament ; be- 
 came pastor at Saalfeld in 1527; was 
 outlawed by Charles V. in 1548 ; fled 
 the country ; and after 1552 returned 
 to Saalfeld, where he died Nov. 15, 
 1560. 
 
 Aquinas, Thomas, or Thomas 
 of Aquino, was of the family of the 
 Counts of Aquino, and was born about 
 122U, in the castle of Rocca Secca, 
 near Aquino, a small town half-way 
 between Rome and Naj>les. He treat- 
 ed Christian morals according to an 
 arrangement of his own, and with a 
 comprehensiveness that procured him 
 the title of the " Father of Moral Phi- 
 losophy." He died at the Cistercian 
 abbey of Fossa-Nuova, March 7, 1274. 
 Aquinas was canonized by John 
 XXII. in 1323, and proclaimed a 
 " Doctor of the Church," by Pius V. 
 in 1567. 
 
 Aqnitania, later Aquitaine, a 
 Roman province in Gaul, which com- 
 prehended the countries on the coast 
 from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, 
 and from the sea to Toulouse. It was 
 brought into connection with England 
 by the marriage of Henry II. with 
 Eleanor, daughter of the last Duke of 
 Aquitaine. The title to the province 
 was for long disputed by England and 
 France, but it was finally secured by 
 the latter (1453). 
 
 Arabesque, a style of ornamenta- 
 tion in which are represented men, 
 animals (the latte consisting cf 
 mythic as well as actual forms) ; 
 plants, with leaves, flowers, and fruit; 
 mathematical figures, etc. ; the whole 
 put together in a whimsical way, so
 
 Arabia 
 
 that, for instance, the animals riot 
 merely rest upon the plants, but grow 
 out of them like blossoms. 
 
 ARABESQUE ARCHWAY. 
 
 Arabia, the extreme S. W. part 
 of Asia, called by the natives Jeziret 
 el Arab, that is, the Peninsula of the 
 Arabs ; and by the Turks and Per- 
 sians, Arabistan. Arabia is encom- 
 passed on three sides by the sea, name- 
 ly, on the N. E. by the Persian Gulf, 
 on the S. E. by the Indian Ocean, and 
 on the S. W. by the Red Sea. Arabia 
 includes also the peninsula of Sinai, 
 between the Gulf of Suez and that of 
 Akabah. The whole area of the vast 
 country thus described does not prob- 
 ably fall much short of 1,000,000 
 square miles. 
 
 The population of Arabia has been 
 estimated by some at 12,000,000, by 
 others at no more than 4,000,000. The 
 former number is certainly too high, 
 and it is believed that between 5,000,- 
 000 and 6,000,000 is very near the 
 truth. 
 
 The Arabs present, as a nation and 
 as individuals, much that its peculiar 
 in their mental and physical develop- 
 ment. They are of middle stature, of 
 a powerful make, and have a skin of 
 brownish color. Their features ex- 
 press dignity and pride ; they are nat- 
 urally active, intelligent, and courte- 
 ous ; and their character is marked by 
 temperance, bravery, and hospitality, 
 along with a strong propensity for 
 poetry. On the other hand, they are 
 revengeful in their disposition and 
 predatory in their habits. The women 
 
 Arack 
 
 have the entire education of the chil- 
 dren in their early years. 
 
 The mode of- life of the Arabs is 
 either nomadic or settled, or in other 
 words, they either live in tents and 
 derive their subsistence from the rear- 
 ing of cattle, wherever sufficient pas- 
 ture is obtainable, and from the trans- 
 port of caravans through the desert ; 
 or from the pursuits of agriculture 
 and commerce. The nomadic tribes in 
 Arabia are termed Bedouins, Beduins, 
 or Bedawins ; those following settled 
 occupations, Hadji and Fellahs. A 
 considerable trade, partly overland, 
 partly maritime, is carried on, chiefly 
 in coffee, dates, figs, spices, and aro- 
 matic substances of various kinds, 
 though the present amount of traffic 
 is scarcely a shadow of what it was 
 in the times previous to the discovery 
 of the passage by the Cape of Good 
 Hope. Commerce is partly in the 
 hands of foreigners, chiefly Jews and 
 Banian Hindus. In 1906, Turkish 
 troops occupied Tabah on the Gulf of 
 Akabah. This act led to representa- 
 tions from the Anglo-Egyptian govern- 
 ment, the appointment of a commis- 
 sion and a delimitation of boundaries. 
 
 Arabian Nights' Entertain- 
 ments, or " The Thousand and 
 One Nights," a celebrated collection 
 of Oriental tales, which have, since 
 their introduction to the civilized 
 world, become the delight of all who 
 peruse them. This collection, which 
 had long been famous throughout the 
 East, was brought to the notice of 
 Europeans by the translation of An- 
 toine Galland, a great French Orien- 
 talist, in 1704. It speedily became 
 translated into the other principal Eu- 
 ropean languages, fixed popular ad- 
 miration, and tp this day retains its 
 place in popular literature. 
 
 Aracari, the name given in Brazil 
 to several scansorial birds. They have 
 smaller bills than the toucans proper, 
 and are of brighter colors, being gen- 
 erally green, with red or yellow on 
 their breasts. 
 
 Arachnida, the class of animals 
 which contains spiders, Scorpions, and 
 mites. 
 
 ArsiVk, or Arrack, a spirituous 
 liquor manufactured in the East In- 
 dies from a great variety of substances. 
 It is often distilled from fermented
 
 Arafat 
 
 rice, or it may be distilled from the 
 juice of the cocoanut and other palms. 
 
 Arafat, or Jebel er Rahmeh, a 
 hill in Arabia, about 200 feet high, 
 with stone steps reaching to the sum- 
 mit, 15 miles S. E. of Mecca ; one of 
 the principal objects of pilgrimage 
 among Mohammedans, who say that it 
 was the place where Adam first re- 
 ceived his wife, Eve, after they had 
 been expelled from Paradise and sep- 
 arated from each other 120 years. A 
 sermon delivered on the mount consti- 
 tutes the main ceremony of the Hadj 
 or pilgrimage to Mecca, and entitles 
 the hearer to the name and privileges 
 of a Hadji or pilgrim. 
 
 Arago, Dominique Francois, an 
 eminent French astronomer and physi- 
 cist ; horn near Perpignan, Feb. 26, 
 1786. He died in 1853. As Minister 
 of War and Marine after the fall of 
 Louis Philippe he was instrumental in 
 abolishing negro slavery in the French 
 colonies. 
 
 Arago, Etienne Vincent, a 
 French poet, journalist, and play- 
 wright, born at Perpignan, Feb. 9, 
 1802. He died in 1892. 
 
 Aragon, once a kingdom, now di- 
 vided into the three provinces of Sara- 
 gossa, Huesca, and Teruel, in the N. 
 E. of Spain ; greatest length from N. 
 to S., 190 miles; breadth, 130; area, 
 17.980 square miles; pop. (1887) 
 912,197. It is bounded on the N. by 
 the Pyrenees, and borders on Navarre, 
 the Castiles, Valencia, and Catalonia. 
 
 Aragnay, or Araguaya, a large 
 river of Brazil, which rises in about 
 19 S. lat.. near the Parana, flowing 
 to about 6 S. lat., where it joins the 
 Tocantins. The united stream, after 
 a course of 1.000 miles, falls into the 
 delta of the Amazon in S. lat. 1 40'. 
 Many tribes of warlike Indians dwell 
 on its banks. 
 
 Aral Lake, separated by the pla- 
 teau of Ust-Urt from the Caspian Sea, 
 is the largest lake in the steppes of 
 Asia. It lies wholly within the limits 
 of Russian Central Asia, embracing 
 an area of about 24,000 square miles. 
 
 Aram, Eugene, a self-taught 
 scholar whose unhappy fate has been 
 made the subject of a ballad by Hood 
 and a romance by Lord Lytton. born 
 in Yorkshire. England, in 1704. In 
 1734 he opened a school at Knares- 
 
 Araucania 
 
 borough. About 1745 a shoemaker of 
 that place, Daniel Clarke, was sud- 
 denly missing under suspicious cir- 
 cumstances ; and no light was thrown 
 on the matter till 13 years afterward, 
 when an expression dropped by one 
 Richard Houseman respecting the dis- 
 covery of a skeleton supposed to be 
 Clarke's, caused him to be taken into 
 custody. From his confession an or- 
 der was issued for the apprehension of 
 Aram, who had long quitted York- 
 shire, and was at the time acting as 
 usher at the grammar school at Lynn. 
 He was brought to trial on Aug. 3, 
 1759, at York, where, notwithstand- 
 ing an able and eloquent defense which 
 he made before the court, he was con- 
 victed of the murder of Clarke, sen- 
 tenced to death, and executed. 
 
 Aramaean, or Aramaic, a Se- 
 mitic language nearly allied to the 
 Hebrew and Phrenician, anciently 
 spoken in Syria and Palestine and 
 eastward to the Euphrates and Tigris, 
 being the official language of this re- 
 gion under the Persian domination. 
 
 Arapahoes, a tribe of American 
 Indians located near the head-waters 
 of the Arkansas and Platte rivers. 
 
 Arapaima, a genus of tropical 
 fishes, including the largest known 
 fresh water forms. They are found in 
 the rivers of South America, and are 
 sometimes taken in the Rio Negro, 15 
 feet in length, and 400 pounds in 
 weight. They are shot with arrows 
 or harpooned, and are highly esteemed 
 as food. 
 
 Ararat, a celebrated mountain in 
 Armenia, forming the point of contact 
 of Russia with Turkey and Persia, to 
 all of which it belongs. It rises, an 
 isolated cone, on the S. border of the 
 plain of the Aras of Araxes. The 
 summit of the Great Ararat rises 16,- 
 964 feet above the sea-level. It is 
 covered with perpetual snow and ice 
 for about 3 miles from its summit 
 downward in an oblique direction. 
 Mount Ararat was the resting place 
 of the ark when the flood abated. 
 
 Arancania, the country of the 
 Araucos or Araucanian Indians, in 
 the south of Chile. The Chilean prov- 
 ince of Arauco, lying between the 
 Andes and the Pacific Ocean, and 
 bounded on the N. by Concepcion, on 
 the S. by Valdivia, was formed in
 
 Arbitration 
 
 1875, with an area of 2,446 square 
 miles, and a population of 59,237. A 
 large part of the territory in Arauco 
 and the more southerly province of 
 Valdivia, is occupied by Indians, who 
 have of late mostly submitted to Chil- 
 ean authority. 
 
 Arbitration, an adjudication by 
 private persons, called arbitrators, ap- 
 pointed to decide a matter or matters 
 in controversy, either by written or 
 oral submission, by agreement of the 
 disputants. It differs from a reference 
 which is made by the order of a court 
 of law. The proceeding generally is 
 called a submission to arbitration ; the 
 parties appointed to decide are termed 
 arbitrators, not referees : and their ad- 
 judication is called an award. This 
 mode of settling disputes has been 
 approved by some legislatures, and 
 there are statutes in a number of 
 States regulating the proceedings. 
 
 It cannot be said that the legal re- 
 quirements have helped to any great 
 extent in the settlement of disputes be- 
 between labor and capital. Either or 
 both sides claim that an injustice has 
 been done, and while a modus vivendi 
 may be determined, it is only that mat- 
 ters may be arranged for a more suc- 
 cessful outcome of the next difficulty. 
 The settlement of the great coal strike 
 of 1902 by the arbitrators selected by 
 President Roosevelt, ended the conflict 
 for the time being, but did not satisfy 
 either party to the dispute. 
 ^ The first general treaty of arbitra- 
 tion ever drawn between nations was 
 signed Jan. 11, 1897, in Washington, 
 by Richard Olney, Secretary of State 
 for the United States, and Sir Julian 
 Pauncefote, Ambassador of Great 
 Britain to the United States, for 
 Great Britain. This treaty was 
 placed before the United State Sen- 
 ate, Jan. 11, 1897 accompanied by a 
 special message from President Cleve- 
 land, but the Senate refused to ratify 
 it. Since then similar treaties have 
 been made and ratified between Italy 
 and the Argentine Republic and be- 
 tween the Argentine Republic and 
 Uruguay. The International Peace 
 Convention at The Hague, in 1899, es- 
 tablished an International Court of 
 Arbitration which has been ratified by 
 the United States and other signatory 
 powers. In 1903, Holland accepted 
 Mr. Carnegie's offer of $1,500,000 
 
 Arc 
 
 for a Temple of Peace and Interna- 
 tional Law Library at The Hague, for 
 the sessions of the Court. 
 
 Arbor Day, a day set apart to 
 encourage the voluntary planting of 
 trees by the people. The custom was 
 inaugurated by the Nebraska State 
 Board of Agriculture in 1874, which 
 recommended that the second Wednes- 
 day in April annually be designated 
 as Arbor Day, and that all public 
 school children should be urged to ob- 
 serve it by setting out young trees. 
 The custom has since been extended, 
 till now nearly every State and Terri- 
 tory in the country has set apart one 
 day by legislative enactment or other- 
 wise, for this purpose ; several of the 
 States making the day a legal holiday, 
 others making it a school holiday. 
 
 Arbor Vitae (lit. 'tree of life'), 
 the name of several coniferous trees 
 of the genus Thuja, allied to the cy- 
 press, with flattened branchlets, and 
 small imbricated or scale-like leaves. 
 The common Arbor Vitse (Thuja oc- 
 cidentalis) is a native of North Amer- 
 ica, where it grows to the height of 
 40 or 50 feet. The young twigs have 
 an agreeable balsamic smell. 
 
 Arbutus, a genus of plants belong- 
 ing to the order of ericacese (heath 
 worts). Trailing arbutus is a creep- 
 ing or trailing plant; with rose colored 
 blossoms, found chiefly in New Eng- 
 land in the spring. Commonly called 
 Mayflower. In the Southern States it 
 is known as Ground Laurel. 
 
 Arc, in geometry, a portion of the 
 circumference of a circle, cut off by 
 two lines which meet or intersect it. 
 Its magnitude is stated in degrees, 
 minutes, and seconds, which are equal 
 to those of the angle which it subtends. 
 
 In mathematical geography, an arc 
 of the earth's meridian, or a merid- 
 ional arc, is an arc partly measured on 
 the surface of the earth from N. to S., 
 partly calculated by trigonometry. It 
 was by these measurements that the 
 earth was discovered to be an oblate 
 spheroid. 
 
 In electricity, a voltaic arc is a lu- 
 minous arc, which extends from one 
 pencil of charcoal to another, when 
 these are fixed to the terminals of a 
 battery in such a position that their 
 extremities are one-tenth of an inch 
 apart.
 
 Arcade 
 
 Arclielaus 
 
 Arcade, a series of arches of any 
 form, supported on pillars, either in- 
 closing a space before a wall, or any 
 building which is covered in and 
 paved ; or, when used as an architec- 
 tural feature for ornamenting the 
 towers and walls of churches entirely 
 closed up with masonry. The cloisters 
 of the old monasteries and religious 
 houses were, strictly speaking, arcades. 
 The term is also applied to a covered 
 passage having stores on either sidfe 
 of it. 
 
 Arcadia, the classical name of 
 Middle Peloponnesus, now forming the 
 modern province of Arkadia, in the 
 Morea, Greece. 
 
 Arcesilans, a Greek philosopher, 
 founder of the New Academy, was 
 born at Pitane in ^Eolia, Asia Minor, 
 316 B. C. He died B. c. 241. 
 
 Arch, in architecture, a series of 
 wedge-shaped stones or bricks, so ar- 
 ranged over a door ' or window in an 
 edifice for habitation, or between the 
 piers of a bridge, as to support each 
 other, and even bear a great superin- 
 incumbent weight. The curved arch 
 was known to the Assyrians and the 
 Old Egyptians. 
 
 There is no mention of the genuine 
 arch in Scripture, the term "arches," 
 in Ezek. xl : 16, being a mistranslation. 
 
 The arch was brought into extensive 
 use by the Romans, and everywhere 
 prevailed till the 12th century A. D. 
 when the arc! pointed at the apex, and 
 called in consequence the pointed arch 
 the one so frequently seen in Gothic 
 architecture appeared in Europe as 
 its rival. The forms of both curved 
 and pointed arches may be varied in- 
 definitely. 
 
 Arch, Triumphal, a structure 
 raised by the Romans to celebrate a 
 victory, or some great historical event ; 
 or to add an additional luster to the 
 commemoration of the military ex- 
 ploits of a victorious general. The 
 practice has been adopted by some of 
 the modern nations of which France 
 is the foremost. 
 
 Arch, Joseph, an English reform- 
 er, born in Barford, Warwickshire, in 
 1826, and, while still a farm laborer, 
 became a Primitive Methodist preach- 
 er. In 1872 he founded the National 
 Agricultural Laborers' Union, and 
 thereby, according to Justin M'Carthy, 
 
 " began the emancipation of the rural 
 laborers." He afterward visited Can- 
 ada to inquire into the labor and emi- 
 gration questions; and, in 1885-1886, 
 he represented in Parliament the 
 northwest division of Norfolk, which 
 again returned him in 1892 and 1895. 
 
 Archaeology, the science which 
 makes us acquainted with the antiqui- 
 ties of nations that have lived and 
 died, and the remains of various kinds 
 which throw a light upon the history 
 of those now existing. Every country 
 owns, in a greater or less degree, relics 
 of antiquity highly interesting to the 
 archaeologist. In Mexico and Cen- 
 tral America, evidences have been 
 found of the existence of a clever and 
 ingenious people who had died -before 
 the discovery of America. 
 
 Archaeopteryx, a unique fossil 
 bird from the oolitic limestone of Sol- 
 enhofen, of the size of a rook, and dif- 
 fering from all known birds in having 
 two free claws representing the thumb 
 and forefinger projecting from the 
 wing, and about twenty tail vertebrae 
 free and prolonged as in mammals. 
 
 Archangel, a seaport, capital of 
 the Russian government of same name, 
 on the right bank of the northeastern 
 Dwina, about 20 miles above its mouth 
 in the White Sea. Below the town the 
 river divides into several branches and 
 forms a number of islands, on one of 
 which, called Sollenbole, is the harbor. 
 The port is closed for six months by 
 ice. Archangel, was long the only 
 port which Russia possessed. Pop. 20,- 
 993. 
 
 Archdeacon, an ecclesiastical dig- 
 nitary next in rank below a bishop, 
 who has jurisdiction either over a part 
 of or over the whole diocese. He is 
 usually appointed by the bishop, under 
 whom he performs various duties, and 
 he holds a court which decides cases 
 subject to an Appeal to the bishop. 
 
 Archdnke, a duke whose authori- 
 ty and power is superior to that of 
 other dukes. In the present day, 'this 
 title is not assumed by any excepting 
 the princes of the imperial House of 
 Austria. 
 
 Archelans, a Greek philosopher, 
 the disciple and successor of Anaxa- 
 goras. Archelaus is said to have had 
 Socrates for his pupil at Athens. 
 Flourished about 440 B. C.
 
 Arclielans 
 
 Archelaus, son of Herod the 
 Great. His reign is described as most 
 tyrannical and bloody. The people at 
 length accused him before Augustus 
 (Judea being then dependent upon 
 Borne). The Emperor, after hearing 
 his defense, banished him to. Vienne, 
 in Gaul. To avoid the fury of this 
 monster, 7 A. D., Joseph and Mary re- 
 tired to Nazareth. 
 
 Archer, Branch T., a Texan pa- 
 triot, born 1790; died 1856. In 1831 
 he left Virginia where he had practiced 
 medicine, and settled in Texas where 
 he took an active part in all the 
 troubles that preceeded the indepen- 
 dence of the territory. He was one of 
 the commissioners who asked aid from 
 the United States government, and was 
 speaker of the Texas House of Repre- 
 sentatives, and Secretary of War for 
 the new Republic. 
 
 Archer, "William, a Scottish crit- 
 ic, born at Perth, Sept. 23, 1856. He 
 graduated at Edinburgh University, 
 1876, and was called to the bar, 1883. 
 He has long been dramatic critic for 
 various London papers. 
 
 Archer Fish, the tqxotes aculator, 
 which .shoots water at its prey. It is 
 found in the East Indian and Polyne- 
 sian Seas. 
 
 Archery, the art of shooting with 
 a bow and arrow. This art, either as 
 a means of offense in war, or as sub- 
 sistence and amusement in time of 
 peace, may be traced in the history of 
 almost every nation. It always, how- 
 ever declines with the progress of 
 time, which introduces weapons more 
 to be depended on, and not so easily 
 exhausted as a bundle of arrows. 
 With the ancients, the sagitarii, or 
 archers, were an important class of 
 troops. The English archers were 
 famous in the Middle Ages, and turned 
 the side in important battles. 
 
 Archilochus, a Greek poet, nour- 
 ished in the 7th century B. c. Of his 
 life, nothing is definitely known. He 
 was classed by the ancients with the 
 greatest poets, Homer, Pindar, Sopho- 
 cles ; but of his works only a few frag- 
 ments have come down to us. 
 
 Archimedes, the most famous of 
 ancient mathematicians, was a native 
 of Syracuse. He possessed equal 
 knowledge of the sciences of astrono- 
 my, geometry, hydrostatics, mechanics, 
 
 Architecture 
 
 and optics. Among his inventions 
 were the combination of pulleys for 
 lifting heavy weights, the revolving 
 screw, and a spherical representation 
 of the motion of the heavenly bodies. 
 His inventive genius was especially ex- 
 emplified in the defense of Syracuse 
 when besieged by Marcellus. It is 
 said that on this occasion he devised 
 a burning-glass, formed of reflecting 
 mirrors of such power that by it he set 
 fire to the enemy's fleet. This well 
 known story is, however, believed to 
 be equally an invention. Upon the 
 city being taken by storm, Archimedes, 
 then in his 74th year, was among those 
 who lost their lives, B. c. 212. 
 
 Archimedes, Principle of, a 
 well known principle in hydrostatics, 
 the discovery of which is attributed to 
 the celebrated philosopher whose name 
 it bears. This important theorem may 
 be thus defined : When a solid is im- 
 mersed in a fluid, it loses a portion of 
 its weight, and this portion is equal 
 to the weight of the fluid which it dis- 
 places, that is, to the weight of its 
 own bulk of the fluid. 
 
 Archimedian Screw, or Spiral 
 Pump, a machine invented by Archj- 
 medes, the celebrated Syracusan phi- 
 losopher, while studying in Egypt. Ob- 
 serving the difficulty of raising water 
 from the Nile to places above the reach 
 of the flood tides, he is said to have de- 
 signed this screw as a means of over- 
 coming the obstacle. It consists of a 
 pipe twisted in a spiral form around a 
 cylinder, which, when at work, is sup- 
 ported in an inclined position. The 
 lower end of the pipe is immersed in 
 water, and when the cylinder is made 
 to revolve on its own axis, the water 
 is raised from bend to bend in the 
 spiral pipe until it flows out at the 
 top. The Archimedian screw is still 
 used in Holland for raising water, and 
 draining low grounds. 
 
 Archipelago, a term applied to 
 such tracts of sea as are interspersed 
 with many islands. It is more es- 
 pecially applied to the numerous is- 
 lands of the JEgean Sea, or that part 
 of the Mediterranean lying between 
 Asia Minor and Greece. 
 
 Architecture, the art of building, 
 especially with a view to >eauty or 
 magnificence. It is an art which is 
 ever advancing as the needs of civil- 
 ized man change and increase. Some
 
 Archives 
 
 Arctic Expeditions 
 
 of the architectural work of the an- 
 cients has never been surpassed in 
 later ages in massiveness and in 
 beauty, and the grand architectural 
 monuments of the Middle Ages are 
 the chief redeeming features of that 
 period of intellectual gloom. The 
 architecture of the twentieth century 
 bids fair to keep abreast of the mar- 
 vellous progress of other arts, and 
 nowhere is it achieving more signal 
 triumphs than in the United States, 
 with its mighty office-buildings, its 
 magnificent public structures, and its 
 residences including every comfort 
 and improvement. 
 
 Archives, the place in which rec- 
 ords are kept ; also the records and 
 papers which are preserved, as evi- 
 dence of facts. 
 
 Archons, the chief magistrates of 
 ancient Athens, chosen to superintend 
 civil and religious concerns. 
 
 Archytas, an ancient Greek math- 
 ematician, statesman, and general, who 
 flourished about 400 B. c., and belong- 
 ed to Tarentum, in Southern Italy. 
 The invention of the analytic method 
 in mathematics is ascribed to him, as 
 well as the solution of many geometri- 
 cal and mechanical problems. 
 
 Arc Light, that species of the 
 electric light ia which the illuminating 
 source is the current of electricity 
 passing between two sticks of carbon 
 kept a short distance apart, one of 
 them being in connection with the pos- 
 itive, the other with the negative ter- 
 minal of a battery or dynamo. 
 
 Arcon, Jean Claude Leini- 
 ceaud d% a French engineer, born 
 in 1733. He distinguished himself by 
 the invention of the famous floating 
 batteries used at the siege of Gibral- 
 tar, in 1782. He died in 1800. 
 
 Arctic Circle, a small circle of 
 the globe, 23 28' distant from the 
 North Pole, which is its center. It is 
 opposed to the Antarctic circle, which 
 is at the same distance from the South 
 Pole. 
 
 Arctic Expeditions, expeditions 
 projected to explore the regions sur- 
 rounding the North Pole. The ob- 
 ject with which these enterprises were 
 commenced by the English was to ob- 
 tain a passage by way of the polar re- 
 gions to India, Egypt being in Moham- 
 medan hands, and fear, which now 
 
 seems absolutely ludicrous, being felt 
 that the Portuguese would successfully 
 debar daring English seamen from 
 using the route by the Cape of Good 
 Hope. When the utter hopelessness 
 of finding either a northwestern or a 
 northeastern passage to India through 
 the polar regions became apparent, it 
 was felt that Arctic expeditions might 
 still profitably be sent out for purely 
 scientific exploration, one main object 
 now being to make as near an ap- 
 proach as possible to the Pole. They 
 have continued at intervals to our 
 own times, and are not likely ever to 
 cease. Two of the most notable events 
 in their history which have hitherto 
 occurred have been the discovery of 
 the northwest passage by Captain Mc- 
 Clure, of the " Investigator," on Oct. 
 26, 1850, and the tragic deaths of Sir 
 John Franklin and his crew, about the 
 year 1848, the catastrophe being ren- 
 dered all the more impressive to the 
 public mind by the uncertainty which 
 long hung over the gallant explorers' 
 fate. 
 
 In September, 1895, Lieut. Robert 
 E. Peary, of the United States navy, 
 returned from an Arctic expedition, 
 after an absence of two years. He 
 did not get so far north as some of 
 his predecessors, but in scientific re- 
 sults his expedition surpassed all 
 others of recent years. His surveys 
 and maps extend our knowledge of the 
 coast northward 2. He started on 
 another expedition in 1897. On Aug. 
 13, 1896, Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, of Nor- 
 way, returned from an Arctic expedi- 
 tion, after an absence of more than 
 three years. The most northerly 
 point reached by him was 86 14' N. 
 latitude, or 200 miles nearer the Pole 
 than ever reached before. He found 
 no indications of land N. of 82 N. 
 latitude, and in the higher latitudes no 
 open sea, only narrow cracks in the 
 ice. 
 
 The following are the farthest points 
 of N. latitude reached by Arctic ex- 
 plorers, up to present date : 
 Year Explorers North Latitude 
 
 1607. Hudson 80 23' 0" 
 
 1773. Phipps 80" 48' 0" 
 
 1806. Scoresby 81 12' 42" 
 
 1827. Parry 82" 60' 0* 
 
 1874. Meyer (on land) ... 82 0' 0" 
 
 1875. Markham and Parr 
 
 (Nares' expedition. 83 20' 26" 
 
 1876. Payer 83 07' 0*
 
 Arctic Ocean 
 
 Year Explorers North Latitude 
 
 1882. Lockwood (Greely's 
 
 party) 83* 24' 0" 
 
 1896. Nansen 86 14' 0" 
 
 1900. Abruzzi 86 33' 0" 
 
 1906. Peary 87 6' 0" 
 
 1909. April 6. Peary The Pole 
 
 In 1902 Lieutenant Peary attained 
 lat. 84 17', 150 miles short of Abruz- 
 zi's record, and 404 statute miles from 
 the Pole. He pushed the advance on 
 the American side 30 miles beyond his 
 own best record in 1901. In 1906 he 
 came within 200.36 miles of his goal, 
 when he was forced back by insur- 
 mountable obstacles. The -Baldwin 
 (1902) and the Fiala (1905) expedi- 
 tions, which proceeded by way of 
 Franz Josef Land, did not reach such 
 high latitudes. In 1909 tidings of 
 Arctic discovery were highly sensa- 
 tional in character. On Sept. 1 Dr. 
 Frederick A. Cook telegraphed thit he 
 had discovered the Pole on April 21, 
 1908, and five days later Peary an- 
 nounced that he had reached it on 
 April 6, 1909. On their return the 
 rival claimants were honored at home 
 and abroad, but a scientific investiga- 
 tion of their records resulted in credit- 
 ing the achievement to Peary. 
 
 Arctic Ocean, in its widest sense, 
 that portion of the ocean which ex- 
 tends from the Arctic circle (lat. 66 
 32' N.) to the North Pole, or more re- 
 strictedly from about lat 70 N. As- 
 suming the former limit, the Arctic 
 Ocean is found entering deeply, in the 
 form of gulfs, bays, etc.,, into the N. 
 parts of the continents of Europe, 
 Asia, and America. The water of the 
 Arctic Ocean is extremely pure, shells 
 being distinctly visible at a great 
 depth ; it also presents rapid transi- 
 tions of color, chiefly from ultramarine 
 to olive-green, the latter variations of 
 color being produced by myriads of 
 minute animals, belonging for the most 
 part, to the Ccelenterata and Mollusca. 
 
 Arctic Regions, the regions 
 round the North Pole, and extending 
 from the pole on all sides to the Arctic 
 circle in lat. 66 32' N. The Arctic 
 or North Polar circle just touches the 
 N. headlands of Iceland ; cuts off the 
 S. and narrowest portion of Green- 
 land ; crosses Fox Strait N. of Hudson 
 bay, whence it goes over the American 
 continent to Bering Strait. Thence 
 it runs to Obdorsk at the mouth of the 
 Obi ; then, crosing Northern Russia, 
 
 Are 
 
 the White Sea, and the Scandinavian 
 peninsula, returns to Iceland. 
 
 Arcturus, in astronomy, a fixed 
 star of the first magnitude, called also 
 Alpha Bootis. It is one of the very 
 brightest stars in the northern heav- 
 ens. 
 
 Ardahari, a village of about 300 
 houses, in the portion of Turkish Ar- 
 menia, ceded in 1878 to Russia, 35 
 miles N. W. of Kars. Its position 
 gives it strategic importance. Its 
 fortress was dismantled by the Rus- 
 sians in the war of 1854-1856 ; in 1878 
 the Berlin Congress sanctioned the ces- 
 sion to Russia of Ardahan, which had 
 been captured early in the war On 
 account of the severity of the climate, 
 the houses of Ardahan are mainly con- 
 structed underground. 
 
 Ardennes, an extensive hill-coun- 
 try and forest, occupying the S. B. 
 corner of Belgium, between the Moselle 
 and the Meuse, but extending also into 
 France and Rhenish Prussia. It con- 
 sists of a broken mass of hills, for the 
 most part of no great elevation, which 
 gradually sl6pe toward the plains of 
 Flanders. Enormous supplies of coal 
 are found in the north, a very impor- 
 tant element in Belgium's industrial 
 wealth ; iron, lead, antimony, copper, 
 and manganese are also found. Multi- 
 tudes of cattle and sheep are reared. 
 
 Arditi, laiigi, an Italian musi- 
 cian and composer, born in Piedmont, 
 July 16, 1822 ; studied music at the 
 Conservatoire of Milan. Famous first 
 as a violinist, then as a conductor, he 
 conducted Italian opera and concerts 
 in places as remote from one another 
 as New York and Constantinople. 
 He died in May, 1903. 
 
 Ardmore, city and capital of Car- 
 ter county, Okla.; in what was the 
 Chickasaw Nation, Ind. Terr.; on the 
 Santa Fe and other railroads; 100 
 miles S. of Oklahoma City; is in a 
 cotton-growing, natural gas, petro- 
 leum, coal, and asphalt section; has 
 a Carnegie library, two colleges, 
 water, electric light, and telephone 
 services, and cotton compressers and 
 oil mill; and is chiefly engaged in the 
 cotton industry. Pop. (1910) 8,618. 
 
 Are, the unit of the French land 
 measure, equal to 100 square meters, 
 or 1,076.44 square feet.
 
 Arena 
 
 Arena, the inclosed space in the 
 central part of tne Roman ampnitnea- 
 ters, in which took place the combats 
 of gladiators or wild beasts. It was 
 usually covered with sand or saw dust 
 to prevent the gladiators from slip- 
 ping, and to absorb the blood. 
 
 Arecibo, city, seaport, and capital 
 of department of same name, Porto 
 Rico; on the Arecibo river, 40 miles 
 W. of San Juan; settled in 1616; 
 greatly damaged by hurricane in 
 1899; has a roadstead available only 
 by small vessels. Pop. (1910) 9,612. 
 
 Areolar Tissue, a tissue widely 
 diffused through the body, and com- 
 posed of white and yellow fibers, the 
 former imparting to it strength, and 
 the latter elasticity. 
 
 Areometer, an instrument de- 
 signed to measure the specific gravity 
 of liquids. 
 
 Areopagus, the name of a hill or 
 rocky eminence lying to the W. of the 
 Acropolis at Athens, which was the 
 meeting-place of the chief court of 
 judicature of that city; hence called 
 the Council of Areopagus. It was of 
 very high antiquity, and existed as a 
 criminal tribunal long before the time 
 of Solon. Solon enlarged its sphere 
 of jurisdiction, and gave it extensive 
 powers of a censorial and political na- 
 ture. Some say that the Apostle Paul 
 was taken before this council ; but the 
 Scripture does not bear out this idea. 
 It would seem, rather, that the Athen- 
 ians had taken him to the hill in or- 
 der to hear him expound his new doc- 
 trines. 
 
 Areqnipa, a city of Peru, capi- 
 tal of the Department of the same 
 name ; 40 miles from the Pacific Ocean, 
 on the Chile river ; altitude, 7,850 feet 
 above sea level. Gold and silver are 
 mined in the vicinity. A great earth- 
 quake occurred, Aug. 13 and 14, 1868, 
 which destroyed more than $12,000,000 
 worth of property, and the lives of 
 more than 500 persons. Its public 
 buildings and dwellings are one or two 
 stories high and constructed of stone. 
 Near at hand Harvard University has 
 an observatory, at an altitude of over 
 8,000 feet. 
 
 Ares, the Greek god of war, or 
 more particularly of its horror and tu- 
 mult. He is represented in Greek 
 
 Argemonr 
 
 poetry as a most sanguinary divinity 
 delighting in war for its own sake. 
 
 Aretaeus, a Greek physician of 
 Cappadocia, who nourished about 100 
 A. D. He is considered to rank next to 
 Hippocrates in the skill with which he 
 treated diseases ; was eclectic in his 
 method ; and in the diagnosis of dis- 
 ease is superior to most of the ancient 
 physicians. 
 
 Aretino, Pietro, an Italian poet 
 and dramatist, born at Arezzo, April 
 20, 1492. His "Letters" are a val- 
 uable contribution to the history of tho 
 times. He died in Venice, Oct. 21, 
 1556. 
 
 Argali, the name for some species 
 of the genus ovis, or sheep, which in- 
 habits the mountains and steppes of 
 Northern Asia. They are very keen- 
 sighted, quick of hearing, and possess 
 a delicate sense of smell. They attach 
 themselves closely to one locality, and 
 are noted for their great powers of 
 leaping, even from heights of 20 or 30 
 feet. The Big-horn sheep of the Rocky 
 Mountains are sometimes called Amer- 
 ican argali. 
 
 Argali, Sir Samuel, an ear'y 
 English adventurer in Virginia, born 
 about 1572 ; planned and executed the 
 abduction of Pocahontas, the daughter 
 of the Indian chief Powhatan, in order 
 to secure the ransom of English prison- 
 ers. He was Deputy Governor of Vir- 
 ginia (1617-1619), and was accused 
 of many acts of rapacity and tyranny. 
 By carrying on trade in violation of the 
 law he managed to acquire a fortune, 
 and was shielded from justice by the 
 Earl of Warwick. He died in 1639. 
 
 Argand Lamp, a lamp named 
 after its inventor, Aime" Argand, a 
 Swiss chemist and physician (born 
 1755, died 1803), the distinctive fea- 
 ture of which is a burner forming a 
 ring or hollow cylinder covered by a 
 chimney, so that the flame receives a 
 current of air, both on the inside and 
 on the outside. 
 
 Argemone, a genus of plants be- 
 longing to the poppy-worts. It has 
 three sepals and six petals. The A. 
 Mexicana, believed, as its name im- 
 ports, to have come from Mexico, has 
 conspicuous yellow flowers. From 
 having its calyx prickly, it is often 
 called Mexican thistle. The seeds are 
 a more powerful narcotic than opium.
 
 Argent 
 
 Argent, in coats or arms, the her- 
 aldic term expressing silver ; repre- 
 sented in engraving by a plain white 
 surface. 
 
 Argenta, a town in Pulaski 
 county, Ark.; on the Arkansas river, 
 and the Choctaw, Oklahoma & Gulf 
 ;and other railroads; nearly opposite 
 Xattle Rock; chiefly engaged in the 
 live-stock and cotton industries. Pop. 
 (1910) 11,138. 
 
 Argentina, formerly called the 
 United Provinces of La Plata, a vast 
 country of South America ; extreme 
 length, 2,100 miles ; average breadth 
 a litle over 500 miles ; total area, 
 1,114,000 square miles. It is bounded 
 on the N. by Bolivia ; on the E. by 
 Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the 
 Atlantic; on the S. by the Antarctic 
 Ocean ; and on the W. by the Andes. 
 With the exception of the N. W., 
 where lateral branches of the Andes 
 run into the plain for 150 or 200 miles, 
 and the province of Entre Rios, which 
 is hilly, the characteristic feature of 
 the country is the great monotonous 
 and level plains called pampas. In the 
 N., these plains are partly forest-cov- 
 ered, but all the central and S. parts 
 Present vast treeless tracts, which af- 
 ord pasture to immense herds of 
 horses, oxen, and sheep, and are varied 
 in some places by brackish swamps, in 
 others by salt steppes. 
 
 European grains and fruits, includ- 
 ing the vine, have been successfully in- 
 troduced, and are cultivated in most 
 parts of the republic, countless herds 
 of cattle and horses and flocks of sheep 
 are pastured on the pampas, and mul- 
 tiply there very rapidly. Gold, siver, 
 nickel, copper, tin, lead, and iron, be- 
 sides marble, jasper, precious stones, 
 and bitumen, are found in the moun- 
 tainous districts of the northwest, 
 while petroleum wells have been dis- 
 covered on the Rio Vermejo ; but the 
 development of this mineral wealth has 
 hitherto been greatly retarded by the 
 want of proper means of transport. 
 As a whole, there are not extensive 
 forests in the country, except in the 
 region of the Gran Chaco (which ex- 
 tends also into Bolivia), where ther3 
 is known to be 60,000 square miles of 
 timber. Thousands of square miles are 
 covered with thistles, which grow to a 
 great height in their season. Cacti 
 also form great thickets. Peach and 
 
 apple trees are abundant in some dis- 
 tricts. The native fauna includes the 
 puma, the jaguar, the tapir, the llama, 
 the alpaca, the vicuna, armadilos, the 
 rhea or nandu, a species of ostrich, etc. 
 The climate is agreeable and healthful, 
 97 being about the highest tempera- 
 ture experienced. The native Indians, 
 few in number, give little trouble to 
 white settlers, although some of the 
 Gran Chaco tribes are warlike and 
 have killed foreign travellers. Some 
 tribes, still in a savage state, inhabit 
 less known districts and live by hunt- 
 ing and fishing. The typical inhabi- 
 tants of the pampas are the Gauchos, 
 a race of half-breed cattle-rearers and 
 horsebreakers, almost continually in 
 saddle, galloping the plains. 
 
 A. is divided into 14 provinces and 
 10 territories. Buenos Ayres, the cap- 
 ital, is connected with other large 
 towns including Rosario, La Plata, 
 Tucuman, Cordoba, Santa Fe\ Men- 
 doza, Parana, etc., by 12,000 m. of 
 railroads, and 27,500 m. of telegraph 
 lines. Industiies and commerce have 
 increased with the arrival of largte 
 numbers of immigrants, chiefly Ital- 
 ians and Spaniards. In recent years 
 the annual exports amounted to over 
 $204,000,000, imports to over $187,- 
 000,000. The chief foreign trade, in 
 order of importance, is with Great 
 Britain, Germany, France, the United 
 States and Belgium. 
 
 The government is republican, sim- 
 ilar to that of the United States, and 
 the President is elected for six years 
 by the representatives of the 14 prov- 
 inces. The population of the repub- 
 lic was returned in 1900 at 4,794,149. 
 These figures compared with those of 
 1895 show a gain of 21 per cent, in 
 five years. 
 
 Argillaceous Rooks. Rocks in- 
 cluding slate, in which clay prevails. 
 
 Argol, a salt deposited by wine 
 on the inside of bottles and barrels. 
 It may be purified in hot water, ani 
 clarified by adding clay, and recrys- 
 tallizing. In repeating the process it 
 becomes white and is called cream of 
 tartar. 
 
 Argon, a constituent gaseous ele- 
 ment discovered in our atmosphere by 
 Lord RayleSgh and Prof. Ramsay, in 
 1894. There is still much doubt con- 
 cerning its true status.
 
 Argonaut 
 
 Argonaut, one of the heroes who 
 accompanied Jason in the ship 
 " Argo " when he sailed on his mythic 
 voyage in quest of the golden fleece 
 (generally used in the plural). The 
 tales describing the return of the Ar- 
 gonauts differ very essentially. 
 
 The word is also applied to a genus 
 of cephaloppd mollusks, the typical one 
 of the family argonautidae. The best 
 known species is the argonaut, or pa- 
 per sailor. The shell is thin and 
 translucent. Aristotle supposed that 
 it floated with the concave side up, the 
 animal holding out its arms, after the 
 manner of sails, to catch the breeze. 
 Poets have ever since repeated the fa- 
 ble; but naturalists know that when 
 the argonaut floats the sail-shaped 
 arms are applied closely to the sides of 
 the shell, and when the animal crawls 
 at the bottom the so-called boat is re- 
 versed like the shell of a snail. 
 
 Argo-Navis, the southern constel- 
 lation of the Ship, containing 9 clus- 
 ters, 3 nebulae, 13 double and 540 sin- 
 gle stars, of which about 64 are vis- 
 ible. 
 
 Argos, a town of Greece, in the 
 N. E. of the Peloponnesus, between 
 the gulfs of ^Egina and Nauplia or 
 Argos. This town and the surround- 
 ing territory of Argolis were famous 
 from the legendary period of Greek 
 history onward, the territory contain- 
 ing, besides Argos, Mycenae, where 
 Agamemnon ruled, with a kind of sov- 
 ereignty, over all the Peloponnesus. 
 
 Argosy, a poetical name for a 
 large merchant vessel ; derived from 
 Ragusa, a port which was formerly 
 more celebrated than now, and whose 
 vessels did a considerable trade with 
 England. 
 
 Argot, the jargon, slang or pecu- 
 liar phraseology of a class or profes- 
 sion ; originally the conventional slang 
 of thieves and vagabonds, invented for 
 the purpose of disguise and conceal- 
 ment. 
 
 Argument, a term sometimes used 
 as synonymous with the subject of a 
 discourse, but more frequently appro- 
 priated to any kind of method employ- 
 ed for the purpose of confuting or at 
 least silencing an opponent. 
 
 Argus. (1) In classical mythol- 
 ogy, a son of Arestor, said to have had 
 100 eyes, of which only two slept at 
 
 Arian 
 
 one time, the several pairs doing so in 
 succession. When killed by Mercury, 
 his eyes were put into the tail of the 
 peacock, by direction of Juno, to whom 
 this bird was sacred. Argus was 
 deemed a highly appropriate name to 
 give to a vigilant watch dog. 
 
 (2) In zoology, a genus of birds. 
 It contains the argus, or argus pheas- 
 ant. The male measures between five 
 and six feet from the tip of the bill to 
 the extremity of the tail, and is an em- 
 inently beautiful bird, the quill-feath- 
 ers of the wings, which often exceed 
 three feet in length, being ornamented 
 all along by a series of ocellated spots, 
 about 80,000 in number. 
 
 Argyle, Campbells of, a historic 
 Scottish family, raised to the peerage 
 in the person of Sir Duncan Campbell 
 of Lochow, in 1445. JOIIN, second 
 Duke and Duke of Greenwich, son of 
 Archibald, born 1G78, died 1743 ; served 
 under Marlborough at the battles of 
 Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, 
 and assisted at the sieges of Lisle and 
 Ghent. lie incurred considerable 
 odium in his own country for his ef- 
 forts in promoting the union with 
 England. 
 
 Ariadne, a daughter of Minos, 
 King of Crete, who, falling in love 
 with Theseus, then shut up by her 
 father in the labyrinth, gave him a 
 clue by which he threaded his way out. 
 
 Arian, a follower of Arius, Pres- 
 byter of Alexandria in the 4th cen- 
 tury A. D., or one holding the system 
 of doctrine associated with his name. 
 In the year 317, Alexander, Bishop of 
 Alexandria, having publicly expressed 
 his opinion that the Son of God is not 
 only of the same dignity as the 
 Father, but of the same essence (in 
 Greek, ousia) , Arius, one of the 
 Presbyters, considered this view 
 as leaning too much to Sabel- 
 lianism, and, rushing to the other 
 extreme, he declared that the Son of 
 God was only the first and noblest of 
 created beings, and though the universe 
 had been brought into existence 
 through His instrumentality by the 
 Eternal Father, yet to that Eternal 
 Father He was inferior, not merely in 
 dignity, but in essence. The views of 
 Arius commended themselves to multi- 
 tudes, while they were abhorrent to 
 still more ; fierce controversy respect- 
 ing them broke out, and the whole
 
 Ariel 
 
 Christian world was soon compelled to 
 take sides. It would occupy too 
 much space to detail the vicissitudes 
 of a highly checkered struggle ; suffice 
 it to say that the Arians greatly weak- 
 ened themselves by splitting into sects, 
 and the doctrines regarding the rela- 
 tion of the three Divine . Personages 
 authoritatively proclaimed at Nice 
 were at last all but universally adopt- 
 ed. They may be found detailed in 
 what are popularly termed the Nicene 
 and the Athanasian Creeds. They 
 were held almost without a dissentient 
 voice through the Middle Ages, and 
 were cordially accepted by the leading 
 reformers. 
 
 Ariel, the name of several person- 
 ages mentioned in the Old Testament ; 
 in the demonology of the later Jews a 
 spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare's 
 " Tempest," Ariel was the " tricksy 
 spirit " whom Prospero had in his ser- 
 vice. 
 
 Aries, in astronomy, the constel- 
 lation Aries, or the Ham, one of the 
 ancient zodiacal constellations, and 
 generally called the first sign of the 
 zodiac ; also the portion of the eclip- 
 tic between and 30 longitude, 
 which the sun enters on March 21st 
 (the vernal equinox). 
 
 Arimanes, or Ahrimaii, the 
 principle of evil in the Persian theol- 
 ogy, which perpetually counteracts the 
 designs of Ormuzd or Orqmazdes, who 
 denotes the principle of good. 
 
 Arimathsea, a town of Palestine, 
 identified with the modern Ramleh, 22 
 miles W. N. W. of Jerusalem. 
 
 Arion, an ancient Greek poet and 
 musician, born at Methymna, in Les- 
 bos, flourished about B. c. 625. He is 
 said to have been rescued from 
 drowning by & dolphin, which at- 
 tracted by his music, bore him to land. 
 A fragment of a hymn to Poseidon, 
 ascribed to Arion, is extant. 
 
 Ariosto, Ludovico, an Italian 
 poet, born at Reggio, Sept. 8, 1474. 
 Was one of the three great epic poets 
 of Italy, and styled "The Divine " by 
 his countrymen. He died in Ferrara, 
 June G, 1533. 
 
 Arista, Don Mariano, a Mex- 
 ican statesman, born in 1803. Of 
 Spanish descent, he at an early age 
 entered the army, in which he at- 
 tained to the rank of major-general. 
 
 Aristobulus 
 
 He served with distinction in the war 
 against the United States, was, in 
 1848, appointed Minister of War, and, 
 in 1850, President of the Republic. 
 He was succeeded as President in 
 1852, by Don Juan Cebellos. He died 
 in 1855. 
 
 Arist archus, a Greek grammar- 
 ian, who criticised Homer's poems 
 with the greatest severity. 
 
 Aristarchus of Samos, a famous 
 astronomer, born 267 B. C. First as- 
 serted the revolution of the earth 
 about the sun. His work on the mag- 
 nitude, and distance of the sun and 
 moon, is still extant. He is also re- 
 garded as the inventor of the sun-dial. 
 
 Aristitles, a statesman of ancient 
 Greece, for his strict integrity sur- 
 named " The Just." He died at an 
 advanced age about B. c. 468, so poor 
 that he was buried at the public ex- 
 pense. It was customary in Athens 
 for citizens to vote by a ballot of 
 shells hence called ostracism from 
 the Greek w r ord for shell for the 
 exile of any citizen who might be un- 
 popular, without any specific charge 
 being made against him. Aristides 
 was, on one occasion the victim of os- 
 tracism, and a citizen who voted 
 against him gave as a reason, that he 
 was tired of hearing him called " The 
 Just." 
 
 Aristippus, a disciple of Socrates, 
 and founder of a philosophical school 
 among the Greeks, which was called 
 the Cyrenaic, from his native city Cy- 
 rene, in Africa ; flourished in 380 
 B. C. His moral philosophy differed 
 widely from that of Socrates, and was 
 a science of refined voluptuousness. 
 His writings are lost. 
 
 Aristobulus, name of several roy- 
 al personages of Ju3ea : AKISTOBULUS 
 I., son of John Hyrcanus, high priest 
 of the Jews ; from 105-104 B. c. King 
 of Judea. He is supposed to have 
 been the first of the Hasmoneans to 
 take the title of king. In the single 
 year of his reign he conquered por 
 tions of Iturea and Trachonitis, and 
 compelled the people to accept Juda- 
 ism. ARISTOBULUS II., son of Alex- 
 ander Jannsenus, was named as high 
 priest by his mother, Queen Regent 
 Alexandra, while to Hyrcanus II., his 
 elder brother, the throne was given. 
 In a contest for the throne, he was
 
 Aristoonlns 
 
 defeated by Pompey in 63 B. c., and 
 carried captive to Rome. He died 
 about 48 B. c. ARISTOBULUS III., a 
 grandson of Hyrcanus II. ; his sister, 
 Slariamne, was the wife of Herod I., 
 who appointed him high priest, but, 
 fearing his popularity, had him assas- 
 sinated about 30 B. c. ARISTOBULUS 
 III. was the last male of the Hasmo- 
 nean family. 
 
 Aristobulus, an Alexandrian 
 Jew and peripatetic philosopher, who 
 lived about 170 B. c., was considered 
 by the early fathers as the founder of 
 the Jewish philosophy in Alexandria. 
 
 Aristocracy, a form of govern- 
 ment by which the wealthy and noble, 
 or any small privileged class, rules 
 over the rest of the citizens; now 
 mostly applied to the nobility or chief 
 persons in a State. 
 
 Aristophanes, the greatest of the 
 Greek writers of comedy (B. c. 448?- 
 380?), born at Athens. 
 
 Aristotle, the most renowned of 
 Greek philosophers, born at Stagira, 
 Macedonia, 384 B. c. ; was for 20 years 
 a student of philosophy in the school 
 of Plato at Athens, but at the same 
 time a teacher, in the meantime mas- 
 tering and digesting all the accessible 
 results of philosophical and scientific 
 research and speculation in his time. 
 After Plato's death, he opened a school 
 of Philosophy at the court of Hermias, 
 King of Atarnous, in Mysia, who had 
 been his fellow student in Plato's 
 Academy, and whose adopted daugh- 
 ter he afterward married. At the in- 
 vitation of Philip of Macedon, he un- 
 dertook the education of his son, Alex- 
 ander. When Alexander succeeded to 
 the throne, the philosopher returned 
 to Athens and opened a school in the 
 Lyceum, so called from the neighbor- 
 ing temple of the Lycian Apollo. He 
 taught in the Lyceum for 13 years, 
 and to that period we owe the compo- 
 sition of most of his numerous writ- 
 ings. The number of his separate 
 treatises is given by Diogenes Laer- 
 tius as 146; only 46 separate works 
 bearing the name of the philosopher 
 have come down to our time. He died 
 Bt Chalcis, Eubo?a, in 322 B. C. 
 
 Arithmetic, in its broadest sense, 
 the science and art which treat of the 
 properties of numbers. This defini- 
 tion, however, would include algebra. 
 
 Arjish Dagh 
 
 i which is considered a distinct branch. 
 Algebra deals with certain letters of 
 the alphabet, such as x, y, z, a, b, c, 
 etc., standing as symbols for numbers; 
 arithmetic operates on numbers them- 
 selves, as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. Viewed as a 
 science, arithmetic is a branch of 
 mathematics; looked on as an art, its 
 object is to carry out for practical 
 purposes? certain rules regarding num- 
 bers, without troubling itself to in- 
 vestigate the foundation on which 
 those rules are based. 
 
 Ari Thorgilsson, the father of 
 Icelandic literature (1067-1148). 
 
 Arizona, a State of the Western 
 Division of the North American Union; 
 bounded by Nevada, Utah, New Mex- 
 ico, California and the Mexican State 
 of Sonora; gross area, 113,020 square 
 miles; organized Feb. 14, 1863: num- 
 ber of counties, 13; pop. (1900) 122,212; 
 (1910) 204,354; capital, Phoenix. The 
 University of Arizona was founded in 
 1884 and opened in 1891. 
 
 A. abounds with mineral wealth in- 
 cluding coal, iron, gold, silver, copper, 
 lead, platinum, quicksilver, tin, etc. ; 
 mining, ranching and lumbering are 
 the chief industries. 
 
 Of the total area, embracing over 
 113,020 square miles, only a compara- 
 tively small portion, about 2.7 per 
 cent, is farming land. The rainfall is so 
 small, that irrigation is depended up- 
 on to make agriculture profitable. The 
 construction of irrigating canals and 
 water storage reservoirs is being stead- 
 ily promoted and is daily adding large- 
 ly to the agricultural area. The pine 
 timber land covers an area of nearly 
 4,000,000 acres, giving the Territory 
 resources for timber and building ma- 
 terial unsurpassed anywhere in the 
 country. 
 
 For a long time, beginning with 1874, 
 Arizona agitated for independent State- 
 hood. In Congress there was a dispo- 
 sition to admit both Arizona and New 
 Mexico at once and on the same terms; 
 but opposition to this prevented the 
 passage of such a bill. 
 
 A joint resolution of both Houses of 
 Congress (Aug. 21, 1911) provided for 
 the admission of both States; and in 
 accordance with the proclamation of 
 the President Arizona achieved State- 
 hood in January, 1912. 
 
 Arjish Dagh. the loftiest peak of 
 the peninsula of Asia Minor, at the
 
 Ark 
 
 western extremity of the Anti-Taurus 
 Range, 13,150 feet; an exhausted vol- 
 cano ; on the N. and N. E. slopes are 
 extensive glaciers. 
 
 Ark, a chest or coffer for the safe- 
 keeping of any valuable thing ; a de- 
 pository. The large floating vessel in 
 which Noah and his family were pre- 
 served during the deluge. 
 
 The Ark of the Covenant, in the 
 synagogue of the Jews, was the chest 
 or vessel in which the tables of the 
 law were preserved. 
 
 Arkansas, a State in the South 
 Central Division of the North Amer- 
 ican Union ; bounded by Missouri, 
 Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana, Tex- 
 as and the Indian Territory ; gross 
 area, 53,850 square miles ; admitted 
 into the Union, June 15, 1836; seced- 
 ed, March 4, 1861 ; readmitted June 
 22, 1868 ; number of counties, 75 ; pop. 
 ' (1900) 1,311.564; (1910) 1,574,449; 
 capital, Little Rock. 
 
 The State contains semi-anthracite, 
 cannel, and bituminous coal ; iron and 
 Bine ores ; ^galena, frequently bearing 
 silver; manganese; gypsum, oil-stone 
 of superior quality ; marble ; alabas- 
 ter ; rock crystal ; copper ; granite ; 
 kaolin ; marl ; mineral ochers, and salt. 
 The most valuable mineral production 
 at present is coal. 
 
 The soil varies with the geological 
 characteristics and surface conditions 
 already described. Agriculturally, the 
 most valuable soil is found in the 
 river bottom-lands, and as the surface 
 rises from these bottoms the soil be- 
 comes less productive. There are large 
 submerged tracts that only require 
 proper drainage to make them valu- 
 able to the farmer. The uplands gen- 
 erally are well timbered and well wa- 
 tered. The most 'valuable production 
 is cotton. Of cereals, corn has the 
 largest yield. 
 
 In 1900 there were 4,794 manufac- 
 turing establishments reported, em- 
 ploying $35,960,640 capital and 28,150 
 persons; paying $9,937,387 for wages 
 and $23,963,768 for materials; and 
 having a combined output valued at 
 $45,197,731. The principal articles 
 were lumber, sawed and worked ; flour 
 and grist ; cotton-seed oil and cake ; 
 foundry and machine shop products; 
 and brick and tile. 
 
 The public schools are liberally 
 maintained and well attended, For 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 higher instruction there are 48 pub- 
 lic high schools; 24 private secondary 
 schools ; 1 public and ,6 private nor- 
 mal schools ; 8 universities and col- 
 leges for men and for both sexes; and 
 the Central Baptist College for Wom- 
 en, at Conway. The principal uni- 
 versities and colleges are Arkansas 
 College (opened 1872, Presb.) ; Ar- 
 kansas Industrial University (1872, 
 non-sect.) ; Philander Smith College 
 (1877, Meth. Epis.) ; Hendrix Col- 
 lege (1884, Meth. Epis. S.) ; Ouachita 
 College (1886, Bapt.) ; Arkadelphia 
 College (1890, Meth. Epis.) ; Arkan- 
 sas Cumberland College (1891, Cumb. 
 Presb.) ; and Mountain Home College 
 (1893, Bapt.). 
 
 The strongest denominations numer- 
 ically in the State are the Methodist 
 Episcopal, South ; Regular Baptist, 
 Colored ; Regular Baptist, South ; Af- 
 rican Methodist Episcopal ; Disciples 
 of Christ, and the Methodist Episco- 
 pal. 
 
 The total length of railroads within 
 the State, Jan. 1, 1900, was 3,167 
 miles, of which 269.48 miles were con- 
 structed during the previous year. The 
 assessed valuation of railroad proper- 
 ty, with that of telegraph and express 
 companies, was about $23,000,000. 
 
 The Governor is elected for a term 
 of two years and receives a salary of 
 $4,000 per annum. Legislative ses- 
 sions are held biennially, and are lim- 
 ited to 60 days each. The Legislature 
 has 35 members in the Senate and 100 
 in the House, each of whom receives 
 $6 per day and mileage. There are 
 7 Representatives in Congress. 
 
 Arkansas Post, a village in Ar- 
 kansas county, Ark. ; on the Arkansas 
 River ; 117 miles S. E. of Little Rock. 
 Its elevated location gave it consider- 
 able military importance during the 
 Civil War. The Confederates estab- 
 lished strong works here, which were 
 reduced by a combined assault of a 
 portion of the United States army, 
 under General McClernand; and a na- 
 val command under Admiral Porter, 
 on Jan. 11, 1863. 
 
 Arkansas, University cf, a co- 
 educational institution organized in 
 1872, with academic and technical de- 
 partments in Fayetteville, law and 
 medical departments in Little Rock, 
 and normal school for colored students 
 in Pine Bluff,
 
 Arkwright 
 
 Arkwright, Sir Richard, an 
 
 English inventor, born at Preston, in 
 Lancashire, in 1732. The youngest of 
 15 children, he was bred to the trade 
 of a barber. When about 35 years of 
 age he gave himself up exclusively to 
 the subject of inventions for spinning 
 cotton. His invention introduced 
 the system of spinning by rollers, the 
 carding, or roving, as it is technically 
 termed (that is, the .soft, loose strip 
 of cotton) , passing through one pair 
 of rollers, and being received by a 
 second pair, which are made to re- 
 volve with (as the case may be) 
 three, four, or five times the velocity 
 of the first pair. - By this contrivance 
 the roving is drawn out into a thread 
 of the desired degree of tenuity and 
 hardness. Having made several ad- 
 ditional discoveries and improvements 
 in the processes of carding, roving, 
 and spinning, he took out a fresh pat- 
 ent for the whole in 1775. He was 
 knighted by George III. in 1786, and 
 died in 1792. 
 
 Arlington, a town and village in 
 Middlesex county, Mass.; on the Bos- 
 ton & Maine railroad; 6 miles N. W. 
 of Boston; is the largest source of 
 Boston's market garden produce sup- 
 ply. Pop. (1910) 11,187. 
 
 Arlington Heights, a range of 
 hills in Fairfax county, Va., on the 
 Potomac, opposite Washington. They 
 were strongly fortified during the 
 Civil War. Gen. Robert E. Lee had 
 a residence here. The place is now 
 the site of a National Soldiers' Ceme- 
 tery. 
 
 Arm, the upper limb in man, con- 
 nected with the thorax or chest by 
 means of the scapula or shoulder- 
 blade, and the clavicle or collar-bone. 
 
 Armada, a fleet of armed ships ; a 
 squadron ; particularly applied to that 
 great naval armament, which was 
 called the Invincible Armada, fitted out 
 in 1588, by Philip II. against Queen 
 Elizabeth. It consisted of 129 ships, 
 carrying about 20,000 soldiers and 8,- 
 000 sailors. The loss of the Marquis 
 of Santa Cruz, their admiral, and a 
 violent tempest, the day after they 
 sailed, retarded for some time the op- 
 erations of the Spaniards, They ar- 
 rived on the coast of the Netherlands 
 in July, were thrown into disorder by 
 a stratagem of Lord Howard, and in 
 this situation were attacked with such 
 
 Armenia 
 
 impetuosity that it became necessarj 
 to attempt to return. Contrary winds 
 obliged the Spanish admiral, the Duke 
 of Medina Sidonia, to make the cir- 
 cuit of Great Britain with the wreck 
 of this magnificent armament. In 
 passing the Orkneys, it was attacked 
 by a violent storm, and only a feeble 
 remnant returned to Spain. 
 
 Armadillo, the Spanish-Ameri- 
 can name, now imported into English, 
 of various mammalia belonging to the 
 order edentata. The name armadillo, 
 implying that they are in armor, is 
 applied to these animals because the 
 upper part of their body is covered 
 with large, strong scales or plates, 
 forming a helmet for their head, a 
 buckler for their shoulders, transverse 
 bands for their back, and in some spe- 
 cies a series of rings for the protec- 
 tion of their tail. Another peculiarity 
 is the great number of their molar 
 teeth ; these amount in one species to 
 more than 90. There are five toes on 
 the hinder feet, and four or five, ac- 
 cording to the species, on the anterior 
 ones. The fore feet are admirably 
 adapted for digging, and the animal, 
 when it sees danger, can extemporize 
 a hole and vanish into it with won- 
 derful rapidity. 
 
 Armageddon, the great battlefield 
 of the Old Testament, where the chief 
 conflicts took place between the Is- 
 raelites and their enemies the table- 
 land of Esdraelon in Galilee and Sa- 
 maria, in the center of which stood 
 the town Megiddo, on the site of the 
 modern Lejjun ; used figuratively in 
 the Apocalypse to signify the place of 
 " the battle of the great day of God." 
 
 Armenia, a mountainous country 
 of Western Asia, not now politically 
 existing, but of great historical inter- 
 est It varied in extent at different 
 epochs, but it may be regarded as 
 lying between lat. 36 50' and 41 41' 
 N., and Ion. 36 20' and 48 40' E. 
 It was sometimes subdivided into 
 First, Second, and Third Armenia, to 
 which a Fourth was afterward added ; 
 but the division by which it was al- 
 most universally known was into Ar- 
 menia Major and Armenia Minor, or 
 the Greater and the Less Armenia. 
 It would seem to have stretched from 
 the Caspian Sea and the Persian prov- 
 ince of Azerbijan on the E. to Asia 
 Minor on the W., and from the Kur
 
 Arminianism 
 
 Armistice 
 
 or Cyrus river on the N. to Kurdistan 
 and Mesopotamia on the S. Armenia 
 Major comprised the larger and E. por- 
 tion of this area, extending W. as far as 
 the Euphrates and the Anti-Taurus, 
 and having an area of about 84,000 
 square miles. Armenia Minor extend- 
 ed from the Euphrates to Asia Minor, 
 and its area may be stated at about 
 53,000 square miles. The Euphrates 
 thus intersects Armenia almost cen- 
 trally, and forms the natural boun- 
 dary between the two divisions now 
 described. The territory of this king- 
 dom is now partitioned among Tur- 
 key, Persia, and Russia, Turkey pos- 
 sessing the largest share. 
 
 The inhabitants are chiefly of the 
 genuine Armenian stock ; but besides 
 them, in consequence of the repeated 
 subjugation of the country, various 
 other races have obtained a footing. 
 Of these the principal are the Turco- 
 mans, who still maintain their no- 
 madic habits, and irom whom the 
 country has received the name of Tur- 
 comania. In the S. portion are the 
 predatory Kurds and the Turks ; on 
 the Tchorak, Georgians ; and through- 
 out the whole country, Greeks, Jews, 
 and Gypsies. The total number of 
 Armenians has been estimated at 2,- 
 000,000, of whom probably one-half 
 are in Armenia. The remainder, like 
 the Jews, are scattered over various 
 countries, and being strongly addicted 
 to commerce, play an important part 
 as merchants. They are found over 
 all Western Asia; about 200,000 are 
 in Constantinople and its vicinity ; 
 numbers are in Russia, Hungary, and 
 Italy ; some in Africa and America ; 
 and a large number in India, chiefly 
 in the great marts, Bombay, Madras, 
 and Calcutta. Everywhere they are 
 engaged in banking and trading. Their 
 eyes and hair are black, their look 
 lively, noses aquiline, and their com- 
 plexion somewhat swarthy. The wom- 
 en are remarkable for the delicacy 
 and regularity of their features. 
 
 The Armenians received Christian- 
 ity as arly as the 3d century. Dur- 
 ing the Monophysitic disputes, being 
 dissatisfied with the decisions of the 
 Council of Chalcedon (451), they sep- 
 arated from the Greek Church in the 
 year 536. The Popes have at different 
 times attempted to gain them over to 
 tne Roman Catholic faith, but have 
 
 not been able to unite them perma- 
 nently and generally with the Roman 
 Church. There are, however, small 
 numbers here and there of United Ar- 
 menians, who acknowledge the spirit- 
 ual supremacy of the Pope, agree in 
 their doctrines with the Catholics, but 
 retain their peculiar ceremonies and 
 discipline. At different times force 
 has been used to make them conform 
 to the religion of Mohammed ; but the 
 far greater part are yet Monophy- 
 sites, and have remained faithful to 
 their old religion and worship. They 
 have suffered the usual fate of Chris- 
 tion populations subject to Turkey, 
 and the massacres of Armenians in 
 1895 and 1896 excited the horror of 
 the civilized world. Many have emi- 
 grated to the United States. 
 
 The Armenian language belongs to 
 the great Indo-European family of 
 languages, and is most closely con- 
 nected with the Iranic group. 
 
 Arminianism, the doctrine of 
 Arminius, a Protestant divine, who 
 maintained that God had predestinat- 
 ed the salvation or condemnation of 
 individuals only from having foreseen 
 who would and who would not accept 
 of offered mercy. 
 
 Arminius, or Hermann, who by 
 his intrepidity and success acquired 
 the title of " the Deliverer of Ger- 
 many," was son of Segimer, a chief of 
 the Cherusci. Having been sent to 
 Rome as a hostage, he was there edu- 
 cated, served in the Roman army and 
 for his valor was raised to citizenship 
 and knighted. But his attachment to 
 his native country induced him to re- 
 volt and he became one of the most 
 powerful leaders of the discontented 
 German nations. He drew Varus, the 
 Roman commander on the Rhine, into 
 that ambuscade in which he and near- 
 ly all his troops were slain, and com- 
 pletely baffled Germanicus ; but, after 
 having for years withstood the vast 
 power of Rome, Arminius was assas- 
 sinated by one of his own countrymen, 
 in the 37th year of his age, A. D. 19. 
 
 Arminius, Jacobus, a Protestant 
 divine, born at Oudewater, Holland, 
 1560, founder of the sect of the Ar- 
 minians. A life of perpetual labor 
 and vexation of mind at last brought 
 on a sickness, of which he died, 1609. 
 
 Armistice, the term given to a 
 truce or suspension of hostilities be-
 
 COMPRESSED STEEL INGOT. 
 
 BENDING AN ARMOR PLATE FOR A 
 CONNING TOWER. 
 
 MAKING AND TESTING 
 
 HEATING AN ARMOR PLAT 
 
 MACHINING AN ARMOR PLATE DJ 
 
 PLANING AN ARM'
 
 FORG1NO A ARMOR PLATS. 
 
 O THE BOLT HOLES. 
 
 TESTING AN ARMOR PLATE. 
 
 STEEL ARMOR PLATES.
 
 Armitage 
 
 twten two armies or nations at war, 
 by mutual consent. 
 
 Armitage, Edward, an English 
 historical and mural painter, born in 
 London, May 20, 1817. 
 
 Armitage, Thomas, an American 
 clergyman ; born at Pontefract, Eng- 
 land, Aug. 2, 1819; was an important 
 influence in the Baptist Church in 
 New York city, and the prime mover 
 in the establishment of the American 
 Bible Union in 1850. He was presi- 
 dent of that body from 185G to 1875. 
 Died, Yonkers, N. Y., Jan. 21, 1896. 
 
 Armor, a word formerly applied 
 to all such contrivances as served to 
 defend the body from wounds or to 
 annoy the enemy. Hence it was di- 
 vided into two kinds, defensive and 
 offensive. A complete suit of defen- 
 sive armor anciently consisted of a 
 casque or helm, a gorget, cuirass, 
 gauntlets, tasses, brassets, cuishes and 
 covers for the legs, to which the spurs 
 were fastened. This was called armor, 
 cap-a-pie, and was worn by cavaliers 
 and men-at-arms. Tbe infantry had 
 only part of it, via., a pot or head- 
 piece, a cuirass and tasses ; all of them 
 made light. The horses had armor 
 which covered the head and neck. Of 
 all this equipment of war, scarcely 
 anything is now retained except, in a 
 few cases, the cuirase 
 
 Tbe word is now applied to the 
 metal protection given to ships of 
 war, usually consisting of super-car- 
 bonized steel or nickel steel. 
 
 Armored Train, one of the mod- 
 ern instruments of war that received 
 severe tests in the American opera- 
 tions against Filipino insurgents in 
 1898-1899, and in those of the British 
 against the Boers in 1899-1900. 
 
 Armor-Piercing Shells, projec- 
 tiles so constructed as to bore through 
 the metallic plates with which modern 
 ships of war are coated. 
 
 Armor Plates, slabs of metal with 
 which the sides of war vessels are cov- 
 ered to render them shot-proof. 
 
 Armour, Philip Danforth, an 
 American philanthropist, born in 
 Stockbridge, N. Y., May 16, 1832; re- 
 ceived a common school education ; 
 was a miner in California in 1852- 
 1856; in the commission business in 
 Milwaukee in 1856-1863; and later 
 became the head of a large meat-pack- 
 
 E. 9. 
 
 Armstrong 
 
 ing concern in Chicago. He founded 
 the Armour Mission and the Armour 
 Institute of Technology, both in Chi- 
 cago ; the former at a cost of about 
 $250,000, and the latter with an en- 
 dowment of $1,500,000, subsequently 
 increased. He died Jan. 6, 1901. 
 
 Arms, a term applied to weapons 
 of offense, which are divisible into two 
 distinct sections firearms, and arms 
 used without gunpowder or other ex- 
 plosive substance. 
 
 ARMOK-PIERCING SHELLS. 
 
 Arms, Coat of, or Armorial 
 Bearings, a collective name for th& 
 devices borne on shields, banners, etc., 
 as marks of dignity and distinction, 
 and, in the case of family and feudai 
 arms, descending from father to son. 
 They were first employed by the cru- 
 saders, and became hereditary in fam- 
 ilies at the close of the 12th century. 
 They took their rise from the knights 
 painting their banners or shields each 
 with a figure or figures proper to him- 
 self, to enable him to be distinguished 
 in battle when clad in armor. . 
 
 Arms, Stand of, the set of arms 
 necessary for the equipment of a sin- 
 gle soldier. 
 
 Armstrong, Sir Alexander, an 
 English physician, born in Ireland
 
 Armstrong 
 
 about 1820 ; was educated at Trinity 
 College, Dublin, and at the University 
 of Edinburgh ; and became widely 
 known as an explorer. He died July 
 5, 1899. 
 
 Armstrong, John, an American 
 author and soldier ; born at Carlisle, 
 Pa., Nov. 25, 1758 ; served in the War 
 of the Revolution on the staff of Gen- 
 eral Gates ; was United States Min- 
 ister to France, 1804-1810, afterward 
 to Spain ; and Secretary of War, 
 1813-1814. Author of " Newburg Let- 
 ters," begun in camp, 1783, anony- 
 mously, and intended to arouse Con- 
 gress to redress army grievances. They 
 gave General Washington displeasure. 
 He died at Red Hook, N. Y., April 1, 
 1843. 
 
 Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, 
 an American educator, born in Ha- 
 waii in 1839, a son of Richard Arm- 
 strong, an American missionary to the 
 Sandwich Islands. In 1860 he came 
 to the United States; in 1862 was 
 graduated at Williams College; and 
 in June of the same year he organized 
 a company for the 125th Regiment of 
 New York Infantry, and with it was 
 assigned to the Army of the Potomac. 
 At Harper's Ferry he was captured 
 and held prisoner for three months. 
 After the close of the war he was mus- 
 tered out of the volunteer service with 
 the rank of brigadier-general. During 
 his service he volunteered for the com- 
 mand of a regiment of colored troops, 
 with whom he served two years. In 
 1866 he took up the work of the Freed- 
 man's Bureau and at first had the 
 oversight of the colored people in 10 
 counties of Virginia. After two years 
 in this work he procured help from 
 the American Missionary Association 
 and personal friends in the North and 
 founded a school which afterward be- 
 came famous as the Hampton Normal 
 and Agricultural Institute. The United 
 States Government, recognizing the 
 great value of his work for colored 
 youth here, began sending Indian 
 youth to the Institute in 1878, and 
 since then the two races have been 
 educated together. General Armstrong 
 served as president of the Institute 
 till his death, May 11, 1893. 
 
 Armstrong, William George, 
 Lord, an English inventor, born in 
 1810 at Newcastle, where his father 
 was a merchant. During the Crimean 
 
 Army Worm 
 
 War, Armstrong was employed by the 
 War Office to make explosive appa- 
 ratus for blowing up the ships sunk 
 at Sebastopol. This led him soon af- 
 terward to consider improvements in 
 ordnance, and he devised the form of 
 cannon that bears his name. Cam- 
 bridge and Oxford conferred honorary 
 degrees on Armstrong, who was raised 
 to the peerage as Baron Armstrong in 
 1887. He died Dec. 27, 1900. 
 
 Army, the national military of a 
 country, usually divided into a stand- 
 ing, and the reserves, in the United 
 States known as militia, who are 
 called to arms only in emergency. 
 
 Army Corps, one of the largest 
 divisions of an army in the field, com- 
 prising all arms, and commanded by 
 a general officer ; subdivided into di- 
 visions, which may or may not com- 
 prise all arms. 
 
 Army Hospital Train, a rail- 
 way contrivance for military pur- 
 poses, introduced by the Surgeon-Gen- 
 eral of the United States Army during 
 the war with Spain, in 1898, for the 
 purpose of conveying sick and wound- 
 ed soldiers, on their arrival from Cuba, 
 at Florida ports, to the various mili- 
 tary hospitals in the United States. 
 This train had a full staff of physi- 
 cians, surgeons and trained nurses, 
 and was completely equipped with 
 everything necessary for the medica 1 
 and surgical treatment of the soldiers. 
 It is believed to have been the first 
 train service completely organized for 
 such purpose. 
 
 Army Register, an annual pub- 
 lication of the United States Govern- 
 ment, giving personal, regimental and 
 other details of the regular army, cor- 
 responding to the British " Army 
 List." 
 
 Army Reserve, in most European 
 armies, a force consisting of a first 
 and second class army reserve and a 
 militia reserve. 
 
 Army War College, a depart- 
 ment of the United States military 
 educational establishment authorized 
 by Congress in 1900. Brig.-Gen. 
 William Ludlow was made chief of the 
 board which drafted the regulations. 
 
 Army Worm, the very destructive 
 larva of the moth, so called from its 
 habit of marching in compact bodies 
 of enormous number, devouring al-
 
 Arnand 
 
 most every green thing it meets. It 
 is about 1% inches long, greenish in 
 color, with black stripes, and is found 
 in various parts of the world, but is 
 particularly destructive in North 
 America. 
 
 Arnand, Henri, the pastor and 
 military leader of the Vaudois of Pied- 
 mont ; born in 1641. At the head of 
 his people he successfully withstood 
 the united forces of France and Sa- 
 voy, and afterward did good service 
 against France in the War of the 
 Spanish Succession, He had to re- 
 tire from his country, and was fol- 
 lowed by a number of his people, to 
 whom he discharged the duties of pas- 
 tor till his death, which occurred in 
 1721. 
 
 Arnand, Jacqnes Achille Le- 
 roy De Saint, Marshal of France; 
 born in Bordeaux, Aug. 20, 1796. In 
 March, 1854, he was appointed to the 
 command of the French army which 
 was engaged in the war against Rus- 
 sia. He died Sept. 29 following. 
 
 Arndt, Ernst Moritz, a German 
 writer and patriot, born at Schoritz, 
 Isle of Rugen, Dec. 29, 1769. He 
 died in Bonn, Jan. 29, 1860. 
 
 Arndt, Johann, a German Lu- 
 theran clergyman, born at Ballenstedt, 
 Anhalt, in 1555. His " True Chris- 
 tianity " was translated into most Eu- 
 ropean languages, and is yet popular 
 in Germany. Its object is edification. 
 Ho died at Celle, Hanover, in 1621. 
 
 Arne, Thomas Augustine, an 
 English musical composer, born in 
 London, March 12, 1710. He wrote 
 the music for the revival of Milton's 
 " Masque of Comus," in which first 
 appeared the song of " Rule Britan- 
 nia," since acknowledged as the na- 
 tional air of England. He died in 
 1778. 
 
 Arnee, one of the numerous In- 
 dian varieties of the buffalo, remark- 
 able as being the largest animal of 
 the ox kind known. It measured 
 about 7 feet high at the shoulders, and 
 from 9 to 10% feet long from the 
 muzzle to the root of the tail. It is 
 found chiefly in the forests at the base 
 of the Himalayas. 
 
 Arneth, Alfred von, an Aus- 
 trian historian, born in Vienna, July 
 10, 1819. He died in Vienna, July 
 31, 1897. 
 
 Arnold 
 
 Arnica, a genus of plants belong- 
 ing to the order asteracea?, or com- 
 posites ; also the English name of 
 plants. As an outward application, 
 arnica is in constant use as a remedy 
 for sores, wounds, bruises, and ail- 
 ments of a similar kind. It is also 
 employed as an internal medicine. 
 
 Arnini, Ac him von, a Gorman 
 poet and novelist, born in Berlin, Jan. 
 26, 1781. He died at Wiepersdorf, 
 Jan. 31, 1831. 
 
 Arnini, Elizabeth Ton, better 
 known as BETTINA, wife of the Ger- 
 man novelist Louis Achim von Arnim, 
 and sister of the poet Clemens Bren- 
 tano ; born in Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
 April 4, 1785. She died in Berlin, 
 Jan. 20, 1859. 
 
 Arnini, Harry, Graf von, a Ger- 
 man diplomatist, born in Pomerania, 
 in 1824 ; from 1864 to 1870, was Prus- 
 sian ambassador at Rome, where he 
 supported the anti-infalliblists during 
 the Vatican Council. He was reward- 
 ed with the title of Graf, but, as Ger- 
 man ambassador to France (1872- 
 1874), he fell into Prince Bismarck's 
 disfavor, and, on a charge of purloin- 
 ing State documents, was sentenced to 
 three months', to six months', and to 
 five years' imprisonment. He had, 
 however, retired into exile, and died 
 at Nice, May 19, 1881. 
 
 Arno, a river of Italy, which rises 
 in the Etruscan Apennines, makes a 
 sweep to the South and then trends 
 westward, divides Florence into two 
 parts, washes Pisa, and falls, 4 miles 
 below it, into the Tuscan Sea, after a 
 course of 130 miles. 
 
 Arnold, Abraham Kerns, an 
 American military officei, born in 
 1837; was graduated at the United 
 States Military Academy in 1859; en- 
 tered the cavalry branch of the army ; 
 served through the Civil War and re- 
 ceived a Congressional medal of honor 
 for gallantry in action ; and after the 
 war served against the Indians on the 
 frontier. In 1898, he was commis- 
 sioned a Brigadier-General and served 
 in the field during the war with 
 Spain ; and in 1899 became command- 
 er of the 2d Division, 7th Army Corps, 
 on duty in Cuba. 
 
 Arnold, Sir Arthur, an English 
 statesman and author, born in 1833. 
 He acted as assistant commissioner to
 
 Arnold 
 
 Arnold of Brescia 
 
 administer the Public Works Act dur- 
 ing the cotton famine, 1863-1866; 
 knighted in June, 1895. 
 
 Arnold, Benedict, an American 
 military officer, born in Norwich, 
 Conn., Jan. 14, 1741. He was set- 
 tled in extensive business at New 
 Haven when the War of Independence 
 broke out. After the news of the bat- 
 tle of Lexington, he raised a body of 
 volunteers, and received a colonel's 
 commission. After commanding, for 
 a short time, a small fleet upon Lake 
 Champlain, he was with General 
 Montgomery, charged with the diffi- 
 cult duty of leading a force of 1,100 
 men across the wilds of the country 
 to Quebec, to stir up rebellion there, 
 and displace the British garrison. In 
 this unsuccessful attempt Montgomery 
 was killed and Arnold severely wound- 
 ed. After this, we find him in vari- 
 ous important commands, but as often 
 involved in quarrels with Congress 
 and his fellow-officers. It would be of 
 little interest now to enter into a de- 
 tail of his grievances. He seems to 
 have been a singularly brave, but reck- 
 less and unprincipled, man. Washing- 
 ton valued him for his acts of daring, 
 and would gladly have overlooked his 
 faults; but Congress and his brother- 
 officers regarded him with dislike, and 
 sought every possible means to humble 
 and annoy him. After many disputes 
 about the honor that was due to him 
 for his services, he was invested with 
 the government of Philadelphia. There 
 his imprudence was most marked ; 
 indeed, it would be difficult to clear 
 him from the charge of actual dishon- 
 esty. He was brought before a court- 
 martial ; four charges were urged 
 against him ; two of these were found 
 proven, and he was sentenced to be 
 reprimanded by the commander-in- 
 chief. Arnold could not bear the af- 
 front, nor longer endure the difficul- 
 ties into which he had brought him- 
 self. He, accordingly, formed the dis- 
 graceful design of deserting to the 
 ranks of the enemy, and put himself 
 in communication with Sir Henry 
 Clinton, the British commander. 
 Major Andre was sent by Sir Henry 
 to negotiate with Arnold, and they 
 had an interview near West Point, 
 which fortress Arnold had offered to 
 surrender to the enemy. On his way 
 to the British camp, however, the 
 
 young officer fell into the hands of the 
 Americans, and the whole plot was of 
 course discovered. The news of An- 
 dre's capture reached Arnold just in 
 time to enable him to make his es- 
 cape and reach the British camp in 
 safety. There he retained his rank 
 of brigadier-general, and fought with 
 as much daring against the cause of 
 American independence as he had be- 
 fore fought against the royal forces. 
 He took command in an expedition 
 against Virginia, and again in an in- 
 cursion into his native State. After- 
 ward he served in Nova Scotia and 
 the West Indies, and at last settled in 
 London, England, whepe he died, June 
 
 14, 1801. 
 
 Arnold, Sir Edwin, an English 
 poet and journalist, born in Rochester, 
 June 10, 1832. He graduated from 
 Oxford in 1854 ; taught for a while in 
 Birmingham ; and became principal of 
 the Sanskrit College at Poona, in the 
 Bombay Presidency, where he render- 
 ed important service to the govern- 
 ment during the great rebellion in In- 
 dia. Returning to London in 1861, he 
 joined the editorial staff of the " Daily 
 Telegraph." He has twice visited the 
 United States. He died March, 1904. 
 
 Arnold, Edwin Lester, an Eng- 
 lish author, son of Sir Edwin Arnold, 
 
 Arnold, George, an American 
 poet, born in New York, June 24, 
 1834 ; died at Strawberry Farms, N. 
 J., Nov. 3, 1865. 
 
 Arnold, Hans, pseudonym of 
 BERTHA VON BULOW, a German story 
 writer, born at Warmbrunn, Silesia, 
 Sept. 30, 1850. 
 
 Arnold, Isaac Newton. an 
 American lawyer, politician, and 
 author, born at Hartwick, N.'Y., Nov. 
 30, 1815 ; was a member of Congress 
 from 1861 to 1865. He died in Chi- 
 cago, 111., April 24, 1884. 
 
 Arnold, Matthew, an English 
 poet, critic, and essayist, born at Lale- 
 ham, Dec. 24, 1822 ; graduated at Ox- 
 ford in 1844, and was Professor of 
 Poetry there from 1857 to 1867. Ar- 
 nold first became known as a poet ol 
 classical taste by the volume of poems 
 and selections issued under his name 
 in 1854. He died in Liverpool, April 
 
 15, 1888. 
 
 Arnold of Brescia, one of the 
 reformers prior to the Reformation, a
 
 Arnold of Winkelried 
 
 Arrack 
 
 disciple of Abelard of Paris, and of 
 Berengarius. As early as the middle 
 of the 12th century, his bold spirit, 
 his scriptural knowledge, and his elo- 
 quence, had succeeded in arousing 
 France and Italy against the abuses 
 of the Roman Church. Driven by the 
 clergy from Italy, he sought refuge in 
 Zurich, where he made many converts. 
 At length, through the instigation of 
 St. Bernard of Clairvaux, he was 
 charged with heresy, and excommuni- 
 cated by Pope Innocent II. At this 
 juncture, serious popular tumults oc- 
 curred at Rome, and Arnold, hasten- 
 ing thither, was received with great 
 cordiality, and soon vested with su- 
 preme power. In 1155, however, Ad- 
 rian IV. interdicted and expelled him 
 from the city. For a time he lived in 
 Campagna, but was seized, and taken 
 back to Rome, where he was executed, 
 and his ashes were thrown into the 
 Tiber. 
 
 Arnold of Winkelried, a Swiss 
 hero, who, at the battle of Sempach, 
 in 1386, sacrificed himself to insure 
 victory to his countrymen. The Aus- 
 trian knights, dismounted, had formed 
 themselves into a phalanx, which the 
 Swiss vainly strove to pierce ; when 
 Arnold, rushing on the spear points 
 of the enemy, and burying several in 
 his breast, thus opened a gap in the 
 fence of steel. The Swiss rushed in 
 through the opening, and routed the 
 Austrians with great slaughter. 
 
 Arnold, Thomas, an English 
 clergyman and historian, born in 
 Cowes, Isle of Wight, June 13, 1795. 
 He entered Oxford University in 1811, 
 and was elected a fellow of Oriel Col- 
 lege in 1815. While in this place he 
 was the friend and contemporary of 
 the poet Keble, of Copleston, and of 
 Archbishop Whately. In 1828, Ar- 
 nold was elected to the head-master- 
 ship of Rugby School, which office he 
 held until his death, and raised it, by 
 the enlightened system of education 
 he inaugurated, to the highest rank 
 among the great public schools of Eng- 
 land. He died June 12, 1842. 
 
 Arnold, Thomas, an English 
 writer on literature, and editor of old 
 texts, son of Dr. Arnold, of Rugby, 
 and brother of Matthew Arnold, born 
 at Laleham, Nov. 30, 1823. He pub- 
 lished a manual of English literature 
 that is widely used. He was one of 
 
 those engaged in the Tractarian move- 
 ment, and was closely connected with 
 Cardinal Newman. He died in 1900. 
 
 Ampin, di Gamble, or di Lapo, 
 an Italian architect and sculptor, born 
 in Florence, in 1232. He died in 1300. 
 
 Arnott, Neil, a Scottish physicist, 
 born in Aberdeen, in 1788. He died 
 in 1874. 
 
 Arnotto, the waxy-looking pulp 
 which envelops the seeds in the ar- 
 notto-tree. This is detached by 
 throwing the seed into water, after 
 which it is dried partially, and made 
 up first into soft pellets, rolled in 
 leaves, in which state it is called flag, 
 or roll arnotto. Afterward, becom- 
 ing quite dry, it is formed into cakes, 
 and becomes cake arnotto. The South 
 American Indians color their bodies 
 red with it ; farmers here and else- 
 where use it to stain cheese, and 
 some dairymen also use it to color 
 butter; the Spaniards put it in their 
 chocolate and soups ; dyers use it to 
 produce a reddish color, and varnish 
 makers, to impart an orange tint to 
 some varnishes. 
 
 Arpostook, an American river; 
 rises in Piscataquis county, Me. ; flows 
 more than 120 miles in a circuitous 
 course, receiving many important trib- 
 utaries ; and enters the St. John River 
 in New Brunswick. It was an im- 
 portant factor in the settlement of the 
 long-pending dispute concerning the 
 boundary between the United States 
 and British America. 
 
 Arpad, the conqueror of Hungary, 
 and founder of the Arpad dynasty, 
 which reigned till 1301, was born in 
 the second half of the 9th century. He 
 died in 907. 
 
 Arpent, formerly a French meas- 
 ure for land, equal to five-sixths of an 
 English acre ; but it varied in differ- 
 ent parts of France. 
 
 Arquebus, a hand-gun ; a species 
 of firearm resembling a musket, an- 
 ciently used. It was fired from a 
 forked rest, and sometimes cocked by 
 a wheel, and carried a ball that 
 weighed nearly two ounces. A larger 
 kind used in fortresses carried a heav- 
 ier shot. 
 
 Arrack, a term used in the coun- 
 tries to whch the Arabs have pene- 
 trated, for distilled spirits.
 
 Arrest 
 
 Art 
 
 Arrest, the seizure of a suspected 
 criminal or delinquent that security 
 may be taken for his appearance at 
 the proper time before a court to an- 
 swer to a charge. 
 
 In law, an arrest of judgment is the 
 act or process of preventing a judg- 
 ment or verdict from being carried out 
 till it shall be ascertained whether it 
 is faulty or legally correct. 
 
 Arrow, a missile 'weapon, designed 
 to be propelled by the impulse com- 
 municated by the snapping of the 
 string of a bow, temporarily bent into 
 an angular form, back to its normal 
 state of rest in a straight line. To 
 make the wound it inflicts more dead- 
 ly, and prevent its being easily pulled 
 out, it is barbed at the tip, and often 
 poisoned, while at the other extremity 
 it is feathered, to make it move more 
 directly forward. It is one of the 
 most ancient of weapons. 
 
 Arrow Lake, an expansion of the 
 Columbia river, in British Columbia, 
 Canada ; about 95 miles long from N. 
 to S. ; often regarded as forming two 
 lakes Upper and Lower Arrow Lake. 
 
 Arrowroot. In botany, the Eng- 
 lish name of the botanical genus ma- 
 ranta. The ' root is a fleshy conn, 
 which, when washed, grated, strained 
 through a sieve, and again repeatedly 
 washed, furnishes the substance so 
 much prized as food for invalids. 
 
 Arrowsmith, Aaron, an- Eng- 
 lish cartographer, born in 1750, died 
 in 1823. He raised the execution of 
 maps to a perfection it had never be- 
 fore attained. 
 
 Arm Islands, a group of over 80 
 islands in the Dutch East Indies, ly- 
 ing W. of New Guinea, with a united 
 area of about 2,650 square miles and 
 a population of some 15.000. The in- 
 habitants resemble the Melanesians of 
 New Guinea. 
 
 Arsaces, founder of the Parthian 
 monarchy. He induced his country- 
 men to rise against the Macedonian 
 yoke, 250 B. c., on which they raised 
 him to the throne. Arsaces was slain 
 in battle, after a reign of 38 years. 
 He was the first of a long line of mon- 
 archs of the same name, the last of 
 whom was put to death about 226 A. D. 
 
 Arsenal, a place appointed for the 
 making, repairing, keeping and issu- 
 ing of military stores of all kinds. 
 
 The principal arsenals of the United 
 States in 1900 were the Allegheny 
 (Pa.) ; Augusta (Ga.) ; Benecia 
 (Cal.) ; Columbia (Tenn.) ; Fort 
 Monroe (Va.) ; Frankford (Pa.) ; In- 
 dianapolis (Ind.) ; Kennebec (Me.) ; 
 New York (N. Y.) ; Rock Island 
 (111.) ; San Antonio (Tex.) ; Water- 
 town ^Mass.) ; and Watervliet (N. 
 Y.). There were also powder depots 
 at St. Louis (Mo.), and Dover (N. 
 J.) ; a noted armory at Springfield 
 (Mass.), and an ordnance proving 
 ground at Sandy Hook (N. J.). 
 
 Arsenic, (symbol As, atomic weight 
 75), a metallic element of very com- 
 mon occurrence, being found in combi- 
 nation with many of the metals in a 
 variety of minerals. It is of a dark- 
 gray color, and readily tarnishes on ex- 
 posure to the air, first changing to yel- 
 low, and finally to black. In hardness 
 it equals copper ; it is extremely brit- 
 tle, and very volatile, beginning to 
 sublime before it melts. It burns with 
 a blue flame, and emits a smell of gar- 
 lic. Its specific gravity is 5.76. It 
 forms alloys with most of the metals. 
 Combined with sulphur it forms orpi- 
 ment and realgar, which are the yellow 
 and red sulphides of arsenic. It is 
 usually seen in white, glassy, translu- 
 cent masses, and is obtained by sub- 
 limation from several ores containing 
 arsenic in combination with metals, 
 particularly from arsenical pyrites. Of 
 all substances arsenic is that which 
 has most frequently occasioned death 
 by poisoning, both by accident and 
 design. The remedies are hydrated ses- 
 quioxide of iron with copious draughts 
 of gummy liquids. 
 
 Arsinoe, a city of ancient Egypt 
 on Lake Mreris, said to have been 
 founded about B. c. 2300, but renamed 
 after Arsinoe, wife and sister of Ptol- 
 emy II. of Egypt, and called also 
 Crocodilopolis, from the sacred croco- 
 diles kept at it. 
 
 Arson, the malicious and willfu 
 burning of a dwelling-house or out% 
 house belonging to another person by 
 directly setting fire to it, or even by 
 igniting some edifice of one's own in 
 its immediate vicinity. It is a penal 
 offense, whether successful or not. 
 
 Art, the power of doing something 
 not taught by nature or instinct: as.
 
 Art 
 
 to walk is natural, to dance is an art ; 
 power or skill in the use x of knowl- 
 edge ; the practical application of the 
 rules, or principles of science. A sys- 
 tem of rules to facilitate the perform- 
 ance of certain actions ; contrivance ; 
 dexterity ; address ; adroitness. 
 
 Art, Metropolitan Museum of, 
 a spacious edifice in Central Park, 
 New York, erected by the city for the 
 puipose to which it is devoted. It 
 was incorporated in 1870, and pos- 
 sesses an art collection amounting in 
 value to over $2,000,000. 
 
 Artaxerxes I., surnamed Longi- 
 manus, was the third son of Xerxes, 
 King of Persia, and, having, murdered 
 his brother Darius, ascended the 
 throne 465 B. c. He died in 424 B. c. 
 and was succeeded by his only son, 
 Xerxes. This prince is generally sup- 
 posed to have been the Ahasuerus of 
 Scripture, who married Esther, and 
 by whose permission Ezra restored the 
 Jewish religion at Jerusalem. Some 
 modern authors, nevertheless, identify 
 Ahasuerus with Xerxes. 
 
 Artemis, an ancient Greek divin- 
 ity, identified with the Roman Diana. 
 She is variously represented as a hun- 
 tress, with bow and arrows ; as a god- 
 dess of the nymphs, in a . chariot 
 drawn by four stags; and as" the moon 
 goddess, with the crescent of the moon 
 above her forehead. 
 
 Artemisia, wormwood ; named af- 
 ter Artemis, the Greek goddess, cor- 
 responding to the Roman Diana. 
 Several species, locally known as sage 
 brush, are found on the table-lands of 
 the Rocky mountains and on the West- 
 ern plains of the United States. 
 
 Arteritis, an inflammation occur- 
 ring in the arteries. It may be acute 
 or chronic. 
 
 Artery. The largest arteries which 
 leave the heart are the aorta and the 
 pulmonary artery ; both spring from 
 the base of the heart iiL front. They 
 branch and anastomose to a large ex- 
 tent. The contractility of the arteries 
 forces the blood to the extremities 
 from the heart, the valves of which 
 prevent its return. The prominent 
 difference between blood drawn from 
 the arteries and that from the veins 
 ig to be found in the bright scarlet 
 color of the former and the dark red, 
 black, of the latter. 
 
 Arthur 
 
 Artesian "Wells, deep wells 
 bored through impervious rock strata 
 to a porous water bearing rock strat- 
 um whence the water flows to the sur- 
 face and is discharged from the bore. 
 It is also applied, though less correct- 
 ly, to deep wells where the waters rise 
 to within a short distance of the sur- 
 face even if no real flow is establish- 
 ed. The principal condition of an ar- 
 tesian well is a pervious stratum pro- 
 tected above and below by a water- 
 tight bed. These layers come to the 
 surface in some elevated regions where 
 they get their rain flow, then pitch 
 downward to a considerable depth and 
 then rise again, thus forming a great 
 basin which retains the water. Rain 
 water and surface water fill the porous 
 stratum to the brim. If it be tapped 
 any, the water will rise in the bore 
 and be discharged as long as the sup- 
 ply equals the demand. 
 
 Artevelcl. or Artevelde, the 
 name of two men distinguished in the 
 history of the Low Countries. (1) 
 JACOB VAN, a brewer of Ghent, born 
 about 1300 ; was selected by his fel- 
 low townsmen to lead them in their 
 struggles against Count Louis of 
 Flanders. A proposal to make the 
 Black Prince, son of Edward III. of 
 England, governor of Flanders, led to 
 an insurrection, in which Arteveld lost 
 his life (1345). (2) PHILIP, son of 
 the former, at the head of the forces 
 of Ghent, gained a great victory over 
 the Count of Flanders, Louis II., and 
 for a time assumed the state of a sov- 
 ereign prince. His reign proved short- 
 lived The Count of Flanders re- 
 turned with a large French force, fully 
 disciplined and skillfully commanded. 
 Arteveld was rash enough to meet 
 them in the open field at Roosebeke, 
 between Courtrai and Ghent, in 1382, 
 and fell with 25,000 Flemings. 
 
 Arthralgia, pain in a joint. The 
 term is more particularly applied to 
 articular pain in the absence of ob- 
 jective disease. 
 
 Arthritis, any inflammatory dis- 
 temper that affects the joints, particu- 
 larly chronic rheumatism or gout. 
 
 Arthur, a prince of the Silures, 
 and King of Britain in the time of the 
 Saxon invasions in the 5th and 6th 
 centuries. The existence and exploits 
 of Arthur and of his paladins, the
 
 Arthur 
 
 Knights of the Round Table, whether 
 they have any real foundation or are 
 but a mere historical fable, have been 
 for ages the theme of minstrels and 
 poets, even down to the present day ; 
 examples of which are the famous 
 romaunt of the " Mort d'Arthur " and 
 the " Idylls of the King." 
 
 Arthur, Chester Alan, 21st 
 President of the United States, born 
 in Fairfield, Vt., Oct. 15, 1830, his 
 father being pastor of Baptist church- 
 es in Vermont and New York. He 
 chose law as a profession, and prac- 
 ticed in New York. He became an 
 active leader in the Republican party. 
 During the Civil War he was energetic 
 as quartermaster-general of New York 
 in getting troops raised and equipped. 
 He- was afterward collector of customs 
 for the port of New York. In 1880 he 
 was elected Vice-President, succeeding 
 as President on the death of James 
 A. Garfield, in 1881, and in this office 
 he gave general satisfaction. He died 
 in New York city, Nov. 18, 1886. 
 
 Arthur, Joseph Charles, an 
 American botanist, born in 1850; was 
 graduated at the Iowa Agricultural 
 College in 1872; took advance courses 
 at Johns Hopkins, Harvard, and Bonn 
 Universities ; was instructor in botany 
 at the Universities of Minnesota and 
 Wisconsin, and for several years bo- 
 tanist to the Agricultural Experiment 
 Station, Geneva, N. Y., subsequently 
 becoming Professor of Vegetable Phys- 
 iology and Pathology at Purdue Uni- 
 versity, and botanist to the Indiana 
 Experiment Station. 
 
 Arthur, Timothy Shay, an 
 American author, born in Newburg, 
 N. Y., in 1809. He died in Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., March 6, 1885. . 
 
 Artichoke, a well-known plant 
 cultivated chiefly for culinary pur- 
 poses. The so-called Jerusalem arti- 
 choke is a species of sunflower which 
 grows wild in parts of South America 
 and yields roots or tubers resembling 
 those of the potato and used as food. 
 
 Article, in grammar, a part of 
 speech used before nouns to limit or 
 define their application. 
 
 Articles of Confederation, the 
 title of the compact which was made 
 by the 13 original States of the United 
 States of America. It was adopted 
 and carried into force on March 1, 
 
 Articles 
 
 1781, and remained as the supreme 
 law, until the first Wednesday of 
 March, 1789. 
 
 Articles of War, a code of laws 
 for the regulation o f . the military 
 forces of a country. In the United 
 States the articles of war form an 
 elaborate code, thoroughly revised ic 
 1880, but subject at all times to the 
 legislation of Congress. 
 
 Articles, The Six, in English ec- 
 clesiastical history, articles imposed 
 by a statute (often called the Bloody 
 Statute) passed in 1541, the 33d year 
 of the reign of Henry VIII. They de- 
 creed the acknowledgment of trans- 
 substantiation, the sufficiency of com- 
 munion in one kind, the obligation of 
 vows of chastity, the propriety of pri- 
 vate masses, celibacy of the clergy, 
 and auricular confession. Acceptance 
 of these doctrines was made obligatory 
 on all persons under the severest pen- 
 alties ; the act, however, was relaxed 
 in 1544, and repealed in 1549. 
 
 Articles, The Thirty-nine, of 
 the Church of England, a statement 
 of the particular points of doctrine, 39 
 in number, maintained by the English 
 Church; first promulgated by a convo- 
 cation held in London in 1562-1563, 
 and confirmed by royal authority ; 
 founded - on and superseding an older 
 code issued in the reign of Edward 
 VI. The five first articles contain a 
 profession of faith in the Trinity ; the 
 incarnation of Jesus Christ, His de- 
 scent to Hell, and His resurrection ; 
 the divinity of the Holy Ghost. The 
 three following relate to the canon of 
 the Scripture. The eighth article de- 
 clares a belief in the Apostles', Ni- 
 cene, and Athanasian creeds. The 
 ninth and following articles contain 
 the doct'rine of original sin, of justifi- 
 cation by faith alone, of predestina- 
 tion, etc. The 19th, 20th, and 21st de- 
 clare the Church to be the assembly 
 of the faithful ; that it can decide 
 nothing excent by the Scriptures. The 
 22d rejects the doctrine of purgatory, 
 indulgences, the adoration of images, 
 and the invocation of saints. The 23d 
 decides that only those lawfully called 
 shall preach or administer the sacra- 
 ments. The 24th requires the liturgy 
 to be in English. The 25th and 26th 
 declare the sacraments effectual signs 
 of grace (though administered by evil 
 men), by which God excites and con-
 
 Artillery 
 
 firms our faith. They are two : bap- 
 tism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism, 
 according to the 27th article, is a sign 
 of regeneration, the seal of our adop- 
 tion, by which faith is confirmed and 
 grace increased. In the Lord's Sup- 
 per, according to article 28th, . the 
 bread is the communion of the Body of 
 Christ, the wine the communion of 
 His Blood, but only through faith (ar- 
 ticle 29) ; and the communion must be 
 administered in both kinds (article 
 30). The 28th article condemns the 
 doctrine of transubstantiation, and 
 the elevation and adoration of the 
 Host ; the 31st rejects the sacrifice of 
 the mass as blasphemous ; the 32d per- 
 mits the marriage of the clergy ; the 
 33d maintains the efficacy of excom- 
 munication. The remaining articles 
 relate to the supremacy of the king, 
 the condemnation of Anabaptists, etc. 
 They were ratified anew in 1604 and 
 1628, 
 
 Artillery, all sorts of great guns, 
 cannon, or ordnance, mortars, howitz- 
 ers, machine-guns, etc., together with 
 all the apparatus and stores thereto 
 belonging, which are taken into the 
 field, or used for besieging and defend- 
 ing fortified places. It is often di- 
 vided into (1) horse artillery; (2) 
 field artillery; and (3) garrison artil- 
 lery. 
 
 Artillery, The Ancient and 
 Honorable, of Boston, Mass., was 
 formed in 1637, and was the first reg- 
 ularly organized military company in 
 America. 
 
 Arnndelian Marbles, a series of 
 ancient sculptured marbles discovered 
 by William Petty, who explored the 
 ruins of Greece at the expense of and 
 for Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, 
 who lived in the time of James I. and 
 Charles I., and was a liberal patron 
 of scholarship and art. After the 
 Restoration they were presented by 
 the grandson of the collector to the 
 University of Oxford. Among them is 
 the " Parian Chronicle," a chronolog- 
 ical account of the principal events in 
 Grecian, and particularly in Athenian, 
 history, during a period of 1318 years. 
 
 Arundel Society, a society insti- 
 tuted in London in 1848 for promoting 
 the knowledge of art by the publica- 
 tion of fac-similes and photographs. 
 
 Aryan Race 
 
 Aruspices, or Haruspices, a 
 
 class of priests in ancient Rome, of 
 Etrurian origin, whose business was 
 to inspect the entrails of victims killed 
 in sacrifice, and by them to foretell 
 future events. 
 
 Aryan Languages, a great fam- 
 ily of languages, sometimes, though 
 rarely, and not quite accurately, called 
 Japhetic ; more frequently designated 
 as the Indo-European or Indo-Ger*- 
 manic family of tongues. They have 
 reached a higher development than 
 those of the second great family, the 
 Semitic, better described as the Syro- 
 Arabian family, and are far in ad- 
 vance of the next one that compris- 
 ing the Turanian tongues. Like the 
 Syro-Arabian forms of speech, they 
 are inflectional ; while those of Turan- 
 ian origin are only agglutinate. 
 
 Aryan Race, a designation, since 
 about 1845, of the ethnological divi- 
 sion of mankind otherwise called Indo- 
 European or Indo-Germanic. That 
 division consists of two branches geo- 
 graphically separated, an eastern and 
 western. .The western branch compre- 
 hends the inhabitants of Europe, with 
 'the exception of the Turks, the Mag- 
 yars of Hungary, the Basques of the 
 Pyrenees, and the Finns of Lapland ; 
 the eastern comprehends the inhabi- 
 tants of Armenia, of Persia, of Af- 
 ghanistan, and of Northern Hindu- 
 stan. The evidence on which a family 
 relation has been established among 
 these nations is that of language, and 
 from a multitude of details it has been 
 proven that the original mother tongue 
 of all these peoples was the same. It 
 is supposed that the Aryan nations 
 were at first located somewhere in Cen- 
 tral Asia, probably E. of the Caspian, 
 and N. of the Hindu Kush and Paro- 
 pamisan Mountains. Prom this cen- 
 ter successive migrations took place 
 toward the N. W. The first swarm 
 formed the Celts, who at one time oc- 
 cupied a great part of Europe; at a 
 considerably later epoch came the an- 
 cestors of the Italians, the Greeks and 
 the Teutonic people. The stream that 
 formed the Slavonic nations is thought 
 to have taken the route by the N. of 
 the Caspian. At a later period the 
 remnant of the primitive stock would 
 seem to have broken up. Part passed 
 southward and became the dominant 
 race in the valley of the Ganges, while
 
 Asa 
 
 the rest settled in Persia and became 
 the Medes and Persians of history. It 
 is from these eastern members that 
 the whole family takes its name. In 
 the most ancient Sanskrit writings 
 (the Veda), the Hindus style them- 
 selves Aryas, the word signifying " ex- 
 cellent," " honorable," originally "lord 
 of the soil." 
 
 Asa, son of Abijah, and third King 
 of Judah, conspicuous for his earnest- 
 ness in supporting the worship of God 
 and rooting put idolatry, and for the 
 vigor and wisdom of his government. 
 He reigned from 955 to 914 B. c. 
 
 Asaf etida, Asaf cetida, or As- 
 saf cetida, the English name of two, 
 if not more, plants growing in Persia 
 and the East Indies. The extract 
 is a useful medicine in hysteria, asth- 
 ma, tympanites, dyspnoea, pertussis, 
 and worms ; it is sometimes given also 
 as a clyster. 
 
 Asama, an active volcano of Ja- 
 pan, about 50 miles N. W. of Tokio, 
 8,260 feet high. 
 
 Asbestos, a variety of hornblende, 
 which itself is classed by Dana as a 
 synonym or subdivision of emphibole. 
 
 Asbury, Francis, the first Meth- 
 odist bishop consecrated in America, 
 born at Handsworth, Staffordshire, 
 Aug. 20, 1745. When 16 years old he 
 became an itinerant Wesleyan preach- 
 er, and in 1771 he was sent as a mis- 
 sionary to America, where he was con- 
 secrated in 1784. During a long life 
 of almost incessant labor it is esti- 
 mated by his biographer that he trav- 
 eled about 270,000 miles (mostly on 
 horseback), preached about 16,500 
 sermons, and ordained more than 4,000 
 preachers. He died in Richmond, 
 Va., March 31, 1816. 
 
 Asbury Park, a city and popular 
 summer resort in Monmouth county, 
 N. J.; on the Atlantic Ocean and the 
 Pennsylvania and Central of New 
 Jersey railroads; 6 miles S. of Long 
 Branch. Wesley Lake separates it 
 from Ocean Grove. Pop. (1910) 10,- 
 150; summer pop. 20,000. 
 
 Ascalon, Ashkelon, or Askelon, 
 one of the five cities of the Philis- 
 tines, on the Mediterranean, W. S. 
 W. of Jerusalem, on the main road 
 from Egypt through Gaza to Cen- 
 tral Palestine. 
 
 Asclepiades 
 
 Ascension (discovered on Ascen- 
 sion Day), an island of volcanic ori- 
 gin belonging to Great Britain, near 
 the middle of the South Atlantic 
 Ocean, lying about lat. 7 55' S. ; long. 
 15 25' W. ; 800 miles N. W. of St. 
 Helena ; area, about 36 square miles ; 
 pop. 165. It is retained by Great 
 Britain mainly as a station at which 
 ships may touch for stores. 
 
 Ascension, in astronomy, right as- 
 cension is the distance of a heavenly 
 body from the first point of Aries (the 
 ram), measured upon the equator. 
 
 Ascension Day, the day on which 
 our Saviour's ascension is commemo- 
 rated the Thursday but one before 
 Whitsuntide, sometimes called Holy 
 Thursday. 
 
 Asceticism, the condition or prac- 
 tice of ascetics. 
 
 Ascetics, a name given in ancient 
 times to those Christians who devoted 
 themselves to severe exercises of piety 
 and strove to distinguish themselves 
 from the world by abstinence from 
 sensual enjoyments and by voluntary 
 penances. 
 
 Ascnam, Roger, an English 
 scholar and author, born at Kirby 
 Wiske, near Northallerton, in 1515 ; 
 graduated at Cambridge, and strug- 
 gled with poverty until patrons came 
 to his relief. He was famous for his 
 general knowledge and acquirements 
 in Greek and Latin, and is classed 
 with Spenser, Sir Thomas More, and 
 Sir Philip Sidney. His death, in 
 London, Dec. 30, 1568, was occasioned 
 by his too close, application to the 
 composition of a poem, which he in- 
 tended to present to the queen on the 
 anniversary of her accession. 
 
 Asclepiad, a kind of verse used by 
 Horace and other writers. 
 
 Asclepiades, the descendants of 
 the god of medicine, JEsculapius, by 
 his sons Podalirius and Machaon, 
 spread, together with the worship of 
 the god, through Greece and Asia Mi- 
 nor. They formed an order of priests, 
 which preserved the results of the 
 medical experience acquired in the 
 temples as an hereditary secret, and 
 were thus, at the same time, physi- 
 cians, prophets, and priests. 
 
 Asclepiades, a Greek physician, 
 born at Prusa, Bithynia, who flour- 
 ished during the early part of the 1st
 
 Asclepias 
 
 Ashtaroth 
 
 century B. c. He is said to have been 
 the first who distinguished between 
 acute and chronic diseases, and the 
 invention of laryngotomy is also as- 
 cribed to him ; but his knowledge of 
 anatomy was apparently very slight. 
 
 Asclepias, a genus of plants. The 
 species are found chiefly along the 
 eastern portion of North America, in 
 Bermuda, etc. Though all .more or 
 less poisonous, they are used medici- 
 nally. 
 
 - Ascot Heath, a race-course in 
 Berkshire, England, 29 miles W. Si 
 W. of London, and 6 miles S. W. of 
 Windsor. 
 
 Asdood, or Asdoud, a small sea- 
 port of Palestine, on the Mediterra- 
 nean, 35 miles W. of Jerusalem. It 
 was the Ashdod of Scripture, one of 
 the five confederate cities of the Phil- 
 istines, and one of the seats of the 
 worship of Dagon (1 Sam. v: 5). 
 
 Asgard, the Heaven of Scandina- 
 vian mythology. 
 
 Ash, a genus of deciduous trees, 
 having imperfect flowers and a seed 
 vessel prolonged into a thin wing at 
 the apex (called a samara). There 
 are a good many species, chiefly indig- 
 enous to North America and Europe. 
 
 Ashanti, or Asliantee, formerly 
 a kingdom, now a British protecto- 
 rate, in West Africa, on the Gold 
 Coast, and to the N. of the river Prah ; 
 area about 70,000 square miles. It is 
 in great part hilly, well watered, and 
 covered with dense tropical vegetation. 
 The chief town is Coomassie, which, 
 before being burned down in 1874, 
 was well and regularly built with wide 
 streets, and had from 30,000 to 50,- 
 000 inhabitants. Horrible human sac- 
 rifices were a feature of Ashanti wor- 
 ship when the country was indepen- 
 dent. In 1806 a British expedition, 
 from the Gold Coast, forced the sub- 
 mission of the King, who, with his 
 principal chiefs, was sent to Sierra 
 Leone, and established a protectorate 
 In 1900 a rising was suppressed and 
 Sept. 26, 1901, the country was an- 
 nexed. A railway has been built from 
 the modern port of Sekondi 168 m. to 
 Co-omassie, telegraph and telephone 
 lines installed, good roads made, and 
 steamer river traffic established, to the 
 improvement of commerce. Pop. 
 1,500,000. 
 
 Asliburtoii Treaty, a treaty con- 
 cluded at Washington in 1842, by 
 Alexander Baring, Lord Ashburton, 
 and the President of the United 
 States; it defined the boundaries be- 
 tween the United States and Canada. 
 
 Asheville, city and capital of 
 Buncombe county, N. C.; at junction 
 of the Swananoa and French Broad 
 rivers, and on the Southern railroad; 
 275 miles W. of Raleigh. It is on 
 the Blue Ridge Mountains, 2,350 feet 
 above the sea; is a noted winter and 
 summer resort; and has several col- 
 leges, and normal and industrial 
 schools. Nearby is George Vander- 
 bilt's famous estate of Biltmore. Pop. 
 (1910) 18,762. 
 
 Ashland, city, port of entry, and 
 capital of Ashland county, Wis.; on 
 Lake Superior and several trunk line 
 railroads; 315 mileg N. of Milwaukee; 
 has a magnificent harbor fringed with 
 enormous ore docks; is a notable ship- ' 
 ping point for the ore of the great Go- 
 gebic iron range; and besides iron ore 
 has a large lake traffic in lumber and 
 brownstone. The noted Apostle Is- 
 lands are nearby. Pop. (1910) 11,594. 
 
 Ashmnn, Jehndi, an American 
 missionary, born at Champlain, N. Y., 
 in April, 1794; became a professor in 
 the Bangor Theological Seminary. 
 On June 19, 1822, he sailed for Li- 
 beria, and there founded a colony, 
 whieh, when he left, six years later, 
 had increased to 1.200 inhabitants. 
 He died Aug. 25, 1828. 
 
 Ashtabula, a city in Ashtabula 
 county, O.; on the Ashtabula river 
 and the Lake Shore & Michigan 
 Southern railroad; 3 miles S. of Lake 
 Erie, 54 miles N. E. of Cleveland; 
 is a port of entry, with a fine harbor 
 and extensive trade in iron ore and 
 coal; manufactures leather and woolen 
 goods, farm implements, machinery, 
 gas fixtures, and stoves and fur- 
 naces. Pop. (1910) 18,266. 
 
 Ashtaroth, or Astaroth, plural 
 of Ashtoreth and Astarte, a god- 
 dess worshipped by the Jews in times 
 when idolatry prevailed ; the principal 
 female divinity of the Phoenicians, as 
 Baal was the principal male divinity: 
 and the plural Ashtaroth indicate 
 probably different modifications of the 
 divinity herself. Ashtoreth is the As-
 
 Ashwanipi 
 
 tart6 of the Greeks and Romans, and 
 is identified by ancient writers with 
 the goddess Venus (Aphrodite). She 
 is probably the same as the Isis of the 
 Egyptians, and closely connected with 
 the Asherah of Scripture. 
 
 Ashwauipi, or Hamilton, the 
 great river of Labrador, has its source 
 near the head waters of the E. branch 
 of the Moisic, and after a course of 
 600 miles, enters the Atlantic through 
 Esquimaux Bay, or Hamilton Inlet. 
 About 100 miles up occur the falls, 
 one of the grandest spectacles in the 
 world. 
 
 Ash 'Wednesday, the first day of 
 Lent, so called from a custom in the 
 Western Church of sprinkling ashes 
 that day on the heads of penitents, 
 then admitted to penance. 
 
 Asia, the largest of the land divi- 
 sions of the world, occupies the north- 
 ern portion of the Eastern Hemisphere 
 in the form of a massive continent, 
 which extends beyond the Arctic cir- 
 cle, and by its southern peninsulas 
 nearly reaches the equator. The ori- 
 gin of its name remains unknown. 
 Europe and Asia constitute but one 
 continent, extending from W. to E., 
 and having the shape of an immense 
 triangle, the angles of which are 
 Spain in the W., the peninsula of the 
 Tchuktchis in the N. E., and that of 
 Malacca in the S. E. The Arctic 
 Ocean in the N., the Pacific in the E., 
 and the Indian Ocean, continued by 
 its narrow gulf, the Red Sea, which 
 nearly reaches the Mediterranean, in- 
 close the continent of Asia. The area 
 covered by Asia and its islands is 17,- 
 255,890 square miles ; that is, almost 
 exactly one-third of the land surface 
 of the globe (32 per cent). It is one- 
 seventh larger than the surface of 
 both Americas together, by one-half 
 larger than that of Africa, and more 
 than four times larger than Europe. 
 Geographically speaking, Europe is a 
 mere appendix to Asia, and no exact 
 geographical delimitation of the two 
 continents is possible. The line of sep- 
 aration from Africa is better defined 
 by the narrow Red Sea ; but Arabia 
 participates so largely in the physical 
 features of Africa that it is in a sense 
 intermediate between the two conti- 
 nents. 
 
 Only four rivers, the Mississippi, 
 Amazon, Kongo, and Nile, surpass the 
 
 Asia 
 
 largest rivers of Asia, the Yenisei and 
 the Yang-tsc-kiang, both as to length 
 and drainage areas ; but owing to the 
 scarcity of rain over large parts of 
 Asia, the amount of water carried 
 down by the largest rivers is, as a 
 rule, disproportionately small as com- 
 pared with American or European 
 rivei's. The predominant feature of 
 Asia's hydrography is the existence of 
 very wide areas having no outlet to 
 the sea. On the great plateau of 
 Eastern Asia, the region which has 
 no outlet from the plateau, and whose 
 water does not reach even Lake Aral 
 or the Caspian, covers a surface larger 
 than that of Spain, France, and Ger- 
 many together. It is watered only by 
 the Tarim, which supplies some irri- 
 gation works in its upper parts, and 
 enters the rapidly drying marshes of 
 Lob-nor. This area is steadily in- 
 creasing, and since 1862 we have had 
 to add to it the drainage area (as 
 large as England and Wales) of the 
 Kerulen, which empties into Dalai- 
 i;or, but no longer reaches the Argun, 
 a tributary of the Amur. The Ulyasu- 
 tai River and the Tchagantogoi now 
 no longer reach Lake Balkash ; and 
 the Urungu, which obviously joined 
 ths Upper Irtysh at no very remote 
 date, empties into a lake separated 
 from the Black Irtysh by a low isth- 
 mus not 5 miles wide. If we add to 
 this the drainage basins of Lake Bal- 
 kash with its tributaries, the Hi and 
 other smaller rivers ; the great Lake 
 Aral, with the Syr-daria (Jaxartes) 
 and Amudaria (Oxus), as also the 
 numerous rivers which flow toward it 
 or its tributaries, but are desiccated 
 by evaporation before reaching them, 
 and finally the Caspian with its tribu- 
 taries, the Volga, Ural, Kura, and 
 Terek, we und an immense surface of 
 more than 4.000,000 square miles ; 
 that is, much larger than Europe, 
 which has no outlet to the ocean. The 
 plateaus of Iran and Armenia, two 
 separate areas in Arabia, and one in 
 Asia Minor, represent a surface of 5,- 
 567,000 square miles. 
 
 A succession of great lakes or in- 
 land seas are situated all along the 
 northern slope of the high plateaus of 
 Western and Eastern Asia, their lev- 
 els becoming higher as we advance 
 farther E. The Caspian, 800 miles 
 long and 270 wide, is an immense sea,
 
 Asia 
 
 even larger than the Black Sea, but 
 its level is now 85 feet below the level 
 of the ocean ; Lake Aral, nearly as 
 wide as the ^gean Sea, has its level 
 157 feet above the ocean ; farther E. 
 we have Lake Balkash (780 feet), 
 Zaison (1,200 feet), and Lake Baikal 
 (1,550 feet). Many large lakes ap- 
 pear on the plateaus of Tibet (Tengri- 
 nor, Bakha), and on the high plateau 
 of the Selenga and Vitim (Ubsa-nor, 
 Ikhe-aral, Kosogol, Oron) ; and small- 
 er lakes and ponds are numerous also 
 in the plateau of the Deccan, Ar- 
 menia, and Asia Minor. Three large 
 lakes, Urmia, Van, and Goktcha, and 
 many smaller ones, lie on the highest 
 part of the Armenian plateau. On 
 the Pacific slope of the great plateau, 
 the great rivers of China and the 
 Amur, with its tributaries, have along 
 their lower courses some large and 
 very many small lakes. 
 
 More than 120 active volcanoes are 
 known in Asia, chiefly in the islands 
 of the S. E., the Philippines, Japan, 
 the Kurile, and Kamchatka, and also 
 in a few islands of the Seas of Bengal 
 and Arabia, and in Western Asia. 
 Numerous traces of volcanic eruptions 
 are found in Eastern Tian-shan in the 
 northwestern border ridges of the high 
 Siberian plateau, and in the S. W. of 
 Aigun, in Manchuria. Earthquakes 
 are frequent, especially in Armenia, 
 Turkestan, and around Lake Baikal. 
 
 There are gold mines of great wealth 
 in the Urals, the Altai, and Eastern 
 Siberia; and auriferous sands are 
 found in Korea, Sumatra, Japan, and 
 in the Caucasus Mountains. Silver is 
 extracted in Siberia ; platina, in the 
 Urals ; copper, in Japan, India, and 
 Siberia ; tin, in Banca ; mercury, in 
 Japan. Iron ore is found in nearly 
 all of the mountainous regions, espe- 
 cially in Asia Minor, Persia, Turke- 
 stan, India, China, Japan, and Si- 
 beria ; but iron mining is still at a 
 rudimentary stage. Immense coal-beds 
 are spread over China and the islands 
 of the Pacific (Hainan, Japanese 
 Archipelago, Sakhalin), Eastern Si- 
 beria, Turkestan, India, Persia, and 
 Asia Minor. Tney cover no less than 
 500,000 square miles in China alone ; 
 but the extraction of coal is as yet 
 very limited. Graphite of very high 
 quality is found in the Sayans and 
 Northern Siberia. The diamonds of 
 
 Asia.- 
 
 India, the sapphires of Ceylon, the 
 rubies of Burma and Turkestan, the 
 topazes, beryls, etc., of the Urals and 
 Nertchinsk, have a wide repute. Lay- 
 ers of rock-salt are widely spread, and 
 still more so the salt lakes and springs. 
 The petroleum wells of the Caspian 
 shores already rival those of the 
 United States. A variety of mineral 
 springs, some of them equal to the 
 best waters of Western Europe, art 
 widely spread over Asia. 
 
 The aggregate population of Asia is 
 estimated at 865,000,000, being thus 
 more than one-half of the' entire popu- 
 lation of the globe. This population, 
 however, is small, giving only an aver- 
 age of 49 inhabitants per square mile. 
 It is unequally distributed, and reach- 
 es 557 per square mile in some prov- 
 inces of China, denser than in Bel- 
 gium (539 per square mile), and 520 
 in some parts of Northwestern India. 
 It is greatest in those parts of Asia 
 which are roost favored by rains. 
 Seven-tenths have scarcely more than 
 from 3 to 20 inhabitants per square 
 mile; and nearly one-tenth is quite 
 uninhabited. The inhabitants of Asia 
 belong to five different groups ; the 
 so-called Caucasian (fair type) in 
 Western Asia and India ; the Mongo- 
 lian in Central and Eastern Asia, as 
 also in the Indo-Chinese Peninsula ; 
 the Malay in Malacca and the Indian 
 Archipelago ; the Dravidas in South- 
 eastern India and Ceylon ; and the Ne- 
 gritos and Papuas in the virgin forests 
 of the Philippine Islands and Celebes ; 
 also a sixth great division comprising 
 the stems which inhabit Northeastern 
 Asia, the Hyperboreans, whose affini- 
 ties are not yet well known. The 
 Mongolian race alone embraces nearly 
 seven-tenths of the population of Asia ; 
 the Malay, about two-tenths, and the 
 Caucasian about one-tenth. The Eu- 
 ropeans reckon about 6,000,000 (Rus- 
 sians) in Caucasus, Turkestan and 
 Siberia; some 150,000 (English) in 
 India ; and 45,000 in the Dutch Indies. 
 
 Asia has been the birthplace of re- 
 ligions; the Jewish, Buddhist, Chris- 
 tian and Mohammedan having their 
 origin in Asia, where they grow up 
 under the influence of still older re- 
 ligions, the Babylonian and that of 
 Zoroaster, both also of Asiatic origin. 
 At present the inhabitants of Asia be- 
 long chiefly to the Buddhist religion,
 
 Asia Minor 
 
 which has 539,000,000 to 560,000,000 
 of followers, i. e., nearly one-third of 
 mankind. The old faith of Hinduism 
 has 187,000,000 of followers in India. 
 Most of the inhabitants of Western 
 Asia, as also of part of Central Asia, 
 follow the religion of Islam ; they may 
 number about 90,000,000. The Chris- 
 tians number about 20,000,000 in Ar- 
 menia, Caucasus, Siberia and Turke- 
 stan. Jews are scattered mostly in 
 Western and Central Asia. A few 
 fire-worshippers, Guebres or Parsi of 
 India and Persia, are the sole rem- 
 nant of the religion of Zoroaster; 
 while vestiges of Sabaeism are found 
 amidst the Gesides and Sabians on the 
 Tigris. 
 
 Asia Minor (Asia the Less, as 
 distinguished from Asia in the widest 
 extent), is the name usually given to 
 the western peninsular projection of 
 Asia, forming part of Turkey in Asia. 
 
 The inhabitants, some 7,000,000 in 
 number, consist of the most various 
 races. The dominant race are the Os- 
 manli Turks, who number about 1,200,- 
 000, and are spread over the whole 
 country; allied to these are the Turk- 
 omans and Yuruks, speaking a dialect 
 of the same language. The latter are 
 found chiefly on the tableland, leading 
 a nomadic life ; there are also hordes 
 of nomadic Kurds. Among the moun- 
 tains E. of Trebizond are the robber 
 tribes of the Lazes. 
 
 The Greeks and Armenians are the 
 most progressive elements in the popu- 
 lation, and have most of the trade. 
 
 Ask, in Scandinavian mythology, 
 the name of the first man created. Ac- 
 cording to the legend, one day three 
 gods, Odin, Ha?ner and Loder, found 
 two trees by the seaside, an ash and 
 an elm. From these trees they created 
 the first man and first woman, Ask 
 and Embla, and gave them the earth 
 as their dwelling place. 
 
 Askew, Anne, a victim of reli- 
 gious persecution, born in 1521 ; was 
 a daughter of Sir William Askew of 
 Lincolnshire, and was married to a 
 wealthy neighbor named Kyme, who, 
 irritated by her Protestantism, drove 
 her from his house. In London, whith- 
 er she went, probably to procure a di- 
 vorce, she spoke against the dogmas 
 of the old faith, and, being tried, was 
 condemned to death as a heretic. Being 
 
 Aspasia 
 
 put to the rack to extort a confession 
 concerning those with whom she cor- 
 responded, she continued firm, and 
 was then taken to Smithfield, chained 
 to a stake, and burned, in 1540. 
 
 Askja, a volcano near the center 
 of Iceland, first brought into notice by 
 an eruption in 1875. Its crater is 17 
 miles in circumference, surrounded 
 by a mountain-ring from 500. to 1,000 
 feet high, the height of the mountain 
 itself being between 4,000 and 5,000 
 feet. 
 
 Asmodai, or Asmodens, an evil 
 spirit, who, as related in the book of 
 Tobit, slew seven husbands of Sara, 
 daughter of Raguel, but was driven 
 away into the uttermost parts of 
 Egypt by the young Tobias under the 
 direction of the angel Raphael. As- 
 modai signifies a desolator, a destroy- 
 ing angel. He is represented in the 
 Talmud as the prince of demons who 
 drove King Solomon from his king- 
 dom. 
 
 Asp, a species of viper found in 
 Egypt, resembling the cobra da capello, 
 and having a very " venomous bite. 
 When approached or disturbed it ele- 
 vates its head and body, swells out its 
 neck, and appears to stand erect to 
 attack the aggressor. Hence the an- 
 cient Egyptians believed that the asps 
 were guardians of the spots they in- 
 habited, and the figure of this reptile 
 was adopted as an emblem of the pro- 
 tecting genius of the world. Cleopatra 
 is said to have committed suicide by 
 means of an asp's bite, but the inci- 
 dent is generally associated with the 
 horned viper. 
 
 Asparagus, a plant of the order 
 liliaceae, the young shoots of which, cut 
 as they are emerging from the ground, 
 are a favorite culinary vegetable. 
 
 Aspasia, a celebrated Grecian, be- 
 longing to a family of some note in 
 Miletus, and was early distinguished 
 for her graces of mind and person. 
 She went to Athens after the Persian 
 War, and, by her beauty and accom- 
 plishments soon attracted the atten- 
 tion of the leading men of that city. 
 She engaged the affections of Pericles, 
 who is said to have divorced his for- 
 mer wife in order to marry her. Their 
 union was harmonious throughout; 
 he preserved for her to the end of his 
 life the same tenderness; she re-
 
 Aspen 
 
 mained the confidant of the states- 
 man's schemes, and the sharer of his 
 struggles. She survived Pericles some 
 years, and is reported to have married 
 an obscure Athenian, Lysicles, whom 
 she raised by her example and pre- 
 cept to be one of the leaders of the 
 republic. 
 
 Aspen, a tree, the trembling pop- 
 lar. The tremulous movement of the 
 leaves which exists in all the poplars, 
 but culminates in the aspen, mainly 
 arises from the length and slender 
 character of the petiole or leaf-stalk, 
 and from its being much and laterally 
 compressed. 
 
 Aspern, a small village of Austria, 
 on the Danube, about 2 miles from 
 Vienna. Here, and in the neighbor- 
 ing village of Esslingen, were fought 
 the tremendous battles of the 21st and 
 22d of May, 1809, between the French 
 grand army, commanded by Napoleon, 
 and the Austrians under the Archduke 
 Charles. The French, after this con- 
 tinuous fighting, with vast loss to both 
 sides, were obliged to retreat, and oc- 
 cupy the island of Lobau. 
 
 Asphalt, or Asplialtum, the 
 most common variety of bitumen ; also 
 called mineral pitch. Asphalt is a 
 compact, glassy, brittle, black or 
 brown mineral, which breaks with a 
 polished fracture, melts easily with a 
 strong pitchy odor when heated, and 
 when pure burns without leaving any 
 ashes. It is found in the earth in 
 many parts of Asia, Europe and the 
 United States, and in a soft or liquid 
 state on the surface of the Dead Sea, 
 which, from its circumference, was 
 called Asphaltites. It is of organic 
 origin, the asphalt of the great Pitch 
 Lake of Trinidad being derived from 
 bituminous shales, containing vegeta- 
 ble remains in the process of trans- 
 formation. Asphalt is produced arti- 
 ficially in making coal gas. During 
 the process, much tarry matter is 
 evolved and collected in retorts. If 
 this be distilled, naphtha and other 
 volatile matters escape, and asphalt 
 is left behind. 
 
 What is known as asphalt rock is a 
 limestone impregnated with bitumen, 
 found in large quantities in the 
 United States and in Switzerland, 
 France, Alsace, Hanover, Holstein, 
 Sicily, and other parts of Europe, the 
 
 Aspinwall 
 
 purest forms taking the names of elat- 
 erite, gilsonite, albertite, maltha, brea, 
 etc. In the trade there is wide dis- 
 tinction between these and the sand- 
 stones, and limestones impregnated 
 with bitumen, which are known as bi- 
 tuminous or asphaltic limestone, sand- 
 stone, etc. The latter are usually 
 shipped without being previously 
 treated or refined, and are used prin- 
 cipally in street paving. This class 
 is known as bituminous rock. The 
 production of all kinds of asphalt in 
 the United States is nearly 200,000 
 tons per annum, valued at over $2,- 
 000,000, from California, Utah, Okla- 
 homa, Kentucky, and Texas. 
 
 Asphodel, (Asphodelus), a genus 
 of plants, order Liliaceae. consisting of 
 perennials, with fasciculated fleshy 
 roots, flowers arranged in racemes, six 
 stamens inserted at the base of the 
 perianth, a sessile almost spherical 
 ovary with two cells, each containing 
 two ovules ; fruit a capsule with three 
 cells, in each of which there are, as a 
 rule, two seeds. They are fine garden- 
 plants, native of Southern Europe. 
 The king's spear, A. luteus, has yellow 
 flowers blossoming in June. Asphodel- 
 us rampsus, which attains a height of 
 5 feet, is cultivated in Algeria and else- 
 where, its tubercles yielding a very 
 pure a'cohol, and the residue, together 
 with t^e stalks and leaves, are used 
 in mak ; ng pasteboard and paper. The 
 asphodel was a favorite plant among 
 the ancients, who were in the habit of 
 planting it round their tombs. 
 
 Asphyxia, suspended animation ; 
 an interruption of the arterialization 
 of the blood, causing the suspension of 
 sensation and voluntary motion. It 
 may be produced by breathing some 
 gas incapable of furnishing oxygen, by 
 submersion under water, by suffoca- 
 tion, from an impediment to breathing 
 applied to the mouth and nostrils, by 
 strangulation, or by great pressure, 
 external or internal, upon the lungs. 
 If asphyxia continues unrelieved for a- 
 short period, it is necessarily followed 
 by death. 
 
 Aspinwall. (See COLON). 
 
 Aspinwall, William, an Ameri- 
 can physician, born in Brookline, 
 Mass., May 23, 1743 ; was graduated 
 at Harvard University in 17G4 ; stud- . 
 ied medicine in Philadelphia ; was a
 
 Aspinwall 
 
 volunteer in the fight at Lexington ; 
 and afterward became surgeon in the 
 Revolutionary army, having partial 
 charge of the military hospital at Ja- 
 maica Plains. After the war, he be- 
 came deeply interested in the subject 
 of vaccination, and, building a small- 
 pox hospital at Brookline, established 
 that remedy in American practice. He 
 died April 10, 1823. 
 
 Aspinwall, 'William II., an 
 American merchant, born in New 
 York city, Dec. 16, 1807 ; was trained 
 to commercial business by his uncles, 
 and became a member of the firm of 
 Rowland & Aspinwall in 1837. He 
 is best remembered as the chief pro- 
 moter of the Panama railroad, and of 
 the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. 
 The eastern terminus of the railroad 
 was named in his honor, but has since 
 officially been given the name of Co- 
 lon. He died in New York city, Jan. 
 18, 1875. 
 
 Aspromonte, a mountain of Italy, 
 in the S. W. of Calabria, where Gari- 
 baldi was wounded and taken prisoner 
 with the greater part of his army, in 
 August, 1862. 
 
 Asquith, Herbert Henry, an 
 English lawyer, born in Morley, Sept. 
 12, 1852; was educated at Oxford 
 University, became a barrister at Lin- 
 coln's Inn in 1876; was appointed 
 Secretary of State for the Home De- 
 partment ; Ecclesiastical Commission- 
 er in 1882-1885; became Q. C. in 
 1890, and P. C. in 1892; was elected 
 to Parliament from East Fife in 
 1896 on the Liberal ticket; and be- 
 came Prime Minister and First Lord 
 of the Treasury in 1908. 
 
 Asrael, the Mohammedan angel of 
 death, who takes the soul from the 
 body. 
 
 Ass (asinus), a genus closely re- 
 lated to the horse. It differs from the 
 latter in having short hair at the root 
 of the tail and a long tuft at the end, 
 in the absence of warts on the hind 
 legs, and in the persistence of stripes, 
 except in albinos. The upright mane, 
 the long ears, the cross stripe on the 
 shoulders, and the dark bands on the 
 back, are also characteristic. The 
 stupidity for which the animal has 
 for long been proverbially reproached 
 seems largely the result of human in- 
 fluence. The female carries her foal 
 
 Assault 
 
 11 months. The mule is a hybrid bred 
 between mare and male ass ; while the 
 hinny is the rare result of hybridism 
 between horse and female ass. 
 
 Assam, a province at the N. E. 
 extremity of British India, with an 
 area of 52,078 square miles. In 1874 
 it was formed into a separate adminis- 
 tration (including Cachar) under a 
 chief commissioner. One of the most 
 striking features of Assam is the 
 abundance of wild animals, such as 
 tigers, rhinoceroses, leopards, bears, 
 buffaloes, and elephants. The snakes 
 are the most destructive to human life. 
 Some 400 people are killed every year 
 by wild animals, for whose destruction 
 about $5,000 is yearly paid as a re- 
 ward. Tea is the chief product, over 
 300,000 acres being cultivated. Pop. 
 (1901) 6,122,201. 
 
 Assassination, the act of taking 
 the life of anyone by surprise or 
 treacherous violence, either by a hired 
 emissary, by one devoted to the deed, 
 or by one who has taken the task 
 upon himself. Generally, the term 
 is applied to the murder of a public 
 personage. 
 
 Assassins, or Ismaili, a sect of 
 religious fanatics who existed in the 
 llth and 12 centuries. They derived 
 their name of assassins originally from 
 their immoderate use of hasheesh, 
 which produces an intense cerebral ex- 
 citement, often amounting to fury. 
 Their founder and law giver was Has- 
 san-ben-Sabah, to whom the Orientals 
 gave the name of Sheikh-el-Jobelz, but 
 who was better known in Europe as 
 the " Old Man of the Mountain." 
 They believed assassination to be meri* 
 torious when sanctioned by his com- 
 mand, and courted danger and death 
 in the execution of his orders. In the 
 time of the crusades, they mustered 
 to the number of 50,000. 
 
 Assault, in military language, a 
 furious effort to carry a fortified post, 
 camp, or fortress, where the assailants 
 do not screen themselves to any works. 
 It is the appropriate termination of a 
 siege which has not led to the capitu- 
 lation of the garrison. To give an 
 assault: To attack any post. To 
 repulse an assault: To cause the as- 
 sailants to retreat; to beat them back. 
 To carry by assault: To gain a post 
 by storm.
 
 Assaying 
 
 In law, an assault is a movement 
 which virtually implies a threat to 
 strike one, as when a person raises 
 his hand or his cane in a menacing 
 manner, or strikes at another but 
 misses him. It is not needful to touch 
 one to constitute an assault. When 
 a blow actually takes effect, the crime 
 is not simple assault, but assault and 
 battery. 
 
 Assaying, the estimation of the 
 amount of pure metal, and especially 
 of the precious metals in an ore or al- 
 loy. 
 
 Assay Offices, in the United 
 States, government establishments in 
 which citizens may deposit gold and 
 silver bullion, receiving in return its 
 value, less charges. The offices are in 
 New York city ; Boise City, Ida. ; 
 Helena, Mont. ; Denver, Col. ; Seattle, 
 Wash. ; San Francisco, Gal. ; Char- 
 lotte, N. C. ; and St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 Assegai, a spear used as a weapon 
 among the Kaffirs of South Africa, 
 made of hard wood tipped with iron, 
 and used for throwing or thrusting. 
 
 Assembly, General, official name 
 of the supreme ecclesiastical court of 
 the Established Church of Scotland, 
 of the Free Church of Scotland, of 
 the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, 
 and of the two Presbyterian Churches 
 in the United States. The term is 
 also used in the United States to des- 
 ignate the dual legislative body of the 
 several States, the branches being com- 
 monly spoken of as the Senate and the 
 House (of Representatives). 
 
 Assembly, National, a body set 
 up in France on the eve of the Revolu- 
 tion. The members bound themselves 
 by oath not to separate until they had 
 furnished France with a constitution, 
 and the court was compelled to give 
 its assent. In the 3,250 decrees pass- 
 ed by the Assembly were laid the foun- 
 dations of a new epoch, and having 
 accomplished this task, it dissolved it- 
 self, Sept. 30, 1791. The term is also 
 applied to a joint meeting of the Sen- 
 ate and Corps Legislatif, for the pur- 
 pose of electing a chief magistrate or 
 the transaction of other extraordinary 
 business. 
 
 Assent, The Royal, is the appro- 
 bation given by the sovereign in Par- 
 liament to a bill which has passed both 
 Houses, after which it becomes a law. 
 
 Assiniboin 
 
 Assets (French, assez, enough), 
 property or goods available for the 
 payment of a bankrupt or deceased 
 person's obligations. Assets are per- 
 sonal or real, the former comprising 
 all goods, chattels, etc., devolving upon 
 the executor as salable to discharg 
 debts and legacies. In commerce and 
 bankruptcy the term is often used as 
 the antithesis of liabilities, to desig- 
 nate the stock in trade and entire 
 property of an individual or an asso- 
 ciation. 
 
 Assideans, Chasideans, or Cha- 
 sidim, one of the two great sects 
 into which, after the Babylonish cap- 
 tivity, the Jews were divided with re- 
 gard to the observance of the law 
 the Chasidim accepting it in its later 
 developments, the Zadikim professing 
 adherence only to the law as given by 
 Moses. From the Chasidim sprang 
 the Pharisees, Talmudists, Rabbinists, 
 Cabbalists, etc. 
 
 Assignates, the name of the na- 
 tional paper currency in the time of 
 the French Revolution. 
 
 Assignee, a person appointed by 
 another to transact some business, or 
 exercise some particular privilege or 
 power. Formerly the persons ap- 
 pointed under a commission of bank- 
 ruptcy, to manage the estate of the 
 bankrupt on behalf of the creditors, 
 were so called, but now trustees, or 
 receivers. 
 
 Assignment, in law and com- 
 merce, the act of signing over to an- 
 other, rights or property which have 
 hitherto belonged to one's self. An 
 assignment of estate is a transfer, or 
 making over to another, of the right a 
 person has in any estate. In general, 
 assignments should be recorded in the 
 office prescribed by law, or are void as 
 against those claiming under subse- 
 quent assignments. 
 
 Assiniboia, the smallest of the 
 four districts into which a portion of 
 the Northwest Territories of Canada 
 was divided in 1881 and Sept. 1, 1905, 
 merged into the provinces of Alberta 
 and Saskatchewan. Its area was 89,- 
 535 square miles and pop. 67,385. 
 Coal mines are worked and irrigation 
 is improving the district. 
 
 Assiniboin, a tribe of North 
 American Indians, living principally 
 in the N. W. part of Canada.
 
 Assouan 
 
 Assouan (also ESWAN ; the an- 
 cient Syene), is the southernmost city 
 of Egypt proper, on the right bank 
 of the Nile, and beside the first or low- 
 est cataract. Near are the islands of 
 Philae and Elephantine, recently sub- 
 merged almost completely by the great 
 Nile dam. On the left bank are cata- 
 combs. There are some remains of 
 the ancient city, as granite columns 
 and part of a temple. In the neigh- 
 borhood are the famous granite quar- 
 ries from which so many of the huge 
 obelisks and colossal statues were cut 
 to adorn the temples and palaces of 
 ancient Egypt. From Syene, this 
 kind of granite came to be known as 
 syenite. Pop. about 4,000. 
 
 Assumpsit, a verbal promise made 
 by anyone, or which he may in justice 
 be held to have more or less directly 
 made. 
 
 Assyria, an ancient Semitic king- 
 dom of Asia, the native name of which 
 was Ashur or Asshur, and thus also 
 called by the Hebrews. The area was 
 fluctuating at first small, but, 
 though it gradually increased, it 
 probably never exceeded about 200,000 
 square miles. 
 
 The Assyrians were far advanced 
 in art and industry, and in civiliza- 
 tion. They constructed large build- 
 ings, especially palaces, of an impos- 
 ing character, the materials being 
 burned or sun-dried brick, stone, ala- 
 baster, slabs for lining and adorning 
 the walls internally and externally, 
 and timber for pillars and roof. 
 The Assyrians understood and applied 
 the arch ; constructed tunnels, aque- 
 ducts, and drains ; used the pulley, the 
 lever, and the roller ; engraved gems in 
 a highly artistic way ; understood the 
 arts of inlaying, enameling, and over- 
 laying with metals ; manufactured 
 porcelain, transparent and colored 
 glass, and were acquainted with the 
 lens ; and possessed vases, jars, and 
 other dishes, bronze and ivory orna- 
 ments, bells, gold earrings and brace- 
 lets of excellent design and workman- 
 ship. They had also silver ornament- 
 al work. Their household furniture 
 gives a high idea of their skill. 
 
 Asten, Friedrich Emil von, a 
 German astronomer, born at Koln, 
 1842. His investigations have related 
 mostly to comets. 
 
 Astoi 
 
 Aster, a genus of plants, so called 
 because the expanded flowers resemble 
 stars. In the United States these as- 
 ters grow wild in the meadows and on 
 the prairies. 
 
 Aster,' Ernst Ludwig von, a 
 German military engineer, born in 
 Dresden, Oct. 5, 1778. He died in 
 Berlin, Feb. 10, 1855. 
 
 Asthma, a chronic shortness of 
 breath, from whatever cause it may 
 arise. Till a comparatively recent pe- 
 riod good medical writers used the 
 term in this wide sense, and non-pro- 
 fessional writers and the public do so 
 still. Asthma, or spasmodic asthma, 
 is " a difficulty of breathing, recur- 
 ring in paroxysms, after intervals of 
 comparatively good health, and usual- 
 ly accompanied by fever." It is most 
 common in persons possessing the 
 nervous temperament. 
 
 Aston, William George, an 
 English author, born near London- 
 derry, in 1841 ; is a standard author- 
 ity on Japanese subjects. 
 
 Astor, John Jacob, an American 
 merchant, born in Waldorf, Germany, 
 July 17, 1763. In 1783 he came to 
 the United States intending to engage 
 in the selling of musical instruments ; 
 but while on the voyage was induced 
 by a fellow passenger to engage in 
 buying furs from the Indians and sell- 
 ing them to dealers. On reaching 
 New York he entered the employ of a 
 Quaker furrier, with whom he learned 
 the details of the trade, and then be- 
 gan business on his own account. Soon 
 afterward he became American agent 
 for a London fur house, and, while ar- 
 ranging for his supplies, he opened 
 the first wareroom for the sale of mu- 
 sical instruments in the United States. 
 His success in the fur business led him 
 to become the owner of a number of 
 vessels, in which he shipped furs to 
 London and brought merchandise 
 therefrom. In furtherance of a scheme 
 for becoming independent of the Hud- 
 son Bay Company and establishing a 
 thoroughly American system of fur 
 trading, he sent out expeditions to 
 open up intercourse with the Indians 
 on the Pacific coast, by which the 
 present city of Astoria at the mouth 
 of the Columbia river in Oregon was 
 planted in 1811. An interesting out- 
 line of his projects in this connection
 
 Astor 
 
 Astrology 
 
 is given in Washington Irying's " As- 
 toria." Mr. Astor acquired large 
 wealth, invested heavily in real estate 
 in New York city ; and at his death 
 left a fortune estimated at $20,000,- 
 000, and the sum of $400,000, with 
 which to found a public library in 
 New York city. He died March 29, 
 1848. See NEW YOBK PUBLIC LI- 
 BRARY. 
 
 Astor, John Jacob, an Ameri- 
 can capitalist, born in Rhinebeck, N. 
 Y., July 13, 1864; son of William, 
 grandson of John Jacob, and cousin of 
 William Waldorf Astor; was grad- 
 uated at Harvard University in 1888 ; ! 
 spent three years in European travel ; ' 
 and then became manager of the fam- 
 ily estate. He was appointed Col- 
 onel on the staff of Gov. Morton ; 
 was commissioned a Lieutenant-Col- 
 onel of Volunteers in May, 1898, and 
 served on inspection and staff duty in 
 the United States and Cuba till the 
 surrender of Santiago. He presented 
 the United States Government with 
 a completely equipped mountain bat- 
 tery which cost over $75,000, and 
 which rendered the government valu- 
 able services during the war with Spain. 
 He published "A Journey to Other 
 Worlds; a Romance of the Future" 
 (1894). He was lost on the "Titanic," 
 April 15, 1912. 
 
 Astor, William Backhouse, an 
 American capitalist, born in New York 
 city, Sept 19, 1792; eldest son of 
 John Jacob Astor; was associated 
 with his father in business; increased 
 the family fortune to $45,000,000; 
 and gave $550,000 to the Astor Li- 
 brary. He died in New York, Nov. 
 24, 1875. 
 
 Astor, William Waldorf, capi- 
 talist, born in New York city, March 
 31, 1848; received a private educa- 
 tion ; was admitted to the bar in 1875. 
 He was elected to the New York As- 
 sembly in 1871, and to the Senate in 
 1879; was defeated for Congress in 
 1881, and was United States Minister 
 to Italy in 1882-1885. On the death 
 of his father, John Jacob Astor, in 
 1890, he became the head of the Astor 
 family, and inherited a fortune said to 
 aggregate $100.000,000. He removed 
 to England in 1890 ; became the owner 
 of the " Pall Mall Gazette " and " Pall ' 
 Mall Magazine ;" and was naturalized 
 
 a British subject on July 1, 1899. He 
 published "Valentino" (1885) and 
 "Sforza" (1889), both romances. 
 
 Astor Place Riot, a fatal affray 
 which took place in New York city, 
 May 10, 1854, in which the partici- 
 pants were the partisans of the actors, 
 Edwin Forrest and William C. Ma- 
 cready. Twenty-two were killed and 
 36 wounded. 
 
 Astraea, one of the asteroids, dis- 
 covered in 1845. 
 
 Astrakhan, a Russian city, capi- 
 tal of the government of the same 
 name, on an elevated island in the 
 Volga, about 30 miles above its mouth 
 in the Caspian, communicating with 
 opposite banks of the river by numer- 
 ous bridges. It is the chief port 
 of the Caspian, and has regular steam 
 communication with the principal 
 towns on its shores. Pop. (1897) 
 113,001, composed of various races. 
 
 Astrakhan, a name given to 
 sheep-skins with a curled woolly sur- 
 face obtained from a variety of sheep 
 found in Bokhara, Persia, and Syria; 
 also a rough fabric with a pile in im- 
 itation of this. 
 
 Astral Spirits, in the demonology 
 of the Middle Ages, spirits dwelling in 
 the heavenly bodies. As the belief in 
 spirits and witchcraft reached its 
 height in the 15th century, the demon- 
 ologist, or special students of this sub- 
 ject, systematized the strange fancies 
 of that wild period ; and astral spirits 
 were made to occupy the first rank 
 among evil or demoniacal spirits. 
 
 Astringents, substances which 
 produce contraction and condensation 
 of the muscular fiber : for instance, 
 when applied to a bleeding wound 
 they so contract the tissues as to stop 
 the hemorrhage. Astringents are use- 
 ful in various diseases. 
 
 Astrolabe, in its etymological 
 sense, any instrument for taking the 
 altitude of a star or other heavenly 
 body, a definition which would include 
 not merely the astrolabe properly so 
 called, but also the sextant, the quad- 
 rant, the equatorial, the altitude and 
 the azimuth circle, the theodolite, or 
 any similar instrument. 
 
 Astrology, originally a discourse 
 concerning the stars ; subsequently the 
 true science of astronomy; now the
 
 Astronomy 
 
 pseudo science which pretends to fore- 
 tell future events by studying the po- 
 sition of the stars, and ascertaining 
 their alleged influence upon human 
 destiny. 
 
 Astronomy, the science that treats 
 of all the heavenly bodies, including 
 the earth, as related to them. It is 
 the oldest of the sciences, and the 
 mother of those generally called exact 
 as mathematics, geodesy and physics. 
 
 Asymptote, in geometry, a line 
 which is continually approaching a 
 curve, but never meets it, however far 
 either of them may be prolonged. This 
 may be conceived as a tangent to a 
 curve at an infinite distance. 
 
 Atacama, the name formerly, of 
 two provinces, (1) Chilian and (2) 
 Bolivian ; most of the latter was trans- 
 ferred to Chile in 1884. (1) A north- 
 ern Province of Chile, with an area 
 of 30,720 square miles, and a popula- 
 tion (1895) of 59,713 About 1,000 
 silver and 250 copper mines are work- 
 ed, and gold is also found in consider- 
 able quantities. 
 
 Ataliualpa, the last of the Incas, 
 succeeded his father in 1529 on the 
 throne of Quito, whilst his brother 
 Huascar obtained the Kingdom of 
 Peru. They soon made war against 
 eacfi other, when the latter was de- 
 feated, and his kingdom fell into the 
 hands of Atahualpa. The Spaniards, 
 taking advantage of these internal dis- 
 turbances, with Pizarro at their head, 
 invaded Peru, and advanced to Atahu- 
 alpa's camp. Here, while Pizarro's 
 priest was telling the Incas how the 
 Pope had given Peru to the Spaniards, 
 fire was opened on the unsuspecting 
 Peruvians, Atahualpa was captured, 
 and, despite the payment of a vast 
 ransom in gold, was executed (1533). 
 
 Atalaiita, in the Greek mythology, 
 a famous huntress of Arcadia. She 
 was to be obtained in marriage only by 
 him who could outstrip her in a race, 
 the consequence of failure being death. 
 One of her suitors obtained from Aph- 
 rodite (Venus) three golden apples, 
 which he threw behind him, one after 
 another, as he ran. Atalanta stopped 
 to pick them up, and was not unwill- 
 ingly defeated. There was another At- 
 alanta belonging to Bceotia, who can- 
 not very well be distinguished, the 
 same stories being told about both. 
 
 Atelier 
 
 Atavism, in biology, the tendency 
 to reproduce the ancestral type in ani- 
 mals or plants which have become con- 
 siderably modified by breeding or cul- 
 tivation ; the reversion of a descendant 
 to some peculiarity of a more or less 
 remote ancestor. 
 
 Ataxy, Ataxia, in medicine, irreg- 
 ularity in the animal functions, or in 
 the symptoms of a disease. (See Lo 
 COMOTOB ATAXY). 
 
 Atcliccii (also ACIIIN or ATCHIN ; 
 called by the Dutch ATJEH), until 
 1873 an independent State in the N. 
 W. part of Sumatra, now a Province 
 of the Dutch Indies, with an area of 
 20,471 square miles, and a population 
 of over half a million. 
 
 During the earlier half of the 17th 
 century Atcheen was a powerful sul- 
 tanate, but under the Dutch native 
 resistance lasted till 1906, 200 years. 
 
 Atchison, city and capital of At- 
 chison county, Kan.; on the Missouri 
 river and several railroads; 50 miles 
 N. of Kansas City; has an immense 
 trade in livestock and grains; con- 
 tains large grain elevators, flour mills, 
 and many factories; and is the seat 
 of the State Soldiers' Orphans' Home 
 and Midland (Luth.) and St. Bene- 
 dict's colleges. Pop. (1910) 16,429. 
 
 Atchison, David Rice, an Amer- 
 ican legislator, born in Frogtown, Ky., 
 Aug. 11, 1807 ; was educated for the 
 bar, and began practicing in Missouri, 
 in 1830. In 1843, while Judge of Cir- 
 cuit Court, he was appointed United 
 States Senator to fill a vacancy. He 
 was twice elected to the last office, 
 and during several sessions was Presi- 
 dent pro tern, of the Senate. During 
 Sunday, March 4, 1849, he was the 
 legal President of the United States, 
 as Gen. Taylor, the President-elect, 
 was not sworn into office until the fol- 
 lowing day. The city of Atchison, 
 Kan., was named after him. He died 
 in Clinton county, Mo., June 26, 1886. 
 
 Ate, in Greek mythology, the god- 
 dess of hate, injustice, crime and ret- 
 ribution. Ate is seldom personified. 
 
 Ateles, a genus of South Ameri- 
 can monkeys, of the division with long 
 prehensile tails, to which the name 
 Sapajou is sometimes applied. 
 
 Atelier, in French, a workshop ; a 
 studio ; more especially applied to an 
 artist's work-room. Ateliers Nation-
 
 Athabasca 
 
 Athaiiasian Creed 
 
 aux, or National Workshops. Since 
 1845, it has been the custom in France, 
 during severe winters, or in times of 
 distress caused by stagnation of trade, 
 to open temporary workshops, in or- 
 der to give employment to mechanics 
 who were out of work. These work- 
 shops were called Ateliers de Charit6, 
 until 1848, when the Provisional Gov- 
 ernment of the Republic reopened a 
 vast number of these establishments 
 under the name of Ateliers Nation- 
 aux. They were under the control of 
 a department called " The Committee 
 of the Government for the Workmen ;" 
 they were all, however, badly organ- 
 ized, and failed calamitously. The 
 principle on which they were conduct- 
 ed was, that every workman should 
 have a living provided for him on a 
 fixed scale. The result was, that 
 workmen soon left private employers, 
 and entered the national work-shops. 
 The numbers who flocked in soon be- 
 came alarming. More than 100,000 
 men enrolled themselves, and insubor- 
 dination soon began to show itself. 
 Danger was imminent, and the Na- 
 tional Assembly ordered the dissolu- 
 tion of the ateliers nationaux, an act 
 which became the pretext for the terri- 
 ble insurrection which ensanguined 
 Paris in June, 1848. 
 
 Athabasca, a river, lake and dis- 
 trict of Canada. The Athabasca 
 river rises on the E. slopes of the 
 Rocky Mountains in the district of 
 Alberta, flows in a N. E. direction 
 through the district of the same name, 
 and falls into Lake Athabasca after a 
 course of about 600 miles. Lake Ath- 
 abasca, or Lake of the Hills, is about 
 190 miles S. S. E. of the Great Slave 
 Lake, with which it is connected by 
 means of the Slave river, a continua- 
 tion of the Peace. It is about 200 
 miles in_ length from E. to W., and 
 about 35 miles wide at the broadest 
 part, but gradually narrows to a point 
 at either extremity. The district of 
 Athabasca, formed 1882, on Sept. 1, 
 1905, was merged in the provinces of 
 Alberta and Saskatchewan. It is in- 
 tersected by the Athabasca and Peace 
 rivers and, as yet, has a scanty popu- 
 lation. The name is also given to a 
 family of Indians. The area of the 
 district was about 251,300 sq. m. 
 
 Athabascan Indians, a linguistic 
 $tock of North American Indians, ex- 
 
 tending from British North America 
 and Alaska to Mexico, who derive 
 their name from Lake Athabasca in 
 British North America. 
 
 Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, 
 King of Israel, and wife of Jehoram, 
 King of Judah, was born about 927, 
 and died about 878 B. c. She was a 
 woman of abandoned character, and 
 fond of power ; who, after the death of 
 her son Ahaziah, opened her way to 
 the throne by the murder of every 
 prince of the royal blood. She reign- 
 ed six years ; in the seventh, the high- 
 priest Jehoiada placed Joash, the 
 young son of Ahaziah, on the throne 
 of his father, and Athaliah was put to 
 death. 
 
 Athanasian Creed, a formulary 
 or confession of faith, said to have 
 been drawn up by Athanasius, Bishop 
 of Alexandria, in the 4th century, to 
 justify himself against the calumnies 
 of his Arian enemies. That it was 
 really composed by this father seems 
 more than doubtful ; and modern di- 
 vines generally concur in the opinion 
 of Dr. Waterland, that it was written 
 by Hilary, Bishop of Aries, in the 5th 
 century. It is certainly very ancient ; 
 for it had become so famous in the 
 Gth century as to be commented upon, 
 together with the Lord's Prayer and 
 Apostles' Creed, by Venantius Fortu- 
 natus, Bishop of Poitiers. It was not, 
 however, then styled the Athanasian 
 Creed, but simply the Catholic Faith. 
 It is supposed to have received the 
 name of Athanasius on account of its 
 agreeing with his doctrines, and being 
 an excellent summary of the subjects 
 of controversy between him and the 
 Arians. The true key to the Athana- 
 sian Creed lies in the knowledge of 
 the errors to which it was opposed. 
 The Sabellians considered the Father, 
 Son and Holy Spirit as one in per- 
 son ; this was " confounding the per- 
 sons : " the Arians considered them as 
 differing in essence ; this was " divid- 
 ing the substance ; " and against these 
 two errors was the creed originally 
 framed. This creed was used in 
 France about the year 850; was re- 
 ceived in Spain about 100 years later, 
 and in Germany about the same time. 
 It was both said and sung in Eng- 
 land in the 10th century; was com- 
 monly used in Italy at the expiration 
 of that century, and at Rome a little
 
 Athanasius 
 
 later. This creed is appointed to be 
 read in the Church of England. 
 
 Athanasius, St., one of the fa- 
 thers of the Christian Church, born 
 at Alexandria about 296 A. D. He 
 became Patriarch of Alexandria in 
 328, being afterward deposed and re- 
 instated five times. He died in Alex- 
 andria, May 2, 373. 
 
 Atheism, literally, disbelief in a 
 God, if such an attainment is possi- 
 ble ; or, more loosely, doubt of the ex- 
 istence of a God ; practically, a denial 
 that anything can be known about the 
 supernatural, supposing it to exist. 
 
 Atliel, or JEthcl, ail Old English 
 word meaning noble in blood, descent, 
 or mind; frequently a part of Anglo- 
 Saxon proper names. 
 
 Athenaeum, or Atheneum, a 
 public place frequented by professors 
 of the liberal arts, and where rhetori- 
 cians declaimed, and the poets read 
 aloud their works. At Athens these 
 assemblies first took place in the tem- 
 ple of Minerva, whence the name. 
 
 Athens, city and capital of Clarke 
 county, Ga.; on the Oconee river and 
 several railroads; 67 miles E. of At- 
 lanta; is principally engaged in cot- 
 ton-growing, trade, and manufactur- 
 ing; and is the seat of the State Uni- 
 versity, State College of Agriculture, 
 State Normal School, and Lucy Cobb 
 and Knox institutes. Pop. (1910) 
 14,913. 
 
 Athens, anciently the capital of 
 Attica and center of Greek culture, 
 now the capital of the Kingdom of 
 Greece. It is situated in the central 
 plain of Attica, about 4 miles from 
 the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of ^Bgina, 
 an arm of the .^Sgean Sea running in 
 between the mainland and the Pelo- 
 ponnesus. It is said to have been 
 founded about 1550 B. c. by Cecrops, 
 the mythical Pelasgian hero, and to 
 have borne the nanie Cecropia until 
 under Erechtheus it received the name 
 of Athens in honor of Athene. 
 It disputed with Sparta the su- 
 premacy of Greece, which was then 
 virtually the civilized world, and was 
 beaten in the struggle. It remained, 
 however, the centre of art and culture 
 until long after the rise of Rome, to 
 which with the rest of Greece it be- 
 came subject. 
 
 The modern city mostly lies north- 
 
 Athletes 
 
 ward and eastward from the Acropo- 
 lis, and consists mainly of straight 
 and well built streets. Among the 
 principal buildings are the royal pal- 
 ace, a stately building with a fagade 
 of Pentelic marble (completed in 
 1843), the university, the academy, 
 public library, theater, and observa- 
 tory. The university was opened in 
 1836, and has 1,400 students. There 
 are valuable museums, in particular 
 the National Museum, and that in the 
 Polytechnic School, which embraces 
 the Schliemann collection, etc. These 
 are constantly being added to by exca- 
 vations. There are four foreign ar- 
 chaeological schools or institutes, the 
 French, German, American, and Brit- 
 ish. Tramways have been made in the 
 principal streets, and the city is con- 
 nected by railway with its port, the 
 Piraeus. Pop. 111,486. 
 
 Athens, American School at, 
 an institution for classical study, 
 founded in Athens, Greece, in 1882. 
 
 Atherstone, Edwin, an English 
 poet, born in Nottingham, England, 
 about 1788 ; died Jan. 29, 1872. 
 
 Atherton, George William, an 
 American educator, born in Boxford, 
 Mass., June 20, 1837; was brought up 
 in a cotton mill, and afterward on a- 
 farm ; worked his way through 
 Phillips Exeter Academy and Yale 
 College ; was Professor of Political 
 Economy and Constitutional Law in 
 Rutgers College, N. J., in 1869-1882; 
 and became President of the Penn- 
 sylvania State College in 1882. He 
 died July 24, 1906. 
 
 Atherton, Gertrude Franklin, 
 an American author, born in San 
 Francisco, Cal. ; daughter of Thomas 
 L. Horn and Gertrude Franklin, and 
 great-grandniece of Benjamin Frank- 
 lin; was educated in California and 
 Kentucky, and married the late George 
 H. B. Atherton. She began her liter- 
 ary work while living in San Fran- 
 cisco, in 1878, and has made a 
 specialty of describing Spanish life in 
 California as it was previous to 1846. 
 
 Athletes, combatants who took 
 part in the public games of Greece. 
 The profession was an honorable one ; 
 tests of birth, position, and character 
 were imposed, and crowns, statues, 
 special privileges, and pensions were 
 among the rewards of success. ID
 
 Athos 
 
 Atlantic Ocean 
 
 1896, the ancient Olympic games 
 were revived at Athens (the 776th 
 Olympiad) under the personhl patron- 
 age of the King of Greece; in 1900 
 they were held at the Paris Exposi- 
 tion; in 1904 at the St. Louis Expo- 
 sition; in 1906 at Athens * in 1908 at 
 London. 
 
 Athos, Mount, or Hagion-Oros, 
 or Monte-Santo, a famous moun- 
 tain of Turkey in Europe, on a pen- 
 insula projecting into the JEgean Sea, 
 between the Gulfs of Contesa and 
 Monte-Santo. In modern times, 
 Athos has been occupied for an 
 extended period by a number of 
 monks of the Greek Church, who live 
 in a sort of fortified monasteries 1 , in 
 number about 20, of different degrees 
 of magnitude and importance. These, 
 with the farms or metochis attached 
 to them, occupy the whole peninsula ; 
 hence it has derived its modern name 
 of Monte-Santo. 
 
 Atkinson, Edward, an American 
 political economist, born in Brook- 
 line, Mass., Feb. 10, 1827; was edu- 
 cated in private schools and at Dart- 
 mouth College. He has become widely 
 known by his papers and pamphlets on 
 trade competition, banking, railroad- 
 ing, fire prevention, the money ques- 
 tion, etc. He died Dec. 11, 1905. 
 
 Atkinson, George Francis, an 
 American botanist, born in Raisin- 
 ville, Mich., Jan. 26, 1854 ; was grad- 
 uated at Cornell University in 1885 ; 
 Associate Professor of Entomology 
 and General Zoology in the University 
 of North Carolina, in 1886-1888 ; Pro- 
 fessor of Zoology and Botany in the 
 University of South Carolina; and 
 Botanist of the State Experiment 
 Station in 1888-1889; Professor of 
 Biology in the Alabama Polytechnic 
 Institute, and Biologist of the Experi- 
 ment Station in 1889-1892; became 
 Professor of Botany in Cornell Uni- 
 versity, and Botanist of the Experi- 
 ment Station there in 1896. He is a 
 member of numerous scientific socie- 
 ties, and author of "Biology of Ferns," 
 "Elementary Botany," and many tech- 
 nical papers. 
 
 Atlanta, city and capital of the 
 State of Georgia and of Fulton coun- 
 ty; on the Atlanta and West Point, 
 the Central of Georgia, the Georgia, 
 the Seaboard Air Line, the Southern, 
 
 and the Western and Atlantic rail- 
 roads ; 171 miles N. by W. of Augusta. 
 The city is not only the largest in the 
 State, but, commercially and histor- 
 ically, is one of the most important in 
 the South. Bank clearings total over 
 :$131,000,000 a year. The chief build- 
 ing is the magnificent capitol com- 
 pleted March, 1891. 
 
 After being besieged by the Federal 
 army, under General Sherman, and 
 bombarded for 40 days, it was cap- 
 tured Sept. 2, 1864. General Sherman, 
 before starting on his march to the 
 sea, burned the city. After the war, 
 the city recuperated more rapidly ihan 
 any other in the South. In 1881 an 
 exposition of the Cotton States and in 
 1895 a great Cotton States and Inter- 
 national Exposition were held here, the 
 last in Piedmont Park, in which" the 
 United States and many of the North- 
 ern States, besides European and 
 South American countries, took part. 
 Pop. (1900) 89,872; (1910) 154,839. 
 
 Atlantic City, a city and widely- 
 noted health and pleasure resort, in 
 Atlantic county, N. J. ; on Absecon 
 | Beach island; 60 miles S. E. of 
 Philadelphia. It is a city of hotels, 
 shops, and cottages, with superior 
 railroad facilities, and has the largest 
 patronage of any seaside resort in 
 the country. Its famous board-walk 
 is over 5 miles long and 20-60 feet 
 wide. Permanent pop. (1910) 44,461. 
 
 Atlantic Ocean, the name given 
 to the vast expanse of sea lying be- 
 tween the W. coasts of Europe and 
 Africa, and the'E. coasts of North and 
 South America, and extending from 
 the Arctic to the Antarctic Seas. Its 
 greatest breadth is between the W. 
 coast of Northern Africa and the E. 
 coast of Florida, 4,150 miles. Its 
 least breadth, between Norway and 
 Greenland, is about 930 miles. 
 
 The great currents of the Atlantic 
 are the Gulf Stream, the equatorial 
 current which may be divided into 
 the main equatorial current, the N. 
 equatorial current, and the S. equa- 
 torial currents, the North Afrjcan and 
 Guinea current, the South connecting 
 current, the Southern Atlantic cur- 
 rent, Cape Horn current, Rennel 
 current, and the Arctic current. 
 
 The Gulf Stream is a continuation 
 of the main equatorial current, and 
 partly of the N. equatorial current,
 
 Atlantic Telegraph 
 
 Atlee 
 
 both W. drift currents produced by the 
 trade winds. The former passes across 
 the Atlantic to the American coast, 
 upon which it strikes from Cape St. 
 Roque to the Antilles. On being 
 turned by the coast it runs along it at 
 a rate of 30 to 50 miles per day, and 
 sometimes at a higher speed, till it 
 enters the Gulf of Mexico, from which 
 having previously received part of the 
 waters of the N. equatorial current, 
 it issues between Florida and Cuba 
 under the name of the Gulf stream. 
 It afterward flows nearly parallel to 
 the coast of the United States, sepa- 
 rated from it by a belt of cold water. 
 Off Cape Hatteras it spreads into an 
 expanding channel, reaching a breadth 
 of 167 miles, and consisting of three 
 warm sections with two cold belts in- 
 terposed. On passing Sandy Hook 
 it turns E. and continues to be recog- 
 nizable, partly by a blue color derived 
 from the silt of the Mississippi, till 
 about Ion. 30 W., where, with a 
 greatly diminished temperature, it is 
 found flowing nearly due E. 
 
 Atlantic Telegraph, lines laid on 
 the bed of the Atlantic Ocean. The 
 union of the Old and New Worlds by 
 means of the electric telegraph, prob- 
 ably the boldest feat of electric engi- 
 neering ever projected, was first sug- 
 gested by Prof. Morse in 1843. When 
 Lieut.- Maury of the United States 
 navy discovered that between Ireland 
 and Newfoundland the bed of the ocean 
 was nearly level and covered with 
 soft ooze, and Cyrus W. Field and 
 others had thoroughly discussed the 
 practical methods, a company was 
 formed for the purpose, in 1856, to 
 which the Governments of Great Brit- 
 ain and the United States gave liberal 
 guarantees. This company, after a 
 fruitless attempt to lay an electric ca- 
 ble in 1857, finally succeeded in 1858. 
 
 The result was not encouraging. 
 The current obtained through the wire 
 was so weak that a congratulatory 
 message from the Queen to the Presi- 
 rent, consisting of 90 words, took 67 
 minutes to transmit. After a few 
 more messages, the cable became use- 
 less. In consequence of this failure, it 
 was not until 1865 that capital was 
 found to make another attempt. 
 The paying-out journey was com- 
 menced at Valentia, but when the ves- 
 sel was 1,064 miles from that port, 
 
 the cable broke from an accidental 
 strain. After a fruitless effort to fish 
 up the broken cable from the bottom, 
 it was abandoned for the season. In 
 1866 another line, so modified in con- 
 struction as to be both lighter and 
 stronger than the previous one, was 
 successfully laid by the " Great East- 
 ern." The 1865 cable was then, by 
 means of the same vessel, grappled for, 
 and brought up from a depth of two 
 miles, spliced, and completed to Trin- 
 ity Bay. 
 
 The practicability of laying an elec- 
 tric wire across the Atlantic being 
 thus demonstrated, many lines have 
 been projected, and several of them 
 carried out. Marconi's wireless tele- 
 graph system has introduced a new 
 era in transatlantic telegraphy, but 
 has not, so far, been developed suffi- 
 ciently to interfere with the business 
 of the cable companies. 
 
 Atlantides, a name given to the 
 Pleiades, which were fabled to be the 
 seven daughters of Atlas or of his 
 brother Hesperus. 
 
 Atlantis, or Atlantica, an island, 
 said by Plato and others to have once 
 existed in the ocean immediately be- 
 yond the Straits of Gades ; that is, 
 in what is now called the Atlantic 
 Ocean, a short distance W. of the 
 Straits of Gibraltar. Atlantis is rep- 
 resented as having ultimately sunk 
 beneath the waves, leaving only iso- 
 lated rocks and shoals in its place. 
 Geologists have discovered that the 
 coast-line of Western Europe did once 
 run farther in the direction of Amer- 
 ica than now ; but its submergence 
 seems to have taken place long before 
 historic times. 
 
 Atlas, in Greek mythology, the 
 name of a Titan whom Zeus con- 
 demned -to bear the vault of heaven. 
 The same name is given to a collection 
 of maps and charts, and was first used 
 by Gerard Mercator in the 16th cen 
 tury, the figure of Atlas bearing the 
 globe being given on the title-pages 
 of such works. 
 
 Atlee, Washington Lemuel, an 
 American surgeon, born in Lancaster, 
 Pa., Feb. 22, 1808; became noted as a 
 pioneer in ovariotomy and the removal 
 of uterine fibroid tumors. He died 
 Sept. 6. 1878.
 
 Atmometer 
 
 Atrato 
 
 Atmometer, an instrument invent- 
 ed by Sir John Leslie for measuring 
 the quantity of moisture exhaled hi 
 a given time from any humid sur- 
 face. 
 
 Atmosphere, lit ei ally, the air sur- 
 rounding our planet, and which, as the 
 etymology implies, is, speaking broad- 
 ly, a " sphere " (not, of course, a 
 solid, but a hollow one). With strict 
 accuracy, it is a hollow spheroid. Its 
 exact height is unknown. At 2.7 miles 
 above the surface of the earth, half 
 its density is gone, and the remainder 
 is again halved for every further rise 
 of 2.7 miles. Some small density 
 would remain at 45 miles high. At 80 
 miles, this would have all but disap- 
 peared. But from sundry observa- 
 tions, made at Rio Janeiro and else- 
 where, on the twilight arc, JVI. Liais 
 infers that the extreme limit of the 
 atmosphere is between 198 and 212 
 miles. In the lower strata of the at- 
 mosphere, the temperature falls at 
 least a degree for every 352 feet of 
 ascent ; hence, even in the tropics, 
 mountains of any considerable eleva- 
 tion are snow-capped. The atmosphere 
 appears to us blue, because, absorbing 
 the red and yellow solar rays, it re- 
 flects the blue ones. It revolves with 
 the earth, but being extremely mobile, 
 winds are generated in it, so that it is 
 rarely long at rest. Evaporation, con- 
 tinually at work, sends into it quanti- 
 ties of water m a gaseous state ; clouds 
 are formed, and in due time descend in 
 rain. The atmosphere always con- 
 tains free electricity, sometimes posi- 
 tive and sometimes negative. There 
 appears to be no atmosphere around 
 the moon ; but the case seems different 
 with the sun, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, 
 and Saturn. 
 
 Atmospheric Pressure, the pres- 
 sure exerted by the atmosphere, not 
 merely downward, but in every direc- 
 tion. It amounts to 14.7 pounds of 
 weight on each square inch, which is 
 often called in round numbers 15. On 
 a square foot it is =2,160 pounds, or 
 nearly a ton. It would act upon our 
 bodies with crushing effect were it not 
 that the pressure, operating in all di- 
 rections, produces an equilibrium. If 
 any gas or liquid press upon a surface 
 with a force of 15 pounds on a square 
 inch, it is generally described as hav- 
 ing a pressure of one atmosphere;, if 
 
 60 pounds, of four atmospheres ; if 120 
 pounds, of eight atmospheres, and 
 so on. 
 
 Atmospheric Railway. ( See 
 PNEUMATIC DISPATCH). 
 
 Atomic Theory, a theory as to the 
 existence and properties of atoms ; es- 
 pecially, in chemistry, the theory ac- 
 counting for the fact that in compound 
 bodies the elements combine in certain 
 constant proportions, by assuming that 
 all bodies are composed of ultimate 
 atoms, the weight of which is different 
 in different kinds of matter. It is as- 
 sociated with the name of Dalton, who 
 systematized and extended the imper- 
 fect results of his predecessors. On 
 its practical side the atomic theory 
 asserts three Laws of Combining Pro- 
 portions : ( 1 ) The Law of Constant 
 or Definite Proportions, teaching that 
 in every chemical compound the na- 
 ture and proportion of the constituent 
 elements are definite and invariable ; 
 (2) The Law of Combination in Mul- 
 tiple Proportions, according to which 
 the several proportions in which one 
 element unites with another, invariably 
 bear towards each other a simple rela- 
 tion; (3) The Law of Combination in 
 Reciprocal Proportions, that the pro- 
 portions in which two elements com- 
 bine with a third also represent the 
 proportions in which, or in some sim- 
 ple multiple of which, they will them- 
 selves combine. Without expressly 
 adopting the atomic theory, chemists 
 have followed Dalton in the use of the 
 terms atom and atomic weight, yet in 
 using the word atom it should be held 
 in mind that it merely denotes the pro- 
 portions in which elements unite. 
 
 Atonement, in theology, the sac- 
 rificial offering made by Christ in ex- 
 piation of the sins, according to the 
 Calvinists, of the elect only ; according 
 to the Arminians, of the whole human 
 race. 
 
 Atrato, a river of Colombia, inter- 
 esting because it has repeatedly been 
 made to bear a part in schemes for a 
 ship-canal across the Isthmus of Pana- 
 ma. Rising on the Western Cordillera 
 at an altitude of 10,560 feet, above 
 sea-level, it runs 305 miles northward 
 through low, swampy country, and 
 falls by several mouths, interrupted 
 by bars, into the Gulf of Darien. It 
 is navigable by steamers for fully 250
 
 A triii iii 
 
 miles, being 750 to 1,000 feet wide, 
 and 8 to 70 feet deep. A route, sur- 
 veyed by the United States Govern- 
 ment in 1871, proposed to connect the 
 Atrato and the Jurador, flowing into 
 the Pacific, by a canal 48 miles long. 
 At the Paris International Congress 
 (1879), for deciding the bst route for 
 the interoceanic canal, that route was, 
 with various others, discussed and re- 
 jected in favor of De Lesseps' line 
 from Limon to Panama. Gold-dust is 
 found in and about the Atrato. 
 
 Atrium, in ancient times, the hall 
 or principal room in an ancient Ro- 
 man house. In a large house the 
 rooms opened into it from all sides, 
 and were lighted from it. 
 
 Atrophy, a wasting of the flesh 
 due to some interference with the nu- 
 tritive processes. It may arise from 
 a variety of causes, such as perma- 
 nent, oppressive and exhausting pas- 
 sions, organic disease, a want of prop- 
 er food or of pure air, suppurations in 
 important organs, copious evacuations 
 of blood, saliva, semen, etc., and it is 
 also sometimes produced by poisons, 
 for example, arsenic, mercury, lead, in 
 miners, painters, gilders, etc. 
 
 Atropin, or Atropine, a crystal- 
 line alkaloid obtained from the deadly 
 nightshade (atropa belladonna). It is 
 very poisonous and produces persist- 
 ent dilation of the pupil. 
 
 Attache, a military, naval or sub- 
 ordinate member of the diplomatic ser- 
 vice attached to an embassy or lega- 
 tion. 
 
 Attachment, in law, the taking 
 into the custody of the law the person 
 or property of one already before the 
 court, or of one whom it is sought to 
 bring before it. 
 
 Attack, the opening act of hostil- 
 ity by a force seeking to dislodge an 
 enemy from its position. 
 
 Attainder, the legal consequences 
 of a sentence of death or outlawry 
 pronounced against a person for trea- 
 son or felony, the person being said 
 to be attainted. 
 
 In the United States, the Federal 
 Constitution declares that " No bill of 
 attainder shall be passed, and no at- 
 tainder of treason, in consequence of a 
 judicial sentence, shall work corrup- 
 tion of blood or forfeiture except dur- 
 ing the life of the person attainted." 
 
 Attock 
 
 Attar, Ferid eddin, a celebrated 
 Persian poet, born near Nishapur in 
 1119; died about 1229 (?). 
 
 Attar, or Otto, of Roses (oil of 
 roses), an essential oil obtained from 
 the petals of three species of roses, 
 viz. : rosa centifolia, moschata and 
 damascena. 
 
 Atterbury, Francis, an English 
 prelate, born March 6, 1662, and ed- 
 ucated at Westminster and Oxford. 
 He died "Feb. 15, 1732, and his body 
 was interred in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Attic, pertaining to Attica or to 
 Athens. Pure ; elegant ; classical ; 
 poignant ; characterized by keenness 
 of intellect, delicacy of wit, purity of 
 elegance, soundness of judgment and 
 most expressive brevity ; as, the Attic 
 Muse. Attic dialect is that dialect of 
 the Greek language which was spoken 
 in Attica. It was the most refined 
 and polished of all the dialects of an- 
 cient Greece. 
 
 Attica, a State of ancient Greece, 
 the capital of which, Athens, was 
 once the first city in the world. 
 
 Atticus, Titus Pomponius, a 
 noble Roman, the contemporary of 
 Cicero and Caesar. 
 
 Attila, the famous leader of the 
 Huns, was the son of Mundzuk, and 
 the successor, in conjunction with his 
 brother Bleda, of his uncle Rhuas. 
 The rule of the two leaders extended 
 over a great part of Northern Asia 
 and Europe, and they threatened the 
 Eastern Empire, and twice compelled 
 the weak Theodosius II. to purchase 
 an inglorious peace. Attila caused his 
 brother Bleda to be murdered (444), 
 and in a short time extended his do- 
 minion over all the peoples of Ger- 
 many and exacted tribute from the 
 Eastern and Western emperors. He 
 invaded Italy and conquered and de- 
 stroyed Aquileia, Padua, Vicenza, Ve- 
 rona, and Bergamo, laid waste the 
 plains of Lombardy, and was march- 
 ing on Rome when Pope Leo I. went 
 with the Roman ambassadors to his 
 camp and succeeded in obtaining a 
 peace. Attila went back to Hungary, 
 and died on the night of his marriage 
 with Hilda or Ildico (453), either 
 from the bursting of a blood vessel or 
 by her hand. 
 
 Attock, a town and fort of the 
 Punjab, on the left or E. bank of the
 
 Attorney 
 
 Indus. The great railway bridge 
 across the Indus here was opened in 
 1883. It has five arches- 130 feet high, 
 and renders continuous the railway 
 connection between Calcutta and Pesh- 
 awur (1,600 miles). 
 
 Attorney, a person appointed to 
 do something for and in the stead and 
 name of another. An attorney at law 
 is a person qualified to appear for an- 
 other before a court of law to prose- 
 cute or defend any action on behalf of 
 his client. 
 
 Attorney-General. In the United 
 States the Department of Justice is 
 presided over by the Attorney-General, 
 whose duty it is to furnish all legal 
 advice needed by Federal authorities, 
 and conduct all litigation in which the 
 United States is concerned. The 
 States have similar officers. 
 
 Attraction, in natural philosophy, 
 a force in virtue of which the material 
 particles of all bodies tend necessarily 
 to approach each other. 
 
 Capillary attraction, meaning the 
 attraction excited by a hair-like tube 
 on a liquid within it, is, properly 
 speaking, a variety of adhesion. 
 
 In magnetism, the power excited by 
 a magnet or loadstone of drawing and 
 attaching iron to itself. 
 
 In electricity, the power possessed 
 by an electrified body of drawing cer- 
 tain other bodies to itself. 
 
 Atwater, Lyman Hotchkiss, an 
 American theologian, born in Hamp- 
 den, Conn., Feb. 23, 1813; died in 
 Princeton, N. J., Feb. 17, 1883. 
 
 Atwater, Wilber Olin, an Amer- 
 ican chemist, born in Johnsburg, N. 
 Y., May 3, 1844; was graduated at 
 Wesleyan University in 1865 ; made a 
 special study of chemistry in the Shef- 
 field Scientific School of Yale and the 
 Universities of Leipsic and Berlin ; 
 became Professor of Chemistry in 
 East Tennessee University in 1873 ; 
 was director of the Connecticut Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station in 1875- 
 1877, and was appointed director of 
 the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Sta- 
 tion in 1887. He was connected for 
 several years with the United States 
 Department of Agriculture; published 
 many papers on chemical and allied 
 subjects; and, after 1894, gave much 
 attention to nutrition investigations. 
 He died in 1907. 
 
 Anblet 
 
 Atwill, Edward Robert, an 
 
 American clergyman, born in Red 
 Hook, N. Y., Feb. 18, 1840 ; was grad- 
 uated at Columbia College in 1862, 
 and at the General Theological Sem- 
 inary 1864 ; consecrated the first Prot- 
 estant Episcopal bishop of West Mis- 
 souri, Oct. 14, 1890. 
 
 Atwood, Isaac Morgan, an 
 American educator, born in Pembroke, 
 N. Y., March 24, 1838; was ordained 
 in the Universalist Church in 1861 ; 
 held several pastorates ; edited " The 
 Christian Leader " 1867-1873 ; became 
 an associate editor of the " Universal- 
 ist Leader ; " and was chosen president 
 of the Canton (N. Y.) Theological 
 Seminary in 1879. 
 
 Atwood, Melville, an Anglo- 
 American geologist, born in Prescott 
 Hall, England, July 31, 1812 ; studied 
 lithology, microscopy, and geology 
 early in life, and engaged in gold and 
 diamond mining in Brazil. In 1843 
 he made a discovery that greatly en- 
 hanced the value of zinc ore. After 
 coming to the United States, in 1852, 
 he invented the blanket system of 
 amalgamation. He also established 
 the value of the famous Comstock sil- 
 ver lode, by an assay of minerals in 
 that region. He died in Berkeley, 
 CaL, April 25, 1898. 
 
 Anber, Daniel Francois Es- 
 prit, a French operatic composer, 
 born Jan. 29, 1782, at Caen, in Nor- 
 mandy ; was originally intended for a 
 mercantile career, but devoted him- 
 self to music, studying under Cheru- 
 bini. He died in Paris, May 13, 1871. 
 
 Anberlen, Karl Angnst, a Ger- 
 man Protestant theologian, born at 
 Fellbach, Wurtemberg, Nov. 19, 1824 ; 
 died at Basel, May 2, 1864. 
 
 Anbert, Joachim Marie Jean 
 Jacqnes Alexandre Jules, a 
 French general and military writer; 
 born in 1804 ; prominent in several 
 campaigns, and was made commander 
 of the Legion of Honor in 1860. He 
 is best known to the public as a jour- 
 nalist and historical writer. He died 
 in 1890. 
 
 Anbertin, Charles, a French 
 scholar, born in St. Didier, Dec. 24. 
 1825. 
 
 Anblet, Albert, a French paint- 
 er, born in Paris ; studied historical 
 painting under Gerome ; won a first-
 
 Aubry 
 
 class medal in the Paris Exposition of 
 1889, and the Legion of Honor in 1890. 
 
 Aubry de Montdidier, a French 
 soldier, supposed to have been mur- 
 dered by his comrade, Richard de 
 Macaire, in 1371. His dog peristed 
 in pursuing and harassing Macaire, 
 and this coming to the ears of King 
 Charles V., he ordered a fight be- 
 tween them. The dog was victori- 
 ous, and has since been famous in 
 story as the "Dog of Montargis;" 
 from the place of the fight. 
 
 Auburn, city and capital of An- 
 droscoggin county, Me.; on the An- 
 drosc'oggin river and the Maine Cen- 
 tral railroad; 35 miles N. of Port- 
 land; is chiefly engaged in the manu- 
 facture of boots, shoes, cotton goods, 
 furniture, and farm implements; has 
 many points of local interest, includ- 
 ing a 60-foot fall of the river. Pop. 
 (1910) 15,064. 
 
 Auburn, city and capital of Cay- 
 uga county, N. Y.; on Central & 
 Hudson River and the Lehigh Val- 
 ley railroads. It contains a State ar- 
 mory, Auburn Theological Seminary 
 (Presb.), a State prison on the 
 " silent " system, a State Insane asy- 
 lum, a, statue of William H. Sew- 
 ard, and important industrial plants. 
 Pop. (1910) 34,668. 
 
 Auchmuty, Richard Tylden, an 
 American philanthropist, born In 
 New York city in 1831; practiced 
 architecture for many years; with his 
 wife founded the New York Trade 
 Schools, at a cost of $250,000. J. 
 Pierpont Morgan, in 1892, gave it an 
 endowment of $500,000. Died 1893. 
 
 Auckland, a town in New Zealand, 
 in the North Island, founded in 1840, 
 and situated on Waitemata harbor, 
 one of the finest harbors of New Zea- 
 land, where the island is only 6 miles 
 across, there being another harbor 
 (Manukau) on the opposite side of 
 the isthmus. It was formerly the cap- 
 ital of the colony. Pop. (1901), in- 
 cluding suburbs, 67,226. 
 
 Auckland Islands, a group lying 
 in the Pacific Ocean to the S. of New 
 Zealand. The largest of these islands 
 is about 30 miles long by 15 broad, 
 and is covered with dense vegetation. 
 They are almost entirely uninhabited, 
 belong to the British and are a sta- 
 tion for whaling ships. 
 
 Auersperg 
 
 Auction, the public disposal of 
 goods to the highest bidder. 
 
 Audiometer, or Audimeter, an 
 
 instrument devised by Prof. Hughes, 
 the inventor of the microphone. Orig- 
 inally its object was to measure with 
 precision the sense of hearing. 
 
 Audipnone, an invention to assist 
 the hearing of deaf persons in whom 
 the auditory nerve is not entirely de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 Audit, an examination into ac- 
 counts or dealings with money or 
 property, along with vouchers or other 
 documents connected therewith, espe- 
 cially by proper officers, or persons ap- 
 pointed for the purpose. 
 
 Audsley, George Ashdown, a 
 Scottish-American architect, born in 
 Elgin, Scotland, Sept. 6, 1838; estab- 
 lished himself in the United States in 
 1892, and subsequently became promi- 
 nent both as an architect and author. 
 
 Audnbon, John James, an 
 American naturalist of French extrac- 
 tion, born near New Orleans, May 4, 
 1780 ; was educated in France, and 
 studied painting under David. In 1798 
 he settled in Pennsylvania, but, hav- 
 ing a great love for ornithology, he 
 set out in 1810 with his wife and 
 child, descended the Ohio, and for 
 many years roamed the forests in every 
 direction, drawing the birds which he 
 shot. In 1826 he went to England, 
 exhibited his drawings in Liverpool, 
 Manchester and Edinburgh, and final- 
 ly published them in an unrivaled 
 work of double-folio size, with 435 
 colored plates of birds the size of life 
 ( " The Birds of America," 4 vols., 
 1827-1839), with an accompanying 
 text ("Ornithological Biography," 5 
 vols., 8 vo., partly written by Prof. 
 Macgillivray). On his final return to 
 the United States he labored with Dr. 
 Bachman on an illustrated work en- 
 titled " The Quadrupeds of America " 
 (1843-1850, 3 vols.). He died in 
 New York city, June 27. 1851. 
 
 Auerbacb.^ Berthold, a German 
 novelist, born at Nordstetten, Wiir- 
 temberg, Feb. 28, 1812. He died at 
 Cannes, France, Feb. 8, 1882. 
 
 Anersperg, Anton Alexander, 
 Graf von, a German poet, born at 
 Laibach, April 11, 1806. He died at 
 Gratz, Sept. 12, 1876. His poems are 
 very popular in Germany.
 
 Auerstaclt 
 
 Auerstadt, a village in the Prus- 
 sian Province of Saxony, 10 miles \V. 
 of Naumburg. It is famous for the 
 great battle which took place there 
 Oct. 14, 1806, between the French un- 
 der Davoust, and the Prussian army 
 under Duke Charles of Brunswick, 
 which ended in a great victory for the 
 former. The Prussians, who num- 
 bered fully 48,000, left nearly half of 
 their men dead or wounded on the 
 ground, while the French (30,000) es- 
 caped with a loss of only 7,000. Na- 
 poleon, who had, on the same day, 
 defeated the main army of Frederick 
 William III. at Jena, made Davoust 
 Duke of Auerstadt. 
 
 Augeas, a fabulous king of Elis, 
 in Greece, whose stable contained 
 3,000 oxen, and had not been cleaned 
 for 30 years. Hercules undertook to 
 clear away the filth in one day in re- 
 turn for a 10th part of the cattle, and 
 executed the task by turning the river 
 Alpheus through it. Augeas, having 
 broken the bargain, was deposed and 
 slain by Hercules. 
 
 Augsburg, Confession of, name 
 given to the celebrated declaration of 
 faith, compiled by Melanchthon, re- 
 vised by Luther and other reformers, 
 and read before the Diet of Augsburg, 
 June 25, 1530. It consisted of 28 arti- 
 cles, seven of which refuted Roman 
 Catholic errors, and the remaining 21 
 set forth the Lutheran creed. Soon 
 after its promulgation, the last hope 
 of reforming the Roman Catholic 
 Church was abandoned, and complete 
 severance followed. An answer by the 
 Roman Catholics w r as read Aug. 3, 
 1530 ; when the Diet declared that it 
 had been refuted. Melanchthon then 
 drew up another confession. The first 
 is called the unaltered, and the sec- 
 ond, the altered form. 
 
 Augsburg, Diet of, the most cel- 
 ebrated of the numerous diets held at 
 Augsburg. Pope Clement VII. refus- 
 ing to call a general council for the 
 settlement of all religious disputes, 
 the Emperor Charles V. summoned 
 one to meet at Augsburg, June 20, 
 1530. On the 25th the famous " Con- 
 fession " was read ; later an answer 
 was made by the Catholics, whereupon 
 the Protestants were ordered to con- 
 form in all points to the Church of 
 Rome, Charles V. giving them till 
 
 August 
 
 April 15, 1531, to reunite with the 
 Mother Church. On Nov. 22, the em- 
 peror announced his intention to ex- 
 ecute the edict of Worms, made severe 
 enactments against the Protestants, 
 and reconstituted the Imperial Cham- 
 ber. The Protestants put in a counter 
 declaration, and the Diet closed. 
 
 Augsburg, League of, a league 
 concluded at Augsburg, July. 9, 1086, 
 for the maintenance of the treaties of 
 Minister and Nimeguen, and the truce 
 of Ratisbon, and to resist the en- 
 croachments of France. The contract- 
 ing parties were the Emperor Leopold 
 I., the Kings of Spain and Sweden, 
 the Electors of Saxony and Bavaria, 
 and the circles of Suabia, Franconia, 
 Upper Saxony and Bavaria. 
 
 Augur, Christopher .Colon, an 
 American military officer; born in 
 New York, July 10, 1821 ; was gradu- 
 ated at the United States Military 
 Academy in 1843; became Major of 
 the 13th United States Infantry in 
 1861; Colonel of the 12th Infantry 
 in 1866; Brigadier-General, United 
 States army, March 4, 1869 ; Major- 
 General in the volunteer service in 
 1862 ; mustered out of that service in 
 1866; and was retired in the regular 
 army, July 16, 1885. He commanded 
 a division in the battle of !edar 
 Mountain, being severely wounded. 
 He died in Washington, D. C., Jan. 
 16, 1898. 
 
 Augurs, a college of diviners in 
 ancient Rome, who predicted future 
 events and read the will of the gods 
 from the occurrence of certain signs, 
 connected with thunder and light- 
 ning ; the flight and cries of birds ; the 
 feeding of the sacred chickens ; the ac- 
 tion of certain quadrupeds or serpents ; 
 accidents, such as spilling the salt, etc. 
 The answers of the augurs and the 
 signs were called auguries ; bird-pre- 
 dictions were auspices. Nothing was 
 undertaken without the augurs, and 
 by the words " alio die" (''meet on 
 another day "), they could dissolve the 
 assembly of the people and annul de- 
 crees passed at the meeting. 
 
 August, the eighth month of our 
 year, named by the Roman Emperor 
 Augustus, after himself, being asso- 
 ciated with several of his victories and 
 other fortunate events. Before this it 
 was called Sextilis or the sixth month
 
 Augusta 
 
 (counting from March). July had 
 been named for Julius Caesar and the 
 Senate to please Augustus decreed that 
 August should have equal length, tak- 
 ing a day from February. 
 
 Augusta, city and capital of Rich- 
 mond county, Ga., on the Savannah 
 river and the Southern and other rail- 
 roads; 120 miles N. W. of Savannah. 
 The city, is noted for its diversified 
 manufactures, which have an annual 
 value of over $10,000,000, and- its 
 large trade in cotton, lumber, fruit, 
 and vegetables. Pop. (1910) 41,040. 
 
 Augusta, city and capital of the 
 State of Maine and of Kennebec 
 county; on the Kennebec river and 
 the Maine Central railroad; 63 miles 
 N. E. of Portland. The city has 
 abundant water power for numerous 
 factories, and besides several State 
 buildings, has a National Arsenal and 
 (4 miles out) a National Soldiers' 
 Home. Pop. (1910) 13,211. 
 
 Augusta, Victoria, Duchess of 
 Schleswig - Holstein - Sonderburg-Au- 
 gustenburg, born Oct. 22, 1858; 
 daughter of the late Duke Friedrich; 
 married Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, 
 afterward Wilhelm II., Feb. 27, 1881; 
 became Empress of Germany and 
 Queen of Prussia on the accession of 
 her husband to the throne in 1888. 
 
 Aqgustine, or Austin, St., the 
 Apostle of the English, flourished at 
 the close of the 6th century. 
 
 Angnstulns, Romulus, the last 
 of the Western Roman emperors ; 
 reigned for one year (475^176), when 
 he was overthrown by Odoacer and 
 banished. 
 
 Augustus, Caius Julius Caesar 
 Octaviauus, originally called CAIUS 
 OCTAVIUS, the celebrated Roman em- 
 peror, was the son of Caius Octavius 
 and Atia, a daughter of Julia, the sis- 
 ter of Julius Caesar. He was born 
 63 B. c., and died A. D. 14. He was 
 the first emperor of Rome in the full 
 sense of exercising imperial power as 
 a recognized monarch, and he was 
 also one of the greatest, if not the 
 greatest of the emperors, a liberal pa- 
 tron of art, and broad and sagacious 
 in the exercise of his authority. He 
 is said to have " found Rome of brick 
 and left it of marble." 
 
 Auk, the name given to several sea 
 birds, especially the great and the lit- 
 
 Aurifaber 
 
 tie auk. The great auk is from two 
 to two and a half feet high, with 
 short wings almost useless for flight. 
 In the water, however, it makes way 
 with astonishing rapidity. It is es- 
 sentially a northern bird. It seems to 
 be rapidly verging to extinction. 
 
 Anlic, an epithet given to a coun- 
 cil (the Reichshofrath) in the old 
 German Empire, one of the two su- 
 preme courts of the German Empire, 
 the other being the court of the im- 
 perial chamber ( Reichskammerge- 
 richt). It had not only concurrent 
 jurisdiction with the latter court, but 
 in many cases exclusive jurisdiction, 
 in all feudal processes, and in crim- 
 inal affairs, over the immediate feuda- 
 tories of the emperor and in affairs 
 which concerned the Imperial Govern- 
 ment. The title is now applied in 
 Germany in a general sense to the 
 chief council of any department, po- 
 litical, administrative, judicial or mili- 
 tary. 
 
 Aurelian, Lucius Doiaitius 
 Aureliauns, an Emperor of Rome, 
 distinguished for his military abilities 
 and stern severity of character; was 
 the son of a peasant of Illyricum. He 
 was born about 212 A. D., and lost his 
 life, A. D. 275, by assassination, the 
 result of a conspiracy excited by a 
 secretary whom he intended to call to 
 account for peculation. 
 
 Aureola, or Aureole, in paint- 
 ings, an illumination surrounding a 
 holy person, as Christ, a saint, or a 
 martyr, intended to represent a lu- 
 minous cloud or haze emanating from 
 him. 
 
 Aureus, the first gold coin which 
 was coined at Rome, 207 B. C. Its 
 value varied at different times, from 
 about $3 to $6. 
 
 Auricles of the Heart, those two 
 of the four cavities of the heart which 
 are much smaller than the others, and 
 each of which, moreover, has falling 
 down upon its external face a flattened 
 appendage, like the ear of a dog, from 
 which the name of the whole struc- 
 ture is derived. 
 
 Auricula, a beautiful garden flow- 
 er. It is a native of the Alpine dis- 
 tricts of Italy, Switzerland, and Ger- 
 many, and occurs also in Astrakhan. 
 
 Aurifaber, the Latinized name of 
 
 JOHANN GOLDSCHMIDT, One of Lu-
 
 Auriga 
 
 ther's companions, born in 1519, be- 
 came pastor at Erfurt in 1566; died 
 there in 1579. He collected the un- 
 published manuscripts of Luther. 
 
 Auriga, in astronomy, the Wag- 
 oner, a constellation of the northern 
 hemisphere containing 68 stars, in- 
 cluding Capella of the first magnitude. 
 
 Auringer, Obadiah. Cyrus, an 
 American poet, born at_ Glens Falls, 
 N: Y., June 4, 1849. 
 
 Aurora, a city in Kane county, 
 111.; on the Fox river and the Chi- 
 cago & Northwestern and other rail- 
 roads; 38 miles W. of Chicago; is 
 the farming and manufacturing cen- 
 ter of Kane and adjoining counties; 
 has large cotton and woollen mills 
 and locomotive and car works; and 
 claims the first electric lighting sys- 
 tem in the United States. Pop. 
 (1910) 29,807. 
 
 Aurora Borealis, a luminous me- 
 teoric phenomenon appearing in the 
 N. most frequently in high latitudes, 
 the corresponding phenomenon in the 
 southern hemisphere being called au- 
 rora austral is, and both being also 
 called polar light, streamers, etc. 
 
 Aurungzebe, known as the Great 
 Mogul, or Emperor of Hindustan, 
 born Oct. 22, 1618. He was the son 
 of Shah of Jehan, and properly named 
 Mohammed, but received from his 
 grandfather that of Aurungzebe (Or- 
 nament of the Throne), by which he 
 is known to history. Aurungzebe died 
 at Ahmednagar, in the Deccan, Feb. 
 21, 1707, master of 21 provinces, and 
 of a revenue of about $200,000,000. 
 
 Auscultation, the art of discov- 
 ering diseases within the body by 
 means of the sense of hearing. Being 
 carried out most efficiently by means 
 of an instrument called a stethoscope, 
 it is often called mediate auscultation. 
 
 Auspices, among the Romans, 
 omen especially those drawn from 
 the flight or other movements of birds, 
 or, less properly, from the occurrence 
 of lightning or thunder in particular 
 parts of the sky. These were sup- 
 posed to be indications of the will of 
 heaven, and to reveal futurity. 
 
 Austen, Jane, an English novelist, 
 born at Steventon, Hampshire, of 
 which parish her father was the rec- 
 tor, Dec. 16, 1775 ; died, July 18, 1817. 
 
 Austim 
 
 Austerlitz, a small town of Mo- 
 ravia, on the Littawa ? 13 miles S. E. 
 of Briinn. In the vicinity, on Dec. 2, 
 1805, was fought the famous battle 
 that bears its name, between the 
 French army of 80,000 men, com- 
 manded by Napoleon, and the com- 
 bined Russian and Austrian armies, 
 numbering 84,000, under their respec- 
 tive Emperors; in which the former 
 achieved a signal victory. 
 
 Austin, capital of the State of 
 Texas, and county-seat of Travis co. ; 
 on the Colorado river; 230 miles N. 
 W. of Galveston. It derives large 
 power for manufacturing from the riv- 
 er. Besides the State Capitol, the city 
 contains the main building of the State 
 University, four State asylums, the 
 State Confederate Home. The Capi- 
 tol, which cost $3,000,000, is in a 
 square of 10 acres. The recent con- 
 struction of a dam in the river has 
 given the city a large and beautiful 
 stretch of water, known as Lake Mc- 
 Donald. The city was originally 
 known as Waterloo ; was named after 
 Stephen F. Austin ; became the capital 
 of the Republic of Texas in 1839 ; and 
 the capital of the State in 1872. Pop. 
 U900) 22,258: (1910) 29.860. 
 
 Austin, Alfred, an English poet, 
 critic, and journalist, born at Head- 
 ingly, near Leeds, May 30, 1835. He 
 graduated from the University of Lon- 
 don in 1853, was called to the bar in 
 1857, and was editor of the " National 
 Review," 1883-1893. He was ap- 
 pointed poet laureate of England in 
 1896. 
 
 Austin, George Lowell, an 
 American physician and writer, born 
 in Massachusetts in 1849; died in 
 1893. 
 
 Austin, Henry, an American law- 
 yer and legal writer, born in Boston, 
 Mass., Dec. 21, 1858; wrote several 
 valuable law books. 
 
 Austin, Jane Goodwin, an Amer- 
 ican novelist, born in Worcester, 
 Mass., Feb. 25, 1831; was educated 
 and thenceforth lived in Boston. She 
 died in Boston, March 30, 1894. 
 
 Austin, John, an English writer 
 on jurisprudence, born fn Creeling 
 Mill, Suffolk, March 3, 1790. From 
 1826 to 1835 he filled the chair of 
 Jurisprudence at London University. 
 Died in Weybridge, Surrey, in Decem-
 
 Austin 
 
 ber, 1859. His wife, SARAH, one of 
 the Taylors of Norwich, born in 1793, 
 produced translations of German 
 works, and other books bearing on 
 Germany or its literature. She died 
 in Weybridge, Surrey, Aug. 8, 1867. 
 Her daughter, LADY DUFF GORDON, 
 translated several German works. 
 
 Austin, Stephen Fuller, an 
 American pioneer, born in Austinville, 
 Va., Nov. 31, 1793; a son of Moses 
 Austin, the real founder of the State 
 of Texas, who, about 1820, obtained 
 permission from the Mexican Govern- 
 ment to establish an American colony 
 in Texas, but died before his plans 
 were accomplished. Stephen took up 
 the work unfinished by his father, and 
 located a thrifty colony on the site 
 of the present city of Austin, in 1821. 
 Subsequently he was a commissioner 
 to urge the admission of Texas into 
 the Mexican Union ; was imprisoned 
 there for several months ; and, in 
 1835 was a commissioner to the 
 United States Government to secure 
 the recognition of Texas as an inde- 
 pendent State. He died in Columbia, 
 Tex., Dec. 25, 1836. 
 
 Australasia, a division of the 
 globe usually regarded as comprehend- 
 ing the islands of Australia, Tasmania, 
 New Zealand, New Caledonia, the 
 New Hebrides, the Solomon Islands, 
 New Ireland, New Britain, the Ad- 
 miralty Islands, New Guinea, and the 
 'Arru Islands, besides numerous other 
 islands and island groups ; area, 3,259,- 
 199 square miles, pop. about five mil- 
 lions. It forms one of three portions 
 into which some geographers have di- 
 vided Oceania, the other two being 
 Malaysia and Polynesia. 
 
 Australia (older name, New Hol- 
 land) , the largest island in the world, 
 a sea-girt continent, lying between the 
 Indian and Pacific Oceans, S. E. of 
 Asia ; between lat. 10 39' and 39 11' 
 S.; long. 113 5' and 153 16' E. ; 
 greatest length, from W. to E., 2,400 
 miles ; greatest breadth from N. to S., 
 1,700 to 1,900 miles. It is separated 
 from New Guinea on the N. by Torres 
 Strait, from Tasmania on the S. by 
 Bass Strait. It is divided into two 
 unequal parts by the Tropic of Capri- 
 corn, and is occupied by what are 
 known as the original states of the 
 Commonwealth of Australia. 
 
 Original States. 
 
 Area 
 Sq. M. 
 
 Pop. 
 
 New South Wales......... 
 
 310 167 
 
 
 
 87'88i 
 
 
 
 668407 
 
 
 
 QO1 DQO 
 
 
 Western Australia ........ 
 
 
 Ift2 ZZ1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 2 Q72 Wl 
 
 1*7*71 1*7Q 
 
 
 
 
 Australia 
 
 The area and the population (exclu- 
 sive of aborigines) of the different 
 States composing the Commonwealth 
 of Australia in 1901 were as follows: 
 
 Sydney, the capital of New South 
 Wales, Melbourne, the capital of Vic- 
 toria, Adelaide, the capital of South 
 Australia, and Brisbane, the capital 
 of Queensland, are the chief towns. 
 
 Australia is a region containing a 
 vast quantity of mineral wealth. Fore- 
 most come its rich and extensive de- 
 posits of gold, which, since the 
 precious metal was first discovered, in 
 1851, have produced a total of more 
 than $1,350,000,000. The greatest 
 quantity has been obtained in Vic- 
 toria, but New South Wales and 
 Queensland have also yielded a consid- 
 erable amount. Probably there are 
 rich stores of gold as yet undiscovered. 
 Australia also possesses silver, cop- 
 per, tin, lead, zinc, antimony, mercury, 
 plumbago, etc., in abundance, besides 
 coal (now worked to a considerable 
 extent in New South Wales) and iron. 
 Various precious stones are found, as 
 the garnet, ruby, topaz, sapphire, and 
 even the diamond. Of building stone 
 there are granite, limestone, marble, 
 and sandstone. 
 
 The Australian flora presents pecu- 
 liarities which mark it off by itself in 
 a very decided manner. Many of its 
 most striking features have an unmis- 
 takable relation to the general dryness 
 of the climate. The trees and bushes 
 have, for the most part, a scanty foli- 
 age, presenting little surface for evap- 
 oration, or thick feathery leaves well 
 fitted to retain moisture. 
 
 The Australian fauna is almost 
 unique in its character. Its great 
 feature is the nearly total absence of 
 all the forms of mammalia which 
 abound in the rest of the world, their 
 place being supplied by a great va- 
 riety of marsupials these animate
 
 Australia 
 
 being nowhere else found, except in 
 the opossums of America. There are 
 about 30 kinds of marsupials (of 
 which the kangaroo, wombat, bandi- 
 coot, and phalangers or opossums, are 
 the best known varieties), over 20 
 kinds of bats, a wild dog (the dingo), 
 and a number of rats and mice. Two 
 extraordinary animals, the platypus, 
 or water mole of the colonist, and the 
 porcupine ant-eater constitute the low- 
 est order of mammals, and are con- 
 fined to Australia. Their young are 
 produced from eggs. Australia now 
 possesses a large stock of domestic ani- 
 mals which thrive remarkably well. 
 I The birds of Australia are numer- 
 ous and in great variety, all the more 
 important orders and families of class 
 Aves being represented. 
 
 The natives belong to the Austral- 
 ian negro stock, and are sometimes 
 considered the lowest as regards intel- 
 ligence in the whole human family, 
 though this is doubtful. They are be- 
 lieved to number about 60,000, ex- 
 clusive of those in the unexplored 
 parts. They are of a dark-brown or 
 black color, with jet-black curly, but 
 not woolly hair, of medium size, but 
 inferior muscular development. In 
 the settled parts of the continent they 
 are inoffensive, and rapidly dying out. 
 They have no fixed habitations ; in the 
 Bummer they live almost entirely in 
 the open air, and in the more inclem- 
 ent weather they shelter themselves 
 with bark erections of the rudest con- 
 struction. They have no cultivation 
 and no domestic animals. Their food 
 consists of such animals as they can 
 kill, and no kind of living creature 
 seems to be rejected, snakes, lizards, 
 frogs, or even insects being eaten, 
 often half raw. They are ignorant 
 of the potter's art. In their natural 
 condition they wear little or no cloth- 
 ing. They speak a number of differ- 
 ent languages or dialects. The women 
 are regarded merely as slaves, and are 
 frightfully maltreated. They have no 
 religion ; they practice polygamy, and 
 are said to sometimes resort to canni- 
 balism, but only in exceptional cir- 
 cumstances. They are occasionally 
 employed by the settlers in light kinds 
 of work, and as horse-breakers; but 
 they dislike continuous occupation, 
 and soon give it up. The weapons of 
 all the tribes are generally similar, 
 
 E. 11. 
 
 Austria 
 
 consisting of spears, shields, boomer- 
 angs, wooden axes, clubs, and stone 
 hatchets. Of these the boomerang ia 
 the most singular, being an invention 
 confined to the Australians. 
 
 Australia, South, one of the orig- 
 inal States in the Commonwealth of 
 Australia ; occupies the middle of Aus- 
 tralia, and stretches from sea to sea. 
 At first as the colony of South Aus- 
 tralia it extended between Ion. 132 
 and 141 E., and from the Southern 
 Ocean to lat. 26 N. It now has an area 
 of about 903,690. Pop. ( 1901 ) 354,001. 
 
 Australia, Western, one of the 
 original States in the Commonwealth 
 of Australia; embraces all that por- 
 tion of Australia W. of Ion. 129. E., 
 bounded E. by South Australia, and 
 N., W., and S. by the Indian Ocean; 
 area, 975,920 square miles ; capital, 
 Perth. The coast-line measures about 
 3,000 miles, and, except on the S., is 
 indented by numerous bays, creeks, and 
 estuaries. From 1850 to 1868 it was a 
 place for the transportation of con- 
 victs. In 1890 the State received au- 
 tonomous government. On Oct. 16, 
 1906, the Legislature adopted a motion 
 to secede from the commonwealth, the 
 union being detrimental to the devel- 
 oping interests of the State. Pop. 
 182,553. 
 
 Australian Federation, a poli- 
 tical union of all the Australian colo- 
 nies, the agitation for which began in 
 1852. Feb., 1899, a unanimous agree- 
 ment was reached by the colonial pre- 
 miers in conference at Melbourne, re- 
 garding the unsettled questions re- 
 ferred to them by the colonial Legisla- 
 tures, thus insuring the success of the 
 federation project. In 1900, a bill 
 making Federation effective was intro- 
 duced into Parliament, at London, and 
 passed, the only amendment offered 
 having reference to the royal preroga- 
 tive. Later in that year the Earl of 
 Hopetoun was appointed by the Queen 
 first Governor-General. He resigned 
 in May, 1902. 
 
 Austria, or Austria-Hungary, 
 an extensive monarchy in Central Eu- 
 rope, inhabited by several distinct 
 nationalities, and consisting of two 
 semi-independent countries, each with 
 its own parliament and government, 
 but with one common sovereign, army*
 
 Austria 
 
 Austria 
 
 and system of diplomacy, and also 
 with a parliament common to both. 
 The Austrian empire extends from 
 about lat. 42 to 51 N., or, exclusive 
 of Dalmatia and the narrower part of 
 Croatia, from about lat. 44 30' to 
 51 N., and from Ion. 8 30' to 26 
 30' E., the total area in round num- 
 bers is 240,000 square miles. Its 
 greatest length from E. to W. is about 
 860. miles ; its greatest breadth from 
 N. to S., with the exclusion above 
 stated, is about 400 miles ; bounded S. 
 by Turkey, the Adriatic Sea, and the 
 kingdom of Italy ; W. by Switzerland, 
 Bavaria, and Saxony ; N. by Prussia 
 and Russian Poland ; and E. by Rus- 
 sia and Rumania. On the shores of 
 the Adriatic, along the coasts of Dal- 
 inatia, Croatia, Istria, etc., lies its only 
 soa frontage. 
 
 Besides being divided into the two 
 gnmt divisions above mentioned, the 
 Austro-Hungarian monarchy is 
 further divided into a number of gov- 
 ernments or provinces. The follow- 
 ing table gives their name, area, and 
 population in 1900 : 
 
 DIVISIONS. 
 
 Area in 
 sq. m. 
 
 Pop., Dec. 
 31, 1900 
 
 Austrian Provinces 
 Lower Austria.... 
 Upper Austria 
 Salzburg 
 
 7,654 
 4,631 
 2,767 
 
 3,100,493 
 810,246 
 192,763 
 
 
 8,670 
 
 1,356,494 
 
 Carinthia 
 
 4,005 
 
 367,337 
 
 Carniola 
 
 3,856 
 
 508,150 
 
 Coast land 
 
 3,084 
 
 756,546 
 
 Tyrol and Vorarl- 
 berg 
 
 11,324 
 
 981,989 
 
 Bohemia 
 
 20,060 
 
 6,318,697 
 
 Moravia 
 
 8,583 
 
 2,437,706 
 
 Silesia 
 
 1,987 
 
 680,422 
 
 
 30,307 
 
 7,315,816 
 
 Bukowina 
 
 4,035 
 
 730,195 
 
 Dalmatia 
 
 4,940 
 
 593,783 
 
 
 
 
 Hungarian Prov- 
 inces 
 Plungary and Tran- 
 
 115,903 
 108,258 
 
 26,150,597 
 16,656 904 
 
 Croatia and Slave- 
 
 16,773 
 
 2,397,249 
 
 
 8 
 
 38,189 
 
 Military out of the 
 
 
 114 811 
 
 
 
 
 
 125,039 
 
 19,207,103 
 
 Total 
 
 240,942 
 
 45 357 700 
 
 
 
 
 None of the European States, with 
 the exception of Russia, exhibits such 
 a diversity of race and language 
 among their population as does the 
 Austrian empire. The Slavs, who 
 amount to above 19,000,000, or 45 
 per cent, of the total population, are 
 the chief of the component nationali- 
 ties of the monarchy in point of num- 
 bers, forming the great mass of the 
 population of Bohemia, Moravia, Car- 
 niola, Galicia, Dalmatia, the kingdom 
 of Croatia and Slavonia, and North- 
 ern Hungary, and half the population 
 of Silesia and Bukowina. This pre- 
 ponderance, however, is only apparent, 
 as none of the other races are split up 
 into so many branches differing so 
 greatly from each other in language, 
 religion, civilization, manners, and 
 customs. These branches are the 
 North Slavic Czechs, Moravians, and 
 Slovaks, the Ruthenians and Poles, 
 and the South Slavic Slovenians, 
 Croats, Serbs, and Bulgarians. The 
 Germans, about 10,570,000 in num- 
 ber, are scattered over the whole mon- 
 archy, and form almost the sole popu- 
 lation of the archduchy .of Austria, 
 Salzburg, the greatest portion of 
 Styria and Carinthia, almost the 
 whole of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, con- 
 siderable portions of Bohemia and Mo- 
 ravia, the whole of the W. of Silesia, 
 etc. ; and they are also numerous in 
 Hungary and Transylvania. The Mag- 
 yars or Hungarians (7,440,000 in 
 number, or about 16 per cent, of the 
 total population) form the great bulk 
 of the inhabitants of the kingdom of 
 Hungary and of the E. portion of 
 Transylvania. To the Italic or West- 
 ern Romanic stock belong the inhabi- 
 tants of South Tyrol and parts of the 
 coast lands and Dalmatia, numbering 
 about 700,000 in all. A considerable 
 portion of the S. E. of the empire is 
 occupied by members of the Ruma- 
 nian (or Eastern Romanic) stock, 
 who number altogether about 2,800,- 
 000, and form more than half the pop- 
 ulation of Transylvania, besides being 
 spread over the S. E. parts of Hun- 
 gary, Bukowina, and part of Croatia 
 and Slavonia. The number of Jews 
 is also very considerable (above 
 1,000,000), especially in alicia, Hun- 
 gary, Bohemia, and Moravia. There 
 are also several other races whose 
 numbers are small, such as the Gyp-
 
 GASOLINE TOURING CAR 
 
 GASOLINE TOURING CAR 
 
 LATEST TYPES OF
 
 ELECTRIC COUPE 
 
 FORE-DOOR LIMOUSINE 
 
 UTOMOBILES
 
 Austria 
 
 Automobiles 
 
 sies (95,000), who are most numerous 
 in Hungary and Transylvania, and the 
 Albanians iu Dalmatia and neighbor- 
 ing regions. \The population is thick- 
 est in Lower v Austria, Bohemia, Sile- 
 sia, and Moravia ; thinnest in Salz- 
 burg. Generally speaking, it de- 
 creases in density from W. to E. The 
 weakness of the\ empire lies in this 
 diversity of race and language ; al- 
 ready the contest between the German 
 and Czech elements have caused seri- 
 ous tension, and it is probable that the 
 death of the emperor, whose personal 
 influence has thus far prevented ac- 
 tual warfare, will allow the race hat- 
 red that exists to break into danger- 
 ous manifestations. All legislative 
 business was at a standstill for nearly 
 three years until an agreement in 
 April, 1906, between the factions 
 permitted the ordinary functions of 
 government to be resumed. 
 
 The State religion of Austria is the 
 Roman Catholic, and next in numbers 
 is the Greek Church. Calvinism and 
 Lutheranism are also professed by a 
 large body of the people ; the former 
 mostly in Hungary and Transylvania, 
 the latter in the German provinces and 
 in Galicia. The civil power exercises 
 supreme control in all ecclesiastical 
 matters, the emperor being, in every- 
 thing but the name, head of the 
 Church ; and as no sentence or excom- 
 munication, or other ecclesiastical 
 edict can be issued without the sanc- 
 tion of the crown, the Pope's direct 
 authority in Austria is limited. 
 
 Military service is obligatory on all 
 citizens capable of bearing arms who 
 have attained the age of 20, and lasts 
 up to the age of 42, either in the ac- 
 tive army, in the landwehr, or the 
 landsturm. The period of service in 
 the active army is 12 years, of which 
 three are passed in the line, seven in 
 the reserve, and two in the landwehr. 
 In 1900 the standing army numbered 
 361,693 men (including officers) on 
 the peace footing, and 1,826,940 men 
 and 45,238 officers when placed on the 
 war footing. 
 
 On Oct. 7, 1909, without any pre- 
 vious hint, the annexation of the 
 Turkish provinces of Bosnia and 
 Herzegovina and the sanjak of Novi 
 Bazar was proclaimed. Turkey vain- 
 ly protested against the act, as a 
 violation of the Treaty of Berlin. 
 
 Author's Guild, American, an 
 
 organization founded in New York 
 city, in 1892, and incorporated, in 
 1895, has for its objects the promo- 
 tion of a professional spirit among 
 authors and a better understanding 
 between authors and their publishers, 
 and, in general, the protection of lite- 
 rary property and the advancement of 
 the interests of American authors and 
 literature. The guild has a pension 
 fund for members who become needy. 
 
 Autocracy, a word signifying that 
 form of government in which the sov- 
 ereign unites in himself the legislative 
 and the executive powers of the State, 
 and thus rules uncontrolled. Such a 
 sovereign is. therefore, called an auto- 
 crat. Nearly all Eastern governments 
 are of this form. Among European 
 rulers, the Emperor of Russia alone 
 bears the title of Autocrat, the name 
 indicating his freedom from constitu- 
 tional restraint of every kind. 
 
 Automatic Gun, a light-mounted 
 breech-loading gun, in which the recoil 
 of the first shot is turned to account 
 in discharging the empty cartridge 
 case, reloading, and returning the gun 
 to firing readiness. 
 
 Automaton (Greek automatos, 
 spontaneous), a self -moving machine 
 performing actions like those of a liv- 
 ing being, and often shaped like one. 
 The walking statues of Daedalus, the 
 flying dove of Archytas, the brazen 
 head of Friar Bacon, the iron fly of 
 Regiomontanus, the door-opening fig- 
 ure of Albertus Magnus, the parading 
 knights of the clock presented to Char- 
 lemagne by Harun al Rashid, the toy 
 carriage and attendants constructed by 
 Camus for Louis XIV., and the flute- 
 player of Vaucanson, are among the 
 noteworthy automata. 
 
 Automobiles, a term under which 
 are comprised horseless carriages, mo- 
 tor vans, motor omnibus, and all the 
 motor traction vehicles adapted for use 
 on ordinary roads having no rails. 
 Electricity, steam and gasoline or 
 naptha are the three main sources of 
 power that do the bidding of the man 
 behind the lever. Other sources of 
 power, such as compressed air, liquid 
 air, carbonic acid gas and alcohol, 
 have been experimented with ; but are 
 regarded as impracticable by, experts. 
 The modern automobile, which was 
 led ,up to by the bicycle with its rub'
 
 Autonomy 
 
 her tires, found its first great devel- 
 opment in France, encouraged by the 
 perfection of the highways in that 
 country. The U. S. Government cen- 
 sus report for the year 1909 gives the 
 automobile output for the year as 
 $249,202,000 ; number of persons em- 
 ployed, 75,721 ; number of cars manu- 
 factured, 119,000. In 1911 the pro- 
 duction in the United States was 209,- 
 957 automobiles, and manufacturers 
 say the total number will reach over 
 247,000 in 1912, with a gross valua- 
 tion of about $500,000.000. In addi- 
 tion to the home production, large 
 quantities of vehicles are imported 
 from Europe. The accessory side of 
 automobiling shows nearly 1,000 man- 
 ufacturers, with over $200,000,000 
 capitalization, exclusive of the rubber 
 tire companies. Since the year 1910 
 great progress has been made in the 
 development of the commercial auto- 
 mobile for li^ht delivery and heavy 
 tmcking purposes. 
 
 Autonomy, the arrangement by 
 which the citizens of a State manage 
 their own legislation and government; 
 and this evidently may, with certain 
 restrictions, be the case also within 
 limited bodies of the same people, such 
 as corporations, religious sects, etc. 
 
 Autopsy, eye-witnessing, a direct 
 observation ; generally applied to a 
 post mortem examination, or the dis- 
 section of a dead body. 
 
 Autumn, the season of the year 
 which follows summer and precedes 
 winter. Astronomically, it is consid- 
 ered to extend from the autumnal equi- 
 nox, Sept. 23, in which the sun enters 
 Libra, to the winter solstice, Dec. 22, 
 in which he enters Capricorn. Pop- 
 ularly, it is believed to embrace the 
 months of September, October and 
 November. 
 
 Auvergne, a province of Central 
 France, now merged into the Depart- 
 ments of Cantal and Puy-de-D6me, 
 and an arrondissement of Haute- 
 Loire. It contains the Auvergne Moun- 
 tains, the highest in France. 
 
 Anxetophone, a device which 
 greatly increases the sound produced 
 by the graphophoue (q. v.). 
 
 Auzout, Adrian, a French math- 
 ematician ; inventor of the micrometer, 
 which is still in use among astron- 
 
 Avebury 
 
 omers to measure the apparent diam- 
 eter of celestial bodies. He was the 
 first who thought of applying the tel- 
 escope to the astronomical quadrant. 
 He died in 1691. 
 
 Ava, Arva, Yava, or Kava, a 
 plant possessing narcotic proprieties. 
 Until recently it was ranked in the 
 genus piper (pepper). It is a native 
 of many of the South Sea islands, 
 where the inhabitants intoxicate them- 
 selves with a fermented liquor pre- 
 pared from the upper portion of the 
 root and the base of the stem. 
 
 Avalanches, masses of snow or 
 ice that slide or roll down the decliv- 
 ities of high mountains, and often 
 occasion great devastation. They 
 are most common in July, August 
 and September. Sudden avalanches, 
 larger or smaller, constitute one of 
 the special dangers of Alpine climbing. 
 
 Avars, a people, probably of Tu- 
 ranian origin, who at an early period 
 may have migrated from the region E. 
 of the Tbbol in Siberia to that about 
 the Don, the Caspian Sea, and the 
 Volga. A part advanced to the Dan- 
 ube in 555 A. D., and settled in Dacia. 
 They served in Justinian's army, aid- 
 ed the Lombards in destroying the 
 kingdom of the Gepidse, and in the 
 Gth century conquered under their 
 khan, Bajan, the region of Pannonia. 
 They then won Dalmatia, pressed into 
 Thuringia and Italy against the 
 Franks and Lombards, and subdued 
 the Slavs dwelling on the Danube, as 
 well as the Bulgarians on the Black 
 Sea. But they were ultimately lim- 
 ited to Pannonia, where they were 
 overcome by Charlemagne, and nearly 
 extirpated by the Slavs of Moravia. 
 After 827 they disappear from history. 
 Traces of their fortified settlements 
 are found, and known as Avarian 
 rings. 
 
 Avatar, more properly Avatara, 
 in Hindu mythology, an incarnation 
 of the Deity. Of the innumerable 
 avatars the chief are the 10 incarna- 
 tions of Vishnu, who appeared succes- 
 sively as a fish, a tortoise, a boar. 
 
 Avdyeyev, Michael Vassilye- 
 vich, a Russian novelist (1821-1876). 
 
 Avebury, a village of England, in 
 Wiltshire, occupying the site of a so- 
 called Druidical temple, which origi- 
 nally consisted of a large outer circle
 
 Avebury 
 
 of 100 stones, from 15 to 17 feet in 
 height, and about 40 feet in circum- 
 ference, surrounded by a broad ditch 
 and lofty rampart, and inclosing two 
 smaller circles. 
 
 Avebury, Lord. See LUBBOCK. 
 
 Avellaneda, Nicholas, an Ar- 
 gentine statesman, born in Tucuman, 
 Oct. 1, 1836; Minister of Public in- 
 struction in 1868-1874, and President 
 of the Republic in 1874-1886; pub- 
 lished several historical and economi- 
 cal works. He died Dec. 26, 1885. 
 ' Avellaneda y Arteaga, Ger- 
 trudis Gomez de, a distinguished 
 Spanish poet, dramatist and novelist, 
 born in Puerto Principe, Cuba, March 
 23, 1814. She died in. Madrid, Feb. 
 2, 1873. 
 
 Ave Maria ("Hail, Mary"), the 
 first two words of the angel Gabriel's 
 salutation (Luke i: 28), and the be- 
 ginning of the very common Latin 
 prayer to the Virgin in the Roman 
 Catholic Church. 
 
 Average, formerly the apportion- 
 ment of losses by sea or elsewhere in 
 just proportions among different indi- 
 viduals ; now the medium or mean 
 proportion between certain given 
 quantities. It is ascertained by ad- 
 ding all the quantities together and 
 dividing their sum by the number of 
 them. 
 
 Averell, William Woods, an 
 'American military officer, born in 
 Cameron, N. Y., Nov. 5, 1832; was 
 graduated at the United States Mili- 
 tary Academy in 1855; served on the 
 frontier and in* several Indian cam- 
 paigns till the beginning of the Civil 
 ,War, when he was appointed Colonel 
 of the 3d Pennsylvania Cavalry, and 
 assigned to the command of the caval- 
 ry defenses of Washington. During 
 the war he distinguished himself on 
 numerous occasions as a cavalry raid- 
 er and commander, and at its close 
 was brevetted Major-General of volun- 
 teers. He was retired in 1888. 
 He was United States Consul-general 
 at Montreal in 1866-1869. He died in 
 Bath, N. Y., Feb. 3, 1900. 
 
 Avernus, or Averno, a lake in 
 the neighborhood of Naples, about 2% 
 miles N. W. of Puzzuoli, and near the 
 coast of Baise, the waters of which 
 were so unwholesome and putrid that 
 no birds ever visited its banks. The 
 
 Avignon 
 
 ancients made it the entrance of hell, 
 by which Ulysses and ^Bneas descend- 
 ed into the lower regions. 
 
 Ayerrhoa, a genus of plants. It 
 consists of two species, both of which 
 form small trees in the East Indies. 
 One has fruit resembling a small 
 cucumber. The latter is intensely 
 acid and cannot be eaten raw. It 
 is pickled or candied, or a syrup ia 
 obtained from it by boiling with sugar, 
 and its juice is found an excellent 
 agent for removing iron mold or other 
 spots from linen. To the Malays it 
 answers the same purposes as the cit- 
 ron, the gooseberry, the caper and the 
 cucumber of Europe. 
 
 Avery, Benjamin Parke, an 
 American journalist and diplomatist, 
 born in New York city in 1829. From 
 1874 to 1875 he was United States 
 Minister to China. He died in Pekin, 
 China, Nov. 8, 1875. 
 
 Avery, Samuel Putnam, an 
 American merchant, born in New 
 York city, March 17, 1822 ; became a 
 copper-plate and wood engraver, and 
 subsequently an art publisher and 
 dealer, and retired from business in 
 1888. In 1891, with his wife, he cre- 
 ated and endowed the Avery Architec- 
 tural Library, in Columbia University, 
 as a memorial of his deceased son ; 
 and in May, 1900, he presented to the 
 trustees of the New York Public Li- 
 brary a collection of etchings, litho- 
 graphs and photographs, numbering 
 more than 17,500 pieces, with many 
 volumes similarly illustrated. Died 
 Aug. 12, 1904. 
 
 Aviary, a building for birds. 
 
 Aviation. See AERONAUTICS. 
 
 Avicennia. or White Man- 
 grove, a genus which consists of 
 trees or large shrubs resembling man- 
 groves, and, like them, growing in 
 tidal estuaries and salt marshes. 
 
 Ayienus, Rnfus Festus, a Latin 
 descriptive poet, who flourished about 
 the end of the 4th century after 
 Christ, and wrote " Descriptio Orbis 
 Terrse," a general description of the 
 earth ; " Ora Maritima," an account 
 of the Mediterranean coasts, etc. 
 
 Avignon (ancient Avenio), a city 
 of France, capital of the Department 
 of Vaucluse, on the left bank of the 
 Rhone, 76 miles N. N. W. of Mar- 
 seilles, on the railway to Paris. In
 
 Avoca 
 
 1309, Clement V. transferred thither 
 the abode of the Popes, who continued 
 to reside here till 1377, when they re- 
 turned to Rome ; but two schismatical 
 Popes, or Popes elected by the French 
 cardinals, resided at Avignon till 
 1409. Avignon and its territory re- 
 mained the property of the Holy See 
 until 1797, when it was incorporated 
 with France. 
 
 Avoca, or Ovoca, a beautiful val- 
 ley and river of Ireland, near Glendal- 
 ough, in the county of Wicklow, and 
 celebrated as being the scene which 
 gave rise to one of the finest of 
 Moore's " Irish Melodies." 
 
 Avocado, a West Indian fruit, 
 called also avocado pear, alligator 
 pear, subaltern's butter tree, avigato, 
 and sabacca. It is found in tropical 
 America. 
 
 Avoirdupois, a system of weights 
 used for all goods except precious met- 
 als, gems, and medicines, and in which 
 a pound contains 16 ounces, or 7,000 
 grains, while a pound troy contains 12 
 ounces, or 5,760 grains. A hundred- 
 weight contains 112 pounds avoirdu- 
 pois. 
 
 Avon, the name of several Eng- 
 lish and Scottish rivers, the best 
 known of which is that Avon which 
 rises in Northamptonshire, and flows 
 into the Severn a't Tewkesbury, after 
 a course of 100 miles. On its banks 
 is Stratford-on-Avon, the birthplace 
 and abode of Shakespeare, who has 
 hence been styled the Bard of Avon. 
 
 Axayacat, or Axayacatl, a Mex- 
 ican fly, the eggs of which, deposited 
 abundantly on rushes and flags, are 
 collected and sold as a species of cavi- 
 are. 
 
 Axim, an important station and 
 port on the African Gold Coast, a lit- 
 tle to the E. of the mouth of the Anco- 
 brah river. Inland from Axim, in the 
 basin of that river, and in the district 
 between it and the Prah, gold mining 
 operations have been carried on on a 
 large scale. 
 
 Axinomancy, a mode of divina- 
 tion much practiced by the ancient 
 Greeks, particularly with the view of 
 discovering the perpetrators of great 
 crimes. An ax was poised upon a 
 stake, and was supposed to move so 
 as to indicate the guilty person ; or the 
 names of suspected persons being pro- 
 
 Ayesliab. 
 
 nounced, the motion of the ax at a 
 particular name was accepted as a sign 
 of guilt. 
 
 Axiom, a Greek word meaning a 
 decision or assumption, is commonly 
 used to signify a general proposition 
 which the understanding recognizes as 
 true, as soon as the import of the 
 words conveying it is apprehended. 
 
 Axis, a straight line, real or im- 
 aginary, passing through a body, and 
 around which that body revolves, or 
 at least may revolve ; also, the imag- 
 inary line connecting the poles of a 
 planet, and around which the planet 
 rotates. 
 
 Axis, a species of deer found in 
 India, called by Anglo-Indian sports- 
 men hog deer. 
 
 Axminster, a market town in 
 England, in the county Devon, on the 
 Axe, at one time celebrated for its 
 woolen cloth and carpet manufactures, 
 and giving name to an expensive va- 
 riety of carpet having a thick, soft 
 pile, and also to a cheaper variety. 
 
 Axolotl, a curious Mexican am- 
 phibian, not unlike a newt, from 8 to 
 10 inches in length, with gills formed 
 of three long, ramified or branch-like 
 processes floating on each side of the 
 neck. It reproduces by laying eggs, 
 and was for some time regarded as a 
 perfect animal with permanent gills. 
 It is said, however, that they frequent- 
 ly lose their gills like the other mem- 
 bers of the genus, though some au- 
 thorities maintain that the true ax- 
 plotl never loses its gills. The axolotl 
 is esteemed a luxury by the Mexicans. 
 There are a number of species in 
 North America. 
 
 Ayacnclio, formerly Huamanga or 
 Guamanga, a town in the Peruvian 
 department of the same name, 220 
 miles E. S. E. of Lima. Here, on Dec. 
 9, 1824, the combined forces of Peru 
 and Colombia the latter then com- 
 prising Ecuador, New Granada, and 
 Venezuela totally defeated the last 
 Spanish army that ever set foot on 
 the continent. 
 
 Aye-aye, an animal of Madagas- 
 car, so called from its cry, now re- 
 ferred to the lemur family. It is about 
 the size of a hare, has large, flat ears 
 and a bushy tail. 
 
 Aye shah, also Aysha, or Aisha, 
 the favorite wife of Mohammed, and
 
 Aylmer 
 
 daughter of Abu-Bekr, was born at 
 Medina about 610 A. D. ; and was only 
 nine years of age when the Prophet 
 married her. She was the only one of 
 Mohammed's wives who accompanied 
 him in his campaigns. Although Aye- 
 shah bore no children to Mohammed, 
 she was tenderly beloved by him. She 
 died at Medina (677 A. D.), highly 
 venerated by all true Mussulmans, and 
 named the Prophetess and the Mother 
 of Believers. 
 
 Aylmer, Matthew, a Canadian 
 military officer, born in Melbourne, P. 
 Q., March 28, 1842 ; became Adjutant- 
 General of the Dominion militia, the 
 highest military office in Canada next 
 to that of the Major-General com- 
 manding, in 1896. 
 
 AYE-AYE. 
 
 Ayr, a town of Scotland, a royal 
 and parliamentary borough and capi- 
 tal of Ayrshire, at the mouth of the 
 river Ayr. The house in which the 
 poet Burns was born stands with- 
 in 1% miles of the town, between it 
 and the Church of Alloway (" Allo- 
 way's auld haunted kirk"), and a 
 monument to him stands on a height 
 between the kirk and the bridge over 
 the Doon. 
 
 Ayrer, Jacob, a German dramat- 
 ist ; next to Hans Sachs the most pro- 
 lific dramatist of Germany in the 16th 
 century. He died in Nuremberg, 
 March 26, 1605. 
 
 Ayres, Anne, an American au- 
 
 Azore* 
 
 thor, born in England in 1816 ; was 
 the first member of an American sis- 
 terhood in the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church. She died in February, 1896. 
 
 Ayrton, William Edward, an 
 English electrician and inventor, born 
 in London, in 1847 ; was graduated at 
 University College, London, in 1867 ; 
 entered the Indian telegraph service, 
 having studied electrical engineering 
 with Prof. William Thomson ; became 
 electrical superintendent and intro- 
 duced throughout India the system of 
 determining the position of a fault by 
 electrically testing one end of a line. 
 He has been a voluminous writer and 
 is widely known for his " Practical 
 Electricity." 
 
 Aytoun, Sir Robert, poet, born 
 in Fifeshire, Scotland, in 1570; died 
 in 1638. 
 
 Aytoun, "William Edmond- 
 stonne, poet and prose writer, born 
 at Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1813. In 
 1848 he published a collection of bal- 
 lads entitled " Lays of the Scottish 
 Cavaliers," which has proved the most 
 popular of all his works. He died at 
 Blackhills, Elgin, 1865. 
 
 Ayuntamiento, the name given in 
 Spain to the councils or governing 
 bodies of towns. 
 
 Ayutbia, the ancient capital of 
 Siam, on the Menam, 50 miles N. of 
 Bangkok. Some magnificent buildings 
 still remain, now crumbling into ruins 
 and overgrown with luxuriant vege- 
 tation; notable among them are Bud- 
 dhist 'temples, especially the Golden 
 Mount, 400 feet high. 
 
 Azalea, a genus of plants belong- 
 ing to the heathworts. Several for- 
 eign azaleas are cultivated in gardens 
 and greenhouses on account of the 
 abundance of their fine flowers, and, 
 in some cases, their fragrant smell. 
 
 Azeglio, Massimo Taparelli- 
 Marquis d% an Italian author, art- 
 ist, diplomatist, and statesman, born 
 at Turin, in 1801. He died Jan. 15, 
 1866. 
 
 Azores, or Western Islands, a 
 Portuguese archipelago, in the mid- 
 Atlantic, between 36 55' and 39 55' 
 N. lat. and between 25 10' and 31 
 16' W. long., stretching over a dis- 
 tance of 400 miles. 
 
 The total area of the group is 919
 
 Azov 
 
 square miles, and the pop. (1890) 
 255,594. The coast is generally steep 
 and rugged ; the interior abounds in 
 ravines and mountains. Perhaps the 
 greatest want of the group is a good 
 harbor. The Azores are regarded as 
 a province, not a colony, of Portugal. 
 
 Azov, Sea of, is a large gulf of 
 the Black Sea, formed by the Crimean 
 peninsula, or rather an inland lake 
 connected with the Black Sea by the 
 Strait of Yenikale or Kertch (an- 
 cient Bosporus Cimmerius), 28 miles 
 long, and barely 4 wide at the narrow- 
 est. The whole sea is shallow, from 3 
 to 52 feet deep ; and measuring 235 by 
 110 miles, it occupies an area of 14,- 
 500 square miles. 
 
 Azrael, the name given to the 
 angel of death by the Mohammedans. 
 
 Aztecs, a race of people who set- 
 tled in Mexico early in the 14th cen- 
 
 Azurine 
 
 tury, ultimately extended their domin- 
 ion over a large territory, and were 
 still extending their supremacy at the 
 time of the arrival of the Spaniards, 
 by whom they were speedily subju- 
 gated. See MEXICO. 
 
 Azuline, or Azurine, blue dyes 
 belonging to the coal-tar class. 
 
 Azuni, Doruenico Alberto, an 
 Italian jurist, born in Sassari, Sar- 
 dinia, in 1749. He became judge of 
 the Tribunal of Commerce at Nice, 
 and in 1795 published a work in which 
 he endeavored to reduce maritime 
 laws to fixed principles. He died Jan. 
 23, 1827. 
 
 Azure, the heraldic term for the 
 color blue, represented in engraving by 
 horizontal lines. 
 
 Azurine, a fresh water fish of the 
 same genus as the roach, chub and 
 minnow ; called also blue roach.
 
 b, the second letter in all 
 European alphabets, in He- 
 brew, and most other lan- 
 guages. It belongs to the 
 mutes and labials, and as all 
 labials are easy to be pronounced, b 
 is one of the first letters which chil- 
 dren learn to speak, after a, ba or pa 
 generally being the first syllable. 
 
 Baal, the chief male divinity among 
 the Phoenicians, as Ashtoreth was the 
 leading female one. The Carthagin- 
 ians, who sprang from the Phoenicians, 
 carried with them his worship to their 
 new settlements, as is proved, among 
 other evidence, by the names of some 
 of their world-renowned heroes; thus 
 Hannibal, written in Punic inscrip- 
 tions, Hannibaal, signifies the grace of 
 Baal ; and Hasdrubal, or Asdrubal, 
 Azrubaal = " Help of Baal." The 
 worship of Baal early existed among 
 the Canaanites and the Moabites, 
 whence it spread to the Israelites, be- 
 coming at last for a time completely 
 dominant among the 10 tribes, and to 
 a certain extent even among the two. 
 Perhaps the Babylonian Bel was only 
 Baal with a dialectic difference of 
 spelling, though Prof. , Rawlinson 
 thinks differently (Isa. xlvi: 1). There 
 was an affinity between Baal and Mo- 
 loch. The Beltein or Beltane fires, lit 
 in early summer in Scotland and Ire- 
 land, seem to be a survival of Baal's 
 worship. 
 
 Baalbek (ancient HELIOPOLIS, city 
 of the sun), a place in Syria, in a 
 fertile valley at the foot of Antili- 
 banus, 40 miles from Damascus, fa- 
 mous for its magnificent 'ruins. Of 
 these, the chief is the temple of the 
 Sun, built either by Antoninus Pius 
 or by Septimius Severus. Some of the 
 blocks used in its construction are 60 
 feet long by 12 thick ; and its 54 col- 
 
 umns, of which 6 are still standing, 
 were 72 feet high and 22 in circum- 
 ference. Near it is a temple of Jupi- 
 ter, of smaller size, though still larger 
 than the Parthenon at Athens, and 
 there are other structures of an elab- 
 orately ornate type. Originally a 
 center of the sun-worship, it became 
 a Roman colony under Julius Caesar, 
 was garrisoned by Augustus, and ac- 
 quired increasing renown under Tra- 
 jan as the seat of an oracle. Un- 
 der Constantine its temples became 
 churches, but after being sacked by 
 the Arabs in 748, and more complete- 
 ly pillaged by Tamerlane in 1401, it 
 sank into hopeless decay. The work 
 of destruction was completed by an 
 earthquake in 1759. 
 
 Baba, a Turkish word, signifying 
 father, originating, like our word 
 papa, in the first efforts of children to 
 speak. In Persia and Turkey it is 
 prefixed as a title of honor to the 
 names of ecclesiastics of distinction, 
 especially of such as devote themselves 
 to an ascetic life ; it is often affixed 
 in courtesy, also, to the names of 
 other persons, as Ali-Baba. 
 
 Babbage, Charles, an English 
 mathematician and inventor of a cal- 
 culating machine ; born near Teign- 
 mouth, England, Dec. 26, 1792. He 
 died in London, Oct. 18, 1871. 
 
 Babbitt, Isaac, an American in- 
 ventor, born in Taunton, Mass., July 
 26, 1799; learned the goldsmith's 
 trade ; early became interested in the 
 production of alloys; and in 1824 
 manufactured the first britannia ware 
 in the United States. In 1839, he dis- 
 covered the well known anti-friction 
 metal which bears his name, Babbitt 
 metal. For this discovery, the Massa- 
 chusetts Charitable Mechanics' Asso- 
 ciation awarded him a gold medal in
 
 Babbitt Metal 
 
 Babu 
 
 1841, and subsequently Congress voted 
 him $20,000. lie died in Somerville, 
 Mass., May 26, 1862. 
 
 Babbitt Metal, a soft metal re- 
 sulting from alloying together certain 
 proportions of copper, tin, and zinc, 
 or antimony, used with the view of as 
 far as possible obviating friction in 
 the bearings of journals, cranks, axles, 
 etc. Invented by Isaac Babbitt. 
 
 Babcock, Earle Jay, an Amer- 
 ican educator ; born in St. Charles, 
 Minn., June 11, 1865; was graduated 
 at the University of Minnesota in 
 1899 ; worked extensively with the 
 United States Geological Survey ; and 
 in 1902 was director of the State 
 School of Mines of North Dakota, and 
 Professor of Chemistry and Geology in 
 the State University. 
 
 Babcock, Orville E., an Ameri- 
 can military officer, born in Franklin, 
 Vt., Dec. 25, 1835; served with dis- 
 tinction in the Civil War, ami was a 
 member of Gen. Grant's staff. When 
 the latter was elected President, Bab- 
 cock became his secretary, and the 
 superintending engineer of several im- 
 portant public works. He was in- 
 dicted in 1876 for taking part in reve- 
 nue frauds, but on his trial was ac- 
 quitted. He died in Florida, June 2, 
 1884. 
 
 Babcock, Stephen Monltoii, an. 
 American educator ; born in Bridge- 
 water, N. Y., Oct. 22, 1843. He was 
 instructor of chemistry at Cornell 
 University in 1875-1876; Professor of 
 Agricultural Chemistry at the Uni- 
 versity of Wisconsin ; and chemist to 
 the New York State Experimental 
 Station. 
 
 Babel, a place or circumstances in 
 which confusion of sounds as, for 
 instance, by several people speaking 
 at once is the predominating char- 
 acteristic. The reference is to the 
 confusion of tongues divinely sent in 
 consequence of the building of the 
 Tower of Babel (Gen. xi : 1-9). The 
 magnificent temple of Belus, asserted 
 to have been originally this tower, is 
 said to have had lofty spires, and many 
 statues of gold, one of them 40 feet 
 high. In the upper part of this tem- 
 ple was the tomb of the founder, Be- 
 lus (the Nimrod of the sacred Scrip- 
 tures), who was deified after death. 
 iThe Tower of Babel is most frequent- 
 
 ly identified with the enormous ruin 
 at Birs, 2,000 ft. in base circumference, 
 156 ft. high, and two hours west of 
 Hillah on the site of the ancient bib- 
 lical city of Babylon. 
 
 Bab-el-Mandeb (i. e., the gate 
 of tears), the name of the strait be- 
 tween Arabia and the continent of 
 Africa, by which the Red Sea is con- 
 nected with the Gulf of Aden and the 
 Indian Ocean. 
 
 Babi, the name of a modern Per- 
 sian sect, derived from the title, Bab- 
 ed-Din (gate of the faith), assumed 
 by its founder, Mirza AH Mohammed, 
 a native of Shiraz, who, in 1843, after 
 a pilgrimage to Mecca, undertook to 
 form a new religion from a mixture 
 of Mohammedan, Christian, Jewish, 
 and Parsee elements. Babism enjoins 
 few prayers, and those only on fixed 
 occasions ; encourages hospitality and 
 charity ; prohibits polygamy, concu- 
 binage, and divorce ; discourages as- 
 ceticism and mendicancy; and directs 
 women to discard the veil, and share 
 as equals in the intercourse of social 
 life. 
 
 Babington, Anthony, a Roman 
 Catholic gentleman of Derbyshire, who 
 associated with others of his own per 
 suasion to assassinate Queen Eliza- 
 beth, and deliver Mary, Queen of 
 Scots. The plot being discovered, the 
 conspirators were executed in 1586. 
 
 Babironssa (a Malay word signi- 
 fying stag hog), a species of wild hog, 
 sometimes called the horned or stag 
 hog, from the great length and curva- 
 ture of its upper tusks or canines, 
 which curl upward and backward 
 somewhat like the horns of Rumin- 
 antia, the lower canines being also 
 very prominent. It is nearly of the 
 size of a common hog, but rather 
 longer, and with more slender limbs. 
 The babiroussa is very numerous in 
 Celebes, the Moluccas, and Java. It 
 is hunted with dogs, and when taken 
 makes little resistance ; sometimes 
 when pressed it endeavors to reach the 
 sea, and eludes its pursuer by its dex- 
 terity in diving and swimming. 
 
 Baboo, or Babu, a Hindu title of 
 respect equivalent to sir or master, 
 usually given to wealthy and educated 
 native gentlemen, especially when of 
 the mercantile class.
 
 Baboon 
 
 Bach 
 
 Baboon, a common name applied 
 to a genus of monkeys, natives of Af- 
 rica. They make a very obstinate re- 
 sistance to dogs, and only retreat be- 
 fore men when armed with guns. They 
 feed exclusively on fruits, seeds, and 
 other vegetable matter, and display a 
 great deal of cunning and audacity 
 when engaged in their marauding ex- 
 peditions. This animal has the re- 
 markable instinctive power of being 
 able to detect the presence of water, 
 and in South Africa is often employed 
 for this purpose when the ordinary 
 water supply fails. The baboon can 
 never be called tamed, however long 
 his confinement may have endured. 
 
 Babuyanes, or Madjicosima 
 Islands, a number of islands lying 
 about 30 miles N. of Luzon, and gen- 
 erally considered the most northern of 
 the Philippines. They are subject to 
 the Loo-Choo Islands; aggregate pop. 
 about 12,000. 
 
 Babylon, the capital of Babylonia, 
 on both sides of the Euphrates, one of 
 the largest and most splendid cities 
 of the ancient world, now a scene of 
 ruins, and earth-mounds containing 
 them. Babylon was a royal city 1600 
 years before the Christian era ; but 
 the old city was almost entirely de- 
 stroyed in 683 B. c. A new city was 
 built by Nebuchadnezzar nearly a cen- 
 tury later. This was in the form of a 
 square, each side 15 miles long, with 
 walls of such immense height and 
 thickness as to constitute one of the 
 wonders of the world. It contained 
 splendid edifices, large gardens and 
 pleasure-grounds, especially the hang- 
 ing-gardens, a sort of lofty terraced 
 structure supporting earth enough for 
 trees to grow, and the celebrated tow- 
 er of Babel, or temple of Belus, rising 
 by stages to the height of 625 feet. 
 (See BABEL.) After the city was 
 taken by Cyrus in 538 B. c., and Baby- 
 lonia made a Persian province, it 
 began to decline, and had suffered se- 
 verely by the time of Alexander the 
 Great. He intended to restore it, but 
 was prevented by his death, which 
 took place here in 323 B. c., from 
 which time its decay was rapid. 
 
 The great city of Babylon, or Babel, 
 was the capital of Babylonia, which 
 was called by the Hebrews Shinar. 
 The country was, as it still is, ex- 
 ceedingly fertile, and must have 
 
 anciently supported a dense popula- 
 tion. The chief cities, besides Baby- 
 lon, were Ur, Calneh, Erech, and Sip- 
 para. Babylonia and Assyria were 
 often spoken of. together as Assyria. 
 
 Babylonish. Captivity, a term 
 usually applied to the deportation of 
 the two tribes of the kingdom of Ju- 
 dah to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 585 B. C. The duration of this cap- 
 tivity is usually reckoned 70 years, 
 though strictly speaking, it lasted only 
 56 years. A great part of the 10 
 tribes of Israel had been previously 
 taken captive to Assyria. 
 
 Baccarat, or Baccara, a game 
 played with the ordinary playing 
 cards. It acquired notoriety owing to 
 a fraud alleged to have been perpe- 
 trated by one of the persons present 
 in a gamt at which the Prince of 
 Wales, now King Edward, was 
 " banker," some years ago. 
 
 Bacchus (in Greek generally 
 Dionysos), the god of wine. 
 
 Bach, Alexander von, an Aus- 
 trian statesman, born in Loosdorf, 
 Jan. 4, 1813 ; was Minister of Justice 
 in 1848, of the Interior in 1849-1859 ; 
 and, subsequently, ambassador to 
 Rome. In 1855, he negotiated the 
 Concordat with the Papacy which 
 brought Austria into submission to 
 the Roman Church. He died Nov. 15, 
 1892. 
 
 Bach Heinrich a German musi- 
 cian, born Sept. 16, 1615 ; member of 
 the celebrated family of musicians, 
 father of Johann Christoph and Jo- 
 hann Michael Bach ; was organist at 
 Arnstadt, where he died July 10, 1691. 
 
 Bach, Johann Christian, a Ger- 
 man musician, born in Erfurt, in 
 1640 ; a member of the family of mu- 
 sicians ; son of Johannes Bach, the 
 great uncle of Johann Sebastian Bach. 
 He died in Erfurt, in 1682. 
 
 Bach, Johann Christian, a 
 German musician, born in Leipsic, in 
 1735 ; a son of Johann Sebastian 
 Bach ; died in London, in 1782. 
 
 Bach, Johann Christoph 
 Friedrich, a German musician, born 
 in Leipsic, in 1732 ; a son of Johann 
 Sebastian Bach; died in Buckeburg, 
 in 1795. 
 
 Bach, Johann Michael, a Ger- 
 man composer and instrument maker.
 
 Bach 
 
 Bachelor's Buttons 
 
 born in 1648 ; a son of Heinrich 
 Bach ; father-in-law of Johann Sebas- 
 tian Bach. He died in Arnstadt, in 
 1694. 
 
 Bach, Johann Sebastian, a cel- 
 ebrated musician, born at Eisenach, 
 Upper Saxony, March 21, 1685. When 
 he was 10 years old his father, who 
 was a musician at Eisenach, died, and 
 Bach sought the protection of an elder 
 brother, who, dying soon after, he 
 was again left destitute, and, to earn 
 a livelihood, entered the choir of St. 
 Michael's, Luneberg, as a soprano 
 singer. In 1703 he became court mu- 
 sician at Weimar, the following year 
 organist at Arnstadt, and in 1708 
 court organist at Weimar. While 
 holding this office he labored to make 
 himself master of every branch of 
 music. In 1717 he was made Director 
 of Concerts, and six years afterward 
 Director of Music and Cantor to St. 
 Thomas' School, Leipsic, an appoint- 
 ment which he held to his death. 
 Bach's close studies affected his eyes, 
 and an operation left him totally 
 blind and hastened his death, in Leip- 
 sic, July 28, 1750. With the excep- 
 tion of Handel, Bach had no rival as 
 an organist. 
 
 Bach, Karl Philipp Emannel, 
 a German musician, born in Weimar, 
 March 14, 1714; son of Johann Se- 
 bastian Bach ; was court musician in 
 the service of Frederick the Great in 
 1740-1767. He died in Hamburg, 
 Dec. 14, 1788. 
 
 Bache, Alexander Dallas, an 
 American scientist, born in Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., July 19, 1806; was gradu- 
 ated at the United States Military 
 Academy, at the head of his class, in 
 1825 ; became Professor of Natural 
 Philosophy and Chemistry at the Uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania in 1828; was 
 the organizer and first President of 
 Girard College, 1836; and was ap- 
 pointed superintendent of the United 
 States Coast Survey, in 1843. In the 
 last office he performed services of 
 lasting and invaluable character. He 
 was regent of the Smithsonian Insti- 
 tution in 1846-1867; an active mem- 
 ber of the United States Sanitary 
 Commission during the Civil War ; 
 and President of the National Acad- 
 emy of Sciences in 1863. He died in 
 Newport, R. I., Feb. 17, 1867. 
 
 Bache, Hartman, an American 
 military engineer, born in Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., Sept. 3, 1798 ; was graduat- 
 ed at the United States Military 
 Academy, in 1818. His most notable 
 achievements were the building of the 
 DeiaAare Breakwater and the appli- 
 cation of iron-screw piles for the foun- 
 dation of lighthouses upon sandy 
 shoals and coral reefs. He died in 
 Philadelphia, Oct. 8, 1872. 
 
 Bache, Sarah, an American phi- 
 lanthropist, born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
 Sept. 11, 1744; was the only daugh- 
 ter of Benjamin Franklin, and the 
 wife of Richard Bache. During the 
 Revolutionary War she organized and 
 became chief of a band of patriotic 
 ladies who made clothing for the sol- 
 diers, and in other ways relieved their 
 sufferings, especially during the severe 
 winter of 1780. At one time she had 
 nearly 2,500 women engaged under 
 her direction in sewing for the army. 
 She personally collected large sums 
 of money to provide the material for 
 this work, and also for the purchase 
 of medicines and delicacies for the 
 soldiers in the hospitals, where she 
 also personally acted as nurse. She 
 died Oct. 5, 1808. 
 
 Bacheller, Irving, an American 
 novelist, born in Pierpont, N. Y., Sept. 
 26, 1859. He was graduated at St. 
 Lawrence University in 1879 and be- 
 came a reporter of the Brooklyn 
 " Times." Subsequently he estab- 
 lished a newspaper syndicate. He has 
 written several novels, notable for 
 originality, and for fresh, and fasci- 
 nating pen pictures of American life. 
 
 Bachelor, a term applied anciently 
 to a person in the first or probation- 
 ary stage of knighthood who had not 
 yet raised his standard in the field. It 
 also denotes a person who has taken 
 the first degree in the liberal arts and 
 sciences, or in divinity, law, or medi- 
 cine, at a college or university; or a 
 man of any age who has not been mar- 
 ried. A knight bachelor is one who 
 has been raised to the dignity of a 
 knight without being made a member 
 of any of the orders of chivalry such 
 as the Garter or the Thistle. 
 
 Bachelor's Buttons, the double 
 flowering buttercup with white or yel- 
 low blossoms, common in gardens.
 
 Backman 
 
 __ , 
 
 Bacliman, John, an American 
 clergyman and naturalist, born in 
 Duchess county, N. Y., Feb. 4, 1790; 
 became pastor of a Lutheran church 
 in Charleston, S. C. He is best known 
 by reason of his association with Au- 
 dubon in the making of the " Quad- 
 rupeds of North America," he writ- 
 ing the principal part of the text, 
 which Audubon and his sons illustrat- 
 ed. He died in Charleston, S. C., 
 Feb. 25, 1874. 
 
 Bacillus, a name given to cer- 
 tain filiform bacteria, which have as- 
 sumed much importance of late, prin- 
 cipally because of their constant 
 presence in the blood and tissues in 
 splenic fever and malignant pustule. 
 See BACTERIA. 
 
 Back, Sir George, an English ex- 
 plorer, born in Stockport, Nov. 6, 
 1796. He died in London, June 23, 
 1878, after visiting both polar regions. 
 
 Backgammon, a favorite game of 
 calculation. It is played by two 
 persons, with two boxes, and two dice, 
 upon a quadrangular table, or board, 
 on which are figured 24 points, or 
 filches, of two colors, placed alter- 
 nately. The board is divided into four 
 compartments, two inner and two 
 outer ones, each containing six of the 
 24 points (alternate colors). The 
 players are each furnished with 15 
 men, or counters, black and white. 
 
 Backknysen, Ludolf, a cele- 
 brated painter of the Dutch school, 
 particularly in sea pieces, born in 
 1631. He died in 1709. 
 
 Backus, Truman Jay, an Amer- 
 ican educator, born in Milan, N. Y., 
 Feb. 11, 1842; was graduated at the 
 University of Rochester in 1864; and 
 became President of the Packer Col- 
 legiate Institute in Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 After going to Brooklyn he served on 
 several State commissions. Died 1908. 
 
 Bacolor, a town in the Island of 
 Luzon, Philippine Islands; 10 miles 
 N. W. of Manila. 
 
 Bacon, a word applied to the 
 sides of a pig which have been cured 
 or preserved by salting with salt and 
 saltpeter, and afterward drying with 
 or without wood smoke. 
 
 Bacon, Alice Mitchell, an Amer- 
 ican educator, born in New Haven, 
 Conn., Feb. 26, 1858; was educated 
 
 Bacon 
 
 privately and took the Harvard exam- 
 inations in 1881 ; taught at the Hamp- 
 ton Normal and Agricultural Insti- 
 tute in 1883-1888, and in Tokio, Ja- 
 pan, in 1888-1889; returned to the 
 Hampton Institute in 1889, and found- 
 ed the Dixie Hospital for training 
 colored nurses in 1890. 
 
 Bacon, Benjamin Wismer, an 
 American educator, born in Litchfield, 
 Conn., Jan. 15, 1860; in 1896 became 
 Professor of New Testament Criticism 
 and Exegesis in Yale University. 
 
 Bacon, Delia Salter, an Ameri- 
 can author ; born in Tallmadge, O., 
 Feb. 2, 1811 ; died in Hartford, Conn., 
 Sept. 2, 1859. 
 
 Bacon, Edwin Munroe, an 
 American author ; born in Providence, 
 R. I., Oct. 20, 1844. 
 
 Bacon, Francis, Viscount St. Al- 
 bans, one of the most remarkable men 
 of whom any age can boast ; a reform- 
 er of philosophy, by founding it on 
 the observation of nature, after it 
 had consisted, for many centuries, of 
 scholastic subtleties and barren dia- 
 lectics ; born in London, Jan. 22, 1561, 
 his father being Sir Nicholas Bacon, 
 lord keeper of the great seal. He 
 contracted an advantageous mar- 
 riage ; was made solicitor-general 
 and then attorney-general ; in 1617 
 became lord keeper of the seals ; in 
 1618 was made lord high chancellor 
 and created Baron of Verulam, and in 
 1621 Viscount St. Albans. He might 
 have lived with splendor without de- 
 grading his character by those acts 
 which stained his reputation. He 
 was accused before the House of 
 Lords of having received money for 
 grants of offices and privileges under 
 the seal of State. He was unable to 
 justify himself, and, desiring to avoid 
 the mortification of a trial, confessed 
 his crimes and threw himself on the 
 mercy of the peers, beseeching them 
 to limit his punishment to the loss of 
 the high office which he had dishon- 
 ored. The lords sentenced him to 
 pay a fine of 40,000, and to be im- 
 prisoned in the Tower during the 
 pleasure of the king. He was also 
 declared forever incapable of place or 
 employment, and forbidden to sit in 
 Parliament or to appear within the 
 verge of the court. He survived his 
 fall only a few years, and died in
 
 Bacon 
 
 Highgate, April 9, 1626. Efforts have 
 been made to prove him the real au- 
 thor of the works of Shakespeare, and 
 the controversy still goes on. 
 
 Bacon, Henry, an American paint- 
 er, born in Haverhill, Mass., in 1839. 
 He served in the Civil War, studied 
 art in Paris under Cabanel and Ed- 
 ward Frere, and painted, among oth- 
 ers, " Boston Boys and Gen. Gage " 
 " Paying the" Scot ; " etc. 
 
 Bacon, John, an English sculp- 
 tor, born in London, Nov. 24, 1740. 
 He died Aug. 4, 1799. 
 
 Bacon, John Mosby, an Ameri- 
 can military officer, born in Kentucky, 
 April 17, 1844 ; served in the Union 
 army, through the Civil War ; was 
 appointed Captain in the 9th United 
 States Cavalry, in 1866, and Colonel 
 of the 8th Cavalry, in 1897. On May 
 4, 1898, he was appointed Brigadier- 
 General of Volunteers and placed in 
 command of the Department of Da- 
 kota. In October of that year he put 
 down the outbreak of the Pillager 
 band of the Chippewa Indians in Cass 
 county, Minn. Subsequently, he was 
 assigned to duty in Cuba, with head- 
 quarters at Neuvitas, till May 8, 1899, 
 when he was retired. 
 
 Bacon, Leonard, an American 
 clergyman, born in Detroit, Mich., 
 Feb. 19, 1802; graduated at Yale in 
 1820, after which he studied theology 
 at Andover, Mass. In 1825 he became 
 pastor of the First Congregational 
 church in New Haven, Conn., where 
 he died Dec. 24, 1881. He was joint- 
 editor of the " Independent " for 16 
 years and from 1866-1871 was Prof, 
 of Didactic Theology at Yale. 
 
 Bacon, Nathaniel, an Anglo- 
 American lawyer, born in Suffc'.k, 
 England, Jan. 2, 1642 ; became the 
 leader in BACON'S REBELLION (q. v.) 
 in Virginia, and died Oct. 29, 1676. 
 
 Bacon, Robert, American states- 
 man, b. Cape Cod, Mass., 1858. He 
 graduated from Harvard Univ. 1880 ; 
 became a banker in the firm of J. 
 Pierpont Morgan, and in 1905 was ap- 
 pointed by Pres. Roosevelt first assist, 
 sec. of state. 
 
 Bacon, Roger, an English monk, 
 and one of the most profound and 
 original thinkers of his day, was born 
 about 1214, near Ilchester, Somerset- 
 shire. He died in Oxford, in 1294. 
 
 Bactrfa 
 
 Baconian Philosophy, the in- 
 ductive philosophy of which it is some- 
 times said that Lord Bacon was the 
 founder. This, however, is an exag- 
 gerated statement. What Lord Bacon 
 did for this mode of ratiocination was 
 to elucidate and systematize it; to 
 point out its great value, and to bring 
 it prominently before men's notice ; 
 lending it the support of his great 
 name at a time when most of his con- 
 temporaries were satisfied with the 
 barren logic of the schools. The great 
 triumphs of modern science have aris- 
 en from a resolute adherence on the 
 part of its votaries to the Baconian 
 method of inquiry. 
 
 Bacon's Rebellion, a popular 
 uprising of the Virginian colonists, 
 headed by Nathaniel Bacon, in pro- 
 test against certain government abus- 
 es, which prevailed under the ad- 
 ministration of Sir William Berkeley. 
 Bacon compelled Berkeley to take 
 refuge on* a warship, and burned 
 all the public buildings at Jamestown. 
 He died at the most critical moment, 
 and the rebellion came to an end. 
 
 Bacteria, a class of very minute 
 microscopic organisms or microbes 
 which are regarded as of vegetable 
 nature, and as being the cause of ac- 
 companiment of various diseases, as 
 well as of putrefaction, fermentation, 
 and certain other phenomena. Some 
 of the better known of these organ- 
 isms are so exceedingly minute, that 
 under the highest power of improved 
 microscopes they appear no larger 
 than the periods of ordinary type. 
 Various classifications have boen pro- 
 posed for them, for they differ largely 
 in size, form, and mode of multiplica- 
 tion. 
 
 Bacteriology, that branch of 
 biology which treats of bacteria. The 
 study of these microscopic organisms 
 has developed into one of the most 
 important branches of modern bio- 
 logical science. Their importance to 
 mankind rests chiefly in the fact that 
 their nourishment consists of albumi- 
 nous substances, which they convert 
 into complex chemical compounds, 
 many of which are highly poisonous. 
 
 Bactria, a province of the an- 
 cient Persian empire., lying^ N. of the 
 Paropamisus (Hindu Kush) Moun- 
 tains, on the Upper Oxus. It corre
 
 Baczko 
 
 sponded pretty nearly with the mod- 
 ern Balkh. Here many scholars locate 
 the original home of the Aryan or 
 Indo-European family of nations. Its 
 capital, Bactra, or Zariaspa, was also 
 the cradle of the Zoroastrian religion. 
 
 Baczko, Ludwig von, a German 
 historian and scholar, born in Lick, 
 Prussia, June 8, 1756 ; died March 27, 
 1823. 
 
 Badajpz, the fortified capital of 
 the Spanish province of Badajoz, on 
 the left bank of the Guadiana. It 
 was besieged by Wellington on March 
 16, and taken April 6, 1812, by one of 
 the most bloody assaults in history, 
 the British charging over the dead 
 bodies of their comrades. 
 
 Badakshan, a territory of Cen- 
 tral Asia, tributary to the Ameer of 
 Afghanistan. The inhabitants profess 
 Mohammedanism. Pop. 100,000. 
 
 Badeau, Adam, an American mil- 
 itary officer, born in New York city, 
 Dec. 29, 1831 ; educated at private 
 schools. He served with gallantry in 
 the Union army during the Civil War ; 
 was on the staff of General Sherman 
 in 1862-1863, and secretary to Gen- 
 eral Grant in 1864-1869; and in the 
 latter year was retired with the rank 
 of Captain in the regular army and of 
 Brevet Brigadier-General of Volun- 
 teers, and was appointed Secretary of 
 Legation in London. He was Consul- 
 General in London, 1870-1881, and 
 during this period was given leave of 
 absence to accompany General Grant 
 on his tour around the world (1877- 
 1878). In 1882-1884 he was Consul- 
 General in Havana. After the death 
 of General Grant he brought suit 
 against his heirs for payment of ser- 
 vices which he asserted had been ren- 
 dered in the preparation of General 
 Grant's " Memoirs," but lost his case. 
 He died in Ridgewood, N. J., March 
 19, 1895. 
 
 Baden, Grand Dnchy of, one of 
 the more important States of the Ger- 
 man empire, situated in the S. W. of 
 Germany^ to the W. of Wiirtemberg. 
 It is divided into four districts, Con- 
 stance, Freiburg, Karlsruhe, and 
 Mannheim ; has an area of 5,823 
 square miles, and pop. 1,866,584. 
 Baden sends three* members to the 
 German Bundesrath, or Federal Coun- 
 ci.l, and 14 deputies to the Diet. Two- 
 
 Badger 
 
 thirds of the population are Roman 
 Catholics, the rest Protestants. 
 
 Baden-Baden, a town in the 
 Grand Duchy of Baden; pop. (1900) 
 15,731. It is chiefly celebrated for 
 its medicinal springs, which were 
 known at the time of the Romans. Its 
 gaming tables, the most renowned in 
 Europe, were closed with the rest of 
 the licensed German gaming houses in 
 1872. 
 
 Baden-Powell. Robert Steven- 
 son Smyth, a British military offi- 
 cer ; born in London, Feb. 22, 1857. 
 In the war in South Africa in 189&- 
 1902, he signally distinguished himself 
 by his defense of Mafeking, Cape Col- 
 ony. In recognition of his heroism, the 
 queen promoted him to be a Major- 
 General. See BOY Scours. 
 
 Badeui, Count Cassimir Felix, 
 an Austrian statesman ; born in Po- 
 land, Oct. 14, 1846; Prime Minister 
 of Austria-Hungary, 1895; died, 1909. 
 
 Badge, a distinctive device, em- 
 blem, mark, honorary decoration, or 
 special cognizance, used originally to 
 identify a knight or distinguish his 
 followers, now worn as a sign of of- 
 fice or licensed employment, as a token 
 of membership in some society, or gen- 
 erally as a mark showing the relation 
 of the wearer to any person, occupa- 
 tion, or order. 
 
 Badger, a plantigrade, carnivorous 
 mammal, allied both to the bears and 
 to the weasels, of a clumsy make, 
 with short, thick legs, and long claws 
 on the fore feet. The species known 
 are the American and European. 
 The American badger is only found 
 in the remote W. sections of the Unit- 
 ed States and in some parts of the 
 British possessions in North America. 
 It is more carnivorous than the Eu- 
 ropean badger. The weight of the 
 American species is from 14 to 18 
 pounds. 
 
 Badger, George Edmund, an 
 American statesman, born in New- 
 bern, N. C., April 13, 1795 ; was grad- 
 uated at Yale College hi 1813, and 
 was a judge and U. S. Senator. 
 He served in the State Convention 
 called to pass on the question of se- 
 cession, although oposed to that 
 measure, and after making a strong 
 speech in defense of the Union, was 
 afterward known as a member of th<
 
 Badger 
 
 Conservative Party. He died in Ral- 
 eigh, N. C., April 13, 1866. 
 
 Badger, Oscar itu, an American 
 naval officer, born in Windham, Conn., 
 Aug. 12, 1823; entered the United 
 States navy, Sept. 9, 1841 ; became 
 Lieutenant-Commander, July 16, 
 1862; Commander, July 25, 1866; 
 Captain, Nov. 25, 1872; Commodore, 
 Nov. 15, 1881 ; and was retired Aug. 
 12, 1885. He served on the steamer 
 " Mississippi " during the Mexican 
 War, taking part in the attack on Al- 
 varado, in 1846 ; led the party that 
 attacked and destroyed the village of 
 Vutia, Fiji Islands, while on the sloop 
 "John Adams," in 1855-1856; and 
 in the Civil War commanded the iron- 
 clads " Patapsco " and " Montauk," 
 in the operations in Charleston harbor 
 in 1863; and was Acting Fleet Cap- 
 tain on the flag ship " Weehawken " 
 in the attack on Fort Sumter, Sept. 
 1, 1863. He died in Concord, Mass., 
 June 20, 1899. 
 
 Badgley, Sidney Rose, a Cana- 
 dian architect, born near Kingston, 
 Ont, May 28, 1850. He has planned 
 and erected churches in almost all 
 parts of Canada and the United States. 
 
 Bauiiam, Charles, an English ed- 
 ucator, born in Ludlow, July 18, 
 1813; died in Sydney, Australia, Feb. 
 26, 1884. 
 
 Bad! am, Stephen, an American 
 military officer, born in Milton, Mass., 
 March 25, 1748 ; entered the Revolu- 
 tionary army in 1775 ; became com- 
 mander of the artillery, in the Depart- 
 ment of Canada. On the announce- 
 ment of the adoption of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, he took posses- 
 sion of the heights opposite Ticonder- 
 oga, and named the place Mt. Inde- 
 pendence. Subsequently he rendered 
 good service at Fort Stanwix, and in 
 1799 was made Brigadier-General. He 
 died in Dorchester, Mass., Aug. 24, 
 1815. 
 
 Bad Lands, tracts of land in the 
 N. W. part of the United States. The 
 absence of vegetation enables the rains 
 to wash clean the old lake beds, and 
 in many instances to disclose remark- 
 able fossils of extinct animals. They 
 were first called Bad Lands (mau- 
 yaises terres) by the French explorers 
 in the region of the Black Hills in 
 South Dakota. 
 
 Baffin 
 
 Badminton, a popular game, close* 
 ly resembling lawn tennis, played with 
 battledore and shuttlecock on a rec- 
 tangular portion of a lawn. 
 
 Badrinath, a peak of the main 
 Himalayan range, in Garhwal dis- 
 trict, Northwestern Provinces, India; 
 23,210 feet above the sea. On one of 
 its shoulders, at an elevation of 10,400 
 feet, stands a celebrated temple of 
 Vishnu, which some years attracts aa 
 many as 50,000 pilgrims. 
 
 Baedeker, Karl, a German pub- 
 lisher, born in 1801 ; originator of a 
 celebrated series of guide-books for 
 travelers. He died in 1859. 
 
 Baeyer, Adolf yon, a German 
 chemist, born in Berlin, Oct. 31, 1835; 
 son of Johann Jakob Baeyer ; became 
 Professor of Chemistry at Strasburg 
 in 1872, and at Munich, in 1875, suc- 
 ceeding Liebig at the latter. He made 
 many important discoveries in organic 
 chemistry, especially cerulein, eosin, 
 and indol. 
 
 Baeyer, Johann Jakob, a Prus- 
 sian geometrician, born in Miiggels- 
 heim, Nov. 5, 1794; died in Berlin, 
 Sept. 10, 1885. 
 
 Baez, Buenaventura, a Domin- 
 ican statesman, born in Azua, Haiti, 
 about 1810 ; aided in the establish- 
 ment of the Dominican Republic ; was 
 its President in 1849-1853; was then 
 expelled by Santa Ana and went to 
 New York city; was recalled in 1856, 
 on the expulsion of Santa Ana, and 
 again elected President ; and was re- 
 elected President in 1865 and 1868. 
 During his last term, he signed treat- 
 ies with the United States (Nov. 29, 
 1869), for the annexation of Santo 
 Domingo to the United States, and for 
 the cession of Samana Bay. The 
 treaties failed of ratification in the 
 United States Senate and caused the 
 downfall of Baez. He died in Porto 
 Rico, March 21, 1884. 
 
 Baffin, William, an English nav- 
 igator and discoverer, believed to have 
 been born in London about 1584. 
 In 1615 he took service as piloti 
 of the " Discovery," in search of a 
 northwest passage, and made a care- 
 ful examination of Hudson Strait. 
 His recorded latitudes and notes 
 of the tides are in remarkable 
 agreement with those of a later date. 
 In the following ^ear, with Capt. Bfc,
 
 Baffin Land 
 
 lot, he discovered, charted, and named 
 Smith Sound, and several others, and 
 explored the large inlet now associated 
 with his name. His last voyages, 
 1616-1621, were to the East. At 
 the siege of Ormuz, which the Eng- 
 lish were helping the Shah of Persia 
 to recover from the Portuguese, he 
 was killed, Jan. 23, 1622. 
 
 Baffin Land, a Canadian island, 
 crosseo by the Arctic Circle ; . area, 
 236,000 square oiles. 
 
 Baffin Sea (erroneously styled a 
 Bay), a large expanse of water in 
 North America, between Greenland 
 and the lands or islands N. of Hudson 
 Bay. This sea was discovered by the 
 English navigator, Baffin, in 1616, 
 while in search of a passage to the 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Bagamoyo, a town of German 
 East Africa, on the coast opposite the 
 island of Zanzibar; pop. (1899), 
 about 13,000. It is an important trad- 
 ing station for ivory, gum and caout- 
 chouc. 
 
 Bagasse, the sugar cane in its dry, 
 crushed state, as delivered from the 
 mill, and after the main portion of its 
 juice has been expressed ; used as fuel 
 in the surar factory, and called also 
 cane trash. 
 
 Bagatelle, a game played on a 
 long, flat board, covered with cloth 
 like a b;lliard-table, with spherical 
 balls and a cue, or mace. 
 
 Bagby, George William, an 
 American physician and humorist, 
 born in Buckingham co., Va., Aug. 13, 
 1828; died in Richmond, Va., Nov. 
 29, 1883. 
 
 Bagdad, capital of the Turkish 
 vilayet and city of the same name, in 
 the southern part of Mesopotamia 
 (now Irak Arabi). Bagdad was found- 
 ed in 762, by the Caliph Almansur, 
 and raised to a high degree of splen- 
 dor, in the 9th century, by Haroun Al 
 Raschid. It is the scene of a number 
 of the tales of the " Arabian Nights." 
 In the 13th century it was stormed by 
 Hulaku, grandson of Genghis-Khan, 
 who caused the reigning caliph to be 
 slain, and destroyed the caliphate. The 
 vilayet has an area of 54,503 square 
 miles, and an estimated population of 
 850,000, and the city an estimated 
 population of 145,000. 
 
 B. 12. 
 
 Bagley 
 
 Bagdad, a town in Tamaulipas, 
 Mexico, near the mouth of the Ric 
 Grande ; was of great importance dur< 
 ing the Civil War to Confederate 
 blockade ..-u^aers. 
 
 Bagehot, Walter, an English 
 writer on political economy and gov- 
 ernment, born in Langport, Somerset- 
 shire, Feb. 3, 1826; died in Langport, 
 March 24, 1877. 
 
 Baggage, a term supposed to be 
 derived from the old French word 
 bague, meaning bundle. As ordinar- 
 ily used, it includes trunks, valises, 
 portmanteaus, etc., which a traveler 
 carries with him on a journey. 
 
 Baggesen, Jens, a Danish poet ; 
 born in Korsor, Zealand, Feb. 15, 
 1764; died in Hamburg, Oct 3, 1826. 
 
 Bagirmi, or Baehermi, a coun- 
 try in Central Africa, bounded on the 
 W. by Bornu and a portion of Lake 
 Tchad, and with the powerful Sultan- 
 ate of Wadai to the N. E. Its area 
 is estimated at nearly 71,000 square 
 miles. The country was first vis- 
 ited by Earth in 1852. Most of it 
 was recognized as in the German 
 sphere by the Anglo-German agree- 
 ment of 1893; but it came under 
 French control in 1900. 
 
 Bagley, Worth, an American na- 
 val officer, born in Raleigh, N. C., 
 April 6, 1874 ; was graduated at the 
 United States Naval Academy in 
 1895 ; promoted to Ensign, July 1, 
 1897, and was detailed as inspector to 
 the new torpedo-boat " Winslow " in 
 November following. This boat went 
 into commission the next month, and 
 he was appointed her executive officer. 
 In April, 1898, the "Winslow" was 
 assigned to the American fleet off the 
 coast of Cuba, and on May 9, while 
 on blockading duty at the harbor of 
 Cardenas, with the " Wilmington " 
 and " Hudson," drew the fire of sev- 
 eral Spanish coast-guard vessels. All 
 the American vessels escaped untouch- 
 ed. Two days afterward, the three 
 vessels undertook to force an entrance 
 into the harbor, when they were fired 
 on by Spanish gunboats. The " Wins- 
 low " was disabled, and with difficulty 
 was drawn out of range of the en- 
 emy's guns. The " Wilmington " then 
 silenced the Spanish fire, and as the 
 action closed, Ensign Bagley and four 
 sailors on the " Winslow were in-
 
 Bagpipe 
 
 stantly killed by a shell, he being the 
 first American naval officer to fall in 
 the war with Spain. 
 
 Bagpipe, a musical wind instru- 
 ment of very great antiquity, having 
 been used among the ancient Greeks 
 for many ages, and is the favorite 
 musical instrument of the Scottish 
 Highlanders. 
 
 < Bagration, Peter Ivanovich, 
 Prince, a Russian general, descended 
 from the royal family of the Bagra- 
 tidae of Georgia and Armenia, born in 
 17G5. In the campaign of 1812, he 
 commanded the Second Russian Army 
 of the West. He was mortally wound- 
 ed in the battle of Borodino, and died 
 Oct. 7, 1812. 
 
 Bahama Channel, Old and New, 
 two American channels; the former 
 separates the Great Bahama Bank and 
 Cuba; the latter, also called the Gulf 
 of Florida, is between the Great and 
 Little Bahama Banks and Florida, 
 and forms a part of the channel of the 
 great Gulf Stream, which flows here, 
 at the rate of from 2 to 5 miles an 
 hour. 
 
 Bahama Islands, or I/iicayor, a 
 group of islands in the West Indies, 
 forming a colony belonging to Great 
 Britain, lying N. E. of Cuba and S. E. 
 of the coast of Florida, the Gulf 
 Stream passing between them and the 
 mainland. They extend a distance of 
 upward of 600 miles, and are said to 
 be 29 in number, besides keys and 
 rocks innumerable. Of the whole 
 group about 20 are inhabited, the 
 most populous being New Provi- 
 dence, which contains the capital, 
 Nassau, the largest being Andros, 
 100 miles long, 20 to 40 broad. . They 
 are low and flat, and have in many 
 parts extensive forests. Total area, 
 5,450 square miles. Pop. (1901) 53,- 
 735. 
 
 Bahia, formerly San Salvador, a 
 city of Brazil, on the Bay of All 
 Saints, in the State of Bahia. The 
 harbor is one of the best in South 
 America ; and the trade, chiefly in 
 Bugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco, hides, 
 piassava, and tapioca, is very exten- 
 sive. Pop. 174,412. The State, area, 
 164,649 square miles; pop. about 2,- 
 000,000, has much fertile land, both 
 along the coast and in the interior. 
 
 Bail 
 
 Bahia Honda, a seaport of Cuba, 
 on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, 
 and lying on a small bay, bearing the 
 same name. The town and bay are 
 about 50 miles W. of Havana, being 
 commanded by a small fort. 
 
 Bahr, Johann Christian Felix, 
 a German philologist, born at Darm- 
 stadt, June 13, 1798; died Nov. 29, 
 1872. 
 
 Bahrein Islands, a group ot 
 islands in the Persian Gulf, in an in- 
 dentation on the Arabian coast. The 
 Bahrein Islands are chiefly noted for 
 their pearl-fisheries, which were known 
 to the ancients, and which employ in 
 the season from 2,000 to 3,000 boats 
 with from 8 to 20 men each. Total 
 pop., est. at 70,000. 
 
 Bahr-el-Ghazal, the name of the 
 old Egyptian province which incloses 
 the district watered by the southern 
 tributaries of Bahr-el-Arab and Bahr- 
 el-Ghazal. It is said to be a good 
 cotton-growing country, and abounds 
 in timber. Slatin Pasha has drawn 
 attention both to the fertility of 
 the province and to its strategical 
 importance. To the W. of it lies the 
 Ubangi district of French Kongo ; and 
 it was thence that Major Marchand 
 made his way through the Bahr-el- 
 Ghazal to Fashoda in the summer of 
 1898. 
 
 Bahr Ynsuf, or Bahr el Yusuf. 
 an artificial irrigation channel from 
 the left bank of the Nile below Sint. 
 to the Fayum ; 270 miles long. Ac- 
 cording to Koptic traditions it was 
 constructed during Joseph's adminis- 
 tration. 
 
 Baikal, an extensive lake of East- 
 ern Siberia; crescent-shaped, and sur- 
 rounded by high and wild mountains 
 rising 3,000 to 4,000 feet above its 
 surface. Length, S. W. to N. E., 370 
 miles ; breadth, 20 to 70 miles ; alti- 
 tude, about 1,400 feet; greatest ascer- 
 tained depth, 4,500 feet; average 
 depth of its southern part, about 800 
 feet. 
 
 Bail. (1) Of persons: Those who 
 stand security for the appearance of 
 an accused person. The word is a col- 
 lective one, and not used in the plural. 
 They were so called because formerly 
 the person summoned was bailie 1 , that 
 is, given into the custody of those who 
 were security for his appearance.
 
 Bailey 
 
 (2) Pecuniary security given by re- 
 sponsible persons that an individual 
 charged with an offense against the 
 law will, if temporarily released, sur- 
 render when required to take his trial. 
 
 Bailey, Gamaliel, an American 
 journalist, born in Mount Holly, N. 
 J., Dec. 3, 1807 ; with J. G. Birney, 
 founded the anti-slavery journal, the 
 "Cincinnati Philanthropist" (1836), 
 the office of which was destroyed by a 
 mob, though it continued to be pub- 
 lished till 1847. He established the 
 well-known newspaper, the Washing- 
 ton "National Era" (1847), in 
 which the famous novel, " Uncle Tom's 
 Cabin," appeared first. He died at 
 sea, June 5, 1859. 
 
 Bailey, Jacob Whitman, an 
 American scientist, born in Auburn, 
 Mass., April 29, 1811; was graduated 
 at the United States Military Acad- 
 emy, in 1832: and from 1834 till his 
 death was Professor of Chemistry, 
 Mineralogy and Geology at the Mili- 
 tary Academy. He was the inventor 
 of the Bailey indicator and of many 
 improvements in the microscope, in 
 the use of which he achieved high dis- 
 tinction; and he is regarded as the 
 pioneer in microscopic investigation. 
 He was President of the American As- 
 sociation for the Advancement of Sci- 
 ence in 1857; held membership in the 
 principal scientific associations of the 
 world ; and was the author of numer- 
 ours papers on the results of his re- 
 searches. He died in West Point, N. 
 Y., Feb. 26, 1857. 
 
 Bailey, James Montgomery, an 
 American author, born in Albany, N. 
 Y., Sept. 25, 1841; died in Danbury, 
 Conn., March 4, 1894. 
 
 Bailey, Joseph, an American mil- 
 itary officer, born in Salem, O., April 
 28. 1827 ; entered the Union army as a 
 private in 1861, and signally distin- 
 guished himself in the Red 'River cam- 
 paign under Gen. N. P. Banks, in 
 1864, by building a dam and deepen- 
 ing the water in the channel, which 
 enabled Admiral Porter's Mississippi 
 flotilla to pass the Red River rapids 
 in safety, and so escape a perilous sit- 
 uation. For this engineering feat, 
 Bailey, who, before entering the army 
 was a plain farmer, was breveted 
 Brigadier-General, promoted Colonel, 
 voted the thanks of Congress, and 
 
 Bailiff 
 
 presented by the officers of the fleet 
 with a sword and purse of $3,000. 
 Subsequently, he was promoted to full 
 Brigadier-General, and was engaged 
 on engineering duty till his resigna- 
 tion, July 7, 1865. He died in Ne- 
 vada, Mo., March 21, 1867. 
 
 Bailey, Liberty Hyde, an Amer- 
 ican horticulturist and editor, born in 
 South Haven, Mich., March 15, 1858; 
 became chairman of the Roosevelt 
 Commission on Country Life in 1908. 
 
 Bailey, Philip James, an English 
 poet, born in Nottinghamshire, April 
 22, 1816; died Sept. 6, 1902. 
 
 Bailey, Samuel, an English po- 
 1'tical and mental philosopher, born 
 in Sheffield, in 1791; died in 1870. 
 
 Bailey, Theodorns, an American 
 naval officer, born in Chateaugay, N. 
 Y., April 12, 1805; entered the navy 
 in 1818; served on the W. coast of 
 Mexico during the Mexican War ; 
 commanded frigate " Colorado," of 
 the Western Gulf Blockading Squad- 
 ron, in 1861-1862; and in the last 
 year commanded the right column of 
 Admiral Farragut's squadron in the 
 passage of Forts St. Philip and Jack- 
 son, and led the fleet at the capture of 
 the Chalmette batteries and the city of 
 New Orleans. In 1862-1865 he com- 
 manded the East Gulf Blockading 
 Squadron. He was commissioned 
 Rear-Admiral and retired in 1866. 
 He died in Washington, D. C., Feb. 10, 
 1877. 
 
 Bailey, Vernon, an American 
 scientist, born in Manchester, Mich., 
 June 21, 1863; received a university- 
 education ; and became chief field 
 naturalist of the United States Bio- 
 logical Survey. 
 
 Bailey, William Whitney, an 
 American botanist, born in West 
 Point, N. Y., Feb. 22, 1843. He was 
 educated at Brown and Harvard, hav- 
 ing been a pupil of Prof. Asa Gray. 
 In 1867 he was botanist of the United 
 States Geological Survey of the 40th 
 parallel; in 1867-1869 assistant li- 
 brarian of the Providence Athenaeum. 
 He was appointed Instructor in 
 Botany at Brown University in 1877, 
 and became professor there in 1881. 
 
 Bailiff, essentially a person in- 
 trusted by a superior with power of 
 superintendence. In the United States 
 the word bailiff has no precise mean-
 
 Baillie 
 
 Baird 
 
 ing. The term is most frequently 
 used to denote a court officer whose 
 duty it is to take charge of juries and 
 wait upon the court. 
 
 Baillie, Joanna, a Scotch author ; 
 born in Bothwell, near Glasgow, Sept. 
 11, 1762; died Feb. 23, 1851. 
 
 Baillie, Robert, the " Scottish 
 Sidney," was a native of Lanarkshire, 
 who first came into notice in 1G76 
 through his rescue of a brother-in-law, 
 the Rev. Mr. Kirkton, from the 
 clutches of Archbishop Sharp's prin- 
 cipal informer. In 1683 he took a 
 prominent part in a scheme of emi- 
 gration to South Carolina, as he saw 
 no other refuge from the degrading 
 tyranny of the government. Accused 
 of conspiring against the King's life, 
 and of hostility to monarchical gov- 
 ernment, he was tried at Edinburgh 
 and condemned to death upon evidence 
 at once insignificant and illegal. The 
 sentence was carried into execution 
 on the very day that it was passed, 
 Dec. 24, 1684. 
 
 Bailly, Jean Sylvain, a French 
 astronomer and statesman, born in 
 Paris, Sept. 15, 1736. The Revolu- 
 tion drew him into public life. As 
 mayor of Paris his moderation and im- 
 partial enforcement of the law failed 
 to commend themselves to the people, 
 and his forcible suppression of mob 
 violence, July 17, 1791, aroused a 
 storm which led to his resignation. 
 He was condemned by the Revolu- 
 tionary Tribunal, and executed on 
 Nov. 12, 1793. 
 
 Bailment, " a delivery of a thing 
 in trust for some special object or 
 purpose, and upon a contract, express 
 or implied, to conform to the object 
 or purpose of the trust." (Story, on 
 " Bailment.") The party who deliv- 
 ers the thing bailed to another is call- 
 ed the bailor ; the one receiving it is 
 called bailee. Various degrees of dili- 
 gence are required of the bailee, ac- 
 cording to the nature of the bailment. 
 
 Baily, Edward Hodges, an Eng- 
 lish sculptor, born at Bristol in 1788. 
 He died in London in 1867. 
 
 Bain, Alexander, a Scotch writer 
 on mental philosophy and education, 
 born in Aberdeen in 1818. His most 
 important works are " The Senses and 
 the Intellect" (1855); "The Emo- 
 tions and the Will" (1859), together 
 
 forming a complete exposition of the 
 human mind. He died Sept., 1903. 
 
 Bain, Alexander, a Scotch elec- 
 trician, born in Watten, Caithness, in 
 1810 ; went to London and began a 
 series of electrical experiments in 
 1837 ; invented electric fire alarm and 
 sounding apparatus, and the auto- 
 matic chemical telegraph by which 
 high speed telegraphy was for the first 
 time possible. He died in 1877. 
 
 Bainbridge, William, an Amer- 
 ican naval officer, born in Princeton, 
 N. J., May 7, 1774 ; brcame a Captain 
 in 1800 ; and commanded the frigate 
 " Philadelphia " in the war against 
 Tripoli. In 1812 he was given com- 
 mand of a squadron including the 
 " Constitution," " Essex," and " Hor- 
 net." With the " Constitution " as 
 his fiagship, he conquered, in Decem- 
 ber of that year, the British frigate 
 " Java," carrying 49 guns. Later he 
 commanded a squadron in the Medi- 
 terranean, and was afterward station- 
 ed at various American coast cities. 
 He died in Philadelphia, July 28, 1833. 
 
 Bairaktar (more correctly Bai- 
 rak-dar) , signifying " standard bear- 
 er," the title of the energetic Grand 
 Vizier Mustapha. Born in 1755, of 
 poor parents, he entered the military 
 service at an early age, and rose to 
 high command. He deposed the Sul- 
 tan Mustapha IV., and when the 
 Janissaries revolted, demanding Mus- 
 tapha's restoration, and besieged the 
 seraglio, Bairaktar defended himself 
 bravely. When he saw that the flames 
 threatened to destroy the palace, and 
 that he was in danger of falling alive 
 into his enemies' hands, he strangled 
 Mustapha, threw his head to the be- 
 siegers, and then blew himself up. 
 
 Bairam, the name of the only 
 two festivals annually celebrated by 
 the Turks and other Mohammedan 
 nations. The first closes the fast of 
 the month Ramadhan or Ramazan. 
 The second commemorates Abraham's 
 offering of Isaac. 
 
 Baird, Absalom, an American 
 military officer, born in Washington, 
 Pa., Aug. 20, 1824; was graduated at 
 the United States Military Academy 
 and assigned to the artillery in 1849. 
 He became Captain and Major in the 
 regular army in 1861, and in the vol- 
 unteer army was commissioned a
 
 Baird 
 
 Baker 
 
 Brigadier-General, April 28, 1862, and 
 brevetted Major-General, September 
 1864, for his conduct in the Atlanta 
 campaign. On March 13, 1865, he 
 was brevetted Major-General, United 
 States army, for his meritorious ser- 
 vices in the field during the war. In 
 1885, he was promoted Brigadier- 
 General and Inspector-General, Unit- 
 ed States army, and in 1888 was re- 
 tired. He died July 14, 1905. 
 
 Baird, Charles Washington, an 
 American historian and religious 
 writer, son of ilobert Baird ; born at 
 Princeton, N. J., Aug. 28, 1828; died 
 in Rye, N. Y., Feb. 10, 1881. 
 
 Baird, Henry Carey, an Ameri- 
 can political economist, nephew of 
 Henry C. Carey, born in Bridesburg, 
 Pa., in 1825. He is a publisher at 
 Philadelphia. A protectionist, his 
 ; economical views generally are similar 
 to those of his distinguished uncle. He 
 has written numerous economic pam- 
 phlets. 
 
 Baird, Henry Martyn, an Amer- 
 ican author and educator, born in 
 Philadelphia, Pa., 1832; died 1906. 
 
 Baird, Robert, an American his- 
 torian, born in Fayette county, Pa., 
 Oct. 6, 1798; died at Yonkers, N. Y., 
 March 15, 1863. 
 
 Baird, Spencer Fullerton, a 
 distinguished American naturalist, 
 born at Reading, Pa., Feb. 3, 1823. 
 His writings cover nearly every branch 
 of natural history. He died at Wood's 
 Holl, Mass., Aug. 19, 1887. 
 
 Bairenth, or Bayrenth, a city 
 and capital of the Bavarian province 
 of Upper Franconia, 43 miles N. N. 
 E. of Nuremberg by rail. A mag- 
 nificent National theater for the per- 
 formance of Wagner's music, finished 
 in 1875, was in the following year 
 opened with a grand representation of 
 his Nibelungen trilogy. On Feb. 14, 
 1883, the great master (who died in 
 Venice) was buried in the garden of 
 his villa here. 
 
 Baize, a sort of coarse woolen fab- 
 ric with a rough nap, now generally 
 used for linings, and mostly green or 
 red in color. 
 
 Bajazet, or Bayazeed, I., an Ot- 
 toman Sultan, born 1347, succeeded 
 his father, Amurath I., in 1389. He 
 was the first of his family who as- 
 sumed the title of Sultan. After de- 
 
 feating Hungarians, Germans, and 
 French at Nicopoli, on the Danube, 
 Sept. 28, 1396, Bajazet is said to 
 have boasted that he would feed 
 his horse on the altar of St. Peter 
 at Rome. His progress, however, 
 was arrested by a violent attack 
 of the gout. Bajazet was prepar- 
 ing for an attack on Constantinople, 
 when he was interrupted by the ap- 
 proach of Timur the Great, by whom 
 he was defeated at Angora, in Ana- 
 tolio, July 28, 1402. He was taken 
 captive, 'and died about nine months 
 afterward, at Antioch in Pisidia. . He 
 was succeeded by Mohammed I. Mod- 
 ern writers reject as a fiction the story 
 of the iron cage in which Bajazet was 
 said to have been imprisoned. 
 
 Baker, Sir Benjamin, an Eng- 
 lish engineer, born near Bath, in 1840. 
 In 1877 he superintended the removal 
 of Cleopatra's Needle from Egypt to 
 London. In conjunction with Sir 
 John Fowler he drew the plans for 
 the great bridge over the Firth of 
 Forth. He died May 19, 1907. 
 
 Baker, Benjamin W., an Amer- 
 ican educator, born in Coles county, 
 111., Nov. 25, 1841; was brought up on 
 a farm ; served in the Union army 
 through the Civil War ; was graduated 
 at the Illinois State Normal Univer- 
 sity in 1870 ; became a Methodist 
 Episcopal clergyman in 1874 ; and was 
 financial secretary of the Illinois Wes- 
 leyan University in 1883-1893; presi- 
 dent of Chaddock College in 1893- 
 1898; of the Missouri Wesleyan Col- 
 lege in Cameron, in 1898-1906; then 
 pastor in Florida. 
 
 Baker, Edward Dickerson, an 
 American soldier and politician, born 
 in London, England, Feb. 24, 1811; 
 came to the United States in youth. 
 He was elected to the Illinois Legisla- 
 ture in 1837, became a State Senator 
 in 1840, and was sent to Congress in 
 1844. He served under General Scott 
 in the war with Mexico and was elect- 
 ed United States Senator from Oregon 
 in 1860. He entered the Federal army 
 at the outbreak of the Civil War, and 
 was killed at the battle of Ball's Bluff, 
 Oct. 21, 1861. 
 
 Baker, Frank, an American zool- 
 ogist ; was graduated in the medical 
 department of Columbian University 
 in 1880 ; was Professor of Anatomy in 
 the University of Georgetown; and
 
 Baker 
 
 Baksheesh. 
 
 became superintendent of the National 
 Zoological Park, in Washington, D. C., 
 in 1900. 
 
 Baker, Harriette Newell 
 (Woods) (pseudonyms " Madeline 
 Leslie" and "Aunt Hatty"), an 
 American writer of juvenile stories, 
 born in 1815. She was a daughter of 
 Rev. Leonard Woods and wife of Rev. 
 Abijah R. Baker; died in 1893. 
 
 Baker, John Gilbert, an English 
 botanist, born in Guisbrough, York- 
 '.,nire, Jan. 13, 1834 ; was appointed 
 assistant curator at the herbarium at 
 Kew in 18G6. His voluminous writ- 
 ings include works on the flora of dis- 
 tricts so diverse as the North of Eng- 
 land, Madagascar, and Brazil. 
 
 Baker, Lafayette C., an Ameri- 
 can detective, born in Stafford, N. Y., 
 Oct. 13, 1826 ; was chief of the Secret 
 Service Bureau during the Civil War ; 
 and reached the military rank of Brig- 
 adier-General. He superintended the 
 pursuit of Wilkes Booth, President 
 Lincoln's assassin. He died at Phila- 
 delphia, Pa., July 2, 1868. 
 
 Baker, Marcus, an American 
 cartographer, born in Kalamazoo, 
 Mich., Sept. 23, 1849; was graduated 
 at the University of Michigan in 1870 ; 
 became connected with the United 
 States Coast and Geodetic Survey, in 
 1873, and with the United States Geo- 
 logical Survey, in 1886; and was 
 made secretary of the United States 
 Board on Geographic Names. He was 
 cartographer to the Venezuela Bound- 
 ary Commission, and after spending 
 many years surveying and exploring in 
 Alaska and along the Pacific coast, 
 prepared, with William H. Dall, the 
 " Alaska Coast Pilot." 
 
 Baker, Osmon Cleander, an 
 American clergyman, born in Marlow, 
 ,N. H., July 30, 1812; was educated at 
 Wesleyan University ; spent several 
 years in teaching. He was one of the 
 founders of the system of Methodist 
 Episcopal Theological schools. He 
 was professor in the Biblical Insti- 
 tute in Concord, N. H., in 1847-1852, 
 and in the last year was elected a 
 >bishop of the Church. He died in 
 Concord, N. H., Dec. 20, 1871. 
 
 Baker, Sir Samuel 'White, a 
 distinguished English traveler; born 
 in London, June 8, 1821. He was 
 trained as an engineer, and at the age i 
 
 of 24 he went to Ceylon, where he 
 founded an agricultural settlement at 
 Nuwara Eliya in 1847. In the early 
 part of 1861, accompanied by his (sec- 
 ond) wife, he set out for Africa on a 
 journey of exploration. When he had 
 ascended the Nile as far as Gondokoro 
 he met Speke and Grant returning 
 after their discovery of the Victoria 
 Nyanza lake, and learned from them 
 that another large lake in the district 
 had been spoken of by the natives. 
 This lake he determined to discover, 
 and after many adventures he and his 
 wife beheld the Albert Nyanza from a 
 height on March 14, 1864. On his re- 
 turn home he was received with great 
 honor and was knighted. In 1869 he 
 returned to Africa as head of an ex- 
 pedition sent by the Khedive of Egypt 
 to suppress the slave trade and to an- 
 nex and open up to trade a large part 
 of the newly explored country, being 
 raised to the dignity of pasha. He re- 
 turned home in 1873, having finished 
 his work, and was succeeded by the 
 celebrated Gordon. In 1879 he explor- 
 ed the island of Cyprus, and subse- 
 quently he traveled in Asia and 
 America. He died Dec. 30, 1893. 
 
 Baker, "William Bliss, an Amer- 
 ican artist, born in New York in 
 1859, and is especially noted for his 
 landscapes. He died in Ballston, N. 
 Y., in 1889. 
 
 Baker, Mount, an occasionally 
 active volcano in Whatcom county, 
 Wash., belonging to the Cascade Range ; 
 very active in 1880; height 10,827 ft. 
 
 Baker's Dozen, a familiar phrase 
 said to have originated in an old cus- 
 tom of bakers who, when a heavy pen- 
 alty was inflicted for short weight, 
 used to give a surplus to avoid all 
 risk of incurring a fine. 
 
 Baking Powder, a mixture of bi- 
 carbonate of soda* and tartaric acid, 
 usually with some flour added. The 
 water of the doujrh causes the libera- 
 tion of carbonic acid, which makes the 
 bread ' rise.' 
 
 Bakpny Wald, a thickly-wooded 
 mountain range dividing the Hunga- 
 rian plains, famous for the herds of 
 swine fed on its mast. 
 
 Bakshish, an Eastern term for a 
 present or gratuity. A demand for 
 bakshish meets travellers in the East 
 everywhere from Egypt to India.
 
 Baku 
 
 Balata 
 
 Baku, a Russian port on the W. 
 shore of the Caspian, occupying part 
 of the peninsula of Apsheron, and a 
 noted centre of oil production. Some 
 of the wells have had such an 
 outflow of oil as to be unmanageable, 
 and the Baku petroleum now com- 
 petes successfully with any other in 
 the markets of the world. Baku is 
 the station of the Caspian fleet, is 
 strongly fortified, and has a large 
 shipping trade. Pop. 112,253. 
 
 Baknuin, Michael, a Russian 
 anarchist, the founder of Nihilism, 
 born in 1814 of rich and noble family. 
 Wherever he went, he was influential 
 for disturbance, and after undergoing 
 imprisonment in various States, was 
 handed over to Russia, in 1851, by 
 Austria, imprisoned for five years, and 
 finally set to Siberia. Escaping thence 
 through Japan, he joined Herzen in 
 London, on the staff of the " Kolo- 
 kol." His extreme views, however, 
 ruined the paper and led to a quarrel 
 with Marx and the International ; and 
 having fallen into disrepute with his 
 own party in Russia, he died suddenly 
 and almost alone at Berne, in 1878. 
 He demanded the entire abolition of 
 the State as a State, the absolute 
 equalization of individuals, and the 
 extirpation of hereditary rights and 
 of religion, his conception of the next 
 stage of social progress being purely 
 negative and annihilatory. 
 
 Balaam, a heathen seer, invited 
 by Balak, King of Moab, to curse the 
 Israelites, but compelled by miracle to 
 bless them instead (Num. xxii-xxiv). 
 
 Balaena, the genus which includes 
 the Greenland, or right whale, type of 
 the family balaenidse, or whale-bone 
 whales. 
 
 Balaeniceps, a genus of wading 
 birds, belonging to the Sudan, inter- 
 mediate between the herons and storks, 
 and characterized by an enormous bill, 
 broad and swollen, giving the only 
 known species (also called shoe-bird) 
 a peculiar appearance. 
 
 Balaenidae, the true whales, the 
 most typical family of the order ceta- 
 cea and the suborder cete. They are 
 known by the absence of teeth and the 
 presence in their stead of a horny sub- 
 stance called whale-bone, or baleen. 
 
 Balaenoptera, fin-back whales. A 
 genus of balsenidse, characterized by 
 
 the possession of a soft, dorsal fin, and 
 by the shortness of the plates of ba- 
 leen. Balaenoptera boops is the north- 
 ern rorqual, or fin-fish, called by sail- 
 ors the firmer. It is the largest of 
 known animals, sometimes reaching 
 100 feet in length. 
 
 Balaklava, a small seaport in the 
 Crimea, 8 miles S. S. E. Sebasto- 
 pol. In the Crimean War it was 
 captured by the British, and a 
 heroically fought battle took place 
 here (Oct. 25, 1854), ending in the 
 repulse of the Russians by the British. 
 The charge of the Light Brigade was 
 at this battle. 
 
 Balance, an instrument employed 
 for determining the quantity of any 
 substance equal to a given weight. 
 
 Balance Electrometer, an in- 
 strument invented by Cuthbertson for 
 regulating the amount of the charge 
 of electricity designed to be sent 
 through any substance. 
 
 Balance of Power, a political 
 principle which first came to be rec- 
 ognized in modern Europe in the 16th 
 century, though it appears to have 
 been also acted on by the Greeks in 
 ancient times, in preserving the re- 
 lations between their different States. 
 The object in maintaining the balance 
 of power is to secure the general in- 
 dependence of nations as a whole, by 
 preventing the aggressive attempts of 
 individual States to extend their ter- 
 ritory and sway at the expense of 
 weaker countries. The continued ex- 
 istence of Turkey as a European State 
 has long been due to the operation of 
 this policy among the Christian govern- 
 ments of Europe. 
 
 Balance of Trade, a term for- 
 merly used by political economists to 
 signify an excess of imports over ex- 
 ports, or of exports over imports in 
 the foreign trade of a country, which 
 required to be balanced by an export 
 or import of the precious metals. 
 
 Balata, the product of the bullet- 
 tree its milk or juice, in fact 
 which is a large forest tree, ranging 
 from Jamaica and Trinidad to Ven- 
 ezuela and Guiana. The tree grows 
 to a height of 120 feet, and has a 
 large, spreading head. A tree of aver- 
 age size yields three pints of milk. The 
 milk is dried in hollow wooden trays. 
 When it is sufficiently dry it is re-
 
 Balbo 
 
 moved from the trays in strips and 
 hung up on lines to harden. 
 
 Balbo, Count Csesare, an Ital- 
 ian author, born at Turin, in 1789. 
 He is chiefly remarkable from the fact 
 that his first important work, " Le 
 Speranze d'ltalia," published in 1844, 
 may be regarded as having given the 
 programme of the Moderate Party of 
 Italian politics, and as having to- 
 gether with the writings of d'Azeglio, 
 Durando, and others, created the Lib- 
 eral Party, in opposition to the Re- 
 publican Party as represented by Maz- 
 zini. Balbo was an accomplished 
 historian and translator. He died 
 in June, 1853. 
 
 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, a cel- 
 ebrated Spanish discoverer, born at 
 Xeres de los Caballeros, in 1475. He 
 accompanied Rodrigo de Bastidas in 
 his expedition to the New World, and 
 first settled in Haiti (or, as it was 
 then termed, Hispaniola). Though 
 an adventurer in search of fortune, his 
 great ambition seems to have been to 
 extend the boundaries of geographical 
 knowledge, and especially to be able 
 to announce to Europe the existence 
 of another great ocean. On Sept. 1, 
 3513, he began his perilous enterprise. 
 Accompanied by a small band of fol- 
 lowers, he began to tread the almost 
 impenetrable forests of the Isthmus of 
 Darien, and, guided by an Indian 
 chief, named Ponca, clambered up the 
 rugged gorges of the mountains. At 
 length, after a toilsome and danger- 
 ous journey, Balboa and his compan- 
 ions approached, on Sept. 25, the sum- 
 mit of the mountain range, when Bal- 
 boa, leaving his followers at a little 
 distance behind, and advancing alone 
 to the W. declivity, was the first to 
 behold the vast unknown ocean, which 
 he afterward took solemn possession 
 of in the name of his sovereign, and 
 named it the Pacific Ocean, from the 
 apparent quietude of its waters. Sur- 
 rounded by his followers, he walked 
 into it, carrying in his right hand 
 a naked sword, and in his left the 
 banner of Castile, and declared the 
 sea of the South, and all the regions 
 whose shores it bathed, to belong to 
 the crown of Castile and Leon. Dur- 
 ing his absence, howeyer, a new gov- 
 ernor had been appointed to super- 
 sede Balboa in Haiti ; where, on his 
 return, jealousy and dissensions 
 
 Baldness 
 
 springing up between them, Balboa, 
 accused of a design to rebel, was be- 
 headed in 1517, in violation of all 
 forms of justice. 
 
 Balcony, a gallery or projecting 
 framework of wood, iron or stone, 
 in front of a house, generally on a 
 level with the lower part of the win- 
 dows in one or more floors. 
 
 Baldachin, a structure in form 
 of a canopy, supported by columns, 
 and often used as a covering for in- 
 sulated altars. 
 
 Bald Mountain, the name of 
 several eminences in the United 
 States, of which the following are 
 the principal: (1) In Colorado, 
 height, 11,493 feet; (2) in Califor- 
 nia, height, 8,295 feet; (3) in Utah, 
 height, 11,976 feet; (4) in Wyom- 
 ing, in the Wind River Range, height, 
 10,760 feet; and, (5) in North Car- 
 olina, height 5,550 feet. The last 
 one was the cause of much excite- 
 ment in May, 1878, because of inexpli- 
 cable rumblings which lasted for about 
 two weeks. The mountain shook as 
 if in the throes of an earthquake, 
 immense trees and rocks were hurled 
 down its sides, and, for a time, fears 
 were entertained lest a volcanic erup- 
 tion should follow. A subsequent ex- 
 amination showed that a large sec- 
 tion of the mountain had been split 
 asunder, but no further disturbance 
 occurred. 
 
 Baldness, an absence of hair on 
 the head. Congenital baldness (com- 
 plete absence of hair at birth) is 
 sometimes met 'with ; but, in most 
 cases, is only temporary, and gives 
 place, in a few years, to a natur- 
 al growth of hair. Occasionally, how- 
 ever, it persists through life. Senile 
 baldness (calvities) is one of the most 
 familiar signs of old age. It com- 
 mences in a small area at the crown, 
 where the natural hair is first re- 
 placed by down before the skin be- 
 comes smooth and shining. From 
 this area the process extends in all 
 directions. It is more common in 
 men than women. A precisely simi- 
 lar condition occurs not unfrequently 
 at an earlier age (presenile baldness). 
 It is generally due to hereditary ten- 
 dency ; but is favored by keeping the 
 head closely covered, especially with 
 a waterproof cap. The best author-
 
 Baldric 
 
 ities agree that this form of bald- 
 ness is incurable. 
 
 Great loss of hair frequently fol- 
 lows severe illnesses or other causes 
 which produce general debility. As 
 health returns, the hair usually re- 
 turns with it. 
 
 Baldric, a broad belt formerly 
 worn over the right or left shoulder 
 diagonally across the body, often high- 
 ly decorated and enriched with gems, 
 and used not only to sustain the 
 sword, dagger, or horn, but also for 
 purposes of ornament, and as a mili- 
 tary or heraldic symbol. The fashion 
 appears to have reached its height in 
 the 15th century. In the United 
 States it now forms a part of the 
 uniform of Knights Templar and oth- 
 er fraternal organizations. 
 
 Baldwin, the name of a long line 
 of sovereign Counts of Flanders, of 
 whom the most celebrated was Bald- 
 win IX., who became, afterward, Em- 
 peror of Constantinople, under the 
 name of Baldwin I. 
 
 Baldwin II., the last Frank Em- 
 peror of Constantinople, born in 1217. 
 He was the son of Pierre de Courte- 
 nay, and succeeded his brother Robert 
 in 1228. Driven from his throne he 
 died in obscurity in 1273. 
 
 Baldwin, Charles H., an Amer- 
 ican naval officer, born in New York 
 city, Sept. 3, 1822. He entered the 
 navy as a midshipman, in 1839. Serv- 
 ing on the frigate " Congress " during 
 the war with Mexico, he figured in 
 several sharp encounters near Mazat- 
 lan. He commanded the steamer "Clif- 
 ton " at the passage of Forts Jackson 
 and St. Philip, and at the first attack 
 on Vicksburg. He became Rear-Ad- 
 miral in 1883, receiving the command 
 of the Mediterranean Squadron. He 
 died in New York city, Nov. 17, 1888. 
 
 Baldwin, Frank D., an Ameri- 
 can military officer ; born in Michigan, 
 June 26, 1842 ; entered the volunteer 
 army in 1861 and the regular army in 
 1866 ; became colonel of the 4th United 
 States Infantry, July 26, 1901; and 
 was promoted Brigadier-General, U. S. 
 A., June 9, 1902. He was awarded a 
 Congressional medal of honor for ser- 
 vice at the battle of Pine Tree Creek, 
 Ga., July 20, 1864, and another for 
 gallantry in an action against Indians 
 in Texas. He greatly distinguished 
 
 Balen 
 
 himself in the Philippines, in the early 
 part of 1902. 
 
 Baldwin, James Mark, an Amer- 
 ican psychologist, born in Columbia, 
 S. C., Jan. 12, 1861; educated at 
 Princeton College, Leipsic, Berlin, and 
 Tubingen Universities; President of 
 the American Psychological Associa- 
 tion in 1897-1898. 
 
 Baldwin, John. Denison, an 
 American journalist, politician, poet, 
 and writer on archaeology, born at 
 North Stonington, Conn., Sept. 28, 
 1809; died at Worcester, Mass., July 
 8, 1883. 
 
 Baldwin, Maurice Scollard, a 
 Canadian clergyman, born in Toronto, 
 June 21, 1836 ; was graduated at Trin- 
 ity College in that city, in 1862 ; be- 
 came rector of St. Luke's Church in 
 Montreal ; was Dean of Montreal in 
 1882-1883; and in the last year was 
 made Bishop of Huron. 
 
 Baldwin, Theodore A., an 
 American military officer, born in New 
 Jersey, Dec. 21, 1839; entered the 
 army as a private, May 3, 1862, and 
 served in that grade and as quarter- 
 master's sergeant in the 19th United 
 States Infantry, till May 31, 1865, 
 when he became First Lieutenant. He 
 was promoted Captain, July 23, 1867 ; 
 Major of the 7th Cavalry, Oct. 5, 
 1887; Lieutenant-Colonel of the 10th 
 Cavalry, Dec. 11, 1896 ; and Colonel of 
 the 7th Cavalry, May 6, 1899. From 
 Oct. 6, 1898, till Jan. 31, 1899, he 
 served as a Brigadier-General of Vol- 
 unteers. 
 
 Balearic Islands, a group of is- 
 lands, S. E. of Spain, including Ma- 
 jorca, Minorca, Iviza, and Formentera. 
 The islands form a Spanish province, 
 with an area of 1,860 square miles : 
 pop. 306,926. 
 
 Baleen, whale-bone, in the rough 
 or natural state. 
 
 Bale-Fire, in its older and strict 
 meaning, any great fire kindled in the 
 open air, or in a special sense, the fire 
 of a funeral pile. It has frequently 
 been used as synonymous with beacon- 
 fire, or a fire kindled as a signal, Sir 
 Walter Scott having apparently been 
 the first to use the term in this sense. 
 
 Balen, Hendrik van, painter, 
 born at Antwerp, in 1560. His works, 
 chiefly classical, religious, and allegori- 
 cal some of them executed in part-
 
 Baler 
 
 Xiership with Breughel are to be 
 found in most of the leading galler- 
 ies. Three of his sons also followed 
 the art, but the best of them, John 
 van Balen (1611-1654), was inferior 
 to his father. He died in 1632. 
 
 Baler, a town in the N. E. part 
 x>f Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the 
 Pacific coast. The population is sev- 
 eral thousand, mostly natives. The 
 most conspicuous edifice is a native 
 Catholic church. The town is noted 
 for the heroic defense of a Spanish 
 garrison in 1899, during a siege by the 
 Filipinos, lasting 11 months. The 
 Spaniards were commanded by Lieut. 
 Saturnine Martin Cerezo, who refused 
 to surrender the town even when di- 
 rected to do so by his superiors in 
 Manila. He entrenched himself in the 
 church and heroically resisted the be- 
 siegers until his supplies gave out, 
 when he surrendered with all the hon- 
 ors of war, July 2, 1899. Baler was 
 occupied by the American troops and 
 garrisoned with two companies of the 
 34th Volunteer Infantry, under Major 
 Shunk, in March, 1900. 
 
 Bales, Peter, a famous caligraph- 
 er, born in 1547. He was one of the 
 early inventors of shorthand. He died 
 about 1G10. 
 
 Balestier, Charles Wolcott, an 
 American novelist, born in Rochester, 
 N. Y., Dec. 13, 1861 ; studied in Cor- 
 nell University ; and became connected 
 with a New York publishing house. 
 He was brother-in-law of Rudyard 
 Kipling. He died in Dresden, Sax- 
 ony, Dec. 6, 1891. 
 
 Balfe, Michael William, com- 
 poser, was born in Dublin, May 15, 
 1808. His musical talent received 
 early culture, and in his ninth year he 
 made his detmt as a violinist, having 
 begun to compose at least two years 
 earlier. In 1826 he wrote the music 
 for a ballet, " La Perouse," performed 
 at Milan ; and in 1827 he sang in the 
 Italian Opera at Paris with great ap- 
 plause, his voice being a pure, rich 
 baritone. In 1833 he returned to Eng- 
 land, and in 1846 was appointed con- 
 ductor of the London Italian Opera. 
 He died at Rowley Abbey, his estate 
 in Hertfordshire, Oct. 20, 1870. 
 
 Balfonr, Sir Andrew, a Scottish 
 botanist and physician, born in Fife- 
 shire, in 1630. He planned with Sir 
 
 Balfonr 
 
 Robert Sibbald, the Royal College of 
 Physicians at Edinburgh, and was 
 elected its first President. 
 
 Balfonr, Arthur James, a Brit- 
 ish statesman ; born in Scotland, July 
 25, 1848; educated at Eton and at 
 Trinity College, Cambridge ; entered 
 Parliament in 1874 ; was private sec- 
 retary to his uncle, the Marquis of 
 Salisbury, in 1878-1880, and accom- 
 panied him to the Berlin Congress; 
 was member of Parliament for Hert- 
 ford in 1879, and for the East Divi- 
 sion of Manchester in 1885 ; president 
 of the Local Government Board in 
 1885 ; Secretary for Scotland in 1886 ; 
 with a seat in the Cabinet ; Lord Rec- 
 tor of St. Andrew's University in 
 1866; Secretary for Ireland in 1887- 
 1891 ; member of the Gold and Silver 
 Commission in 1887-1888; Lord Rec- 
 tor of Glasgow University in 1890 ; 
 Chancellor of Edinburgh University in 
 1891; First Lord of the Treasury 
 in 1891-1892; became the leader of 
 the Conservative opposition in the 
 House of Commons in 1892. In 1895 
 he again became First Lord of the 
 Treasury and leader of the House. 
 He was an effective speaker. As Chief 
 Secretary for Ireland, he was success- 
 ful. He passed the Crimes Act and 
 Law Act, secured a free grant for 
 railways, made a tour of investigation 
 and created the Congested Districts 
 Board. On the resignation of Lord 
 Salisbury, Mr. Balfour became prime 
 minister, July 12, 1902. In Septem- 
 ber, 1903, Mr. Balfour was the author 
 of a pamphlet on the subject of " In- 
 sular Free Trade," in which he at- 
 tempts to prove to the people of Great 
 Britain that there must be a change in 
 the fiscal policy of the empire in favor 
 of retaliatory tariffs, unless the sub- 
 jects of the King desire to see com- 
 merce lost and manufactures practical- 
 ly destroyed. The pamphlet caused a 
 sensation as the first blow at British 
 free trade from a British premier. 
 
 Balfonr, Nesbit, a British mili- 
 tary officer, born in Dunbog, Scotland, 
 in 1743 ; was promoted Lieutenant- 
 General in 1798 and General in 1803 ; 
 distinguished himself during the Amer- 
 ican Revolution ; was wounded in the 
 battle of Bunker Hill; fought at 
 the battles of Elizabethtown, Brandy- 
 wine, Germantown, and Long Island ; 
 and was present at the capture of
 
 Bali 
 
 New York. He was appointed com- 
 mandant at Charlestown, in 1779. He 
 died in Dunbog, in October, 1823. 
 
 Bali, an island of the Indian Arch- 
 ipelago E. of Java, belonging to Hol- 
 land ; greatest length, 85 miles, great- 
 est breadth, 55 miles; area, about 
 2,260 square miles. It is divided into 
 eight provinces under native rajahs, 
 and forms one colony with Lombok, 
 the united population being estimated 
 at 1,044,757. 
 
 Baliol, or Balliol, John, King 
 of Scotland ; born about 1249. On the 
 death of Margaret, the Maiden of Nor- 
 way, and grandchild of Alexander III., 
 Baliol claimed the vacant throne by 
 virtue of his descent from David, Earl 
 of Huntington, brother to William the 
 Lion, King of Scotland. Robert Bruce 
 (grandfather of the King) opposed 
 Baliol; but Edward I.'s decision was 
 in favor of Baliol, who did homage 
 to him for the kingdom, Nov. 20, 1292. 
 Irritated by Edward's harsh exercise 
 of authority, Baliol concluded a treaty 
 with France, then at war with Eng- 
 land; but, after the defeat at Dunbar 
 he surrendered his crown into the 
 hands of the English monarch. He 
 was sent with his son to the Tower, 
 but, by the intercession of the Pope, 
 in 1297, obtained liberty to retire to 
 his Norman estates, where he died in 
 1315. His son, Edward, in 1332, land- 
 ed in Fife with an armed force, and 
 having defeated a large army under 
 the Regent Mar (who was killed), got 
 himself crowned King, but was driven 
 out in three months. 
 
 Baliol College, Oxford, founded 
 between 1263 and 1268 by John de 
 Baliol, father of John Baliol, King of 
 Scotland. 
 
 Balista, or Ballista, a machine 
 used in military operations by the an- 
 cients for hurling heavy missiles, thus 
 serving in some degree the purpose of 
 the modern cannon. They are said to 
 have sometimes had an effective range 
 of a quarter of a mile, and to have 
 thrown stones weighing as much as 
 300 Ibs. The balistae differed from the 
 catapultae, in that the latter were used 
 for throwing darts. 
 
 Balkan Peninsula, a region in Eu- 
 rope named from the Balkan Moun- 
 tains; between the Adriatic and Ionian 
 Seas on the W., and the Black Sea, Sea 
 
 Ball 
 
 of Marmora, and JEgean Sea on the E.; 
 comprising Bulgaria, Servia, Monte- 
 negro, Roumama, Eastern Rumelia, 
 European Turkey, and Greece; area, 
 about 200,000 square miles; pop. est. 
 17,000,000, about half Slavs. This 
 region was the scene of a war declared 
 by Bulgaria, Montenegro, Servia, and 
 Greece against Turkey and by Tur- 
 key against these allies in mid-October, 
 1912. Hostilities began with the dec- 
 larations of war, and on Nov. 3, beat- 
 en at every point, Turkey sued for 
 peace through the Powers. 
 
 Balkh, a district of Afghan Tur- 
 kestan, the most northerly province of 
 Afghanistan. 
 
 Balkhash. (Kirghiz Tengis; Chi- 
 nese Sihai), a great inland lake, near 
 the E. border of Russian Central Asia, 
 between 44 and 47 N. lat, and 73 
 and 79 E. long. Lying about 780 
 feet above sea level, it extends 323 
 miles W. S. W. ; its breadth at the W. 
 end is 50 miles ; at the E. from 9 to 4 
 miles; the area is 8,400 square miles. 
 Its principal feeder is the river Hi. It 
 has no outlet. 
 
 Ball, Ephraim, an American in- 
 ventor, born in Greentown, O., Aug. 
 12, 1812; was brought up in the car- 
 penter's trade; in 1840 established a 
 foundry for making plow castings ; in- 
 vented a plow, a turn-top stove, the 
 Ohio mower, the World mower and 
 reaper, the Buckeye machine, and the 
 New American harvester; and for 
 many years before his death had an 
 extensive manufacturing plant at Can- 
 ton. He died in Canton, O., Jan. 1, 
 1872. 
 
 Ball, John, a priest, was one of 
 the leaders in the rebellion of Wat 
 Tyler, and was in several respects a 
 precursor _ of Wyclif, having been re- 
 peatedly in trouble for heresy from 
 1366. He was hanged, drawn, and 
 quartered in 1381. 
 
 Ball, Sir Robert Stawell, an 
 English astronomer, born in Dublin, 
 July 1, 1840; studied at Trinity Col- 
 lege. He was knighted Jan. 25, 1886. 
 
 Ball, Thomas, an American sculp- 
 tor, born in Charlestown, Mass., June 
 3, 1819. His best known works are 
 the equestrian statue of Washington, 
 in Boston ; the Webster statue in Cen- 
 tral Park, New York, and " Emanci- 
 pation." in Washington, D. C.
 
 7 
 
 Ballad 
 
 Ballot Reform 
 
 Ballad, a narrative song, from the 
 French ballade, Italian ballata, an old 
 kind of song of a lyric nature. Bal- 
 lata is derived from ballare, to dance. 
 
 Ballantine, James, a Scottish 
 artist and poet, born in Edinburgh, 
 June 11, 1808; was brought up as a 
 house painter, but afterward learned 
 drawing under Sir William Allen, and 
 was one of the first to revive the art 
 of glass painting. He was commis- 
 sioned to execute the stained glass 
 windows for the House of Lords. He 
 died Dec. 18, 1877- 
 
 Ballantine, William Gay, an 
 American educator, born in Washing- 
 ton, D. C., Dec. 7, 1848; and Presi- 
 dent of Oberlin College in 1891-1896. 
 Dr. Ballantine was one of the editors 
 of the "Bibliotheca Sacra," in 1884- 
 1891. 
 
 Ballarat, or Ballaarat, an Aus- 
 tralian town in Victoria, chief center 
 of the gold mining industry of the 
 State. 
 
 Ballinger, Richard Achilles, an 
 American lawyer; born in Boones- 
 boro, la., July 9, 1858; admitted to 
 the bar in 1886; Commissioner of the 
 General Land Office in 1907-1909; 
 then became Secretary of the In- 
 terior. His controversy with Gifford 
 Pinchot, Chief Forester, and other 
 officials, on conservation interests in 
 Alaska, led to a Congressional inves- 
 tigation in 1910. 
 
 Balloon. See AERONAUTICS ; AERO- 
 PLANE; FLYING MACHINE. 
 
 Ballot, a means of expressing an 
 individual choice for a public or other 
 officer, or a measure of public impor- 
 tance; the medium through which a 
 voter indicates his preference at an 
 election. 
 
 The term ballot, at a club or private 
 election, is applied to a ball used for 
 the purpose of voting. In casting a 
 ball for or against an individual, the 
 arrangement sometimes is that if the 
 vote be designed in his favor, then a 
 white ball is used, but if it be intended 
 to be against him, then one of a black 
 color is used whence the phrase " to 
 blackball one." Other methods, how- 
 ever, may be adopted ; thus, a ball of 
 any color put through a hole into one 
 drawer may indicate a favorable vote, 
 and into another an unfavorable one. 
 
 The ballot, as a political institution, 
 
 is known from early times, having 
 been made use of in ancient Greece 
 and Rome. At Athens, the verdicts 
 given in the courts by the dicasts were 
 indicated by balls of stone or metal, 
 black or pierced balls indicating con- 
 demnation, while white or unpierced 
 meant acquittal. 
 
 When the measure called ostracism 
 was resorted to, the votes were given 
 by means of shells, on which the voters 
 wrote the name of the citizen whom 
 they wished banished. The method 
 known as petalism was employed at 
 Syracuse, the voters using olive leaves 
 as ballots. At Rome the ballot was 
 introduced in the election of magis- 
 trates in 139 B. c., and subsequently 
 in trials and legislation, the people 
 voting at first viva voce, but later 
 writing upon tablets the names of 
 their candidates. In the republic of 
 Venice a system of voting by ballot 
 prevailed for many centuries. 
 
 In the United States it was in use 
 in early colonial times ; in France it 
 has been in operation in elections 
 since 1851 ; and in several of the Aus- 
 tralian colonies since 1855. 
 
 Ballot Reform, is a term applied 
 to such improvements in method? of 
 voting as tend to eliminate unfairneai 
 at elections. Nearly every State in 
 the Union has adopted some plan in- 
 tended to make the ballot wholly se- 
 cret. There is a single ballot, usualiv 
 called a blanket ballot, because of its 
 size, on which the voter indicates his 
 choice for a straight vote by 
 marking a cross in the circle at the 
 head of the column containing the 
 nominees of his party, and for a scat- 
 tered or split vote, by making a cross 
 in the space before the desired name. 
 Two forms of the single ballot are in 
 use: (a) One, following the Austra- 
 lian plan, in which the titles of the 
 officers are arranged alphabetically, 
 the names of the candidates and the 
 party following ; (b) one which groups 
 all names and offices by parties. 
 
 In New York State the single bal- 
 lot has one column for each organiza- 
 tion that had made regular nomina- 
 tions, and another column containing 
 only the titles of the offices to be filled, 
 with a space on the left to indicate 
 the choice by making a cross, and a 
 space beneath the title of office, in 
 which the voter could write the name
 
 Ballon 
 
 Balsam 
 
 of any person for whom he desired to 
 vote, whose name was not printed in 
 any of the party columns of the ballot. 
 Each of the columns is headed by 
 a registered party emblem, the circle 
 in which to indicate the choice for a 
 straight vote, and the name of the 
 party organization. Corruption is 
 Lamed, if not defeated by the practical 
 inability of a voter to show how he is 
 voting. 
 
 A new feature of ballot reform is 
 the substitution for the ballot paper, 
 which is folded and deposited by hand, 
 of voting machines, which are contriv- 
 ances that both record the votes and 
 count them, enabling the inspectors to 
 see at any moment how many votes 
 have been cast, and for whom. No 
 machine has as yet come into gen- 
 eral use, but several States have 
 authorized their employment, and oth- 
 ers have referred the question of their 
 adoption to local option. 
 
 Ballon, Hosea, an American Uni- 
 versalist clergyman, journalist, and 
 historian, born at Halifax, Vt., Oct. 
 18, 1796; was the first President of 
 Tufts College (1854-1861), and was 
 very successful as editor of the " Uni- 
 versalist Magazine." He died at Som- 
 erville, Mass., May 27, 1861. 
 
 Ballon, Matnrin Murray, an 
 American journalist, son of Hosea 
 Ballou, born in Boston, April 14, 
 1820 ; died in Cairo, Egypt, March 27, 
 1895. 
 
 Ball's Bluff, a spot on the right 
 bank of the Potomac river in Loudon 
 county, Va., about 33 miles N. W. of 
 Washington ; where the bank rises 
 about 150 feet above the level of the 
 river. It is noted as the scene of a 
 battle between a Union force under 
 Col. Edward D. Baker, and a Confed- 
 erate force under the command of Gen- 
 eral Evans, Oct. 21, 1861. The battle 
 resulted in the defeat of the Union 
 force and the death of Colonel 
 Baker. 
 
 Balm, a tree the specific name 
 being given because it was once sup- 
 posed to be the- Scriptural " Balm of 
 Gilead " an opinion probably er- 
 roneous, for it does not at present 
 grow in Gilead, either wild or in gar- 
 dens, nor has it been satisfactorily 
 proved that it ever did. It is a shrub 
 or small spreading spineless tree, 10 
 
 to 12 feet high, with trifoliate leaves 
 in fascicles of 2-6, and reddish flow- 
 ers haying four petals. It is found on 
 both sides of the Red Sea, in Arabia, 
 Abyssinia, and Nubia. It does not 
 occur in Palestine. 
 
 Balm of Gilead Fir, a tree which 
 furnishes a turpentine-like gum. It 
 is a North American fir, having no 
 geographical connection with Gilead. 
 
 Balmaceda, Jose Manuel, a 
 Chilian statesman, born in 1840 ; early 
 distinguished as a political orator ; ad- 
 vocated in Congress separation of 
 Church and State; as Premier, in 
 1884, introduced civil marriage; elect- 
 ed President in 1886. A conflict with 
 the Congressional Party, provoked by 
 his alleged cruelties and official dis- 
 honesty, and advocacy of the claim of 
 Signer Vicuna as his legally elected 
 successor, resulted in Balmaceda's ov- 
 erthrow and suicide in 1891. 
 
 Balmerino, Arthur Elpliin- 
 gtone, Lord, a Scottish Jacobite, 
 born in 1688. He took part in the 
 Jacobite rebellion of 1715, and fought 
 at Sheriffmuir. Having joined the 
 young Pretender in 1745, he was taken 
 prisoner at Culloden, tried at West- 
 minster, found guilty, and beheaded in 
 1746. His title was from Balmerino, 
 in Fife. 
 
 Balmoral Castle, the Highland 
 residence of King Edward, beautifully 
 situated on the S. bank of the Dee, in 
 the county of, and 45 miles W. of Ab- 
 erdeen. It stands in the midst of fine 
 and varied mountain scenery, is built 
 of granite in the Scottish baronial 
 style, was enlarged in 1888. and has a 
 massive and imposing appearance. The 
 estate, which is the King's private 
 property, comprises 25,000 acres, most- 
 ly deer forest. 
 
 Balsa, a kind of raft or float used 
 on the coasts and rivers of Peru and 
 other parts of South America for fish- 
 ing, for landing goods and passengers 
 through a heavy surf, and ^for other 
 purposes where buoyancy is chiefly 
 wanted. It is formed generally of two 
 inflated sealskins, connected by a sort 
 of platform on which the fisherman, 
 passengers or goods are placed. 
 
 Balsam, the common name of suc- 
 culent plants of the genus impatiens, 
 having beautiful irregular flowers, cul- 
 tivated in gardens and greenhouses.
 
 Balsam 
 
 Balsam, an aromatic, resinous 
 substance, flowing spontaneously or by 
 incision from certain plants. A great 
 variety of substances pass under this 
 name. But in chemistry the term is 
 confined to such vegetable juices as 
 consist of resins mixed with volatile 
 oils, and yield the volatile oil on dis- 
 tillation. 
 
 Balta, Jose, a Peruvian states- 
 man, born in Lima, in 1816; retired 
 from the army with the rank of Colo- 
 nel in 1855 ; Minister of War in 1865 ; 
 one of the leaders in the insurrection 
 which overthrew the unconstitutional 
 President, Prado, in 1868; and was 
 President of Peru, in 1868*-1872. He 
 was murdered in a military mutiny in 
 Lima, July 26, 1872. 
 
 Baltic and North. Sea Canal, a 
 German ship canal, starting at Hol- 
 tenau, on the Bay of Kiel, and joining 
 the river Elbe 15 miles from its 
 mouth; called by the Germans the 
 Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. The Emperor 
 William I. commenced the works on 
 June 6, 1887, so far as laying the foun- 
 dation of the Holtenau locks was con- 
 cerned, while William II. opened the 
 canal gates in 1895. The work was 
 thus actually completed in the esti- 
 mated time, eight years, and the esti- 
 mate of cost, $40,000,000, had not 
 been exceeded. 
 
 Baltic Provinces (in Russia), a 
 term which, in a wider sense, compre- 
 hends the five Russian governments 
 bordering on the Baltic, viz., Courland, 
 Livonia, Esthonia, Petersburg, and 
 Finland ; in a restricted sense it often 
 designates the first three. The Baltic 
 provinces once belonged to Sweden, 
 except Courland. which was a depen- 
 dency of Poland. The bulk of the 
 population is composed of Esths and 
 Letts ; the Germans number above 
 200,000, the Russians only 65,000. 
 The five provinces combined have an 
 area of 191,526 square miles, and a 
 population of 7,015,126. 
 
 Baltic Sea, the great gulf or in- 
 land sea bordered by Denmark, Ger- 
 many, Russia, and Sweden, and com- 
 municating with the Kattegat and 
 North Sea by the Sound and the Great 
 and Little Belts. Its length is from 
 850 to 900 miles; breadth, from 100 
 to 200 ; and area, including the Gulfs 
 of Bothnia and Finland, 184,496 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 square miles, of which 12,753 are oc- 
 cupied by islands. Its mean depth is 
 44 fathoms, and the greatest ascer- 
 tained depth, between Gottland and 
 Courland, 140. 
 
 Baltimore, a coextensive city and 
 county of Maryland; sixth city in the 
 United States in pop. in 1900; (1910) 
 558,485; on an expansion of the 
 Patapsco river and seven railroads ; 38 
 miles N. E. of Washington, D. C., and 
 14 miles from Chesapeake Bay. The 
 city covers an area of 28 square miles, 
 and the expansion of the river gives 
 it a spacious and secure harbor (con- 
 sisting of an outer bay accessible to 
 the largest ships, and an interior basin 
 for small vessels), which has become 
 the seat of a very large foreign and 
 coastwise trade. The entrance to the 
 harbor is defended by Fort McHenry, 
 an important military post, which 
 successfully resisted an attack by the 
 British fleet in the War of 1812. The 
 city is laid out in general at right 
 angles, with streets averaging 60 feet 
 in width, and is built up with red 
 brick', made from clay beds near the 
 city, white marble and granite, both 
 from quarries near by, and with iron. 
 
 The city is the largest oyster can- 
 ning place in the world, the indus- 
 try employing over 5,000 vessels and 
 boats of all kinds and several thousand 
 persons. It also ranks very high in 
 the various manufactures of tobacco, 
 and in the exportation of corn and 
 grains in general. 
 
 On Sept. 11, 1814, the British forces 
 under General Ross landed near Bal- 
 timore and attempted to carry the city 
 by assault. The American forces were 
 placed at a great disadvantage, and 
 were unable to resist the invasion ; 
 but in the assault the British com- 
 mander was killed, and his troops 
 abandoned their purpose. On the fol- 
 lowing day, the British fleet bombard- 
 ed Fort McHenry without practical 
 success. During the Civil War the 
 city was a scene of almost continual 
 excitement. On April 19, 1861, a fatal 
 assault was made on portions of the 
 Sixth Massachusetts and the Seventh 
 Pennsylvania Regiments as they were 
 passing through the city on their way 
 to Washington^; in the following 
 month General Butler occupied Fed- 
 eral Hill; in 1863-1864 the city was 
 fortified to resist a threatened attack
 
 Baltimore Bird 
 
 by the Confederates ; and in the latter 
 year the National Republican Conven- 
 tion, which renominated President 
 Lincoln, met in the city. On Sunday, 
 Feb. 7, 1904, a fire broke out in the 
 centre of the city, and raged for two 
 days, destroying property of the value 
 of $50,000,000. It necessitated the re- 
 construction of that portion of the 
 city, and enabled other important im- 
 provements, wider streets, new build- 
 ings, electric lighting and transit, 
 improved harbor accommodation, etc., 
 to be effectively accomplished in the 
 " Monumental City.' 
 
 Baltimore Bird, Baltimore 
 Oriole, Baltimore Hang-nest, or 
 Baltimore, a bird of the family 
 sturnidae (starlings), and the sub- 
 family oriolinse (orioles). The name 
 Baltimore was applied or attached to 
 this bird not merely because it occurs 
 at the place so called, but, according 
 to Catesby, because its colors, which 
 are black and orange, were the same 
 as those on the coat of arms or livery 
 of the Lord Baltimore who was for- 
 merly proprietor of Maryland. It ex- 
 tends from Canada to Mexico, or even 
 to Brazil, migrating to the N. part of 
 this area about May. . 
 
 Baltimore, George Calvert, 
 Lord, an English colonist, born in 
 Yorkshire about 1580; was for some 
 time Secretary of State to James I., 
 but this post he resigned in 1624 in 
 consequence of having become a Ro- 
 man Catholic. Notwithstanding this 
 he retained the confidence of the King, 
 who, in 1625, raised him to the Irish 
 peerage, his title being from Balti- 
 more, a fishing village of Cork. He 
 had previously obtained a grant of 
 land in Newfoundland, but, as this 
 colony was much exposed to the at- 
 tacks of the French, he left it. and ob- 
 tained another patent for Maryland. 
 He died (1632) before the charter was 
 completed, and it was granted to his 
 son, Cecil, who deputed the governor- 
 chip to his brother, Leonard. 
 
 Baluchistan, a country in Asia, 
 the coast of which is continuous with 
 the N. W. seaboard of India, bounded 
 on the N. by Afghanistan, on the W. 
 by Persia, on the S. by the Arabian 
 Sea, and on the E. by Sind. It has 
 an area of about 131,855 square miles, 
 ud a population (1901) of 915,000, 
 
 Balzao 
 
 In 1910 it was divided into (1) Brit- 
 ish and administered territory; (2) na- 
 tive States of Kalat and Las Bela; 
 (3) and the Marri and Bugti tribal 
 areas. Quetta is the seat of the 
 British administration. 
 
 Balucki, Michael, a Polist dram- 
 atist and novelist, born in Cracow. 
 Sept 29, 1837. 
 
 Balustrade, a range of balusters, 
 together with the cornice or coping 
 which they support, used as a parapet 
 for bridges or the roofs of buildings, 
 or as a mere termination to a struc- 
 
 BALTJSTRADE. 
 
 ture; also serving as a fence or in- 
 closure for altars, balconies, terraces, 
 staircases, etc. 
 
 Balzac, Honore de, a French au- 
 thor, born at Tours, May 20, 1799; 
 died in Paris, August, 1850. From 
 1819 to 1830 he led a life of frequent 
 privation and incessant industry, pro- 
 ducing stories which neither found nor 
 deserved to find readers, and incurring 
 mainly through unlucky business 
 speculations a heavy burden of debt, 
 which harassed him to the end of his 
 career. He first tasted success in his 
 30th year on the publication of " The 
 Last of the Chouans," which was soon 
 afterward followed by " The Magic 
 Skin," a marvellous interweaving of 
 the supernatural into modern life, and 
 the earliest of his great works. After 
 writing several other novels, he formed 
 the design of presenting in the " Hu- 
 man Comedy " a complete picture of 
 modern civilization. All ranks, pro- 
 fessions, arts, trades, all phases of 
 manners in town and country, were to,
 
 Bambarra 
 
 be represented in bis imaginary sys- 
 tem of things. In attempting to carry 
 out this impossible design, he produced 
 what is almost in itself a literature. 
 His work did not bring him wealth ; 
 his yearly income, even when he was 
 at the height of his fame, is said to 
 have rarely exceeded 12,000 francs. 
 In 1849, when his health had brok- 
 en < down, he traveled to Poland to 
 visit Madame Hanska, a rich Polish 
 lady, with whom he had corresponded 
 for more than 15 years. In 1850 she 
 became his wife, and three months 
 after the marriage, in August of the 
 same year, Balzac died at Paris. 
 
 Bambarra, one of the Sudan 
 States of Western Africa. The in- 
 habitants, a branch of the Mandigoes, 
 number about 2,000,000, and are su- 
 perior to their neighbors in intelli- 
 gence. The country is within the 
 French sphere. 
 
 Bamberger, Heinricb von, an 
 Austrian pathologist, born in Prague 
 in 1822 ; was graduated in medicine in 
 1847; became Professor of Special 
 Pathology and Therapeutics, first in 
 the University of Wiirzburg, and, in 
 1872, in the University of Vienna. He 
 died in 1888. 
 
 Bambino, the figure of our Sa- 
 viour represented as an infant in 
 swaddling clothes. The " Santissimo 
 Bambino " in the Church of Ara Cceli 
 at Rome, a richly decorated figure 
 carved in wood, is believed to have a 
 miraculous virtue in curing diseases. 
 
 Bamboo, a giant grass some- 
 times reaching the height of 40 .or 
 more feet, which is found everywhere 
 in the tropics of the Eastern Hemi- 
 sphere, and has been introduced into 
 the West Indies, the Southern States 
 of America, and various other regions 
 of the Western world. Bamboo is put 
 to all sorts of uses. Bows, arrows, 
 quivers, the shafts of lances, and 
 other warlike weapons can be made 
 from the stems of bamboo, as can 
 ladders, rustic bridges, the masts of 
 vessels, walking sticks, water pipes, 
 flutes, and many other objects. The 
 leaves are everywhere used for weav- 
 ing and for packing purposes. Finally, 
 the seeds are eaten by the poorer class- 
 es in parts of India; and in the West 
 Indies the tops of the tender shoots 
 are pickled. 
 
 Bancroft 
 
 Ban, Bann, Banne, Bain, or 
 Bane, a proclamation, public notice, 
 or edict respecting a person or thing. 
 
 I. Military and feudal : A procla- 
 mation in time of war. 
 
 II. Historical. The ban of the em- 
 pire : A penalty occasionally put in 
 force under the old German Empire 
 against a prince who had given some 
 cause of offense to the supreme au- 
 thority. 
 
 III. Law, etc. Banns (plural) : 
 The publication of intended marriages, 
 proclamation that certain parties 
 named intend to proceed to marriage, 
 unless any impediment to their union 
 be proved to exist. 
 
 Ban, in Austro-Hungary : (1) 
 Formerly : A title belonging to thje 
 warden of the Eastern Marshes of 
 Hungary. (2) Now: The Viceroy of 
 Temesvar, generally called the Ban of 
 Croatia. The territory he rules over 
 is called a banat or banate. 
 
 Banana, a fruit originally East 
 Indian, but much cultivated in warm 
 countries over the whole globe. 
 
 Banana, an island in West Afri- 
 ca, N. of the mouth of the Kongo; 
 also a seaport of the Kongo Free 
 State on the island. It has lost com- 
 mercial importance in recent years. 
 
 Banana-Bird, a bird belonging to 
 the family sturnidse (starlings), and 
 the sub-family oriolinse, or orioles. It 
 is tawny and black, with white bars 
 on the wings. It occurs in the West 
 Indies and the warmer parts of Con- 
 tinental America. 
 
 Banat, a large and fertile region 
 in Hungary, consisting of the coun- 
 ties of Temesvar, Torontal and Kris- 
 so; principal, town, Temesvar. The 
 region originally belonged to Hun- 
 gary ; was occupied by the Turks in 
 1652-1716 ; and was reunited to Hun- 
 gary in 1779. The population ex- 
 seeds 1,500,000. 
 
 Banca, an island belonging to the 
 Dutch East Indies, between Sumatra 
 and Borneo, 130 miles long, with a 
 width varying from 10 to 30 ; pop. 
 80,921, a considerable proportion be- 
 ing Chinese. It is celebrated for its 
 excellent tin, of wliich the annual yield 
 is above 4,000 tons. 
 
 Bancroft, Aaron, a Unitarian 
 clergyman, born in Reading, Mass., 
 Nov. 10, 1755 ; graduated at Harvard,
 
 Bancroft 
 
 in 1T78 ; became pastor in Worcester 
 in 1785, where he remained nearly 50 
 years. Besides a great number of ser- 
 mons his works include a " Life of 
 George Washington" (1807). He 
 was the father of the historian, George 
 Bancroft. He died at Worcester, 
 Mass., Aug. 19, 1839. 
 
 Bancroft, George, an American 
 historian, born near Worcester, Mass., 
 Oct. 3, 1800. He was educated at 
 Harvard and in Germany, where he 
 made the acquaintance of many liter- 
 ary men of note. In 1824 he pub- 
 lished a translation of Heeren's " Poli- 
 tics of Ancient Greece," and a small 
 volume of poems, and was also em- 
 ployed in collecting materials for a 
 history of the United States. Between 
 1834 and 1840 three volumes of his 
 history were published. In 1845 he 
 was appointed Secretary of the Navy, 
 and effected many reforms and im- 
 provements in that department. He 
 was American Minister to England 
 from 1846 to 1849, when the Univer- 
 sity of Oxford conferred on him the 
 honorary degree of D. C. L. He took 
 the opportunity, while in Europe, to 
 perfect his collections on American 
 history. He returned to New York in 
 1849, and began to prepare for the 
 
 Eress the fourth and fifth volumes of 
 is history, which appeared in 1852. 
 The sixth appeared in 1854, the sev- 
 enth in 1858, the eighth soon after, 
 but tke ninth did not appear until 
 1866. From 1867 to 1874 he was 
 Minister Plenipotentiary at the Court 
 of Berlin. The 10th and last volume 
 of his great work appeared in 1874. 
 An additional section appeared, first 
 as a separate work, in 1882 : " His- 
 tory of the Formation of the Constitu- 
 tion of the United States," and the 
 whole came out in six volumes in 
 1884-1885. He settled in Washing- 
 ton on returning from Germany, in 
 1875, and died there, Jan. 17, 1891. 
 
 Bancroft, Hubert Howe, an 
 American historian, born in Granville, 
 Ohio, May 5, 1832. In 1852 he went 
 to California to establish a book busi- 
 ness, and began to collect documents, 
 maps, books and MSS. for a complete 
 " History of the Pacific States " from 
 Mexico to Alaska. In 1905 he gave 
 his library of 60,000 volumes and 500 
 original MSS. to the University of 
 California. 
 E. 13. 
 
 Band Fish 
 
 Bancroft, The, a steel gunboat of 
 the United States navy ; built express- 
 ly for a practice ship for the cadets of 
 the United States Naval Academy; 
 launched in 1892. 
 
 Bandai-San, a volcano in Japan.; 
 140 miles N. of Tokio. Its summit 
 consists of several peaks, the highest 
 of which is 6,035 feet above the ocean 
 and 4,000 feet above the surrounding 
 plain. On July 15, 1888, there was a 
 terrible explosion of steam which 
 blew out a side of the mountain, mak- 
 ing a crater more than a mile in width, 
 and having precipitous walls on three 
 sides. The debris of broken rock and 
 dust poured down the slope and over 
 an area of 27 square miles, killing 461 
 persons and covering many villages. 
 
 Banda Islands, a group belonging 
 to Holland, Indian Archipelago, S. of 
 Ceram, Great Banda, the largest, be- 
 ing 12 miles long by 2 broad. They 
 are beautiful islands, of volcanic ori- 
 gin, yielding quantities of nutmeg. 
 Goenong Api, or Fire Mountain, is a 
 cone-shaped volcano which rises 2,320 
 feet above the sea. Pop. about 7,000. 
 
 Banda Oriental, a State of South 
 America, now usually called UBTT- 
 
 GUAY. 
 
 Bandel, Ernst von, a Bavarian 
 sculptor, born in 1800, at Ansbach; 
 studied art at Munich, Nuremberg, 
 and Rome ; and from 1834 lived chiefly 
 at Hanover, engaged off and on, for 
 40 years, on his great monument of 
 Arminius, near Detmold, 90 feet high, 
 which was unveiled by the Emperor 
 Wilhelm on Aug. 16, 1875. He died 
 near Donauworth, Sept. 25, 1876. 
 
 Bandelier, Adolph Francis 
 Alphonse, a Swiss-American archae- 
 ologist, born in Berne, Aug. 6, 1840; 
 settled early in the United States, 
 where he has done important work un- 
 der the direction of the Archaeological 
 Institute of America. His studies 
 have been chiefly among the Indians 
 of New Mexico and Arizona, Central 
 America and Mexico. He has publish- 
 ed many papers on the subject. 
 
 Band Fish. The red band fish. 
 It is about 15 inches long. Its bril- 
 liant appearance, when seen moving 
 in the water, has suggested the names 
 of fire-flame and red ribbon, by which 
 it is also known. The home of the 
 genus is in Japanese waters.
 
 Bandicoot 
 
 Bandicoot, the largest known spe- 
 cies of rat, attaining the weight of 
 two or three pounds, and the length, 
 including the tail, of 24 to 30 inches. 
 It is a native of India, and is very 
 abundant in Ceylon. Its flesh is said 
 to be delicate and to resemble young 
 pork, and is a favorite article of diet 
 with the coolies. 
 
 Bandiera, Attilio and Emilio, 
 two brothers of a Venetian family, 
 lieutenants in the Austrian navy, who 
 attempted a -rising in favor of Italian 
 independence in 1843. The attempt 
 was a failure, and they fled to Corfu ; 
 but, misled by false information they 
 ventured to land in Calabria with 20 
 companions, believing that their ap- 
 pearance would be the signal for a 
 general insurrection. One of their 
 accomplices had betrayed them, and 
 the party was captured at once by the 
 Neapolitan police. Attilio and Emilio 
 were shot along with seven of their 
 comrades in the public square of Co- 
 senza, on July 25, 1844. 
 
 Bandinelli, Baccio, son of a fa- 
 mous goldsmith of Fl nvri ""< 1 . "rid one 
 of the best sculptors of his time, was 
 born at Florence in 1493. Among his 
 best works are his colossal group of 
 " Hercules," with Cacus at his feet, 
 his " Adam and Eve," his copy of the 
 " Laocoon," and the exquisite bassi- 
 rilievi which adorn the choir of the 
 Duomo in Florence, where he died in 
 1560. 
 
 Baner, Jolian Gustafsson, a 
 Swedish general in the Thirty Years' 
 War, born in 1596; made his first 
 campaigns in Poland and Russia, and 
 accompanied Gustavus Adolphus, who 
 held him in high esteem, to Germany. 
 After the death of Gustavus, in 1632, 
 he had the chief command of the 
 Swedish army, and, in 1634, invaded 
 Bohemia, defeated the Saxons at Witt- 
 stock, Sept. 24, 1636, and took Tor- 
 gau. He ravaged Saxony again in 
 1639, gained another victory at Chem- 
 nitz, and, m 1640, defeated Piccolo- 
 mini. In January, 1641, he very near- 
 ly took Ratisbon by surprise. He 
 died in 1641. 
 
 Bang, Herman, a Danish novel- 
 ist, born in 1857. He came into no- 
 tice about 1879, since which time he 
 has published a number of novels and 
 some poems. 
 
 Bangkok 
 
 Bangalore, a town of Hindustan, 
 capital of Mysore, and giving its name 
 to a considerable district in the E. of 
 Mysore State. Pop. 180,366. 
 
 Bangkok, the capital city of Siam, 
 situated on both banks of the Menam, 
 about 20 miles from its mouth. The 
 population is about 600,000, nearly 
 half of whom are Chinese, the others, 
 including Burmese, Annamese, Cam- 
 bodians, Malays, Eurasians, and Eu- 
 ropeans. The foreign trade of Siam 
 centers in Bangkok, and is mainly in 
 the hands of the Europeans and Chi- 
 nese. The approach to Bangkok by 
 the Menam, which can be navigated 
 by ships of 350 tons burden (large 
 sea-going ships anchor at Paknam, be- 
 low the bar at the mouth of the 
 river), is exceedingly beautiful. The 
 internal traffic of Bangkok is chiefly 
 carried on by means of canals, there 
 being only a few passable -streets in 
 the whole city. Horses and carriages 
 are rarely seen, except in the neigh- 
 borhood of the palaces. The native 
 houses on land of bamboo or other 
 wood, like the floating houses are 
 raised upon piles, six or eight feet 
 from the ground, and are reached by 
 ladders. The circumference of the 
 walls of Bangkok, which are 15 to 30 
 feet high, and 12 broad, is about 6 
 miles. 
 
 Bangkok is now the permanent res- 
 idence of the King. The palace is sur- 
 rounded by high walls, and is nearly 
 a mile in circumference. It includes 
 temples, public offices, accommodation 
 for officials and for some thousands of 
 soldiers, with their necessary equip- 
 ments, a theater, apartments for a 
 crowd of female attendants, and sev- 
 eral Buddhist temples, or chapels. 
 Several of the famous white elephants 
 are kept in the courtyard of the pal- 
 ace. Throughout the interior are dis- 
 tributed the most costly articles in 
 gold, silver, and precious stones. The 
 chief exports are rice, sugar, pepper, 
 cardamoms, sesame, hides, fine woods, 
 ivory, feathers, and edible birds' nests. 
 The imports are tea, manufactured 
 silks and piece goods, opium, hard- 
 ware, machinery, and glass wares. In 
 1893, a treaty was concluded at Bang- 
 kok, by which Siam made large ces- 
 sions to France, two French gunboats 
 having forced their way to the capital 
 after an ineffective defense.
 
 Bangor 
 
 BangoxS city, port of entry, and 
 capital of Penobscot county, Me.; at 
 junction of the Penobscot and Ken- 
 duskeag rivers and on the Maine 
 Central railroad; 140 miles N. E. of 
 Portland; has exceptional power for 
 manufacturing from the Penobscot 
 river; is chiefly engaged in the lum- 
 ber industry; and is the seat of a 
 noted theological seminary. Pop. 
 (1910) 24,803. 
 
 Bangs, John Kendrick, an 
 American humorist and editor, born 
 in Yonkers, N. Y., May 27, 1862. He 
 was long famous for his light verse 
 and humorous- stories. 
 
 Bangs, Lemuel Bolton, an 
 American physician ; born in New 
 York, Aug. 9, 1842. He was president 
 of the American Association of Gen- 
 ito-Urinary Surgeons (1895) and the 
 editor of the " American Text-Book of 
 Genito-Urinary Diseases," etc. 
 
 Bangweolo (also called Bemba), 
 a great Central African lake, discover- 
 ed by Livingstone in 1868, which is 
 150 miles long by 75 in width, and 
 3,700 feet above the sea. On its S. 
 shore Livingstone died. 
 
 Banian, or Banyan, an Indian 
 trader, or merchant, one engaged in 
 commerce generally, but more particu- 
 larly one of the great traders of West- 
 ern India, as in the seaports of Bom- 
 bay, Kurrachee, etc., who carry on a 
 large trade by means of caravans with 
 the interior of Asia, and with Africa 
 by vessels. 
 
 Banim, John, an Irish novelist, 
 dramatist, and poet, born in Kilkenny, 
 April 3, 1798; died in Kilkenny, Aug. 
 13, 1842. 
 
 Banishment (the act of putting 
 under ban, proclamation, as an out- 
 law) , a technical term for the punish- 
 ment of sending out of the country 
 under penalties against return. 
 
 Banister, John, an Anglo-Amer- 
 ican scientist, born in England ; set- 
 tled in the West Indies, and later in 
 Virginia, in the vicinity of James- 
 town, where he devoted himself to the 
 study of botany. He died in 1692. 
 His son, JOHN, born in Virginia, was 
 educated in England, and studied law 
 there ; became Colonel in the Virginia 
 militia; member of the Virginia As- 
 sembly ; and prominent in the patri- 
 
 Bank Note 
 
 otic conventions of the Revolutionary 
 period; was a Representative from 
 Virginia in the Continental Congress 
 in 1778-1779, and one of the signers 
 of the Articles of Confederation. He 
 died near Hatchers Run, Va., in 1787. 
 
 Banjermassin, a former Sultan- 
 ate in the S. E. of Borneo, with an 
 area of 5,928 square miles, and a pop- 
 ulation of about 300,000, chiefly Mo- 
 hammedans. Tributary to Holland 
 since 1787, it was annexed on the 
 death of the last Sultan in 1857, and 
 is now governed by the Dutch Resi- 
 dent for the S. and E. of Borneo, who 
 has an assistant at Martapura, where 
 the Sultans formerly lived. 
 
 Banjo, a musical instrument with 
 five strings, having a head and neck 
 like a guitar, with a body or sound- 
 ing-board hollow at the back, and 
 played with the hand and fingers. It 
 is the favorite instrument of the plan- 
 tation negroes of the Southern States 
 and their imitators, and seems to have 
 had its origin in the bandore, a musi- 
 cal instrument like a lute or guitar, 
 invented by John Ross or Rose, a fa- 
 mous violin-maker, about 1562. 
 
 Bank, primarily an establishment 
 for the deposit, custody and repay- 
 ment on demand, of money ; and ob- 
 taining the bulk of its profits from the 
 investment of sums thus derived and 
 not in immediate demand. The term 
 is a derivative of the banco or bench 
 of the early Italian money dealers. 
 
 Bankes, Henry, an English 
 statesman and historian : born in Lon- 
 don in 1757 ; died Dec. 17, 1834. 
 
 Bank Holidays, days during 
 which banks are legally closed. The 
 term is not used in the United States, 
 it being customary for banks to close 
 on all legal holidays. In Great Brit- 
 ain and Ireland the term is in general 
 use as applied to what Americans 
 would simply call holidays. In the 
 United States, as in Great Britain, 
 when a holiday falls on Sunday, it is 
 observed on the following day. 
 
 Bankiva Fowl, a fowl living wild 
 in Northern India, Java, Sumatra, 
 etc., believed to be the original of our 
 common domestic fowls. 
 
 Bank Note, ah engraved certifi- 
 cate representing its face value in spe- 
 cie. In the production of bank notes, 
 the principal purpose is to render their
 
 Bankruptcy Laws 
 
 Banks 
 
 forgery impossible, or at least easy of 
 detection. This is sought to be effect- 
 ed by peculiarity of paper, design, and 
 printing. 
 
 In the United States, the bank notes 
 at present in circulation are manufac- 
 tured by the Government Bureau of 
 Engraving and Printing, the paper 
 being made by a private concern, un- 
 der a patented process, the chief in- 
 gredients being a mixture of linen 
 and cotton fiber, into which are in- 
 troduced threads of silk, so arranged 
 as to be perceptible after the notes 
 are printed. This style of paper is 
 furnished only to the government. Su- 
 perior skill is exercised in engraving 
 the plates, nearly all parts of them 
 being executed by the geometrical 
 lathe and the ruling machine the work 
 of which it is impossible to imitate 
 successfully by hand. The printing of 
 the notes is done in colored inks of the 
 best quality, sometimes as many as 
 four shades being used. The great ex- 
 pense of the machines used in the en- 
 graving, and the superior quality ot 
 the work generally, renders successful 
 counterfeiting almost impossible. The 
 notes, when badly worn, are returned 
 to the Urtfted States Treasury, other 
 notes being issued in their stead. 
 
 Bankruptcy Laws, regulations 
 passed by a competent authority with 
 a view to distributing the property of 
 an insolvent equitably among his cred- 
 itors and free the debtor from further 
 obligation. In England, before 1841, 
 only a tradesman could be a bankrupt. 
 This distinction was then abolished. 
 It was abolished in the United States 
 in 18G9. The act " to establish a 
 uniform system of bankruptcy 
 throughout the United States," was 
 passed by both Houses of the 55th 
 Congress, and by the approval of Pres- 
 ident McKinley, became a law on July 
 1, 1898. 
 
 The provisions under which a man 
 can be thrown into bankruptcy against 
 his will are as follows: (1) Where a 
 man has disposed of his property with 
 intent to defraud. (2) Where he has 
 disposed of his property to one or 
 more creditors to give a preference to 
 them. (3) Where he has given a 
 preference through legal proceedings. 
 (4) Where a man has made a volun- 
 tary assignment for the benefit of his 
 creditors generally. (5) Where a 
 
 man admits in writing that he is bank- 
 rupt. The last two provisions are 
 practically voluntary proceedings. Un- 
 der the common law, a man is consid- 
 ered insolvent when he cannot pay his 
 debts when they are due ; under the 
 new law, he is deemed insolvent only 
 when his property, fairly valued, is in- 
 sufficient to pay his debts. Only two 
 offenses are cited under the new law : 
 one when property is hidden away 
 after proceedings in bankruptcy have 
 been begun, and the other when per- 
 jury is discovered. Discharges are to 
 be denied in only two cases ; one, in 
 which either of the offenses detailed 
 has been committed, and the other, 
 when it is shown that fraudulent 
 books have been kept. The term of 
 imprisonment for either of these of- 
 fenses is not to exceed two years. 
 
 The law provides a .complete sys- 
 tem throughput the United States, and 
 for its administration by the United 
 States courts in place of the different 
 systems formerly in existence in the 
 various States administered by State 
 courts. In bankruptcy proceedings, a 
 bankrupt debtor may turn over all his 
 property to the court, to be adminis- 
 tei'ed for the benefit of his creditors, 
 and then get a complete discharge 
 from his debts. A bankrupt may of 
 his own motion offer to surrender his 
 property to the administration of the 
 United States court and ask for his 
 discharge in voluntary bankruptcy, or 
 creditors may apply to the court to 
 compel a bankrupt to turn over his 
 property to be administered under the 
 act for the benefit of the creditors in 
 voluntary bankruptcy. The bankrupt 
 who has turned over all his property 
 and conformed to the provisions of the 
 act, is entitled to a judgment of court 
 discharging him from any future lia- 
 bility to his creditors. 
 
 Banks, Sir Joseph, an English 
 naturalist, born in London in 1743. 
 He died in 1820, and bequeathed his 
 collections to the British Museum. 
 
 Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, an 
 American legislator and soldier, born 
 in Waltham, Mass., Jan. 30, 1816. At 
 first a factory worker, he studied law, 
 and became successively a member of 
 the State and National Legislatures. 
 He was Speaker of Congress in 1856, 
 and in 1858, and in 1859 he was elect- 
 ed Governor of his native State. On
 
 Banks 
 
 Banks 
 
 the outbreak of the Civil War, he took 
 a command in the army, at first on 
 the Potomac, then at New Orleans, 
 and finally on the Red .river. Relieved 
 of his command in 1864, he re-entered 
 Congress, voting mainly with the Re- 
 
 gublican party. He died in Waltham, 
 ept. 1, 1894. 
 
 Banks, Thomas, an English 
 sculptor, born in 1735. He died in 
 1805. 
 
 Banks in the United States, 
 financial institutions comprising (1) 
 National banks; (2) State banks; 
 and (3) savings banks, consisting of 
 (a) mutual savings banks; and (b) 
 stock savings banks. These are gen- 
 eral throughout the entire country. 
 In addition to these, are (1) co-opera- 
 tive banks, common to New England, 
 especially Massachusetts; (2) loan and 
 trust companies, established in nearly 
 all the large cities; and (3) building 
 and loan associations, now represented 
 in most of the States and Territories. 
 The last three classes partake of some 
 of the features of regular banking, es- 
 pecially in the reception of money on 
 deposit, subject to call, and the pay- 
 ment of interest thereon. The firs! 
 three kinds of banks only are heie 
 considered. 
 
 The first bank in the United States 
 was organized in Philadelphia in 1780, 
 and a Bank of North America was 
 planned in 1781 and opened in 1782. 
 The Massachusetts Bank was incor- 
 porated in 1784 ; that of New York 
 was chartered in 1791, although, since 
 1784, under Alexander Hamilton's 
 " Articles of Association," it had 
 been doing business. Alexander Ham- 
 ilton also originated a plan for a 
 United States bank, with a capital of 
 $10,000.000, three-fourths to be paid 
 in United States stock, at 6 per cent., 
 which plan was adopted and approved 
 by Washington in 1791. The bank 
 was reorganized in 1816 with a capital 
 of $35,000.000, the United States sub- 
 scribing $7,000,000, with interest at 6 
 per cent., but in consequence of a gen- 
 eral financial depression, was, the 
 next year, in great danger of failure. 
 Congress refusing to renew the char- 
 ter, a State bank, called the United 
 States bank, was chartered in Penn- 
 sylvania, and eventually failing, the 
 whole account was settled iu 1856. 
 
 The $28,000,000 deposited by share- 
 holders was totally lost, while the Gov- 
 ernment realized $6,093.167 upon its 
 investments of stock. State banks 
 were afterward chartered in the inter- 
 ests of individual and dominant polit- 
 ical parties. The charters were some- 
 times fraudulently obtained and cur- 
 rency issued to three times the amount 
 of their capital, and, in 1814, 1837, 
 and 1857, many of them suspended 
 payment. A reform movement in 
 bank currency was inaugurated in 
 Massachusetts in 1825, and a " safety- 
 fund " system, recommended by Mr. 
 Van Buren, adopted in 1829. In 1838 
 the Free Bank Act passed the New 
 York Legislature, which authorized 
 any number of persons to form a bank- 
 ing association, subject to certain 
 specified conditions and liabilities. 
 
 On Feb. 25, 1863, the National 
 banking system was organized, but the 
 act establishing it was modified by 
 that of June 3, 1864. This provided 
 for a National Bank Bureau in the 
 Treasury Department, whose chief 
 officer is the Comptroller of the Cur- 
 rency. Under it National banks could 
 be organized by any number of indi- 
 viduals, not less than five, the capital 
 to be not less than $100,000 except in 
 cities of a population not exceeding 
 6,000; in these banks could be estab- 
 lished with a capital of not less than 
 $50,000. In cities haying a popula- 
 tion of 50,000 the capital stock could 
 not be less than $200,000. One third 
 of the capital was required to be in- 
 vested in United States bonds, which 
 were deposited in the Treasury for se- 
 curity, upon which notes were issued 
 equal in amount to 90 per cent, of the 
 current market value, but not exceed-, 
 ing 90 per cent, of the par value ; and 
 these notes were receivable at par in 
 the United States for all payments to 
 and from the Government, except for 
 duties on imports, interest on the pub- 
 lic debt, and in redemption of the na- 
 tional currency. On March 3, 1865, 
 an act was passed by which the cir- 
 culation of the State banks was taxed 
 10 per cent., which drove their notes 
 out of existence. 
 
 Various laws have since been passed 
 in relation to National banks. On 
 March 14, 1900, President McKin- 
 ley approved a new currency act, 
 which, among other things, established
 
 Banks Land 
 
 the gold dollar as the standard unit of 
 value, and placed at a parity with 
 that standard all forms of money is- 
 sued or coined by the United States. 
 The bill also made a number of im- 
 portant changes in the regulations 
 governing National banks. The new 
 law permits National banks, with 
 $25,000 capital, to be organized in 
 places of 3,000 inhabitants or less, 
 whereas the minimum capital previ- 
 ously was $50,000. It also permits 
 banks to issue circulation on all 
 classes of bonds deposited up to the 
 par value of the bonds, instead of 90 
 per cent, of their face, as before. 
 More recent features of banking in 
 the United States are the Oklahoma 
 scheme for guaranteeing the deposits 
 of banks, which Attorney-General 
 Bonaparte nullified, as far as Na- 
 tional banks are concerned, in 1908; 
 the combined savings and insurance 
 banks of Massachusetts, known as 
 " Brandeis banks," established in 
 1908; the SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS 
 (q. v.) founded by J. H. Thiry, in 
 New York, in 1885; and the POSTAL 
 SAVINGS BANKS (q. v.), established 
 by Congress in 1910. 
 
 Banks Land, an island in the W. 
 of Arctic America, discovered by 
 Parry in 1819, explored by Mnclure 
 in 1850, and named Baring Island; 
 separated by Banks Strait from Mel- 
 ville Island, and by Prince of Wales 
 Strait from Prince Albert Land. 
 
 Banneret, an abbreviation for 
 knight banneret; a member of an 
 ancient order of knighthood. 
 
 Bannock, a tribe of North Amer- 
 ican Indians belonging to the Shoshoni 
 stock. They are divided into two sec- 
 tions, one inhabiting part of Nevada, 
 and the other part of Montana. Their 
 language is entirely distinct from that 
 of the other Shoshoni, and they are 
 probably of a different race <t affiliated 
 by intermarriage. The survivors num- 
 ber less than a thousand. 
 
 Bannockbnrn, a village of Stiri 
 lingshire, Scotland, 3 miles S. S. E. of 
 Stirling, on the Bannock Burn, a lit- 
 tle affluent of the Forth. In the great 
 battle of Bannockburn, fought on June 
 24, 1314, Robert Bruce, with 30,000 
 Scotch, gained a signal victory over 
 Edward II., with 100,000 English, and 
 secured his throne and the independ- 
 
 Bantry Bay 
 
 ence of Scotland. The English are 
 said to have lost 30,000, and the 
 Scotch 8,000 men. Not far off was 
 fought the battle of Sauchieburn. In 
 September, 1903, it was reported that 
 Andrew Carnegie was negotiating to 
 acquire ownership of the battlefield in 
 order to preserve it as a national 
 memorial. 
 
 Banqno, a famous Scottish thane 
 of the llth century. In conjunction 
 with Macbeth, cousin of Duncan, the 
 King, he obtained a victory over the 
 Danes, who had landed on the Scot- 
 tish coast. Macbeth, shortly after- 
 ward, violently dethroned Duncan, 
 and caused him to be secretly assass- 
 inated. Banquo, though not an ac- 
 complice, was a witness of the crime ; 
 and being subsequently regarded by 
 Macbeth with fear and suspicion, the 
 latter invited him and his son to sup- 
 per, and hired assassins to attack 
 them on their return home during the 
 darkness of night. Banquo was slain, 
 but the youth made his escape. 
 Shakespeare has interwoven this oc- 
 currence with the theme of his tragedy 
 of " Macbeth." 
 
 Banshee, a fay, elf, or other su- 
 pernatural being, supposed by some of 
 the peasantry in Ireland and the Scot- 
 tish Highlands to sing a mournful dit- 
 ty under the windows of the house 
 when one of the inmates is about to 
 die. 
 
 Bantam, a variety of the common 
 domestic fowl, originally brought from 
 the East Indies, and supposed to de- 
 rive its name from the above town. It 
 is remarkable for its small size, being 
 only about one pound in weight, and 
 for a disposition more courageous and 
 pugnacious than even that of a game- 
 cock. 
 
 Banting, William, an English- 
 man of notable corpulence, born in 
 1797, who, by adopting a simple diet 
 was able to relieve himself of his su- 
 perfluous flesh. The dietary recom- 
 mended was the use of butcher's meat 
 principally, and abstinence from beer, 
 farinaceous food, and vegetables. He 
 died in 1878. 
 
 Bantry Bay, a deep inlet in the 
 S. W. extremity of Ireland, in County 
 Cork. Here a French force attempted 
 to latfd in 1796. The coast around is 
 rocky and high.
 
 Bantu 
 
 Bantu, the ethnological name of 
 a group of African races dwelling be- 
 low about 6 N. lat., and including the 
 Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, the tribes 
 of the Loango, Kongo, etc., but not 
 the Hottentots. 
 
 Banvard, John, an American 
 artist, poet, and dramatist, born in 
 JSfew York about 1820 ; died in 1891. 
 
 Banvard, Joseph, an . A in or i can 
 Baptist clergyman and historical 
 writer, brother of the preceding, born 
 in New York in 1810. 
 
 Banyan Tree, a species of the 
 genus ficus. It is regarded as a sa- 
 cred tree bv the Hindus. Its branches 
 
 BANYAN TREE. 
 
 produce long shoots, or aerial roots, 
 which descend to the ground and pene- 
 trate the soil; so that, in course of 
 time, a single tree becomes a vast um- 
 brageous tent, supported by numerous 
 columns. 
 
 Baobab, a tree also styled the mon- 
 key-bread, African calabash, or Ethi- 
 opian sourgourd tree. The fruit is of 
 slightly acid taste. The juice mixed 
 with sugar is serviceable in putrid 
 and pestilential fevers. 
 
 Baptism (from the Greek baptize, 
 from bapto, to immerse or dip), a rite 
 which is generally thought to have 
 been usual with the Jews even before 
 Christ, being administered to prose- 
 lytes. From this baptism, however, 
 that of St. John the Baptist differed 
 
 Baptist* 
 
 because he baptized Jews also as a 
 symbol of the necessity of perfect 
 purification from sin. Christ himself 
 never baptized, but directed his disci- 
 ples to administer this rite to converts 
 (Matt, xxviii: 19); and baptism, 
 therefore, became a religious ceremony 
 among Christians, taking rank as a 
 sacrament with all sects which ac- 
 knowledge sacraments. Three modes 
 of administering the rite have been 
 adopted immersion, pouring and 
 sprinkling. The question, on which 
 there have been innumerable disputes, 
 turns upon the meaning of the Greek 
 preposition following the verb. The 
 advocates oflbaptism by immersion, as 
 the only valid form, claim that the 
 preposition is "in ;" the advocates of 
 sprinkling contend that the preposi- 
 tion is, "with." The Greek Church 
 adopted the custom of immersion ; but 
 the Western Church adopted or al- 
 lowed the mode of baptism by pouring 
 or sprinkling, since continued by most 
 Protestants. 
 
 Baptists, a Protestant denomina- 
 tion based on the belief that immer- 
 sion is the only Scriptural mode of 
 baptism, and that those only are proper 
 subjects for this ceremony who are 
 converted and profess personal faith 
 in Christ. They thus reject both in- 
 fant baptism and baptism by sprink- 
 ling or pouring of water as invalid. 
 There are, however, other sects, in- 
 cluding the Mennonites, the Chris- 
 tians, the Disciples of Christ, etc., who 
 accept the prominent principles of the 
 Baptists in whole or in part, and yet 
 are not classified with them, owing to 
 some minor differences. The Baptists 
 reject the name of Anabaptists as a 
 term of reproach, holding that it is in- 
 correct, because their members gener- 
 ally receive the rite on their admis- 
 sion to the church, and because they 
 were not identified with the Baptists 
 of Munster. The Baptists first ap- 
 peared in Switzerland, in 1523, and 
 soon spread to Germany, Holland, and 
 other continental countries, whence 
 they were driven to England by perse- 
 cution on account of their rejection of 
 infant baptism. The history of the 
 Baptists in England prior to the 16th 
 century is still a matter of contro- 
 versy. The first regularly organized 
 church was Arminian. and was estab- 
 lished in 1610 or 16li A Calvinistic
 
 Baptist 
 
 Baptist Church was founded about 
 1633. Those holding Arminian views 
 received the name of General Bap- 
 tists, and those holding Calvinistic 
 views the name of Particular Baptists. 
 In 1640 there were seven Baptist con- 
 gregations in London. 
 
 The Baptists in the United States 
 spring historically from the English 
 and Welsh Baptists ; but the first Bap- 
 tist church was organized by Roger 
 Williams, who was a minister in the 
 Massachusetts Colony previous to his 
 immersion. He was persecuted for 
 holding principles which inclined to 
 Anabaptism, and for antagonizing the 
 authorities of the colony in ecclesiasti- 
 cal matters. After being immersed, 
 in 1639, by Ezekiel Holliman, whom 
 he in turn immersed with 10 others, 
 he organized a Baptist Church in 
 Providence, R. I. In 1644 he obtained 
 a charter which granted to the people 
 of Rhode Island entire freedom of 
 conscience. There were other Bap- 
 tists, however, who emigrated from 
 England in the 17th century, and, be- 
 fore the end of the 18th century, be- 
 came numerous in New England, New 
 York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Geor- 
 gia, and other States. In all the 
 British colonies, excepting Rhode Is- 
 land, the Baptists were persecuted for 
 a long time. In Massachusetts laws 
 were issued against them in 1644 ; sev- 
 eral of them were imprisoned in 1651 ; 
 others exiled in 1669 ; and a Baptist 
 meeting-house was closed in 1680. 
 New York issued laws against them in 
 1662, and Virginia m 1664. This per- 
 secution had greatly abated at the be- 
 ginning of the 18th century. After 
 the Revolutionary War the Baptists 
 increased with great rapidity, especial- 
 ly in the South and Southwestern 
 States, and have steadily increased 
 ever since. 
 
 There are at present three bodies of 
 Regular Baptists, the Northern, the 
 Southern, and the Colored, all of 
 whom agree in doctrinal and ecclesias- 
 tical principles, but each has its own 
 associations, State Conventions, and 
 general missionary and other associa- 
 tions. In 1845 a controversy concern- 
 ing slavery, which had been going on 
 for some time, caused a division be- 
 tween the Baptists in the Northern 
 and those in the Southern States, af- 
 ter which the Northern Baptists con- 
 
 Baptist 
 
 tinued to support the Home Mission 
 Society and the American Baptist 
 Missionary Union, on an anti-slavery 
 basis. In 1879 the question of re- 
 uniting the divisions was agitated, but 
 nothing was accomplished. The 
 Southern Division is the largest branch 
 of white Baptists. After, the division 
 of 1845 the Southern churches estab- 
 lished the Southern Baptist Conven- 
 tion, which holds annual meetings, 
 where the promotion and direction of 
 the denominational interests are con- 
 sidered, such as Sunday-schools, and 
 home and foreign missions. It is com- 
 posed of representatives from associa- 
 tions, other organizations, and from 
 the churches. The Colored Baptists 
 compose the largest body of Regular 
 Baptists, although many Colored Bap- 
 tists are not members of this division ; 
 those only being included who have 
 separate churches, State Conventions, 
 and associations. The Colored Bap- 
 tists of the North are generally mem- 
 bers of churches belonging to white as- 
 sociations. In 1866 the first State 
 Convention of Colored Baptists was 
 organized in North Carolina, the sec- 
 ond in Alabama, and the third in Vir- 
 ginia, both in 1867, and the fourth in 
 Arkansas in 1868. There are (1900) 
 Colored conventions in 15 States and 
 the District of Columbia. Besides 
 these associations there are the Amer- 
 ican National Convention, which delib- 
 erates upon questions of general con- 
 cern ; the Consolidated American Mis- 
 sionary Convention, the General As- 
 sociation of the Western States and 
 Territories, the New England Mission- 
 ary Convention, and the Foreign Mis- 
 sionary Convention of the United 
 States. 
 
 Besides the three large divisions of 
 Baptists, there are 10 smaller ones. 
 (1) Six Principle Baptists date back 
 to Roger Williams and the year 1639 
 for their origin. They differ from the 
 Regular Baptists in holding the Ar- 
 minian instead of the Calvinistic 
 creed, and in the practice of the laying 
 on of hands in the reception of mem- 
 bers. (2) Seventh Day Baptists, in 
 the United States, date their origin 
 back to 1671, when Stephen Mumford, 
 from England, organized the first 
 church in Newport, R. I. Their only 
 difference from other Baptists is found 
 in their keeping the seventh day as
 
 Baptist 
 
 "the Sabbath of the Lord." (3) 
 Freewill Baptists. The first church 
 of this sect was founded by Benjamin 
 Randall in New Durham, N. H., in 
 1780. At first their organizations 
 were called simply Baptist churches, 
 but later the word " Freewill " was 
 applied to them, in allusion to their 
 doctrine concerning the freedom of the 
 will. (4) Original Freewill Baptists 
 date back to 1729, when a number of 
 General Baptist churches were found- 
 ed in North Carolina. In 1759 many 
 of these general churches became Cal- 
 vinistic. Those which did not join the 
 Calvinistic association were called 
 " Freewillers," because they held the 
 doctrine of the freedom of will. (5) 
 General Baptists are thus named, be- 
 cause they, originally differed from the 
 Regular Baptists in holding that the 
 atonement was for the whole race and 
 not merely for those effectually called. 
 They date back to the beginning of the 
 18th century. (6) Separate Baptists 
 originated in the great Whitefield revi- 
 val. In doctrine they generally agree 
 with the Freewill Baptists. (7) Unit- 
 ed 'Baptists. A sect which sprang 
 from the opposition to the great revi- 
 val of George Whitefield. They hold 
 moderate Calvinistic views. (8) Bap- 
 tist Church of Christ. A sect organ- 
 ized in 1808 in Tennessee, where half 
 their number is found. They have a 
 mild form of Calvinism with a general 
 atonement. (9) Primitive Baptists 
 are variously known as Primitive, Old 
 School, Regular, and Antimission 
 Baptists. Their organization occurred 
 about 1835. They do not believe in 
 the establishment of Sunday-schools, 
 mission, Bible, and other societies, 
 which they hold are unscriptural be- 
 cause they are human institutions. 
 (10) Old Two-Seed-in-the-Spirit-Pre- 
 destinarian Baptists. A conservative 
 body of Baptists who are strongly Cal- 
 vinistic, believing firmly in predestina- 
 tion. The phrase " Two-Seed " is un- 
 derstood to mean their belief that 
 there are two seeds, one of the good 
 and one of the evil. The doctrine is 
 supposed to have been originated by 
 Elder Daniel Parker, who preached in 
 Tennessee in 1806^1817, in Illinois till 
 1836, and later in Texas, where he 
 died. 
 
 All Baptist denominations are con- 
 gregational in polity, with the possible 
 
 Barataria Bay 
 
 exception of the Original Freewill 
 Baptists. Each church, under its of- 
 ficers of pastor and deacons, manages 
 its own affairs. According to a spe- 
 cial Census report on " Religious 
 Bodies " (2 vols., 1910), there were 
 in the United States in 1906, 14 dis- 
 tinct Baptist bodies, with a total of 
 54,880 organizations, 52,338 places of 
 worship, 43.790 ministers, 5,662,234 
 communicants, property valued at 
 $139,842,656 and 2,898,914 Sunday 
 school scholars. 
 
 Baptist Young People's Union 
 of America, an association repre- 
 senting numerous young people's so- 
 cieties connected with the Baptist 
 Churches in all the States and in 
 Canada. Organized in June, 1891, in 
 Chicago, 111., which place has since 
 been its headquarters. 
 
 Bar, in hydrography, a bank of 
 sand, silt, etc., opposite the mouth of a 
 river, which obstructs or bars the en- 
 trance of vessels. The bar is formed 
 where the rush of the stream is ar- 
 rested by the water of the sea, as the 
 mud and sand suspended in the river 
 water are thus allowed to be deposited. 
 It is in this way that deltas are form- 
 ed at the mouths of rivers. The navi- 
 gation of many streams is kept open 
 only by constant dredging. 
 
 Barabbas, a noted robber in 
 Christ's time, who was awaiting 
 death for sedition and murder. It 
 was a custom of the Roman govern- 
 ment to conciliate the Jews, to re- 
 lease one Jewish prisoner, whom 
 they might choose, at the yearly 
 Passover. Pilate desired thus to re- 
 lease Jesus, but the Jews demanded 
 Barabbas. 
 
 Baracoa, a seaport town in the 
 province of Oriente, Cuba; on the 
 N, E. coast; 90 miles E. N. E. of 
 Santiago; is the oldest settlement in 
 Cuba and one of the oldest in the 
 New World (1514); has a small, shal- 
 low harbor. Pop. (1907) 27,852. 
 
 Baranoff Island, one of the Alex- 
 ander Islands, Alaska. It is about 
 75 miles long. On its coast is the 
 town of Sitka. The island derives its 
 name from the Russian trader, Bar- 
 anoff, who, in 1799, took possession 
 of it 
 
 Baratr.ria Bay, in the S. E. part 
 of Louisiana, extending N. from the
 
 Baratier 
 
 Gulf of Mexico, between the parishes 
 of Jefferson and Plaquemine. This 
 bay is about 15 miles long by 6 wide. 
 It, and the lagoons branching out of 
 it, were rendered notorious about the 
 years 1810-1812 as being both the 
 headquarters and rendezvous of the 
 celebrated Lafitte and his buccaneers. 
 
 Baratier, Johann Philipp, a 
 German litterateur, remarkable for 
 the precocity of his intellect, was born 
 in 1721. At the age of 7 he under- 
 stood Greek and Hebrew, and two 
 years later he compiled a Hebrew dic- 
 tionary. He was 13 when he trans- 
 lated the " Itinerary of Benjamin of 
 Tudela." Excess of work and, per- 
 haps, a too rapid development of his 
 intellectual faculties brought about a 
 languid malady, and, at the age of 19 
 years he died. 
 
 Barbacan, a projecting watch 
 tower, or other advanced work, be- 
 fore the gate of a castle or forti- 
 fied town. The term barbacan was 
 more especially applied to the out- 
 work intended to defend the draw- 
 bridge, which in modern fortifications 
 is called the tete du pont. 
 
 Barbadoes, or Barbados, the 
 most eastern of the West India Is- 
 lands, first mentioned in 1518, and 
 occupied by the British in 1625 ; 
 length 21 miles, breadth, 13 ; area, 
 106,470 acres, or 166 square miles ; 
 mostly under cultivation. Capital, 
 Bridgetown. It is more densely peo- 
 pled than almost any spot in the 
 world, the population in 1901 being 
 195,000, or about 1,174 to the square 
 mile. The climate is very hot, though 
 moderated by the constant trade 
 winds ; and the island is subject to 
 dreadful hurricanes. 
 
 Barbaro, Francesco, one of the 
 most distinguished Italian authors .of 
 the 15th century, born at Venice, in 
 1398; died in 1454. 
 
 Barbaroux, Charles Jean Ma- 
 rie, one of the greatest of the Giron- 
 dists, was born at Marseilles, March 
 6, 1767. He opposed the party of 
 Marat and Robespierre, and even di- 
 rectly accused the latter of aiming at 
 the dictatorship ; consequently, he 
 was, in May, 1793, proscribed as a 
 royalist and an enemy of the Repub- 
 lic. He fled to Calvados, and thence 
 with a few friends to the Gironde, 
 
 Barbecue 
 
 where he wandered about the coun- 
 try, hiding himself as he best could 
 for about 13 months. At last, on the 
 point of being taken, he tried to shoot 
 himself ; but the shot miscarried, and 
 he was guillotined at Bordeaux, June 
 25, 1794. 
 
 Barbary, a general name for the 
 most northerly portion of Africa, ex- 
 tending about 2,600 miles from 
 Egypt to the Atlantic, with a breadth 
 varying from about 140 to 1,550 
 miles ; comprising Morocco, Fez, Al- 
 geria, Tunis and Tripoli (including 
 Barca and Fezzan). The principal 
 races - are the Berbers, the original 
 inhabitants, from whom the country 
 takes its name ; the Arabs, who con- 
 quered an extensive portion of it dur- 
 ing the times of the caliphs.; the Bed- 
 ouins, Jews, Turks, and the French 
 colonists of Algeria, etc. The coun- 
 try, which was prosperous under the 
 Carthaginians, was, next to Egypt, 
 the richest of the Roman provinces, 
 and the Italian States enriched them- 
 selves by their intercourse with it. 
 In the 15th century, however, it be- 
 came infested with adventurers who 
 made the name of Barbary corsair a 
 terror to commerce, a condition of 
 things finally removed by the French 
 occupation of Algeria. 
 
 Barbary Ape, or Magot, a mon- 
 key the macacus inuus, found in 
 the N. of Africa, and of which a col- 
 ony exists on the Rock of Gibral- 
 tar. It is the only recent European 
 quadrumanous animal. It is. some- 
 times called the magot, and is the spe- 
 cies occasionally exhibited, when 
 young, by showmen in the streets. 
 
 Barbazan, Arnauld Gnilhem, 
 Sire de, a French captain, who was 
 distinguished by Charles VI. with the 
 title of " Chevalier Sans Reproche," 
 and by Charles VIII. with that of. 
 " Restaurateur du Royaume et de la 
 Couronne'de France," born about the 
 end of the 14th century. He was kill- 
 ed at Bullegneville, in 1432. 
 
 Barbecue. 1. A beef dressed 
 whole, as is done in an election cam- 
 paign. To do this, the carcass of the 
 animal, split to the backbone, is laid 
 upon a large gridiron, under and 
 around which is placed a charcoal fire. 
 
 2. A large gathering of people, gen- 
 erally in the open air, for a social en-
 
 Barbel 
 
 tertainment or a political rally, one 
 leading feature of which is the roast- 
 ing of animals whole to furnish the 
 numerous members of the party with 
 needful food. 
 
 Barbel. 1. A small fleshy thread 
 or cord, of which several hang from 
 the mouth of certain fishes. 
 
 2. A knot of superfluous flesh grow- 
 ing in the channels of a horse's mouth. 
 
 Barber, one who shaves beards and 
 dresses hair. In early times the op- 
 erations of the barber were not 
 confined, as now to shaving, hair- 
 dressing, and the making of wigs ; 
 but included the dressing of wounds, 
 blood-letting, and other surgical op- 
 erations. It seems that in all coun- 
 tries the art of surgery and the art 
 of shaving went hand in hand. The 
 title of barber-chirurgeon, or barber- 
 surgeon, was generally applied to bar- 
 bers. The State of New York in 1903 
 adopted a law regulating the business 
 of barbers, enforcing stringent sani- 
 tary rules in their shops, and appoint- 
 ing a commission to enforce the law. 
 
 Barber, Edward Atlee, an 
 American archaeologist, born in Balti- 
 more, Md., Aug. 13, 1851 ; was grad- 
 uated at Williston Seminary in 1869, 
 and was assistant naturalist in the 
 United States Geological Survey in 
 1874-1875. Subsequently he was en- 
 gaged in gold dredging. His writ- 
 ings include a history of the ancient 
 Pueblos and a large number of mag- 
 azine articles on ceramics. 
 
 Barber, Francis, an American 
 general, born at Princeton, N. J., 
 1751 ; died 1783. He graduated at 
 what is now Princeton University in 
 1767, entered the Revolutionary Army 
 as a major in 1776, and rose steadily 
 through meritorious service to the rank 
 of Adjutant-General. He was acci- 
 dently killed by a falling tree, after re- 
 covering from severe wounds received 
 at the battles of Monmouth, Newton, 
 and at Yorktown. 
 
 Barber, John Warner, an Amer- 
 ican author, born in Windsor, Conn., 
 in 1798 ; died in 1885. His writings 
 were mainly historical and include : 
 State Annals ; " Historical Scenes in 
 the United States," " Religious 
 Events," " Elements of General His- 
 tory," " Our Whole Country, Histori- 
 cal and Descriptive." 
 
 Barbieri 
 
 Barberini, a celebrated Floren- 
 tine family, which since the pontifi- 
 cate of Maffeo Barberini (Urban 
 VIII., 1623 to 1644), has occupied a 
 distinguished place among the nobil- 
 ity of Rome. 
 
 Barberry, or Berberry, the Eng- 
 lish name of the berberis. The com- 
 mon barberry is planted in gardens 
 or in hedges, being an ornamental 
 shrub, especially when covered with 
 a profusion of flowers or loaded with 
 fruit. It has yellow flowers with an 
 unpleasant smell, which, however, are 
 much frequented by bees. Their juice 
 is acid, hence they are used for pre- 
 serves and confectionery. 
 
 Barber's Itch, a disease of the 
 skin of the face caused by the en- 
 trance of a fungus into the hair folli- 
 cles of the beard. 
 
 Barbet. Birds haying short, 
 conical bills, with stiff bristles at the 
 base, short wings, and broad and 
 rounded tails. It is from the bristles, 
 which have an analogy to a beard, 
 that the name is derived. These birds 
 are found in the warmer parts of both 
 hemispheres, the most typical coming 
 from South America. 
 
 Barbette, a mound of earth on 
 which guns are mounted to be fired 
 over the parapet. 
 
 In fortification. En barbette : 
 Placed so as to be fired over the top 
 of a parapet, and not through em- 
 brasures. 
 
 Barbiano, Abrecht da, an Ital- 
 ian military officer ; formed the first 
 regular company of Italian troops or- 
 ganized to resist foreign mercenaries, 
 about 1379. This organization, named 
 the " Company of St. George," proved 
 to be an admirable school, as from its 
 ranks sprang many future officers of 
 renown. He became Grand Consta- 
 ble of Naples in 1384, and died in 
 1409. 
 
 Barbier, Henri August e, a 
 French poet, born in Paris, April 29, 
 1805; died in Nice, Feb. 13, 1882. 
 
 Barbier, Jules, a French drama- 
 tist, born in Paris; 1825: d. 1901. 
 
 Barbieri, Giovanni Francesco, 
 otherwise known as GUERCINO (the 
 squinter) DA CENTO, an eminent and 
 prolific historical painter, born near 
 Bologna in 1590. He died in 1666.
 
 Barbonr 
 
 Barclay de Tolly 
 
 PAOLO ANTONIO BARBIERI, a cele- 
 brated still-life and animal painter, 
 was a brother of Guercino ; born 
 1596, died 1640. 
 
 Barbonr, Erwin Hiiickley, an 
 'American geologist, born near Ox- 
 ford, O. ; was graduated at Yale Col- 
 lege in 1882 ; was assistant paleontol- 
 ogist in the United States Geolog- 
 ical Survey in 1882-1888; Stone Pro- 
 fessor of Natural History and Geol- 
 ogy in Iowa College in 1889^-1891 ; 
 became Professor of Geology in the 
 University of Nebraska, and acting 
 State Geologist in 1891 ; and curator 
 of the Nebraska State Museum in 
 1892. In 1893 he took charge of the 
 annual Morrill geological expeditions, 
 and since then he has also been en- 
 gaged in the United States Geologi- 
 cal and Hydrographic Surveys. 
 
 Harbour, John, a Scottish poet, 
 born about 3616. His great epic, 
 *' The Bruce," tells the story of Rob- 
 ert Bruce and the battle of Ban- 
 nockburn. It was written in 1375 
 and brought him favor from the King. 
 He died in Aberdeen, March 13, 1395. 
 
 Barbonr, John Humphrey, an 
 American educator, born in Torring- 
 ton, Conn., May 29, 1854. He was 
 rector of Grace Church, Hartford, till 
 1889, and then became Professor of 
 New Testament Literature and In- 
 terpretation at the Berkeley Divinity 
 School. He died in Middletown, 
 Conn., April 29, 1900. 
 
 Barbour, William McLcocl, a 
 Congregational clergyman, born in 
 Fochabers, Scotland, May 29, 1827; 
 professor in Bangor Theological Sem- 
 inary in 1868-1877; Professor of Di- 
 vinity and college pastor in Yale, 
 1877-1887; became principal and Pro- 
 fessor of Theology in the Congrega- 
 tional College in Montreal, Canada, 
 in 1887. He died in 1892. 
 
 Barca, a country extending along 
 the N. coast of Africa, between the 
 Great Syrtis (now called the Gulf 
 of Sidra) and Egypt. Bounded on 
 the W. by Tripoli, and on the S. by 
 the Libyan Desert, it is separated 
 from Egypt on the E. by no definite 
 line. Barca is sometimes regarded as a 
 department of Tripoli, sometimes as 
 an independent province, governed di- 
 rectly from Constantinople. Its area 
 is about 70,000 square miles; and the 
 
 population is estimated at 500,000. 
 The capital is Bengazi. 
 
 Barcelona, the most important 
 manufacturing city in Spain, in the 
 province of the same name ; pop. 509,- 
 589. The province of Barcelona has 
 an area of 2,985 square miles, and 
 pop. 1,034,538. Barcelona manufac- 
 tures silk, woolens, cottons, lace, hats, 
 firearms, etc., which form its princi- 
 pal exports. It imports raw cotton, 
 coffee, cocoa, sugar, and other colo- 
 nial produce ; also Baltic timber, salt 
 fish, hides, iron, wax, etc. Next to 
 Cadiz it is the most important port 
 in Spain. The harbor was extended 
 and its entrance improved in 1875. 
 Barcelona is noted for labor disturb- 
 ances. 
 
 Barclay, Robert, the apologist of 
 the Quakers, born in 1648, at Gor- 
 donstown, Moray, and educated at 
 Paris, where he became a Roman 
 Catholic. Recalled home by his fa- 
 ther, he followed the example of the 
 latter and became a Quaker. His first 
 treatise in support of his adopted 
 principles, published at Aberdeen in 
 the year 1670, under the title of 
 "Truth Cleared of Calumnies," to- 
 gether with his subsequent writings, 
 did much to rectify public sentiment 
 in regard to the Quakers. He died 
 in 1690. He was a friend of and 
 had influence with James II. 
 
 Barclay de Tolly, Michael, 
 Prince, a Russian military comman- 
 der, of Scottish descent, born in Li- 
 vonia in 1755. He began his military 
 career in the campaigns against the 
 Turks, the Swedes, and the Poles. 
 He was wounded at Eylau, when he 
 was made lieutenant-general. In 
 March, 1808, he surprised the Swedes 
 at Umea, by a march of two days 
 over the ice which covered the Gulf 
 of Bothnia. He was made governor- 
 general of Finland, and, in 1809, ap- 
 pointed Minister of War. He was 
 author of the plan of operations which 
 was followed with signal advantage 
 by the Russian army in the campaign 
 of 1812. After the battle of Baut- 
 zen, May 26, 1813, he was appointed 
 commander-in-chief of the Prusso- 
 Russian army ; and under him Witt- 
 genstein commanded the Russians; 
 Bliicher the Prussians ; and the 
 Grand Duke Constantine the Impe-' 
 rial Guard. On_the_day the allies eij?
 
 Barclay- Allardicc 
 
 Bariatinski 
 
 tered Paris he was created General 
 Field-Marshal. He died in 1818. 
 
 Barclay- Allarilice, Robert, 
 known as Captain Barclay, the pe- 
 destrian, was born in 1779, and suc- 
 ceeded to the estate of Urie, near 
 Stonehaven, in 1797. He died May 
 8, 1854. His feat of walking 1,000 
 miles in 1,000 consecutive hours took 
 place at Newmarket, in June to July, 
 1809. 
 
 Barcochba, or Barcokecas 
 '("son of a star"), a famous Jewish 
 impostor, whose real name was Sim- 
 eon, and who lived in the 2d cen- 
 tury A. D. After the destruction of 
 Jerusalem by Titus, the Jews, at dif- 
 ferent periods, sought to regain their 
 independence ; and Barcochba, seeing 
 his countrymen still impatient of the 
 Roman yoke, resolved to attempt their 
 emancipation. With this view he 
 sought to sound the dispositions of 
 his co-religionists of Egypt, Mesopo- 
 tamia, Greece, Italy and Gaul, and 
 sent forth emissaries, who traveled 
 over all the provinces of the Roman 
 Empire. When all was ready Bar- 
 cochba, solemnly announced himself 
 as King and Messiah, and seized by 
 surprise on many fortified places. All 
 who refused to submit to him, par- 
 ticularly the Christians, were put to 
 death. The revolt was crushed by 
 the Romans after a five years' conflict 
 in which Barcochba perished miser- 
 ably. 
 
 Bard, a poet by profession, espe- 
 cially one whose calling it was to 
 celebrate in verse, song, and play the 
 exploits of the chiefs or others who 
 patronized him, or those of contem- 
 porary heroes in general. Bards of 
 this character flourished from the 
 earliest period among the Greeks, and 
 to a lesser extent among the Ro- 
 mans. Tacitus seems to hint at their 
 existence among the Germanic tribes. 
 It was, however, above all, among the 
 Gauls and other Celtic nations that 
 they flourished most. 
 
 Bard, Samuel, an American phy- 
 sician, born in Philadelphia, April 1, 
 1742; practiced in Philadelphia and 
 New York ; was the principal mover 
 in the establishment of the medical 
 school of Kings (Columbia) College; 
 president of the New York College of 
 Physicians and Surgeons that suc- 
 
 ceeded the medical school. He died 
 in Hyde Park, N. Y., May 24, 1821. 
 
 Barebone, or Barbone, Praise- 
 God, a member of the legislative body 
 assembled by Cromwell in 1653, after 
 the dissolution of the Long Parlia- 
 ment. The royalists facetiously dis- 
 tinguished him by calling the con- 
 vention "Barebone's Parliament." 
 
 Barefooted Friars, monks who 
 use sandals, or go barefoot. They are 
 not a distinct body, but may be found 
 in several orders of mendicant friars 
 for example, among the Carmel- 
 ites, Franciscans, Augustinians. There 
 were also barefooted nuns. 
 
 Barentz, Willem, a Dutch navi- 
 gator. He was one of the early Arc- 
 tic explorers; his attempt being to 
 find a northeast passage to China. In 
 his first voyage he reached lat. 77- 
 78', and in his last, 80 11'. He com- 
 manded several exploring expeditions 
 around Nova Zembla and Spitzber- 
 gen, on one of which he had seven 
 vessels loaded with rich goods for 
 Eastern trade. In the summer of 
 1596, he set out with two ships, which 
 were frozen in at Ice Haven in Sep- 
 tember. The following June they at- 
 tempted to reach the mainland in 
 boats, but most of them were lost. 
 
 Barliain. Rev. Richard Harris, 
 a humorous writer, born in 1788 at 
 Canterbury ; educated at Paul's School, 
 London, and at Brasenose, Oxford. He 
 published an unsuccessful novel, Bald- 
 win, wrote nearly a third of the arti- 
 cles in Gorton's Biographical Diction- 
 ary, and contributed to Blackwood's 
 Magazine. In 1824 he was appointed 
 priest in ordinary of the chapel-royal, 
 and afterwards rector of St. Mary 
 Magdalene and St. Greorgy-by-St.- 
 Paul, London. In 1837, on the start- 
 ing of Bentley's Miscellany, he laid 
 the main foundation of his literary 
 fame by the publication in that period- 
 ical of the Ingoldsby Legends. He 
 died in 1845. 
 
 Bariatinski, Alexander Ivano- 
 vich, Prince, a Russian field-mar- 
 shal, born in 1814, and educated with 
 the future Czar, Alexander II. While 
 a young officer in the hussars, some 
 love passages with a Grand Duchess 
 caused his transfer to the Caucasus, 
 where his success against the famous 
 Shamyl secured him, in 1852, the rank
 
 Baring 
 
 of lieutenant-general. He died in Ge- 
 neva, March 9, 1879. 
 
 Baring, family name of the found- 
 ers of one of the greatest financial 
 and commercial houses in the world ; 
 now known as Baring Brothers & Co. 
 The father of the founders was JOHN 
 BARING, a German cloth manufac- 
 turer, who started a small business 
 at Larkbear, near Exeter, England, 
 in the first half of the 18th century. 
 Two of his sons, FBANCIS and JOHN 
 (1730-1816), established in London 
 in 1770 the now existing house. 
 
 In 1885, the then head of the firm, 
 Edward Charles Baring, was raised to 
 the peerage, as Baron Itevelstoke. 
 
 Barite, or Baryta, a mineral 
 called also baroselenite, sulphate of 
 baryta and heavy spar. It is found 
 in the United States and on the conti- 
 nent of Europe. It is sometimes trans- 
 parent, sometimes opaque. 
 
 Baritone, or Barytone, a male 
 voice, the compass of which partakes 
 of those of the common bass and 
 the tenor, but does not extend so far 
 downward as the one, nor to an equal 
 height with the other. 
 
 Barium, the metallic basis of bary- 
 ta, which is an oxide of barium ; spe- 
 cific gravity 4 ; symbol Ba. It is only 
 found in compounds, such as the com- 
 mon sulphate and carbonate, and was 
 isolated by Davy for the first time in 
 1808. It is a yellow, malleable metal, 
 which readily oxidizes, decomposes wa- 
 ter, and fuses at a low temperature. 
 
 Bark, the exterior covering of the 
 stems of exogenous plants. It is 
 composed of cellular and vascular tis- 
 sue, is separable from the wood, and 
 is often regarded as consisting of four 
 layers. Bark contains many valua- 
 ble products, as gum, tannin, etc. ; 
 cork is a highly useful substance ob- 
 tained from the epiphloeum ; and the 
 strength and flexibility of bast make 
 it of considerable value. Bark used 
 for tanning is obtained from oak, 
 hemlock-spruce, species of acacia, 
 growing in Australia, etc. Angos- 
 tura bark, Peruvian, or cinchona bark, 
 cinnamon, cascarilla, etc., are useful 
 barks. 
 
 Bark, or Barque, a three-masted 
 vessel of which the foremast and 
 mainmast are square-rigged, but the 
 mizzenmast has fore-and-aft sails only. 
 
 Barker 
 
 Bark, Peruvian, is the bark of 
 various species of trees of the genus 
 cinchona, found in many parts of 
 South America, but more particularly 
 in Peru, and haying medicinal proper- 
 ties. Its medicinal properties depend 
 upon the presence of quinine, which 
 is now extracted from the bark, im- 
 ported, and prescribed in place of 
 nauseous mouthfuls of bark. 
 
 Barker, Albert S., an American 
 naval officer, born in Massachusetts, 
 March 31, 1843 ; was graduated at the 
 United States Naval Academy in 
 1859 ; served on the frigate " Missis- 
 sippi " in the operations to open the 
 Mississippi river in 1861-1863, taking 
 part in the bombardment and passage 
 of Forts Jackson and St. Philip and 
 the Chalmette batteries, the capture of 
 New Orleans, and the attempted pas- 
 sage of Port Hudson, where his vessel 
 was destroyed. He became Captain 
 May 5, 1892; commanded the cruiser 
 " Newark " during the war with 
 Spain ; subsequently succeeded to the 
 command of the battleship " Oregon," 
 which he took to Manila ; became a 
 Rear- Admiral, and was placed in com- 
 mand of the Norfolk Navy Yard in 
 1899 ; and in July, 1900, succeeded the 
 late Rear-Admiral Philip as command- 
 ant of the Brooklyn Navy Yard. 
 
 Barker, Fordyce, an American 
 physician, born in Wilton, Franklin 
 co., Me., May 2, 1819; died in New; 
 York city, May 30, 1891. 
 
 BARK. 
 
 Barker, Matthew Henry, an 
 
 English novelist ; born at Deptford in 
 1790. Died in London, June 29, 1846.
 
 Bark Louse 
 
 Bark Louse, or Scale Insect. 
 
 The bark lice are very small insects, 
 whose females are wingless, their bod- 
 ies resembling scales. They sting the 
 bark of trees with their long, slender 
 beak, drawing in the sap, and, when 
 very numerous, injure or kill the tree. 
 On the other hand, the males have two 
 wings, but no beak, and take no food. 
 
 Barksdale, William, an Ameri- 
 can statesman and military officer, 
 born in Rutherford county, Tenn., 
 Aug. 21, 1821. He entered Congress 
 in 1853, but gave up his seat when his 
 State seceded, and took command of a 
 regiment of Mississippi volunteers. He 
 was made a Brigadier-General after a 
 campaign in Virginia, and was killed 
 at Gettysburg, July 2, 1863. 
 
 Barley. Barley is the hardiest of 
 all the cereals, and was originally a 
 native of .Asia, but it is now cultivated 
 all over the world, even as far N. as 
 Lapland. In former times, it was 
 largely used as an article of food, but 
 the greater proportion of the barley 
 now grown is used in tne preparation 
 of malt and spirits. 
 
 Barleycorn, John, a personifica- 
 tion of the spirit of barley, or malt 
 liquor, often used jocularly, and in 
 humorous verse. 
 
 Barlow, Francis Channing, an 
 
 American military officer, born in 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., Oct. 9, 1834; was 
 graduated at Harvard College in 1855 ; 
 studied law in New York, and prac- 
 ticed there. In 1861 he enlisted as a 
 private in the 12th Regiment, New 
 York State National Guard, which 
 was among the first troops at the 
 front. He was promoted Lieutenant 
 after three months' of service; Colo- 
 nel during the siege of Yorktown ; dis- 
 tinguished himself in the battle of 
 Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines, for which 
 he was promoted Brigadier-General ; 
 fought in almost every subsequent bat- 
 tle of the Army of the Potomac. He 
 was severely wounded at Chancellors- 
 ville, May 2, 1863, and at Gettysburg, 
 July 1, 1863. He was mustered out 
 of the service with the rank of Major- 
 General of volunteers. In 1866-1868, 
 he was Secretary of State of New 
 York; in 1871 became Attorney-Gen- 
 eral ; and in 1873 resumed law prac- 
 tice in New York. He died in New 
 York city, Jan. 11, 1896. 
 
 Barnacle 
 
 Barlow, Joel, an American poet 
 and diplomatist ; born in Reading, 
 Conn., March 24, 1754. In the course 
 of his adventurous career he fell 
 in with the French army and was a 
 sharer in its memorable retreat from 
 Russia. Being overcome by cold and 
 privation, he died near Cracow, Dec. 
 22, 1812. 
 
 Barmecides, an illustrious family 
 of Khorassan, the romance of whose 
 history is equally familiar to Eu- 
 ropeans and Americans in the " Thou- 
 sand and One Nights " (Arabian 
 Nights' Entertainments), and to Ori- 
 entals in the pages of their historians 
 and poets ; and who flourished at the 
 Court of the early Abbasside Caliphs. 
 Barmec, or Barmek, the founder of 
 the family, transmitted the honors con- 
 ferred on him by the Caliph Abd-al- 
 Malik to his son, Khalid, and from 
 him they passed to his son, Yahia, 
 who, becoming tutor to the famous 
 Haroun-al-Raschid, acquired an influ- 
 ence over that Prince ; which, with 
 Haroun's personal affection for the 
 family, carried his sons, Fadl, or Fazl, 
 Giaffar, Mohammed, and Mousa, to 
 the highest dignities of the Court. The 
 virtues and munificence of the Bar- 
 mecides were, for a long period, dis- 
 played under favor of Haroun, as well 
 as to the admiration of his subjects ; 
 but one of the brothers, Giaffar, hav- 
 ing at last become an object of suspi- 
 cion to the cruel and treacherous ca- 
 liph, Yahia and his sons were sudden- 
 ly seized, Giaffar beheaded, and the 
 others condemned to perpetual impris- 
 onment. The year 802 is assigned as 
 the date of this tragedy. 
 
 Barnabas, St., or Joseph, a dis- 
 ciple of Jesus, and a companion of the 
 Apostle Paul. He was a Levite, and 
 a native of the Isle of Cyprus, and is 
 said to have sold all his property, and 
 laid the price of it at the feet of the 
 apostles (Acts iv: 36, 37). He was a 
 beloved fellow laborer with Paul. 
 
 Barnacle, a common crustacean 
 belonging to the group of stalked cir- 
 ripedia. It fixes itself to the bottoms 
 of vessels and other inanimate and 
 also animate objects, and its head 
 being thus attached kicks food into its 
 mouth with its legs. The term is often 
 applied to persons who are superfluous 
 fixtures in some institution or organ- 
 ization.
 
 Barnard 
 
 Barnard, Edward Emerson, an 
 American astronomer, born in Nash- 
 ville, Tenn., Dec. 16, 1857; graduated 
 at Vanderbilt University in 1887 ; was 
 astronomer in Lick Observatory, Cali- 
 fornia, in 1887-1895, and then became 
 Professor of Astronomy in Chicago 
 University and Director of the Yerkes 
 Observatory. His principal discover- 
 ies are the fifth satellite of Jupiter in 
 1892, and 16 comets. He has made 
 photographs ef the Milky Way, the 
 comets, nebulae, etc. The French Acad- 
 emy of Sciences awarded him the Le- 
 lande gold medal in 1892, and the 
 Arago gold medal in 1893, and the 
 Royal Astronomical Society of Great 
 Britain gave him a gold medal in 1897. 
 He is a member of many American 
 and foreign societies, and a contribu- 
 tor to astronomical journals. 
 
 Barnard, Frederick Augustus 
 Porter, an American educator, born 
 in Sheffield, Mass., May 5, 1809; was 
 graduated at Yale College in 1828; in- 
 structor there in 1830 ; Professor of 
 Mathematics and Natural Philosophy 
 in the University of Alabama in 1837- 
 1848, and afterward of Chemistry and 
 Natural History till 1854; Professor 
 of Mathematics and Astronomy in the 
 University of Mississippi, 1854-1861 ; 
 its president in 1856-1858; and its 
 Chancellor in 1858-1861. He was 
 president of Columbia College. New 
 York city, in 1864-1888. He died 1889. 
 
 Barnard, Henry, an American 
 educational reformer, born at Hart- 
 ford, Conn., in 1811 ; died there in 
 1900. He was graduated at Yale in 
 1830; entered the legal profession, be- 
 came interested in politics, and during 
 service in the legislature distinguished 
 himself by his interest in the public 
 school system, and the vigor with 
 which he urged reforms. He was in 
 succession School Commissioner of R. 
 I. ; Superintendent of Schools in Con- 
 necticut ; President of the University 
 of Wisconsin ; President of St. John's 
 College, Annapolis, and was first Uni- 
 ted States Commissioner of Education. 
 He organized the Bureau, and in his 
 reports suggested or supported the re- 
 forms that have since been made. 
 
 Barnard College, an educational 
 (non-sectarian) institution for women 
 only, in New York city; organized in 
 1889, and named in honor of Fred- 
 erick A. P. Barnard, through whose 
 
 _i Bam Burners 
 
 efforts its foundation was largely due. 
 It was made essentially a part of Co- 
 lumbia University, certain courses of 
 study in the University and the use of 
 its library being open to the studenta 
 of Barnard. In January, 1900, the 
 college was formally incorporated with 
 Columbia University. 
 
 Barnardo, Thomas J., an Eng- 
 lish philanthropist; founder of the 
 Barnardo Homes for homeless chil- 
 dren ; had his attention first turned in 
 this direction by the condition in 
 which he found a boy in a ragged 
 school in East London in 1866. Fol- 
 lowing up the subject, he began to 
 rescue children who had found their 
 only shelter at night under archways, 
 or in courts and alleys. These were 
 introduced to his homes, where they 
 received an industrial training, were 
 saved from a possible career of crime, 
 and enabled to achieve an honorable 
 position in life. He died in 1905. 
 
 Barnato, Barney, a South Afri- 
 can speculator. His real name is be- 
 lieved to have been Bernard Isaac. He 
 was born in London, England, about 
 1845, of Hebrew parents. He began 
 business there as a dealer in diamonds, 
 and in five years earned enough to buy 
 shares in the Kimberley diamond mines. 
 He established a partnership with Ce- 
 cil Rhodes, and, when, in 1886, gold 
 was discovered, secured possession of 
 the greater part of the region. He 
 committed suicide by jumping from 
 the deck of the steamer " Scot, bound 
 from Cape Town to Southampton, 
 June 14, 1897. 
 
 Barnave, Antoine Pierre 
 Joseph Marie, a French orator, was 
 born at Grenoble in 1761. The Con- 
 stituent Assembly appointed him their 
 President in January, 1791. After the 
 flight of the King, he defended Lafay- 
 ette against the charge of being privy 
 to this step, and, upon the arrest of 
 the royal family, was sent, with Petion 
 and Latour-Maubourg, to meet them, 
 and to conduct them to Paris. When 
 the correspondence of the court fell 
 into the hands of the victorious party, 
 Aug. 10, 1792, they pretended to have 
 found documents which showed him 
 to have been secretly connected with 
 it, and he was guillotined Nov. 29, 
 1793. 
 
 Barn Burners, the nickname given 
 to the radical element of the Demo-
 
 Barnegat Bay 
 
 cratic Party in New York State, which 
 supported Van Buren in the campaign 
 of 1848. 
 
 Barnegat Bay, a bay on the E. 
 coast of New Jersey, about 25 miles 
 in length. Barnegat Inlet connects 
 the bay with the Atlantic. 
 
 Barnes, Albert, an American 
 Presbyterian minister, born in Rome, 
 N. Y., Dec. 1, 1798. For 37 years 
 pastor of the First Presbyterian 
 Church in Philadelphia ; he was best 
 known by his " Notes " on the New 
 Testament (of which over 1,000,000 
 volumes are said to have circulated), 
 Isaiah, Job, Psalms, etc. He died at 
 Philadelphia, Dec. 24, 1870. 
 
 Barnes, Joseph K., an American 
 medical officer, born in Philadelphia, 
 July 21, 1817; was educated in the 
 medical department of the University 
 of Pennsylvania ; became Assistant 
 Surgeon in the army in 1840, and 
 served at various posts through the 
 Mexican War. At tne beginning of 
 the Civil Wcr he was summoned from 
 Oregon, and assigned to duty in the 
 office of the Surgeon-General. In 1863, 
 he was appointed a Medical Inspector, 
 with the rank of Colonel, and in Sep- 
 tember of the same year was promoted 
 to Brigadier-General. In 1865 he 
 was brevetted Major-General, United 
 States Army. He was Surgeon-Gen- 
 eral of the army from 1864 till 1882, 
 when he was retired. He died in 
 Washington, D. C., April 5, 1883. 
 
 Barnes, 'William, an English 
 poet and philologist, born in Dorset- 
 shire, Feb. 22, 1800; died in Winter- 
 bourne Came, in October, 1886. 
 
 Barneveldt, Jan Van Olden, 
 Grand Pensionary of Holland, born in 
 1549. He had scarcely reached his 
 20th year when he was called to the 
 office of Councilor and Pensionary of 
 Rotterdam ; and such was the opinion 
 even then entertained of his eminent 
 abilities and integrity that he was al- 
 lowed an important share in the man- 
 agement of those transactions with 
 France and England by which the 
 United Provinces sought to maintain 
 themselves against Spain, whose yoke 
 they had just thrown off. His con- 
 duct in the high office of Grand Pen- 
 sionary of Holland and West Fries- 
 land, which he afterward filled, not 
 only secured the independence, but re- 
 K. 14. 
 
 Barntun 
 
 stored the trade and improved the 
 finances of the United Provinces. Af- 
 ter the election of Maurice of Nassau 
 to the diernity of Stadtholder, Barne- 
 veldt became the champion of popular 
 liberties, and opposed with determina- 
 tion the ambitious designs of the new 
 prince. The latter finally carried the 
 day and Barneveldt was adjudged to 
 death as a traitor and heretic, by 26 
 deputies named by Maurice. The sen- 
 tence was carried into effect in 1619. 
 Barney, Joshua, an American na- 
 val officer, bom in Baltimore, Md., 
 July 6, 1759. He was captured by 
 the British in March, 1778, but was 
 exchanged in August of the same year ; 
 was captured again and held a prison- 
 er till he escaped in 1781. In April, 
 1782, he took the British ship " Gen- 
 eral Monk," off Cape May ; in Novem- 
 ber, 1782, he carried dispatches to Dr. 
 Franklin in France, and brought back 
 a sum of money lent by the French 
 government. 1794 he went with Mon- 
 roe to France, and for six years served 
 in the French navy. In 1814, he com- 
 manded the fleet stationed in Chesa- 
 peake Bay. He died in Pittsburg, Pa., 
 Dec. 1, 1818. 
 
 Barn Owl, a bird of prey belong- 
 ing to the family strigidse. It is called 
 also the white owl, the church owl, 
 the screech owl, the hissing owl, the 
 yellow owl, the howlet, and the hoolet. 
 It is found in the United States and 
 in Europe. 
 
 Barmim, Frances Courtenay 
 (Baylor), an American novelist, born 
 'n Arkansas, 1848. 
 
 Barmim, Phineas Taylor, an 
 American showman, born at Bethel, 
 Conn., July 5, 1810 ; after various un- 
 successful business ventures, finally es- 
 ;ablished Barnum's Museum in New 
 York ( 1841 ) , which was twice burned. 
 He introduced Tom Thumb, Jenny 
 Lind, Commodore Nutt, Admiral Dot, 
 the woolly horse, Jumbo, etc., to the 
 American public. In 1871 he estab- 
 lished his great circus. He was mayor 
 of Bridgeport, and four times member 
 of the Connecticut Legislature. His 
 benefactions were large and frequent. 
 He was a lecturer on temperance and 
 other popular subjects. He died at 
 Bridgeport, Conn., April 7, 1891. 
 
 Barnnm, 'William H., an Amer- 
 ican statesman, born in Boston Cor-
 
 Barnwell 
 
 ners, N. Y., Sept. 17, 1818. He died 
 in Lime Rock, Conn., April 30, 1889. 
 
 Baniwell, Robert Woodward, 
 an American statesman, born in Beau- 
 fort, S. C., Aug. 10, 1801 ; was grad- 
 uated at Harvard University in 1821 ; 
 became a lawyer ; was a member of 
 Congress from South Carolina in 
 1829-1833; a United States Senator 
 from that State, 1850-1851 ; Commis- 
 sioner from South Carolina to confer 
 with the Federal Government regard- 
 ing the proposed secession of the State, 
 in 1860 ; member of the Provisional 
 Confederate Congress, 1861-18G2; a 
 Confederate Senator in 1802-1866; 
 and then president of the University 
 of South Carolina (an office he had 
 held in 1835-1841) till 1873. He died 
 in Columbia, S. C., Nov. 25, 1882. 
 Baroda, the second city of Guz- 
 erat, and third in the Presidency of 
 Bombay, India ; capital of the terri- 
 tory of the Guicowar in the State of 
 the same name. It is 248 miles N. of 
 Bombay, with which it i& connected 
 by railway. Baroda occupies an im- 
 portant situation between the coast 
 and the interior, and its trade is con- 
 siderable. Pop. (1901) 103,782. 
 
 Barometer, an instrument for 
 measuring the weight of the air and 
 the variations of its pressure in order 
 to determine changes in the weather, 
 the height of mountains, and other 
 phenomena. This most useful instru- 
 ment had its origin in an experiment 
 of Torricelli, an Italian, who flour- 
 ished about the middle of the 17th 
 century 
 
 Bartm, in the feudal system of the 
 Middle Ages, the title baron, derived 
 from the Latin varo, which signifies a 
 man, and, sometimes, a servant, was 
 given, at first, to the immediate tenant 
 of any superior. In England, baron 
 is the lowest grade of rank in the 
 House of Lords. 
 
 Baronet, originally a term appar- 
 ently in use as early as the time of 
 Edward III. for certain landed gen- 
 tlemen not of the dignity of lords, 
 summoned to the English Parliament 
 to counterbalance the power of the 
 clergy. Subsequently it became the 
 name given to three titled orders. 
 
 Baronius, or Barenio, Caesar, an 
 Italian ecclesiastical historian, born in 
 1538. He owes his fame to his work, 
 
 Barrack 
 
 " Ecclesiastical Annals," comprising 
 valuable documents from the papal 
 archives, on which he labored from 
 the year 1580 until his death, June 30, 
 1607. 
 
 Barony, the lordship or fee of a 
 baron, either temporal or spiritual. 
 
 Barotse, or Marotse, an impor- 
 tant Bantu tribe inhabiting the banks 
 and the regions E. of the Upper Zam- 
 bezi, from about 14 to 18 S. lat. In 
 Livingstone's time the Makololo were 
 the dominant tribe in these parts of 
 South Africa, but since then they have 
 been almost entirely annihilated by 
 the Bantus, who now occupy the vast 
 territory from the Kabornpo river to 
 the Victoria Falls. 
 
 Barouche, a four-wheeled carriage 
 with a falling top and two inside seats 
 in which four persons can sit, two 
 fronting two. 
 
 Barr, Amelia Edith, an Anglo- 
 American novelist, born in Ulverton, 
 Lancashire, England, March 29, 1831. 
 She was the daughter of the Rev. Wil- 
 liam Huddleston, and in 1850 married 
 Robert Barr. She came to the United 
 States in 1854, and lived for some 
 years in Texas ; but after her hus- 
 band's death (1867) removed to New 
 York, where her first book, " Romance 
 and Reality," was published in 1872. 
 She is a prolific writer, and her nov- 
 els are very popular. 
 
 Barr, Robert, a Scottish author, 
 born in Glasgow, Sept. 16, 1850; he 
 spent his childhood in Canada, drifted 
 into journalism, joined the staff of De- 
 troit " Free Press," and wrote under 
 the name of " Luke Sharp." He went 
 to London in 1881 and founded " The 
 Idler " with Jerome K. Jerome, but 
 retired to devote himself to fiction. 
 
 Barracan, strictly, a thick, strong 
 stuff made in Persia and Armenia of 
 camel's hair, but the name has been 
 applied to various wool, flax, and cot- 
 ton fabrics. 
 
 Barracand, Leon Henri, a 
 French poet and novelist, born at Ro- 
 mans, Drome, May 2, 1844. 
 
 Barrack, a hut or small lodge. 
 The plural, barracks, is now generally 
 applied to a large structure, either 
 erected expressly for the housing of 
 troops or one which has been impro- 
 vised for that purpose.
 
 Barracuda 
 
 Barracuda, a pike-like seafish al- 
 lied to the mullets, common on both 
 coasts of America. The great barra- 
 cuda reaches a length of 8 feet and a 
 weight of 40 pounds. It is as savage 
 as a shark. Its flesh is pleasant flav- 
 ored, but is not always eaten, as there 
 are times when it it not wholesome. 
 
 Barranqnilla, the principal port 
 of the Republic of Colombia, in the 
 Department of Bolivar, near the left 
 bank of the Main channel of the Mag- 
 dalena, 15 miles distant from the sea. 
 A railway connects it with the seaport 
 of Sabanilla, 20 miles to the north- 
 west. Trade is largely in the hands 
 of the Germans. A United States 
 consul is resident at Barranquilla. 
 Pop. 40,000. 
 
 Barras, Paul Francois Jean 
 Nicolas, Cointe de, a French Jaco- 
 bin, born in Provence, in 1755, of an 
 ancient family ; served as second lieu- 
 tenant in the regiment of Languedoc 
 until 1775. July 14, 1789, he took 
 part in the attack upon the Bastille, 
 and Aug. 20, 1792, upon the Tuileries. 
 In 1792 he was elected a member of 
 the National Convention, and voted 
 for the unconditional death of Louis 
 XVI. In February, 1795, he was 
 elected President of the Convention, 
 and, in that capacity, declared Paris 
 in a state of siege, when the Assembly 
 was attacked by the populace. After- 
 ward, when the Convention was as- 
 sailed, Bonaparte, by Barras's advice, 
 was appointed to command the artil- 
 lery ; and that general on the 13th 
 Vendemaire (Oct. 5, 1795), decisively 
 repressed the royafist movement. Na- 
 poleon's coup d'etat (Nov. 9, 1799), 
 effectually overthrow his power. He 
 died in Paris, Jan. 29, 1829. 
 
 Barre, a city in Washington 
 county, Vt.; on the Winooski river 
 and the Central Vermont and other 
 raijroads; 6 miles S. E. of Mont- 
 pelier; is widely noted for its granite 
 quarries and interests connected 
 therewith. Pop. (1910) 10,734. 
 
 Barre, Isaac, a British soldier, 
 born at Dublin in 1726. Gazetted as 
 an ensign in 1746, he became friendly 
 with General Wolfe, under whom he 
 rose to the rank of Lieutenant-Colo- 
 nel. He was wounded in the cheek at 
 Quebec, was beside Wolfe when he 
 fell, and figures in West's* picture of 
 
 Barrett 
 
 "The Death of Wolfe." He entered 
 Parliament in 1761, and held office 
 successively under Lord Bute, Pitt, 
 Rpckingham, and Lord Shelburne. In, 
 Pitt's second administration he ex- 
 posed the corruptions of the ministry, 
 was a strong opponent of Lord North's 
 ministry, and opposed the taxation of 
 America. He died in London, July 
 20, 1802. 
 
 Barren Grounds, a large tract in 
 the Northwest Territories of Canada, 
 extending N. from Churchill river to 
 ffie Arctic Ocean, between Great Bear 
 and Great Slave Lakes and Hudson 
 Bay. It largely consists of swamps, 
 lakes, and bare rock. 
 
 Barrett, John, an American di- 
 plomatist, born in Grafton, Vt., Nov. 
 28, 1866; was graduated at Dart- 
 mouth College in 1889, and the same 
 year went to the Pacific coast and was 
 engaged in journalism till 1894. Dur- 
 ing 1894-1898 he was United States 
 Minister Resident and Consul-General 
 at Bangkok, Siam, and, after the ex- 
 piration of his term of office, repre- 
 sented several American newspapers 
 in Manila, Philippine Islands. After 
 the American victory in Manila Bay 
 he made a special study of conditions 
 in the Philippine Islands, and, return- 
 ing by way of London, addressed a 
 joint assembly of members of the 
 House of Commons and the London 
 Chamber of Commerce, on the condi- 
 tion of trade in the Far East. He re- 
 turned to the United States in the 
 summer of 1899, and afterward did 
 much to support the Federal Govern- 
 ment against the attacks of the anti- 
 expansionists. 
 
 Barrett, Lawrence, an American 
 actor, born in Paterson, N. J., April 
 4, 1838. His first appearance on the 
 stage was in 1853. In 1856 he ap- 
 peared as Sir Thomas Clifford in 
 "The Hunchback" at Chambers Street 
 Theater, New York city, and in 1857 
 he supported Mr. Burton, Charlotte 
 Cushman, Edwin Booth, and other 
 eminent actors. He served as a cap- 
 tain in the 28th Massachusetts Infan- 
 try in the early part of the Civil War. 
 Later he acted at Philadelphia, Wash- 
 ington, and at Winter Garden, in New 
 York, where he was engaged by Mr. 
 Booth to play Othello to his * lago. 
 After this he became an associate 
 manager of the Varieties Theater, in
 
 Barrett 
 
 New Orleans, where for the first time 
 he played the parts of Richelieu, Ham- 
 let, and Shylock. He gained steadily 
 in distinction both as manager and 
 actor. His last appearance was on 
 March 18, 1891, in the character of 
 Adrian du Mauprat to the Richelieu 
 of Mr. Booth. He died in New York 
 city, March 21, 1891. 
 
 Barrett, "Wilson, an English dram- 
 atist, born in Essex, Feb. 18, 1846; 
 died July 22, 1904. 
 
 Barrio, town and capital of Siai- 
 coe county, Ontario, Canada; on an 
 arm of Lake Simcoe and the Grand 
 Trunk railroad; 64 miles N. W. of 
 Toronto; founded in 1832; incorpo- 
 rated in 1871; has steamers to all 
 lake ports. Pop. (1901) 5,949. 
 
 Barrie, James Matthew, a Scot- 
 tish author; born in Kurriemuir, For- 
 farshire, May 9, 1860. He went 
 to London in 1885, to engage in 
 journalism. His peculiar talent for 
 depicting Scottish village life and rus- 
 tic characters with fidelity, pathos, 
 humor, and poetic charm, has brought 
 him fame. 
 
 Barrier Reef, a coral reef which 
 extends for 1,260 miles off the N. E. 
 coast of Australia, at a distance from 
 land ranging from 10 to 100 miles. 
 
 Barrili, Antonio Giulio, an Ital- 
 ian novelist, born in Savona, in 1836. 
 Engaging in journalism when only 18, 
 he assumed the management of " II 
 Movimento " in 1860, and became pro- 
 prietor and editor of " II Caffaro " in 
 Genoa in 1872. He took part in 
 the campaigns of 1859 and 1866 
 (with Garibaldi in Tyrol) and in the 
 Roman expedition of 1867, and sat in 
 the Chamber of Deputies in 1876- 
 1879. He is one of the most prolific 
 writers of modern Italy. 
 
 Barrios, Gerardo, a Central 
 American statesman, born about 1810 ; 
 became President of Salvador in 1860. 
 He was deposed by Duenas as the out- 
 come of the war with Guatemala, and, 
 while endeavoring to bring about a 
 revolution in order to become presi- 
 dent again, he was captured and exe- 
 cuted, in 1865. 
 
 Barrios, Justo Rufino, a Guate- 
 malan statesman, born in San Marcos, 
 about 1834 ; opposed President Cerna 
 in the revolutionary movements of 
 
 Barrow 
 
 1867, and was active in overthrowing 
 the regime established by that presi- 
 dent (1871). Two years later, when 
 Granados took command of the army, 
 Barrios became President and, by suc- 
 cessive elections, he held the office till 
 his death. His administration was 
 marked by prosperity and freedom. A 
 war with Salvador resulted from a 
 proclamation intended to bring about 
 the union of all the Central American 
 nations in one republic. In an assault 
 upon Chalchuapa, Barrios, putting 
 himself at the head of a deserted regi- 
 ment, was killed April 2, 1885. His 
 widow lives in New York. 
 
 Barrister, Barraster, or Barre- 
 ter, in England, a member of the le- 
 gal profession who has been admitted 
 to practice at the bar ; a counselor at 
 law. The term corresponding to bar- 
 rister is in the United States counselor 
 at law ; but the position of the latter 
 is not quite the same. 
 
 Barren, James, an American na- 
 val officer, born in Virginia in 1769; 
 became Lieutenant in the navy in. 
 1798, and was soon promoted to Cap- 
 tain. He commanded the " Chesa- 
 peake " in 1807, and was attacked by 
 the British ship " Leopard " as a re- 
 sult of his refusal to allow the " Ches- 
 apeake " to be searched for deserters. 
 The " Chesapeake," which was quite 
 unprepared, discharged one gun pre- 
 vious to striking her colors. She was 
 captured and three alleged deserters 
 were found. Barren was court-mar- 
 tialed and suspended for five years. 
 Upon his restoration, as the outcome 
 of a long correspondence with his per- 
 sonal enemy, Commodore Decatur, a 
 duel was fought and Decatur was 
 killed. Barron became senior officer in 
 the navy in 1839, and died in Norfolk, 
 Va., April 21, 1851. 
 
 Barron, Samuel, an American 
 naval officer, born in Hampton, Va., 
 about 1763 ; in 1805 commanded a 
 squadron of 10 vessels in the expedi- 
 tion against Tripoli. On his return to 
 the United States was appointed Com- 
 mandant of the Gosport Navy Yard, 
 but died immediately afterward, Oct. 
 29, 1810. 
 
 Barrow, an artificial mound or 
 tumulus, of stones or earth, piled up 
 over the remains of the dead. Such 
 erections were frequently made in an-
 
 Barrow 
 
 cient times in the New and Old 
 Worlds. When opened they are often 
 found to contain stone cysts, calcined 
 bones, etc. 
 
 Barrow, Frances Elizabeth, an 
 American author, born in Charleston, 
 S. C., Feb. 22, 1822, was educated in 
 New York, where she was married to 
 James Barrow. She wrote, under the 
 name of AUNT FANNY, numerous 
 books for children. She died in New 
 York city, May 7, 189-1. 
 
 Barrow, Sir John, a notable Eng- 
 lish writer on travels, born at Drag- 
 leybeck, Lancashire, June 19, 1764; 
 died in London, Nov. 23, 1848. 
 
 Barrows, John Henry, an Amer- 
 ican educator, born in Medina, Mich., 
 July 11, 1847 ; was graduated at Oli- 
 vet College in 1867 ; subsequently stud- 
 ied in Yale College, Union and An- 
 dover Theological Seminaries, and at 
 Gottingen; was pastor of the First 
 Presbyterian Church, in Chicago, for 
 14 years ; organized and was president 
 of the World's Parliament of Re- 
 ligions, at the World s Columbian Ex- 
 position in Chicago, in 1893. He de- 
 livered a course of lectures on Chris- 
 tianity in the principal universities in 
 India, under the patronage of the Uni- 
 versity of Chicago, in 1896-1897, and 
 became President of Oberlin College 
 in 189& He died in Oberlin, O., June 
 3, 1902. 
 
 Barrundia, Jose Francisco, a 
 Central American statesman, born in 
 Guatemala, in 1779. He became 
 President of the Central American 
 Republic in 1829; retaining office for 
 something over a year. In 1852 he 
 was again elected President. He came 
 to the United States in 1854, as Min- 
 ister from Honduras, to propose the 
 annexation of that territory to the 
 United States, but died suddenly be- 
 fore anything was accomplished, in 
 New York city, Aug. 4. 
 
 Barry, Ann Spranger, an Eng- 
 lish actress, born in Bath, 1734. As 
 Desdemona she had, during her whole 
 career, no competitor. She died in 
 London, in 1801, and is buried in 
 Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Barry, Sir Charles, an English 
 architect, born in London, in 1795. He 
 was knighted in 1852, and died sud- 
 denly in 18GO. 
 
 Baryy 
 
 Barry, Elizabeth, an English 
 actress, born in 1658; was said to be 
 the daughter of Colonel Barry, a 
 prominent royalist in the Civil War. 
 She was known as " the great Mrs. 
 Barry ; " and is said to have created 
 over 100 roles. She died in London, 
 Nov. 7, 1713. 
 
 Barrry, James, an Irjgh painter 
 and writer on art, born in Cork, in 
 1741; died in 1806. 
 
 Barry, John, an American naval 
 officer, born ia Tacumshane, Ireland, 
 in 1745. He settled in Philadelphia, 
 in 1760. When the Revolutionary 
 War broke out he was appointed com- 
 mander of the " Lexington," with 
 which he captured the British tender 
 " Edward," in 1776. He afterward 
 took command of the " Raleigh," 
 which was captured by the British 
 " Experiment ; " but in his next com- 
 mand, the " Alliance," he captured the 
 British ships " Atlanta " and " Tre- 
 passy." He was chosen to convey La- 
 fayette and Noailles back to France; 
 and, in 1794 was appointed commo- 
 dore. He died in Philadelphia, Sept. 
 13, 1803. 
 
 Barry, John Daniel, an Ameri- 
 can novelist, born in Boston, Mass., 
 Dec. 31, 1866. He has written a num- 
 ber of popular books. 
 
 Barry, Spranger, an Irish actor, 
 the great rival of Garrick, born in 
 Dublin, in 1719. He was brought up 
 as a silversmith ; but his matchless 
 form and voice led him to try the 
 stage. He died in London, in 1777, 
 and is buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Barry, William Farqnhar, an 
 American military officer, born in 
 New York city, Aug. 18, 1818; grad- 
 uated at the United States Military 
 Academy in 1838 ; and first saw active 
 service in the Florida war (1S52- 
 1853). In the Mexican War he acted 
 as aide-de-camp to General Worth. 
 At the outbreak of the Civil War he 
 was made chief of artillery, and or- 
 ganized the artillery of the Army of 
 the Potomac. He subsequently be- 
 came chief of artillery to Sherman, 
 and took part in the march to the sea. 
 In 1865 he was brevetted Major-Gen- 
 eral. In 1867 he had charge of the 
 Artillery School at Fort Monroe. He 
 died near Baltimore, Md., July 18, 
 1879.
 
 Barry 
 
 Barth.olome-nf 
 
 Barry, William Taylor, an 
 
 American statesman, born in Lunen- 
 burg, Va., Feb. 5, 1784. He served 
 in the War of 1812; and from 1814- 
 1816 was United States Senator from 
 Kentucky. In 1828 he was appointed 
 Postmaster-General under Jackson ; 
 and was on his way as Minister to 
 Spain wh$n he died in Liverpool, Aug. 
 30, 1835. He was the firs Postmas- 
 ter-General who had a seat in the 
 Cabinet. 
 
 Barsabas, Joseph, surnamed " the 
 Just," one of Christ's early disciples, 
 and probably one of the 70. He was 
 one of the two candidates nominated 
 to fill the vacancy left by Judas Is- 
 cariot in the apostleship (Acts i). 
 
 Bart, Bartli, or Baert, Jean, a 
 French sailor, born at Dunkirk, 1650, 
 the son of a poor fisherman. He be- 
 came captain of a privateer, and, after 
 some Brilliant exploits, was appointed 
 capt&in in the Royal Navy. In recog- 
 nition of his further services, he was 
 made commodore, subsequently re- 
 ceiving letters of nobility. He died 
 in 1702, and is regarded to this day 
 as* the typical naval hero of France. 
 
 Barter, in commerce and political 
 economy, a term used to express the 
 exchange of one commodity for anoth- 
 er, as contrasted with the sale of com- 
 piodities for money. 
 
 Bartli, Heinrich, a German trav- 
 eler, born in Hamburg in 1821. His 
 explorations, which extended over an 
 area of about 2,000,000 square miles, 
 determined the course of the Niger 
 and the true nature of the Sahara. 
 He died in 1865. 
 
 Barthelemy - Saint - Hilaire, 
 Jules, a French statesman ; born in 
 Paris, Aug. 19, 1805. He was on 
 the side of the Moderate party in 
 the revolution of 1848, and during the 
 troublous times of 1870-1871^ he was 
 closely associated with M. Thiers. In 
 1875 he became a life senator, and in 
 the cabinet of M. Jules Ferry, consti- 
 tuted 1880, he was appointed minis- 
 ter of foreign affairs. The chief event 
 of his tenure of this office was the oc- 
 cupation of Tunis. He died in Paris, 
 Nov. 25, 1895. 
 
 Bartholdi, Frederic Anguste, a 
 French sculptor, born in Colmar, Al- 
 sace, April 2, 1834; received the cross 
 of the Legion of Honor in 1865; prin- 
 
 cipal works: the "Lion of Belfort;" 
 statue of Lafayette, in Union Square, 
 New York ; bronze group of Lafayette 
 and Washington, in Paris (1895) ; 
 and the colossal figure in New York 
 harbor, " Liberty Enlightening the 
 World." He died in Paris, Oct., 1904. 
 
 Bartholomew, Edward Shef- 
 field, an American sculptor, born at 
 Colchester, Conn., in 1822 ; studied in 
 New York and in Rome, where he 
 lived during the latter part of his life. 
 Among his works are " Blind Homer, 
 Led by His Daughter," " Eve," 
 " Youth and Old Age," etc. He died 
 in Naples, May 2, 1858. 
 
 Bartholomew Fair, or Bar- 
 tlemy Fair, a celebrated fair, which 
 was long held in Smithfield, England, 
 at Bartholomew-tide. 
 
 Bartholomew, Massacre of St., 
 the slaughter of French Protestants 
 in Paris, beginning Aug. 24, 1572. Af- 
 ter the death of Francis II., Catherine 
 de' Medici had assumed the regency 
 for her son, Charles IX., then only 
 10 years old, and was compelled, in 
 spite of the opposition of the Guises, 
 to issue an edict of toleration in favor 
 of the Protestants. The party of the 
 Guises now persuaded the nation that 
 the Catholic religion was in the great- 
 est danger. The Huguenots were 
 treated in the most cruel manner ; 
 Prince Coade took up arms ; the Guis- 
 es had recourse to the Spaniards, 
 Conde to the English, for assistance. 
 Both parties were guilty of the most 
 atrocious cruelties, but finally con- 
 cluded peace. The queen-mother 
 caused the king, who had entered his 
 14th year, to be declared of age, that 
 she might govern more absolutely un- 
 der his name. Duke Francis de Guise 
 had been assassinated by a Huguenot, 
 at the siege of Orleans ; but his spirit 
 continued in his family, which consid- 
 ered the Admiral Coligny as the au- 
 thor of his murder. The king had 
 been persuaded that the Huguenots 
 had designs on his life, and had con- 
 ceived an implacable hatred against 
 them. Meanwhile, the court endeav- 
 ored to gain time, in order to seize the 
 persons of the prince and the admiral 
 by stratagem, but was disappointed, 
 and hostilities were renewed with 
 more violence than ever. In the battle 
 of Jarnac, 1569, Conde was made pris-
 
 Bartholomew 
 
 Bartlett 
 
 oner and shot by Captain de Montes- 
 quieu. Coligny collected the remains 
 of the routed army ; the young Prince 
 Henry de Beam (afterward Henry 
 IV., King of Navarre and France), 
 the head of the Protestant party after 
 the death of Conde, was appointed 
 commander-in-chief, and Coligny com- 
 manded in the name of the Prince 
 Henry de Conde, who swore to re- 
 venge the murder of his father. The 
 advantageous offers of peace at St. 
 Germain-en-Laye (Aug. 8, 1570) 
 blinded the chiefs of the Huguenots, 
 particularly Admiral Coligny, who 
 was wearied with civil war. The king 
 appeared to have entirely disengaged 
 himself from the influence of the 
 Guises and his mother; he invited the 
 old Coligny, the support of the Hugue- 
 nots, to his court, and honored him 
 as a father. The most artful means 
 were employed to increase this delu- 
 sion. The sister of the king was mar- 
 ried to the Prince de Beam (Aug. 18, 
 1572), in order to allure the most 
 distinguished Huguenots to Paris. 
 Some of his friends endeavored to dis- 
 suade the admiral from this visit ; but 
 he could not be convinced that the 
 king would command an assassination 
 of the Protestants throughout his 
 kingdom. On Aug. 22, a shot from a 
 window wounded the admiral. The 
 king hastened to visit him, and swore 
 to punish the author of the villainy; 
 but, on the same day," he was induced 
 by his mother to believe that the ad- 
 miral had designs on his life. " God's 
 death ! " he exclaimed : " kill the ad- 
 miral ; and not only him, but all the 
 Huguenots ; let none remain to dis- 
 turb us ! " The following night Cath- 
 erine held the bloody council which 
 fixed the execution for the night it 
 St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. Af- 
 ter the assassination of Coligny, a bell 
 from the tower of the royal palace, at 
 midnight, gave to the assembled com- 
 panies of burghers the signal for the 
 general massacre of the Huguenots. 
 The Prince of Conde and the King of 
 Navarre saved their lives by going to 
 mass, and pretending to embrace the 
 Catholic religion. By the king's or- 
 ders, the massacre was extended 
 through the whole kingdom ; and if, 
 in some provinces, the officers had 
 honor and humanity enough to dis- 
 obey the orders to butcher their inno- 
 
 cent fellow citizens, yet instruments 
 were always found to continue the 
 massacre. This horrible slaughter con- 
 tinued for 30 days, in almost all the 
 provinces; the victims are calculated 
 at 30,000. At Rome, the cannons were 
 discharged, the Pope ordered a jubilee 
 and a procession to the Church of St. 
 Louis, and caused the Te Deum to be 
 chanted. Those of the Huguenots who 
 escaped fled into the mountains and 
 to Rochelle. The duke of Anjou laid 
 siege to that city, but, during the 
 siege, received the news that the Poles 
 had elected him their king. He con- 
 cluded a treaty, July 6, 1573, and the 
 king granted to the Huguenots the 
 exercise of their religion in certain 
 towns. The court gained nothing by 
 the massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 Bartholomew, St., the apostle, 
 probably the same person as Nathan- 
 ael, mentioned, in the Gospel of St. 
 John, as an upright Israelite, and one 
 of the first disciples of Jesus. 
 
 Bartholomew, St., an island, one 
 of the West Indies, in the Leeward 
 group, belonging to France, being 
 transferred by Sweden in 1878. It is 
 a dependency of Guadeloupe. The 
 island has a mountainous surface and 
 is about 24 miles in circumference. 
 
 Bartlett, Edwin Jnlius, an 
 American chemist, born in Hudson* 
 O., Feb. 16, 1851 ; the author of many 
 papers on chemical subjects. 
 
 Bartlett, Sir Ellis Ashmead, an 
 English politician, born in Brooklyn, 
 N. Y., of American parents, in 1849; 
 educated in England ; was Civil Lord 
 of the Admiralty in 1885-1886, and 
 1886-1892, and brother of William 
 Ashmead Bartlett, who married the 
 BABONESS BURDETT-COTJTTS. He died 
 in London, Jan. 18, 1902. 
 
 Bartlett, Homer Newton, an 
 American composer, born in Olive, N. 
 Y., Dec. 28, 1846. He has written a 
 large number of anthems, quartets, 
 and glees, etc. 
 
 Bartlett, John, an American au- 
 thor and publisher, born in Plymouth, 
 Mass., June 14, 1820; became a pub- 
 lisher in Cambridge, 1836, and head of 
 the firm of Little, Brown & Co., 1878. 
 He died Dec. 3, 1905. 
 
 Bartlett, John Russell. an 
 American author: born in Providence, 
 R. I., Oct. 23, 1805 ; was educated for
 
 Bartlett 
 
 a mercantile career. After 1837, he 
 entered the book-importing trade in 
 New York. In 1850, he was appoint- 
 ed one of the commissioners to fix the 
 Mexican boundary. In 1855, he was 
 made Secretary of State of Rhode Isl- 
 and. He wrote various valuable rec- 
 ords, genealogies, local histories, etc. 
 His best known work is his "Diction- 
 ary of Americanisms" (1850). He 
 died in Providence, May 28, 1886. 
 
 Bartlett, John R., an American 
 naval officer, born in New York in 
 1843; was appointed an acting mid- 
 shipman in the navy from Rhode I si. 
 in 1859. During the Civil War, he 
 took part in many important naval 
 conflicts, from New Orleans to the 
 capture of Fort Fisher. Subsequently 
 he was on surveying duty in Nicaragua 
 and on the United States Coast Sur- 
 vey : was promoted to Captain, July 
 1, 1892; and was retired July 12, 
 1897. After the declaration of war 
 against Spain, in 1898, he was re- 
 called to active service, and on July 
 9, succeeded Rear-Admiral Erben as 
 commander of the Auxiliary Naval 
 Squadron for the protection of the 
 Atlantic coast cities. He died at 
 St. Louis, Nov. 22", 1904. 
 
 Bartlett, Josiali, an American 
 physician and statesman, born in 
 Amesbury, Mass., in 1729; was one of 
 the signers of the Declaration of In- 
 dependence, and a member of the Con- 
 tinental Congress (1775-1776) ; be- 
 came Chief Justice of New Hampshire 
 (1788) ; and first Governor of New 
 Hampshire under the new State Con- 
 stitution. He died in 1795. 
 
 Bartlett, Paul Wayland, Ameri- 
 can sculptor; born at New Haven, 
 1865. His chief works are the eques- 
 trian statue of General McClellan in 
 Philadelphia, and the statue of Lafa- 
 yette, presented to France by the chil- 
 dren of America, and now in Paris. 
 
 Bartlett, Samuel Colcord, an 
 American educator, born in Salisbury, 
 N. H., Nov. 25, 1817. In 1877 he ac- 
 cepted the presidency of Dartmouth 
 College, which he held until 1892, 
 when he resigned. He died in Han- 
 over, N. H., Nov. 16, 1898. 
 
 Bartlett, William Francis, an 
 American military officer, born in 
 Haverhill, Mass., Jan. 6, 1840; was a 
 student in Harvard University at the 
 
 Barton 
 
 outbreak of the Civil War, but left to 
 enter the army ; was wounded in the 
 battle of Ball's Bluff, suffering the 
 loss of a leg; but continued in the 
 service ; was twice wounded at Port 
 Hudson ; and in the battles of the 
 Wilderness, while leading the 57th 
 Massachusetts Regiment, was again 
 wounded, taken prisoner, and sent to 
 Libby Prison. At the close of the war, 
 he was made a Major-General of Vol- 
 unteers for distinguished services in 
 the field. He died Dec. 17, 1876. 
 
 Bartolini, Lorenzo, an Italian 
 sculptor, born at Vernio, in Tuscany, 
 in 1777; went to Paris while still a 
 young man. His chief patron was Na- 
 poleon, who, in 1808, sent him to Car- 
 rara, to establish a school of scupl- 
 ture. Besides an immense number of 
 busts, he. produced several groups, the 
 most celebrated are " Charity," " Her- 
 cules and Lycas." He died 1850. 
 
 Bartolomeo, di San Marco, 
 Fra, or Baccio Delia Porta, one 
 of the most distinguished masters of 
 the Florentine School of painting, 
 born at Savignano, in Tuscany, in 
 1469. He was a warm adherent of 
 Savonarola, after whose tragical end 
 in 1500 he took the habit of the clois- 
 ter. He died in Florence in 1517. 
 
 Bartolozzi, Francesco, an en- 
 graver, born at Florence in 1725, or 
 acording to others, in 1730, died at 
 Lisbon 1813. In Venice, in Florence, 
 and Milan he etched several pieces on 
 sacred subjects, and then went to Lon- 
 don, where he received great encour- 
 agement. After forty years' residence 
 in London he went to Lisbon on the in- 
 vitation of the Prince Regent of Port- 
 ugal to take the superintendence of a 
 school of engravers, and remained 
 there till his death. 
 
 Barton, Andrew, one of Scot- 
 land's first great naval commanders ; 
 flourished during the reign of James 
 IV., and belonged to a family which 
 for two generations had produced able 
 and successful seaman. In 1497 he 
 commanded the escort which accom- 
 panied Perkin Warbeck from Scotland. 
 After doing considerable damage to 
 English shipping he was killed in 1512. 
 
 Barton, Clara, an American phi- 
 lanthropist ; born in Oxford, Mass., 
 in 1830; was educated at Clinton, N. 
 Y and early became a teacher, and
 
 Barton 
 
 founded at Bordentown, N. J., a free 
 school, opening it with six pupils. 
 In 1854 it had grown to 600, when she 
 became a clerk in the Patent Office in 
 Washington. On the outbreak of the 
 Civil War she resigned her clerkship, 
 and became a volunteer nurse in the 
 army hospitals and on the battle-field. 
 On the breaking out of the Franco- 
 Prussian War, in 1870, she aided the 
 Grand Duchess of Baden in preparing 
 military hospitals, assisted the Red 
 Cross Society, and, at the request of 
 the authorities, superintended the dis- 
 tribution of work to the poor of Stras- 
 burg, in 1871, after the siege, and in 
 1872 did a like work in Paris. At 
 the close of the war, she was decorated 
 with the Golden Cross of Baden and 
 the Iron Cross of Germany. On the 
 organization of the American Red 
 Cross Society in 1881, she was made 
 its President. In 1889 she had charge 
 of movements in behalf of sufferers 
 from the floods at Johnstown, Pa. ; 
 in 1892 distributed relief to the Rus- 
 sian famine sufferers ; in 1896, per- 
 sonally directed relief measures at the 
 scenes of the Armenian massacres; in 
 1898 took relief to the Cuban re- 
 concentrados, and performed field 
 work during the war with Spain ; and 
 in 1900 undertook to direct the re- 
 lief of sufferers at Galveston, but 
 broke down physically. In 1903 she 
 undertook the re-organization of the 
 Red Cross Society in the United 
 States. 
 
 Barton, George Hunt, an Amer- 
 ican geologist, born in Sudbury, Mass., 
 July 8, 1852 ; was graduated at the 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
 in 1880; assistant on Hawaiian Gov- 
 ernment survey, 1881-1883 ; assistant 
 in Geology in the Massachusetts Insti- 
 tute of Technology in 1883-1884 ; then 
 Assistant Professor of Geology there ; 
 also occupied the corresponding chair 
 in Boston University and the Teach- 
 ers' School of Science ; and was As- 
 sistant Geologist of the United States 
 Geological Survey. In 1896 he was a 
 member of the sixth Peary expedition 
 to Greenland. He is the author of 
 many technical papers. 
 
 Barton, William, an American 
 military officer, born in Warren, R. 
 I., May 26, 1748 ; learned the trade of 
 a hatter ; but joined the Revolutionary 
 Army soon after Bunker Hill. On 
 
 the night of July 10, 1777, he per- 
 formed the exploit which made him 
 famous. Leading 38 men, in four 
 whale-boats, across Narragansett Bay, 
 he surprised and captured the British 
 General, Prescott, at his headquarters, 
 and hurried him away to Washing- 
 ton's camp in New Jersey. Barton 
 received a sword from Congress, and 
 was brevetted Colonel. He was after- 
 ward a member of his State Conven- 
 tion which adopted the Federal Con- 
 stitution. He died in Providence, Oct. 
 22, 1831. In his later years, like some 
 other heroes of the Revolution, he was 
 much reduced in circumstances and 
 spent some time in a debtors' prison. 
 
 Barton, William Paul Crillon, 
 an American botanist, born in Phila- 
 delphia, Pa., Nov. 17, 1786; died in 
 Philadelphia, Feb. 29, 1856. 
 
 Bartram, John, an American bot- 
 anist, born in Chester county, Pa., 
 March 23, 1699 ; died at Kingsessing, 
 near Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 22, 1777. 
 
 Bartram. William, an American 
 botanist and ornithologist, born in 
 Kingsessing, Pa., Feb. 9, 1739; a son 
 of John Bartram. He compiled a list 
 of American birds, which was the best 
 of its kind up to the time of Wilson. 
 He died in Kingsessing, July 22, 1823. 
 
 Baruch, in Church history, a son 
 of t Neriah, who was a friend of Jere- 
 miah's, and at least occasionally acted 
 as his amanuensis (Jer. xxxii : 12; 
 xxxvi : 4, 17, 32 ; xliii : 6 ; xlv : 1 ; li : 
 59). Two apocryphal books or let- 
 ters have been attributed to him. 
 
 Barye, Antoine Louis, a French 
 sculptor, born in Paris, Sept. 24, 1795 ; 
 died in Paris, June 25, 1875. 
 
 Baryta, or Barytes, or Oxide of 
 Barium, the earth present in the min- 
 erals witherite (carbonate of barium) 
 and heavy spar (sulphate of barium). 
 
 Basalt, a word said to have been 
 derived from an African word, and to 
 have meant basaltoid syenite, from 
 Ethiopia or Upper Egypt. In general 
 the name is given to any trap rock of 
 a black, bluish, or leaden gray color, 
 and possessed of a uniform and com- 
 pact texture. 
 
 Bascinet, or Basnet, a light hel- 
 met sometimes with, but more fre- 
 quently without, a visor, in general 
 use for English infantry in the reigns 
 of Edward II. and III., and Richard II,
 
 Basconi 
 
 Basel 
 
 Bascom, Florence, an American 
 educator ; daughter of Dr. John Bas- 
 com, was educated at the University 
 of Wisconsin, and at Johns Hopkins 
 University, receiving from the first 
 the degree of B. A. and B. L. in 1882, 
 B. S., in 1884, and M. A. in 1887 ; and 
 from the latter that of Ph. D., in 1892. 
 She was the first woman to whom 
 Johns Hopkins granted a degree, and 
 the first to receive a Ph. D. from any 
 American college. Subsequently, she 
 was engaged in teaching ; became pro- 
 fessor at Bryn Mawr College ; and, in 
 1899, was chosen to supervise the geo- 
 logical survey of Chester county, Pa. 
 
 Bascom, Henry Bidleman, an 
 American clergyman, born in Han- 
 cock, N. Y., May 27, 1796. In 1850 
 he was made a Bishop of the Metho- 
 dist Episcopal Church. He edited the 
 " Quarterly Review " from 1846 till 
 1850. His writings were published in 
 1856. He died in Louisville, Ky., 
 Sept. 8, 1850. 
 
 Basconi, John, an American edu- 
 cator and philosophical writer, born 
 at Geneva, N. Y., in 1827. He was 
 President of the University of Wis- 
 consin, in 1874-1887, and in 1900 was 
 Professor of Political Science in Wil- 
 liams College. He has written a num- 
 ber of philosophical works. 
 
 2M-BASE, 
 
 o 
 
 CATCHER* 
 
 BASE BALL DIAMOND. 
 
 Base Ball, a field game played 
 principally in the United States. It 
 
 originated in the English school-boy 
 game of " rounders ;" but it has been 
 so improved and so generally played 
 as to merit its name of " the Na- 
 tional game of America." The play- 
 ing of baseball has become largely a 
 business or a " profession," and skilled 
 players receive large salaries. As an 
 amateur game, however, it is also 
 most popular. 
 
 Basel Confession of, a Calvin- 
 istic confession introduced by CEcolam- 
 padius at the opening of the Synod 
 of Basel (1531). It was adopted by 
 the Protestants of Basle in 1534. Sim- 
 ple and comparatively moderate in its 
 terms, it occupies an intermediate 
 place between Zwingli and Luther. 
 
 Basel, Council of, a celebrated 
 Ecumenical council of the Church, 
 convoked by Pope Martin V. and his 
 successor, Eugenius IV. It was open- 
 ed Dec. 14, 1431, under the presidency 
 of the Cardinal Legate Juliano Cesa- 
 hini of St. Angelo. The objects of its 
 deliberations were to extirpate here- 
 sies (that of the Hussites in particu- 
 lar), to unite all Christian nations 
 under the Catholic Church, to put a 
 stop to wars between Christian 
 princes, and to reform the Church. 
 But its first steps toward a peaceable 
 reconciliation with the Hussites were 
 displeasing to the Pope, who author- 
 ized the Cardinal Legate to dissolve 
 the Council. That body opposed the 
 pretensions of the Pope. On the Pope 
 continuing to issue bulls for its dis- 
 solution the Council commenced a for- 
 mal process against him, and cited him 
 to appear at its bar. On his refusal 
 to comply with this demand the Coun- 
 cil declared him guilty of contumacy, 
 and, in May, 1439, it declared Eu- 
 genius, on account of his disobedience 
 of its decrees, a heretic, and formally 
 deposed him. Excommunicated by 
 Eugenius, they proceeded, in a regular 
 conclave, to elect the Duke Amadeus 
 of Savoy to the papal chair. Felix V. 
 the name he adopted was ac- 
 knowledged by only a few princes, cit- 
 ies, and universities. After this the 
 moral power of the Council declined; 
 its last formal session was held May 
 16, 1443, though it was not technical- 
 ly dissolved till May 7, 1449, when it 
 gave in its adhesion to Nicholas Vt f 
 the successor of Eugenius.
 
 Baslian 
 
 Baslian, a rich, hilly district, ly- 
 ing E. of the Jordan, and between the 
 mountains of Hermon on the N., and 
 those of Gilead and Ammon on the S. 
 The country takes its nawe ("fat," 
 " fruitful ") from its soft and sandy 
 soil. It is celebrated in Scripture for 
 its stately oaks, fine breeds of cattle, 
 and rich pasturage. 
 
 Bashford, James Whitford, an 
 American clergyman, born in Fayette, 
 Wis., May 27, 1849 ; graduated at the 
 Theological School of Boston Uni- 
 versity in 1876; became instructor of 
 Greek at the University of Wiscon- 
 sin in 1874; president of the Wesley- 
 an University of Ohio in 1889; and 
 a bishop in 1904. 
 
 Bashi Bazouks, a body of irreg- 
 ular troops in the service of the Turk- 
 ish Sultan. They are principally of 
 Asiatic races, and formed a contin- 
 gent of the Turkish army during the 
 Russian War, 1853-1856. As light 
 cavalry they are considered excellent. 
 
 Bashkirtseff, Marie, a Russian 
 author born in Russia in 18GO. She 
 died in Paris in 1884. 
 
 Basil, St., surnamed THE GREAT, 
 Bishop of Cfesarea, in Cappadocia, 
 where he was born about 326. Af- 
 ter extensive travels, St. Basil re- 
 tired to the Desert of Pontus, and 
 there founded an order of monks. He 
 succeeded Eusebius in the See of 
 Caesarea in 370. He died in 380. 
 
 Basilan, the largest island of the 
 Sulu Archipelago, Philippine Islands. 
 This island is very mountainous, and 
 most of it is covered by virgin forests. 
 The soil is extremely rich and produces 
 e variety of valuable crops, including 
 cotton, coffee, sugar, chocolate, tobac- 
 co, indigo, and spices of all sorts. Ba- 
 silan has about 15,000 inhabitants and 
 three excellent harbors. The name 
 Basilan is also applied to the whole 
 group of 34 adjacent islets. The lead- 
 ing port is Isabela, on Basilan Strait. 
 
 Basilica, originally the hall or 
 court-room in which the King admin- 
 istered the laws made by himself and 
 the chiefs who formed his council. 
 Many of the oldest and most splendid 
 of the Roman churches are built on 
 the plan of the basilica, and are call- 
 ed basilicas in consequence. 
 
 Basilisk, a fabulous creature for- 
 merly believed to exist, and variously 
 
 Bas-Relief 
 
 regarded as a kind of serpent, lizard, 
 or dragon. The name is now applied 
 to a genus of saurian reptiles with a 
 crest along the back and tail. 
 
 Basket Ball, an indoor game play- 
 ed upon a circumscribed space on a 
 floor, usually by five players on each 
 side. At each end of this playing 
 space a basket is placed at a height 
 of about 10 feet. The ball is round, 
 somewhat lighter than a foot-ball, and 
 is passed from one player to another 
 by throwing, or striking with the 
 hands only ; the ultimate object being 
 to lodge it in the opponent's basket, 
 which action counts one point. The 
 rules as to interference, playing out of 
 bounds, etc., are adapted from those 
 of foot-ball. 
 
 Baskett, James Newton, an 
 American zoologist, born in Kentucky, 
 Nov. 1, 1849; graduated at the Mis- 
 souri State University in 1872. He 
 has devoted himself to the study of 
 comparative vertebrate anatomy, with 
 ornithology as a specialty. 
 
 Basking Shark, a shark, called 
 in English also the sun fish and the 
 sail fish ; it is the largest known shark, 
 sometimes reaching 36 feet in length, 
 but it has little of the ferocity seen in 
 its immediate allies. It is called 
 basking because it has a habit of ly- 
 ing motionless on the water, as if en- 
 joying the warmth of the sun. 
 
 Basques, or Biscay ans (in their 
 own language, Euscaldunac) , a re- 
 markable race of people dwelling part- 
 ly in the S. W. corner of France, but 
 mostly in the N. of Spain adjacent to 
 the Pyrenees. They are probably de- 
 scendants of the ancient Iberi, who 
 occupied Spain before the Celts. They 
 preserve their ancient language, for- 
 mer manners, and national dances, and 
 make admirable soldiers, especially in 
 guerrilla warfare. 
 
 Bas-Relief, that is, low relief, as 
 applied to sculpture ; a representation 
 of one or more figures, raised on a flat 
 surface or background, in such a man- 
 ner, however, as that no part of them 
 shall be entirely detached from it. 
 Alto-rilievo, or high relief, is that in 
 which the figures project half of their 
 apparent circumference from the back- 
 ground. Mezzo-rilievo, or middle re- 
 lief, is a third species, between the 
 two. But, generally speaking, the
 
 BaH 
 
 first term is made to comprehend both 
 the others. 
 
 ; Buss, in music. (1) The string 
 which gives a bass sound. (2) An 
 instrument which plays the bass part ; 
 especially of the violoncello or bass- 
 viol, and the contrabasso or double 
 bass. (3) The lowest of the prin- 
 cipal human voices ; those higher in 
 pitch being, respectively, baritone, 
 tenor, alto or contralto, mezzo-soprano, 
 soprano. 
 
 Bass, the name of a number of 
 fishes of several genera, but originally 
 belonging to a genus of sea fishes of 
 the perch family, distinguished from 
 the true perches by having the tongue 
 covered by small teeth and the preoper- 
 culum smooth. 
 
 Bass, Edward, first Protestant 
 Episcopal Bishop of Massachusetts, 
 born in Dorchester, Nov. 23, 1726. 
 During the Revolution he omitted 
 from the church service all refer- 
 ence to the royal family and the 
 British Government. For this he 
 was expelled from the Society for 
 Propagating the Gospel. In 1797 
 he was consecrated Bishop of Massa- 
 chusetts, and finally also of New 
 Hampshire and Rhode Island. He 
 died in Newburyport, Mass., Sept. 10, 
 1803. 
 
 Basset, a name used with some 
 latitude in France for any very short- 
 legged dogs, but especially for various 
 breeds of sporting dogs resembling 
 (though considerably larger than) the 
 dachshund. 
 
 Bassett, James, a Canadian-Amer- 
 ican missionary, born in Glenford, 
 Ontario, Jan. 31, 1834; served as a 
 chaplain in the Union army in 1862- 
 1863 ; and afterward in 1871, he went 
 as a missionary to Persia under the 
 direction of the Presbyterian Board. 
 There he finally obtained the estab- 
 lishment of a United States legation 
 in Persia. 
 
 Bassett, John Spencer, an 
 American historian, born in Tarboro, 
 N. C., Sept. 10, 1867; Professor of 
 History in Trinity College, N. C., in 
 1900-1906, then at Smith College. 
 
 Bassia, the mohra or moho tree. 
 A large tree growing in the East 
 Indies ; it is also found in Africa. 
 The flowers have a heavy, sickening 
 swell, and an intoxicating spirit is 
 
 Bastille 
 
 distilled from them. It is the Indian 
 butter tree. 
 
 Bassora, or Bnssora, a town of 
 Asiatic T.urkey, on the W. bank of 
 the Euphrates, here called the Shat- 
 el-Arab, 56 miles from its mouth in 
 the Persian Gulf. The population, 
 once 150,000, had sunk in 1854 to 
 5,000, but the establishment of the 
 English Tigris and Euphrates Steam- 
 ship Company has altogether changed 
 the prospects of Bassora and the town 
 now probably contains at least 40,000 
 inhabitants, most of them actively en- 
 gaged in commerce. 
 
 Bass Strait, a channel beset with 
 islands, which separates Australia 
 from Tasmania, 120 miles broad, dis- 
 covered by George Bass, a surgeon in 
 the Royal navy, in 1798. 
 
 Basswood, the American lime tree 
 or linden, a tree common in North 
 America, yielding a light, soft timber. 
 
 Bastard, an illegitimate child. Ac- 
 cording to the Roman law, one born 
 out of wedlock might be legitimated by 
 subsequent marriage and acknowledg- 
 ment of his parents. The Roman law 
 has been long adopted in Scottish law, 
 and in that of some of the United 
 States. 
 
 Bastian, Adolf, a German trav- 
 eler and ethnologist, born in 1826. 
 He has travelled very extensively and 
 his numerous writings throw light on 
 almost every subject connected with 
 ethnology or anthropology, as well as 
 psychology, linguistics, non-Christian 
 religions, geography, etc. D. in 1905. 
 
 Bastian, Henry Cliarltoii, an 
 English biologist, born in Truro in 
 1837. He has been an advocate of 
 spontaneous generation. 
 
 Bastien-Lepage, Jules, a French 
 painter, born at Damvilliers, Nov. 1, 
 1848. De died at the height of his 
 fame, Dec. 10, 1884. 
 
 Bastille, properly means any 
 strong castle provided with towers, 
 but as a proper name is applied to a 
 famous castle which once existed in 
 Paris, in which State prisoners and 
 other persons arrested by lettres de 
 cachet were confined. It was founded 
 by Hugues d' Aubriot in 1369, and 
 completed by the addition of four 
 towers in 1383. The lettres de cachet 
 mentioned above were issued in the 
 name of the king, but the names of
 
 Bastion 
 
 the individuals were inserted by the 
 ministers, who were the depositaries 
 of these letters. 
 
 The invention of the lettres de 
 cachet immediately opened the door to 
 the tyranny of ministers and the in- 
 trigues of favorites, who supplied 
 themselves with these orders, in order 
 to confine individuals who had become 
 obnoxious to them. These arrests be- 
 came continually more arbitrary, and 
 men of the greatest merit were liable 
 to be imprisoned. On July 14, 1789, 
 the Bastille was surrounded by a tu- 
 multuous mob, who first attempted to 
 negotiate with the governor, Delaunay, 
 but this failing attacked the fortress. 
 For hours they continued the siege 
 .without being able to effect more than 
 an entrance into the outer court of 
 the Bastille, but at last the arrival of 
 some of the Royal Guard with a few 
 pieces of artillery forced the governor 
 to let down the second drawbridge and 
 admit the populace. The governor was 
 seized, but on the way to the Hotel de 
 Ville he was torn from his captors and 
 put to death. The next day the de- 
 struction of the Bastille, commenced. 
 A bronze column has been erected on 
 its site. The event considered by it- 
 self was of no great national impor- 
 tance, but it marked the beginning of 
 the French Revolution. 
 
 Bastion, a projecting mass of 
 earth or masonry at the angle of a 
 fortification, having two faces and 
 two flanks, and so constructed that 
 'every part of it may be defended by 
 the flank fire of some other part of the 
 fort 
 
 Basntoland, a native province and 
 British South African possession, be- 
 tween the former Orange Free State, 
 Natal, Griqualand East, and Cape 
 Colony. The Basutos belong chiefly 
 to the great stem of the Bechuanas, 
 and have made greater advances in 
 civilization than perhaps any other 
 South African race. Basutoland has 
 an area of about 10,300 square miles, 
 much of it covered with grass, and 
 there is but little wood. The climate 
 is pleasant. Capital, Maseru. 
 
 Bat, the common name of all ani- 
 mals of the class mammalia which are 
 furnished with true wings, and so are 
 capable of really flying or propelling 
 themselves in the air. Bats are now 
 generally placed by naturalists in the 
 
 Bat oh elder 
 
 order cheiroptera, although, like many 
 other animals of that great order, most 
 of them are by no means exclusively 
 
 LONG-EABED BAT. 
 
 carnivorous. Upward of 130 species 
 have been described, and there is great 
 probability that the actual number ex- 
 isting is very much greater. 
 
 Batanes, a group of small islands 
 in the extreme N. of the Philippines, 
 over which, and Cagayan, nearby, 
 American control was established in 
 March, 1900. Pop. (1903) 46,787. 
 
 Batangas, a province of Luzon, 
 Philippine Islands; on the S. W. 
 coast of the main body of Luzon; 
 area, 1,108 square miles; pop. (1903) 
 257,715, all civilized; dominant race, 
 Tagalog; capital, Batangas. It con- 
 tains 22 pueblos. 
 
 Batavia, properly the name of the 
 island occupied by the ancient Ba- 
 rtavi, became at a later date the 
 Latin name 'for Holland and the 
 whole kingdom of the Netherlands. 
 
 Batavia, village and capital of 
 Genesee county, N. Y.; on Tona- 
 wanda creek and the New York 
 Central & Hudson River and other 
 railroads; 37 miles E. of Buffalo; is 
 in a farming section; has varied in- 
 dustries; and is the seat of the State 
 Institution for the Blind and the 
 Dean Richmond Memorial Library. 
 Pop. (1910) 11.613. 
 
 Batavia, a city and seaport of Ja- 
 va, on the N. coast of the island, the 
 capital of all the Dutch East Indies, 
 founded in 1619. Its inhabitants are 
 chiefly Malay, with an admixture 
 of Chinese and a small number of Eu- 
 ropeans. Pop. (1897) 115,567. 
 
 Batchelder, Richard Napoleon, 
 an American military officer, born in 
 Lake Village, N. H., July 27, 1832;
 
 Batcheller 
 
 entered the Union army at the begin- 
 ning of the Civil War ; and was bre- 
 vetted Brigadier-General, United 
 States Volunteers, March 13, 1865; 
 became Brigadier-General and Quar- 
 termaster-General, United States 
 Army, June 26, 1890 ; and was retired 
 July 27, 1896. He was awarded a 
 Congressional medal of honor for most 
 distinguished gallantry in action dur- 
 ing the Civil War. 
 
 Batclieller, George Sherman, 
 an American jurist ; born in Batchel- 
 lerville, N. Y., July 25, 1837; grad- 
 uated at Harvard University ; was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1858 ; entered the 
 Union army at the beginning of the 
 Civil War ; was taken prisoner at 
 Harper's Ferry, and exchanged in 
 1863. In 1889 he became Assistant 
 Secretary of the United States Treas- 
 ury; in 1890, United States Minister- 
 Resident, and Consul-General to Portu- 
 gal ; and in 1897, a member of the 
 International Tribunal of Egypt 
 again. In the last year he received 
 from King Humbert the decoration of 
 the great cordon of the Order of the 
 Crown of Italy, in recognition of his 
 services as President of the Universal 
 Postal Congress which met in Wash- 
 ington in May, 1897. D. in 1908. 
 
 Bate, William Br image, an 
 
 American legislator, born near Cas- 
 talian Springs, Tenn., Oct. 7, 1826. 
 In the Civil War he rose from pri- 
 vate to the rank of Major-General 
 in the Confederate army, and was 
 three times dangerously wounded. He 
 was an Elector-at-Large for Tennes- 
 see on the Democratic ticket in 1876 ; 
 was elected Governor in 1882 and 
 a U. S. Senator, 1887, 1893, 1899. 
 He died Mar. 9, 1905. 
 
 Bateman, Kate Josephine, an 
 American actress, born in Baltimore, 
 Md., Oct. 7, 1842. About 1851 she 
 and her sister Ellen began to act, they 
 being known as the Bateman Sisters. 
 She became rich and famous, and, hav- 
 ing married George Crowe, an Eng- 
 lish physician, identified herself with 
 the management of a London theater. 
 
 Bates, Alfred E., an American 
 military officer, born in Monroe, 
 Mich., July 15, 1840; was a Briga- 
 dier-General of Volunteers in the war 
 with Spain in, 1898. 
 
 Bates 
 
 Bates, Arlo, an American author, 
 born in East Machias, Me., Dec. 16, 
 1850. He graduated from Bowdoin in 
 1876, when he engaged in literary 
 work in Boston, and afterward be- 
 came Professor of English Literature 
 in the Massachusetts Institute of 
 Technology. 
 
 Bates, Charlotte Fiske, an 
 American poet and miscellaneous 
 prose-writer, born in New York city, 
 Nov. 30, 1838. She was married in 
 1891 to Adolphe Rog6, who died in 
 1896. 
 
 Bates College, an educational in- 
 stitution at Lewiston, Me. This was 
 the first college in the East to provide 
 for the higher education of women. 
 In 1902 it had a faculty of 22, and 
 about 350 students. 
 
 Bates, Edward, an American 
 lawyer, born in Belmont, Va., Sept. 4, 
 1793. He was Attorney-General of 
 tue United States in Lincoln's first 
 administration ; and had been a candi- 
 date for the presidential nomination in 
 1860. He died in St. Louis, Mo., 
 March 25, 1869. 
 
 Bates, Harriet Leonora (Vose), 
 better known as ELEANOH PUTNAM, 
 an American, story and sketch writer, 
 wife of Arlo Bates, born in 1856 ; died 
 in 1886. 
 
 Bates, Henry Walter, an Eng- 
 lish naturalist, born in Leicester, Feb. 
 18, 1825. In 1848 he began an ex- 
 ploration of the Amazon region in 
 Brazil. He died in London, Feb. 16,- 
 1892. , 
 
 Bates, John Coalter, an Amer- 
 ican military officer, born in St. 
 Charles co., Mo., Aug. 26, 1842; edu- 
 cated at Washington University, St. 
 Louis ; entered the regular army as a 
 Lieutenant in the llth United States 
 Infantry, May 14, 1861 ; served on the 
 staff of General Meade from the battle 
 of Gettysburg to the close of the war; 
 promoted Captain, May 1, 1863; Ma- 
 jor, May 6, 1882; and Colonel of the 
 2d United States Infantry, April 25, 
 1892. On May 4, 1898, he was ap- 
 pointed a Brigadier-General of Volun- 
 teers; on July 8, was promoted Major- 
 General for his services in the Santi- 
 ago campaign ; on April 13, 1899, was 
 honorably discharged under this com- 
 mission, and on the same day was re- 
 commissioned a Brigadier-General of
 
 Bates 
 
 Baton 
 
 Volunteers. In February, 1899, he 
 was appointed Military Governor of 
 the province of Santa Clara, Cuba, 
 and in April following, was ordered to 
 duty in the Philippines, where he sev- 
 eral times greatly distinguished him- 
 self in the latter part of that year and 
 the early part of 1900. In March, 
 1900, he was assigned to the com- 
 mand of the department of Southern 
 Luzon ; was promoted Major-General, 
 U. S. A., June 9, 1902, and Feb. 1, 
 1906, was promoted Chief of Staff and 
 Lieutenant-General. 
 
 Bates, Joshua, an American finan- 
 cier, born in Weymouth, Mass., in 
 1788. Mr. Bates was the principal 
 founder of the Boston Public Library, 
 and in 1852, the first year of its ex- 
 istence, he made it a gift of $50,000, 
 and later gave it 30,000 volumes. 
 Died in London, Sept. 24, 1864. 
 
 Bates, Katharine Lee, an Amer- 
 ican story writer, poet, and educator, 
 born in Falmouth, Mass., Aug. 12, 
 1859 ; was called to the chair of Eng- 
 lish Literature in Wellesley College 
 in 1891 ; has edited collections of bal- 
 lads, etc. ; and written juvenile stories. 
 
 Bates, Samuel Peniiiman, an 
 American historian, born "in Mendon, 
 Mass., Jan. 29, 1827. He was State 
 Historian of Pennsylvania, 1866-1873. 
 
 Batfish, a fish found in the waters 
 of Florida and the West Indies ; noted 
 for its peculiar shape. Its ventral 
 and pectoral fins resemble the legs of 
 a frog. 
 
 Bath, Order of the, in heraldry, 
 etc., an order of knighthood, so called 
 because the recipients of the honor 
 were required formerly to bathe the 
 evening before their creation. It was 
 instituted by Henry IV. in 1399, and, 
 falling into disuse, was revived by 
 George I. in 1725. 
 
 Bath Chair, a small carriage or 
 chair on wheels, drawn by a chairman, 
 and intended for the conveyance of in- 
 valids or others for short distances. 
 
 Bathometer, an instrument for 
 measuring the depth of sea beneath a 
 vessel without casting a line. 
 
 Bathori, a Hungarian family, 
 which gave Transylvania five princes, 
 and Poland one of its greatest kings. 
 
 Bathori, Elizabeth, niece of 
 Stephen, King of Poland, and wife of 
 
 Count Nadasdy, of Hungary ; a histor- 
 ical monster. By means of large 
 bribes, she induced an old man servant 
 and two female servants to kidnap 
 and convey to her, either by stratagem 
 or force, young girls from the neigh- 
 boring country, whom she slowly put 
 to death in the dungeons of her castle 
 by the most horrible tortures. In- 
 quiry was at length made into the ap- 
 palling rumors, when it was discover- 
 ed that this female fiend had murdered 
 in cold blood, not fewer than 650 
 maidens. The domestics who assisted 
 her were either beheaded or burned 
 alive. The Countess, who merited cer- 
 tainly the greater punishment, died 
 quietly in 1614, in her fortress of Esej, 
 where she had been confined for life. 
 
 Bath-sheba, the wife of Uriah. 
 David caused her husband to be slain, 
 and afterward took her to wife. These 
 sins displeased Jehovah, who sent the 
 prophet Nathan to David, with the 
 parable of the ewe lamb. David bit- 
 terly repented, but yet was punished. 
 Bath-sheba was the mother of Solo- 
 mon, whose succession to the throne 
 she took pains to secure. 
 
 COLLAR AND BADGE, ORDER OF BATH. 
 
 Baton, a short staff or truncheon, 
 in some cases used as an official badge, 
 as that of a field marshal. The con- 
 ductor of an orchestra has a baton 
 for the purpose of directing the per-
 
 Baton Rouge 
 
 formers as to time, etc. In heraldry 
 the bastard bar is a baton sinister. 
 
 Baton Rouge, city and capital of 
 the State of Louisiana and of East 
 Baton Rouge parish; on the Missis- 
 sippi river and several railroads; 89 
 miles N. W. of New Orleans; built 
 on a bluff commanding a fine view 
 of its environment. Besides the State 
 Capitol, it contains the State Uni- 
 versity, State Penitentiary, State 
 Asylums for the Deaf, Dumb, and 
 Blind, insane asylum, and many 
 charitable institutions. It was the 
 State capital in 1847-1864 and since 
 1880. The State ordinance of seces- 
 sion was adopted here in 1861, and 
 the city was held by Federal troops 
 in 1862-65. Pop. (1910) 14,897. 
 
 Batoum, or Batum, a Russian 
 port on the E. coast of the Black Sea. 
 
 Battering Ram, an ancient niili- 
 nry contrivance used for battering 
 down walls. It existed among the 
 Assyrians, the Greeks, and the Ro- 
 mans. It consisted of a pole or 
 beam of wood, sometimes as much 
 as 80, 100, or even 120 feet in 
 length. It was suspended by its ex- 
 tremities from a single point, or from 
 two points in another beam above, 
 which lay horizontally across two 
 
 BATTEBING RAM. 
 
 posts. When at rest it was level, like 
 the beam above it. When put in ac- 
 tion against a wall, it was swung hori- 
 zontally by men who succeeded each 
 other in constant relays, the blow 
 which it gave to the masonry at each 
 
 Battle 
 
 vibration being rendered all the more 
 effective that one end of it was armed 
 with iron. 
 
 Battery, in law, the unlawful 
 beating of another, or even the touch- 
 ing him with hostile intent. In mil- 
 itary usage, a certain number of artil- 
 lerymen united under the command of 
 a field officer, and the lowest tacti- 
 cal unit in the artillery. In a bat- 
 tery there are gunners who work the 
 guns, and drivers who drive the horses 
 by which these guns are transported 
 from place to place. Batteries are 
 usually distinguished as horse, field, 
 and garrison, 
 
 Batthyanyi, one of the oldest and 
 most powerful of the noble families 
 of Hungary, which traces its origin 
 as far back as the invasion of Pan- 
 nonia by the Magyars, in 884 A. p., 
 and has given to Hungary many dis- 
 tinguished warriors, statesmen, and 
 churchmen. 
 
 Battle, a town in Sussex, Eng- 
 land, 6 miles N. W. of Hastings. An 
 uninhabited heathland then, Senlac 
 by name, it received its present name 
 from the battle of Hastings, fought 
 here on Oct. 14, 1066, which won 
 England fflr the Normans. 
 
 Battle, Cullen Andrews, an 
 American military officer ; born in 
 Powelton, Ga. ; June 1, 1829. At the 
 outbreak of the Civil War he enter- 
 ed the Confederate army, and during 
 the war was wounded seven times, 
 promoted Brigadier-General on the 
 field of Gettysburg, and Major-Gen- 
 eral in October, 1864. After the war 
 he devoted most of his time to jour- 
 nalism in Newbern, N. C. D. in 1905. 
 
 Battle, Kemp Plummer, an 
 American educator; born in Frank- 
 lin Co., N. C., Dec. 19, 1831; grad- 
 uated at the University of North Car- 
 olina in 1849; was a member of the 
 State Convention of North Carolina 
 in 1861 that passed the ordinance of 
 secession ; State Treasurer, 1866- 
 1868 ; president of the University of 
 North Carolina, in 1876-1891; and 
 afterward Professor of History there. 
 
 Battle, Lorenzo, an Uruguayan 
 military officer ; born in Montevideo, 
 in 1812. He was minister of war in 
 1866^1868; and president of the re- 
 public in 1868-1872, when he resigned 
 and resumed military service.
 
 Battle 
 
 Bauxite 
 
 Battle, Trial by, or Wager of 
 
 (originally battel), an old method of 
 deciding disputes by personal combat. 
 
 Battle Creek, a city in Calhoun 
 county, Mich.; on the Kalamazoo 
 river and the Michigan Central and 
 other railroads; 45 miles S. W. of 
 Lansing; is largely engaged in man- 
 ufacturing, producing, among other 
 commodities, a vast amount of break- 
 fast and health foods. It is the seat 
 of Battle Oeek College (Adv.), and 
 one of the largest sanitaria in the 
 country. Pop. (1910) 25,267. 
 
 Battle-Ground, a town in Tip- 
 pecanoe co., Ind., where the famous 
 battle of Tippecanoe was fought be- 
 tween the United States troops under 
 General Harrison and the Indians un- 
 der Tecumseh and his brother, "The 
 Prophet," on Nov. 7, 1811. 
 
 Battlement. (1) A wall or ram- 
 part built around the top of a fortified 
 building, with interstices or embra- 
 sures to discharge arrows or darts, or 
 fire guns through. (2) A similar erec- 
 tion around the roofs of churches and 
 other Gothic buildings, where the ob- 
 ject was principally ornamental. They 
 are found not only upon parapets, but 
 as ornaments on the transoms of win- 
 dows, etc. (3) A wall built around a 
 flat-roofed house, in the East and else- 
 where, to prevent any one from falling 
 into the street, area, or garden. 
 
 Battleship, a warship of the 
 heaviest class, designed for fighting in 
 line of battle. Her armor is the least 
 vulnerable, her guns are the heaviest, 
 and the qualities of the cruiser and 
 armored cruiser are subordinated to 
 protection and armament. Among 
 notable modern battleships are the U. 
 S. vessels " So. Carolina " and " Mich- 
 igan ; " the British " King Edward," 
 "Lord Kelson," and "Dreadnought;" 
 the Japanese " Katori " and " Ka- 
 shima." See DREADXAUGHTS. 
 
 Batnm, or Batonm, a port on the 
 east const of the Black Sea, acquired 
 by Russia by the Treaty of Berlin, on 
 condition that its fortifications were 
 dismantled and it were thrown open 
 as a free port. It rapidly grew to be 
 the main outlet for Transcaucasia, in- 
 cluding the traffic in petroleum, im- 
 mense quantities of which are shipped ; 
 its harbor was enlarged for alleged 
 commercial reasons ; an arsenal was 
 
 E 15. 
 
 built outside it ; it was connected by a 
 military road with Kars ; and finally, 
 in July, 1886, the Russian govern- 
 ment declared it to be a free port no 
 longer. Its importance as a naval and 
 military station to Russia is unques- 
 tionably great, and it will probably 
 rank as one of the strongest positions 
 on the Black Sea. The water is of 
 great depth close inshore, and the ship- 
 ping lies under protection of the over- 
 hanging cliffs of the Gouriel Moun- 
 tains. Pop. over 30,000. 
 
 Baudelaire, Charles, a French 
 poet, born April 9, 1821; died 1867. 
 He was the herald, if not the founder 
 of the so called decadent school of 
 French literature. He seems to have 
 striven to be as offensive as possible 
 in the expression of his peculiar views 
 of life, nature and God, yet his work 
 will live because of its wonderful tech- 
 nique, which is not equalled in French 
 poetry. 
 
 Baudry, Paul, a French painter, 
 born Nov. 7, 1828, at La Roche-sur- 
 Yon ; died Jan. 17, 1886. 
 
 Bauer, Wilhelm, a German in- 
 ventor, born in Dillingen, in 1822. He 
 served as an artilleryman during the 
 Schleswig-Holstein War (1866), and, 
 meanwhile, conceived the plan of a 
 submarine vessel for coast defense. 
 It was subsequently adopted by Russia. 
 He afterward made improvements in 
 torpedoes. He died in 1875. 
 
 Banernfeld, Ednard von, an 
 Austrian dramatist, born in Vienna, 
 Jan. 13, 1802 ; died Aug. 9, 1890. 
 
 Baum, Friedricn, a German mili- 
 tary officer in the British service in 
 the Revolutionary War. He arrived in 
 Canada in 1776, and in Burgoyne's 
 expedition acte,d as Lieutenant-Colonel 
 of the Brunswick dragoons. He was 
 sent out with 800 men and two pieces 
 of artillery on a foraging expedition. 
 Near Bennington, Vt., he was attack- 
 ed by the New Hampshire militia un- 
 der Stark, and utterly defeated. He 
 himself was killed Aug. 16, 1777. 
 
 Bauxite, a mineral occurring in 
 round, concretionary, disseminated 
 grains; found extensively in France 
 and other parts of Europe, and in the 
 United States, principally in Alabama 
 and Georgia. The purest bauxite is 
 called aluminum ore, because com- 
 mercial aluminum is made from it.
 
 Bansset 
 
 Bausset, Louis Francois, Car- 
 dinal, born in Pondiccherry, India, 
 Dec. 14, 1748. His father, who held 
 an important position in the French 
 Indies, sent young Bausset to France 
 when he was but 12 years of age. He 
 was educated by the Jesuits, and be- 
 came bishop of Alais in 1784. After the 
 restoration of Louis XVIII., in 1815, 
 he entered the Chamber of Peers ; the 
 following year he became a member of 
 the French Academy; and, in 1817, 
 he received the appointment of Cardi- 
 nal. He died in Paris, June 21, 1824. 
 
 Bantain, Louis Eugene Marie, 
 a French philosopher, born in Paris, 
 Feb. 17, 1796; died Oct. 18, 1867. 
 
 Bavaria, a kingdom of Central 
 Europe, in the S. of Germany, com- 
 posed of two isolated portions of un- 
 equal size. Bavaria is estimated to 
 contain an area of 29,286 English 
 square miles, and is divided into eight 
 circles (kreise). The total population 
 in 1900 was 6,175,153. 
 
 Bavaria is one of the most favored 
 countries in Germany, in respect of 
 the fruitfulness of its soil. In the 
 plains and valleys the soil is capable 
 of producing all kinds of crops. The 
 forests of Bavaria, composed chiefly of 
 fir and pine trees, cover nearly a third 
 of its entire surface, and yield a large 
 revenue to the State; much timber 
 being annually exported, together with 
 potashes, tar, turpentine, and other 
 products peculiar to these wooded re- 
 gions. The principal mineral products 
 are salt, coal, and iron. Some of the 
 mining works belong to .the State, and 
 contribute something to the public rev- 
 enue; but the minerals are not 
 wrought to the extent they might be. 
 In the rearing of cattle and sheep the 
 Bavarians are somewhat backward. 
 Swine are reared in great numbers in 
 all parts of the country, and poultry 
 and wild fowl are abundant. The 
 wolves and bears, with which the for- 
 ests of Bavaria were at one time in- 
 fested, are nearly extinct. 
 
 The manufactures of Bavaria are 
 singly not very important, being most- 
 ly on a small scale, and conducted by 
 individuals of limited capital. The 
 principal articles manufactured are 
 linens, woolens, cottons, silks, leather, 
 paper, glass, earthen and iron and 
 steel ware, jewelry, etc., but the sup- 
 ply of some of these articles is made- 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 quate to the home consumption. Of 
 leather, paper, glass, and ironware, 
 rather large quantities are exported. 
 The optical and mathematical instru- 
 ments made at Munich are the best on 
 the Continent, and are prized accord- 
 ingly. But the most important branch 
 of manufacture in Bavaria is the 
 brewing of beer the universal and 
 favorite beverage of the country. 
 
 There are over 7,400 schools in Ba- 
 varia, attended by more than 830,000 
 pupils. Attendance at school is com- 
 pulsory up to 14 years of age. There 
 are three universities in Bavaria 
 two of which (Munich andWurzburg) 
 are Roman Catholic, and one (Erlan- 
 gen) Protestant. The capital, Munich, 
 contains a library of 800,000 volumes, 
 including 25,000 MSS. ; several scien- 
 tific and literary institutions, acade- 
 mies, and national societies, and ex- 
 tensive collections of works of art. 
 
 The religion of the State is Roman 
 Catholicism, which embraces more 
 than 70 per cent, of the population. 
 The Protestants number about 21 per 
 cent. ; the Hebrews 1 per cent., the re- 
 mainder being Mennonites, etc. 
 
 Bavaria was formerly a member of 
 the Germanic Confederation, and now 
 forms part of the German empire. The 
 executive is in the hands of the king. 
 The legislature consists of two cham- 
 bers one of senators, and one of 
 deputies ; the former composed of 
 princes of the royal family, the great 
 officers c-f the State, the two arch- 
 bishops, the heads of certain noble 
 families, a bishop named by the king, 
 the president of the Protestant Gen- 
 eral Consistory, and any other mem- 
 bers whom the king may create hered- 
 itary peers; the latter, of members 
 chosen indirectly, one to every 31,500 
 persons of the total population. 
 
 In 1805 Bavaria was raised, by the 
 treaty of Presburg to the rank of a 
 kingdom, with some further accessions 
 of territory, all of which were con- 
 firmed by the treaties of 1814 and 
 1815. In the war of 1866 Bavaria 
 sided with Austria, in consequence of 
 which it was obliged, by the treaty of 
 August 22 in the same year, to cede 
 a small portion of its territory to 
 Prussia, and to pay a war indemnity 
 of 30,000,000 florins. Soon after Ba- 
 vaia entered into an alliance with 
 Prussia, and in 1867 joined the Zoll-
 
 Baz 
 
 verein under Prussian regulations. In 
 the Franco-German War of 1870-1871 
 Bavaria took a prominent part, and 
 since 1871 it has been one of the con- 
 stituent States of the German empire, 
 represented in the Bundesrath by ; 
 in the Reichstag by 48 members. In 
 1SS6 King Louis II. committed suicide 
 from alienation of mind. His brother 
 Otto succeeded, but he being also in- 
 sane, his uncle Luitpold became re- 
 gent. 
 
 Bax, Ernest Belfort, an Eng- 
 lish socialist ; born in Leamington, 
 July 23, 1854. He wrote a large num- 
 ber of works on socialistic and his- 
 torical subjects. 
 
 Baxter, Richard, an English 
 Nonconformist preacher and theologi- 
 cal writer; born in Shropshire in 
 1015. He early entered the Church, 
 and, taking sides with the Parliamen- 
 tary party, became chaplain to one of 
 the regiments of the Commonwealth. 
 But, either his Republican opinions 
 were offensively prominent or his 
 enemies took advantage of his public 
 preaching to denounce him ; for, after 
 enduring much persecution, he, then 
 70 years old, was brought before Judge 
 Jeffreys, who abused him in C9urt, 
 and fined him 500, with imprison- 
 ment till paid. Baxter was a prolific 
 writer, a large portion of his works 
 being polemical and now little read. 
 He died Dec. 8, 1G91. 
 
 Baxter, William, an American 
 clergyman and author, born at Leeds, 
 England, in 1820. President of Ar- 
 kansas College, Fayetteville ; when it 
 was burned in the Civil War, he re- 
 moved to Cincinnati. 
 
 Bay, an arm or inlet of the sea 
 extending into the land, with a wider 
 mouth proportionally than a gulf. 
 
 Bay, a berry, and especially one 
 from some species of the laurel ; also 
 the English name of the laurus nobilis. 
 A fine tree, with deep green foliage 
 and a profusion of dark purple or 
 black berries. . 
 
 Bayadere, a name originally given 
 by the Portuguese to the singing and 
 dancing girls of Hindustan. They are 
 of two kinds those who are em- 
 ployed as priestesses in the temples, 
 and those who go about the country 
 as itinerants. The former class cele- 
 brate with song and dance the festi- 
 
 Bay City 
 
 vals of the gods ; the latter are em- 
 ployed by the grandees of India to 
 amuse and cheer them at their ban- 
 quets. 
 
 Bayamo, or San Salvador, a 
 town in the interior of the E. part of 
 the island of Cuba, situated in a fer- 
 tile and healthy district on the north- 
 ern slope of the Sierra Maestra. It is 
 connected by a railway with'Manzan- 
 illa. 
 
 Bayard, or more properly Bayart, 
 Pierre du Terrail, Chevalier de, 
 called the " knight without fear and 
 without reproach " ; born in 1476, in 
 the castle of Bayard, near Grenoble, 
 was one of the most spotless charac- 
 ters of the Middle Ages. He was sim- 
 ple and modest ; a true friend and 
 tender lover ; pious, humane, and mag- 
 nanimous. He died April 30, 1524. 
 
 Bayard, Thomas Francis, an 
 American statesman and diplomatist, 
 born in Wilmington, Del., Oct. 29, 
 1828. He was admitted to the bar 
 in 1851 and practiced law until 1868, 
 when he succeeded his father, James 
 A. Bayard, iu the United States 
 Senate. In the Democratic National 
 Convention of 1872 he received 15 
 votes for the presidential nomination, 
 and in 1880 and 1884 his name was 
 voted on in the National conventions. 
 In 1885 Mr. Bayard was chosen Sec- 
 retary of State, and in 1892, .was ap- 
 pointed United States Ambassador to 
 the Court of St. James, being the 
 first to bear that title. Mr. Bayard 
 filled this office with high honor to 
 himself and his country. During his 
 official residence in London he was 
 the recipient of marked attentions, 
 and by his public utterances and his 
 engaging personality promoted the 
 best feeling in both social and govern- 
 ment circles. He died in Dedham, 
 Mass., Sept. 28, 1898. 
 
 Bay City, city and capital of Bay 
 county, Mich., on the Saginaw river 
 and several railroads; 13 miles N. of 
 Saginaw; includes since 1905 the 
 former city of West Bay City, on 
 the opposite side of the river. The 
 city is a port of entry; is in a rich 
 farming section; and is engaged in 
 manufacturing, the salt industry, the 
 fisheries, and the cultivation of beet 
 sugar and chicory. Pop. (1910) 
 45,160.
 
 Bayeux 
 
 Baycux, an ancient city of Nor- 
 mandy, in the French Department of 
 Calvados, on the Aure. The Gothic 
 cathedral the oldest, it is said, in 
 Normandy was rebuilt after a fire 
 by William the Conqueror, in 1077; 
 but the present edifice dates mainly 
 from 1106 to the 13th century. 
 
 Bay ens Tapestry, a celebrated 
 roll of linen cloth or canvas, 214 feet 
 in length and 20 inches wide, contain- 
 ing, in 72 distinct compartments, a 
 representation, in embroidery, of the 
 events of the Norman invasion of Eng- 
 land, from Harold's leave-taking of 
 Edward the Confessor, on his depart- 
 ure for Normandy, to the battle of 
 Hastings. It contains the figures of 
 623 men, 202 horses, 55 dogs, 505 ani- 
 mals of various kinds not hitherto 
 enumerated, 37 buildings, 41 ships and 
 boats, and 49 trees in all 1,512 fig- 
 ures. These are all executed by the 
 needle, and are believed to have been 
 the handiwork of Matilda, the queen 
 of William the Conqueror, and by her 
 presented to the Cathedral of Bayeux. 
 This piece of tapestry is exceedingly 
 valuable, both as a work of art of the 
 period referred to, and as correctly 
 representing the costume of the time. 
 It has been engraved, and several 
 works upon the subject have been pub- 
 lished. 
 
 Bay Islands, a small group in the 
 Bay of Honduras, 150 miles S. E. of 
 Balize. The cluster was proclaimed a 
 British colony in 1852, but in 1859 
 they were ceded to the Republic of 
 Honduras. 
 
 Bayle, Pierre, French critic and 
 miscellaneous writer, the son of a Cal- 
 vinist preacher, born at Carlat (Lan- 
 guedoc) in 1647, died at Rotterdam 
 1706. His chief work is a Dictionary 
 of History and Criticism, which he 
 first published in 1696. This work, 
 much enlarged, has passed through 
 many editions. It is a vast store- 
 house of facts, discussions, and opin- 
 ions, and though it was publicly cen- 
 sured by the Rotterdam consistory for 
 its frequent impurities, its pervading 
 scepticism, and tacit atheism, it long 
 remained a favorite book both with 
 literary men and with men of the 
 world. The articles in his dictionary, 
 in themselves, are generally of little 
 value, and serve only as a pretext for 
 
 Bayonet 
 
 the notes, in which the author dis- 
 plays, at the same time, his learning 
 and the power of his logic. 
 
 Bayley, James Roosevelt, an 
 American theologian, born in New 
 York city, Aug. 23, 1814; studied at 
 Trinity College, Hartford, and became 
 minister of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church; but, in 1842, was converted 
 t the Roman Catholic faith; and, af- 
 ter studying at Paris and Rome, be- 
 came a priest in 1844. After serving 
 as secretary to Archbishop Hughes, he 
 was consecrated the first Bishop of 
 Newark, N. J., in 1853. In 1872 he 
 became Archbishop of Baltimore, Md. 
 He was the founder of Seton Hall 
 College and several other institutions. 
 He died in Newark, N. J., Oct. 3,1877. 
 
 Bayley, "William Shirley, an 
 American geologist, born in Baltimore, 
 Md., Nov. 10, 1861; graduated at 
 Johns Hopkins, in 1883; since 1887 
 has been Assistant Geologist of the 
 Lake Superior division of the United 
 States Geological Survey, and since 
 1886 associate editor of the " Ameri- 
 can Naturalist." 
 
 Baylor University, a coeduca- 
 tional institution in W T aco, Tex. ; now 
 under the auspices of the Baptist 
 Church. 
 
 Bayly, Ada Ellen, an English 
 novelist, best known as EDNA LYALL. 
 
 Bayly, Thomas Haynes, an Eng- 
 lish song-writer and author ; born in 
 Bath, Oct. 13, 1797. After deserting 
 successively both law and church, Bay- 
 ly, during a short sojourn in Dublin, 
 first discovered his powers as a ballad 
 writer and achieved his earliest suc- 
 cesses. He died April 22, 1839. 
 
 Baynes, Thomas Spencer, an 
 English editor, born in Wellington, 
 Somerset, in 1823. He studied under 
 Sir William Hamilton at Edinburgh, 
 and in 1864 he was appointed to the 
 Chair of Logic, Rhetoric, and Meta- 
 physics in St. Andrews University, a 
 post he held till his death, in London, 
 in 1887. 
 
 Bayonet, a straight sharp-point- 
 ed weapon, generally triangular, in' 
 tended to be fixed upon the muzzle of 
 a rifle or musket, which is thus trans' 
 formed into a thrusting weapon. It 
 was probably invented about 1640, in 
 Bayonne (though this is doubtful), 
 but was not universally introduced
 
 Bayomie 
 
 until after the pike was wholly laid 
 aside, in the beginning of the 18th cen- 
 tury. About 1690 the bayonet began 
 to be fastened by means of a socket 
 to the outside of the barrel, instead of 
 being inserted as formerly in the in- 
 side. A variety of the bayonet, called 
 the sword bayonet, is widely used. 
 
 Bayonne, a city in Hudson county, 
 N. J.; on New York harbor. Newark 
 bay, and the Central Railroad of 
 New Jersey; 7 miles S. W. of New 
 York city; is principally engaged in 
 shipping coal and refining petroleum; 
 and has a fine residential section. 
 Pop. (1910) 55,545. 
 
 Bayonne Conference, a confer- 
 ence held at Bayonne, in June, 1565, 
 between Charles IX. of France, the 
 queen mother, Catherine de Medicis, 
 Elizabeth, Queen of Spain, and the 
 Duke of Alva, envoy of Philip II., to 
 arrange plans for the repression of the 
 Huguenots. It is generally believed 
 that the massacre of St. Bartholo- 
 mew's Day was determined upon at 
 this meeting. 
 
 Bayonne, Treaty of, a treaty of 
 peace agreed to May 4, 1808, and 
 signed on the next day, between Na- 
 poleon I. and Charles IV., King of 
 Spain. The latter resigned his king- 
 dom, and Napoleon I. engaged to main- 
 tain its integrity, and to preserve the 
 Roman Catholic religion. His son, 
 Ferdinand VII., confirmed the cession 
 May 10. 
 
 Bayrenth. See BEYBOTTT. 
 
 Bayrhoffer, Karl Theodore, a 
 German Hegelian philosopher, and 
 radical politiciam, born in Marburg in 
 1812, was Professor of Philosophy 
 there, taking the chair in 1845. In 
 1846 his radical views caused his ex- 
 pulsion. During the brief rule of lib- 
 eralism in Hesse, he was chosen pres- 
 ident of the Chamber; but, in 1853, 
 he was forced to flee to the United 
 States. He died in Jordan, Wis., Feb. 
 3, 1888. 
 
 Bay Rum, an aromatic, spirituous 
 liquid, used by hair dressers and per- 
 fumers, prepared in the West Indies 
 by distilling rum in which bay leaves 
 have been steeped. 
 
 Bay Salt, a general term for 
 coarse grained salt, but properly ap- 
 plied to salt obtained by spontaneous 
 
 Baztan 
 
 or natural evaporation of sea water 
 in large shallow tanks or bays. 
 
 Bay Window, a window projecting 
 beyond the line of the front of a 
 house, generally either in a semi-hex- 
 agon or semi-octagon. 
 
 Bazaine, Francois, Acliille, a 
 French military officer, born in Ver- 
 sailles, Feb. 13, 1811. He served in 
 Algeria, in Spain against the Carlists, 
 in the Crimean War, and joined the 
 Mexican expedition as general of di- 
 vision, in 1862, and, in 1864, was 
 made a marshal of France. He com- 
 manded the 3d Army Corps in the 
 Franco-Prussian War, when he capit- 
 ulated at Metz, after a seven weeks' 
 siege, with an army of 175,000 men. 
 For this act he was tried by court- 
 martial in 1871, found guilty of trea- 
 son and condemned to death. This 
 sentence was commuted to 20 years' 
 seclusion in the Isle St. Marguerite, 
 from which he escaped and retired to 
 Spain. He died in Madrid, Sept. 23, 
 1888. His widow, who had clung 
 faithfully to him in his adversity, and 
 had plotted successfully for his escape, 
 died in Mexico City, Jan. 8, 1900. 
 She was a woman of aristocratic birth 
 and much beauty. 
 
 Bazan, Emilia Pardo, a Span- 
 ish author, born in Coruna, in 1852; 
 published works on history and phil- 
 osophy, and was the author of " Stud- 
 ies in Darwinism," " Saint Francis of 
 Assisi," and many novels. These, 
 translated into English, have become 
 very popular. 
 
 Bazar, an exchange ; a market 
 place; a place where goods are ex- 
 posed for sale. Bazar is a term orig- 
 inally derived from the Arabic, and 
 literally signifies the sale or exchange 
 of goods. The name has of late years 
 been adopted in many American and 
 European cities, and is applied to 
 places for the sale of fancy goods, etc. 
 
 Baztau, or Bastan, a Pyrenean 
 valley in the extreme N. of Spain ; 
 having a length of 9 miles, and an 
 average breadth of 4 miles. It is in- 
 habited by about 8,000 people, who 
 form, under Spanish supervision, a 
 sort of diminutive republic, at the 
 head of which is the mayor of Elizon- 
 do. The citizens of this republic rank 
 with the Spanish nobility and hold 
 special privileges, which were granted
 
 Bdellium 
 
 them for former services to the Span- 
 ish crown. 
 
 Bdellium, in Scripture, is in He- 
 brew bedholachh, rendered in the Sep- 
 tuagint of Gen. ii : 12, anthrax ( lit- 
 erally, burning coal). Some modern 
 writers, following the Septuagint 
 translation, make it a mineral, as are 
 the gold and the onyx stone, with 
 which it is associated in Gen. ii : 12. 
 Others think that it was the gum de- 
 scribed below ; while the Rabbins, Bo- 
 chart, and Gesenius consider that it 
 was a pearl, or pearls. 
 
 Beach, Alfred Ely, an American 
 publisher and inventor, born in Spring- 
 field, Mass., in 1826; son of Moses 
 Yale Beach, editor of the old New 
 York " Sun." In 1846 he established 
 the " Scientific American," in connec- 
 tion with Orson D. Munn. For nearly 
 50 years he was editor of this paper 
 and director of its patent business. He 
 died in New York city, Jan. 1, 1896. 
 
 Beach, Amy Marcy Cheney, an 
 American composer, and one of the 
 chief of the few women who are dis- 
 tinguished as creative musicians. She 
 was born in New Hampshire, Sept. 5, 
 1867. Her most important works are 
 "The Gaelic Symphony," for full or- 
 chestra, a "Jubilate," written for the 
 dedication of the Woman's Building at 
 the Chicago Exposition, and a cyclus 
 of fourteen songs. 
 
 Beach, Moses Yale, an American 
 publisher and inventor, born 1800; 
 died 1868. He became owner of the 
 New York " Sun " three years after its 
 establishment. His inventions relate 
 to the manufacture of paper, and in- 
 clude a rag-cutting machine. 
 
 Beaconsfield, Benjamin Dis- 
 raeli, Earl of, an English states- 
 man and author ; born in London, 
 England, Dec. 21, 1804 ; the eldest son 
 of Isaac D'Israeli, the well-known au- 
 thor of the " Curiosities of Litera- 
 ture " ; his mother also being of Jew- 
 ish race. Little is known of his early 
 education, though it is certain he 
 never attended a public school or a 
 university. In 1817 he was baptized 
 into the Church of England. He ac- 
 quired a good reputation as an author, 
 and sought eminence in politics. 
 
 His first appointment to office was 
 in 1852, when he became chancellor of 
 the exchequer under Lord Derby. In 
 
 Beale 
 
 February, 1868, he reached the 
 summit of his ambition, becoming 
 premier on the resignation of Lord 
 Derby, but being in a minority 
 after the general election he had 
 to give up office the following Decem- 
 ber. In 1874 he again became prime 
 minister with a strong Conservative 
 majority, and he remained in power 
 for six years. This period was marked 
 by his elevation to the peerage in 
 1876 as Earl of Beaconsfield, and by 
 the prominent part he took in regard 
 to the Eastern question and the con- 
 clusion of the treaty of Berlin in 
 1878, when he visited the German 
 capital. 
 
 In the spring of 1880 Parliament 
 was " rather suddenly dissolved, and 
 the new Parliament showing an over- 
 whelming Liberal majority, he re- 
 signed office, though he still retained 
 the leadership of his party. Not long 
 after this, the publication of a novel 
 called " Endymion " (his last, " Lo- 
 thair," had been published 10 years 
 before) showed that his intellect was 
 still vigorous. His physical powers, 
 however, were now giving way, and 
 he died April 19, 1881, after an ill- 
 ness of some weeks' duration. His 
 wife had died in 1872 after having 
 been created Viscountess Beaconsfield. 
 
 Bead Snake, a beautiful little 
 snake, variegated with yellow, car- 
 mine, and jet black. Though venom- 
 ous, it rarely uses its fangs. It is 
 about two feet long. 
 
 Beagle, a. small hunting dog. 
 
 Beagle Island, an island discov- 
 ered by Admiral Fitzroy, during a 
 voyage in the " Beagle, to survey 
 Patagonia, in 1828-1834. The chan- 
 nel of the same name is on the S. side 
 of the Island of Tierra del Fuego. 
 
 Beal, George Lafayette, an 
 American military officer, born in Nor- 
 way, Me., May 21, 1825. When the 
 Civil War broke out, he was captain 
 of the Norway Light Infantry. On 
 Jan. 15, 1866, he was mustered out of 
 service with the brevet of Major-Gen- 
 eral of Volunteers. In 1880-1885 he 
 was adjutant-general of Maine, and 
 in 1888-1894, State treasurer. He 
 died in Norway, Me., Dec. 11, 1896. 
 
 Beale, Edward Fitzgerald, an 
 American diplomatist, born in Wash- 
 ington, D. C., Feb. 4, 1822 ; graduated,
 
 Beale 
 
 Bean 
 
 at the United States Naval Academy 
 in 1842, and at the beginning of the 
 Mexican War was assigned to duty in 
 California, under Commodore Stock- 
 ton. After the war, he resigned his 
 naval commission and was appointed 
 Superintendent of Indian Affairs for 
 California and New Mexico. He was 
 commissioned a Brigadier-General in 
 the army by President Pierce. He 
 served in the Union army in the Civil 
 War, and at its close engaged in stock 
 raising in Los Angeles, Cal., till 1876, 
 when President Grant appointed him 
 United States Minister to Austria. 
 He died in Washington, D. C., April 
 22, 1893. 
 
 Beale, Lionel Smith, an English 
 physiologist and microscopist, born in 
 London, Feb. 5, 1828. He is a mem- 
 ber of the Royal Medical and Chirur- 
 gical, the Microscopical, and other 
 English and foreign societies, and is 
 the author of a number of medical and 
 scientific works. 
 
 Beall, John Young, a Confeder- 
 ate guerilla, born in Virginia, Jan. 1, 
 1835 ; was appointed an acting master 
 in the Confederate naval service in 
 1863. On Sept. 19, 1864, he and a 
 number of followers were shipped on 
 the Lake Erie steamer " Philo Par- 
 sons " as passengers, and at a given 
 signal, took possession of the vessel, 
 making prisoners of the crew. They 
 also scuttled another boat, the " Isl- 
 and Queen," and tried to wreck a 
 railroad train near Buffalo, N. Y. In 
 spite of a proclamation of Jefferson 
 Davis assuming the responsibility of 
 this expedition, Beall was hanged on 
 Governor's Island, New York, Feb. 
 24, 1865, on the ground that, if act- 
 ing under orders, he should have 
 shown some badge of authority. 
 
 Beam, a long, straight and strong 
 piece of wood, iron, or steel, especially 
 when holding an important place in 
 some structure, and serving for sup- 
 port or consolidation ; often equivalent 
 to girder. In a balance it is the part 
 from the ends of which the scales are 
 suspended. In a loom it is a cylin- 
 drical piece of wood on which weavers 
 wind the warp before weaving ; also, 
 the cylinder on which the cloth is 
 rolled as it is woven. In a ship, one 
 of the strong transverse pieces stretch- 
 ing across from one side to the other 
 
 to support the decks and retain the 
 sides at their proper distance; hence, 
 a ship is said to be on her beam ends 
 when lying over on her side. 
 
 Beaming, the art of winding the 
 web on the weaver's beam in a manner 
 suitable for weaving, with regard to 
 firmness and evenness. It is to some 
 extent a special employment, followed 
 by workmen trained as beamers. 
 
 Bean, a well known cultivated 
 plant which may be primarily divided 
 into the garden bean and the field 
 bean. Of the former, there are numer- 
 ous sub-varieties. The earliest is the 
 mazagan, which is small seeded ; while 
 the largest is the Windsor. The field 
 bean runs into two leading sub-varie- 
 ties, a larger and a smaller one. The 
 navy bean is the common white bean 
 used as an article of diet. 
 
 The word is also applied to any 
 leguminous plant resembling a bean, 
 though not of the genuine genus. Such, 
 for example, as the Florida bean, 
 which is the seed, not the fruit, of a 
 West Indian plant. These seeds are 
 washed up on the Florida shore, and 
 are sometimes used as food, and some- 
 times they are polished and used as 
 ornaments. 
 
 Bean, Nehemiah S., an Ameri- 
 can mventor, born in Gilmanton, N. 
 H., in 1818 ; learned the machinist's 
 trade. In the winter of 1857-1858 he 
 built his first steam fire engine, which 
 he named the " Lawrence," and sold 
 it to the city of Boston. In 1859 he 
 took the management of the Amos- 
 keag Locomotive Works in Manches- 
 ter, where he had been employed in 
 1847-1850. During 1859 he built the 
 " Amoskeag Steam Fire Engine, No. 
 1," the first of a class of engines which 
 now is used everywhere. He died in 
 Manchester, N. H., July 20, 1896. 
 
 Bean, Tarleton Hoffman, an 
 American ichthyologist, born in Bain- 
 bridge, Pa., Oct. 8, 1846 ; graduated at 
 Columbian University in Washington, 
 in 1876. He was curator of the De- 
 partment of Fishes, United States 
 National Museum, in 1880-1895; 
 represented the United States Fish 
 Commission at the World's Colum- 
 bian Exposition in 1893, and at At- 
 lanta in 1895. Paris in 1900, and St. 
 Louis in 1904; became New York 
 State Fish Culturist in 1906.
 
 Bear 
 
 Bear, the English name of the va- 
 rious species of plantigrade mammals 
 belonging to the ursus and some neigh- 
 boring genera. The term plantigrade, 
 applied to the bears, intimates that 
 they walk on the soles of their feet; 
 not, like the digitigrade animals, on 
 their toes. Though having six incisor 
 teeth in each jaw, like the rest of the 
 carnivora, yet the tubercular crowns 
 of the molar teeth show that their food 
 is partly vegetable. They grub up 
 roots, and, when they can obtain it, 
 greedily devour honey. They hiber- 
 nate in winter. The best known spe- 
 cies is ursus arctos, the brown bear, 
 the one sometimes seen dancing to the 
 amusement o* children in the streets. 
 They are wild in this country, on the 
 continent of Europe, and in Asia. 
 The grizzly bear, black bear and Polar 
 bear are well known in menageries. 
 
 In Stock Exchange parlance, a 
 bear is one who contracts to sell on a 
 specified day Certain stock not be- 
 longing to him, at the market price 
 then prevailing, on receiving imagi- 
 nary payment for them at the rate 
 which obtains when the promise was 
 maue. It now becomes his interest 
 that the stock on which he has specu- 
 lated should fall in price ; and he is 
 tempted to effect this end by circulat- 
 ing adverse rumors regarding it ; while 
 the purchaser, called a " bull," sees it 
 to his advantage to make it rise. The 
 origin of the term is uncertain. 
 
 In astronomy, the word is applied 
 to one or other of two constellations, 
 Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, called 
 respectively the Great Bear and the 
 Little Bear. When the word Bear 
 stands alone, it signifies Ursa Major. 
 
 Beard, the hair that grows on the 
 chin, lips, and adjacent parts of the 
 face of men, and sometimes, though 
 rarely, of women. Its growth is the 
 distinctive sign of manhood. 
 
 Beard, Daniel Carter, an Amer- 
 ican artist and author, born in Cincin- 
 nati, O., June 21, 1850; first engaged 
 in civil engineering, but later stud- 
 ied art and has since _ become 
 known as a book and magazine illus- 
 trator. He founded and became teach- 
 er of the Department of Animal Draw- 
 ing in the Woman's School of Applied 
 Design, believed to be the first class 
 of this character in the world. 
 
 Bear Lake 
 
 Beard, George Miller, an Amer- 
 ican physician and hygienic writer, 
 born at Montville, Conn., May 8, 
 1839 ; made a specialty of the study of 
 stimulants and narcotics, hypnotism, 
 spiritualism, etc. He died in New 
 York, Jan. 23, 1883. 
 
 Beard, Henry, an American paint- 
 er, born in Ohio, in 1841 ; son of 
 James Henry Beard, and nephew of 
 William Holbrook Beard ; served in 
 the Union army during the Civil 
 War ; and, after his removal to New 
 York city, in 1877, was chiefly en- 
 gaged in illustrating books and period- 
 icals. He died in New York, Nov. 19, 
 1889. 
 
 Beard, James Henry, an Amer- 
 ican painter, born in Buffalo, N. Y., 
 in 18l4. In his childhood his parents 
 removed to Ohio. He became a por- 
 trait painter in Cincinnati, and paint- 
 ed the portraits of Henry Clay and 
 other distinguished men. He died in 
 Flushing, N. Y., April 4, 1893. 
 
 Beard, William Holbrook, an 
 American painter, born in Paines- 
 ville, O., April 13, 1825; brother of 
 James H. Beard ; was a traveling por- 
 trait painter from 1846 till 1851, 
 when he settled in Buffalo, N. Y. He 
 made many studies of decorative archi- 
 tecture. He died in New York city, 
 Feb. 20, 1900. 
 
 Beard Moss, a lichen of gray 
 color, forming a shaggy coat on many 
 foresj; trees. 
 
 Beardsley, Aubrey, an English 
 author and illustrator, born in Bright- 
 on, in 1874; died in Mentone, France, 
 March 16, 1898. 
 
 Beardsley, Samuel, an American 
 jurist, born in Hoosic, N. Y., Feb. 9, 
 1790. He became Associate Judge of 
 the Supreme Court of New York in 
 1844, and three years later succeeded 
 Judge Bronson as Chief Justice. On 
 his retirement he devoted himself to 
 the practice of his profession. He died 
 in Utica, N. Y., May 6, 1860. 
 
 Bearer Company, a British or- 
 ganization for removing wounded sol- 
 diers from the field of battle to the 
 dressing station or temporary hospital. 
 
 Bear Lake, Great, an extensive 
 sheet of fresh water in the Northwest 
 Territory of Canada.
 
 Bear River 
 
 Bear River, a river of the United 
 States, 400 miles long ; rises in the N. 
 of Utah, and flows N. into Idaho; 
 turns abruptly S., re-enters Utah, and 
 empties into Great Salt Lake. 
 
 Bear's Grease, the fat of bears, 
 esteemed as of great efficacy in nour- 
 ishing and promoting the growth of 
 hair. The unguents sold under this 
 name, however, are in a great measure 
 made of hog's lard or veal fat, or a 
 mixture of both, scented and slightly 
 colored. 
 
 Beast Fables, stories in which 
 animals play human parts, a widely 
 spread primitive form of literature, 
 often surviving in more or less devel- 
 oped forms in the more advanced civ- 
 ilizations. 
 
 Beat, in music, the beating or pul- 
 sation resulting from the joint vibra- 
 tions of two sounds of the same 
 strength, and all but in unison. Also 
 a short shake or transient grace-note 
 struck immediately before the note it 
 is intended to ornament. 
 
 Beatification, in general, the act 
 of rendering supremely blessed, also 
 the state of being rendered supremely 
 blessed. In a special sense an act by 
 which the Pope declares, on evidence 
 which he considers himself to possess, 
 that a certain deceased person is in 
 the enjoyment of supreme felicity in 
 Heaven. It is the first step toward 
 canonization, but it is not canoniza- 
 tion itself. 
 
 Beaton, David, Cardinal Arch- 
 bishop of St. Andrew's, Scotland, born 
 in 1494. He became Abbot of Arb- 
 roath in 1525, Lord Privy Seal three 
 years later, was sent on several mis- 
 sions to France, received a cardinal's 
 hat in 1538, and in the following year 
 became Primate. On the death of 
 James V., he, by craft and determina- 
 tion, secured to himself the chief pow- 
 er in Church and State, being named 
 Lord High Chancellor of Scotland, 
 and Papal Legate. He opposed an 
 alliance with England, and especially 
 distinguished himself as a persecutor 
 of the Reformers. The trial and burn- 
 ing of George Wishart for heresy took 
 place under his direction, and, a short 
 time afterward Beaton was assassinat- 
 ed at St. Andrew's, in May, 1546. 
 With his death, church tyranny came 
 to an end in Scotland. 
 
 Beaufort 
 
 Beattie, Francis Robert, a Ca- 
 nadian-American educator, born near 
 Guelph, Ontario, in 1848. In 1888 
 he became Professor of Apologetics in 
 the Presbyterian Theological Semin- 
 ary in Columbia, S. C., where he re- 
 mained till 1893 and then accepted 
 the Chair of Systematic Theology and 
 Apologetics in the Presbyterian Theo- 
 logical Seminary, Louisville, Ky. 
 
 Beattie, James, a Scottish poet 
 and miscellaneous writer, born at 
 Laurencekirk, Kincardineshire, Oct. 
 25, 1735. In 1765 he published a 
 poem, the " Judgment of Paris," and 
 in 1770 his celebrated " Essay on 
 Truth," for which the University of 
 Oxford conferred on him the degree of 
 LL. D. ; and George III. honored him, 
 when on a visit to London, with a 
 private conference and a pension. He 
 died in Aberdeen, Aug. 18, 1803. 
 
 Beatty, John, an American legis- 
 lator, born in Bucks county, Pa., Dec, 
 19, 1749; was educated at Princeton, 
 and took up the study of medicine 
 with Dr. Rush of Philadelphia. He 
 fought with distinction through the 
 Revolutionary War, reaching the rank 
 of Colonel ; was Delegate to the Con- 
 tinental Congress in 1783-1785; 
 Speaker of the House; served in the 
 convention which adopted the Fed- 
 eral Constitution ; was a member of 
 Congress in 1793-1795 ; and Secretary 
 of State of New Jersey in 1795-1805. 
 He died in Trenton, N. J., April 30, 
 1826. 
 
 Beatty, John, an American mili- 
 tary officer, born near Sandusky, O., 
 Sept. 16, 1828. He fought on the 
 Union side in the Civil War, rising 
 from private to Brigadier-General, 
 and showing intrepid courage at Stone 
 River, 1862-1863. He was a member 
 of Congress in 1868-1874. and Repub- 
 lican Presidential Elector-at-Large in 
 1884. 
 
 Beanchamp, Alphonse de, 
 
 French historian and publicist, born 
 at Monaco in 1767. Under the Direc- 
 tory he had the surveillance of the 
 press, a position which supplied him 
 with materials for his " History of 
 La Vendee." He died in Paris, June 
 1, 1832. 
 
 Beaufort, Margaret, an English 
 countess, born in 1441 ; daughter of 
 John, first Duke of Somerset, and
 
 Beauharnais 
 
 mother of Henry VII., King of Eng- 
 land. In the Wars of the Roses, she 
 and her son, Henry, became more or 
 less dangerous to the Yorkists and 
 were for a long time in retirement or 
 exile. Henry was attainted by a Par- 
 liament under Richard III., and Mar- 
 garet's estates forfeited. After the 
 accession of her son as Henry VII. 
 she took no part in public affairs. Her 
 life forms one of the romantic episodes 
 of English history. She was devoutly 
 religious, and founded several religious 
 institutions. 
 
 Beauiiarnais, Eugene de, Viceroy 
 of Italy, and a Prince of the French 
 Empire, son of Alexandre de Beau- 
 harnais and Josephine, born in Paris 
 in 1781. After his mother's marriage 
 to Napoleon, he, in 1796, became aide- 
 de-camp to the latter, and served with 
 distinction in the campaigns of Italy 
 and Egypt. Beauiiarnais was wound- 
 ed at Acre, contributed to the victory 
 of Marengo, was created Prince of the 
 Empire in 1805, and Viceroy of Italy. 
 In 1806, he married the Princess Ama- 
 lie Augusta, of Bavaria, and in the 
 same year was adopted by the Em- 
 peror as his son, and appointed gover- 
 nor of Lombardy and Venice. He 
 served in the campaign of 1809, de- 
 feated the Austrians at Raab, and 
 distinguished himself at Wagram. His 
 military talents were particularly 
 evinced in the retreat from Moscow, 
 and in the following campaigns of 
 1813-1814. To Beauharnais may be 
 mainly ascribed the victory of Lutzen. 
 After the fall of Napoleon, he retired 
 to Munich, was allowed, by the Treaty 
 of Fontainebleau and the Congress of 
 Vienna, to retain his extensive posses- 
 sions in Italy, and took his place as 
 Duke of Leuchtenberg among the Ba- 
 varian nobles. His children subse- 
 quently ranked as members of the im- 
 perial family of Russia. He died Feb. 
 21, 1824. 
 
 Bcauiiiarclinis, Pierre Aligns- 
 tin, Baron de, born in Paris, Jan. 
 24, 1732. He was a man of singular 
 versatility of talent, being by turns 
 politician, artist, dramatist, and mer- 
 chant. At the beginning of the Amer- 
 ican War of Independence (1777), 
 Beaumarchais entered into a specula- 
 tion for supplying the colonies with 
 arms, ammunition, etc. ; he lost sev- 
 eral vessels, three of which were taken 
 
 Beahiregard 
 
 in one day by the English cruisers in 
 coming out of the river of Bordeaux, 
 but the greater number arrived in 
 America, and inspired the colonists 
 with renewed hope. He died in Paris, 
 May 18, 1799. 
 
 Beaumont, city and capital of 
 Jefferson county, Tex.; on the Neches 
 river and the Gulf & Interstate and 
 other railroads; 30 miles N. of 
 the Gulf of Mexico; is in a region 
 abounding in petroleum and yellow 
 pine and cypress forests; raises con- 
 siderable rice; ships large quantities 
 of lumber and shingles; and has rice, 
 saw, shingle, stave, and heading 
 mills, foundry and machine shops, 
 and car works. Pop. (1910) 20,640. 
 
 Beaumont, Francis, and Fletch- 
 er, John, two eminent English dra- 
 matic writers, contemporaries of 
 Shakespeare, and the most famous 
 of literary partners. The former, sou 
 of a Common Pleas judge, was born 
 at Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, in 
 1584. At the age of 16 he published 
 a translation, in verse, of Ovid's fa- 
 ble of " Salmacis and Hermaphrodi- 
 tus," and later he became the friend 
 of Ben Jonson. With Fletcher also 
 he was early on terms of friendship. 
 He married Ursula, daughter of 
 Henry Isley, of Sundridge, in Kent, 
 by whom he left two daughters. He 
 died March 6, 1616, and was buried 
 in Westminster Abbey. JOHN FLETCH- 
 EB was born at Rye, Sussex, in De- 
 cember, 1579. His father was suc- 
 cessively Dean of Peterborough, 
 Bishop of Bristol, Worcester, and 
 London. The " Woman Hater," pro- 
 duced in 1606-1607, is the earliest 
 work known to exist in which he had 
 a hand. It does not appear that he 
 was ever married. He died in Lon- 
 don in August, 1625. 
 
 Beaumont, 'William, an Ameri- 
 can surgeon, born in Lebanon, Conn., 
 in 1785. His experiments on diges- 
 tion with the Canadian St. Martin, 
 who lived for years after receiving a 
 gunshot wound in the stomach which 
 left an aperture of about two inches 
 in diameter, were of great importance 
 to physiological science. He died in 
 St. Louis, Mo., April 25, 1853. 
 
 Beauregard, Pierre Gustavo 
 Toutant, an American military offi- 
 cer, born in St. Martin's parish, La.,
 
 Beanz 
 
 May 28, 1818; was graduated at the 
 United States Military, Academy and 
 appointed a brevet Second Lieutenant 
 of Artillery in 1838. He distin- 
 guished himself in the Mexican War, 
 where he won the brevet of Major. 
 He resigned his commission after 
 the secession of Louisiana in Feb- 
 ruary following ; was appointed com- 
 mander of the Confederate forces 
 at Charleston, S. C., and there 
 opened the hostilities of the Civil War 
 by bombarding Fort Sumter, on April 
 11. After the evacuation of the fort 
 by Major Anderson, General Beaure- 
 gard was transferred to Virginia, 
 where he commanded the Confederate 
 forces in the battle of Bull Run, on 
 July 21. In March, 1862, he was or- 
 dered to the Army of the Mississippi, 
 under Gen. Albert S. Johnston, and in 
 April following fought the battle of 
 Shiloh, gaining a victory over the Na- 
 tional forces the first day, but being 
 defeated by General Grant on the sec- 
 ond day. Failing health kept him 
 from active duty till June, 1863, when 
 he took charge of the defense of 
 Charleston against the combined land 
 and naval forces. He remained in 
 command there till April, 1864, when 
 he was ordered to Richmond to 
 strengthen its defenses. On May 16, 
 be attacked General Butler in front 
 of Drury's Bluff, and forced him back 
 to his intrenchments between the 
 James and the Appomattox rivers. 
 He attempted to aid General Jo- 
 seph E. Johnston in opposing Gen- 
 eral Sherman, but in April surren- 
 dered with the former to the latter. 
 After the war he became president of 
 the New Orleans, Jackson and Missis- 
 sippi Railroad Company, Adjutant- 
 General of the State, and a manager 
 of the Louisiana State Lottery. In 
 1866 the chief command of the Ru- 
 manian army was tendered him, and 
 in 1869 that of the army of the 
 Khedive of Egypt, both of which he 
 declined. He died in New Orleans, 
 Feb. 20, 1893. 
 
 Beans, Cecilia, an American art- 
 ist, born in Philadelphia about 1877. 
 She won nearly every prize for which 
 she competed in America, and became 
 a member of the National Academy in 
 1892, and also of the Societ6 des 
 Beaux-Arts in Paris. Her work is 
 exclusively portraiture. 
 
 ., Beaver 
 
 Beaver, a quadruped of the order 
 Rodentia, or gnawers, the only species 
 of its genus. It is very widely dis- 
 
 BEAVEB. 
 
 tributed, being found in the N. parts 
 of Europe, Asia, and America, nowa- 
 days most abundantly in the N. and 
 thinly peopled parts of North Amer- 
 ica, dwelling in communities on the 
 banks of rivers and lakes. 
 
 At one time immense numbers of 
 these animals were killed for their fur, 
 which was largely used in making 
 hats, but in more recent times they 
 have suffered less persecution on this 
 account, their fur now not being held 
 in the same estimation. 
 
 The beaver is about two feet in 
 length ; its body thick and heavy ; the 
 head compressed, and somewhat 
 arched at the front, the upper part 
 rather narrow; the snout much so. 
 The eyes are placed rather high on 
 the head, and the pupils are rounded; 
 the ears are short, elliptical, and al- 
 most concealed by the fur. The skin 
 is covered by two sorts of hair, of 
 which one is long, rather stiff, elastic, 
 and of a gray color for two-thirds of 
 its length next the base, and termin- 
 ated by shining, reddish-brown points ; 
 the other is short, thick, tufted, and 
 soft, being of different shades of sil- 
 ver-gray or light lead color. The hair 
 is shortest on the head and feet. The 
 hind legs are longer than the fore, and 
 are completely webbed. The tail is 
 10 or 11 inches long, and, except the 
 part nearest the body, is covered with 
 hexagonal scales.
 
 Beaver 
 
 Beaver, James, Addams, an 
 
 American military officer and states- 
 man, born in Millerstown, Pa., Oct. 
 
 21, 1837 ; was graduated at Jefferson 
 College, Canonsburg, Pa., in 1856; 
 and studied law with H. N. McAllis- 
 ter, Belief onte, Pa., whose partner he 
 afterward became. On the outbreak 
 of the Civil War he was made Lieu- 
 tenant-Colonel of the 45th Pennsyl- 
 vania Volunteers. At the battle 
 of Ream's Station, he was se- 
 verely wounded and lost a leg; and 
 was retired with the rank of Brig- 
 adier-General of Volunteers (Dec. 
 
 22, 1864). He then resumed the 
 practice of law ; became Major-Gen- 
 eral of the Pennsylvania State Mi- 
 litia ; was defeated as a Republican 
 candidate for Governor in 1882 ; 
 elected in 1887; President of the 
 Board of Trustees of the Penn- 
 sylvania State College ; Vice-Modera- 
 tor of the Presbyterian General As- 
 sembly in 1888 and 1895 ; and mem- 
 ber of the President's Commission on 
 Investigation of the War Department 
 in 1898. 
 
 Beaver Islands, a group of 
 islands situated in the N. part of Lake 
 Michigan and interesting as the scene 
 of a short-lived Mormon colony. 
 
 Beaver Rat, a name sometimes 
 given to a small species of beaver, one 
 of the animals called musk rat. It is 
 only the size of a rabbit, and inhab- 
 its Canada. 
 
 Bebeerine, in chemistry, an un- 
 crystallizable basic substance, extract- 
 ed from the bark of the greenheart 
 tree of Guiana. In pharmacy, the 
 sulphate of bebeerine is a very valua- 
 ble medicine, being used like quinine 
 as a tonic and febrifuge. 
 
 Bebek, a beautiful bay on the 
 European side of the Bosphorus, with 
 a palace of the Sultan, known as the 
 Humayunabad, and built in 1725. 
 
 Bebel, Ferdinand August, a 
 German Socialist, born in Cologne in 
 1840. He settled in Leipsic in 1860, 
 joined various labor organizations, 
 and became one of the editors of 
 the " Volkstaat " and of the better 
 known " Varwarts." Membership in 
 the North German Reichstag was fol- 
 lowed by his election to the German 
 Reichstag, of which he was a member 
 from 1871 to 1881, and which he en- 
 
 Becker 
 
 tered again in 1883. He is the leader 
 of his party in the Reichstag. 
 
 Bee, a celebrated abbey of France, 
 in Normandy, near Brionne, now rep- 
 resented only by some ruins. Lan- 
 franc and Anselm were both connected 
 with this abbey. 
 
 Beccaria, Cesare Bbnesana, 
 Marquis de, an Italian political 
 philosopher, born at Milan, March 15, 
 1738. He is chiefly known as author 
 of the celebrated " Treatise on Crimes 
 and Punishments," which first appear- 
 ed in 1764, and advocated great re- 
 forms in criminal legislation. He died 
 in Milan, Nov. 28, 1794. 
 
 Becerra, Gaspar, a Spanish 
 painter and sculptor, born in 1520. 
 He studied under Michael Angelo at 
 Rome, and is credited with the chief 
 share in the establishment of the fine 
 arts in Spain. He dved in 1570. 
 
 Beche, Sir Henry, an English 
 geologist, born in 17%. He founded 
 the Geological Survey of Great Brit- 
 ain, which was soon undertaken by 
 the Government, De la Beche being 
 appointed director general. He also 
 founded the Jermyn Street Museum of 
 Economic or Practical Geology, and 
 the School of Mines. He died in 1855. 
 
 Bechstein, Johann Matthaus, 
 a German naturalist, born in Gotha, 
 July 11, 1757 ; wrote a popular nat- 
 ural history of Germany, and various 
 works on forestry, in which subject 
 his labors were highly valuable. He 
 died Feb. 23, 1822. 
 
 Bechuanaland, an extensive tract 
 in South Africa, inhabited by the Be- 
 chuanas, extending from 28 S. lat. to 
 the Zambesi, and from 20 E. long, to 
 the Transvaal border. The colony 
 was annexed to Cape Colony and the 
 protectorate placed under a British 
 commissioner in 1895. 
 
 Beck, 'James Bnrnie, an Ameri- 
 can lawyer, born in Dumfriesshire, 
 Scotland, Feb. 13, 1822; came to the 
 United States when a youth, and set- 
 tled in Kentucky. He was elected a 
 Democratic Representative to Con- 
 gress in 1866, 1868, 1870, and 1872, 
 and United States Senator in 1876, 
 1882, and 1888. He died in Wash- 
 ington, D. C., May 3, 1890. 
 
 Becker, George Ferdinand, an 
 American geologist, born in New 
 York, Jan. 5, 1847 ; graduated at Har-
 
 Becker 
 
 yard University in 1868; was Instruc- 
 tor of Mining and Metallurgy in the 
 University of California in 1875- 
 1879; attached to the United States 
 Geological Survey since 1879, and 
 Special Agent of the 10th Census, 
 1879-1883. He was appointed a spe- 
 cial agent to examine into the mineral 
 resources of the Philippine Islands in 
 1898. 
 
 Becker, Karl Ferdinand, a 
 German musician, born in Leipsic, 
 July 17, 1804; died in Leipsic, Oct. 
 26, I8TK 
 
 Becker, Karl Ferdinand, a Ger- 
 man philologist, born in Liser, April 
 14, 1775; died in Offenbach, Sept. 5, 
 1849. 
 
 Becker, Karl Friedrich, a Ger- 
 man historical writer, born in Berlin, 
 1777; wrote various popular works 
 on historical topics. He died in Ber- 
 lin, March 15, 1806. 
 
 Becket, Thomas, the most cele- 
 brated Roman Catholic prelate in the 
 English annals; born in London in 
 1117 or 1118. He was the son of 
 Gilbert, a London merchant. His 
 mother is said to have been a Saracen 
 lady, to whose father Gilbert was pris- 
 oner in Jerusalem, having become a 
 captive during the Crusades. The 
 lady is said to have fallen in love with 
 the prisoner, to have assisted him in 
 obtaining his liberty , and afterwards 
 to have followed him to London, 
 where she found him with the greatest 
 difficulty. After studying at Oxford 
 and Paris, Becket studied civil law 
 at Bologna, Italy, and returning to 
 England was made Archdeacon of Can- 
 terbury and Provost of Beverly. 
 
 In 1158 Becket was appointed high- 
 chancellor, and at this time was a 
 complete courtier, conforming in every 
 respect to the humor of the king. 
 Henry II. raised his favorite to the 
 primacy, on the presumption that he 
 would aid him in those political views, 
 in respect to Church power, which all 
 the sovereigns of the Norman line em- 
 braced, and which, in fact, caused a 
 continual struggle till its termination 
 by Henry VIII. 
 
 Becket was consecrated archbishop 
 in 1162, and immediately affected an 
 austerity of character which formed 
 a very natural prelude to the part 
 which he meant to play. Pope Alex- 
 
 Becket 
 
 ander III. held a general council at 
 Tours in 1163, at which Becket at- 
 tended and made a formal complaint 
 of the infringements by the laity on 
 the rights and immunities of the 
 Church. On his return to England he 
 began to act in the spirit of this rep- 
 resentation, and to prosecute several 
 of the nobility and others holding 
 Church possessions, whom he also pro- 
 ceeded to excommunicate. Finding 
 himself the object of the king's dis- 
 pleasure, he soon after attempted to 
 escape to France ; but being intercept- 
 ed, Henry, in a Parliament at North- 
 ampton, charged him with a violation 
 of his allegiance, and all his goods 
 were confiscated. 
 
 After much negotiation a sort of 
 reconciliation took place in 1170, on 
 the whole to the advantage of Becket, 
 who, being restored to his see, with 
 all his former privileges, behaved on 
 the occasion with excessive haughti- 
 ness. After a triumphal entry into 
 Canterbury the young Prince Henry, 
 crowned during the lifetime of his 
 father, transmitted him an order to re- 
 store the suspended and excommuni- 
 cated prelates, which he refused to do, 
 on the pretence that the Pope alone 
 could grant the favor, though the lat- 
 ter had lodged the instruments of cen- 
 sure in his hands. 
 
 The deposed prelates thereupon im 
 mediately appealed to Henry in Nor- 
 mandy, who in a state of extreme ex- 
 asperation exclaimed, " What an un 
 happy prince am I, who have not 
 about me one man of spirit enough to 
 rid me of a single insolent prelate, the 
 perpetual trouble of my life ! " These 
 rash and too significant words in- 
 duced four of the attendant barons, 
 Reginald Fitz-Urse, William de Tracy, 
 Hugh de Morville, and Richard Brete, 
 to resolve to wipe out the king's re- 
 proach. Having laid their plans, they 
 forthwith proceeded to Canterbury, 
 and having formally required the arch- 
 bishop to restore the suspended prel- 
 ates, they returned in the evening of 
 the same day (Dec. 29, 1170), and 
 placing soldiers in the courtyard, 
 rushed with their swords drawn into 
 the cathedral, where the archbishop 
 was at vespers, and advancing toward 
 him threatened him with death if he 
 still disobeyed the orders of Henry. 
 Becket, without the least tokeo of
 
 Beck with 
 
 fear, replied that he was ready to die 
 for the rights of the Church; and 
 magnanimously added, " I charge you 
 in the name of the Almighty, not to 
 hurt any other person here, for none 
 of them have been concerned in the 
 late transactions." The confederates 
 then strove to drag him out of the 
 church ; but not being able to do so, 
 on account of his resolute deportment, 
 they killed him on the spot with re- 
 peated wounds, all which he endured 
 without a groan. 
 
 Thus perished Thomas Becket in 
 his 52d year, a martyr to the cause 
 which he espoused, and a man of un- 
 questionable vigor of intellect. He 
 was canonized two years after his 
 death. In the reign of Henry III. 
 his body was taken up and placed in a 
 magnificent shrine erected by Arch- 
 bishop Stephen Langton ; and of the 
 popularity of the pilgrimages to his 
 tomb the " Canterbury Tales " of 
 Chaucer will prove an enduring testi- 
 mony. 
 
 Bcckwitli, Sir George, an Eng- 
 lish military officer, born in 1753. 
 His scene of action was largely in 
 America in the United States, and 
 the West Indies. He fought with the 
 English in the American Revolution 
 in 1776-1782, and was intrusted with 
 important diplomatic commissions in 
 1782-1791, as there was then no Brit- 
 ish Minister to the United States. In 
 1804, he was made governor of St. 
 Vincent, and four years later gov- 
 ernor of Barbadoes. As England was 
 then at war with France, he organ- 
 ized an expedition and conquered Mar- 
 tinique, for which he obtained the 
 thanks of the House of Commons. 
 Later (1810) he conquered Guade- 
 loupe, the last possession of the 
 French in that part of the world. 
 When he returned to England, after 
 nine years' service in the West In- 
 dies, a set of silver plate was given 
 to him by the legislature of the Bar- 
 badoes, and the King conferred upon 
 him armorial distinction. He died in 
 London, March 20, 1823. 
 
 Bcckwitli, James Carroll, an 
 American genre painter, born in Han- 
 nibal, Mo., Sept. 23, 1852 ; was a pu- 
 pil of Carolus Duran, and became a 
 member of the National Academy in 
 1894. 
 
 Bede 
 
 Bcckwitli, John. Watrus, an 
 
 American Episcopal bishop, born in 
 Raleigh, N. C., Feb. 9, 1831; was 
 graduated at Trinity College, Hart- 
 ford, in 1852 ; ordained priest in 
 1855 ; and was elected Bishop of 
 Georgia, being consecrated in Savan- 
 nah, April 2, 1808. He was an elo- 
 quent and powerful preacher, and pub- 
 lished several sermons and addresses. 
 He died in Atlanta, Ga., Nov. 24, 
 1890. 
 
 Becquerel, Antoine Cesar, a 
 French physician, and member of the 
 Institute, born in Chatillon-sur-Loing, 
 March 7, 1788. In early life he served 
 in the French army in Spain as an 
 officer of engineers. He invented a 
 new psychometer in 18G6. He died in 
 Paris, Jan. 18, 1878. His son, ALEX- 
 ANDKE EDMOND (1820-1891) and his 
 grandson ANTOINE HENRI (1852-1908), 
 son of Alexandre, were also eminent 
 physicists, and made valuable re- 
 searches on the nature and chemical 
 effects of light, and the magnetic 
 properties of many substances. The 
 latter discovered the luminous ema- 
 nations called " Becquerel Rays." 
 
 Bed, in ordinary language, an ar- 
 ticle of domestic furniture to sleep 
 upon. 
 
 In law, a divorce from bed and 
 board, is the divorce of a husband and 
 wife, to the extent of separating them 
 for a time, the wife receiving support, 
 under the name of alimony, during 
 the severance. 
 
 In mechanics, a bed is the founda- 
 tion piece or portion of anything on 
 which the body of it rests, as the bed 
 piece of a steam engine ; the lower 
 stone of a grinding mill ; or the box, 
 body, or receptacle of a vehicle. 
 
 Bede, or Baeda, generally known 
 as the Venerable Bede, the greatest 
 figure in ancient English literature, 
 was born near Monkwearmouth, Dur- 
 ham, about 073. Left an orphan at 
 the age of six, he was educated in the 
 Benedictine Abbey at Monkwear- 
 mouth, entering the monastery of Jar- 
 row, where he was ordained priest in 
 his 30th year. His industry was 
 enormous. Bede wrote homilies, lives 
 of saints, hymns, epigrams, works on 
 grammar and chronology, and the 
 great " Ecclesiastical History of Eng- 
 land," in five books, gleaned from na-
 
 Bede 
 
 tive chronicles and oral tradition. 
 This was translated from Latin into 
 Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred. The 
 first editions ware issued from Stras- 
 burg in the 15th century. He died in 
 the monastery of Jarrow, May 26, 
 735. 
 
 Bede, Cuthbert, pseudonym of 
 EDWARD BRADLEY, an English author, 
 born in Kidderminster in 1827 ; died 
 in Lenton, Dec. 12, 1889. 
 
 Bedell, Gregory Thnrston, an 
 American clergyman, born in Hudson, 
 N. Y., Aug. 27, 1817 ; in early life was 
 rector of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church of the Ascension, New York 
 city. In 1859 he was consecrated As- 
 sistant Bishop of Ohio, and in 1873 
 Bishop of that State. He died in 
 New York city, March 11, 1892. 
 
 Bedford, Gunning, an American 
 patriot, born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
 about 1730 ; was a lieutenant in the 
 French War ; entered the Revolution- 
 ary army with the rank of Major; 
 was wounded at White Plains ; became 
 Muster-Master-General in 1776 ; was 
 a delegate to the Continental Con- 
 gress ; and was elected Governor of 
 Delaware in 1796. He died in New- 
 castle, Del., Sept. 30, 1797. \ 
 
 Bedford, Gunning, an Amer- 
 ican lawyer, born in Philadelphia, 
 Pa., in 1747 ; was graduated at 
 Princeton in 1771 ; became a lawyer ; 
 acted for a time as aide-de-camp to 
 General Washington ; represented Del- 
 aware in the Continental Congress in 
 1783-1786; and became Attorney- 
 General of the State, and United 
 States Judge for the District of Dela- 
 ware. He died in Wilmington, Del., 
 March 30, 1812. 
 
 Bedford, Gunning S., an Amer- 
 ican physician, born in Baltimore, 
 Md., in 1806 ; introduced into the 
 United States obstetrical clinics for 
 the gratuitous treatment of poor 
 women. He died in New York city, 
 Sept. 5, 1870. 
 
 Bedford Level, an eastern dis- 
 trict of England, comprising about 
 450,000 acres. It was a mere waste of 
 fen and marsh, until the time of 
 Charles I., when, in 1634, a charter 
 was granted to Francis, Earl of Bed- 
 ford, who undertook to drain the level, 
 on condition of being allowed 95,000 
 acres of the reclaimed land. He ac- 
 
 Bee 
 
 coinplished the undertaking at an 
 enormous expense, and it now forms 
 one of the most fertile and grain-pro- 
 ductive districts of the kingdom. 
 
 Bedlam, a contraction from Beth- 
 lehem, a famous English hospital for 
 lunatics. 
 
 Bedloe's Island, an island in 
 New York harbor ; ceded to the United 
 States Government, in 1800 ; the site 
 of Fort Wood, erected in 1841 and 
 mounted with 77 guns ; now the loca- 
 tion of Bartholdi's colossal statue of 
 " Liberty Enlightening the World." 
 
 Bedmar, Alfonso tie la Cueva, 
 Marquis of, Cardinal Bishop of Ovie- 
 do, a Spanish diplomatist, born in 
 1572. He was created Cardinal in 
 1622, was afterward Spanish gover- 
 nor of the Netherlands, made himself 
 detested by the Flemings, and retired 
 to Rome, where he died in 1655. 
 
 Bedouins, a Mohammedan people 
 of Arab race, inhabiting chiefly the 
 deserts of Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and 
 North Africa. They lead a nomadic 
 existence in tents, huts, caverns and 
 ruins, associating in families under 
 sheiks or in tribes under emirs. 
 
 Bee, the common name given to a 
 large family of hymenopterous or 
 membranous-winged insects, of which 
 the most important is the common hive 
 or honey bee (apis mellifica). It be' 
 longs to the warmer parts of the East- 
 ern Hemisphere, but is now natural- 
 ized in the Western. A hive com- 
 monly consists of one mother or queen, 
 from 600 to 800 males or drones, and 
 
 DRONE BEE. 
 
 from 15,000 to 20,000 working bees, 
 formerly termed neuters, but now 
 known to be imperfectly developed fe- 
 males. The last mentioned, the small- 
 est, have twelve joints to their anten- 
 nae, and six abdominal rings, and are 
 provided with a sting ; there is, on the
 
 "Beech 
 
 outside of the liind legs, a smooth, 
 hollow, edged with hairs, called the 
 basket, in which the kneaded pollen or 
 bee bread, the food of the larvae, is 
 
 QUEEN BEE. 
 
 stored for transit. The queen has the 
 game characteristics, but is of larger 
 size, especially in the abdomen ; she 
 has also a sting. The males, or drones, 
 differ from both the preceding by hav- 
 ing 13 joints to the antennae ; a 
 rounded head with larger eyes, elon- 
 gated and united at the summit ; and 
 no stings. The queen has two large 
 ovaries, consisting of a great number 
 of small cavities, each containing 10 
 or 37 eggs. The inferior half-circles, 
 except the" first and last, on the abdo- 
 men of working bees, have each on 
 their inner surface two cavities, where 
 the wax secreted by the bee from its 
 saccharine food, is formed in layers, 
 and comes out from between the ab- 
 dominal rings. Respiration takes place 
 
 WORKER BEE. 
 
 by means of air tubes which branch out 
 to all parts of the body, the bee being 
 exceedingly sensitive to an impure 
 atmosphere. Of the organs of sense 
 the most important are the antennae, 
 deprivation of these resulting in a spe- 
 cies of derangement. The majority of 
 entomologists regard their function as 
 in the first place auditory, but they 
 are exceedingly sensitive to tactual 
 impressions, and are apparently the 
 principal means of mutual communi- 
 
 Beecher 
 
 cation. Bees undergo perfect meta 
 morphosis, the young appearing first 
 as larvae, then changing to pupae, from 
 which the images or perfect insecti 
 spring. 
 
 The bumblebees, or bumblebees, oi. 
 which over 60 species are found ir 
 North America, belong to the genus 
 bombus, which is almost world wide in 
 its distribution. Of these species soli- 
 tary females which have survived the 
 winter, commence constructing small 
 nests when the weather begins to be 
 warm enough ; some of them going 
 deep into the earth in dry banks, oth- 
 ers preferring heaps of stone or gravel, 
 and others choosing always some bed 
 of dry moss. In the nest the bee col- 
 lects a mass of pollen and in this lays 
 
 ROYAL CELLS. 
 
 some eggs. The cells in these nests are 
 not the work of the old bee, but are 
 formed by the young insects similarly 
 to the cocoons of silk worms ; and when 
 the perfect insect is released from 
 them by the old bee, which gnaws off 
 their tops, they are employed as 
 honey-cups. The bumblebees, how 
 ever, do not store honey for the win- 
 ter, those which survive till the cold 
 weather leaving the nest and penetrat- 
 ing the earth, or taking up some other 
 sheltered position, and remaining there 
 till the spring. 
 
 Beech, a tree. The wood is brittle 
 and not very lasting, yet it is used by 
 turners, joiners, and millwrights. The 
 fine thin bark is employed for making 
 baskets and band-boxes. 
 
 Beecher, Catherine Esther, au 
 American author and educator, daugh- 
 ter of Lyman, and sister of Henry 
 Ward Beecher, born in Easthampton, 
 L. I., Sept. 6, 1800. The latter 
 part of her life was devoted to
 
 Beecher 
 
 
 
 training teachers and supplying them 
 to needy fields, especially in the West- 
 ern and Southern States. She wrote 
 numerous works on education and on 
 the woman question. She died in El- 
 mira, N. Y., May 12, 1878. 
 
 Beecher, Henry "Ward, an Amer- 
 ican clergyman, born in Litchfield, 
 Conn., June 24, 1813. He was the 
 son of Lyman Beecher; graduated 
 from Amherst in 1834 ; studied in 
 Lane Theological Seminary, near 
 Cincinnati, Ohio ; and began clerical 
 duty as pastor of a church in Law- 
 renceburg, Ind., removing to Indian- 
 apolis in 1839. From 1847 until his 
 death he was Pastor of Plymouth 
 Congregational Church in Brooklyn. 
 He was one of the founders of the 
 " Independent " and of the " Christian 
 Union" (now the "Outlook"). He 
 was also a prominent anti-slavery ora- 
 tor, as well as a famous lecturer. He 
 died in Brooklyn, N. Y., March 8, 1887. 
 
 Beecher, Lyman, an American 
 clergyman, born in New Haven, Conn., 
 Oct. 2, 1775. His ancestors were Pu- 
 ritans. He graduated from Yale in 
 1796, and became pastor of the Pres- 
 byterian Church in East Hampton, 
 L. I. ; then of a Congregational church 
 in Litchfield, Conn., in 1810; and 
 then of the Hanover Street Congrega- 
 tional Church in Boston, Mass. In 
 1832 he became President of Lane 
 Theological Seminary, near Cincin- 
 nati, Ohio. His influence throughout 
 the country was very great, especially 
 on the questions of temperance and of 
 slavery. His " Six Sermons on In- 
 temperance " had a great effect, and 
 have been frequently republished and 
 translated into many languages. His 
 sermon on the death of Alexander 
 Hamilton, in 1804, with his " Remedy 
 for Dueling" (1809), did much 
 toward breaking up the practice of 
 dueling in the United States. He died 
 in Brooklyn, N. Y., June 10, 1863. 
 
 Beecher, Thomas Kinnicntt, 
 an American clergyman, son of Ly- 
 man, and brother of Henry Ward 
 Beecher, born in Litchfield, Conn., 
 Feb. 10, 1824. He became pastor in 
 Brooklyn in 1852, and in Elmira, N. 
 Y., in 1854. He was a very success- 
 ful lecturer and an effective writer on 
 current topics. He died in Elmira, 
 H. Y., March 14, 1900. 
 
 E. 16. 
 
 Been 
 
 Beechey, Frederick William, 
 
 an English naval officer, born ia Lon- 
 don, Feb. 17, 1796. He died in Lon- 
 don, Nov. 29, 1856. Beechey Island 
 in the Arctic Archipelago was named 
 after him. 
 
 Bee Eater, in the singular the 
 English name of a genus of birds, 
 more fully called the yellow throated 
 bee eater of Africa. 
 
 Beelzebub. (1) The fly-god, a god 
 worshipped in the Philistine town of 
 Ekron. (II. Kings i: 3) (2) An evil 
 spirit. (3) Any person of fiendish 
 cruelty, who is nicknamed by his ad- 
 versaries, or, in contempt of moral 
 sentiment, appropriates the appella- 
 tion to himself and cherishes it as if 
 it were an honorable title. 
 
 Beer, an alcoholic drink made from 
 the malted grains of barley, boiled with 
 hops and then fermented with yeast. 
 The manufacture of ale or beer is of 
 very high antiquity. Herodotus ascribes 
 the invention of brewing to Isis, and 
 it was certainly practised in Egypt. 
 Xenophon mentions it as being used in 
 Armenia, and the Gauls were early ac- 
 quainted with it. Pliny mentions an 
 intoxicating liquor made of corn and 
 water as common to all the nations of 
 the west of Europe, and in England 
 ale-booths were regulated by law as 
 early as the 8th century. A rude pro- 
 cess of brewing is carried on by many 
 uncivilized races ; thus chica or maize 
 beer is made by the South American 
 Indians, millet beer by various Afri- 
 can tribes, etc. The beers common In 
 the United States are : lager beer 
 that is, store beer, the name being 
 given to it because it is usually kept 
 for four to six months before being 
 used. In brewing it the fermentation 
 is made to go on rather slowly and at 
 a low temperature ; Schenk beer, 
 brewed in winter for immediate use ; 
 bock beer, brewed extra strong and 
 served during the spring months. The 
 alcohol in beer averages about 4 per 
 cent. 
 
 Beerbohm-Tree, Herbert, an 
 English actor, born in London, in 
 1853. In 1897 he opened his new 
 theatre, Her Majesty's, ia the Hay- 
 market. 
 
 Beers, Henry Augnstin, an 
 American author, born in Buffalo, N.
 
 Beersheba 
 
 Y., July 2, 1847. He graduated from 
 Yale in 1859; became tutor there in 
 1871, and Professor of English Liter- 
 ature in 1880. 
 
 Beersheba (now Bir-es-Seba, 
 " the well of the oath ") , the place 
 where Abraham made a covenant with 
 Abiinelech, and in common speech, 
 representative of the southernmost 
 limit of Palestine, near which it is sit- 
 uated. It is now a mere heap of ruins 
 near two large and five smaller wells, 
 though it was a place of some impor- 
 tance down to the period of the cru- 
 sades. 
 
 Beet, a genus of plants distin- 
 guished by its fruit being inclosed in a 
 tough woody or spongy five-lobed en- 
 larged calyx. The garden beet, or 
 beet of general cultivation, is of bi- 
 ennial duration, and has a tender 
 fleshy root. Red beet is principally 
 used at table, in salad, boiled, and 
 cut into slices, as a pickle, and 
 sometimes stewed with onions; but 
 if eaten in great quantity it is 
 said to be injurious to the stom- 
 ach. The beet may be taken out of 
 the ground for use about the end of 
 August, but it does not attain its full 
 size and perfection till the month of 
 October. When good it is large and 
 of a deep red color, and when boiled 
 is tender, sweet, and palatable. 
 
 Beethoven, Ludwig von, one of 
 the greatest musical composers of 
 modern times, was born in Bonn, in 
 1770. His genius was very early dis- 
 played, and his musical^ education was 
 begun by his father, and continued by 
 the court organist, who introduced him 
 to the works of Sebastian Bach and 
 Handel. He soon attempted composi- 
 tion, and showed wonderful facility in 
 improvisation. About 1790, he set- 
 tled at Vienna, where Mozart quickly 
 recognized his marvellous powers. 
 When about 40 years of age, he was 
 attacked with deafness, which became 
 total, and lasted through life. He be- 
 came, gradually, the victim of mor- 
 bid irritability and hopeless melan- 
 choly, ending in confirmed hypochon- 
 dria, and, finally, dropsy and delirium. 
 He continued to compose, however, 
 long after he had ceased to hear him- 
 self play, and received homage and 
 honors from all parts of Europe. He 
 died unmarried, in Vienna, March 2G, 
 
 Beet Sugar 
 
 1827. Vast power, intense passion, 
 and infinite tenderness are manifested 
 in all his compositions, which abound 
 no less in sweetest melodies than in 
 grand and complicated harmonies. A 
 statue of Beethoven, by Hulmel, was 
 erected at Bonn, in 1845. 
 
 Beet Sugar, the sugar obtained 
 from the beet ; similar to cane sugar , 
 but inferior in sweetening power. Beet 
 root contains an average of about 10 
 per cent, of saccharine matter ; sugar 
 cane, 18 per cent. Of the varieties, 
 the white Selvig beet is richest. 
 
 Of the 985,508,640 pounds of sugar 
 produced in the United States in 1901, 
 about one-third was from beets and 
 two-thirds from cane, and of the 599,- 
 774,613 pounds of beet sugar imported, 
 484,344,004 pounds came unrefined. 
 The annual statement of the American 
 Beet Sugar Company furnishes ample 
 proof of the advance which has been 
 made by the beet sugar industry in the 
 United States. In 1880 the domestic 
 production of beet sugar was 357 tons, 
 and in 1901 it had increased to 124,- 
 859 tons, a gain in 20 years of nearly 
 350 per cent. 
 
 The quantity of beet sugar pro- 
 duced in the United States in the 
 year ending June 30, 1910, was 
 1,025,000,000 pounds, against 73,000,- 
 000 pounds in 1899, an increase of 
 952,000,000 pounds as compared with 
 an increase of 181,000,000 pounds of 
 cane sugar in the same period. Of 
 the total beet sugar production, Ha- 
 waii furnished 1,111,000,000 pounds; 
 Porto Rico, 569,000,000; and the 
 Philippines, 176,000,000. In 1905 there 
 were 51 beet sugar factories in the 
 United States which had a combined 
 product valued at $24,393,794; and in 
 1909 there were 1,273 beet sugar 
 factories in Europe, which used 
 40,067,000 tons of beets, and pro- 
 duced 5,740,000 tons of sugar, and, 
 excluding the United States, the 
 world's production was 6,061,000 tons. 
 
 The beet sugar industry was started 
 by Marggraf, in Germany, in 1747, 
 who was the first to discover that 
 sugar could be extracted from the com- 
 mon beet. The first factory for its 
 manufacture was erected by Archard, 
 at Kunern, in Silesia, in 1802. Na- 
 poleon issued an imperial decree in 
 the early part of his reign establish- 
 ing this industry in France, and in
 
 Beetle 
 
 1812 he ordered the building of 10 fac- 
 tories and placed Delessert in charge 
 of their construction. In 1830 at- 
 tempts were made in the United States 
 to introduce the cultivation of the 
 sugar beet. It was not, however, till 
 1876 that the first successful beet 
 sugar factory was built, being erected 
 in Alvarado, Cal. 
 
 Beetle, a name often used as syn- 
 onymous with the term Coleoptera, 
 but restricted by others to include all 
 those insects that have their wings 
 protected by hard cases or sheaths, 
 called elytra. Beetles vary in size from 
 a mere point to the bulk of a man's 
 fist, the largest, the elephant beetle of 
 S. America, being 4 inches long. The 
 so called 'black beetles' are not prop- 
 erly beetles at all, but cockroaches, 
 and of the order Orthoptera. 
 
 Beggars, a term first applied to 
 the 300 Protestant deputies under 
 Henri de Brederode and Louis de Nas- 
 sau, who protested against the estab- 
 lishment of the Inquisition in Holland, 
 in April, 15G6. The Dutch patriots 
 assumed this designation when they 
 rebelled against Spain in 1572. 
 
 Beghards, Beguards, or Be- 
 gards, various spellings of a name 
 said by some to be derived from their 
 begging favor from God in orayer, and 
 to the fact that they were religious 
 mendicants. 
 
 Begonia, an extensive genus of suc- 
 culent-stemmed herbaceous plants, or- 
 der Begoniacese, with fleshy oblique 
 leaves of various colors, and showy 
 unisexual flowers, the whole perianth 
 colored. They readily hybridize, and 
 many fine varieties have been raised 
 from the tuberous-rooted kinds. From 
 the shape of their leaves they have 
 been called elephant's ear. Almost all 
 the plants of the order are tropical. 
 
 Begnines, Begnins, or Begni- 
 nse. Associations of praying women 
 which arose in the Netherlands in the 
 13th century, the first being formed 
 at Nivelles, in Brabant, in A. D. 1226, 
 and spread rapidly in the adjoining 
 countries. They used to weave cloth, 
 live together under a directress, and 
 leave on being married, or indeed 
 whenever they pleased. They still ex- 
 ist in some of the Belgian towns, 
 notably at Ghent, where they are re- 
 powned as makers of lace, though un- 
 
 BcMstnn 
 
 der different rules from those formerly 
 observed. 
 
 Begum (a feminine form corre- 
 sponding to beg, or bey), an Indian 
 title of honor equivalent to princess, 
 conferred on the mothers, sisters, or 
 wives of native rulers. The Begum 
 of Oudh is well known in Indian his- 
 tory. 
 
 Behaim, or Beliem, Martin, a 
 German mathematician and astrono- 
 mer, born in Nuremberg about 1430. 
 He colonized the Island of Fayal, 
 where he remained for several years, 
 and assisted in the discovery of the 
 other Azores ; was afterward knighted, 
 and returned to his native country, 
 where, in 1492, he constructed a ter 
 restrial globe, still preserved. He diet 
 in Lisbon in 1506. 
 
 Behemoth, the animal described 
 in Job xi: 15-24. It is probably the 
 hippopotamus, which, in the time of 
 Job, seems to have been found in the 
 Nile below the cataracts, though now 
 it is said to occur only above them. 
 A second opinion entertained is that 
 Job's behemoth was the elephant; 
 while a few scholars make the less 
 probable conjecture that it was the 
 rhinoceros. 
 
 BEGONIA BEX. 
 
 Behistun, or Bisutun, a moun- 
 tain near a village of the same name 
 in Persian Kurdistan, celebrated for 
 the sculptures and cuneiform inscrip- 
 tions cut upon one of its sides a 
 rock rising almost perpendicularly to 
 the height of 1,700 feet. These works, 
 which stand about 300 feet from the 
 ground, were executed by the orders
 
 Bchm 
 
 Bel and the Dragon 
 
 of Darius L, King of Persia, and set 
 forth his genealogy and victories. To 
 receive the inscriptions, the rock was 
 carefully polished and coated with a 
 hard, siliceous varnish. Their prob- 
 able date is about 515 B. C. They were 
 first copied and deciphered by Rawlin- 
 son. 
 
 Bclim, Ernst, a German geog- 
 rapher, born in Gotha, Jan. 4, 1830 ; 
 died in Gotha, March 15, 1884. 
 
 Belin, Aphra, or Afra, or Apli- 
 ara, an English author ; born in 
 Wye, in 1640. Early in life she spent 
 several years in the West Indies, 
 where she met the Indians, who be- 
 came the model of her famous " Oroo- 
 noko." She was the first woman 
 writer in England who earned a live- 
 lihood by her pen. She died in Lon- 
 don, April 16, 1689. 
 
 Behring, another spelling of BEE- 
 ING. 
 
 Beissel, Johann Conrad, a Ger- 
 man mystic, born in Eberbach, in 
 1690. He settled in Pennsylvania in 
 1720, and established the German 
 Seventh-Day Baptists, at Ephrata, in 
 1728. He died in Ephrata, in 1768. 
 
 Beit, Alfred, So. African finan- 
 cier, b. Hamburg, 1853, d. London, 
 July 16, 1906. He was associated 
 with Cecil Rhodes (q. v. ) and left an 
 immense fortune in benefactions. 
 
 Beitzke, Heinrich Ludwig, a 
 German historian, born in Muttrin, 
 Feb. 15, 1798 ; died in Berlin, May 10, 
 1867. 
 
 Bejapoor, a ruined city of Hin- 
 dustan, in the Bombay Presidency, 
 one of the largest cities in India until 
 its capture by Aurungzebe in 1686. 
 The ruins are chiefly Mohammedan, 
 the principal being Mahomet Shah's 
 tomb, with a dome visible for 14 miles. 
 Pop. 13,245. 
 
 Beke, Charles Tilstone, an 
 English geographer, explorer, and au- 
 thor, born in London, Oct. 10, 1800. 
 In 1834 he published " Origines Bib- 
 licse ; or, Researches in Primeval His- 
 tory," one of the first attempts to 
 reconstruct historv on the principles 
 of the young science of geology. He 
 explored Abyssinia, Godjam and the 
 countries lying to the W. and S., pre- 
 viously almost entirely unknown to 
 Europeans. He died in London, July 
 31, 1874. 
 
 Bekker, Immanuel, a German 
 scholar distinguished by his recensions 
 of the texts of Greek classics, born in 
 Berlin, May 21, 1785; died in Berlin, 
 June 7, 1871. 
 
 Bel, in Accadian, Assyrian and Bab- 
 ylonian mythology, a god ; mentioned 
 in Scripture, in Is. xlvi : 1 ; Jer. 1 : 2, 
 li : 44 ; in the Septuagint, in Baruch 
 vi : 40, and in the apocryphal addi- 
 tions to the Book of Daniel, as well 
 as by classical authors. It has 
 been discovered that, prior to 1600 
 B. C., the highly interesting Turan- 
 ian people called Accadians, the in- 
 ventors of the cuneiform writing, 
 who wielded extensive authority in 
 Western Asia before the Semitic As- 
 syrians and Babylonians had come 
 into notice, worshipped as their 
 first triad of gods, Anu, ruling over 
 the heaven ; Elu, Belu, or Bel, over 
 the earth ; and Ea, over the sea. Bel's 
 three children, or three of his children, 
 were Shamas, the sun-god ; Sin, the 
 moon-god ; and Ishtar, the Accadian 
 Venus. Sayce shows that some first 
 born children were vicariously offered 
 in sacrifice by fire to the sun-god. 
 From the Accadians, human sacrifice 
 passed to various Semitic tribes and 
 nations. Bel's name Elu identifies him 
 with the Phoenician El, who, in a time 
 of trouble, offered his first born son, 
 " the beloved," on a high place, by 
 fire. It is not settled whether or not 
 Bel was the same also as the Phoeni- 
 cian Baal. To the wrath of Bel the 
 deluge was attributed. In Scripture 
 times he was known exclusively as a 
 Babylonian divinity, being distinguish- 
 ed from both Nebo and Merodach. 
 In the later Babylonian Empire, how- 
 ever. Merodach came to be generally 
 identified with Bel, though sometimes 
 distinguished from him, being called 
 " the lesser Bel." 
 
 Bel and the Dragon, one of the 
 books of the Apocrypha, or, more pre- 
 cisely, certain apocryphal chapters ad- 
 ded to the canonical Book of Daniel. 
 The Jews consider them as no part of 
 their Scriptures. They were penned 
 probably by an Alexandrian Jew, the 
 language used being not Hebrew, nor 
 Aramaean, but Greek. The Church of 
 Rome accepts Bel and the Dragon as 
 part of the Holy Scripture ; most, if 
 not all, Protestant churches reject it. 
 The story of Bel and the Dragon tells
 
 Belcher 
 
 bow Daniel enlightened Cyrus, who is 
 represented as having been a devout 
 worshiper of Bel, by proving that the 
 immense supplies of food laid before 
 the idol were really consumed, not by 
 it or by the inhabiting divinity, but 
 by the priests and their families. On 
 Cyrus urging that the dragon, also 
 worshipped, was at least a living God, 
 Daniel poisoned it, for which he was 
 thrown into a lions' den, where the 
 Prophet Habakkuk fed him. Ulti- 
 mately he was released, and his perse- 
 cutors put to death. 
 
 Belcher, Sir Edward, an Eng- 
 lish naval officer, born in 1799. 
 Knighted in 1843, and for five years 
 employed on surveying service in 
 the East Indies, he was, in 1852 
 appointed to the command of the 
 unfortunate expedition sent out by 
 the government to search for Sir 
 John Franklin. He died March 18, 
 1877. Belcher Channel, an inlet of 
 Jones' Sound (Baffins Bay) , is named 
 from him, its discoverer. 
 
 Belem, a town in Portugal, W. of 
 Lisbon ; noted for a monastery found- 
 ed in 1500, to commemorate the voy- 
 age of Vasco da Gama, and now used 
 BS an orphan asylum. 
 
 Belemnite, a genus of fossil 
 (chambered shells. 
 
 Belfast, a seaport and municipal 
 and parliamentary borough of Ireland 
 |(in 1888 declared a city), principal 
 town of Ulster, and county town of 
 lAjitrim, built on low, alluvial land on 
 the left bank of the Lagan, at the 
 head of Belfast Lough. Previous to 
 about 1830 the cotton manufacture 
 was the leading industry of Belfast, 
 but nearly all the mills have been con- 
 verted to flax spinning. The iron ship- 
 building trade is also of importance, 
 and there are breweries, distilleries, 
 flour mills, oil mills, foundries, print 
 works, tan yards, chemical works, 
 rope works, etc. The commerce is 
 large. An extensive direct trade is 
 "carried on with British North Amer- 
 ica, the Mediterranean, France, Bel- 
 gium, Holland, and the Baltic, besides 
 ports of the British Islands. Belfast 
 is comparatively a modern town. It 
 returns four members to Parliament. 
 Pop. (1901) 348,876. 
 
 Belgium, a kingdom of Europe, 
 bounded N. by Holland, N. W. by the 
 
 Belgium 
 
 North Sea, W. and S. by France, and 
 E. by the duchy of Luxemburg, Rhen- 
 ish Prussia, and Dutch Limburg; 
 greatest length, 165 miles ; greatest 
 breadth, 120 miles ; area, about 11,400 
 square miles. For administrative pur- 
 poses it is divided into nine provinces 
 Antwerp, South Brabant, East 
 Flanders, West Flanders, Hainaut, 
 Liege, Limburg, Luxemburg, and Na- 
 mur. Pop. (1902) 6,896,079. 
 
 The greater part of the country ia 
 well adapted for agricultural opera- 
 tions, and the inhabitants have so hap- 
 pily availed themselves of their nat- 
 ural advantages that they early began, 
 and in some respects still deserve, to 
 be regarded as the model farmers of 
 Europe. 
 
 The mineral riches of Belgium are 
 great, and, after agriculture, forrti the 
 most important of her national inter- 
 ests. They are almost entirely con- 
 fined to the four provinces of Hainaut, 
 Liege, Namur, and Luxemburg, and 
 consist of lead, manganese, calamine 
 or zinc, iron, and coal. ^ All these 
 minerals, however, are insignificant 
 compared with those of iron and coal. 
 The coal field has an area of above 
 500 square miles. The export is about 
 5,000,000 tons, forming one of the 
 largest and most valuable of all the 
 Belgian exports, and employing about 
 125,000 persons. Nearly the whole of 
 this coal is taken by France. 
 
 The industrial products of Belgium 
 are very numerous, and the superiority 
 of many of them to those of most oth- 
 er countries is confessed. The fine 
 linens of Flanders, and lace of South 
 Brabant are of European reputation. 
 Scarcely less celebrated are the car- 
 pets and porcelain of Tournay, the 
 cloth of Verviers, the extensive foun- 
 dries, machine works, and other iron 
 and steel establishments of Liege, Se- 
 raing, and other places. The cotton 
 and woolen manufactures, confined 
 chiefly to Flanders and the province 
 of Antwerp, have advanced greatly. 
 Other manufactures include silks, 
 beet sugar, beer. There were 17 pig 
 iron works in operation in 1899; 4G 
 iron manufactories ; 15 steel works ; 
 123 sugar factories ; and 25 refineries ; 
 and 240 distilleries. 
 
 The railways have a length of about 
 2,900 miles, three-fourths belonging to 
 the State. The value of the general
 
 Belgium 
 
 commerce in 1900 was : Imports, 3,- 
 594,425,067 francs, and exports, 3,297,- 
 509,775 francs ; imports for home 
 consumption, 2,215,700,000 francs ; 
 exports of Belgian produce and manu- 
 factures, 1,922,900,000 francs; transit 
 trade, 1,374,600,000 francs. 
 
 The Belgian population is the dens- 
 est in Europe, and is composed of two 
 distinct races Flemish, who are of 
 German, and Walloons, who are of 
 French extraction. 
 
 Almost the entire population belong 
 to the Roman Catholic Church. Prot- 
 estantism is fully tolerated, and even 
 salaried by the State, but cannot 
 count above a mere fraction (some 
 10,000) of the population among its 
 adherents. Education is in a very un- 
 satisfactory state. At the census of 
 1890 nearly 27 per cent, of the popu- 
 lation above 15 years of age could 
 neither read nor write. French is the 
 official language of Belgium and in 
 general use among the educated class- 
 es, and there can scarcely be said to 
 be a national literature. 
 
 The Belgian constitution combines 
 monarchical with a strong infusion of 
 the democratic principle. The execu- 
 tive power is vested in a hereditary 
 king; the legislative in the king and 
 two chambers the Senate and the 
 Chamber of Representatives the for- 
 mer elected for eight years, the latter 
 for four, but one-half of the former 
 renewable every four years, and one- 
 half of the latter every two years. The 
 senators are elected partly directly, 
 partly indirectly (by the provincial 
 councils), and must be 40 years of 
 age. Their numbers depend on popu- 
 lation. The deputies or representatives 
 are elected directly, one for every 40,- 
 000 inhabitants at most. The army is 
 raised by conscription, to which every 
 able man who has completed his 19th 
 year is liable, and also by voluntary 
 enlistment. The peace strength of the 
 army in 1899 amounted to 51,270 offi- 
 cers and men ; in time of war the total 
 strength is about 140,000 men. Be- 
 sides this standing army there is a 
 garde civique, numbering about 43,000 
 men in time of peace, in addition to 
 which there are 90,000 non-active men 
 belonging to this force. The navy is 
 Confined to a few steamers and a small 
 flotilla of gunboats. 
 
 After being for centuries under 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Spanish, Austrian and French dom- 
 ination, Belgium was united by the 
 Congress of Vienna to Holland, under 
 the title of the kingdom of the Nether- 
 lands. A most injudicious measure 
 of the Dutch government, an at- 
 tempt to assimilate the language of 
 the provinces by prohibiting the use 
 of French in the courts of justice, 
 excited an opposition, which, en- 
 couraged by the success of the French 
 revolution of 1830, broke out into 
 revolt. The electoral system, more- 
 over, gave the preponderance to the 
 N. provinces, though inferior in 
 population, and the interests of the 
 provinces were diametrically opposed 
 in matters of taxation. Belgium 
 was agricultural and manufacturing, 
 Holland commercial ; the one wished 
 to tax imports and exports, the other 
 property and industry. In the cham- 
 bers three different languages were 
 spoken, Dutch, German, and French ; 
 and the members frequently did not 
 understand each other. Nothing but 
 the most skillful government could 
 have overcome these difficulties, and 
 no statesman appeared fitted to 
 grapple with them. The revolutionary 
 movement became general in the S., 
 and the Dutch troops, at first success- 
 ful before Brussels, were finally re- 
 pulsed, and compelled by the arrival 
 of fresh bands of insurgents from all 
 quarters to retire. The Flemings sa- 
 luted the volunteers of Liege, Mons, 
 and Tournay by the ancient title of 
 Belgians, and this name, which prop- 
 erly distinguished only a section of the 
 people of the S. provinces, became 
 henceforth recognized as the patriotic 
 designation of the whole. 
 
 A convention of the great powers 
 assembled in London to determine on 
 the affairs of the Netherlands and 
 stop the effusion of blood. It favored 
 the separation of the provinces, and 
 drew up a treaty to regulate it. In 
 the meantime the National Congress 
 of Belgium offered the crown to the 
 Duke of Nemours, second son of Louia 
 Philippe, and, on his declining it, they 
 offered it, on the recommendation of 
 England, to Leopold, Prince of Saxe- 
 Coburg, who acceded to it under the 
 title of Leopold L, on July 21, 1831. 
 In November of the same year the 
 five powers guaranteed the crown to 
 him by the treaty of London.
 
 Belgrade 
 
 During the reign of Leopold, a pros- 
 perous period of 34 years, Belgium 
 became a united and patriotic com- 
 munity. Arts and commerce flour- 
 ished, and a place was taken in the 
 family of nations upon which the Bel- 
 gian people could look with compla- 
 cency. On the outbreak of the French 
 Revolution of 1848 Leopold declared 
 his willingness to resign the crown if 
 it was contrary to the wishes of his 
 subjects that he should retain it. This 
 declaration disarmed the Republican 
 party, and confirmed the stability of 
 the monarchy at a critical moment. 
 During his reign Belgium concluded 
 various treaties of commerce, with 
 Great Britain in 1851 and 1862, and 
 with France in 1861. Leopold II. 
 succeeded his father in 1865. In re- 
 cent years the chief feature of Bel- 
 gian politics has been a keen struggle 
 between the clerical and the liberal 
 party. At the elections in June, 1878, 
 the liberals gained a majority, which 
 they lost in 1884, and failed to re- 
 gain, in 1890, but, after a revision of 
 the constitution, they were returned 
 by a large majority in 1894. In 1908 
 Belgium annexed the KONGO FREE 
 STATE (q. v.). King Leopold II. died 
 Dec. 17, 1909, and was succeeded by 
 his nephew, as Albert I. 
 
 Belgrade, a city and capital of 
 Servia, on the right bank of the Dan- 
 ube in the angle formed by the junc- 
 tion of the Save with that river, con- 
 sists of the citadel or upper town, on 
 a rock 100 feet high ; and the lower 
 town, which partly surrounds it. Of 
 late years many modern improvements 
 have been introduced and many fine 
 edifices have been built. It man- 
 ufactures carpets, silks, etc. Since the 
 treaty of Berlin (July, 1878) it has 
 been the capital of an independent 
 State. Pop. (Dec. 31, 1900) 69,097. 
 
 Belisarius, the great general of 
 the Roman Emperor Justinian, was 
 a native of Illyria. He commanded 
 an expedition against the King of 
 Persia about 530 ; suppressed an in- 
 surrection at Constantinople; con- 
 quered Gelimer, King of the Vandals, 
 and put an end to their dominion in 
 Africa ; was recalled and honored with 
 a triumph. In 535, Belisarius was 
 sent to Italy to carry on war with 
 the Goths, and took Rome in 537. He 
 was there unsuccessfully besieged by 
 
 Vitiges, whom he soon after besieged 
 in turn, and captured at Ravenna, but 
 was recalled, through jealousy, before 
 he had completed the conquest of 
 Italy. Belisarius recovered Rome from 
 Totilus in 547, and was recalled the 
 next year. He was Afterward sent 
 against the Huns. He was charged, 
 in 563, with conspiracy against Jus- 
 tinian, but was acquitted. That he 
 was deprived of sight, and reduced to 
 beggary, appears to be a fable of late 
 invention. Died in 565. 
 
 Belize, or British Honduras, a 
 British colony washed on the E. by 
 the Bay of Honduras, in the Carib- 
 bean Sea, and elsewhere surrounded 
 by Guatemala and Mexico. It forms 
 the S. E. part of the peninsula of 
 Yucatan, and measuring 180 by 60 
 miles, has an area of 7,562 square 
 miles. Since 1862 Belize has ranked 
 as a British colony, with a lieutenant- 
 governor, whose rank was raised, in 
 1884, to that of governor. Pop. (1901) 
 36,998. Belize, the capital, is a depot 
 for foreign goods for Central America, 
 and has a population of about 6,600. 
 
 Belknap, George Eugene, an 
 American naval officer, born in New- 
 port, N. H., Jan. 22, 1832; was ap- 
 pointed midshipman in the navy in 
 1852, rose to Rear-Admiral in 1889; 
 and was retired in 1894. He took 
 part in the capture of the Barrier 
 Forts on the Canton river, China, in 
 1856 ; and in the Civil War. In 1873, 
 while engaged in deep sea sounding in 
 the North Pacific Ocean, he made dis- 
 coveries concerning the bed of the ocean 
 that found high favor among scientists. 
 He was appointed Superintendent of 
 the United States Naval Observatory 
 in 1885. He died in 1903. 
 
 Belknap, William Worth, an 
 American military officer, born in 
 Newburg, N. Y., Sept. 22, 1829 ; grad- 
 uated at Princeton, and read law in 
 Keokuk, la., where he was elected to 
 the Legislature in 1857. In 1861 he 
 entered the Union army as Major of 
 the 15th Iowa Volunteers and was 
 engaged at Shiloh, Corinth, and Vicks- 
 burg ; but became most prominent in 
 Sherman's Atlanta campaign. He 
 was promoted to Brigadier-General, 
 July 30, 1864, and Major-General, 
 March 13, 1865. He was collector of 
 internal revenue in Iowa from 1865 
 to Oct. 13, 1869, when he was ap-
 
 Bell 
 
 pointed Secretary of War, which of- 
 fice he occupied till March 7, 1876. 
 He resigned in consequence of accusa- 
 tions of official corruption. Subse- 
 quently he was tried and acquitted. 
 He died in Washington, D. C., Oct. 
 12, 1890. 
 
 Bell, a hollow, sounding instru- 
 ment of metal. The metal from which 
 bells are usually made (by founding), 
 is an alloy, called bell-metal, com- 
 monly composed of 80 parts of copper 
 and 20 of tin. 
 
 Bells, as the term is used on ship- 
 board, are the strokes of the ship's 
 bell that proclaim the hours. Eight 
 bells, the highest number, are rung at 
 noon and every fourth hour after- 
 wards, i. e., at 4, 8, 12 o'clock, and 
 BO on. The intermediary periods are 
 indicated thus: 12:30, 1 bell; 1 
 o'clock, 2 bells; 1:30, 3 bells, etc., 
 until the eight bells announce 4 
 o'clock, when the series recommences 
 4:30, 1 bell; 5 o'clock, 2 bells, etc. 
 The even numbers of strikes thus al- 
 ways announce hours, the odd numbers 
 half hours. 
 
 Bell, Alexander Graham, in- 
 ventor of the telephone, was born in 
 Edinburgh, March 3, 1847; son of 
 Alexander Melville Bell. He was ed- 
 ucated at Edinburgh and in Germany, 
 and settled in Canada in 1870. In 
 1872 he came to the United States 
 and introduced for the education of 
 deaf mutes the system of visible 
 speech contrived by his father. He 
 became Professor of Vocal Physiology 
 dn Boston University, and at the Phil- 
 adelphia Exhibition, in 1876, exhibit- 
 ed his telephone, designed and partly 
 constructed some years before. He 
 was also the inventor of the photo- 
 phone in 1880, of the graphophone in 
 1887, and of kindred instruments. 
 
 Bell, Alexander Melville, a 
 Scotch elocutionist, born at Edin- 
 burgh in 1819. He is inventor of the 
 system of visible speech, in which all 
 the possible articulations of the hu- 
 man voice have corresponding char- 
 acters designed to represent the re- 
 spective positions of the vocal organs. 
 This system has been successfully em- 
 ployed in teaching the deaf and dumb 
 to speak. Besides writing on this 
 subject he has written on elocution, 
 stenography, etc. Died Aug. 7, 1905, 
 
 Bell 
 
 Bell, Andrew James, a Cana- 
 dian educator, born in Ottawa, May 
 12, 1856 ; educated at the University 
 of Toronto, and at Breslau Universi- 
 ty; became Professor of Latin and 
 Literature in Victoria University, in 
 1889. He is an active member of the 
 Canadian Institute, and has contrib- 
 uted some important papers to its 
 " Transactions." 
 
 Bell, Benjamin Taylor A., a 
 Scotch-Canadian mining expert, born 
 in Edinburgh, July 2, 1863 ; was edu- 
 cated in Edinburgh ; went to Canada 
 in 1882. In 1890 he organized the 
 General Mining Association of the 
 Province, and in 1892 he was instru- 
 mental in uniting the coal, gold, and 
 other mineral interests of Nova Scotia 
 into a like organization. 
 
 Bell, Henry, a Scotch engineer, 
 born in Linlithgowshire in 1767. In 
 1798 he turned his attention es- 
 pecially to the steamboat, the prac- 
 ticability of steam navigation hav- 
 ing been already demonstrated. In 
 1812 the "Comet," a small 30-ton 
 vessel built at Glasgow under Bell's 
 directions, and driven by a three 
 horse-power engine made by him- 
 self, commenced to ply between 
 Glasgow and Greenock, and continued 
 to run till she was wrecked in 1820. 
 This was the beginning of steam navi- 
 gation in Europe. Bell is also cred- 
 ited with the invention of the " dis- 
 charging machine " used by calico 
 printers. He died in Helensburgh, in 
 1830. A monument has been erected 
 to his memory at Dunglass Point on 
 the Clyde. 
 
 Bell, Henry Hay wood, an Amer- 
 ican naval officer, born in North Caro- 
 lina, about 1808; was appointed a 
 midshipman from that State in 
 1823. Shortly after the outbreak 
 of the Civil War, he became Fleet 
 Captain of the Western Gulf Squad- 
 ron. He commanded one of the 
 three divisions of the fleet which cap- 
 tured New Orleans, and was sent to 
 raise the United States flag over the 
 custom house and the city hall. In 
 1866 he was promoted to Rear-Ad- 
 miral ; and, in 1867, retired. He was 
 drowned at the mouth of the Osaka 
 river, Japan, Jan. 11, 1868. 
 
 Bell, Isaac, an American philan- 
 thropist, born in New York city. Aug.
 
 Bell 
 
 4, 1814; died in New York city, Sept. 
 30, 1897. 
 
 Bell, James Franklin, an Amer- 
 ican military officer, born in Ken- 
 tucky, was graduated at the United 
 States Military Academy ; commis- 
 sioned Second Lieutenant in the 9th 
 Cavalry in 1879 ; was promoted to 
 First Lieutenant in the 7th Cavalry, 
 Dec. 29, 1890 ; and Captain, March 2, 
 1899. On July 5, 1899, he was com- 
 missioned Colonel of the 3Gth United 
 States Infantry, and, in an action 
 with the Filipino insurgents near Po- 
 rac, Luzon, Sept. 9, following, he so 
 signally distinguished himself that 
 President McKinley directed that a 
 Congressional medal of honor be pre- 
 sented to him. Colonel Bell had much 
 to do with the establishment of the 
 United States War School for Cavalry 
 and Light Artillery at Fort Riley, 
 Kan., and is considered an exception- 
 ally skillful cavalry officer. 
 
 Bell, John, an American states- 
 man, born near Nashville, Tenn., Feb. 
 18, 1797; was admitted to the bar in 
 1816 ; member of Congress from 1827 
 to 1841; Speaker in 1834, and Secre- 
 tary of War in 1841. During this 
 period he became from an ardent free 
 trader, a protectionist and supporter 
 of the Whigs, and favored the recep- 
 tion of petitions for the abolition of 
 slavery in the District of Columbia; 
 afterward (1858) he vigorously op- 
 posed the admission of Kansas as a 
 slave State. He sat in the United 
 States Senate from 1847 to 1859, and, 
 in I860, was nominated for the Presi- 
 dency by the " Constitutional Union " 
 Party, but received only 39 electoral 
 votes, cast by the States of Tennes- 
 see, Kentucky and Virginia. He after- 
 ward took no active share in politics, 
 and died at Cumberland Ironworks, 
 Sept. 10, 1869. 
 
 Bell, Liberty, a famous bell 
 which was rung when the Continental 
 Congress declared the independence of 
 the United States in 1776. The order 
 for founding it was given in 1751. The 
 State House of Pennsylvania, in Phil- 
 adelphia, work on which had been sus- 
 pended for a number of years, was 
 then approaching completion. The 
 lower floors were already occupied by 
 the Supreme Court in the Chamber, 
 while in the other assembled the Free- 
 
 Bell 
 
 men of the Province of Pennsylvania, 
 then consisting of one body. A com- 
 mittee was appointed by the Freemen, 
 with Peter Norris as chairman, and 
 empowered to have a new bell cast for 
 the building. The commission for the 
 bell was, in the same year, awarded 
 to Robert Charles, of London, the 
 specification being that the bell should 
 weigh 2,000 pounds and cost 100 
 sterling. It was to be made by the 
 best workmen, to be examined care- 
 fully before being shipped, and to con- 
 tain, in well shaped letters around it, 
 the inscription : " By order of the 
 Province of Pennsylvania for tho 
 State House in the City of Philadel- 
 phia, 1752." An order was given to 
 place underneath this the prophetic 
 words from Leviticus xxv : 10 : " Pro- 
 claim liberty throughout the land and 
 to all the inhabitants thereof." The 
 reason for the selection of this text 
 has been a subject of much conjecture, 
 but the true reason is apparent when 
 the full text is read. It is as follows : 
 " And ye shall hallow the 50th year 
 and proclaim liberty throughout the 
 land and to all the inhabitants there- 
 of." In selecting the text the Quakers 
 had in memory the arrival of William 
 Penn and their forefathers more than 
 half a century before. In August, 
 1752, the bell arrived, but though in 
 apparent good order, it was cracked 
 by a stroke of the clapper while being 
 tested. It was recast successfully, and 
 placed in position in June, 1753. Af- 
 ter the Declaration of Independence it 
 rang out the memorable message of 
 " Liberty throughout the land and to 
 all the inhabitants thereof." For 50 
 years the bell continued to be rung on 
 every festival and anniversary, until 
 it eventually cracked. An ineffectual 
 attempt was made to cause it to con- 
 tinue serviceable by enlarging the 
 cause of its dissonance and chipping 
 the edges. It was removed from its 
 position in the tower to a lower story, 
 and only used on occasions of public 
 sorrow. Subsequently, it was placed 
 on the original timbers in the vesti- 
 bule of the State House, and, in 1873, 
 it was suspended in a prominent posi- 
 tion immediately beneath where a 
 larger bell, presented to the city ha 
 1866, now proclaims the passing 
 hours. In 1893 it was taken to Chi-
 
 Bell 
 
 cago and placed on exhibition at the 
 World's Columbian Exposition. 
 
 Bell, Lilian, an American novel- 
 ist, born in Kentucky in 1867. 
 
 Bell, Robert, a Canadian geolo- 
 gist, born in the township of Toronto, 
 Ont, June 3, 1841 ; author of about 
 130 reports and papers, a list of which 
 is found in the " Biblio of the Royal 
 Society." 
 
 Bell, Samuel Dana, an Ameri- 
 can jurist, born in Francestown, N. 
 H., Oct. 9, 1798; died in Winchester, 
 N. H., July 31, 1808. 
 
 Belladonna, a European plant, 
 atropa belladonna, or deadly night- 
 shade, natural order solanaceae. It is 
 native in Great Britain. All parts of 
 the plant are poisonous, and the in- 
 cautious eating of the berries has often 
 produced death. The inspissated juice 
 is commonly known by the name of 
 extract of belladonna. It is narcotic 
 and poisonous, but is of great value 
 in medicine, especially in nervous ail- 
 ments. It has the property of causing 
 the pupil of the eye to dilate. The 
 fruit of the plant is a dark, brownish- 
 black shining berry. The name signi- 
 fies beautiful lady, and is said to have 
 been given from the use of the plant 
 as a cosmetic. 
 
 Bellamy, Edward, an American 
 writer, born in Chicopee Falls, Mass., 
 March 29, 1850. He was educated in 
 Germany ; admitted to the bar ; was 
 on the staff of the " Evening Post " of 
 New York in 1871-1872 ; and on his 
 return from the Sandwich Islands in 
 1877, he founded the Springfield 
 " News." He is best known by his 
 novel "Looking Backward" (1888), 
 a socialistic work, of which an im- 
 mense number of copies were sold in 
 two years. He died in Chicopee Falls, 
 Mass., May 22, 1898. 
 
 Bellamy, Mrs. Elizabeth 
 Whitfield, (Crooiu), an American 
 novelist, writing under the pseudonym 
 KAMBA THORPE, born at Quincy, Fla., 
 1839. 
 
 Bell Bird, a bird, called also the 
 arapunga. It is pure white in color, 
 about a foot in length, and has a voice 
 like the tolling of a bell. It inhabits 
 Guiana. 
 
 Belle de Nnit, a name sometimes 
 given to the Marvel of Peru (mira- 
 
 Belligerent 
 
 bills jalapa) , sometimes also to cer- 
 tain tropical American and West In- 
 dian species of convolvulaceae, with 
 extremely beautiful and fragrant flow- 
 ers, which open only during the night. 
 
 Belle - Isle, or Belle Isle - en 
 Mer, a French island in the Bay of 
 Biscay, Department of Morbihan, 8 
 miles S. of Quiberon Point ; length, 11 
 miles ; greatest breadth, 6 miles. Pop. 
 about 10,000, largely engaged in the 
 pilchard fishing. The capital is Le 
 Palais, on the N. E. coast. 
 
 Belle-Isle, a rocky island 9 miles 
 long, at the E. entrance to the Strait 
 of Belle-Isle, the channel, 17 miles 
 wide, between Newfoundland and the 
 coast of Labrador. 
 
 Belle-Isle, an island in the James 
 river, near Richmond, Va., where 
 Union prisoners were confined during 
 the Civil War. 
 
 Belles Lettres, polite, or elegant 
 literature : a word of somewhat vague 
 signification. Rhetoric, poetry, fiction, 
 history, and criticism, with the lan- 
 guages in which these works are 
 written come under this head. 
 
 Belleville, city and capital of St. 
 Clair county, 111.; on the Illinois 
 Central and other railroads; 14 miles 
 S. E. of St. Louis, Mo.; is in a 
 wheat, corn, oats, hay, and vegetable 
 section; has valuable coal mines 
 nearby; and manufactures traction 
 engines, glass, stoves and ranges, 
 machinery, bricks, and farming im- 
 plements. Pop. (1910) 21,122. 
 
 Bellville, city, port of entry, and 
 capital of Hastings district, Ontario, 
 Canada; on the Moira river, Quinte 
 bay, and Grand Trunk railroad; 113 
 miles E. of Toronto; has a fine har- 
 bor; superior water-power, and steamer 
 connection with Canadian and United 
 States points; is the seat of Albert 
 College (M. E.); and is chiefly en- 
 gaged in manufacturing and farming. 
 Pop. (1901) 9,117. 
 
 Belligerent, a nation or a large 
 section of a nation engaged in carry- 
 ing on war. When a revolted party 
 of great numerical strength are able 
 to form a regular government and rule 
 over the whole, or part of the territory 
 which they claim, humanity dictates 
 that they should not be treated as 
 rebels guilty of treason, but should, 
 if captured, be regarded as prisoners
 
 Bellingham 
 
 of war. To attain this result, it is 
 needful for those who have risen in 
 arms against the government to make 
 every effort to obtain for their party 
 the position of belligerents. In the 
 contest between the Federals and Con- 
 federates, in the war of 1861-1865, 
 the latter, at the commencement of 
 the struggle, claimed the privilege of 
 belligerents. Their demand was ac- 
 ceded to by the British Government, 
 on which the Federal authorities 
 took umbrage, contending that the 
 recognition had been premature. 
 
 Bellingham, city, port of entry, 
 and capital of Wbatconi county, 
 Wash.; on Bellingham bay and sev- 
 eral railroads; 80 miles N. of Seattle; 
 comprises the former cities of Fair 
 Haven and Whatconi, united in 1903; 
 has an excellent harbor on Puget 
 sound, state normal school, two Car- 
 negie libraries and varied manufac- 
 tures. Pop. (19101 24.298. 
 
 Bellingham, Richard, an Eng- 
 lish colonial governor, born in 1592 ; 
 arrived in Boston in 1034, and in the 
 following year became deputy gover- 
 nor of Massachusetts. In 1041 he was 
 candidate for governor against Win- 
 throp, and was elected ; was re-elected 
 in 1054 and 1665 ; and held the gover- 
 norship at the time of his death. In 
 1664 he refused to go to England at 
 the command of the King, to defend 
 his administration. He became Major- 
 General in the same year. He died 
 Dec. 7, 1672. 
 
 Bellini, the name of a Venetian 
 family which produced several re- 
 markable painters. GIOVANNI BELLI- 
 NI, born in 1426, died in 1512, was 
 the founder of the older Venetian 
 school of painting, and contributed 
 greatly to its progress. His best works 
 are altar pieces. 
 
 Bellinzona, a town of Switzer- 
 land, capital of the canton of Ticino ; 
 charmingly situated on the left bank 
 of the Ticino, about 5 miles from its 
 embouchure in in the N. end of Lago 
 Maggiore. It occupies a position of 
 great military importance. 
 
 Bellman, Carl Michael, a Swe- 
 dish poet, born in Stockholm, Feb. 4, 
 1740. His poems were often improvisa- 
 tions, and the airs of his songs were 
 largely of his own composition. As 
 singer of the rollicking life of a capi- 
 
 Bellows 
 
 tal city, he is unsurpassed. A colossal 
 bronze bust of Bellman, by Bystrom, 
 was erected in the Zoological Garden 
 at Stockholm in 1829, and there a 
 popular festival is held yearly in his 
 honor. He died in Stockholm, Feb. 
 11, 1795. 
 
 Bello, Andres, a Spanish-Ameri- 
 can diplomatist and author, born in 
 Caracas, Venezuela, Nov. 30, 1780. 
 From 1810 to 1828 he represented 
 Venezuela in London ; in 1829, became 
 an official of the Bureau of Finance ; 
 in 1834, Minister of Foreign Affairs 
 for Chile; in 1842, the first rector of 
 Santiago University. He was the au- 
 thor of " Principles of International 
 Law" (1832), and his entire works 
 were printed after his death at the 
 expense of the State. He died in San- 
 tiago, Chile, Oct. 15, 1865. 
 
 Bellona, the goddess of war, and 
 sister or wife, or sister-wife and chari- 
 oteer of Mars. 
 
 Bellot, Joseph Rene, a French 
 naval officer, born in Paris in 1826. 
 In 1851 he joined the expedition to 
 the Polar regions in search of Sir 
 John Franklin, and took part in sev- 
 eral explorations. He was drowned 
 in an attempt to carry despatches to 
 Sir Edward Belcher over the ice, in 
 1853. His diary was published in 
 1855. 
 
 Bellot Strait, the passage on the 
 N. coast of North America, which 
 separates North Somerset from Boo- 
 thia Felix, and connects Prince Re- 
 gent Inlet with Franklin Channel. Its 
 E. entrance was discovered in 1852 by 
 Lieut. Joseph Rene Bellot. 
 
 Bellows, an instrument for blow- 
 ing the fire in manufactories, forges or 
 private houses. 
 
 Bellows, Albert F., an American 
 painter born in Milford, Mass., Nov. 
 20, 1829; was one of the first to suc- 
 ceed with water colors. He died in 
 Auburndale, Mass., Nov. 24, 1883. 
 
 Bellows, Henry Whitney, an 
 American Unitarian clergyman and 
 writer, born at Walpole, N. H., June 
 11, 1814; became pastor of All Souls 
 Church, New York, 1839; was chief 
 founder and long editor of the " Chris- 
 tian Inquirer" (1846); chief origi- 
 nator of the United States Sanitary 
 Commission, and its President during 
 the Civil War (1861-1865). He was
 
 Bellows Fisli 
 
 Beloit 
 
 an effective preacher and public speak- 
 er. He died in New York, Jan. 30, 
 1882. 
 
 Bellows Fish, called also the trum- 
 pet fish or sea snipe. It is 4 or 5 
 inches long, and has an oblong, oval 
 body and a tubular elongated snout, 
 which is adapted for drawing from 
 among sea-weed and mud the minute 
 Crustacea on which it feeds. 
 
 Bell Rock, or Inch Cape, a dan- 
 gerous reef surmounted by a light- 
 house, situated in the German Ocean, 
 about 12 miles from Arbroath, nearly 
 opposite the mouth of the river Tay. 
 It is said that in former ages the 
 monks of Aberbrothock caused a bell 
 to be fixed on this reef, which was 
 rung by the waves, and warned the 
 mariners of this dangerous place. The 
 reef is partly uncovered during the ebb 
 tides. 
 
 Bell-Smith, Frederic Marlett, 
 an English artist, born in London, 
 Sept. 26, 1846; went to Canada in 
 1866. He was for seven years Art Di- 
 rector at Alma College, St. Thomas, 
 and teacher of drawing in the public 
 schools of London, Ont. About 1888 
 he became a portrait and figure paint- 
 er ; but he is best known as a painter 
 of landscapes. 
 
 Belmoiit, a town in the E. part 
 of Cape Colony, midway between 
 Orange River Junction and Kimber- 
 ley. It was the scene of one of the 
 earliest engagements in the war of 
 1899-1900, between the Boers and the 
 British under Gen. Lord Methuen. 
 The town was attacked by the British 
 on Nov. 23, 1899, while on the march 
 to the relief of Kimberley, and the 
 battle resulted in a victory for them. 
 Two days later Lord Methuen took 
 Graas Pan, 10 miles N. of Belmont, 
 after again defeating the Boers. 
 
 Belmont, August, an American 
 banker, born in Alzey, Germany ; ed- 
 ucated at Frankfort, and was appren- 
 ticed to the Rothschild's banking 
 house in that city when 14 years old. 
 In 1837 he went to Havana to take 
 charge of the firm's interests, and soon 
 afterward was sent to New York city, 
 where he established himself in the 
 banking business and as the represent- 
 ative of the Rothschilds. He was 
 Consul-General of Austria, in 1844- 
 1850; became Charge d'Affaires at 
 
 The Hague in 1853; and was Minis- 
 ter-Resident there in 1854-1858. He 
 was a delegate to the Democratic Na- 
 tional Convention in 1860, and when 
 a portion of the delegates withdrew 
 and organized the convention in Balti- 
 more, he was active in that body, and 
 through it became Chairman of the 
 National Democratic Committee, an 
 office he held till 1872. He was an 
 active worker in the party till 1876, 
 when he closed his political career. 
 He died in New York city, Nov. 24, 
 1890. 
 
 Belmont, August, an American 
 banker, born in New York city, Feb. 
 18, 1853 ; son of the preceding. He 
 was graduated at Harvard University 
 in 1875; at once entered his father's 
 banking house, and on the death of 
 his father became head of the firm of 
 August Belmont & Co., also repre- 
 senting the European banking firm of 
 the Rothschilds. In February, 1900, 
 he organized the Rapid Transit Sub- 
 way Construction Company to back 
 John B. McDonald, who had been 
 awarded the $35,000,000 contract for 
 the construction of a rapid transit 
 system in New York city, which, it is 
 stated, will be in operation in March, 
 1904. 
 
 Belmont, Perry, an American 
 lawyer, born in New York, Dec. 28, 
 1851; son of August Belmont; grad- 
 uated at Harvard University in 1872, 
 and at Columbia College Law School 
 in 1876 ; was admitted to the bar and 
 practiced in New York till 1881, when 
 he was elected as a Democrat to Con- 
 gress, and served till 1887, being a 
 member of the Committee on Foreign 
 Affairs. In 1885 he was appointed 
 Chairman of the Committee on For- 
 eign Affairs, and in 1888 United 
 States Minister to Spain. He was 
 one of the principals in the execu- 
 tion of the great contract for the 
 construction of a rapid transit sys- 
 tem in New York city, in 1900. 
 
 Beloit, a city in Rock county, 
 Wis.; on the Rock river and the 
 Chicago & Northwestern and other 
 railroads; 84 miles S. W. of Milwau- 
 kee; is the seat of Beloit Collego 
 (Cong.); has ample power from the 
 river for its factories; and, besides 
 one of the largest wood-working ma- 
 chinery plants in the world, manu-
 
 Belshazzar 
 
 Ben 
 
 factures wind-mills, towers and 
 tanks, shoes, and building paper. 
 Pop. (1910) 15,125. 
 
 Belshazzar, the last of the Baby- 
 lonian kings, who reigned conjointly 
 with his father Nabonadius. He per- 
 ished B. c. 538, during the successful 
 storming of Babylon by Cyrus. 
 
 Belt, in astronomy, a varying num- 
 ber of dusky, belt-like bands or zones 
 encircling the planet Jupiter parallel 
 to his equator, as if the clouds of his 
 atmosphere had , been forced into a 
 series of parallels through the rapidity 
 of his rotation, and the dark body of 
 the planet was seen through the com- 
 paratively clear spaces between. 
 
 In physical geography, two pas- 
 sages or straits connecting the Baltic 
 with the German Ocean, viz. (a) the 
 Great Belt, between the islands of 
 Seeland and Laland on the N. and 
 Fuhnen and Langeland, on the W. 
 (b) The Little Belt, between the 
 mainland of Denmark on the W., and 
 the island of Fuhnen on the E. 
 
 Beltane, a superstitious observ- 
 ance now or formerly practiced among 
 the Scottish and Irish Celts, as well 
 as in Cumberland and Lancashire. 
 The Scotch observe the Beltane f a sti- 
 val chiefly on the 1st of May (old 
 style), though in the W. of that coun- 
 try St. Peter's Day, June 29, was pre- 
 ferred. In Ireland there were two 
 Beltanes, one "on the 1st of May, and 
 the other on the 21st of June. The 
 ceremonies varied in different places, 
 but one essential part of them every- 
 where was to light a fire. At Cal- 
 lander, in Perthshire, the boys went 
 to the moors, cut a table out of sods, 
 sat round it, lit a fire, cooked and ate 
 a custard, baked an oatmeal cake, di- 
 vided it into equal segments, black- 
 ened one of these, drew lots, and then 
 compelled the boy who drew out the 
 blackened piece to leap three times 
 through the fire. Merry-makings came 
 at length to attend the Beltane festi- 
 val. 
 
 Beluga, a species of fish the 
 great or Hausen, sturgeon. It is 
 sometimes 12 to 15 feet in length, and 
 weighs 1,200 pounds, or in rare cases 
 even 3,000. The best isinglass is made 
 from its swimming bladder. Its flesh, 
 though sometimes eaten, is occasional- 
 ly unwholesome. It is found in the 
 
 Caspian and Black Seas and the large 
 rivers which flow into them. The 
 word is also applied to a cetacean. It 
 is called also the white whale. It ia 
 from 18 to 21 feet in length, and in- 
 habits Davis Straits and the other 
 portions of the Northern Seas, and 
 sometimes ascends rivers. 
 
 Being, the Roman name of the 
 Assyrian and Babylonian divinity 
 called Bel in Isaiah xlvi : 1. 
 
 Belns, a Phoenician river at the 
 base of Mt. Carmel. Its fine sand, 
 according to tradition, first led the 
 Phoenicians to the invention of glass. 
 
 Belns, Temple of, an enormous 
 temple in ancient Babylon, rebuilt by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, about 604 B. c. Its 
 site is thought, by some authorities, 
 to be the modern Bers-Nimrud, and by 
 others, Babil. 
 
 Belvedere, in architecture the up- 
 permost story of a building open to 
 the air, at least on one side, and fre- 
 quently on all, for the purpose of ob- 
 taining a view of the country and for 
 enjoying cool air. A portion of the 
 Vatican has this name. 
 
 Bembo, Pietro, an Italian schol- 
 ar, born at Venice in 1470. Pope 
 Paul III. conferred on him, 1539, the 
 hat of a cardinal, and soon after the 
 bishoprics of Gubbio and Bergamo. 
 He died in 1547. 
 
 Bemis, Edward Webster, an 
 American economist, born in Spring- 
 field, Mass., April 7, 1800 ; graduated 
 at Amherst College in 1880. In 1897 
 he became Professor of Economical 
 Science in the Kansas State Agricul- 
 tural College. 
 
 Bemis (incorrectly BEMUS) 
 Heights, a village in Saratoga coun- 
 ty, N. Y., on the Hudson river, fam- 
 ous as the scene of the first battle of 
 Stillwater, Sept. 19, 1777. 
 
 Ben (Hebrew, "son"), a prepos- 
 itive syllable signifying in composition 
 " son of," found in many Jewish 
 names, as Bendavid, Benasser, etc. 
 Beni, the plural, occurs in several 
 modern names, and in the names of 
 many Arabian tribes. 
 
 Ben, a Gaelic word signifying 
 mountain, * prefixed to the names of 
 many mountains in Scotland N. of the 
 Firths of Clyde and Forth; as, Ben 
 Nevis, Ben MacDhui, etc.
 
 Benaiali 
 
 Benaiah, the name of 12 different 
 persons mentioned in the Bible, the 
 one chiefly important being a son of 
 Jehoida, a chief priest. He was made 
 commander-in-chief in Joab's place by 
 Solomon. 
 
 Beiialcazor, Belasazor, or Ve- 
 lalcazor, Sebastian de, the name 
 given to SEBASTIAN MOVANO from his 
 native town ; a Spanish soldier who 
 figured in the Spanish conquests in 
 South America. His gallant conduct 
 attracted the attention of Pizarro, 
 who promoted him. He took the city 
 of Quito, made an expedition into Co* 
 lombia and reduced Popayan, and was 
 appointed governor of that part of 
 the country in 1538. He was forced 
 to resign this office in consequence of 
 legal complications and died when 
 about to return to Spain, in 1550. . 
 
 Benares, a town in Hindustan, 
 Northwest Provinces, administrative 
 headquarters of a district and division 
 of the same name, on the left bank of 
 the Ganges, from which it rises like 
 an amphitheater, presenting a splen- 
 did panorama of temples, mosques, 
 palaces, and other buildings, with 
 their domes, minarets, etc. Fine 
 ghauts lead down to the river. It is 
 one of the most sacred places of pil- 
 grimage in all India, being the head- 
 quarters of the Hindu religion. The 
 principal temple is dedicated to Siva, 
 whose sacred symbol it contains. It 
 is also the seat of government and 
 other colleges, and of the missions of 
 various societies. Benares carries on 
 a large trade in the produce of the 
 district and in English goods, and 
 manufactures silks, shawls, embroid- 
 ered cloth, jewelry, etc. The popula- 
 tion in 1901, was 203,100. 
 
 Benbow, John, an English admi- 
 ral, born in Shrewsbury about 1650, 
 died 1702. For his skill and valor in 
 an action with a Barbary pirate he 
 was promoted by James II. to the com- 
 mand of a ship of war. William III. 
 employed him in protecting the En- 
 glish trade in the Channel, which he 
 did with great effect, and he was soon 
 promoted to the rank of rear-admiral. 
 In 1701 he sailed to the West Indies 
 with a small fleet, and in August of 
 the following year he fell in with the 
 French fleet under Du Casse, and in 
 the heat of action a chain-shot carried 
 
 Benedict 
 
 away one of his legs. At this critical 
 instant, being most disgracefully aban- 
 doned by several of the captains under 
 his command, the whole fleet effected 
 its escape. Benbow, on his return to 
 Jamaica, brought the delinquents to a 
 court-martial, by which two of them 
 were condemned to be shot. He him- 
 self died of his wounds. 
 
 Bench Warrant, a warrant is- 
 sued by the court before which an in- 
 dictment has been found to arrest the 
 accused, that he may appear and find 
 bail for his appearance at the trial. 
 It is used extensively in the United 
 States to bring into court persons who 
 have neglected to obey an order of 
 court, such as delinquent jurymen. 
 
 Bencoolen, a seaport on the W. 
 coast of Sumatra Island, Dutch East 
 Indies; capital of a Residency of the 
 same name. It was founded in 1685 
 by the English and ceded to the Dutch 
 in 1824. Area of Residency, 9,690 
 square miles; pop. of Residency, 140,- 
 126; of town, 5,000. 
 
 Bendemann, Eduarcl, a German 
 painter, born in Berlin, Dec. 3, 1811 ; 
 died in Dusseldorf, Dec. 27, 1889. 
 
 Bendire, Charles Emil, a Ger- 
 man-American military officer and or- 
 nithologist, born in Darmstadt, Ger- 
 many, April 27, 1836, came to the 
 United States in 1852, and entered 
 the army in 1854. He served through 
 the Civil War, becoming a Captain in 
 the 1st Cavalry. After the war he 
 was transferred to the West, and was 
 retired April 24, 1886. During his 
 stay in the West he applied himself to 
 the study of ornithology, and collected 
 a vast amount of material in various 
 branches of natural history. In 1870 
 he began to collect the eggs of North 
 American birds, which finally number- 
 ed more than 8,000 specimens, and 
 this collection he presented to the 
 United States National Museum. He 
 is the author of " The Life Histories 
 of North American Birds, with Spe- 
 cial Reference to their Breeding Hab- 
 its and Eggs." 
 
 Benedetti, Vincent, Connt de, 
 a French diplomatist of Italian ex- 
 traction, born in Bastia, Corsica, 
 April 29, 1817; died in Paris, March 
 28, 1900. 
 
 Benedict, a married man; from 
 the Latin benedictus (a happy man).
 
 Benedict VII. 
 
 Benevolence 
 
 Benedict VII., Pope, succeeded 
 John XIII. in 972. After the death 
 of the Emperor Otho I., the Romans 
 imprisoned Benedict, who was stran- 
 
 led in the castle of St. Angelo, in 
 74. 
 
 Benedict XIV., Pope, was born 
 at Bologna in 1675, of the noble fam- 
 ily of Lambertini. Benedict was 
 learned, not only in theology, but in 
 history and literature, and had also 
 a taste for the fine arts. His works 
 were published at Rome, in 12 vol- 
 umes quarto. He died in 1758, and 
 was succeeded by Clement XIII. 
 
 Benedict, St., the founder of the 
 Order of the Benedictine Monks, was 
 born at Nursia, in the Dukedom of 
 Spoleto, in Italy, in 480 A. D. Authors 
 are not agreed upon the time and 
 place of his death. 
 
 Benedict, David, a Baptist cler- 
 gyman and historian, born at Nor* 
 walk, Conn., in 1779; was pastor at 
 Pawtucket, R. I., for 25 years, and 
 preached till over 90 years of age. 
 He died in 1874. 
 
 Benedict, Frank Lee, an Amer- 
 ican novelist and poet, born in New 
 York in 1834. 
 
 Benedictine, a follower of ST. 
 BENEDICT (q. v.). From the pre- 
 dominantly black color of their attire, 
 they were sometimes called Black 
 Monks. They must not be confound- 
 ed with the Black Friars, who were 
 Dominicans. 
 
 Benediction (from the Latin be- 
 nedicere, literally, "to speak well of;" 
 " to commend ") , a solemn invocation 
 of the Divine blessing upon men or 
 things. The ceremony in its simplest 
 form may be considered almost coeval 
 with the earliest expressions of religi- 
 ous feeling. The Sabbath is said to 
 have been blessed. Christ " took bread 
 and blessed it," and " lifting up His 
 hands," blessed His disciples. In the 
 primitive Church the custom gradual- 
 ly developed itself in various liturgi- 
 cal forms. In Protestant churches a 
 form of benediction is used at the 
 close of religious services. In the Ro- 
 man Church a priestly benediction has 
 been defined as a formula of impera- 
 tive prayer, which, in addition to the 
 desire which it expresses, transmits a 
 certain grace or virtue to the object 
 orer which it is pronounced. 
 
 Bencdictus, the name given to 
 the hymn of Zacharias (Luke i: 68), 
 used as a canticle in -the morning ser- 
 vice of the Episcopal Church to fol- 
 low the lessons. This position it has 
 occupied from very ancient times. It 
 is also used in the Church of Rome. 
 
 Benefice, under the feudal sys- 
 tem, an estate held by feudal tenure. 
 Formerly, and even sometimes yet, 
 the word was applied to an ecclesiasti- 
 cal living of any kind, any church en- 
 dowed with a revenue, whether a dig- 
 nity or not. 
 
 Benefit of Clergy, the advantage 
 derived from the preferment of the 
 plea " I am a clergyman." When in 
 medieval times, a clergyman was ar- 
 raigned on certain charges he was 
 permitted to put forth the plea that 
 with respect to the offense of which 
 he was accused, he was not under the 
 jurisdiction of the civil courts, but, 
 being a clergyman, was entitled to be 
 tried by his spiritual superiors. The 
 cases in which the benefit of clergy 
 might be urged were such as affected 
 the life or limbs of the offender, high 
 treason, however, excepted. The ex- 
 emption has never been recognized in 
 America, and is abolished in Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Benevento (ancient Beneventum), 
 a city of Southern Italy, 32 miles N. 
 E. of Naples, and is the capital of a 
 province of same name. Near Bene- 
 vento, in 1266, was fought the great 
 battle between Charles of Anjou and 
 his rival, Manfred, in which the latter 
 was killed, and his army totally de- 
 feated. During the reign of Napo- 
 leon I., Benevento was formed into a 
 principality conferred on Talleyrand. 
 In 1815, it again reverted to the Pope. 
 In 1860, it was annexed to the king- 
 dom of Italy. Population est. 245,- 
 834. 
 
 Benevolence, in the history of 
 the law of England, was a species of 
 forced loan or contribution, levied by 
 kings without legal authority. It was 
 first so called in 1473, when asked 
 from his subjects by Edward IV. as a 
 mark of good will toward his rule. 
 James I. tried, but with little success, 
 to raise money by this expedient, and 
 it was never again attempted by the 
 crown; Charles I. expressly declining 
 to have recourse to it
 
 Benezeth 
 
 Benezeth, Anthony, a French- 
 American philanthropist, was born in 
 St. Quentin's, France, Jan. 31, 1713; 
 lived from infancy in England and the 
 United States. The greater part of 
 his writings were in the form of tracts 
 against the slave trade and in favor 
 of the American Indians. He died in 
 Philadelphia, Pa., May 3, 1784. 
 
 Benfey, Theodor, a German Ori- 
 entalist and comparative philologist, 
 born of Jewish parents near Got- 
 tingen, Jan. 28, 1809. In 1862 he 
 was appointed to the chair of San- 
 skrit and Comparative Philology in 
 the University of Gottingen, which he 
 held till his death, June 26, 1881. 
 
 Benga, an African tribe, living on 
 the Spanish island, Corisco, off the 
 W. coast, having moved from the in- 
 terior within a few generations. The 
 American Presbyterian Board of Mis- 
 sions have Christianized many of the 
 Bengas and translated books into their 
 language, which closely resembles the 
 Kamerun and Dualla. 
 
 Bengal. In the widest applica- 
 tion the name presidency of Bengal is 
 extended to the whole of British In- 
 dia, except what is under the gover- 
 nors of Madras and Bombay. But the 
 name is now usually restricted to that 
 portion which is under the lieutenant- 
 governor of Bengal. The total popu- 
 lation in 1901 amounted to 74,713,020. 
 
 The English first got a firm footing 
 in Bengal about 1644, and in 
 1707, Calcutta was erected into a 
 presidency, and the foundation of 
 British power in India laid. A bill 
 conferring upon agricultural tenants 
 a transferable interest in their hold- 
 fhgs and protecting them against evic- 
 tion was passed in 1885. 
 
 Bengal, Bay of, that portion of 
 the Indian Ocean which lies between 
 Hindustan and Farther India, or Bur- 
 ma, Siam, and Malacca, and may be 
 regarded as extending S. to Ceylon 
 and Sumatra. It receives the Ganges, 
 Brahmaputra, and Irrawadi. 
 
 Bengal, or Bengola, Light, a 
 kind of firework, giving a vivid and 
 sustained blue light. It is used for 
 signals at sea. 
 
 Bengongh, John "Wilson, a Ca- 
 nadian poet, born in Toronto, April 5, 
 1851 ; studied in the Whitley District 
 and Grammar School. In 1873 he es- 
 
 Benham 
 
 tablished the " Grip," a humorous 
 weekly, in Toronto. His political car- 
 toons in this paper were highly artis- 
 tic. He is also widely known as a 
 lecturer and a poet. 
 
 Benguela, a district belonging to 
 the Portuguese on the W. coast of 
 South Africa ; bounded N. by Angola, 
 and S. by the Kunene river; founded 
 by the Portuguese in 1617. 
 . Benguet, a province of Luzon, 
 Philippines; separated from the cen- 
 tral W. coast by the province of La 
 Union; area, 990 square miles; pop. 
 (1903) 22,745; capital, Bagnio, 143 
 miles N. of Manila; native races, 
 Ilocano and Igarrotes. 
 
 Ben-Hadad, or Benhaddad, the 
 name of three kings of Syria. The 
 first was a contemporary of Asa, King 
 of Judah (929-873 B. c.), I Kings, 
 xv. The second (860-824 B. c.) of 
 the time of Ahab, King of Israel, I 
 Kings, xx. The third at the time of 
 Jehoahaz, King of Israel (856-839 
 B. C.), II Kings, xiii. 
 
 Benham, Andrew Ellicott 
 Kennedy, an American naval officer, 
 born in New York, April 10, 1832; 
 entered the navy in 1847 ; was com- 
 missioned Rear-Admiral in 1890, and 
 was retired in 1894. During the Civil 
 War he served in the South Atlantic 
 and West Gulf Blockading Squadrons. 
 In April, 1893, he commanded one of 
 the divisions in the great naval display 
 at New York ; in 1894, as commander 
 of a squadron at Rio de Janeiro, Bra- 
 zil, he forced the commander of the in- 
 surgents' squadron to raise the block- 
 ade of the city and to discontinue fir- 
 ing on American merchant vessels; 
 and in 1898 was naval prize commis- 
 sioner in Savannah, Ga. 
 
 Benham, Henry W., an Ameri- 
 can military engineer, born in Ches- 
 hire, Conn., in 1816; was graduated 
 at the United States Military Academy 
 in 1837; and became Colonel of the 
 United States Engineers, and Brevet 
 Major-General, United States army. 
 He commanded the engineer brigade 
 and laid several pontoon bridges under 
 fire during the Chancellorsville bat- 
 tles ; constructed and commanded the 
 defenses at City Point; devised the 
 picket shovel ; and made many im- 
 provements in the construction of 
 pontoon bridges, in which he was a
 
 Beni 
 
 recognized expert. He died in New 
 York, June 1, 1884. 
 
 Beni, a river of Bolivia, South 
 America ; formed by the union of all 
 the streams flowing down the Eastern 
 Cordillera. 
 
 Beni-Hassan, a village of Mid- 
 dle Egypt, on the E. bank of the Nile, 
 remarkable for the grottoes or cata- 
 combs in the neighborhood. 
 
 Beni-Israel, a race in the W. of 
 India (the Konkan sea board, Bom- 
 bay, etc.) who keep a tradition of 
 Jewish origin, and whose religion is a 
 modified Judaism ; supposed to be a 
 remnant of the ten tribes. 
 
 Benin, a former negro kingdom of 
 West Africa, on the Bight of Benin, 
 extending along the coast on both sides 
 of the Benin river, W. of the lower 
 Niger, and to some distance inland. 
 The chief town is Benin (pop. 15,- 
 000), situated on the river Benin, 
 one of the mouths of the Niger. 
 
 In February, 1897, the Benin coun- 
 try was included within the Niger 
 Coast Protectorate, and a British 
 Resident was installed in the chief 
 town. The whole territory was then 
 between 3,000 and 4,000 square miles 
 in extent, contained about 400 towns 
 and villages, and had a population of 
 which no trustworthy estimate could 
 be formed. 
 
 Benin, Bight of, part of the 
 Gulf of Guinea, West Africa, which 
 extends into the land between the 
 mouth of the river Volta and that of 
 the Nun. 
 
 Benjamin, the youngest son of 
 Jacob and Rachel ( Gen. xxxv : 16- 
 18). Rachel died immediately after 
 he was born, and with her last breath 
 named him Ben-oni, the " son of my 
 sorrow;" but Jacob called him Ben- 
 jamin, " son of my right hand.'* 
 
 The tribe of Benjamin, small at first, 
 was almost exterminated in the days 
 of the Judges, but afterward it great- 
 ly increased. On the revolt of the 
 ten tribes, Benjamin adhered to the 
 camp of Judah ; and the two tribes 
 ever afterward closely united. King 
 Saul and Saul of Tarsus were both 
 Benjamites. 
 
 Benjamin, Jndah Philip, an 
 American lawyer, born in St. Croix, 
 West Indies, Aug. 11, 1811; was of 
 
 E. 17. 
 
 Bennett 
 
 English parentage and of Jewish 
 faith. He was educated at Yale Col- 
 lege ; admitted to the bar in New Or- 
 leans, in 1832; and elected to the 
 United States Senate in 1852 and 
 1858. At the beginning of the Civil 
 War, he resigned from the Senate and 
 declared his adhesion to the State of 
 Louisiana. In 1801 he accepted the 
 office of Attorney-General in the Cab- 
 inet of Jefferson Davis, and afterward 
 became successively Confederate Sec- 
 retary of War and Secretary of State. 
 After the war he went to London, 
 England, where he was admitted to 
 the bar in 1866. He gained a suc- 
 cessful practice, and in 1872 was for- 
 mally presented with a silk gown. He 
 wrote a " Treatise on the Law of Sale 
 of Personal Property" (1868). He 
 died in Paris, May 7, 1884. 
 
 Benjamin, Park, an American 
 journalist, poet, and lecturer, born at 
 Demerara, British Guiana, Aug. 14, 
 1809. He studied law originally. His 
 poems, of a high order of merit, have 
 never been collected. He died in New 
 York, Sept. 12, 1864. 
 
 Benjamin, Park, an American 
 lawyer, editor, and miscellaneous 
 writer, son of the preceding, born in 
 New York, May 11, 1849. A gradu- 
 ate of the United States Naval Acad- 
 emy (1867), he served on Admiral 
 Farragut's flagship, but resigned in 
 1869. As a lawyer he has been a 
 patent expert. He edited the " Scien- 
 tific American" (1872-1878). 
 
 Benjamin, Samuel Green 
 Wheeler, an American traveler, 
 artist, and miscellaneous writer, born 
 at Argos, Greece, Feb. 13, 1837. He 
 was United States Minister to Persia 
 (1883-1885). 
 
 Bennett, Charles Wesley, an 
 American Methodist clergyman and 
 educator, born at East Bethany, N. 
 Y., July 18, 1828; was Principal of 
 Genesee Wesleyan Seminary (1869- 
 1871), Professor of History and 
 Logic at Syracuse University (1871- 
 1885), Professor of Historical Theol- 
 ogy at Garrett Biblical Institute, 
 Evanston (1885-1891). He died at 
 Evanston, 111., April 17, 1891. 
 
 Bennett, Edmund Hatch, an 
 American lawyer, born in Manches- 
 ter, Vt., April 6, 1824; was graduated 
 at the University of Vermont in 1843,
 
 Bennett 
 
 Benoit 
 
 and admitted to the bar in 1847. 
 From 1871 he was Professor and Dean 
 at the Law School of Boston Univer- 
 sity. 
 
 Bennett, James Gordon, a 
 Scotch-American journalist ; founder 
 and proprietor of the New York 
 " Herald," born in Newmill, Keith, 
 Sept. 1, 1795. Trained for the Ro- 
 man Catholic priesthood, he emigrated 
 to the United States in 1819, where 
 he became in turn teacher, proof read- 
 er, journalist, and lecturer; he 
 founded the New York " Herald," 
 May 6, 1835, price one cent. He 
 spared no effort and expense in se- 
 curing news, and laid the foundation 
 of its after enormous success. It was 
 the first newspaper to publish the 
 stock lists and a daily money article. 
 He died in JSew York, June 1, 1872. 
 
 Bennett, James Gordon, an 
 American journalist, born in New 
 York city, May 10, 1841; son of 
 James Gordon Bennett, founder of the 
 New York " Herald," of which he 
 became managing editor in 18G6, and 
 from that time largely controlling, 
 and becoming proprietor on the death 
 of his father in 1872. In 1870 he 
 sent Henry M. Stanley on the explor- 
 ing expedition which resulted in the 
 finding of Dr. Livingstone, and, in 
 conjunction with the London " Daily 
 Telegraph," supplied the means for 
 his journey across Africa by way 
 of the Kongo in 1874-1878. He 
 founded the "Evening Telegram " 
 in New York, and established daily 
 editions of the " Herald " in Paris 
 and London. He early gave much 
 attention to yachting. He resides 
 mainly in Paris, collecting foreign 
 news, and directing by telegraph 
 the management and policy of his 
 newspapers. The New York " Her- 
 ald " was incorporated in 1899. 
 
 Bennett, Joseph H., an Amer- 
 ican philanthropist, born in Julius- 
 town, N. J., Aug. 16, 1816. He en- 
 gaged in the clothing business in Phila- 
 delphia, Pa., when 16 years old. His 
 property was said to be worth $3,000,- 
 000, and it is estimated that he gave 
 $1,000,000 to charity. He bequeathed 
 $500,000 to the University of Penn- 
 sylvania for its proposed college for 
 women. He died in Philadelphia, 
 Sept. 29, 1898. 
 
 Bennett, Sanford Fillmoie, an 
 
 American hymnologist, born in Eden, 
 N. Y., in 1836. He settled in Elk- 
 horn, Wis., in 1860, and became editor 
 of the " Independent." Resigning this 
 place, he entered the 40th Wisconsin 
 Volunteers and served with them 
 throughout the war. In 1867 he 
 aided J. P. Webster, the composer, in 
 preparing " The Signet Ring," a Sun- 
 day School hymn book, to which he 
 contributed about 100 hymns. " The 
 Sweet Bye and Bye " was one of the 
 first of these. Many of Mr. Bennett's 
 "hymns and songs have been published 
 in sheets. He died in Richmond, 111., 
 June 12, 1898. 
 
 Ben-Nevis, the most lofty moun- 
 tain in Great Britain, in Invernes- 
 shire, immediately E. of Fort William 
 and the opening of the Caledonian 
 canal, at the S. W. extremity of Glen- 
 more. It rises to the height of 4,406 
 feet, and in clear weather yields a 
 most extensive prospect. An observa- 
 tory was established on its summit in 
 May, 1881, by the Scottish Meteoro- 
 logical .Society. 
 
 Benningsen, or Bennigsen, 
 Levin August, Baron, a Russian 
 general, born in Hanover in 1745. He 
 entered the service of Catherine II., 
 and distinguished himself by great 
 gallantry. He died in 1826. 
 
 Bennington, town and county- 
 seat of Bennington co., Vt. ; on the 
 Bennington and Rutland and the Leb- 
 anon Springs railroads; 36 miles E. 
 of Troy, N. Y. Bennington is histor- 
 ically famous on account of the battle 
 fought Aug. 36, 1777, when General 
 Stark with his " Green Mountain 
 Boys " defeated a large British detach- 
 ment sent from General Burgoyne's 
 army to capture the public stores near 
 North Bennington. Pop. (1910) 
 6,211. 
 
 Bennington, The, a twin-screw, 
 steel gunboat of the United States 
 navy. 
 
 Benoit, Pierre Leopold Leon- 
 ard, a Flemish musician and com- 
 poser, born in Harelbeke, Belgium, 
 Aug. 17, 1834; a pupil of Fetis. He 
 has held the position of Director of 
 the Flemish School of Music in Ant- 
 werp since 1867 ; and has written a 
 number of oratorios, cantatas, and 
 operas.
 
 Benteen 
 
 Benteen, Frederick William, 
 
 an American military officer, born in 
 Petersburg, Va., Aug. 24, 1834; was 
 educated in his native State ; and at 
 tie outbreak of the Civil War went to 
 Missouri and organized a company of 
 L'nion volunteers. His most brilliant 
 strvice after the war was in his cam- 
 paigns against the Indians. He died 
 in Atlanta, Ga., June 22, 1898. 
 
 Bent Grass, a genus of grasses, 
 distinguished by a loose panicle of 
 small, flowered, laterally compressed 
 spikelets. The species are numerous 
 and are found in almost all countries 
 and climates. 
 
 Benthani, Jeremy, an English 
 jurist, born in London, Feb. 15, 1748 ; 
 educated at Westminster and Oxford ; 
 entered Lincoln's Inn, in 1763. He 
 was called to the bar, but did not 
 practice, and, having private means, 
 devoted himself to the reform of civil 
 and criminal legislation. He died in 
 London, June 6, 1832, leaving his body 
 for dissection. His remains are to be 
 seen at University College, London. 
 
 Bentley, Richard, a celebrated 
 English divine and classical scholar, 
 distinguished as a polemical writer ; 
 born near Wakefield, in Yorkshire, 
 Jan. 27, 1662. He died at the mas- 
 ter's lodge at Trinity, July 14, 1742. 
 
 Benton, Thomas Hart, an Amer- 
 ican statesman, born near Hillsboro, 
 N. C., March 14, 1732 ; settled in Ten- 
 nessee, where he studied law, and was 
 elected to the Legislature. In 1812 
 he raised a regiment of volunteers, 
 and also served on General Jackson's 
 staff. After the war, he started a 
 newspaper in St. Louis, by which he 
 became involved in several duels. On 
 the admission of Missouri as a State, 
 he was chosen United States Senator 
 in 1820, and, in this post, during 30 
 years' continuous service, took a lead- 
 ing part in public affairs. A deter- 
 mined opponent of Calhoun's nullifica- 
 tion scheme, he afterward supported 
 Jackson in his war on the United 
 States bank, and earned the sobriquet 
 of " Old Bullion " by his opposition 
 to the paper currency. He died in 
 Washington, April 10, 1858. 
 
 Benzene, or Benzol (C, H ( ), a 
 carbon compound, best obtained from 
 the destructive distillation of coal-tar. 
 It is the source from which is derived 
 
 Berbera 
 
 all the aniline colors, and artificial 
 flavors. 
 
 Benzine (C 9 H ]4 ), a liquid hydro- 
 carbon obtained from a fractional dis- 
 tillation of petroleum. It may also 
 be got by distilling 1 part of crystal- 
 lized benzoic acid intimately mixed 
 with 3 parts of slacked line. It is 
 quite colorless, of a peculiar, etheral, 
 agreeable odor, is used by manfactur- 
 ers of india-rubber and gutta-percha, 
 on account of its great solvent powers, 
 in the preparation of varnishes, and 
 for cleaning gloves, removing grease- 
 spots from woollen and other cloths, 
 etc., on account of its dissolving fats 
 and resins. It is highly inflammable, 
 and must be used with great caution. 
 It must not be confounded with ben- 
 zene. 
 
 Benzoin, a solid, fragile, vegeta- 
 ble substance, of a reddish-brown 
 color. Benzoin is obtained from the 
 tree called Styrax benzoin, and per- 
 haps from some others. On making 
 incisions into the bark, it flows out 
 in the form of a balsamic juice, having 
 a pungent taste and an agreeable odor. 
 
 Beotliukan, (red man, or Indian), 
 a linguistic stock of North American 
 Indians, inhabitants of the region of 
 the Exploits river in Northern New- 
 foundland, and believed to have been 
 limited to a single tribe, the last known 
 survivor of which died in 1829. 
 
 Beowulf, an Anglo-Saxon epic, the 
 only manuscript of which belongs to 
 the 8th or 9th century, and is in the 
 Cottonian Library (British Museum). 
 The poem, which is the longest and 
 most important in Anglo-Saxon liter- 
 ature, is in many points obscure, and 
 the manuscript is somewhat imperfect. 
 
 Beranger, Pierre Jean de, the 
 national poet of France : born in 
 Paris, Aug. 19, 1780. He died in 
 Paris, July 16, 1857, and received the 
 honor of a public funeral, at which 
 the most eminent men in France, both 
 of the world of literature and politics, 
 attended. 
 
 Berand, Jean, a painter of great 
 power, born in St. Petersburg, of 
 French parentage, in 1845. His sub- 
 jects are usually chosen from Parisian 
 life. His latest works have been modern- 
 ized scenes from the New Testament. 
 
 Berbera, a seaport of British 
 Somaliland, Eastern Africa, with a
 
 Berbers 
 
 good harbor, on a bay of the Gulf of 
 Aden. It was conquered by Egypt in 
 1875, but in July, 1884, the British 
 Government took possession of it, and 
 a small Indian force is now stationed 
 here. It is the scene of a large an- 
 nual fair, which brings over 30,000 
 people together from all quarters in 
 the East. Coffee, grains, ghee, gold 
 dust, ivory, gums, cattle, ostrich 
 feathers, etc., are brought hither from 
 the interior, and exchanged for cot- 
 ton, rice, iron, Indian piece goods, etc. 
 Berbers, a people spread over 
 nearly the whole of Northern Africa, 
 from whom the name Barbary is de- 
 rived. The chief branches into which 
 the Berbers are divided are, first, the 
 Amazirgh, or Amazigh, of Northern 
 Morocco, numbering from 2,000,000 to 
 2,500,000. They are for the most part 
 quite independent of the Sultan of 
 Morocco, and live partly under chief- 
 tains and hereditary princes and part- 
 ly in small republican communities. 
 Second, the Shuluh, Shillooh, or Shel- 
 lakah, who number about 1,450,000, 
 end inhabit Southern Morocco. They 
 are more highly civilized than the Am- 
 azirgh. Third, the Kabyles in Algeria 
 end Tunis, who are said to number 
 960,000; and fourth, the Berbers of 
 the Sahara, who inhabit the oases. 
 Their language has affinities to the 
 Semitic group, but Arabic is spoken 
 along the coast. They are believed to 
 represent the ancient Mauritanians, 
 Numidians, Gsetulians, etc. 
 
 Berbice, a river of British Guia- 
 na ; flows generally N. E. into the At- 
 lantic. It is navigable for small ves- 
 sels for 165 miles from its mouth, but 
 beyond that the rapids are numerous 
 and dangerous. 
 
 Berea College, a co-educational 
 (non-sectarian) institution, in Berea, 
 Ky. ; organized in 1858. Under the 
 guidance of the able men who directed 
 its course, this institution did an al- 
 most incredible work among the moun- 
 taineers both black and white in the 
 Southern States. In the winter of 
 1903-1904, the Kentucky legislature 
 forbade co-education of white and 
 blacks, and Berea was obliged to estab- 
 lish branch for its colored students. 
 
 Berean, a Scottish religious sect 
 founded by the Rev. J. Barclay in 
 1773, and also called Barclayans. 
 
 Beresford 
 
 Berengarins, of Tours, a theo- 
 logian of the llth century. He was 
 born at Tours in 908, long held an ec- 
 clesiastical office there, and was after- 
 ward archdeacon of Angers. He was 
 thoroughly versed in the philosophy 
 of his age, and did not hesitate to ap- 
 ply reason to the interpretation of the 
 Bible. He denied the dogma of tran- 
 substantiation, and was charged with 
 heresy. He died on the Isle of St. 
 Cosmos, near Tours, in 1088. 
 
 Berenice, a daughter of Herod 
 Agrippa L, who was the son of Aristo- 
 bulus, who was the son of Herod the 
 Great (Acts xii ; Matthew ii). She 
 was the sister of Herodes Agrippa II., 
 before whom Paul preached A. D. 63 
 (Acts xxv : 13) , and the wife of Hero- 
 des of Chalcis, who seems to have 
 been her uncle, and left her a young 
 widow. After the capture of Jerusa- 
 lem she went to Rome (A. D. 75), and 
 Titus is said to have been so much at- 
 tached to her that he promised to mar- 
 ry her ; but on the death of his father 
 he sent Berenice from Rome, much 
 against his will and hers, when he 
 found that the proposed match was 
 disagreeable to the people. 
 
 Beresford, L,ord Charles de la 
 Poer, an English naval officer, born 
 in Ireland, Feb. 10, 1846; became a 
 Cadet in 1857; Lieutenant, 1868; 
 Captain, 1882 ; and Rear-Admiral, 
 1897. In 1882 he commanded the 
 " Condor " in the bombardment of 
 Alexandria, and was especially men- 
 tioned and honored for his gallantry. 
 In December, 1899, was appointed 
 the second in command of the 
 British squadron mobilized in the 
 Mediterranean Sea. Lord Beres- 
 ford accompanied the Prince of 
 Wales on his visit 1.o India in 
 1875-1876, as naval aide-de-camp, 
 and held the same relation to the 
 Queen in 1896-1897. He has served 
 several terms in Parliament. Besides 
 the numerous honors for gallantry as 
 an officer he has received three med- 
 als for saving life at sea under trying 
 circumstances. In 1898 he visited 
 China at the request of the Associated 
 Chambers of Commerce of Great Brit- 
 tain to make a study of the compli- 
 cated commercial conditions existing 
 there ; and on his return, in 1899, he 
 passed through the United State*
 
 Beresina 
 
 and was received with distinguished 
 honors by official and commercial bod- 
 ies. He has done much to promote 
 the " open door " policy as a condi- 
 tion of international commerce in 
 China. 
 
 Beresina, or Berezina, a river of 
 Russia in Europe; rendered famous 
 on account of its disastrous passage 
 by the French army during the retreat 
 of Napoleon I. from Russia, in 1812. 
 
 Berezpvsk, a village in the Rus- 
 sian province of Perm, near Ekaterin- 
 burg, gives name to a famous gold 
 field, wrought since 1744. 
 
 Berg, Frederick "William 
 Rambert, a Russian general, chiefly 
 notorious for the severity with which 
 he treated the unfortunate population 
 of Poland during the insurrection of 
 1863, and which excited the horror 
 and indignation of the civilized world. 
 
 Bergamot, a fruit tree, a variety 
 or species of the genus citrus, various- 
 ly classed with the orange, citrus au- 
 rantium, the lime, atrus limetta, or 
 made a distinct species as citrus ber- 
 gamia. It is probably of Eastern ori- 
 gin, though now grown in Southern 
 Europe, and bears a pale yellow, pear- 
 shaped fruit with a fragrant and 
 slightly acid pulp. Its essential oil 
 is in high esteem as a perfume. Ber- 
 gamot is also a name given to a num- 
 ber of different pears. 
 
 Bergen, a seaport on the W. coast 
 of Norway, the second town of the 
 kingdom, about 25 miles from the 
 open sea, on a bay of the Byford. 
 The trade is large, timber, tar, train 
 oil, cod liver oil. hides, and particular- 
 ly dried fish (stock fish) being export- 
 ed in return for corn, wine, brandy, 
 coffee, cotton, woolens, and sugar. In 
 1445 a factory was established here 
 by the Hanseatic cities of Germany. 
 Pop. (1900) 72,251. 
 
 Bergerac, Savinien Cyrano de, 
 a French author, born in Paris in 
 1619, distinguished for his courage in 
 the field, and for the number of his 
 duels, more than a thousand, most of 
 them fought on account of his mon- 
 strously large nose. He died in 1655. 
 His writings are often crude, but full 
 of invention, vigor, and wit. He was 
 made the hero of a drama bearing his 
 name, written by Edmond Rostand, 
 the French playwright, which had a 
 
 " . Beriberi 
 
 phenomenal success in the United 
 States in 1899^1900, and was the oc- 
 casion of a suit for plagiarism. 
 
 Bergerat, Auguste Einile, a 
 French journalist, playwright and 
 novelist, born in Paris, April 29, 1845, 
 son-in-law of Theophile Gautier, and 
 since 1884, particularly known as the 
 amusing chronicler of the " Figaro " 
 under the pseudonym of " Caliban." 
 He also wrote two novels. 
 
 Bergh, Henry, an American phi- 
 lanthropist, born in New York in 
 1823 ; was founder and President of 
 the American Society for the Preven- 
 tion of Cruelty to Animals (1860), 
 founder of the American Society for 
 the Prevention of Cruelty to Children 
 ( 1881 ) , Secretary of Legation and 
 acting Vice-Consul at St. Petersburg 
 (1862-1864). He died in New York 
 city, March 12, 1888. 
 
 Bergh, Pieter Theodoor Hel- 
 vetins van den, a Dutch dramatist 
 and poet, born in 1799 ; died in 1873. 
 
 Berghans, Heinrich, a German 
 geographer, born in Cleves, Prussia, 
 May 3, 1797 ; died in Stettin, Feb. 17, 
 1884. 
 
 Bergman, Ernest yon, a Ger- 
 man surgeon, born in Riga, Dec. 16, 
 1836. He was educated at Vienna, 
 Dorpat, and Berlin. He served in 
 the Prussian army during 1866-1870 ; 
 was Professor of Surgery in the Uni- 
 versity of Wiirzburg in 1878-1882; 
 and became Director of the Surgical 
 Clinic at Berlin University in 1882. 
 He died March 25, 1907. 
 
 Bergman, Torbern Olof, a Swe- 
 dish physicist and chemist, born in 
 Catherineberg, March 20, 1735. His 
 theory of chemical affinities greatly in- 
 fluenced the subsequent development 
 of chemistry. He died July 8, 1784. 
 
 Bergmann, Carl, a German mu- 
 sician, born in Ebersbach, Saxony, 
 April 11, 1821. Being implicated in 
 the Revolution of 1848. he left Ger- 
 many for the United States in 1849. 
 An enthusiastic Wagnerite, he was 
 himself the composer of an opera, a 
 symphony and many concert pieces. 
 He died in New York city, in August 
 1876. 
 
 Beriberi, Beriberia, Berriber- 
 ri, or Barbiers, an acute disease 
 characterized by oppression of breath- 
 ing, by general o?dema, by paralytic
 
 Bering 
 
 weakness, and by numbness of the 
 lower extremities. It is generally fatal 
 It occurs frequently in Ceylon among 
 the colored troops, and on some por- 
 tions of the Indian coast. 
 
 Bering, or Behring, Vitus, a 
 Danish explorer, born in Jutland, in 
 1680. After making several voyages 
 to the East and West Indies, he en- 
 tered the service of Russia, while still 
 young; became a captain-commander 
 in 1772 ; and was sent by the Empress 
 Catharine in charge of an expedition 
 (planned by Peter the Great before 
 his death), the object of which was to 
 determine if Asia and America were 
 united. Crossing Siberia he sailed 
 from the river Kamchatka in July, 
 1728; and reached lat 67 18' N., 
 having passed through the strait since 
 called after him, without knowing it. 
 Discovering that the land trended 
 greatly to the W. he concluded that 
 the continents were not united, and 
 returned ; without, however, seeing 
 America. In another voyage, in 1774, 
 he touched upon the American coast, 
 in lat 58 21' N. ; and gave name to 
 Mount St. Elias. In returning his 
 ship was cast upon an island, since 
 named after him, an outlier of the 
 Aleutian group, and here he perished, 
 in December, 1741. 
 
 Bering Sea, that part of the North 
 Pacific Ocean between the Aleutian 
 Islands, in 55, and Bering Strait, in 
 66 N., by which latter it communi- 
 cates with the Arctic Ocean. The 
 United States having claimed the ex- 
 clusive right of seal fishing in the Ber- 
 ing Sea in virtue of the purchase of 
 Alaska from Russia, and this right 
 having been disputed by the British, 
 it was decided in August, 1893, by an 
 arbitration tribunal, to which the 
 question was referred, that no such 
 right existed, but at the same time 
 regulations for the protection of the 
 fur seal were drawn up and agreed to 
 between the two powers, the chief 
 being the prohibition of seal fishery 
 within the zone of 60 miles round the 
 Pribilof Islands, inclusive of the terri- 
 torial waters, and the establishment 
 of a close season for the fur seal from 
 May 1 to July 31 inclusive, applying 
 to the part of the Pacific and Bering 
 Sea, N. of 35 and E. of the 180th 
 wieridian from Greenwich. 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Bering Strait, the channel which 
 separates Asia and America at their 
 nearest approach to each other. It 
 was discovered by Bering in 1728, and 
 first explored by Cook in 1788. 
 
 Berkeley, a town in Alameda 
 county, Cal.; on the Southern Paci- 
 fic railroad; 8 miles N. E. of San 
 Francisco; is the seat of the State 
 University and of the State Institu- 
 tion for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind. 
 Pop. (1910) 40,434. 
 
 Berkeley, Dr. George, Bishop of 
 Cloyne. born in Ireland in 1685 ; be- 
 came fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, 
 in 1707; in 1724 Dean of Derry. He 
 published proposals for the conversion 
 of the American savages to Chris- 
 tianity by the establishment of a col- 
 lege in the Bermuda Islands. He 
 arrived at Rhode Island in 1728, but, 
 the plan lacking support, he returned 
 and became Bishop of Cloyne. He 
 died suddenly at Oxford in 1753. 
 Berkeley holds an important place in 
 the history of philosophy. His most 
 celebrated philosophical work is : Trea- 
 tise on the Principles of Human 
 Knowledge, 1710, in which his philo- 
 sophical theory is fully set forth. 
 
 Berkeley, Sir John, one of the 
 proprietors of New Jersey, born in 
 1607. He was a prominent Royalist 
 during the contest of Charles I. with 
 Parliament. Charles II. granted him, 
 with Sir George Carteret, a proprie- 
 tary interest in New Jersey and Caro- 
 lina. He died Aug. 28, 1678. 
 
 Berkeley, Sir William, an Eng- 
 lish colonial Governor, born near Lon- 
 don, about 1610. In 1632 he was a 
 Commissioner of Canada, and in 1641 
 became governor of Virginia. In' 
 1676 he resigned and returned to 
 England. He died July 13, 1677. 
 
 Bcrkshires, The, or Berkshire 
 Hills, a range of mountains in the 
 N. W. of Massachusetts; in Berk- 
 shire county; stretching 16 miles N. 
 and S. 
 
 Berlin, town and capital of 
 Waterloo county, Ontario, Canada; 
 on the Grand river and the Grand 
 Trunk and other railroads; 63 miles 
 W. of Toronto; contains a Roman 
 Catholic college and several manu- 
 facturing plants. Pop. (1901) 9,747. 
 
 Berlin, the capital of the Prus- 
 sian dominions and of the German em-
 
 Berlin 
 
 pire, the residence of the Emperor of 
 Germany and foreign ambassadors ; 
 in the province of Brandenburg; the 
 largest city in Germany, and, for the 
 beauty and size of its buildings, the 
 regularity of its streets, the impor- 
 tance of its institutions of science and 
 art, and its activity, industry, and 
 trade, one of the first in Europe. It 
 is situated on a dreary sandy plain, 
 about 126 feet above the level of the 
 sea, on both sides of the Spree, a slug- 
 gish stream, here about 200 feet broad, 
 which winds through the city from S. 
 E. to N. W., and divides into several 
 branches and canals. The main 
 stream and its branches are spanned 
 by a large number of bridges. 
 
 The literary institutions of the city 
 are numerous and excellent. They in- 
 clude the university, the academy of 
 sciences ; the technical high school, the 
 mining academy, the high school of 
 agriculture, the academy of arts, the 
 school of music, the seminary for 
 Oriental languages, the military acad- 
 emy and school of engineering, many 
 gymnasia and real-schools ; an institu- 
 tion for instructing the deaf and 
 dumb, etc. The chief libraries are the 
 royal library, founded in 1659, and 
 now containing 900,000 volumes and 
 25,000 manuscripts ; and the univer- 
 sity library, with about 300,000 V9l- 
 umes. The public museums and pic- 
 ture galleries are on a scale adequate 
 to the importance of the city. Th 
 Evangelical Lutheran Cathedral dedi- 
 cated 1905, in the presence of Kaiser 
 Wilhelm II., is one of the finest modern 
 churches in the world. 
 
 The most important branches of 
 manufacturing industries are steam 
 engines and other machinery ; brass- 
 founding, the making of lamps and 
 other articles of metal ; printing 
 and the kindred arts, spinning and 
 weaving, the making of sewing 
 machines, paper, tobacco and cigars, 
 pottery and porcelain, pianos and 
 harmoniums, artificial flowers, brew- 
 ing, etc. A considerable quantity 
 of the manufactures are exported In 
 the royal iron-foundry, busts, statues, 
 bas-reliefs, etc., are cast, together with 
 a great variety of ornaments of un- 
 rivaled delicacy of workmanship. Ber- 
 lin is well supplied with city and 
 other railways. Berlin has rapidly 
 risen to be the first city in Germany 
 
 Bermuda* 
 
 in respect of population, architecture, 
 and political influence. Pop. (1900) 
 1,888,326. 
 
 Berlin, University of, a cele- 
 brated institution of learning in Ber- 
 lin, Germany. It is, with the excep- 
 tion of Bonn, the youngest of the Ger- 
 man universities, but is probably the 
 most famous of them all. 
 
 Berlioz, Hector, a French com- 
 poser, born in La Cote St. Andre, Dec. 
 11, 1803. He forsook medicine to 
 study music at the Paris Conserva- 
 toire, where he gained the first prize 
 in 1830 with his cantata, " Sardan- 
 apale." He died in Paris, March 9, 
 1869. After his death appeared " Me- 
 moires," written by himself. 
 
 Bcrm, or Berme, in fortification, 
 a narrow, level space at the foot of 
 the exterior slope of a parapet, to keep 
 the crumbling materials of the para- 
 pet from falling into the ditch. 
 
 In engineering, a ledge or bench on 
 the side or at the foot of a bank, para- 
 pet, or cutting, to catch earth that 
 may roll down the slope or to 
 strengthen the bank. In canals, it is 
 a ledge on the opposite side to the tow- 
 path, at the foot of a talus or slope, 
 to keep earth which may roll down the 
 bank from falling into the water. 
 Slopes in successive benches have a 
 berme at each notch, or, when a change 
 of slope occurs, on reaching a different 
 soil. 
 
 Bermuda Cedar, a species of ce- 
 dar which covers the Bermuda Is- 
 lands. The timber is made into ships, 
 boats and pencils. 
 
 Bermuda Grass, a species of 
 grass, called in Bermuda, devil grass. 
 It grows in the American Southern 
 States and in Southern Europe. It is 
 much esteemed for pasture. 
 
 Bermuda Hundred, a locality in 
 Chesterfield county, Va. ; the scene of 
 a battle in the Civil War between the 
 Union troops under General Butler, 
 and the Confederates under General 
 Beauregard. The battle was fought 
 May 16, 1864, and resulted in a de- 
 feat for Butler. 
 
 Bermudas, The, or Somer's 
 Islands, a group of small islands, 
 about 300 in number, in the Nortn 
 Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Great 
 Britain, stretching N. E. by E. and 
 S. W. by W. about 20 miles, the light-
 
 Benuudez 
 
 house on Gibb's Hill being 580 miles 
 S. E. of Cape Hatteras; area, about 
 30 square miles. The principal islands 
 are those of Bermuda, St. George, Ire- 
 land, and Somerset. The protection af- 
 forded to shipping by their numerous 
 bays, and their position in the track. of 
 the homeward bound West India ves- 
 sels, have led to the conversion of the 
 Bermudas into a maritime rendezvous, 
 and likewise, into a British naval sta- 
 tion for West Indian fleets. The har- 
 bor of St. George's Island has been 
 greatly improved, is fortified, protected 
 by a breakwater, and has water and 
 space enough to float the largest fleet. 
 The principal productions are fruits, 
 vegetables, maize, and tobacco. Pineap- 
 ples are very abundant and largely ex- 
 ported. The climate is mild and salu- 
 brious ; almost realizing the idea of a 
 perpetual spring. Fish abounds, and 
 forms a profitable source of industry 
 to the inhabitants. Breadstuffs, etc., 
 are imported from the United States, 
 and manufactured goods from Eng- 
 land. Hamilton, on Bermuda Island, 
 is the seat of the colonial government. 
 Pop. (1901) 17,535. These islands 
 were discovered by Bermudez, a Span- 
 iard, in 1522, and settled by the Eng- 
 lish in 1607, and are supposed to be 
 the " still vexed Bermoothes," men- 
 tioned in Shakespeare's " Tempest." 
 They are a favorite winter resort. 
 
 Bermudez, Remigio Morales, a 
 Peruvian statesman, born in Tarapaca 
 Province, Sept. 30, 1836; began busi- 
 ness in the nitrate trade in his native 
 province. In 1854, as a lieutenant, 
 he joined the revolutionary army, 
 which finally overthrew General Ech- 
 inique's government. In 1864 he 
 joined the revolution against Presi- 
 dent Castilla. In the war with Chile, 
 he led the force that marched to 
 Africa. When Caceres was elected 
 President, in 1886, Bermudez was 
 chosen Vice-President, and was elect- 
 ed President in 1890. He died in 
 Lima, March 31, 1894. 
 
 Bern, or Berne, a Swiss canton, 
 bounded on the N. by France. It is 
 the most populous, and next to the 
 Grisons, the most extensive canton of 
 Switzerland, its area being nearly 
 2,650 square miles, and its pop. 
 (1900) 589,433, more than one-sixth 
 of the Swiss people. 
 
 Bernard 
 
 Bern, the chief city of the above 
 canton, was, by the decision of the 
 Council of the Confederation, in 
 1848, declared to be the political cap- 
 ital of the Commonwealth. Pop. 
 (1901) 64,864. Bern was founded by 
 Duke Berthold V., of Zahringen, in 
 1191, and was made a free and im- 
 perial city by a charter from the Em- 
 peror Frederick II., dated May, 1218. 
 
 Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste 
 Jules, a French general, afterward 
 raised to the Swedish throne, was the 
 son of an advocate of Pau, born Jan. 
 26, 1764. He enlisted at 17, became 
 sergeant-major in 1789, and subaltern 
 in 1790. In 1794 he was appointed 
 a General of Division, and distin- 
 guished himself greatly in the cam- 
 paign in Germany, and on the Rhine. 
 In 1798 he married Mademoiselle 
 Clary, sister-in-law of Joseph Bona- 
 parte. The following year he became 
 for a short time Minister of War, and 
 on the establishment of the Empire 
 was raised to the dignity of Marshal 
 of France, and the title of Prince of 
 Ponte-Corvo. On the death of the 
 Prince of Holstein-Augustenburg, the 
 heir apparency to the Swedish crown 
 was offered to the Prince of Ponte- 
 Corvo, who accepted with the consent 
 of the Emperor, went to Sweden, ab- 
 jured Catholicism, and took the title 
 of Prince Charles John. In the main- 
 tenance of the interests of Sweden, a 
 serious rupture occurred between him 
 and Bonaparte, followed by his acces- 
 sion, in 1812, to the coalition of sov- 
 ereigns against Napoleon. At the bat- 
 tle of Leipsic, he contributed effectual- 
 ly to the victory of the allies. At the 
 close of the war strenuous attempts 
 were made by the Emperor of Austria 
 and other sovereigns to restore the 
 family of Gustavus IV. to the crown; 
 but Bernadotte, retaining his position 
 as Crown Prince, became King of 
 Sweden on the death of Charles XIII., 
 in 1818, under the title of Charles 
 XIV. During his reign agriculture 
 and commerce made great advances, 
 and many important public works 
 were completed. He died March 8, 
 1844, and was succeeded by his son 
 Oscar. 
 
 Bernard, Charles de (properly 
 BERNARD DU GRAIL DE LA VILLETTE), 
 a French novelist, born in Besancon,
 
 Bernard 
 
 Feb. 25, 1804; died in Neuilly, March 
 6, 1850. 
 
 Bernard, Clande, a French phy- 
 siologist, born in 1813 ; died in Paris 
 in 1878. 
 
 Bernard, Sir Francis, an Eng- 
 lish administrator, born in Nettleham, 
 in 1714 ; was Governor of New Jer- 
 sey in 1758-1700, and of Massachu- 
 setts Bay in 1700-1769. He did a 
 great deal toward precipitating the 
 Revolution by his aggressive attempts 
 to strengthen the royal authority. He 
 was finally recalled on account of the 
 unpopularity resultant on his bring- 
 ing troops into Boston. He died in 
 Aylesbury, England, June 16, 1779. 
 
 Bernard, Mountague, an Eng- 
 lish lawyer, born in Gloucestershire, 
 Jan. 28, 1820. In 1872 he assisted 
 Sir Roundell Palmer in preparing the 
 British case for the Geneva Arbitra- 
 tion Tribunal. He died at Overross, 
 Sept. 2, 1882. 
 
 Bernard, Great St., a celebrated 
 pass of the Pennine Alps in Switzer- 
 land in the canton Valais, on the 
 mountain road leading from Martigny 
 to Aosta in Piedmont. 
 
 The dogs kept at St. Bernard to as- 
 sist the brethren in their humane la- 
 bors are well known. In the midst 
 of tempests and snowstorms the 
 monks, accompanied by some of these 
 dogs, set out for the purpose of track- 
 ing those who have lost their way. 
 
 Bernard, Little St., a mountain 
 of Italy, belonging to what are called 
 the Graian Alps, about 10 miles S. of 
 Mont Blanc. The pass across it is 
 one of the easiest in the Alps, and is 
 supposed by many to be that which 
 Hannibal used. The Hospice at the 
 summit of the pass has an elevation 
 of 7,192 feet. 
 
 Bernard, St., Abbot of Clair- 
 vaux, was born of a noble family in 
 Burgundy, in 1091. He was educated 
 at the University of Paris. At the 
 age of 23 he entered the recently 
 founded monastery of Citeaux, accom- 
 panied by his brothers and 20 of his 
 companions. He observed the strict- 
 est rules of the Order, and so distin- 
 guished himself by his ability and ac- 
 quirements that he was chosen to lead 
 the colony to Clairvaux, and was made 
 abbot of the new house : an office 
 which he filled till his death. In 1128 
 
 Bernardino 
 
 he prepared the statutes for the Order 
 of Knights Templar. He was founder 
 of 160 monasteries ; and was the chief 
 promoter of the second crusade. St. 
 Bernard died at Clairvaux in 1153, 
 and was canonized in 1174. 
 
 Bernard, Simon, a French engi- 
 neer, born in Dole, April 28, 1779. 
 He served under Napoleon as his aide- 
 de-camp ; was wounded at the battle 
 of Leipsic ; superintended the defense 
 of Torgau, and was present at Water- 
 loo. In 1816 he came to the United 
 States ; was commissioned a Brigadier- 
 General of Engineers ; and planned an 
 elaborate system of seacoast defenses, 
 the most important of the works built 
 by him being Fort Monroe. In 1831 
 he returned to France ; was made aide- 
 de-camp to Louis Philippe, and de- 
 signed the fortifications of Paris. In 
 1834 he was appointed Minister of 
 War. He died in Paris, Nov. 5, 1839. 
 
 Bernard, William Bayle, an 
 Anglo-American dramatist, born in 
 Boston, Mass., Nov. 27, 1807. His 
 first work was a nautical drama 
 called the " Pilot." This proved suc- 
 cessful and encouraged him to pursue 
 a literary career. He wrote in all 114 
 plays, of which the best known is 
 " Rip Van Winkle." .He died in 
 Brighton, England, Aug. 5, 1875. 
 
 Bernard Dog, St. The St. Ber- 
 nard, as bred to modern ideas, is an 
 immense red or orange colored dog, 
 marked with white on muzzle, neck, 
 chest, feet, and tip of tail. Many of 
 the finest St. Bernards measure over 
 30 inches high at the shoulder and 
 weigh over 150 pounds. 
 
 Bernard of Chartres, surnamed 
 SYLVESTRIS, a writer of the 12th cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Bernard of Treviso, an Italian 
 alchemist, born in Padua in 1406; 
 died in 1490. 
 
 Bernardine, the name given to 
 the Cistercian monks, a branch of the 
 old Benedictines, from St. Bernard, 
 who, entering the order, gave it such 
 an impulse that he was considered its 
 second founder. 
 
 Bernardino, St., of Siena, born in 
 1380 at Massa-Carrara, of a distin- 
 guished family, made himself famous 
 by his rigid restoration of their prim- 
 itive rule among the degenerate order 
 of the Franciscans, of which he be-
 
 Bernhard 
 
 came a member in 1404. He died, in 
 1444, and was canonized in 1450. 
 
 Bernhard, Karl, pseudonym of 
 NICOLAI DE SAINT AUBAIN, a cele- 
 V brated Danish novelist, born in Co- 
 penhagen, Nov. 18, 1798 ; died in 
 Copenhagen, Nov. 25, 1865. 
 
 Bemhardi, Theodor von, a 
 German historian and diplomat, born 
 in Berlin, Nov. 6, 1802; died at Kun- 
 ersdorf, Silesia, Feb. 12, 1887. 
 
 Bernhardt, Bosine Sarah, a 
 French actress, born in Paris, Oct. 22, 
 1844. At an early age her Jewish 
 parents placed her in a convent at 
 Versailles. When 14 years old she 
 left the convent, and entered the Paris 
 Conservatoire, and there studied trag- 
 edy and comedy. In 18G2 she made 
 her debut at the Theatre Francais, in 
 Racine's "-Iphigene" and Scribe's 
 " Valerie," but, not achieving a suc- 
 cess, she retired for a time from the 
 stage. Her first great success was as 
 Marie de Neuberg, in Victor Hugo's 
 "Ruy Bias," in January, 1867. Be- 
 coming very popular by her represen- 
 tations, notably in " Andromaque " 
 and " La Sphinx," she was recalled to 
 the Francais, and was soon recognized 
 as the foremost actress in French 
 tragedy. In 1879 she visited London 
 with the company of the Comedie 
 Francaise and was warmly received ; 
 in 1880, 1887, 1891, 1896, 1900, and 
 1910-1911 made successful tours in the 
 United States, and between and after 
 these dates visited Switzerland, Hol- 
 land, South America, Italy, Algeria, 
 Australia, etc. In 1899 she appeared 
 in a new rendering of " Hamlet " in 
 Paris, and scored a most flattering tri- 
 umph. She has also done consider- 
 able work in painting, sculpture, an.d 
 literature. 
 
 Bernhardy, Gottfried, a Ger- 
 man classical philologist, born in 
 Landsberg-on-the-Warthe, March 20, 
 1800 ; died in Halle, May 14, 1875. 
 
 Bernier, Francois, a French 
 physician and traveler, born in Angers 
 about 1625 ; set out on his travels in 
 1654, and visited Egypt, Palestine, 
 and India, where he remained for 12 
 years as physician to the Great Mogul 
 Emperor Aurungzebe. He died in 
 Paris in 1688. 
 
 Bernina, a mountain of the Rhse- 
 tian Alps, 13,290 feet high, in the 
 
 Berrien 
 
 Swiss canton of Grisons, with remark- 
 able and extensive glaciers. Its sum- 
 mit was first attained in 1850. 
 
 Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo 
 (known also as IL CAVALIERE BEB- 
 NINI), an Italian painter, born in 
 Naples in 1598, and obtained, among 
 his contemporaries, the reputation of 
 being the modern Michael Angelo, on 
 account of bis success as painter, stat- 
 uary, and architect. He died in 1680. 
 
 Bernonilli, or Bernoulli, a fam- 
 ily which produced eight distinguished 
 men of science. The family fled from 
 Antwerp during the Alva administra- 
 tion, going first to Frankfort, and af- 
 terward to Basel. JOHN, born in 
 Basel, in 1667, wrote with his brother, 
 James, a treatise on the differential 
 calculus ; developed the integral cal- 
 culus, and discovered, indepently of 
 Leibnitz, the exponential calculus. He 
 died in 1748. 
 
 Bernstorff, Andreas Peter, 
 Count, born in 1735 ; in the service 
 of the King of Denmark. He was ap- 
 pointed Prime Minister in 1769, when 
 he ceded to Russia the Gootorp part 
 of Holstein in exchange for Oldenburg 
 and Delmenhorst. He died in 1797. 
 
 Berquin, Louis de, the first Prot- 
 estant martyr in France, born in 1490. 
 He was a gentleman of Artois, a 
 friend of Badius, the savant. When, 
 in 1523, the police began to seize Lu- 
 ther's works, with a view to suppress- 
 ing Protestantism, they found among 
 Berquin's books some manuscripts of 
 his own writing that were pronounced 
 heretical. As he refused to retract, 
 he was thrown into prison. Francis 
 I., whose counselor he was, obtained 
 for him his freedom. His fixed opinions 
 and intrepid nature, however, having 
 thrown him into prison three times, 
 caused him to be condemned to death. 
 He was burned alive in Paris, April 
 17, 1529. 
 
 Berrian, William, an American 
 Episcopal clergyman and writer, born 
 in New York in 1787; was rector of 
 Trinity Church, New York (1830- 
 1862). He died in New York city, 
 Nov. 7, 1862. 
 
 Berrien, John McPherson, an 
 American statesman, born in New Jer- 
 sey, Aug. 23, 1781 ; graduated at 
 Princeton College in 1796, and was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in Georgia when 18
 
 Berro 
 
 Bertillon System 
 
 years old. He represented Geor- 
 gia in the United States Senate in 
 1825-1829 and 1840-1852 ; was Attor- 
 ney-General of the United States in 
 1829-1831, and a delegate to the Bal- 
 timore Convention in 1844. In 1829 
 he delivered a speech so clear and im- 
 pressive against certain measures be- 
 fore Congress that the title of " Amer- 
 ican Cicero " was given him. He died 
 in Savannah, Ga., Jan. 1, 1856. 
 
 Berro, Bernardo Prudencio, an 
 Uruguayan statesman, born in Monte- 
 video about 1800. He was President 
 of the republic in 1860-1864. The 
 revolution of Flores was successful 
 soon after the axpiration of his term. 
 In 1868 he stfrred up a revolt against 
 Flores, was imprisoned, and soon af- 
 terward shot through a window in his 
 cell, in April, 1868. 
 
 Berry, a succulent fruit, in which 
 the seeds are immersed in a pulpy 
 mass inclosed by a thin skin. Popu- 
 lary it is applied to fruits like the 
 strawberry, bearing external seeds on 
 a pulpy receptacle, but not strictly 
 berries. 
 
 Berryer, Antoine Pierre, a 
 French advocate and statesman, born 
 in Paris in 1790. In 1814 he pro- 
 claimed at Rennes the deposition of 
 Napoleon, and remained till his death 
 an avowed Legitimist. In 1840 he 
 was one of the counsel for the defense 
 of Louis Napoleon after the Boulogne 
 fiasco. He gained additional reputa- 
 tion in 1858 by his defense of Monta- 
 lembert, and was counsel for the Pat- 
 terson-Bonapartes in the suit for the 
 recognition of the Baltimore marriage. 
 He died in 1868. 
 
 Bersaglieri, a corps of riflemen or 
 sharpshooters, introduced into the 
 Sardinian army by Gen. Delia Mar- 
 mora, about 1849. They took part in 
 the Russian War and also assisted at 
 the battle of the Tchernaya, Aug. 16, 
 1855. They were likewise employed 
 in the Italian Wars of 1859 and 1866. 
 
 Bersezio, Vittorio, an Italian 
 novelist and playwright, born at Pev- 
 eragno, Piedmont, in 1830. 
 
 Bert, Paul, a French statesman 
 and physiologist, born in Auxerre, Oct. 
 17, 1833. While engaged in public 
 life, M. Bert still pursued with ardor 
 his scientific investigations, attracting 
 world-wide attention by his experi- 
 
 ments in vivisection. Appointed by 
 the French Ministry to the governor- 
 ship of Tonquin and Annam, he went 
 out there in 1886, but died Nov. 11, 
 of the same year. The anti-religious 
 views of M. Bert excited much contro- 
 versy. 
 
 Bertlielot, Pierre Eugene Mar- 
 cellin, a French chemist, born in 
 Paris, Oct. 25, 1827. In 1878 he be- 
 came president of the committee on ex- 
 plosives, which introduced smokeless 
 powder. His labors also led to the 
 discovery of dyes extracted from coal- 
 tar. He died March 18, 1907. 
 
 Berthier, Alexander, Prince of 
 Neufchatel and Wagram, Marshal, 
 Vice-Constable of France, etc. ; born 
 in Versailles, Nov. 20, 1753; killed 
 himself, June 1, 1815. 
 
 Berthold of Ratisbon, a cele- 
 brated German preacher and Francis- 
 can monk ; ranked as the most power- 
 ful preacher of his time in the Ger- 
 man world. It is said that as many as 
 60,000 people flocked to hear him in 
 the open fields. His sermons have 
 been preserved. He died in 1272. 
 
 Bertillon, Alphonse, a French 
 anthropologist, born in Paris in 1853 ; 
 is widely noted as the founder of a 
 system of identification of criminals. 
 In 1880, while Chief of the Bureau of 
 Identification in the Prefecture of Po- 
 lice, he established his system of meas- 
 urements which has given marvelous 
 results for their precision. The sys- 
 tem has since been adopted by the 
 police authorities of the large cities of 
 Europe and the United States. He 
 was one of the expert witnesses in 
 handwriting in the trial of Capt. 
 Dreyfus in 1899, and soon after its 
 close was removed from his office. He 
 was author of numerous works bear- 
 ing upon his system, including " Iden- 
 tification anthropometrique " (1893). 
 
 Bertillon System, a system of 
 identification of criminals, introduced 
 into France by Alphonse Bertillon. 
 The system depends upon accurate 
 measurements of various portions of 
 the human body, especially the bones, 
 which in adults never change. The 
 parts measured are the head, ear, foot, 
 middle finger, the extended forearm, 
 height, breadth, and the trunk. These 
 measurements are placed upon a card, 
 and together with photographs of the
 
 Bertrand 
 
 bodily features, take the place of the 
 old portraits in the rogues' gallery. 
 
 Bertrand, Eugene, a French op- 
 eratic manager, born in 1835; died in 
 Paris, Jan. 21, 1900. 
 
 Bertrand Henri G., Count, a 
 French military officer, born in Cha- 
 teauroux in 1773, and early entered 
 the armies of the Revolution as engi- 
 neer. He accompanied the expedition 
 to Egypt, and directed the fortifica- 
 tion of Alexandria. He distinguished 
 himself at Austerlitz and became Na- 
 poleon's adjutant; and, after the bat- 
 tle of Aspern, in 1809, for his share in 
 saving the French army by bridges, he 
 was created count and governor of II- 
 lyria. After serving with credit in 
 the subsequent campaigns, he retired 
 with the Emperor to Elba, was his 
 confidant in carrying out his return to 
 France, and finally shared his banish- 
 ment to St. Helena. On Napoleon's 
 death, Bertrand returned to France, 
 where, though sentence of death had 
 been pronounced upon him a sen- 
 tence which Louis XVIII. had wisely 
 recalled he was restored to all his 
 dignities, and, in 1830, appointed 
 Commandant of the Polytechnic 
 School. In 1840, he formed part of 
 the expedition which brought back the 
 remains of Napoleon to France. He 
 died in Chateauroux, Jan. 31, 1844. 
 
 Berwick, or more fully, Berwick- 
 on-Tweed, a seaport town of Eng- 
 land, formerly a Parliamentary bor- 
 ough and (with small adjoining dis- 
 trict) a county by itself, but now in- 
 corporated with Northumberland, and 
 giving name to a Parliamentary divi- 
 sion of the county. 
 
 Beryl, a colorless, yellowish, bluish 
 or less brilliant green variety of em- 
 erald, the prevailing hue being green 
 of various shades^ but always pale, the 
 want of color being due to absence of 
 chromium, which gives to the emerald 
 its deep, rich green. 
 
 Beryllium, a rare white malleable 
 metal, the same as glucinum. 
 
 Berzelius, Joliamv Jakob, Ba- 
 ron, a Swedish chemist, born in Ost- 
 gothland, Aug. 29, 1779. To him pre- 
 eminently belongs the honor of apply- 
 ing the great principles which had 
 been established by Dalton, Davy, 
 Gay-Lussac, and himself, in organic 
 chemistry, to the study of the laws 
 
 Bessarion 
 
 which regulate the combinations form- 
 ing the structures of the animal and 
 vegetable kingdoms ; and of thus open- 
 ing the way for the discoveries of 
 Mulder, Liebig, Dumas, and others. 
 To him, chemistry is indebted for the 
 discovery of several new elementary 
 bodies, more especially selenium, thor- 
 ium, and cerium ; and to his skill as a 
 manipulator may be traced many of 
 the analytical processes at present in 
 use. He died Aug. 7, 1848. All the 
 scientific societies of the world enroll- 
 ed his name among their members. 
 
 Berzelium, (See CAEOLINIUM). 
 
 Besancon, a city in the N. E. of 
 France, the capital of the Depart- 
 ment of Doubs, on the river Doubs. 
 It contains Roman remains, including 
 an amphitheater, aqueduct and trium- 
 phal arch of Mars, as well as a cathe- 
 dral of diversified architectural style, 
 and the Renaissance palace of Cardi- 
 nal Granwelle, who was born in Bes- 
 ancon. Victor Hugo was also a na- 
 tive of Besancon. Watch-making ia 
 the principal industry. Pop. (1896) 
 57,556. 
 
 Besant, Annie, an English the- 
 osophist and author, born in London, 
 Oct. 1, 1847; was married in 1867 to 
 the Rev. Frank Besant, brother of Sir 
 Walter Besant, but was legally sepa- 
 rated from him in 1873. In 1889 she 
 joined the Theosophical Society, and 
 has since been active in theosophical 
 propaganda in Great Britain and the 
 United States. 
 
 Besant, Sir Walter* an English 
 novelist ; born in Portsmouth, Eng- 
 land, Aug. 14, 1836 ; was educated in 
 London and at Christ's College, Cam- 
 bridge, where he graduated with math- 
 ematical honors. He was for a time 
 professor in the Royal College Mau- 
 ritius. On May 24, 1895, he was 
 knighted. He died in London, June 9, 
 1901. 
 
 Besika Bay, a bay on the N. W. 
 coast of Asia Minor, opposite Tenedos, 
 to the S. of .the entrance of the Dar- 
 danelles. The English fleet was sta- 
 tioned here during crises in the East- 
 ern question in 1853-1854 and 1877- 
 1878. 
 
 Bessarion, John, a Greek scholar, 
 born in Trebizond in 1395, one of the 
 most eminent restorers of learning in 
 the 15th century, and founder of the
 
 Bessel 
 
 library of St. Mark at Venice; was a 
 monk of the Order of St. Basil. He 
 died in Ravenna, Nov. 19, 1472. 
 
 Bessel, Friedriclx Wilhelm, as- 
 tronomer, born in Minden, Prussia, 
 July 22, 1784. He died in Konigs- 
 berg, March 17, 1846. 
 
 Bessels, Emil, a German natural- 
 ist, born in Heidelberg, June 2, 1847 ; 
 died in Stuttgart, March 30, 1888. 
 
 Bessemer, Sir Henry, an Eng- 
 lish inventor, born in Charlton, Hert- 
 fordshire, Jan. 19, 1813 ; began mod- 
 eling and designing patterns when 18 
 years old ; chose engineering as a pro- 
 fession, and, after long and costly ex- 
 periments, announced, in 1856, his 
 discovery of a means of rapidly and 
 cheaply converting pig iron into steel, 
 by blowing a blast of air through the 
 iron when in a state of fusion. For 
 this discovery the Institution of Civil 
 Engineers awarded him the Gold Tel- 
 ford Medal, and several foreign gov- 
 ernments honored him with valuable 
 tokens. In the United States appre- 
 ciation of his great discovery took the 
 form of creating industrial cities and 
 towns under his name. He was elect- 
 ed President of the Iron and Steel In- 
 stitute of Great Britain in 1871; 
 knighted by the Queen in 1879, and 
 received the freedom of the city of 
 London in 1880. He died in London, 
 March 15, 1898. 
 
 Bessemer Steel, steel made from 
 pig iron, from which practically all 
 the carbon, etc., has been removed by 
 exposing the molten mass to a current 
 of air. 
 
 Bessey, Charles E., an American 
 botanist, born in Wilton, O., May 
 21, 1845 ; educated at Harvard Uni- 
 versity ; Professor of Botany in the 
 Iowa Agricultural College in 1870- 
 1884 ; Professor of Botany in the Uni- 
 versity of Nebraska since 1884. He 
 was also President of the Society for 
 the Promotion of Agricultural Science 
 in 1883-1885; President of the Ne- 
 braska Academy of Sciences in 1891 ; 
 acting Chancellor of the University of 
 Nebraska in 188^1891 ; Fellow of the 
 American Association for the Ad- 
 vancement of Science. 
 
 Bcssieres, Jean Baptiste, Duke 
 of Istria, a marshal of the French 
 Empire, born of poor parents at Preis- 
 sac, Aug. 6, 1768. At the accession 
 
 Bethania 
 
 of Napoleon (1804) to the throne, he 
 became Marshal of France. He showed 
 his usual conspicuous courage at Aus- 
 terlitz, Jena, Eylau, and Friedland, 
 and, raised to the rank of Duke of Is- 
 tria, commanded in Spain in 1808- 
 1809. In the Russian campaign he led 
 the cavalry of the Guard, and did 
 much by his sleepless courage and 
 presence of mind to save the wreck of 
 the army in the disastrous retreat 
 from Moscow. On the morning of the 
 battle of Lutzen (May 1, 1813), he 
 fell mortally wounded by a cannon 
 ball. 
 
 Bestiary, the name given to a class 
 of written books of great popularity 
 in the Middle Ages, describing all the 
 animals of creation, real or fabled, 
 composed partly in prose, partly in 
 verse, and generally illustrated by 
 drawings. 
 
 Betauzos, Juan Jose de, a Span- 
 ish historian and adventurer of the 
 16th century ; was author of an ac- 
 count of the conquest of Peru by Pi- 
 zarro. 
 
 Betel, or Betle, the English name 
 of the piper betle, a shrubby plant 
 with evergreen leaves, belonging to the 
 typical genus of the pepperworts. It 
 is extensively cultivated in the East 
 Indies. Its leaf is used as a wrapper 
 to inclose a few slices of the areca 
 palm nut with a little shell lime. The 
 Southern Asiatics are perpetually 
 chewing it to sweeten the breath; to 
 strengthen the stomach, and, if hun- 
 ger be present, to deaden its cravings. 
 
 Betliam-Edwards, Matilda, an 
 English author, born in Suffolk, in 
 1836 ; was educated privately ; has 
 published numerous works in poetry, 
 fiction, and on French rural life. She 
 was made an officer of public instruc- 
 tion in France in 1891. 
 
 Bethania, or Bethany, a town 
 in Syria, about 2 miles S. E. of Jeru- 
 salem, on the way to Jericho. It is 
 now a small place, inhabited by a few 
 Turkish families, by whom it is called 
 Lazari, in memory of Lazarus, who 
 dwelt here, and who was here raised 
 from the dead. The inhabitants show 
 the pretended sites of the houses of 
 Lazarus, of Martha, of Simon the 
 leper, and of Mary Magdalene. The 
 alleged tomb of Lazarus, a large ex- 
 cavation in the rock, is also shown.
 
 Bethany College 
 
 Beveridge 
 
 The situation of Bethania is extreme- 
 ly picturesque. 
 
 Bethany College, a co-education- 
 al institution in Linsborg, Kan. ; or- 
 ganized in 1881 ; under 'the auspices of 
 the Lutheran Church. 
 
 Bethany College, a co-education- 
 al institution in Bethany, W. Va. ; or- 
 ganized in 1841 ; under the auspices 
 of the Church of the Disciples. 
 
 Bethel, a town of Palestine, about 
 10 miles from Jerusalem, now called 
 Beitin, or Beiteen. The patriarch 
 Jacob here had a vision of angels, in 
 commemoration of which he built an 
 altar. Interesting ruins abound in the 
 vicinity. 
 
 Bethel College, an educational in- 
 stitution in liussellville, Ky. ; organ- 
 ized in 1854 ; under the auspices of the 
 Baptist Church. 
 
 Bethesda, a pool in Jerusalem, 
 near St. Stephen's Gate, and the Tem- 
 ple of Omar. 
 
 Bethlehem, the birthplace of Je- 
 sus Christ and of King David, and 
 the Ephratah of the history of Jacob ; 
 is now a small, unwalled village of 
 white stone houses, in the midst of a 
 most interesting country, 6 miles S. 
 of Jerusalem. The population, about 
 3,000, is wholly Christian Latin, 
 Greek, and Armenian. The Convent 
 of the Nativity, a large, square build- 
 ing, resembling a fortress, was built 
 by the Empress Helena, in 327 A. D., 
 but destroyed by the Moslems in 123G, 
 and, it is supposed, restored by the 
 crusaders. Within it is the Church 
 of the Nativity, which is subdivided 
 among the Latins, Greeks, and Ar- 
 menians, for devotional purposes. The 
 Bethlehemites chiefly gain their sub- 
 sistence by the manufacture and sale 
 of crucifixes, beads, boxes, shells, etc., 
 of mother-of-pearl and olive wood. 
 
 Bethlehem, a borough in North- 
 ampton and Lehigh counties, Pa.; on 
 the Lehigh river and canal and sev- 
 eraL railroads; 57 miles N. of Phila- 
 delphia; since 1904 includes the for- 
 mer borough of West Bethlehem; 
 contains a Moravian theological 
 seminary and other educational in- 
 stitutions, and has silk mills, rolling 
 mills, machine shops, and brass and 
 spelter works. It was founded in 
 1741 by Moravians under Count Zin- 
 zendorf. Pop. (1910) 12,837. 
 
 Bethsaida, a village on the W. 
 shore of the Lake of Galilee, the birth- 
 place of Peter and Andrew and Philip. 
 
 Bethune, Charles James Stew- 
 art, a Canadian educator, born in 
 West Flamboro, Ont, Aug. 11, 1838. 
 In 1892 he was elected a Fellow of the 
 Royal Society of Canada. 
 
 Bethnne, George Washington, 
 an American Dutch Reformed clergy- 
 man and poet, born in New York, 
 March 18, 1805. He died in Florence, 
 Italy, April 27, 1862. 
 
 Betterton, Thomas, English act- 
 or, born in 1635 ; excelled in Shake- 
 speare's characters of Hamlet, Othello, 
 Brutus, and Hotspur, and was the 
 means of introducing shifting scenes 
 instead of tapestry upon the English 
 stage. Mrs. Sanderson, whom he mar- ' 
 ried in 1670, was also an actress of ) 
 repute. He died in 1710, and was 
 buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Betting, or Wagering, a con- 
 tract by which two or more parties 
 agree that a certain sum of money or 
 other thing shall be paid or delivered 
 to one of them on the happening or 
 not happening of an uncertain event. 
 At common law, wagers are not per 
 se, void, but statutes prohibiting bet- 
 ting have been passed by many of the 
 States. 
 
 Betts, Craven Langstrath, an 
 American poet and story writer, born 
 in New Brunswick, in 1853. 
 
 Betty, William Henry West, 
 better known as the YOUNG Roscius, 
 an English actor, born at Shrewsbury 
 in 1791 ; died in London, Aug. 24, 
 1874. 
 
 Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand, 
 Count von, an Austrian statesman, 
 born in Dresden, Jan. 13, 1809. He 
 entered the service of Austria as Min- 
 ister of Foreign Affairs, became Presi- 
 dent of the Ministry, Imperial Chan- 
 cellor, and, in 1868, was created 
 Count. In 1871-1878 he was Ambas- 
 sador in London, in 1878-1882, in 
 Paris. He died near Vienna, Oct. 24, 
 1886. 
 
 Beveridge, Albert Jeremiah, an 
 American lawyer, born in Highland 
 county, O., Oct. 6, 1862; was brought 
 up on a farm ; graduated at De Pauw 
 University ; and engaged in law prac- 
 tice in Indianapolis. He entered po- 
 litical life in 1883, and soon won a
 
 Beverly 
 
 reputation as an effective orator. On 
 Jan. 17, 1899, was elected TJ. S. Sena- 
 tor for Indiana, as a Republican. 
 
 Beverly, a city and popular sum- 
 mer-resort in Essex county, Mass.; 
 on the North Shore and the Boston 
 & Maine railroad; 18 miles N. E. of 
 Boston; is the seat of the New Eng- 
 land Industrial School for Deaf 
 Mutes; and under President Taft 
 was the " summer capital " of the 
 United States. Pop. (1910) 18,650. 
 
 Bewick, Thomas, an English 
 wood engraver, born in Northumber- 
 land in 1753. He died in 1828. 
 
 Beyle, Marie-Henri, better known 
 under the pseudonym of " Stendhal," 
 a French novelist and critic, born in 
 Grenoble, Jan. 23, 1783 ; died in Paris, 
 March 23, 1842. 
 
 Beyrtmt, or Beirut, a flourishing 
 commercial town, situated in a most 
 picturesque position on the coast of 
 Syria, and at the foot of Lebanon, 55 
 miles from Damascus, and 147 from 
 Jerusalem. It is the chief seaport, 
 market-town, and emporium of all the 
 trade with the shores of Syria, Pales- 
 tine, and Cilicia, with a regular ser- 
 vice of Egyptian, French, and British 
 steamers. The American vice-consul 
 at this place was shot at in September, 
 1903, and President Roosevelt ordered 
 American war-vessels to go there. 
 
 Bezants, or Byzantines, coins of 
 the old Byzantine empire. 
 
 Beza, or Beze, Theodore de, a 
 French Protestant theologian and re- 
 former, born in Vezelai, in 1519. 
 In 1558, he was sent to ask 
 the intercession of several German 
 princes in behalf of the persecuted 
 Huguenots in France. The next year 
 he settled at Geneva, and was thence- 
 forth the associate of Calvin till his 
 death, and his successor as Professor 
 of Theology and head of the Protes- 
 tant party. His energy and activity 
 of mind, like his bodily health, con- 
 tinued unabated till he was nearly 80 
 years of age, and he only ceased 
 preaching in 1600. He died in 1605. 
 
 Bezique, or Besique, a game >/ 
 cards of French origin. 
 
 Bhagavatgita, or Bhagavadgi- 
 ta, in Sanskrit literature, a song re- 
 lating a discourse between Krishna 
 and his pupil Arjun in the midst of a 
 battle. Schlegel considers it the most 
 
 Biberach 
 
 beautiful and perhaps the only true 
 philosophical poem in the whole range 
 of known literature. Its teaching is 
 pantheistic. It consists of 18 lec- 
 tures. It has been translated into 
 many languages. 
 
 Bhaino, a town of Burma on the 
 Upper Irrawaddy, about 40 miles from 
 the Chinese frontier. It is the start- 
 ing-point of caravans to Yunnan. 
 
 Bheels, or Bhils, a Dravidic race 
 inhabiting the Vindhya, Satpura, and 
 Satmala Hills, a relic of the Indian 
 aborigines driven from the plains by 
 the Aryan Rajputs. Their total num- 
 bers are about 750,000. 
 
 Bhutan, an independent State in 
 the Eastern Himalayas, with an area 
 of about 10,800 square miles. Pop. 
 over 30,000. The Bhutanese are a 
 backward race, governed by a Dharm 
 Rajah, regarded as an incarnation of 
 deity, and by a Deb Rajah, with a 
 council of eight. They are nominally 
 Buddhists. 
 
 Biafra, Bight of, a large bay on 
 the W. coast of Africa, at the head of 
 the Gulf of Guinea, between Capes 
 Formosa and Lopez. 
 
 Bianchini, Francesco, an Ital- 
 ian astronomer, born in Verona, in 
 1662. He died in 1729. 
 
 Biard, Anguste Francois, a 
 French genre painter, born in 1798 ; 
 died in 1882. 
 
 Biarritz, a watering-place and 
 noted winter resort in France ; on the 
 Bay of Biscay in the Department of 
 the Basses-Pyrenees ; 4 miles S. W. of 
 Bayonne. It was the royal summer 
 residence during the Second Empire. 
 
 Biart, I/ucien, a French novelist, 
 poet and writer of travels, born in 
 Versailles, June 21, 1829. He pub- 
 lished a number of novels, containing 
 masterly descriptions of Mexican and 
 South American nature and customs. 
 
 Bias, one of the seven sages of 
 Greece ; a native of Priene, in Ionia ; 
 celebrated for his practical knowledge 
 and strict regard to justice. He flour- 
 ished about 550 B. c., and died at a 
 very advanced age. 
 
 Biberach, a town of Wurtemberg, 
 delightfully situated on the Reiss, 23 
 miles S. S. W. of Ulm. It retains its 
 old ramparts and towers, and in front 
 of the theater is a monument to Wie-
 
 Bible 
 
 land, who was born in the neighbor- 
 hood. 
 
 Bible (French bible, with similar 
 forms in other languages, from Greek 
 biblia, books, from biblos, the inner 
 bark of the papyrus, used for writing 
 on, hence a book), the collection of 
 Sacred Writings or Holy Scriptures 
 of the Christians. The older and 
 larger division of these writings is 
 also received by the Jews as embody- 
 ing their faith, and is called the Old 
 Testament, or Scriptures of the Old 
 Covenant, because the Jewish religion 
 was represented as a compact or cove- 
 nant between God and the Jews, and 
 the Greek word for covenant signifies 
 also last will or testament. The same 
 figure was applied to the Christian re- 
 ligion, which was considered as an ex- 
 tension of the old covenant, or a cove- 
 nant between God and the whole hu- 
 man race. The sacred writings 
 peculiar to the Christians are, there- 
 fore, called the Scriptures of the New 
 Covenant, or the New Testament. 
 Protestants and Roman Catholics do 
 not altogether agree as to the books 
 that ought to be admitted into the 
 canon or list of writings belonging to 
 the Old Testament. A certain num- 
 ber of books classed by the former 
 under the head of Apocrypha are 
 called by the latter " deutero-canoni- 
 cal," as being admitted into the canon 
 at a later date than the rest, but are 
 held to be of equal authority. 
 
 The scriptures were, no doubt, orig- 
 inally written on skins or parchments 
 rolled up into rolls or volumes. 
 
 The earliest and most famous ver- 
 sion of the Old Testament is the Sep- 
 tuagint, or Greek translation, complet- 
 ed it is believed in the 2d century B. c. 
 The Syriac version, called the Peshito, 
 was made in the 2d century after 
 Christ, and is celebrated for its fideli- 
 ty. The famous Latin version of St. 
 Jerome, known as the Vulgate, was 
 finished in 405. 
 
 The New Testament, besides being 
 originally written in Greek, also dif- 
 fers remarkably from the Old in this 
 respect, that while the writings com- 
 prehended in the earlier collection 
 range over a period of 1,000 years, 
 those included in the latter were pro- 
 duced almost contemporaneously 
 
 Biblo 
 
 most of them probably between A. D. 
 50 and A. D. 70. The collection con- 
 sists of 27 writings, ascribed either to 
 apostles or to persons intimately asso- 
 ciated with them. Five of the works 
 are in the form of historical narra- 
 tives, four of which relate from dif- 
 ferent points of view the story of 
 Christ's life, while the fifth describes 
 the formation and extension of the 
 Church by the ministry of the leading 
 apostles. Twenty-one are epistolary. 
 Thirteen of these bear the name of St. 
 Paul as their author, nine being ad- 
 dressed to various Christian communi- 
 ties, three (I and II Timothy, and 
 Titus) called the pastoral epistles 
 to office-bearers in the Church, 
 and one to a private individual 
 (Philemon). The epistle to the 
 Hebrews formerly ascribed to Paul is 
 believed to have been written by Apol- 
 los. Seven other letters one ascribed 
 to James, two to Peter, three to 
 John, and one to Jude are often 
 known as the catholic (that is, gem- 
 eral) epistles, as having been intended 
 for the use of Christians in general. 
 The only remaining work is the Apoc- 
 alypse or Revelation of St. John. Of 
 these writings the epistles are the ear- 
 liest in date and were written to va- 
 rious Christian communities to give 
 advice in special circumstances, to ei- 
 plain points of doctrine, or to warn 
 against mistaken beliefs. They are 
 adapted to the special conditions and 
 mental attitude of those to whom they 
 were addressed; thus in the letters to 
 the Corinthian Christians, who dwelt 
 in Greece, various speculative ques- 
 tions are discussed. The first three 
 Gospels, called the synoptic Gospels, 
 were probably written in or near A. D. 
 70, that of Mark being perhaps the 
 earliest. The fourth Gospel is of 
 much later date (about A. D. 
 100), and has a markedly different 
 character. It gives an account of 
 Christ's life not so much from an ob- 
 jective and historical as from a sub- 
 jective and personal point of view. 
 
 All the books of the New Testament 
 have come down to us as originally 
 written in the Greek language. The 
 writers of the New Testament 
 were all, or nearly all, Jews ; and 
 while employing the Greek language,
 
 Bible Societies 
 
 Bible Societies 
 
 they exhibit many traces. of their na- 
 tive idiom, so that their writings pre- 
 sent more or less of a Hebraic color- 
 ing. The body, as has been well said, 
 is Greek ; the spirit is Hebrew. The 
 first translation of the whole Bible into 
 English was by Wycliffe and his co- 
 adjutors, who translated from the Lat- 
 in and published their work in 1382. 
 William Tyndale made a translation 
 from the original tongues of the New 
 Testament and part of the Old, which 
 he printed at Worms in 1525. It was 
 proscribed and burned in England, 
 but copies were smuggled over and 
 used in secret. The Pentateuch was 
 published by Tyndale in 1530. He also 
 translated some of the prophetical 
 books. His translation was superior 
 to all previous versions in purity, 
 perspicuity, and accuracy, and it 
 formed the basis of all subsequent 
 translations. 
 
 Tyndale suffered martyrdom in 1536, 
 but his work was taken up by Miles 
 Coverdale. He and his coadjutors com- 
 pleted the translation and the whole 
 Bible was issued in one large volume. 
 In 1537 a new and revised edition was 
 published. Another version appeared 
 in 1560 known as the Genevan Bible, 
 or more familiarly as the Breeches 
 Bible, from its rendering of Genesis 3 : 
 7. This, however, was not popular 
 with the Church of England, and in 
 1568 a revision of Coverdale's version 
 was made. This was known as the Bish- 
 op's Bible, because of the number of 
 bishops who assisted in its production. 
 
 In the reign of James I. a demand 
 was made for a new translation, 
 and at the Hampton Court Confer- 
 ence (1604) the suggestion was made 
 by Dr. Rainolds of Oxford, as spokes- 
 man of the Puritan representatives, 
 and accepted by the king. The work 
 was committed to 54 scholars, but 
 only 47 took part in it. They were 
 divided into six companies, who had 
 their respective tasks assigned them 
 and met apart. The revision was be- 
 gun in 1607, and occupied three years. 
 The whole work was revised by 12 of 
 the translators, two out of each com- 
 pany, and a final revision was made 
 by Dr. -Myles Smith, the writer of 
 the preface, and Dr. Bilson, Bishop of 
 Winchester. The completed work was 
 published in a folio volume in 1611. 
 
 E 18. 
 
 The translators were enjoined to fol- 
 low the ordinary Bible read in the 
 churches commonly called the Bish- 
 ops' Bible, and not to make altera- 
 tions unless the meaning of the origi- 
 nal could bfe more accurately con- 
 veyed. The general accuracy of this 
 translation, which is usually known 
 as the Authorized Version, and the 
 purity of its style, so won the appro- 
 bation of scholars and commended it 
 to readers generally that from the 
 time of its adoption it has superseded 
 all other versions. Latterly, however, 
 the advances made in Hebrew scholar- 
 ship and biblical criticism gave rise to 
 a general demand among those inter- 
 ested in the study of the Bible for a 
 revision of the Authorized Version, 
 and the task was undertaken by a 
 number of the Anglican clergy, with 
 the aid of associates from various 
 other bodies. The work was set afoot 
 by the convocation of Canterbury, 
 which in 1870 appointed a committee 
 to consider the question of revision. 
 The committee in a few months re- 
 ported favorably on the scheme, rec- 
 ommending that " the revision be so 
 conducted as to comprise both margi- 
 nal renderings and such emendations 
 as it may be found necessary to insert 
 in the text of the authorized version " ; 
 stating also " that in the above reso- 
 lutions we do not contemplate any 
 new translation of the Bible, or any 
 alteration of the language, except 
 where in the judgment of the most 
 competent scholars such change is 
 necessary." Two companies were soon 
 formed one for the Old, the other 
 for the New Testament, including a 
 number Of scholars belonging to the 
 United States and the revised ver- 
 sion of the New Testament was issued 
 in 1881, while that of the Old Testa- 
 ment appeared in 1885. In accuracy 
 at least the revised version is greatly 
 superior to the old, on which it made 
 10,000 emendations. Of other trans- 
 lations than the English Authorized 
 Version, that of Luther, which formed 
 an epoch in the history or the German 
 language, is the most remarkable. It 
 was finished in 1534. 
 
 Bible Societies, societies formed 
 for the distribution of the Bible or 
 portions of it in various languages, 
 either gratuitously or at a low rate. 
 A clergyman of Wales, whom the
 
 Bible Statistics 
 
 Bible 
 
 want of a Welsh Bible led to London, 
 occasioned the establishment of the 
 British and Foreign Bible Society, 
 which was founded in London, March 
 7, 1804. 
 
 In the United States the great 
 American Bible Society, formed in 
 1816, acts in concert with the aux- 
 iliary societies in all parts of the 
 Union. The annual income of the 
 society is now over $500,000, and its 
 total issue has amounted to about 
 64,000,000 copies. These have been 
 mostly in English, Spanish, and 
 French, from the society's plates. The 
 managers have occasionally purchased 
 Bibles in Europe, and issued them to 
 applicants, in German, Dutch, Welsh, 
 Gaelic, Portuguese, modern Greek, 
 and some other European languages. 
 They have also furnished money to 
 print translations into pagan lan- 
 guages, by American missionaries. It 
 is the object of the society to supply 
 every one who can read in the United 
 States, before devoting much attention 
 to distribution abroad. Yet Spanish 
 America and Ceylon, Greece, and the 
 Sandwich Islands have been furnished 
 with Bibles by the society. Other 
 American societies are the Pennsyl- 
 vania Bible Society, the American and 
 Foreign Bible Society, and the Amer- 
 ican Bible Union. 
 
 Bible Statistics, an interesting 
 compilation, said to be the fruits of 
 three years' labor by the indefatigable 
 Dr. Home, and given by him in his 
 introduction to the study of the Scrip- 
 tures. The basis is an old English Bi- 
 ble of the King James version. 
 
 Old Testament. Number of books, 
 39; chapters, 929; verses, 23,214; 
 words, 593,493; letters, 2,728,100. 
 
 New Testament. Number of books, 
 27; chapters, 260; verses, 7,959; 
 words, 181,253; letters, 838,380. 
 
 The Bible. Total number of books, 
 66; chapters, 1,189; verses, 31,173; 
 words, 773,746; letters, 3,566,480. 
 
 Apocrypha. Number of books, 14 ; 
 chapters, 184; verses, 6,031 ; words, 
 125,185. 
 
 Old Testament. The middle book 
 of the Old Testament is Proverbs. The 
 middle chapter is Job xxix. The mid- 
 dle verse is II Chronicles xx, between 
 verses 17 and 18. The shortest book 
 is Obadiah. The shortest verse is 
 I Chron. i : 25. The word " and " 
 
 occurs 35,543 times. Ezra vii : 21 
 contains all the letters of our alpha- 
 bet. The word " Selah " occurs 73 
 times and only in the poetical books. 
 II Kings xix and Isaiah xxxvii are 
 alike. The Book of Esther does not 
 contain the words God or Lord. The 
 last two verses of II Chronicles and 
 the opening verses of the Book ot 
 Ezra are alike. Ezra ii and Nehe- 
 miah vii are alike. There are nearly 
 30 books mentioned, but not found in 
 the Bible, consisting of civil records 
 and other ancient writings now nearly 
 all lost. About 26 of these are al- 
 Inded to in the Old Testament. 
 
 New Testament. The middle book 
 is II Thessalonians. The middle chap- 
 ter is between Romans xiii and xiv. 
 The middle verse is Acts xvii : 17. 
 The smallest book is II John. The 
 smallest verse iis John xi : 35. The 
 word " and " occurs 10,684 times. The 
 name Jesus occurs nearly 700 times in 
 the Gospels and Acts, and in the Epis- 
 tles less than 70 times. The name 
 Christ alone occurs about 60 times in 
 the Gospels and Acts, and about 240 
 times in the Epistles and Revelation. 
 The term Jesus Christ occurs 5 times 
 in the Gospels. 
 
 The Bible. The middle book is Mi- 
 cah. The middle (and smallest) chap- 
 ter is Psalm cj;vii. The middle verse 
 is Psalm cxviii : 8. The middle line is 
 II Chronicles iv : 16 ; the largest book 
 is that of the Psalms ; the largest 
 chapter is Psalm cxix. The word Je- 
 hovah (or Lord occurs 6,855 times. 
 The word " and " occurs 46,227 times. 
 The number of authors of the Bible is 
 50. The Bible was not until modern 
 times divided into chapters and verses. 
 The division of chapters has been at- 
 tributed to Lanfrank, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, in the reign of William 
 I. ; but the real author of this division 
 was Cardinal Hugo de Sancto-Caro, 
 about 1236. The number of languages 
 on earth is estimated at 3,000; the 
 Bible or parts of it have been ren- 
 dered into only about 180, or, lan- 
 guages and dialects together, 345. The 
 first English translation complete of 
 the Bible was by Wyclif in 1380. The 
 first American edition was printed in 
 Boston in 1752. 
 
 Bible, The Seven, the seven prin- 
 cipal Bibles of the world are the Ko- 
 ran of the Mohammedans, the Eddas
 
 Biblical Archaeology 
 
 Biddle 
 
 of the Scandinavians, the Tripitikes of 
 the Buddhists, the Five Kings of the 
 Chinese, the three Vedas of the Hin- 
 dus, the Zend Ayesta and the Scrip- 
 tures of the Christians. The Koran 
 is, except the Eddas, the most recent 
 of these seven Bibles and not older 
 than the 7th century, of our era. It 
 is a compound of quotations from the 
 Old and New Testaments, the Tal- 
 mud and the gospel of St. Barnbas. 
 The Eddas of the Scandinavians was 
 first published in the 14th century. 
 The Tripitikes of the Buddhists con- 
 tain sublime morals and pure aspira- 
 tions ; their author lived and died in 
 the 6th century before Christ. 
 
 The sacred writings of the Chinese 
 are called the Five Kings, king mean- 
 ing web of cloth or the warp that 
 keeps the threads in their place. They 
 contain the best sayings of the best 
 sages on the ethico-political duties of 
 life. These sayings cannot be traced 
 to a period earlier than the llth cen- 
 tury before Christ. The three Vedas 
 are the most ancient books of the Hin- 
 dus, and it is the opinion of Max Mul- 
 ler, Wilson, Johnson and Whitney 
 that they are not older than 11 cen- 
 turies before Christ. The Zend Aves- 
 ta of the Persians is the grandest of 
 all these sacred books next to our 
 Bible. Zoroaster, whose sayings it 
 contains, was born in the 12th century 
 before Christ. It is the sacred book 
 of the fire worshippers. 
 
 Biblical Archaeology, Society 
 of, a society founded in London Dec. 
 9, 1870, "for the investigation of the 
 archaeology, history, arts, and chron- 
 ology of ancient and modern Assyria, 
 Palestine, Egypt, Arabia, and other 
 Biblical lands ; the promotion of the 
 study of the antiquities of those coun- 
 tries, and the record of discoveries 
 hereafter to be made in connection 
 therewith." 
 
 Biblical Criticism, the science 
 which deals with the text of the Bible. 
 It is of two kinds : the Lower, or 
 Textual Criticism, which is concerned 
 with the accuracy and meaning of the 
 passages ; and the Higher or Literary 
 Criticism, which seeks to discover the 
 origin, date, authorship and relations 
 of the various books, and to find out 
 by internal evidence whether they are 
 based on earlier documents and wheth- 
 
 er they have undergone revision since 
 they were first composed. 
 
 Bibliography, the science or 
 knowledge of books, their authorship, 
 the dates of their first publication, 
 and of the several editions they have 
 gone through, with all other points 
 requisite for literary history. 
 
 Bichloride of Gold, in chemis- 
 try and pharmacy, a substance which 
 has risen into notoriety on account of 
 the use made of it in the cure of dip- 
 somania and chronic alcoholism. Its 
 employment by Dr. Keeley produced a 
 profound impression on the medical 
 world. 
 
 Bicycle, a light-wheeled yehicle 
 propelled by the rider, consisting of 
 two wheels attached to a frame com- 
 posed of tubing. Between these is ar- 
 ranged an axle, attached to lower part 
 of frame, to which are affixed two 
 pedals, one on either side ; to this axle 
 is attached a sprocket-wheel over which 
 runs an endless chain connecting with 
 a smaller sprocket on the rear wheel. 
 There are also chainless bicycles, in 
 which a system of cogs takes the 
 place of the chain. The frames are dis- 
 tinguished as "diamond" and "drop;" 
 the former used by men, the later by 
 women cyclists. The rider sits upon a 
 saddle attached to a seat-post affixed 
 to the frame ; he there steers the ma- 
 chine by means of a handle-bar, which 
 turns the front wheel in any direction, 
 required. The momentum of the vehi- 
 cle, and tho proper use of the steering 
 bar keeps it in an upright position. 
 
 Biddef ord, a city in York county, 
 Me.; on the Saco river and the Bos- 
 ton & Maine railroad; 15 miles S. W. 
 of Portland; settled in 1630; has 
 trolley to famous Old Orchard Beach 
 (4 miles); has good water-power, cot- 
 ton and \voolten mills, and large trade 
 in lumber and farm products. Pop. 
 1910) 17,079. 
 
 Biddle, Anthony Joseph Drex- 
 el, an American author and explorer; 
 born in Philadelphia, Oct. 1, 1874. 
 
 Biddle, Arthur, an American 
 lawyer, born in Philadelphia. Pa., 
 Sept. 23, 1852; graduated at Yale in 
 1873; studied law and was admitted 
 to the bar in 1878. Later he became 
 a member of his father's firm and de- 
 voted much time to the study of cer- 
 tain branches, the results of which
 
 Biddle 
 
 were published in his works. He died 
 in Atlantic City, N. J.,TVIarch 8, 1897. 
 
 Biddle, Clement, the " Quaker 
 Soldier," was born in Philadelphia, 
 May 10, 1740. Although a strict 
 Quaker, he identified himself with the 
 Revolutionary cause even to the ex- 
 tent of going to war. He was present 
 at the battles of Princeton, Brandy- 
 wine, Germantown and Monmouth. 
 He also shared the sufferings of Val- 
 ley Forge. He resigned active service 
 in 1780, but assisted in the making 
 of the Federal Constitution in 1787. 
 After that he was United States mar- 
 shal of Pennsylvania. He died in 
 Philadelphia, July 14, 1814. 
 
 Biddle, James, an American na- 
 val officer, born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
 in 1793 ; entered the navy as a mid- 
 shipman on the " Philadelphia " in 
 1800, and was on that frigate when 
 she was wrecked on the Barbary coast 
 in 1803. In the War of 1812 he 
 served on the " Wasp " in the capture 
 of the British sloop " Frolic," and 
 was captain of the " Hornet " at the 
 capture of the " Penguin." In 1845 
 he was given command of the East 
 India Squadron and concluded the 
 first treaty between the United States 
 and China. He died in Philadelphia, 
 Oct. 1, 1848. 
 
 Biddle, John, father of the mod- 
 ern Unitarians, born in Wotton-under- 
 Edge, in Gloucestershire, in 1615 ; 
 was educated at Oxford, and became 
 master of a free school at Gloucester. 
 He was repeatedly imprisoned for his 
 anti-Trinitarian views. A general act 
 of oblivion restored him to liber- 
 ty, when he immediately disseminat- 
 ed his opinions both by preaching and 
 by the publication of his " Twofold 
 Scripture Catechism." He was again 
 imprisoned, and the law of 1648 was 
 to be put in operation against him 
 when, to save his life, Cromwell ban- 
 ished him to St. Mary's Castle, Sicily, 
 and assigned him 100 crowns annual- 
 ly. Here he remained three years, un- 
 til the Protector liberated him in 1658. 
 He then continued to preach his opin- 
 ions till the death of Cromwell, and 
 also after the Restoration, when he 
 was committed to jail in 1662, and 
 died a few months after. 
 
 Biddle, Nicholas, an American 
 naval officer, born in Philadelphia, 
 
 Biela 
 
 Pa., Sept. 10, 1750. After serving in 
 the British navy and in the Arctic ex- 
 ploring expedition led by Captain 
 Phipps, he returned to his native 
 country at the outbreak of the Revo- 
 lution, and was one of the five officers 
 who received the rank of captain at 
 the organization of the American 
 navy in 1775. ' In command of the 
 " Andrea Doria " he accompanied 
 Fleet-Captain Hopkins to the Baha- 
 mas, and was present at the capture 
 of New Providence. In 1777 he took 
 command of the 32-gun ship " Ran- 
 dolph," the first American frigate 
 ever launched. He met the British 
 " Yarmouth," 64 guns, on March 7, 
 1778, and in the ensuing action the 
 " Randolph " blew up, causing the 
 death of her captain and about 315 
 others. 
 
 Biddle, Nicholas, an American 
 financier, born in Philadelphia, Pa., 
 Jan. 8, 1786; became secretary to 
 John Armstrong, United States Min- 
 ister to France, in 1804, and subse- 
 quently went to England as secretary 
 to James Monroe, then United States 
 Minister. He returned home in 1807, 
 was elected to the Pennsylvania Legis- 
 lature in 1810, and was appointed a 
 director of the United States Bank in 
 1819. He became president of the 
 bank in 1823 and managed it ably 
 down to the expiration of its charter. 
 He died in Philadelphia, Feb. 27, 1844. 
 
 Bidwell, John, an American po- 
 litician, born in Chautauqua county, 
 N. Y., Aug. 5, 1819. In 1831 his par- 
 ents moved to Ashtabula county, O., 
 where he acquired an academical edu- 
 cation and taught school. He went 
 to California in 1841 ; served in the 
 Mexican War, reaching the rank of 
 Major ; was a member of the Consti- 
 tutional Convention of 1849; and of 
 the National Democratic Convention 
 in Charleston, in 1860. In the Civil 
 War he was brigadier-general of Cali- 
 fornia militia. In 1864 he was elect- 
 ed to Congress as a Republican ; in 
 1866 was a member of the Philadel- 
 phia Convention ; in 1890 was the un- 
 successful Prohibition candidate for 
 Governor of California; and, in 1892, 
 unsuccessful candidate of his party 
 for the Presidency. He died in Chico, 
 Gal., April 5, 1900. 
 
 Biela, Wilhelm, Baron von, an 
 Austrian army officer, born in Roslau,
 
 Biela's Comet 
 
 Bigelow 
 
 Prussia, March 19, 1782 ; known from 
 his discovery of the comet bearing his 
 name. He died in Venice, Feb. 18, 
 1856. 
 
 Biela's Comet, a comet which took 
 its name from Major Biela of the Aus- 
 trian army, who traced it out in 1826 
 and furnished such data regarding its 
 movements as to convince the other 
 astronomers of his day that he had a 
 proprietary right to it. The same 
 comet had been noticed on March 8, 
 1772, and again in 1805. 
 
 Bichlcsohle, a stalactite cavern in 
 the Harz Mountains, on the right 
 bank of the Bode. 
 
 Biennial, a plant that requires 
 two seasons to come to maturity, 
 
 Bienville, Jean Baptiste le 
 Moyue, a French colonist, born in 
 Montreal, Feb. 23, 1680. In 1698, 
 with his brother, Iberville, he left 
 France to found a colony at the mouth 
 of the Mississippi. In 1700 he con- 
 structed a fort 54 miles abo\e the 
 mouth of the river, and in 1701, 
 he succeeded to the direction of the 
 colony, the seat of which became Mo- 
 bile. In 1718 he received a commis- 
 sion as governor of Mississippi, and 
 about this time founded the city ot 
 New Orleans. In 1724 he was sum- 
 moned to France, and, on Aug. 9, 
 1726, was removed from office. In 
 1733 he was sent back to the colony 
 as governor, with the rank of lieu- 
 tenant-general. In 1743 he was again 
 removed and returned to France, 
 where he died in 1765. 
 
 Bierstadt, Albert, an American 
 painter, born near Dusseldorf, Ger- 
 many, Jan. 7, 1830 ; removed with his 
 parents to Salem, Mass., in 1831 ; be- 
 gan to paint in oils in 1851 ; and in 
 1853 returned to Dusseldorf to study 
 his art, spending a winter in Rome, 
 traveling in Italy and Switzerland, 
 and returning to the United States in 
 1857. In 1859 he accompanied Gen- 
 eral Lander's expedition to the Rocky 
 Mountains, and spent several months 
 in studies of mountain scenery. He 
 was elected a member of the National 
 Academy in 1860. In 1861 he finished 
 his painting, " Laramie Peak," and in 
 1863 " View of the Rocky Mountains 
 Lander's Peak." These at once 
 gave him a high reputation. He died 
 in New York city, Feb. 18, 1902. 
 
 Bios-Bosch, a marshy sheet of wa- 
 ter interspersed with islands, between 
 the Dutch Provinces of North Bra- 
 bant and South Holland, formed in 
 1421 by an inundation which destroy- 
 ed 72 villages and 100,000 people. 
 
 Bigamy, in civil law, the act of 
 marrying a second time, while the first 
 husband or wife is still known to be 
 living, and not divorced. 
 
 Big Bend Conntry, a volcanic 
 plain near the center of the State of 
 Washington. It covers 4,800 square 
 miles, a third of it being gently roll- 
 ing, brown loam prairie, suitable for 
 farming, and the rest low hills and 
 plateaus of bunch grass and sage 
 brush, where livestock is ranged. The 
 Columbia river curves round this re- 
 gion, flowing in a ravine 1,500 feet be* 
 low the general level. It is traversed 
 by several remarkable chasms, many 
 miles long, and from a furlong to half 
 a league wide, with sheer walls ot 
 black basalt 500 feet high. 
 
 Big Bethel, a village in Virginia, 
 on the peninsula between the York 
 and James rivers ; the scene of a bat- 
 tle, June 10, 1861, between the Fed- 
 eral and Confederate forces. It re- 
 sulted in the defeat of the Federal 
 army. 
 
 Big Bone Lick, a salt spring, in 
 Boone county, Ky., 11 miles S. of 
 Burlington, where fossil remains of 
 mastadons and other extinct fauna 
 have been found. 
 
 Bigelow, Erastns Brigham, an 
 American inventor, born in Boylston, 
 Mass., April 2, 1814; became a lead- 
 ing manufacturer in Clinton, Mass. ; 
 invented looms for suspender weaving, 
 for counterpanes, for coach lace and 
 for carpets. He died in Boston, Dec. 
 6, 1879. 
 
 Bigelow, Frank Hagar, an 
 American clergyman and meteorolo- 
 gist, born in Concord, Mass.. Aug. 28, 
 1851 ; graduated at Harvard in 1873, 
 and at the Episcopal Theological 
 School at Cambridge, Mass. ; was or- 
 dained in 1880, and became assistant 
 rector at St. John's Church in Wash- 
 ington, D. C. In 1873-1876 and 
 1881-1883 he was Astronomer at the 
 Cordoba Observatory, Argentine Re- 
 public in 1884-1889, Professor of 
 Mathematics at Racine College, Wis- 
 consin ; and in 1893 became Professor
 
 Bigelow 
 
 of Meteorology in the United States 
 Weather Bureau. 
 
 Bigelow, Jacob, an American 
 physician, born in Sudbury, Mass., 
 Feb. 27, 1787 ; graduated at Harvard 
 College in 1806, and began medical 
 practice in Boston in 1810. He early 
 became known as a botanist, and a 
 number of plants were named for him 
 by Sir J. E. Smith. He died in Bos- 
 ton, Jan. 10, 1879. 
 
 Bigelow, John, an American au- 
 thor, born in Maiden, N. Y., Nov. 25, 
 1817 ; graduated at Union College, in 
 1835, and became first a lawyer and 
 afterward a journalist. In 1845-1840 
 he was inspector of Sing Sing pris- 
 on ; in 1849-1861 one of the editors of 
 the New York " Evening Post ; " in 
 1861-1864, United States Consul-Gen- 
 eral at Paris ; and in 1864-1867, Min- 
 ister to France. He was Secretary of 
 State of New York in 1875-1877. In 
 his will Samuel J. Tilden appointed 
 him his biographer and one of the 
 three trustees of the bulk of his es- 
 tate, set apart for the establishment 
 of a public library in New York city. 
 
 Bigelow, John, Jr., an American 
 military officer, born in New York, 
 May 12, 1854 ; son of the preceding ; 
 was educated in Paris, Bonn, Berlin, 
 Freiburg, and Providence, R. I. ; grad- 
 uated at the United States Military 
 Academy in 1877; and was assigned 
 to the 10th United States Cavalry. In 
 1887-1889 was adjutant-general of the 
 militia in the District of Columbia ; 
 and in 1894-1898, Professor of Mili- 
 tary Science at the Masachusetts In- 
 stitute of Technology. During the 
 war with Spain he was wounded in 
 the attack on San Juan, Cuba, July 
 1, 1898. 
 
 Bigelow, Poultney, an American 
 author, born in New York, Sept. 10, 
 1855 ; son of John Bigelow ; graduated 
 at Yale University and at the Colum- 
 bia Law School in 1882, and was ad- 
 mitted to the bar. In 1875-1876 he 
 took a journey around the world in a 
 sailing ship, which was wrecked on 
 the coast of Japan. He traveled iii 
 China, Africa, the West Indies, and 
 Demerara. ' He has made canoe voy- 
 ages on the principal waters of Eu- 
 rope, and was the first person to take 
 a canoe through the Iron Gates of 
 the Danube. 
 
 Big Trees 
 
 Bigelow, Timothy, an American 
 military officer, born in Worcester, 
 Mass., Aug. 12, 1739. On May 23, 
 1775, he led a company of minute men 
 to Cambridge, and became a Major in 
 Ward's regiment. He was under Ar- 
 nold in the expedition to Quebec in 
 1775, and was there captured, remain- 
 ing a prisoner till 1776., He became 
 a Colonel in 1777, and assisted in the 
 capture of Burgoyne. He also saw 
 service at Valley Forge, Monmouth, 
 West Point, and Yorktown. He died 
 in Worcester, Mass., March 31, 1790. 
 
 Biggs, Asa, an American jurist, 
 born in Williamston, N. C., Feb. 4, 
 1811; died in Norfolk, Va., March 6, 
 1878. 
 
 Big Horn, the wild sheep of the 
 Rocky Mountains, named from the 
 size of its horns, which are 3^ feet 
 long, the animal itself being of the 
 same height at the shoulder. 
 
 Big Horn Mountains, a range 
 of mountains beginning near the cen- 
 ter of* Wyoming and running N. into 
 Montana, containing heights of from 
 8,000 to 12,000 feet, and covering 7,- 
 500 square miles. 
 
 Big Horn River, a river of Mon- 
 tana and Wyoming ; rises in the 
 Rocky Mountains near Fremont's 
 Peak, and flows N. E. into the Yel- 
 lowstone. Along its course is some of 
 the grandest mountain scenery in the 
 world. 
 
 Bignonia, a genus of plants (that 
 of the trumpet flowers). It has four 
 perfect stamina, two long and two 
 short. The species, which are numer- 
 ous, are nearly all of an ornamental 
 character, owing to their fine, large- 
 trumpet like, monopetalous corolla's, 
 colored red, blue, yellow, or white. 
 
 Big Trees, the sequoia gigantea, 
 " big tree " of California, is found 
 only on the .W. slope of the Sierra, 
 while the " redwood," belonging to 
 the same genus, is confined to the 
 Coast Range. 
 
 The Calaveras Grove of sequoia gi- 
 gantea is the northernmost of the Cal- 
 ifornia groves of big trees, and it is 
 the nearest to San Francisco. It is, 
 however, comparatively seldom visit- 
 ed, as the Mariposa Grove is conven- 
 iently included in the usual route to 
 the Yosemite. The Calaveras Grove 
 covers an area 1,100 yards long and
 
 Big 'Woods 
 
 70 yards wide, 4,750 feet above the 
 sea, and contains about 100 trees of 
 large size, besides many smaller ones. 
 The tallest now standing is the Key- 
 stone State, which is 325 feet high 
 and 45 feet in girth. The Mother of 
 the Forest (denuded of its bark) is 
 315 feet high and has a girth of 61 
 feet, while the prostrate Father of 
 the Forest measures 112 feet in cir- 
 cumference. Two other trees are over 
 300 feet high, and many exceed 250 
 feet. A house has been built over a 
 stump with a diameter of 24 feet. The 
 bark is sometimes 1*4 feet in thick- 
 ness. About 5 miles to the S. is the, 
 Stanislaus or South Grove, also con- 
 taining many fine trees. 
 
 The Marippsa Grove of big trees, so 
 called from its situation in Mariposa 
 county, occupies a tract of land (6,- 
 500 feet above the sea) 4 square miles 
 in area, reserved as a State Park, and 
 consists of two distinct groves, one- 
 half mile apart. The Lower Grove 
 contains about 100 fine specimens of 
 the sequoia gigantea, including the 
 Grizzly Giant, the largest of all, with 
 a circumference of 94 feet and a diam- 
 eter of 31 feet. Its main limb, 200 
 feet from the ground, is 6% feet in 
 diameter. In ascending to the Upper 
 Grove, which contains 365 big trees, 
 the road passes through a tunnel, 10 
 feet high and 9^ feet wide (at the 
 bottom), cut directly through the 
 heart of a living sequoia, 27 feet in 
 diameter. About 10 of the trees in the 
 Mariposa Grove exceed 250 feet hi 
 height (highest 272 feet) and about 
 20 trees have a circumference of over 
 60 feet, three of these being over 90 
 feet. The Calaveras Grove has taller 
 trees than any of the Mariposa Grove, 
 but the latter has those of greater cir- 
 cumference. The wood of the sequoia 
 gigantea, like that of the sequoia sem- 
 pervirens, is easily worked, durable, 
 and susceptible of a high polish. The 
 sequoia sempervirens, or redwoods, 
 sometimes reach a height of 300 feet. 
 
 The Santa Cruz Grove of big trees 
 contains about a score of the genuine 
 redwood with a diameter of 10 feet 
 and upward. The largest is 23 feet 
 across ; one of the finest, named the 
 Pioneer, has a girth of 70 feet. The 
 redwood is one of the most prized va- 
 rieties of lumber, and is shipped in 
 great quantities to the Eastern States, 
 
 Bilge 
 
 where its ornamental qualities are 
 fully appreciated. 
 
 Big Woods, a forest region in the 
 S. E. part of Minnesota, extending S. 
 from St. Cloud to Le Sueur, where it 
 crosses the Minnesota, and sends 
 branches toward Faribault and Man- 
 kato. 
 
 Bihe, a fruitful district of South 
 Africa, E. of Benguela, and under 
 Portuguese influence. Bihe is an im- 
 portant caravan center, as the only 
 route across the continent passes 
 through it. Area, 2,500 square miles. 
 Pop. 95,000. 
 
 Bijapnr, a decayed city in the 
 Bombay Presidency, 160 miles S. E. 
 of Poona. It was for centuries the 
 capital of a powerful kingdom. 
 
 Bikaner, a native State of Raj- 
 putana, India, under the superinten- 
 dence of a political agent and the 
 governor-general's agent for Rajput- 
 ana. Area, 23,173 square miles ; pop. 
 831,955. 
 
 Bilaspur, a district in the chief 
 commissionership of the Central Prov- 
 inces of India. Area, 7,798 square 
 miles; population, 1,017,327. 
 
 Bilbao, a town of Northern Spain, 
 the capital of the Basque Province of 
 Vizcaya, is situated in a mountain 
 gorge on the Nervion, 8 miles S. E. of 
 its mouth at Portugalete, and 63 miles 
 N. by E. of Miranda by rail. Bilbao 
 is well built. The place, which is 
 purely a trading town, prides itself on 
 being kept exceptionally clean. Pop. 
 (1887) 51,314. 
 
 Bilberry, the name given to one 
 or two species of a genus of plants 
 belonging to the order cranberries. It 
 is also called the whortleberry. It 
 has angular stems, drooping, urceolate, 
 almost waxy flowers, greenish with a 
 red tinge, and black berries very pleas- 
 ant to the taste. It grows in woods 
 and healthy places. The great bil- 
 berry or bog whortleberry is an allied 
 species with rounded stems, smaller 
 flowers, and less agreeably tasted 
 fruit. It grows in mountain bogs. It 
 is called also the bleaberry or blae- 
 berry. The name is also applied to 
 the fruit of the species described. 
 
 Bilge, the breadth of a ship's bot- 
 tom, or that part of her floor which 
 approaches to a horizontal direction, 
 on which she would rest if aground.
 
 Hilguer 
 
 Bilguer, Paul Rudolf von, a 
 
 Prussian military officer, born in 
 Ludwigslust, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
 Sept. 21, 1815. lie was a lieutenant 
 in the array, and was best known as 
 .an authority on chess. He died in 
 Berlin, Sept. 10, 1840. 
 
 Biliary Calculus, a concretion 
 which forms in the gall bladder or bile 
 ducts ; gall stone. It is generally 
 composed of a peculiar crystalline 
 fatty matter which has been called 
 cholesterine. 
 
 Bill, a written or printed paper 
 containing a statement of any partic- 
 ulars. In common use a tradesman's 
 account, or a printed proclamation 
 or advertisement, is thus called a bill. 
 In legislation a bill is a draft of a 
 proposed statute submitted to a legis- 
 lative assembly for approval, but not 
 .vet enacted or passed and made law. 
 When the bill has passed and received 
 the necessary assent, it becomes an 
 act. 
 
 Billaud-Varenn.es, Jacques N., 
 the son of a French advocate at Ro- 
 chelle, born in 1756 ; was educated at 
 the same college as Fouche, and 
 proved himself one of the most vio- 
 lent and sanguinary characters of the 
 French Revolution. He bore a prin- 
 cipal part in the murders and massa- 
 cres which followed the destruction 
 of the Bastille ; voted immediate death 
 to Louis XVI. : and officiated as pres- 
 ident of the Convention on Oct. 18, 
 1793. He was afterward deported to 
 Cayenne, and subsisted on a small 
 tension allowed him by Petion. He 
 died in Haiti, in 1819. 
 
 Bill Broker, a financial agent or 
 money dealer, who discounts or nego- 
 tiates bills of exchange, promissory 
 motes, etc. 
 
 Bille, Steen Andersen, a Danish 
 naval officer, born in Copenhagen, 
 Dec. 5, 1797. He was a member of 
 the expedition that went to South 
 America in 1840, and had command 
 of a scientific expedition round the 
 world, in the corvette " Galatea,'' 
 1845-1847, of which he wrote an in- 
 teresting account. He died in Copen- 
 hagen, May 7, 1883. 
 
 Billeting, a mode of feeding and 
 lodging soldiers when they are not in 
 camp or barracks by quartering them 
 on the inhabitants of a town. 
 
 . Billingsgate 
 
 Billiards, a word probably de- 
 rived from old French billiard, " a 
 stick with a curved end;" in English, 
 introduced as the name of a game, 
 and made plural. The origin of bil- 
 liards is uncertain. 
 
 Billings, John Shaw, an Amer- 
 ican surgeon and librarian, born 
 in Switzerland county, Ind., April 
 12, 1839 ; was graduated at Miami 
 University, in 1857, and the 
 Ohio Medical College, in 1800; was 
 demonstrator of anatomy in the 
 last institution, in 1860-1861 ; enter- 
 ed the Union army as an Assistant 
 Surgeon, in 1861 ; was promoted to 
 Lieutenant-Colonel and Deputy Sur- 
 geon General, June 6, 1894 ; and was 
 retired, Oct. 1, 1895. He was Pro- 
 fessor of Hygiene in the University of 
 Pennsylvania, in 1893-1896; and in 
 the last year was appointed Director 
 of the New York Public Library (As- 
 tor, Lenox and Tilden foundations). 
 After the close of the war Dr. Bil- 
 lings took charge of the library in the 
 Surgeon-General's office ; reorganized 
 the United States Marine Hospital 
 Service; was Vice-President of the 
 National Board of Health, in 1879- 
 1882; and had charge of the compila- 
 tion of vital and social statistics in 
 the Eleventh Census. 
 
 Billings, William, an American 
 composer, born in Boston, Oct. 7, 
 1746. One of the earliest of Ameri- 
 can composers, he is accredited with 
 having introduced into New England 
 a spirited style of church music. He 
 died in Boston, Sept. 26, 1800. 
 
 Billingsgate, a. word said to have 
 been derived from Belinus Magnus, a 
 somewhat mythic British prince, 
 father of King Lud, about B. c. 400. 
 More probably it came from some un- 
 known person called Billing. It is 
 applied to the celebrated London fish 
 market existent at least as early as 
 A. D. 979, made a free market in 1699, 
 extended in 1849, rebuilt in 1852, and 
 finally exposed to the rivalry of an- 
 other market begun 1874, completed 
 1876. The word is also used to indi- 
 cate foul, abusive language, such as 
 is popularly supposed to be mutually 
 employed by fish-wives who are unable 
 to come to an amicable understanding 
 as to the proper price of the fish about 
 which they are negotiating.
 
 Billion 
 
 Binary Arithmetic 
 
 Billion, in English notation 1,000,- 
 ''00 times 1,000,000, and in England 
 it is written 1,000,000,000,000, i. e., 
 with twice as many ciphers as 1,000,- 
 000 has. In the United States and 
 in France the notation is different, 
 the word billion signifying only 1,000 
 millions, written 1,000,000,000. 
 
 Billiton, a Dutch East Indian is- 
 land between Banca and the S. W. of 
 Borneo, of an irregular, sub-quad- 
 rangular form, about 40 miles across. 
 It produces iron and tin, and exports 
 sago, cocoanuts, pepper, tortoise shell, 
 trepang, edible birds' nests, etc. It 
 was ceded to the British in 1812 by 
 the Sultan of Palembang, but in 1824 
 it was given up to the Dutch. Pop. 
 (1890) 38,779. 
 
 Bilney, Thomas, an English mar- 
 tyr, born about 1495, probably at 
 Norwich ; studied at Trinity Hall, 
 Cambridge, and was ordained in 1519. 
 He was opposed to the formal " good 
 works " of the Schoolmen, and de- 
 nounced saint and relic worship ; and 
 to these mild Protestant views he con- 
 verted Hugh Latimer and other young 
 Cambridge men. In 1527 he was ar- 
 Tt igned before Wolsey, and on recant- 
 ing, absolved, but was confined in the 
 Tower for over a year. Stung by re- 
 morse, after two years of suffering, he 
 began to preach in the fields of Nor- 
 folk, but was soon apprehended and 
 condemned ; and although allowed to 
 receive the sacraments of the Church 
 from which he differed so little, he 
 was burned as a heretic at Norwich, 
 Aug. 19, 1531. 
 
 Biloxi, a city in Harrison co., 
 Miss., the site of the first settlement 
 made upon the Mississippi by white 
 men, under the direction of Pierre Le 
 Moyne d'Iberville, in 1G99. 
 
 Biloxi Indians, the name given to 
 on of the 10 groups of tribes into 
 which the Siouan stock of North 
 American Indians is divided. 
 
 Bimetallism, a term invented by 
 Henry Cernuschi and currently used 
 to denote a double monetary standard 
 of value. A Bimetallic Congress was 
 held at Brussels in April, 1896. repre- 
 sentatives from Great Britain, 
 France, the United States, Germany, 
 Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, 
 Holland, Rumania, and Russia being 
 present. Ultimately the members 
 
 constituted themselves a permanent 
 committee, and expressed their opin- 
 ion that a preliminary and immediate- 
 agreement might result from the re- 
 establishment of bimetallism by the 
 United States, the reopening of the 
 Indian mints for the coinage of sil- 
 ver, the turning into silver of part of 
 the metallic reserve of the Bank of 
 England, and the absorption of a suf- 
 ficient amount of silver by the vari- 
 ous European States. The currency 
 question in the United States influ- 
 enced very materially the canvass for 
 the Presidency in 1896. It appeared,, 
 as the year wore on, that free silver 
 doctrines had captured a majority ot 
 the Democratic party, and at the Chi- 
 cago Convention (July 7th) this ma- 
 jority adopted a platform demanding 
 "the immediate restoration of 'the- 
 free and unlimited coiuage of gold and 
 silver at the present legal ratio of lt> 
 to 1, without waiting for the aid or 
 consent of any other nation," and 
 that " the standard silver dollar shall 
 be full legal tender equally with gold 
 for all debts, public and private." 
 WILLIAM JENXINGS BRYAN was nom- 
 inated for the Presidency, but was de- 
 cisively beaten by WILLIAM McKiJf- 
 LEY, the Republican candidate, who 
 favored a single gold standard, though 
 he pledged himself to promote action 
 by international agreement. To this 
 end he sent commissioners to France, 
 Great Britain and Germany, in 1897, 
 and they, together with the French 
 Ambassador, laid various proposals 
 before the British Government, the 
 chief of which were that the Indian 
 mints should be reopened, and that 
 Great Britain should annually pur- 
 chase $50.000,000 of silver. The In- 
 dian Government, however, declined 
 to agree to the first suggestion, and 
 no action resulted. 
 
 Binary Arithmetic, a method of 
 notation invented by Leibnitz, but 
 which appears to have been in use in 
 China about 4,000 years ago. As the 
 term binary implies, there are only 
 two characters in this notation ; these 
 are 1 and 0. By it, our 1 is noted by 
 1, our 2 by 10, 3 by 11, 4 by 100. 5 
 by 101, 6 by 110, 7 by 111, 8 by 1,000, 
 9 by 1,001, 10 by 1,010, etc. The 
 principle is that multiplies by 2 in 
 place of by 10, as on the common sys- 
 tem.
 
 Binary Engine 
 
 Binary Engine, usually an en- 
 
 fine having one ,cylinder, the piston 
 eing impelled by steam, which, hav- 
 ing done its work there, is exhausted 
 into another part of the apparatus, 
 where it is allowed to communicate 
 its unutilized heat to some liquid vola- 
 tile at a lower temperature ; the va- 
 por of this second liquid, by its ex- 
 pansion in a second cylinder, yields 
 additional useful force. 
 
 Bingen, a German town in the 
 Province of Rhine-Hesse, Hesse ; on 
 the left bank of the Rhine, and the 
 right of the Nahe. It is of con- 
 siderable historical interest, contain- 
 ing the ruins of the Castle of Klopp, 
 blown up by the French in 1689 ; the 
 remains of a 12th century monastery ; 
 and the tower, which, tradition tells 
 us, was the scene of the tormenting 
 death of Hatto, Archbishop of Mainz, 
 said to have been eaten alive by mice 
 in the 9th century. A statue of " Ger- 
 mania," heroic size, has been erected 
 here to commemorate the German vic- 
 tories of 1870-1871. 
 
 Bingham, Hiram, an American 
 Congregational clergyman, born in 
 Bennington, Vt, Oct. 30, 1789; was 
 one of the first missionaries of the 
 Congregational Church to be sent to 
 the Sandwich Islands, where he ac- 
 quired much influence with the na- 
 tives. He died in New Haven, Conn., 
 Nov. 11, 1869. 
 
 Bingham, John A., an American 
 politician, born in Mercer, Pa., in 
 1815; became a lawyer in 1840; mana- 
 ger of the trial of President Johnson; 
 minister to Japan in 1873-1885. He 
 died, March 20, 1900. 
 
 Bingham, Kinsley S., an Amer- 
 ican legislator, born in Camillus, N. 
 Y., Dec. 16, 1801; went to Michigan in 
 1833; was a member of Congress in 
 1849-1851; Governor in 1855-1859, 
 .and United States Senator in 1859- 
 1861. He died, Oct. 5, 1861. 
 
 Binghamton, city and capital of 
 Broome county, N. Y.; at junction of 
 the Chenango and Susquehanna rivers 
 and on several railroads; 50 miles E. 
 oi Elmira; has a Government Build- 
 ing, State Asylum for the Insane, 
 Armory, and the Commercial Trav- 
 eler's Home; is one of the largest 
 cigar manufacturing cities in the 
 -country. Pop. (1910) 48,443. 
 
 Bintnrong 
 
 Binley, 'Ward, the Garrick of 
 the Dutch stage, was born at Rotter- 
 dam in 1755, of English parents. In 
 1799 he made his debut on the stage 
 of Amsterdam, and from the first 
 took his place at the head of his 
 profession. He died at The Hague 
 in 1818. 
 
 Binnacle, corrupted from bittacle, 
 a wooden case or bos in which the 
 compass on board a 
 ship is kept to pro- 
 tect it from injury. 
 
 Binney, H i b- 
 bert, a Canadian 
 clergyman, born in 
 Nova Scotia, Aug. 
 12, 1819; graduated 
 at Oxford University 
 in 1842. He became 
 Bishop (Anglican) 
 of Nova Scotia and 
 Prince Edward Is- 
 land, in 1851, this be- 
 ing the first instance 
 of England founding 
 a bishopric in her 
 colonies. He attend- 
 ed the General Con- 
 vention of the Prot- 
 e s t a n t Episcopal 
 Church held in Chicago in 1886. He 
 died in 1887. 
 
 Binney, Horace, an American 
 lawyer, born in Philadelphia, Jan. 4, 
 1780; was graduated at Harvard in 
 1797 ; and for many years was at the 
 head of the Pennsylvania bar. He 
 had a number of distinguished cases 
 in his career ; the most noted one be- 
 ing the defense of the city of Philadel- 
 phia against the executors of Stephen 
 Girard. He was also a director in the 
 United States Bank. He wrote many 
 valuable papers, and was the author 
 of "The Leaders of the Old Bar of 
 Philadelphia," and " The Privilege of 
 the Writ of Habeas Corpus Under the 
 Constitution." He died in Philadel- 
 phia, Aug. 12, 1875. 
 
 Binocular, literally, having two 
 eyes or pertaining to both eyes ; an 
 instrument having two tubes, each 
 furnished above with an eye glass, 
 so as to enable one to see with both 
 eyes at once. 
 
 Bintnrong (bear-marten), a ge- 
 nus of carnivores in the civet section. 
 Its resemblance to raccoons, beside 
 
 BINNACLE.
 
 Sinne 
 
 which it used to be placed, is entirely 
 superficial. It is a slow, arboreal and 
 nocturnal animal, partly vegetarian, 
 indeed omnivorous, in its diet, with 
 lank body, coarse, dark hair, long, 
 tufted ears, and prehensile tail. There 
 is but one species found in India, Ma- 
 lay, Sumatra and Java. It is easily 
 tamed. 
 
 Binne, or Benne, the largest and 
 most important tributary of Niger 
 river, West Africa. It rises in the 
 mountains N. of Adamawa and at Lo- 
 koja joins the Niger. 
 
 Biobio, the largest river of Chile, 
 has a W. N. W. course of about 200 
 miles, from near the volcano of An- 
 tuco in the Andes to Consepcion on 
 the Pacific Ocean. It is 2 miles wide 
 at its mouth, and navigable for 100 
 miles. The river, since 1875, has 
 given name to a province with an 
 area of 4,158 square miles, and a pop. 
 of 122,729. 
 
 Biograph, an apparatus that dis- 
 plays in rapid sequence a long series 
 of photographs. It differs from the 
 kinetoscppe in that instead of showing 
 small pictures through an enlarging 
 lens by reflected light, it projects them 
 on a screen where they are shown life 
 size, or larger if desired. 
 
 Biology, a term first introduced by 
 Treviranus of Bremen, adopted by 
 the leading English speaking natural- 
 ists, and now having universal cur- 
 rency. It is used in two senses: (1) 
 (In a more restricted sense) : Physi- 
 ology; (2) (In a wider sense) : The 
 science of life in its widest accepta- 
 tion. 
 
 Blot, Jean Baptiste, French 
 mathematician and physicist born at 
 Paris 1774, and died there 1862. He 
 became professor of phvsics in the 
 College de France in 1800, in 1803 
 member of the Academy of Sciences, 
 in 1804 was appointed to the Observ- 
 atory of Paris, in 180C was made 
 member of the Bureau dea Longitudes, 
 in 1809 became also professor of physi- 
 cal astronomy in the University of 
 Paris. IB connection with the meas- 
 urement of a degree of the meridian 
 he visited Britain in 1817. He is es- 
 pecially celebrated as the discoverer of 
 the circular polarization of Mght. 
 
 Biotite, a hexagonal and an opti- 
 cally uniaxial mineral, formerly called 
 
 Bird 
 
 magnesia mica, hexagonal mica, and 
 uniaxial mica ; named after Jean Bap- 
 tiste Biot 
 
 Biped, a descriptive term, some- 
 times applied to man, but more fre- 
 quently to birds. 
 
 Birch, the English name of the 
 trees and shrubs belonging to the bo- 
 tanical genus betula. The common 
 birch grows best in healthy soils and 
 in Alpine districts. The drooping or 
 weeping birch is a variety of this tree. 
 It grows wild on the European conti- 
 nent and in Asia. The wood of the 
 birch is tough and white. It is used 
 for making brooms; it is often burned 
 into charcoal ; twigs are by many em- 
 ployed for purposes of castigation. 
 The oil obtained from the white rind 
 is used in tanning Russia leather. The 
 Russians turn it to account also as a 
 vermifuge and as a balsam in the 
 cure of wounds. In some countries 
 the bark of the birch is made into 
 hats and cups. The canoe birch, of 
 which the North American Indians 
 constructed their portable canoes is 
 so called for that reason. 
 
 Birch, Samuel, an English Ori- 
 entalist, born in London, "Nov. 3, 1813. 
 He entered the British Museum as As- 
 sistant Keeper of Antiquities, in 1836, 
 and ultimately became Keeper of the 
 Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities. 
 He was especially famed for his ca- 
 pacity and skill in Egyptology, and 
 was associated with Baron Bunsen in 
 his work on Egypt, contributing the 
 philological portions relating to hiero- 
 glyphics. He died Dec. 27, 1885. 
 
 Bird, Charles, an American mili- 
 tary officer, born in Delaware, June 
 17, 1838. On March 2, 1867, he was 
 brevetted First Lieutenant and Cap- 
 tain in the United States army for 
 gallantry in the battle of Fredericks- 
 burg, Major for Spottsylvania, and 
 Lieutenant-Colonel for Petersburg, 
 Va. He was appointed a Second 
 Lieutenant, 14th United States In- 
 fantry, in 1866; promoted to Major 
 and Quartermaster in 1895; and com- 
 missioned a Colonel of United States 
 Volunteers for the war with Spain, 
 in 1898. 
 
 Bird, Frederic Mayer, an Amer- 
 ican clergyman, born in Philadelphia, 
 June 28, 1838 ; graduated at the Uni- 
 versity of Pennsylvania in 1857, and
 
 Bird 
 
 at the Union Theological Seminary in 
 3860. He was rector at Spotswood, 
 N. J., in 1870-1874; Chaplain and 
 Professor of Psychology, Christian 
 Evidences and Rhetoric, at Lehigh 
 University in 1881-1880; and acting 
 chaplain there in 1893-1898. He was 
 noted as a hymnologist, and as the 
 collector of one of the most complete 
 and valuable musical libraries in the 
 United States. Died April 2, 1908. 
 
 Bird, Robert Montgomery, an 
 American dramatist and novelist, 
 born in Newcastle, Del., about 1803 ; 
 died in Philadelphia, Jan. 22, 1854. 
 
 Bird-Catching Spider, a name 
 applied to a gigantic spider, a native 
 of Surinam and elsewhere which preys 
 upon insects and small birds which it 
 hunts for and pounces on. 
 
 Bird Lice, the common name 
 given to the small parasites so fre- 
 quently seen infesting birds. 
 
 Bird Lime, a substance whitish 
 and limy in appearance; used, as its 
 name imports, for capturing birds. It 
 is, in general, manufactured from the 
 bark of the holly. 
 
 Bird of 111 Omen, a phrase often 
 applied to a person who is regarded as 
 unlucky ; one who is in the habit of 
 bringing ill news. The ancients 
 thought that some birds indicated 
 good luck, and others evil. 
 
 Bird of Paradise, the English 
 designation of a family of conirostral 
 birds. They are closely allied to the 
 crows, with which, indeed, they are 
 united by some writers. They have 
 magnificent plumage, especially the 
 males, who can, moreover, elevate 
 quite a canopy of plumes behind their 
 necks. 
 
 Bird's Eye, the eye or eyes of a 
 bird. In botany, the name of several 
 plants with small, bright, usually blue, 
 flowers. 
 
 Bird's-Eye Maple, curled maple, 
 the wood of the sugar maple when 
 full of little knotty spots, somewhat 
 resembling birds' eyes, much used in 
 cabinet work. 
 
 Bird's-Eye View, the representa- 
 tion of any scene as it would appear 
 if seen from a considerable elevation 
 right above. 
 
 Bird's Nest the nest of a bird. 
 Those of the several species vary in 
 
 Birkenfeld 
 
 their minor details so as to be in most 
 cases distinguishable from each other. 
 Edible birds' nests are nests built 
 by the collocalia esculenta, and cer- 
 tain other species of swallows inhabit- 
 ing Sumatra, Java, China, and some 
 other parts of the East. The nests, 
 a Chinese luxury, are formed of a 
 mucilaginous substance, secreted by 
 the birds from their salivary glands. 
 See SALANGANE. 
 
 Birds of Passage, birds which 
 migrate with the season from a colder 
 to a warmer, or from a warmer to a 
 colder climate. 
 
 Bireme, a Roman ship of war 
 with two banks of oars. It was in- 
 ferior in magnitude and strength to 
 the trireme. 
 
 Biren, Ernest John, Duke of 
 Coin-land, a Lithuanian of mean fam- 
 ily, was born in 1690, and went in 
 1714 to St. Petersburg. Anna, Duch- 
 ess Dowager of Courland, made him 
 her favorite, and when she became 
 Empress of Russia, intrusted to him 
 the administration of the kingdom. 
 On the death of the Empress he as- 
 sumed the regency, by virtue of her 
 will ; but, in 1740, a conspiracy was 
 formed against him by Marshal Mu- 
 nich, and he was condemned to death, 
 which sentence was changed to banish- 
 ment. Peter III. recalled him, and 
 Catherine II. restored him to his for- 
 mer dignity. In 1763, Biren re-en- 
 tered Mitau ; and, profiting by the les- 
 sons of misfortune he had experienced, 
 governed for the remainder of his life 
 with mildness and justice. He died 
 in 1772. 
 
 Birge, Edward Asahel, an Amer- 
 ican naturalist, born in Troy, N. Y., 
 Sept. 7, 1851 ; graduated at Williams 
 College in 1873 ; studied physiology 
 and histology at Leipsic in 1880-1881. 
 He became Instructor of Natural His- 
 tory in the University of Wisconsin 
 in 1875; Professor of Zoology in 
 1879 ; and Dean of the College of Let- 
 ters and Science in 1891. In 1894 he 
 became Director of the Geological and 
 Natural History Survey of Wiscon- 
 sin. 
 
 Birkenfeld, a German principali- 
 ty belonging to Oldenburg, but sur- 
 rounded by the Prussian Rhine Prov- 
 ince, and intersected by the railway 
 from Bingen to Saarbruck. It has an
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY F. E. WRIGHT. 
 
 CAME BIRDS
 
 Birmingham 
 
 area of nearly 200 square miles, with 
 a population of (1890) 41,242; it 
 has been connected with Oldenburg, 
 300 miles distant, since 1817. The 
 capital, Birkenfeld, has a population 
 of 2,500. 
 
 Birmingham, city and county- 
 seat of Jefferson co., Ala. ; at the 
 junction of several trunk railroads; 
 1)6 miles N. W. of Montgomery, the 
 State capital. Birmingham was in- 
 corporated as a city in 1871 with a 
 population of less than 1,000. Its 
 noticeable development began in 1880 
 and its remarkable progress may be 
 said to date from 1890. In 1896 its 
 two largest iron and steel corporations 
 begun selling pig iron for export at 
 prices as satisfactory as those ob- 
 tained on domestic orders ; and since 
 then it has had a larger development 
 in the iron and steel industry than 
 any city S. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 
 26,178; (1900) 38.415; with suburbs, 
 about 100,000; (1910) 132,685. 
 
 Birmingham, a city of England, 
 on the Rea river near its confluence 
 with the Tame, in the N. W. of War- 
 wickshire, with suburbs extending 
 into Staffordshire and Worcester- 
 shire ; 112 miles N. W. of London, 
 and 97 S. E. of Liverpool. It is the 
 principal seat of the hardware manu- 
 facture in Great Britain. Bir- 
 mingham is known to have existed in 
 the reign of Alfred, in 872, and is 
 mentioned in the Domesday Book 
 (1086) by the name of Bermengeham. 
 Another old name of the town is 
 Bromwycham, a form still preserved 
 very nearly in the popular local pro- 
 nunciation, Brummagem. In 1903 the 
 population was 533,039, an increase of 
 21.5 per cent, in a decade. 
 
 Birney, David Bell, an American 
 military officer, born in Huntsville, 
 Ala., May 29, 1825 ; son of James Gil- 
 lespie Birney ; studied law in Cin- 
 cinnati, and, in 1848, began practice 
 in Philadelphia. At the outbreak of 
 the Civil War he entered the Union 
 army. He distinguished himself in 
 the battles of Yorktown, Williams- 
 burg, Fredericksburg, Chancellors- 
 ville and Gettysburg. He died in 
 Philadelphia, Pa., Oct 18, 1864. 
 
 Birney, James Gillespie, an 
 American statesman and publicist, 
 born at Danville, Ky., Feb. 4, 1792. 
 
 Birth-Rate 
 
 Though a Southern planter, he eman- 
 cipated his slaves and became a prom- 
 inent anti-slavery leader in the South, 
 proprietor and editor of the anti-slav- 
 ery journal, " The Philanthropist," 
 etc. He was candidate of the Liberty 
 Party for President in 1840 and 1844. 
 He died at Perth Amboy, N. J., Nov. 
 25, 1857. 
 
 Birney, 'William, an American 
 lawyer, born in Madison county, Ala., 
 May 28, 1819 ; was educated in Paris ; 
 took part in the Revolution of 1848; 
 and was appointed, on public compe- 
 tition, Professor of English Litera- 
 ture in the College at Bourges, 
 France. In 1861 he entered the 
 United States army as a private, and 
 was promoted to brevet Major-Gen- 
 eral. In 1863-1865 he commanded 
 a division. He died Aug. 14, 1907. 
 
 Biron, Armand de Gontanlt, 
 Baron de, Marshal of France; born 
 about 1524. He took a prominent 
 part in the civil wars of Huguenot 
 and Catholic, and served at the bat- 
 tles of Dreux, St. Denis and Moncon- 
 tour. He negotiated the peace of St. 
 Germain, and narrowly escaped at the 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew. He 
 was killed at the siege of Epernay, in 
 1592. 
 
 Biron, Charles de Gontanlt, 
 Due de, son of the preceding ; born 
 in 1562, was Admiral and Marshal of 
 France, and is noted for the friend- 
 ship which Henry IV. entertained' for 
 him, and for his treason toward that 
 monarch. He early covered himself 
 with glory at the battles of Arques 
 and Ivry, and at the sieges of Paris 
 and Rouen. The king loaded him 
 with honors, saved his life at the fight 
 of Fontaine Francaise, and' made him 
 ambassador to England. Biron en- 
 tered into a conspiracy with Spain 
 and Savoy against his sovereign ; and 
 the plot being revealed by Lafin, its 
 instigator, he was beheaded in 1602. 
 
 Birth-Rate, the proportion of 
 births to each 1,000 inhabitants. It is 
 affected by economic and social condi- 
 tions, war, famine, etc., the well-to-do 
 having a lower rate than the average. 
 In the United States the rate among 
 foreign residents is 38.29 ; natives, 
 26.35 ; general average, 26.68. As a 
 rule, about 105 boys are born to 100 
 girls.
 
 Birn 
 
 Birn, the name of a warlike chief 
 of South America, who flourished in 
 the 16th century. In 1526, this name 
 was given to the empire of the Incas, 
 now known as Peru. 
 
 Biscay or Vizcaya, the most 
 northerly of the Basque Provinces of 
 Spain, is bounded N. by the Bay cf 
 Biscay, E. and S. by its sister prov- 
 inces, Guipuzcoa and Alava, and W. 
 by Santander. It has an area (very 
 mountainous in the S.) of 849 square 
 miles, and a population of 235,659. 
 Chief town, Bilbao. 
 
 Biscay, Bay of, that portion of 
 the Atlantic Ocean which sweeps In 
 along the N. shores of the Spanish 
 Peninsula in an almost straight line 
 from Cape Ortegal to St. Jean tie 
 Luz, at the W. foot of the Pyrenees, 
 and thence curves N. along the W. 
 shores of France to the island of 
 Ushant. Its extreme width is about 
 400 miles, and its length much about 
 the same. 
 
 Biscuit, in general language, thin 
 flour cake which has been baked in the 
 oven until it is highly dried. 
 
 In pottery, artic^s molded and 
 baked in an oven, preparatory to the 
 glazing and burning. In the biscuit 
 form, pottery is bibulous, but th? glaze 
 sinks into the pores and fuses in the 
 kiln, forming a vitreous cdating to the 
 ware. 
 
 Bishop (a word derived frcm the 
 Greek episcopos, that is, overseer, 
 through the Saxon biscop) , in the 
 early Christian Church, the name of 
 every person to whom the care of a 
 Christian congregation was intrusted. 
 Every congregation even in country 
 districts had at least one such over- 
 seer. The word was accordingly 
 used in the early history of the 
 Church in exactly the same sense as 
 presbyter or elder. 
 
 In the United States a bishop is 
 the highest dignitary in the Greek, 
 Catholic and Protestant Episcopal 
 Churches. These bishops generally 
 claim to be successors of the apostles. 
 In the Methodist Episcopal and Prot- 
 estant Episcopal Churches the bishop 
 is elected by the Conference or Con- 
 vention representing the respective 
 churches of the diocese. In the Ro- 
 man Catholic Church growth has been 
 sufficient :n the opinion of the ruling 
 
 Bismarck 
 
 functionaries of that communion, to 
 warrant the establishment of the 
 greater hierarchy, and as a c'onse- 
 quence the office and dignity of a 
 bishop have become secondary the 
 highest places being occupied by a 
 cardinal and numerous archbishops. 
 A new bishop is appointed by the 
 Pope from a list of three recommended 
 by the clergy of a vacant diocese. 
 
 Bishop, Mrs. (ISABELLA L. BIRD), 
 traveler and author, born in York- 
 shire, England, 1832, died 1904. 
 
 Bishop, John Rcmscn, an Amer- 
 ican educator ; born in New Bruns- 
 wick, N. J., Sept. 17, I860 ; was grad- 
 uated at Harvard University in 1882; 
 taught Greek and English at St. 
 Paul's School, Concord, N. H., in 
 1882-1883; was principal of the 
 Princeton Preparatory School in 
 1884-1887; instructor of Greek and 
 Latin at Hughes High School, Cincin- 
 nati, in 1888-1895 ; and became prin- 
 cipal of the Walnut Hills High 
 School, Cincinnati, in 1895. 
 
 Bishop, Louis Faugeres, an 
 American phvsician, born in New 
 Brunswick, N. J., March 14, 1864; 
 graduated at Rutgers College in 1885, 
 and at the New York College of Phy- 
 sicians and Surgeons in 1889. He 
 was resident physician of St. Luke's 
 Hospital, New York, in 1889-1892, 
 and secretary of the New York Acad- 
 emy of Medicine and Chairman of its 
 Section of Medicine in 1900. 
 
 Bishop, Seth Scott, an American 
 physician, born in Fond du Lac., Wis., 
 Feb. 7, 1852 ; graduated at the North- 
 western University, in 1876. He be- 
 gan practice in Chicago, and has been 
 a professor in various medical colleges. 
 
 Bishops Suffragan, a class of 
 bishops in England appointed by the 
 crown to take the places of the early 
 bishops in partibus, who were assist- 
 ants to the active bishops of English 
 sees, and who held their warrant at 
 the pleasure of the bishops to whom 
 they were assigned. They were dis- 
 tinguished from suffragan bishops in 
 the Church of England, as every regu- 
 lar bishop was a suffragan of his su- 
 perior or metropolitan. 
 
 Bismarck, city, capital of the 
 State of North Dakota, and county- 
 seat of Burleigh co. ; on the Missouri 
 river, and the Northern Pacific rail-
 
 Bismarck 
 
 Bisiuarck-Schonliansen 
 
 road ; 194 miles W. of Fargo. It con- 
 tains the State Capitol (which cost 
 over $500,000), the State Peniten 
 tiary, court-house, city hall, opera 
 house, a State Hospital for the In- 
 sane, St. Paul Seminary, and an im- 
 mense river warehouse. The river is 
 here spanned by a bridge that cost 
 $1,000,000. Pop. (1910) 5,443. 
 
 Bismarck, Herbert, Prince von, 
 a German statesman, born in Berlin, 
 Dec. 28, 1849; son of Otto Eduard 
 Leopold, Prince von Bismarck-Schon- 
 hausen. He ranked high as a diplo- 
 mat. He died Sept. 18, 1904. 
 
 Bismarck-Schonhausen, Otto 
 Eduard Leopold, Prince von, a 
 German statesman, born at Schon- 
 haus. !! in Brandenburg, of an old 
 family, of which various members 
 gained a reputation both as soldiers 
 and statesmen, April. 1, 1815. He re- 
 ceived his university education at Got- 
 tingen, Berlm, and Griefswald. Be- 
 fore 1847 he was little heard of, but 
 about that time he began to attract 
 attention in the new Prussian Parlia- 
 ment as an Ultra Royalist. He op- 
 posed the scheme of a German Empire 
 as proposed by the Frankfort Parlia- 
 ment of 1849. 
 
 In the spring of 1862 King Wil- 
 liam, on the urgent advice of the 
 Prince of Hohenzollern, transferred 
 Bismarck as ambassador to Paris, in 
 order to give him an insight into the 
 politics of the Tuileries. During his 
 short stay at Paris Bismarck visited 
 London, and had interviews with the 
 leading politicians of the time, in- 
 cluding Lord Palmerston and Mr. Dis- 
 raeli. In the autumn Bismarck was 
 recalled, to take the portfolio of the 
 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the 
 presidency of the Cabinet. Not being 
 able to pass the reorganization bill 
 and the budget, he closed the Cham- 
 bers (October, 1862), announcing to 
 the Deputies that the king's govern- 
 ment would be obliged to do without 
 their sanction. When the "conflict 
 era," as it was called, approached a 
 crisis, the death of the King of Den- 
 mark reopened the Schleswig-Holstein 
 question, and excited a fever of na- 
 tional German feeling, which Bis- 
 marck was adroit enough to work so 
 as to aggrandize Prussia by the acqui- 
 sition of the Elbe duchies. 
 The action of France in regard to 
 
 the candidature of Prince Leopold of 
 Hohenzollern for the throne of Spain 
 ,/aye Bismarck the opportunity of car- 
 rying into action the intensified feel- 
 ing of unity among Germans. Dur- 
 ing the War of 1870-1871, Bismarck 
 was the spokesman of Germany ; he 
 it was that in February, 1871, dictated 
 thv, terms of peace to France. Hav^, 
 ing been made a Count in 1866, he! 
 was now created a prince and Chan-J, 
 cellor of the German Empire. Fol-l 
 lowing the Peace of Frankfort (May 
 10, 1871), the sole aim of Bismarck's 1 
 policy, domestic and foreign, was to 
 consolidate the young empire of his 
 own creating. 
 
 In 1884 Bismarck inaugurated the 
 career of Germany as a colonizing 
 power, a new departure which brought 
 him into sharp but temporary conflict 
 with the England of Gladstone. For 
 the rest, his foreign policy mainly 
 aimed at isolating France and render- 
 ing her incapable of forming anti-Ger- 
 man alliances. On the other hand, he 
 gradually combined the central powers 
 of Europe into a peace league, aiming 
 at counteracting the aggressiveness of 
 Russia and France, separately or com- 
 bined, on the Danube or the Rhine, 
 The nucleus of this peace league was 
 formed in 1879 by the Austro-German 
 Treaty of Alliance (published in Feb- 
 ruary, 1888), which Italy formally 
 joined in 1886, and which entitles Bis- 
 marck to be called the " peacemaker " 
 and the " peacekeeper " of Europe. 
 
 Bismarck's life was often threat- 
 ened, and twice actually attempted 
 once at Berlin in 1866, just before the 
 Bohemian campaign, by Ferdinand 
 Cohen (or Blind), a crazy youth who 
 aimed at making himself the instru- 
 ment of popular dissatisfaction with 
 Bismarck, as the champion of abso- 
 lutism and the fancied apostle of a 
 fratricidal war; and again in 1874 at 
 Kissingen, by a Catholic tinsmith 
 named Kullman. 
 
 Emperor William died on March 9, 
 1888. The short reign of Emperor 
 Frederick followed and then the pres- 
 ent Emperor ascended the throne. On 
 March 18, 1890, Bismarck fell. The 
 cause of his fall has not yet been told. 
 When Bismarck's 81st birthday was 
 celebrated there was talk of reconcilia- 
 tion between the Prince and his sover- 
 eign. The Emperor sent his photo-
 
 Bismarck Archipelago 
 
 BisselJ 
 
 graph to Bismarck, the latter returned 
 thanks, and little by little the way 
 was paved for a meeting between the 
 two men, and eventually for the State 
 visit which the Emperor paid to Bis- 
 marck at Friedrichsruhe, where the 
 statesman died July 30, 1898. 
 
 In September, 1903, letters have 
 been published showing the close and 
 cordial relations between Bismarck 
 and Kaiser William the First, and 
 that the emperor attributed Germany's 
 triumph in 1870-1871 to what he 
 called Bismarck's " world-historical 
 achievements." 
 
 Bismarck Archipelago, the name 
 officially given by Germany to New 
 Britain, New Ireland, New Hanover, 
 and several smaller adjoining islands 
 in the South Pacific. 
 
 Bismuth, a triad metallic element, 
 found associated with the ores of nick- 
 el, cobalt, copper and silver, in Sax- 
 ony, Austria, Peru, Australia and Bo- 
 livia. 
 
 Bison, the name applied to two 
 epecies of ox. One of these, the Euro* 
 
 g;an bison or aurochs (Bos bison or 
 ison 'Europoeus), is now nearly ex- 
 tinct, being found only in the forests 
 of Lithuania and the Caucasus. The 
 other, or American bison (Bison 
 Americanus) , is found only in North 
 America, and is remarkable for the 
 great hump or projection over its fore 
 shoulders, and for the length and fine- 
 ness of its woolly hair. 
 
 The American bison, or buffalo, was 
 once extensively diffused over what is 
 now the territory of the United 
 States, except that part lying on the 
 E. of Hudson river and Lake Cham- 
 plain, and narrow strips of coast on 
 the Atlantic and Pacific. Southward 
 its range extended to the delta of the 
 Mississippi and into part of Mexico, 
 while in the N. W. it reached even as 
 far as the Great Slave Lake. The 
 great prairies connected with the 
 Mississippi system formed its favorite 
 feeding-grounds, and here it used to 
 be seen in herds whose numbers were 
 well-nigh incredible. 
 
 All this is now a thing of the 
 past, and the wholesale destruction of 
 th^ bison is one of the most melan- 
 choly stories in the history of zoology. 
 So long as it was pursued only or 
 mainly by the Indians there was little 
 to fear for it, though many tribes 
 
 were almost wholly dependent on these 
 animals for food, clothing, tents, uten- 
 sils, etc. Vast multitudes owing to 
 this were slaughtered annually ; but it 
 is to be deeply regretted that the 
 white hunters (especially after the 
 spread of railroads) were in the habit 
 of destroying these interesting and 
 valuable beasts in the most wanton 
 and unnecessary manner. It was 
 common for such persons to shoot 
 bisons, even when they had abundance 
 of food, for the sake of the tongue or 
 hump alone, or even because the ani- 
 mals came so near as to present a fair 
 aim. It is therefore not to be won- 
 dered that, from all causes of diminu- 
 tion, the bison should become less and 
 less numerous every yenr till it is now 
 practically extinct, at least in the wild 
 state. 
 
 Of late years the National Museum 
 of the United States thought it neces- 
 sary to send out an expedition !x> col- 
 lect a few specimens in view of this 
 contingency ; and a report furnished 
 to the museum in 1886 shows what 
 difficulty the expedition had in ful- 
 filling its mission in consequence of 
 the extermination of the bison having 
 been already so nearly effected. "It 
 is firmly believed by good authorities," 
 the report states, " that there are not 
 now more than from 50 to 100 buffa- 
 loes in the whole of Montana (where 
 this animal used to be remarkably 
 abundant) outside of the National 
 Park, where there are probably from 
 200 to 300 head." 
 
 Bissagos Islands, a group of 
 small volcanic islands, about 30 in all. 
 off the W. coast of Africa, opposite 
 the mouth of the Rio Grande. 
 
 Bissao, an island and Portuguese 
 station closer to the African coast 
 than the Bissagos and opposite the 
 Jeba's delta. 
 
 Bissell, Edwin Cone, an Ameri- 
 can Congregational clergyman and 
 writer, born at Schoharie, N. Y., 
 March 2, 1832. Having served in the 
 Civil War (1862-18G3), he became 
 pastor in Massachusetts and Califor- 
 nia, missionary in Austria (1873- 
 1878) , Professor in the Hartford 
 Congregational Theological Seminary 
 (1881-1892), and the McCormick 
 Presbyterian Theological Seminary, 
 Chicago (1892-1894). He died in 
 Chicago, April 9, 1894.
 
 Bissell 
 
 Bitter Sweet 
 
 Bissell, Wilson Shannon, an 
 
 American lawyer, born in New Lon- 
 don, N. Y., Dec. 31, 1847; died Oct. 
 6, 1903 ; graduated at Yale University 
 in 1869 ; and studied law in Buffalo 
 with Cleveland & Folsom. In 1872 he 
 formed a partnership with Lyman K. 
 Bass, the firm of which Grover Cleve- 
 land became a member in 1873. When 
 Mr. Cleveland was elected governor of 
 New York the firm was disbanded. 
 .Subsequently it was reorganized, and, 
 in 1900, consisted of Bissell, Carey & 
 Cooke. He was a delegate to sev- 
 eral State Conventions; in 1884 was 
 a Democratic Presidential Elector; 
 and iu 1893-1895 was Postmaster- 
 General. He died Oct. 6, 1903. 
 
 Bissen, Wilhelm, a Danish sculp- 
 tor, born in Schleswig in 1798, and 
 from 1823 to 1833 studied in Rome 
 under Thorwaldsen, who, in his will, 
 commissioned him to complete his un- 
 finished works. He died March 10, 
 1808. 
 
 Bissextile Year, the early name 
 for Leap Year. In the Julian calen- 
 dar, the 24th of Feb. was counted 
 twice (bis), and as it was the sixth 
 (sextus) before the Kalends of March 
 it was called bis-sextilis. 
 
 Bistinean, a navigable lake in N. 
 W. Louisiana ; 25 miles long by 2 
 miles, wide ; discharges into the Red 
 river." 
 
 Bitter, Arthur, pseudonym of 
 SAMUEL HABERSTICH, a Swiss poet 
 and story writer, born in Ried near 
 Schlosswyl, Oct. 21, 1821. He died 
 in Bern, Feb. 20, 1872. 
 
 Bitter Almond, the bitter varie- 
 ty of common almond. 
 
 Bitter Apple, a name applied to 
 the bitter gourd. 
 
 Bitter Ash, a tree, a native of 
 the West Indies, the bark of which is 
 used as a tonic. 
 
 Bitter Gourd, a plant called also 
 colocynth. 
 
 Bitter King, tree of the quassia 
 order peculiar to the Moluccas and 
 Fiji Islands. 
 
 Bitter Lakes, salt lakes on the 
 line of the Suez canal. 
 
 Bittern. The bitterns are distin- 
 guished from the herons proper, be- 
 sides other characteristics, by having 
 the feathers of the neck loose and di- 
 
 E.19. 
 
 vided, which makes it appear thicker 
 than in reality it is. 
 
 BITTERN. 
 
 Bitter Nut, a tree of North Amer- 
 ica, of the walnut order, the swamp 
 hickory, which produces small and 
 somewhat egg-shaped fruits, with a 
 thin, fleshy rind ; the kernel is bitter 
 and uneatable. 
 
 Bitter RootT a plant of Canada 
 and part of the United States, order 
 rnesembryacese, so called from its 
 root being bitter though edible, and 
 indeed esteemed as an article of food 
 by whites as well as Indians. 
 
 Bitter Root Mountains, a range 
 of the Rocky Mountains, in Montana, 
 deriving its name from a plant with 
 rose colored blossoms. 
 
 Bitter Root River, a tributary 
 of the Columbia in Montana, flowing 
 N. into Clark's river in Missoula 
 county ; length about 110 miles. 
 
 Bitter Root Valley, on the B. 
 of the Bitter Root Range, in Montana, 
 is 90 miles long and 7 miles wide, en- 
 walled by lofty mountains, and 
 abounding in farms and cornfields. 
 
 Bitter Sweet, the woody night- 
 shade.
 
 Bitumen 
 
 Bitumen, a mineral substance, re- 
 markable for its inflammability and 
 its strong, peculiar odor ; generally, 
 however, supposed to be of vegetable 
 origin. 
 
 Bituminous Coal, coal which 
 burns with a yellow, smoky flame, and 
 on distillation gives out hydrocarbon 
 or tar. 
 
 Bituminous Limestone, lime- 
 stone impregnated with bitumen. 
 
 Bitzius, Albert (better known 
 under the nom de plume of JEBEMIAS 
 GOTTHELF), a Swiss author, born in 
 Murton, Canton of Freiburg, Oct. 4, 
 1797. As a pastor in retired districts, 
 he sav the hard conditions "of the 
 poor, and in 1837 wrote "The Peas- 
 ant's Mirror," a vividly realistic pre- 
 sentation of peasant life. He died at 
 Lutzelfluh, Bern, Oct. 22, 1854. 
 
 Bivalves, those mollusks whose 
 coverings consist of two concave shel- 
 ly plates or valves united by a hinge. 
 
 SHELL OF A BIVALVE. 
 
 A. The line across marks the thickness. 
 B, a, anterior extremity; b. posterior; c, d, 
 muscular impressions; e, I, palleal impres- 
 sions; g, lower edge of the left valve. 
 
 Bivouac, an encampment of sol- 
 diers in the open air without tents, 
 each remaining dressed and with his 
 weapons at hand. 
 
 Bizerta, a fortified seaport of Tu- 
 nis, the most northern town of Af- 
 rica ; at the extremity of a bay formed 
 by Capes Ras-el-Zebib and El-Arid. 
 The town is built on the shore of a 
 lake which communicates with the sea 
 by a canal; and in the time of Bar- 
 
 Black 
 
 barossa it was a city of great strength 
 and magnificence. The lake is the 
 chief source -of trade, as it abounds in 
 many valuable kinds of fish. Beside 
 the fishery there are valuable coral, 
 grape, oliye, and pottery industries. 
 The port is surrounded by walls and 
 defended by two castles. Bizerta stead- 
 ily declined in commercial and politi- 
 cal importance till 1892, when the 
 French Government began converting 
 it into a magnificent naval port. Three, 
 years were occupied in this work, 
 which included the opening and im- 
 provement of the lake, which is now 
 large enough to accommodate at one 
 time all the navies of the world. 
 
 Bizet, Georges, (ALEXANDER CE- 
 SAR LEOPOLD), the composer of the 
 opera " Carmen." He was born in 
 France 1837 ; died 1875. 
 
 Bjornson, Bjornstjerne, a Nor- 
 wegian novelist, poet, and dramatist, 
 born at Kvikne, Norway, Dec. 8, 1832. 
 He published his first story, " Syn- 
 nove Solbakken," in 1857, and that, 
 with "Arne" (1858) and "A Lively 
 Fellow" (I860), established his repu- 
 tation as a novelist. He published a 
 volume of " Poems and Songs " in 
 1870. He died April 26, 1910. 
 
 Black, the negation of all color, 
 the opposite of white. 
 
 Black, Adam, a Scotch publisher, 
 born in Edinburgh, Feb. 20, 1784. In 
 1808 he began business as a book* 
 seller, and later with his nephew, 
 Charles B. Black, established a pub- 
 lishing house in Edinburgh. Their 
 most famous publications were " En- 
 cyclopaedia Britannica," and the "Wa- 
 verly Novels." Adam Black was 
 twice Lord Provost of Edinburgh and 
 in 1856-18G5 represented that city in 
 Parliament. He declined the honor of 
 knighthood, and a statue was erected 
 in Edinburgh in recognition of his 
 public services, in 1877. He died Jan. 
 24, 1874. 
 
 Black, Frank Swett, an Ameri- 
 can lawyer, born in Limington, Me., 
 March 8, 1853; graduated at Dart- 
 mouth College in 1875 ; was editor of 
 the " Journal " in Johnstown, N. Y. 
 He studied law at Troy in the office 
 of Robertson & Foster, and was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1879. He won 
 much popularity by his activity in 
 prosecuting the men who murdered
 
 Black 
 
 Blackburn 
 
 Robert Ross in the election riots in 
 Troy in 1892. In 1895-1897, he was 
 a member of Congress, and in 1897- 
 1899 Governor of New York. He now 
 practises law in New York. 
 
 Black, Jeremiah Sullivan, an 
 American lawyer, born in Glades, Pa., 
 Jan. 10, 1810 ; studied law, and was 
 admitted to the bar in 1831.- In 1857 
 he was appointed Attorney-General of 
 the United States by President Bu- 
 chanan, and in 1860-1861 was United 
 States Secretary of State. On the ac- 
 cession of President Lincoln he re- 
 tired from public life. He died in 
 York, Pa., Aug. 19, 1883. 
 
 Black, John Charles, an Amer- 
 ican lawyer, soldier, and statesman, 
 born in Lexington, Miss., Jan. 27, 
 1839 ; graduated at Wabash College, 
 Crawfprdsville ; entered the Union 
 army in 1861 as Colonel of the 37th 
 Illinois Volunteers ; was severely 
 wounded in the service ; and was 
 brevetted Brigadier-General. After 
 the war he was elected Congressman- 
 at-large from Illinois ; was appointed 
 Commissioner of Pensions by Presi- 
 dent Cleveland during the latter's first 
 term, and United States District At- 
 torney for the Northern District of 
 Illinois during his second term. 
 
 Black, William, a Scottish nov- 
 elist, born in Glasgow in November, 
 1841. He received his education at 
 private schools. In 1874 he aban- 
 doned the career of journalism, which 
 he had successfully pursued, visited 
 the United States in 1876, and, re- 
 turning to London, devoted himself 
 anew to literature. In addition to an 
 interesting story, his novels contain 
 fine descriptions o.f scenery. They are 
 very popular. He died in Brighton, 
 England, Dec. 10, 1898. 
 
 Black Art, exorcism, the alleged 
 ability to. expel evil spirits from 
 haunted houses or from persons be- 
 witched ; necromancy, or anything sim- 
 ilar. 
 
 Black Assize, in English history, 
 an assize held at Oxford in 1557, 
 when the High Sheriff and 300 other 
 persons died of infectious disease 
 caught from the prisoners. 
 
 Black Belt, an agricultural re- 
 gion of Alabama ; 70 miles wide, ex- 
 tending entirely across the State, be- 
 tween 33 and 31 40' ; so called from 
 
 the fact that the negroes greatly pre- 
 dominate in numbers. 
 
 Blackberry, a plant common in 
 the northern portions of the United 
 States and in most parts of Europe, 
 and also in Northern Central Asia. 
 
 Black Bird, a well known bird. 
 There are two American species, red 
 winged blackbird, and the crow black- 
 bird. 
 
 Blackburn, a town and parliamen- 
 tary borough of England, 21 miles N. 
 N. W. from Manchester. It is pleas- 
 antly situated in a sheltered valley 
 and has rapidly improved since 1850. 
 Blackburn is one of the chief seats of 
 the cotton manufacture, there being 
 upward of 140 mills as well as works 
 for making cotton machinery and 
 steam engines. The cottons made in 
 the town and vicinity have an annual 
 value of about 5,000,000. Pop. 
 (1901) 127,527. 
 
 Blackburn, Joseph Clay Styles, 
 an American lawyer, born in Wood- 
 ford county, Ky., Oct. 1, 1838 ; was 
 graduated at Center College, Danville, 
 Ky., in 1857. He was admitted to the 
 bar in 1859, and practiced in Chi- 
 cago. During the Civil War he served 
 in the Confederate army, and after 
 the war resumed practice in Ken- 
 tucky. In 1871 he was elected to the 
 Kentucky Legislature, and in 1874 to 
 Congress ; and was a United States 
 Senator in 1885-1897. During the 
 presidential campaign of 1896 he was 
 a leader in the free coinage silver 
 movement. 
 
 Blackburn, Luke Pryor, an 
 American physician, born in Fayette 
 county, Ky., June 16, 1816 ; was grad- 
 uated at Transylvania University, 
 Lexington, Ky., in 1834, and began 
 practicing in that city. When cholera 
 broke out in the town of Versailles he 
 went there and gave his services free 
 during the epidemic. In 1846 he went 
 to Natchez, Miss., and in 1848, when 
 yellow fever appeared in New Or- 
 leans, as health officer of Natchez, he 
 originated the first quarantine against 
 New Orleans that had ever been 
 known in the Mississippi valley. Dur- 
 ing the Civil War he was a surgeon 
 on the staff of General Price. In 
 1875, when yellow fever broke out in 
 Memphis, he hastened to the city and 
 organized a corps of physicians and
 
 Blackburn 
 
 Black Hills 
 
 nurses, and in 1878 gave his services 
 to the yellow fever sufferers at Hick- 
 man, Ky. He was elected Governor 
 of Kentucky in 1879. He founded the 
 Blackburn Sanitarium for Nervous 
 and Mental Diseases in 1884. He 
 died in Frankfort, Ky., Sept. 14, 1887. 
 
 Blackburn, William Maxwell, 
 an American Presbyterian clergyman 
 and educator, born at Carlisle, Ind., 
 Dec. 30, 1828. He became President 
 of the University of North Dakota in 
 1884 and of Pierre University, South 
 Dakota, in 1885, and President-Emer- 
 itus of the last (now Huron College) 
 in 1898. He died in 1900. 
 
 Black Cap, a European passerine 
 iird of the warbler family. It ranks 
 next to the nightingale for sweetness 
 of song. The American black cap is a 
 species of tit-mouse, so called from 
 the coloring of the head. 
 . Black Death, The, one of the 
 most memorable of the epidemics of 
 the Middle Ages, was a great pesti- 
 lence in the 14th century ; which de- 
 vastated Asia, Europe and Africa. 
 
 The whole period of time during 
 which the black death raged with de- 
 structive violence in Europe was from 
 1347 to 1350; from this latter date to 
 1383 there were various pestilences, 
 bad enough, indeed, but not as vio- 
 lent as the black death. 
 
 Blackfeet Indians, a tribp of 
 American Indians, partly inhabiting 
 the United States, partly Canada, 
 from the Yellowstone to Hudson Bay. 
 
 Blackfish, a fish caught on the 
 coast of the United States, especially 
 in the vicinity of Long Island. 
 
 Black Flags, an organization of 
 Chinese rebels who established them- 
 selves in the Red River valley in Ton- 
 <juin, after the suppression of the Tai- 
 ping Rebellion in Southern China 
 (1850-1854). From their warlike 
 character and desperate deeds they 
 were called Black Flags as distin- 
 guished from the peaceable Yellow 
 Flags. They were responsible for the 
 massacre in 1884 of missionaries and 
 native Christians. 
 
 Black Forest, a great forest, sit- 
 uated in Baden and Wurtemberg, near 
 the source of the Danube. 
 
 Black Friars, friars of the Do- 
 minican Order : so called from their 
 costume. 
 
 Black Friday, the Friday, Sept. 
 24, 1809, when the attempt of Jay 
 Gould and James Fisk, Jr., to create 
 a corner in the gold market by buying 
 all the gold in the banks of New York 
 city, amounting to $15,000,000, cul- 
 minated. For several days the value 
 of gold had risen steadily, and the 
 speculators aimed to carry it from 
 144 to 200. Friday the whole city 
 was in a ferment, the banks were 
 rapidly selling, gold was at 162 1 /, and 
 still rising. Men became insane, and 
 everywhere the wildest excitement 
 raged, for it seemed probable that the 
 business houses must be closed, from 
 ignorance of the prices to be charged 
 for their goods. But in the midst of 
 the panic it was reported that Secre- 
 tary Boutwell of the United States 
 Treasury had thrown $4,000,000 on 
 the market, and at once gold fell, the 
 excitement ceased, leaving Gould and 
 Fisk the winners of $11,000,000. The 
 day noticed above is what is gen- 
 erally referred to as Black Friday in 
 the United States, but the term was 
 first used in England, being applied 
 in the first instance to the Friday on 
 which the news reached London, Dec. 
 6, 1745, that the young Pretender, 
 Charles Edward, had arrived at Der- 
 by, creating a terrible panic ; and 
 finally to May 11, 18G6, when the 
 failure of Overend, Gurney & Co., 
 London, the day before, was followed 
 by a widespread financial ruin. 
 
 Black Hand, common name in 
 the United States for an offshoot 
 of two long-established societies of 
 an intricate and powerful order of 
 Italian criminals, known in their re- 
 spective strongholds of Naples and 
 Sicily as the " Camorra " and " Ma- 
 fia." The habit of the members of 
 signing blackmail and threatening 
 letters with the words " black-hand," 
 or a rude representation of one, gave 
 these desperadoes in the United 
 States their distinctive name. 
 
 Black Hawk, a famous chief of 
 the Sac and- Fox Indians, born in 
 17G7. He joined the British in 1812, 
 and fought against the United States 
 in 1831-1832. He died in 1838. 
 
 Blackheath, a village and heath, 
 in Kent, England, about 6 miles S. 
 E. of London Bridge. 
 
 Black Hills, a mountainous re- 
 gion in the S. W. of South Dakota,
 
 Black Hole 
 
 extending into the E. part of Wyom- 
 ing ; long. 103 to 105. It was pur- 
 chased from the Indians in 1876, for 
 whom it had been one of the finest 
 hunting grounds in the West. In 
 1877-1878 thousands of miners went 
 there, and in 1880 there had already 
 sprung into existence three towns, 
 Deadwood, Central City, and Lead- 
 ville. Around these lay also groups 
 of smaller towns and villages. From 
 1880 the gold mines yielded about $4,- 
 000.000 annually, and the silver mines 
 about $3,000,000 annually. 
 
 Black Hole of Calcutta, a small 
 chamber, 20 feet square, in the old 
 fort of Calcutta, in which, after their 
 capture by Surajah Dowlah, the whole 
 garrison of 146 men were confined 
 during the night of June 21, 1756. 
 Only 23 survived. The spot is now 
 marked by a monument. 
 
 Blackie, John Stuart, a Scot- 
 tish author, born in Glasgow in July, 
 1809; died in Edinburgh, March 2, 
 1895. 
 
 Black Lead, Graphite, or Plum- 
 bago, a mineral consisting chiefly of 
 carbon, but containing also more or] 
 less of alumina, silica, lime, iron, etc.,] 
 to the extent of 1 to 47 per cent., ap- 
 parently mixed rather than chemically 
 combined. Black lead is the popular 
 name, and that by which it is general- 
 ly known in the arts, though no lead 
 enters into the composition of the 
 mineral : graphite is that generally 
 preferred by mineralogists. 
 
 Black List, a list of bankrupts or 
 other parties whose names are official- 
 ly known as failing to meet pecuniary 
 engagements. The term is also ap- 
 plied tp a list of employes who have 
 been discharged by a firm or corpora- 
 tion and against whom some objection 
 is made and reported to other firms or 
 corporations to prevent them obtain- 
 ing employment. 
 
 Blackmail, a certain rate of mon- 
 ey, corn, cattle or the like, anciently 
 paid, in the N. of England and in 
 Scotland, to certain men who were al- 
 lied to robbers, to be protected by 
 them from pillage. It was carried to 
 such an extent as to become the sub- 
 ject of legislation. Blackmail was 
 levied in the districts bordering the 
 Highlands of Scotland till the middle 
 of the 18th century. In the United 
 
 Black Sea 
 
 States, the word is applied to money 
 extorted from persons under threat of 
 exposure for an alleged offense ; hush- 
 money. 
 
 Black Monday. (1) A name for 
 Easter Monday, in remembrance of 
 the dreadful experiences of the army 
 of Edward III., before Paris, on 
 Easter Monday, April 14, 1360. Many 
 soldiers and horses perished from the 
 extreme cold. (2) The 27th of Feb., 
 1865, a memorable day in Melbourne, 
 Australia, when a destructive sirocco 
 prevailed in the surrounding country. 
 
 Black Mountains, the group 
 which contains the highest summits of 
 the Appalachian system, Clingman's 
 Peak being 6,701 feet, Guyot's Peak, 
 6,661. 
 
 Black Republic, a name applied 
 to the Republic of Haiti, which is 
 under the dominion of the African 
 race. 
 
 Black Republicans, in the United 
 States, a name applied to members of 
 the Republican Party by the Pro- 
 Slavery Party. 
 
 Black River, the name of several 
 -ivers in the United States: (1) An 
 affluent of the Arkansas river, in Ar- 
 kansas, 400 miles long. It is naviga- 
 ble to Poplar Bluff, 311 miles; (2) a 
 river in New York, rising in the Adi- 
 rondacks, and emptying into Lake On- 
 tario near Watertown, length 200 
 miles; (3) a river in Wisconsin, flow- 
 ing S. W., and emptying into the Mis- 
 sissippi river near Lacrosse ; length 
 200 miles ; (4) a river rising in the S. 
 E. of Missouri, flowing nearly S., and 
 entering the White river, of which it 
 is the chief tributary, at Jacksonport, 
 Ark. ; length, 350 miles, of which 100 
 miles are navigable. 
 
 Black Rock Desert, a tract of 
 nearly 1.000 square miles, N. of Pyra- 
 mid Lake, in Nevada. In summer it is 
 a barren level of alkali and in winter 
 covered in places with shallow water. 
 Called also " Mud Lakes." 
 
 Black Rood of Scotland, a cross 
 of gold in the form of a casket, al- 
 leged to contain a piece of the true 
 Cross. 
 
 Black Sea (ancient Pontus Eux- 
 inus), a sea situated between Euiope 
 and .^sia. and mainly bounded by the 
 Russian and Turkish dominions, being
 
 Black Sheep 
 
 connected with the Mediterranean by 
 the Bosporus, Sea of Marmora, and 
 Dardenelles, and by the Strait of 
 Kertsch with the Sea of Azov, which 
 is, in fact, only a bay of the Black 
 Sea ; area of the Black Sea and the 
 Sea of Azov about 175,000 square 
 miles, with a depth in the center of 
 more than 150 fathoms and few shoals 
 along its shores. The water is not 
 so clear as that of the Mediterranean, 
 and is less salt on account of the 
 many large rivers which fall into it. 
 
 Black Sheep, a tribe of Turko 
 mans, so called from their standard. 
 
 A black sheep : a disgrace to the 
 family ; a mauyais sujet ; a workman 
 who will not join in a strike. 
 
 Black Snake, a common snake in 
 North America, reaching a length of 
 5 or 6 feet, and so agile and swift as 
 to have been named the racer, with no 
 poison fangs, and, 'therefore, compara- 
 tively harmless. 
 
 Blackstone, Sir William, an 
 English jurist, born in London, July 
 10, 1723; educated at the Charter 
 House and Pembroke College, Oxford. 
 In 1743 he was elected fellow of All- 
 Soul's College, Oxford, and in 1746 
 was called to the bar; but, having 
 attended the Westminster law courts 
 for seven years without success, he re- 
 tired to Oxford. Here he gave lec- 
 tures on law, which suggested to Mr. 
 Viner the idea of founding a profes- 
 sorship at Oxford for the study of 
 the common law ; and Blackstone was, 
 in 1758, chosen the first Vinerian 
 Professor. In 1765 he published 
 the first volume of his famous " Com- 
 mentaries on the Laws of England." 
 He died Feb. 14, 1780. 
 
 Black Tin, tin ore when dressed, 
 stamped, and washed ready .for smelt- 
 ing, forming a black powder. 
 
 Black Walnut, a valuable timber 
 tree of the United States and its 
 fruit. The great size often reached 
 by this tree, the richness of the dark 
 brown wood, the unique beauty of the 
 grain sometimes found in burls, knots, 
 feathers and in the curl of the roots, 
 all conspire to make this the most 
 choice and high priced of all our na- 
 tive woods. 
 
 Blackwell, Mrs. Antoinette 
 Louisa (Brown), an American wom- 
 an suffragist and Unitarian minister, 
 
 Blaine 
 
 born at Henrietta, N. Y., May 20, 
 1825. A graduate of Oberlin (1847), 
 she " preached on her own orders," at 
 first in Congregational churches, be- 
 coming at length a champion of wom- 
 en's rights. She married Samuel C., 
 a brother of Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell 
 (1856). 
 
 Blackwell, Elizabeth, an Amer- 
 ican physician and medical and ethical 
 writer, born at Bristol, England, 1821. 
 She was the first woman who ob- 
 tained the degree of M. D. in the 
 United States (1849), beginning prac- 
 tice in New York (1851). Died 1910. 
 
 Black-well, Lucy Stone, an 
 American woman suffragist, born in 
 West Brookfield, Mass., Aug. 13, 
 1818; was graduated at Oberlin Col- 
 lege in 1847 ; became a lecturer on 
 woman suffrage, and a contributor to 
 the press. In 1855 she married Henry 
 B. Blackwell, a merchant of Cincin- 
 nati. She died in Dorchester, Mass., 
 Oct. 20, 1893. 
 
 Blackwell's Island, an island be- 
 longing to the city of New York, in 
 the East river, containing about 120 
 acres. On it are the penitentiary, 
 almshouse, lunatic asylum for females, 
 workhouse, blind asylum, hospital for 
 incurables, and a convalescent hospi- 
 tal. 
 
 Blackwood, William, a Scotch 
 publisher, born at Edinburgh, Nov. 
 20, 1776. He started as a bookseller 
 in 1804, and soon became also a pub- 
 lisher. After his death the business, 
 which had developed into a large pub- 
 lishing concern, wa carried on by his 
 sons, and the magazine still keeps its 
 place among the leading periodicals. 
 He died Sept. 16, 1834. 
 
 Blaeu, Blaeuw, or Blanw, a 
 Dutch family celebrated as publish- 
 ers of maps and books. 
 
 Blaine, James Gillespie, an 
 American statesman, born in West 
 Brownsville, Pa., Jan. 31, 1830. He 
 graduated at Washington College, Pa., 
 in 1847. In 1854 he removed to Au- 
 gusta, Me., and engaged in journalism. 
 He was one of the founders of the 
 Republican Party, and in 1856 was 
 a delegate to the first Republican Na- 
 tional Convention, which nominated 
 Fremont for the Presidency. In 1858 
 he was elected to the Legislature of 
 Maine, and in 1862 to the House
 
 Blair 
 
 of Representatives of the National 
 Congress. He became Speaker of the 
 House in 1869, and held that office for 
 six years ; was a member of the Sen- 
 ate from 1876 to 1881; was twice 
 Secretary of State (1881-1882 and 
 1889-1892). He was defeated for 
 the Presidency in 1884, by Grover 
 Cleveland. Besides his numerous 
 speeches and writings on the public 
 questions of his day, his best known 
 work is his " Twenty Years in Con- 
 gress " (2 vols., 1884-1886), a his- 
 torical production of great and per- 
 manent value. He died in Washing- 
 ton, D. C., Jan. 27, 1893. 
 
 Blair, Austin, an American law- 
 yer, born in Caroline, N. Y., Feb. 8, 
 1818; was elected Governor of Michi- 
 gan in 1860, becoming one of the War 
 Governors. In 1866-1870 he was a 
 member of Congress. He died in 
 Jackson, Mich., Aug. 6, 1894. 
 
 Blair, Francis Preston, an 
 American journalist and politician, 
 born in Abingdon, Va., April 12, 1791 ; 
 died at Silver Spring, Md., Oct. 18, 
 
 Blair, Francis Preston, Jr., an 
 
 American military officer and legis- 
 lator, born in Lexington, Ky., Feb. 
 20, 1821; son of the preceding. He 
 was a Representative in Congress 
 from Missouri in 1857-1859 and 1861- 
 1863 ; became a Major-General in the 
 Union army in the Civil War, taking 
 an active part in the Vicksburg cam- 
 paign and Sherman's march to the 
 sea ; was an unsuccessful Democratic 
 candidate for Vice-President in 1868, 
 and United States Senator in 1870- 
 1873. He died in St. Louis, July 5, 
 1875. 
 
 Blair, Henry William, an Amer- 
 ican legislator, born in Campton, N. 
 H., Dec. 6, 1834; received an acade- 
 mic education ; was admitted to the 
 bar in 1859 ; served through the Civil 
 War, becoming Lieutenant-Colonel of 
 the 15th New Hampshire Volunteers, 
 and being twice wounded. After serv- 
 ing in both branches of the State 
 Legislature he was a member of Con- 
 gress in 1875-1879 and 1893-1895, 
 and a United States Senator in 1879- 
 1889. 
 
 Blair, Hugh, a Scotch clergyman 
 and educational writer, born in Edin- 
 burgh, in 1718; was noted for the 
 
 Blake 
 
 eloquence of his sermons, and also 
 for "Lectures on Rhetoric" (1783), 
 which attained great popularity, 
 " Blair's Rhetoric " being familiar to 
 all students. He died in 1800. 
 
 Blair, John Insley, an American 
 
 Shilanthropist, born in Belvidere, N. 
 ., Aug. 22, 1802 ; was in early life a 
 merchant and banker; subsequently 
 becoming the individual owner of 
 more miles of railroad property than 
 any other man in the world. He ac- 
 quired a very large fortune; loaned 
 the Federal Government more than 
 $1,000,000 in the early part of the 
 Civil War; built and endowed at a 
 cost of more than $600,000, the Pres- 
 byterian Academy in Blairstown, N. 
 J. ; rebuilt Grinnell College, Iowa ; 
 erected Blair Hall and made other 
 gifts to Princeton University ; was 
 equally liberal to Lafayette College; 
 and had erected more than 100 church- 
 es in different parts of the West, be- 
 sides laying out many towns and vil- 
 lages on the lines of his numerous 
 railroads. He died in Blairstown, N, 
 J., Dec. 2, 1899. 
 
 Blair, Montgomery, an American 
 lawyer, born in Franklin county, Ky., 
 May 10, 1813; was graduated at the 
 United States Military Academy in 
 1835 ; resigned from the army in 
 1836; admitted to the bar in 1839; 
 began practice in St. Louis. He acted 
 as counsel for the plaintiff in the 
 widely known Dred Scott case. In 
 1861-1864 he was Postmaster-Gen- 
 eral. In 1876-1877 he acted with the 
 Democratic Party in opposing Mr. 
 Hayes' title to the office of President. 
 He died in Silver Springs, Md., July 
 27, 1883. 
 
 Blake, Edward, an English states- 
 man, born in Cairngorm, Ont, Cana- 
 da, Oct. 13, 1833; was educated at 
 Upper Canada College and Toronto 
 University ; called to the bar in 1856 ; 
 and engaged in practice in Toronto. 
 He entered public life in 1867 ; was 
 Premier of Ontario in 1871-1872. 
 Minister of Justice in 1875-1877, and 
 the recognized leader of the Canadian 
 Liberal Party. In 1892 he was 
 invited by the leaders of the Anti- 
 Parnellites in Ireland to enter the 
 British House of Commons as the rep- 
 resentative of an Irish constituency. 
 Consenting, he removed to South Long- 
 ford, was elected for that district, and
 
 Blake 
 
 Blanco 
 
 in 1895 was re-elected. In 1896 he 
 was appointed a member of the Judi- 
 ciary Committee of the Privy Council. 
 
 Blake, Eli Whitney, an Ameri- 
 can inventor, born in Westboro, Mass., 
 Jan. 27, '1795; graduated at Yale 
 University in 1810. He began busi- 
 ness with his uncle, Eli Whitney, in 
 the manufacture of fire-arms ; and in 
 1834 founded, near New Haven, 
 Conn., the pioneer factory for the 
 manufacture of domestic hardware. 
 He died in New Haven, Conn., Aug. 
 17, 1886. 
 
 Blake, Mrs. Lillie (Devercnx) 
 Umstead, an American advocate of 
 woman's rights, and novelist, born at 
 Raleigh, N. C., 1835. Her first hus- 
 band, Frank G. Quay Umstead, died 
 in 1859; she married Grenfill Blake 
 in 1866, who died in 1896. 
 
 Blake, William Pliipps, an 
 American mineralogist, born in New 
 York city, June 1, 1826; was grad- 
 uated at the Yale Scientific School in 
 1852. He became Geologist and Min- 
 eralogist to the United States Rail- 
 road Expedition in 1853; was Mining 
 Engineer in connection with explora- 
 tions in Japan, China, and Alaska in 
 1861-1863; was appointed Professor 
 of Geology and Mineralogy in the Col- 
 lege of California in 1864; and in 
 1900 was Director of the School of 
 Mines in the University of Arizona. 
 
 Blakeley, Johnston, an Ameri- 
 can naval officer, born near Seaford, 
 Ireland, October, 1781 ; entered the 
 United States navy as a midshipman 
 in 1800; commanded the "Enterprise" 
 in the early part of the War of 1812; 
 and was captain of the " Wasp " 
 when she captured the English " Rein- 
 deer " in June, 1814. Soon after this 
 he sailed with the " Wasp " on an- 
 other cruise, but the vessel was lost 
 at sea with all on board. 
 
 Blanchard, Jonathan, an Amer- 
 ican educator, born in Rockingham, 
 Vt., Jan. 19, 1811 ; graduated at Lane 
 Theological Seminary in 1832 ; and 
 was ordained a Presbyterian minister 
 in 1838. He was American Vice-Presi- 
 dent of the World's Anti-Slavery Con- 
 vention in London in 1843 ; and in 
 1846 became President of Knox Col- 
 lege at Galesburg, 111. He was Presi- 
 dent of Wheaton College, 111., in 
 1880-1882; and, on resigning, was 
 
 chosen president-emeritus. He died in 
 Wheaton, 111., May 14, 1892. 
 
 Blanco, Antonio Guzman, a 
 
 Venezuelan military officer, born in 
 Caracas, Feb. 29, 1828. He became 
 prominent in the Federalist revolts, 
 1859-1863, and when his party tri- 
 umphed, was made first Vice-President 
 in 1863 under Falcon, who was de- 
 posed in the Revolution of 1868. 
 Blanco led a successful counter revo- 
 lution in 1870, became President, and 
 retained the office till 1882. In 1893 
 he was appointed Minister to France, 
 where he resided till his death, July 
 29, 1899. 
 
 Blanco, Jose Felix, a Venezue- 
 lan historian, born in Mariana de 
 Caracas, Sept. 24, 1782. At different 
 times he acted in the capacity of 
 priest, soldier, and statesman. He 
 was one of the leaders in the Revolu- 
 ton at Caracas, April 19, 1810, and 
 was the first editor of the great his- 
 torical work, " Documentos para la 
 historia de la vida publica del Liber- 
 tador," etc; He died in Caracas, Jan. 
 8, 1872. 
 
 Blanco, Pedro, a Bolivian states- 
 man, born in Cochabamba, Oct. 19, 
 1795. He joined the Spanish artny in 
 1812, but soon deserted to the patriots, 
 and served with them till the end of 
 the Revolution. In 1828 he became a 
 general, and in the same year, when 
 Sucre fell, was made President of 
 Bolivia, but was superseded in the 
 Revolution of Dec. 31, 1828. He was 
 shot in Sucre, in January, 1829. 
 
 Blanco, Ramon y Arenas, Mar- 
 quis de Pena Plata, Captain-Gen- 
 eral of the Spanish army in Cuba 
 during the Spanish-American War ; 
 was born at San Sebastian, Spain, in 
 1833, and began his military career at 
 the age of 22, entering the army in 
 1855 as a Lieutenant ; was promoted 
 to a captain in 1858, and won the 
 rank of Lieutenant-Colonel in the war 
 with San Domingo. When the Span- 
 iards were driven from the island 
 Blanco went to the Philippines as 
 governor of Mindanao. When he re- 
 turned to Spain he was assigned to 
 the Army of the North, and in the 
 war with the Carlists made a brilliant 
 record. He successfully stormed Pena 
 Plata, for which ^chiovement he was 
 created a Marquis of that name. He
 
 Blanco Zncalada 
 
 Blarney 
 
 succeeded General Weyler in command 
 of the army in Cuba, where his career 
 terminated with the U. S. occupation. 
 He died April 4, 1906. 
 
 Blanco Encalada, Manuel, a 
 Spanish-American military officer, 
 born in Buenos Ayres, Sept. 5, 1790 ; 
 distinguished himself in the Chilian 
 War of Independence. He was chosen 
 President of Chile in July, 1826, but 
 soon resigned, and was made General 
 of the army. He unsuccessfully in- 
 vaded Peru in 1837, and was not al- 
 lowed to retire till he had signed a 
 treaty of peace. Chile annulled' this 
 treaty, and he was court-martialed, 
 but freed. In 1847 he was Intendant 
 of Valparaiso, and in 1853-1858 Min- 
 ister to France. He died in Santiago, 
 Chile, Sept 5, 1875. 
 
 Bland, Richard Parks, an Amer- 
 ican legislator, born in Kentucky, 
 Aug. 19, 1835; received an academical 
 education, and, between 1855 and 
 1865, practiced law in Missouri, Cali- 
 fornia, and Nevada, and was engaged 
 for some time in mining. In 1865 he 
 settled in Rolla, Mo., and practiced 
 there till 1865, when he removed to 
 Lebanon in the same State. He was 
 a member of Congress in 1873-1895 
 and from 1897 till his death. In 1896 
 he was a conspicuous candidate for 
 the Presidential nomination in the 
 Democratic National Convention, but 
 on the fourth ballot his name was 
 withdrawn, and the vote of his State 
 was cast for William J. Bryan. Mr. 
 Bland was best known as the leader 
 in the Lower House of Congress of 
 the Free-Silver movement, and the 
 author of the Bland Silver Bill. At 
 the time of his death he was a mem- 
 ber of the Committees on Coinage, 
 Weights and Measures, and Expendi- 
 tures on Public Buildings. He died 
 in Lebanon, Mo., June 15, 1899. 
 
 Bland, Theodoric, an American 
 military officer, born in Prince George 
 county, Va., in 1742; studied medicine 
 in the University of Edinburgh, and 
 for a time practiced in England. He 
 returned home in 1764, and was active 
 in his profession until the outbreak 
 of the Revolutionary War, when he 
 sided with the colonists, and became 
 Captain of the First Troop of Vir- 
 ginia cavalry. In 1777 he joined the 
 main irmj as a Lieutenant-Colonel, 
 
 and later became a Colonel. He dis- 
 tinguished himself at the battle of 
 Brandywine, and was placed in com- 
 mand of the prisoners taken at Sara- 
 toga, who were marched to Charlotte- 
 ville, Va. In 1780^-1783 he was a 
 member of the Continental Congress, 
 and was a Representative from Vir- 
 ginia to the 1st Federal Congress in 
 1789. He died in New York city, 
 June 1, 1790. 
 
 Bland Silver Bill, one of the 
 most notable measures of American 
 Congressional history. The original 
 bill, as introduced by Representative 
 Bland and passed by the House late 
 in 1877, provided simply for the free 
 and unlimited coinage of silver by all 
 the mints of the United States. This 
 programme represented the full policy 
 of the Silver men. The silver dollar 
 had been demonetized by the act of 
 1873, and its coinage had been wholly 
 abandoned. The Bimetallists desired 
 to restore it to perfect equality with 
 gold as a standard of value, and the 
 original Bland bill, permitting owners 
 of silver bullion to have their com- 
 modity coined into dollars by the 
 mints, was intended as the means to 
 acco'mplish that object. But the Sen- 
 ate amended the measure materially. 
 The free coinage clause was stricken 
 out, and, as a concession to the Silver 
 men, it was directed that the Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury should purchase 
 monthly not less than $2,000,000 and 
 not more than $4,000,000 worth of 
 silver bullion, at the market price of 
 the metal, and coin it into standard 
 silver dollars, which should be unlim- 
 ited legal tender for all debts. The 
 amended bill was reported by Senator 
 Allison, Chairman of the Finance 
 Committee, and hence received the 
 name of the Bland-Allison Act. It 
 was vetoed by President Hayes, but 
 passed over his veto, Feb. 28, 1878, by 
 196 to 73 in the House, and 46 to 19 
 in the Senate. The silver purchase 
 clause in this act was repealed by the 
 Sherman Act of 1890. 
 
 Blank Verse, verse which is void 
 of rhyme. 
 
 Blarney, a village in Ireland, 4 
 miles N. W. of the city of Cork, with 
 Blarney Castle in its vicinity. A stone 
 called the Blarney Stone, near the 
 top of the castle, is said to confer on 
 those who kiss it the peculiar kind of
 
 Blashfield 
 
 persuasive eloquence alleged to be 
 characteristic of the natives of Ire- 
 land. 
 
 Blashfield, Edwin Rowland, 
 an American artist, born in New York 
 city, Dec. 16, 1848; studied in Paris 
 under Leon Bonnat; and began ex- 
 hibiting in the Paris Salon in 1874. 
 He returned to the United States in 
 1881, and has since distinguished him- 
 self by the execution of large decora- 
 tive works. 
 
 Blasphemy, slander or even well 
 merited blame, applied to a person or 
 in condemnation of a thing , 
 
 The word is particularly applied to 
 any profane language toward God ; 
 blasphemy against the Holy Ghost 
 means the sin of attributing to Satanic 
 agency the miracles which were ob- 
 viously from God. 
 
 Blast Furnace, a structure built 
 of refractory material in which metal- 
 lic ores are smelted in contact with 
 fuel and flux, the combustion of the 
 fuel being accelerated by air under 
 pressure. 
 
 Blasting, the operation of break- 
 ing up masses of stone or rock in -situ 
 by means of gunpowder or other ex- 
 plosive. In ordinary operations, holes 
 are bored into the rock of from one to 
 six inches in diameter, by means of a 
 Bteel pointed drill, by striking it with 
 hammers or allowing it to fall from 
 a height. After the hole is bored to 
 the requisite depth it is cleaned out, 
 the explosive is introduced, the hole 
 is tamped or filled up with broken 
 stone, clay or sand, and the charge 
 exploded by means of a fuse or by 
 electricity. 
 
 Blavatsky, Helenc Pctroviia, a 
 noted theosophist ; born in Yekaterin- 
 oslay, Russia, in 1831 ; founded the 
 Theosophical Society in New York in 
 1875. She died in London, May 8, 
 1891. 
 
 Blazonry, the art of describing a 
 coat of arms in such a way that an 
 accurate drawing may be made from 
 the verbal statements given. 
 
 Bleaching, the art of whitening 
 linen, wool, cotton, silk, wax, also the 
 materials of which paper is made, and 
 other things. 
 
 Bledsoe, Albert Taylor, an 
 American clergyman and writer ; born 
 
 Blennerhasset 
 
 in Frankfort, Ky., Nov. 9, 1809. He 
 was Assistant Secretary of War of 
 the Southern Confederacy, and both 
 an Episcopal and a Methodist minis- 
 ter. He died in Alexandria, Va., Dec, 
 1, 1877. 
 
 Bleeding, or Hemorrhage, one 
 of the most serious accidents which 
 can happen to an animal, and consti- 
 tutes the most anxious complication 
 in surgical operations. 
 
 Blenheim, a village situated in 
 the circle of the Upper Danube, in 
 Bavaria , on the Danube. Here was 
 fought, Aug. 13, 1704, the famous bat- 
 tle of Blenheim (or, as it is more com- 
 monly called on the European Conti- 
 nent, the battle of Hochstadt, from 
 another village of this name in the 
 vicinity), in which Marlborough and 
 Prince Eugene, commanding the al- 
 lied forces of England and the Ger- 
 man empire, gained a brilliant victory 
 over the French and Bavarians. 
 
 Blennerhasset, Harman, an 
 Englishman of Irish descent, noted for 
 his connection with Aaron Burr's con- 
 spiracy, born in Hampshire, Oct. 8, 
 1764 or 1765 ; was educated at Trin- 
 ity College, Dublin ; studied law ; and 
 came to the United States in 1797. 
 In the following year he built a beau- 
 tiful residence on a little island in 
 the Ohio river below Parkersburg, 
 where Aaron Burr, after his fortunes 
 were broken and he did not feel safe 
 in New York, was received as a guest. 
 Burr proposed his scheme for taking 
 Mexico, where, in case of success, 
 Burr was to be Emperor and Blen- 
 nerhasset a duke and ambassador to 
 England. Large sums were expended 
 to fit out the expedition and when 
 Burr was arrested, and Blennerhas- 
 set as a suspected person with him, 
 creditors seized the island and home, 
 and Blennerhasset found himself 
 bankrupf. After this all projects 
 failed with him. In his last years he 
 was supported by the charity of a rel- 
 ative. He died on the Island of 
 Guernsey, Feb. 1, 1831. His wife 
 was a daughter of Governor Agnew, 
 of the Isle of Man, and the author of 
 many poems, including " The Desert- 
 ed Isle," " The Widow and the Rock," 
 etc. After her husband's death she 
 petitioned Congress for a reparation 
 of her losses, but died before any ac- 
 tion was taken. Their son, Joseph

 
 Blesbok 
 
 Lewis Blennerhasset, was a lawyer in 
 Missouri. 
 
 Blesbok, an antelope of South 
 Africa with a white marked face, a 
 general purplish chocolate color, and 
 & saddle of a bluish color ; found in 
 great numbers in the late Boer repub- 
 lics in South Africa and much hunted. 
 
 Blessington, Margaret, Count- 
 ess of, was born near Clonmel, Ire- 
 land, 1789, died at Paris 1849. At the 
 age of fifteen, she was married to a 
 Captain Farmer, who died in 1817 ; 
 and a few months after his death 
 his widow married Charles John Gard- 
 iner, earl of Blessington. After the 
 earl's death in 1829, Lady Blessington 
 took up her abode in Gore House, 
 Kensington. Her residence oecame 
 the fashionable resort for all the celeb- 
 rities of the time ; and that notwith- 
 standing a doubtful connection which 
 she formed with Count D'Orsay, with 
 whom she lived till her death. No 
 name is more frequently mentioned by 
 writers of the time. 
 
 Bligh, William, the commander 
 of the English ship " Bounty " when 
 the crew mutinied in the South Seas 
 and carried her off, was born at Ply- 
 mouth in 1753. The "Bounty" had 
 been fitted out for the purpose of pro- 
 curing plants of the bread fruit tree, 
 and introducing these into the West 
 Indies. Bligh left Tahiti in 1789, 
 and was proceeding on his voyage for 
 Jamaica when he was seized, and, 
 with 18 men supposed to be well af- 
 fected to him, forced into ^he launch, 
 sparingly provisioned, and cast adrift ; 
 but Bligh, with 12 of his companions, 
 arrived in England in 1790, while the 
 mutineers settled on Pitcairn Island, 
 where their descendants still exist. 
 Bligh became Governor of New South 
 Wales in 1806, but his harsh and 
 despotic conduct caused him to be de- 
 posed and sent back to England. He 
 afterward rose to the rank of Admiral, 
 and died in London in 1817. 
 
 Blight, a diseased state of culti- 
 vated plants, especially cereals and 
 grasses. The term has been very 
 vaguely and variously used, having, in 
 fact, been applied by agriculturists to 
 almost every disease of plants in turn, 
 however caused, especially when the 
 plant dies before reaching maturity. It 
 is now applied scientifically only to 
 
 Bliss 
 
 such diseases as are caused by para- 
 site fungi or bacteria, as apple-blight, 
 cherry-blight, potato-blight, etc. 
 
 Blind Fish, the name of several 
 species of fish inhabiting the Amer- 
 can cave streams. They are all small, 
 the largest not exceeding five inches. 
 
 Bliss, Cornelius Newton, an 
 American merchant, born in Fall 
 River, Mass., Jan. 26, 1833; was ed- 
 ucated in New Orleans ; entered hia 
 stepfather's counting room there ; en- 
 gaged in the commission business in 
 Boston, and became head of the dry 
 goods commission house of Bliss, 
 Fabyan & Co., New York city, in 
 1881. He was a member of the Pan- 
 American Conference ; Chairman of 
 the New York Republican State Com- 
 mittee in 1877-1878; and Treasurer 
 of the National Republican Commit- 
 tee in 1892 and 1896"; declined to be 
 a candidate for Governor of New 
 York in 1885 and 1891 ; and was Sec- 
 retary of the Interior Department in 
 President McKinley's cabinet in 1897- 
 1898. 
 
 Bliss, Daniel, an American mis- 
 sionary, born in Georgia, Vt., Aug. 17, 
 1823 ; was graduated at Amherst Col- 
 lege in 1842, and at the Andover The- 
 ological Seminary in 1855 ; was or- 
 dained a Congregational minister, Oct. 
 17, 1855 ; engaged in missionary work 
 in Syria in 1855-1862; and in 1866 
 became President of the Syrian Prot- 
 estant College in Beyrout. 
 
 Bliss, Edwin Elisha, an Ameri- 
 can missionary, born in Putney, Vt., 
 April 12, 1817 ; graduated at Amherst 
 College in 1837, and at Andover Theo- 
 logical Seminary in 1842 ; was or- 
 dained as a missionary in 1843, and 
 joined the American Mission in Tur- 
 key. He died' in Constantinople, Dec. 
 29, 1892. 
 
 Bliss, Frederick Jones, an Amer- 
 ican explorer, born in Mt. Lebanon, 
 Syria, Jan. 23, 1859; son of Daniel 
 Bliss ; was graduated at Amherst Col- 
 lege in 1880, and at the Union Theo- 
 logical Seminary in New York in 
 1887; was principal of the prepara- 
 tory department of the Syrian Prot- 
 estant College of Beyrout for three 
 years; was appointed Explorer to the 
 Palestine Exploration Fund in 1890, 
 and is best known for his excavations 
 and finds in Jerusalem in 1891-1897.
 
 Bliss 
 
 Bliss, George, an American law- 
 yer, born in Springfield, Mass., May 
 3, 1830; died near Wakefield, R. I., 
 Sept. 2, 1897. 
 
 Bliss, Porter Cornelius, an 
 American diplomatist, born in Erie 
 county, N. Y., Dec. 28, 1838; was ed- 
 ucated at Hamilton and Yale Col- 
 leges; became private secretary to 
 James Watson Webb, United States 
 Minster to Brazil ; explored the Gran 
 Chaco for the Argentine Government; 
 compiled the various Indian dialects 
 and investigated the antiquities of 
 that region ; and, in 1866, became pri- 
 vate secretary to Charles A. Wash- 
 burn, United States Minister to Para- 
 guay. He was commissioned by Pres- 
 ident Lopez to write a history of Par- 
 aguay, and while doing so war broke 
 out between that country and Brazil, 
 and he was imprisoned and tortured 
 on suspicion of being a Brazilian spy. 
 It required the presence of an Ameri- 
 can squadron to effect his release. In 
 1870-1874 he was Secretary of the 
 United States Legation in Mexico, and 
 during that time made several archae- 
 ological explorations, and wrote on 
 the opportunities of American enter- 
 prise in that country. He died in 
 New York, Feb. 2, 1885. 
 
 Bliss, William D wight Porter, 
 an American clergyman, born in Con- 
 stantinople, Turkey, in 1856; was 
 graduated at Amherst College in 1878, 
 and the Hartford Theological College 
 in 1882 ; was ordained a Congrega- 
 tional clergyman ; became an Episco- 
 pal priest in 1887 ; organized the first 
 Christian Socialist Society in the 
 United States in 1889. 
 
 Blizzard, a modern American word 
 whose origin is in doubt. As applied 
 to a severe snow storm {he word came 
 into general use in the American 
 newspapers during the bitterly cold 
 winter of 1880-1881, although some 
 papers claim its use .as early as the 
 '70's. It is employed in the Western 
 States to describe a peculiarly fierce 
 and cold wind, accompanied by a very 
 fine, blinding snow which suffocates as 
 well as freezes men and animals ex- 
 posed to it. These storms come up 
 very suddenly and overtake the trav- 
 eler without premonition. The sky 
 becomes darkened, and the snow is 
 driven by a terrible wind which comes 
 
 Blockade 
 
 with a deafening roar. The blizzard 
 which will long be remembered in th 
 Eastern States began March 11, 1888, 
 and raged until the 14th, New York 
 and Philadelphia being the cities most 
 affected. The wind at one time blew 
 at the rate of 46 miles an hour. The 
 streets and roads were blocked, rail- 
 road trains snowed up for days, tele- 
 graphic communication cut off, and 
 many lives were lost. 
 
 Block, a pulley or 
 a system of pulleys ro- 
 tating on a pintle 
 mounted in its frame 
 or shell with its band 
 and strap. There are 
 many kinds of blocks, 
 as a pulley block, a 
 fiddle block, a fish 
 block, a fly block, a 
 heart block, a hook 
 block, etc. A block 
 and tackle is the block 
 and the rope rove 
 through it, for hoist- 
 ing or obtaining a 
 purchase. 
 
 Blockade, the act 
 of surrounding a city 
 with a hostile army, 
 or, if it be on the seal 
 coast, of placing a' 
 hostile army around 
 its landward side, and 
 ships of war in front 
 of its sea defenses, so 
 as, if possible, to pre- 
 vent supplies of food 
 and ammunition from entering it by 
 land or water. The object of such an 
 investment is to compel a place too 
 strong or too well defended to be at 
 once captured by assault, to surrender 
 on account of famine. The investment 
 of a place by sea is to prevent any 
 ships from entering or leaving its har- 
 bor. The practice seems to have been 
 introduced by the Dutch about 1584. 
 
 To break the blockade is to forcibly 
 enter a blockaded port, if not even to 
 compel the naval force investing it to 
 withdraw. To raise a blockade is to 
 desist from blockading a place or to 
 compel the investing force to do so. 
 To run a blockade is to surreptitiously 
 enter or leave a blockaded port at the 
 risk of being captured. As a blockade 
 seriously interferes with the ordinary 
 commercial right of trading with every 
 
 BLOCK AND 
 TACKLE.
 
 Block Books 
 
 Bloemfonteia 
 
 place, international law carefully lim- 
 its its operation, by certain provisions 
 regarding the rights of nations not in- 
 terested in the war. 
 
 Block Books, before, and for a 
 short time after, the invention ot 
 printing, books printed from wooden 
 blocks each the size of a page and 
 having the matter to be reproduced, 
 whether text or picture, cut in relief 
 on the surface. 
 
 Block House, a fortified edifice of 
 one or more stories, constructed chiefly 
 of blocks of hewn timber. Block 
 houses are supplied with loopholes for 
 musketry and sometimes with em- 
 brasures for cannon, and when of 
 more than one story the upper ones 
 are made to overhang those below. 
 
 Block Island, an island in the At- 
 lantic off the coast of Rhode Island, 
 to which it belongs; named from 
 Adrian Block, a Dutch navigator who 
 discovered it in 1616. 
 
 Block Printing, the method of 
 printing from wooden blocks (pro- 
 ducing block books) , as is still done in 
 calico printing and making wall paper. 
 
 Block System, in railroad par- 
 lance, the division of a railroad into a 
 certain number of telegraphic dis- 
 tricts, the distance between which is 
 determined by the amount of traffic, 
 each block station having signaling in- 
 struments by which the signal man 
 can communicate with the operator 
 on each side of him. When a train 
 enters any block a semaphore signal is 
 lowered, and no train is allowed to 
 follow until the one in front has 
 reached the end of the block. 
 
 Blodget, Lorin, an American phy- 
 sicist, born near Jamestown, N. Y., 
 May 25, 1823 ; was educated at Ho- 
 bart College ; appointed Assistant 
 Professor at the Smithsonian Institu- 
 tion, Washington, D. C., in charge of 
 researches on climatology, in 1851. 
 He is credited with having laid the 
 foundation of American climatology. 
 He died in Philadelphia, Pa., March 
 24, 1901. 
 
 Blodgett. Saninel, an American 
 inventor ; born in Woburn, Mass., 
 April 1, 1724. He took part in the 
 French and Indian War ; was a mem- 
 ber of the expedition against Louis- 
 Ourg, in 1745; and subsequently be- 
 a judge of the Court of Com- 
 
 mon Pleas, in Hillsboro county, N. H. 
 He was the inventor of an apparatus 
 by which he recovered a valuable cargo 
 from a sunken ship near Plymouth, 
 Mass., in 1783. In 1793 he began the 
 construction of the canal around 
 Amoskeag Falls in the Merrimac 
 which now bears his name, but did 
 not live to complete the work. He 
 died in Haverhill, Mass., Sept. 1, 1807. 
 
 Blodgett, Henry "Williams, an 
 American jurist, born in Amherst, 
 Mass., July 21, 1821 ; was educated at 
 Amherst Academy ; studied surveying 
 and engineering ; was admitted to the 
 bar in 1844 ; and settled in Wauke- 
 gan, 111., to practice, in the following 
 year. He served in the Lower House 
 of the Legislature in 1852-1854, and 
 in the State Senate in 1859-1865 ; and 
 was United States District Judge for 
 the Northern District of Illinois from 
 1869 till 1893, when he retired. He 
 was appointed one of the counsel on 
 the part of the United States before 
 the Arbitration Tribunal on the Ber- 
 ing Sea fur seal controversy between 
 the United States and Great Britain, 
 in 1892. Died, Feb. 9, 1905. 
 
 Bloemf ontein, city and capital of 
 the former Orange Free State (name 
 changed by the British, May 29, 1900, 
 to Orange River Colony ) , South Af- 
 rica ; on the Modder river, 200 miles 
 W. by N. of Durban, the base of Brit- 
 ish operations in the war against the 
 Boers. It occupies an elevated site ; 
 is connected with Natal and Cape 
 Colony by telegraph; and is the seat 
 of an Anglican bishopric, and a col- 
 lege. In the war between Great Brit- 
 ain and the South African and Orange 
 Free State Republics in 189^1900 it 
 was the seat of important military op- 
 erations. In June, 1899, a confer- 
 ence was held here between President 
 Kruger of the South African Repub- 
 lic and Sir Alfred Milner, the British 
 Commissioner of Cape Colony, with a 
 view of averting war. After the ap- 
 pointment of Lord Roberts to the su- 
 preme command of the British forces 
 operating against the Boers, he led an 
 expedition against the city and forced 
 its surrender on March 13, 1900, 
 President Steyn escaping capture. 
 Soon afterward the part of the repub- 
 lic occupied by the British was for- 
 mally placed under British adminis* 
 tration.
 
 Blois 
 
 Blois, the capital of the French 
 Department of Loir-et-Cher, 99 miles 
 S. S. W. of Paris, on the Loire. 
 
 Blondel, a French minstrel and 
 poet of the 12th century, a confidential 
 servant and instructor in music of 
 Richard Cceur de Lion. While his 
 master was the prisoner of the Duke 
 of Austria, Blondel, according to the 
 story, went through Palestine and all 
 parts of Germany in search of him. 
 He sang the king's own favorite lays 
 before each keep and fortress till the 
 song was at length taken up and an- 
 swered from the windows of the cas- 
 tle of Loewenstein, where Richard 
 was imprisoned. 
 
 Blondin, Charles, a French rope 
 dancer, born at St. Omer, Pas-de- 
 Calais, in 1824, was trained at Lyons, 
 where he made such rapid progress 
 that he was designated " The Little 
 Wonder." After making a several 
 years' tour of the United States, on 
 June 30, 1859, before a crowd of 25,- 
 000 persons, he crossed the Falls of 
 Niagara on a tight-rope in five min- 
 utes ; on July 4, he crossed blindfold, 
 trundling a wheelbarrow ; on Aug. 19, 
 he carried a man on his back; on 
 Sept. 14, 1860, he crossed on stilts in 
 the presence of the Prince of Wales. 
 His last appearance was in 1888. He 
 died Feb. 22. 1897. 
 
 Blood, the fluid which circulates 
 through the arteries and veins of the 
 human body and that of other animals, 
 which is essential to the preservation 
 of life and nutrition of the tissues. 
 In insects and in others of the lower 
 animals there is an analogous fluid 
 which may be colorless, red, bluish, 
 greenish, or milky. The venous blood 
 of mammals is a dark red, but in pass- 
 ing through the lungs it becomes oxi- 
 dized and acquires a bright scarlet 
 color, so that the blood in the arteries 
 is of a brighter hue than that in the 
 veins. The central organ of the blood 
 circulation is the heart. The specific 
 gravity of blood varies from 1.045 to 
 1.075, and its normal temperature is 
 99 Fahr. 1000 parts contain 783.37 
 of water, 2.83 fibrin, 67.25 albumen, 
 126.31 blood corpuscles, 5.16 fatty mat- 
 ters and salts. The blood corpuscles 
 or globules are characteristic. These 
 are minute, red and white bodies float- 
 ing in the fluid of the blood. The red 
 
 Bloody Fall* 
 
 ones give color, and are flattish discs, 
 oval in birds and reptiles, and round 
 in man and most mammals. In man 
 they average l-3300th inch in diame- 
 ter, and in the Proteus, which has 
 them larger than any other vertebrate, 
 l-400th inch in length and l-727th in 
 breadth. The white or colorless cor- 
 puscles are the same as the lymph or 
 chyle corpuscles, and are spherical or 
 lenticular, nucleated, and granulated, 
 and rather larger than the red globules. 
 
 Blood, Council of, the name pop- 
 ularly applied to the Council of Trou- 
 bles, established by the Duke of Alva, 
 in the Netherlands, in 1567. Although 
 it had no charter or authority from 
 any source, it was omnipotent and 
 superseded all other authorities. In 
 the first three months alone its vic- 
 tims numbered 1,800, and soon there 
 was hardly a Protestant house in the 
 Netherlands that had not furnished a 
 victim. 
 
 Blood-hound, a variety of hound 
 or dog, so called from the ability which 
 it possesses to trace a wounded animal 
 by the smell of any drops of blood 
 which may have fallen from it. 
 
 Blood Indians, a tribe of North 
 American Indians of the Siksika Con- 
 federacy, dwelling in the Northwest 
 Territories of Canada; known also as 
 Kino Indians. 
 
 Blood Poisoning, a name loosely 
 used of pyaemia and allied diseases. 
 
 Blood-vessels, the tubes or ves- 
 sels in which the blood circulates. 
 They are divided into two classes 
 arteries and veins which have two 
 points of union or connection the 
 first in the heart, from which they 
 both originate, and the other in the 
 minute vessels or network in which 
 they terminate. 
 
 Bloody Assizes, the name given 
 by the people to those courts which 
 were held in England by the infamous 
 Judge Jeffreys, in 1685, after the sup- 
 pression of the Duke of Monmouth's 
 rebellion. Upward of 300 persons were 
 executed after short trials ; very many 
 were whipped, imprisoned and fined ; 
 and nearly 1.000 were sent as slaves 
 to the American plantations, some of 
 whom established families. 
 
 Bloody Falls, the lowest cataract 
 of the Copper Mine river in the North-
 
 Bloody Mary 
 
 west Territories of Canada ; so named 
 because of a massacre here of Eski- 
 mos by Chippewa Indians, in 1770. 
 
 Bloody Mary, an epithet popular- 
 ly applied to Mary, Queen of Eng- 
 land, on account of the persecutions 
 of the Protestants during her reign. 
 
 Bloomer, Amelia Jeiiks, au 
 American reformer, born in Homer, 
 N. Y., May 27, 1818; died in 1894. 
 She will be remembered because of 
 her adoption of a costume of a short 
 skirt and Turkish trousers. 
 
 Bloomfield, a town in Essex 
 county, N. J.; on the Morris canal, 
 several railroads, and a trolley line 
 connecting it with all nearby cities; 
 10 miles N. W. of New York city; 
 founded in 1685; is the seat of a 
 German theological seminary and of 
 a noted mountainside hospital; manu- 
 factures organs, hats, shoes, rubber 
 goods, electric elevators, and paper; 
 and is the residence of many New York 
 business men. Pop. (1910) 15,070. 
 
 Bloomfield, Maurice, an Ameri- 
 can educator, born in Bielitz, Aus- 
 tria, Feb. 23, 1855; came to the 
 United States in 1857; became an 
 Associate in Johns Hopkins Univer- 
 sity in 1881; aud subsequently Pro- 
 fessor of Sanskrit and Comparative 
 Philology there. 
 
 Bloomington, city and capital of 
 McLean county, 111.; on several rail- 
 roads; 60 miles N. E. of Springfield; 
 is the seat of the Illinois Wesleyan 
 University, of a Roman Catholic 
 college, and of the general offices of 
 the Chicago & Alton railroad; and 
 nearby are the State Normal Uni- 
 versity and the State Soldiers' Or- 
 phans' Home. The city has important 
 manufactures, is in a rich corn and 
 pat section, and has large interests 
 in raising cattle, swine, and fine 
 horses. Pop. (1910) 25,768. 
 
 Blouet, Paul (MAX O'REll), a 
 French lecturer and author, born in 
 Brittany, France, March 2, 1848. 
 After the publication of his first 
 book, " John Bull and His Island '* 
 (1883), he devoted himself to litera- 
 ture. He made several lecturing 
 tours of the United States. Died in 
 Paris, June, 1903. 
 
 Bio-out, James H., an American 
 legislator, born in Macon, Ga., Sept. 
 12, 1837. He made his first appear- 
 
 Blow Fly 
 
 ance in public affairs in 1872, when 
 he was elected to Congress from the 
 Sixth District of Georgia. He held 
 his seat by successive re-elections till 
 1893, when he declined a further 
 term. As he finished his last term the 
 House paid him the unusual honor of 
 suspending its proceedings to give 
 the members an opportunity to testify 
 to their appreciation of his worth. la 
 his last term he was Chairman of the 
 Committee on Foreign Affairs, and hia 
 familiarity with American relations 
 with other countries led President 
 Cleveland to appoint him a Special 
 Commissioner to Hawaii in March, 
 1893, for the purpose of investigating 
 the deposition of the royal government 
 and the establishment of the Ameri- 
 can protectorate over the kingdom. On 
 his arrival in Honolulu he at once 
 caused the American flag to be hauled 
 down from the Provisional Govern- 
 ment House, and the United States 
 marines to be withdrawn from the 
 locality. This proceeding led to con- 
 siderable excitement in the United 
 States; the withdrawal of United 
 States Minister Stevens from Hono- 
 lulu ; the appointment of Commission- 
 er Blount as his successor ; and a 
 renewal both in Washington and Hon- 
 olulu of the agitation for the annexa- 
 tion of Hawaii to the United States. 
 On the completion of his mission Min- 
 ister Blount resumed private practice 
 at his home. Died March 6, 1903. 
 
 BLOW-FLY. 
 
 Blow Fly, the name popularly 
 given to such two winged flies as de- 
 posit eggs in the flesh of animals, 
 thus making tumors arise. Several 
 species of nausea do this, so do breeze 
 flies, etc.
 
 Blowing Machine 
 
 Bluclier 
 
 Bio-wing Machine, an apparatus 
 for producing an air blast for metal- 
 lurgical purposes. 
 
 Blowitz, Henry Georges Steph- 
 ane Adolphe Opper de, a French 
 journalist, born in Pilsen, Austria, 
 Sept. 28, 1832 ; settled in France ; was 
 successively appointed Professor of 
 German in the Lycee of Tours and at 
 Limoges, Poitiers, and Marseilles ; 
 was naturalized a French citizen in 
 1870 ; and became the Paris corre- 
 spondent of the London " Times " in 
 1871. He died January 19, 1903. 
 
 Blowpipe, a small instrument 
 used in the arts for glass bkwing and 
 soldering metals, and in analytical 
 chemistry and mineralogy, for de- 
 termining the nature of substances by 
 the action of an intense and continu- 
 ous heat. Its utility depends on the 
 fact, that when a jet of air or oxygen 
 is thrown into a flame, the rapidity of 
 combustion is increased, while the ef- 
 fects are concentrated by diminishing 
 the extent or space originally occu- 
 pied by the flame. 
 
 Blowpipe, a kind of weapon much 
 used by some of the Indian tribes of 
 South America, both in war and for 
 killing game. It consists of a long, 
 straight tube, in which a small poi- 
 soned arrow is placed, and forcibly 
 expelled by the breath. 
 
 Blubber, the fat of whales and 
 other large sea animals, from which 
 train oil is obtained. The blubber 
 lies under the skin and over the mus- 
 cular flesh. It is eaten by the Eski- 
 mos and the seacoast races of the 
 Japanese Islands, the Kuriles, etc. 
 The whole quantity yielded by one 
 whale ordinarily amounts to 40 or 50, 
 but sometimes to 80 or more hundred 
 weights. 
 
 Blucher, Gebhard Leberecht 
 Ton, a distinguished Prussian Gen- 
 era-l, born at Rostock, Mecklenburg- 
 Schwerin, Dec. 16, 1742. He entered 
 the Swedish service when 14 yeai's of 
 age and fought against the Prussians, 
 but was taken prisoner in his first 
 campaign, and was induced to enter 
 the Prussian service. Discontented at 
 the promotion of another officer over 
 his head, he left the army, devoted 
 himself to agriculture, and by indus- 
 try and prudence acquired an estate. 
 After the death of Frederick II. he 
 
 became a Major in his former regi- 
 ment, which he commanded with dis- 
 tinction on the Rhine in 1793 and 
 1794. After the battle of Kirrweiler 
 in 1794 he was appointed Major-Gen- 
 eral of the Army of Observation sta- 
 tioned on the Lower Rhine. In 1802, 
 in the name of the King of Prussia, 
 he took possession of Erfurt and 
 Muhlhausen. Oct. 14, 1806, he fought 
 at the battle of Auerstadt. After the 
 Peace of Tilsit he served in the De- 
 partment of War at Konigsberg and 
 Berlin. He then received the chief 
 military command in Pomerania, but 
 at the instigation of Napoleon was 
 afterward, with several other distin- 
 guished men, dismissed from the ser- 
 vice. In the campaign of 1812, when 
 the Prussians assisted the French, he 
 took no part; but no sooner did Prus- 
 sia rise against her oppressors than 
 Blucher, then 70 years old, engaged 
 in the cause with all his former activ- 
 ity, and was appointed commander-in- 
 chief of the Prussians and the Rus- 
 sian corps under General Winzinger- 
 ode. His heroism in the battle of 
 Lutzen (May 2, 1813), was rewarded 
 by the Emperor Alexander with the 
 Order of St. George. The battles of 
 Bautzen and Hauau, those on the 
 Katzbach and Leipsic, added to his 
 glory. He was now raised to the rank 
 of Field-Marshal, and led the Prus- 
 sian army which invaded France early 
 in 1814. After a period of obstinate 
 conflict the day of Montmartre 
 crowned this campaign, and, March 
 31, Blucher entered the capital of 
 France. His King, in remembrance 
 of the victory which he had grained at 
 the Katzbach, created him Prince of 
 Wahlstadt, and gave him an estate 
 in Silesia. On the renewal of the 
 war in 1815 the chief command was 
 again committed to him, and he led 
 his army into the Netherlands. June 
 15 Napoleon threw himself upon him, 
 and Blucher, on the 16th, was de- 
 feated at Ligny. In this engagement 
 his horse was killed, and he was 
 thrown under his body. In the battle 
 of the 18th Blucher arrived at the 
 most decisive moment upon the 
 ground, and taking Napoleon in the 
 rear and flank assisted materially in 
 completing the great victory of Belle 
 Alliance or Waterloo. He was a 
 rough and fearless soldier, noted for
 
 Bine 
 
 Blue Laws 
 
 his energy and rapid movements, 
 which had procured him the name of 
 Marshal Vorvvarts (Forward). He 
 died at Krieblowitz, Silesia, Sept. 12, 
 1819. 
 
 Bine, one of the seven colors into 
 which the rays of light divide them- 
 selves when refracted through a glass 
 prism, seen in nature in the clear ex- 
 panse of the heavens ; also a dye or 
 pigment of this hue. 
 
 Blue, Victor, an American naval 
 officer, born in Marion, S. C., Dec. 0, 
 1865 ; entered the United States Naval 
 Academy in 1883 ; was commissioned 
 a passed naval cadet in 1887 ; trans- 
 ferred to the Engineer Corps in 1889, 
 and promoted to Ensign, Dec. 12, 
 1892. After serving on the "Alli- 
 ance " and " Thetis " he was assigned 
 to duty at the Naval Academy in 
 1896, and early in 1898 was promoted 
 to Lieutenant, junior grade. Soon 
 after the declaration of war against 
 Spain he was promoted to full Lieu- 
 tenant. He traversed the enemy's 
 lines during the bombardment of San- 
 tiago de Cuba in the Spanish-Ameri- 
 can War, and reported the location of 
 Cervera's vessels. 
 
 Blue Beard, the name of the 
 blood thirsty husband in the familiar 
 tale of " Blue Beard," best described 
 in Perrault's "Tales" (1697). The 
 original of this monstrous personage 
 was a character celebrated in Breton 
 legend, Gilles de Laval, Baron de Retz 
 (1396-1440), famous in the wars of 
 Charles VII. According to tradition 
 he used to entice the children of peas- 
 ants into his castle, and there sacri- 
 fice them to the Devil and practice 
 sorcery with their remains. After 14 
 years of such a course he grew so bold 
 that his crimes were discovered, and 
 a heap of children's bones found in 
 his castle. He was condemned to 
 death, strangled, and his corpse 
 burned at the stake at Nantes in 
 1440. Another Breton legend repre- 
 sents de Retz with a red beard about 
 to marry a beautiful girl after haying 
 already made away with seven wives. 
 The bride expostulates at the altar. 
 De Retz offers her fine clothes, cas- 
 tles, all his possessions, finally his 
 body and soul. " I accept ! " shrieks 
 the bride, turning into a blue devil 
 and making a sign which transforms 
 de Retz's beard from red to blue. 
 
 E.20 
 
 Henceforth he belonged to Hell, and 
 became the dread of the country 
 round, under the name of Blue Beard. 
 
 Bine Berry, a name given in the 
 United States to the genus vaccinium, 
 that which contains the bilberry, 
 called in Scotland the blae berry. 
 
 Bine Bird, a beautiful bird. Its 
 whole upper parts are sky blue, shot 
 with purple, with its throat, neck, 
 breast, and sides reddish chestnut, ana 
 part of its wings and its tail feathers 
 black. 
 
 Bine Book, a printed volume, is- 
 sued by authority of the British Par- 
 liament containing a report. 
 
 Bine Bottle, a two-winged fly, the 
 body of which has some faint resem- 
 blance to a bottle of blue glass. 
 
 Bluefields, town, seaport, and cap- 
 ital of the former Mosquito Indian 
 Reservation ; now the Department of 
 Zelaya, Nicaragua, on the Atlantic 
 coast near the mouth of the Bluefields 
 river, and 165 miles E. of Managua. 
 The reservation lies along the Atlan- 
 tic coast extending S. almost to Gray- 
 town, one of the termini of the pro- 
 jected Nicaragua canal. 
 
 Blue Fish, a species of eoryphsena 
 found in the Atlantic ; also, a fish like 
 a mackerel but larger, found on the 
 Atlantic coast, and sometimes called 
 horse mackerel and salt water tailor. 
 
 Bine Grass, a grass cultivated for 
 pasturage in Northern and Central 
 Kentucky, deriving its name from the 
 underlying strata of blue limestone 
 which gives it a luxuriant growth. 
 
 Bine Hen State, a sobriquet for 
 the State of Delaware. During the 
 War for Independence, a certain pop- 
 ular officer of Delaware, named Cap- 
 tain Caldwell, asserted that a game 
 cock to be unconquerable must be 
 " a blue hen's chicken." This name 
 was at once applied to his regiment 
 and later to the State and its people. 
 
 Bine Jay, a common North Amer- 
 ican bird of the crow family, and oc- 
 cupying in the New World the place 
 held by the jays of the Old. 
 
 Bine Laws, a name given to cer- 
 tain rulings or decisions of colonial 
 magistrates reported by Rev. Samuel 
 A. Peters, a Church of England cler- 
 gyman, of Connecticut, as the actual 
 laws of the New Haven colony.
 
 Blue Monday 
 
 Though one of them forbade a woman 
 to kiss her child on the Sabbath or a 
 fast day, and another provided in what 
 fashion men should cut their hair, 
 they have been soberly accepted by 
 great numbers of people as actually 
 enacted laws, illustrative of Puritan 
 illiberality. They appear in Peters' 
 " General History of Connecticut," 
 and were evidently a somewhat spite- 
 ful satire upon the Puritan legislation, 
 which contained many statutes con- 
 cerning Sabbath observances and the 
 vices of drinking and gambling that 
 would now be deemed inquisitorial. 
 The term is generally applied to any 
 law one does not like that affects per- 
 sonal habits. 
 
 Blue Monday, in Bavaria and 
 some other parts of Europe, a name 
 formerly given to the Monday before 
 Lent, when the churches were deco- 
 rated with blue. It was kept as a 
 holiday by classes whose ordinary avo- 
 cation required them to labor on Sun- 
 days. As this led to violent disturb- 
 ances the custom was legally abol- 
 ished. 
 
 Blue Mountains, a beautiful 
 wooded range of mountains in Oregon, 
 from 8,000 to 9,000 feet high, which, 
 with the Powder River Mountains, 
 separate the Columbia valley from the 
 Great Basin. 
 
 Blue Mountains, the central 
 mountain range of Jamaica, the main 
 ridges of which are from 6,000 to 
 8,000 feet high. 
 
 Blue Point, the S. extremity of 
 Patehogue Bay, Long Island, N. Y., 
 which lends its name to the well 
 known oysters blue points. 
 
 Blue Print Paper, paper sensi- 
 tized by potassium ferricyanide and 
 citric acid ; used for making blue 
 print photographs and print plans, 
 mechanical drawings, etc., giving 
 white lines on blue ground. 
 
 Blue Ridge, the most easterly 
 range of the Alleghany Mountains. It 
 forms the continuation of the chain 
 called South Mountain in Pennsylva- 
 nia and Maryland. It is known as the 
 Blue Ridge till it crosses the James 
 river; thence to North Carolina as Al- 
 leghany Mountains ; and in North Car- 
 olina agaita as Blue Ridge. 
 
 Blue Stockings, a literary wom- 
 an, generally with the imputation that 
 
 Blunt 
 
 she is more or less pedantic. Boswell, 
 in his " Life of Johnson," states that 
 in his day there were certain meet- 
 ings held by ladies to afford them op- 
 portunity of holding converse with 
 eminent literary men. The most dis- 
 tinguished talker at these gatherings 
 was a Mr. Stillingfleet, who always 
 wore blue stockings. His absence was 
 so felt that the remark became com- 
 mon, " We can do nothing without 
 the blue stockings." Hence the meet- 
 ings at which he figured began to be 
 called sportively Blue Stocking Clubs, 
 and those 1 who frequented them blue 
 stockings. 
 
 Blum, Robert, a German Liberal 
 leader, born in very humble circum- 
 stances at Cologne, Nov. 10, 1807 ; 
 was secretary and treasurer of a thea- 
 ter at Cologne, and subsequently at 
 Leipsic, until 1847, when he estab- 
 lished himself as bookseller and pub- 
 lisher. His leisure was devoted to 
 literature and politics, and in 1840 he 
 founded at Leipsic the Schiller So- 
 ciety, which celebrated the poet's an- 
 niversary, as a festival in honor of 
 political liberty. When the revolu- 
 tionary movement broke out in 1848, 
 he was one of its foremost leaders. 
 At Vienna he joined the insurgents, 
 was arrested, and was shot on Nov. 9. 
 
 Blumenbach, Johann Fried- 
 Rich, a German naturalist, born in 
 Gotha, May 11, 1752. He advocated 
 the doctrine of the unity of the human 
 species, which he divided into five va- 
 rieties, Caucasian, Mongolian, Negro, 
 American, and Malay. His anthrop- 
 ological treatises, and memoirs of his 
 life by Marx and Flourens, were 
 translated into English. He died in 
 Gottingen, Jan. 22, 1840. 
 
 Blunderbuss, a short gun, unri- 
 fled and of large bore, widening 
 toward the muzzle. It is by no means 
 to be ranked with arms of precision, 
 but is loaded with many balls or slugs, 
 which scatter when fired, so that there 
 is a certainty of some one of them hit- 
 ting the mark. 
 
 Blunt, Edmund March, an 
 American author, born in Ports- 
 mouth, N. H., June 20, 1770; was 
 noted for his publication of the 
 "American Coast Pilot" (1796), De- 
 scribing all the coasts of the United 
 States, and containing a vast amount
 
 Blunt 
 
 of invaluable information for seamen. 
 More than 30 editions of this work 
 have been published, and it is still in 
 use in the United States and the prin- 
 cipal European countries, having been 
 translated into nearly every foreign 
 language. He also compiled a num- 
 ber of nautical books and charts. He 
 died in Sing Sing, N. Y., Jan. 2, 1862. 
 
 Blunt, George "William, an 
 American hydrographer, born in New- 
 buryport, Mass., March 11, 1802; a 
 son of Edmund March Blunt. He 
 went to sea when 14 years old and 
 served as a sailor till nearly 21 ; and 
 in 1822-1S66 was a publisher of 
 charts and nautical books in New 
 York. He made original surveys of 
 many American harbors ; was one of 
 the committee that organized the pres- 
 ent system of 'pilotage for New York 
 city ; made several revisions of the 
 " American Coast Pilot ;" and was in- 
 fluential in causing the Federal Gov- 
 ernment to adopt the French system 
 of lighthouses and to organize the 
 Lighthouse Board. He died in New 
 York city, April 19, 1878. 
 
 Blunt, Stanhope English, an 
 American military officer ; born in 
 Boston, Mass., Sept. 29, 1850; was 
 graduated at the United States Mili- 
 tary Academy and commissioned 2d 
 lieutenant in 1872. He rose through 
 the ranks to major in the ordnance 
 department. 
 
 Blushing, a sudden reddening of 
 the skin, induced by various mental 
 states, particularly those involving 
 shame or humiliation, shyness or mod- 
 esty. 
 
 Blyden, Edward Wilmot, a ne- 
 gro author, born at St. Thomas, W. 
 I., Aug. 3, 1832. After vainly seek- 
 ing, in 1845, admission to some col- 
 lege in the United States, he went to 
 Liberia, and graduated at the Alex- 
 ander High School, of which he after- 
 ward became principal. In 1880 he 
 became President of Liberia College, 
 has held important government posi- 
 tions, and was commissioner to the 
 Presbyterian General Assembly of the 
 United States in 1861 and 1880. 
 
 Blythe, Herbert (better known as 
 MAURICE BARRYMORE), an American 
 actor ; born in India in 1847 ; was 
 graduated at Cambridge University, 
 England ; studied for the civil service ; 
 
 Boardman 
 
 was admitted to the bar but did not 
 practise this profession, giving it up 
 for the stage. Died March 25, 1905. 
 
 Boa, the name of a genus of rep- 
 tiles belonging to Cuvier's tribe of 
 serpents proper. 
 
 The species properly belonging to 
 this genus are among the largest of 
 the*" serpent tribe, some of them, when 
 full grown, being 30, and even 40 feet 
 long. Though destitute of fangs and 
 venom, nature has endowed them 
 with a degree of muscular powei 
 which renders them terrible. Hap- 
 pily, they are not common' in situa- 
 tions much frequented by mankind, 
 but are chiefly found in the vast 
 marshy regions of Guiana and other 
 hot parts of the American continent 
 
 Boabdil (properly Abu-Abdallah, 
 and nicknamed Ez-Zogoiby, " the un 
 lucky"), the last Moorish King ol 
 Granada, dethroned his father, Abu-1- 
 Hasan, in 1481, and two years later 
 was defeated and taken prisoner by th( 
 Castilians near Lucena. He was set 
 free on condition of paying tribute, 
 and returned to Granada to struggle 
 with his father and with his heroic 
 uncle, Bz-Zaghal, for the throne. 
 Going to Africa, he there flung away 
 his life in battle. 
 
 Boadicea, Queen of the Iceni, in. 
 Britain, during the reign of Nero 
 Having been treated in the most igno- 
 minious manner by the Romans, she 
 headed a general insurrection of th& 
 Britons, attacked the Roman settle- 
 ments, reduced London to ashes, and 
 put to the sword all strangers to the 
 number of 70,000. Suetonius, the 
 Roman general, defeated her in a de- 
 cisive battle (A. p. 62), and Boadicea, 
 rather than fall into the hands of her 
 enemies, put an end to her own life by 
 poison. 
 
 Boanerges, a Greek word trans- 
 lated in Mark iii : 17, " sons of thun- 
 der." It is of doubtful etymology, 
 but is probably the Aramaic pronun- 
 ciation of Hebrew beni regesh, regesh 
 in Hebrew meaning tumult or uproar, 
 but in Arabic and Aramaean thunder. 
 It is an appellation given by Christ 
 to two of His disciples, the brothers 
 James and John, apparently on ac- 
 count of their fiery zeal. 
 
 Boardman, George Dana, an 
 American missionary, born in Liver-
 
 Boanlman 
 
 more, Me., Feb. 8, 1801. He studied 
 at Andover and was ordained in the 
 Baptist Church. In 1825 he went to 
 Burma, where he labored assiduously 
 in spreading Christianity. The mis- 
 sion planted by him became the cen- 
 tral point of all Baptist missions in 
 Burma. He died in Burma, Feb. 11, 
 1831. 
 
 Boardman, George Dana, an 
 American clergyman and author, 
 born in Tavoy, British Burma, Aug. 
 18, 1828 ; son of the American Bap- 
 tist missionary of the same name. He 
 was educated in the United States, 
 graduating at Brown University in 
 1852, and at Newton Theological In- 
 stitution in 1855. He became pastor 
 at Barnwell, S. C. ; afterward at 
 Rochester, N. Y., till 1864, when he 
 became pastor of the First Baptist 
 Church in Philadelphia. Died 1903. 
 
 Boardman, Richard, an English 
 missionary, born in 1738. He became 
 a member of Wesley's conference in 
 1763, and volunteered for service in 
 America in 1769. He preached in 
 New York and through the Middle 
 States till 1774, and then, returning 
 to England, continued his itinerant 
 ministry- He is known as one of the 
 founders of Methodism in the United 
 States. He died in Cork, Ireland, Oct. 
 4, 1782. 
 
 Boas, Franz, a German ethnolo- 
 gist, born in Minden, Westphalia, 
 July 9, 1858; studied at Heidelberg, 
 Bonn, and Kiel Universities, in 1877- 
 1882; traveled in the Arctic regions 
 in 1883-1884; was assistant in the 
 Royal Ethnographical Museum in 
 Berlin, and privat decent in geogra- 
 phy at the University in 1885-1886; 
 and teacher of anthropology in Clark 
 University, Worcester, Mass., in 
 1888-1892 
 
 Boat Bill, the English name of 
 a genus of birds belonging to the true 
 herons. The bill, from which the 
 English name comes, is very broad 
 from right to left, and looks as if 
 formed by two spoons applied to each 
 other on their concave sides. It in- 
 habits the hot and humid parts of 
 South America. 
 
 Boatswain, an officer on board 
 a ship, whose function it is to take 
 charge of the rigging, cables, cordage, 
 anchors, sails, boats, flags and stores. 
 
 Book 
 
 He must inspect the rigging every 
 morning and keep it in good repair ; 
 and must either by himself or by dep- 
 uty steer the life boat. If on a ship 
 of war he must call the men to their 
 duty by means of a silver whistle given 
 him for the purpose ; besides taking 
 into custody those condemned by a 
 court martial, and, either by himself 
 or by deputy, inflict on them the pun- 
 ishment awarded. 
 
 Boaz, a Bethlehemite of means, 
 who took upon himself the duty of 
 providing for Ruth, as the near rela- 
 tion of her dead husband's family. 
 From him Jesus Christ was directly 
 descended. 
 
 Bobbin, a reel or other similar 
 contrivance for holding thread. 
 
 Bobbin Net, a machine made cot- 
 ton net, originally imitated from the 
 lace made by means of a pillow and 
 bobbins. 
 
 Bobolina, a Greek woman, cele 
 brated for her courage in aid of the 
 Greek revolt. After her husband had 
 been slain by the Turks in 1812, she 
 resolved to avenge his death. In 1821, 
 she equipped three vessels at her own 
 expense, fought with extraordinary 
 courage at Tripolitiza and Naupha 
 and was killed in action, in 1825. 
 
 Bob-o-link, Boblink, Reed 
 Bird, or Rice Bird, a common 
 American bird found from Paraguay 
 to Canada, the only one of its kind, 
 and that difficult to classify. Some* 
 place it near the Baltimore bird, 
 others near starlings, but both the 
 characteristics and the character of 
 the bob-o-link exhibit much that is 
 unique. 
 
 The name originally Bob Lin- 
 coln is an imitation of the bird's 
 note. In song, the full throated male 
 bob-o-!ink is unique, rivaling the lark, 
 inimitable by the mocking bird. 
 
 Bob White, popular name of a 
 small game bird of the United States, 
 given because of its peculiar call. In 
 the Northern States it is known as 
 QUAIL, and in the Southern as PABT- 
 
 EIDGE. 
 
 Boccaccio, Giovanni, an Italian 
 novelist and poet, son of a Florentine 
 merchant, born in 1313 ; died in Cer 
 taldo, in 1375. 
 
 Bock, Karl Ernst, a German 
 anatomist, born in 1809 ; died in
 
 Bock Beer 
 
 1847. His title to fame rests chiefly 
 on his " Handbook of Human Anat- 
 omy." 
 
 Bock Beer. ( See BEEB) . 
 
 Bode, John Elert, German astron- 
 omer, born 1747, died 1826. His best 
 works are his Astronomical Almanac 
 and his large Celestial Atlas (Him- 
 melsatlas), giving a catalogue of 17,- 
 240 stars (12,000 more than in any 
 former chart). Bode's Law is the 
 name given to an arithmetical formula, 
 previously made known by Kepler and 
 Titius of Wittenberg, expressing ap- 
 proximately the distances of the plan- 
 ets from the sun. It assumes the se- 
 ries 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, etc., each 
 term after the second being double the 
 preceeding term ; to each term 4 is add- 
 ed, producing the series 4, 7, 10, 14, 28, 
 56, 100, etc. These numbers are, with 
 the exception of 28, roughly propor- 
 tional to the distances between the 
 planets and the sun. The law has no 
 theoretical foundation. 
 
 Bodin, Jean, a French political 
 writer; born in 1530, or 1529. His 
 great work " De la RSpublique " 
 (1576) has been characterized as the 
 ablest and most remarkable treatise 
 on the philosophy of government and 
 legislation produced from the time of 
 Aristotle to that of Montesquieu. Ac- 
 cording to his view, the best form of 
 government is a limited monarchy. 
 He died in Laon in 1596. 
 
 Bodleian, or Bodleyan, Libra- 
 ry, a library founded at Oxford, Eng- 
 land, by Sir Thomas Bodley, in 1597. 
 All members of Oxford University who 
 have taken a degree are allowed to 
 read in it, as are literary men of all 
 countries. 
 
 Bodmer, Georg, a Swiss inven- 
 tor, born in Zurich, Dec. 6, 1786. He 
 invented the screw and cross wheels ; 
 and made valuable improvements in 
 fire arms and in various kinds of ma- 
 chinery, particularly in that of wool 
 spinning. He died in Zurich, May 26. 
 1864. 
 
 Bodmer, Johann Jakob, a Swiss 
 literary critic, born near Zurich, July 
 19, 1698; was the first to make Eng- 
 lish literature known in Germany ; 
 and wrote dramas, and epics. He was 
 leader of the movement which released 
 German literature from French clas- 
 sicism. He died Jan. 2, 1783. 
 
 Bog 
 
 Boece, or Boyce, Hector, a Scot- 
 tish historian, born in Dundee about 
 1465 ; died in 1536. 
 
 Bpehm, Sir Joseph. Edgar, a 
 
 British sculptor, born in Vienna, July 
 6, 1834. He executed busts of Glad- 
 stone, John Bright, John Ruskin, etc., 
 and designed the effigy of Queen Vic- 
 toria for the coinage commemorative 
 of the 50th year of her reign. He 
 died in London, Dec. 12, 1890. 
 
 Boehme, Jacob, a German mysti- 
 cal writer, born in 1575. A sect, tak- 
 ing their name from Boehme, was 
 formed in England. He died in 1624. 
 
 Boeotia, a division of ancient 
 Greece, lying between Attica and 
 Phocis, and bounded E. and W. by the 
 Eubcean Sea and the Corinthian Gulf 
 respectively, had an area of about 
 1,100 miles square miles. Along with 
 Attica, Ba?otia now forms one of the 
 nomes of the Kingdom of Greece, with 
 a population of about 57,000. 
 
 Boerhaave, Hermann, a cele- 
 brated Dutch physician, one of the 
 most influential medical authorities 
 living in the 18th century ; born in 
 Woorhout, near Leyden, Dec. 12, 1668. 
 He died Sept 23, 1738. 
 
 Boers (Dutch, boer, a peasant or 
 husbandman), the name commonly ap- 
 plied to the South African colonists of 
 Dutch descent. 
 
 Boethns, a Greek sculptor, born 
 in Chalcedon in the 2d century B. c. 
 He is celebrated for his statues of 
 children. 
 
 Boethins, Anicins Manlins Se- 
 verinns, a Roman statesman and 
 philosopher, called " the last of the 
 classic writers " ; born in Rome or 
 Milan, of an ancient family, about 
 A. D. 470 ; was educated in Rome, in 
 a manner well calculated to develop 
 his extraordinary abilities. Theodoric, 
 King of the Ostrogoths, then master 
 of Italy, loaded him with marks of 
 favor and esteem, and raised him to 
 the first offices in the empire. 
 
 Later, however, he was accused of a 
 treasonable correspondence with the 
 court of Constantinople. He was ar- 
 rested, imprisoned, and executed A. D. 
 524 or 526. 
 
 Bog, a piece of wet, soft, and 
 spongy ground, where the soil is com- 
 posed mainly of decaying and decayed 
 vegetable matter. Such ground is
 
 Bogardns 
 
 valueless for agriculture until reclaim- 
 ed, but often yields abundance of peat 
 for fuel. 
 
 Bogardns, Everardus, a minis- 
 ter of the Dutch Reformed Church 
 in New Amsterdam, now New York ; 
 husband of Anneke Jans. The latter 
 owned a farm of 60 acres, comprising 
 now one of the most valuable sectiong 
 of New York city. The Bogardus 
 heirs have for many years endeavored 
 unsuccessfully, to recover this proper- 
 ty, which is held by the corporation 
 of Trinity Church. He died Sept. 27, 
 1647. 
 
 Bogardns, James, an American 
 inventor, born in Catskill, N. Y., 
 March 14, 1800; was apprenticed to a 
 watchmaker, and early showed the 
 bent of his mind by improvements in 
 the construction of eight-day clocks, 
 and by the invention of a delicate en- 
 graving machine. The dry gas meter 
 is his invention, as is also the trans- 
 fer machine to produce bank note 
 plates from separate dies ; and in 1839 
 his plan for manufacturing postage 
 stamps was accepted by the British 
 Government. Later he introduced 
 improvements in the manufacture of 
 india rubber goods, tools, and machin- 
 ery ; and invented a pyrometer, a deep 
 eea sounding machine, and a dynamo- 
 meter. He died in New York. April 
 13, 1874. 
 
 Boggs, Charles Stuart, an Amer- 
 ican naval officer, born in New Bruns- 
 wick, N. J., Jan. 28, 1811; entered the 
 navy in 1826; served on the 
 " Princeton " in the Mexican War ; 
 was assigned to the gunboat " Va 
 runa " in Farragut's Gulf Squadron 
 in 1861. In the attack on Forts St. 
 Philip and Jackson, in April, 1862, he 
 destroyed six Confederate gunboats 
 and two rams, and in the last mo- 
 ments of the fight his own vessel was 
 sunk. In 1869-1870 he served with 
 the European Squadron; in the lat- 
 ter year was promoted to Rear-Ad- 
 miral; and in 1873 was retired. He 
 died in New Brunswick. April 22, 
 1888. 
 
 Bogomilian, a Sclavonic Chris- 
 tian sect, founded in the 12th cen- 
 tury by a monk called Basil. His 
 tenets were akin to those of the Mani- 
 cheans and of the Gnostics. He be- 
 lieved that the human body was cre- 
 
 Boliemla 
 
 ated by a demon cast from Heaven, 
 and was burned for his heresy. 
 
 Bogoslof Islands, a volcanic trip- 
 let in the Aleutian chain. The first! 
 appeared May, 1796 ; the second Sept., 
 1883 ; the third May, 1906, after the 
 San Francisco earthquake. 
 
 Bogota, capital of the United! 
 States of Colombia, situated within 
 the limits of the province of Cundina- 
 marca, on a tableland which, at aa 
 elevation of 8,694 feet above the sea, 
 separates the basin of the Magdalena 
 from that of the Orinoco. The table- 
 land has an area of about 400 square 
 miles, and is bounded on all sides by 
 mountains, which, though lofty 
 enough to give shelter, are yet below 
 the line of perpetual snow. This ex- 
 tensive plain a temperate zone on 
 the verge of the equator, with a salu- 
 brious climate and an average temper- 
 ature of 60 F. is exceedingly fer- 
 tile, being as rich in pasture as in 
 grain. The few manufactures of the 
 city include soap, leather, cloth, and 
 articles made from the precious met- 
 als. In 1800 it contained 21,464 in- 
 habitants, and in 1821, 30,000; its 
 population in 1902 was 120,000. 
 
 Bog Spavin, an encysted tumor 
 filled with gelatinous matter inside 
 the hock of a horse. 
 
 Bogne, David, one of the found- 
 ers of the London Missionary Society, 
 was born in Berwickshire, in 1750. 
 Bogue also took an active part in the 
 establishment of the British and For- 
 eign Bible Society and the Religious 
 Tract^ Society. He was on the point 
 of going as a missionary to India in 
 1796, when the East India Company 
 refused to sanction the scheme. Bogue 
 died at Brighton, Oct. 25, 1825. 
 
 Bohemia, a former Kingdom, now 
 a Province of the Austro-Hungarian 
 monarchy (Austrian or Cisleithan por- 
 tion), bounded by Bavaria, Saxony, 
 the Prussian Province of Silesia, Mora- 
 via, and the Archduchy of Austria ; 
 area about 20,060 square miles, of 
 which less than 1 per cent, is not till- 
 able. Population (1900) 6,318,697, 
 (over 2,000,000 Germans). The pre- 
 vailing religion is the Roman Catholic, 
 the country being an archbishopric with 
 three bishoprics. The language of the 
 country is the Czech dialect of the 
 Slavonic in some districts, and in most
 
 BENDING ROLLS 
 
 COMBINED SHEARING AND PUNCHING MACHINE 
 
 MODERN PLATE
 
 RIVETING MACHINE 
 
 DIKING MACHINERY
 
 BoHIcn Lectures 
 
 Boise 
 
 of the cities, German is spoken. Bo- 
 hemia is surrounded on all sides by 
 mountains, and has many large for- 
 ests. Its plains are remarkably fer- 
 tile. The chief rivers are the Elbe 
 and Its tributary the Moldau, which 
 is even larger. 
 
 Bohlen Lectures, a lecture course 
 on a foundation of $10,000 furnished 
 by John Bohlen, a lay member of the 
 Protestant Episcopal Church. They 
 are delivered each year in Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., by eminent representatives 
 of that Church. 
 
 Bo hoi, one of the Philippine 
 Islands, belonging to the Visayas or 
 Bisayas group. It has an area of 
 about 1,300 square miles and a popu- 
 lation of 245,000. Sugar cane is 
 grown and the island is reputed rich 
 in gold deposits. 
 
 Boiardo, Matteo Maria, Count 
 of Scandiano, one of the greater 
 Italian poets, was born in 1434 at 
 Scandiano, a village situated at the 
 foot of the Lombard Apennines. He 
 died at Reggio, in 1494. 
 
 Boielclicu. Francois Adrien, a 
 French musical composer, born in 
 1775; died in 1835. 
 
 Boies, Horace, an American law- 
 yer, born in Aurora, Erie co., N. Y., 
 Dec. 7, 1827. His opposition to the tar- 
 iff and prohibition policy of the Re- 
 publican Party caused him to unite 
 with the Democrats ; and, in 1890- 
 1894, he served two terms as Governor 
 of Iowa, being defeated for a third 
 term in 1893. He was a conspicuous 
 candidate for the presidential nomina- 
 tion in the National Democratic Con- 
 ventions in 1892 and 1896 ; and in the 
 campaign of 1896 he supported Mr. 
 Bryan. 
 
 Boii, a powerful Celtic people who 
 dwelt originally in Transalpine Gaul, 
 part of whom settled in the modern 
 Bohemia, and bequeathed their name 
 to that country. 
 
 Boil, a disease called by medical 
 men furunculus. It is a phlegmonous 
 tumor, which rises externally, attend- 
 ed with redness and pain, and some- 
 times with a violent, burning heat. 
 Ultimately it becomes pointed, breaks, 
 and emits pus. A substance called the 
 core is next revealed. It is purulent, 
 but so thick and tenacious that it 
 looks solid, and may be drawn out in 
 
 the form of a cylinder, more pus fol- 
 lowing. The boil then heals. A! 
 blind boil is one which does not sup- 
 purate. 
 
 Boileau, Nicolas, a French poet, 
 born at Paris, Nov. 1, 1636. He died 
 March 13, 1711. 
 
 Boiler, the name applied to any 
 vessel or cauldron for boiling large 
 quantities of liquor, but most com- 
 monly used as the designation of a 
 metallic vessel in which water is con- 
 verted into steam by the action of 
 fire, the steam being intended by its 
 expansive force to give motion to a 
 steam engine, or to be used for a va- 
 riety of manufacturing purposes. 
 Boilers may be subdivided into the fol- 
 lowing clases: (a) Shell or tank 
 boilers, (b) Water-tube boilers. 
 
 Boiling, in general, the change of 
 a substance from the liquid to the 
 gaseous state which takes place 
 throughout the liquid. The boiling 
 point, in science, is the point or de- 
 gree of the thermometer at which any 
 liquid boils. 
 
 Boisard, Francois Marie, a 
 French fabulist, born in 1774; died 
 in 1833. 
 
 Bois d'Arc (sometimes corrupted 
 into BODOCK), also bow-wood, or os- 
 age orange, a tree which is a native 
 of the Southern United States. Its 
 large, beautiful orange like fruits are 
 scarcely eatable, but its pines make it 
 useful as a hedge plant. Its wood is 
 strong, and hard, and elastic, and 
 hence was used by the Indians in the 
 manufacture of their bows. 
 
 Bois de Bologne, a pleasant 
 grove near the gates on the W. of 
 Paris, so named after the suburb Bou- 
 logne-sur-Seine. 
 
 Boise, city, capital of the State of 
 Idaho, and county-seat of Ada co. ; on 
 the Boise river and the Union Pacific 
 railroad ; 45 miles S. W. of Idaho 
 City. It occupies the site of a for- 
 mer trading post of the Hudson Bay 
 Company; is in an agricultural and 
 a rich mining region ; and is supplied 
 with pure hot water from a flowing 
 boiling well. The city is said to be 
 the only one in the world having a 
 natural supply of hot water. Pop. 
 (1910) 17,358. 
 
 Boise, James Robinson, an 
 American educator, born in Bland-
 
 Boisgobey 
 
 ford, Mass., Jan. 27, 1815; died in 
 Chicago, Feb. 9, 1895. 
 
 Boisgobey, Fortune-Abraham 
 du, a French novelist, born in Gran- 
 ville, Sept. 11, 1821; died February, 
 1891. 
 
 Bok, Edward William, an Amer- 
 ican editor; born in 1863. He edited 
 the " Ladies' Home Journal," and is 
 a popular literary authority. 
 
 Boker, George Henry, an Amer- 
 ican poet and dramatist ; born in 
 Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 6, 1823. He 
 graduated from Princeton in 1842 ; 
 studied law ; and was United States 
 minister to Turkey in 1871-1875, and 
 to Russia in 1875-1879. He died 
 Jan. 2, 1890. 
 
 Bokhara, a khanate of Central 
 Asia, practically vassal to Russia, 
 bounded on the N. by Russian Turke- 
 stan, W. by Khiva and the Russian 
 Trans-Caspian Territory, S. by Af- 
 ghanistan, and E. by Russian Turkes- 
 tan. It formerly occupied consider- 
 ably more territory than it does now, 
 having been reduced by the conquests 
 and encroachments of Russia, which 
 have been only partially compensated 
 by some additions. The present area 
 of the khanate is estimated at about 
 80,000 square miles. The population 
 is about 1,250,000. 
 
 Bokhara, the capital of the above 
 khanate, is 8 or 9 miles in circuit, and 
 is surrounded by a mud wall. It is 
 poorly built, consisting of extremely 
 narrow streets and paltry houses. The 
 principal edi6ces are the palace of the 
 khan, crowning a height near the cen- 
 ter of the town and surrounded by a 
 brick wall 70 feet high ; and numer- 
 ous mosques, the largest of which is 
 enameled with tiles of azure blue, and 
 has a tower 210 feet high. The trade 
 was formerly large with India, but 
 has now been almost completely ab- 
 sorbed by Russia. The pop. is esti- 
 mated at 75,000. 
 
 Boldrewood, Rolf, pseudonym of 
 THOMAS ALEXANDER BROWNE, an 
 Australian author, born in England 
 in 1827. 
 
 Boleyn, Anne, second wife of 
 Henry VIII. of England, was the eld- 
 est daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, 
 and Elizabeth Howard, daughter of 
 the Duke of Norfolk. She was born 
 according to some accounts, in 1507, 
 
 Bolivar 
 
 but according to more probable ones 
 about 1501. About 1522 she became 
 lady of honor to Queen Catharine, 
 whom she soon supplanted. The king, 
 passionately enamored of her, found 
 an unexpected opposition to his wishes, 
 and Anne firmly declared that she 
 could be had on no terms but those of 
 marriage. She knew that the king 
 already meditated a divorce from his 
 wife,- Catharine of Arragon ; but she 
 also knew what difficulties the Catho- 
 lic religion opposed to the execution 
 of this plan. Cranmer offered his ser- 
 vices to bring about the accomplish- 
 ment of the king's wishes, and tb.ua 
 gave the first occasion to the separa- 
 tion of England from the Roman 
 Church. But the impetuous Henry 
 did not wait for the ministers of this 
 new religion to confirm his divorce ; 
 on the contrary, he married Anne in 
 January, 1533, having previously 
 created her Marchioness of Pembroke. 
 Cranmer declared the first marriage 
 void, and the second valid, and Anne 
 was crowned queen at Westminster 
 with unparalleled splendor. In 1533 
 she became the mother of the famous 
 Elizabeth. She could not, however, 
 retain the affections of the kingv as 
 inconstant as he was tyrannical ; and 
 as she had supplanted her queen while 
 lady of honor to Catharine, she was 
 now supplanted herself by Jane Sey- 
 mour, her own lady of honor. She 
 was tried and condemned to death on 
 false charges ot uiliueiity, and was 
 executed May 19, 1536. 
 
 Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, 
 Viscount, an English statesman and 
 political writer; born in Battersea, 
 near London, of an ancient family, in 
 1678. He died in Battersea in 1751. 
 
 Bolivar, Simon, an American 
 military officer and statesman (named 
 EL LIBERTADOR, from his having res- 
 cued Central South America from the 
 Spanish yoke), born in Caracas, 
 July 24, 1783. At Venezuela he en- 
 tered upon his military career as a 
 colonel in the service of the newly 
 founded republic. At length, in 1821, 
 the Independent troops were successful 
 in the battle of Carabobo, where the 
 Royalists lost upward of 6,000 men, 
 and which decided the cause against 
 Spain. On Aug. 20 of the same year 
 a Republican Constitution was adopt- 
 ed, and decreed to continue, as then
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Bolo 
 
 defined, till 1834. Bolivar was chosen 
 President, and he turned his attention 
 to the internal administration of the 
 country In 1823 he assisted the Pe- 
 ruvians to obtain their independence, 
 and was declared their liberator, and 
 invested with supreme authority. On 
 Feb. 10, 1825, however, he convoked a 
 Congress, and resigned his dictator- 
 ship. He now visited the Upper Prov- 
 inces of Peru, which, calling a con- 
 vention at Chuquisaca, gave the name 
 of Bolivia to their country, in honor 
 of their liberator, and appointed him 
 Perpetual Protector, and to draw up 
 a constitution. On May 25, 1826, he 
 presented his Bolivian code to the 
 Congres of Bolivia, which was after- 
 ward adopted, with some dissatisfac- 
 tion, however, although it was also 
 subsequently adopted by the Congress 
 of Lima, where, under its provisions, 
 he himself was elected President for 
 life. He now set out for Colombia, 
 where disaffection and party strife 
 were at their height. His conduct 
 here was misconstrued, and he was 
 supposed to be assuming the powers 
 of a dictator. In 1829 new disturb- 
 ances arose, and, in 1830, a conven- 
 tion was called for the purpose of 
 framing a new constitution for Colom- 
 bia. The proceedings were begun by 
 Bolivar, who once more tendered his 
 resignation. This was his last act 
 which had relation to public affairs. 
 He died at San Pedro, near Cartha- 
 gena, Dec. 17, 1830. 
 
 Bolivia, a republic of South Amer- 
 ica ; bounded on the N. by Peru and 
 Brazil ; on the E. by Brazil and Para- 
 guay; on the S. by the Argentine Re- 
 public and Chile; and on the W. by 
 Peru and Chile ; area about 515,000 
 square miles since the war of 1879- 
 80. The population in 1900, estimat- 
 ed about 2,500,000. The capital and 
 the largest city is La Paz ; pop. (1900) 
 60,000. 
 
 Agriculture is still in a backward 
 condition. Wheat, maize, barley, 
 beans, and potatoes are produced for 
 local consumption ; coffee is raised 
 chiefly for export: sugar cane is 
 grown for distillation ; and rubber, 
 cinchona, and cocoa are important 
 and increasing products. Cattle, 
 sheep, and llamas are extensively bred. 
 Bolivia has a very large mineral 
 wealth in silver, copper, tin, lead, 
 
 zinc, antimony, bismuth, gold, borax 
 and salt. In a single year the produc- 
 tion of silver, the most valuable min- 
 eral resource, aggregated 14,579,296- 
 ounces, and averages 10.000,000 ounces. 
 
 The constitution (Oct. 28, 1880) 
 vests the executive power in a Presi- 
 dent, elected by direct popular vote r 
 for a term of four years, and ineligi- 
 ble for re-election at the end of his 
 term of office. The legislative au- 
 thority rests in a Congress, comprising 
 a Senate of 18 members, elected for 
 six years, and a Chamber of Deputies 
 of 64 members, elected for four years. 
 There are also two Vice-Presidents, 
 and a Ministry divided into the De- 
 partments of Foreign Relations and 
 Worship, Finances and Industry, Gov- 
 ernment and Colonization, Justice and 
 Public Instruction, and War. The 
 suffrage is possessed by all who can 
 read and write. The republic is di- 
 vided into eight departments and 
 these into provinces and cantons. The 
 Roman Catholic is the recognized re- 
 ligion of the republic, and the exercise 
 of other forms of worship is permit- 
 ted. Primary instruction is free and 
 nominally obligatory, and is under the 
 care of the several municipalities. 
 
 In 1879 Chile declared war against 
 Bolivia. Peru came to the aid of 
 the latter and the Chilians de- 
 feated their allied opponents. As a 
 result of this war Bolivia mortgaged 
 to Chile the Littoral Department, 
 which has an area of 29,910 square 
 miles, and contains the important port 
 of Antofagasta, thus losing her entire 
 seacoast. 
 
 Bollandist, pertaining to Bolland, 
 a Jesuit of Tillemont, in Flanders, 
 who commenced a large work, the 
 " Acta Sanctorum," of which vol. I. 
 was published in 1643. Five more 
 were issued during his lifetime. After 
 his death, in 1665, the work was con- 
 tinued by Henschen, a Jesuit of Ant- 
 werp, who died in 1682, and Pape- 
 broch, also an Antwerp Jesuit, who 
 died in 1714. The word is also ap- 
 plied to the continuatqrs of Bolland's 
 work. A new association was formed 
 in 1837 under the patronage of the 
 Belgian government, and the publica- 
 tion of the " Acta Sanctorum " has 
 been continued. 
 
 Bollworm, the caterpillar of the 
 nocturnal moth, Heliothis Armigera.
 
 Bolo 
 
 The creature feeds on almost every va- 
 riety of vegetable and cultivated crop, 
 and is known in each local its' by the 
 name of the plant on which it feeds, 
 as the corn-worm, tobacco-worm, cot- 
 ton-worm, etc. Its first choice is cot- 
 ton, and then corn, and in the South 
 where both crops grow it has proven 
 very destructive wherever it has been 
 permitted to make headway. There 
 are 4 or 5 broods each year ; the July 
 brood attacks corn, the August brood 
 eats the cotton, and the last brood con- 
 tinues the race. It is as the cotton- 
 worm that it is called boll-worm, as 
 the young grub eats the unfolded boll 
 or bud of the cotton plant. The gen- 
 eral government is making strenuous 
 efforts to kill the pest. 
 
 Bolo, a short, broad, lance-shaped 
 weapon ; used by the Filipinos in their 
 
 FILIPINO BOLO. 
 
 operations against the American 
 troops. The blade is about 18 inches 
 in length by nearly 3 inches in 
 breadth at its broadest dimension. It 
 
 Boma 
 
 tapers from the middle toward the 
 haft as well as toward the point, mak- 
 ing it strongly resemble the ancient 
 short sword. It is not double edged, 
 however, but tapers from a thick back 
 to an extremely keen edge. In April 
 1904, the United States troops operat- 
 ing in the Philippines, were supplied 
 with bolos. 
 
 Bologna, one of the oldest, largest 
 and richest cities of Italy, capital of 
 the Province of same name, in a fer- 
 tile plain at the foot of the Apen- 
 nines, between the rivers Reno and 
 Savena, surrounded by an unfortified 
 brick wall. In the 12th and 13th cen- 
 turies it was one of the most flourish- 
 ing of the Italian republics ; but the 
 feuds between the different parties of 
 the nobles led to its submission to the 
 papal see in 1513. Several attempts 
 were made to throw off the papal yoke, 
 one of which, in 1831, was for a time 
 successful. In 1849 the Austrians 
 obtained possession of it. In 1860 it 
 was annexed to the dominions of King 
 Victor Emmanuel. Population (1901) 
 152,009. 
 
 Bolognese School, an Italian 
 school of painting, founded in the 14th 
 century, probably by Franco. The 
 great master of the school was Fran- 
 cesco Francia, a contemporary of Ra- 
 phael, celebrated for the purity and 
 serenity of his Madonnas. 
 
 Bolometer, a most sensitive elec- 
 trical instrument invented by Langley 
 in 1883 for the measurement of ra- 
 diant heat. 
 
 Bolton Abbey, a notable English 
 structure in Yorkshire ; in a highly-pic- 
 turesque district on the river Wharfe, 
 6 miles E. of Skipton, and 21 N. W. 
 of Leeds. Founded for Augustinian 
 canons about 1150, it has been cele- 
 brated by Wordsworth in " The White 
 Doe of Rylstone " and " The Force of 
 Prayer." 
 
 Bolton, Sarah Tittle, an Ameri- 
 can poet, born in Newport, Ky., Dec. 
 18, 1815. She is known for her pa- 
 triotic and war poems, including "Pad- 
 dle Your Own Canoe," "Left on the 
 Battlefield," etc. She died in Indian- 
 apolis, Ind., Aug. 4, 1893. 
 
 Boma. city and capital of the 
 Kongo Free State, on the left bank of 
 the Kongo river, till 1876 was the ex- 
 treme inland post of the Dutch and
 
 Bomb 
 
 Portuguese traders. It contains the 
 establishment of the governor-general 
 and also the local government of the 
 administrative district of the same 
 name. It is an important shipping 
 centre with an extensive import and 
 export trade. 
 
 Bomb, in ordnance, the same as 
 a bomb shell ; a hollow iron ball, 
 spheroid, or anything similar, filled 
 with gunpowder, and provided with a 
 time or percussion fuse. It is fired 
 from a mortar or howitzer. 
 
 Modern political upheavals have in- 
 duced a traffic in packages of ex- 
 plosives, which have been christened 
 bombs. These terrific agents of de- 
 struction have been used with murder- 
 pus effect in the larger European cit- 
 ies: St. Petersburg, Madrid and 
 Paris; also in Chicago. The anar- 
 chists have regularly established fac- 
 tories for the production of these mis- 
 Biles, in which the elements are com- 
 bined with great nicety and scientific 
 precision. The usual method of con- 
 struction is to fill a hollow sphere 
 with some high explosive together 
 with pieces of scrap iron, nails, bul- 
 lets, or anything that will wound. 
 
 Bomba, a title popularly conferred 
 upon King Ferdinand II. of Naples 
 and by which he will be recorded in 
 history. This appellation he received 
 from the violation of his solemn oath 
 to the citizens of Palermo, which city 
 he perfidiously bombarded in 1840; 
 thus outraging his own plighted word, 
 the laws of humanity, and the consti- 
 tutional policy he had sworn to ob- 
 serve. 
 
 Bombardier Beetle, a name ap- 
 plied to many coleopterous insects. 
 They are called bombardier beetles on 
 account of a remarkable property they 
 possess of violently expelling from the 
 anus a pungent acrid fluid, which, if 
 the species be large, has the power of 
 producing discoloration of the skin, 
 similar to that produced by nitric acid. 
 It also changes blue vegetable colors 
 to red, and then to yellow. Found in 
 this country and the tropics. 
 
 Bombardment, an attack with 
 bombs. Specifically, the act of throw- 
 ing shells and shot into a town, fort, 
 or ship. 
 
 Bombax, also known as the silk 
 cotton tree. The fruit is larger than 
 
 Bombay 
 
 a swan's egg, and when ripe opens in 
 five parts, displaying many roundish, 
 pea-like seeds enveloped in dark cot- 
 ton. This tree yields a gum, given in 
 conjunction with spices in certain 
 stages of bowel complaints. The five 
 leaved silk cotton tree, rises to a great 
 height. Its native country is South 
 America and the adjacent West India 
 Islands, where its immense trunk is 
 scooped into canoes. 
 
 Bombay, the second largest of 
 the nine great Provinces of British 
 India. It stretches along the west of 
 the Indian peninsula, and is irregular 
 in its outline and surface, presenting 
 mountainous tracts, low, barren hills, 
 valleys, and high tablelands. It is di- 
 vided into a Northern, a Central, and 
 a Southern Division, the Sind Divi- 
 sion, and the town and island of Bom- 
 bay. Total area, 184,235 square 
 miles; pop. (1901) 18,584,496, in- 
 cluding the city and territory of Aden 
 in Arabia, 70 square miles (pop. 44,- 
 079). The native or feudatory States 
 connected with the province (the chief 
 being Kathiawar) have an area of 
 65,761 square miles; pop. (1901) 
 6,908,648. The Portuguese possess- 
 sions, Goa, Daman, and Diu, geogra- 
 phically belong to it. Many parts, 
 the valleys in particular, are fertile 
 and highly cultivated; other districts 
 are being gradually developed by the 
 construction of roads and railroads. 
 The southern portions are well sup- 
 plied with moisture, but great part of 
 Sind is the most arid portion of India. 
 The climate varies, being unhealthful 
 in the capital, Bombay, and its vicin- 
 ity, but at other places, such as Poo- 
 nan, very favorable to Europeans. 
 The chief productions of the soil are 
 cotton, rice, millet, wheat, barley, 
 dates, and the cocoa palm. The man- 
 ufactures are cotton, silk, leather, etc. 
 The great export is cotton. The ad- 
 ministration is in the hands of a Gov- 
 ernor and council. The chief source 
 of revenue is the land, which is large- 
 ly held on the rayatwar (small farmer) 
 system. Revenue and expentiture 
 (1902) $64,257,425 and $47,569,422. 
 
 Bombay, the chief seaport on the 
 W. coast of India, and capital of the 
 Province of the same name; at the 
 southern extremity of the island of 
 Bombay is divided into two portions, 
 one known as the Fort, and formerly
 
 Bombazine 
 
 surrounded with fortifications, on a 
 narrow point of land with the harbor 
 on the E. side and Back Bay on the 
 W. ; the other known as the City, a 
 little to the N. W. In the Fort are 
 Bombay Castle, the Government offi- 
 ces, and almost all the merchants' 
 warehouses and offices ; but most of 
 the European residents live outside of 
 the mercantile and native quarters of 
 the city in villas or bungalows. Bom- 
 bay has many handsome buildings, 
 both public and private, as the cathe- 
 dral, the university, the secretariat, 
 the high court, the post and telegraph 
 offices, etc. Various industries, such 
 as dyeing, tanning, ami metal work- 
 ing, are carried on, and there are 
 large cotton factories. The commerce 
 is very extensive, exports and imports 
 of merchandise reaching a total value 
 of over $300,000,000 annually. The 
 harbor is one of the largest and safest 
 in India, and there are commodious 
 docks. There is a large traffic with 
 steam vessels between Bombay and 
 Great Britain, and regular steam com- 
 munication with China, Australia, 
 Singapore, Mauritius, etc. The island 
 of Bombay, which is about 11 miles 
 long and 3 miles broad, was formerly 
 liable to be overflowed by the sea, to 
 prevent which substantial walls and 
 embankments have been constructed. 
 The harbor is protected by formidable 
 rock batteries. After Madras, Bom- 
 bay is the oldest of the British pos- 
 sessions in the East, having been ceded 
 by the Portuguese in 1661. Pop. 
 (1901) 770,843. 
 
 Bombazine, a mixed silk and 
 woolen twilled stuff, the warp consist- 
 ing of silk and the weft of worsted. 
 Black bombazine has been much in 
 use for mourning garments. 
 
 Bomb Lance, a harpoon used in 
 whale fishing which carries a charge 
 of explosive material in its head. 
 
 Bombon, a large, fresh water lake 
 in Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 50 
 miles S. of Manila. It is 105 square 
 miles in area. There is a small 
 island in the center, from which rises 
 the volcano of Taal, the lowest in the 
 world, its height being only 850 feet. 
 The waters of the lake find an outlet 
 to the sea through the Pansipit river. 
 
 Bona Dea, a mysterious Italian 
 goddess of fertility, who is variously 
 
 Bonaparte 
 
 described as the wife, sister, or daugh- 
 ter of Faunus. She was worshipped 
 at Rome from the most ancient times, 
 but only by women, even her name 
 being concealed from men. Her sanc- 
 tuary was a grotto on Mons Aven- 
 tinus; but her festival (the 1st of 
 May) was celebrated in the house of 
 the consul. The solemnities were per- 
 formed generally by high born vestals. 
 At this celebration, no males were al- 
 lowed to be present ; even portraits of 
 men were veiled. During the celebra- 
 tion in the house of Caesar the in- 
 famous Clodius was discovered dis- 
 guised as a female musician. The 
 symbol of the goddess was a serpent. 
 
 Bona Fides, literally, good faith ; 
 honesty, as distinguished from mala 
 fides (bad faith). The law requires 
 all persons in their transactions to 
 act with good faith ; and a contract, 
 when the parties have not acted bona 
 fide, is void at the pleasure of the in- 
 nocent party. 
 
 Bonanno, an Italian architect and 
 sculptor of the 12th century. In 1174 
 he commenced, with Wilhelm of Inns- 
 bruck, the famous Leaning Tower of 
 Pisa. He was also the designer of 
 the celebrated bronze doors of the 
 cathedral of that city, which were, all 
 but one, destroyed by a conflagration 
 in 1596. 
 
 Bonaparte (pronounced in Italian 
 in four syllables ; in French and Eng- 
 lish in three), the name of a famous 
 family, which was spelt Buonaparte 
 by the Emperor Napoleon and his 
 father till 1796, though the more 
 usual, modern form also occurs in old 
 Italian documents. In the 13th cen- 
 tury and afterward, several families 
 named Bonaparte figure with distinc- 
 tion in Italian records at Florence, 
 San Miniato, Sarzano, and Genoa. 
 But as the name of Bonaparte occurs 
 in Corsica as early as the 10th cen- 
 tury, it is probable that the island 
 may have been their original home. In 
 the 16th century mention is again 
 found of the Bonapartes in Corsica, 
 where in Ajaccio they occupied a re- 
 spectable position as a patrician or 
 leading family. In the 18th century 
 this family was represented by three 
 male descendants, all residing at Ajac- 
 cio : the archdeacon, LUCIEN BONA- 
 PARTE; his brother, NAPOLEON BONA- 
 PARTE ; and his nephew, CHARLES.
 
 Bonaparte 
 
 CHARLES BONAPARTE, father of the 
 Emperor Napoleon, was born at Ajac- 
 cio in 1746 ; studied law at Pisa ; and 
 married, in 1767 without the con- 
 sent of his uncles a beautiful young 
 patrician lady, named Letizia Ramo- 
 !ino. He died in 1785. 
 
 MARIA LETIZIA RAMOLINO, mother 
 of Napoleon I., lived to see her fam- 
 ily placed on the thrones of Europe, 
 and also witnessed their downfall. 
 She was born at Ajaccio in 1750. Af- 
 ter -the death of her husband she lived 
 for some time in Corsica, and in 1793, 
 when the island came under British 
 rule, removed with her family to Mar- 
 seilles, where she lived in poverty, 
 mainly supported by the pension given 
 to Corsican refugees. After her son 
 became First Consul she removed to 
 Paris, and when her son was crowned 
 in 1804 received the title Madame 
 Mere, and was made patroness of all 
 the benevolent institutions of the em- 
 pire. A brilliant court household was 
 given to her, which, however, was 
 never pleasing to her modest tastes. 
 Remembering former adversities, and 
 foreboding reverses of the splendid 
 success of her sons, she was prepared 
 for all that followed. After the down- 
 fall of Napoleon, Letizia lived with 
 her stepbrother, Cardinal Fesch, in 
 winter at Rome, and in summer at Al- 
 bano, and submitted to her change of 
 fortune with remarkable dignity. She 
 died in 1836, leaving a considerable 
 property, the result of saving habits 
 during her prosperity. 
 
 JOSEPH BONAPARTE, eldest brother 
 of Napoleon, was born at Corte, in 
 Corsica, in 1768. After the coronation 
 of Napoleon Joseph Bonaparte was 
 made commander-in-chief of the army 
 of Naples; in 1805, ruler of the Two 
 Sicilies : and in 1806, King of Naples. 
 In 1808 Joseph Bonaparte was sum- 
 marily transferred by his brother to 
 the throne of Spain, and Murat took 
 his place as King of Naples. For Jo- 
 seph, this was no favorable change ; 
 he found himself unprepared to cope 
 with the Spanish insurgents, and after 
 the defeat of the French at Vittoria in 
 1813, he returned to his estate at Mor- 
 fontaine, in France. After Waterloo 
 Joseph sailed to the United States/ 
 became an American citizen, and lived 
 for some years at Bordentown, N. J., 
 where he employed himself in agri- 
 
 Bonaparte 
 
 culture, and was highly esteemed by 
 his neighbors. In 1832 he returned to 
 Europe, and he died at Florence in 
 1844. 
 
 LUCIEN BONAPARTE, Prince of Ca- 
 nino, and brother of Napoleon, was 
 born at Ajaccio in 1775, and received 
 his education in the college of Autun, 
 the military school at Brjenne, and 
 the seminary at Aix. Lucien was a 
 Republican in opinion, and, therefore, 
 opposed to the absolute rule of his 
 brother; and his second marriage to 
 the widow of a stockbroker did not 
 improve their relations. On condi- 
 tion that he would divorce his wife, 
 the crowns of Italy and Spain were 
 offered him ; but he refused them, and 
 preferred living in retirement at his 
 estate of Canino, in the Province of 
 Viterbo, near the frontiers of Tus- 
 cany, where he devoted his time to art 
 and science. Here he enjoyed the 
 friendship of the Pope, who created 
 him Prince of Canino and Musignano ; 
 but, having denounced in his private 
 capacity the arrogant and cruel policy 
 of his brother toward the Court of 
 Rome, he was advised to leave the 
 city in which he was at that period 
 residing. In 1810 he took ship for 
 America, but fell into the hands of 
 the English. After the defeat at 
 Waterloo, Lucien Bonaparte alone 
 seems to have preserved his presence 
 of mind. He immediately advised his 
 brother to dissolve the Chambers, and 
 assume the place of absolute dictator. 
 After the second ascent of the throne 
 by Louis XVIII., Lucien lived in and 
 near Rome, and died at Viterbo in 
 1840. 
 
 Louis BONAPARTE, third brother of 
 Napoleon, born in 1778, was educated 
 in the artillery school at Chalons, 
 where he imbibed anti-Republican 
 principles. After rising from one 
 honor to another he was made King 
 of Holland in 1806; but, in fact, was 
 never more than a French Governor 
 of Holland, subordinate to the will of 
 his brother. Yet he seems to have 
 done^his best to govern in the interests 
 of his Dutch subjects, and when he 
 found his efforts useless, he resigned 
 in favor of his son in 1810. He re- 
 turned to Paris in 1814, where he was 
 coldly received by the Emperor. After 
 living for some years in Rome 
 where he separated from his wile
 
 Bonar 
 
 he removed in 1826 to Florence, where 
 he lived in retirement. He died at 
 Leghorn in 1846. 
 
 The amiable and accomplished 
 HOETENSE EUGENIE BEAUHARNAIS, 
 the adopted daughter of Napoleon, 
 Queen of Holland and Countess St. 
 Leu, was born at Paris in 1783. She 
 became the wife of "Louis Bonaparte, 
 Napoleon's third brother, and their 
 son, Charles Louis Napoleon, became 
 Emperor of the French as Napoleon 
 the Third. She died at Arenenberg 
 in 1837, and was buried near the re- 
 mains of her mother, Josephine, at 
 Ruel, near Paris. 
 
 JEROME BONAPARTE, youngest broth- 
 er of Napoleon, was born at Ajaccio 
 in 1784. After receiving his education 
 in the college at Juilly, he served as 
 naval lieutenant in the expedition to 
 Haiti. When war broke out between 
 France and England in 1803, Jerome 
 was cruising off the West Indies, and 
 was compelled to take refuge in the 
 port of New York. While in the 
 United States he married Elizabeth 
 Patterson (1785-1879), daughter of a 
 merchant in Baltimore. He fought in 
 the war against Prussia, and in 1807 
 was made King of Westphalia. His 
 administration of his kingdom was 
 careless, extravagant, and burdensome 
 to his subjects. The battle of Leipsic 
 brought the reign of Jerome to a close. 
 He fought by the side of the Emperor 
 at Waterloo. After his brother's ab- 
 dication he left Paris and visited 
 Switzerland and Austria, but ulti- 
 mately settled in Florence. At the 
 outbreak of the February Revolution 
 (1848), Jerome Bonaparte was in 
 Paris, where he was appointed Gover- 
 nor of the Invalides, and in 1850 was 
 made a French marshal. He died in 
 1860. 
 
 His marriage with Elizabeth Patter- 
 son having been declared null by Na- 
 poleon, Jerome was forced, after he 
 had gained the Westphalian crown, to 
 marry Catharine, daughter of King 
 Frederick I. of Wurtemberg. After 
 the battle of Waterloo, her father 
 wished to annul the marriage ; but 
 she declared her resolution to share 
 through life the fortunes of her hus- 
 band. Jerome Bonaparte left in the* 
 United States one son, Jerome Na- 
 poleon (1805-1870), by his first mar- 
 riage, who was a wealthy resident, 
 
 Bond 
 
 though he never became a naturalized 
 citizen. He left two sons, (1) JEROME 
 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE, born in Balti- 
 more, in 1832. He served with credit 
 in the United States and French ar- 
 mies. (2) CHARLES JOSEPH BONA- 
 PARTE, b. Baltimore, 1851 ; graduated 
 in law at Harvard ; became a promi- 
 nent public man ; U. S. Sec. of Navy 
 1905; and in 1906 U. S. Atty. Gen. 
 By his second wife, Jerome Bonaparte 
 had ^three children. Of the Emperor 
 Napoleon I. and his brothers, Joseph 
 and Louis, male issue is now extinct. 
 The Emperor's brothers, Lucien and 
 J6rome, are represented by living de- 
 scendants. (See NAPOLEON). 
 
 Bonar, Horatins, a celebrated 
 Scotch hymnist, born in Edinburgh, 
 Dec. 19, 1808; wrote "Hymns of 
 Faith and Hope," many of which have 
 been taken into the hymnals of most 
 of the Protestant Churches. He also 
 wrote more than 20 volumes on theo- 
 logical and religious subjects. He died 
 July 31, 1889. 
 
 Bonaventnra, St., an Italian 
 friar of the Order of St. Francis, born 
 in Tuscany in 1221. He died July 
 15, 1274, from sheer ascetic exhaus- 
 tion. 
 
 Bona Vista, a bay, cape, and town 
 on the E. coast of Newfoundland. The 
 town is a port of entry, and one of 
 the oldest settlements in the island. 
 
 Bonchamp, Charles, Marquis 
 de, a Vendean leader, was born in 
 Anjou, May 10, 1760. He served as 
 a volunteer in the American Revolu- 
 tionary War, and was a captain in 
 the French army at the outbreak of 
 the French Revolution. A strong 
 Royalist, he naturally disliked the 
 Revolution, and consequently lived in 
 retirement until chosen leader of the 
 Anjou insurgents. In the encounter 
 at Cholet, Oct. 17, 1793, Bonchamp 
 received a fatal shot in the breast, 
 and when his followers vowed to re- 
 venge his death on 5,000 Republican 
 prisoners, the dying hero exclaimed: 
 " Spare your prisoners. I command 
 it ! " This, his last command, was 
 obeyed. 
 
 Bond, a written acknowledgment 
 or binding of a debt under seal. The 
 person who gives the bond is called 
 the obligor, and he to whom it is 
 given the obligee.
 
 Bond 
 
 Bone Manure 
 
 Bond, in masonry, a stone or brick 
 which is laid with its length across a 
 wall, or extends through the facing 
 course into that behind, so as to bind 
 tl.e facing to the backing, 
 
 Bond, George Phillips, an Amer- 
 ican astronomer, born in Dorchester, 
 Mass., May 20, 1825; a sou of Wil- 
 lian Cranch Bond; assisted his father 
 in the Harvard College Observatory, 
 11 nd at the time of the latter's death 
 tvt'S appointed director. He discov- 
 ered independently 11 new comets, and 
 was the author of an elaborate me- 
 moir on the appearance of Donati's 
 comet in 185& " Died Feb. 17, 1865. 
 Bond, Sir Robert, an English 
 colonial statesman; born in Torquay, 
 England, Feb. 25, 1857; was edu- 
 cated for the bar, but early entered 
 political life; became premier and 
 colonial secretary of Newfoundland 
 in 11X)0; was long conspicuous in 
 international negotiations concerning 
 the Newfoundland fisheries; and con- 
 cluded the Bond-Blaine convention in 
 1890 and the Hay-Bond treaty, which 
 the United States Senate rejected, in 
 1902. 
 
 Bond, William Cranch, an 
 American astronomer, born in Port- 
 land, Me., Sept. 9, 1789; began life 
 as a watch maker, and constructed the 
 first ship's chronometer made in the 
 United States. He established a pri- 
 vate observatory at Dorchester, Mass., 
 which was at the time the finest in 
 the country. Invited to move his ob- 
 servatory to Cambridge, he accepted 
 the invitation of the Harvard College 
 authorities, and in 1840 was appointed 
 Astronomical Observer to the univer- 
 sity, and later to the directorship of 
 the observatory erected there in 1843- 
 1844. He was the inventor of the 
 method of registering the beats of a 
 clock by galvanic circuit, together 
 with the observed transits of stars 
 over the wires of a transit instrument, 
 upon a chronograph, and he invented 
 the spring governor, which bears his 
 name, for controlling the motion of 
 the chronograph barrel. His most im- 
 portant work was in connection with 
 the determination of longitudes, both 
 of points in the United States from 
 the Harvard College Observatory, and 
 that of the observatory itself from 
 Greenwich by the observation of a 
 vast number of ocultations of stars by 
 
 the moon, both at Dorchester and 
 Cambridge. He died Jan. 29, 1859. 
 
 Bonded Warehouses, places 
 where taxable imports or manufac- 
 tures may be left in government cus- 
 tody, under bond for payment of the 
 duty, till the importer or manufac- 
 turer is prepared to make full pay- 
 ment of duty. 
 
 Condi, Clemente, one of the most 
 popular poets of modern Italy ; born 
 in Mizzano, ia the duchy of Parma, 
 June 27, 1742; died in. Vienna, June 
 20, 1821. 
 
 Bone. The bones are the hardest 
 and most solid parts of animals ; they 
 constitute the frame, serve as points 
 of attachment to the muscles, and af- 
 ford support to the softer solids. They 
 nre the instruments, as muscles are 
 the organs, of motion. Ill the mam- 
 malia, birds, fish, and reptiles, the 
 whole system of bones united by the 
 vertebral column is called the skele- 
 ton. 
 
 Bone, or Bona, a town and sea' 
 port of Algiers, 85 miles N. E. of Con- 
 Ktantine, at the mouth of the Sey- 
 bouse river. It is built on the site of 
 Aphrodisium, the port of ancient Hip- 
 po. The Vandals having destroyed 
 Aphrodisium, an Arab town arose on 
 its ruins. The city having outgrown 
 its former limits, the present ramparts 
 are beyond the old walls. Bone has 
 been modernized to some extent, many 
 old buildings being removed to make 
 room for new ones. The surface is 
 irregular and some of the streets steep. 
 There are mosques, a cathedral and 
 other churches and a synagogue. 
 
 Bone Ash, ash made of calcined 
 bones. 
 
 Bone Bed, in geology, a bed con- 
 taining numerous fragments of fossil 
 bones, teeth, etc. 
 
 Bone Back, animal charcoal. It 
 is obtained by charring bones. It has 
 the power of absorbing gases, remov- 
 ing the coloring matter and alkaloids, 
 etc., from their solutions. It is used 
 to disinfect ulcers, etc., also to decol- 
 orize sugar and other organic sub- 
 stances; its properties can be re- 
 stored by heating it to redness in 
 closed vessels. 
 
 Bone Manure, one of^the most im- 
 portant fertilizers in agriculture. The 
 value of bones as manure arises chief-
 
 Boner 
 
 ly from the phosphates and nitro- 
 genous organic matters they contain. 
 It is of most service, therefore, 
 where the soil is deficient in this re- 
 spect, or in the case of crops whose 
 rapid growth or small roots do not en- 
 able them to extract a sufficient sup- 
 ply of phosphate from the earth, tur- 
 nips, for instance, or late sown oats 
 and barley. 
 
 Boner, John Henry, an Ameri- 
 can poet and literary worker, born at 
 Salem, N. O., Jan. 31, 1845. 
 
 Bone set, or Thorough wort, a 
 useful annual plant, indigenous to the 
 United States, and easily recognized 
 by its tall stem, 4 or 5 feet in height, 
 passing through the middle 'of a large, 
 double, hairy, leaf, and surmounted 
 by a broad, flat head of light purple 
 flowers. It is much used as a domes- 
 tic medicine. 
 
 Bongabong, a town in the S. E. 
 part of Luzon, Philippine Islands, 
 with an estimated popplation of 20,- 
 000. It lies in a mountainous dis- 
 trict, and attained military impor- 
 tance as the headquarters of a regi- 
 ment of United States troops. The 
 town has a municipal government 
 based upon popular election. 
 
 Bonhenr, Rosa, (properly MARIE 
 ROSA), celebrated French artist and 
 painter of animals was born at Bor- 
 deaux, March 22, 1822. She received 
 early tuition from her father, a draw- 
 ing teacher, and when only 18 years 
 of age, exhibited at the Salon, two 
 pictures, " Goats and Sheep," and 
 "Two Rabbits eating Carrots." Among 
 her famous pictures are, " Ploughing 
 in the Nivernais," " Haymaking in 
 Auvergne," " The Normandy Horse 
 Fair," and " Deer in the Forest " 
 (the last two in the Metropolitan 
 Museum of Art, New York city). 
 She died at By, May 25, 1899. 
 
 Boniface, St., a saint of the Ro- 
 man calendar, and a native of Eng- 
 land, who was sent by Gregory II. to 
 convert the Germans. Gregory III. 
 made him an archbishop. Born in 
 Devonshire in 680, slain by some peas- 
 ants in Friesland, in 755. His let- 
 ters were printed in 1616. 
 
 Bonington, Richard Parkes, an 
 English painter in oil and water col- 
 ors, born near Nottingham, Oct. 25, 
 1801. He died Sept. 23, 1828. 
 
 Bonner 
 
 Bonivard, or Bonnivard, Fran- 
 cois de, cadet of a family holding 
 large possessions under the House of 
 Savoy, was born about 1496 at Seys- 
 sel, on the Rhone, and in 1513 became 
 prior of St. Victor at Geneva. Fall- 
 ing under the suspicion of the Duke of 
 Savoy, he was taken prisoner by him 
 in 1519. After 20 months' imprison- 
 ment he was set free, but in 1530 he 
 was again seized, and taken to the 
 castle of Chillon at the E. end of the 
 Lake of Geneva, where he was im- 
 prisoned for six years, the last four 
 in that subterranean vault which the 
 genius of Byron has made famous by 
 his poem on the sufferings of " The 
 Pjisoner of Chillon." He died in 
 1570, leaving the town his books, 
 which were the nucleus of the Geneva 
 library. 
 
 Bonn, a German town in the 
 Rhenish Province of Prussia, beauti- 
 fully situated on the left bank of the 
 Rhine, with magnificent promenades 
 and prospects in the environs. It has 
 some trade and manufactures, but is 
 chiefly important for its famous uni- 
 versity, founded in 1777 by Elector 
 Maximilian Frederick of Cologne, and 
 for its cathedral, which has a crypt 
 of the llth century and mediaeval 
 wall paintings. Enlarged and amply 
 endowed by the King of Prussia, in 
 1818, the university is now one of the 
 chief seats of learning in Europe, 
 with a library of more than 200,000 
 volumes, an anatomical hall, mineral- 
 ogical and zoological collections, mu- 
 seum of antiquities, a botanical gar- 
 den, etc. The teachers in the five fac- 
 ulties number about 150, and the stu- 
 dents nearly 2,000. Lange, Niebuhr, 
 Ritschl, Brandis, and other names 
 famous in science or literature are 
 connected with Bonn, and Beethoven 
 was born here. Bonn was long the 
 residence of the Electors of Cologne, 
 and finally passed into the hands of 
 Prussia by the arrangements of the 
 Congress of Vienna, in 1815. Pop. 
 (1890) 39,805. (1900) 50,737 
 
 Bonner, Edmund, an English 
 prelate of infamous notoriety, was 
 born about 1495, of obscure parentage. 
 He took a doctor's degree at Oxford, 
 in 1525, and, attracting the notice of 
 Cardinal Wolsey, received from him 
 several offices in the church. On the 
 dealth of Wolsey he acquired the favor
 
 Conner 
 
 of Henry VIII., who made him one 
 of his chaplains, and sent him to 
 Rome to advocate his divorce from 
 Queen Catharine. In 1540 he was 
 consecrated Bishop of London, but on 
 the death of Henry (1547), having 
 refused to take the oath of supremacy, 
 he was deprived of his see and thrown 
 into prison. On the accession of Mary 
 he was restored to his bishopric, and 
 he distinguished himself during this 
 reign by a persecution of the Protest- 
 ants, 200 of whom he was instrumental 
 in bringing to the stake. After Eliza- 
 beth succeeded he remained unmolest- 
 ed until his refusal to take the oath 
 of supremacy, on which he was com- 
 mitted to the Marshalsea (1560), 
 where he remained a prisoner until his 
 death in 1569. 
 
 Bpnner, Robert, an American 
 publisher, born near Londonderry, 
 Ireland, April 28, 1824. He came to 
 the United States in early youth, and 
 learned' the trade of a printer, In 
 1844 he removed to New York, and, 
 in 1851, purchased the " Ledger," then 
 an insignificant paper. He made it 
 remarkably successful. As a result 
 he became very rich, and gratified 
 his taste for fast horses by purchas- 
 ing the most celebrated trotters in the 
 world, though withdrawing them from 
 the race course. Among these are 
 "Peerless," "Dexter," "Maud S.," 
 which he bought from William H. 
 Vanderbilt for $40,000, her record of 
 speed being 2.09%, which he afterward 
 reduced to 2.08%, and " Sunol." He 
 made large gifts of money to Prince- 
 ton University and was widely known 
 for his many benefactions. He re- 
 tired from active control of the " Led- 
 ger " in 1887, giving it into the hands 
 of his sons. He died in New York 
 city, July 6, 1899. He prided himself 
 on the facts that he had never raced a 
 horse for money, never made a bet, 
 never borrowed a dollar, and never 
 gave a note in his life. 
 
 Bonnet, a head dress ; a dress or 
 covering for the head worn by wom- 
 en ; a cap or head covering, much used 
 before the introduction of hats, and 
 still worn by the Scotch Highlanders. 
 
 Bonneville. Benjamin L. E., an 
 American soldier and explorer, born 
 in France, in 1793 ; explored in the 
 Rocky Mountains and California ; 
 fought in the Mexican War; was 
 
 Bonsai 
 
 wounded at Churubusco ; served as su- 
 perintendent of barracks and recruit- 
 ing officer in Missouri during the Civil 
 War of 1861-1865. He died in Fort 
 Smith, Ark., June 12, 1878. 
 
 Bonney, Charles Carroll, Ameri- 
 can lawyer, born at Hamilton, N. Y., 
 Sept. 4, 1831; finished his studies at 
 Colgate University, which gave him 
 the degree LL.D. After a teaching 
 and lecturing career in Illinois, aid- 
 ing in the establishment of the State's 
 educational system, he joined the 
 Illinois bar in 1852. He was presi- 
 dent of the International Law and 
 .Order League (1885-93): president of 
 the World's Congress Auxiliary of the 
 Chicago Columbus Exposition (1893); 
 and president of the World's Religi- 
 ous Parliament Extension. He wrote 
 valuable legal text-books. -D. 1903. 
 
 Bonnivard. See BONITABO. 
 
 Bonnycastle, Charles, an Anglo- 
 American mathematician, born in 
 Woolwich, in 1792. He was Professor 
 of Mathematics at Woolwich Military 
 Academy, Professor of Natural Philos- 
 ophy in the University of Virginia 
 (1825-1827) and of Mathematics 
 there from 1827. He died in Char- 
 lottesville, Va., October, 1840. 
 
 Bonnycastle, Sir Richard 
 Henry, an English military engi- 
 neer, born in 1791 ; spent the greater 
 part of his life in British North 
 America; died in 1848. 
 
 Bonpland, Aime, a French bo- 
 tanist, born in Rochelle, Aug. 22, 1773. 
 While pursuing his studies at Paris he 
 made the acquaintance of Alexander 
 von Humboldt, and agreed to accom- 
 pany him in his celebrated expedition 
 to the New World. During this expe- 
 dition he collected upward of 6,000 
 plants, previously unknown, and on 
 his return to France, in 1804, was 
 made Director of the Gardens at Na- 
 varre and Malmaison. On the Restor- 
 ation he proceeded to South America, 
 and became Professor of Natural His- 
 tory at Buenos Ayres. Subsequently, 
 while on a scientific expedition up the 
 river Parana, he was arrested by Dr. 
 Francia, the Dictator of Paraguay, as 
 a spy and detained for eight years. 
 He afterward settled hi Brazil, where 
 he died in 1858. 
 
 Bonsai, Stephen, an American 
 journalist, born in Virginia in 1865.
 
 Book of Mormon 
 
 He was educated at Concord and Hei- 
 delberg. In the Bulgarian-Servian 
 War he was special correspondent of 
 the New York " Herald," serving in 
 the same capacity in Macedonia and 
 Cuba. He has been Secretary of Le- 
 gation of the United States in Pekin, 
 Madrid, Tokio, and Korea. 
 
 Bontebok, the pied antelope, an 
 antelope of South Africa, with white 
 markings on the face, allied to the 
 blesbok. 
 
 Bonze, the name given by the Por- 
 tuguese to any member of the Budd- 
 hist priesthood in Japan. Thence the 
 name spread to the priests of the same 
 faith in China and the adjacent re- 
 gions. 
 
 Booby, (Sula fusca), a swimming 
 bird allied to the gannet, and so named 
 by early mariners, owing to the stupid- 
 ity with which it allowed itself to be 
 killed without attempting to escape. 
 They live on fish. There are several 
 species found throughout the world, 
 in America, notably along the shores 
 of Georgia, Lower California, and 
 Peru. 
 
 Book Binding, the art of stitch- 
 ing or otherwise fastening together 
 and covering the sheets of paper or 
 similar material composing a book. 
 
 Bookkeeping, the art of keeping 
 books in which pecuniary transactions 
 are so unremittingly and so accurate- 
 ly entered that one is able at any time 
 to ascertain the exact state of his 
 financial affairs, or of any portion of 
 them, with clearness and expedition. 
 It is generally divided into bookkeep- 
 ing by single and bookkeeping by double 
 entry. In the former every entry is 
 single, i. e., is placed to the debit or 
 credit of a single account, while in 
 the latter it is double, that is, it has 
 both a debtor and creditor account. 
 In other words, by single entry each 
 transaction is entered only once in 
 the ledger, and by double entry twice. 
 
 Book of Common Prayer, the 
 book that forms the liturgy of the 
 Church of England. It is a develop- 
 ment from the " Breviary Missal " 
 and " Manual " compiled in the llth 
 century by Osmund, BisHop of Salis- 
 bury. A revision of the " Breviary " 
 was made in 1516, by order of Cardi- 
 nal Wolsey, and it was again revised 
 in 1531, and the "Missal" in 1533. 
 
 In 1542 a Committee of Convocation 
 was appointed whose work, a litany, 
 in English, was issued in 1544. In 
 1547 Cranmer's rendering of the " Mis- 
 sal " into English appeared as the 
 " Order of Communion." In 1548 the 
 first version of the present " Book of 
 Common Prayer " was reported to the 
 convocation and adopted by Parlia- 
 ment, as a part of the Act of Uni- 
 formity of 1548-4549. A second re- 
 vision was sanctioned by Parliament 
 in 1552. This was repealed by Queen 
 Mary, and restored by Elizabeth, with 
 changes in 1559. The Puritans sup- 
 pressed the book, but it was restored at 
 the Restoration. The Savoy Confer- 
 ence of 1661 modified it by concession 
 to the Puritans. It was adopted in 
 Ireland in 1662 and has since been 
 used by the Anglican Church, in its 
 various branches. It consists of va- 
 rious tables, Morning and Evening 
 Prayers, the Litany, Prayers and 
 Thanksgivings, Collects, Epistles and 
 Gospels chosen in accordance with the 
 Church calendar, Order of Commun- 
 ion and other special services, as 
 Matrimony, and Burial of the Dead, 
 the Catechism, the Psalter services 
 connected with the imposition of the 
 clerical and lay offices, and Articles 
 of Religion. The " Prayer Book " of 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church of 
 the United States is a revision of the 
 Anglican book, authorized in 1789, 
 and revised again, 1886-1893. 
 
 Book of Martyrs, a history of 
 the persecution of Reformers in Eng- 
 land, by John Fox. 
 
 Book of Mormon, a book form* 
 ing the authoritative scriptures of the 
 members of the Church of Jesus Christ 
 of Latter-Day Saints. Joseph Smith, 
 an American, of Manchester, N. Y., 
 professed to have heard in 1823 the 
 Angel Moroni reveal to him in visions 
 that the Bible of the Western Conti-- 
 nent was buried in a box near his resi- 
 dence. This, according to his own 
 account, he at length found a vol- 
 ume six inches thick, with leaves of 
 thin gold plate, eight inches long by 
 seven broad, bound together with three 
 gold rings ; on which leaves was a mys- ! 
 tic writing that he characterized as I 
 reformed Egyptian. With the book \ 
 he professed to have found a pair of 
 magic spectacles, by means of which 
 he was able to read the contents,
 
 Bookplate 
 
 which he dictated to an amanuensis. 
 This book consists of an alleged his- 
 tory of America from 600 B. c., when 
 Lehi and his family (descended from 
 the dispersion after the building of the 
 Babel tower) landed in Chile. Be- 
 tween the descendants of Nephi, Lehi's 
 youngest son, and the offspring of his 
 older brothers, who are the North 
 American Indians, long conflicts were 
 waged ; the Nephites finally being al- 
 most annihilated. There remained a 
 fragment, among whom were Mormon 
 and his son, Moroni. They collected 
 the records of their people, and bur- 
 ied them in the hill of Cumorah, on 
 the Divine assurance that they would 
 be found by the Lord's prophet. Be- 
 sides this history, the book, as it final- 
 ly was received, has various moral and 
 religious teachings. 
 
 Bookplate, an English name for 
 labels of ownership frequently placed 
 on the inside covers of books. 
 
 Bookworm, any grub which feeds 
 on the paper of books. Most people 
 are familiar with the effects of the 
 bookworm's ravages ; but the creatures 
 are extremely rare in the United 
 States, especially since so many chem- 
 ical substances have been introduced 
 into the manufacture of paper. In 
 the United States books in libraries, 
 though usually free from the ravages 
 of the bookworm, are infested and 
 damaged by a small cockroach. 
 
 Boom, a beam, tree, or pole. In 
 navigation, a long pole run out from 
 any part of a ship to stretch the foot 
 of any particular sail ; whence, jib 
 boom, main boom, studdingsail boom, 
 etc. In fortification, in marine de- 
 fenses, a strong chain or cable 
 stretched across the mouth of a river 
 or harbor, to prevent the enemy's 
 ships from entering, and having a 
 number of poles, bars, etc., fastened to 
 it ; whence the name ; as, to cut or 
 burst the boom. In navigation, a 
 pole set up as a sea mark to point out 
 the channel to seamen, when navigat- 
 ing in shallows. The word is also ap- 
 plied to a hollow, roaring sound ; as 
 the boom of a cannon ; the reverberat- 
 ing cry of the bittern ; and likewise to 
 a sudden rise in the market value of 
 real estate, stocks or commodities ; an 
 enthusiastic popular movement in 
 favor of any person, cause or thing; 
 
 Boot 
 
 as, a real estate boom, a political 
 boom ; a boom in sugar. 
 
 Boomerang, a missle weapon in- 
 vented and used by the native Aus- 
 tralians, who are generally deemed the 
 lowest in intelligence of any tribe or 
 race of mankind. It is a curved stick, 
 round on one side and flat on the 
 other, about three feet long, two inches 
 wide, and three-quarters of an inch 
 thick. It is grasped at one end and 
 thrown sickle-wise, either upward into 
 the air, or downward so as to strike 
 the ground at some distance from the 
 thrower. On throwing it downward 
 to the ground, it rebounds in a 
 straight line, pursuing a ricochet 
 motion until it strikes the object at 
 which it is thrown. The most singu- 
 lar curve described by it is when it 
 is thrown at an angle of about 45. 
 
 Boone, city and capital of Boone 
 county, la.; on the Chicago & North- 
 western and other railroads; 37 miles 
 N. W. of Des Moines; is in a fire 
 and pottery clay section; has large 
 milling, manufacturing, and coal min- 
 ing interests; and contains extensive 
 railroad and machine shops. Pop. 
 (1910) 10,347. 
 
 Boone, Daniel, the pioneer of 
 Kentucky, born in Bucks county, Pa., 
 Feb. 11, 1735. He was a Colonel in 
 the United States service, and signal- 
 ized himself by his many daring ex- 
 ploits against the Indians, and also by 
 his extensive surveys and explorations 
 of the State of Kentucky. In 1793 
 he removed to Upper Louisiana, then 
 belonging to the Spaniards, and was 
 appointed by them commandant of a 
 district there. He was one of the 
 most successful of the enterprising 
 American pioneers of the 18th cen- 
 tury, and may be said to have ex- 
 plored and aided in the settlement of 
 the country from the Alleghany Moun- 
 tains to the frontier of Missouri. 
 Many places have been named in his 
 honor. Died in Missouri, Sept. 26, 1820. 
 
 Boot, an article of dress, general- 
 ly of leather, covering the foot and ex- 
 tending to a greater or less distance 
 up the leg. Hence the name was given 
 to an instrument of torture made of 
 iron, or a combination of iron and 
 wood, fastened on to the leg, between 
 which and the boot wedges were in- 
 troduced and driven in by repeated 
 blows of a mallet, with such violence
 
 Bootes 
 
 Booth 
 
 as to crush both muscles and bones. 
 "The special object of this form of 
 torture was to extort a confession of 
 guilt from an accused person. 
 
 Bootes. In astronomy, a constella- 
 tion called also Arctophylax, or the 
 Bear river. It contains 54 stars, in- 
 cluding 1 of the first magnitude, Arc- 
 turus, 7 of the third, and 10 of the 
 fourth. 
 
 Booth, Ballington, General of 
 the Volunteers of America, born in 
 Brighouse, England, July 28, 1859. 
 He is a son of Gen. William Booth, 
 founder of the Salvation Army, with 
 which body he was officially connect- 
 ed until 1896, when he seceded and 
 founded the Volunteers, a religious | 
 military body organized in the interest 
 of the unchurched masses. His wife, j 
 MAUDE, has ably seconded her bus- ! 
 band's efforts, and is very popular on 
 the lecture platform. 
 
 Booth, Barton, an eminent Eng- 
 lish actor, born in 1681; died in 1733. 
 
 Booth, Edwin Thomas, an 
 American actor, born near Belair, 
 Md., Nov. 13, 1833 ; the fourth son 
 of Junius Brutus Booth. When 16 
 years of age, he made his first ap- J 
 pearance on the stage, in the part of , 
 Tressel, his father acting as Richard | 
 III. Two years later he himself sue- j 
 cessfully assumed the part of Richard 
 in place of his father, who unexpect- \ 
 dly refused to fulfill an evening's en- ! 
 gagement. The following year the 
 two went to California, where the 
 son remained for several years, visit- 
 ing Australia meanwhile. Meeting 
 with little pecuniary success, in 1856, 
 he returned to the Atlantic States, and 
 from that time forward was recog- 
 nized as a leading member of his pro- 
 fession. He visited England (1861- 
 1862), and in 1864 produced "Ham- 
 let " at New York for 100 nights con- 
 secutively. In 1869 he opened a 
 splendid theater in New York, whose 
 building cost over $1,000.000, but 
 which involved him in pecuniary ruin. 
 He revisited California in 1876, and 
 in the 'spring of 1877 was able to set- 
 tle with his creditors, having earned 
 during the season over $600,000. 
 Booth visited Great Britain and Ger- 
 many in 1880-1882, and was every- 
 where received with enthusiasm. He 
 died in New York, June 7, 1893. 
 
 Booth, "John \Vilkes, an Ameri- 
 can actor, born in Hartford county, 
 Md., in 1838 ; another son of J UNIUS 
 BRUTUS BOOTH. He sided with the 
 Confederates in the Civil War, and 
 to avenge the defeat of their cause he 
 formed a conspiracy against the life 
 of President Lincoln. He mortally 
 wounded the President, while the lat- 
 ter was attending a performance in 
 Ford's Theater, in Washington, on 
 April 14, 1865 ; broke his own leg in 
 escaping from the building; and con- 
 cealed himself in Virginia till the 
 26th, when, on being discovered, and 
 refusing to surrender, he was shot. 
 
 Booth, Jnnins Brutus, an An- 
 glo-American tragedian, born in the 
 parish of St. Pancras, London, May 
 1, 1796. He received a classical edu- 
 cation, but early manifested a predi- 
 lection for the stage, and when 17 
 years of age appeared in some unim- 
 portant parts. Subsequently he played 
 Richard III., at Covent Garden, a part 
 in which he suddenly became famous. 
 In 1821 he went to the United States, 
 where for the ensuing 30 years he 
 followed his profession with much 
 success. He died suddenly on board 
 a Mississippi river steamer, Nov. 12, 
 18o2. 
 
 Booth, Mary Louise, an Ameri- 
 can journalist and author, born in 
 Yaphank, Long Island, N. Y., April 
 19, 1831 ; was widely known as the 
 editor of " Harper's Bazar," which 
 place she held from 1867 till her 
 death in New York city, March 5, 
 1889. 
 
 Booth, William, founder and 
 General of the Salvation Army, was 
 born at Nottingham, England, April 
 10, 1829, was educated there, and 
 from 1850 to 1861, acted as minister 
 of the Methodist New Connection. 
 From the first he was zealous in hold- 
 ing evangelistic services, but the new 
 departure which led to the creation 
 of the Salvation Army on military 
 lines began ir 1865 with mission work 
 among the lower classes in the East 
 End of London. Since 1878 Booth's 
 movement has been known as the Sal- 
 vation Army, of which he had con- 
 tinued to be the mainspring and con- 
 trolling power, directing its move- 
 ments at home and abroad from his 
 headquarters in London. His enthusi-
 
 Booth-Tucker 
 
 Borclen 
 
 asm and wonderful organizing power 
 gave much life to the religious military 
 system, of which he was really "gen- 
 eral." The property of the Salvation 
 Army is held for its exclusive use by 
 Booth. His wife was associated with 
 him in the publication of several hymns 
 and religious works dealing with the 
 movement, till her death in 1890. He 
 died Aug. 21, 1912. 
 
 Booth-Tucker, Emma Moss, 
 daughter of William Booth of the Sal- 
 vation Army, and wife of F. St. 
 George Booth-Tucker, was born in 
 18GO, and died in Oct. 1903, the victim 
 of a railway accident. She held the 
 rank of Consul, and with her husband, 
 directed the army in the United States. 
 She possessed remarkable executive 
 ability, and was loved by all with 
 whom she came in contact. 
 
 Booth-Tucker, Frederick St. 
 George de Lautour, commander 
 of the Salvation Army in the United 
 States, was born in India, in 1853. 
 He held important official posts in In- 
 dia, but resigned them in 1881 to 
 join the Salvation Army. Upon his 
 marriage with Emma Moss Booth, 
 daughter of Gen. William Booth of 
 the Salvation Army, he prefixed Booth 
 to his own name of Tucker. In 1896 
 he became commander of the United 
 States branch of the Salvation Army. 
 
 Bora, Katharina von, wife of 
 Luther, was born in 1499. She took 
 the veil early ; but feeling unhappy in 
 her situation, applied, with eight other 
 nuns, to Luther. The nuns were re- 
 leased from their convent, and, in 
 1525, Luther married her, having him- 
 self by this time laid aside the cowl. 
 After Luther's death she kept board- 
 ers for her support. She died at Tor- 
 gau, in 1552. 
 
 Borax, the anhydroborate of sodium, 
 forms large transparent six-sided 
 prisms, which dissolve readily in wat- 
 er, effloresce in dry air, and when 
 heated melt in their water of crys- 
 tallization, swell up, and finally fuse 
 to a transparent glass. In this state 
 borax dissolves metallic oxides which 
 frequently impart to it characteristic 
 colors. From this property borax is 
 employed in soldering metals, as it 
 removes films of oxide, and leaves 
 the metals in metallic contact with 
 each other and with the solder. It is 
 
 also employed in making fine glaze for 
 porcelain, as it renders the materials 
 more fusible. In medicine it is em- 
 ployed in ulcerations and in skin dis- 
 eases. 
 
 Borchgrevink, Carsten Ege- 
 bert, a Norwegian explorer and lec- 
 turer, born in Christiania, in 1864, 
 his mother being English and his 
 father a Scandinavian. He went to 
 sea at an early age, but returned to 
 go to college. In 1898 he went to 
 Australia, joined the Survey Depart- 
 ment, and scaled Mount Lindsay. In 
 1894-1895 he was in Antarctic waters, 
 a region fully explored by him in 
 1897, when he attempted to reach the 
 South Pole without success. In 1899 
 (Feb. 17) he had, however, reached 
 Robertston Bay. Returning to Lon- 
 don in 1900 he reported having 
 reached lat. 78.50 S., long. 195.50 E., 
 the furthest point S. ever reached by 
 man. 
 
 Bordeaux, a city and port of 
 France, capital of the Department of 
 Gironde, on the Garonne river, about 
 70 miles from the sea. It is built in a 
 crescent form round a bend of the 
 river, which is here lined with fine 
 quays and crossed by a magnificent 
 stone bridge, and consists of an old and 
 a new town. The former is mostly 
 composed of irregular squares and 
 narrow, crooked streets ; while the 
 latter is laid out with great regular- 
 ity, and on a scale of magnificence 
 hardly surpassed by any provincial 
 town in Europe. The chief exports 
 are wine and brandy ; sugar and other 
 colonial produce and wood are the 
 chief imports. Shipbuilding is the 
 chief industry, and there are sugar re- 
 fineries, woolen and cotton mills, pot- 
 teries, soap works, distilleries, etc. 
 Bordeaux is the Burdigala of the Ro- 
 mans. Under Henry II. it went to 
 England; under Charles VII., it wab 
 restored to France. Pop. 256,906. 
 
 Borden, Sir Frederick William, 
 a Canadian cabinet officer; born in 
 Cornwallis, N. S., May 14, 1847; 
 studied medicine at Harvard; became 
 a surgeon in the Canadian Army 
 Medical Corps; and from 1896 was 
 Minister of Militia and Defence. 
 
 Borden, Simeon, an American 
 inventor and surveyor, born in the 
 present Fall River, Mass., Jan, 29,
 
 Bordentown 
 
 1798. He instructed himself in math- 
 ematics and devised successful survey- 
 ing instruments. The first American 
 geodetic survey was his work. In 1846 
 he began the construction of railroads. 
 He died in Fall River, Oct. 28, 1856. 
 
 Bordentown, a city in Burling- 
 ton co., N. J., on the Delaware river, 
 the Delaware and Rarkan canal, and 
 the Pennsylvania railroad ; 57 miles 
 S. W. of New York city. It is noted 
 as being a former residence of Joseph 
 Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon I. and 
 for many years the house and grounds 
 belonging to the estate possessed much 
 interest for the tourist. 
 
 Bore, or Eagre, a sudden influx 
 of the tide into the estuary of a river 
 from the sea, the inflowing water ris- 
 ing to a considerable height and ad- 
 vancing like a wall against the cur- 
 rent. Chief among American bores 
 are those of the rivers emptying into 
 the Bay of Fundy ; in Europe the 
 eagres of the Severn and Trent, Eng- 
 land ; and the mascaret of the Seine, 
 France. See also EAGRE. 
 
 Bore, in metallurgy, a tool bored 
 to fit the shank of a forged nail, and 
 adapted to hold it while the head is 
 brought to shape by the hammer. The 
 depression in the face of the bore is 
 adapted to the shape required of the 
 chamfered under part of the head. 
 The word is also applied to the cavity 
 of a steam engine cylinder, pump bar- 
 rel, pipe, cannon, barrel of a firearm, 
 etc. 
 
 Boreas, a bellowing wind; the 
 Northern wind ; a cold, Northerly 
 wind. In mythology, the son of As- 
 trseus and Eos, usually worshipped as 
 the god of the North Wind. The as- 
 siduity with which the worship of 
 Boreas was cultivated at Athens pro- 
 ceeded from gratitude, the North Wind 
 having on one occasion destroyed the 
 fleet of the Persians when meditating 
 the invasion of Attica. A similar 
 cause induced the inhabitants of Me- 
 galopolis to consider Boreas as their 
 peculiar divinity, in whose honor they 
 instituted an annual festival. Boreas 
 was usually represented with wings 
 dripping with golden dewdrops, and 
 the train of his garment sweeping 
 along the ground. 
 
 Borghese, a Roman family, which 
 (derives its origin from Sienna, and 
 
 Borgia 
 
 which held the highest offices in this 
 republic from the middle of the loth 
 century. Pope Paul V., who belonged 
 to this family, and ascended the papal 
 chair in 1G05, loaded his relations 
 with honors and riches. 
 
 Borghese, Princess Marie 
 Pauline, the beautiful sister of Na- 
 poleon ; born in Ajaccio, Oct. 20, 
 1780. She died in Florence, June 9, 
 1825. She left many legacies, and a 
 donation, the interest of whuch was to 
 enable two young men of Ajaccio to 
 study medicine and surgery. The rest 
 of her property she left to her 
 brothers, the Count of St. Leu and the 
 Prince of Montfort. The whole prop- 
 erty amounted to 2,000,000 francs. 
 
 Borgia Cesare, the natural son 
 of Pope Alexander VI., and of a Ro- 
 man lady named Vanozza, born in 
 1478. He was raised to the rank of 
 Cardinal in 1492, but afterward di- 
 vested himself of the office, and was 
 made Due de Valentinois by Louis 
 XII. In 1499 he married a daughter 
 of King John of Navarre, and accom- 
 panied Louis XII. to Italy. He then, 
 at the head of a body of mercenaries, 
 carried on a series of petty wars, made 
 himself master of the Romagna, at- 
 tempted Bologna and Florence, and 
 had seized Urbino when Alexander VI. 
 died, 1503. He was now attacked by 
 a^ severe disease, at a moment when 
 his whole activity and presence of 
 mind were needed. He found means, 
 indeed, ^ to get the treasures of trig 
 father into his possession, and assem- 
 bled his troops in Rome ; but enemies 
 rose against him on all sides, one of 
 the most bitter of whom was the new 
 Pope, Julius II. Borgia was arrested 
 and carried to Spain. He at length 
 made his escape to his brother-in-law, 
 the King of Navarre, and was killed 
 before the castle of Viana, March 12, 
 1507. He was charged with the mur- 
 der of his elder brother, of the hus- 
 band of his sister Lucretia, and the 
 stiletto or secret poisoning was freely 
 used against those who stood in his 
 way. With all his crimes he was a 
 patron of art and literature. 
 
 Borgia, Lucretia, daughter of 
 Pope Alexander VI., and sister of Ce- 
 sare Borgia, was born in 1480. She 
 was accused of almost every species of 
 crime ; but several modern writers 
 maintain that the charges against her
 
 Boring 
 
 are false or much exaggerated. She 
 patronized art and literature. She 
 died in 1523. 
 
 Boring, a process in mechanical 
 and engineering operations, variously 
 performed according to the medium 
 dealt with. 
 
 Bornemann, Willielm, a Low 
 German dialect poet, born in Garde- 
 legen in 1766. He is one of the fore- 
 most representatives of modern Low 
 German poetry. He died in 1851. 
 
 Borneo, an island, next to Austra- 
 lia and Papua, the largest in the 
 world, is situated in the Indian Archi- 
 pelago. It is bounded on the E. by 
 the Sea of Celebes and the Macassar 
 Strait. S. by the Sea of Java, W. and 
 N. by the Gulf of Siam and the China 
 Sea. Its length is about 850 miles, 
 with a breadth of 600, and an area of 
 about 290,000 square miles. The pop- 
 ulation is roughly estimated at more 
 than 2,000,000. 
 
 British Borneo is north of the Madei 
 Mountains ; Dutch Borneo to the 
 south. The lowlands are malarious 
 and unhealthful ; the north highlands 
 temperate, the thermometer at noon 
 varying from 81 to 91 F. Nutmegs, 
 cloves, cinnamon, pepper, betel, gin- 
 ger, rice," millet, sweet potatoes, yams, 
 cotton in Amuntai, sugar cane in Sam- 
 bas and Montrado, indigo, tobacco, cof- 
 fee in Sambas, pineapples, cocoanuts, 
 etc., are cultivated. The mountains 
 and forests contain many monkeys, 
 among which is the orang outang. Ta- 
 pirs, a small kind of tiger, small Ma- 
 lay bears, swine, wild oxen or ban- 
 teng, and various kinds of deer abound. 
 The elephant is only found in the N., 
 and the rchinoceros in the N. W. The 
 few domesticated animals are buffa- 
 loes, sheep, goats, dogs, and cats. A 
 few horses are seen in Banjermassin. 
 Among the birds are eagles, vultures, 
 argus pheasants, peacocks, flamingoes, 
 pigeons, parrots, and also the swifts, 
 which construct the edible nests prized 
 by the Chinese for making soup. The 
 rivers, lakes, and lagoons swarm with 
 crocodiles, and many kinds of snakes, 
 frogs, lizards, and leeches. Fish is 
 plentiful, and the coasts are rich in 
 tortoises, pearl mussels, oysters, and 
 trepang. Brilliant butterflies and 
 moths are in great variety. Among 
 the mineral products are coal, gold t 
 
 Bornn 
 
 and copper, especially in Montrado; 
 antimony, iron, tin, platina, nickel, 
 diamonds and other precious stones, 
 rock crystals, porcelain clay, petrole- 
 um, and sulphur. The diamond mines 
 are chiefly in Landak and Pontianak ; 
 Sambas produces the greatest quantity 
 of gold ; the kingdom of Brunei, Ku- 
 tei, and Banjermassin, the largest 
 amount of coal. The Pengaron coal 
 field, worked by the Dutch Govern- 
 ment, is one of the most important. 
 
 The population consists of three 
 classes, the Dyaks or Dayaks, who 
 are the aboriginal heathen inhabitants, 
 and constitute the great bulk of the 
 population ; the Mohammedans or Ma- 
 lays for this name is extended so 
 as to include all professors of Islam, 
 whether true Malays, Buginese, Ja- 
 vanese, Dyaks, or Arabs ; and the Chi- 
 nese. The Dyaks live chiefly in the 
 interior, and employ themselves with 
 tillage and the collecting of gutta 
 percha, resin, gums, rattans, gold dust, 
 and wax. They are divided into nu- 
 merous tribes. The Malays (taking 
 the name ethnographically) dwell on 
 the coasts, are traders and bold sail- 
 ors. They are more civilized than the 
 Dyaks, cultivate the grounds around 
 their houses, lay out gardens, keep cat- 
 tle, and live partly by fishing. The Chi- 
 nese, chiefly from Canton, have pene- 
 trated far into the interior. The prin- 
 cipal exports are gold, gold dust, dia- 
 monds, coal, rattans, gutta percha, edi- 
 ble nests, cotton, wax, timber, dye 
 woods, mats, resins, sandal wood, cam- 
 phor, etc. ; the imports, earthenwarej 
 iron, steel, and copper work, piece 
 goods, yarns, woolen and silk fabrics, 
 medicines, provisions^ wines, spirits, 
 rice, sugar, tea, tobacco, opium, tre- 
 pang, gambir, gunpowder, etc. 
 
 Hornier, Henri, Vicomte de, 
 a French dramatist, member of the 
 Academy, born at Lunel, Dec. 25, 
 1825. His plays are notable for splen- 
 dor of diction. He is the author of 
 several successful novels and ro- 
 mances. He died in 1868. 
 
 Bornn, formerly a negro kingdom 
 of Central Africa; now divided 
 between England, France and 
 Germany; bounded on the E. by 
 Lake Tchad, and N. by the Sahara. 
 The soil is fertile, yields plentiful 
 crops of tropical produce. Wild 
 beasts are very numerous. Coats of
 
 Boro Bndor 
 
 Bosnia 
 
 mail are made both for horses and 
 their riders. The population, which 
 is estimated at about 5,000,000, are 
 mostly of negro race, and called Bor- 
 nuese or Kanuri. The ruling race, 
 called Shuwas, are of Arab descent 
 and bigoted Mohammedans ; but many 
 traces of fetichism remain among the 
 masses. Whatever they have of civil- 
 ization is derived from the Arabs. The 
 shores and islands of Lake Tchad are 
 inhabited by negro pirates. The slave 
 trade is eagerly prosecuted in Bornu. 
 
 Boro Budor ( the " Great Bud- 
 dha"), the ruin of a splendid Bud- 
 dhist temple in Java, Kadu Residency, 
 near the junction of the Ello and 
 Progo, is the most elaborate monu- 
 ment of the Buddhist style of architec- 
 ture anywhere existing. Buddhism was 
 early introduced into Java, and Jav- 
 anese chronicles place the building of 
 the temple in the beginning of the 7th 
 century ; there are no inscriptions, but 
 it was probably finished between 1400 
 and 1430. 
 
 Borodino, a village of Russia, 70 
 miles W. of Moscow ; on the Kaluga, 
 an affluent of the Moskwa. It gave 
 name to the great battle fought be- 
 tween the French army under Napo- 
 leon and the Russians under Kutusoff, 
 Sept. 7, 1812. Out of 257,000 men 
 engaged, between 70,000 and 80,000 
 were killed and wounded. The Rus- 
 sians retreated on the following day, 
 but in the most perfect order, and, 
 therefore, claim this battle as a vic- 
 tory; but the French, who name the 
 battle from the Moskwa, have always 
 maintained a similar claim. 
 
 Borough, originally a fortified 
 town. In England, a corporate town 
 or township; a town with a properly 
 organized municipal government. If 
 it sends a representative or representa- 
 tives to Parliament it is a Parliamen- 
 tary borough, if not, it is only a muni- 
 cipal borough. The name is given to 
 the five local divisions of the city of 
 New York. 
 
 Borromean Islands, a group of 
 four small islands on the W. side of 
 Lago Maggiore, Northern Italy. 
 
 Borrow, George Henry, traveler, 
 linguist, and writer on gypsy life, born 
 in Norfolk, England, in 1803. Chief 
 works, " The Bible in Spain," " Laven- 
 jjro." "The Romany Rye." Died 1881. 
 
 Borsippa, a very ancient city of 
 Babylonia, the site of which is marked 
 by the ruins Birs Nimrud. 
 
 Bpscawen, Edward, a British 
 admiral, son of the first Viscount Fal- 
 irouth, born in Cornwall, Aug. 19, 
 1711. His chief exploit was a great 
 victory, in 1759, over the Toulon fleet, 
 near the entrance of the Straits of 
 Gibraltar. He died in Surrey, Jan. 
 10, 1761. 
 
 Bosch Bok, the bush buck, a name 
 given to several South African species 
 of antelope. 
 
 Bosch Vark, the bush hog or 
 bush pig of South Africa, one of the 
 swine family, about 5 feet long, and 
 with very large and strong tusks. The 
 Kaffirs esteem its flesh as a luxury, 
 and its tusks, arranged on a piece of 
 string and tied around the neck, are 
 considered great ornaments. 
 
 Boscobel, a locality in Shropshire, 
 England, remarkable historically as the 
 hiding place of Charles II. for some 
 days after the battle of Worcester, 
 Sept. 3, 1651. At one time he was 
 compelled to conceal himself among 
 the branches of an oak in Boscobel 
 Wood, where, it is related, that he 
 could actually see the men who were 
 in pursuit of him and hear their voices. 
 The royal oak, which now stands at 
 Boscobel, is said to have grown from 
 an acorn of this very tree. 
 
 Bosna-Serai, or Serajeyo, the 
 capital of Bosnia, on the Migliazza, 
 570 miles W, N. W. of Constantinople. 
 It contains a palace, built by Moham- 
 med II., to which the city owes its 
 name. It was formerly surrounded 
 with walls, but its only defense now 
 is a citadel, built on a rocky height at 
 a short distance E. from the town. 
 Bosna-Serai is the chief mart in the 
 province, the center of the commercial 
 relations between Turkey, Dalmatia, 
 Croatia and South Germany, and has, 
 in consequence, a considerable trade, 
 with various manufactures. Pop. 
 (1895) 38,083. 
 
 Bosnia, a former Turkish prov- 
 ince in the N. W. of the Balkan Pen- 
 insula, W. of Servia; with the prov- 
 ince of Herzegovina and the sanjak of 
 Novi-bazar annexed to Austria-Hun- 
 gary in 1908; area (including Herze- 
 govina' and Novi-bazar), 19,702 square 
 miles (of which Bosina Proper occu-
 
 Bosporus 
 
 pies 10,000), with 1,568,092 inhabi- 
 tants, mostly of Slavonian origin, and 
 mainly speaking the Servian language. 
 The principal religions are Moham- 
 medanism, Catholic and Greek. 
 
 Bosnia, in ancient times a part suc- 
 cessively of Illyria, Pannonia and Dal- 
 matia, was, during the great migra- 
 tions occupied by Slavs or Slavonized 
 Illyrians, at first dependent on Hun- 
 gary ; but it became a kingdom in 
 1376, under Tivartko, a native prince. 
 Occupied by the Turks in 1401, it was 
 annexed in 1463, but not recognized 
 by Europe as a Turkish Province till 
 1699. Extortionate taxation caused a 
 rebellion of the Christians, in 1849, 
 suppressed by Omar Pasha ; but a 
 more determined rising in 1875, which 
 the Turks failed to put down, led to 
 the occupation of the Province by the 
 Austro-Hungarians, which the Moslem 
 population opposed in a fierce but un- 
 availing struggle. The Treaty of Ber- 
 lin formally intrusted the administra- 
 tion to Austria-Hungary, the nominal 
 supremacy of the Sultan being recog- 
 nized in 1879. Since 1880 Austrian 
 methods of government have been 
 gradually introduced. 
 
 Bosporus, or Bosphorus, the 
 strait, 19 miles long, joining the Black 
 Sea with the Sea of Marmora, called 
 also the Strait of Constantinople. It 
 is defended by a series of strong forts ; 
 and by agreement of the European 
 powers no ship of war belonging to 
 any nation shall pass the Bosporus 
 without the permission of Turkey. 
 Over this channel (about 3,000 feet 
 wide) Darius constructed a bridge of 
 boats on his Scythian expedition. The 
 Cimmerian Bosporus was the name 
 given by the ancients to the strait that 
 leads from the Black Sea into the Sea 
 of Azov. There was also, anciently, 
 a kingdom of the name of Bosporus, so 
 called from this strait, on both sides 
 of which it was situated. 
 
 Boss, an elevated or thickened por- 
 tion, usually around an aperture, or a 
 swage or stump used in shaping sheet 
 metal. In Gothic architecture it is 
 the protuberance in a vaulted ceiling 
 formed by the junction of the ends of 
 several ribs, and serving to bind them 
 together. 
 
 Boss, Lewis, an American astron- 
 omer, born in Providence, R. I., Oct. 
 26, 1846 ; was graduated at Dartmouth 
 
 Boston 
 
 College, in 1870 ; astronomer of the 
 Northern Boundary Survey for the de- 
 termination of the line between the 
 W. part of the United States and Brit- 
 ish America ; and, since the completion 
 of that work, Director of the Dudley 
 Observatory, Albany, N. Y. He was 
 chief of the United States party sent 
 to Chile in 1882 to observe the transit 
 of Venus ; was elected a member of 
 the National Academy of Science in 
 1889, and an honorary foreign asso- 
 ciate of the Royal Astronomical So- 
 ciety, in 1890. He is best known for 
 his work upon star declinations. 
 
 Bossuet, Jacques Benigne, ill- 
 lustrious French preacher and theo- 
 logian, was born in 1627, died in 1704. 
 In 1652 he was ordained priest, and 
 made a canon of Metz. In 1670 he 
 was appointed preceptor to the Dau- 
 phin, and in 1681 he was raised to the 
 see of Meaux. He drew up the fa- 
 mous propositions adopted by the as- 
 sembly of French clergy, which secur- 
 ed the freedom of the Gallican Church 
 against the aggressions of the Pope. 
 He wcs unrivalled as a pulpit orator, 
 and greatly distinguished for his 
 strength and acumen as a controver- 
 sialist. His life was largely occupied 
 in controverting Protestantism. 
 
 Boston, a city, capital of the State 
 of Massachusetts ; the commercial me- 
 tropolis of New England ; and the 
 fifth city in population in the United 
 States according to the Federal cen- 
 sus of 1900. It is built at the W. end 
 of Massachusetts Bay, and comprises 
 Boston proper, East Boston, South 
 Boston, Roxbury, Dorchester, Charles- 
 town, Brighton, West Roxbury, and 
 adjoining territory, giving it, in 1900, 
 an area of about 40 square miles. Old 
 Boston, or Boston proper, occupied a 
 peninsula of about 700 acres, of un- 
 even surface, and originally contain- 
 ing three hills, known as Beacon, 
 Copp, and Fort. These hills caused 
 the early settlers to call the place Tri- 
 mountain, since changed to Tremont. 
 Boston, East Boston, Charlestown, 
 and South Boston contain the slips of 
 the ocean steamers. Extending about 
 two miles along the harbor and sep- 
 arated from Boston proper by an arm 
 of it, is South Boston, containing 
 large railroad docks and warehouses. 
 Several bridges across Charles river 
 connect the city with Charlestown
 
 Boston 
 
 and Cambridge. The harbor is an in- 
 dentation of Massachusetts bay, em- 
 bracing about 75 square miles, with 
 numerous arms, and containing many 
 islands presenting picturesque views. 
 The population of the city, according 
 to the Federal census of 1890, was 
 448,477; to that of 1900, 560,892; to 
 that of 1910, 670,585. 
 
 Boston is especially noted for its 
 magnificent park system. Among the 
 attractions of the system are the Com- 
 mon, a park of 84 acres in the heart 
 of the city; the Public Garden, sep- 
 arated from it by Charles street, and 
 comprising 22 acres; the Back Bay 
 Fens ; the Jamaica Pond ; Bussey 
 Park ; the Arnold Arboretum ; Marine 
 Park at City Point; and the Charles 
 River Embankment. In the Common 
 is a Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument, 
 erected near the site of the famous 
 Old Elm, which was destroyed in a 
 gale in 1876. In the Public Garden 
 are an equestrian statue of Washing- 
 ton, a bronze statue of Edward Ever- 
 ett, a statue of Charles Sumner, one 
 representing " Venus Rising from the 
 Sea," and a monument commemorat- 
 ing the discovery of ether as an anaes- 
 thetic. 
 
 The State House stands on Beacon 
 Hill, and is a structure 490 feet long, 
 and 211 feet wide, with a colonnade 
 in front and an imposing gilded dome. 
 Statues of Daniel Webster and Horace, 
 Mann ornament the terrace in front 
 of the building, and within it are 
 statues and busts of a number of the 
 eminent men of Boston and Massachu- 
 setts, a collection of battle flags, and 
 a variety of interesting historical arti- 
 cles. The new building of the Public 
 Library, which was occupied in 1895, 
 is, next to the Library of Congress, 
 the largest one in the country, The 
 Old State-house, erected in 1748, at 
 the head of State street, contains an 
 historical museum in its upper floors, 
 and business establishments in its 
 lower. The City Hall, one of the 
 most striking buildings of the city, 
 on School street, is built of white Con- 
 cord granite in the Italian Renaissance 
 Btyle, and is surmounted by a dome 
 over 100 feet high. What is consid- 
 ered the most interesting building, his- 
 torically, in the United States, next 
 to Independence Hall in Philadelphia, 
 is Faneuil Hall, known as " The Cra- 
 
 Bosttm 
 
 die of Liberty " erected in 1742, de- 
 stroyed by fire in 1761, rebuilt in 1768, 
 and remodeled to its present size in 
 1805. The basement of the building 
 is now used as a market, and the sec- 
 ond floor for large public gatherings. 
 Occupying the site of the Old Redoubt 
 on Breed's Hill, in the Charlestown 
 district, is the famous Bunker Hill 
 Monument. In the Charlestown dis- 
 trict also is located the United States 
 Navy Yard, which, among other ob- 
 jects of interest, contains the largest 
 rope walk in the country, and an im- 
 mense dry dock. 
 
 Boston is widely noted for the num- 
 ber and high character of its educa- 
 tional institutions. The institutions 
 for higher education include Boston 
 College (Roman Catholic), opened in 
 1872 ; Massachusetts Institute of Tech- 
 nology (non-sectarian), opened in 
 1865 ; Boston Normal School ; Massa- 
 chusetts Normal Art School ; Kinder- 
 garten Training School, and Training 
 Schools for Nurses at the Almshouse 
 and Hospital, City Hospital, Chil- 
 dren's Hospital, Massachusetts Gen- 
 eral Hospital, Massachusetts Homoeo- 
 pathic Hospital, New England Baptist 
 Hospital, New England Deaconess' 
 Home and Hospital, New England 
 Hospital for Women and Children, St. 
 Elizabeth's Hospital, Somerville Hos- 
 pital, and Women's Charity Club Hos- 
 pital. In the public school system, 
 there were 12 high schools, and of 
 various secondary schools there were 
 12. 
 
 Boston was settled in 1630, by a 
 party of Puritans from Salem. It was 
 named after a town in Lincolnshire, 
 England, from which most of the col- 
 onists had come. In 1632 the first 
 meeting house was erected, and in 
 1635 a public school was built. In 
 the same year the first grand jury in 
 the country met here. A memorable 
 massacre occurred here in 1770, and 
 in 1773 several cargoes of English tea 
 were thrown overboard in the harbor, 
 by citizens exasperated by the impo- 
 sition of taxes. During the early 
 part of the Revolution the British 
 were quartered in the town. The bat- 
 tle of Bunker Hill was fought on 
 Breed's Hill, within the present city 
 limits, June 17, 1775. Washington 
 forced the British to evacuate in 1776; 
 The city charter was granted in 1822,
 
 Boston 
 
 and in 1872 a great fire broke out in 
 the business portion of the city and 
 destroyed about 65 acres of buildings. 
 This part of the city was soon rebuilt, 
 and, since then, Boston has been one 
 of the most prosperous cities in the 
 United States. 
 
 Boston, a seaport in Lincolnshire, 
 England, 107 miles N. E. of London. 
 Its name is a contraction of Botolph's 
 town, and it is commonly supposed to 
 occupy the site of the Benedictine Ab- 
 bey founded on the Witham by St. 
 Botolph in 654, and destroyed in 870 
 by the Danes. Foxe, the martyrolo- 
 gist, and Herbert Ingram, founder of 
 the " Illustrated London News," to 
 whom a statue was erected in 1862, 
 were natives of Boston. The parish 
 church of St. Botolph's is one of the 
 largest without transepts in England. 
 The church was restored in 1843 at a 
 cost of over $50,000. 
 
 Boston College, an educational 
 institution in Boston, Mass. ; founded 
 in 1864 ; under the auspices of the 
 Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 Boston Mountains, a mountain 
 range in Western Arkansas, extending 
 into the Indian Territory ; highest 
 summits, 3,000 feet above the sea. 
 
 Boston Tea Party, The, a fa- 
 mous exploit preceding the American 
 Revolution. In order to make as em- 
 phatic a protest as possible against 
 the British crown's policy of taxing 
 imports, a party of Bostonians, dis- 
 guised as Indians, threw into the 
 water on the night of Dec. 16, 1773, 
 the cargoes of three English tea ships 
 that had just arrived in the harbor. 
 Enraged at this act, Parliament 
 passed (March, 1774) the Boston 
 Port Bill, taking away from that town 
 the privileges of a port of entry from 
 June 1, 1774, on. This bill aroused 
 much indignation in the colonies and 
 was an important factor in precipi- 
 tating the outbreak of hostilities. 
 
 Boston, The, a single screw, steel, 
 protected cruiser of the United States 
 Navy. The " Boston " was with Ad- 
 miral Dewey's fleet and took a promi- 
 nent part in the battle of Manila, 
 May 1, 1898. 
 
 ^ Boston University, a co-educa- 
 tional institution in Boston, Mass. ; 
 organized in 1869 under the auspices 
 of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 
 Botany Bay 
 
 Boswell, James, a Scotch biog- 
 rapher ; the son of Lord Auchinleck; 
 born in Edinburgh, Oct. 29, 1740. In 
 1791 appeared his " Life of Johnson," 
 a work which he had been long pre- 
 paring, and which at once gave read- 
 ers the same delight as it has ever 
 since inspired. A second and enlarged 
 edition came out in 1793. By this 
 time Boswell's health had greatly suf- 
 fered from his too convivial habits, 
 and he died in London May 19, 1795. 
 
 Bosworth, Francke Hunting- 
 ton, physician and author, born at 
 Marietta, Ohio, Jan. 25, 1843, gradu- 
 ate of Yale, and of Bellevue Hospital 
 Medical College, where he became 
 throat specialist. His publications 
 treat mainly of his specialty. 
 
 Botanic Gardens, establishments 
 in which plants from all climates are 
 cultivated for the purpose of illus- 
 trating the science of botany, and also 
 for introducing and diffusing useful or 
 beautiful plants from all parts of the 
 world. Until modern times their sole 
 design was the cultivation of medici- 
 nal plants. In the United States the 
 chief are those of New York, Wash- 
 ington, Philadelphia, and Cambridge. 
 
 Botany, or Phytology, the sci- 
 ence which treats of the vegetable 
 kingdom. It thus forms one of the 
 two great divisions of biology, or the 
 science of organization and life, the 
 other being zoology. During the 19th 
 century, and especially in the latter 
 half of it, enormous progress was made 
 in the study of vegetable anatomy, 
 histology, and physiology, and crypto- 
 gamic botany was carried to great 
 perfection. This was mainly due to 
 the great improvement of the micro- 
 scope, but much of the work done was 
 inspired by the wider conceptions in- 
 troduced into the science by the work 
 of Darwin, Wallace, and other scien- 
 tific evolutionists. 
 
 Botany Bay, a bay of New South 
 Wales, Australia, 5 miles S. of Syd- 
 ney. It was discovered by Captain 
 Cook, on his first voyage, in 1770, and 
 named by him from the great number 
 of new plants found in its vicinity. In 
 1787 it received England's first penal 
 colony in the East ; and, though it was 
 supplanted the very next year by Port 
 Jackson, yet it long continued to be 
 the popular designation, not merely 
 of this penal settlement, but of the
 
 Bot Fly 
 
 Australian convict settlements gener- 
 ally. 
 
 Bot Fly, a stout bodied, hairy fly, 
 with antennae inserted in rounded 
 pits, and with rudimentary mouth 
 parts, developing from thick, spiny 
 maggots, which are parasites in cat- 
 tle, horses, sheep, etc.. The maggots 
 of the horse hot fly hang by their 
 mouth hooks to the walls of the horse's 
 stomach, and cause great annoyance 
 to the animal. 
 
 Botha, Louis, a Boer statesman, 
 born in Greytown, Natal, about 1863. 
 He began life as a farmer, and, as a 
 young man, had a share in the estab- 
 lishment of the Transvaal Republic. 
 Later he fought in the Kaffir cam- 
 paign. He was elected to the Volks- 
 raad at Pretoria. Upon the outbreak 
 of the Boer War with England in 
 1899, he was given a subordinate com- 
 mand, and, upon the death of General 
 Joubert, in March, 1900, he became 
 commander of the T3oer forces. In 
 1910 he became premier of the newly- 
 created South African Union. 
 
 Bothnia, Gulf of, the N. part of 
 the Baltic Sea, which separates Swe- 
 den from Finland ; length about 450 
 miles, breadth 90 to 130, depth from 
 20 to 50 fathoms. Its water is but 
 slightly salt, and it freezes in the win- 
 ter, so as to be crossed by sledges and 
 carriages. 
 
 Both-well, James Hepburn, Earl 
 
 of, known in Scottish history by his 
 marriage to Queen Mary ; born about 
 1526. It is believed that he was 
 deeply concerned in the murder of 
 Darnley, Mary's husband. He made 
 love to the widowed queen, and seiz- 
 ing her at Edinburgh, he carried her a 
 prisoner to Dunbar Castle, and pre- 
 vailed upon her to marry him. Mary 
 was soon a prisoner in Edinburgh, and 
 Bothwell was forced to flee to Den- 
 mark, where he died in 1576. 
 
 Botocndos, the most barbarous of 
 the Indian tribes of Brazil, inhabit- 
 ing the East Coast range, between the 
 Rio Pardo and Rio Doce. They wear 
 pieces of wood in their lower lips and 
 ear lobes. 
 
 Bo Tree, the peepul, or sacred fig 
 tree of India and Ceylon, venerated 
 by the Buddhists and planted near 
 their temples. 
 
 Bottle Nose 
 
 Botrychium, the rattlesnake fern, 
 from its growing in such places as 
 those venomous reptiles frequent. 
 
 Bottesini, Giovanni, an Italian 
 violinist, born in Crema, in Lombar- 
 dy, Dec. 24, 1832. A concert tour, 
 begun in 1840, and extending to the 
 United States, established his fame as 
 the greatest master of the double bass 
 fiddle. He died in Parma, in 1889. 
 
 Bottger, or Bottiger, Johann 
 Friedrich, a German alchemist, the 
 inventor of the celebrated Meissen 
 porcelain, born in Schleiz, Feb. 4, 
 1682. He found refuge in Saxony, 
 where the Elector erected a laboratory 
 for him, and forced him to turn his 
 attention to the manufacture of porce- 
 lain, resulting in the invention asso- 
 ciated with his name. He died in 
 Dresden, March 13, 1719. 
 
 Botticelli, Sandro, (for Alessan- 
 dro), an Italian painter of the Floren- 
 tine school, born in 1447, died 1515. 
 Working at first in the shop of the 
 goldsmith Botticello, from whom he 
 takes his name, he showed such talent 
 that he was removed to the studio of 
 the distinguished painter Fra Lippo 
 Lippi. From this master he took the 
 fire and passion of his style, and 
 added a fine fantasy and delicacy of 
 his own. He paints flowers, especially 
 roses, with incomparable skill. In 
 1481 Botticelli was in charge of the 
 decorations in the new chapel of the 
 Vatican, and painted a number of the 
 portraits of the popes, and three of the 
 large frescoes : Life of Moses, Temp- 
 tation of Christ, and the Punishment 
 of Korah, Dathan and Abiram. He 
 also drew illustrations for Dante's In- 
 ferno. His Madonnas are the best ex- 
 amples of his work, for nowhere else 
 does he show such feeling and energy. 
 The best known of his paintings is the 
 " Primavera " or " Spring " in the 
 Florence Academy of Fine Arts. In 
 his later years Botticelli became an 
 ardent disciple of Savonarola, and is 
 said by Vasari to have neglected his 
 painting for the study of mystical the- 
 ology. 
 
 Bottle Gourd, a gourd called 
 also the white pumpkin. The Hindus 
 cultivated it largely as an article of 
 food. 
 
 Bottle Nose, a cetacean, the bottle 
 nosed whale, very destructive to food
 
 Botts 
 
 fishes, and of comparatively little eco- 
 nomic value itself. 
 
 Botts, John Minor, an American 
 legislator, born in Dumfries, Va., Sept. 
 16, 1802. He studied law and, in 
 1833, entered the Virginia legislature. 
 He was elected to Congress in 1839 
 and was frequently re-elected. Upon 
 the outbreak of the Civil War he as- 
 serted his devotion to the Union, and, 
 in 1862, he suffered imprisonment on 
 that account. After the war he was 
 one of Jefferson Davis' bondsmen ; 
 and attended the Convention of South- 
 ern Loyalists, in Philadelphia. He 
 died in Culpepper, Va., Jan. 7, 1869. 
 
 Boucher, Jonathan, an American 
 loyalist during the period prior to the 
 Revolutionary War. He was born in 
 England in 1738, came to America at 
 the age of 21, and later became rector 
 of William and Mary College in Vir- 
 ginia. With all the force of a vigorous 
 nature he opposed the Revolution with 
 voice and pen, until he was forced to 
 leave the country and return to Eng- 
 land. In a volume of collected dis- 
 courses, which he dedicated to Wash- 
 ington with whom he was on terms of 
 intimate friendship, he sets forth the 
 position of the American loyalists dur- 
 ing the agitation that led up to the 
 Revolution. 
 
 Boncicanlt, Dion, a dramatic 
 author and actor, born in Dublin, Dec. 
 26, 1822 ; educated at London Univer- 
 sity. He produced his first dramatic 
 work, " London Assurance," before he 
 was 19 years old. It was signally suc- 
 cessful, and its success determined his 
 career in life. Once embarked in the 
 profession of a play writer, Boucicault 
 produced piece after piece in rapid 
 succession, and greatly increased the 
 reputation which his first attempt had 
 brought him. Boucicault distinguished 
 himself equally in comedy, farce and 
 melodrama. When he went upon the 
 stage, as he soon did, he added a high 
 reputation as an actor to the reputa- 
 tion he had previously gained as an 
 author. From 1853 to 1860 he was in 
 the United States, where his popular- 
 ity was scarcely less than it had been 
 in England. His chief works include 
 "The Octoroon," "Colleen Bawn," 
 " Arrah-na-Pogue," " Used up," " The 
 Corsican Brothers," "The Shaugraun." 
 Died, New York city, Sept. 18. 1890. 
 
 Bouille 
 
 Boudinot, Elias, a distinguished 
 American patriot and philanthropist, 
 born in Philadelphia, Slay 2, 1740; 
 was President of the Continental Con- 
 gress (1782), and first President of 
 the American Bible Society (1816- 
 1821). He died in Burlington, N. J., 
 Oct. 24, 1821. 
 
 Bougainville, Louis Antoine 
 de, a French navigator, born in Par- 
 is, Nov. 11, 1729. At first a lawyer, 
 he afterward entered the army and 
 fought bravely in Canada, under the 
 Marquis of Montcalm. After the bat- 
 tle in which Montcalm was killed, 
 Bougainville returned to France and 
 served with distinction in the cam- 
 paign of 1761, in Germany. After the 
 peace he entered the navy, and be- 
 came a distinguished naval officer. 
 Bougainville then made a voyage 
 round the world, which enriched ge- 
 ography with a number of new discov- 
 eries. In the American War of In- 
 dependence he distinguished himself 
 at sea, but withdrew from the service 
 after the Revolution. He died in Paris, 
 April 31, 1811. 
 
 Bpughton, George Henry, an 
 English-American landscape and genre 
 painter, born near Norwich, England, 
 in 1834. His parents came to the 
 United States in 1839, and settled in 
 Albany. He studied art without a 
 master, and, in 1853, went to London, 
 and Paris to continue his studies. He 
 died in London, Jan. 19, 1905. 
 
 Bonghton, 'Willis, an American 
 educator, born in Victor, N. Y., April 
 17, 1854. He has won note in the 
 work of university extension. 
 
 Bouguereau, Gnillanme 
 Adolphe, a French painter, born 
 1825. His admirers consider him pre- 
 eminent as a painter of flesh, but there 
 is a certain theatric air about his 
 work that fails to recommend it to the 
 most discriminating. He was president 
 of the Soci&tiS des Artistes in 1885. 
 His paintings always attract atten- 
 tion and are well known through re- 
 productions, his pictures of child-life 
 being especially striking. Among his 
 later works are " Psyche et 1 "Amour," 
 " L' Admiration," and " Compassion," 
 He died April 19, 1905. 
 
 B o u i 1 1 e, Francois Claude, 
 Amour, Marquis de, a French gen- 
 eral, born in Cluzel, Nov. 19, 1739;
 
 Boulaiiivillicrs 
 
 Bounty Juniper 
 
 entered the army at the age of 14 and 
 served with distinction in Germany 
 during the Seven Years' War. In 
 1768 he was appointed governor of the 
 island of Guadeloupe, and afterward 
 commander-in-chief of all the French 
 forces in the West Indies. When war 
 broke out in 1778, he successively took 
 from the British, Dominica, Tobago, 
 St. Eustache, Saba, St. Martin, St. 
 Christopher's, and Nevis. Louis XVI. 
 nominated him a member of the As- 
 sembly of Notables in 1787-1788; in 
 1790 he was made commander-in-chief 
 of the army of the Meuse, the Saar, 
 and the Moselle. His decision of char- 
 acter prevented the dissolution of the 
 army and the outbreak of civil war. 
 For his share in the attempted escape 
 of Louis XVI. he had to flee from 
 France. In 1791 he entered into the 
 service of Gustavus III., of Sweden, 
 and afterward served in the corps of 
 the Prince of Conde. He rejected a 
 proposal, made in 1793, that he should 
 take the chief command in La Vendee ; 
 and went to England, where his advice 
 in West Indian affairs was useful to 
 the government. He died in London, 
 Nov. 14, 1800. 
 
 Boulainvillicrs, Henry, Count, 
 a French author, descended from an 
 ancient family in Picardy, born in St. 
 Saire, Normandy, Oct. 11, 1658; died 
 in Paris, Jan. 23, 1722. 
 
 Bonlanger, Georges Ernest 
 Jean Marie, a French soldier, born 
 in Rennes, April 29, 1837. After a 
 successful career in Algeria and in the 
 East he became Minister of War. In the 
 ministerial crisis of 1887 he lost his 
 portfolio, and was appointed to the 
 command of the 13th Army Corps, but 
 was retired March 28, 1888. In Jan- 
 uary, 1889, he was elected Deputy to 
 the National Assembly by 81,000 ma- 
 jority, in consequence of which the 
 Floquet ministry resigned. In August, 
 1889, he was charged with embezzle- 
 ment, treason and conspiracy, and 
 found guilty by the Senate ; the elec- 
 tions in the 12 cantons were annulled, 
 and he was sentenced to deportation. 
 He died in Brussels, Sept. 30, 1891. 
 
 Boulder, a large, rounded block of 
 stone, which, whether lying loose on 
 the surface of the ground or imbedded 
 in the soil, is of different composition 
 from the rocks adjacent to which it 
 now rests. 
 
 Boulder Formation, a forma- 
 tion consisting of mud, sand, and clay, 
 more frequently unstratified than the 
 reverse, generally studded with frag- 
 ments of rocks, some of them angular, 
 others rounded, with boulders scatter- 
 ed here and there through the mass. 
 
 Boulevard, a French word for- 
 merly applied to the ramparts of a 
 fortified town, but when these were 
 leveled, and the whole planted with 
 trees and laid out as promenades, the 
 name boulevard was still retained. 
 Modern usage applies it also to many 
 streets which are broad and planted 
 with trees. 
 
 Boulogne, or Bonlogne-sur- 
 Mer, a fortified seaport of France, 
 Department of Pas de Calais, at the 
 mouth of the Liaue. It consists of the 
 upper and lower town. The former 
 is surrounded with lofty walls, and has 
 well planted ramparts ; the latter, 
 which is the business part of the town, 
 has straight and well built streets. In 
 the castle, which dates from 1231, 
 Louis Napoleon was imprisoned in 
 1840. Napoleon, after deepening and 
 fortifying the harbor, encamped 180,- 
 000 men here with the intention of in- 
 vading England at a favorable mo- 
 ment ; but, upon the breaking out of 
 hostilities with Austria, in 1805, they 
 were called to other places. Pop. 
 (1901) 49,083. 
 
 Boultpn, Matthew, an English 
 mechanician, born in Birmingham, 
 Sept. 3, 1728. He engaged in busi- 
 ness as a manufacturer of hardware, 
 and invented and brought to great 
 perfection inlaid steel buckles, buttons, 
 watch chains, etc. The introduction of 
 the steam engine at Soho led to a con- 
 nection between Boulton and James 
 Watt, who became partners in trade, 
 in 1769. He died in Soho, Aug. 16, 
 1809. 
 
 Bounty, a grant or benefaction 
 from the Government to those whose 
 services directly or indirectly benefit 
 it, and to whom, therefore, it desires 
 to accord some recompense, or at least 
 recognition. 
 
 Bounty Juniper, a term used 
 during the Civil War in the United 
 States to denote one who enlisted in 
 the United States military service to 
 secure the bounty paid by the Gov- 
 ernment for volunteers, and then de- 
 serted.
 
 Bouquet de la Grye 
 
 Bourke 
 
 Bouquet de la Grye, Jean 
 Jacques Anatole, a French hydro- 
 graphical engineer, born in Thiers, 
 May 20, 1827. He became a member 
 of the Institute ; commander of the 
 Legion of Honor, and a member of 
 the Academy, elected in 1884. A 
 project which he has long urged is to 
 make Paris a seaport by means of a 
 ship-canal up the Seine. 
 
 Bourbon, an ancient French fam- 
 ily which has given three dynasties to 
 Europe, the Bourbons of France, 
 Spain, and Naples. The first of the 
 line known in history is ADHEMAR, 
 who, at the beginning of the 10th cen- 
 tury, was Lord of the Bourbonnais 
 j(now the Department of Allier). The 
 power and possessions of the family 
 increased steadily through a long series 
 of Archambaulds of Bourbon, till, in 
 1272, BEATRIX, daughter of Agnes of 
 Bourbon and John of Burgundy, mar- 
 ried Robert, sixth son of Louis IX. of 
 France, and thus connected the Bour- 
 bons with the royal line of the Ca- 
 pets. Their son, Louis, had the bar- 
 ony converted into a dukedom and be- 
 came the first Due de Bourbon. Two 
 branches took their origin from the 
 two sons of this Louis, Duke of Bour- 
 bon, who died in 1341. The elder line 
 was that of the Dukes of Bourbon, 
 which became extinct at the death of 
 the Constable of Bourbon in 1527, in 
 the assault on the city of Rome. The 
 younger was that of the Counts of La 
 Marche, afterward Counts and Dukes 
 of Vendome. From these descended 
 ANTHONY of Bourbon, Duke of Ven- 
 dome, who, by marriage, acquired the 
 kingdom of Navarre, and whose son, 
 HENRY of Navarre, became Henry IV. 
 of France. 
 
 By the death of the Count of Cham- 
 bord, in 1883, the elder line of the 
 Bourbons of France became extinct, 
 and the right of succession merged in 
 the Count of Paris, grandson of King 
 Louis Philippe, representative of the 
 younger, or Orleans line. 
 
 Bourbon, Charles, Duke of, or 
 Constable of Bourbon, son of Gil- 
 bert, Count of Montpensier, born in 
 1489, and, by his marriage with the 
 heiress of the elder Bourbon line, ac- 
 quired immense estate. He received 
 from Francis I., in the 26th year of 
 his age, the sword of Constable, and 
 in the war in Italy rendered important 
 
 services by the victory of Marignano 
 and the capture of Milan. On May 
 6, 1527, his troops took Rome by 
 storm, and the sacking and plundering 
 continued for months. But the Bour- 
 bon himself was shot as he mounted 
 the breach at the head of his soldiers. 
 He was but 38 years of age. 
 
 Bourbonnais, a village of Illinois 
 in Kankakee county, 55 miles south of 
 Chicago. Noted since 1865 as the seat 
 of the R. C. College of St. Viateur's, 
 and of Notre Dame Academy. 
 
 Bourdalone, Louis, a Jesuit, and 
 one of the greatest preachers France 
 ever produced, was born in 1632. The 
 extreme popularity of his sermons in- 
 duced his superiors to call him to 
 Paris, and he became the favorite 
 preacher of Louis XIV. Died in 1704. 
 
 Bonrdon (named after Mr. Bour- 
 don of Paris, who invented it in 1849), 
 a barometer consisting of an elastic 
 flattened tube of metal bent to a circu- 
 lar form and exhausted of air, so that 
 the ends of the tube separate as the 
 atmospheric pressure is diminished, 
 and approach as it increases. 
 
 Bourgeoisie, a name applied to a 
 certain class in France, in contradis- 
 tinction to the nobility and clergy as 
 well as to the working classes. 
 
 Bonrget, Paul, a French novel- 
 ist, born in Amiens, Sept. 2, 1852. 
 He was admitted to the Academy in 
 1894. He ranks among the first of 
 the present day French novelists. 
 
 Bonrinot, John George, a Ca- 
 nadian publicist, born in Sydney, 
 Nova Scotia, Oct. 24, 1838. He was 
 educated at Trinity College, Toronto; 
 founded and edited the " Halifax Re- 
 porter," became clerk of the Dominion 
 Parliament in 1880 ; was created a 
 member of the Order of St. Michael 
 and St. George in 1890: and in 1892 
 became President of the Royal So- 
 ciety of Canada. Died, Oct. 12, 1902. 
 
 Bourke, John Gregory, an 
 American military officer, born in 
 Philadelphia, Pa., June 23, 1846. He 
 was graduated at West Point in 1869, 
 and saw much service against the In- 
 dians, rising through various grades 
 to the rank of major. He became an 
 expert in American ethnological lore. 
 He was an officer of great courage and 
 ability. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., 
 June 8, 1896.
 
 Bourmont 
 
 Bowditch 
 
 Bourmont. Louise Auguste 
 Victor de Ghaisne, Coiute de, 
 
 Marshal of France, born in Anjou, 
 Sept. 2, 1773 ; died in Anjou, Oct. 27, 
 1846. 
 
 Bourne, Hugh, founder of the 
 sect of Primitive Methodists, born in 
 Staffordshire, England, April 3, 1772. 
 In the course of his life he visited 
 Scotland, Ireland, Canada, and the 
 United States, where his ministrations 
 were attended with great success. He 
 died in Bemersly, Oct. 11, 1852. 
 
 Bourrieune, Fauvelet de, a 
 French diplomatist, born in 1769, 
 and educated along with Bonaparte at 
 the School of Brienne, where a close 
 intimacj sprang up between them. 
 Bourrienne went to Germany to study 
 law and languages, but, returning to 
 Paris in 1792, renewed his friendship 
 with Napoleon, from whom he ob- 
 tained various appointments, and, lat- 
 terly, that of minister plenipotentiary 
 at Hamburg. Notwithstanding that 
 his character suffered from his being 
 involved in several dishonorable mone- 
 tary transactions, he continued to fill 
 high State offices, and, in 1814, was 
 made prefect of police. On the abdi- 
 cation of Napoleon he paid his court 
 to Louis XVIII., and was nominated 
 a Minister of State. The Revolution 
 of July, 1830, and the loss of his 
 wealth affected him so much that he 
 lost his reason, and died in a lunatic 
 asylum in 1834. 
 
 Bourse, an exchange where mer- 
 chants, bankers, etc., meet for the 
 transaction of financial business. Used 
 especially of the Stock Exchange of 
 Paris. 
 
 Bonsna, or Bnssang, a city of 
 Africa, in the Sudan, on the Niger, 
 near which are rapids. It was here 
 that Mungo Park met his death in 
 1805. Pop. est. 12,000 to 18,000. 
 
 Boutelle, Charles Addis on, an 
 American legislator, born in Damar- 
 iscotta, Me., Feb. 9, 1839; served in 
 the navy during the Civil War, enter- 
 ing as an acting master, and being 
 promoted to lieutenant for gallantry 
 in action. In 1870 he became the edi- 
 tor of the Bangor " Whig and Cou- 
 rier," He was elected to Congress in 
 1882, and held his seat till December, 
 1900, when he resigned, and was made 
 a captain on the retired list of the 
 
 navy. He was author of the bill 
 (1890) authorizing the construction 
 of the first modern battleship of the 
 United States Navy. He died in 
 Waverly, Mass., May 21, 1901. 
 
 Boutwell, George Sewell, an 
 American statesman, born in Brook- 
 line, Mass., Jan. 23, 1818; was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1836; served in 
 the state Legislature in 1842-1851; 
 Governor of Massachusetts in 1851- 
 1852 ; was organizer of the Republican 
 Party in 1S54 ; appointed the first 
 commissioner of the newly established 
 Department of Internal Revenue in 
 1862 ; a Representative in Congress in 
 1863-1869 ; one of the managers of the 
 impeachment trial of President John- 
 son; Secretary of the Treasury in 
 1869-1873 ; and a U. S. Senator, 1873- 
 79. He died Feb. 28, 1905. 
 
 Bouvard, Alexis, a Swiss mathe- 
 matician and astronomer, born in 
 1767 ; went to Paris about 1785 to 
 study mathematics and astronomy, 
 and in 1793 obtained a position in the 
 Paris Observatory. He is celebrated 
 for his researches in the theory of 
 planetary motions, especially those of 
 Jupiter and Saturn. Later he took 
 up the theory of Uranus, and was the 
 first to suggest that the discrepancies 
 between the old and new observations 
 could only be reconciled by the hypoth- 
 esis of another undiscovered disturb- 
 ing planet, an opinion which he re- 
 tained till his death, three years be- 
 fore the discovery of Neptune. 
 
 Bovidre, the ox family of ruminat- 
 ing animals, containing not merely 
 the oxen, but many others animals, 
 placed in other families, such as the 
 bison, buffalo, yak, zebu, etc. They 
 are generally of large size, with broad, 
 hairless muzzles ; most of them have 
 been domesticated. 
 
 Bowditch, Henry Ingersoll, an 
 American physician, born in Salem, 
 Mass., Aug. 9, 1808. He discovered 
 the law of soil moisture as a cause of 
 consumption in New England ; intro- 
 duced several new features in surgical 
 treatment, and was author of many 
 general and special works in medical 
 science. He died in Boston, Mass., 
 Jan. 14, 1892. 
 
 Bowditch, Henry Pickering, an 
 American educator, born in Boston, 
 Mass., April 4, 1840; was graduated
 
 Bowdoin 
 
 at Harvard in 1861, and subsequently 
 studied chemistry and medicine, and, 
 after the Civil War, in which he 
 reached the rank of major in the 
 Union service, he took a special course 
 in physiology in France and Germany. 
 iln 1871-1876 he was Assistant Pro- 
 'fessor of Physiology in the Harvard 
 1 Medical School, and in 1876 was 
 elected to the full chair. He is a 
 member of the American Academy of 
 Arts and Sciences, as well as of nu- 
 merous medical societies, and has pub- 
 lished many papers on physiological 
 subjects. 
 
 Bpwdoin, James, an American, 
 patriot, born in Boston, Aug. 8, 1727. 
 He was prominent in Massachusetts 
 during the Revolution. He became 
 governor of his State in 1785, and, in 
 the following year, suppressed Shay's 
 rebellion. Bowdoin College was named 
 after him. He died in Boston, Nov. 6, 
 1790. 
 
 Bowdoin College, a co-education- 
 al institution in Brunswick, Me. ; or- 
 ganized in 1794 under the auspices of 
 the Congregational Church ; but is now 
 non-sectarian. Its several departments 
 have about 400 students, and 40 in- 
 structors. 
 
 Bowen, Henry Chandler, an 
 
 American editor and publisher, born 
 in Woodstock, Conn., Sept. 11, 1813. 
 He received a common school educa- 
 tion and entered business. In 1848 he 
 helped found " The Independent," in 
 New York. He died in Brooklyn, N. 
 Y., Feb. 24, 1896. 
 
 Bowen, Herbert Wolcott, 
 United States Minister to Venezuela, 
 who acquired world-wide repute as a 
 diplomatist by his management in be- 
 half of Venezuela of negotiations with 
 England, Germany, and Italy, which 
 brought to a close the blockade of 
 Venezuela ports by those powers in 
 1902-1903. Mr. Bowen was born in 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., Feb. 29, 1856 ; studied 
 at the Brooklyn Polytechnic, in Europe 
 and at Yale, and was graduated 
 with honor from the Columbia Law 
 School in 1881. He practiced law in 
 New York, and was appointed in 1890 
 Consul and Consul-General to Barce- 
 lona, and afterward Minister to Per- 
 sia. In June, 1901, he was appointed 
 Minister to Venezuela. When the al- 
 lies began war on Venezuela to compel 
 
 Box 
 
 payment of certain claims President 
 Castro requested Mr. Bowen to act in 
 behalf of Venezuela in arranging terms 
 for a settlement. He was a successful 
 diplomat, but in June, 1905, was dis- 
 missed from gov't service owing to 
 injudicious charges against his prede- 
 cessor, Assist. Sec. of State F. B. 
 Loomis. 
 
 Bower Birds, the name given to 
 certain birds found in Australia. The 
 name is given because these birds are 
 in the habit of building bowers as well 
 as nests. 
 
 Bowery, The, a New York street. 
 It begins at Chatham Square and ter- 
 minates at Cooper Union. It was long 
 ! notorious for the resorts located along 
 its length, but its character has under- 
 gone improvement. 
 
 Bowie, James, an American fron- 
 tiersman, born in Burke county, Ga., 
 about 1790. He took part in the re- 
 volt of Texas against Mexico, and fell 
 in the Alamo massacre, March 6, 1836. 
 He gave his name to the bowie knife. 
 
 Bowling, an ancient English game, 
 still exceedingly popular. The favor- 
 ite form in the United States is 
 played indoors, in an " alley " 50-G5 
 feet long and about 6 feet wide. At 
 the further end 10 " pins," generally 
 of ash wood, are set up in the form 
 of a triangle. The players roll wooden 
 balls at these, with the object of 
 knocking down as many as possible 
 at each throw. 
 
 Bowman, Ed-ward Morris, Amer- 
 ican organist and musical theorist, b. 
 Barnard, Vt. in 1848; studied in Ber- 
 lin, Paris, and London, under famous 
 masters ; and was the first American 
 A. R. C. O. of London. In 1877 he pub- 
 lished "Bowman- Weitzmann's Manual 
 of Musical Theory," and soon ranked 
 among America's foremost musical 
 pedagogues, in 1891 succeeding Dr. F. 
 L. Ritter at Vassar. He was organist 
 of the Bapt. Temple. Brooklyn, 1895- 
 1905 ; since, of Calvary Ch., N. Y. C. 
 
 Bowne, Borden Parker, an 
 American philosophical writer, born 
 in Leonardsyille, N. J., Jan. 14, 1847. 
 He was religious editor of the New 
 York " Independent," 1875-1876, be- 
 coming Professor of Philosophy at 
 Boston University in 1876. D. 1910. 
 
 Box, the English name of buxus, 
 a genus of plants. In its wild state
 
 Boxers 
 
 it is a small tree. It is found all 
 over the world in some form of spe- 
 cies. It is an evergreen. 
 
 Boxers, members of a Chinese se- 
 cret society which aims ostensibly at 
 the expulsion of foreigners. The 
 origin of the Boxers appears to have 
 been due to fanatic opposition to 
 Christian missionaries, and to the en- 
 croachments of European powers upon 
 Chinese territory. 
 
 Early in 1900 the native popu- 
 lation in Shantung were found to be 
 rallying around the standard of the 
 Boxers and adopting its motto, " Up- 
 hold the dynasty, drive out the for- 
 eigners." The Diplomatic Corps at 
 Peking called upon the Imperial Gov- 
 ernment to suppress the movement. 
 In May, 1900, they began a 
 concerted movement upon the Chinese 
 capital which, notwithstanding the 
 protests of the Diplomatic Corps, re- 
 mained unchecked. 
 
 The situation had been rendered ad- 
 ditionally threatening by the action of 
 the allies in opening fire upon the forts 
 at Taku. On June 17 the warships 
 of the Powers were in force at that 
 port ; when fired upon by the Chinese 
 they opened a bombardment. The 
 demonstratio before Taku had been 
 'deprecated by the United States com- 
 mander, Admiral Kempff, who did not 
 participate in the bombardment. His 
 warning that hostilities would unite 
 the Chinese against the foreigners was 
 justified by events. 
 
 In June, 1900, Peking was reduced 
 to a state of siege by the Boxers. The 
 position of the foreigners in the capi- 
 tal became precarious. The entire 
 Diplomatic Corps was cut off from 
 communication with the outside world. 
 After capturing Tien-Tsin the forces 
 of the powers advanced on Peking, de- 
 feating the Chinese who opposed them, 
 and rescuing the legations from de- 
 struction. The troops were just in 
 time to save the inmates of the lega- 
 tions, and a large number of native 
 Christians from outrage and massacre. 
 The Chinese court fled from Peking, 
 and after many months of desultory 
 warfare and negotiation China con- 
 sented to pay full indemnity and to 
 punish the officials guilty of inciting 
 the Boxers. The society is still a 
 menace to foreigners. 
 Boxing. See PUGILISM. 
 
 Boycotting 
 
 Box Tortoise, a name given to 
 one or two North American tortoises 
 that can completely shut themselves 
 into their shell. 
 
 Boyaca, a Department of Colom- 
 bia, touching Venezuela. In the W. it 
 is mountainous ; in the E. it has vast 
 prairies, and is watered by the Meta 
 and its tributaries. The Muzo emer- 
 ald mine is the richest in the world, 
 and the Department is rich in salt 
 springs, coal, iron, plumbago, and 
 copper ore. Area, 33,351 square 
 miles; population (est.) (345,000. Capi- 
 tal, Tunja. 
 
 Boyar, Boiar, or Boyard, a 
 name first used by the Bulgarians, 
 Serbs and Russians, subsequently 
 adopted by the Moldavians and Walla- 
 chians, and synonymous with bojarin, 
 used by the Bohemians, Poles, and 
 other Slavic tribes, to qualify the high- 
 est social condition ; corresponding in 
 certain respects to that of an English 
 peer. 
 
 Boycotting, a practice which 
 owes its name to Capt. C. C. Boycott 
 (died June 21, 1897), of Lough Mask 
 House, in Mayo, Ireland, and agent, 
 in 1880, of Lord Erne, an Irish noble- 
 man. The former gentleman having 
 given offense about agrarian matters to 
 the people among whom he lived, dur- 
 ing the land agitation of 1880-1881, 
 no one would gather in his crops. The 
 case being reported in the " Press," 
 about 60 Orangemen, belonging to the 
 North of Ireland, each man carrying 
 a revolver, organized themselves into 
 a " Boycott relief expedition." The 
 Government gave them a strong es- 
 cort of cavalry, besides foot soldiers 
 and constabulary, artillery also being 
 added on the return journey. The 
 crops were gathered in and sent away, 
 and the Captain himself brought off to 
 a region of greater security. The ob- 
 ject of a boycott is to put a person 
 outside the pale of the society, amid 
 which he lives, and on which he de- 
 pends; socially to outlaw him, to re- 
 fuse to sell to, and decline to buy from, 
 him ; to refuse to work for or to em- 
 ploy him. 
 
 In the United States and in England 
 the boycott is made use of by trade 
 unionists as a strike measure. It has 
 in some instances been enjoined by the 
 courts, and in some States laws have 
 been passed against it.
 
 Boyd 
 
 Boyd, Belle, a Confederate spy, 
 born in Martinsburg, W. Va., May 9, 
 1843. She rendered aid to the South- 
 ern cause by detecting the Federal 
 plans of campaign and revealing them 
 to the Confederates. Gen. " Stone- 
 wall " Jackson sent her a letter of 
 thanks. She died at Kilbourn, Wis., 
 June 11, 1900. 
 
 Boyd, Thomas Duckett, an 
 American educator, born in Wythe- 
 ville, Va., Jan. 20, 1854. He was 
 graduated at Louisiana State Univer- 
 sity, and has held important posts in 
 the educational institutions of Louisi- 
 ana. Since 1896 he has been Presi- 
 dent of Louisiana State University. 
 
 Boyden, Sett, an American in- 
 ventor, born in Foxboro, Mass., Nov. 
 17, 1788; was brought up on a farm, 
 and attended a district school. Me- 
 chanically inclined, he spent much 
 time experimenting in a blacksmith 
 shop. His first invention was a ma- 
 chine for making nails, and in 1809 
 he undertook to manufacture both 
 nails and files. Soon afterward he in- 
 vented a machine for splitting leather, 
 and in 1815, he took it to Newark, N. 
 J., where he engaged in the leather 
 business. In 1816 he invented a ma- 
 chine for cutting brads, and followed 
 this by the invention of patent leather, 
 which he manufactured till 1831, when 
 he began making malleable iron cast- 
 ings, on a system of his own. In 1835 
 he turned his attention to steam en- 
 gines ; substituted the straighf axle for 
 the crank in locomotives ; and invented 
 the cut-off now used instead of the 
 throttle valve. In 1849 he went to 
 California, but was unsuccessful, and 
 returned to New Jersey, where he ap- 
 plied himself to farming, and devel- 
 oped a variety of strawberry previous- 
 ly unequaled in size or quality. He 
 died in Middleville, N. J., March 31, 
 1870. 
 
 Boyer, Jean Pierre, President of 
 the Republic of Haiti, was a mulatto, 
 born in Port-au-Prince in 1776. He 
 was educated in France, and, in 1776, 
 entered the military service. He 
 was unanimously elected President of 
 the Republic in 1818. He arranged 
 the financial affairs, collected funds 
 into the treasury, improved the admin- 
 istration, and encouraged arts and sci- 
 ences. After the death of Christophe, 
 lie united the monarchical part of the 
 
 Boyton 
 
 island with the Republic in 1820 ; and, 
 in 1821, the eastern district also, 
 which had hitherto remained under the 
 dominion of Spain ; and he urgently 
 sought the recognition of the inde- 
 pendence of the youthful State by 
 France, which was obtained, in 1825, 
 upon payment of an indemnity of 150,- 
 000,000 francs. Boyer carried on the 
 government of the Republic of Haiti 
 for 15 years from this time with the 
 most perfect peace ; but his policy, 
 which was rather arbitrary, and direct- 
 ed to the object of depressing the ne- 
 groes in favor of his own race,- result- 
 ed in a victorious insurrection in 1843. 
 Boyer fled to Jamaica. In 1848 he 
 went to Paris, and died there, July 9, 
 1850. 
 
 Boyesen, Hjalmar Hjorth, an 
 American novelist, born at Frederiks- 
 varn, Norway. Sept. 23, 1848. He 
 came to the United States in 1869; 
 returned to Europe in 1872 and studied 
 Germanic Philology at Leipsic two 
 years; then, returning to this country, 
 he was Professor of German in Cor- 
 nell University lor six years, and then 
 of Germanic Languages and Litera- 
 ture in Columbia College till his death. 
 He died in New York, Oct. 4, 1895. 
 
 Boy Scouts, a semi-military or- 
 ganization, founded in England in 
 1910 and introduced into the United 
 States the same year. The object is 
 to develop patriotism, discipline, cour- 
 age, and self-control in boys, as well 
 as to put the Golden Rule into daily 
 practice. The unit of the organiza- 
 tion is the " patrol " of from six to 
 eight boys; a "troop" comprises two 
 or more "patrols;" and the "scout 
 master " is the officer in charge of 
 a troop. Lieut.-Gen. Sir Robert Ba- 
 den-Powell was the father of the boy 
 scout movement in England, and 
 Ernest Thompson Seton in the United 
 States. In both countries the idea 
 took at once with boys and found 
 general favor among their elders. In 
 1910 the founder visited New York 
 in its interest. 
 
 Boyton, Paul, an Irish-Ameri- 
 can swimmer, born in Dublin, June 29, 
 1848; served in the United States navy 
 in 1863-1865. He invented a life-pre- 
 serving suit, in which in 1874, he 
 leaped from a vessel off the coast of 
 Ireland, and, after remaining seven 
 hours in the water, reached land safe-
 
 Bozrai 
 
 Bradford 
 
 ly. On May 28, 1875, he crossed the 
 English Channel in this suit, swim- 
 ming across in 24 hours. In 1876 he 
 made the run from the Bayou Goula 
 to New Orleans, La., 100 miles, in 
 24 hours. In May, the same year, 
 he descended the Danube from Linz to 
 Budapest, 4GO miles, in six days. 
 Later he went from Oil City, Pa., to 
 the Gulf of Mexico, 2,342 miles, in 80 
 days, being exposed at first to great 
 cold and later to extreme heat. In 
 November, 1879, he descended the 
 Connecticut river from Canada to 
 Long Island Sound. On Sept. 
 17, 1881, he started from Cedar 
 Creek, Mont., to swim to St. Louis, 
 Mo., and accomplished the long jour- 
 ney, 3,580 miles, Nov. 20. In 1888 he 
 made a voyage down the Ohio river. 
 He published an account of his travels. 
 
 Bozrali, an ancient city of Pales- 
 tine, E. of the Jordan, and about 80 
 miles S. of Damascus. 
 
 Bozzaris, Marcos, a Greek pa- 
 triot, born in 1789. He was a Su- 
 liote, and distinguished himself by his 
 devotion to his country, in defending 
 it against the Turks. He fell in a 
 night attack upon a body of the Turco- 
 Albanian army, who were advancing 
 with the view of taking Missalonghi. 
 which he had successfully defended 
 for a considerable time, Aug. 20, 
 1823. 
 
 Brabant, the central district of 
 the lowlands of Holland and Belgium, 
 extending from the Waal to the 
 sources of the Dyle, and from the 
 Meuse and Limburg plains to the 
 Lower Scheldt. It is divided between 
 the Kingdoms of Holland and Belgium, 
 into three provinces, (1) Dutch or 
 North Brabant, area 1,977 square 
 miles, population 516,670; (2) Bel- 
 
 fian Province of Antwerp, area of 
 ,095 square miles, pop., 713,740 ; and 
 (3) the Belgian Province of South 
 Brabant, area, 1,276 square miles, 
 pop., 1,120,976. 
 
 Brachiopoda, animals with arm- 
 like feet ; one of the great classes into 
 which the mpluscous sub-kingdom of 
 the animal kingdom is divided. 
 
 Bracken, or Brake, a species of 
 fern very common in the United States 
 and Europe generally, and often cov- 
 ering large areas on hillsides and 
 ;waste grounds. 
 
 Braddock, a borough in Alle- 
 
 heny county, Pa.; on the Mononga* 
 
 ela river and the Pennsylvania and 
 
 other railroads; 10 miles S. E. of 
 
 Pittsburg; has extensive iron and 
 
 steel, wire, chain, car, and ice plants. 
 
 and large coal-mining interests. It 
 
 was the scene of Gen. Braddock's 
 
 defeat. Pop. (1910) 19,357. 
 
 Braddock, Edward, a British 
 soldier, born in Perthshire, Scotland, 
 about 1695, entered the Coldstream 
 Guards in 1710, and was appointed 
 Major-General in 1754. Nine months 
 later he sailed as commander against 
 the French in America, and, with a 
 force of nearly 2,000 British and 
 provincial troops, reached the Monon- 
 gahela, on July 8, 1755. On the 9th 
 he pushed forward to invest Fort 
 Duquesne, oil the present site of 
 Pittsburg, Pa. On the right bank of 
 the river he was attacked by a party 
 of 900 French and Indians, and 63 out 
 of 86 officers, and 914 out of 1,373 
 men engaged, were either killed or 
 wounded. Braddock was carried 
 from the field, and died July 13. 
 
 Bradford, city in McKean co., Pa.; 
 on several railroads; 67 miles S. of 
 Buffalo, N. Y.; is in a noted petroleum, 
 natural gas, and coal-mining region; 
 has oil pipe-lines to seaboard; and 
 manufactures machinery, glass, boil- 
 ers, motor-cycles, chemicals, and tanks 
 and well supplies. Pop. (1910) 14,544. 
 
 Bradford, a municipal and par- 
 liamentary borough and important 
 manufacturing town in the W. Riding 
 of Yorkshire, England, the chief seat 
 in England of the spinning and weav- 
 ing of worsted yarn and woolens. 
 Pop. (1901) 280,161. 
 
 Bradford, Joseph, an American 
 journalist and dramatic author, born 
 near Nashville, Tenn., Oct. 24, 1843. 
 His real name was WILLIAM RAN- 
 DOLPH HUNTER. Besides satirical 
 verses he wrote a number of poems 
 which were highly esteemed, especially 
 those on the death of Victor Hugo 
 and of General Grant. He died in 
 Boston, Mass., April 13, 1886. 
 
 Bradford, Royal B., an Ameri- 
 can naval officer, born in Turner, Me., 
 July 22, 1844. He was graduated at 
 the United States Naval Academy in 
 1865, and received promotion through 
 various grades to the rank of Con?--
 
 Bradford 
 
 mander. He has made a specialty of 
 equipment, and since 1897 has been 
 Chief of the Bureau of Equipment at 
 the Navy Department in Washington. 
 
 Bradford, "William, an Ameri- 
 can painter, born in New Bedford, 
 Mass., in 1827. He entered business 
 early in life, but abandoned it for art. 
 His subjects were the ice fields of the 
 North Atlantic. He died in New York 
 city, April 25, 1892. 
 
 Bradford, 'William, an Ameri- 
 can colonial governor and author, born 
 in Austerfield, Yorkshire, England, in 
 March, 1588. He was one of the sign- 
 ers of the celebrated compact on the 
 Mayflower; and, in 1621, on the death 
 of the first governor, John Carver, was 
 elected to the same office, which he 
 continued to fill (with the exception 
 of a brief period when he declined re- 
 election) until his death. His admin- 
 istration was remarkably efficient and 
 successful, especially in dealing with 
 the Indians. He died in Plymouth, 
 Mass., May 9, 1657. 
 
 Bradlee, Nathaniel, an Ameri- 
 can architect, born in Boston in 1829 ; 
 began the study of architecture in 
 1846. He achieved wonderful suc- 
 cess, having been the architect of over 
 500 prominent buildings in the city of 
 Boston. In 1869 he made a national 
 reputation by moving bodily the large 
 brick structure known as the Hotel 
 Pelham to the corner of Tremont and 
 Bpylston streets. The work attracted 
 wide attention, both in this country 
 and in Europe. He subsequently su- 
 perintended the removal of the Boyls- 
 ton Market. He died in 1888. 
 
 Bradley, John Edwin, an Amer- 
 ican educator, born in Lee, Mass. He 
 was graduated at Williams College, in 
 1865. He served as principal of the 
 High School at Pittsfield, Mass., and 
 at Albany, N. Y. In 1892-1900 he 
 was President of the Illinois College. 
 
 Bradley, Joseph Philo, an Amer- 
 ican jurist, born in Berne, N. Y., 
 March 14, 1843 ; was graduated at 
 Rutgers College in 1836; admitted to 
 the bar in 1839; and became a 
 Justice of the United States Supreme 
 Court in 1870. As a member of the 
 Electoral Commission he cast the vote 
 which gave the Presidency to General 
 Hayes, in 1877. He died in Washing- 
 ton, D. C., Jan. 22, 1892. 
 
 Bragg 
 
 Bradstreet, Anne, the earliest 
 American poet, born in Northampton, 
 England, in 1612. She was a daugh- 
 ter of Gov. Thomas Dudley. In 1630 
 she emigrated to America with her 
 husband, Simon Bradstreet, Governor 
 of Massachusetts. Her poems are 
 quaint and literal in style. She died 
 Sept 16, 1672. 
 
 Brady, Cyrus Townsend, author 
 and P. E. clergyman, born in Alle- 
 gheny, Pa., Dec. 20, 1861; graduated 
 1883 at the United States Naval Acad- 
 emy ; and was ordained priest in 1890. 
 His published writings include several 
 volumes of fiction, and semi-historical 
 works. 
 
 Bragg, Braxton, an American 
 military officer ; born in Warren Co., 
 N. C., March 22, 1817; graduated at 
 West Point, in 1837 ; was appointed 
 Second Lieutenant in the 3d Artillery ; 
 served with distinction under General 
 Taylor in the Mexican War ; and re- 
 tired to private life in 1856. At the 
 outbreak of the Civil War, he became 
 a Brigadier-General in the Confeder- 
 ate army, and was stationed at Pensa- 
 cola to act against Fort Pickens. In 
 1862, having been appointed a general 
 of division, with orders to act under 
 Gen. A. S. Johnston, commanding the 
 Army of the Mississippi, he took an 
 important part in the two days' bat- 
 tle of Shiloh. On Johnston's death he 
 was appointed to his command, with 
 the full rank of General, and succeed- 
 ed General Beauregard as commander 
 of the Department, in July of the 
 same year. The last command he re- 
 signed in December, 1863. His chief 
 success was at Chickamauga, in Sep- 
 tember, 1863, when he inflicted a de- 
 feat on the army of General Rose- 
 crans, but was himself, in turn, de- 
 feated by General Grant, which led to 
 his temporary removal from command 
 in January, 1864, and he was appoint- 
 ed military adviser to Jefferson Davis. 
 In 1864, he assumed command of the 
 Department of North Carolina. After 
 the war he was chief engineer of the 
 State of Alabama, and superintended 
 the improvements in Mobile Bay. He 
 died in Galveston, Tex., Sept. 27, 1876. 
 
 Bragg, Edward Gtnyvesant, an 
 American legislator, born in Unadilla, 
 N. Y., Feb. 20, 1827; educated at 
 Geneva, now Hobart, College, and ad- 
 mitted to the bar in New York, in
 
 Bragi 
 
 1848. He removed to Fond du Lac, 
 Wis., served in the Union army during 
 the Civil War, and won his way to 
 the rank of Brigadier-General. He 
 was a member of the Union Conven- 
 tion, at Philadelphia, in 18GG; Repre- 
 sentative in Congress in 1877-1885 ; 
 and a delegate to the Democratic Na- 
 tional Conventions of 1872, 1884, 1892, 
 and 1896. In the Convention of 1884, 
 he seconded the renomination of Gro- 
 ver Cleveland, when he uttered the 
 memorable phrase, " We love him for 
 the enemies he has made." In 1888 
 he was appointed minister to Mexico ; 
 and in June, 1902, became the first 
 United States consul-general in Ha- 
 vana under the new republic of Cuba, 
 retiring the same year on account of 
 a letter which he wrote reflecting on 
 the Cubans. 
 
 Bragi, the Scandinavian god of 
 poetry. He is represented as an old 
 man with a long flowing beard, like 
 Odin ; yet with a serene and unwrin- 
 kled brow. His wife was Idunna. 
 
 Brahe, Tycho, a Swedish astron- 
 omer, born in Knudstrup, near Lund, 
 Dec. 14, 1546. He was descended from 
 a noble family, and was sent, at the 
 age of 13, to the University of Copen- 
 hagen, where he had not been more 
 than a year, when an eclipse of the 
 sun turned his attention to astronomy. 
 His uncle destined him for the law, 
 but Brahe, while his tutor slept, 
 busied himself nightly with the stars. 
 In 1573 he married a peasant girl. 
 After some time spent in travel, Brahe 
 received from his sovereign, Frederic 
 II., the offer of the island of Hven or 
 Hoene, in the Sound, as the site for 
 an observatory, the King also offering 
 to defray the cost of erection, and of 
 the necessary astronomical instrur 
 ments. as well as to provide him with 
 a suitable salary. Brahe accepted 
 the generous proposal, and, in 1576, 
 the foundation stone of the castle of 
 Uraienburg ( " fortress of the heav- 
 ens ") was laid. Here, for a period of 
 20 years, Brahe prosecuted his obser- 
 vations with the most unwearied in- 
 dustry. So long as his munificent pat- 
 ron, Frederick II., lived, Brahe's posi- 
 tion was all that he could have de- 
 sired, but on his death in 1588 it was 
 greatly changed. For some years, un- 
 der Christian IV., Brahe was just tol- 
 erated; but in 1597 his persecution 
 
 Brainard 
 
 had grown so unbearable that he left 
 the country altogether, having been 
 the year before deprived of his ob- 
 servatory and emoluments. After re- 
 siding a short time at Rostock and at 
 Wandsbeck, near Hamburg, he accept- 
 ed an invitation of the Emperor Ru- 
 dolf II. who conferred on him a pen- 
 sion of 3,000 ducats to Benatek, a 
 few miles from Prague, where a new 
 Uranienburg was to have been erected 
 for him ; but he died at Prague on 
 Oct. 24, 1601. 
 
 Brahma, the name of the first of 
 the three gods who constitute the triad 
 of principal Hindu deities. The epi-^ 
 thets applied to this divinity are very 
 numerous. 
 
 Brahman, Brahmin, Bramin, 
 r Brachman, one of the Aryan 
 conquerors of India, who discharged 
 priestly functions, whose ascendency, 
 however, over his fellows was intellec- 
 tual and spiritual, but not yet political 
 or supported by the caste system ; also 
 one of the four leading castes of India. 
 
 Bralinianism, or Brahminism, 
 the system of religious belief and prac- 
 tice introduced and propagated-by the 
 Brahmans. 
 
 Brahmaputra, a large river of 
 Asia, whose sources, not yet explored, 
 are situated near Lake Manasarovara, 
 in Tibet, near those of Indus. 
 
 Brahmo-Somaj, or the Thiestic 
 Church of India, was founded in 1830 
 by an enlightened Brahman, who 
 sought to purify his religion from im- 
 purities and idolatries. 
 
 Brain, the encephalon, or center 
 of the nervous system and the seat of 
 consciousness and volition in man and 
 the higher animals. See ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 Brainard, David Legg, ' an 
 American explorer, born in Herkimer 
 county, N. Y., Dec. 21, 1856. He re- 
 ceived a common school education and 
 enlisted as a private in the United 
 States army in 1876. He rose to dis- 
 tinction in the Greeley Arctic Expedi- 
 tion and was promoted through the 
 various grades to the rank of Colonel. 
 In 1899 he was sent as Chief Com- 
 missary to Manila, Philippine Islands. 
 
 Brainard, John Gardiner Cal- 
 kins, an American poet, born in New 
 London, Conn., Oct. 21, 1796; died in 
 New London, Conn., Sept. 26. 182M,
 
 Braine 
 
 Braiuante d'Urbino 
 
 Braine, Daniel Lawrence, an 
 
 American naval officer, born in New 
 York city. May 18, 1829. He entered 
 the United States navy in 1846 and 
 became a Rear-Admiral. He served 
 with distinction through the Mexican 
 and Civil Wars. In 1873 he obtained 
 the surrender by Spain of 102 sur- 
 vivors of the " Virginius " prisoners. 
 He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Jan. 30, 
 1898. 
 
 HUMAN BRAIN. 
 
 Median Longitudinal Section through 
 Head and Upper Part of Neck, to Show 
 Relation of Brain to Cranium and the 
 Spinal Cord. 
 
 C, cerebrum; cb, cerebellum; sc, spinal 
 cord; spc, spinal column; mo, medulla 
 oblongata passing, through foramen 
 magnum, into the spinal cord; pv, pons 
 Varolii; cp, cerebral peduncles or crura 
 cerebri; cqa, anterior corpora quadrige- 
 mina; cqp, posterior corpora quadrige- 
 mina; pg, pineal gland; pb, pituitary 
 body; cc, corpus collosum, divided trans- 
 versely; /, fornix; mg, marginal gyrus; 
 ? f > gyrus fornicatus; cmg, calloso-mar- 
 ginal suleus; O, occipital lobe; po, 
 parieto-occipital fissure; cf, calcarine fis- 
 sure; dm, dura mater, separating cere- 
 brum from cerebellum. 
 
 Brainerd, David, an American 
 missionary, born at Haddam, Conn., 
 April 20, 1718. He entered Yale Col- 
 lege in 1739, but three years later was 
 expelled for declaring that one of the 
 college tutors had no more of the grace 
 of God than a chair. That same year 
 
 he was licensed to preach, and sent as 
 a missionary to the Indians in Massa- 
 chusetts. He labored afterward among 
 the Indians in Pennsylvania, and with 
 much success in New Jersey, baptizing 
 there no fewer than 77 converts, of 
 whom 38 were adults. He died in 
 Northampton, Mass., Oct. 9, 1747. 
 
 Brain Fever, a term in common 
 use for inflammation of the lining 
 membranes of the brain, meningitis ; 
 or of the brain itself, cerebritis. Brain 
 fever is characterized by violent head- 
 ache, intolerance of light, excitement, 
 extreme sensitiveness, hyperaemia, de- 
 lirium, convulsions, and coma. 
 
 Braintree, a town in Norfolk 
 county, Mass.; on the New York, 
 New Haven Hartford railroad ; 10 
 miles S. of Boston; is noted as the 
 birth-place of many of the Adams 
 family; and is chiefly engaged iu 
 granite quarrying. Pop. (1910) 8,066. 
 
 Brake, a device for regulating or 
 stopping motion by friction. Rail- 
 road air-brakes consist of a cylinder 
 and piston under each car, connected 
 by tubes with a reservoir for com- 
 pressed air, automatically filled by a 
 special engine under control of the 
 engineer. 
 
 Bramah, Joseph, an English in- 
 ventor; born in Yorkshire in 1749; 
 especially known for an ingenious lock, 
 and for the hydraulic press. He died 
 in Pimlico, Dec. 9, 1814. 
 
 Bramante d'Urbino (real name 
 DONATO LAZZARI), an Italian archi- 
 tect, born in 1444. Showing an early 
 taste for drawing, he was brought up 
 to the profession of a painter, but he 
 quitted it to dedicate his talents to 
 architecture, which he cultivated with 
 uncommon success. He first designed 
 and commenced in 1513, the erection 
 of St. Peter's at Rome, carried on and 
 finished by other architects after his 
 death. He was a great favorite with 
 Pope Julius II., who made him super- 
 intendent of his buildings, and, under 
 that pontiff, he formed the magnificent 
 project of connecting the Belvidere 
 Palace with the Vatican by means of 
 two grand galleries carried across a 
 valley. He built many churches, mon- 
 asteries, and palaces at Rome, and in 
 other Ftnlian cities, and was employed 
 by Pope Julius as an engineer to forti- 
 fy Bologna, 1504. Bramante painted 
 portraits with ability, and he was
 
 Brandenburg 
 
 skilled in music and poetry. He died 
 in 1514. 
 
 Brambanan, a district of the 
 Province of Surakarta, Java, rich in 
 remains of Hindu temples, of which 
 there are six groups, with two appar- 
 ently monastic buildings. The edifices 
 are composed entirely of hewn stone, 
 and no mortar has been used in their 
 construction. The largest is a cruci- 
 form temple, surrounded by five con- 
 centric squares, formed by rows of de- 
 tached cells or shrines, embracing an 
 area of 500 feet square. In several of 
 these dagobas the cross-legged figures 
 of Buddha remain but the larger fig- 
 ures which must have occupied the 
 central temples have disappeared from 
 all but one. 
 
 Bramble, or Blackberry, a 
 plant having prickly stems, which 
 somewhat resemble those of the rasp- 
 berry. The flowers do not appear till 
 the summer is considerably advanced, 
 and the fruit ripens toward the end 
 of it, continuing to be produced till 
 the frosts of winter set in. The fruit 
 is too well known to need description. 
 In the United States blackberries are 
 extensively cultivated for their fruit. 
 
 Bramwell, John Milne, a Brit- 
 ish physician and author, born at 
 Perth, New Brunswick, Canada, 1852. 
 He graduated from the University of 
 Edinburgh, and made a specialty of 
 hypnotism, combining with consider- 
 able success the Parisian and Nancy 
 methods of hyponosis. His published 
 writings include " What is Hypno- 
 tism?" 
 
 Bran, the skins or husks of 
 ground maize, wheat, rye, or other 
 grain, separated from the flour. The 
 nutritive value of these husks in- 
 creases as we proceed from the out- 
 side of the grain toward the interior. 
 The outer skin, or coarse bran, is very 
 indigestible, owing to the presence of a 
 layer of silica. 
 
 Branch, that part of a plant which 
 is produced from a lateral leaf bud on 
 the primary axis or stem. It is looked 
 upon as part of the stem, and not as 
 u distinct organ. 
 
 Branchia, the gills of fishes and 
 various other inhabitants of water. 
 They are the apparatus for enabling 
 the animal to extract oxygen from the 
 >vater, instead of being dependent on 
 
 the atmosphere for that life sustain- 
 ing element. 
 
 Branchiopoda, Cuvier's first or- 
 der of the sub-class entomostraca. The 
 genera included under it, such as cy- 
 clops, cypris, apus, limnadia, branchi- 
 pus, etc., are now generally ranked 
 under several orders. 
 
 Branco, Rio, a river of Northern; 
 Brazil, which rises in the Parima 
 Mountains, on the very borders of 
 Venezuela ; and, after a S. course of 
 about 400 miles, joins the Rio Negro, 
 of which it is the principal tributary, 
 on its way to the Amazon. 
 
 Brand, Sir John Henry, a Boer 
 statesman, born in Cape Town, Dec. 
 6, 1823. Queen Victoria knighted him 
 in recognition of his aid. Brandford 
 was named in his honor, and Lady- 
 brand was named in honor of his wife. 
 He died July 15, 1888. 
 
 Brandenburg, a province of 
 Prussia, surrounded mainly by Meck- 
 lenburg and the provinces of Pome- 
 rania, Posen, Silesia, and Prussian 
 Saxony. The soil consists in many 
 parts of barren sands, heaths, and 
 moors ; yet the province produces much 
 grain, as well as fruits, hemp, flax, to- 
 bacco, etc., and supports many sheep. 
 The forests are very extensive. The 
 principal streams are the Elbe, the 
 Oder, the Havel, and the Spree; but 
 the first two merely skirt the territory. 
 Brandenburg carries on an active 
 trade in manufactured articles, and is 
 well situated for commerce, since it 
 has many canals, rivers, good roads, 
 and is intersected by the railways from 
 Berlin to Leipsic, etc. The province 
 of Brandenburg includes, besides some 
 other districts, the greater part of the 
 former mark of Brandenburg, which 
 formed the cradle of the Prussian mon- 
 archy, and the center round which the 
 present extensive kingdom has grown 
 up. It is divided into the three ad- 
 ministrative divisions of Berlin, Pots- 
 dam, and Frankfort, and it has a total 
 area of 15,381 square miles, with a 
 pop. (Dec. 1, 1900) of 3,108,554. Most 
 of the inhabitants are Lutherans ; the 
 rest are chiefly Roman Catholics and 
 Jews. From 1685 to 1688 many 
 French refugees, Walloons, and inhab- 
 itants of Lorraine and of the Palatin- 
 ate, settled in the mark. At present 
 Brandenburg is the most important of 
 the Prussian provinces, including as it
 
 Brandos 
 
 Brass, 
 
 does the capital (Berlin) , and the gov- 
 ernments of Potsdam and Frankfort. 
 
 Brandes, Georg, a Danish liter- 
 ary critic of Jewish family ; born in 
 Copenhagen, Feb. 4, 1842, where he 
 graduated at the university in 1864. 
 Several books on aesthetic and philoso- 
 phic subjects brought on him a charge 
 of skepticism which was not removed 
 by an epoch-making series of lectures, 
 delivered before large audiences. In 
 1882 he returned to Copenhagen, 
 his countrymen having guaranteed 
 him an income of 4,000 crowns, 
 with the one stipulation that he should 
 deliver public lectures on literature. 
 
 Branding, an ancient mode of 
 punishment by inflicting a mark on 
 an offender with a hot iron. It is gen- 
 erally disused under the English civil 
 law, but is a recognized punishment 
 for some military offenses, as deser- 
 tion. It is not, however, now done by 
 a hot iron, but with ink, gunpowder, 
 or some other preparation, so as to be 
 visible, and not liable to be obliterated. 
 The mark is the letter " D," not less 
 than an inch in length, and is marked 
 on the left side two inches below the 
 armpit. 
 
 Brandt, Sebastian, a German 
 author ; born in Strasburg, in 1458 ; 
 studied law and the classics with zeal 
 at Basel, where he received permis- 
 sion to teach ; and soon became -one 
 of the most influential lecturers in 
 that city. The Emperor Maximilian 
 showed his regard for Brandt by ap- 
 pointing him an imperial councilor. 
 His fame rests wholly upon " The 
 Ship of Fools," a satire on the follies 
 and vices of the time (1494). Its 
 distinguishing note is its abounding 
 humor; but it owed its great popular 
 success very largely to the clever 
 woodcuts with which it was illustrat- 
 ed. He died in Strasburg in 1521. 
 
 Brandy, a spirit produced by the 
 distillation of both white and red 
 wines, and largely manufactured in 
 the United States. 
 
 Bramdyorime Creek, in Pennsyl- 
 vania and Delaware, is formed of two 
 forks, the E. and W., which effect a 
 junction in Chester county of the first 
 named State, and, taking a S. E. 
 course, empties into Christiana creek 
 at Wilmington. Here, Sept. 11, 1777, 
 was fought a severe battle between 
 
 the British and German troops, 18,000 
 strong, under Howe, and the Ameri- 
 cans numbering 13,000 men, under 
 Washington. The consequence of this 
 battle was the occupation of Philadel- 
 phia by the British troops. 
 
 Branner, John Casper, geolo- 
 gist, born in New Market, Tenn., 1850, 
 graduated at Cornell University in 
 1874 ; was attached to the Brazilian 
 Imperial Geological Commission 1875- 
 1877, and in 1899 became vice-presi- 
 dent of Leland Stanford University. 
 His geological works are valuable. 
 
 Brant, Joseph, a Mohawk chief, 
 born in Ohio in 1742. He participat- 
 ed in the campaign of 1755, and held 
 the post of secretary to Col. Johnson, 
 superintendent-general of Indian af- 
 fairs. On the outbreak of the Ameri- 
 can Revolution, Brant took an active 
 part in raising an Indian force to op- 
 pose the colonists, and was present at 
 the action of Cherry Valley, and in 
 other engagements. In 1786 he vis- 
 ited England and collected funds for 
 an Anglican Church, the first erected 
 in Canada West. He passed the clos- 
 ing years of his life at Burlington 
 Bay, on Lake Ontario, on an estate 
 granted him by the British Govern- 
 ment. One of Brant's sons command- 
 ed a mixed Canadian and Indian force 
 during the War of 1812. He died in 
 Canada, Nov. 29, 1807. 
 
 Bramtfrd, city and capital of 
 Brant county, Ontario, Canada; on 
 the Grand river and the Grand Trunk 
 and other railroads; 65 miles S. W. 
 of Toronto: contains many beautiful 
 churches, Wickcliffe Hall (Y. M. C. 
 A.), Court-house and county build- 
 ings of white brick, City Hospital, 
 Technical School, and a number of 
 benevolent homes; and manufactures 
 farm implements, brass and iron cast- 
 ings, engines and mill machinery. 
 Pop. (1901) 16,619. 
 
 Brasenose, one of the colleges of 
 Oxford University, founded in 1509. 
 
 Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, 
 of a bright yellow color, hard, ductile, 
 and malleable. The best brass con- 
 sits of two parts by weight of copper 
 to one of zinc. Before zinc was ob- 
 tained in its metallic form brass was 
 manufactured from calamine (native 
 carbonate of zinc) mixed with copper 
 and charcoal. Even now this process
 
 Brasses 
 
 is easier than the direct fusion togeth- 
 er of the two metals. The proportion 
 of copper and zinc vary. 
 
 Brasses, Monumental, large 
 plates of brass, or of the mixed metal 
 called latten or laton, inlaid on slabs 
 of stone, and usually forming part of 
 the pavement of a church. 
 
 Brasscy, Lady Anne, an English 
 descriptive writer born in London, 
 about 1840. After her marriage she 
 spent half of her life at sea, on Lord 
 Brassey's yacht, the "Sunbeam." 
 She died at sea Sept. 14, 1887. 
 
 Brassey, Thomas, an English en- 
 gineer and railroad contractor, born 
 in Baerton, Cheshire, Nov. 7, 1805. 
 After receiving an ordinary education, 
 he was, at the age of 16 years, ap- 
 prenticed to a surveyor, whom he suc- 
 ceeded in business. After building 
 parts of the Grand Junction and the 
 London and Southampton railways, he 
 contracted in 1840, in partnership with 
 another, to build the railway from 
 Paris to Rouen. In a few years he 
 held under contract, in England and 
 France, some 10 railways, involving a 
 capital of $180,000,000, and employ- 
 ing 75,000 men. In partnership with 
 Betts and Peto he undertook the 
 Grand Trunk of Canada, 1.100 miles 
 in length. He died Dec. 8, 1870. His 
 son THOMAS, 1st Lord Brassey, born 
 183G, is an active British statesman. 
 He has written " Work and Wages," 
 *' The British Navy," and other eco- 
 nomical works. 
 
 Brassicaceae, an order of plants 
 more generally called cruciferae (cruci- 
 fers). Among the well known plants 
 ranked under the order may be men- 
 tioned the wall flower, the stock, the 
 watercress and other cresses, the cab- 
 bage, the turnip, etc. 
 
 Bravi, the name formerly given in 
 Italy, and particularly in Venice, to 
 those who were ready to hire them- 
 selves out to perform any desperate 
 undertaking. The word had the same 
 signification in Spain. 
 
 Bravo, Nicholas, a Mexican 
 statesman, born in 1790. He partici- 
 pated in the revolution against Spain 
 (1810-1817), and later aided Iturbide 
 in establishing a republic, tinder 
 Santa Ana he twice acted as Presi- 
 dent. He died in 1854. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Bravura, an air requiring great 
 skill and spirit in its execution, each 
 syllable being divided into several 
 notes. It is distinguished from a sim- 
 ple melody by the introduction of 
 florid passages, a style of both music 
 and execution designed to task the 
 abilities of the artist. 
 
 Braxy, a disease in sheep. Thia 
 term is frequently applied to totally 
 different disorders, but the true braxy 
 is undoubtedly an intestinal affection, 
 attended with diarrluea and retention 
 of the urine. 
 
 Bray, a small English parish, near 
 Maidenhead, Berkshire, of which Si- 
 mon Aleyn was vicar from 1540 to 
 1588, during the reigns of Henry 
 VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Eliza- 
 beth. He kept his vicarage by chang- 
 ing his faith according to that of the 
 State for the time being, becoming a 
 Protestant with Henry, Catholic again 
 in the reign of Mary, and Protestant 
 again on the accession of Elizabeth. 
 His principle was to live and die Vicar 
 of Bray, and to it he adhered. 
 
 Bray, Anna Eliza, an English 
 woman of letters, born in London, 
 Dec. 25, 1790. Her maiden name was 
 Kempe; was married to Charles A. 
 Stothard, son of the famous artist, 
 and, after his death, became the wife 
 of the Rev. Edward A. Bray, Vicar of 
 Tavistock. She died in London, Jan. 
 21, 1883. 
 
 Brazil, now called officially the 
 UNITED STATES OF BRAZIL, a vast re- 
 public in South America, occupying a 
 space nearly equal to one-half of that 
 entire continent. It is of extremely 
 irregular outline and varying dimen- 
 sions ; its greatest diameter being, E. 
 to W., or from Cape Augustin to the 
 Yavari or Jabary river, which sepa- 
 rates it from Peru, 2,630 miles; and, 
 N. to S., from Cape Orange E. of 
 Oyapok bay, to the S. extremity of 
 Lake Mirim, 2,580 miles ; area 3,209,- 
 878 square miles. It is bounded S. E., 
 E., and N. E. by the Atlantic Ocean ; 
 N. by French, Dutch, and English 
 Guiana, and Venezuela; W. and S. 
 W. by Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Para- 
 guay, and the Argentine provinces of 
 Missiones, and by the republic of Uru- 
 guay. Its entire coast-line, from the 
 extreme S. point already mentioned, 
 to the head of the Bay of Oyapok is
 
 Brazil 
 
 upward of 3,700 miles. Throughout 
 this vast extent of coast there are few 
 great indentations, though in some 
 parts smaller harbors and inlets are 
 pretty numerous, many of the former 
 excellent and generally surrounded by 
 flats. 
 
 With the exception of the Rio Fran- 
 cisco and the Parana, all the large 
 rivers of Brazil empty themselves on 
 its N. shores, and nearly all run par- 
 allel courses from S. to N., traversing 
 the vast plains which occupy the cen- 
 ter and N. W. portions of the coun- 
 try, and presenting means of internal 
 communication, unequaled in any oth- 
 er part of the globe. 
 
 Brazil is divided, politically, into 21 
 States (formerly provinces) of which 
 there are at least nine each exceeding 
 Great Britain in superficial extent. It 
 is, however, difficult to obtain the area 
 of the States, and -of the whole coun- 
 try, the existing data being very un- 
 satisfactory and conflicting. The fol- 
 lowing table gives the areas of the 
 States and the population in 1900, as 
 revised by the Brazilian Minister to 
 the United States : 
 
 States. 
 
 Area in 
 sq. Miles. 
 
 Pop. 1900. 
 
 
 22 583 
 
 600,440 
 
 
 732 460 
 
 300,915 
 
 Bahia 
 
 164,649 
 
 2,901,365 
 
 
 40 253 
 
 805 687 
 
 Espirito Santo 
 
 17,312 
 
 250,997 
 
 
 288 546 
 
 227 572 
 
 
 177 566 
 
 530 854 
 
 
 532 708 
 
 250 827 
 
 
 222 160 
 
 4 000 099 
 
 Para 
 
 443 553 
 
 850 455 
 
 
 28 854 
 
 457 232 
 
 
 85 453 
 
 349 491 
 
 
 49 625 
 
 230 224 
 
 Piauhy 
 
 116 218 
 
 267 609 
 
 Rio de Janeiro (city 
 Rio de Janeiro 
 Rio Grande do Norte 
 Rio Grande do Sul.. 
 Sao Paulo 
 
 538 
 26,634 
 22,195 
 91,335 
 112,330 
 
 752,651 
 1,250,884 
 268,273 
 1,197,455 
 2,000,753 
 
 Santa Catharina 
 Sergipe 
 
 27,436 
 7 370 
 
 383,769 
 310 926 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3 209 378 
 
 18 386 815 
 
 
 
 
 In addition to the population given 
 above, it is estimated that there are 
 perhaps 600,000 uncivilized Indians. 
 The most important towns in Brazil 
 are the capital, Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, 
 Pernambuco, Para or Belem, San 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Paulo, Parahyba, Ceara, and Porto 
 Algre. 
 
 In remarkable contrast to the coun- 
 tries on the W. side of the South 
 American continent, Brazil has no 
 mountains of very great elevation. The 
 higher mountains of Brazil, most of 
 them occurring at greater and lesser 
 distances from the E. coast, extend 
 generally in a direction more or less- 
 from S. to N., though numerous in- 
 ferior ranges traverse the country in 
 various other directions. The river 
 system of Brazil is unequaled, per- 
 haps, in any other part of the world 
 for the number and magnitude of the 
 streams of which it is composed, the 
 surface of the whole N. W. portion 
 being interlaced with rivers of every 
 length and volume ; presenting the 
 complex appearance of vessels in the 
 human body, to which the Amazon 
 and its larger tributaries may be said 
 to stand in the relation of main ar- 
 teries. By far the greater portion of 
 these numberless streams have more or 
 less of a N. direction, and finally find 
 their way, either directly or through 
 their principals, to the Amazon. The 
 largest river of Brazil, and the largest, 
 it is believed, in the world, though not 
 the longest, is the Amazon, which en- 
 ters the country from the W., about 
 lat. 4 30' S. ; Ion. 70 W., and after a 
 N. E. course from the point named of 
 about 800 miles, flows into the Atlan- 
 tic near the equator. In order of mag- 
 nitude follow the Rio Negro and Me- 
 deira, both tributaries of the Amazon ; 
 the former flowing from the X. W., 
 the latter from the S. W. The other 
 large rivers in this portion of the 
 country are the Branco, a tributary 
 of the Rio Negro ; the Tapajos and 
 Xingu, other two large tributaries of 
 the Amazon ; the Araguay, Tocantins, 
 Maranhao, and Paranahyba. The 
 next in size is the Rio Francisco, 
 which, after flowing N. for about 800 
 miles, suddenly turns due E., and 
 subsequently S. E., falling into the sea 
 about lat. 11 S. Passing along the 
 coast, S. from the embouchure of the 
 Francisco, the following considerable 
 rivers occur the Vazabarris, Itapi- 
 curu, Paraguassu, Belmonte or Jequit- 
 inhonha, in the State of Bahia : Doce, 
 State of Espirito-Santb ; and the Pa- 
 raiba-do-Sul, the S. boundary of the 
 same State. In this enumeration of
 
 Brazil 
 
 Brazil 
 
 the rivers having their embouchures 
 on the E. coast of Brazil, we have 
 
 omitted an immense number of smaller 
 streams, perhaps not many below a 
 
 hundred. In the interior of the S. 
 portion of the country occur the large 
 
 rivers Uruguay, Yguazu, Paranapan- 
 ema, Tieta, Para, Paraguay, and Pa- 
 rana, with numerous smaller streams 
 smaller in comparison to these, but 
 still large rivers winding in all di- 
 rections through every province. Al- 
 though unrivalled in the number and 
 magnitude of its rivers, Brazil has 
 comparatively few lakes of any great 
 extent. The largest is the Lagoa dos 
 Patos, a lagoon in the State of Rio 
 Grande do Sul, the extreme S. of the 
 Brazilian States ; it is about 150 miles 
 in length, and 35 miles in breadth at 
 the widest part, and is separated from 
 the sea by a narrow strip of land only ; 
 it discharges its water into the ocean 
 t>y a channel called the Rio Grande. 
 Farther N. several smaller lakes oc- 
 cur, the largest of which may be from 
 20 to 30 miles in length. There are 
 hardly any others worth mentioning. 
 
 < The mineral wealth of Brazil is con- 
 siderable, and includes gold, silver, and 
 iron, diamonds, topazes, and other 
 precious stones. Among the earliest 
 discovered and first wrought gold 
 mines were those of Jaragua, but they 
 have long ceased to be regularly 
 worked, the precious metal being found 
 more easily and in greater abundance 
 mingled with the sands and alluvial 
 deposits of rivers. The process of 
 separation, the gold being in small par- 
 ticles, is effected by repeated washings, 
 which are continued till nothing but 
 the pure metal remains at the bottom 
 of the vessel. The entire quantity of 
 gold produced has now greatly fallen 
 off, being hardly a fourth of what it 
 formerly was, owing chiefly to the- 
 auriferous sand having been exhausted. 
 Large quantities of diamonds have 
 been obtained in Brazil. The district 
 from which most stones have been de- 
 rived is Diamantina in Minas Geraes, 
 adjoining the Serra do Espinhaco. The 
 diamonds have been hitherto found in 
 the beds of rivers only, and are washed 
 from the sand and stones with which 
 they are mingled much in the same way 
 as the gold. The largest known Bra- 
 zilian diamond was found in the Rio 
 Bogagens, and weighed 254^ carats. 
 
 The negro who found a diamond 
 weighing 17 carats, used to obtain his 
 liberty, a variety of proportionate re- 
 wards being appointed for those of 
 lesser value. About 20,000 negroes 
 were at one time employed in the dia- 
 mond mines. The government re- 
 ceived one-fifth of the total value of 
 all the gold and diamonds found in 
 the country. Notwithstanding the 
 sounding names of these two items of 
 the mineral wealth of Brazil, neither 
 of them has been nearly so profitable, 
 nor so beneficial to the general inter- 
 ests of the country as the homeliest of 
 its agricultural productions. In the 
 short space of a year and a half the 
 exports of sugar and coffee amounted 
 to more than the value of diamonds 
 found throughout a period of 80 years 
 within the limits of Brazil. 
 
 As almost the whole of Brazil lies 
 S. of the equator, and in a hemisphere 
 where there is a greater proportion of 
 sea than land, its climate is generally 
 more cool and moist than that of coun- 
 tries in corresponding latitudes in the 
 Northern Hemisphere. This is partic- 
 ularly applicable to the flat portions of 
 the country, where impenetrable for- 
 ests occupy the alluvial plains, and, 
 by preventing the sun's rays reaching 
 the earth, cut off one of the principal 
 sources of heat radiation. In the 
 S. parts of Brazil, in consequence of 
 the gradual narrowing of the conti- 
 nent, the climate is of an insular char- 
 acter cool summers and mild win- 
 ters. The quantity of rain that falls 
 in Brazil differs widely in the amount 
 in different localities. The N. States 
 generally are subject to heavy rains 
 and violent storms ; but the S. regions 
 rejoice in a settled, mild, and salu- 
 brious climate. The rainy season 
 commences in October, and usually 
 lasts till March, setting in with heavy 
 thunder-storms. At Rio, where the 
 climate has been much modified by the 
 clearing away of the forests in the 
 neighborhood, the mean temperature of 
 the year is 72; and the rains have 
 been so diminished as to have seriously 
 reduced the supply of water to the 
 city. Generally the climate of Brazil 
 is delightful, diffusing and maintaining 
 a perpetual summer throughout this 
 favored land. In the N. parts the air 
 in the lower tracts is somewhat sultry 
 and oppressive ; but vegetation is vig- 
 orous and profuse, the ground being
 
 Brazil 
 
 covered with flowers, and the trees 
 with a foliage that is ever green ; while 
 the nights are deliciously cool. Near 
 the coast the temperature is modified 
 by the trade wind, which, after tra- 
 versing the Atlantic, fans the shores 
 of Brazil, imparting a refreshing cool- 
 ness to the atmosphere. 
 
 The soil of Brazil, so far as its 
 capabilities have been tested, is highly 
 fertile. Altogether but a comparative- 
 ly small portion has yet been subjected 
 to this test, probably not more than a 
 hundredth part of the surface being 
 under cultivation, and this portion is 
 almost entirely limited to the coast, 
 and to the N. E. part of the country, 
 which seems peculiarly well adapted 
 for the cultivation of maize, sugar, 
 and coffee. The pastures, moreover, 
 are of vast extent, and, as they afford 
 food for immense numbers of horned 
 cattle, they form one of the principal 
 sources of the wealth of the country. 
 Being almost wholly within the limit 
 of the palm region, the vegetation of 
 Brazil is characterized generally by 
 the peculiar physiognomy which tha' 
 beautiful family of vegetables impresses 
 on tropical countries. Of these nearly 
 200 species are known as native to the 
 country. The chief food-supplying 
 plants are sugar, coffee, cacao, rice, 
 maize, wheat, manioc (cassava), 
 beans, bananas, yams, lemons, oranges, 
 figs, etc. the two first, sugar and cof- 
 fee, being the staple products of the 
 republic. The manioc is a native of 
 Brazil, and its farina is almost the 
 only kind of meal used in that coun- 
 try. An acre of manioc is said to 
 yield as much nutriment as six acres 
 of wheat. The Indians find in this 
 beautiful and useful plant a compen- 
 sation for the rice and other cereals 
 of the Old World. But it is in the 
 boundless forests of Brazil that the 
 vigor of the vegetative power is ex- 
 hibited in its most imposing form. 
 Rubber, drugs, dyes, fibers, vegetable 
 ivory, and cabinet woods are all prod- 
 ucts of the Brazilian forests. Among 
 the trees are the andaacu, or Purga da 
 Paulistas, the seeds of which yield a 
 purgative oil ; the cacao or chocolate 
 tree ; the Brazil-wood tree, used, under 
 the name of Pernambuco wood, for 
 dyeing silk of a crimson color ; the 
 rosewood tree, the fustic, mahogany, 
 and a variety of others well adapted 
 
 Brazil 
 
 for various purposes. The beauty, va- 
 riety, and abundance of the flowers of 
 this extraordinary country are no less 
 remarkable than any other of its vege- 
 table productions. 
 
 The principal domestic animals of 
 Brazil are horned cattle and horses ; 
 the numbers of the former are prodigi- 
 ous, covering the boundless plains of 
 the interior. The greatest part of 
 them live in a wild or semi-wild state. 
 Horses are numerous in the S. prov- 
 inces ; they are of a middling size, from 
 12 to 14% hands high, but strong, live- 
 ly, and swift. Mules are reared in the 
 S. States. Sheep are in little repute, 
 the meat being ill flavored and the 
 wool of indifferent quality. Goats 
 and hogs are abundant. The woods 
 of Brazil swarm with wild animals, 
 including the puma, jaguar, sloth, ar- 
 madillo, etc. Wild hogs are also com- 
 mon, as well as an amphibious animal 
 called the water hog or capybara, re- 
 sembling a hog in form, but of the size 
 of a heifer. Monkeys are likewise nu- 
 merous ; and vampire bats are in some 
 localities so destructive as to prevent 
 the rearing of cattle. Among the 
 feathered tribes are, the smallest, the 
 humming-bird, and one of the largest, 
 the rhea or ostrich. There are also 
 parrots in great variety, and a power- 
 ful eagle, the harpy. Water-fowl, es- 
 pecially geese and ducks, abound in 
 certain seasons on the lakes and la- 
 goons at the S. extremity of Brazil. 
 The reptiles consist of the boa constric- 
 tor and other species of serpents, some 
 of them venomous, especially the jar- 
 raraca, which is much dreaded by the 
 natives. When full grown it is usu- 
 ally about six feet long, and is nearly 
 allied to the rattlesnake genus. It 
 prevails over all the S. States. Its 
 bite is attended with great suffering, 
 and with the most serious conse- 
 quences, even where death is averted. 
 In the marshy countries of the S. the 
 boa or python is said to attain a 
 length of over 20 feet. Other im- 
 portant reptiles are several species of 
 alligator and different kinds of turtle, 
 which, on the Amazon in particular, 
 supply abundance of food. The in- 
 sects of Brazil are, many of them, re- 
 markable for the beauty of their col- 
 ors and their size, especially the but- 
 terflies and moths, of which as many 
 as 14,000 species are known. la
 
 Brazil 
 
 some localities insects are so numerous 
 in the woods that their noise is heard 
 in a ship at anchor some distance 
 from the shore. The white ants are 
 especially numerous and destructive. 
 The scorpions of Brazil attain a length 
 of six inches. Most of the bees of the 
 country are stingless, there being no 
 fewer than 30 species of that descrip- 
 tion. The shores and rivers abound 
 with fish. Among the most valuable 
 of those caught on the former is the 
 garopa, which attains a length of from 
 12 to 20 feet, and is well flavored ; 
 they are most numerous on the coast 
 of Bahia, where great quantities are 
 annually taken and exported. The 
 numbers of fish caught in the Amazon 
 and other rivers of the country are 
 very great, constituting a principal 
 part of the subsistence of the inhab- 
 itants. 
 
 In every town schools for teaching 
 the first rudiments are now to be 
 found, to which the children of all 
 citizens are admitted free. There are 
 no universities, but there are govern- 
 ment colleges of law, medicine, etc. In 
 all large towns there are professor- 
 ships of Latin, Greek, English, French, 
 philosophy, rhetoric, geometry, chem- 
 istry, botany, etc. ; and printing 
 presses are now common throughout 
 Brazil. 
 
 The varied population of Brazil con- 
 sists of people of pure Portuguese 
 blood, who form a comparatively small 
 minority of the whole ; of full-blooded 
 negroes, who form the largest unmixed 
 element in the population ; of abor- 
 igines or native Indians; and of .peo- 
 ple of mixed race, the most numerous 
 of all ; besides a certain number of 
 German and other European immi- 
 grants. The Portuguese portion of 
 the population have made Portuguese 
 the national language of the country. 
 The native Indians are copper-colored, 
 robust, well-made, but of short stature. 
 They generally go naked, paint their 
 skins, and are fond of ornament- 
 ing their heads with feathers. A 
 number are nominally Christians. 
 They belong to various tribes of which 
 the chief are the Tupi, Guarani, and 
 the Onagua. In recent years there 
 has been a considerable immigration of 
 European colonists, the majority 
 Italians. Italy enjoys a " favored 
 nation " tariff with Brazil. In Dec., 
 
 Brazil 
 
 1906, it was reported that the German 
 govt. offered exemption from military 
 service to German settlers in Rio 
 Grande. The annual imports of Ger- 
 man iron, steel and hardware were 
 estimated at $20,000,000. Exports 
 comprise coffee (the most valuable 
 product), sugar, rubber, cotton, hides, 
 drugs, gums, and diamonds. There 
 are nearly 14,000 m. of railroad, over 
 29,300 m. of telegraph line and ex- 
 tending telephonic systems. A feature 
 of the telegraphic system is the cable 
 laid on the bed of the Amazon river 
 and giving Para, Manaos and other 
 towns on its banks telegraphic con- 
 nection with the rest of the world. 
 
 There is now no established religion 
 in Brazil, but the Roman Catholic is 
 the one most exclusively prevalent. 
 Until recently the government was 
 monarchial, hereditary, constitutional, 
 and representative. Since the over- 
 throw of the empire in 1889 republican 
 institutions have been established, each 
 of the old provinces being now a 
 State, whose internal affairs are ad- 
 ministered without interference from 
 the central federal government. At 
 the head of affairs is a president, by 
 whom, and the national congress, leg- 
 islation is carried on. The congress 
 consists of a chamber of deputies and 
 a senate, the former elected by direct 
 vote as representative of the different 
 States ; while the senators are chosea 
 by the State legislatures, three for each 
 State for nine years. The executive 
 authority is vested in the president. 
 The public debt is now about $620,- 
 000,000. 
 
 The annual revenue of the republic 
 has latterly amounted to about $50,- 
 000,000, and has been generally ex- 
 ceeded by the expenditure. The army 
 numbers over 28,000 men, including 
 officers; there are also about 20,000 
 gendarmes. Service is obligatory, the 
 period being three years in the active 
 army and three in the reserve. The 
 effective navy is of moderate strength, 
 but constitutes a considerable burden 
 on the finances of the country. 
 
 Brazil was discovered Jan. 26, 1500, 
 by Vincente Yanez Pincon, one of the 
 companions of Columbus, and was sub- 
 sequently taken possession of by Pedro 
 Alvares de Cabral. Emanuel, King of 
 Portugal, had equipped a squadron for 
 a voyage to the East Indies, under the
 
 Brazil 
 
 command of Cabral. The admiral, 
 quitting Lisbon, March 9, 1500, fell in 
 accidentally, April 24, with the conti- 
 nent of South America, which he at 
 first supposed to be a large island on 
 the coast of Africa. In this conjec- 
 ture he was soon undeceived, when the 
 natives came in sight. Having discov- 
 ered a good harbor, he anchored his 
 vessels, and called the bay Puerto Se- 
 guro. On the next day he landed with 
 a body of troops, and having erected 
 the cross, took possession of the coun- 
 try in the name of his sovereign, and 
 called it Terro da Vera Cruz ; but the 
 name was afterward altered by King 
 Emanuel to that of Brazil, from the 
 red wood which the country produces. 
 The value of Brazil to Portugal con- 
 tinued steadily to increase after the 
 discovery of the gold mines in 1G98, 
 and the discovery of the diamond mines 
 in 1728. Up to the year 1810 Brazil 
 had sent to Portugal 14,280 hundred- 
 weights of gold and 2,100 pounds of 
 diamonds, which foreign countries, 
 and especially Great Britain, at last 
 succeeded in purchasing at the Lisbon 
 market. Rio Janeiro now became the 
 mart for the proceeds of the Brazilian 
 mines and native productions. But 
 the administration was anything but 
 adapted to promote the prosperity of 
 the country. The attention of the gov- 
 ernment was turned almost exclusively 
 to the gold washings and to the work- 
 ing of the diamond mines ; and the 
 policy of the administration consisted 
 in the exaction of taxes and duties, 
 which were collected from the fortified 
 ports, to which trade was solely con- 
 fined. Foreigners were excluded or 
 jealously, watched, and trade was par- 
 alyzed' by numerous restrictions. In 
 the interior, the lands situated on the 
 great rivers, after being surveyed, 
 were frequently presented, after the 
 year 1040, by the kings of the house 
 of Braganza. to the younger sons of 
 the Portuguese nobility, whom the sys- 
 tem of entails excluded from the pros- 
 pect of inheritance. These grantees 
 enlisted adventurers, purchased negro 
 slaves by thousands, and subjected the 
 original inhabitants or drove them 
 from their districts, and ruled their 
 dominions with almost unlimited sway. 
 The missions of the Jesuits also re- 
 ceived similar donations from the 
 kings. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 On the invasion of Portugal in 1808 
 by the French, the sovereign of that 
 kingdom, John VI., sailed for Brazil, 
 accompanied by his court and a large 
 body of emigrants. Soon after arriv- 
 ing there he began to improve the con- 
 dition of the country by placing the ad- 
 ministration on a better footing, and 
 throwing open its ports to all nations. 
 On the fall of Bonaparte the king 
 raised Brazil to the rank of a kingdom, 
 and assumed the title of King of Por- 
 tugjal, Algarve, and Brazil. The revo- 
 lution which took place in Portugal in 
 
 1820, compelled the king to return 
 to that country ; he next year sailed 
 for Lisbon, leaving Pedro, his eldest 
 son and successor, as lieutenant and 
 regent. But as the Portuguese Cortes 
 was not willing to grant the entire 
 equality of civil and political relations 
 demanded by the Brazilians, and had 
 expressly declared that Brazil was to 
 be divided into governments, and ruled 
 by the ministry of State at Lisbon, 
 and the prince-regent was to be .re- 
 called to Portugal such violent con- 
 vulsions were excited in Rio Janeiro 
 and various parts of Brazil, December, 
 
 1821, that it was explicitly declared to 
 the prince-regent that his departure 
 would be the signal for establishing an 
 independent republic. The prince> 
 therefore, resolved to remain in Bra- 
 zil, and gave a public explanation of 
 his reasons, Jan. 9, 1822, to his father, 
 to the Cortes in Portugal, and to the 
 people of Brazil. The Portuguese 
 troops were removed from Brazil. The 
 prince-regent assumed, May 13, 1822, 
 the title of " perpetual defender of 
 Brazil," and in June convened a Na- 
 tional Assembly, composed of 100 dep- 
 uties, to frame a separate constitution 
 for the country. The National Assem- 
 bly of Brazil declared the separation 
 of that country from Portugal, Aug. 
 1, 1822, and Oct. 12, appointed Dom 
 Pedro the constitutional Emperor of 
 Brazil. The new emperor retained, at 
 the same time, the title of " perpetual 
 defender of Brazil." 
 
 The king, after some slight and in- 
 effectual attempts to re-establish the 
 former relations between Portugal and 
 Brazil, acknowledged the independence 
 of the latter country in 1825. Some 
 years afterward a series of tumultuary 
 proceedings ended in the abdication of 
 Dom Pedro, who left Brazil on April
 
 Brazilian Grass 
 
 Brazos 
 
 7, 1831, leaving his son, who was un- 
 der age, as his successor. The rights 
 of the latter were recognized and pro- 
 tected, and a regency of three persons 
 appointed by the Chamber of Deputies 
 to conduct the government during his 
 minority. In 1840 the young emperor 
 was declared of age, being then in his 
 15th year, and was crowned on July 
 18, 1841. The new government had 
 considerable difficulty in crushing the 
 republican and revolutionary party, 
 which kept up a series of struggles in 
 several provinces for some years. In 
 1845 the insurgents had all laid down 
 their arms, but in 1848 a new rising 
 took place, which was put down not 
 without difficulty in the following 
 year. In 1851 a war broke out with 
 Rosas, dictator of Buenos Ayres, in 
 which Brazil was joined by Paraguay, 
 Uruguay, Corrientes, and Entre Rios, 
 and which ended in favor of the allies. 
 From this war Brazil received a cer- 
 tain impulse. The trade now in- 
 creased, the finances of the country 
 improved, and the government began 
 to further the development of the 
 country by constructing roads, encour- 
 aging immigration, and fostering the 
 education of the people. In 1853 the 
 Bank of Brazil was founded, and the 
 construction of railways began. In 
 1859 a minister for agriculture, com- 
 merce, and public work was appointed, 
 and a large government loan for the 
 construction of railways was author- 
 ized. In 1863, in consequence of the 
 arrest of three English naval officers, 
 a misunderstanding arose with Eng- 
 land, which led to the termination of 
 diplomatic relations for a time between 
 the two countries. Meanwhile (No- 
 vember, 1864) hostilities had been 
 commenced by the Paraguayans under 
 President Lopez against Brazil, in 
 consequence of the interference of the 
 latter in the affairs of Uruguay ; and 
 in May, 1865, an alliance for the pur- 
 pose of carrying on war against Par- 
 aguay was concluded between Brazil, 
 the Argentine Confederation, and Uru- 
 guay. This war, 'the brunt of which 
 had to be borne by Brazil, lasted till 
 1870, the Paraguayans having main- 
 tained a heroic resistance, and having 
 only given up the contest on the death 
 of their leader, Lopez, in battle against 
 the Brazilians (March 1, 1870). This 
 struggle was attended with an im- 
 
 mense expenditure of men and money 
 to Brazil, but it established her repu- 
 tation as a great power and secured 
 the freedom of the navigation of the 
 La Plata river system. For some 
 years after this a movement toward 
 greater freedom went on in Brazil. In 
 1888 it took the form of a total abol- 
 ition of slavery without compensation, 
 and in 1889 it received further devel- 
 opment in a revolution which over- 
 threw the monarchy. On Nov. 16 a 
 provisional government was formed, 
 the emperor with his family sailed for 
 Europe, and a new constitution pro- 
 claimed the Republic of the Federated 
 United States of Brazil. In 1893-94 
 an insurrection, confined chiefly to the 
 navy, was suppressed after some fight- 
 ing by Pres. Peixoto. lu 1906 the 
 Third International Congress of Amer- 
 ican Republics assembled at Rio de 
 Janeiro, the object being to improve 
 in every way possible the relations 
 between North, Central, and South 
 American republics. Mr. Elihu Root, 
 Secretary of State, headed the delega- 
 tion from the U. S., and discussions 
 of the Monroe and Drago doctrines 
 were features of the Congress. 
 
 Brazilian Grass, an incorrect 
 popular name applied to a substance 
 used in the manufacture of a very 
 cheap kind of hats, known as Brazil- 
 ian grass hats. 
 
 Brazil Nuts, the seeds of a Bra- 
 zilian tree. The nuts or seeds are 
 largely exported from Para, whence 
 they are sometimes called Para nuts. 
 
 Brazil Tea, a tree the mate, 
 the leaves of which are used in South 
 America as a substitute for Chinese or 
 India tea. 
 
 Brazil Wood, a kind of wood 
 used for dyeing, and extensively im- 
 ported from the West Indies, Brazil, 
 and other tropical countries. 
 
 Brazing, the act of soldering to- 
 gether the surfaces of iron, copper, 
 brass, etc., with an alloy composed of 
 brass and zinc, sometimes with the ad- 
 dition of a little tin or silver. 
 
 Brazos, a large river of the United 
 States, in Texas, rising in the N. W. 
 part of the State, and flowing into the 
 Gulf of Mexico, after a course of 900 
 miles, 40 miles W. S. W. of Galves- 
 ton. During the rainy season, from 
 February to May inclusive, it is navi-
 
 Breach 
 
 Breakwater 
 
 gable by steamboats for about 300 
 miles. 
 
 Breach, the aperture or passage 
 made in the wall of any fortified place 
 by the ordnance of the besiegers for 
 the purpose of entering the fortress. 
 
 Breach, in law, any violation of a 
 law, or the non-performance of a duty 
 imposed by law. 
 
 Bread. In the earliest antiquity 
 we find the flour or meal of grain used 
 as food. Bread, as is well known, is 
 made from the flour or meal of the 
 cereals, Indian corn, millet, and rice 
 being principally used for the purpose 
 in the more S. countries, rye, barley, 
 and oats in the more N., and wheat in 
 the intermediate and temperate re- 
 gions ; but other vegetable products, 
 such as beans, peas, lentils, turnips, 
 carrots, potatoes, and even the bark of 
 trees, are also sometimes employed 
 either alone or mixed with the flour 
 of the cereals, 
 
 Breadfruit. The breadfruit is a 
 large, globular fruit of a pale-green 
 
 BBEADFRTTIT. 
 
 color, about the size of a child's head, 
 marked on the surface with irregular 
 nix-sided depressions, and containing a 
 white and somewhat fibrous pulp, 
 which when ripe becomes juicy and 
 yellow. The tree that produces it 
 grows wild in Tahiti and other is- 
 lands of the South Seas. It is about 
 40 feet high, with large and spreading 
 branches, and has large bright green 
 
 E. 23 
 
 leaves, deeply divided into seven or 
 nine spear-shaped lobes. The eatable 
 part of this fruit lies between the skin 
 and the core, and it is as white as 
 snow and somewhat of the consistence 
 of new bread. When gathered it is 
 generally used immediately ; if it be 
 kept more than 24 hours, it becomes 
 hard and choky. The inhabitants of 
 the South Sea Islands prepare it as 
 food by dividing the fruit into three 
 or four parts and roasting it in hot 
 embers. Its taste is insipid, with a 
 slight tartness. 
 
 As the climate of the South Sea Is- 
 lands is not very different from that 
 of the West Indies, it was thought de- 
 sirable that some of the trees should 
 be transferred in a growing state to 
 the British islands there; and it was 
 for this purpose that the " Bounty " 
 sailed in 1787 to the South Seas, un- 
 der the command of the well-known 
 Bligh. This expedition being unsuc- 
 cessful, a second, also under Bligh, 
 was fitted out in 1791. He arrived in 
 safety at Tahiti, and after an ab- 
 sence from England of about 18 
 months, landed in Jamaica with 352 
 breadfruit trees in a living state, hav- 
 ing left many others at different places 
 in his passage thither. From Jamaica 
 these trees were transferred to other 
 islands ; but the negroes, having a 
 general and long-established predilec- 
 tion for the plantain, the breadfruit 
 is not much relished by them. Where, 
 however, it has not been generally 
 introduced as an article of food, it is 
 used as a delicacy ; and whether em- 
 ployed as bread or in the form of pud- 
 ding, it is considered highly palatable 
 by the white inhabitants. 
 
 Breakwater, a pier, wall, mole, 
 sunken hulk, or anything similar, 
 placed at the entrance of a harbor, at 
 the exposed part of an anchorage, or 
 in any such situation, with the view 
 of deadening the force of the waves 
 which roll in from the ocean. There 
 are several notable breakwaters in this 
 country one of the longest and most 
 notable being that in Lake Michigan, 
 protecting the harbor of the city of 
 Chicago. It is peculiar in its con- 
 struction, being built perpendicularly 
 and encased with wooden beams. The 
 Delaware breakwater, in Delaware 
 Bay. is built with sloping sides, being 
 much broader at its base than on top.
 
 Bream 
 
 Breech 
 
 Bream, the carp bream. It is of a 
 yellowish white color, which changes, 
 through age, to a yellowish brown. 
 The sides are golden, the cheeks and 
 gill covers silver white, the fins, light 
 colored, tinged, the ventral one with 
 red and others with brown. It is 
 found in deep waters and lakes. It 
 is sought after by anglers, who, how- 
 ever, consider the flesh insipid. 
 
 Breastwork, in fortification, a 
 hastily constructed parapet made of 
 material at hand, such as earth, logs, 
 rails, timber, and designed to protect 
 troops from the fire of an enemy. In 
 architecture, the parapet of a build- 
 ing. In shipbuilding, a railing or bal- 
 ustrade standing athwartships across 
 a deck, as on the forward end of the 
 quarter deck or roundhouse. The 
 beam supporting it is a breastbeam. 
 
 Breckinridge, Clifton PL, an 
 American legislator and diplomatist, 
 born in Lexington, Ky., Nov. 25, 1846 ; 
 received a public school education and 
 served in the Confederate army and 
 navy. After the war he attended 
 Washington College (now Washing- 
 ton and Lee University) for threa 
 years, and engaged in mercantile busi- 
 ness in Pine Bluff, Ark. He was 
 elected to Congress in 1882 as Repre- 
 sentative-at-large. On July 19, 1894, 
 he was appointed United States Min- 
 ister to Russia, serving until 1897. 
 
 Breckinridge, or Breckenridge, 
 John, an American statesman, born 
 in 1760. In 1795 he was made Attor- 
 ney-General of the new State of Ken- 
 tucky, and he served in its Legislature 
 from 1797 to 1800. He entered the 
 United States Senate, in 1801, becom- 
 ing four years later Attorney-General 
 in Jefferson's cabinet, in which office 
 he died in 1806. 
 
 Breckinridge, John Cab ell, 
 Vice-President of the United States, 
 born near Lexington, Ky., Jan. 21, 
 1821 : practiced law in Lexington un- 
 til 1847, when he was chosen major of 
 a volunteer regiment for the Mexican 
 War. He sat in Congress in 1851- 
 1855, and in 1856 was elected Vice- 
 president, with James Buchanan as 
 President. In 1860 he was the pro- 
 slavery candidate for the presidency, 
 but was defeated by Abraham Lin- 
 coln. A United States Senator from 
 March to December, 1861, he then en- 
 
 tered the Confederate army, was ap- 
 pointed a Major-General, in 1862, and 
 held some important commands during 
 the Civil War. He was Secretary of 
 War in Jefferson Davis' cabinet at the 
 close of the struggle, and escaped to 
 Europe, whence he returned in 1868. 
 He died in Lexington, May 17, 1875. 
 
 Breckinridge, Joseph Cab ell, 
 an American military officer, born in 
 Baltimore, Md., Jan. 14, 1842; a 
 cousin of Gen. John C. Breckenridge 
 of the Confederate army. He prac- 
 ticed law in Danville, Ky., till the be- 
 ginning of the Civil War, when he 
 joined the Union army. He was made 
 a First Lieutenant in the Regular 
 army Aug. 1, 1863, a Captain in 1874, 
 Brigadier and Inspector-General in 
 1889, and Major-General of Volun- 
 teers, May 4, 1898. He served in the 
 Santiago campaign and had a horse 
 shot under him. 
 
 Breckinridge, Robert Jeffer- 
 son, a Presbyterian clergyman and 
 theological writer, born at Cabell's 
 Dale, Ky., March 8, 1800. He was 
 originally a lawyer. He was Presi- 
 dent of Jefferson College in 1845- 
 1847; from 1847 he was pastor at 
 Lexington, Ky. He was a leader in 
 the division of the Presbyterian Church 
 in 1837 into Old and New Schools. 
 He died in Danville, Ky., Dec. 27, 
 1871. 
 
 Breda, a town in Holland, Pro- 
 vince of North Brabant, at the conflu- 
 ence of the Merk and the Aa. Breda 
 was once a strong fortress and of 
 fereat military importance as a strat- 
 egical position. From the 16th to the 
 end of the 18th century Breda has an 
 interesting military history of sieges, 
 assaults and captures, with which the 
 names of the most famous generals of 
 their time, the Duke of Parma, Mau- 
 rice of Orange, the Marquis Spinola, 
 Dumouriez, and Pichegru, etc., are 
 connected. It was the residence for a 
 time of the exiled Charles II. of Eng- 
 land, and it was in the Declaration of 
 Breda that he promised liberty of 
 conscience, a general amnesty, etc., 
 on his restoration. 
 
 Breech, in firearms and ordnance, 
 
 the rear portion of a gun ; the portion 
 
 behind the chamber ; in shipbuilding, 
 
 the outer angle of a knee timber ; tb 
 
 j inner angle is the throat.
 
 Breeches Bible 
 
 Bremen. 
 
 Breeches Bible, a name given to 
 a Bible printed in 1579 ; and so called 
 from the reading of Gen. iii : 7 : 
 " They sowed figge tree leaves together 
 and made themselves breeches." 
 
 Breech Loader, a firearm in 
 wn.ch the charge is introduced at the 
 rear instead of at the muzzle. 
 
 Breech Pin, in firearms, a plug 
 screwed into the rear end of a barrel, 
 forming the bottom of the charge 
 chamber. Otherwise called a breech 
 plug or breech screw. 
 
 Breech Screw, in firearms, the 
 plug which closes the rear end of the 
 bore of a firearm barrel. The parts 
 are known as the plug, the face, the 
 tenon, the tang, and the tangscrew 
 hole. 
 
 Breech Sight, the hinder sight of 
 a gun. In conjunction with the front 
 sight, it serves to aim the gun at an 
 object. 
 
 Breeding, the art of improving 
 races or breeds of domestic animals, 
 or modifying them in certain direc- 
 tions, by continuous attention to their 
 pairing, in conjunction with a similar 
 attention to their feeding and general 
 treatment. 
 
 No sooner had the Revolutionary 
 War closed than importations of im- 
 proved stock began. This was kept 
 up till the War of 1812 temporarily 
 checked it. 
 
 Mr. Rommel says that the year 1817 
 will always be memorable in American 
 cattle history. In that year, follow- 
 ing the short-horn importations of 
 1812, came the beginning of the Devon 
 and Hereford importations, together 
 with still another arrival of short- 
 horns. Growth was slow up to 1827, 
 when there came renewed activity, es- 
 pecially ir short-horns. Companies 
 were formec and the improvement of 
 catue was marked. In point of num- 
 bers the shorthorn breed rapidly as- 
 sumed the foremost position, and till 
 about the year 1880 was the only beef 
 of prominence. 
 
 The expansion of the cattle business 
 was rapid. Up to the opening of the 
 Union Pacific railroad it was mainly 
 carried on in the part of the country 
 E. of the Missouri river. Then came 
 the discovery of the great opportuni- 
 ties offered by the far Western plains 
 for grazing. The growth in tbe cat- 
 
 tle raising industry was then abnor- 
 mal. " In the early eighties," says 
 Mr. Rommel, " pure-bred cattle by the 
 thousands were brought from England 
 to supplement the American herds in. 
 breeding bulls for the range, and the 
 nearest that the Hereford and Angus 
 breeds ever came to having a boom in 
 this country was at this time. After 
 the collapse, which was bound to fol- 
 low, the cattle business is now on 
 what is thought to be a substantial 
 and healthy foundation. 
 
 Breed's Hill, a slight elevation in 
 the Charlestown district of Boston, 
 Mass., about 700 yards from Bunker 
 Hill. Although the famous engage- 
 ment of June 17, 1775, is known as- 
 the Battle of Bunker Hill, most of the 
 fighting was done on Breed's Hill. 
 Here was located the American re- 
 doubt, against which the British made 
 their three historical charges, and here 
 Warren fell. The Bunker Hill monu- 
 ment stands on Breed's Hill. 
 
 Breitenfeld, a village of Saxony, 
 5 miles N. of Leipsic, remarkable for 
 three battles fought in its neighbor- 
 hood. In the first, fought on Sept. 17 
 (old style, 7th), 1631, Gustavus Adol- 
 phus inflicted a decisive defeat upon 
 the imperialists under Tilly, \yho, as 
 well as his generals, Pappenheim and 
 Furstenberg, was wounded. The sec- 
 ond battle was also a victory of the 
 Swedes under Torstenson over the im- 
 perial forces under the Archduke Leo- 
 pold and Piccolomini, Nov. 2 (old 
 style, Oct. 23), 1642. The third bat- 
 tle was one act of the great " Battle 
 of the Nations " at Leipsic, Oct. 16, 
 1813. 
 
 Bremen, a free city of Germany, 
 an independent member of the Empire, 
 one of the three Hanse towns, on the 
 Weser, about 50 miles from its mouth, 
 in its own small territory of 99 square 
 miles, besides which it possesses the 
 port of Bremerhayen, at the mouth of 
 the river. The city is partly on the 
 right, partly on the left, bank of the 
 Weser, the larger portion being on the 
 former. Its situation renders Bremen 
 the emporium for Hanover, Bruns- 
 wick, Hesse, and other countries tra- 
 versed by the Weser, and next to Ham- 
 burg it is the principal seat of the ex- 
 port and import and emigration trade 
 of Germany. Only small vessels can 
 pass up to tbe city itself; the great
 
 Bremer 
 
 bulk of the shipping trade centers in 
 Bremerhaven and in Geestemunde. 
 Bremerhaven is now a place of over 
 20,000 inhabitants, has docks capable 
 of receiving the largest vessels, and is 
 connected by railway with Bremen, 
 where the chief merchants and brokers 
 have their offices. The chief imports 
 are tobacco, raw cotton and cotton 
 goods, wool and woolen goods, rice, 
 coffee, grain, petroleum, etc., which 
 are chiefly re-exported to other parts 
 of Germany and the Continent. The 
 yearly imports, 759,763,471 marks ; 
 the exports, 714,736,005 marks. Pop- 
 ulation of city (1900) 163,418. 
 . Bremer, Fredrika, a Swedish 
 novelist, was born at Tuorla, Finland, 
 Aug. 17, 1801 ; was brought up at 
 Arsta, about 20 miles from Stockholm. 
 She varied her literary labor by long 
 journeys in Italy, England, the United 
 States, Greece, Palestine. She died in 
 Arsta, Dec. 31, 1865. 
 
 Brennus, the name of two individ- 
 uals known in history. (1) The first 
 was the hero of an early Roman leg- 
 end which relates to the migration of 
 the Gauls into Italy and their march 
 to Clusium and Rome. In the account 
 given by Livy, he figures as the Regu- 
 lus Gallorum, or chieftain of the 
 Gauls. When he arrived at Clusium, 
 the inhabitants called on the Romans 
 for aid. He engaged with and de- 
 feated the Romans on the banks of the 
 Allia, the name of which river they 
 ever after held in detestation. The 
 whole city was afterward plundered 
 and burned, and the capitol would 
 have been taken but for the bravery 
 of Manlius. At last, induced by fam- 
 ine and pestilence, the Romans agreed 
 that the Gauls should receive 1,000 
 pounds of gold, on the condition that 
 they would quit Rome and its terri- 
 tory altogether; the barbarian 
 brought false weights, but his fraud 
 was detected. The tribune Sulpicius 
 exclaimed against the injustice of 
 Brennus, who immediately laid his 
 sworn and belt in the scale, and said, 
 " Woe to the vanquished." The dicta- 
 tor, Camillus, arrived with his forces 
 at this critical time, annulled the ca- 
 pitulation, and ordered him to prepare 
 for battle. The Gauls were defeated ; 
 there was a total slaughter, and not 
 a man survived to carry home the 
 news of the defeat. (2) A king of 
 
 Breslan 
 
 the Gauls, who, B. c. 279, made an ir- 
 ruption into Macedonia with a force 
 of 150,000 men and 10,000 horse. Pro- 
 ceeding into Greece, he attempted to 
 plunder the temple at Delphi. He 
 engaged in many battles, lost many 
 thousand men, and himself received 
 many wounds. In despair and morti- 
 fication he killed himself. 
 
 Brent, Charles Henry, an Amer- 
 ican clei'gyman ; born in Newcastle, 
 Ontario, Canada, in 1862 ; was grad- 
 uated at the University of Trinity Col- 
 lege in 1884 ; ordained deacon in the 
 Protestant Episcopal Church in 1886, 
 priest in 1887, and consecrated the 
 first bishop of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church for the Philippine Islands in 
 December, 1901. 
 
 Brent Goose, a wild goose, smaller 
 than the common barnacle goose and 
 of much darker plumage, remarkable 
 for length of wing- and extent of mi- 
 gratory power, being a winter bird of 
 passage in the United States, Can- 
 ada, etc. It breeds in high northern 
 latitudes; it feeds on drifting seaweeds 
 and saline plants, and is considered the 
 most delicate for the table of all the 
 goose tribe. 
 
 Brescia, a city of Lombardy, North 
 Italy. Brescia is a place of consider- 
 able trade and manufacturing indus- 
 try. Near it are large iron-works, 
 and its firearms are esteemed the best 
 that are made in Italy. It has also 
 silk, linen, and paper factories, tan- 
 yards, and oil mills, and is an impor- 
 tant mart for raw silk. But it de- 
 rives its greatest interest from its fine 
 Roman remains, having been at one 
 time the seat of a Roman colony. In 
 1796 it was taken by the French, and 
 was assigned to Austria by the general 
 treaty signed at Vienna on June 9, 
 1815. In 1849 it was involved in the 
 commotions of Continental Europe; 
 its streets were barricaded ; but the 
 city was eventually captured by the 
 Austrians under General Haynau. It 
 was ceded to Sardinia by the treaty 
 of Zurich in 1859. Pop. (1901) 70,- 
 618. 
 
 Breslan, a large city of the Ger- 
 man empire, and the second in the 
 Prussian dominions, being excelled in 
 population only by the capital, Ber- 
 lin ; is the capital of the province of 
 Silesia. It is situated in a spacioua
 
 Brest 
 
 plain at the confluence of the Ohlau 
 and the Oder, the latter dividing it 
 into two main portions, which, with 
 islands in the river, are connected by 
 a large number of bridges. There are 
 electric and other tramways. The 
 public squares and buildings are hand- 
 some. The fortifications which sur- 
 rounded the old or inner city have been 
 converted into promenades, and the 
 ditch into an ornamental sheet of 
 water. Pop. (1900) 422,738. 
 
 Brest, a seaport in the N. W. of 
 France, Department of Finistere. It 
 has one of the best harbors in France, 
 and is the chief station of the French 
 marine, having safe roads capable of 
 containing 500 men-of-war in from 8 
 to 15 fathoms at low water. The en- 
 trance is narrow and rocky, and the 
 coast on both sides is well fortified. 
 The design to make it a naval arsenal 
 originated with Richelieu, and was 
 carried out by Duquesne and Vauban 
 in the reign of Louis XIV., with the 
 result that the town was made almost 
 impregnable. Brest stands on the 
 summit and sides of a projecting ridge, 
 many of the streets being exceedingly 
 steep. Several of the docks have been 
 cut in the solid rock, and a break- 
 water extends far into the roadstead. 
 Pop. (1901) 81,948. 
 
 Bretagne or Brittany, one of the 
 Provinces into which France was di- 
 vided. It now forms the Departments 
 of Finistere, Cotes-du-Nord, Morbihan, 
 and Loire-Inferieure. In ancient 
 times,' under the name of Armorica, it 
 was the central seat of the confeder- 
 ated Armorican tribes, who were of 
 Celtic and Kymric origin. Traces of 
 them still remain in the old Kymric 
 dialect of the three most westerly De- 
 partments, and in the numerous so- 
 called Druidical monuments. The 
 Breton has generally a tinge of melan- 
 choly in his disposition ; but often 
 conceals, under a dull and indifferent 
 exterior, lively imagination and strong 
 feelings. The greater number of the 
 people are found to be ignorant and 
 coarse in their manners, and their ag- 
 riculture is of a very rude character, 
 by no means calculated to develop the 
 natural resources of the country. 
 
 The Duchy of Bretagne was incor- 
 porated with France in 1532, by Fran- 
 cjs I., to whom it had come by mar- 
 riage, and subsequently shared in the 
 
 Brewer 
 
 general fortunes of the kingdom, but 
 retained a local parliament until the 
 outbreak of the Revolution. During 
 the Revolution Bretagne, which was 
 intensely loyal, was the arena of san- 
 guinary conflicts, and especially of th 
 movements of the Chouans, who re- 
 appeared as recently as 1832. The 
 Bretons are also intensely Roman 
 Catholic, and have made violent re- 
 sistance in 1903 to the enforcement of 
 the law closing unauthorized religious 
 establishments. 
 
 Breton, Jules Adolphe, a French 
 painter, born in Courrieres in 1827 ; 
 was educated at St. Omer and at 
 Douai, and trained as a painter under 
 Felix Deyigne at Ghent, and in Droll- 
 ing's atelier at Paris. The subjects of 
 his earlier pictures are taken from the 
 French revolutionary period ; but he 
 soon turned to the scenes from peasant 
 life which he has treated in a most 
 poetic and suggestive manner, with an 
 admirable union of style with real- 
 ism. Breton was also known as a poet 
 and author. Many of his pictures 
 are in this country. He died July 6, 
 1906. 
 
 Brets, Brettys, or Brits, Britons, 
 the name given to the Welsh, or an- 
 cient Britons, in general ; also, to 
 those of Strathclyde, as distinguished 
 from the Scots and Picts. 
 
 Bretten, a town of Baden, Ger- 
 many, the birthplace of Melanchthon, 
 16 miles E. N. E. of Karlsruhe by 
 rail. The house in which the Reform- 
 er was born belongs now to a founda- 
 tion bearing his name for the support 
 of poor students, established in 1861. 
 A monument was erected in 1867. 
 
 Breughel, the name of a celebrated 
 Dutch family of painters, the first of 
 whom adopted this name from a vil- 
 lage not far from Breda. 
 
 Breve, in music, a note or charac- 
 ter of time, equal to two semibreves 
 or whole notes. It was formerly 
 square in shape, but is now oval. It 
 is the longest note in music. 
 
 Brewer, David Josiah, an Ameri- 
 can jurist, born in Smyrna, Asia Mi- 
 nor, June 20, 1837 ; graduated at Yale 
 College, 1856. He studied law in the 
 office of his uncle, David Dudley 
 Field, and was admitted to the bar in 
 New York city hi 1858. Removing to 
 Kansas, he became prominent in hia
 
 Brewer 
 
 profession. He was judge of the Su- 
 preme Court of Kansas, 1870-1881, 
 and was appointed United States 
 Judge for the 8th Circuit in 1884. He 
 rendered a memorable decision on the 
 Kansas Prohibition Law, affirming the 
 right of liquor manufacturers to com- 
 pensation, for which he was severely 
 criticised by the Prohibitionists. Pres- 
 ident Harrison elevated him to the 
 Supreme Court of the United States 
 in 1889. He was made a member of 
 the Venezuelan Commission by Presi- 
 dent Cleveland in 1896, and its chair- 
 man. He died March 28, 1910. 
 
 Brewer, Thomas Mayo, an 
 American ornithologist, born in Bos- 
 ton, Mass., Nov. 21, 1814; died in 
 Boston, Mass., Jan. 23, 1880. 
 
 Brewer, William Henry, an 
 American scientist, born in Poughkeep- 
 sie, N. Y., Sept. 14, 1828. He was 
 
 Graduated at Yale Scientific School in 
 852. He made important government 
 surveys, and after 1864 was Professor 
 of Agriculture at Sheffield Scientific- 
 School (Yale). He died Nov. 2, 1910. 
 Brewing, the operation by which 
 beer is made, including under this term 
 all kinds of liquors produced from 
 grain by fermentation. The name 
 beer, may be given to any drink pro- 
 duced by the fermentation of a fluid 
 consisting of water sweetened with 
 honey, sugar, or molasses ; but, strict- 
 ly speaking, the term should only be 
 applied to beverages prepared, either 
 wholly or partially, from malted grain 
 by fermentation. 
 
 Brewster, Benjamin Harris, an 
 American lawyer, born in Salem Co., 
 N. J., Oct. 13, 1816. He was grad- 
 uated at Princeton in 1834, was ad- 
 mitted to the Philadelphia bar in 1838, 
 and in 1881 became Attorney-General 
 of the United States in President Ar- 
 thur's cabinet, in which capacity he 
 prosecuted the Star Route cases. He 
 died in Philadelphia, Pa., April 4, 
 1888. 
 
 Brewster, Sir David, a Scotch 
 natural philosopher, born in Jedburgh 
 in 1781. His discoveries in reference 
 to the properties of light have led to 
 great improvements in the illumina- 
 tion of lighthouses. He died in Mon- 
 trose, Scotland, Feb. 2, 1868. 
 
 Brewster, William, one of the 
 Massachusetts Pilgrims, born in 
 
 Brice 
 
 Scrooby, England, in 1560. He came 
 of a well known family ; was educated 
 at the University of Cambridge, and 
 was for a time postmaster at Scrooby. 
 He accepted the Separatist doctrines 
 taught by Hooker and others, and, in 
 consequence, had to flee to Holland, 
 where he supported himself by print- 
 ing. He was one of the leaders of 
 those who sailed for the New World 
 in the " Mayflower," and, as elder of 
 the church, encouraged his fellow 
 colonists at Plymouth both by his 
 preaching and his example. He died 
 in Plymouth, Mass., April 10, 1644. 
 
 Brian (surnamed BOROIMHE), 
 King of Ireland, for many years 
 ruled his dominions with vigor and 
 prosperity; but fell in the battle of 
 Cloutarf, on Good Friday, 1014. 
 
 Briand, Aristide, French states- 
 man; born at Nantes, March 281862; 
 became a lawyer and Socialist deputy; 
 Minister of Justice and Public Wor- 
 ship in the Clemenceau Cabinet; ac- 
 quired high reputation for statesman- 
 ship and parliamentary ability by his 
 conduct on the debate on separation 
 of Church and State; became pre- 
 mier in 1909; and handled with 
 firmness the railroad strike of 1910. 
 
 Briareus, a famous giant, son of 
 Ccelus and Terra, who had 100 hands 
 and 50 heads, and was called by men 
 JEgeou, and only by the gods Briareus. 
 
 Bribery, in the United States, the 
 word applied to an attempt to cor- 
 ruptly influence, by means of offers of 
 reward, the course of legislation, the 
 result of an election, the verdict of a 
 jury, the decision of a magistrate, etc. 
 It is not necessary to constitute an in- 
 dictable offence that the bribe be ac- 
 cepted. The tender of the bribe is the 
 essence of the crime. If a bribe be 
 offered a witness to swear falsely the 
 crime is not bribery, but is merged 
 into subordination of perjury. The 
 penalty for bribery is fine or imprison- 
 ment, or both. 
 
 Brice, Calvin Stewart, an Amer- 
 ican capitalist, born in Denmark, O., 
 Sept. 17, 1845; attended Miami Uni- 
 versity, and while there enlisted in a 
 university company in 1861. In 1862 
 he resumed his studies and graduated 
 in 1863. He practiced law in Cincin- 
 nati from 1866 to 1880, when he be- 
 came interested in railroad and various
 
 EAST RIVER SUSPENSION BRIDGE FROM THE NEW YORK END 
 
 QUEBNSBORO CANTILEVER BRIDGE, NEW YORK. TOTAL LENGTH, 3725 FEET; LONGEST SPAN, Il8a FEET 
 
 TYPICAL AMERICAN BRIDGES
 
 Brick 
 
 other financial undertakings. He was 
 presidential elector on the Tilden tick- 
 et in 1876 and the Cleveland ticket in 
 1884, and chairman of the Democratic 
 National Committee in 1888. In 185)0 
 he was elected United States Senator 
 from Ohio, and served on the Appro- 
 priations, Pensions, Pacific Railroad, 
 and Public Buildings and Grounds 
 Committees. Shortly before his death, 
 in New York city, Dec. 15, 1898, he 
 formed a syndicate which secured vast 
 railroad and mining concessions in 
 China. 
 
 Brick, a kind of artificial stone, 
 made of clay, molded in prismatic 
 form, dried in the sun and baked in a 
 kiln. The word is also applied to. the 
 block in its previous condition as a 
 molded plastic mass, and as a dried 
 block in which the water hygrometri- 
 cally combined with the clay is driven 
 off. When this condition is accepted 
 as a finality, the block so dried is an 
 adobe. Bricks were made at a re- 
 mote period of antiquity by the Egyp- 
 tians, the Babylonians, the Assyrians, 
 and some of them, being inscribed with 
 written characters, have been of price- 
 less value in conveying historic facts 
 to the present age. 
 
 In the United States every State 
 and Territory, excepting Alaska, now 
 produces some kind of bricks, and the 
 value of the total annual output is 
 about $100,000,000. The present trade 
 classification is rommon or building, 
 vitrified paving or block, front, enam- 
 eled, fancy and ornamental, aud fire. 
 
 Bridge, the short name of a com- 
 paratively recent and increasingly 
 popular form of the card game of 
 whist. Its rules and points are too 
 numerous to be given here, and the 
 reader is referred to special works. 
 
 Bridge, a structure consisting of 
 an arch or series of arches support- 
 ing a roadway above it, designed to 
 unite two banks of a river or the 
 two sides of an open space. 
 
 The Brooklyn Suspension bridge, 
 across the East river, between New 
 York and Brooklyn, opened in 1883, is 
 built of steel. It has a central span 
 of 1,595^ feet, and two land spans of 
 930 feet each : making, with ap- 
 proaches, a total length of 5,989 feet, 
 or about one mile and one furlong. 
 The anchorage at each end is a solid 
 cubical structure of stone, measuring 
 
 Bridge 
 
 119 feet one way, by 132 feet the 
 other, rising to a height of 90 feet 
 above high water mark, weighing 60,- 
 000 tons each. The towers are 278 
 feet high. The weight of the whole 
 structure suspended between the tow- 
 ers is nearly 7,000 tons. The stress of 
 suspension is borne by four cables of 
 5,296 steel wires each, 15% inches hi 
 diameter. The foundations of the 
 towers were laid by means of caissons 
 and compressed air, at a level of about 
 80 feet below high water mark. The 
 roadway presents five parallel avenues 
 of an average width of 1G feet each. 
 The two outmost avenues, 19 feet 
 wide, are devoted to vehicles ; the cen- 
 tral avenue, 15% feet wide, for foot 
 passengers ; and on the two intermedi- 
 ate avenues are laid railways for car 
 traffic. 
 
 Cantilever Bridges. A cantilever 
 is a bracket. It is a structure over- 
 hung from a fixed base. The bridge 
 across the river Forth on the North 
 British railway system is one of the 
 largest and most magnificent bridges 
 in the world. The site of the bridge 
 is at Queensferry. At this place, the 
 estuary of the Forth is divided by the 
 Island of Inchgarvie into two chan- 
 nels, whose depth, as much as 200 
 feet, precluded the construction of in- 
 termediate piers. Hence, two large 
 spans of 1,700 feet each were adopted. 
 Between these, the central pier is 
 founded on the island midway across, 
 and is known as Inchgarvie pier. 
 There are two other mam piers, shore 
 piers, known respectively as the Fife 
 pier and the Queensferry pier. Of 
 these three piers respectively three 
 double lattice work cantilevers like 
 scalebeams, 1,360 feet, or a quarter of 
 a mile in length, are poised in line, 
 reaching toward each other, and con- 
 nected at their extremities by ordi- 
 nary girders 350 feet long, by which 
 the two main spans are completed. 
 The bridge consists of two main spans 
 of 1,700 feet, or nearly one-third of a 
 mile each ; two of 675 feet each, being 
 the shore ends of the outer cantilev- 
 ers ; and 15 spans of 168 feet each. 
 The total length of the -viaduct, in- 
 cluding piers, is 8,296 feet or a little 
 over 1% miles, of which almost exact- 
 ly one mile is covered by the great 
 cantilevers. The clear headway under 
 the center of the bridge is 152 feet at
 
 Bridge 
 
 high water, and the highest part of the 
 bridge is 361 feet above the same level. 
 
 There are several of these bridges 
 in the United States, the first of any 
 size being the Niagara cantilever, 
 built in 1883. Its total length is 910 
 feet, and it is 295 feet above the sur- 
 face of the river, with steel towers 130 
 feet high. The Hudson river bridge 
 at Poughkeepsie, built in 1889, has a 
 length of 6,767 feet and is built in five 
 spans; the first, third and fifth being 
 true cantilever spans with fixed con- 
 tinuous spans connecting them. 
 
 The new East River bridge is also 
 a late example of the suspension 
 bridge. The new Blackwell's Island 
 bridge is an example of the cantilever. 
 There are four channel piers, 85 by 45 
 feet at the base, and 135 feet above 
 high tide. These piers contain 810,- 
 000 cubic feet of granite. The bridge 
 is 2 miles in length, with two channel 
 spans of 846 feet each, and a span 
 across Blackwell's Island of 613 feet. 
 The distance from the floor of the 
 bridge to the top of the girders form- 
 ing the span is 100 feet, making the 
 top of the structure 235 feet above 
 high tide. Other notable cantilever 
 bridges are those across the Colorado 
 river at Red Rock, Cal., and across 
 the Mississippi river at Memphis, 
 Tenn. 
 
 Bridges in the shape of arches are 
 often built in places where a more 
 artistic structure than a truss is de- 
 sired. The High Bridge and Washing- 
 ton Bridge across the Harlem river in 
 New York city are examples of this 
 style of bridge. The High Bridge was 
 built to carry the Croton Aqueduct 
 across the Harlem river. It consists 
 of 13 granite arches, the highest one 
 being 116 feet above the river. The 
 bridge, crossing the river and valley, 
 is 1,460 feet long. The Washington 
 Bridge is situated a short distance N. 
 of the High Bridge and consists of 
 nine arches, three of granite on the E. 
 side, four of granite on the W. and 
 two central steel spans connecting 
 them. The entire length of the bridge 
 is 2,300 feet, and width, 80 feet; the 
 central spans being each 510 feet long 
 and 135 feet above high water. An- 
 other noted bridge built 1906-07 is 
 the suspension span, 230 ft. long, 
 across the Grand Cafion Gorge, 2,627 
 ft. above the Arkansas River between 
 
 Bridgeton 
 
 Florence and Canon City, Col. The 
 floor is glass set in steel, to allow the 
 view beneath. 
 
 One of the best examples of Amer- 
 ican long-span iron-bridge construc- 
 tion is the bridge across the Kentucky 
 river on the Cincinnati Southern rail- 
 road, noteworthy for its economical 
 design and comparatively light weight. 
 The iron work of the bridge is 1,138 
 feet in length, and it consists of three 
 spans of 375 feet each. It crosses a 
 limestone canon at a height of 280 
 feet above the bed of the stream. The 
 piers are of stone to a height of 60 
 feet, to clear the highest recorded 
 floods ; and they are about 34 feet 
 thick at the flood level. Above the 
 stonework the piers are of iron. 
 
 The iron lattice bridge, so called 
 from having sides constructed with 
 cross bars, like lattice work, is the 
 natural outcome of the tubular bridge 
 for long spans, developing equal 
 strength with considerable economy of 
 material and labor. Lattice girders 
 are now almost universally adopted 
 for iron bridges for long spans. 
 
 Of the rock formations called nat- 
 ural bridges, the most remarkable is 
 the natural bridge over Cedar Creek, 
 in Virginia, 125 miles W. of Rich- 
 mond. The mass of siliceous lime- 
 stone through which the little river 
 passes is presumably all that remains 
 of a once extensive stratum. The 
 cavern or arch is 200 feet high and 60 
 feet wide. The solid rock walls are 
 nearly perpendicular, and the crown 
 of the arch is 40 feet thick. 
 
 Bridge, Sir Frederick, an Eng- 
 lish organist and composer, born in 
 Oldbury, Worcestershire, Dec. 5, 1844 ; 
 was organist of Trinity Church, Wind- 
 sor, Manchester Cathedral, and, since 
 1875, full organist of Westminster 
 Abbey. 
 
 Bridgeport, Conn., a city and port 
 of entry, at the mouth of the Pequon- 
 nock, on an inlet of Long Island 
 Sound, 58 miles N. E. of New York. 
 It has fine buildings, and statues to 
 Elias Howe and P. T. Barnum, prom- 
 inent citizens. Its main importance 
 is due to its large sewing machine, 
 cartridge, and other factories. A 
 large coasting trade also is carried on. 
 Pop. (1910) 102,054. 
 
 Bridgeton, a city, port of entry, 
 summer resort, and capital of Cum-
 
 Bridgewater 
 
 berland county, N. J.; on the navi- 
 gable Cohansey creek and several 
 railroad, 38 miles S. of Philadelphia. 
 It is the trade center of an extensive 
 farming section, has large fruit and 
 vegetable canning interests, and 
 manufactures foundry and rolling- 
 mill products, glass, nails, woolen 
 goods, machinery, and carriages. 
 Pop. (1910) 14,209. 
 
 Bridgewater, Francis Egertoa, 
 third Duke of, the "Father of In- 
 land Navigation in Great Britain," 
 born in 17i>6. For the purpose of con- 
 necting the cities of Liverpool and 
 Manchester, he completed a navigable 
 canal, with the assistance of the cele- 
 brated engineer, Brindley, in 17G1. 
 He afterward prompted the Grand 
 Trunk Canal navigation. He became 
 ultimately the possessor of immense 
 wealth, realized from the results of 
 his life's labors. He died in London, 
 March 3, 1803. 
 
 Bridgman, Frederic Arthur, an 
 American artist, born in Tuskegee, 
 Ala., Nov. 10, 1847. He studied at 
 the Brooklyn Art School and National 
 Academy of Design, and was a pupil 
 of J. L. Gerome, and at the Ecole des 
 Beaux Arts. He has since 1871 had 
 a studio in Paris. He is noted for 
 figure pieces and Oriental and archaeo- 
 logical pictures. 
 
 Bridgman, Laura, an American 
 blind mute, born in Hanover, N. H., 
 Dec. 21, 1829. At two years of age 
 both sight and hearing were entirely 
 destroyed by fever. In 1839 Dr. Howe, 
 of Boston, undertook her care and edu- 
 cation at the deaf and dumb school. 
 The first attempt was to give her a 
 knowledge of arbitrary signs, by which 
 che could interchange thoughts with 
 others. Then she learned to read em- 
 bossed letters by touch ; next, em- 
 bossed words were attached to differ- 
 ent articles, and she learned to asso- 
 ciate each word with its corresponding 
 object. Her touch grew in accuracy 
 as its power increased ; she learned to 
 know people almost instantly by the 
 touch alone. In a year or two more 
 ehe was able to receive lessons in 
 geography, algebra, and history. She 
 learned to write a fair, legible, square 
 hand, and to read with great dexter- 
 ity, and at last even to think deeply, 
 and to reason with good sense and 
 discrimination. She died May 4, 1889. 
 
 Britf 
 
 Bridle Bit, a bit connected with a 
 bridle. Such bits are seen in Assyr- 
 ian and Egyptian paintings and sculp- 
 tures, and are subsequently mentioned 
 by Xenophon. 
 
 Brief, from the Latin brevis, short, 
 a brief or short statement or summary, 
 particularly the summary of a client's 
 case which the solicitor draws up for 
 the instruction of counsel. 
 
 Briel, or Brielle, sometimes The 
 Brill, a fortified seaport town of 
 South Holland, on the N. side of the 
 Island of Voorne, near the mouth of 
 the Maas. It contains a government 
 arsenal and military magazines, and 
 possesses a good harbor. The tower of 
 St. Peter's Church serves as a light- 
 house. Pop. 5,000, chiefly engaged as 
 pilots and fishermen. Briel may be 
 considered as the nucleus of the Dutch 
 republic, having been taken from the 
 Spaniards by William de la Marck in 
 1572. This event was the first act of 
 open hostility to Philip II., and paved 
 the way to the complete liberation of 
 the country from a foreign yoke. 
 
 Brienne, a town of France, in the 
 Department of Aube ; 15 miles N. W. 
 of Bar-sur-Aube. It is remarkable as 
 formerly possessing a military college 
 where the Emperor Napoleon I. re- 
 ceived the. first rudiments of his edu- 
 cation. Here also he attacked Blu- 
 cher, Jan. 29, 1814, forcing him from 
 the town, which was reduced to ashes, 
 and compelling him, on the following 
 day, to retreat to Trannes. 
 
 Brig, (contracted from brigantine) ," 
 a vessel with two masts, square-rigged 
 on both.
 
 Brigade 
 
 Brigade, a portion of an army, 
 whether infantry, cavalry, or artil- 
 lery, consisting of two or more regi- 
 ments, under the command of a briga- 
 dier-general. A division consists of 
 two or more brigades under the com- 
 mand of a major-general, and an army 
 corps, the largest division of our 
 army, consists of two or more divi- 
 sions, and is commanded by a major- 
 general. 
 
 Brigade Major, a staff officer at- 
 tached to the brigade to assist the offi- 
 cer by whom it is commanded. 
 
 Brigadier, an abbreviation of brig- 
 adier-general. It is in commo_n use in 
 the armies of modern civilized na- 
 tions, the forces bing divided into 
 brigades in charge of brigadiers. 
 
 Brigadier- General, a military 
 officer of intermediate rank between 
 a major-general and a colonel. 
 
 Brigands, a name originally given 
 to the mercenaries who held Paris 
 during King John's imprisonment 
 (1358), and who made themselves no- 
 torious for their ill behavior. It was 
 applied by Froissart to a kind of ir- 
 regular foot soldiery, and from them 
 was transferred to simple robbers ; it 
 is now used especially of such of these 
 as live in bands in secret mountain or 
 forest retreats. 
 
 Brigantine, a sailing vessel with 
 two masts, the foremast rigged like a 
 brig's, the main mast rigged like 
 a schooner's. 
 
 Briggs, Charles Augustus, an 
 American clergymen and religious 
 writer, born in New York city, Jan. 
 15, 1841. In 1874 he was appointed 
 Professor of Hebrew in Union Theo- 
 logical Seminary in New York city. 
 He was tried for heresy in 1892, but 
 was aquitted. In 1899 he formally 
 severed his connection with the New 
 York Presbytery and was ordained a 
 clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal 
 -Church. 
 
 Briggs, Henry, an English mathe- 
 matician, born near Halifax, York- 
 shire, in 1561 ; died in Oxford, Jan. 
 26, 1631. 
 
 Bright, John, an English states- 
 man, son of Jacob Bright, a Quaker 
 cotton spinner and manufacturer at 
 Rochdale, Lancashire, born in Lan- 
 cashire, Nov. 16, 1811. When the 
 Anti-Corn Law League was formed in 
 
 Brindisi 
 
 1839 he was one of its leading mem- 
 bers, and, with Mr. Cobden, engaged 
 in an extensive free-trade agitation 
 throughout the kingdom. He was in- 
 cessant, both at public meetings and 
 in Parliament, in his opposition to the 
 Corn Laws. In 1845 he obtained the 
 appointment of a select committee of 
 the House on the Game Laws, and 
 also one on -the subject of cotton cul- 
 tivation in India. Elected in 1857 
 for Birmingham, he seconded the mo- 
 tion against the second reading of the 
 Conspiracy Bill which led to the over- 
 throw of Lord Palmerston's govern- 
 ment. Though he only once held office 
 in the administrations of his time as 
 president of the Board of Trade 
 in 18G8 and Chancellor of the Duchy 
 of Lancaster he is credited with 
 having exercised a greater influence 
 upon the conduct of public affairs in 
 England and abroad than, nerhans, 
 any other man. Died March 27, 1889. 
 Brighton, a borough and chief 
 seaside resort of England; on tlri 
 English channel; 47 miles S. of Lon- 
 don; has a notable se:i-wall drive and 
 promenade, a grand " Royal Pavil- 
 ion," a college for noblemen's sons, 
 and a statue of Queen Victoria. 
 Pop. (1901) 123,478. 
 
 Bright's Disease, a granular dis- 
 ease of the cortical portion of the kid- 
 neys, so called because it was first 
 diagnostically described by Dr. Rich- 
 ard Bright, an English physician. It 
 is first emphasized by the secretion of 
 urine containing a large amount of al- 
 bumen, and this symptom is followed 
 by other complications, usually in 
 rapid sequence. The most commonly 
 observed pathological effects are drop- 
 sy, uraemia, and, in some cases, petri- 
 fication of the kidneys and ureters. 
 
 Brindaban, or Brindraban, a 
 town of the Northwest Provinces, 
 British India ; on the right bank of 
 the Jumna, 6 miles N. of Muttra. It 
 is one of the holiest cities of the Hin 
 dus, and crowds of pilgrims go there 
 from all parts of India. 
 
 Brindisi, (ancient BRUNDUSIUM), 
 a seaport and fortified town, Province 
 of Lecce, Southern Italy, on the Adri- 
 atic. In ancient times Brundusium 
 was an important city, and with its 
 excellent port became a considerable 
 naval station of the Romans. Its im-
 
 Brinclley 
 
 portance as a seaport declined in the 
 Middle Ages, but has now risen to 
 large importance. 
 
 Brindley, James, an English civil 
 engineer, born in 1716. After distin- 
 guishing himself by the contrivance of 
 water engines and other mechanical 
 apparatus, he became known to the 
 Duke of Bridgewater, then planning 
 his great scheme of inland navigation 
 for connecting Liverpool and Manches- 
 ter by means of a canal, and after al- 
 most insuperable difficulties, the suc- 
 cess of this bold attempt was triumph- 
 antly established. In 1766 Brindley 
 commenced the formation of the Grand 
 Trunk Canal, uniting the rivers Trent 
 and Mersey ; which undertaking was 
 completed after his death (1772), in 
 1777. 
 
 Brine, water saturated with com- 
 mon salt. It is naturally produced in 
 many places beneath the surface of the 
 earth, and is also made artificially, for 
 preserving meat, a little saltpetre 
 being generally added to the solution. 
 
 Brine Shrimp, the only animal, 
 except a species of fly, which lives in 
 the Great Salt Lake of Utah. It is a 
 phyllopod crustacean, with stalked 
 eyes, a delicate, slender body, which is 
 provided with 11 pairs of broad, pad- 
 dle-like or leaf-like feet. It is about 
 }4 of an inch long. Similar forms 
 live in brine vats in various parts of 
 the world. 
 
 Brinton, Daniel Garrison, an 
 American surgeon, archaeologist and 
 ethnologist, born at Thornbury, Pa., 
 May 13, 1837. During the Civil War 
 he was a surgeon in the Union army. 
 From 18G7 to 1887 he was editor of 
 the " Medical and Surgical Reporter." 
 He was a high authority on all Amer- 
 ican archaeological topics. He died in 
 Atlantic City, N. J., July 31, 1899. 
 
 Briquette, the name, originally 
 French ("small brick"), given to a 
 comparatively new form of fuel, made 
 mostly from waste coal dust, and used, 
 not merely for household purposes, but 
 in various industries. A briquette is 
 simply an admixture of coal dust with 
 pitch, molded under pressure and heat, 
 the pitch or some similar substance 
 being introduced to form the cement- 
 ing material. 
 
 Brisbane, the capital, a seaport 
 and chief seat of trade of Queensland, 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Australia, situated about 500 miles N. 
 of Sydney, in Moreton District. It 
 stands about 25 miles from the mouth 
 of a river of its own name, which falls 
 into Moreton Bay, and it is divided 
 into the four divisions of North Bris- 
 bane, South Brisbane, Kangaroo Point, 
 and Fortitude Valley. Pop. of por- 
 tions within a 10-mile radius (1901) 
 119,428. 
 
 Brisson, Eugene Henri, a French 
 politician and journalist, born in 
 Bourges, July 31, 1835. He entered 
 the Chamber of Deputies, in 1871, and 
 won much attention by urging am- 
 nesty for the Communists and other 
 political offenders. Afterward he was 
 one of the foremost members of the 
 Radical Party. He was elected Presi- 
 dent of the Chamber, in 1881, and re- 
 tained that office until the overthrow of 
 the Ferry ministry in 1885, when he 
 accepted the Premiership. He was re- 
 elected to the Presidency of the Cham- 
 ber in 1894, and, in 1895, retired and 
 was a conspicuous candidate for the 
 Presidency of France. He died April 
 
 Brissbt de Waryille, Jean 
 Pierre, a French political writer; 
 born in 1754. Embracing the Revolu- 
 tion, he was elected to the National 
 Assembly for Paris and to the Con- 
 vention for the .Department of the 
 Eure et Loir. As leader of the Giron- 
 dist party, his history belongs hence- 
 forward to the history of France. He 
 voted, out of policy, for the death of 
 Louis XVI., subject to confirmation 
 by the vote of the people ; and he 
 caused war to be declared against 
 Holland and England in February, 
 1793. This was his last political act. 
 He was executed in Paris, Oct. 30, 
 1793. 
 
 Bristles, the strong hairs growing 
 on the back of the hog and wild boar, 
 and extensively used in the manufao 
 ture of brushes, and also by shoemak- 
 ers and saddlers. 
 
 Bristol, a cathedral city of En- 
 gland, a municipal and a parliamentary 
 borough, situated partly in Gloucester- 
 shire, partly in Somersetshire, but 
 forming a county in itself. It stands 
 at the confluence of the rivers Avon 
 and Frome, which unite within the 
 city, whence the combined stream (the 
 Avon) pursues a course of nearly 7 
 miles to the Bristol Channel. The
 
 British Empire 
 
 Avon is a navigable river, and the 
 tides rise in it to a great height. Se- 
 bastian Cabot, Chatterton, and Sou- 
 they were natives of Bristol. Pop. 
 ,(1901) 328,842. 
 
 Bristol Bay, an arm of Bering 
 Sea immediately N. of Alaska. 
 
 Bristol Channel, an arm of the 
 [Atlantic, extending between the S. 
 shores of Wales and the S. W. penin- 
 sula of England, and forming the con- 
 tinuation of the estuary of the Severn. 
 It is remarkable for its high tides. 
 
 Bristow, Benjamin Helm, an 
 American lawyer, born in Elkton, Ky., 
 June 20, 1832. He was admitted to 
 the bar in Kentucky in 1853. He 
 served with distinction in the Civil 
 War, and at its close was appointed 
 United States District Attorney of 
 Kentucky. In 1874 he became Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury, and made his 
 name memorable by the exposure and 
 prosecution of a notorious whiskey 
 ring. He died in New York city, June 
 22, 1896. 
 
 Bristow Station (old form, now 
 Bristoe), a village in Prince William 
 Co., Va. ; 4 miles S. W. of Manassas 
 Junction. On Aug. 27, 1862, a drawn 
 battle took place here between the 
 Federal army under General Hooker, 
 and a Confederate ope under General 
 Early, and on Oct. 14, 1863, the Fed- 
 eral troops under General Warren re- 
 pulsed with severe loss a Confederate 
 attack under Gen. A. P. Hill. 
 
 Brittannia, the name applied by 
 Csesar and other Roman writers to the 
 island of Great Britain. 
 
 Britannia Metal, an alloy of 
 brass, tin, antimony, and bismuth, used 
 to make cheap spoons, teapots, etc. 
 
 Brittany. See BKETAGNE. 
 
 British Association for the 
 Advancement of Science, a society 
 first organized in 1831, mainly through 
 the exertions of Sir David Brewster, 
 whose object is to assist the progress 
 of discovery, and to disseminate the 
 latest results of scientific research, by 
 bringing together men eminent in all 
 the several departments of science. 
 
 British Central Africa Protec- 
 torate, The, former name (since 1907 
 the Nyassaland Protectorate) of the 
 part of British Central Africa border- 
 ing the shores of Lake Nyassa. It in- 
 cludes all British Nyassaland, as well 
 
 as the Shire Highlands, and the great- 
 er part of the basin of the river Shire. 
 The area of the Protectorate is about 
 38,000 square miles ; the European in- 
 habitants number about 300, and the 
 native inhabitants are about 850,000. 
 
 British Columbia, a Province 
 (including Vancouver Island) of the 
 Dominion of Canada, bounded on the 
 N. by the 60th parallel of lat. ; E. by 
 the Rocky Mountains; S. by the 
 United States ; and W. by Alaska, the 
 Pacific Ocean, and Queen Charlotte'.-? 
 Sound; area. 3S3.300 square miles; 
 pop. (1910) 321,73.']; capital, Victoria. 
 
 It is to its mineral wealth that 
 British Columbia owes its present im- 
 portance. Gold was discovered in 
 1857, and was the cause of the estab- 
 lishment of the separate colony. In 
 1897 the disclosing of the phenomenal 
 gold field in the Klondike region led 
 to great excitement throughput both 
 Canada and the U. S., and since gold 
 mines have been worked extensively 
 at Rossland. Branch lines of the Can- 
 adian Pacific and the U. S. Great 
 Northern railroads have opened up 
 rich mineral, farming, and fruit-grow- 
 ing districts. 
 
 This Province has probably the 
 richest fisheries in the world, the only 
 obstacle to their rapid development 
 being their remoteness from the con- 
 sumers. Salmon is the principal 
 catch, and is famous all over the 
 world. British Columbia was origin- 
 ally a portion of the Hudson Bay Ter- 
 ritory, and known as New Caledonia. 
 In 1858 it was created a colony ; in 
 1866 the colony of Vancouver Island 
 was united to it; and in 1871 the 
 united colony w r as admitted to the 
 Dominion of Canada. 
 
 British East Africa, an immense 
 territory of East Africa, between Ger- 
 man East Africa and the Italian pro- 
 tectorate of Somaliland. In 1910, it 
 comprised the protectorates of Nyas- 
 saland (43,608 sq. m., pop. 948,276, 
 capital, Zomba); East Africa (189,- 
 838 sq. m., pop. est. 4,038,000, capi- 
 tal, Mombasa); Uganda (117.681 sq. 
 m., pop. 3,520,000, capital, Entebbe); 
 Zanzibar (1,020 sq. m., pop. 176.000, 
 capital, Zanzibar); and Somaliland 
 (68,000 sq. m., pop. 300,000, capital, 
 Bcrbera). 
 
 British Empire, The. Britain, 
 or rather Britannica, was the name
 
 British Empire 
 
 British Empire 
 
 which was given by the Romans to 
 modern England and Scotland. The 
 name Great Britain was applied to 
 England and Scotland after James I. 
 Ascended the English throne in 1603. 
 
 Extent of Empire. The European 
 dominions of the British empire com- 
 prise in addition to Great Britain, 
 Ireland, the Isle of Man, and the 
 Channel Islands the rocky promon- 
 tory of Gibraltar, captured from Spain 
 in 1704 ; and Malta, Gozo, and ad- 
 jacent islets, ceded to Great Britain 
 in 1800. The most important of the 
 Asiatic possessions of Great Britain 
 is India, acquired gradually since the 
 incorporation of the East India Com- 
 pany in 1000, and especially during the 
 great struggle with France in the 18th 
 century. Great Britain also possesses 
 Ceylon, acquired by conquest from the 
 Dutch and from native rulers in 1796- 
 1815; the Straits Settlements of -Sin- 
 gapore (ceded in 1824), Penang 
 (1786), Wellesley Province (1800), 
 and Malacca (1824), on which are de- 
 pendent various native States of the 
 Malay peninsula ; the island of Hong- 
 Kong (taken in 1841) and territory 
 on the adjacent mainland ; portions of 
 the islands of Borneo, namely British 
 North Borneo (company chartered in 
 1881), to which is attached the island 
 of Labuan (ceded 1846), the sultan- 
 ate of Brunei, and Sarawak (practi- 
 cally British since 1842) ; Aden 
 (1839), the island of Perim, the Koo- 
 ria Mooria Islands, and the Bahrein 
 Islands. Cyprus, though belonging to 
 Turkey, has since 1878 been adminis- 
 tered by Great Britain. In Africa 
 Great Britain owns Cape Colony, 
 gradually developed since its final ac- 
 quirement in 1806, and including Wal- 
 fisch bay; Basutoland (British since 
 1868) ; the Bechuanaland Protector- 
 ate (acquired in 1884) ; Natal (pro- 
 claimed British in 1843), to which are 
 now annexed Zululand, and Tonga- 
 land (acquired in 1887) ; Rhodesia, 
 including Matabeleland, Mashonaland, 
 Barotseland, etc., recently begun to be 
 developed by the British South Africa 
 Company ; the Central Africa Protec- 
 torate (acquired in 1889-1890, and 
 proclaimed a protectorate in 1891) ; 
 .the West African Colonies ; namely, 
 'Gambia (recognized as British in 
 11783), the Gold Coast (partly ac- 
 quired in the 17th century), Sierra 
 
 Leone (ceded 1787), and Lagos, with 
 dependencies (occupied in 1861) ; Ni- 
 geria, including the Niger Coast Pro- 
 tectorate (1884) and the territories 
 formerly administered by the Royal 
 Niger Company (chartered in 1886) ; 
 the East Africa Protectorate, pro- 
 claimed in 1895 over territories pre- 
 viously under the Imperial British 
 East Africa Company (chartered 
 1888) ; the Uganda Protectorate, now 
 including also Unyoro, Usoga, etc. 
 (proclaimed in 1894) ; the Zanzibar 
 Protectorate, consisting of the islands 
 of Zanzibar and Pemba (under the 
 protection of Great Britain since 
 1890) ; the Somali Coast Protectorate 
 (acquired in 1884) ; the islands of 
 Mauritius (taken from France in 
 1810), with its dependencies the, Sey- 
 chelles, etc. ; the island of Socotra 
 (1886) ; and the Atlantic islands, St 
 Helena (1651), Ascension (1815), 
 and Tristan d'Acunha (1816). Be- 
 sides Great Britain virtually rules 
 Egypt and the reconquered Egyptian 
 Sudan (1898), though the former is 
 nominally part of the Ottoman em- 
 pire ; and, since the South African 
 War, the former territories of the 
 Orange Free State, and the Transvaal. 
 Her possessions in the New World 
 comprise the Dominion of Canada, 
 most of which was obtained from 
 France by conquest and treaty be- 
 tween 1713 and 1763; the island of 
 Newfoundland, the oldest English col- 
 ony (discovered by John Cabot in 
 1497), with its dependency Labrador; 
 British Honduras (1783) ; the Bermu- 
 das Islands (1609) ; the West Indian 
 Islands, namely, Jamaica (1655), the 
 Bahamas (1629), several of the Lee- 
 ward Islands (Antigua, St. Christo- 
 pher, Dominica, etc.), the Windward 
 Islands (Barbados, St. Lucia, St. 
 Vincent, Grenada, the Grenadines, To- 
 bago, etc.), and Trinidad (1797); 
 British Guiana (1814) ; and the 
 Falkland Islands (organized 1833) 
 and South Georgia. The British em- 
 pire in Australasia includes Australia 
 (explored and settled from the latter 
 part of the 18th century onward) ; 
 Tasmania (settled by Englishmen in 
 1803) ; New Zealand (begun to be 
 colonized in 1839) ; a portion of New 
 Guinea (1884) ; the Fiji Islands 
 (1874) ; and many small islands }Q 
 the Pacific.
 
 British Museum 
 
 Brocuoa 
 
 The British Empire rules or con- 
 trols nearly one-fifth of the land sur- 
 face of the globe, and more than one- 
 fourth of the world's population. Its 
 territories cover 11,000,000 square 
 miles, and its people number 400,000,- 
 000. 
 
 British Museum, the great na- 
 tional museum in London, owes its 
 foundation to Sir Hans Slpane, who, 
 in 1753, bequeathed his various collec- 
 tions, including 50,000 books and 
 MSS., to the nation, on condition 
 of $100,000 being paid to his heirs. 
 This offer was agreed to by Parlia- 
 ment. The British Museum is under 
 the management of 48 trustees, among 
 the chief being the Archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, the Lord-Chancellor, and the 
 Speaker of the House of Commons. 
 In all the staff of the institution num- 
 bers over 320 persons. The museum 
 is open daily, free of charge. Admis- 
 sion to the reading-room as a regular 
 reader is by ticket, procurable on ap- 
 plication to the chief librarian, there 
 being certain simple conditions at- 
 tached. The institution contains some- 
 thing like 2,000,000 volumes in the 
 department of printed books. A copy 
 of every book, pamphlet, newspaper, 
 piece of music, etc., published any- 
 where in British territory, must be 
 conveyed free of charge to the museum. 
 
 British South Africa Com- 
 pany, a corporation founded in 1889, 
 with a royal charter, by Cecil Rhodes 
 and others, for the purpose of con- 
 trolling, settling, administering and 
 opening up by railways and telegraphs, 
 tc., certain territories in Central 
 South Africa. Mashonaland was first 
 settled, and, in 1893, Matabeleland 
 was annexed and settled after the de- 
 feat of King Lobengula. In 1895, 
 North Zambezia, in British Central 
 Africa, was added, as well as a strip 
 of territory in the Bechuanaland Pro- 
 tectorate. This territory has been 
 called Rhodesia, or British Zambezia ; 
 area, about 500,000 square miles. In 
 consequence of the filibustering raid of 
 Dr. Jameson, an officer of the com- 
 pany, near the close of 1895, Rhodes 
 resigned his connection with the com- 
 pany in 1896, and a joint administra- 
 tor of the territory was appointed by 
 the British crown. See KHODESIA. 
 
 Britton, Nathaniel, Lord, nn 
 American scientist; born on State a 
 
 Island, N. Y., Jan. 15, 1858. He was 
 Professor of Botany in Columbia 
 School of Mines in 1888-1890, and 
 later Director of the New York Bo- 
 tanical Garden. 
 
 Broad Arrow, the mark cut or 
 stamped on all English government 
 property and stores. It was the cog- 
 nizance of Henry, Viscount Sydney, 
 Earl of Romney, Master-General of 
 the Ordnance, 1093-1702, and was at 
 first placed only on military stores. 
 It is also the mark used in the Brit- 
 ish Ordnance Survey to denote points 
 from which measurements have been 
 made. 
 
 Broad Bill, a species of wild duck, 
 the shoveler ; also the spoon bill. 
 
 Broadhead, Garland Car, an 
 American geologist ; born in Albemarle 
 Co., Va., Oct. 30, 1827. He studied at 
 the University of Missouri and was 
 long the State Expert in Geology. 
 From 1887 to 1897 he was Professor 
 of Geology at the University of Mis- 
 souri. 
 
 Broad Mountain, a mountain 
 ridge of Pennsylvania, in Carbon and 
 Schuylkill counties, about 50 miles 
 long. 
 
 Broad River, a river of North 
 Carolina, rising in the Blue Ridge 
 mountains, and making a junction 
 with the Saluda at Columbia to form 
 the Congaree ; about 200 miles long. 
 
 Broad Top Mountain, a moun- 
 tain in Bedford and Huntington coun- 
 ties, Pennsylvania ; extensively mined 
 for anthracite coal. Height about 
 2,500 feet. 
 
 Broadway, the great business 
 street of New York. Starting from 
 Bowling Green, at the lower extremity 
 of the island, it runs northward in a 
 somewhat diagonal direction, separat- 
 ing the city into substantially equal 
 eastern and western parts. It was 
 formerly the Boulevard above 59th 
 street, but the whole length of the 
 thoroughfare is now known as Broad- 
 way. It is part of a continuous road 
 from New York to Albany. A portion 
 of the rapid transit subway has been 
 built under Broadway, and an under- 
 ground trolley line is on the surface 
 in New York city. 
 
 Broccoli, a late variety of the 
 cauliflower, hardier and with more 
 color in the lower leaves. The part
 
 Brock 
 
 Broker 
 
 of the plant used is the succulent 
 flower stalks. Although broccoli is 
 inferior in flavor to cauliflower it 
 serves as a fair substitute. 
 I Brock, Sir Isaac, a British mili- 
 tary commander, born in Guernsey, 
 Oct. 6, 1709 ; suppressed a threatened 
 mutiny in Canada in 1802 ; made Lieu- 
 tenant-Governor of Upper Canada in 
 1810; took Detroit from the Ameri- 
 cans under General Hull in 1812; and 
 was killed at the battle of Queens- 
 town, Oct. 13, 1812. A monument to 
 his memory stands on the W. bank of 
 the Niagara river. 
 
 Brocken, the culminating point of 
 the Hartz Mountains, in North Ger- 
 many, Kingdom of Saxony, cultivated 
 nearly to its summit, which is 3,740 
 feet above the level of the sea. The 
 phenomenon called the " Specter of 
 the Brocken " is here occasionally seen 
 at sunset ^nd sunrise. It is caused by 
 the rising^ of the mists from the val- 
 ley opposite to the sun. 
 
 Brockton, a city in Plymouth 
 county, Mass.; on the New York 
 New Haven & Hartford railroad; 20 
 miles S. of Boston; is one of the 
 largest boot and shoe manufacturing 
 places in the country, with also an 
 extensive output of shoe machinery, 
 rubber goods, and sewing machines, 
 and has a property valuation exceed- 
 ing $40,000,000. Pop. U910) 5(5,878. 
 
 Brockville, a port of entry and 
 capital of Leeds county, Ontario, 
 Canada; on the St. Lawrence river 
 and the Grand Trunk and other rail- 
 roads, 125 miles S. W. of Montreal. 
 Pop. (1901) 8,940. 
 
 Broderick, David Colbreth, an 
 American legislator, born in Washing- 
 ton, D. C., Feb. 4, 1820 ; was defeated 
 for Congress in New York in 1846 ; 
 went to California, and was elected a 
 member of the Constitutional Conven- 
 tion of 1849 ; served as Speaker of the 
 Senate ; and was elected to the United 
 States Senate in 1856, where he ac- 
 tively opposed the admission of Kan- 
 sas. He was killed in a duel by Judge 
 David S. Terry, Sept. 16, 1859. 
 
 Brpdhead, John Romcyn, an 
 American historian, born in Philadel- 
 phia, Jan. 2, 1814 ; graduated at Rut- 
 gers College in 1831 ; made a ^aluable 
 collection of documents in Europe 
 bearing upon American history that 
 
 was published by the State of New- 
 York ; author of a " History of the 
 State of New York." He died in New 
 York city, May 6, 1873. 
 
 Broglie, a prominent French fam- 
 ily, of Piedmontese origin. JACQUES 
 VICTOR ALBERT, Due de Broglie, bom 
 June 13, 1821, early entered the field 
 of literature, and was elected an Acad- 
 emician in 1862. Returned as a dep- 
 uty in 1871, he was, till May, 1872, 
 Ambassador at London ; he then be- 
 came leader of the Conservative Right 
 Center, and with a view to force a 
 monarchical government on France, 
 he brought about the resignation of 
 Thiers, and the election of MacMa- 
 hon, in 1873. He w r as twice Premier 
 in 1873-1874 and in 1877 resig- 
 nation being on both occasions forced 
 on him by Gambetta's exposure of his 
 reactionary tactics. 
 
 Brogue, a brogan ; a stout, heavy 
 leather shoe, resembling in form the 
 French sabot. Applied generally to- 
 the pedal coverings of the Scottish 
 Highlanders and the Irish peasantry. 
 It is also applied to a corrupt dialect, 
 or mode of pronunciation ; as, spoken 
 with the Irish brogue. 
 
 Broiling, the cooking of meat or 
 fish on a gridiron above a fire, or by 
 laying it directly on the coals, a very 
 wholesome method of cookery. 
 
 Broke, Sir Philip Bowes Vere, 
 a British admiral, born near Ipswich, 
 Sept. 9, 1776 ; distinguished himself 
 particularly in 1813, as commander of 
 the " Shannon," in the memorable ac- 
 tion which that vessel fought with the 
 United States vessel " Chesapeake " 
 off the American coast, and in which 
 the latter was cantured. He died in 
 London, Jan. 2, 1841. 
 
 Broken Wind, a disease of the 
 organs of respiration in horses, com- 
 monly produced by the rupture of the 
 lung cellular tissue. 
 
 Broker, an agent employed to 
 make bargains and contracts between 
 other persons, in matters gf commerce, 
 for a compensation commonly called 
 brokerage. A broker usually confines 
 his attention to one particular mar- 
 ket, as wool, sugar, or iron, and the 
 special knowledge he thus acquires 
 renders his services useful to the gen- 
 eral merchant, who has no such inti- 
 mate acquaintance with the trade.
 
 Bromide 
 
 The broker is strictly a middleman, or 
 intermediate negotiator between the 
 parties, finding buyers or sellers as re- 
 quired. He does not act in his own 
 name, nor has he generally the custody 
 of the goods in which he deals, thus 
 differing from a factor, and he cannot 
 sell publicly like an auctioneer. He is 
 treated as the agent of both parties, 
 though primarily he is deemed the 
 agent of the party by whom he is 
 originally employed. Besides ordinary 
 commercial brokers, there are several 
 other sorts, such as stock-brokers, 
 share-brokers, ship-brokers, insurance- 
 brokers, bill-brokers, etc. 
 
 Bromide, a combination of bromine 
 with a metal or a radical. Bromides 
 are soluble in water, except silver and 
 mercurous bromides; lead bromide is 
 very slightly soluble. 
 
 Bromine, a non-metallic element. 
 Bromine has been applied externally 
 as a caustic, but rarely. Its chief 
 officinal preparations are bromide of 
 ammonium, useful in whooping cough, 
 infantile, convulsions, and nervous 
 diseases generally ; and bromide of po- 
 tassium, now very extensively used, 
 especially in epilepsy, hysteria, deli- 
 rium tremens, diseases of the throat 
 and larynx, bronchocele, enlarged 
 spleen, hypertrophy of liver, fibroid 
 tumors, etc. Also, as an antaphro- 
 disiac, for sleeplessness, glandular 
 swellings, and skin diseases. Its al- 
 terative powers are similar to but less 
 than those of the iodides. It has a 
 pungent saline taste, no odor, and oc- 
 curs in colorless cubic crystals, close- 
 ly resembling the iodide. As a hypnot- 
 ic its usefulness is much increased by 
 eombining it with morphia or chloral 
 hydrate. 
 
 Bronchi, the two branches into 
 which the trachea or windpipe divides 
 in the chest, one going to the right 
 lung, the other to the left, and rami- 
 fying into innumerable smaller tubes 
 the bronchial tubes. 
 
 Bronchitis, inflammation of the 
 air tubes leading to the pulmonary 
 vesicles, accompanied by hoarseness, 
 cough, increase of temperature, and 
 soreness of the chest anteriorly. The 
 uneasy sensations begin about the re- 
 gion of the frontal sinuses, passing 
 from the nasal mucous passages, tra- 
 chea, and windpipe to the chest, with 
 
 Bronte 
 
 hoarseness, cough, and expectoration; 
 but in capillary bronchities the cough 
 is dry and without expectoration, la 
 acute cases the sputum is first thin, 
 then opaque and tenacious, lastly pu- 
 rulent; the breathing is hurried and 
 laborious, the pulse quickened, and the 
 skin dry. The danger increases in 
 proportion as the finer bronchial 
 tubes become involved, and, instead of 
 the healthy respiratory sound we have 
 sharp, chirping, whistling notes, vary- 
 ing from sonorous to sibilant. The 
 sharp sound is most to be feared, as 
 arising in the smaller tubes ; the 
 grave, sonorous notes originate in the 
 larger tubes. Spitting of blood some- 
 times occurs, and in severe cases per- 
 sons actually die suffocated from the 
 immense quantity of mucus thrown 
 out, obstructing the tubes and causing 
 collapse of the vesicular structure of 
 the lungs. The ratio of the respira- 
 tion to the pulse is high, goring up to 
 60 or even 70 in the minute, with a 
 pulse rate of 120 or 130. Chronic 
 bronchitis, or bronchial catarrh, is ex- 
 tensively prevalent, especially among 
 the aged, recurring once or twice a 
 year in spring or autumn, or both, till 
 it becomes more or less constant all 
 the year round. 
 
 Bronchocele, an indolent tumor 
 on the forepart of the neck caused by 
 enlargement of the thyroid gland, and 
 attended by protrusion of the eyeballs, 
 anamia, and palpitation. 
 
 Brongniart, Alexander, a 
 French geologist and mineralogist, 
 born in Paris, Feb. 5, 1770; died in 
 Paris, Oct. 7, 1847. His son, ADOLPHB 
 THEODORE BRONGNIABT, born in 1801, 
 died in 187G, became Professor of Bo- 
 tany at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, 
 1833, and was the author of several 
 botanical works held in high esteem. 
 
 Bronte, a town of Sicily, at the 
 W. base of Alt. Etna, 33 miles N. W. 
 of Catania. The lava streams of 1651 
 and 1843 lie on either side, but the 
 district around is fertile, and produces 
 wine. Lord Nelson was created Duke 
 of Bronte by the Neapolitan Govern- 
 ment in 1799. Pop. (1901) 20,366. 
 
 Bronte, Anne, an English novelist 
 and poetess, born in Haworth, York- 
 shire, March 24, 1820 ; sister of CHAR- 
 LOTTE BRONTE. She died in Scarbor- 
 ough, May, 28, 1849.
 
 Bronte 
 
 Bronte, Charlotte, (afterward 
 Mrs. Nicholls), an English novelist, 
 born in Thornton, Yorkshire, April 
 21, 1816; was the third daughter of 
 the Rev. Patrick Bronte, rector of 
 Thornton, from which he removed in 
 1820 on becoming incumbent of Ha- 
 worth, in the West Riding, of York- 
 shire, about 4 miles from Keighley. 
 Her mother died soon after this re- 
 moval, and her father, au able though 
 eccentric man, brought up Charlotte 
 and her sisters in quite a Spartan 
 fashion, inuring them to every kind of 
 industry and fatigue. After an edu- 
 cation received partly at home and 
 partly at neighboring schools, Char- 
 lotte became a teacher, and then a i 
 governess in a family. In 1844 ar- j 
 rangements were entered into by the 
 three sisters to open a school at Ha- 
 worth, but from the want of success 
 ia obtaining pupils no progress was 
 ever made with their scheme. They 
 resolved now to turn their attention 
 to literary composition ; and, in 1840, 
 a volume of poems by the three sis- 
 ters was published, under the names of 
 CURRER, ELLIS and ACTON BELL. It 
 was issued at their- own- risk, and at- 
 tracted little attention, so they quitted 
 poetry for prose fiction, and produced 
 each a novel. Charlotte ( CURRER 
 BELL) entitled her production " The 
 Professor," but it was everywhere re- 
 fused by the publishing trade, and 
 was not given to the world till after 
 her death. Emily (ELLIS BELL) with 
 her tale of " Withering Heights," 
 and Anne ( ACTON BELL) with "Ag- 
 nes Grey," were more successful. 
 Charlotte's failure, however, did not 
 discourage her, and she composed the 
 novel of " Jane Eyre," which was pub- 
 lished in October, 1847. Its success 
 was immediate and decided. Her sec- 
 ond novel of " Shirley " appeared in 
 1849. Previous to this she had lost 
 her two sisters, Emily dying on Dec. 
 19, 1848, and Anne May 28, 1849 
 (after publishing a second novel, the 
 " Tenant of Wildfell Hall "). In the 
 autumn of 1852 appeared Charlotte's 
 third novel, " Yillette." Shortly af- 
 ter, she married her father's curate, 
 the Rev. Arthur Bell Nicholls, but in 
 nine months died of consumption, 
 March 31, 1855. Her originally re- 
 jected tale of " The Professor " was 
 published after her death iu 1857, and 
 
 E. 24'. 
 
 Bronzes 
 
 the same year a biography of her ap- 
 peared from the pen of Mrs. Gaskell. 
 
 Brontosaurus Excelsus, a species 
 of herbivorous dinosaur of the Trias- 
 sic and Jurassic periods. It is sup- 
 posed to have been a hippopotamus- 
 like animal, and to have lived on vege- 
 tation in the waters. It was about 60 
 feet long, and 15 feet high at the 
 middle of the body, and, although its 
 body was of this great size, it had one 
 of the smallest heads known among 
 vertebrates. 
 
 Bremtotherimn, or Titanother- 
 iwxi, a genus of the extinct mammals 
 first found in the Bad Lands of South 
 Dakota, and later in Nebraska and 
 Colorado. The brontotherium was 
 about the size of the elephant. The 
 nose was evidently flexible, but there 
 was no true proboscis. 
 
 Bronx, The, a borough of Greater 
 New York, lying N. and E. of the 
 borough or Manhattan, between the 
 Hudson river, East river, and Long 
 Island Sound, including City, Riker's, 
 Hunter's, Twin, Hart, High and sev- 
 eral adjacent islands; area, 25,270 
 acres; pop. (1910) 430,980. It con- 
 tains an extensive public park, with a 
 botanical garden of 250 acres, and is 
 the site of the newly established New 
 York Zoological Gardens. The statis- 
 tics of this borough are included with 
 those of Manhattan borough. See 
 NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin. 
 It was used by the ancient Assyrians 
 and Egyptians. Layard brought many 
 ornaments and other articles of this 
 metal from Assyria. Bronze is more 
 fusible, as well as harder than copper. 
 It is also a fine-grained metal, taking 
 a smooth and polished surface ; hence 
 its, universal use, both in ancient and 
 modern times, in making casts of all 
 kinds, medals, bas-reliefs, statues, etc. 
 Its color is a reddish-yellow, and is 
 darkened by exposure to the atmos- 
 phere. Its composition varies accord- 
 ing to the purpose for which it is to be 
 employed, and other constituents be- 
 eides copper and tin frequently enter 
 into it. Whatever alloy is principally 
 formed of these metals, however, is 
 called bronze. 
 
 Bronzes, in archaeology, works of 
 art cast in bronze. Bronze was con- 
 sidered by men of ancient times as
 
 Bronzing 
 
 sacred to the gods ; and the Roman 
 emperors who struck gold and silver 
 coins could not strike them of bronze 
 without the permission of the senate ; 
 hence the inscription S. C. (Senatus 
 consulto). 
 
 Bronzing, the process of giving a 
 bronze-like or antique metallic ap- 
 pearance to the surface of metals or 
 plaster casts. 
 
 Brooch, a kind of ornament worn 
 on the dress, to which it is attached 
 by a pin stuck through the fabric. 
 
 Brooke, Henry, an Irish novelist 
 and dramatist ; born in Rantavan, 
 County Cavan, Ireland, about 1703 ; 
 died in Dublin, Oct. 10, 1783. 
 
 Brooke, Sir James, Rajah of Sar- 
 awak, was born in Benares, India, 
 April 29, 1803. In 1838, having gone 
 to Borneo, he assisted the Sultan of 
 Brunei (the nominal ruler of the 
 island) in suppressing a revolt. For 
 his services he was made Rajah and 
 Governor of Sarawak, a district on 
 the N. W. coast of the island, and, 
 being established in the Government, 
 he endeavored to induce the Dyak na- 
 tives to abandon their irregular and 
 piratical mode of life and to turn 
 themselves to agriculture and com- 
 merce ; and his efforts to introduce 
 civilization were crowned with won- 
 derful success. He was made a K. C. 
 B. in 1847, and was appointed Gover- 
 nor of Labuan. He died in Devon- 
 shire, England, June 11, 1868. 
 
 Brooke, John Rutter, an Ameri- 
 can military officer, born in Pottsville, 
 Pa., July 21, 1838. He entered the 
 army as captain in a volunteer regi- 
 ment on the breaking out of the Civil 
 War in 1861, and resigned in Febru- 
 ary, 1866, with the rank of Brevet 
 Major-General. In July of the same 
 year he was appointed Lieutenant- 
 Colonel of the 37th United States In- 
 fantry. He was promoted to Colonel 
 in March, 1879; Brigadier-General, 
 April 6, 1888, and Major-General, 
 May 22, 1897. After the declaration 
 of war against Spain, he was placed 
 in command of the First Provisional 
 Army Corps, and subsequently distin- 
 guished himself in the campaign in 
 Porto Rico, and was made a member 
 of the joint military commission to 
 arrange the cession of the island to 
 the United States. On Dec. 13, 1898, 
 
 Brooklyn 
 
 he was appointed Military and Civil 
 Governor of Cuba, a post which he 
 held till April, 1900, when he was 
 succeeded by Gen. Leonard Wood. On 
 May 10, following, he succeeded Ma- 
 jor-General Wesley Merritt as com- 
 mander of the Military Department of 
 the East, with headquarters in New 
 York. 
 
 Brooke, Stopford Augustus, an 
 English Unitarian preacher, born in 
 Dublin in 1832. He was educated at 
 Trinity College, Dublin. He has held 
 important curacies in London, and in 
 1872 was appointed Chaplain in Or- 
 dinary to the Queen. He subsequently 
 became a Unitarian. 
 
 Brook Farm Association, a 
 community which originated in 1841, 
 with William Henry Channing, George 
 Ripley, and Sophia, his wife, with 
 whom were united from time to time 
 George William Curtis, Nathaniel 
 Hawthorne, Theodore Parker, Charles 
 Anderson Dana, John Sullivan Dwight, 
 Margaret Fuller, and other personages 
 of a philosophic turn of mind. The 
 scheme of the association contemplat- 
 ed utilizing the labor physically 
 and intellectually of each of its 
 members, at a certain fixed rate, the 
 intention being to dispose of the re- 
 sults ot such labor to the outside pub- 
 lic, and with such profit that all the 
 delights and adornments of life were 
 to be procurable therefrom, and were 
 to be held in common by the mem- 
 bers. The whole undertaking came 
 to an end in 1846. 
 
 Brookline, a town in Norfolk 
 county, Mass.; on the Charles river 
 and the Boston & Maine railroad; 3 
 miles W. of Boston; manufactures! 
 electrical and philosophical appli- 
 ances; is best known as oiie of the 
 wealthiest and most beautiful resi- 
 dential sections in the country; has 
 a property valuation exceeding $103,- 
 000,000. Pop. (1910) 27,792. 
 
 Brooklyn, a former city, and the 
 fourth in population in the United 
 States, according to the Federal cen- 
 sus of 1890; since Jan. 1, 1898, one 
 of the five boroughs of the city of 
 Greater New York ; situated on the 
 W. extremity of Long Island, on New 
 York Bay and the East river, which 
 separates it from New York and con- 
 nects Long Island Sound with New 
 York Bay. Brooklyn is connected
 
 Brooklyn 
 
 with New York by several bridges, 
 tunnels, and numerous ferries. It com- 
 prises Brooklyn proper, Williamsburg, 
 Gravesend, Flatbush, Flat Lands, New 
 Lots, New Utrecht and several smaller 
 suburban towns that were" united with 
 it prior to its consolidation with New 
 York. It now extends from the At- 
 lantic Ocean at Coney Island to the 
 East river and New York harbor, and 
 occupies the whole of Kings county; 
 area 6G.39 square miles; pop. (1900) 
 1,106,582; (1910) 1,634,351. 
 
 There are 16 parks in Brooklyn, 
 with an area of 754 acres. Prospect 
 Park is the largest, with 516 acres, 
 including 77 acres of lakes and water- 
 ways, 70 acres of meadows, 110 acres 
 of woodland, and 239 of plantations. 
 It is situated on an elevated ridge and 
 commands a magnificent view of the 
 ocean, the Sound, Long Island, New 
 Jersey, and New York city. It has 
 been left to a great extent in its origi- 
 nal wooded condition, making it one 
 of the most picturesque parks in the 
 United States. There are 8 miles of 
 drives, 11 miles of walks, and 4 of 
 bridle paths. The Flatbush avenue 
 entrance, or the Plaza, is paved with 
 stone and surrounded by grass. There 
 is a Soldiers and Sailors' Memorial 
 Arch and a statue of President Lin- 
 coln at this entrance. Of the other 
 parks, Washington Park, the site of 
 extensive Revolutionary fortifications, 
 of which Fort Green is the principal 
 one, is the largest. Among the small- 
 er parks are the City Park, Carrol 
 Park, and Tompkins Park. 
 
 The most notable and important 
 navy yard in the United States is lo- 
 cated here, and is always a place of 
 large patriotic interest, because of its 
 buildings, its relics, and the old and 
 new types of warships that are gen- 
 erally to be seen here. 
 
 Brooklyn has been widely known as 
 the City of Churches. There are now 
 -nearly 470 of such edifices and chapels. 
 The Roman Catholic, with 83 church- 
 es, is the strongest denomination. 
 Then follow the Methodist Episcopal 
 (60) ; Protestant Episcopal (54) ; 
 Baptist (47) ; Lutheran (40) ; Pres- 
 byterian (37) ; Congregational (33) ; 
 Reformed (34) ; synagogues (18), 
 and others of various denominations 
 (about 70). In 1900 there were 130,- 
 311 church members; 138,136 Sunday 
 
 Brooks 
 
 School scholars, and, in the previous 
 year, the churches expended for cur- 
 rent expenses, debt, extensions, and 
 missions, $2,119,485. 
 
 The most important hospitals in 
 Brooklyn are the Long Island College, 
 Brooklyn, Brooklyn Homoeopathic, 
 General, St. Mary's Methodist, St. 
 John's, and St. Peter's. The city has 
 24 dispensaries, 5 training-schools for 
 nurses, 25 orphan asylums and indus- 
 trial schools, 11 homes for the aged, 
 and 6 nurseries. The public institu- 
 tions are mostly at Flatbush, and con- 
 sist of the Insane Asylum, Hospital, 
 and Almshouse. There is an Inebri- 
 ates' Home in Bay Ridge. 
 
 The city is noted for the number and 
 standing of its educational institu- 
 tions, both public and private. The 
 Packer Institute for girls, the Poly- 
 technic Institute for boys, Adelphi Col- 
 lege, and The Pratt Institute have na- 
 tional renown. The Brooklyn Insti- 
 tute of Arts and Sciences, an out- 
 growth from an association founded in 
 1823, is another noted institution. It 
 includes 25 departments with lectures, 
 so that its teaching methods resemble 
 those of a large university. 
 
 Brooklyn was settled by the Dutch 
 in 1636 at New Utrecht. In 1646 five 
 small towns consolidated under the 
 name of Breuckelen, from the Dutch 
 town whence most of the settlers 
 came. In 1666 the first Dutch church 
 was built in Breuckelen. About this 
 time the English came into possession 
 of New York and Long Island, and 
 Breuckelen became a part of West 
 Riding. On Aug. 27, 1776, the battle 
 of Long Island was fought in Brook- 
 lyn, and the village was held by the 
 British till 1783. Brooklyn was in- 
 corporated as a village in 1816 ; and 
 in 1834 it became a city. Several ad- 
 joining towns were annexed from time 
 to time, and in 1896 Brooklyn com- 
 prised all of Kings county. On Jan. 
 1, 1898, Brooklyn was consolidated 
 with Greater New York, under the 
 name of the Borough of Brooklyn. 
 
 Brooks, Eldredge Streeter, an 
 American author; born in Lowell, 
 Mass., in 1846; died in Somerville, 
 Mass., Jan. 7, 1902. 
 
 Brooks, Maria Gowan, an Amer- 
 ican poet, pseudonym MARIA DEL Oc- 
 CIDENTE. born in Medford, Mas*.
 
 Brooks 
 
 about 1795 ; spent her youth in 
 Charlestown, Mass., and the rest of 
 her life in London, New York and 
 Cuba. She died in Matanzas, Cuba, 
 Nov. 11, 1845. 
 
 Brooks, Noah, an American jour- 
 nalist and author, born in Castine, 
 (Me., Oct. 30, 1830. Died Aug. 16, 1903. 
 
 Brooks, Phillips, an American 
 clergyman of the Episcopal Church, 
 born in Boston, Dec. 13, 1835. He 
 was rector of Protestant Episcopal 
 churches successively in Philadelphia 
 and in Boston, and was made Bishop 
 of Massachusetts in 1891. He was an 
 impressive pulpit orator, had great 
 spiritual force, and published many 
 volumes of sermons and lectures. He 
 died in Boston, Jan. 23, 1893. 
 
 Brooks, Preston Smith, an 
 American legislator, born in Edgefield, 
 S. C., Aug. 14, 1819. He served in 
 the Mexican War ; was elected to Con- 
 gress in 1853, and on May 22, 1856, 
 he assaulted Senator Charles Sumner 
 in the Senate Chamber, beating him 
 into insensibility with a cane. He 
 afterward resigned, but was immedi- 
 ately returned to the House by his 
 District. He died in Washington, D. 
 C., Jan. 27, 1857. 
 
 Brooks, William. Keith, natu- 
 ralist, born in Cleveland, O., March 
 25, 1848, graduated LL. D. from Will- 
 iams College (1870) ; Ph. D. Harvard 
 (1874). From 1876 assistant-profes- 
 sor, and since 1883, professor of zool- 
 ogy in Johns Hopkins University. His 
 works include "Invertebrate Zoology," 
 " Foundations of Zoology," etc. 
 
 Brother Jonathan, a phrase ap- 
 plied to the people of the United 
 States, as " John Bull " is to the peo- 
 ple of England. Washington, on as- 
 suming command of the New England 
 Revolutionary forces, was in great 
 straits for arms and war material. 
 The governor of Connecticut, Jona- 
 than Trumbull, was a man of excellent 
 judgment and an esteemed friend of 
 Washington. In the emergency Wash- 
 ington said, " We must consult Broth- 
 er Jonathan." This expression was 
 repeated on other difficult occasions, 
 and became a convenient name for the 
 iwhole people. 
 
 Brotherhoods, Religions, were 
 societies instituted for pious and ben- 
 
 Brougham 
 
 evolent purposes, and were numerous 
 in the Middle Ages. 
 
 Brotherhood of Andrew and 
 Phillip, founded in 1888 by Rev. 
 Rufus W. Miller of the Second Re- 
 formed Church, Reading, Pa., has 
 grown into a religious and social order 
 among 23 Protestant denominations; 
 with 638 chapters and 20,000 mem- 
 bers in the United States, and chap- 
 ters also in Canada, Japan, and Aus- 
 tralia. 
 
 Brotherhood of St. Andrew, 
 of the Protestant Episcopal Church, 
 founded in Chicago in 1883 by the 
 Rev. W. H. Vibbert and James Hough- 
 teling for " the spread of Christ's 
 Kingdom among young men," in 1902 
 had 1710 chapters, and 15,000 mem- 
 bers. 
 
 Brotherhood of St. Paul, of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, tounded 
 1895 by the Rev. F. D. Leete, Roches- 
 ter, NV Y., comprises the Orders of 
 Jerusalem, Damascus, and Rome, for 
 various grades of membership. 
 
 Brougham, Henry Peter, Lord 
 Brougham and Vaux, a British 
 statesman, orator, and author, born in 
 Edinburgh, Sept. 19, 1778; entered 
 the University of Edinburgh in 1792. 
 In 1802 he helped to found the " Ed- 
 inburgh Review," contributing to the 
 first four numbers 21 articles, and to 
 the first 20 numbers 80 articles. The 
 article on Byron's " Hours of Idle- 
 ness " provoked the poet to write his 
 " English Bards and Scotch Review- 
 ers." In 1810 Brougham entered 
 Parliament, where his remarkable elo- 
 quence gave him at once a command- 
 ing place. He was counsel for Queen 
 Caroline in George IV. 's suit against 
 her (1820), winning a decisive vic- 
 tory, which raised him to the height 
 of fame and popularity. He became 
 Lord Chancellor in 1830, and was at 
 the same time created a baron ; he re- 
 signed on the defeat of the Whigs in 
 1834, and never again held public 
 office, though still taking effective part 
 in the business and debates of the 
 House of Lords. He died in Cannes, 
 France, May 7, 1868. 
 
 Brougham, John, an American 
 actor and playwright, born in Dublin, 
 Ireland, May 9, 1810 ; made his debut 
 as an actor in England in 1830. He 
 came to the United States in 1842,
 
 Bronghton 
 
 Brown 
 
 and, with the exception of a short re- 
 turn trip to England in I860, re- 
 mained here until his death. He was 
 the author of over 100 comedies, 
 farces, and burlesques. He died in 
 New York, June 7, 1880. 
 
 Bronghton, Rhoda, an English 
 novelist, daughter of a clergyman, 
 born in Wales, 1840. Among her works 
 are "Alas!"; "Scylla or Charybdis" ; 
 "Dear Faustina" ; "Foes in Law", etc. 
 
 Bronssa, Brnsa, or Boursa, the 
 ancient Prusa, where the Kings of 
 Bithynia usually resided, situated in 
 Asiatic Turkey,, at the foot of Mount 
 Olympus, in Asia Minor, 13 miles S. 
 of the Sea of Marmora. Broussa is 
 pleasantly situated, facing a beautiful 
 and luxuriant plain. The water sup- 
 ply is good; and water flows down the 
 center of some of the streets, which 
 are clean, but for most part narrow 
 and dark, and the bazaars very good. 
 It contains about 200 mosques, some 
 of which are very fine buildings, also 
 three Greek churches, an Armenian 
 and several synagogues. The popula- 
 tion of Broussa is about 37,000, of 
 whom 5,000 are Greeks. 
 
 Bronssais, Francois Joseph 
 Victor, a French physician, born in 
 St. Malo, Dec. 17, 1772. Professor at 
 the Military Hospital of Val de Grace 
 in 1820, he became Professor of Gen- 
 eral Pathology in the Faculty of Med- 
 icine, in Paris, 1832, and afterward 
 was made a member of the Institute. 
 The influence of Broussais in his gen- 
 eration was unbounded, and his so- 
 called " Physiological Doctrine " rap- 
 idly acquired a great sway, the traces 
 of which are visible even now, though 
 a more exact knowledge of physiology 
 has demonstrated that the views of 
 Broussais were one-sided and exag- 
 gerated. The basis of Broussais' doc- 
 trine was the assumption that the ani- 
 mal tissues are endowed with a prop- 
 erty called irritability, a property 
 which is called into play by the action 
 of stimuli of various kinds, and by the 
 operations of which all vital phenom- 
 ena are produced. He died in Paris, 
 Nov. 17, 1838. 
 
 Brown, the color produced when 
 certain substances- -w r ood or paper, 
 for example are scorched or par- 
 tially burned. Brown is not one of 
 the primary colors in a spectrum. It 
 
 is composed of red and yellow, with 
 black, the negation of color. It is 
 also the name of a genus of colors, of 
 which the typical species is ordinary 
 brown, tinged with grayish or black- 
 ish. The other species are chestnut 
 brown, deep brown, bright brown, 
 rusty, cinnamon, red brown, rufous, 
 glandaceous, liver colored, sooty, and 
 lurid. 
 
 Brown, Benjamin Gratz, an 
 American politician, born in Lexing- 
 ton, Ky., May 28, 1820; graduated at 
 Yale in 1847. He practiced law in 
 Missouri, and was a member of the 
 State Legislature in 1852-1858. In 
 the Civil War he served in the Union 
 army, recruiting a regiment, and be- 
 coming a Brigadier-General of volun- 
 teers. In 18G3-1SG7 he was United 
 States Senator from Missouri, and in 
 1871 was elected governor of his State. 
 He was the candidate for the Vice- 
 Presidency of the United States on 
 the ticket with Horace Greeley in 
 1872. He died in St. Louis, Dec. 13, 
 1885. 
 
 Brown, Charles Brockden, an 
 American novelist, born in Philadel- 
 phia, Jan. 17, 1771, was of a highly 
 respectable family, of Quaker descent. 
 He studied law, but took a disgust to 
 the practice of the profession, and. 
 abandoned 'it for literature. In 1798 
 he established himself in New York, 
 and when the yellow fever broke out 
 there he refused to forsake his friends 
 and neighbors ; and, after performing 
 the last offices of affection for one of 
 them, a young physician, was himself 
 attacked by the pestilence. Between 
 1803 and 1809 he published three po- 
 litical pamphlets, which excited gen- 
 eral attention. He died Feb. 22, 1810. 
 
 Brown, Charles Ruf us. an 
 American clergyman and Hebrew 
 scholar, born in East Kingston, N. H., 
 Feb. 22, 1849. He was graduated at 
 the United States Naval Academy in 
 1869, at Harvard in 1877, and at 
 Union Theological Seminary in 1879. 
 He was ordained a Baptist minister in 
 1881 and held pastorates at Salem and 
 Worcester. Mass. He has been Pro- 
 fessor of Hebrew at Newton Theologi- 
 cal Institution since 1880, and has 
 written important text books in the 
 Oriental languages. 
 
 Brown, Emma Elizabeth, (" B. 
 E. E."), an American author and
 
 Brown 
 
 artist, born in Concord, N. H., Oct. 
 18, 1847. 
 
 Brown, Sir George, an English 
 military officer, born near Elgin in 
 1790 ; served in the Peninsular War, 
 and in the American campaign of 
 1814. He became lieutenant-general 
 in 1851 ; and distinguished himself in 
 the Crimean War at Alma, Inker- 
 mann, and Sebastopol. He was made 
 K. C. B. in 1855, and died in 1865. 
 
 Brown, Goold, an American gram- 
 marian, born in Providence, R. I., 
 March 7, 1791 ; died in Lynn, Mass., 
 March 31, 1857. 
 
 Brown, Harvey, an American 
 army officer, born in Rahway, N. J., 
 in 1795 ; graduated at West Point in 
 1818. He was in constant service for 
 more than 45 years. In the Black 
 Hawk expedition, the Seminole In- 
 dian campaigns, in the Army of Occu- 
 pation in Mexico, and to the time of 
 the Civil War, he did gallant duty, 
 for which he received several brevets. 
 In 1862 he was brevetted a Brigadier- 
 General in the Regular army and pro- 
 moted Colonel, and in 1863 was pro- 
 moted to Major-General, U. S. A., and 
 retired. He died in Clifton, Staten 
 Island, N. Y., March 31, 1874. 
 . Brown, Henry Kirke, an Ameri- 
 can sculptor, born in. Leyden, Mass., 
 Feb. 24, 1814. He made the eques- 
 trian statue of Washington in Union 
 Square, New York, the altar piece for 
 the Church of the Annunciation in 
 the same city, portrait busts of Wil- 
 liam Cullen Bryant, Dr. Willard 
 Parker, Erastus Corning and other 
 New York men, and the statue of De 
 Witt Clinton in Greenwood cemetery. 
 The last named was the first bronze 
 statue cast in the United States. Mr. 
 Brown brought skilled workmen from 
 Europe and did the firtt work in 
 bronze casting attempted in this coun- 
 try. Some of his other well known 
 works are a statue of Lincoln in Pro > 
 pect Park, Brooklyn, and equestrian 
 statues of Gen. Scott and Nathanael 
 Greene for the National Government, 
 etc. He died in Newburg, N. Y., July 
 10, 1886. 
 
 Brown, Jacob, an American army 
 officer, born in Bucks county, Pa., May 
 9, 1775. He was a commander on the 
 Canadian frontier in the War of 1812. 
 In the engagements at Port Erie he 
 
 Brown 
 
 so distinguished himself as to receive 
 the thanks of Congress, Nov. 13, 1814. 
 The city of New York also voted him 
 its freedom. At the close of the war 
 he was in command of the Northern 
 Division of the army, and, in March, 
 1821, became general-in-chief of the 
 United States army. He died in 
 Washington, D. C., Feb. 24, 1828. 
 
 Brown, John, an American oppo- 
 nent of slavery, born in Torrington, 
 Conn., May 9, 1800. He early con- 
 ceived a hatred for slavery, and, hay- 
 ing removed to Osawatomie, Kan., in 
 1855, he took an active part against 
 the pro-slavery party, the slavery 
 question there having given rise al- 
 most to a civil war. In the summer 
 of 1859 he rented a farmhouse about 
 6 miles from Harper's Ferry, and or- 
 ganized a plot to liberate the slaves of 
 Virginia. On Oct. 16, he, with the 
 aid of about 20 friends, surprised and 
 captured the arsenal at Harper's Fer- 
 ry, but was wounded and taken pris- 
 oner by the Virginia militia next day ; 
 and was tried and executed at Charles- 
 town, Dec. 2, 1859. His fate aroused 
 much sympathy in the North, and un- 
 doubtedly hastened the great anti- 
 slavery conflict. " John Brown's body 
 lies moldering in the grave, But his 
 soul is marching on," was a favorite 
 marching song of the Union troops in 
 the Civil War. 
 
 Brown, John George, an Anglo- 
 American painter, born in Durham, 
 England, Nov. 11, 1831 ; was edu- 
 cated in the common schools in New- 
 castle-on-Tyne, and cam to the Unit- 
 States in 185 E- studied in the 
 schools of the National Academy of 
 Design ; was elected an Academician 
 in 1863 ; received honorable mention 
 at the Paris Exposition in 1899 ; and 
 in 1900 was president o thj American 
 Water Color Society. 
 
 Brown, John Hamilton, an 
 Americf inventor, born in Liber- 
 ty, Me., July 28, 1837. At the age of 18 
 he was apprenticed to a gunsmith and 
 in 1857 he entered business in Haver- 
 hill, Mass. He served in the Civil 
 War as a sharpshooter, and in 1882 
 was a member of the American Rifle 
 Team at Wimbledon. He began in 
 1883 to perfect che invention of a 
 weapon for military use later known 
 as the Brown segmental wire-wound
 
 Brown 
 
 gun, which, after numerous Govern- 
 ment tests, was pronounced a success. 
 
 Brown, John Howard, an Amer- 
 ican editor, born in Rhinebeck, N. Y., 
 Nov. 8, 1840. After studying law in 
 New York city and engaging in jour- 
 nalism in Washington, D. C., and Au- 
 gusta, Ga., he became a publisher in 
 New York city. He is a member of 
 the American Academy of Political 
 and Social Science ; the Society of 
 American Authors, and the American 
 Social Science Association. 
 
 Brown, Joseph Emerson, an 
 American statesman, born in Pickens 
 county, S. C., April 15, 1821; edu- 
 cated at Calhoun Academy, and grad- 
 uated at Yale in 1846. He settled in 
 Canton, Ga. ; served in the* State Leg- 
 islature, and was elected governor in 
 1857; serving three terms. As war 
 governor he opposed Jefferson Davis 
 in the matter of the conscription laws 
 and raised 10,000 recruits to oppose 
 Sherman's march to the sea; but 
 would not allow them to leave the 
 State. After the war he gave hearty 
 support to the reconstruction meas- 
 ures, and supported Gen. Grant for 
 the Presidency. He was Chief Jus- 
 tice of Georgia in 1868, and United 
 States Senator in 1880-1891. He 
 died in Atlanta, Ga., Nov. 30, 1894. 
 
 Brown, Nicholas, an American 
 merchant, born in Providence, R. I., 
 April 4, 1769 ; best known as the chief 
 patron of Brown University. In hon- 
 or of his gifts, which exceeded $100,- 
 000, the name of the institution was 
 changed, in 1804, from Rhode Island 
 College to Brown University. He 
 gave also magnificent sums to other 
 public institutions of Providence. He 
 died Oct. 27, 1841. 
 
 BroWi (or Browne). Robert, 
 founder of an English religious sect 
 first called Brownies, and afterward 
 Independents, was born about 1540, 
 and studied at Cambridge, where, in 
 1580, he began openly to attack the 
 government and liturgy of the Church 
 of England as anti-Christian. 
 
 Brown, Robert, a Scotch botan- 
 ist, born in Montrose, Dec. 21, 1773. 
 In 1800 he was appointed naturalist 
 to Flinders' surveying expedition to 
 Australia. He returned with nearly 
 4,000 species of plants. He died in 
 London, June 10, 1858. As a natural- 
 
 Browning 
 
 ist Brown occupied the very highest 
 rank among men of science. 
 
 Browne, Charles Farrar, an 
 American humorist, best known as 
 ABTEMUS WARD, born at Waterford, 
 Me., April 26, 1834. Originally a 
 printer, he became editor of papers in 
 Ohio, where his humorous letters be- 
 came very popular. He subsequently 
 lectured in the United States, and 
 in England, where he contributed to 
 " Punch." He died in Southampton, 
 England, March 6, 1867. 
 
 Browne, William, an English 
 poet, born in Tavistock, Devonshire, 
 in 1591; died in Ottery St. Mary 
 about 1643. 
 
 Brownell, Franklin P., a Cana- 
 dian artist, born in New Bedford, 
 Mass. His specialties are portrait and 
 figure painting. He has for some 
 years been principal of the Ottawa 
 Art School. 
 
 Brownell, Henry Howard, an 
 American poet and historian, born in 
 Providence, R. I., Feb. 6, 1820. His 
 first poetic venture was a spirited ver- 
 sification of Farragut's " General Or- 
 ders " to the fleet below New Orleans. 
 Afterward he was appointed to an hon- 
 orary place on the " Hartford," flag- 
 ship, and had opportunity to observe 
 actual naval warfare. In " The Bay 
 Fight " he describes, with truth and 
 force, the battle of Mobile Bay. He 
 died at East Hartford, Conn., Oct 31, 
 1872. 
 
 Brownell, William Crary, an 
 American essayist and critic, born in 
 New York city, Aug. 30, 1851. He 
 graduated from Amherst, and devoted 
 himself to critical and editorial work 
 in New York. 
 
 Brownie, an imaginary being to 
 whom evil properties were attributed ; 
 a domestic spirit or goblin, meager, 
 shaggy, and wild, supposed to haunt 
 many old houses, especially those at- 
 tached to farms. 
 
 Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, a 
 distinguished English poet, regarded 
 by some as the greatest which England 
 has ever produced ; born in London, 
 March 6. 1809. In 1846 she was mar- 
 ried to Robert Browning, and died at 
 Florence, Italy, June 29, 1861. 
 
 Browning, Robert, one of the 
 greatest of the Victorian poets ; born 
 in Camberwell, England, May 7, 1812.
 
 Bro willow 
 
 His father, who was a clerk in a bank, 
 had the boy educated in a school at 
 Peckham, after which he attended lec- 
 tures at University College. At the 
 age of 20 he traveled on the Conti- 
 nent and resided for some time in 
 Italy, where he made diligent study 
 of its mediaeval history. In 1846 he 
 married Elizabeth Barrett, and settled 
 with her in Florence, where they re- 
 mained for nearly 15 years. Recog- 
 nition of his literary fame, which 
 came slowly, was made in 1867, when 
 he was elected an honorary fellow of 
 Baliol, an M. A. of Oxford, and later 
 an LL. D. of Cambridge. He died in 
 Venice, Dec. 12, 1889. His body was 
 taken from Venice to England, where, 
 in national recognition of his genius, 
 it was buried in Westminster Abbey 
 between Cowley and Chaucer. 
 
 Brownlow, William Gannaway 
 '("PAESON BROWNLOW"), an Ameri- 
 can politician, journalist, and author, 
 born in Wythe county, Va., Aug. 29, 
 1805. During his early career he 
 was an itinerant preacher, editor, and 
 lecturer. He was a Union champion 
 during the Civil War, and was ban- 
 ished from the Confederate lines on 
 that ground. In 1865 he was elected 
 Governor of Tennessee, and was re- 
 elected in 1867. He was United 
 States Senator from 1869 to 1875. 
 He died in Knoxville, Tenn., April 
 29, 1877. 
 
 Brown-Sequard, Charles Edon- 
 ard, Franco-American physiologist and 
 physician, was born in Mauritius in 
 1818, his father being a sea captain 
 from Philadelphia, who married on the 
 island a lady named Sequard. The 
 son studied in Paris, and graduated 
 M. D. in 1846. He devoted himself 
 mainly to physiological research, and 
 received numerous prizes, French and 
 British, for the results of valuable ex- 
 periments on blood, muscular irrita- 
 bility, animal heat, the spinal cord, 
 and the nervous system. In 1864, he 
 became Professor of Physiology at 
 Harvard, but in 1869 returned to 
 Paris as Professor of Pathology in the 
 School of Medicine. In 1873 he be- 
 came a medical practitioner in New 
 York, treating especially diseases of 
 the nervous system ; and in 1878 he 
 succeeded Claude Bernard as Profes- 
 sor of Experimental Medicine at the 
 
 Brace 
 
 College de France. He died in Paris, 
 April 1, 1894. 
 
 Browiison, Orestes Augustus, 
 
 an American author ; born in Stock- 
 bridge, Vt., Sept. 16, 1803; died in 
 Detroit, Mich., April 17, 1876. 
 
 Brownsville, city, port of entry, 
 and county-seat of Cameron Co., Tex. ; 
 on the Rio Grande and the Rio 
 Grande railroad, opposite Matamoras, 
 Mexico. In the suburbs is Fort 
 Brown, a garrisoned United States 
 post. In May, 1840, Brownsville was 
 occupied and fortified by a small body 
 of United States troops, who main- 
 tained their position in the face of a 
 heavy bombardment that lasted for 160 
 hours ; and in November, 1863, it was 
 taken froaa the Confederates by a 
 Federal army under General Banks. 
 Pop. (1910) 10,517. 
 
 Brown. University, a co-educa- 
 tional institution in Providence, R. I. ; 
 organized in Warren in 1764 as Rhode 
 Island College ; removed to Providence 
 in 1770, and renamed in honor of 
 Nicholas Brown in 1804. It has al- 
 ways been affiliated with the Baptist 
 Church, but its management is non- 
 sectarian. 
 
 Brozik, Vacslav, a Bohemian ar- 
 tist, born in Pilsen in 1852. His pic- 
 ture, " Columbus at the Court of Isa- 
 bella," was presented to the city of 
 New York by Morris K. Jesup, and is 
 in the Metropolitan Museum. He is 
 a pupil of Pilaty and Munkacsy, and 
 is considered the foremost historical 
 painter living. 
 
 Bruce, Catherine "Wolfe, an 
 American patron of science, born in 
 New York city. She was a cousin of 
 Catherine Lorillard Wolfe, from whom 
 she inherited a fortune, which she 
 used in furthering astronomical study 
 at Harvard. She gave $50,000 to the 
 Harvard Observatory In 1888. The 
 Bruce Memorial Telescope at Are- 
 quipa, Peru, was her gift. In 1897 
 she established a gold medal fund for 
 the Astronomical Society of the Pa- 
 cific. She died in New York, March 
 13, 1900. 
 
 Bruce, Edward, a brother of 
 Robert I., who, after distinguishing 
 himself in the Scottish War of Inde- 
 pendence, crossed in 1315 to Ireland 
 to aid the native septs against the 
 English. After many successes he
 
 Brace 
 
 was crowned King of Ireland at Car- 
 rickfergus, but fell in battle near Dun- 
 dalk in 1318. 
 
 Bruce, James, an African trav- 
 eler, born in Stirling, Dec. 14, 1730. 
 In 1768 he set out for Cairo, navigated 
 the Nile to Syene. crossed the desert 
 to the Red Sea, passed some months 
 in Arabia Felix, and reached Gondar, 
 the capital of Abyssinia, in 1770. In 
 that country he ingratiated himself 
 with the sovereign and other influen- 
 tial persons, and in the same year suc- 
 ceeded in reaching the sources of the 
 Abal, then considered the main stream 
 of the Nile. Bruce lost his life by an 
 accident, April 27, 1894. 
 
 Bruce, Robert, the greatest of the 
 Kings of Scotland, born in 1274. In 
 1296, as Earl of Carrick, he swore 
 fealty to Edward I., and in 1297 
 fought on the English side against 
 Wallace. He then joined the Scot- 
 tish army, but in the same year re- 
 turned to his allegiance to Edward 
 until 1298, when he again joined the 
 National party, and became in 1299 
 one of the four regents of the king- 
 dom. In the three final campaigns, 
 however, he resumed fidelity to Ed- 
 ward, and resided for some time at 
 his court : but, learning that the King 
 meditated putting him to death on in- 
 formation given by the traitor Comyn, 
 he fled, in February, 1306, to Scot- 
 land, stabbed Comyn in a quarrel at 
 Dumfries, assembled his vassals at 
 Lochmaben Castle, and claimed the 
 crown, which he received at Scone, 
 March 27. Being twice defeated, he 
 dismissed his troops, retired to Rath- 
 lin Island, and was supposed to be 
 dead, when, in the spring of 1307, he 
 "landed on the Carrick coast, defeated 
 the Earl of Pembroke at Loudon Hill, 
 and in two years had wrested nearly 
 the whole country from the English. 
 He then in successive years advanced 
 into England, laying waste the coun- 
 try, and on June 24. 1314, defeated at 
 Bannockburn the English forces ad- 
 vancing under Edward II. to the re- 
 lief of the garrison at Stirling. In 
 1316 he went to Ireland to the aid of 
 his brother Edward, and, on his re- 
 turn in 1318, in retaliation for inroads 
 made during his absence, he took Ber- 
 wick and harried Northumberland and 
 Yorkshire. Hostilities continued un- 
 til the defeat of Edward near Byland 
 
 Bruise 
 
 Abbey in 1323, and though in that year 
 a truce was concluded for 13 years, 
 it was speedily broken. Not until 
 March 4, 1328, was the treaty con- 
 cluded by which the independence of 
 Scotland was fully recognized. Bruce 
 did not long survive the completion of 
 his work, dying at Cardross Castle on 
 June 7, 1329. 
 
 Bruce, Wallace, an American 
 poet, born in Hillsdale, N. Y., Nov. 
 10, 1844; graduated at Yale College 
 in 1867 ; and was United States Con- 
 sul at Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1889- 
 1893. 
 
 Bruges, a city of Belgium, capital 
 of West Flanders, at the junction of 
 the canals from Ghent, Ostend, and 
 L'Ecluse, 7 miles from the North Sea, 
 and 60 miles N. W. of Brussels. The 
 city has a circumference of nearly 4^ 
 miles, and is entered by six gates. 
 Many large and noble ancient man- 
 sions and spacious public edifices pre- 
 sent their pointed gables to the streets, 
 and afford interesting specimens of 
 the ornamental Gothic architecture of 
 the Middle Ages. Among the most re- 
 markable public edifices are the Ca- 
 thedral of Notre Dame (Onser 
 Vrouw) , the old Gothic Hospital of 
 St. John, and the elegant church of 
 St. Saviour. In the great square is a 
 lofty Gothic tower or belfry, the most 
 beautiful in Europe, and its chimes 
 are harmonious. In this tower there 
 are 48 bells, some weighing six tons; 
 they are played upon every quarter of 
 an hour by means of an immense cop- 
 per cylinder communicating with the 
 clock, and weighing about nine tons. 
 Its surface is pierced by 30,500 square 
 holes, so that an infinite variety of 
 airs may be set upon it, by merely 
 shifting the iron pegs that lift the 
 hammers. Pop. (1900) 52,867. 
 
 Bruliiis, Carl Christian, a re- 
 markable self-taught astronomer, born 
 in Plon, Holstein, Nov. 22, 1830, the 
 son of a locksmith ; died in Leipsic, 
 July 25, 1881. 
 
 Bruise, or Contusion, signifies an 
 injury inflicted by a blow or sudden 
 pressure, in which the skin is not 
 wounded, and no bone is broken ol 
 dislocated. Both terms, and especial- 
 ly the latter, are employed in surgerj 
 to include all such injuries in their 
 widest range, from a black eye to a
 
 Bruiuaire 
 
 thoroughly crushed mass of muscle. 
 la the slighter forms of this injury, 
 as in ordinary simple bruises, there is 
 no tearing, but only a concussion of 
 the textures, the utmost damage done 
 being the rupture of a few small blood 
 vessels, which occasions the discolora- 
 tion that is always observed in these 
 cases. 
 
 Brumaire, the second month of 
 the year in the French Revolutionary 
 calendar. It commenced on the 23d 
 of October, and ended on the 21st of 
 November, thus comprising 30 days. 
 It received its name from the fogs that 
 usually prevail about this time. The 
 18th of Brumaire, VIII. year (Nov. 
 9, 1799), is celebrated for the ovvj> 
 throw of the Directory and the est* V 
 lishment of the sway of Napoleoa 
 
 Brummel, George Bryan, ^the 
 sometime famous BEAU BRUMMEL), 
 born in London, June 7, 1778. He 
 was educated at Eton, and there 
 formed intimacies with the younger 
 nobility of the day. On his father's 
 death, inheriting a fortune of about 
 $150,000, he began his career as a 
 man of fashion, and became the inti- 
 mate associate of the Prince of Wales 
 (afterward George IV.). He it was 
 who inaugurated the reign of dandy- 
 ism, and for a period of 20 years exer- 
 cised almost despotic sway over Eng- 
 lish society in the matter of dress. 
 His fortune being soon swallowed up, 
 he maintained his position in society 
 by his success at play, and the inde- 
 scribable charm of his manner and 
 conversation. After a rupture with 
 the Prince, his influence .gradually de- 
 clined ; and oppressed by debt, and the 
 falling off of former friends, he re- 
 tired to Calais, and afterward to Caen, 
 where he was appointed British con- 
 sul, and where he died, March 30, 
 1840. 
 
 Brumal, or Brunei, a British Pro- 
 tectorate in the N. W. of Borneo, till 
 1888 nominally an independent Mo- 
 hammedan territory, whose sultan 
 was formerly overlord of the whole is- 
 land. Area, about 18,000 square 
 miles; pop. est. at 125,000, divided 
 into trade castes. The capital, 
 Brunai, on a river of the same name, 
 is a miserable, dirty town, built on 
 piles, with some 30,000 inhabitants, 
 who trade with Singapore. 
 
 Brunn 
 
 Brunei, Sir Marc Isambard, a 
 
 French civil engineer, born in Hac- 
 queville, near Rouen, April 25, 1769. 
 He entered the mercantile marine, 
 made several voyages to the West In- 
 dies, and, when the French Revolution 
 of 1793 drove him from his country, 
 he went to New York, with the reso- 
 lution of endeavoring to turn his en- 
 gineering skill to some account. Ac- 
 cordingly, he, conjointly with another, 
 surveyed the ground for the canal 
 which now connects the Hudson river 
 at Albany with Lake Champlain. In 
 1825 he began excavating for the 
 Thames tunnel. This extraordinary 
 work was opened to the public in 
 1843; but previously, in 1841, the 
 honor of knighthood had been con- 
 ferred upon him. He died in London, 
 Dec. 12, 1849. 
 
 Brunei, Isambard Kingdom, 
 son of the above, born in Portsmouth, 
 England, April 9, 1806 ; was educated 
 at the College of Henri IV., at Caen, 
 France, and began the study of civil 
 engineering under his father. He was 
 the resident engineer of the Thames 
 tunnel, and the designer and civil en- 
 gineer of the " Great Western," the 
 first steamship built to cross the At- 
 lantic. He was also the constructor 
 of the magnificent iron steamship, the 
 " Great Eastern," which was built at 
 Millwall. He died in Westminster, 
 Sept. 15, 1859. 
 
 Brunetiere, Ferdinand, a 
 French critic ; born in Toulon, July 
 19. 1849. He was critic of the " Re- 
 vue des Deux Mondes " ; became an 
 Academician 1893 ; and 1897 lectured 
 in the U. S. He inclined to the ideal- 
 ist as opposed to the naturalist school, 
 and denounced literary fads. He died 
 Dec. 9, 1906. 
 
 Brunn, Heinrich, a German ar- 
 chaeologist; born in Worlitz, Anhalt, 
 Jan. 23, 1822; became Professor of 
 Archaeology at Munich; and published 
 seveial works of high repute among 
 scholars. He died in Munich, July 
 23, 1894. 
 
 Brunn, an Austrian city, capital of 
 Moravia, on the railway from Vienna 
 to Prague, nearly encircled by the 
 rivers Schwarzawa and Zwittawa. It 
 is the center of Moravian commerce, a 
 great part of which is carried on by 
 fairs. Near it is the fortress of Spiel-
 
 Brnno 
 
 berg, in which Trenck and Silvio Pel- 
 lico were confined. Pop. (1891) 
 95,342; (1900) 108,900. 
 
 Bruno, Giordano, an Italian phil- 
 osopher, one of the boldest and most 
 original thinkers of his age, born in 
 Jsola, about 1550. He became a Dom- 
 inican monk, but his religious doubts, 
 and his censures of the monastic or- 
 ders, compelled him to quit his mon- 
 astery and Italy. He embraced the 
 doctrines of Calvin at Geneva, but 
 doubt and free discussion not being in 
 favor there, he went, after two years' 
 stay, to Paris. He gave lectures on 
 philosophy there, and, by his avowed 
 opposition to the scholastic system, 
 made himself many bitter enemies. He 
 next spent two years in England, and 
 became the friend of Sir Philip Sid- 
 ney. In 1585 he went again to Paris 
 and renewed his public lectures. Af- 
 ter visiting and teaching in various 
 towns in Germany, he returned, in 
 1592, to Padua, and went afterward 
 to Venice, where he was, in 1598, ar- 
 rested by the Inquisition and sent to 
 Rome. He lay in prison two years, 
 and on Feb. 17, 1600, was burned as a 
 heretic. 
 
 Brnno the Great, one of the most 
 eminent men of his time, born about 
 925, the third son of Henry the Fowl- 
 er. He became archbishop of Cologne, 
 jnd chancellor of the Empire under 
 his brother, Otto I., and afterward, as 
 a reward for his services, Duke of 
 Lorraine. He strove to reform the 
 monasteries and advance the love of 
 learning among the clergy. He died in 
 Rheinis, Oct. 11, 965. 
 
 Brunswick, Duchy of, in Ger- 
 many, consists of five detached por- 
 tions of territory on the rivers Weser, 
 Seine, Ocker and Aller. It occupies 
 part of the vast plain which stretches 
 from the foot of the Ha'rtz Mountains 
 and their continuations (the Soiling) 
 to the German Ocean and the Baltic, 
 with a portion of the rise of those 
 chains on the N. side. The^ largest 
 portion contains the districts of 
 Wolfenbuttel and Schoningen, in 
 which the cities of Brunswick and 
 Wolfenbuttel, and the towns of Kon- 
 igsbutter and Helmstadt, are situated. 
 Two small detached portions of terri- 
 tory, viz., the circles of Theding- 
 hausen on the Weser, ana :hat of 
 
 ' 
 
 Brunswick 
 
 Badenburg, are inclosed by the Han- 
 overian territory, and form part, the 
 former of the Weser district, the lat- 
 ter of the Seine district. Finally, the 
 detached circle of Kalvorde, inclosed 
 within the Prussian Province of Sax- 
 ony, belongs to the district of Schon- 
 ingen. The duchy has an area of 1,526 
 square miles. The inhabitants are 
 mostly engaged in agricultural and 
 mining pursuits. Iron is the chief 
 produce of the mines worked in the 
 three districts of the Hartz, Weser 
 and Blankenburg. Nearly the whole 
 of the inhabitants are members of the 
 Lutheran Church. Pop. (1900) 464,- 
 333. Brunswick, the capital, is on the 
 Ocker, in a level and fertile district. 
 A fine avenue of linden trees leads to 
 the ducal palace, which, destroyed by 
 fire in 1830 and 1865, was rebuilt in 
 1869. Pop. (1900) 128,226. 
 
 Brunswick, Family of, a distin- 
 guished family founded by Albert 
 Azo II., Marquis of Reggio and Mo- 
 dena, a descendant, by the female line, 
 of Charlemagne. In 1047 he married 
 Cunigunda, heiress of the Counts of 
 Altorf, thus uniting the two houses 
 of Este and Guelph. His son Guelph, 
 was created Duke of Bavaria in 1071, 
 and married Judith of Flanders, a de- 
 scendant of Alfred of England. From 
 Guelph was descended George Louis, 
 son of Ernest Augustus and Sophia, 
 granddaughter of James I. of Eng- 
 land, who succeeded his father as 
 Elector of Hanover in 1698, and was 
 called to the throne of Great Britain 
 in 1714 as George I. 
 
 Brunswick, Friedrich Wil- 
 helm, Dnke of, fourth and youngest 
 son of Duke Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand 
 of Brunswick, born in 1771. During 
 the war against France in 1792 and 
 subsequently, he fought in the Prus- 
 sian armies, was twice wounded, and 
 once made prisoner with Blucher at 
 Lubeck. For the campaign of 1809 
 he raised a free corps in Bohemia, but 
 was compelled to embark his troops 
 for England, where he was received 
 with enthusiasm. His corps immedi- 
 ately entered the British service, and 
 was afterward employed in Portugal 
 and Spain, returning to his hereditary 
 dominions, 1813. The events of 1815 
 called him again to arms, and he fell 
 at Quatre Bras, 1815. Caroline, wife of 
 George IV., was a sister of this prince.
 
 Brunswick- Lunebnrg 
 
 Brutus 
 
 Brunswick - Luneburg, Karl 
 Wilhelm Ferdinand, Duke of; 
 
 born in 1735. In service against the 
 French he proved himself brave and 
 resolute but unsuccessful. He was 
 mortally wounded at the battle of 
 Auerstadt, and closed his life in Ot- 
 tensen, near Altona, Nov. 10, 1806. 
 
 Brush, Charles Francis, an 
 American scientist ; born in Euclid, 
 near Cleveland, O., March 17, 1849. 
 He was graduated at the University 
 of Michigan, in 18G9. He invented 
 the modern arc system of electric 
 lighting and founded the Brush Elec- 
 tric Company. He was decorated by 
 the French government in 1881 for 
 his achievements in electrical science. 
 In 1891 he won a long contest in the 
 Federal courts over the rights to the 
 manufacture and sale of storage bat- 
 teries ; and in 1900 he was awarded the 
 Rumford medal by the American 
 Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
 
 Brush, George Jarvis, an Ameri- 
 can mineralogist ; born in Brooklyn, 
 N. Y., Dec. 15, 1831. He received a 
 public school education and studied 
 science at New Haven. He has been 
 Professor of Mineralogy and a lead- 
 ing official of the Sheffield Scientific 
 School since 1864. His writings on 
 mineralogy are authoritative. 
 
 Brussels, the capital of Belgium ; 
 on the river Senne, communicates with 
 Antwerp and the Baltic Sea by means 
 of the Scheldt canal, and railroads 
 connect it with Germany, France, and 
 Holland, as well as with all the princi- 
 pal towns of Belgium. Pop. (1900) 
 with suburbs, 561,782. 
 
 Brutus, Lucius Jnnins, a Roman 
 hero ; son of Marcus Junius and the 
 daughter of the elder Tarquin ; saved 
 his life from the persecutions of Tar- 
 quin the Proud by feigning himself 
 insane, on which account he received 
 the surname Brutus (stupid). Dur- 
 ing a plague that broke out at Rome 
 he accompanied the son of Tarquin to 
 the oracle in Delphi. When Lucretia, 
 the wife of Collatinus, plunged a dag- 
 ger into her bosom that she might not 
 outlive the insult which she had suf- 
 fered from Sextus, the son of Tarquin, 
 Brutus, being present, threw off his 
 mask. He drew the dagger, all 
 bloody, from the wound, and swore 
 vengeance against the Tarquins, ex- 
 
 plaining to the astonished spectators 
 the reason of his pretended imbecility, 
 and persuading all who were present 
 to take the same oath. The people 
 submitted to his guidance, and he 
 caused the gates to be shut, the in- 
 habitants to be assembled, and the body 
 to be publicly exposed. He then urged 
 the banishment of the Tarquins. Af- 
 ter this had been resolved on, Brutus 
 proposed to abolish the regal dignity, 
 and introduce a free government. It 
 was then determined that two consuls 
 should exercise supreme power for a 
 year, and Junius Brutus and Tar- 
 quinius Collatinus were chosen for the 
 first term. Tarquin, who had seen 
 the gates shut against him, and found 
 himself deserted by his army, sent am- 
 bassadors to Rome to demand a restor- 
 ation of his private property, and, at 
 the same time, to promise that he 
 would make no attempt against the 
 republic. His request was granted. 
 The ambassadors, however, set on foot 
 a conspiracy, and drew into it many 
 young men, among whom were the 
 two sons of Brutus and the nephews 
 of Collatinus. But a slave named 
 Vindex discovered the plot. The crim- 
 inals were imprisoned, and the consuls 
 caused the people the next morning to 
 be called to a meeting. All were deep- 
 ly shocked to see the sons of Brutus 
 among the prisoners, and their father 
 on the judgment seat to condemn 
 them. Collatinus wept, and even the 
 stern Valerius sat silent. But Brutus 
 arose firmly, and, after the crime had 
 been proved beyond a doubt, ordered 
 the lie-tors to execute the law. Neither 
 the entreaties of the people nor of his 
 sons could alter his resolution. He 
 witnessed the horrible spectacle with- 
 out emotion, and did not leave the as- 
 sembly till after the execution. He 
 was called back, however, when Col- 
 latinus wished to' save his guilty neph- 
 ews. The people condemned them all, 
 and chose Valerius consul in place of 
 Collatinus. In the meantime, Tar- 
 quin, supported by Porsenna, collected 
 an army and marched against Rome. 
 The consuls advanced to meet him. 
 Brutus led the cavalry, Aruns, son of 
 Tarquin, commanded the body opposed 
 to him. They pierced each other with 
 their spears at the same moment, and 
 both fell 509 B. c. The Romans came 
 off conquerors, and Brutus was bur-
 
 Brutus 
 
 ied with great splendor. The women 
 lamented him a whole year, as the 
 avenger of the honor of their sex. 
 The details of the story of Brutus, 
 which may be regarded as a poetical 
 legend, have been shown by Niebuhr 
 to be irreconcilable with history. 
 
 Brutus, Marcus Jnnins, one of 
 the most distinguished Romans at the 
 close of the republican period ; born 
 of a plebeian family 85 B. c. He was 
 at first an enemy of Pompey, who had 
 slain his father in Galatia, but for- 
 got his private enmity, and was recon- 
 ciled to him when he undertook the de- 
 fense of freedom. He did not, how- 
 ever, assume any public station, and, 
 after the unfortunate battle of Phar- 
 salia, surrendered himself to Caesar, 
 who received him generously, allowed 
 him to withdraw from the war, made 
 him in the following year governor of 
 Cisalpine Gaul, and afterward con- 
 ferred on him the government of Ma- 
 cedonia. Notwithstanding these ben- 
 efits, Brutus allowed himself to be 
 drawn into, and made the head of the 
 conspiracy against Caesar. He was 
 led into the conspiracy by Cassius, 
 who, impelled by hatred against Cae- 
 sar, sought? at first by writing, and 
 then by means of his wife, Junia, sis- 
 ter of Brutus, to gain his favor ; and 
 when he thought him prepared for the 
 proposal, disclosed to him verbally the 
 plan of a conspiracy against Csesar, 
 who had now made himself master of 
 the supreme power in the State. 
 Brutus was induced to agree to the de- 
 sign, and his influence led many of 
 the most distinguished Romans to em- 
 brace it also. Caesar was assassinated 
 in the senate house. In public 
 speeches Brutus explained the reasons 
 of this deed, but he could not appease 
 the dissatisfaction of the people, and 
 retired with his party to the capital. 
 He soon after took courage, when the 
 consul, . P. Cornelius Dolabella, and 
 the praetor, L. Cornelius Cinna, 
 Caesar's brother-in-law, declared them- 
 selves in his favor. But Antony, 
 whom Brutus had generously spared, 
 was reconciled to him only in appear- 
 ance, and obtained his leave to read 
 Caesar's will to the people. By means 
 of this instrument Antony succeeded in 
 exciting the popular indignation 
 against the murderers of Caesar, and 
 they were compelled to flee from Rome. 
 
 Bryan 
 
 Brutus went to Athens and endeav- 
 ored to form a party there among the 
 Roman nobility ; he gained over, also, 
 the troops in Macedonia. He then be- 
 gan to levy soldiers openly, which 
 was the easier for him, as the remain- 
 der of Pompey's troops since the de- 
 feat of their general, had been roving 
 about in Thessaly. Hortensius, the 
 governor of Macedonia, aided him ; 
 and thus Brutus, master of all Greece 
 and Macedonia, in a short time stood 
 at the head of a powerful army. He 
 went now to Asia and joined Cassius, 
 whose efforts had been equally suc- 
 cessful. In Rome, on the contrary, 
 the triumvirs prevailed. All the con- 
 spirators had been condemned and the 
 people had taken up arms against 
 them. 
 
 Brutus and Cassius having finally 
 with difficulty subdued the Lycians 
 and Rhodians, returned to Europe to 
 oppose the triumvirs. The army 
 passed over the Hellespont, and 19 
 legions and 20,000 cavalry were as- 
 sembled on the plains of Philippi, in 
 Macedonia, whither also the trium- 
 virs, Antony and Octavianus (after- 
 ward the Emperor Augustus), 
 marched with their legions. Although 
 Roman historians do not agree in their 
 accounts of the battle of Philippi, this 
 much at least seems certain, that Cas- 
 sius was beaten by Antony ; that Bru- 
 tus fought with greater success against 
 the division of the army commanded 
 by Octavianus ; that 20 days after he 
 was induced, by the ardor of his sol- 
 diers, to renew the contest ; and that 
 he was this time totally defeated. He 
 escaped with only a few friends, passed 
 the night in a cave, and as he saw 
 his cause irretrievably ruined, ordered 
 Strato, one of his confidants, to kill 
 him. Strato refused a long time to 
 perform the command ; but, seeing 
 Brutus resolved, he turned away his 
 face, and held his sword, while Brutus 
 fell upon it, and died in 42 B. c. 
 
 Bryan, William Jennings, an 
 American political leader, born in 
 Salem, 111., March 19, 1860. He was 
 graduated at Illinois College in 1881, 
 preparing subsequently for the bar at 
 Union College, Chicago. In 1887 he 
 removed to Lincoln, Neb., and was 
 elected to Congress in 1890, and again 
 in 1892. Four years later he was 
 nominated for the presidency of the
 
 Bryant 
 
 United States by the Democratic Na- 
 tional Convention at Chicago. He ad- 
 vocated the free and unlimited coin- 
 age of silver by the United States at a 
 ratio of 16 to 1, and was defeated in 
 the presidential campaign. He was 
 Col. of a regt. of volunteers during the 
 Spanish War. In 1900, he was again 
 defeated for the presidency by W. 
 McKinley. He founded " The Com- 
 moner," a weekly political periodical 
 which he edits. In 1905-06 he made 
 a tour of the world, and was received 
 at foreign courts with distinction. Iu 
 1908 he was defeated a third time 
 for the Presidency, by William H. 
 Taft, and in 1910 lost the party 
 leadership in his own State, both in 
 convention and at the primaries. 
 
 Bryant, William Cullen, an 
 American poet; born Nov. 3, 1794, in 
 Cummington, Mass. His father, a 
 man of great literary culture, practised 
 as a physician. He prepared, when 
 he was but 14, a collection of poems, 
 which were published in Boston in 
 1809. In that volume appeared " The 
 Embargo," the only poem dealing with 
 the politics of the day he ever wrote. 
 In the following year Bryant entered 
 Williams College as a student of law, 
 but left without taking a degree in 
 1815, when he was admitted to the 
 bar. In that year he became a con- 
 tributor to the " North American Re- 
 view," in which appeared the follow- 
 ing year his " Thanatopsis," a poem in 
 blank verse, which received much laud- 
 atory criticism. Six years later he 
 published a second collection of poems 
 which brought him into real fame. 
 He definitely abandoned law for liter- 
 ature in 1825, and went to New York, 
 where he founded the " New York Re- 
 view," and a year after became the 
 editor of the " Evening Post," an old 
 established paper with which he was 
 connected till his death. A complete 
 edition of his poems up to 1855 was 
 published in that year, and in 1863 
 appeared a small volume entitled 
 " Thirty Poems." His last works of 
 importance are his translations of the 
 "Iliad "(1870) and the "Odyssey" 
 (1872), translations which many 
 American critics rank above any that 
 had hitherto appeared in the English 
 language. Early in 1878 appeared 
 " The Flood of Years," his last poem 
 Of any great \ength. On the occasion 
 
 Bubali* 
 
 of uncovering a statue to Mazzini 
 (May 30, 1878) he had to stand un- 
 covered for about an hour under a 
 burning sun. On his way home he 
 met with an accident which was fol- 
 lowed by concussion of the brain, and 
 on June 12 he expired. 
 
 Bryce, George, a Canadian edu- 
 cator and clergyman ; born in Mount 
 Pleasant, Ontario, April 22, 1844. He 
 was graduated at the University of 
 Toronto in 1867, and was ordained to 
 the Presbyterian ministry in 1871. His 
 great work was the foundation of 
 Manitoba College and in assisting the 
 foundation of Manitoba University. 
 
 Bryce, James, an Irish historian, 
 born in Belfast, May 10, 1838. After 
 graduating at Oxford in 1862, he 
 studied at Heidelberg, and subsequent- 
 ly practised law in London. From 
 1870 till 1893 he was Regius Profes- 
 sor of Civil Law in Oxford, and has 
 had a distinguished political career. 
 In Dec., 1906, he was appointed Brit- 
 ish ambassador to the United States. 
 
 Bryce, Lloyd, an American editor 
 and novelist, born in Long Island, N. 
 Y., in 1852. He was editor of the 
 " North American Review." from 1889 
 to 1896. 
 
 Bryn Mawr College, an educa- 
 tional institution for women, at Bryn 
 Mawr, Pa. ; founded in 1880 by Joseph 
 Taylor. Its standard of admission is 
 very high ; its system of undergraduate 
 studies combines required courses and 
 varied elective groups. 
 
 Bryopliyllum, a genus of plants 
 belonging to the houseleeks. Its na- 
 tive country is the East Indies, whence 
 it has been carried to other places. In 
 Bermuda, where it is naturalized and 
 grows abundantly, it is called life 
 plant. 
 
 Bnbalis, a genus in the antelope 
 division of hollow horned, even toed 
 ruminants, not to be confused with 
 Buffalo. The species of bubalis are 
 among the more oxlike antelopes, and 
 one of them is supposed to be the bu- 
 balus of the ancients. In this genus 
 the head is elongated, the snout broad, 
 the horns twisted and present in both 
 sexes, the tear pits small, the back 
 sloping off behind, the teats two in 
 number. The bubaline of the North 
 African deserts is a handsome animal 
 of a reddish brown color, standing
 
 Bubonic Plague 
 
 Buccaneer 
 
 about 5 feet high at the shoulder, liv- 
 ing ir herds, and readily tamed. It is 
 figured on Egyptian monuments. The 
 hartebeest is found in the S., is per- 
 haps slightly larger, has a general 
 gray brows color (black on the outside 
 of the legs and on middle of forehead, 
 with large white spots on haunches), 
 and is at home on the mountains. The 
 sassaby, the bastard hartebeest of the 
 Cape Colonists, is slightly smaller, and 
 is differently colored. The bontebok 
 is a smaller and more beautifully col- 
 ored form of the S. interior, where 
 another species, the violet colored bles- 
 bok, is also abundant. 
 
 Bubonic Plague, a disease sup- 
 posed to be identical with the plague 
 known as the Black Death, which had 
 its origin in China, and made its first 
 appearance in Europe 543 A. D., at 
 Constantinople. It derives its mod- 
 ern name from the fact that it attacks 
 the lymphatic glands in the neck, arm- 
 pits, groins and other parts of the 
 body. The swollen parts are extreme- 
 ly sensitive to the touch, the patient 
 suffers from headache, vertigo, high 
 fever, vomiting and great prostration. 
 Another feature is the appearance of 
 purple spots and a mottling of the 
 skin. In severe cases death generally 
 ensues in 48 hours, and, at best, re- 
 covery is slow. At the Hoagland 
 laboratory in Brooklyn, N. Y., exten- 
 sive experiments have been made, both 
 in the culture of the germs and in an 
 anti-toxin. The disease has been 
 called " the poor's plague," from the 
 fact that it first attacks the half 
 starved masses who congregate in the 
 slums of the cities. This was the case 
 in Bombay, where so fatal were its 
 ravages that a panic ensued and more 
 than 450,000 people, one-half the pop- 
 ulation, left the city. The first au- 
 thentic description of the bubonic 
 plague is contained in the writings of 
 Rufus of Epbesus, who described the 
 disease as having existed in Northern 
 Africa during the 3d or 4th century 
 B. c. lie presented the testimony of 
 physicians of that period to corrobor- 
 ate his arguments. Since that time 
 the disease has been variously describ- 
 ed by writers under the name of Le- 
 vantine, Oriental and Bubonic Plague 
 and the black plague, or black death. 
 These designations are more or less 
 open to criticism and lack scientific 
 
 foundation. In the reign of Justinian, 
 542 A. D., the disease appeared in 
 Egypt, and within a year extended to 
 Constantinople, where it is said to 
 have caused the death of 10,000 per- 
 sons in one day. In 1352 the^plague 
 spread through the whole of Europe 
 and nearly one-fourth of the popula- 
 tion died. It is estimated by Hecker 
 I that during this reign of terror, out of 
 1 2,000,000 inhabitants of Norway, but 
 1 300,000 survived. It was estimated 
 by Pope Clement VI. that the mortal- 
 ity from black death for the entire 
 world was 40,000,000. This outbreak 
 lasted about 20 years. During the 
 great plague of London, in 1665, there 
 were 63,596 deaths out of a popula- 
 tion of 460,000. It was believed the 
 infection was introduced by bales of 
 merchandise from the Levant. The 
 sanitary condition of London, at the 
 time, was notoriously bad. It is a 
 significant fact that those who lived 
 out of town and on barges and ships 
 on the Thames did not contract the 
 disease. In 1903 the disease was re- 
 ported in Southern Russia and other 
 eastern regions, and great care was 
 exercised to keep it out of the United 
 States. 
 
 Buccaneer, an order of men, not 
 quite pirates, yet with decidedly pirat- 
 ical tendencies, who for nearly 200 
 years infested the Spanish main and 
 the adjacent regions. A bull of Poge 
 Alexander VI., issued in 1493, having 
 granted to Spain all lands which might 
 be discovered W. of the Azores, the 
 Spaniards thought that they possessed 
 a monopoly of all countries in the New 
 World, and that they had a right to 
 seize, and even put to death, all inter- 
 lopers into their wide domain. The 
 association of buccaneers began about 
 1 1524, and continued till after the Eng- 
 i lish revolution of 1688, when the 
 | French attacked the English in the 
 i West Indies, and the buccaneers of the 
 j two countries, who had hitherto been 
 friends, took different sides, and were 
 separated forever. Thus weakened, 
 they began to be suppressed between 
 1697 and 1701, and soon afterward 
 ceased to exist, pirates of the normal 
 type, to a certain extent, taking their 
 place. The buccaneers were also 
 called " filibusters," or " filibusters " 
 term which was revived in connec- 
 tion with the adventures of " General '*
 
 Bnccleugh 
 
 Walker, who sought to establish him- 
 eelf as a ruler in Central America. 
 
 Buccleugh, the title (now a duke- 
 dom) of one of the oldest families in 
 Scotland, tracing descent from Sir 
 Richard le Scott in the reign of Alex- 
 ander III. 
 
 Bucentaur, a mythical monster, 
 half man and half ox. The splendid 
 galley in which the Doge of Venice an- 
 nually wedded the Adriatic bore this 
 name, doubtless because of the figure 
 of a bucentaur on her bow. 
 
 Bucephalus, the celebrated horse 
 of Alexander the Great, whose head 
 resembled that of a bull, whence his 
 name. Alexander was the only one 
 who could mount him. In an engage- 
 ment in Asia, where he received a 
 heavy wound, he immediately hastened 
 out of the battle, and dropped dead 
 as soon as he had set down the King 
 in a safe place. Alexander built on 
 the river Hydaspes, in India, a city 
 which he called after his name. 
 
 Bucer, Martin, a Protestant re- 
 former ; born in Schlestadt, Alsace, in 
 1491. In 1521 he left the Dominican 
 Order, and became a convert to Lu- 
 theranism. He was at first preacher 
 at the court of Frederick, the Elector 
 of the Palatinate; afterward in Stras- 
 burg ; and at the same time professor 
 in the university there for 20 years. 
 He died in Cambridge in 1551. In 
 1557 Queen Mary caused his bones to 
 be burned, to show her detestation of 
 Protestantism. 
 
 Buchanan, Andrews Hays, an 
 American educator ; born in Washing- 
 ton Co., Ark., June 28, 1828; was 
 graduated at Cumberland University 
 in 1853 ; and took a special course in 
 civil engineering and mathematics in 
 Lincoln University ; taught civil engi- 
 neering in 1854-1861 ; was military 
 topographical engineer in the Confed- 
 erate army during the Civil War ; and 
 became Professor of Mathematics and 
 Civil Engineering in Cumberland Uni- 
 versity in 1869. He was the author 
 of " Plane and Spherical Trigonom- 
 etry " ; etc. 
 
 Buchanan, James, an American 
 statesman, 15th President of the Unit- 
 ed States, born near Mercersburg, Pa., 
 April 23, 1791; graduated at Dickin- 
 son College in 1809, admitted to the 
 bar in 1812. He supported the War 
 
 - Bucharest 
 
 of 1812, although affiliated with the 
 Federalist Party. In 1820 he was 
 elected to Congress, serving successive 
 terms by re-election for 10 years, 
 where he made some reputation in the 
 advocacy of bills for reorganizing the 
 courts and judiciary. In 1828 he sup- 
 ported Andrew Jackson for tne Presi- 
 dency, who, in turn, appointed him. 
 Minister to Russia, where he distin- 
 guished himself by arranging an im- 
 portant commercial treaty. In 1834, 
 he entered the United States Senate, 
 serving there 12 years, where he de- 
 fended the spoils system instituted by 
 Jackson, and declared against the right 
 or power of the Government to inter- 
 fere with slavery in tlv States. He 
 was appointed Secretary of State by 
 President Polk, after which service he 
 was in retirement for four years. Un- 
 der President Pierce he was sent in 
 1853 as Minister to England, where 
 his advocacy of the annexation of 
 Cuba by the United States led to his 
 nomination to the Presidency in 1856. 
 His cabinet contained men who sup- 
 ported the secession of South Carolina, 
 and eventually joined the Confeder- 
 acy. He announced in a message 
 (1860) that the President had neither 
 the right nor the constitutional power 
 to prevent a State from seceding. His 
 unwillingness to take decisive action 
 enabled the seceding States to arm 
 and prepare for war before the Gov- 
 ernment did anything to prevent. Af- 
 ter he retired, however, he supported 
 the Union cause. He died in Lancas- 
 ter, Pa., June 1, 1868. 
 
 Buchanan, Robert Williams, 
 English poet, novelist and playwright ; 
 born in Warwickshire, Aug. 18, 1841 ; 
 died in London, June 10, 1901. 
 
 Bucharest, the capital of the for- 
 mer principality of Wallachia and of 
 the present kingdom of Rumania, 
 stands 265 feet above sea level, in the 
 fertile but treeless plain of the small, 
 sluggish Dambovitza. A strange meet- 
 ing point of East and West, the town 
 as a whole is but meanly built, but 
 the streets are mostly paved and light- 
 ed with gas and electricity. An elab- 
 orate system of fortification was un- 
 dertaken in 1885. There are some 
 handsome hotels; and the metal 
 plated cupolas of the innumerable 
 churches gives to the place a pictur- 
 esque aspect. Bucharest is the entre-
 
 Buchner 
 
 pot for the trade between Austria and 
 the Balkan Peninsula, the chief arti- 
 cles of commerce being textile fabrics, 
 grain, hides, metal, coal, timber, and 
 cattle. Its manufactures are unim- 
 portant, and the workmen are chiefly 
 Hungarians and Germans. Bucharest 
 has been several times besieged ; and 
 between 1793 and 1812 suffered twice 
 from earthquakes, twice from inunda- 
 tions, once from fire, and twice from 
 pestilence. Pop. (1900) 282,071. 
 
 Buchner, Ludwig, a German phy- 
 sician and materialist philosopher, 
 born at Darmstadt, 1824; died 1899. 
 He studied at Giessen, Strasburg, 
 Wurzburg and Vienna ; became a lec- 
 turer at Tubingen University ; and, in 
 1855, published "Kraft und Stoff " 
 ("Force and Matter"), in which he 
 attempted to establish a materialistic 
 view of the universe. Died in 1899. 
 
 Buchner, Max, a German traveler 
 and scientist, born in Hamburg, April 
 25, 1846. In 1878 he bore presents 
 from the Emperor to Muatiamvo, in 
 the Kingdom of Lunda, in Equatorial 
 Africa. After several vain attempts 
 to break through toward the N., he re- 
 turned to the coast. In 1884 he ac- 
 companied Nachtigal in founding the 
 colonies of Togo and Kamerun, in 
 West Africa, where he acted tem- 
 porarily as representative of the Ger- 
 man Empire. 
 
 Buchtel College, a co-educational 
 Institution in Akron, O. ; founded in 
 1871, under the auspices of the Uni- 
 versalist Church. 
 
 Buck, a name sometimes distinct- 
 ively appropriated to the adult male 
 of the fallow deer, the female of which 
 is a doe. The term is often also ap- 
 plied to the male of other species of 
 deer, as of the roebuck, although never 
 to that of the red deer, which, when 
 mature, is a stag or a hart. 
 
 Buck, Dudley, an American or- 
 ganist, composer, and author, born in 
 Hartford, Conn., March 10, .1839. He 
 was widely known through his instru- 
 mental and vocal music, and beside^ 
 a number of cantatas, he wrote sev 
 eral books on musical topics. D. 1909. 
 
 Bnckbeam, the English name of 
 menyanthes, a genus of plants belong- 
 ing to the gentian worts. An infusion 
 of its leaves is bitter. In Sw.eden two 
 ounces of the leaves are substituted for 
 
 E. 25 
 
 fiuckland 
 
 a pound of hops. In Lapland the roots 
 are occasionally powdered and eaten. 
 
 Buckeye, the American horse 
 chestnut tree. The term is also ap- 
 plied to the State of Ohio. 
 
 Buckingham, George Villiers, 
 Duke of, favorite of James I. and 
 Charles I., of England, born in 1592, 
 his father being George Villiers, 
 Knight. He was stabbed on Aug. 24, 
 1628, by John Felton, an ex-lieutenant 
 who had been disappointed in being 
 promoted. 
 
 Buckingham, James Silk, an 
 English traveler, writer, and lecturer, 
 born near Falmouth, Aug. 25, 1786. 
 After trying several professions, and 
 wandering over a great part of the 
 world, he went to London, where he 
 established the "Athenaeum," well 
 known as a literary journal. Subse- 
 quently he made a tour of three years 
 in the United States. In 1843 he be- 
 came secretary to the British and For- 
 eign Institute. He also published 
 volumes on his Continental tours and 
 an autobiography. He died in Lon- 
 don, June 30, 1855. 
 
 Buckingham, William Alfred, 
 an American statesman, born in Leb- 
 anon, Conn., May 28, 1804; was for 
 nine years Governor of Connecticut 
 (1858-1866) ; called the "War Gov- 
 ernor " for his zeal in furnishing 
 troops in the Civil War; and was 
 United States Senator from 1869 till 
 his death. He was active in the tem- 
 perance cause, and a patron of Yale 
 College. He died in Norwich, Conn., 
 Feb. 3, 1875. 
 
 Bmckingkam Palace, a royal 
 palace in London, facing St. James* 
 Park, and forming one of the resi- 
 dences of Queen Victoria. 
 
 Bncklamd, Cyrus, an American 
 inventor, born in Springfield, Mass., 
 Aug. 10, 1799 ; after assisting in build- 
 ing the machinery for the first cotton 
 mills erected in Chicopee Falls, be- 
 came, in 1828, the pattern maker in 
 the United States armory, in Spring- 
 field. He remained here for 28 years, 
 becoming master-mechanic. He de- 
 signed machinery and tools for the 
 manufacture of firearms; remodeled 
 old weapons and designed new ones; 
 perfected a lathe for turning out gun 
 stocks; invented machines to bore and 
 turn gun barrels and for rifling mus-
 
 Bucklainl 
 
 kets, and many other novelties in the 
 manufacture of firearms and ordnance. 
 Much of his machinery was adopted 
 by foreign governments. Having re- 
 ceived nothing for his labor at the ar- 
 mory, excepting his salary, Congress 
 voted him $10,000 when ill-health com- 
 pelled him to resign. He died in 
 Springfield, Feb. 26, 1891. 
 
 Buckland, Francis Trevelyan, 
 an English naturalist ; born in Oxford, 
 Dec. 17, 1826. His preferences were 
 for practical science, and, after retir- 
 ing from his place as surgeon to the 
 2d Life Guards, he founded the jour- 
 Dai, " Land and Water," of which he 
 was editor. He was an authority on 
 fish culture, and as such was consulted 
 by foreign governments. He was a 
 resolute opponent of Darwinism. He 
 died Dec. 19, 1880. 
 
 Buckland, William, an English 
 geologist, born in Tiverton, Devon- 
 shire, March 12, 1784. In 1845 he 
 was made Dean of Westminster ; but, 
 under his great and continuous labors 
 to benefit others, his mental faculties 
 gave way seven years before his death, 
 which took place Aug. 14, 1856. 
 
 Buckle, Henry Thomas, an Eng- 
 lish historian, born in Kent, Nov. 24, 
 1822. His chief work, a philosophic 
 " History of Civilization," of which 
 only two volumes (1858 and 1861) 
 were completed, was characterized by 
 much novel and suggestive thought, 
 and by the bold co-ordination of a vast 
 store of materials dra\yn from the most 
 varied sources. He died, while travel- 
 ing, at Damascus, March 29, 1862. 
 
 Buckles, metal instruments, con- 
 sisting of a rim and tongue, used for 
 fastening straps or bands in dress, 
 harness, etc. They were formerly used 
 on shoes, but are now supplanted by 
 strings. 
 
 Buckley, James Monroe, an 
 American religious editor, born in 
 Rah way, N. J., Dec. 16, 1836. He 
 studied theology at Exeter and joined 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 Since 1881 he has been editor of the 
 New York " Christian Advocate." He 
 has written " Travels in Three Conti- 
 nents," " Oats, or Wild Oats," etc. 
 
 Bucknell University, a co-educa- 
 tional institution in Lewisburg, Pa. ; 
 oragnized in 1846, under the auspices 
 of the Baptist Church. 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Buckner, Simon Bolivar, an. 
 
 American soldier and politician, born 
 in Kentucky in 1823. He was grad- 
 uated at West Point in 1840, and 
 served in the Mexican War. He rose 
 to distinction in the Confederate army 
 during the Civil War, attaining the 
 rank of Lieutenant-General. He was 
 one of the pall bearers at Gen. Grant's 
 funeral in 1885, by the personal selec- 
 tion of the ex-President, who had been 
 warmly attached to him for many 
 years. In 1896 he was nominated for 
 Vice-President by the Gold Demo- 
 crats, having previously served a term 
 as Governor of Kentucky. 
 
 Buckram, a coarse textile fabric 
 stiffened with glue and used in gar- 
 ments to give them or keep them in 
 the form intended. 
 
 Buckshot, a kind of leaden shot 
 larger than swan-shot. About 160 or 
 170 of them weigh a pound. They are 
 especially designed to be used in hunt- 
 ing large game. 
 
 Buckskin, a kind of soft leather, 
 generally yellow or grayish in color, 
 prepared originally by treating deer- 
 skins in a particular way, but now in 
 general made from sheepskins; This 
 may be done by oil, or by a second 
 method, in which the skins are grained, 
 brained and smoked. 
 
 Buckthorn, the English name of 
 a genus of plants. The berries of the 
 common species are black, nauseous, 
 and, as the specific name rhamnus ca- 
 tharticus imports, highly cathartic ; 
 they afford a yellow dye when unripe, 
 as the bark of the shrub does a green 
 one. They are sold as French berries. 
 The alder buckthorn, again, has dark 
 purple purgative berries, which, in 
 an unripe state, dye wool green and 
 yellow, and when ripe bluish gray, 
 blue, and green. The bark dyes yel- 
 low, and, with iron, black. Of the 
 foreign species, the berries of the rock 
 buckthorn are used to dye the Maro- 
 quin, or Morocco leather, yellow, while 
 the leaves of the tea buckthorn are 
 used by poor people in China as a sub- 
 stitute for tea. The species best kown 
 to the pharmacopoeia of this country 
 is the cascara sagrada. 
 
 Buckwheat, or Brank, a plant 
 with branched herbaceous stem, some- 
 what arrow-shaped leaves and purplish 
 white flowers, growing to the height
 
 Budapest 
 
 of about 30 inches, and bearing a 
 small triangular grain of a brownish- 
 black without and white within. The 
 stalk is round and hollow, generally 
 green, but sometimes tinged with red. 
 Buckwheat was first taken to Eu- 
 rope from Asia by the Crusaders, and 
 hence in France is often called Sara- 
 cen corn. It is cultivated in China 
 and other Eastern countries as a bread 
 corn. In the United States it is very 
 extensively used throughout the win- 
 ter in cakes, which are cooked upon 
 a gridiron. 
 
 Budapest, the official name of the 
 united towns of Buda or Ofen and 
 Pest or Pesth, the one on the right, 
 the other on the left of the Danube, 
 forming the capital of Hungary, the 
 seat of the Hungarian Parliament and 
 supreme courts. Buda, which is the 
 smaller of the two, and lies on the W. 
 bank of the river (here flowing S.), 
 consists of the fortified Upper Town 
 on a hill, the Lower Town or Water 
 Town at the foot of the hill, and sev- 
 eral other quarters, including Old 
 Buda farther up the river. 
 
 Budapest contains the most impor- 
 tant of the three universities of Hun- 
 gary, attended by about 4,500 stu- 
 dents and having over 220 professors, 
 lecturers, etc. Another important ed- 
 ucational institution is the technical 
 high schools, with 60 teachers and 
 1,100 to 1,200 students, and a library 
 of 60,000 volumes. In commerce and 
 industry Budapest ranks next to Vien- 
 na in the empire. Its chief manufac- 
 tures are machinery, gold, silver, cop- 
 per, and iron wares, chemical, textile 
 goods, leather, tobacco, etc. A large 
 trade is done in grain, wine, wool, 
 cattle, etc. At Budapest are the larg- 
 est electrical works in all Europe. En- 
 gineers employed there have brought 
 to perfection the science of applying 
 electricity to motors. They construct- 
 ed there the first successful under- 
 ground trolley lines. Their ideas have 
 been adopted in the construction of 
 electric roads all over the world. In 
 1799 the joint population of the two 
 towns was little more than 50.000 : in 
 1890 it was 506,384 ; in 1900, 732,322. 
 
 Bndann. a town of India, North- 
 west Provinces. There is a handsome 
 mosque, American mission, etc. Pop. 
 33,680. The district of Budaun has 
 
 Buel 
 
 an area of 2,000 square miles. Pop. 
 906,451. 
 
 Buddha, or The Buddha, (that 
 is "the enlightened"), the sacred 
 name of the founder of Buddhism, 
 who would appear (according to the 
 judgment of those scholars who have 
 given most attention to this point) to 
 have lived in the 5th century B. c. 
 
 Buddhism, the system of faith in- 
 troduced or reformed by Buddha. In 
 its origin Buddhism was a reaction 
 against the caste pretensions of the 
 Brahmins and other Aryan invaders 
 of India, and was, therefore, eminent- 
 ly fitted to become, as it for a long 
 time was, the religion of the Turan- 
 ians. Buddhism was dominant in In- 
 dia for "about 1,000 years after its 
 establishment by Asoka. Then, having: 
 become corrupt and its vitality hav- 
 ing decayed, reviving Brahminism pre- 
 vailed over it, and all but extinguished 
 it on the Indian continent, though a 
 modification of it, Jainism, still exists 
 in Marwad and many other parts. It 
 has all along held its own, however, in 
 Ceylon. On losing Continental India, 
 its missionaries transferred their ef- 
 forts to China, which they converted, 
 and which still remains Buddhist. 
 The religion of Gautama flourishes- 
 also in Tibet, Burma and Japan, and 
 is the great Turanian faith of the 
 modern as of the ancient world. 
 
 Budding, the art of multiplying 
 plants by causing the leaf bud of one 
 species or variety to grow upon the 
 branch of another. 
 
 Bnde Light, (from Bude, in- 
 Cornwall, England, where Mr. Gur- 
 ney, the inventor of the light, lived), 
 an oil or gas burner supplied with a 
 jet of oxygen gas ; the flame is very 
 brilliant. 
 
 Budget, the annual statement rel- 
 ative to the finances of a country, 
 made by the proper financial function- 
 ary, in -which is presented a balance 
 sheet of the actual income and expend- 
 iture of the past year, and an esti- 
 mate of the income and expenditure 
 for the coming year, together wiih a 
 statement of the mode of taxation pro- 
 posed to meet such expenditure. 
 
 Buel, Clarence dough, an 
 American editor and author, born at 
 Laona. Chautauqua county, N. Y.. 
 July 29, 1850. He was connected
 
 Buell 
 
 with the New York " Tribune " from 
 1875 to 1881, when he joined the staff 
 of the " "3ntury Magazine; " and, in 
 1883, in mjunction with Robert Un- 
 derwood Johnson, he began the editing 
 of the celebrated " Century War Arti- 
 cles," which were afterward expanded 
 into the notable " Battles and Lead- 
 ers of the Civil War " (1887). 
 
 Buell, Don Carlos, an American 
 military officer, born near Lowell, O., 
 March 23, 1818. He was graduated 
 at West Point in 1841, and served in 
 the Mexican War. When the Civil 
 War broke out he was adjutant-gen- 
 eral of the regular army, and was 
 made a Brigadier-General of Volun- 
 teers and attached to the Army of the 
 Potomac. In November, 1861, he suc- 
 ceeded Gen. W. T. Sherman in com- 
 mand of the Department of the Ohio. 
 He resigned from the volunteer service 
 on May 23, 1864, and on June 1, fol- 
 lowing, also resigned his commission in 
 the regular army. He died near Rock- 
 port, Ky., Nov. 19, 1898. 
 
 Buenaventura, a town on the 
 Pacific coast of the Republic of Co- 
 lombia. It has a hot, sickly climate, 
 but is the port for the healthful and 
 rich Cauca valley. Pop. 5,000. 
 
 Bueiia Vista, a village of Mex- 
 ico, 7 miles S. of Saltillo, where, on 
 Feb. 22-23, 1847, some 5,000 United 
 States troops, under Taylor, defeated 
 20,000 Mexicans under Santa Ana. 
 
 Buen-Ayre, French BONAIRE, a 
 West Indian island, 60 miles from the 
 coast of Venezuela, and 30 E. of Cura- 
 cao, like which it belongs to the 
 Dutch. It produces timber, cattle, 
 cochineal, and salt. Area, 127 square 
 miles ; pop. 4,043. 
 
 Buendia, Juan, a Peruvian gen- 
 eral, born in Lima in 1814. He was 
 put in command of the Army of the 
 South in the Chilian War in 1879, 
 and attacked 10,000 Chilians on the 
 heights of San Francisco (Nov. 8), 
 where he was defeated with terrible 
 loss. He was court-martialed, but 
 freed from blame and afterward served 
 in" the defense of Lima. 
 
 Buenos Ayres, a city of South 
 America, capital of the Argentine Re- 
 public, on the S. W. side of the La 
 Plata, 150 miles from its mouth. It 
 was founded in 1535 by Don Pedro 
 dej, Mendoza, and is built with great 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 regularity, the streets uniformly cross 
 ing each other at right angles. It con- 
 tains the palace of the President, the 
 House of Representatives, a Town 
 Hall, a number of hospitals and asy- 
 lums, a cathedral, several monasteries, 
 nunneries, and Catholic and Protes- 
 tant churches ; several theaters, a uni- 
 versity and a custom house. /The uni- 
 versity, founded in 1821, is attended 
 by about 800 students. There are 
 also a medical school, normal and oth- 
 er schools, besides literary and scien- 
 tific societies. Since 1889 the city has 
 undergone notable changes in the way 
 of local improvement. The most im- 
 portant is the creation of a new sys- 
 tem of docks, involving the construc- 
 tion of five long wet docks and great 
 basins. The basins have ample area 
 for the largest ocean steamships, and 
 along their walls are hydraulic ele- 
 vators by which every hatchway of a 
 vessel may be worked at once. Buenos 
 Ayres is one of the leading commercial 
 centers of South America, its exports 
 and imports together annually amount- 
 ing to over $60.000,000. Chief exports 
 are ox and horse hides, sheep and 
 other skins, _ wool, tallow, horns, etc. 
 There are six railways running from 
 the city, and over 100 miles of 
 tramway in the city and suburbs. 
 About one-fourth of the inhabitants 
 are whites ; the rest are Indians, ne- 
 groes and mixed breeds. Pop. (1900) 
 821,291. The province of Buenos 
 Ayres has an area of about 118,000 
 square miles, and presents nearly 
 throughout level or slightly undulat- 
 ing plains (pampas), which afford 
 pasture to vast numbers of cattle and 
 wild horses. These constitute the chief 
 wealth of the inhabitants. Pop. 
 (1900) 1,140,067. 
 
 Buffalo, city and county-seat of 
 Erie co., N. Y., second city in popula-* 
 tion and importance in New York. It 
 is built at the E. end of Lake Erie, at 
 the head of the Niagara river, 20 
 miles above the Falls. It is the W. 
 terminus of the Erie canal, and has a 
 navigable water front of 8 miles, with 
 numerous piers, breakwaters, basins 
 and canals, giving it one of the finest 
 harbors on the lakes and making it a 
 great commercial center. The city is 
 connected by several steamship lines 
 with the chief lake ports, and by fer- 
 ries with Victoria and Fort Erie, on
 
 Buffalo 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 the Canadian side. The International 
 Bridge, costing $1,500,000, connects 
 Buffalo with these towns. Area, 42 
 square miles; population (1900) 352,- 
 218; (1910) 423,715. 
 
 Buffalo is situated on an elevated 
 plain, 50 feet above the lake and 600 
 feet above sea level. From this plain 
 the ground slopes gradually to the lake. 
 It is bordered on three sides by water, 
 the Niagara river, Lake Erie and Buf- 
 falo river. Buffalo river is navigable 
 for 2 miles, and two canals pass be- 
 tween the river and the lake. The city 
 is noted for its wide and beautiful 
 streets, and the abundance of shrub- 
 bery and trees decorating them. The 
 principal streets are Main, Niagara, 
 Delaware, Broadway, and Linwpod 
 and Elmwood avenues, 120 feet wide, 
 and all over 5 miles in length. Buf- 
 falo claims to be the cleanest and 
 healthiest city in the United States 
 and to possess a greater extent of as- 
 
 Shalt paving than any other city of 
 :s size in the country. 
 Buffalo has a public park system 
 consisting of several parks containing 
 741^2 acres and connected by boule- 
 vards and approaches, affording a con- 
 tinuous drive of 15 miles, and contain- 
 ing an area, with the minor parks and 
 places, of 276% additional acres. The 
 principal public buildings are the Fed- 
 eral Building, containing the 'Post- 
 office and Custom-house, a large build- 
 ing of freestone ; the State Arsenal ; 
 the Board of Trade Building ; the Old 
 and New Armories ; Grosvenor Li- 
 brary ; Normal School ; two public 
 high schools ; Erie County and Buffalo 
 Savings Banks ; the Erie County Pen- 
 itentiary ; and the City and County 
 Hall. Besides these, there is the Buf- 
 falo Library, in Lafayette Square, 
 containing a circulating library of 
 77,000 volumes, and, in the same 
 building, are the Buffalo Historical 
 Society, the Buffalo Fine Arts Society 
 and School of Arts, and the Society of 
 National Sciences. The State Insane 
 Asylum has a plot of 203 acres and 
 adjoins the Buffalo Park. According 
 to the United States census of 1900 
 the city had 3.902 manufacturing es- 
 tablishments, employing $103,939,655 
 capital and 47,606 persons : paying 
 $23,596,308 for wages and $73.359,466 
 for materials used; and yielding pro- 
 ducts of an aggregate value $122,230,- 
 
 061. In the fiscal year ending June 
 30, 1900, the imports of merchandise 
 aggregated in value $4,134,917 ; and 
 the exports, $14,488,028. 
 
 The site of Buffalo was first visited 
 by the French, under La Salle, in 
 1679. In 1687 a settlement was made 
 by Baron La Honton and Fort Sup- 
 pose was erected. It was held by the 
 British as Fort Erie during 1783- 
 1784, and was incorporated as the vil- 
 lage of Buffalo and soon afterward 
 burned by the British, in 1813. It 
 was rebuilt in 1815 ; but its progress 
 was slow until the completion of the 
 Erie canal in 1825. It became a city 
 in 1832 and since then it has been 
 very prosperous. A Pan-American Ex- 
 position was held here between May 1 
 and Nov. 2, 1901 ; President McKin- 
 ley was fatally wounded while attend- 
 ing it on Sept. 6. 
 
 Buffalo, a name often applied to 
 two distinct bovine genera or sub- 
 genera viz., the Asiatic buffalo with 
 the Cape buffalo; and the American 
 buffalo, better named bison. The ge- 
 nus or sub-genus bubalus has the 
 usual bovine characteristics, and, 
 whatever be its exact limits in strict 
 zoological classification, remains, for 
 practical purposes, a large, clumsy ox. 
 The horns rise from the posterior side 
 corners of the skull, are usually thick- 
 ened out of proportion at the base, 
 and irregularly ridged, though smooth 
 toward the points ; the forehead is 
 short and arched ; the covering of hair 
 is comparatively sparse. The Asiatic 
 buffalo is a very powerful animal, 
 much more powerful than the ox, and 
 capable of dragging or carrying a far 
 heavier load. The female yields a 
 much greater quantity of milk than a 
 cow, and of excellent quality. It is 
 from buffalo milk that the ghee or 
 semi-fluid butter of India is made. 
 The hide is greatly valued for its 
 strength and durability, but the flesh 
 is decidedly inferior to that of the ox. 
 The Arnee is a very large variety of 
 the common buffalo; a head has been 
 known to measure 13 feet 6 inches 
 along the horns. It occurs in the In- 
 dian islands and in Farther India in 
 a wild state, but is also domesticated 
 and used as a beast of burden. The 
 Cape buffalo is generally regarded as 
 a distinct species. The horns are very 
 large ; they spread horizontally over
 
 Buffalo Berry 
 
 the top of the head, and are then bent 
 down laterally, and turned upward at 
 the' point. The head is carried, as by 
 the common buffalo, with projecting 
 muzzle and reclining horns, but the 
 bases of the horns nearly meet on the 
 forehead, where they are from 8 to 10 
 inches broad. The length of a full 
 grown Cape buffalo is about 8 feet 
 from the root of the horns to the tail, 
 and the height is 5^ feet. This ani- 
 mal is regarded as more formidable 
 than any other in South Africa. The 
 buffalo is still found in large herds 
 in the marshy wooded regions of Cen- 
 tral and South Africa, but in Cape 
 Colony, where it was once plentiful, 
 it has now become comparatively rare. 
 It grazes chiefly in the evening, and 
 lies in woods and thickets during the 
 day. It will readily act on the ag- 
 gressive, and has never been domesti- 
 cated. The flesh, though coarse, is 
 palatable. The dwarf, wild cow of the 
 island of Celebes is also related to the 
 buffaloes. For the American buffalo, 
 see BISON. 
 
 Buffalo Berry, a shrub of the 
 oleaster family, a native of the United 
 States and Canada, with lanceolate, 
 silvery leaves and close clusters of 
 bright red acid berries about the size 
 of currants, which are made into pre- 
 serves and used in various ways. 
 
 Buffalo Grass, a strong growing 
 North American grass, so called from 
 forming a large part of the food of 
 the buffalo, and said to have excellent 
 fattening properties ; called also gama 
 grass. 
 
 Buffet, anciently a little apart- 
 ment, separated from the rest of the 
 room, for the disposing of china, glass, 
 etc. It is now a piece of furniture for 
 the dining-room, called a sideboard, 
 for the same purpose. 
 
 Buffington, Adalbert Rinaldp, 
 an American military officer; born in 
 Wheeling, Va.. Nov. 22. 1837; was 
 graduated at the United States Mili- 
 tary Academy in 1861 ; entered the 
 Ordnance Department ; was promoted 
 Colonel in 1889, and became Chief of 
 Ordnance with the rank of Brigadier- 
 General, April , 1899. He had com- 
 mand of the National Armory in 1881- 
 1892 ; is the inventor of a magazine 
 firearm, carriages for light and heavy 
 guns, and parts of models of 1884 
 
 Bug 
 
 Springfield rifles ; introduced gas forg- 
 ing furnaces and improved methods in 
 the Springfield armory ; and originat- 
 ed the niter and manganese method in 
 use there for blueing iron and steel 
 surfaces of small arms. 
 
 Buffon, George Louis Leclerc, 
 Count de, one of the most celebrated 
 naturalists and authors of the 18th 
 century ; born in Montbard, Burgun- 
 dy, Sept. 17, 1707. Buffon, in his 
 earlier years, was animated only by 
 an undefined love of learning and 
 fame, but his appointment, as super- 
 intendent of the Royal Garden (now 
 the Jardiii des Plantes), in 1739, gave 
 his mind a decided turn toward that 
 science in which he immortalized him- 
 self. The most perfect part of his 
 work is the "History of Quadrupeds" ; 
 the weakest, the " History of Min- 
 erals," in which his imperfect ac- 
 quaintance with chemistry and his in- 
 clination to hypothesis have led him 
 into many errors. After a long and 
 painful illness, he died in Paris, 
 April 16, 1788, at the age of 81 
 years, leaving an only son, who per- 
 ished in the Revolution by the guillo- 
 tine. 
 
 Bufprd, John, a cavalry leader in 
 the Civil War, born in Kentucky 1826. 
 He was graduated at West Point in 
 1848, saw service in the West, and in 
 July 1862 was made Brigadier-General 
 of volunteers and assigned to a cavalry 
 brigade in the Army of Virginia. He 
 took a leading part in all the cam- 
 paigns of the army to the battle at 
 Gettysburg, which he is said to have 
 deliberately chosen for the great con- 
 flict. He retired on sick leave in No- 
 vember of 1863, and received the rank 
 of Major-General on the day of his 
 death, Dec. 16, 1863. 
 
 Bug, a common name applied to in- 
 sects of the natural order Hemiptera. 
 Most of these insects essentially re- 
 semble the bed-bug, except that they 
 have wings. Some suck the blood of 
 animals, and others subsist on vege- 
 table juices. While a_ few are of 
 commercial importance, like the coch- 
 ineal and lac insects, most of them are 
 harmful. Not a few species are beau- 
 tiful, but many have the same unpleas- 
 ant smell which emanates from the 
 bed-bug. The unattractive form and 
 manner of life of the bed-bug are
 
 Bngenhagen 
 
 too well known to require description. 
 The eggs, which are white, are depos- 
 ited in the beginning of summer. They 
 are glued to the crevices of bedsteads 
 or furniture, or to the walls of rooms. 
 Before houses existed, the bug prob- 
 ably lived under the bark of trees. 
 
 Bngenhagen, Johann, a Ger- 
 man reformer, friend and helper of 
 Luther in preparing his translation of 
 the Bible, born in 1485. He fled from 
 his Catholic superiors to Wittenberg 
 in 1521, where he was made, in 1522, 
 Professor of Theology. He effected 
 the union of the Protestant free cities 
 with the Saxons and introduced into 
 Brunswick, Hamburg, Lubeck, Pom- 
 erania, Denmark, and many other 
 places, the Lutheran service and 
 church discipline. He died in 1558. 
 
 Buggy, in the United States, a 
 light, one horse, four wheeled vehicle, 
 with or without a hood or top. 
 
 Bugle, a treble instrument of 
 brass or copper, differing from the 
 trumpet in having a shorter and more 
 conical tube, with a less expanded bell. 
 It is played with a cupped mouth- 
 piece. In the original form it is the 
 signal horn for the infantry, as the 
 trumpet is for the cavalry. 
 
 Bnhr Stone, a variety of quartz 
 containing many small, empty cells, 
 which give it a peculiar roughness of 
 surface. They are used principally as 
 mill-stones. The best kinds are creamy 
 white, with a granular and somewhat 
 cellular texture, and are obtained in 
 France. Numerous substitutes for the 
 French buhr stone have been found in 
 the United States, the most important 
 being furnished by the buhr stone rock 
 of the bituminous coal measures of 
 Northwestern Pennsylvania and East- 
 ern Ohio. 
 
 Building; Fireproof, Iron and 
 Concrete Construction. Building 
 combines the principles of masonry, 
 carpentry, joining, plumbing and the 
 methods of operation in all allied 
 trades or arts, with a knowledge of 
 the qualities, strength and resistance 
 of materials, and the science of archi- 
 tecture. It comprehends the arrange- 
 ment of a design for the greatest pos- 
 sible degree of convenience on a 
 ground plan ; the preparation and 
 formation of foundations ; of floors ; 
 the arrangement and construction of 
 
 Building 
 
 drains, sewers, and vent-shafts : the 
 varieties of walling with wood, stone, 
 or laying of bricks ; the various meth- 
 ods of tying and bracing walls ; the 
 arrangement of gutters on roofs with 
 overflow water pipes in the least in- 
 convenient places ; the location and 
 formation of chimneys ; the protection 
 of walls from damp, of timber from 
 moisture and stagnant air ; of metals 
 from corroding causes, etc., besides the 
 multitude of details which attend the 
 completion of any structure. 
 
 In modern times, ^attention has long 
 been devoted to devising means and 
 providing materials for building pur- 
 poses that will withstand the dangers 
 and destruction caused by fire. The 
 production of incombustible materials, 
 rather than the rendering of wood and 
 other combustibles fireproof by chem- 
 ical treatment, has been an important 
 factor in the development of present- 
 day building methods. 
 
 During the experimental stage in 
 fireproof construction in the United 
 States from 1854 to 1870, the substi- 
 tution of iron for wood for all con- 
 structive purposes was thought an im- 
 portant advance until iron of all 
 kinds proved unreliable when exposed 
 to temperatures of 900 degrees Fahr. 
 and over. The danger from the new 
 style of building was greater than 
 from the old. In many instances, 
 buildings with cast-iron fronts col- 
 lapsed completely during a fire, and 
 the plan of unprotected iron construc- 
 tion was abandoned. 
 
 Between 1875 and 1879, however, 
 the advantages of protected iron con- 
 struction was recognized, and with the 
 improvement of incombustible mate- 
 rials for building purposes, steel skele- 
 ton construction is now generally 
 adopted for all new structures of any 
 magnitude throughout the United 
 States, and is extending to foreign 
 countries. 
 
 In the use of concrete, a wooden 
 mould of desired width, placed about 
 the steel girders, receives under pres- 
 sure the liquid stone which is left to 
 harden. When the wooden shields are 
 removed, a smooth wall is presented, 
 which grows harder with the passage 
 of time and withstands a greater pres- 
 sure than granite or steel itself. 
 
 The building of a modern iron-frame 
 skyscraper is chiefly a matter of as-
 
 Building 
 
 Building Associations 
 
 sembling the parts or "members." Lit- 
 tle of the real work is done on the 
 site of the building as in the old days 
 of stone construction. The digging of 
 the cellar and the sinking of caissons 
 in order to lay a bed for the iron- 
 work is the principal engineering work 
 done on the spot. All departments 
 work simultaneously - excavators, 
 draughtsmen, rolling mills, iron-work- 
 ers, masons, plumbers and finishers. 
 How much weight each upright and 
 floor will have to carry is figured out, 
 and for the guidance of the rolling- 
 mill man detail sketches are made of 
 every beam, girder and upright to be 
 used, with every dimension calculated 
 to the sixteenth of an inch, and every 
 rivet hole exactly indicated as to place 
 and size. Every piece is numbered to 
 correspond with the number on the 
 builder's plan, the floors they are to 
 occupy being indicated by letters. 
 Thus M 114 signifies for M, the thir- 
 teenth floor, and 114, its position on 
 that floor. By this plan the stone- 
 work may often be seen built up on 
 the higher stories, while the floors be- 
 low show only the iron skeleton left 
 open for various reasons, such as the 
 late arrival of boilers, engines, etc. 
 The ideal method in the assembling 
 and putting together of the different 
 parts of the modern building is tokeep 
 the stone masons, housesmiths and 
 plumbers one floor beMnd the iron- 
 workers, the carpenters one floor be- 
 hind these, the plasterers one floor 
 behind the carpenters, and so on till 
 the top story is finished. 
 
 Modern buildings are erected accord- 
 ing to the standard regulations for 
 fireproof buildings suggested by the 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters 
 and incorporated in the Building 
 Laws. 
 
 Building and Loan Associa- 
 tions, combinations of individuals, 
 who agree to pay a fixed sum monthly, 
 by which a fund is accumulated which 
 is loaned to members, who desire to 
 purchase or improve real estate. Their 
 capital stock, which is prospective, is 
 usualy divided into shares of a par 
 value of $200 each. Each shareholder 
 pays upon each share he holds a 
 monthly subscription of $1, till such 
 payments, with accrued profits, brings 
 the value of the share to par. The 
 number of shares each member may 
 
 hold varies in different associations, 
 the general rule being not less than 
 two nor more than 25, the latter limi- 
 tation being intended to prevent specu- 
 lation. When money sufficient to de- 
 clare a loan has accumulated in the 
 treasury, a single share of $200 is put 
 up at auction and knocked down to 
 the member who bids the highest 
 premium. He has the option, at the 
 same premium, of taking as many 
 shares as he may desire, within th'e 
 limits fixed by the association. The 
 age of the asociation depends on the 
 size of these premiums ; the larger the 
 premium bid the more quickly the as- 
 sociation terminates. Premiums vary 
 with the age and location of the asso- 
 ciation, and also with the demand for 
 money. There are two methods of 
 treating these premiums, known as the 
 gross and instalment plans. The gross 
 plan treats the premium at once as 
 profits earned, though the amount bid 
 will not be paid in full for 10 or more 
 years. The instalment plan declares 
 as profits only such amount of the 
 premium as is actually paid in during 
 the year. So far as the final result is 
 concerned, there is no difference be- 
 tween the two. Building and loan 
 associations are formed on two plans, 
 called terminal and serial. The termi- 
 nal associations compel all members 
 to begin payments on the same day. 
 A new member joining after the be- 
 ginning of the association is thus 
 forced to pay arrearages. This is 
 avoided in serial associations by al- 
 lowing new members to join at stated 
 intervals, usually six months or a 
 year, without the payment of arrear- 
 ages. The advantages of building and 
 loan associations are : That each 
 share, whether borrowed upon or not, 
 has credited to it a pro rata amount 
 of all profits declared. Loans are gen- 
 erally advanced to within 80 per cent, 
 of the appraised value of the property. 
 No large salaries are paid. All offi- 
 cers, appraisers, auditors, etc., are 
 elected in open meeting. Members 
 may withdraw at any time after the 
 first year, obtaining a fair share of 
 the profits. Loans are invariably se- 
 cured by first mortgage. Only mem- 
 bers may obtain loans. Mortgages 
 may be paid off at any time. There 
 are no speculative features, the asso- 
 ciation buys nothing, the borrowing
 
 Building Lease 
 
 member making all contracts. A 
 recent report of the United States 
 League of Building and Loan As- 
 sociations showed about 5,600 as- 
 .sociations with nearly 2,000,000 mem- 
 bers and $800,000,000 in assets. 
 The receipts and expenditures of a 
 single year balanced at over $500,- 
 000,000. 
 
 Building Lease, a lease of land 
 for a long term of years, usually 99 
 years, at a rent called a ground rent, 
 the lessee covenanting to erect cer- 
 tain edifices thereon, and to maintain 
 the same during the term. At the ex- 
 piration of the lease the houses built 
 become the absolute property of the 
 landlord. 
 
 Bukowina, ("beech land"), a 
 Province in the extreme E. of the 
 Austro-Hungarian Empire, surround- 
 ed by Galicia, Russia, Moldavia, and 
 Hungary. Area, 4,035 square miles ; 
 pop. (1900) 646,591, of whom 42 per 
 cent, are Ruthenians, 32 Moldavians, 
 and 13 Jews, while 70 per cent, be- 
 long to the Greek Church. It is tra- 
 versed by offsets of the Carpathians, 
 culminating at 6,077 feet ; gives rise 
 to many rivers flowing toward the 
 Black Sea ; and abounds in wood, 
 along with considerable mineral riches. 
 
 Btilacan, a town in Luzon, Phil- 
 ippine Islands, about 22 miles N. W. 
 of Manila, with which it is connected 
 by railway ; pop. about 10,000. The 
 town is composed mainly of native 
 huts, although thc-re are factories in 
 which silk matting is made. Sugar 
 maiing is also an industry of impor- 
 tance. The place has strategic advan- 
 tages, which caused it to become a 
 theater of military operations after 
 the Spanish-American War. It was 
 fully pacified in 1900, and made a 
 military post by the United States 
 authorities. 
 
 Bnlawayo, the principal town and 
 chief commercial center of Matabele- 
 land, in Southern Rhodesia, South 
 Africa, to which point the railroad 
 from Cape Town was completed in 
 1897, a total distance of 1,360 miles. 
 The place has a population of 5,000; 
 several < hotels, good business blocks 
 and residences, and is rapidly growing 
 in size and importance. Bulawayo a 
 few years ago was the site of a native 
 village of rude huts, in an inclosure 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 of wattles, whose inhabitants were 
 savages of the lowest type. 
 
 Bulbul, the Indian name of any 
 bird belonging to a sub-family of 
 thrushes. 
 
 Bulfincli, Charles, an American 
 architect, born in Boston 1763; died 
 1844. He built the first playhouse 
 erected in New England, the old Fed- 
 eral street theatre in Boston, and drew 
 plans for the Massachusetts State 
 house. His principal work was the 
 rotunda, the west approaches, and the 
 portico, in the Capitol at Washington. 
 
 Bulgaria, a former principality of 
 Turkey, but since 1908 an independent 
 kingdom; bounded by Rumania on 
 the N., the Black Sea on the E., 
 Turkey on the S., and Servia on 
 the W.; area, 38,080 square miles; 
 capital, Sofia. Its surface is a grad- 
 ually sloping plain, broken by occa- 
 sional mountains, which give rise to 
 many rapid tributaries to the Danube. 
 The soil is excellent and the slopes of 
 the mountains are richly wooded. The 
 inhabitants, though not skilled in agri- 
 culture, are able to produce a consid- 
 erable export in grain products beyond 
 what they require for themselves. 
 Wheat is the chief export. Fruit is 
 raised in abundance, and vegetables 
 for home use ; roses, for the produc- 
 tion of the attar, are raised in large 
 quantities ; 80,000 gallons of wine are 
 made annually ; silk worms are bred 
 in some regions, and tobacco is raised. 
 There is little mining, although the 
 mountains are rich in minerals. Do- 
 mestic industries are chiefly carpets, 
 cloths, hosiery, and ribbons. The roads 
 are very bad, and there is but a single 
 line of railroad ; about 500 miles, on 
 the route between Vienna and Con- 
 stantinople. All traffic is carried on 
 by the rivers, and the export trade 
 by the Black Sea. The population is 
 about 74 per cent. Bulgarians, 19 
 
 Ser cent. Turks, the rest Spanish 
 ews, with a sprinkling of Greeks ; 77 
 per cent, are of the faith of the Or- 
 thodox Greeks Church ; only 2^ per 
 cent. Moslems. The government is 
 Christian ; there is a National militia ; 
 military service compulsory. The Bul- 
 garians were originally of Finnish ex- 
 traction, but coalesced with a Slavic 
 t populace, whose language was the 
 ! richest of the old Slavic tongues. In
 
 Bulkhead 
 
 their older literature are found many 
 valuable works, chiefly popular song_ 
 and translations of the Bible. They 
 adopted Christianity in the 9th cen- 
 tury. From that to the 12th their 
 rulers were powerful over the Balkan 
 Peninsula. Then they were conquered 
 and ruled by the Turks for about 500 
 years. In 1876, on account of the 
 atrocities of the Turkish soldiers, an 
 insurrection broke out. Russia took 
 the part of Bulgaria against Turkey, 
 and the war of 1877-1878 followed. 
 In 1879, Alexander of Battenberg, a 
 German Prince, was made sovereign ! 
 of part of Bulgaria, the rest being j 
 made a separate province called East 
 Rumelia, to prevent Bulgaria becom- 
 ing a strong State. In 1885 there 
 was a revolution in East Rumelia, 
 which annexed itself to Bulgaria. 
 Servia intervened, and Alexander was 
 forced to abdicate. Against Russia's 
 will, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg ac- 
 cepted the vacant throne in 1887. 
 Since 1908 the government has been 
 that of an independent kingdom, with 
 a responsible ministry and a single- 
 chamber National Assembly (one mem- 
 ber to every 20,000 of population) 
 elected by universal manhood suffrage 
 for four years. In 1903 Bulgaria noti- 
 fied the Great Powers that unless they 
 compelled Turkey to cease the mas- 
 sacre of Bulgarians in Macedonia, Bul- 
 faria would take the issue into her own 
 ands. This declaration caused a pro- 
 found sensation throughout Europe 
 and Turkey began preparations for 
 war, but nothing further resulted at the 
 time. Early in October, 1912, Bul- 
 garia declared war against Turkey, the 
 king and crown prince took the field, 
 and by the end of the month the army 
 had won several notable victories over 
 the Turks (see Balkan Peninsula). 
 Pop. (1911) 4,329,108. 
 
 Bulkhead, a partition made across 
 a ship, whereby one part is divided 
 from another; also, a wood or stone 
 construction designed to prevent earth 
 or water from falling or flowing into 
 the space so protected. A bulkhead line 
 limits the length of a dock. 
 
 Bull, the male of any quadruped 
 of the bovidae family. Also, a sign of 
 the zodiac : Taurus. It is likewise a 
 term used on the New York Stock Ex- 
 change, and applied to those brokers i 
 
 Bulldog 
 
 who favor a rise in the market value 
 of stocks. It is the opposite of bear. 
 
 Bull, an instrument, euict, ordi- 
 nance, or decree of the Pope, equiva- 
 lent to the proclamations, edicts, let- 
 ters patent, or ukases of secular 
 princes. 
 
 Bull, George Joseph, a Cana- 
 dian ophthalmic surgeon, born in 
 Hamilton, Ontario, Feb. 16, 1848. He 
 was graduated at McGill University 
 in 1869, and, after studying in Paris, 
 began the practice of medicine in 
 Montreal, devoting himself especially 
 to diseases of the eye. He took up 
 his residence in Paris in 1886, and 
 has won celebrity as an expert in oph- 
 thalmic subjects. He has written 
 " Ophthalmia and Optometry," and 
 many similar works. 
 
 Bull, John, the popular sobri- 
 quet or characteristic name applied to 
 the English nation. Its origin is ob- 
 scure. It appears to have been first 
 used in Arbuthnot's famous satire, 
 the " History of John Bull," written 
 in ridicule of the Duke of Marlbor- 
 ough. This work is included in those 
 of Dean Swift. 
 
 Bull, Ole Bornemann, a Nor- 
 wegian violinist, born in Bergen, Feb. 
 5, 1810. He secured great triumphs 
 both throughout Europe and in the 
 United States by his wonderful play- 
 ing. He lost all his money in a scheme 
 to found a colony of his countrymen 
 in Pennsylvania, and had to take 
 again to his violin to repair his broken 
 fortunes. He afterward settled in 
 Cambridge, Mass., and had also a 
 summer residence in his native city, 
 where he died, Aug. 17, 1880. 
 
 Bull Baiting, the barbarous sport 
 of setting dogs on a bull, who is tied 
 to a stake and worried by the dogs for 
 the amusement of the spectators. It 
 was a favorite sport in England from 
 a very early period, till it was finally 
 put down by Act of Parliament in 
 1835. 
 
 Bulldog, a variety of the common 
 dog, remarkable for its short, broad 
 muzzle, and the projection of its 
 lower jaw which causes the lower 
 front teeth to protrude beyond the 
 upper. The head is massive and 
 broad : and the frontal sinuses large. 
 The lips are thick and pendulous; the 
 ears pendant at the extremity; the
 
 Buller 
 
 Bull Finch 
 
 neck robust and short ; the body long 
 and stout ; and the legs short and 
 thick. The bulldog is a slow motioned 
 animal, better suited as a watchdog 
 than for^any purpose requiring activ- 
 ity and intelligence. He is also said 
 to be capable of great affection for 
 his master. His fearlessness is well 
 known, and in fighting, bulldogs dis- 
 play the most indomitable spirit. They 
 are apt to become vicious as they ad- 
 vance in years, but ordinarily a bull- 
 dog is not more ready than any other 
 dog to attack persons without some 
 cause. 
 
 The name was originally given to 
 this dog on account of its being com- 
 monly employed in bull-baiting in the 
 days when this barbarous sport was 
 in vogue. The bull terrier is a dog 
 that partakes of the character of both 
 the bulldog and the terrier, and is 
 rather a .favorite among lovers of dogs. 
 
 Buller, Sir Reclvers Henry, a 
 British soldier ; born in Devonshire, 
 England, in 1839 ; entered the army in 
 1858; served in the campaigns in 
 China (1860), Ashanti (1873-1874), 
 South Africa (1878-1879), Egypt 
 (1882-1884), and the Sudan (1884- 
 1885) ; in 1890 succeeded Lord Wolse- 
 ley as adjutant-general of the army 
 and became lieutenant-general. On 
 the breaking out of the Boer-British 
 War in South Africa, in October. 
 1899, he was placed in command of 
 the British forces who went to the re- 
 lief of Ladysmith. On Dec. 15, fol- 
 lowing, in attempting to force the 
 passage of the Tugela river at Colen- 
 eo, he was repulsed, with a loss of 
 1,097 officers and men and 11 guns. 
 After several repulses he succeeded in 
 relieving Ladysmith, March 3, 1900. 
 He was afterward relieved from com- 
 mand on the ground of failure to meet 
 the expectations of his military su- 
 periors, and much scandal was caused 
 uy a controversy which followed re- 
 garding the responsibility for his 
 failure. He died June 2. 1908. 
 
 Bullet, the projectile used for 
 small-arms, either spherical or of an 
 elongated form. The elongated bullet 
 is now in general use for rifles, and 
 there has also been introduced some 
 means of dilating the bullet at the 
 moment of explosion, so that it is 
 forced into the grooves of the rifle and 
 exactly fits the barrel. 
 
 Bullfights, the favorite or na- 
 tional diversion of the Spaniards, as 
 now practised said to be of compara- 
 tively modern origin, having been de- 
 vised by the Moors of Spain mainly 
 for the exhibition of horsemanship, 
 courage, and dexterity with the lance. 
 At first it was practised by gentlemen 
 armed only with a short spear or jave- 
 lin ; and on grand occasions, especially 
 the coronation of a king, such com- 
 bats are still exhibited. But generally 
 the combatants are professionals. The 
 excommunications of the Popes have 
 not been sufficient to induce the Span- 
 iards to abandon this amusement. 
 Charles IV. abolished it ; but it was 
 soon revived again. The assailants 
 are seldom killed in these sports. Bull- 
 fights are got up either for private 
 gain or for the benefit of some public 
 institution. This characteristic na- 
 tional sport or diversion is exhibited 
 at Madrid through the summer at least 
 once a week for the benefit of the gen- 
 eral hospital. The bullfights are held 
 in special rings or amphitheaters, that 
 at Madrid being capable of seating 
 12,700 persons, its cost of erection 
 having been $400,000. 
 
 BULL FINCII. 
 
 Bull Finch, a well known bird, 
 locally known as the norskpipe, the 
 coal-hood, the hoop, or the tony hoop, 
 the alp, and the hope. Its song is
 
 Bull Frog 
 
 much prized. It is often domesticated. 
 It is found in many lands. 
 
 Bull Frog, any frog which croaks 
 with a deep rather than a sharp sound. 
 A species of frog found in Carolina 
 and the parts adjacent, which has a 
 voice not unlike that of a bull. It is 
 six or eight inches long, by three or 
 four broad, without the legs. It swal- 
 lows ducks and young goslings whole. 
 It is difficult to catch from its length 
 of leap, besides which it is generally 
 left unharmed because it is said to 
 purify rather than to pollute the 
 water in which it lives. 
 
 Bullhead) various fishes having 
 large heads. 
 
 Bullinger, Henri, a celebrated 
 Swiss reformer ; born in Bremgar- 
 ten in 1504 ; died in Zurich in 1575. 
 
 Bullion, uncoined gold and silver 
 in bars or in the mass. United States 
 standard bullion contains 900 parts of 
 pure gold or pure silver, and 100 parts 
 of copper alloy. The coining value of 
 an ounce of pure gold is $20.67183, 
 and the coining value of an ounce ef 
 standard gold is $18.60465. The coin- 
 ing value in standard silver dollars of 
 an ounce of pure silver is $1.2929, and 
 the coining value of an ounce of stan- 
 dard silver, is $1.1636. 
 
 Bull Bun, or Bull's Bun, a 
 stream in Virginia, dividing Fairfax 
 and Prince AVilliam counties, in the 
 N. E. part of the State, and flowing 
 into the Occoquan river 14 miles from 
 the Potomac. On its banks were 
 fought two of the most memorable bat- 
 tles during the Civil War. After a 
 series of heavy skirmishes, July 16- 
 19. 1S61, the Union army under Gen- 
 eral McDowell was on the 21st utter- 
 ly routed by the Confederates under 
 the command of Generals Beauregard 
 and J. E. Johnston. The Union loss 
 was about 3,000 men, while that of 
 the Confederates was estimated at 
 nearly 2,000 men. . The former lost, 
 in addition, 27 guns, besides an im- 
 mense quantity of small arms, ammu- 
 nition, stores, provisions, and accou- 
 trements. On Aug. 30, 1862, another 
 great battle was fought here between 
 the Union forces commanded by Gen- 
 eral Pope, and the Confederates un- 
 der Generals Lee, Longstreet, and 
 " Stonewall " Jackson, when the for- 
 mer were again defeated with heavy 
 
 Bulthaupt 
 
 loss. The three battles of Groveton, 
 Bull's Run, and Chautilly, fought in 
 three successive days, cost the Union 
 cause about 20,000 men in killed, 
 wounded, missing, and prisoners, 30 
 guns, and 30,000 small arms. The 
 first battle of Biril Run is sometimes 
 known as the battle of Manassas. 
 
 Bull Terrier, a variety of dog, a 
 cross breed between the bull dog and 
 terrier. 
 
 Bulnes, Manuel, a Chilian sol- 
 dier and statesman, born in Concep- 
 cion, Dec. 25, 1799. He served in 
 most of the battles of the Chilean rev- 
 olution. In 1838 he commanded the 
 Chilean army of 5,000 men against 
 Santa Cruz, in Peru, and was finally 
 instrumental in driving Santa Cruz 
 from the country and breaking up the 
 Peru-Bolivian confederation. In 1841 
 he was elected President of Chile and 
 served for 10 years. He was after- 
 ward Senator and Councilor of State. 
 He died in Santiago, Oct. 18, 1866. 
 
 Billow, Hans Guido von, a Ger- 
 man pianist and composer, born in 
 Dresden, Jan. 8, 1830 ; died in Cairo, 
 Feb. 13, 1894. 
 
 Bulow, Karl Ecluard von, a 
 German author, born at Burg vor 
 Eilenburg in Saxony in 1803 ; died in 
 1853. 
 
 Bulow, Margarete von, a Ger- 
 man novelist, born in Berlin in 1860. 
 She lost her life in an attempt to res- 
 cue a boy from drowning, in 1885. 
 
 Buloz, Francois, born near Ge- 
 neva, Switzerland, 1803, died at Paris 
 in 1877 ; founder and editor of the 
 " Revue des Deux Mondes," the cele- 
 brated French fortnightly literary 
 magazine. 
 
 Bulrush, or Bullrush, called 
 also cat's tail or reed mace. The bul- 
 rush of Scripture is the translation of 
 two distinct Hebrew words, agmon, 
 possibly an arundo or some similar 
 genus, in Isa. Iviii : 5, and gome, evi- 
 dently the papyrus nilotica (Ex. ii : 
 3, Isa. xviii : 2). 
 
 Bnlthaupt, Heinrich Alfred, 
 a German poet and dramatist, born in 
 Bremen, Oct. 26, 1849. On quitting 
 the university he was for a while a 
 private tutor ; then he traveled in the 
 East, in Greece, and in Italy. He 
 was a lawyer in his native town for
 
 Bnlwer 
 
 some years, and in 1879 became cus- 
 todian of the city library. Of his 
 dramatic compositions the list is very 
 long. 
 
 Bulwer, Henry Lytton Earle 
 (Lord Balling), an English author 
 and diplomatist, brother of Sir Ed- 
 ward Bulwer-Lytton, born Feb. 13, 
 1801 ; died in Naples, May 23, 1872. 
 
 Bulwer- Clayton T r e a t y , a 
 treaty negotiated at Washington, D. 
 C., in April, 1850, by John M. Clay- 
 ton, Secretary of State under Presi- 
 dent Taylor, and Sir Henry Bulwer, 
 British Minister to the United States. 
 The treaty provided that neither, the 
 United States nor Great Britain 
 should attempt to control a proposed 
 canal across Nicaragua. The treaty 
 provided further for the neutrality 
 of the canal, and it guaranteed en- 
 couragement to all lines of inter- 
 oceanic communication. The terms 
 of the treaty were afterward much 
 disputed. On March 3, 1899, Con- 
 gress passed a bill providing for the 
 construction of a canal on the Nica- 
 ragua route, which also authorized 
 the President to open negotiations 
 with Great Britain for the abroga- 
 tion of the Bulwer-Claytor Treaty, 
 and under the last clause a conven- 
 tion between the two countries, abro- 
 gating portions of the treaty, was 
 signed in "Washington, Feb. 5, 1900. 
 
 Blwer-Lytt<m. See LYTTOW, 
 EDWAKD GEORGE EARLE. 
 
 Bnlyea, George Henry Vicars, 
 a Canadian official; born in Gage- 
 town, N. B., Feb. 17, 1859; removed 
 to Qu'appelle (in the former Assini- 
 boia District, N. "W. T.); became 
 Commissioner of Yukon Territory, 
 Territorial Secretary and Minister of 
 Agriculture, and the first lieutenant- 
 governor of the new Province of Al- 
 berta (1905). 
 
 Bnnce, Oliver Bell, author and 
 editor, born New York, Feb. 8, 1828. 
 He edited " Appleton's Journal," " Pic- 
 turesque America," " Picturesque Eu- 
 rope," "Picturesque Palestine," etc., 
 and wrote " Romance of the Revolu- 
 tion," " Don't : A Manual of Mistakes 
 and Improprieties," " My House : An 
 Ideal ; " a novel, and plays. He died at 
 New York, May 15, 1890. 
 
 Buncombe, a county in North 
 Carolina. The term bunkum, tnean- 
 
 Bnnker Hill 
 
 ing talking for talking's sake, bombas- 
 tic speech making, is said to have orig- 
 inated with a Congressional member 
 for this county, who declared that he 
 was only talking for Buncombe when 
 attempts were made to cut his oratory 
 short. 
 
 Bundesrath, the German Federal 
 Council which represents the individ- 
 ual States of the Empire, as the 
 Reichstag represents the German na- 
 tion. It consists (1900) of 58 mem- 
 bers, and its functions are mainly 
 those of a confirming body, although 
 it has the privilege of rejecting meas- 
 ures passed by the Reichstag. 
 
 Bungalow, the name applied to 
 the kind of houses erected by Euro- 
 peans in India. They are generally 
 of one story, and with the roof 
 thatched, the ceiling being often of 
 white-washed cloth. They are not 
 well adapted for defense against a foe. 
 
 Bunion, a term applied in. surgery 
 to enlarged bursae, or synovial sacs, 
 situated on any part of the foot. In 
 the great majority of cases, bunions 
 are directly produced by the pressure 
 of badly fitting boots ; and if the boots 
 are constructed of patent leather, or 
 any material which stops the excret- 
 ing action of the skin, this, too, may 
 be regarded as an indirect cause of 
 their formation. Sometimes, however, 
 the tendency to suffer from bunions is 
 hereditary, and almost irremediable. 
 A bunion begins as a painful and ten- 
 der spot at some point exposed to 
 pressure ; the part gradually enlarges, 
 and there are indications of an effu- 
 sion into a natural bursa or a newly 
 formed sac. The disease sometimes 
 proves so troublesome that amputation 
 of the toe, or excision of the ends of 
 the bones affected, has been resorted to. 
 
 Bunker Hill, an eminence. 110 
 feet high, in the Charlestown district 
 of Boston, Mass., connected by a ridge 
 with another elevation, 75 feet high, 
 named Breed's Hill. These heights 
 are memorable as being the seat of a 
 battle, June 17, 1775, and known un- 
 der the name of Bunker Hill. The 
 city of Boston was occupied by the 
 British under General Gage, who had 
 resolved to begin offensive operations 
 against the rebels. This design be- 
 coming known in the American camp, 
 it was determined to seize and fortify
 
 Banner 
 
 the heights of Charlestown on the 
 night of June 16. The execution of 
 this perilous mission was confided to 
 Colonels Prescott and Pepperell at the 
 head of a brigade of 1,000 men ; and 
 at dawn of day a strong redoubt was 
 already completed on Breed's Hill. 
 About 1,500 Americans advanced suc- 
 cessively to the relief of Prescott, and 
 General Warren entered the redoubt 
 as a volunteer, refusing the command 
 which was tendered to him. At about 
 2.30 o'c!6ck, two columns of the Brit- 
 ish advanced to a simultaneous as- 
 sault ; they were received with a ter- 
 rific fire, and twice repulsed in disor- 
 der. When the Americans had ex- 
 hausted all their ammunition, Prescott 
 gave the order for retreat. They re- 
 ceived a destructive volley as they left 
 the redoubt, and Warren fell, shot 
 through the head with a bullet. The 
 retreat was harassed by a raking fire 
 from the British ships and batteries, 
 but there was no pursuit beyond 
 Charlestown Neck. The British loss 
 was 226 officers and men killed, and 
 828 wounded ; that of the Americans 
 145 killed or missing, and 304 
 wounded. Although a defeat, the 
 moral result of this action was great. 
 The Americans had seen superior num- 
 bers of the disciplined soldiers of Eng- 
 land retreat before their fire, and 
 given the proof that they were able 
 to defend their liberties. On Breed's 
 Hill, and near the spot where Warren 
 fell, stands now the Bunker Hill Mon- 
 ument, the corner stone of which was 
 laid by the Marquis de Lafayette, 
 June 17, 1825. This monument was 
 inaugurated June 17, 1843. It con- 
 sists of a plain granite shaft, 220 feet 
 high, 31 feet square at the base, and 
 15 at the top. The monument affords 
 a magnificent panoramic view of the 
 surrounding country. 
 
 Bnnner, Henry Cuyler, an 
 American poet and story writer; born 
 in Oswego, -N. Y., Aug. 3, 1855; be- 
 came a journalist in 1873, and was 
 editor of " Puck " from shortly after 
 its start till his death. He died in 
 Nutley, N. J., May 11, 1896. 
 
 Bunsen, Christian Karl Josias, 
 Chevalier, a distinguished German 
 statesman and philosopher ; born in 
 Korbach, in the principality of Wai- 
 deck, Aug. 25, 1791 ; died in Bonn, 
 Nov. 28, 1860. 
 
 Buiiyan 
 
 Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm Zb- 
 erhard, a German chemist ; born in 
 Gottingen, March 31, 1811. He wai 
 successively professor in Cassel, -Mar- 
 burg and Heidelberg. Among his 
 many discoveries and inventions are 
 the production of magnesium in quan- 
 tities, magnesium light, spectrum 
 analysis, and the electric pile and the 
 burner which bear his name. He died 
 in Heidelberg, Aug. 16, 1899. 
 
 Bunsen Battery, a modification 
 of the Grove battery, plates or bars of 
 gas coke being used instead of plati- 
 num. The electromotive force is 
 slightly less than that of the Grove 
 battery. 
 
 Bunsen's Burner, a form of gas 
 burner especially adapted for heating, 
 consisting of a tube, in which, by 
 means of holes in the side, the gas 
 becomes mixed with air before con- 
 sumption, so that it gives a non-lumi- 
 nous smokeless flame. 
 
 Bunt, attacks the ears of wheat, 
 completely filling the grains with a 
 black, fetid powder. This powder is 
 a mass of spherical, reticulated spores, 
 which, when crushed, give out a most 
 disagreeable smell. It was formerly 
 called stinking rust. Bread made 
 from flour containing this fungus has 
 a disagreeable flavor and a dark color. 
 Such flour, however, is said to be 
 sometimes used in the manufacture of 
 gingerbread, the molasses effectually- 
 disguising the flavor. The presence of 
 bunt is readily detected by the micro- 
 scope. 
 
 Bunting, the popular name of a 
 number of insessorial birds, as the 
 common bunting, the rice bunting, the 
 Lapland, snow, black-headed, yellow, 
 cirl, and ortolan buntings. The snow 
 bunting is one of the few birds which 
 cheer the solitudes of the Polar re- 
 gions. 
 
 Bunting, a thin woolen stuff, of 
 which the colors and signals of a ship 
 are usually formed ; hence a vessel's 
 flags collectively. 
 
 Bunyan, John, author of the 
 " Pilgrim's Progress," was the son of 
 a tinker, and was born in the village 
 of Elstow, near Bedford, England, in 
 1628. After receiving a scanty edu- 
 cation, he for some time led a wander- 
 ing life. During the civil war he 
 served as a soldier, most probably in
 
 BURBANK'S THORNLESS CACTUS, WITH FRUIT
 
 Buoy 
 
 the army of the Parliament; and his 
 luind now became impressed with a 
 deep sense of religion. This reforma- 
 tion in his life was powerfully assisted 
 by the piety of his wife, whom he mar- 
 ried in 1648 or 1649, and who died 
 some seven years later. He joined a 
 Nonconformist body in Bedford, and 
 at length in 1657 formally undertook 
 the office of a public teacher among 
 them. Acting in defiance of the se- 
 vere laws enacted against dissenters 
 from the Established Church, Bunyan 
 was arrested on Nov. 12, 1660, and 
 committed for trial to the county jail. 
 He was indicted at the quarter-sessions 
 early in 1661, and after an irregular 
 trial was sentenced to three months' 
 imprisonment, which was to be fol- 
 lowed by banishment if he persisted in 
 his determination to repeat his of- 
 fense. He could not be induced to 
 moderate his zeal, and consequently 
 though not banished, he lay in prison 
 almost continuously till 1672, and 
 was again imprisoned in 1675 for six 
 months. 
 
 To this confinement he owes his lit- 
 erary fame, for, in the solitude of his 
 cell, his ardent imagination, brooding 
 over the mysteries of Christianity, the 
 miraculous narratives of the sacred 
 Scripture, and the visions of Jewish 
 prophets, gave birth to that admired 
 religious allegory, the " Pilgrim's 
 Progress " a work which, like 
 " Robinson Crusoe," has remained un- 
 rivaled amid a host of imitators. The 
 first edition appeared in 1678; the 
 second, describing the journey of 
 Christian's wife and children, was 
 published in 1684. His "Holy War 
 made by Shaddai upon Diabolus " 
 (1682), his other religious parables, 
 and his devotional tracts, which are 
 numerous, are also, remarkable, and 
 many of them valuable. He died dur- 
 ing a visit to London, Aug. 31, 1688. 
 
 Buoy, any floating body employed 
 to point out the particular situation of 
 a ship's anchor, a shoal, the direction 
 of a navigable channel, etc. They are 
 made of wood, or, now, more com- 
 monly of wrought iron plates riveted 
 together and forming hollow cham- 
 bers. They are generally moored by 
 chains to the bed -of the channel, etc. 
 They are of various shapes, and re- 
 ceive corresponding names ; thus, there 
 are the can buoy, the nun buoy; the 
 
 BnrcharJ 
 
 bell, mooring, whistling, etc. buoys. A 
 life-buoy is one intended to keep a per- 
 son afloat. 
 
 Bnrbage, Richard, a noted Eng- 
 lish actor and contemporary of Shake- 
 speare, b. 1567, d. 1619. 
 
 Burbank, Luther, American hor- 
 ticulturist, b. Lancaster, Mass., Mar. 
 7, 1849. The son of a farmer, he be- 
 came interested in plant life and 
 earned a world-wide reputation on the 
 Burbank Exposition Farms at Santa 
 Rosa, Cal., in new developments 
 through cross-breeding. He originated 
 the plumcot, a new fruit ; a white 
 blackberry ; new apples : gold and pit- 
 less plums ; a new potato ; an edible 
 thornless cactus for desert travelers ; 
 new prunes, roses, violet-odored lilies, 
 etc.. the number of fruits and flowers, 
 which he improved being unequaled. 
 In 1905 the Carnegie Institution 
 granted him $10,000 yearly for 10 
 years to continue his work. 
 
 Burbot, or Burbolt, a fish of tho 
 cod family, shaped like an eel. 
 Burbriclge, Stephen Gano, an 
 
 American military officer, born in. 
 Scott county, Ky., Aug. 19, 1831; or- 
 ganized for the Union army the fa- 
 mous 26th Kentucky Regiment, which 
 he led at Shiloh; led the charge at 
 Arkansas Post and at Port Gibson, 
 being the first to enter each of these 
 places; retired 1865; died 1894. 
 
 Burch, Charles Summer, an 
 American clergyman ; born in Pinck- 
 uey, Mich., June 30, 1854; was en- 
 gaged for several years in editorial 
 work; ordered deacon in the Protest- 
 ant Episcopal Church in 1895, and 
 ordained priest in 1905; and in 1910- 
 was elected the first suffragan bishop 
 (for New York) of the Episcopal 
 Church in America. 
 
 Burchard, Samuel Dickinson, 
 an American Presbyterian clergyman, 
 born in Steuben, N. Y., Sept. 6, 1812 ; 
 for many years pastor in New York 
 city; created much political excitement 
 throughout the United States by an 
 alliterative characterization of the 
 Democratic Party during the Presi- 
 dential campaign of 1884. A com- 
 pany of clergymen, about 600 in num- 
 ber, called on James G. Elaine, the 
 Republican candidate, at the Fifth 
 Avenue Hotel, New York city, where 
 Burchard made an address, in whicb
 
 Burckharclt 
 
 he. affirmed that the antecedents of the 
 Democracy were " Rum, Romanism, 
 and Rebellion." He died in Saratoga, 
 N. Y., Sept. 25, 1891. 
 
 Burckhard.it, Joliaim I/iulwij;, u 
 Swiss traveler, borr. !r> Lausanne in 
 1784. He went to England in 180G, 
 and undertook a journey of explora- 
 tion to the interior of Africa for the 
 African Association. He started in 
 1809, assuming an Oriental name and 
 costume ; spent some time in Syria, 
 thence visited Egypt and Nubia; spent 
 several months at Mecca, and visited 
 Medina ; aud, after a short stay in 
 Egypt, died at Cairo while preparing 
 for his African journey, in 1817. 
 
 Burden, Henry, an American in- 
 ventor, bora in Dumblane, Scotland, 
 April 20, 1791 ; was brought up on a 
 farm, and, at an early age, showed 
 his inventive genius by making a va- 
 riety of labor-saving machinery, in- 
 cluding a threshing machine. He 
 came to the United States in 1819; 
 engaged in the manufacture of agri- 
 cultural implements ; invented an im- 
 proved plow ; the first cultivator made 
 in this country ; machines for making 
 horse shoes and hook headed spikes 
 used on railroads: a self-acting ma- 
 chine for rolling iron into bars ; and 
 a new machine for making horse shoes, 
 Which received a rod of iron and turned 
 out completed shoes at the rate of 60 
 a minute. He died in Troy, N. Y. f 
 Jan. 19, 1871. 
 
 Burdett, Sir Francis, an Eng- 
 lish politician, born Jan. 25, 1770. He 
 sat in the British Parliament for 40 
 years, as a Liberal of the most ultra 
 type ; was one of the earliest advo- 
 cates of Parliamentary reform, and 
 suffered bitter persecutions at the 
 hands of the Tory government of those 
 times. He was twice imprisoned in 
 the Tower of London for his outspoken 
 Liberalism, fined $5,000, and con- 
 demned to three months' further im- 
 prisonment in the King's Bench. He 
 died Jan. 23, 3844. 
 
 Burdette, Robert -Tones, an 
 American journalist and humorist, 
 born in Greensboro, Pa., July 30, 
 1844. He served in the Union army 
 during the Civil War. He is famous 
 for humorous newspaper skits, of rare 
 variety, charm, and unrepetitious 
 freshness. He was licensed as a Bap- 
 tist clergyman in 1887. 
 
 Bureaucracy 
 
 Burtlett-Coutts The Bight 
 Hone Angela Georgina, Baron- 
 ess, daughter of Sir Francis Bur- 
 dett, born April 21, 1814. In 1831 
 she inherited much of the property or 
 her grandfather, Thomas Coutts, the 
 banker, on the death of his widow. 
 Miss Mellon, the actress once, after- 
 ward Duchess of St. Albans. Be- 
 sides spending large sums of money in 
 building and endowing churches and 
 schools, she endowed the three colon- 
 ial bishoprics of Cape Town, Adelaide, 
 and British Columbia, founded an es- 
 tablishment in South Australia for 
 the improvement of the aborigines, or- 
 ganized the Turkish Compassionate 
 Fund (1877), and established a fish- 
 ery school at the Irish village of Bal- 
 timore (1887). To the city of Lon- 
 don she presented, besides several 
 handsome fountains, the Columbia 
 Market, Bethnal Green (1870), for 
 the supply of fish in a poor district; 
 she also built Columbia Square, con- 
 sisting of model dwellings at low rents, 
 for about 300 families ; and the Peo- 
 ple's Palace owes much to her gen- 
 erosity. In 1871 she accepted a peer- 
 age. In 1881 she was married to Wil- 
 liam Ashmead-Bartlett (born in 
 1846), who in 1882 obtained the royal 
 license to assume her name. She died 
 in London, Dec. 30, 1906. 
 
 Bwrdick, Francis Marion, an 
 American jurist and legal writer, born 
 in De Ruyter, N. Y., Aug. 1, 1845. 
 He was graduated at Hamilton Col- 
 lege in 1869 and at its Law School in 
 1872. He practiced law at Utica, N. 
 Y., from 1872 to 1883, and was later 
 Professor of Law at Hamilton College 
 and at Cornell. Since 1891, he has 
 been Professor of Law at Columbia. 
 He has written a number of legal text 
 books. 
 
 Bureau, Jacques, a Canadian 
 lawyer; born iu Three Rivers, P. Q., 
 July 9, 18QO; was admitted to the 
 bar in 1882; lived in Winnipeg and 
 Duluth, Minn. Member of Parlia- 
 ment for Three Rivers and St. Maur- 
 ice in 1900 and 1904; became Solic- 
 itor-General of Canada iu 1907. 
 
 Bureaucracy, government by de- 
 partments of State, acting with some 
 measure of independence of each 
 other, instead of government by the 
 heads of those departments acting as 
 a cabinet on their joint responsibility.
 
 Burger 
 
 Burger, Gottfried August, a 
 
 German poet, born in Molmerswende, 
 Anhalt, Dec. 31, 1747; died in Got- 
 tingen, June 8, 1794. 
 
 Burgess, Edward, an American 
 naval architect, born in West Sand- 
 wich, Mass., June 30, 1848. He was 
 educated at Harvard, where he grad- 
 uated in 1871, and became secretary 
 of the Boston Society of Natural His- 
 tory. He was instructor of entomol- 
 ogy at Harvard from 1879 to 1883. 
 He then became a designer of sailing 
 yachts. In 1884 he designed the 
 " Puritan," the winner of the Amer- 
 ica's Cup in 1885 ; and a year later 
 the " Mayflower." the winner in 1886. 
 He died in Boston, Mass., July 12, 
 1891. 
 
 Burgess, James, a Scotch Orien- 
 talist, born in Kirkmahoe, Dumfries- 
 shire, Aug. 14, 1832. He went to In- 
 dia in 1855 and became director-gen- 
 eral of archa?ological surveys there. 
 
 Burgess, John William, an 
 American educator; born in Corners- 
 vilie, Tenn., Aug. 26, 1844. He was 
 educated at Cumberland University, 
 Lebanon, Tenn., and at Amherst. He 
 studied law and began its practice at 
 Springfield 'in 1869. During this year 
 he was appointed Professor of English 
 Literature and Political Economy at 
 Knox College. Two years later, he 
 studipd abroad at Gottijigen, Leipsic, 
 and Berlin. On his return, he be- 
 came Professor of History and Polit- 
 ical Science at Amherst, and in 1876 
 Professor of History, Political Sci- 
 ence and International Law in Colum- 
 bia Univ., where in 1890 he attained 
 the deanship of the faculty of Political 
 Science. In 1906-07, he was the first 
 to hold the " Roosevelt Professorship 
 of American History and Institutions" 
 in the University of Berlin. 
 
 Burgh, the same as borough. In 
 the United States the termination bor- 
 ough was for generations added to the 
 names of places, as in England : but, 
 under a decision of the United States 
 Board on Geographic Names, the form 
 is now boro, as Brattleboro. 
 
 Burglary, the crime of breaking 
 into an inhabited house by night with 
 intention of committing a felony. In 
 the United States burglary is pun- 
 ished by State laws, but the common 
 law is generally followed. Some 
 
 K.26. 
 
 Bnrgoyse 
 
 States include breaking into shops, of- 
 fices, warehouses, factories, and meet- 
 ing houses as burglary. An Act of 
 Congress of 1825 expressly includes 
 breaking into boats and vessels with 
 intent to commit a felony. In some 
 States the same deed done in the day- 
 time is defined as burglary in the sec- 
 ond degree. The night is the time, ' 
 between one hour after sunset and one 
 hour before sunrise, or when the feat- 
 ures of a man cannot be clearly dis- 
 cerned. In North Carolina burglary is 
 punishable by death, but the usual 
 penalty is a long term of imprison- 
 ment. 
 
 Burgkmair, a family of German 
 artists in the 15th and 16 centuries, 
 the best known of whom is Hans, born 
 in Augsburg in 1472. He is supposed 
 to have died in 1559. 
 
 Burgos, a city of Northern Spain, 
 once the capital of the kingdom of 
 Old Castile, and now the chief town 
 of the Province of Burgos. It stands 
 on the declivity of a hill on the right 
 bank of the Arlanzon, and has dark 
 narrow streets full of ancient archi- 
 tecture but there are also fine prom- 
 enades in the modern style. The ca- 
 thedral, commenced in 1221, is one of 
 the finest examples of Gothic archi- 
 tecture in Spain. It contains the 
 tombs of the famous Cid, and of Don 
 Fernando, both natives of Burgos, 
 and celebrated throughout Spain for 
 their heroic achievements in the wars 
 with the Moors. Before the removal 
 of the court to Madrid, in the 16th 
 century, Burgos was in a very nour- 
 ishing condition, and contained thrice 
 its present population. Pop. 31.301. 
 The Province has an area of 5,650 
 square miles, largely hilly or moun- 
 tainous, but with good agricultural 
 and pastoral land. Pop. 338,551. 
 
 Burgoyne, John, an English gen- 
 eral and dramatic author, born Feb. 
 24, 1723. After having served with 
 distinction in Portugal, he was sent 
 to America in 1775. He joined Gen- 
 eral Gage at Boston, 'with large rein- 
 forcements, and witnessed the battle 
 of Bunker Hill, of which he has left 
 an animated description. After pro- 
 ceeding to Canada as Governor, he 
 returned to England, but in 1777 was 
 dispatched to take command of that 
 expedition from Canada against the
 
 Burgundy 
 
 United States, the failure of which so 
 largely contributed to the establish- 
 ment of American freedom. Few bat- 
 tles, indeed, have achieved, in their 
 ultimate influence, results so great 
 as the surrender of Burgoyne with 
 5,791 fighting men, well provided with 
 artillery,,, at Saratoga, to the army of 
 General Gates. He died in London, 
 Aug. 4, 1792. 
 
 Burgundy, a region of Western 
 Europe, so named from the Burgun- 
 dians, a Teutonic or Germanic people 
 originally from the country between 
 the Oder and the Vistula. Burgundy 
 is now represented by the four De- 
 partments of Yonne, Cote-d'Or, Saone- 
 et-Loire, and Ain. It is watered by a 
 number of navigable rivers, and is one 
 of the most productive provinces in 
 France, especially of wines. 
 
 Burgundy Wine, the finest of all 
 the French wines, the produce of vines 
 cultivated in the Cote-d'Or, a portion 
 of the ancient Province of Burgundy. 
 
 Bnrial, the most general method 
 of disposing of the dead, the practice 
 of burning them on a funeral pile, 
 prevalent to a limited extent among 
 the Greeks and the Romans, and 
 nearly universal among the Hindus, 
 being the exception and not the rule. 
 The Egyptians, and, at least in some 
 special cases, the Jews, embalmed 
 their dead (Gen. 1: 3, 26; John xix : 
 39, 40). In Europe, according to Sir 
 John Lubbock, interments in which the 
 corpse is in a sitting or contracted 
 posture belong to the stone age, and 
 those in which it has been burned and 
 only the ashes interred, to the bronze 
 age, and those in which the corpse 
 lies extended, presumably to the age 
 of iron. In ancient Peru, however, 
 and some other parts of America this 
 form of interment was within the re- 
 cent historic period. 
 
 Buriats, a nomadic Tartar people 
 allied to the Kalmucks, inhabiting the 
 S. part of the government of Irkutsk 
 and Transbaikalia. Their number is 
 about 200,000! They live in huts 
 called yurts, which, in summer, are 
 covered with leather, in winter with 
 felt. 
 
 Bnriti, a South American palm 
 growing to the height of 100 to 150 
 feet, preferring innrsliy situations, 
 and bearing nn impo<hiK crown of fan 
 
 Burleigh. 
 
 shaped leaves. A sweet vinous liquor 
 is prepared from the juice of the stem, 
 as also from the fruits. 
 
 Bnrke, Edmund, a British orator 
 and statesman ; born in Dublin, Ire- 
 land, Jan. 12, 1729. The first speech 
 of Burke in Parliament was on the 
 Grenville Stamp Act ; and it was at 
 his advice that the Rockingham ad- 
 ministration took the middle and un- 
 decided course of repealing the act, 
 and passing a law declaratory of the 
 right of Great Britain to tax the 
 American colonies. This ministry was 
 soon dissolved to make room for a 
 new cabinet under Pitt. He opposed 
 the ministerial measures antecedent 
 and consequent to the American war ; 
 and the whole powers of his eloquence 
 were exerted first to prevent, and then 
 to heal the fatal breach between the 
 mother country and her colonies. In 
 1774 he was chosen member for Bris- 
 tol, and for the next eight years Fox 
 warmly supported him in his opposi- 
 tion to Lord North's administration. 
 In 1778 he delivered his famous 
 speech against the employment of the 
 Indians in the American war. The 
 last great act of his .political life was 
 his condemnation of the French Revo- 
 lution. He died July 9, 1797. 
 
 Bnrke, John Benjamin Bntler, 
 Irish scientist ; scholar and gold med- 
 alist of Trin. Coll., Dublin ; research 
 degree, Cambridge Univ., 1900 ; in 
 1905 demonstrated spontaneous gener- 
 ation by " radiobe " cultures showing 
 growth and sub-division. He was an- 
 ticipated, in 1904, by Prof. Dubois's 
 radium, and also barium, " eobes." 
 
 Burke, Robert O'Hara, an Irish 
 explorer ; one of the first white men 
 to cross the Australian continent from 
 S. to N., was born at St. Cleram, 
 County Galway, in 1820 ; educated in 
 Belgium; served in the Austrian army 
 (1840), became captain, joined the 
 Irish constabulary (1848), and emi- 
 grated to Australia in 1853. While 
 inspector of police in Victoria he ac- 
 cepted the leadership of an expedition 
 for crossing the Australian continent. 
 After many hardships, Burke and 
 Wills reached the tidal waters of the 
 Flinders river. He died of starva- 
 tion on his return journey, June 28, 
 1861. 
 
 Bnrleigh, 'William Cecil, Lord, 
 an English Secretary of State under
 
 Bnrlingame 
 
 Edward VI. and Elizabeth, and Prime 
 Minister of England for 40 years, 
 born in Lincolnshire, Sept. 13, 1520. 
 He took a leading part in the estab- 
 lishment of the Thirty-nine Articles of 
 faith. He died Aug. 4, 1598. 
 
 Bnrlingame, Anson, an Ameri- 
 can diplomatist, born in New Berlin, 
 N. Y., Nov. 14, 1822. He was sent 
 as United States Minister to China in 
 1861, and on his retirement from this 
 post, in 1867, he was requested by 
 the Regent, to go on a special mission 
 for the Government to foreign courts. 
 Died in St. Petersburg, Feb. 23, 1870. 
 
 Bnrlingame, Edward Liver- 
 more, an American man of letters, 
 born in Boston, May 30, 1848. He 
 was private secretary to his father, 
 Anson Burlingame; after 1879 was 
 associated with the house of Charles 
 Scribner's Sons; and in 1886 became 
 editor of " Scribner's Magazine." 
 
 Burlington, city and capital of 
 Chittenden county, Vt.; on Lake 
 Champlain and the Central Vermont 
 and Rutland railroads; 40 miles N. 
 W. of Montpelier; has exceptionally 
 fine scenic environments, a commodi 
 ous harbor protected by a breakwater 
 and enhancing its value as a port of 
 entry, and flour, cotton, saw, and 
 planing mills, and machine shops; is 
 the seat of the State University and 
 the State Agricultural College, and 
 the see of a Protestant Episcopal 
 and a Roman Catholic bishop. Pop. 
 (1910) 20,463. 
 
 Burlington, city and capital of 
 Des Moines county, la.; on the Mis- 
 sissippi river and the Chicago, Bur- 
 lington & Quincy and other trunk 
 line railroads; 206 miles W. of Chi- 
 cago. It is in a noted bituminous 
 coal region; is an- important distrib- 
 uting point in general trade and es- 
 pecially in grain; has large building 
 and paving brick plants, a consider- 
 able output of steam and gas engines, 
 farming machinery and implements, 
 patent medicines, and woolen goods, 
 and the machine shops of the Chi- 
 cago, Burlington & Quincy railroad. 
 Pop. (1910) 23,234. 
 
 Burma, a province of British 
 India; on the E. side of the Bay 
 of Bengal; bounded on the E. by 
 Siain, the Laos territory, and China, 
 and on the N. and N. W. chiefly by 
 
 Burnaby 
 
 Assam and other parts of India. At 
 one time it formed the greater por- 
 tion of a native empire, its greatest 
 length being about 1,200 miles, and 
 its breadth 600; its area being then 
 about 270,000 English sq. m. In 
 1826 Arracan and Tenasserim, in 1852 
 Pegu and Martaban, and in 1886 
 the rest of the kingdom was an- 
 nexed by Great Britain, King Thee- 
 baw deposed, and British or Lower 
 Burma and Upper Burma united in 
 one province under a lieut.-gov. The 
 chief towns are Mandalay, cap. Upper 
 Burma; Rangoon, cap. Lower Burma; 
 and Moulmein. Rice, wheat and other 
 grains, cotton, tobacco, sugar cane 
 and tea are cultivated, the famous 
 ruby mines worked, and the oil 
 fields exploited by the American Stand- 
 ard Oil Co. All outside oil is ex- 
 cluded by law. In 1906 Burma sup- 
 plied India with 47,000,000 gallons of 
 oil. value $5,400.000. as against for- 
 eign supplies 51,000,000 gals., value 
 $5,933,333. Pop. 10,500,000. 
 
 Bnrmeister, Hermann, a German 
 scientific writer, born in Stralsund, 
 Jan. 15, 1807; distinguished himself 
 as a geologist and zoologist in his na- 
 tive country, and settled permanently 
 in the Argentine Republic, where he 
 continued his investigations. He died 
 in Buenos Ayres, Argentine Repub- 
 lic, May 2, 1892. 
 
 Bnrmeister, Richard, a Ger- 
 man-American musical composer ; 
 born in Hamburg, Germany, Dec. 7, 
 1860; received an academical educa- 
 tion in Hamburg; studied with Franz 
 Liszt, and in Rome, Budapest, and 
 Weimar; made concert tours in Eu- 
 rope in 1883-1885 and in the winter of 
 1893 ; was at the head of the piano 
 department of Peabody Institute, Bal- 
 timore, Md., in 1885-1897; and set- 
 tled in New York in the latter year. 
 He made concert tours all over the 
 United States and was director of the 
 Scharwenka Conservatory, New 
 York, in 1897-1899. 
 
 Bnrnaby, Frederick Gnstavna, 
 
 soldier, traveler, and author, born 
 in Bedford, England, March 3, 1842; 
 a son of the Rev. G. A. Burnaby. On 
 Jan. 17, 1885, while serving as lieu- 
 tenant-colonel of the Royal Horse 
 Guards in the Egyptian campaign, he 
 was killed at the battle of Abu-Elem.
 
 Burnand 
 
 Burnand, Francis Cowley, an 
 
 English author and dramatist, born 
 Nov. 29, 1836. He was editor of 
 " Punch "' in 1880-1906. He wrote 
 the libretto for Sullivan's " Chief- 
 tain " (1894). 
 
 Burne-Jones, Sir Edward, an 
 English painter, born in Birmingham, 
 Aug. 28, 1833; died in London, July 
 17, 1898. 
 
 Burnet, Jacob, an American 
 jurist, born in Newark, N. J., Feb. 22, 
 1770. Admitted to the bar in 1796, 
 he removed to Cincinnati, then a vil- 
 lage with about 500 inhabitants, and 
 was a member of the territorial gov- 
 ernment from 1799 till the establish- 
 ment of a State Government in 1803. 
 In 1821 he was appointed Judge of the 
 Supreme Court of Ohio, and was 
 elected United States Senator in 1828. 
 Burnet was elected a member of the 
 French Academy of Sciences upon the 
 recommendation of Lafayette. He 
 died in Cincinnati, May 10, 1853. 
 
 Burnett, Frances Hodgson, an 
 Anglo-American novelist, born in Man- 
 chester, England, Nov. 24, 1849. Her 
 family removed to Tennessee in 1865. 
 She early wrote stories. In 1873 Miss 
 Hodgson married Dr. Burnett, from 
 whom she obtained a divorce in 1898, 
 afterwards marrying Stephen Town- 
 send. Her most successful work was 
 "Little Lord Fauntleroy." "The Mak- 
 ing of a Marchioness" appeared 1901. 
 
 Biimey, Charles, an English 
 composer and writer on music ; born 
 in Shrewsbury, England, April 7, 
 1726 ; died April 12, 1814. 
 
 B n r n e y, Frances (Madame 
 d'Arblay), an English novelist, 
 daughter of Charles Burney : born in 
 King's Lynn, Norfolk, June 13, 1752; 
 died in Bath, Jan. 6, 1840. 
 
 Burnham, Clara Louise, an 
 American story writer, born in New- 
 ton, Mass., May 25, 1854.- She is the 
 daughter of George F. Root, and has 
 lived in Chicago since childhood. She 
 has written several novels, and has 
 also written libretti for her father's 
 cantatas. 
 
 Burnham, Daniel Hudson, an 
 American architect, born in Hender- 
 son, N. Y., Sept. 4, 1846. He studied 
 architecture in Chicago and designed 
 notable structures there, including the 
 Rookery, Calumet Club, the Temple, 
 
 Hurnley 
 
 Masonic Temple, and the Great North- 
 ern Hotel, as well as large buildings 
 in other cities. He was Director of 
 Works at the Chicago World's Fair. 
 
 Bnrnham, Sherburne 'Wesley, 
 an American astronomer, born in 
 Thetford, Vt., in 1838. He took up 
 astronomy as an amateur, and, in 
 1876, became connected with the Chi- 
 cago Observatory, and later with the 
 Lick Observatory, receiving also an 
 appointment as Professor of Practical 
 Astronomy at the University of Chi- 
 cago. He has made notable discover- 
 ies of double stars, having catalogued 
 1,274 new ones. 
 
 Burning, a mode of capital pun- 
 ishment formerly common in civilized 
 countries. 
 
 In metal working, joining metals by 
 melting their adjacent edges, or 
 heating the adjacent edges and run- 
 ning into the intermediate space some 
 molten metal of the same kind. In 
 ceramics, the final heating of clay 
 ware, which changes it from the dried 
 or biscuited condition to the perfect 
 ware. The glaze or enamel is ap- 
 plied to the baked ware, and is vitri- 
 fied in the burning. 
 
 Burning Glass, a convex lens of 
 large size and short focus, used for 
 causing an intense heat by concen- 
 trating the sun's rays on a very small 
 area. The larger the circular area 
 of the lens and the smaller the area 
 of the spot on which the concentrated 
 rays fall, the greater is the effect pro- 
 duced. Concave mirrors have been 
 used for similar purposes, and are 
 also called burning glasses. Their 
 power was known to Archimedes, and 
 it is mythically stated that by their 
 aid he burned a fleet in the harbor of 
 Syracuse, 214 B. C.. 
 
 Burnisher, a tool for smoothing 
 or pressing down surfaces to close the 
 pores or obliterate lines or marks. 
 The engraver's burnisher is made of 
 steel, elliptical in cross section, and 
 coming to a dull point like a probe. 
 Some burnishers are made of the ca- 
 nine teeth of dogs. Burnishers of 
 bloodstone are used for putting gold 
 leaf on china ware. Agate burnishers 
 are used by bookbinders. The gilder's 
 burnisher is of agate or porphyry. 
 
 Burnley, a parliamentary and 
 municipal borough of England, in Lan-
 
 Burns 
 
 cashire, about 22 miles N. of Man- 
 chester. It presents a modern ap- 
 pearance, and is, generally speaking, 
 well built, mostly of stone. The sta- 
 ple manufacture is cotton goods, and 
 there are large cotton mills and sev- 
 eral extensive foundries and machine 
 shops, with collieries and other works, 
 in the immediate vicinity. Pop. (1901) 
 97,044. 
 
 Burns, Alexander, a Canadian 
 educator, born in Castlewellan, Ire- 
 land, Aug. 12, 1834. He went to Can- 
 ada in 1847, and was graduated at 
 Victoria College, Toronto, in 1861, 
 joining the Methodist Church: From 
 18G8 to 1878 he was President of 
 Wesleyan Ladies' College, Hamilton, 
 Ontario. He was tried for heresy by 
 the Ontario Methodist Confe'rence in 
 1882, but acquitted. He died May 22, 
 1900. 
 
 Burns, Anthony, a fugitive 
 slave, born in Virginia in 1836; ar- 
 rested in Boston in 1854, under the 
 Fugitive Slave Law. An indignation 
 meeting, in which Theodore Parker 
 and Wendell Phillips participated, was 
 held in Faneuil Hall, while a prema- 
 ture and unsuccessful attempt to res- 
 cue Burns under the leadership of 
 Thomas W. Higginson resulted in 
 bloodshed and the death of one of the 
 deputies. When the courts decided 
 that the extradition was legal, Burns 
 was escorted by a strong guard to a 
 revenue cutter, and a riot was barely 
 averted. Burns afterward regained 
 his liberty, studied at Oberlin College, 
 and became a Baptist minister in Can- 
 ada. He died in St. Catherine, Can- 
 ada; July 27, 1862. 
 
 Burns, John, an English labor 
 organizer and Socialist leader, born 
 in London in 1858. He was of hum- 
 ble birth and became a factory boy at 
 the age of 10. By working a year as 
 engineer on the Niger river, he earned 
 enough for a six months' tour of Eu- 
 rope. He constantly addressed audi- 
 ences of workmen, and in 1887 was 
 imprisoned for maintaining the right 
 of public meeting in Trafalgar Square. 
 In 1892 he was elected to the London 
 County Council, and to Parliament 
 from Battersea, and in 1905-06 be- 
 came a member of the British Cabinet 
 as President of the Local Government 
 Board. 
 
 Bnrnside 
 
 Burns, Robert, Scotland's na- 
 tional poet ; born in a clay-built cot- 
 tage less than 2 miles S. of the town 
 of Ayr. and not far from the river 
 Doon, Jan. 25, 1759. His father, Wil- 
 liam Burness (for so the name was 
 originally spelled ) , the son of a Kin- 
 cardineshire farmer, and a worthy and 
 intelligent man, at the time of the 
 poet's birth occupied a few acres of 
 land, and acted as gardener and over- 
 seer for a neighboring gentleman. 
 His mother, Agnes Brown, belonged to 
 Ayrshire. He died at Dumfries, Scot- 
 land, July 21, 1796. His fame has in- 
 creased as years go on, and his birth- 
 day is honored everywhere throughout 
 the civilized world, while the poems 
 for which he was glad to accept a few 
 pounds have brought vast sums to 
 booksellers. 
 
 Burns and Scalds, injuries pro- 
 duced by the application of excessive 
 heat to the human body. They are 
 generally dangerous in proportion to 
 the extent of surface they cover, and 
 a widespread scald may cause serious 
 consequences on account of the nervous 
 shock. 
 
 Bnrnside, Ambrose Everett, an 
 American military officer, born in Lib- 
 erty, Ind., May 23, 1824; served an 
 apprenticeship to a tailor, but re- 
 ceived a nomination to West Point, 
 where he graduated in 1847. He left 
 the army as First Lieutenant in 1852, 
 but returned as Colonel of Volunteers 
 in 1861, commanded a brigade at Bull 
 Run, and, in February, 1862, cap- 
 tured Roanoke Island. Having ren- 
 dered important services at South 
 Mountain and Antietam, he, in No- 
 vember, reluctantly superseded Gen- 
 eral McClellan. On December 13, he 
 crossed the Rappahannock, and at- 
 tacked General Lee near Fredericks- 
 burg, but was repulsed with a loss of 
 over 10.000 men, and was soon after 
 transferred to the Department of 
 Ohio. In November, 1863, he success- 
 fully held Knoxville against a superior 
 force and. in 1864 he led a corps, un- 
 der General Grant, through the battles 
 of the Wilderness and Cold Harbor. 
 Resigning in April, 1865, he was 
 elected Governor of Rhode Island 
 (1866-1868>. and United States Sen- 
 ator in 1875 and 1881. He died in 
 Bristol, R. I.. Sent. 13. 1881. Al- 
 though unsuccessful in high command
 
 Burnt Offering 
 
 he gained universal esteem by his 
 frankness in avowing responsibility 
 for defeat. 
 
 Burnt Offering, one of the sacri- 
 fices divinely enjoined on the Hebrew 
 Church and nation. It is called, in 
 their language, olah, from the root 
 alah to ascend, because, being 
 wholly consumed, all but the refuse 
 ashes was regarded as ascending in 
 the smoke to God. 
 
 Burr, Aaron, an American states- 
 man, and third Vice-President of the 
 United States, born in Newark, N. J., 
 Feb. 5, 1756. While in his 20th year 
 he joined, in 1775, the American army, 
 under Washington, at Cambridge. His 
 ardor in behalf of the Revolutionary 
 cause was such that he was induced to 
 join Arnold as a volunteer in the ex- 
 pedition against Quebec, and he was 
 appointed aide-de-camp to Montgom- 
 ery. In 1776, he was received by 
 General Washington as one of his mili- 
 tary family, but was soon cast off. He 
 never forgave Washington this act. 
 Burr's military talents secured for him 
 the post of Lieutenant-Colonel in 
 1777, which he retained until 1779. 
 Upon Burr's retirement from military 
 life he resumed the study of law, and 
 commenced its practice in Albany in 
 1782, but soon removed to New York. 
 In 1789 he was made attorney-general 
 of New York. From 1791 to 1797 he 
 was a member of the United States 
 Senate. In 1800 he was a candidate 
 for the Presidency, and received the 
 same number of votes as Thomas Jef- 
 ferson (79), and the choice was thus 
 left to the decision of Congress, which, 
 on the 36th ballot, elected Jefferson as 
 President and Burr as Vice-President. 
 In 1804 was fought the famous duel 
 between Alexander Hamilton and 
 Burr, in which the former was killed. 
 In 1807 he was apprehended, taken to 
 Richmond, Va., and tried on a charge 
 of a treasonable design upon the south- 
 west, but was acquitted. He resumed 
 the practice of law, but lived in com- 
 parative obscurity until his death on 
 Staten Island, Sept. 14, 1836. In his 
 later life he was for a time husband 
 of the noted Madame Jumel. 
 
 Burr, Edward, an American mili- 
 tary officer ; born in Booneville, Mo., 
 May 19, 1859; was a student in 
 Washington University in 1874-1878, 
 and at the United States Military 
 
 Burrill 
 
 Academy in 1878-1882, and was grad- 
 uated at the latter and assigned to the 
 corps of engineers with the rank of 2d 
 lieutenant in the latter year. He was 
 promoted 1st lieutenant in 1883, and 
 captain in 1894 ; and as lieutenant- 
 colonel of volunteers commanded the 
 battalion of engineers in the campaign 
 against Santiago de Cuba in June- 
 July, 1898. He was a member of the 
 American Society of Civil Engineers. 
 
 Burr, Enoch Fitch, an American 
 mathematical and religious writer, 
 born in Green's Farms, Fairfield co., 
 Conn., Oct. 21, 1818. He was grad- 
 uated from Yale in 1839, and became 
 pastor of the Congregational Church 
 in Lyme, Conn., in 1850. After 1868 
 he was a lecturer at. Amherst Col- 
 lege. He died in 1907. 
 
 Burr, George Lincoln, an Amer- 
 ican historian, born in Oramel, N. Y., 
 Jan. 30, 1857. He was graduated at 
 Cornell in 1881 and entered its facul- 
 ty in 1888, being Professor of Ancient 
 and Mediaeval History there. He was 
 Expert in History to the Venezuelan 
 Boundary Commission (1896-1897). 
 
 Burr, William Hubert, an 
 American educator ; born in Water- 
 loo, Conn., July 14, 1851 ; was grad- 
 uated at Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti- 
 tute in 1872; was employed by the 
 Wrought Iron Bridge Co., of New 
 York city and later on the water sup- 
 ply and sewerage system of Newark, 
 N. J. ; was Assistant Professor, and 
 later Professor of Rational and Tech- 
 nical Mechanics at Rensselaer Poly- 
 technic Institute in 1876-1884; be- 
 came assistant engineer of the Phoenix 
 Bridge Co., in 1884, and subsequently 
 its general manager ; was Professor of 
 Engineering in 'the Lawrence Scien- 
 tific School of Harvard University in 
 1892-1893; consulting engineer to the 
 New York city department of public 
 works in 1893-1895, of parks and of 
 docks in 1895-1897; and later of 
 bridges. 
 
 Burrill, Thomas Jonathan, an 
 American naturalist; born in Pitts- 
 field, Mass., April 25, 1839 ; was grad- 
 uated at the Illinois State Normal 
 University in 1865; became Professor 
 of Botany and Horticulture there in 
 1868, and its vice-president in 1882; 
 was dean of the Department of Na- 
 tural Sciences in 1877-1894, and act- 
 ing president in 1891-1894.
 
 Bnrritt 
 
 Burritt, Elihu, an American au- 
 thor, called the " Learned Black- 
 smith," born in New Britain, Conn., 
 Dec. 8, 1811. He was a blacksmith, 
 linguist, lecturer, reformer and a noted 
 advocate of peace. He died in New 
 Britain, March 7, 1879. 
 
 Bnrritt College, a co-educational 
 institution, in Spencer, Tenn. ; organ- 
 ized in 1848, under the auspices of the 
 Christian Church. 
 
 Burroughs, George, an American 
 clergj man, born in 1650 ; was exe- 
 cuted for witchcraft, at Salem, Mass., 
 Aug. 19, 1692. He was graduated at 
 Harvard in 1670, and preached in 
 Salem in 1680. He was accused of 
 bewitching Mary Wolcott and others 
 by wicked arts and condemned on the 
 evidence of the afflicted persons. At 
 his execution he repeated without mis- 
 take the Lord's Prayer, which a witch 
 was said to be unable to do. Cotton 
 Mather witnessed his execution. 
 
 Burroughs, George Stockton, 
 an American educator ; born in Water- 
 loo, N. Y., Jan. 6, 1855; was grad- 
 uated at Princeton University in 1873, 
 and at its Theological Seminary in 
 1877 ; removed to New England in 
 1880; and served in the ministry of 
 the Presbyterian Church in Fairfield 
 and New Britain, Conn. ; and at Am- 
 herst College ; was Professor of Bibli- 
 cal Literature In 1886-1892: president 
 of Wabash College, Crawfordsville, 
 Ind., in 1892-1899: and became Pro- 
 fessor of Old Testament Language and 
 Literature in Oberlin Theological 
 Seminary in 1899. He died in 1901. 
 
 Burroughs, John, an American 
 essayist and descriptive writer; born 
 in Roxbury, N. Y., April 3, 1837. He 
 taught school for about eight years, 
 was for a time a journalist and then 
 became a clerk in the Treasury De- 
 partment and subsequently a national 
 bank examiner. He settled on a farm 
 in New York State and has since de- 
 voted himself to fruit culture, nature 
 study and literature. Many of his 
 papers were written in his bark cov- 
 ered study to which he has given the 
 name " Riverby," on the banks of the 
 Hudson. 
 
 Burrowing Owl. In the West 
 Indies these birds dig burrows for 
 themselves, in which they form their 
 nests and deposit their eggs, while in 
 
 Bushel 
 
 the western part of the United States 
 they occupy the holes of the prairie 
 dogs jointly with the dogs. 
 
 Burrows, William, an American 
 naval officer, born near Philadelphia, 
 Pa., Oct. 6, 1785. He commanded 
 the " Enterprise " in its successful 
 action with the British " Boxer " off 
 the coast of Maine. Both com- 
 manders were killed in the fight, 
 Sept. 5, 1813. and were buried side 
 by side at Portland. 
 
 Bnrt, Thomas, an English labor 
 leader, born in Northumberland, Nov. 
 12, 1837. Since 1874 he has had a 
 seat in Parliament as a Liberal. 
 
 Burton, Marion LeRoy, an 
 American educator; born in Brook- 
 lyn, la., Aug. 30, 1874; was ordained 
 to the Congregational ministry in 
 1905; pastor of. the Church of the 
 Pilgrims, Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1908- 
 1909; became president of Smith 
 College (Mass.) in 1910. 
 
 Burton, Sir Richard Francis, 
 an English traveler, linguist, and 
 author ; born in Barham House, Her- 
 fordshire, March 19. 1821; died in 
 Trieste, Oct. 20, 1890. 
 
 Burn, or Boeroe, an island of the 
 Malay Archipelago, in the Residency 
 of Amboyna, from which it lies about 
 40 miles to the W. Area, with the 
 small island of Amblau, 3,360 square 
 miles; population variously estimated 
 at from 10,000 to 50,000. 
 
 Burying Beetles. They receive 
 their name from a practice they have 
 of burying the carcasses of moles, mice 
 or other small quadrupeds to afford 
 nutriment to their larvse. 
 
 Bnsaco, a ridge (1,826 feet) on 
 the N. side of the river Mondego, in 
 the Portuguese Province of Beira. 16 
 miles N. N. E. of Coimbra. Here 
 Wellington, with 40.000 British and 
 Portuguese troops, repulsed the attack 
 of Massena with 65,000 French, Sept. 
 27, 1810. 
 
 Bush Antelope, also called BUSH 
 BUCK, and BUSH GOAT, names 
 common to a number of species of AN- 
 TELOPE, natives chiefly of the Southern 
 and Western parts of Africa. 
 
 Bushel, a measure of capacity used 
 for corn : or what is called dry meas- 
 ure. It contains 32 quarts, 8 gallons, 
 or 4 pecks.
 
 Busliire 
 
 Butler 
 
 Bushire, or Almshehr, ("father 
 of cities," also variously written Bush- 
 ahr ; in Persian, Bendershehr ) , a prin- 
 cipal port of Persia, on a sandy penin- 
 sula on the E. shore of the Persian 
 Gulf, in the Province of Fars. Pop. 
 27,000, chiefly Persians, Arabs, and 
 Armenians. 
 
 Bushmen, a nomadic race of 
 Africa. They are a thin, wiry people, 
 poor and debased near the coast, but 
 greatly improved further inland. They 
 recognize no king or chief, build no 
 houses, have no cattle or goats, do not 
 till the soil, and wear skins for cloth- 
 ing. Their language has a rough, 
 clicking sound, and they resemble the 
 Hottentots. 
 
 Bushnell, Horace, an American 
 clergyman and noted writer on reli- 
 gion, morality and other topics ; born 
 near Litchfield, Conn., in 1802; died 
 in Hartford, Conn., Feb. 17, 1876. 
 
 Bushrangers, in Australia, orig- 
 inally convicts from the English penal 
 stations who took to the bush and 
 became robbers. The thickly wooded 
 mountainous districts afforded them 
 protection, and they soon established 
 a reign of terror. They became so 
 strong that the government had to 
 adopt the most stringent measures to 
 suppress them. 
 
 Busiris, a town of ancient Egypt, 
 in the Delta, the chief place where the 
 rites of Isis were celebrated. The name 
 is also given as that of a mythical 
 Egyptian King. 
 
 Bussu Palm, a palm growing in 
 the tidal swamps of the Amazon. The 
 stem is only 10 to 15 feet high ; but 
 the immense, undivided, coarsely ser- 
 rate leaves are often 35 feet in length 
 by 4 or 5 in width. The leaves make 
 excellent and durable thatch. The 
 spathe is made into bags, caps, and 
 coarse cloth. 
 
 Bust, in sculpture, the representa- 
 tion of that portion of the human fig- 
 ure which comprises the head and the 
 upper part of the body. 
 
 Bustamante, Anastasio, a Mexi- 
 can statesman and revolutionist, born 
 in Jiquilpan, Michoacan, July 27, 
 1780. In 1837 he was elected Presi- 
 dent of Mexico. In 1842 he was 
 obliged to retire from the Presidency, 
 and was succeeded by Santa Ana. He 
 served in the Mexican army in the war 
 
 with the United States, retiring from 
 military service in 1848. He died in 
 San Miguel de Allende, Feb. 6, 1853. 
 
 Bustamante, Carlos Maria, a 
 Mexican statesman and historical 
 writer, born in Mexico City in 1774. 
 He studied law and in 1801 began its 
 practice. In 1805 he became editor 
 of the " Diario de Mejico." He held a 
 command under Morelos in 1812, and 
 was captured at Vera Cruz. He was 
 released, and became a member of 
 Congress and held other public offices. 
 He published a history of the Mexican 
 Revolution, and histories of the times 
 of Iturbide and of Santa Ana. He 
 died in Mexico City, Sept. 21, 1848. 
 
 Bustard, the name of a genus of 
 European birds. 
 
 Butler, borough and capital of 
 Butler county, Pa.; on the Cone- 
 quenessing creek and the Pennsyl- 
 vania and other railroads; 26 miles 
 N. of Pittsburg; is in a natural gas, 
 oil, coal, and iron region; and manu- 
 factures woolen and silk goods, plafp 
 glass, oil-well machinery, and steel 
 cars. Pop. (1910) 20,728. 
 
 Butler, Benjamin Franklin, an 
 American lawyer and soldier, born in 
 Deerfield, N. H., Nov. 5, 1818 ; studied 
 law, and was admitted to the bar in 
 1841, and became distinguished as a 
 criminal lawyer and politician. He 
 was a member of the State Legislature 
 in 1853, of the State Senate in 1859- 
 1860. Butler had risen to the rank 
 of Brigadier-General of militia ; and, 
 at the outbreak of the Civil War, he 
 marched with the 8th Massachusetts 
 Regiment, and, after a check at Big 
 Bethel, was appointed to the command 
 of Baltimore and of Eastern Virginia, 
 with his headquarters at Fort Mon- 
 roe. In February, 1862, he com- 
 manded the military forces sent from- 
 Boston to Ship Island, near the mouth 
 of the Mississippi ; and, after New Or- 
 leans had surrendered to the naval 
 forces under Farragut, he held mili- 
 tary possession of the city. Relieved 
 of his command, he acted under Gen. 
 Grant in his operations against Peters- 
 burg and Richmond in 1865. Return- 
 ing to Massachusetts at the end of the 
 war, he took an active part in politics 
 as an extreme radical, advocated the 
 impeachment of President Johnson, 
 and in 1866-1875 was a member o
 
 Butler 
 
 Butter 
 
 Congress. In 1877 and 1879 he was 
 defeated as a candidate for Governor 
 of Massachusetts, but in 1882 was 
 elected by a large majority. In 1884 
 he ran for the Presidency as the can- 
 didate of the Greenback and Anti- 
 Monopolist Parties, but carried no 
 State. He died in Washington, D. C., 
 Jan. 11, 1893. 
 
 Butler, Benjamin Franklin, an 
 American lawyer, born in Kinderhook 
 Landing, N. Y., Dec. 17, 1795. From 
 1821 to 1825 he was district-attorney 
 of Albany county. He was elected to 
 the Assembly in 1828, and from 1834 
 to 1838 was United States Attorney- 
 General. He was also acting Secre- 
 tary of War during part of Jackson's 
 administration. He died in Paris, 
 France, Nov. 8, 1858. 
 
 Butler, John, a royalist leader 
 in the American Revolution, born in 
 Connecticut ; died in Niagara in 1794. 
 
 Butler, Nicholas Murray, edu- 
 cator, b. Elizabeth, N. J., April 2. 
 1802. He graduated at Columbia 
 Univ., 1882, studied in Berlin and 
 Paris ; from 1885 was assistant, tutor, 
 professor, and dean in the faculty of 
 philosophy, and in 1902 became Pres. 
 of Columbia Univ. His lectures and 
 writings on Education are of the high- 
 est value. 
 
 Butler, Matthew Calbraith, 
 soldier and statesman, b. near Green- 
 ville, S. C., Mar. 8, 1836. He became 
 a lawyer 1857; served as a Con- 
 federate in the Civil War; rose to 
 Maj.-Gen.; lost his right leg in battle: 
 was U. S. Senator 1877-95; Maj.-Gen. 
 of Volunteers in the Spanish War 
 and Commissioner on Cuban Evacua- 
 tion. He died April 4, 1909. 
 
 Butler, William, an American 
 army officer, born in Prince William 
 county, Va., in 1759. He served in 
 the Revolution in Pulaski's corps ; af- 
 terward, under Pickens, Lee, and 
 Greene ; won fame jus commander of 
 the Mounted Rangers ; and, after the 
 war, became (1796) Major-General of 
 militia. He died in Columbia, S. C., 
 Nov. 15, 1821. 
 
 Butler, William Orlando, an 
 American army officer and politician, 
 born in Kentucky in 1793. He served 
 in the War of 1812 and in the Mexi- 
 can War. and became a Major-Gen- 
 eral in 1846. He was the unsuccess- 
 
 ful Democratic candidate for Vice- 
 President in 1848. He died in Car- 
 rollton, Ky., Aug. 6, 1880. 
 
 Butler, Zebulon, an American 
 military officer, born in Lyme, Conn., 
 in 1731. He served in the Revolu- 
 tionary War and commanded the gar- 
 rison at Wyoming Valley at the time 
 of the massacre of July 3, 1778. He 
 died in Wilkesbarre, Pa., July 28, 
 1795. 
 
 Butler University, a co-educa- 
 tional (non-sectarian) institution, in 
 Irviugton, Ind. ; organized in 1855. 
 
 Butt, Isaac, an Irish patriot ; the 
 first to make political use of the 
 phrase " Home Rule." He died May 
 5, 1879. 
 
 Butte, a French word used in the 
 United States for an abrupt, and usu- 
 ally isolated, eminence, sometimes ap- 
 pearing in the form of a lofty turret. 
 They occur in picturesque grandeur 
 along the banks of the Columbia river 
 in Oregon, and in the neighborhood 
 of Butte, Mont. 
 
 Bntte, a city and county-seat of 
 Silverbow co., Mont., is the largest 
 mining town in the world, employing 
 over 10,000 persons in this industry 
 alone, which is principally confined to 
 copper mining, although there are val- 
 uable gold and silver mines. The Ana- 
 conda copper mines are located here. 
 Pop. (1900) 30,470; (1910) 39,165. 
 
 Butter, a fatty substance obtained 
 from milk. Although occasionally 
 made from the milk of goats, buffa- 
 loes, etc.. it is commonly made from 
 cow's milk. It was used by the an- 
 cients as a fuel or as an ointment or 
 hair dressing, but is now used almost 
 wholly as a food. 
 
 The great butter making countries 
 of the world are the United States, 
 Denmark, Sweden, Russia. Northern 
 France, Germany, England and Ire- 
 land, and, in recent years, Australia 
 must be added to the list. England 
 imports large quantities from Canada, 
 the United States, and Denmark, as 
 well as from Australia. The United 
 States is an exporting country. The 
 Southern countries make much less 
 butter and consume less than the 
 Northern countries. In the South, 
 oils, such as olive oil, take, to a con- 
 siderable extent, the place of butter,
 
 Buttercup 
 
 and, among the poorer classes, butter 
 is an almost unknown article of diet. 
 
 The term butter has been occasion- 
 ally applied to other substances. Cer- 
 tain vegetable oils which are solid at 
 ordinary temperatures, such as palm 
 oil, cocoanut oil, nutmeg oil, etc., are 
 frequently called vegetable butter, and 
 the name mineral butter has some- 
 times been applied to substances 
 which are wholly different in nature. 
 The Bureau of the Census reports th 
 annual factory production of butter in 
 the United States as over 530,000,000 
 pounds, valued at over $113,000,000. 
 
 Buttercup, the popular name of 
 two or three species of the ranuncu- 
 lus. They are common plants with 
 brilliant yellow flowers. 
 
 Butter field, Daniel, an American 
 soldier, born in Utica, N. Y., Oct. 18, 
 1831. At the outbreak of the Civil 
 War he was Colonel of the 12th New 
 York Militia. He served in the Pen- 
 insular campaign. At Fredericksburg 
 he commanded the 5th Corps, and at 
 Chancellorsville and Gettysburg was 
 chief of staff. He served as chief of 
 staff to Hooker at Lookout Mountain, 
 and Ringgold, and Pea Vine Creek. 
 He was brevetted Major-General in 
 the regular army, but resigned in 
 1869, and became chief of the United 
 States sub-treasury in New York ; died 
 in Cold Spring, N. Y., July 17, 1901. 
 
 Butterfly, the popular name of a 
 group of lepidopterous insects. 
 
 Butterfly Weed, or PLEURISY 
 ROOT, a plant common in the United 
 States, of which the root has medici- 
 nal repute, the infusion being used as 
 a diaphoretic and expectorant. 
 
 Butterine, a substance prepared 
 in imitation of butter, from animal or 
 vegetable fats. 
 
 Buttermilk, the residue of cream 
 after the butter has been removed by 
 churning. It forms a wholesome and 
 agreeable as well as a nourishing 
 drink in hot weather. It possesses 
 the slightly acid taste from the acidity 
 developed in ripening the cream. 
 
 Butternut, the fruit of white wal- 
 nut, an American tree, so called from 
 the oil it contains. The tree bears a 
 resemblance in its general appearance 
 to the black walnut, but the wood is 
 not so dark in color. The same name 
 is given to the nut of South America, 
 
 Buzzard 
 
 also known as suwarrow, or suwarra 
 nut. 
 
 Butter Tree, a name of several 
 trees yielding oily or fatty substances 
 somewhat resembling butter. 
 
 Button, a small circ.ular disk or 
 knob of mother of pearl, horn, metal, 
 or other material. Its chief use is to 
 unite portions of a dress together. The 
 ancient method of fastening dresses 
 was by means of pins, brooches, 
 buckles and tie-strings. 
 
 Buttresses, in architecture es- 
 pecially Gothic, projections on the out- 
 side of the walls of an edifice, extend- 
 ing from the bottom to the top, or 
 nearly, and intended to give additional 
 support to the walls and prevent them 
 from spreading under the weight of 
 the roof. 
 
 Butyric Acid, an acid obtained 
 from butter ; it also occurs in perspi- 
 ration, cod liver oil, etc. 
 
 Buyukdereh, a town on the Eu- 
 ropean shore of the Bosphorus, a few 
 miles from Constantinople. It is fa- 
 mous for its scenery, and is a favorite 
 residence of the Christian ambassa- 
 dors. 
 
 Buzzard, the English name of the 
 buteo, a genus of birds, and especially 
 of three species. The turkey buzzard 
 is more a carrion vulture than a rap- 
 torial bird. They are natives of our 
 Southern States, where they are very 
 useful as scavengers, and are so much 
 appreciated in this regard that in most 
 of the States they are protected by 
 law. In consequence they grow quite 
 tame, and in some places may be con- 
 sidered almost a domesticated fowl. 
 They are about the size of a common 
 turkey, and the species gets its name 
 from a distant resemblance between 
 the two. They are of a dirty black 
 color, and are from 25 to 36 inches 
 long, having an immense span of wing 
 (proportionate), being remarkable for 
 their powerful and graceful flight. Its 
 nest is a mere hollow in the ground 
 with a rampart of loose, dead branch- 
 es around it. These birds may be seen 
 by hundreds in one locality, hovering 
 over and lighting upon the carcass of 
 a dead animal. They are rarely found 
 N. of Pennsylvania. After the terri- 
 ble disaster in Galveston, Tex., in 
 1900, there was an entire disappear- 
 ance from that city of these useful
 
 Buzzard's Bay 
 
 Byzantine Empir* 
 
 birds. The brown buzzard, called also 
 the glead, glede, glade, kite or put- 
 tock, feeds on small mammalia, birds, 
 lizards, worms and insects. It makes 
 its nest in trees and ledges of rock. 
 
 Buzzard's Bay a bay indenting 
 the S. E. coast of Massachusetts ; 
 partly formed by the Elizabeth Isl- 
 ands. Its shores afford many summer 
 resorts. Upon the bay New Bedford 
 is situated. 
 
 Byers, Samuel Hawkins Mar- 
 shall, an American historical and de- 
 scriptive writer, born in 1838. Dur- 
 ing the Civil War he served in the 
 Union army. He was taken prisoner ; 
 and while in prison in Columbia, S. 
 C., wrote the famous song " Sher- 
 man's March to the Sea." He was 
 consul at Zurich, Switzerland, from 
 1869 to 1884, and Consul-General to 
 Italy in 1885. 
 
 By-Law, a private law, the local 
 or subordinate law of a city, town, 
 private corporation or other organiza- 
 tion. 
 
 Byng, John, British admiral, born 
 1704, entered the navy in 1727, and 
 served under his father, Admiral 
 George Byng. He was sent to relieve 
 Minorca, blockaded by a French fleet, 
 but failed, it was thought, through 
 hesitation in engaging the enemy. The 
 public odium of the failure was such 
 that the ministry allowed Byng, who 
 was condemned by a court-martial, to 
 be shot at Portsmouth, March 14, 1757. 
 
 Bynner, Edwin Lassetter, an 
 American novelist, born in Brooklyn, 
 N. Y., in 1842 ; was librarian of the 
 Boston Law Library. He died in Bos- 
 ton, Mass., in 1893. 
 
 Byron, George Gordon Noel, 
 Lord Byron, a great English poet, 
 was born in Holies street, London, 
 an. 22, 1788. He was the grandson 
 of Admiral John Byron, only son, 
 Captain John Byron, of the Guards, 
 so notorious for his gallantries and 
 reckless dissipation that he was known 
 as * Mad Jack Byron.' The injudic- 
 ious indulgence of a fond mother in no 
 way restrained the inclinations of a 
 naturally wayward disposition, and 
 Byron spent an unregulated youth un- 
 til his eleventh year, when the death of 
 
 his grand-uncle gave him the title and 
 estates of the family. While a student 
 in Cambridge, he essayed a collection 
 of poems, " Hours of Idleness," which 
 at best, a clever school-boy's produc- 
 tion, was treated seriously by Brough- 
 am, who criticized it over severely in 
 the Edinburgh " Review." The ire 
 this roused in Byron led to a manifes- 
 tation of his real powers as a poet, 
 and his reply to this criticism, " Eng- 
 lish Bards " and " Scotch Reviewers," 
 recalling with its wit and sarcasm the 
 days of Pope, at once made him a man 
 of mark. After travel abroad, his 
 famous poems appeared in due suc- 
 cession, and he lived the life of a man 
 about town in London, until his mar- 
 riage in 1815 with Miss Millbanke. 
 The truth is not yet known about this 
 unhappy marriage, but within a year 
 they parted, and a judicial separation 
 was arranged. Be the cause, what it 
 may, Byron was blamed by the public, 
 and fell from the position of popular 
 idol to that of the most despised man 
 in England, which he left in 1816, 
 never to return. The next few years 
 were spent in dissipation and literary 
 work, until 1823, when he joined the 
 Greeks in their effort to throw off the 
 yoke of Turkey. The reforms he ac- 
 complished in a short time in the 
 poorly equipped and wretchedly dis- 
 ciplined army of the Greeks, proved 
 him to possess skill as an organizer, 
 but his physical condition did not fit 
 him for the rigors of a soldier's life, 
 and he died April 9, 1824, after a short 
 illness brought on by exposure. 
 
 Byzantine Empire, also known as 
 the Eastern Roman Empire, compre- 
 hended at first in Asia the country on 
 this side of the Euphrates, the coasts 
 of the Black Sea, and Asia Minor; in 
 Africa, Egypt ; and in Europe, all the 
 countries from the Hellespont to the 
 Adriatic and the Danube. This sur- 
 vived the Western Empire 1,000 years, 
 and was even increased by the addition 
 of Italy and the coasts of the Mediter- 
 ranean. It commenced in 395, when 
 Theodosius divided the Roman empire 
 between his two sons Arcadius and 
 Honorius, and ended with Constan- 
 tine XI., who reigned from 1448 t 
 1453.
 
 c, the third letter of the 
 English alphabet and in oth- 
 ers derived from the Latin. 
 " In English," says Ben 
 Jouson, " it might well have 
 been spared, for it has no peculiar 
 sound of its own." It has the simple 
 power of k before a, o, u, and most of 
 the consonants ; and the power of s 
 before e, i, y. 
 
 Caaba, or Kaaba, the Mohamme- 
 dan temple at Mecca, especially a 
 email oratory within, adored by Mo- 
 hammedans as containing the black 
 stone said to have been given by an 
 angel to Abraham on the occasion of 
 building the original caaba. The caa- 
 ba is at the center of tlie mosque of 
 Mecca, a building called by the Mo- 
 hammedans El-Haram, i. e., " The 
 Inviolable." 
 
 Caaing Whale, one of the Cetacea 
 in the dolphin family, belonging to a 
 genus common in all seas, and oftener 
 stranded than any other whale. The 
 total length varies from 16 to 24 feet, 
 the maximum girth about 10 feet. The 
 caaing whale is very gregarious, and 
 vast shoals of 50 to 100 sometimes im- 
 petuously follow their leader ashore 
 when alarmed and surrounded in a 
 bay or fiord. Exciting scenes of this 
 sort have been frequently witnessed 
 on the Faroe Islands and elsewhere. 
 It is recorded that 1,110 were killed in 
 the winter of 1809-1810 at FIvalfiord, 
 in Iceland. In temper the animals are 
 mild compared* with some of their al- 
 lies. They feed chiefly on cuttle- 
 fishes. Many names are given to these 
 common cetaceans e. g., pilot-whale, 
 black-fish, social whale, grindhval, etc. 
 The common name is derived from the 
 Scotch word caa, meaning " to drive." 
 Cab, a covered public carr'i"^ hav- 
 ing two or four wheels, and drawn by 
 
 one Lorse. In a hansom cab the driv- 
 er's seat is behind, not in front. Also 
 the covered part at the rear end of a 
 locomotive which protects the engi- 
 neer and fireman, and shields the lev- 
 ers, etc. 
 
 Cabal, in .English history applied 
 to the ministry under Charles II., 
 which consisted of five men famous 
 for their intrigues Clifford, Ashley, 
 Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauder- 
 dale, whose initial letters form this 
 word. The use of this word to sig- 
 nify a body of intriguers was not, 
 however, derived from this circum- 
 stance, as some have supposed, for the 
 word cabale, derived from cabala, was 
 used in that sense in French before 
 this time. 
 
 Cabala, or Cabbala, (that is, re- 
 ception), a word used by the Jews to 
 denote the traditions of their ances- 
 tors regarding the interpretation of 
 the Scriptures. 
 
 Cabanas, a town in the Province 
 of Piuar del Rio, Cuba; 35 miles S. 
 W. of Havana; is in a rich sugar* 
 cane section; pop. (1907) 11,552. 
 
 Cabanel, Alexandra, a French 
 artist, born 1823; died 1889. He was 
 famous for his portraits, one of 
 which, Miss Catherine Wolfe, in the 
 Metropolitan Museum, New York, is 
 a fair specimen of his work. He also 
 painted imaginative subjects. 
 
 Cabbage, a plant in general culti- 
 vation for culinary purposes, and for 
 feeding cattle. In the Northern parts 
 of the United States, cabbages are 
 sown about September, kept under 
 glass or frames during winter, and 
 planted oat in spring. 
 
 Cabbage Flea, the name some- 
 times given to a small leaping beetle, 
 the larvae of which destroy seedling
 
 Cabbage Moth 
 
 Cabinet 
 
 cabbages, as those of an allied species 
 do young turnips. 
 
 Cabbage Moth, a species of moth 
 the caterpillar of which feeds on cab- 
 bage and turnip leaves, and is some- 
 times very destructive. 
 
 Cabbage Rose, a species of rose 
 of many varieties, supposed to have 
 been cultivated from ancient times, 
 and eminently fitted for the manufac- 
 ture of rose water and attar from its 
 fragrance. It has a large, rounded, 
 and compact flower. 
 
 Cabbage Tree, the English name 
 for the palm genus Areca, and special- 
 ly for the cabbage palm pf the West 
 Indies. It is so called because the 
 bud at the top of its stem is like a 
 cabbage, and the inner leaves which 
 form this bud are eaten like the vege- 
 table now mentioned, though the re- 
 moval of its bud for the sake of these 
 leaves is the destruction of the mag- 
 nificent tree. 
 
 Cabeiri, sacred priests or deified 
 heroes, venerated by the ancients as 
 the authors of religion and the foun- 
 ders of the human race. 
 
 Cabell, "William Lewis, an 
 American lawyer ; born in Danville, 
 Va., Jan. 1, 1827 ; was graduated at 
 the United States Military Academy 
 in 1850. During the Civil War he 
 served in the Confederate army ; rose 
 to the rank of Brigadier-General ; was 
 captured in Kansas in 1864, and held 
 a prisoner of war till April 28, 1865. 
 After the war he practised law in 
 Fort Smith, Ark., and after 1872 in 
 Dallas, Tex. He was mayor of the 
 latter city four times. 
 
 Cabell, James Lawrence, an 
 American sanitarian, born in Nelson 
 county, Va., Aug. 26, 1813. He was 
 graduated at the University of Vir- 
 ginia in 1833, where he later filled the 
 chair of anatomy. During the Civil 
 War he had charge of military hospi- 
 tals for the Confederate Government. 
 He devised measures to check the yel- 
 low fever epidemic at Memphis and 
 was president of the National Board 
 of Health from 1879 till his death, in 
 Overton, Va., Aug. 13, 1889. 
 
 Cabet, Etienne, a French com- 
 munist, born in Dijon, Jan. 2, 1788. 
 and educated for the bar, but turned 
 his attention to literature and politics. 
 Cabet sent a French colony to the Red 
 
 river in Texas, but the colonists who 
 went out in 1848 found Texas any- 
 thing but a Utopia. Their ill fortune 
 did not deter Cabet from embarking 
 at the head of a second band of colo- 
 nists. On his arrival he learned that 
 the Mormons had just been expelled 
 from Nauvoo, 111., and that their city 
 was left deserted. The Icarians es- 
 tablished themselves there in 1850. 
 Cabet's efforts, however, were not suc- 
 cessful. He was finally obliged to 
 leave Nauvoo and retire to St. Louis, 
 where he died Nov. 9, 1856. 
 
 Cabeza, de Vaca, Alvar Nunez, 
 a Spanish explorer, born about 1507. 
 He was second in command in the 
 ill-fated expedition of Panfilo de Nar- 
 vaez to Florida in 152S. After the 
 loss of their commander. Cabesa de 
 Vaca, with a few survivors, landed 
 W. of the month of the Mississippi, 
 and after eight years of wandering 
 and captivity among the Indians, he 
 reached a Spanish colony on the Pa- 
 cific with three companions. He re- 
 turned to Spain, and in 1540 was 
 appointed Governor of La Plata. He 
 died about 1564. 
 
 Cabinet, a deliberative committee 
 of the executive authority, consisting- 
 of the principal members of the Gov- 
 ernment. The cabinet of the Presi- 
 dent of the United States is composed 
 of the heads of the several adminis- 
 trative departments of the Govern- 
 ment. They are : 1. The Secretary of 
 State, 2. The Secretary of the Treas- 
 ury. 3. The Secretary of War. 4. 
 The Secretary of the Navy- 5. The 
 Secretary of the Interior. 6. The 
 Postmaster-General. 7. The Attorney- 
 General. 8. The Secretary of Agri- 
 culture. 9. The Secretary of Com- 
 merce and Labor. They are appointed 
 to office by the President, but their 
 appointments must be confirmed by 
 the Senate, and they generally hold 
 office until their successors are ap- 
 pointed and confirmed. Contrary to 
 foreign systems, the United States 
 cabinet ministers do not have seats in 
 Congress : there is no premier, al- 
 though the Secretary of State virtu- 
 ally holds that position as leading 
 cabinet officer. The salary of the 
 members of the cabinet is $12.000 an- 
 nually, except that of the Secretary of 
 State, whose salary is at present 
 ,;8,OCO per year.
 
 Cable 
 
 Cable is either a large rope or a 
 chain of iron links. Rope cables are 
 made of the best hemp or of wire, 
 twisted into a mass of great compact- 
 ness and strength. The circumference 
 of hemp rope varies from about 3 
 inches to 26. A certain number of 
 yarns are laid up left-handed to form 
 a strand ; three strands laid up right- 
 handed make a hawser, and three 
 hawsers laid up 'eft-handed make a 
 cable. The strength of a hemp cable 
 of 18 inches circumference is about 60 
 tons, and for other dimensions the 
 strength is taken to vary according to 
 the cube of the diameter. Wire rope 
 has within recent years largely taken 
 the place of hemp for tow-line and 
 hawsers on board ship. 
 
 Cable, George Washington, an 
 American novelist ; born in New Or- 
 leans, La., Oct. 12, 1844 ; received a 
 common school education ; entered the 
 volunteer service of the Confederate 
 army in 1863 and served till the close 
 of the war ; when he obtained employ- 
 ment in a mercantile house ; and was 
 on the editorial staff of the New Or- 
 leans "Picayune" in .1865-1879. His 
 sketches of creole life in " Scribner's 
 Monthly " proved so successful that 
 in 1879 he turned his entire attention 
 to literature. He has contributed 
 numerous sketches to newspapers and 
 magazines ; and published various 
 books. 
 
 Cabot, George, an American 
 statesman ; born in Salem, Mass., Dec. 
 3, 1751 ; educated at Harvard College. 
 In 1791 he became United States Sen- 
 ator for Massachusetts, and proved a 
 steadfast friend of the Washington 
 administration. He died in Boston, 
 April 18, 1823. 
 
 Cabot, John, (It. GIOVANNI CAB- 
 OTO), a Venetian pilot, the discoverer 
 of the mainland of North America, 
 settled as a merchant, probably as 
 early as 1472, in Bristol, England, 
 where he is supposed to have died 
 about 1498. Under letters-patent 
 from Henry VII., dated March 5, 
 1496, he set sail from Bristol in 1497, 
 with two ships, accompanied by Lewis, 
 Sebastian, and Sancto, his sons, and 
 on June 24th sighted Cape Breton 
 Island and Nbva Scotia. Letters- 
 patent were granted Feb. 3, 1498, for 
 a second expedition, but whether any 
 voyages were made under these is 
 
 Cacere* 
 
 doubtful. However, they form the 
 last authentic record of his career. 
 
 The same uncertainty exists as to 
 the birthplace of his second son, SE- 
 BASTIAN, who, it now appears most 
 probable, was born in Bristol in 1474. 
 Sebastian's name is associated with 
 that of his father in the charter of 
 1496, and in 1499 he appears to have 
 sailed with two ships in search of a 
 Northwest Passage, and followed the 
 American coast from 60 to 30 N. 
 lat. ; but it has been considered doubt- 
 ful whether this voyage also should 
 not be assigned to his father. In 1519 
 Cabot returned to Spain from Eng- 
 land, and was appointed pilot-major 
 of the kingdom by Charles V., for 
 whom, in 1526, he commanded an ex- 
 pedition which examined the coast of 
 Brazil and La Plata, where he en- 
 deavored to plant colonies. The at- 
 tempt ending in failure, he was im- 
 prisoned for a year in 1530, and ban- 
 ished for two years to Oran, in Af- 
 rica. He seems to have died in Lon- 
 don in 1557. 
 
 Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, the dis- 
 coverer (or second discoverer) of Bra- 
 zil, a Portuguese, born about 1460. 
 In 1500 he received command of a 
 fleet bound for the East Indies, and 
 sailed from Lisbon, but having taken 
 a course too far to the West he was 
 carried by the South American cur- 
 rent to the coast of Brazil, of which 
 he took possession in the name of 
 Portugal. He died about 1526. 
 
 Cacao, or Cocoa, the chocolate 
 tree, and also the powder and beverage 
 made with it obtained from the fruit 
 of this tree. The tree is 16 to 18 feet 
 high, a native of tropfcal America, 
 and much cultivated in the tropics of 
 both hemispheres, especially in the 
 West India Islands, Central and 
 South America. Its fruit is contained 
 in pointed, oval, ribbed pods 6 to 10 
 inches long, each inclosing 50 to 100 
 seeds in a white, sweetish pulp. The 
 term cocoa is a corruption of cacao, 
 but is more commonly used in com- 
 merce: cocoa nuts, however, are ob- 
 tained from an entirely different tree. 
 
 Caceres, Andres Avelino, a Pe- 
 ruvian military officer and statesman ; 
 born in Ayacucho, Nov. 11, 1838. 
 The > imprisonment of Calderon, the 
 President, made him acting President 
 of Peru. Afterward, by a general
 
 Cachalot 
 
 election, he was inaugurated Presi- 
 dent (1886). On the death of Presi- 
 dent Bermudez in 1894, General Ca- 
 ceres was proclaimed dictator, and, 
 May 10th, was elected President. In 
 1895 he was overthrown in a revolu- 
 tion headed by ex-Dictator Pierola, 
 who was elected President July 10. 
 
 CACAO PLANT. 
 
 Cachalot, the sperm of sperma- 
 ceti whale. The male is from 46 to 
 60, or even 70 feet long; the female 
 from 30 to 35. They are gregarious, 
 and go in what the fishermen call 
 schools, sometimes with as many as 
 500 or 600 individuals. The cachalot 
 inhabits the northern seas, but strag- 
 gles through a great part of the 
 ocean. 
 
 Cachao. See HANOI. 
 
 Cachar, a district of Assam, India ; 
 
 Cade 
 
 area, 3,750 square miles. The inhab- 
 itants (313,900) are mainly engaged in 
 rice and tea cultivation. 
 
 Cache, a hole in the ground for 
 hiding and preserving provisions 
 which it is inconvenient to carry ; 
 used by settlers in the Western States 
 and Arctic explorers. 
 
 Cachet, Lettre de, a name given 
 especially to letters proceeding from 
 and signed by the kings of France, 
 and countersigned by a secretary of 
 state. 
 
 Cacholong, a beautiful mineral, 
 regarded as a variety of semi-opal. 
 It is sometimes called pearl opal, or 
 mother-of-pearl opal. It is generally 
 of a milk-white color, rarely with a 
 yellowish or reddish tinge. 
 
 Cactaceae (named from the cac- 
 tus), Indian figs. About 800 are 
 known. The fruit of some species is 
 refreshing and agreeable, that of oth- 
 ers insipid. 
 
 Cactus, an old and extensive ge- 
 nus of Linnaeus. The plant, though 
 now seen all over India, undoubtedly 
 came at first from a foreign and a 
 distant country. It grows very ex- 
 tensively in the western and south- 
 western part of the United States and 
 all over tropical America, usually on 
 arid lands. Once rooted in a place, 
 it spreads so widely abroad that it is 
 difficult to get it out again, and it 
 is believed to impoverish the land 
 of which it takes possession. 
 
 Caddoan Indians, a family of 
 North American Indians, comprising 
 the Arikari tribe in North Dakota ; 
 the four Pawnee villages. Grand, Tap- 
 age, Republican, and Skidi, in the 
 Indian Territory; and the Caddo, Ki- 
 chai, Wichita, and other tribes, for- 
 merly in Louisiana, Texas, and Ar- 
 kansas. 
 
 Cade, Jack, the leader of a popu- 
 lar insurrection in the reign of Henry 
 VI. of England. He collected 20.000 
 followers, chiefly Kentish men, who, 
 in June, 1450, flocked to his standard, 
 that they might claim redress for the 
 grievances so widely felt. Cade de- 
 feated a detachment of the royal for- 
 ces at Seven Oaks, and obtained pos- 
 session of London, the King having 
 retired to Kenilworth ; but having put 
 Lord Say cruelly to death, and laid 
 aside the appearance of moderation
 
 Cadence 
 
 which he had at first assumed, the 
 citizens rose, gave his followers bat- 
 tle, dispersed them, and put Cade to 
 death, 1430. 
 
 Cadence, a close, the device which 
 in music answers the use of stops in 
 language. 
 
 Cadenza, a flourish of indefinite 
 form introduced upon a bass note im- 
 mediately preceding a close. 
 
 Cadet, a younger or youngest son ; 
 a junior male" member of a noble fam- 
 ily. Also the name or title given to a 
 young man in training for the 'rank 
 of an officer in the army or navy, or 
 in a military school. In the United 
 States cadets are trained for military 
 life at West Point, N. Y., and for 
 naval life at Annapolis, Md. 
 
 Cadi, or Kadi, in AraBic, a judge 
 or jurist. _ Among _the Turks cadi sig- 
 nifies an inferior judge, in distinction 
 from the mollah, or superior judge. 
 They belong to the higher priesthood, 
 as the Turks derive their law from 
 their prophet. 
 
 Cadiz, Spain, an important sea- 
 port city, capital of a province, which 
 forms a part of Andalusia. It reached 
 its highest prosperity after the dis- 
 covery of America, when it became the 
 depot of all the commerce with the New 
 World ; declined greatly as a com- 
 mercial city after the emancipation 
 of the Spanish colonies in South 
 America ; but again revived, owing 
 partly to the extension of the Span- 
 ish railway system, and partly to the 
 establishment of lines of steamers. 
 
 Cadiz is one of the most ancient 
 towns in Europe, having been built by 
 the Phoenicians, under the name of 
 Gaddir ("fortress"), about 1100 B. 
 c. It afterwards passed into the 
 hands of the Carthaginians, from 
 whom it was captured by the Ro- 
 mans, who named it Gades, and under 
 them it soon became a city of vast 
 wealth and importance. Occupied af- 
 terward by the Goths and Moors, it 
 was taken by the Spaniards in 1262. 
 
 In 1898 it was the rendezvous of 
 the vessels of the Spanish navy 
 which, for a time during the war be- 
 tween the United States and Spain, 
 were expected to make a demonstra- 
 tion against some of the principal 
 American cities on the Atlantic sea- 
 board. Pop. (1900) 69,382. 
 
 Caesar 
 
 Cadmium, a diatomic metallic ele- 
 ment, discovered in 1818. It is found 
 in most zinc ores. One of its com- 
 pounds is the pigment known as Cad- 
 mium yellow, used for fireworks, and 
 in calico-printing. 
 
 Cadmus, according to ancient 
 Greek tradition, the leader of a colo- 
 ny of Phoenicians, who settled at a 
 very early date in Boeotia, and found- 
 ed the city of Thebes, B. c. about 1450. 
 His history is largely fabulous. 
 
 Caducous, Mercury's rod ; a winged 
 rod entwisted by two serpents borne 
 by Mercury as an ensign of quality 
 and office. In modern times it is used 
 as a symbol of commerce, Mercury 
 being the god or commerce. 
 
 Cadwalader, George, an Ameri- 
 can lawyer and soldier ; born in Phila- 
 delphia, in 1804. He practised law 
 till 1846 ; was made brigadier-general 
 of volunteers; and won distinction at 
 Chayultepec. He resumed his law 
 practice till 1861 ; became major-gen- 
 eral of State volunteers ; was placed 
 in command at Baltimore ; accom- 
 panied Patterson's expedition to Win- 
 chester (1801) ; and, as one of a mili- 
 tary board, directed the United States 
 army operations. He died in Phila- 
 delphia, Pa., Feb. 3, 1879. 
 
 Cadwalader, John, an American 
 soldier, born in Philadelphia, Jan. 10, 
 1742. At the outbreak of the Revolu- 
 tion he was placed in command of a 
 battalion and soon became brigadier- 
 general. He fought at Trenton, 
 Brandywine, Germantown, and Mon- 
 mouth. He died in Shrewsbury, Pa., 
 Feb. 10, 1786. 
 
 Caen, a town of France, in Nor- 
 mandy, chief place in the department 
 of Calvados, 125 miles N. W. of Paris, 
 and about 9 miles from the mouth of 
 the Orne. Two remarkable churches 
 are St. Etienne or Church of the Ab- 
 baye-aux-Hommes, built by William 
 the Conqueror, who was buried in it, 
 and La Ste. Trinit6 or Church of the 
 Abbaye-aux-Dames, founded by the 
 Conqueror's wife. Pop. 44,524. 
 
 Caerleon, a town of England on 
 the Usk, 18 miles S. of Monmouth. 
 Many fine Roman remains have been, 
 and are still, found here. 
 
 C.i>sar, Cains Julius, son of a 
 family of the Julian gens, claiming
 
 Caesar 
 
 descent from lulus, son of 
 
 The origin of the name is uncertain. 
 
 Caesar, Cains Julius, son of a 
 Roman praetor of the same name, was 
 born July 12, 100 B. c., according to 
 Mommsen in 102 B. C. One of the 
 greatest, if not the greatest of mili- 
 tary commanders, he was likewise 
 peerless in his time as politician and 
 statesman. He overcame all his ene- 
 mies in the field, and was the dictator, 
 and virtually the first emperor of 
 Rome. During the year 46 B. c. he 
 conferred a benefit on Rome and on 
 the world by the reformation of the 
 calendar,, which had been greatly 
 abused by the pontifical college for 
 political purposes. After quelling an 
 insurrection which broke out in Spain, 
 where Pompey's sons, Cneius and Sex- 
 tns, had collected an army, he received 
 the title of " Father of bis Country," 
 and also of imperator, was made dic- 
 tator and praefectus morum for life, 
 and consul for 10 years ; his person 
 was declared sacred, and even divine ; 
 he obtained a body-guard of knights 
 and senators ; his statue was placed 
 in the temples ; his portrait was struck 
 on coins : the month Quintilis was 
 called Julius in his honor, and on all 
 public occasions he was permitted to 
 wear the triumphal robe. He pro- 
 posed to make a digest of the whole 
 Roman law for public use, to found 
 libraries for the same purpose, to 
 drain the Pontine Marshes, to enlarge 
 the harbor of Ostia, to dig a canal 
 through the Isthmus of Corinth, and 
 to quell the inroads of the barbarians 
 on the E. frontiers ; but in the midst 
 of these vast designs he was cut off 
 by assassination on the Ides (15th) 
 of March, 44 B. c. 
 
 Caesarea, the ancient name of 
 many cities, such as: (1) Csesarea 
 Philippi in Palestine, N. of the Sea 
 of Galilee, rebuilt by Philip, tetrarch 
 of Galilee, son of Herod the Great. 
 (2) Csesarea, on the shores of the 
 Mediterranean, about 55 miles N. W. 
 from Jerusalem, enlarged and beauti- 
 fied by Herod the Great, and named 
 in honor of Caesar Augustus ; the place 
 where St. Paul was imprisoned two 
 years (Acts xxiii-xxv). (3) The 
 capital of Cappadocia. in Asia Minor. 
 
 Caesarian Operation, the most 
 serious operation in midwifery, and 
 only resorted to to save life. 
 
 E.27. 
 
 Cagliari 
 
 Caesarion, son of Julius Caesar and 
 Cleopatra, put to death by order of 
 Augustus. 
 
 Caesars, The Era of, also known 
 as the Spanish Era, a period of time 
 reckoned from Jan. 1, 38 B. C., being 
 the year following the conquest of 
 Spain by Augustus. It was much 
 used in Africa, Spain, and the S. of 
 France; but by a synod held in 1180 
 its use was abolished in all the church- 
 es dependent on Barcelona. Pedro 
 IV. of Ar-ragon abolished the use of 
 it in his dominions in 1350. John of 
 Castile did the same in 1383. It was 
 used in Portugal till 1415, if not till 
 1422. The months and days of this 
 era are identical with the Julian cal- 
 endar, and to turn the time into that 
 of our era, subtract 38 from the year ; 
 but if before the Christian era, sub- 
 tract 39. 
 
 Caesium, an element discovered by 
 Bunsen in I860. The pure metal is 
 rare ; it is similar to potassium, and 
 has such an affinity for oxygen, it will 
 burst into flame when exposed to the 
 air. 
 
 Caffeine, Theine, or Guaranine. 
 an alkaloid found in tea, coffee and 
 other plants used as beverages. About 
 1 per cent, is found in coffee, and 
 from 2 to 4 per cent, in tea. It has 
 no nutritive value. In small doses as 
 in a cup of tea or coffee it helps the 
 circulation. In large doses, or after 
 prolonged drinking of tea or coffee, 
 it paralyses the heart's action. It is 
 used in medicine for various nervous 
 ailments. It is the element that makes 
 tea and coffee drinking so injurious for 
 some persons. 
 
 Cagayan, an island of the Philip- 
 pines ; the largest of six small islets, 
 known as the Cagayan-Sulu group. 
 It is 5 miles wide and 8 miles long. 
 Pop. (1900) 3,500. There are moun- 
 tains attaining a height of 1,100 feet. 
 The chief products are tobacco and 
 sugar. There are pearl and shell fish- 
 eries. Cagayan was sold by Spain to 
 the United States, with Sibutu, in 
 1900, upon payment of $100,000, hav- 
 ing been inadvertently excluded from 
 the terms of the treaty of peace. 
 
 Cagliari, Paul, also known under 
 the name of Paal Veronese, a painter 
 of Verona, born 1528; died 1588. 
 See VEBONESE, PAUL.
 
 Cagliostro 
 
 Cagliostro, Alessandro, Count 
 of, (real name GIUSEPPE BALSAMO), 
 a celebrated charlatan ; born in Pa- 
 lermo, Italy, June 8, 1743. The dis- 
 covery of the philosopher's stone, the 
 preparation of a precious elixir vitse, 
 etc., were the pretenses by means of 
 which he extracted considerable sums 
 from credulous people. Died in 1795. 
 
 Caguas, a town in the department 
 of Guayama, Porto Rico; on the 
 main road between Ponce and San 
 Juan; 18 miles S. E. of the latter; 
 is in a section containing hot springs 
 and valuable quarries of marble and 
 limestone. Pop. (1910) 10,354. 
 
 Caiaphas, a Jew, was the high- 
 priest at the time when the crucifix- 
 ion took place. He was deposed A. D. 
 35, and Jonathan, the son of Annas, 
 appointed in his stead. 
 
 Caicos, a group of islands belong- 
 ing geographically to the Bahamas, 
 but annexed in 1874 to Jamaica. The 
 North, West, East, Grand, and other 
 Caicos, have, together with Turk's 
 Islands, an area of 223 square miles. 
 Pop. (1891) 4,745. Salt and sponges 
 are their chief products. 
 
 Caillie, Rene or Augnste, a 
 French traveler ; born in Poitou, 
 France, Sept. 19, 1799. Having gone 
 to Senegal, he learned about 1826 that 
 the Geographical Society of Paris had 
 offered a premium of 10,000 francs to 
 the first traveler who should reach 
 Timbuctoo. He started from Kakon- 
 dy in Sierra Leone, April 18, 1827, 
 and after some delay caused by ill- 
 ness, reached the mysterious city, 
 April 20, 1828. Caillie died near 
 Paris, May 7, 1839. 
 
 Cain, the first-born of the human 
 race, and the first murderer. He be- 
 came an outcast, traveling to the E. 
 of Eden, where he built a city and had 
 a son, named Enoch. The Jewish tra- 
 dition is, that he was slain by Enoch. 
 
 Caine, Thomas Henry Hall, an 
 English novelist and dramatist; born 
 in Runcorn, Cheshire, Eng., May 14, 
 1853. His novels, which are striking 
 in their pictures of human motives 
 and passions, are read throughout the 
 world. 
 
 Cairn, a round or conical heap of 
 stones erected as a sepulchral monu- 
 ment. They are found on the hills 
 of England, Wales, and Scotland, and 
 
 Cajabamba 
 
 some have assigned to them a peculiar 
 character, as receptacles for the bodies 
 of criminals burnt in the wicker im- 
 ages of the Druids, etc. 
 
 Cairngorm Stone, a mineral : a 
 variety of quartz of a smoky yellow 
 to smoky brown, and often transpar- 
 ent, but varying to brownish-black, 
 then nearly opaque in thick crystals. 
 
 Cairo, (Arab. Musr el Kaherah, 
 "the victorious capital"), the capital 
 of modern Egypt, situated in a sandy 
 plain between the right bank of the 
 Nile and the ridge of Mokattam, near 
 the point of the delta of the Nile. 
 
 The remarkable edifices of Cairo 
 comprise many of the finest remain* 
 of Arabian architecture, all dating 
 from the time of the ancient sultans 
 of Egypt. Among these, besides 
 mosques, chapels, and Coptic churches, 
 are several of the ancient gates, an 
 aqueduct for conveying water from the 
 Nile to the citadel, the works of the 
 citadel, and the palace and well of 
 Joseph. At Old Cairo are the seven 
 towers, still called the " Granary of 
 Joseph," and serving their ancient 
 purpose. In the island of Rhoda is 
 the celebrated Nilometer. On the S., 
 outside the walls, are the tombs of the 
 Mamelukes, and on the N. E. the obe- 
 lisk of Heliopolis. There are also a 
 magnetic observatory, and the College 
 of El Ahzar, the principal university 
 of the Mohammedan world. Pop. 
 (1897) 570,002. 
 
 Cairo, city, port of delivery, and 
 capital of Alexander county, 111.; at 
 junction of the Mississippi and Ohio 
 rivers; on the Illinois Central and 
 other railroads; 150 miles S. E. of St. 
 Louis. It is the trade center of a 
 large farming section; has passenger 
 and freight steamer connections with 
 all important river ports; and has a 
 $3,000,000 steel railroad bridge across 
 the Ohio. Pop. (1910) 14,548. 
 
 Caisson, a military term, denoting 
 a wooden chest to hold ammunition; 
 formerly applied to the ammunition- 
 wagon itself. In engineering a cais- 
 son is a wooden case or frame sunk 
 in the beds of rivers, etc., to keep 
 out the water during the laying of 
 the foundations of a bridge, etc. 
 
 Cajabamba, capital of the prov- 
 ince of Chimborazo, in Ecuador, 102 
 miles S. of Quito, on the arid plateau
 
 Cajamarca 
 
 Calamus 
 
 of Topi, at an elevation of 9,480 feet. 
 Pop. 16,000. The former town of 
 ItiOBAMBA, founded on this site in 
 1533, was in 1797 overwhelmed by 
 an earthquake in which 30,000 lives 
 were lost 
 
 Cajamarca, a department in the 
 N. W. of Peru, between the W. chain 
 of the Andes and the Amazon. A 
 railway connects it with the Pacific, 
 and there is a large farming and cat- 
 tle-raising industry. Area, 12,538 
 square miles; pop. (1896) 442,412. 
 Capital, Cajamarca ; pop. 12,000. 
 
 Calabar, a maritime district of 
 West Africa on the Bight of Biafra, 
 intersected by two rivers, called re- 
 spectively Old and New Calabar, un- 
 der British protection. Duke Town 
 and Creek Town, the chief towns on 
 Old Calabar river, are stations of 
 British missionaries. 
 
 Calabash, a tree about 30 feet 
 high, found in some places wild, in 
 others cultivated, in the West Indies 
 and other tropical parts of America. 
 The fruit of the tree is inclosed in a 
 shell used by the natives of the Carib- 
 bee Islands for drinking cups, pots, 
 musical instruments, and other do- 
 mestic utensils. 
 
 Calabash. Nutmeg, a tree of the 
 order Anonaceae, introduced into Ja- 
 maica probably from Western Africa. 
 The fruit resembles small calabashes ; 
 hence the name. It is called also 
 American nutmeg, or Jamaica nutmeg. 
 
 Calabria, a compartmento of Italy 
 (the " toe " of the boot "), between 
 the Ionian and Tyrrhenian seas; di- 
 vided into the provinces of Cosenza. 
 Reggio, and Catanzaro; area 5,819 
 square miles; pop. 1,429,054. On 
 Dec. 28, 1908, Calabria and Sicily 
 were visited by an earthquake and 
 tidal wave, causing an appalling loss. 
 
 Calaclium. a genus of endogenous 
 plants, the typical one of the family 
 caladieae. They are cultivated in 
 greenhouses here, and flourish in 
 warmer parts of the world. The 
 leaves of the caladium are boiled and 
 eaten in the West Indies. 
 
 Calais, a fortified seaport town of 
 France, in the department of Pas-de- 
 Calais, on the Strait of, and 25 miles 
 S. E. of Dover, and distant 184 miles 
 by rail from Paris. The Old Town 
 or Calais proper has a citadel, and 
 
 was formerly surrounded by fortifica- 
 tions ; but the modern suburb of St. 
 Pierre les Calais having been amal- 
 gamated with Calais proper, both are 
 now surrounded with forts and other 
 works, to which morasses lend addi- 
 tional strength. In 1347 Calais wag 
 taken by Edward III. of England, 
 after a siege of 11 months. In 1558 
 it was retaken by the Duke of Guise, 
 being the last relic of the French do- 
 minions of the Plantagenets, which 
 at one time comprehended the half of 
 France. Pop. (1901) 59,793. 
 
 Calamianes, an island group of 
 the Philippine Archipelago. Their 
 surface is mountainous, and richly 
 wooded, producing rice, wool, cacao, 
 and the bird's nests used for food. 
 Busuanga, Calamian and Linacapan 
 are the largest of the islands. Area 
 about 340 square miles; pop. over 
 20,000. 
 
 CALADIUM. 
 
 Calamus, the reed pen which the 
 ancients used in writing, made of the 
 stem of a reed growing in marshy 
 places, of which the best were ob- 
 tained from Egypt. The stem was 
 first softened, then dried, and cut and 
 split with a knife, as quill pens are 
 made. To this day the Orientals gen- 
 erally write with a reed.
 
 Calamus 
 
 Calcium Light 
 
 Calamus, the traditional name of 
 the sweet flag, which is no doubt the 
 " calamus aromaticus " of Roman au- 
 thors, and probably the sweet calamus 
 and sweet cane of Scripture. 
 
 Galas, Jean, a French victim of 
 fanaticism ; born in 1698. He was a 
 Protestant, and was engaged as a 
 merchant in Toulouse, when his eld- 
 est son committed suicide ; and as he 
 was known to be attached to the Ro- 
 man Catholic faith, a cry arose that 
 he had on that account been murdered 
 by his father. Jean Galas and his 
 whole family were arrested, and a 
 prosecution instituted against him, in 
 support of which numerous witnesses 
 came forward. The parliament of 
 Toulouse condemned him, by eight 
 voices against five, to be tortured and 
 then broken on the wheel, which sen- 
 tence was carried out in 1702, his 
 property being also confiscated. Vol- 
 taire became acquainted with his fam- 
 ily, and procured a revision of the 
 trial, when Galas was declared inno- 
 cent, and his widow pensioned. 
 
 Calatafimi, a town of Sicily near 
 its W. end, with a ruined Saracenic 
 castle. Near it is the scene of Gari- 
 baldi's first victory over the Neapoli- 
 tans in 18GO. 
 
 Calatrava la Viega, a ruined 
 city of Spain, on the Guadiana, 12 
 miles N. B. of Ciudad Real. Its de- 
 fence against the Moors, undertaken 
 by Raymond, abbot of Fitero, and Die- 
 go Velasquez in 1158, after it had 
 been abandoned by the Templars, is 
 famous on account of its having orig- 
 inated the Order of the Knights of 
 Calatrava, which was instituted at 
 Calatrava in 1158, by King Sancho 
 III. of Castile, and was at several 
 periods associated with the Cistercian 
 monks. Their almost uniform success 
 against the Moors gave rise to rash- 
 ness, and in 1197 they were defeated 
 and nearly exterminated, the survivors 
 transferring the seat to the castle of 
 Salvatierra. 
 
 Calaveras Grove, Gal., one of the 
 famous groves of big trees, and the 
 nearest to San Francisco, measures 
 1,100 yards by 70 yards, and con- 
 tains about 100 trees. It is State 
 property. 
 
 Calcareous, a term applied to sub- 
 stances partaking of the nature of 
 
 lime, or containing quantities of lime. 
 Thus we speak of calcareous waters, 
 calcareous rocks, calcareous soils. Cal- 
 careous spar (crystallized carbonate of 
 lime) is found crystallized in more 
 than 700 different forms, all having 
 for their primitive form an obtuse 
 rhomboid. The rarest and most beau- 
 tiful crystals are found in Derbyshire, 
 England. 
 
 Calceolaria, a well known and 
 beautiful genus of plants. The spe- 
 cies, which are numerous, come from 
 South America, chiefly from the west- 
 ern slope or side of the Andes. The 
 greater number have yellow flowers, 
 others are purple, while in a few the 
 two colors are intermingled. Various 
 calceolarias are cultivated in the 
 United States. 
 
 Calciferons Epoch, one of the 
 subordinate divisions of the Lower Si- 
 lurian System of North America. The 
 division is characterized by the pres- 
 ence of calcareous sandstones and 
 limestones. 
 
 Calcination, the operation of ex- 
 pelling from a substance by heat, eith- 
 er water or volatile water combined 
 with it. Thus, the process of burning 
 lime, to expel the carbonic acid, is 
 one of calcination. 
 
 Calcite, Calcareous Spar, or 
 Calc-spar, the name usually given 
 by mineralogists to carbonate of lime, 
 rhombohedral in its crystallization. 
 It differs from aragonite only in crys- 
 tallization. Calcite is one of the com- 
 monest minerals. 
 
 Calcium, a dyad metallic element. 
 Calcium is a yellowish white, ductile, 
 malleable metal, which oxidizes in 
 damp air; it decomposes water, and 
 dissolves easily in dilute acids. 
 
 Calcium Carbide, a chemical 
 compound of calcium and carbon. It 
 is a hard, bluish-black, clear crystal- 
 line body, and is impervious to light, 
 and insoluble in all known solvents. 
 It is used generally for the produc- 
 tion of acetylene and the reduction of 
 iron. See ACETYLENE. 
 
 Calcium Light, a brilliant light 
 produced by directing the flame of an 
 oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe against a 
 block of compressed quicklime. It 
 has been used on the stage for many 
 years, and by the aid of colored glasses 
 very charming effects are produced.
 
 Calc-sinter Caledonia 
 
 More recently it has been employed in almost unbroken record of progress 
 lanterns for projecting photographic : and prosperity. The pop. in 1872 of 
 and biographic pictures on a screen. | the city proper was 447,001 ; in 1901, 
 
 Calc-sinter, a carbonate of lime, 1,121,064. 
 
 the substance which forms the stalac- Caldecott, Randolph, an Eng- 
 tites and stalagmites that beautify lish artist ; born in Chester, England, 
 many caves. | March 22, 1840. He will chiefly be 
 
 Calculating Machine, a piece of remembered by the admirable " Calde- 
 mechanism for assisting the human in- ' cott's Picture-books," which began in 
 tellect in the performance of arithme- 18 18, with "John Gilpm and "The 
 tical operations. Among modern cal- House that Jack Built. After vain 
 dilating machines are the slide-rule attempts to restore his health by trips 
 and bank and cash registers. j abroad he died in St. Augustine, Fla., 
 
 Calculus, the medical term for ! Feb - JJ 188G - _ 
 
 what is popularly known as stone. _ Calderon, Francisco Garcia, a 
 Calculi vary in size from a pin's head Peruvian jurist and statesman; born 
 to a pigeon's egg, and even larger, and m Arequipa in 1834 % He became a 
 weigh from a few grains to several member of Congress in 18G< ; accept- 
 ounces. They derive their special I ed the treasury portfolio in 1808, and, 
 name and character as well from the I after the Chilean occupation in 1883, 
 
 became the head of the provisional 
 government. Being captured by the 
 enemy, he was retained as a prisoner 
 
 organs of the body in which they are 
 found as from the constituents of 
 which they are composed. 
 
 Calculus, The Infinitesimal, or 
 Transcendental Analysis,a branch - ^^^%e ^.""After 
 of mathematical science. j his re i ea se he. figured prominently in 
 
 Calcutta, (literally, the ghaut or public affairs. He died Sept. 21, 1905. 
 landing place. of Kali, from a famous C aldwell, Charles Henry Bro- 
 
 medge, an American naval officer; 
 born in Hingham, Mass., June 11, 
 1828. In the Civil War he command- 
 
 of the Ganges, about 80 miles from iLfedmlnT'of" Forts* jSon" a'nd 
 the .Bay of Bengal The Hooghly i ; gt phm &nd th Cbalmette batter . 
 navigable up to the city for vessels d *_ tl rnn1 - nr p O f -fjp Or- 
 
 of 4 000 tons or drawing 26 feet. The ^He pSoted commodore 
 port of Calcutta .extends for about 10 : in 1874> He die p d in Boston Mass 
 miles along the river, and is under the j^ QV gQ ^gjj 
 management of a body of commission- */ *.'" 
 
 ers. Opposite the city it is crossed Caldwell, James, an American 
 by a great pontoon bridge, which ' Patriot ; born m Charlotte county, 
 gives communication with Howrah i ^ a -> m. 1'34 During the growing 
 for vehicles and foot-passengers, and antagonism between the Colonies and 
 
 can be opened at one point to let 
 
 Great Britain, he warmly took the 
 side of the former, and when hostili- 
 
 vessels pass up or down. Beside the * ier an e 
 
 accommodation for shipping furnished i *"* began, became chaplain to the 
 by the river, there are also several i New Jersey brigade. He was shot :by 
 docks. The trade is very large, Cal- 5"^,^ ^JPtSlJKl Sfr 
 cutta being the commercial center of . 24 ' i' 81 ^ an< J, bu " ed S/S^ 
 India. There is a very extensive in- bethtown, N. J., where a costly mar- 
 land trade by the Ganges and its con- ^ e monument covers the remains of 
 nections, as also by railways ( the the "soldier-parson." 
 chief of which start from Howrah), Caledonia and Caledonians, the 
 while almost the whole foreign trade names by which the N. portions of 
 of this part of India is monopolized Scotland and its inhabitants first be- 
 by Calcutta. In 1773 Calcutta be- came known to the Romans, 
 came the seat of British government Caledonia, New, a French island 
 for the whole of India. Since then in the Pacific Ocean ; lying some 700 
 the history of Calcutta has been an > miles E. of Australia. Its length N.
 
 Calendar 
 
 Calhoun 
 
 W. to S. E. is 250 miles, the breadth 
 being about 35 miles. It is surround- 
 ed by coral reefs, at a distance of 
 from 5 to 18 miles. 
 
 New Caledonia was taken possession 
 of by the French on Sept. 24, 1853, 
 and a small colony was formed there. 
 During the time of the second empire 
 it was employed as a place of banish- 
 ment for criminals, a purpose which 
 it still serves. In 1872, by a decree of 
 the National Assembly at Versailles, 
 New Caledonia was fixed on as the 
 place to which the condemned Com- 
 munists should be transported. The 
 number of the condemned amounted 
 to more than 3,000. In 1902 the total 
 population was 51,033, of whom 8,384 
 were European civilians, 1,506 mili- 
 tary, 10,757 penal, 3,041 Asiatics, and 
 27,345 natives. 
 
 Calendar, a systematic division of 
 time into years, months, weeks, and 
 days, or a register of these or similar 
 divisions. The present calendar was 
 adopted in the 16th century, the .Ju- 
 lian, or old Roman calendar having 
 become grossly erroneous. 
 Luigi Lilio Ghiraldi, frequently 
 called Aloysius Lilius, a physician of 
 Verona, projected a plan for amend- 
 ing the calendar, which, after his 
 death, was presented by his brother to 
 Pope Gregory XIII. To carry it into 
 execution, the Pope assembled a num- 
 ber of prelates and learned men. In 
 1577 the proposed change was adopted 
 by all the Catholic princes ; and in 
 1582 Gregory issued a brief abolish- 
 ing the Julian calendar in all Catho- 
 lic countries, and introducing in its 
 stead the one now in use, under the 
 name of the Gregorian or reformed 
 calendar, or the " new style," as the 
 other wa now called the " old style." 
 The amendment ordered was this : 
 Ten days were to be dropped after the 
 4th of October, 1582, and the 15th 
 was reckoned immediately after the 
 4th. Every 100th year, which by the 
 old style was to have been a leap 
 year, was now to be a common year, 
 the fourth excepted ; that is, 1600 
 was to remain a leap year, but 1700, 
 1800, 1900 to be of the common length 
 and 2000 a leap year again. In this 
 calendar the length of the solar year 
 was taken to be 365 days, 5 hours, 49 
 minutes, and 12 seconds, the difference 
 between which and subsequent obser- 
 
 vations is immaterial. In Spain, Por- 
 tugal, and the greater part of Italy, 
 the amendment was introduced ac- 
 cording to the Pope's instructions. In 
 France the 10 days were dropped in 
 December, the 10th being called the 
 20th. In Catholic Switzerland, Ger- 
 many, and the Netherlands, the change 
 was introduced in the following year ; 
 in Poland in 1586, in Hungary in 
 1587. Protestant Germany, Holland, 
 and Denmark accepted it in 1700, and 
 Switzerland in 1701. In England the 
 Gregorian calendar was adopted in 
 1752. The 1st of January- was then 
 adopted as the beginning of the legal 
 year, and it was customary for some 
 time to give two dates for the period 
 intervening between January 1 and 
 March 25, that of the old and that 
 of the new year, as January 175 2/3. 
 Russia alone retains the old style, 
 which differs 12 days from the new. 
 
 Calends, the first day of the 
 month among the Romans. 
 
 Calgary, a city in the Province 
 of Alberta, Canada; at junction of 
 the Bow and Elbow rivers and on 
 the Canadian Pacific railway; 642 
 miles E. of Vancouver, 840 miles W. 
 of Winnipeg, and near the foothills 
 of the Rocky Mountains. It is the 
 See of an Anglican and a Roman 
 Catholic bishop; contains Western 
 Canada College, Provincial Normal 
 School, St. Hilda's Ladies' College, 
 Convent of the Sacred Heart. Gen- 
 eral and Holy Cross hospitals, and a 
 sanitarium for consumptives; is in an 
 unusually rich wheat-growing and 
 mixed-farming region; has large live- 
 stock interests; and has an annual 
 wholesale trade exceeding $25,000,- 
 000. Pop. (1906) 11,947. 
 
 Calhoun, John Caldwell, an 
 American statesman; born in Abbe- 
 ville district, Si C., March 18, 1782; 
 graduated with distinction at Yale 
 College in 1804. and was admitted to 
 the South Carolina bar in 1807. After 
 serving for two sessions in the Legis- 
 lature of his native State, he was 
 elected to Congress in 1811. From 
 that time until his death he was sel- 
 dom absent from Washington, being 
 nearly the whole time in the public 
 service, either in Congress or in the 
 Cabinet. When he first entered Con- 
 gress, the difficulties with England 
 were fast approaching actual hostili'
 
 Calico Printing 
 
 California 
 
 ties, and be immediately took part 
 with that section of the dominant par- 
 ty, whose object it was to drive the still 
 reluctant administration into a decla- 
 ration of war. They succeeded, and, 
 as a member of the Committee on For- 
 eign Relations, he reported a bill for 
 declaring war, which was passed in 
 June, 1812. When Monroe formed 
 his administration in 1817, Calhoun 
 became Secretary of War, a post 
 which he filled with great ability for 
 seven years. 
 
 In 1824, he was chosen Vice-Presi- 
 dent of the United States under John 
 Q. Adams, and again, in 1828, under 
 General Jackson. With the latter he 
 did not long continue on amicable po- 
 litical relations, but entered into 
 fierce opposition, when the President, 
 and a majority of Congress, deter- 
 mined to enforce submission to the 
 law of 1828, imposing a heavy protec- 
 tive tariff. It was at this period that 
 he broached his famous " Nullification 
 Doctrine," which is substantially, that 
 the United States is not a union of 
 the people, but a league or compact 
 between sovereign States, any of 
 which has a right to judge when the 
 compact is broken, and to pronounce 
 any law to be null and void which 
 violates its conditions. In short, Cal- 
 lioun was the- first great advocate of 
 the doctrine of Secession. From this 
 time forward, for the last 17 years of 
 Iris public service, he hardly aspired to 
 "be considered a national statesman 
 acting for the whole country ; he was 
 content, even proud, to be viewed only 
 as a Southern statesman. Hence his 
 advocacy of the extreme doctrine of 
 State-Rights : his censure of the Mis- 
 souri Compromise, passed 13 years 
 lefore, when he was himself in the 
 Cabinet; his support of all measures 
 tending to the extension of slave-hold- 
 ing territory; and, finally, his pro- 
 posal to amend the Constitution by 
 abolishing the single office of the pres- 
 idency, and creating two presidents, 
 one for the North, and the other for 
 the South, to be in office at the same 
 time. The place in which he advo- 
 cated these doctrines was the floor of 
 the United States Senate, where he 
 continued for the rest of his life, ex- 
 <pt for a short time at the close of 
 Mr. Tyler's administration, when he 
 accepted the office of Secretary of 
 
 State. He died in Washington, March 
 31, 1850. 
 
 Calico Printing, the art of pro- 
 ducing on calico or cotton cloth varie- 
 gated patterns by the process of print- 
 ing, the object as a rule being to have 
 the colors composing the designs as 
 fast as possible to washing and other 
 influences. 
 
 Calient, a seaport of India, in the 
 presidency of Madras, on the Malabar 
 coast, which was ceded to the British 
 in 1792. It was the first port in In- 
 dia visited by Europeans. It manu- 
 factures cotton cloth, to which it has 
 given the name calico. Pop. (1901) 
 75,500. 
 
 California, a State in the Western 
 Division of the North American Union, 
 bounded by. Oregon, Nevada, Arizona, 
 Lower California, and the Pacific 
 Ocean ; land area, 155,980 square 
 miles ; admitted to the Union Sept. 9, 
 1850; number of counties, 57; pop. 
 (1900) 1,486,053; (1910) 2,377,549; 
 capital, Sacramento. 
 
 The surface of the State is very 
 mountainous, being traversed by two 
 ranges extending in a N. W. and S. E. 
 direction. The Coast Range, consist- 
 ing of a number of broken ridges, has 
 an average width at the base of 65 
 miles, and varies from 1,000 to 8,000 
 feet in height. The highest peak is 
 Mt. Ripley, 7,500 feet The Sierra 
 Nevada Mountains join the Coast 
 Range and extend along the E. border 
 of the State for about 450 miles, with 
 nearly 100 peaks exceeding 10,000 
 feet in height, the highest being Mt. 
 WTiitney, 14,898 feet, Mt. Tyndall, 
 14,386 feet, and Mt. Shasta, 14,350 
 feet. Between these ranges is a basin, 
 at some early time the bed of a lake, 
 about 450 miles in length, the N. sec- 
 tion known as the Sacramento Val- 
 ley, and the S. section as the San 
 Joaquin Valley. This valley contains 
 Tulare Lake, and is drained by the 
 Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. 
 The coast line is irregular, with nu- 
 merous capes and bays, affording 
 many good harbors. San Francisco 
 Bay is the largest and best harbor on 
 the Pacific coast. 
 
 California was for many years the 
 first State in the Union in the pro- 
 duction of gold, but it has now 
 dropped to second place. As early as 
 1841 gold was obtained by washing
 
 California 
 
 near the San Fernando Mission. In 
 1848 the discovery at Coloma of large 
 gold deposits started the up-building 
 of California. At first raining was 
 carried on by washing the river gravel, 
 and in 1851 sluices were built through 
 which the water was passed. These 
 'sluices were filled with blocks of wood 
 or stones, which collected the gold as 
 it sank. Digging was carried on also, 
 and in 1852 an hydraulic system was 
 introduced, by which great streams of 
 water were turned against the gravel 
 banks. This process was successful, 
 but by it the banks were rapidly swept 
 away and the detritus threatened to 
 choke the rivers, so that its use wat 
 soon prohibited by law. Gold is found 
 in the metallic state, often associated 
 with silver and other metals, on the 
 slopes of the Sierras. It is also found 
 in streams and alluvial deposits in 
 coarse grains, and quartz deposits 
 where it is extracted by amalgama- 
 tion. A very rich quality of silver 
 occurs in small quantities, and mag- 
 netic iron and cinnabar abound in the 
 Sierras. Pyrites of iron and copper 
 are found in gold-bearing quartz, and 
 a rich variety of argentiferous galena 
 occurs in San Bernardino county. 
 Other valuable mineral products are : 
 tin, plumbago, cobalt, granites, mar- 
 bles, sandstones, hydraulic limestones 
 and bituminous coal. Diamonds, onyx 
 and other precious stones abound, and 
 bitumen and petroleum are found in 
 many places. In 1898-1899 there was 
 a great boom in the mineral oil pro- 
 ductions in the Los Angeles district, 
 and, although the business is still in 
 its infancy, it bids fair to become one 
 of California's greatest industries. In 
 Los Angeles alone, in 1900, there were 
 750 wells working and many new ones 
 und'er construction. In 1898, Cali- 
 fornia produced 750,483 fine ounces of 
 gold, valued at $15,637,900; 642,300 
 fine ounces of silver, valued at $830,- 
 448; 31,092 flasks (of 76^ pounds 
 each) of quicksilver, and 2,257,207 
 barrels of petroleum, valued at about 
 $1 per barrel. In 1900, the Director 
 of the Mint estimated the gold output 
 at $15,197,800, an increase over that 
 of the preceding year, while the silver 
 output decreased to $494,580. 
 
 The soil varies with the surface 
 conditions of the State. In the ele- 
 vated portions it is rich, mellow, and 
 
 California 
 
 easily worked, and timber land 
 abounds. In the lower portions the 
 soil varies from a rich loam to a heavy 
 clay or adobe. What was formerly 
 considered desert land can now, under 
 irrigation, be turned into valuable 
 agricultural districts. Agriculture 
 and commerce flourish, and the State 
 is the centre of great financial inter- 
 ests. 
 
 The public schools are liberally 
 maintained. For higher education 
 there are 96 public high schools, 63 
 private secondary schools, four public 
 and three private normal schools, 12 
 universities and colleges for men and 
 for both sexes and Mills College and 
 the College of Notre Dame at San 
 Jose for women. The principal uni- 
 versities and colleges are, University 
 of California (opened 1869, non-sec- 
 tarian) ; Leland Stanford Junior Uni- 
 versity (1891, non-sectarian) ; St. Ig- 
 natius College (1855, Roman Catho- 
 lic) ; Santa Clara College (1851, Ro- 
 man Catholic), and the University of 
 Southern California (1880, Methodist 
 Episcopal). 
 
 The strongest religious denomina- 
 tions in the State are the Roman 
 Catholic, Methodist Episcopal. Pres- 
 byterian, Congregational, Baptist, 
 Protestant Episcopal, Lutheran, and 
 Disciples of Christ. 
 
 The total length of railroads within 
 the State, Jan. 1, 1900, was 5,461 
 miles, of which 169 miles were con- 
 structed during the previous year. The 
 assessed valuation of railroad tele- 
 graph, and express property was $46,- 
 394,275. In 1901 there were 1,659 
 post offices of all grades, and 681 pe- 
 riodicals, of which 111 were daily, 2 
 tri-weekly, 21 semi-weekly, 435 week- 
 ly, 1 bi-weekly, 6 semi-monthly, 100 
 monthly, 3 bi-monthly, and 2 quar- 
 terly. 
 
 The assessed valuation of all taxable 
 property in 1900 was $1,218,228,588. 
 The total bonded debt Sept. 1, 1900, 
 was $2,281,500, of which $1,526,500 
 was held in trust for the public 
 schools and $751,000 for the State 
 University. There \vere also out- 
 standing bonds aggregating $600,000, 
 not included in the public indebted- 
 ness because payable out of collections 
 by the harbor commissioners. Of this 
 amount the State School Funds held 
 $200,000.
 
 California 
 
 The Governor is elected for a term of 
 four years and receives a salary of 
 $10,000 per annum. Legislative ses- 
 sions are held biennially, beginning on 
 the first Monday after January 1. and 
 are not limited in duration. The legis- 
 lature has 40 members in the Senate, 
 elected for 4 years, and 80 in the House, 
 elected for 2 years ; salary of each, $1 ,000 
 per term. There are 11 Representa- 
 tives in Congress under the last census. 
 
 In 1809 the completion of the Cen- 
 tral Pacific R. R. advanced the pros- 
 perity of the State. From 1870 to 
 1890 the agitation against Chinese 
 immigration led to the Exclusion Act. 
 In 1906 a disastrous earthquake 
 caused great destruction in San Fran- 
 cisco and other coastal towns. The 
 same year the Anti-Japanese agitation 
 led to international representations, 
 and raised the question of State rights 
 as affecting Federal interests. 
 
 California, Gulf of, or Sea of 
 Cortes, an arm of the Pacific Ocean, 
 separating Lower California from the 
 Mexican mainland. It is 700 miles in 
 length and varies in width from 40 to 
 100 miles. 
 
 California, Lower, a territory of 
 Mexico, comprising a peninsula jut- 
 ting into the Pacific Ocean, and sep- 
 arated from the mainland throughout 
 its length by the Gulf of California. 
 It is nearly 800 miles in length, and 
 in different places 30 to 120 miles 
 wide ; area 58,328 square miles. It is 
 mountainous and arid, but possesses 
 valuable agricultural and mineral re- 
 sources. The chief towns are Loret- 
 to and La Paz, the capital. Pop. 
 (19001 47,082, of whom perhaps a 
 half are Indians. 
 
 California, University of, a 
 non-sectarian coeducational seat of 
 learning in Berkeley, Cal. The un- 
 dergraduate department is located at 
 Berkeley, 9 miles from San Francisco ; 
 the astronomical department and Lick 
 Observatory at Hamilton, Santa Clara 
 county, and the professional schools 
 at San Francisco. At Menlo Park tin? 
 great Flood Mansion and grounds, do- 
 nated in 1898, comprise a commercinl 
 college endowment. The university 
 receives a handsome sum from the 
 National Government for its agricul- 
 tural experiment station; the State 
 
 Calixtine* 
 
 adds a large appropriation ; and the 
 whole is spent on four stations and 
 several sub-stations, where many im- 
 portant horticultural experiments are 
 made. The university in 1899 ac- 
 cepted plans for a new set of build- 
 ings to cost about $7,500,000. The 
 principal benefactor of the university, 
 since 1896, has been Mrs. Phoebe A. 
 Hearst, widow of Senator Hearst. 
 Her gifts have reached millions of 
 dollars. As a result of these and 
 other resources of endowment, the in- 
 stitution has become one of the rich- 
 est of American universities. 
 
 Caligula, Cains Caesar Augus- 
 tus Germanicns, a Roman emperor, 
 son of Germanicus and Agrippina ; 
 born A. D. 12, in the camp at Antium. 
 He succeeded Tiberius, A. D. 37, and 
 made himself very popular by his 
 mildness; but at the end of eight 
 months he was seized with a disorder, 
 caused by his irregular mode of living, 
 which appears to have deranged his in- 
 tellect. After his recovery he sud- 
 denly showed himself the most cruel 
 and unnatural of tyrants. He was 
 assassinated by a band of conspirators 
 A. D. 41. 
 
 Caliper Compasses, compasses 
 made with arched legs to measure the 
 diameters of cylinders or globular bod- 
 ies, or with straight legs and retracted 
 points to measure the interior diam- 
 eter or bore of anything. 
 
 Caliph, Calif, or Khalif, the title 
 borne by the successor of Mohammed 
 hi temporal and religious authority. 
 
 Calisaya Bark, a variety of Pe- 
 ruvian or cinchona bark, namely, that 
 of Cinchona calisaya or flava. 
 
 Calisthenics, or Callisthenics, 
 a name for exercises for promoting 
 gracefulness and strength, and com- 
 prises the more gentle forms of gym- 
 nastics, especially for girls. 
 
 Calixtines, a Christian sect in 
 Bohemia, the more moderate of the 
 two great sections into which the Hus- 
 sites were divided in 1420. Unlike 
 the Taborites the other section 
 they did not seek to subvert the gov- 
 ernment of the Church of Rome, but 
 demanded the restoration of the cup 
 to the people in the celebration of the 
 Supper; the preaching of the Gospel 
 in primitive simplicity and purity ; 
 the separation of the priests from
 
 Calixtus 
 
 secular, and their entire devotion to 
 spiritual, concerns ; and, the preven- 
 tion or punishment, by lawful author- 
 ity, of " mortal " sins. The council 
 of Basel, in 1433, to end the disas- 
 trous Bohemian war, invited envoys 
 from the Hussites. Procopius Rasa 
 and others appeared, but the effort 
 failed. Afterward the council sent 
 ^Eneas Sylvius into Bohemia. He, 
 by conceding the use of the cup to the 
 Calixtines, reconciled them to the 
 Church of Rome. 
 
 Calixtus, the name of several 
 Popes. 
 
 Calixtus (properly CALLISEN), 
 Georg, a German theologian of the 
 Lutheran Church ; born in Schleswig 
 in 1586. He wrote against the celi- 
 bacy 6f the clergy, and proposed a re- 
 union of Catholics and Protestants 
 upon the basis of the Apostles' creed. 
 He died in 1656. 
 
 Calkins, Gary Nathan, an Amer- 
 ican scientist ; born in Valparaiso, 
 Ind., Jan. 18, 1869. He was grad- 
 uated at the Massachusetts Institute 
 of Technology in 1890 ; had charge of 
 scientific expeditions to Alaska in 
 1896 and 1897; and in 1900 was in- 
 structor in Zoology at Columbia Uni- 
 versity. 
 
 Callahan, James Morton, an 
 
 American publicist; born in Bedford, 
 Ind., Nov. 4, 1864. He was grad- 
 uated at the University of Indiana in 
 1894, and became lecturer on Ameri- 
 can Diplomatic History at Johns Hop- 
 kins in 1898. 
 
 Callao, the port of Lima, Peru, 
 lies 7 miles S. W. of Lima by rail, on 
 a small bay. The town possesses a 
 floating dock, and fine harbor works, 
 embracing an area of 520 acres, with 
 extensive pier and dock accommoda- 
 tion ; and the spacious roadstead, shel- 
 tered by the island of San Lorenzo, 
 is one of the safest in the world. The 
 present Callao dates only from 1746, 
 when the original city, a short dis- 
 tance to the S., was destroyed by an 
 earthquake and an invasion of the 
 sea. Callao was bombarded in 1880 
 during the war between Chile and 
 Peru. By the completion of a direct 
 cable between this port and Mollendo, 
 telegraphic communication has been 
 established with the United States. 
 Pop. about 50.000. 
 
 Caloric 
 
 Callender, John, an American 
 historian; born in Boston, Mass., 
 1706 ; collected many papers relating 
 to the Baptists in America ; and pub- 
 lished "A Centennial Discourse on the 
 Civil and Religious Affairs of the Col- 
 ony of Rhode Island," which was the 
 only history of that State for more 
 than a century. He died in Newport, 
 R. I., Jan. 26, 1748. 
 
 Calliope, one of the Muses. She 
 presided over eloquence and heroic po- 
 etry, and is said to have been the 
 mother of Orpheus. 
 
 Calliope, an asteroid, the 22nd 
 found. It was discovered by Hind, 
 on Nov. 16, 1852. Also a series of 
 steam whistles, pitched to produce 
 musical notes ; operated by a keyboard. 
 
 Callisthenes, a Greek philosopher, 
 born in 365 B. c. He was a grandson 
 of Aristotle, and accompanied Alex- 
 ander the Great in his expedition to 
 Asia. He was accused of conspiracy, 
 and put to death B. c. 328. 
 
 Calmar, a fortified seaport town 
 of Sweden, on the W. side of a narrow 
 strait of the Baltic, separating the is- 
 land of (Eland from the continent, 90 
 miles N. E. by E. of Carlskrona. The 
 town, built of wood, stands on the 
 small island of Quarnholm. Here, in 
 1397, was concluded the famous treaty 
 which united the kingdoms of Sweden, 
 Denmark, and Norway. Here also, 
 in 1520, Gustavus Vasa disembarked 
 to deliver his country from the domi- 
 nation of foreigners and of a san- 
 guinary tyrant. Pop. (1900) 12,715. 
 
 Calms, Regions of, tracts in the 
 Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, on the 
 confines of the trade-winds, where 
 calms of long duration prevail. 
 
 Calomel, mercury sub-chloride. It 
 is insoluble in water, and blacked 
 by ammonia. It is used in liver com- 
 plaints, and in any of the complaints 
 for \Uiich mercury internally adminis- 
 tered is indicated. Care should be ex- 
 ercised in its use, as it is likely to in- 
 duce salivation. 
 
 Calorescence, the transmutation 
 of heat rays into light rays. 
 
 Calorie, the name given to a sup- 
 posed subtle imponderable fluid to 
 which the sensation and phenomena of 
 heat were formerly attributed.
 
 Calorimeter 
 
 Calvin 
 
 Calorimeter, an instrument for 
 measuring the quantity of heat which 
 a body parts with or absorbs when its 
 temperature sinks or rises. 
 
 Calotropis, a genus of asclepiads, 
 consisting of three species, which j 
 form shrubs or small trees, and are ' 
 natives of the tropics of Asia and Af- 
 rica. 
 
 Calotype, a process by which 
 paper saturated with iodide of silver 
 is exposed to the action of light, the 
 image being developed and fixed by 
 hyposulphite of soda. 
 
 Calovius, Abraham, (originally 
 KALAU), the chief representative of 
 controversial Lutheran orthodoxy in 
 the 17th century ; born in Mohrungen 
 in East Prussia, April 16, 1612. He 
 waged war incessantly on Arminian, 
 Socinian, Reformed and Catholic doc- 
 trines. He was six times married, the 
 last time in his 72d year. He died 
 Feb. 25, 1686. 
 
 Caloyers, Greek monks, belonging 
 to the order of St. Basil, who lead a 
 very austere life. 
 
 Caltrop, a four-pronged piece of 
 iron, each prong about 4 inches in 
 length, formerly thrown down in war- 
 fare to check the approach of the en- 
 emy. 
 
 Calnmba, or Colombo, used in 
 medicine, a menispermaceous climber 
 of Eastern Africa, which has been in- 
 troduced into India. Sliced and dried, 
 it has a greenish-yellow tint, bitter 
 taste, and a faint aromatic odor. It 
 is a useful mild tonic and stomachic. 
 AMERICAN CALUMBA ROOT is obtained 
 from Frasera Walteri, a gentianaceous 
 biennial, and has properties like those 
 of gentian. 
 
 Calumet, a pipe used by the 
 North American Indians. The bowl 
 is of stone, and the stem is orna- 
 mented with feathers, etc. The cal- 
 umet is the emblem of peace. To re- 
 fuse it is to make a proclamation of 
 enmity, and to accept is a sign of ; 
 friendship. 
 
 Calvados, a French department, I 
 part of the old province of Norman- 
 dy, bounded on the N. by the English ; 
 Channel, and E., W. and S. by the 
 departments Eure, La Manche, and 
 Ornc. Area, 2,132 square miles. 
 
 Chief town, Caen. Pop. (1901) 407,- 
 039. 
 
 Calvary, the English designation 
 of the spot upon which the crucifixion 
 of Jesus Christ is recorded as having 
 taken place. "It lay beyond the city, 
 and by Captain Conder is identified 
 with the old House of Stoning, or 
 place of public execution, according 
 to the law of Moses, on the top of 
 the remarkable knoll outside the Da- 
 mascus gate, on the N. side of Jeru- 
 salem. It is now generally believed to 
 have been the knoll on the north-east 
 of the city, formerly known as the 
 Grotto of Jeremiah near the Damascus 
 Gate. 
 
 Calve, Emma, a French opera 
 singer; born in 1866. She made her 
 debut at Brussels in Gounod's 
 " Faust." She has made successful 
 tours of the United States in leading 
 roles. 
 
 Calverley, Charles, an American 
 sculptor; born in Albany, N. Y., Nov. 
 1, 1833. He has won note with 
 groups and figures and portrait busts 
 of Greeley, Cooper, Howe, etc. He 
 was elected to the National Academy 
 of Design in 1875. 
 
 Calvi, a seaport on the island of 
 Corsica, on a peninsula in the Bay of 
 Calvi. It was founded in the 13th 
 century. It was so strongly fortified 
 as to withstand several sieges, but in 
 1794, after a siege of 51 days, was 
 taken by the English from the Corsi- 
 cans. The following year it was re- 
 taken. 
 
 Calvin, John, (so called from 
 Calvinus, the Latinized form of his 
 family name, CAUVIN, or CHAUVIN), 
 the second great reformer of the 16th 
 century; born in Noyon, Picardy, 
 July 10, 1509. Calvin died May 27, 
 1564, in the 55th year of his age. He 
 was of a weak constitution, and suf- 
 fered from frequent sickness. In 
 Strasburg he had married a widow, 
 Idelette de Burie, in 1539; a son, the 
 fruit of their union, died early. In 
 1549 he lost his wife, after which he 
 never married again. He was tem- 
 perate and austere, gloomy and in- 
 flexible. His disinterestedness was 
 rare. He had a yearly stipend of 150 
 francs, 15 measures of corn, and 2 
 casks of wine; and never received &, 
 larger one.
 
 Calvin 
 
 The chief doctrines of Calvin's sys- 
 tem are : Predestination, particular 
 redemption, total depravity, irresisti- 
 ble grace, and the certain perseverance 
 of the saints, denominated the five 
 points. The followers of Calvin in 
 Germany are called the Reformed. 
 In France most Protestants are Cal- 
 vinists. Calvinism is the professed 
 belief of the greatest part of the Pres- 
 byterians ; the Particular Baptists in 
 England and India, and the Associated 
 Baptists in America ; the Independ- 
 ents of every class in England and 
 Scotland, and the Congregationalists 
 of New England. 
 
 Calvin, Samuel, a Scotch-Ameri- 
 can scientist ; born in Wigtonshire, 
 Scotland, Feb. 2, 1840. He came to 
 the United States when a youth and 
 served in the Civil War. He studied 
 geology as a life pursuit, and since 
 1874 has been Professor of Geology at 
 the Universiy of Iowa, and State Ge- 
 ologist of Iowa since 1892. 
 
 Calvinistic Methodists, a sec- 
 tion of the Methodists, distinguished 
 by their Calvinistic sentiments from 
 the ordinary Wesleyans, who are Ar- 
 minian. Wesley and Whitfield, the 
 colleagues in the great evangelistic 
 movement which did so much spirit- 
 ually and morally to regenerate Eng- 
 land in the 18th century, differed 
 with regard to the doctrines of grace, 
 Wesley being Arminian, and Whit- 
 field Calvinistic ; the latter revival 
 preacher may be looked on as the 
 father and founder of Calvinistic 
 Methodism. In distinctive form it 
 dates from 1725, but did not complete- 
 ly sever its connection with the Eng- 
 lish Church till 1810. In government 
 it is now Presbyterian. 
 
 Cnlvo Doctrine. See DBAGO. 
 
 Calx, properly lime or chalk, but 
 the term is more generally applied to 
 the residuum of a 'metal or mineral 
 which has been subjected to violent 
 heat, and which is, or may be, re- 
 duced to a fine powder. 
 
 Calycanthus, a genus of hardy 
 American shrubs, of which one spe- 
 cies, Florida allspice, has yellow flow- 
 ers, and is sweet-scented. 
 
 Calydonian Boar. According to 
 a Greek myth, CEneus, King of Caly- 
 don. the ancient capital of JEtolia, 
 omitted a sacrifice to Artemis, where- 
 
 Cambaceres 
 
 upon the goddess, when he was absent, 
 sent a frightful boar to lay waste his 
 fields. No one dared to face the 
 monster, until Meleager, son of 
 CEneus, with a band of heroes, pur- 
 sued and slew him. The Curetes laid 
 claim to the head and hide, but were 
 driven off by Meleager. Later ac- 
 counts make Meleager summon to the 
 hunt heroes from all parts of Greece, 
 among them the maiden Atalanta, who 
 gave the monster the first wound. 
 
 Calyx, in botany, the name given 
 to the exterior covering of a flower. 
 
 Cant, Diogo, a Portuguese ex- 
 plorer of the 15th century, who in 
 1484 discovered the mouth of the 
 Kongo. 
 
 Camaguey, a province and its 
 capital city in Cuba; both formerly 
 known as PUERTO PBINCIPE. The 
 province extends across the island 
 between the provinces of Santa Clara 
 and Oriente; has an area of 10,500 
 square miles; pop. (1907) 118,2o9; chief 
 products, cattle, sugar cane, wax, 
 honey, timber, and hemp. The city 
 is in the heart of one of the wildtst 
 parts of the island, in the center of 
 the province, and manufactures and 
 exports cigars, sugar, tobacco, wax, 
 and honey; pop. (1907) 66,460. 
 
 Camayeu,' or Camaicu, a term 
 used in painting where there is only 
 one color, and where the lights and 
 shadows are of gold, wrought on a 
 golden or azure ground. 
 
 Cambaceres, Jean Jacques de, 
 a French Senator ; born in Montpel- 
 lier, Oct. 18, 1753. During the raign 
 of terror which followed the condem- 
 nation of Louis XVI. Cambaceres en- 
 deavored to check the arbitrary 
 measures of the Assembly. He was a 
 member of the Council of Five Hun- 
 dred, and in 1790 drew up a " Plan of 
 a Civil Code," which became the basis 
 of the " Napoleonic Code." On the 
 abdication of Napoleon, in 1814. Cara- 
 baceres withdrew into private life, but 
 on the return of the emperor from 
 Elba, he was promoted to the office of 
 Minister of Justice. After the over- 
 throw of Napoleon, he was banished 
 from France on the ground of his hav- 
 ing voted for the death of Louis 
 XVI. ; but in 1818 was reinstated in 
 all his civil and political rights ; he 
 died, in Paris, March 8, 1824.
 
 Cambert 
 
 Cambert, Robert, a French musi- 
 cian ; born in Paris about 1628. He 
 founded the Royal Academy of Music, 
 now the Paris GrandjDpera. He died 
 in London about 1677. 
 
 Cambodia, or Camboja, a State 
 in Indo-China under a French pro- 
 tectorate, on the lower course of the 
 Mekong, 220 miles from N. E. to 
 S. W M and 150 miles broad, compris- 
 ing an area of 37,400 square miles; 
 population, 1.500,000. France, on 
 Aug. 11, . 1863, concluded a treaty 
 with the King of Cambodia, Noro- 
 dom, whom, from being a viceroy, the 
 French had helped to elevate to the 
 throne, placing Cambodia under a 
 French protectorate. This treaty was 
 superseded by that of June 17, 1884. 
 Capital Pnom-Penh. 
 
 Cambon, Jules Martin, a French 
 diplomatist; born in Paris, April 5, 
 1845. He studied for the law and 
 fought in the Franco-Prussian War, 
 reaching the grade of captain. He 
 was Ambassador to the United States 
 in 1897, retiring in 1903, and repre- 
 sented Spain in drawing up the Span- 
 ish-American protocol in 1898. 
 
 Cambria, the ancient name of 
 Wales, the Britannia Secunda of the 
 Romans. 
 
 Cambrian Rocks, in geology, an 
 extensive series of gritstones, sand- 
 stones, conglomerates, slates, and 
 shales, lying under the Lower Silurian 
 beds, and above the Archaean, and di- 
 vided into the Upper and Lower Cam- 
 brian. 
 
 Cambric, originally the name of a 
 fine kind of linen which was manufac- 
 tured principally at Cambrai in 
 French Flanders, but is now applied 
 to a cotton fabric, which is manufac- 
 tured in imitation of the true cambric. 
 
 Cambridge, a city, and one of the 
 county seats of Middlesex county, 
 Mass., on the Charles river and the 
 Fitcbburg railroad ; opposite to and 
 connected with Boston by four 
 bridges. It was founded in 1630- 
 1631, under the name of " Newe- 
 Towne," or Newtown." In 1636 the 
 General Court appropriated $2,000 to 
 locate a school in Old Cambridge, 
 which later became Harvard College. 
 The first printing office in the United 
 States was located in Cambridge. 
 Cambridge has now extensive printing 
 
 Camden 
 
 establishments. For historical and 
 literary associations, Cambridge is one 
 of the most famous cities in the 
 United States. The venerable Wash- 
 ington elm, under which Washington 
 took command of the American Army, 
 July 3, 1775, still stands. " Craigie 
 House," built by Col. John Vassall in 
 1759, was Washington's headquarters 
 in 1775-1776, and afterward became 
 the home of the poet Henry W. Long- 
 fellow. On Elm avenue is " Elm- 
 wood," the birthplace and home of 
 James R. Lowell. Pop. (1910) 104,839. 
 
 Cambridge, city and capital of 
 Guernsey county, O.; on Wills creek 
 and several railroads; 26 miles E. of 
 Zanesville; is in a coal, natural gas, 
 and petroleum region; is a trade 
 center of parts of three counties; and 
 manufactures iron, steel, glass, pot- 
 tery, tin, plate, and iron roofing. 
 Pop. (1910) 17,327. 
 
 Cambridge University, a cele- 
 brated seat of learning and education, 
 dating from English public schools es- 
 tablished in Cambridge in the 7th cen- 
 tury. The first college was founded 
 under royal charter in 1237. 
 
 Cambyses, (1) a Persian of noble 
 blood, to whom King Astyages gave 
 his daughter Mandane in marriage. 
 (2) The son of Cyrus the Great, be- 
 came, after the death of his father, 
 King of the Persians and Medes, B. c. 
 529. In the fifth year of his reign he 
 invaded Egypt, conquering the whole 
 kingdom within six months. He died 
 in 521 B. c. 
 
 Camden, city, port of entry, and 
 county seat of Camden county, N. J. ; 
 on the Delaware river, opposite Phila- 
 delphia, with which it is connected by 
 several ferries. It is noted for its 
 immense market gardens and manu- 
 factures. Pop. (1910) 94,538. 
 
 Camden, county-seat of Kershaw 
 county, S. C.; 32 miles N. E. of Co- 
 lumbia. It has extensive cotton and 
 grain interests and is a health resort 
 for sufferers from throat and lung 
 troubles. Camden was the site of 
 three noted battles. On Aug. 16. 
 1780, the American forces under Gen- 
 eral Gates, 3,600 strong, were de- 
 feated by Lord Cornwallis. This end- 
 ed Gates's military career. On April 
 25, 1781, Greene, who succeeded 
 Gates, was attacked and worsted by
 
 Camden 
 
 Lord Rawdon at Hobkirk's Hill, near 
 Camden. On Feb. 24, 1865, Camden 
 was taken by General Sherman after 
 a lively skirmish. Two thousand 
 bales of cotton and a quantity of 
 tobacco were burned. Pop. (1900) 
 2,441. 
 
 Camden, Charles Pratt, Mar- 
 quis, an English statesman ; born in 
 1714. After having studied law, he 
 was called to the bar in 3738. Af- 
 ter nearly 20 years devoted to close 
 study he was appointed attorney-gen- 
 eral, and later lord chief justice. He 
 distinguished* himself by his exertions 
 in behalf of the American colonies, 
 and in 1766 rose to the highest legal 
 dignity, that of lord Irish chancellor. 
 He died in London. April 18, 1794. 
 
 Camel, a genus of ruminant quad- 
 rupeds, characterized by the absence 
 of horns ; a fissure in the upper lip ; a 
 long and arched neck ; one or two 
 humps or protuberances on the back ; 
 and a broad elastic foot ending in 
 two small hoofs. The native country 
 of the camel is said to extend from 
 Morocco to China, within a zone of 
 
 CAMEL. 
 
 900 or .1,000 miles in breadth. The 
 common camel, having two humps, is 
 found in the N. part of this region, 
 and exclusively from the ancient Bac- 
 tria, now Turkestan, to China. The 
 dromedary, or single-humped camel is 
 found throughout the entire length of 
 this zone. To people residing in the 
 vicinity of the great deserts the camel 
 is an invaluable mode of conveyance. 
 It will travel three days under a load 
 and five days under a rider without 
 
 Cameo 
 
 drinking. The camel's power of en- 
 during thirst is partly due to the 
 structure of its stomach, to which are 
 attached pouches capable of straining 
 off and storing water for future use. 
 It can live on little food, and of the 
 coarsest kind. In this it is helped by 
 the fact that its humps are mere ac- 
 cumulations of fat and form a store 
 upon which the system can draw 
 when the outside supply is defective. 
 Camels which carry heavy burdens 
 will do about 25 miles a day ; those 
 which are used for speed alone, .from 
 60 to 90 miles a day. The camel is 
 rather passive than docile, but it is 
 very vindictive when injured. It lives 
 from 40 to 50 years. The South 
 American members of the family 
 Camelidae contain the llama and al- 
 paca ; they have no humps. 
 
 Camelopard, a name given to the 
 giraffe, originally from the notiou that 
 it was a hybrid between a camel and 
 leopard. 
 
 Camelopardalis, one of the N. 
 circumpolar constellations added by 
 Hevelius in 1690. It is a large irreg- 
 ularly shaped constellation, something 
 like the animal, with its head close to 
 the Pole. It contains no stars bright- 
 er than the fourth magnitude. 
 
 Camelot, a name applied in the 
 mediaeval romances to the " City of 
 Legions " which grew out of the per- 
 manent quarters of the Second Augus- 
 ta Legion at Caerleon-upon-Usk, but 
 was built earlier by the mythical Be- 
 linus. 
 
 Camel's Hump, one of the peak? 
 of the Green Mountains, in Vermont, 
 17 miles W. of Montpelier. 
 
 Camel's Thorn, a name of several 
 plants. They are half-shrubby plants 
 growing in the deserts of the East, 
 and derive their name from the fact 
 that they afford a food relished by 
 camels. 
 
 Cameo, a term applied to gems of 
 different colors sculptured in relief. 
 The art of engraving on gems boasts 
 of high antiquity, having been prac- 
 tised and was revived in Italy in the 
 15th century. The cameos of the an- 
 cients were confined to the agate, 
 onyx, and sard, but are occasionally 
 found executed on opal, beryl, or em- 
 erald.
 
 Camera Lucida 
 
 Caiuoena 
 
 Camera Lucida, an instrument 
 invented oy Wollaston in 1804; de- 
 signed to produce on a plane surface 
 a representation of a landscape or 
 other object, which will enable one to 
 delineate It with accuracy. 
 
 Camera Obscura, an optical in- 
 strument used to view or sketch ob- 
 jects at a short distance. It consists 
 of a box, formed of two parts sliding 
 in each other, like a telescope, so as 
 to adjust the focus to bodies more or 
 less distant A tube with a lens is 
 fixed in one side of it, and is turned 
 to the object to be represented. The 
 rays entering fall on a mirror sloped 
 at an angle of 45, which reflect them 
 upward. It is convenient that they 
 may be made to pass through a hori- 
 zontal plate of glass, on which tracing 
 paper may be placed so as to enable 
 one to draw the figure. 
 
 Camera, Photographic, a camera 
 obscura so constructed that sensitized 
 plates or films may be placed at the 
 back and receive the image. 
 
 Caiuerarius, Rudolph Jakob, a 
 German botanist, born in Wurtem- 
 burg, Feb. 12, 1665. To him is as- 
 cribed the discovery of the sexual re- 
 lation in plants. He died in Tubin- 
 gen, Sept. 11, 1721. 
 
 Camerlengo, ("a chamberlain"), 
 one of the highest officers of the Vati- 
 can court, and who acts as Pope when 
 there is a vacancy on the papal throne. 
 
 Cameron, Arnold Guyot, an 
 American educator ; born in Princeton, 
 N. J., March 4, 1864 ; was graduated 
 at Princeton College in 1847, and at 
 department of Greek at Princeton 
 professor of French and German in 
 Miami University; in 1891-1897, as- 
 sistant professor of French in the 
 Sheffield Scientific School of Yale Uni- 
 versity : and in 1897 accepted the 
 chair of French at the John C. Green 
 School of Science, Princeton. 
 
 Cameron, James Donald, an 
 American capitalist and politician ; 
 born in Middletown, Pa., May 14, 
 1833 ; oldest son of Simon Cameron ; 
 was graduated at Princeton College 
 in 1852. In 1876 President Grant ap- 
 pointed him Secretary of War, and in 
 1877 he succeeded his father as Unit- 
 ed States Senator from Pennsylvania, 
 retiring from the Senate in 1897. 
 
 Cameron, Simon, an American 
 statesman ; born in Maytown, Lancas- 
 ter co., Pa., March 8, 1799; began, 
 when 9 years of age, to learn the trade 
 of a printer. In 1820 he was editor 
 of a paper in Doylestown, Pa., and in 
 1822 he held a similar post in Harris- 
 burg. He then interested himself in 
 banking and the building of railroads. 
 From 1845 to 1849 he was United 
 States Senator from Pennsylvania. He 
 became a member of the Republican 
 party on its formation, and in 1856 
 he was again elected United States 
 Senator. In 1861 he was appointed 
 Secretary of War by President Lin- 
 coln. In January, 1862, he resigned 
 from the Cabinet, and was appointed 
 minister to Russia. In November of 
 the same year he resigned, and lived 
 in retirement till 1866, when he was 
 again elected to the United States Sen- 
 ate. ^ In 1877 he retired from the Sen- 
 ate in favor of his son, James Don- 
 ald Cameron. He died in Maytown, 
 Pa., June 26, 1889. 
 
 Camisards, the title given to the 
 Protestant insurgents in the Cevennes, 
 after the revocation of the Edict of 
 Nantes, from having worn their shirts 
 over their dress by way of disguise, 
 on the occasion of some nocturnal at- 
 tacks. 
 
 Camoens, Luis de, a Portuguese 
 poet; born in Lisbon, probably in 
 1524 or 1525. Disappointed in love, 
 he became a soldier, and served in the 
 fleet which the Portuguese sent against 
 Morocco, losinsr his right eye in a 
 naval engagement before Ceuta. An 
 affray into which he was drawn was 
 the cause of his embarking in 1553 
 for India. He landed at Goa, but, 
 being unfavorably impressed with the 
 life led by the ruling Portuguese there, 
 wrote a satire which caused his ban- 
 ishment to Macao (1556). Here he 
 wrote the earlier cantos of his great 
 poem, the " Lusiad." Returning to 
 Goa in 1561, he was shipwrecked and 
 lost all his property except his pre- 
 cious manuscript. After much misfor- 
 tune Camoens in 1570 arrived once 
 more in his native land, poor and 
 without influence, as he had left it. 
 The " Lusiad " was printed at Lisbon 
 (1572), and celebrating the glories of 
 the Portuguese conquests in India, ac- 
 quired a wide popularity. The king
 
 Camomile 
 
 accepted the dedication of the poem, 
 but the only reward Camoens obtained 
 was a pittance insufficient to save him 
 from poverty. His other works con- 
 sist of sonnets, songs, etc. He died 
 June 18, 1579. 
 
 Camomile, or Chamomile. The 
 species are annual and perennial herbs, 
 all palsearctic, long known for the 
 medicinal virtues of an infusion of its 
 flowers as a bitter stomachic and 
 tonic. 
 
 Camorra, a well-organized secret 
 society, once spread throughout all 
 parts of the%ingdom of Naples. 
 
 Camp, the space occupied by an 
 army halted with tents pitched. 
 
 Campagna cli Roma, the coast 
 region of Middle Italy, in which Rome 
 is situated, from 30 to 40 miles wide 
 and 100 long, and forming the undu- 
 lating mostly uncultivated plain which 
 extends from near Civita Vecchia or 
 Viterbo to Terracina, and includes the 
 Pontine Marshes. The soil is very 
 fertile in the lower parts, though its 
 cultivation is much neglected, owing 
 to the malaria which makes i-esidence 
 there during midsummer dangerous. 
 In ancient times the Campagna was 
 well cultivated and populated. Noth- 
 ing of its former prosperity being vis- 
 ible but the ruins of great temples, 
 circuses, and monuments, and long 
 rows of crumbling aqueducts over- 
 grown with ivy a'nd other creeping 
 plants. 
 
 Campania, anciently a province on 
 the W. coast of Italy, having Capua 
 as its capital, lying between Latium, 
 Samnium, and Lucania. It was one 
 of the most productive plains in the 
 world, yielding in extraordinary abun- 
 dance corn, wine, and oil ; and by 
 both Grqek and Roman writers is 
 celebrated for its soft and genial cli- 
 mate, its landscapes, and its harbors. 
 
 Campani-Alimenis, Matteo, an 
 Italian mechanician. In optics, his 
 greatest achievement was the manu- 
 facture of the object-glasses, through 
 which Cassini discovered two satellites 
 of Saturn. He invented the illum- 
 inated dial for clocks. 
 
 Campanile, a tower for the recep- 
 tion of bells, principally used for 
 church purposes, but now sometimes 
 for domestic edifices. The most re- 
 
 Campbell 
 
 markable of the campaniles is that 
 at Pisa, commonly called the " Lean- 
 ing Tower." It is cylindrical in form, 
 and surrounded by eight stories of 
 columns, placed over one another, 
 each having its entablature. The 
 height is about 150 feet to the plat- 
 form, whence a plumb-line lowered 
 falls on the leaning side nearly 13 
 feet outside the base of the building. 
 
 The campanile of St. Mark, dom- 
 inating all the surrounding buildings 
 of St. Mark's Square, Venice, was 
 the most conspicuous landmark of the 
 city for over 1,000 years. The tower 
 was 325 feet high and 42 feet square 
 at the base. On the morning of July 
 14, 1902, it fell with a great crash 
 into the square. The church of St. 
 Mark and the palace of the Doges 
 were not hurt, but the campanile in 
 falling carried away the Sansovino 
 Loggetta and the library of the Royal 
 Palace. 
 
 Campbell, Alexander, founder of 
 the sect known as the "Disciples of 
 Christ " ; born near Ballymena, in 
 County Antrim, Ireland, Sept, 12, 
 1788. He emigrated to the United 
 States in 1807. Though at fh-st a 
 Presbyterian, in 1812 he formed a 
 connection with the Baptists, and for 
 some time he labored as an itinerant 
 preacher. In 1826 he published a 
 translation of the New Testament, in 
 which the words " baptism " and 
 " baptist " gave place to " immersion " 
 and " immerser." By his discussions 
 on public platforms, and his serial 
 publications, as well as his assiduity 
 in preaching tours and training young 
 men for the ministry, Campbell grad- 
 ually formed a large party of follow- 
 ers, who began about 1827 to form 
 themselves into a sect under the des- 
 ignation of " The DISCIPLES OF 
 CHRIST." In 1841 Campbell founded 
 Bethany College in West Virginia, 
 where he died March 4, 18G6. 
 
 Campbell, Allan, an American 
 civil engineer ; born in Albany, N. Y., 
 in 1815. He laid out the route of the 
 New York and Harlem railroad ; built 
 a railroad from Callao to Lima, Peru ; 
 was appointed engineer of the harbor 
 defenses of New York in the early 
 part of the Civil War; was chief en- 
 gineer in the construction of the 
 Union Pacific railroad ; and became
 
 Campbell 
 
 commissioner of public works in New 
 York (1876). He died in New York 
 city, March 18, 1894. 
 
 Campbell, Hartley, an American 
 dramatist ; born in Allegheny City, 
 Pa., Aug. 12, 1843. He died in Mid- 
 dletown, N. Y., July 30, 1888. 
 
 Campbell, Charles, an American 
 historian ; born in Petersburg, Va., 
 May 1, 1807. He died in Staunton, 
 Va., July 11, 1876. 
 
 Campbell, Sir Colin, Lord 
 Clyde, a British military officer; born 
 in Glasgow, Oct. 20, 1792. He took 
 part in the expedition to the United 
 States (1814), and then passed nearly 
 30 years in garrison duty at various 
 places. On the outbreak of the Cri- 
 mean War, in 1854, he was appointed 
 to the command of the Highland Bri- 
 gade ; the victory of the Alma was 
 mainly his ; and his, too, the splendid 
 repulse of the Russians by the " thin 
 red line" in the battle of Balaklava. 
 When, on July 11, 1857, the news 
 reached England of the sepoy mutiny, 
 Lord Palmerston offered him the com- 
 mand of the forces in India. He ef- 
 fected the final relief of Lucknow, and 
 on Dec. 20, 1858 announced to the 
 Viceroy that the rebellion was ended. 
 He died Aug. 14, 18G3. 
 
 Campbell, Douglas Hougliton, 
 an American educator ; born in De- 
 troit, Mich., Dec. 16, 1859; was grad- 
 uated at the University of Michigan 
 in 1882 ; then studied in Europe. Re- 
 turning he was Professor of Botany 
 in the University of Indiana till 1891, 
 when he was called to the similar 
 chair in Stanford University in Palo 
 Alto, Cal. 
 
 Campbell, Helen Stuart, an 
 American sociological writer; born in 
 Lockport, N. Y., July 4, 1839. She 
 has given close attention to the study 
 of social problems. From 1881 till 
 1884 she was literary editor of " Our 
 Continent," Philadelphia. 
 
 Campbell, Hemry Donald, an 
 American scientist ; born in Lexing- 
 troit, Mich., Dec. 16, 1859 ; was grad- 
 uated at Washington and Lee Uni- 
 versity in 1882 ; later studied at Ber- 
 lin and Heidelberg, and in 1887 be- 
 came Professor of Geology and Biol- 
 ogy at Washington and Lee Univer- 
 sity. 
 
 E. 28. 
 
 Campero 
 
 Campbell, John, a British his- 
 torian; born in Edinburgh, March 8, 
 1708. From 1755 to the close of his 
 life, he was agent of the British gov- 
 ernment for the province of Georgia. 
 He died Dec. 28, 1775. 
 
 Campbell, John Fendleton, an 
 American scientist ; born in Cumber- 
 land, Md., Nov. 20, 1863. He be- 
 came Professor of Biology at the 
 University of Georgia in 1888. 
 
 Campbell, Reginald John, an 
 English clergyman; born in London, 
 Eng., in 1867; entered the Congrega- 
 tional ministry in 1895; ,became pas- 
 tor of the City Temple, London, in 
 1903; published "The New Theol- 
 ogy " (1907), which attracted much 
 attention on both continents. 
 
 Campbell, Thomas, a Scotch 
 poet; born in Glasgow, July 27, 1777. 
 He died in Boulogne, June 15, 1844, 
 and was interred at Poets' Corner, 
 in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Campbell, William W., an Amer- 
 ican lawyer and historian ; born in 
 Cherry Valley, N. Y., in 1806. Set- 
 tled in New York city, he was a judge 
 of the State Supreme Court. He died 
 in Cherry Valley, Sept. 7, 1881. 
 
 Campbell, William Wilfred, a 
 Canadian poet; born in Western On- 
 tario, Canada, in 1861. 
 
 Campbellites, the followers of Rev. 
 John McLeod Campbell, of Dumbart- 
 onshire, who was deposed from the 
 Church of Scotland, May 24, 1831, for 
 teaching the universality of the Atone- 
 ment. 
 
 Campbell's Station, a town in 
 Knox county, Tenn., noted for the 
 battle fought (Nov. 16, 1863 > between 
 a Federal army under Burnside and a 
 Confederate one under Longstreet, in 
 which the Confederates were repulsedi 
 at nightfall, after sharp fighting. 
 
 Campeachy, or SAN FRANCISCO 
 DE CAMPECHE, a seaport on the W. 
 side of the peninsula of Yucatan, on 
 a bay of the same name. 
 
 Campero, Narciso, a Bolivian 
 statesman and soldier; born in Tojo 
 (now in Argentina), in 1815. He 
 studied and traveled in Europe, and 
 on his return entered the Bolivian 
 army, and rose to the rank of Briga- 
 dier-General. After the overthrow of 
 Diaz (1880), he was chosen President
 
 Camphansen 
 
 of Bolivia. Internally, his administra- 
 tion was quiet. 
 
 Camphausen, Willielm, a Ger- 
 man painter ; born in Dusseldorf , Feb. 
 8, 1818. He was specially famous for 
 battle-pieces. He died in Dusseldorf, 
 June 16, 1885. 
 
 Camphene, the commercia? term 
 for purified oil of turpentine, obtained 
 by distilling the oil over quicklime to 
 free it from resin. 
 
 Camphor, a powerful diffusible 
 stimulant and antispasmodic. It en- 
 ters into union with opium, as a sed- 
 aditive, under the name of paregoric. 
 
 Campi. a family of Italian artists 
 who founded what is known in paint- 
 ing as the school of Cremona. 
 
 Campion, Edmund, an English 
 Jesuit ; born in London, Jan. 25, 1540. 
 He was educated at Oxford, and dis- 
 tinguished himself greatly. Though 
 at first a Roman Catholic, he adopted 
 the Reformed faith, and took deacon's 
 orders in the Church of England ; but 
 he afterward recanted, became a Jes- 
 uit, and attacked Protestantism. He 
 was found guilty of conspiring to raise 
 sedition, and was executed at Tyburn, 
 Dec. 1, 1581. 
 
 Camp Meetings, gatherings of de- 
 vout persons, held usually in thinly- 
 populated districts, and continued for 
 several days at a time, with the view 
 of securing prolonged and uninterrupt- 
 ed religious exercises. 
 
 Campo-Formio, a town in Italy, 
 66 miles N. E. of Venice, famous for 
 the treaty of peace between Austria 
 and France, which was signed in its 
 neighborhood on Oct. 17, 1797. 
 
 Campos, Arsenio Martinez, a 
 Spanish military officer ; born in Cu- 
 ba in 1834. Appointed a lieutenant 
 in the army in 1858 ; became chief of 
 the battalion in the Morocco cam- 
 paign of 1859; was on duty in Cuba 
 with the rank of colonel in 1864- 
 1870 ; took part in suppressing the 
 Carlist insurrection and was promoted 
 brigadier-general in 1870; opposed the 
 republic after the abdication of King 
 Amadeus, and was imprisoned as a 
 conspirator. Under a nlea for per- 
 mission to be allowed to serve as a 
 private, he was released and given 
 command of a division. With General 
 Jovellar, he called Alphonso XII. to 
 
 Canaanites 
 
 the throne; was made commander-in- 
 chief of the Catalonia district, and 
 crushed Don Carlos at Pena de la 
 Plata in 1876. In 1877 he was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief in Cuba, 
 and brought the revolution there to a 
 close. In April, 1895, he was appoint- 
 ed governor-general and commander- 
 in-chief in Cuba, and in January, 
 1896, he was recalled to Spain. On 
 his arrival in Madrid he repeated his 
 belief that the trouble in Cuba could 
 only be ended by granting reforms. 
 He died Sept. 23, 1900. 
 
 Campo Santo (lit. "Holy 
 Field "), the name given to a burying- 
 ground in Italy. 
 
 Campus Martins (the "Field of 
 Mars"), an extensive plain or mead- 
 ow without the walls of Rome, where 
 the levies of troops were made by the 
 tribunes, where the ballot for the con- 
 scription was drawn, and where all 
 military exercises were performed. It 
 was also a gymnasium for youths. It 
 was here that the great assemblies of 
 the people took place to elect their 
 public officers. 
 
 Campus Sceleratns, a name given 
 to a spot within the walls of Rome, 
 and close by the Porta Collina. where 
 those of the vestal virgins who had 
 transgressed their vows were entombed 
 alive. 
 
 Cam Wood, a wood used for 
 making knife-handles and ornamental 
 knobs to furniture. It is called also 
 Barwood and Ringwood. 
 
 Cana, a town of Palestine celebra- 
 ed in Scripture as the scene of our 
 Lord's first miracle, when he turned 
 water into wine. 
 
 Canaan, the country W. of the 
 Jordan, called also Chanaan, and the 
 Land of Canaan, after one of the sons 
 of Ham. The Greeks applied the term 
 Cana to the entire region between 
 the Jordan and the Mediterranean up 
 to Sidon, afterward termed by them 
 Phenicia, a name which by degrees 
 came to be confined to Phenicia proper. 
 
 Canaanites, The, a word used in 
 two senses: (1) For the tribe of the 
 "Canaanites" only. (2) Applied as 
 a general name to the non-Israelite in- 
 habitants of the land. Instances of 
 this are: Genesis xii : 6; Numbers 
 xxi : 3. Judges i : 10 ; and Gene-
 
 Canada 
 
 sis xiii : 12. See also Genesis xxiv : 3, 
 37; comp. xxviii : 2, 6; E?odus, xiii: 
 11 ; comp. 5. Like the Phoenicians, 
 the Canaanites were probably given 
 to commerce. 
 
 MAP SHOWING TRIBAL POSSESSIONS. 
 
 Canada, Dominion of, a Federal 
 Union of Provinces and Territories, 
 comprising all the British possessions 
 in North America, excepting New- 
 foundland ; bounded by the Arctic, Pa- 
 cific, and Atlantic oceans, and the 
 United States; land area, 3,745,574 
 square miles; number of Provinces, 
 Territories, and Districts, 14; popu- 
 lation (1901) 5,371,315; (1910) 7,489,- 
 781; capital, Ottawa. 
 
 Extending over so large a territory, 
 Canada presents a great variety of 
 surfaced Along the Atlantic coast is 
 a range of hills extending inland from 
 15 to 20 miles. About 60 miles in- 
 land, the Cobequid mountains, some 
 reaching an altitude of 1,100 feet, ex- 
 tend in a line parallel to the coast 
 from the Bay of Fundy, through Nova 
 Scotia to the Strait of Canso. Nova 
 Scotia is a long fertile plain. A third 
 mountain range crosses New Bruns- 
 wick from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to 
 the State of Maine. An extensive 
 plateau intervenes between these 
 mountains and the Cobequids. The 
 
 Canada 
 
 central part of the Dominion consists 
 of a vast undulatiug plain, extending 
 W. to the foothills of the Rocky 
 Mountains. This section consists of 
 three prairie plateaus. The E., 800 
 feet high, known as the Red River 
 Valley and Lake Winnipeg region, 
 contains about 7,000 square miles of 
 valuable wheat land. The middle pla- 
 teau has an area of 105,000 square 
 miles, altitude, 1,600 feet, and includes 
 the Qu'Appelle and Assiniboia River 
 valleys. The third plateau extends 
 450 miles E. from the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, and has an average altitude of 
 3,000 feet. The Rocky Mountains are 
 the most prominent physical features 
 of the Dominion, and stretch from 
 Alaska to California, some of the 
 peaks attaining a height of 16,000 
 feet. Among the highest are Mt. 
 Hooker, 16,760 feet; Mt. Brown, 16,- 
 000 feet, and Mt. Murchison, 15,700 
 feet. The Canadian Pacific railroad 
 crosses the Rockies through the Kick- 
 ing Horse Pass, just S. of Mt. Mur- 
 chison, at an altitude of 5,300 feet. 
 Between these mountains and the Pa- 
 cific coast are the Selkirk Mountains, 
 the Gold Range, a central plateau, and 
 the Cascade or Coast Range. The Cas- 
 cade or Coast Range is a continuation 
 of the Sierra Nevada of California, 
 reaches an altitude of 7,000 feet, and 
 contains many extinct volcanoes. The 
 Selkirk range has a glacier region of 
 greater extent than that of Switzer- 
 land. The coasts of the Dominion have 
 numerous indentations, the largest of 
 which are the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 the Gulf of Georgia, the Bay of Fun- 
 dy, and the Bay of Chaleurs. In the 
 N. are many large bays or inland seas, 
 of which Baffin Bay, on the N. E., 
 and Hudson Bay, near the center of 
 the Dominion, are the largest. The 
 lakes of Canada are the most exten- 
 sive in the world; besides the Great 
 Lakes, there are many large lakes in 
 the Northwest Territories and Mani- 
 toba. 
 
 Canada is very rich in its mineral 
 deposits. The most important min- 
 erals found are gold, silver, iron, cop- 
 per, nickel, lead, and coal ; besides 
 manganese, cobalt, asbestos, pyrites, 
 phosphates, building stones, marbles, 
 petroleum, and salt. Gold is princi- 
 pally mined in British Columbia, tie
 
 Canada 
 
 newly organized Yukon Territory, and 
 Nova Scotia. The Nova Scotia gold 
 district extends over an area of 6,000 
 square miles, and the metal is ex- 
 tracted from the quartz in a very 
 fine and pure state. Gold is also found 
 in rich deposits in the Northwest Ter- 
 ritories. Extraordinary silver deposits 
 are found in several islands on the N. 
 shore of Lake Superior and in argen- 
 tiferous galena in Quebec, Nova Sco- 
 tia, and British Columbia. Copper 
 abounds in British Columbia, Nova 
 Scotia, Ontario, Quebec, New Bruns- 
 wick, and the Northwest Territories. 
 The copper found on the N. shore of 
 Lake Superior, and in Ontario, is of 
 excellent quality. Iron is found in 
 great quantities at Hull, Ontario, in 
 a bed 90 feet thick. This ore is mag- 
 netic, yielding 70 per cent pure iron. 
 Magnetite is also found in Nova Sco- 
 tia and New Brunswick. Silver-bear- 
 ing lead, tin, zinc, and bismuth are 
 found in many places. Coal exists_in 
 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, British 
 Columbia, and the Northwest Terri- 
 tories. The Nova Scotia and New 
 Brunswick fields are of great extent, 
 and the value of this output in Brit- 
 ish Columbia alone is second only to 
 that of its gold. Anthracite is found 
 in Queen Charlotte and Vancouver 
 Islands. 
 
 The soil is generally clay, beneath 
 a rich vegetable loam, and is covered 
 in its natural state with oak, elm, 
 walnut, white wood, pine> fir, and 
 maple trees. It is well adapted to 
 general agriculture, and is capable of 
 the highest cultivation. The climate 
 varies greatly. In the S. provinces the 
 pummers are warm, and, although the 
 winters are cold, they are pleasant and 
 bracing. In the W. the climate is 
 milder than in the rest of the Do- 
 minion. In the extreme N. the ground 
 is covered with snow nearly the entire 
 year and the winters are very severe. 
 The greater part of the Dominion is 
 covered with forests. 
 
 The greater part of Nova Scotia, 
 Quebec, New Brunswick, Ontario, and 
 Vancouver Island, beside the country 
 lying between Lake Superior and the 
 Rocky Mountains, is admirably adapt- 
 ed to agriculture. And this industry 
 is rapidly developing. The fisheries 
 are also extensive and profitable. 
 
 Canada 
 
 Canada has no National system of 
 education, but under the British North 
 America Act, 1867, the right to legis- 
 late on matters respecting education 
 was placed in the hands of the govern- 
 ment of the separate provinces. In 
 Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, British 
 Columbia, and Prince Edward Island, 
 the schools are strictly undenomina- 
 tional. In Manitoba all public schools 
 are non-sectarian. In Quebec and On- 
 tario the schools are non-sectarian, 
 but the Protestants and Roman Cath- 
 olics are allowed separate schools 
 within certain limits. 
 
 According to the Dominion census 
 of 1901 the Roman Catholic was the 
 strongest denomination, numerically, 
 followed by the Methodist, Presbyter- 
 ian, Church of England, Baptist, Luth- 
 eran, Congregational, Disciples of 
 Christ, Protestant Brethren, Jew, Ad- 
 ventist, Quaker, Universalist, and 
 Unitarian. 
 
 Canada lias 95 main steam railway 
 lines, with 24,104 miles o track com- 
 pleted, and 48 electric lines, with 
 989 miles of track. The capital of 
 the steam lines exceeds $647,oOO,000 , 
 of the electric, $51,950,000. The con- 
 struction of the government railways 
 has cost upward of $215,000,000. 
 r lhere are more than 20 canal sys- 
 tems, which have cost for construc- 
 tion and enlargement over $95,300,- 
 000, and of these the St. Lawrence 
 system is the most important, al- 
 though the Wellaud was tue costliest. 
 The banks have a paid-up capital of 
 $100,000,000 and assets exceeding 
 $1,000,000,000. The net debt of the 
 Dominion is about $324,000,000. The 
 foreign trade has reached $288,685,- 
 000 in exports and $361,607,000 in 
 imports, and the mineral production 
 over $90,000,000. 
 
 The Constitution of Canada is after 
 the model of the mother-country. The 
 Parliament consists of the King, an 
 upper house styled the Senate, and a 
 House of Commons. The King is rep- 
 resented by a governor-general, who 
 exercises his authority with the aid 
 and advice of a council of ministers, 
 styled the King's Privy Council for 
 Canada. The authority of the gov- 
 ernor-general is largely nominal, the 
 government really being carried on by 
 the Prime Minister and Council, who
 
 Canada 
 
 are directly responsible to Parliament. 
 The cabinet must be supported by a 
 majority of the House of Commons, or 
 go out of office. The Senate consists 
 of not more than 78 members. The 
 senators are chosen by the governor- 
 general-in-Council, and hold the ap- 
 pointment for life. Among other qual- 
 ifications, a senator must have real 
 property to the value of $4,000, and 
 must be a resident in the province for 
 which he is appointed. The Speaker 
 of the Senate is nominated by the gov- 
 ernor-general. The House of Commons 
 consists of 215 members. The dura- 
 tion of a House of Commons is not to 
 exceed five years. In July, 1885, an 
 Electoral Franchise Act was passed, 
 providing for a uniform franchise for 
 the whole Dominion in elections for 
 the House of Commons. The House 
 of Commons elects its own Speaker. 
 Any bill passed by the Houses of Par- 
 liament, even though assented to by 
 the governor-general in the King's 
 name, may afterward be disallowed by 
 the Imperial Privy Council. 
 
 Each one of the different provinces 
 also has an executive and a legis- 
 lature of its own, presided over by a 
 lieutenant-governor, and constituted 
 much as before the Union. The lieu- 
 tenant-governor are appointed by the 
 governor-general. In this distribution 
 of legislative power between the gen- 
 eral and the provincial parliaments, 
 certain classes of subjects of a local 
 nature are assigned exclusively to the 
 legislatures of the provinces, while 
 subjects of more general concern are 
 assumed by the Parliament. The debts 
 of the several provinces, at the Union, 
 were assumed (with certain limita- 
 tions) by the Federal Government ; 
 and, on the other hand, certain duties 
 and revenues, and certain public works 
 and properties belonging to the several 
 provinces before the Union, were taken 
 possession of to form a consolidated 
 revenue-fund for defraying the inter- 
 est of these debts, and for other ex- 
 penditures of the Federal Government. 
 On Sept. 1. 1905, Alberta and Sas- 
 katchewan, formed from the provi- 
 sional districts of Alberta, Athabaska. 
 Assiniboia and Saskatchewan, were 
 made provinces. The Yukon Terri- 
 tory, of which the Klondike is a smal 1 
 section, was constituted in 1898. 
 
 Canada 
 
 The population, March 31, 1910, 
 by provinces was: Ontario, 2,687,861; 
 Quebec, 2,124.834; Maritime Prov- 
 
 nces, 1,000,678; Manitoba, 496,111; 
 Saskatchewan, 377,590; Alberta, 321,- 
 862; British Columbia, 321,733; un- 
 organized territory, 59,050. Tho 
 
 argest cities were: Montreal, with 
 suburbs, 500,000; Torouto, 355,000; 
 Winnipeg, 130,000; Vancouver, 110.- 
 068; Ottawa, 86,130; Quebec, 70,000; 
 Hamilton, 55,000; Halifax, 45,000; 
 St. John, N. B., 43.000; Kingston, 
 20,000; and Hull. 16.735. 
 
 In 1534 Jacques Cartier, a French 
 navigator, entering the St. Law- 
 rence on the festival of the saint of 
 that title, took nominal possession of 
 North America in the name of his 
 king, Francis I. In 1608 Quebec was 
 founded by De Champlain ; in 1623 
 he built Fort St. Louis, from' which 
 stronghold France ruled for 150 years 
 a vast region extending E. to Acadia 
 (now Nova Scotia), W. to Lake Su- 
 perior, and ultimately down the Mis- 
 sissippi as far as Florida and Louis- 
 iana. The Recoljet and Jesuit mis- 
 sionaries traversed the country, and 
 underwent incredible hardships in 
 their zeal for the conversion of the 
 Indians. These fearless priests were 
 the pioneers of civilization in the far 
 West, and to La Salle is due the dis- 
 covery of the Mississippi valley. In 
 1670 Charles II. granted the Hudson 
 Bay Company the perpetual exclusive 
 right of trading in the territory wa- 
 tered by all the streams flowing into 
 Hudson Bay. Garrisoned forts were 
 raised at suitable points, and bitter 
 enmity between the French and English 
 traders led to bloody struggles. The 
 wars on the American continent fol- 
 lowed the course of the wars in Eu- 
 rope, until the long struggle between 
 France and England for the suprem- 
 acy in America came to a close on the 
 " Plains of Abraham " in 1759, when 
 General Wolfe defeated Montcalm. 
 Peace was concluded between Great 
 Britain and France, 1763, when Can- 
 ada was formally ceded to England, 
 and Louisiana to Spain. In the same 
 year a small portion of the recently 
 acquired territory was by royal procla- 
 mation organized under English laws. 
 In 1774 the new province was ex- 
 tended by parliamentary enactment, 
 and that under French laws, down the
 
 Canada 
 
 Cana> 
 
 Ohio to its confluence with the Mis- 
 sissippi, and up the latter stream to 
 its source. Finally, Canada receded 
 to its present limits in 1783. In 1791 
 Canada was divided under separate 
 legislatures into two sections, the E. 
 retaining French institutions, and the 
 W. receiving those of England ; and 
 these sections were reunited for legis- 
 lative purposes in 1841. In 1867 Up- 
 per and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, 
 and New Brunswick were united as 
 the Dominion of Canada, and in 1870 
 the Hudson Bay Company's territory 
 was divided into Manitoba and the 
 Northwest Territories and united to 
 the Dominion.- British Columbia en- 
 tered the Union in 1871, and Prince 
 Edward Island in 1873. The division 
 of the Northwest was attended by the 
 rebellions of half-breeds under Louis 
 Riel in 1870 and 1885. Fenian raids 
 in 1866 and 1870-71 also disturbed the 
 peace of the Dominion. In 1893 a 
 court of arbitration on the Bering Sea 
 Seal Fisheries met in Ottawa. In 
 1896 Quebec's boundaries were ex- 
 tended to Hudson Bay. In 1897 pref- 
 erence was given British goods. In 1903 
 the Alaskan Boundary dispute was de- 
 cided in favor of the United States. 
 
 Canada, a Spanish term used to 
 indicate a small canon, or valley with 
 steep rocky walls. 
 
 Canada Balsam, a pale balsam, 
 obtained by incision from a Canadian 
 tree, the American silver-fir, sometimes 
 called the Balm of Gilead fir. 
 
 CANADA GOOSE. 
 
 Canada Goose, an American wild 
 goose 30 to 35 inches long, brownish 
 above, lighter below, head, neck, bill, 
 and feet black, a white patch on the 
 cheek; breeds in the N. of the conti- 
 
 nent and migrates S. when the frost 
 becomes severe. 
 
 Canada Hemp, a perennial herb, 
 of the dogbane family native of 
 North America. It has a strong fiber, 
 used by the Indians for twine, nets, 
 woven fabrics, etc. 
 
 Canada Rice, a floating grass 
 growing in lakes and sluggish streams 
 in Canada and the Northern United 
 States, yielding a grain that forms 
 part of the food of the Indians, and is 
 eaten by the whites also. 
 
 Canadian Pacific Railway, a 
 line of railway which traverses British 
 North America from the St. Law- 
 rence to the Pacific, and opened 
 for general traffic in June, 1886. Com- 
 mencing at Montreal, the line goes to 
 Ottawa, thence round the N. of the 
 Great Lakes to Port Arthur at the 
 head of Lake Superior, and thence to 
 Winnipeg, Manitoba, thence to Stephen 
 in the Rocky mountains, then across 
 British Columbia to Vancouver on the 
 Pacific. The length of the line from 
 Montreal to Vancouver is 2,909 miles. 
 
 Canadian River, a river that rises 
 in the N. E. part of New Mexico, and 
 runs generally E. through Texas and 
 Indian Territory to the Arkansas. I Is 
 length is about 900 miles. 
 
 Canaigre, a species of dock, grow- 
 ing abundantly in New Mexico and 
 Texas. The rootstock furnishes a ma- 
 terial used in tanning. 
 
 Canaille, a French word, denoting 
 the most degraded element of the pop- 
 ulace, and applied to an individual as 
 a term of contempt. 
 
 Canal, an artificial water-course or 
 channel, especially used for the passage 
 of boats. The Egyptians very early 
 made a canal connecting the Nile and 
 the Red Sea. Most of the ancient na- 
 tions had canals. The great canal of 
 China was constructed partly in the 
 7th and partly in the 9th century 
 A. D. ; it is 825 miles long. The first 
 known English canal was cut by the 
 Romans at Caerdike. The Caledonian 
 canal projected in 1803 was opened 
 in 1822. The Erie canal, so important 
 to New York city, was begun in 1817. 
 and completed in 1825. The Welland 
 canal parallel to Niagara river and 
 cataract, and the United States and 
 Canadian Sault Ste. Marie canals
 
 Canalejas 
 
 overcoming St. Mary's Falls, were 
 opened in 1833, and 1876, and con- 
 nect for navigation the Great Lakes 
 and the St. Lawrence River basins. 
 The Languedoc, or Canal du Midi, 
 connecting the Atlantic with the Medi- 
 terranean, was completed in 1861. The 
 Suez canal, connecting the Mediter- 
 ranean and the Red Sea, was opened 
 in 1869. It is 99 miles long; 26 
 feet deep ; 327 feet wide for 77 miles ; 
 and 196 feet for the remainder. Its 
 success suggested the cutting of the 
 Panama Canal (see article), across 
 the isthmus, to join the Pacific and 
 Atlantic Oceans. This great undertak- 
 ing, begun by the renowned engineer 
 of the Suez canal, M. de Lesseps, was, 
 after a prosecution to a stage near 
 completion, abandoned in 1892, as a 
 result of a terrific scandal. The great 
 Manchester ship canal, extending from 
 Eastham to Manchester, England, was 
 opened Jan. 1, 1894. The Corinth ship 
 canal, across the Isthmus of Corinth, 
 was opened by King George of Greece, 
 Aug. 6, 1893. On June 20, 1895, the 
 great Baltic and North Sea canal was 
 opened by the German Emperor in the 
 presence of a navy representing all na- 
 tions. Work bega"n on the great Chi- 
 cago drainage canal Sept. 3, 1892, and 
 by Jan. 1, 1900, it was completed. The 
 main channel is 29 miles long, of 
 which about nine miles was cut 
 through solid rock. In rock the mini- 
 mum depth is 22 feet. See PANAMA 
 CANAL. 
 
 Canalejas y Mendez, Jos, a 
 Spanish statesman; became a leader 
 of the Liberal party; editor of " El 
 Heraldo " of Madrid; president of 
 the Academy of Jurisprudence; chief 
 of the Departments of Justice, Fi- 
 nance, Public Instruction, and Pub- 
 lic Works; and Feb. 9, 1910, Prime 
 Minister; and, in the latter capacity, 
 was widely conspicuous because of 
 the controversy between Spain and 
 the Vatican on church affairs. 
 
 Canard, a false report; a silly 
 rumor. 
 
 Canary Bird, a singing bird, a 
 kind of finch from the Canary Islands. 
 They were introduced into Europe 300 
 or 400 years ago. 
 
 Canary Flower, an annual climb- 
 ing plant of the Indian cress family, a 
 
 Cancer 
 
 native of New Granada, cultivated in 
 Europe for its showy yellow flowers. 
 
 Canary Islands, a group of islands 
 belonging to Spain in the Atlantic 
 Ocean, off the N. W. coast of Africa, 
 forming a Spanish province. The group 
 consists of seven large and several 
 small islets, with a joint area of about 
 2,800 square miles, and a pop. (1900) 
 of 358,564. The principal islands are 
 Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gran Ca- 
 naria, Teneriffe, Gomera, Palma, and 
 Hierro or Ferro. The distance from 
 Fuerteventura to the African coast is 
 about 62% geographical miles. The 
 coasts are steep and rocky, and the 
 surface is diversified with high moun- 
 tains, narrow gorges, and deep valleys. 
 All the islands are volcanic, and every- 
 where show plain marks of their 
 origin. There are no rivers, and on 
 several of the islands water is very 
 scarce. 
 
 TENEBIFFE, the largest island of the 
 group, has an area of 877 miles, with 
 a population of 112,000. The chief 
 town and port is Santa Cruz de San- 
 tiago, on the S. E. coast 
 
 Canby, Edward Richard Sprigg, 
 an American army officer; born \a 
 Kentucky, in 1817. He graduated at 
 West Point in 1839 ; served in the 
 Mexican War, commanded the United 
 States troops in New York city dur- 
 ing the draft riots of 1863 ; succeeded 
 General Banks in the command of the 
 army in Louisiana, 1864; became 
 Brigadier-General, 1866. He was 
 treacherously shot by an Indian while 
 negotiating for the removal of the Mo- 
 docs from Northern California, April 
 11, 1873. 
 
 Cancan, a dance, something of the 
 nature of a quadrille, but accompanied 
 by violent leaps and indecorous contor- 
 tions of the body. 
 
 Cancer, in astronomy, the fourth 
 sign in the zodiac. The sun enters 
 this sign about June 21. He is at his 
 greatest N. declination on entering, 
 and the point which he reaches is 
 called the summer solstice, because he 
 appears for the moment to stop in his 
 progress N., and turn S. again. 
 
 Cancer, (derived from the Latin 
 cancer, a crab), or Carcinoma, in 
 medicine and surgery a name which is 
 given to a group of malignant diseases,
 
 Cancer Root 
 
 Candler 
 
 in consequence of their supposed re- 
 semblance to a crab. In the treatment 
 of cancer it is necessary to get the dis- 
 ease at an early stage of its growth, so 
 that it may be thoroughly removed. 
 If it is detected and removed at this 
 period of its existence it is curable, 
 but if the neighboring glands have be- 
 come involved in the disease the relief 
 is only temporary. 
 
 Cancer Root, or Beech Drops, 
 a parasitic herb of the order Oroban- 
 chese, a native of North America, 
 growing on the exposed roots of beech- 
 trees. The whole plant is powerfully 
 astringent, and the root is especially 
 bitter and nauseous. 
 
 Cancrmu Oris, (literally " sore in 
 the mouth"), known also as Noma, 
 Water-cancer, and Water-canker, a 
 peculiar form of mortification, arising 
 apparently from defective nutrition. 
 The disease seldom occurs except be- 
 tween the 2d and llth years, and is 
 usually preceded by measles, remit- 
 tent or intermittent fever, or some 
 other serious disease. 
 
 Candace, a name apparently com- 
 mon to the warrior queens of Ethiopia 
 in the later period of the kingdom of 
 Meroe. The most distinguished of 
 them invaded Egypt 22 B. c.. was de- 
 feated by the Romans and obliged to 
 sue for peace, which she obtained, 
 with a remission of the tribute imposed 
 on her by Petronius. One of her suc- 
 cessors is mentioned in Acts vii: 27; 
 her high treasurer was baptized by 
 Philip the Deacon on the road to Gaza. 
 
 Candelabrum, a lamp-stand. Itu 
 tripedal form among the ancients is 
 believed to have been derived from the 
 shape of its predecessors braziers or 
 basins for holding fuel, mounted on 
 tripods. 
 
 Candia, or Crete, (called in the 
 most ancient times Idsea, from Mount 
 Ida, afterward Creta, whence the 
 Turkish name Kirid), one of the most 
 important islands of the Turkish em- 
 pire; situated in the Mediterranean, 
 81 miles from the S. extremity of the 
 Morea, and 230 from the African 
 coast. Length 1GO miles ; breadth 7 to 
 35 ; area 3,330 sq. m. ; pop. 310,400. In 
 1868 a formidable insurrection, fo- 
 mented by Greece, was with difficulty 
 suppressed by the Turks. In conse- 
 
 quence of this revolt the Turks grant- 
 ed to the Cretans a degree of auton- 
 omy, but Turkish bad faith produced 
 another revolt nine years later. At 
 that time a new constitution of a par- 
 liamentary character was inaugurated, 
 but many of its provisions were an- 
 nulled in 1889. In 1896 there was 
 again a rising against the Turks, in 
 which the Greeks took part. The Greek 
 troops landed on the island were with- 
 drawn, at the instance of the Great 
 Powers, who undertook to secure an 
 autonomous government under Turk- 
 ish suzerainty and to cause the Turk- 
 ish troops to be withdrawn. On Sept. 
 6, 1898, the Mohammedans of Candia 
 rose against the Christians, and the 
 fighting resulted in the death of many 
 of the latter, including some British 
 sailors. The leading powers at once 
 demanded the complete withdrawal of 
 the Turkish troops who had abetted 
 the rebels, and ultimately on Oct 11, 
 the Sultan complied with their de- 
 mand, the troops being soon after 
 withdrawn. Prince George of Greece 
 was high commissioner of the Powers 
 in 1898-1906. 
 
 Candidate, a term taken from the 
 Latin candidatus, a candidate, liter- 
 ally a person dressed in white, be- 
 cause, among the Romans, a man 
 who solicited an office, such as the 
 prsetorship or consulship, appeared in 
 a bright white garment. 
 
 Candleberry, a shrub, natural or- 
 der Myricacese, growing from 4 to 18 
 feet high, and common in North- 
 America, where candles are made 
 from its drupes or berries which are 
 about the size of peppercorns, and 
 covered with a greenish-white wax. 
 
 Candle Fish, a small fish peculiar 
 to the Pacific coast of the United 
 States. It is so oily that when dried 
 and a wick is drawn through it, it will 
 burn like a candle. 
 
 Candlemas, the feast of the puri- 
 fication of the Virgin, Feb. 2d; so- 
 called from being formerly celebrated 
 with processions and shows of candles. 
 It was instituted in the 6th century. 
 
 Candler, Warren A., an Ameri- 
 can clergyman : born in Carroll coun- 
 ty, Ga., Aug. 23, 1857. He was grad- 
 uated at Emory Colleee in 1875, was 
 ordained to the Methodist ministry,
 
 Candlish 
 
 and in 1888 was elected a bishop. He 
 has been President of Emory College 
 since 1888. 
 
 Candlish, Robert Smith, a 
 Scotch clergyman, born in Edinburgh, 
 March 23, 1806; was educated at 
 Glasgow University. After the death 
 of Chalmers, Candlish was the ruling 
 spirit in the Free Church. He died 
 Oct 19, 1873. 
 
 Candy, or Kandy, a city of Cey- 
 lon, near the center of the island, 72 
 miles N. E. of Colombo. Pop. (1901) 
 20,522. 
 
 Canea, the capital and chief com- 
 mercial town of Crete, situated on the 
 N. W. coast. It occupies the site of 
 the ancient Cydonia. Pop. 22,000. 
 
 Canebrake, a colossal reed, which 
 reaches a height of 30 or 40 feet, and 
 forms dense swamp-jungles in marshy 
 places along the banks of the _Red 
 river, the Arkansas, the Mississippi, 
 and their tributaries. 
 
 Canes Venatiei, (Latin "the 
 Hunting-dogs," Asterion and Chara), 
 one of the northern constellations 
 added by Hevelius in 1690, between 
 Bootes and Ursa Major. 
 
 Canfield, James Hulme, an 
 American educator : born in Delaware, 
 O., March 18, 1847; in 1877-1891 he 
 was Professor of History in the Uni- 
 versity of Kansas, and in 1891-1895 
 was Chancellor. He then became 
 President of the Ohio State Univer- 
 sity and in 1899 librarian of Colum- 
 bia University. Died in lUO'J. 
 
 Cang, Cangae, or Kea, the wood- 
 en collar, weighing from 50 to 60 
 pounds, and fitting closely round the 
 neck, imposed upon criminals in 
 China. 
 
 Canicnla, the dog-star or Sirius; 
 hence Canincular days, the dog-days. 
 
 Canitlee, a family of mammals, con- 
 taining the dogs, wolves, foxes, and 
 jackals. 
 
 Canis Major, a constellation of 
 the Southern hemisphere, remarkable 
 as containing Sirius, the brightest 
 star. CANIS MINOR is a constellation 
 in the Northern hemisphere, immedi- 
 ately above Canis Major, the chief star 
 in which is Procyon. 
 
 Canker, (1) in medicine, a collec- 
 tion of small sloughing ulcers in the 
 
 Cannon 
 
 mouth. (2) In horticulture, a disease 
 to which fruit-trees are liable. (3) 
 In farriery, a disease in horses' feet 
 causing a discharge of fetid matter 
 from the cleft in the middle of the 
 frog. 
 
 Cankerworm, a worm or larva de- 
 structive to trees or plants. 
 
 Cannel Coal, a variety of bitum- 
 inous coal, containing earthy matters, 
 which render it specifically heavier 
 than water. It varies much in ap- 
 pearance. It is very dense and com- 
 pact, and not easily frangible, break- 
 ing with an uneven fracture, and does 
 not soil the fingers. When burning, 
 it splits and crackles, without melting, 
 and leaves 3 or 4 per cent, of ash. 
 
 Cannes, a seaport of France, on 
 the shore of the Mediterranean, in the 
 Department of Alpes-Mari times ; fam- 
 ous as the place where Napoleon 
 landed when he returned from Elba, 
 March 1, 1815. Pop. 19,500. 
 
 Cannibalism, the act or practice 
 of eating human flesh by mankind. 
 When America was discovered, canni- 
 balism was found to prevail to a very 
 great extent. It is stated, on excellent 
 authority, to exist in Hayti, and un- 
 doubtedly prevails among certain 
 South American tribes. In many parts 
 of Africa, cannibalism is systematic- 
 ally practised. 
 
 Canning, George, an English or- 
 ator and statesman ; born in London, 
 April 11, 1770 ; educated at Eton and 
 at Oxford. He was first brought into 
 Parliament by Pitt in 1793, and in 
 1796 became Under-Secretary of 
 State. In 1797 he projected, with 
 some friends, the " Anti-Jacobin," of 
 which Gifford was appointed editor, 
 and to which Canning contributed the 
 " Knife-grinder " and other poems and 
 articles. In 1798 he supported Wil- 
 berforce's motion for the abolition of 
 the slave-trade. In 1807 he was ap- 
 pointed Secretary of State for Foreign 
 Affairs. As British Minister of For- 
 eign Affairs he earnestly advocated 
 the principles embodied in the Mon- 
 roe Doctrine. April 12, 182V, his ap- 
 pointment to be Prime-Minister was 
 announced. He died in Chiswick, 
 Aug. 8, 1827. 
 
 Cannon, George Q., born in Liv- 
 erpool, England, Jan. 11, 1827; re- 
 moved to the Salt Lake, where he be-
 
 Cannon 
 
 Canteen 
 
 came a Mormon leader. He was a 
 member of the Legislative Council of 
 Utah in 1865-1866 and 1869-1872, 
 and was a delegate to Congress from 
 1865 to 1881. At a Constitutional 
 Convention at Salt Lake City in 1872 
 he was chosen to present the consti- 
 tution and memorial to Congress for 
 the admission of the Territory into 
 the Union as a State. He died in 
 Monterey, Cal., April 12, 1901. His 
 son, Frank J. Cannon, was elected 
 one of the first two United States 
 Senators from Utah. 
 
 Cannon, Joseph G., an American 
 lawyer ; born in Guilford, N. C., May 
 7, 1836. He removed to Illinois, and 
 was admitted to the bar there. He 
 was-State Attorney in 1861-1868; was 
 elected to the 43rd Congress, and with 
 the exception of the session of 1891- 
 1893 has since held the seat. He was 
 elected Speaker of the House, in Dec. 
 1903. 
 
 Cano, Juan Sebastian del, a 
 Spanish navigator, born in Guetaria, 
 Guipuzcoa, about 1460. He was one 
 of the first to circumnavigate the globe 
 (1522). He died on the Pacific, Aug. 
 4, 1526. 
 
 Canoe, a boat made of a hollow 
 trunk of a tree, or of the bark shaped 
 and strengthened. They were original- 
 ly used by the North American In- 
 dians. 
 
 Canon, in its original sense, a cane 
 or reed used as a measure or rule. 
 Specifically, a law or rule in genera/. 
 In ecclesiastical history a canon is ? 
 book containing the rules of a religi- 
 ous order used in monastic institu- 
 tions. A list or catalogue of the can- 
 onized saints of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. A dignitary of the Church ; 
 one who possesses a prebend, or rev- 
 enue allotted for the performances of 
 divine services in a cathedral or col- 
 legiate church. 
 
 Canon, the Spanish word for tube, 
 funnel, cannon ; applied by the Span- 
 ish Americans, and hence in North 
 America generally, to long and narrow 
 river gorges or deep ravines with pre- 
 cipitous and perpendicular sides. 
 
 Canonical Hours, certain stated 
 times of the day appropriated by ec- 
 clesiastical law to the offices of prayer 
 and devotion in the Roman Catholic 
 Church- 
 
 Canonization, a ceremony in the 
 Roman Church, by which deceased 
 persons are declared saints. 
 
 Canon-law, the body of ecclesias- 
 tical law as laid down by the canons. 
 The oldest canons are called Apostolic 
 canons. The canons of the Councils 
 of Nice (A. D. 325), Constantinople 
 (A. D. 381), Ephesus (A. D. 431), 
 and Chalcedon (A. D. 451), obtained 
 civil sanction by decree of Justinian. 
 Afterward papal decrees of various 
 dates were added to the Roman Cath- 
 olic canon law. 
 
 Canon of Scripture, the term 
 canon, as applied to the Scriptural 
 writings, has been narrowed in its 
 application to those inspired writings 
 recognized by Christian believers. 
 
 Canossa, a ruined castle near Reg- 
 gio, Italy, interesting for its historical 
 associations. The Emperor Henry 
 IV., excommunicated by Gregory VII., 
 humbly waited for three days in its 
 courtyard bareheaded, barefooted and 
 fasting, until the Pope reversed his 
 decision. Hence the term " going to 
 Canossa," meaning to yield to papal 
 wishes or demands. 
 
 Canova, Antonio, an Italian 
 
 sculptor, born in 1757 ; died 1822. He 
 
 was largely self-taught, and at 15 
 
 years of age produced two statues. 
 
 He excelled in whatever style he 
 
 chose, and his versatility is shown in 
 
 the delicate beauty of his famous 
 
 , " Cupid, and Psyche " and the rugged 
 
 i strength of his colossal " Hercules 
 
 j rhrowing Lichas into the Sea." 
 
 Canso, Cape, the E. extremity of 
 Nova Scotia, at the entrance of Ched- 
 abucto Bay. Canso Strait or Gut, 
 17% miles long and 2% in average 
 breadth, separates Nova Scotia from 
 the island of Cape Breton. 
 
 Cantacuzenns, a Greek princely 
 family, which gave two emperors to 
 Constantinople, and a branch of which 
 has been distinguished in the service 
 of Russia. In 1903, a scion married 
 a granddaughter of General Ulysses 
 S. Grant. 
 
 Canteen, in military language, a 
 regimental establishment managed by 
 a committee of officers, in barracks or 
 forts, for the sale of liquors, tobacco, 
 groceries, etc. The word is also ap- 
 plied to a flat can or metallic bottle 
 used by soldiers for carrying drinking
 
 Canterbury 
 
 water. The sale of liquors in the 
 United States army establishments 
 known as canteens was recently pro- 
 hibited by law. 
 
 Canterbury, a city and parliamen- 
 tary and municipal borough of Eng- 
 land in Kent, 55 miles S. E. of Lon- 
 don. In the 8th, 9th, 10th, and llth 
 centuries the city was dreadfully rav- 
 aged by the Danes, but at the Con- 
 quest its buildings exceeded in extent 
 those of London. The ecclesiastical 
 importance of the place was consum- 
 mated by the murder of Thomas a 
 Becket in the cathedral. Henry VIII. 
 dissolved the priory in 1539, and or- 
 dered the bones of Becket to be 
 burned ; and the troopers of Oliver 
 Cromwell made a stable of the cathe- 
 dral. The cathedral, one of the finest 
 ecclesiastical structures in England, 
 has been built in different ages, the 
 oldest part dating from about 1174. 
 The great tower, 235 feet in height, 
 is a splendid specimen of the Pointed 
 style. Pop. (1901) 24,900. 
 
 Cantharis, or Spanish Fly. Ex- 
 ternally used as a rubefacient in the 
 form of a liniment, also as a vesicant 
 in the form of the common blister. 
 
 Canticle, certain .detached psalms 
 and hymns used in the service of the 
 Angl'can Church. The word is also 
 applied to that book of the Old Testa- 
 ment also known as the "Song of 
 Solomon." 
 
 Canton, called also YANG-CHING, 
 city of rams, a large commercial city 
 and port in the south of China, and 
 capital of the province of Kwang- 
 tung, on the N. or left side of the Shu- 
 kiang, or Pearl river, in a rich alluvial 
 plain, 70 miles N. of Macao and 90 N. 
 W. of Hong-kong. The city is sur- 
 rounded by walls 25 to 40 feet high, 
 20 feet thick, with an esplanade in- 
 side, 6 miles in circumference; and it 
 is divided by a partition wall run- 
 ning E. and W. into two unequal 
 parts. There are 12 outer gates, four 
 gates in partition wall, and two water 
 gates, shut and guarded by night. The 
 entire circuit, including suburbs, is 
 nearly 10 miles. At the S. W. corner 
 of thp suburbs S. of the river, are the 
 Hongs or European quarter, divided 
 from the river by a quay, 100 yards 
 wide. The streets, more than 600, 
 are in general less than 8 feet wide, 
 
 Caoutchouc 
 
 and very crooked. The houses along 
 the water-side are built on piles and 
 subject to inundations. Ancient bar- 
 ricades inclose each street, and in the 
 principal streets night-watchmen in 
 watch-towers proclaim the hours and 
 sound fire alarms. The chief exports 
 are tea, silk, and cassia; chief im- 
 ports, cotton, woolen and metal 
 goods. Pop. est. (1U08) 900,000. 
 
 Canton, city and capital of Stark 
 countj", O.; ou Airuishilleu creek and 
 the Baltimore & Ohio aiul other rail- 
 roads; 59 miles S. E. of Cleveland; 
 was long the home of President Mc- 
 Kinley; manufactures steel bridges, 
 steel cars, watches and v/atch cases, 
 safes, locks, surgical chairs, steel 
 roofing, and farming implements; and 
 has a large trade in coal, wheat, 
 corn, and oats. Pop. (1910) 50,217. 
 
 Canute, or Cnut, King of England 
 and Denmark, succeeded his father 
 Swegen or Sweyn on his death in Eng- 
 land in 1014 A. u., and confirmed the 
 Danish power in England. He died 
 in 1036 at Shaftesbury, leaving Nor- 
 way to his eldest son, Sweyn; to the 
 second, Harold, England ; to the third, 
 Hardicanute, Denmark. 
 
 Canvas, a kind of coarse, un- 
 bleached linen cloth, used in old times 
 for sifting, now for sails, tents, paint- 
 ings, etc. 
 
 Canvas-back, a species of duck. 
 It is a great favorite with huntsmen 
 in the United States. It derives its 
 name from the speckled feathers on 
 the back. 
 
 Canzona, or Canzone, a short 
 song, in which the music is of much 
 more importance than the words. 
 
 Canzonet, a short song, one brief 
 compared with the sacred airs of the 
 oratorio, or with the aria of the Ital- 
 ian opera. 
 
 Caoutchouc, india-rubber, an elas- 
 tic, gummy substance, -consisting 
 of the inspissated juice of various 
 more or less milky species of plants. 
 It exists to a certain extent in most 
 milky plants. Caoutchouc was first 
 exported to Europe early in the 18th 
 century. Chas. Goodyear invented 
 the vulcanizing process, which by com- 
 pounding with it a small amount of 
 sulphur renders it as hard as horn, 
 and well adapted for various purposes 
 in the arts.
 
 Cap 
 
 Cap, in ships, a strong piece of 
 timber placed over the head or upper 
 end of a mast, having in it a round 
 hole to receive the top or top-gallant 
 masts. 
 
 Cape Breton, an island of the 
 Dominion of Canada, separated from 
 Nova Scotia, to which province it be- 
 longs, by the narrow Gut or Strait of 
 Canso ; area 3,120 square miles. Tim- 
 ber, fish, and coal are exported. The 
 island belonged to France from 1032 
 to 1763, and Louisburg, its capital, 
 was long an important military post. 
 It was separate from Nova Scotia be- 
 tween 1784 and 1820. Chief town, 
 Sydney. Pop. of Cape Breton, 84,500. 
 
 Cape Coast Castle, a settlement 
 of Great Britain in the Gold Coast 
 Colony, in Upper Guinea, 315 miles, 
 W. of Lagos. The place lies in a 
 chasm, and is defended by the great 
 castle near the water's edge, and by 
 three small forts on the hills behind. 
 Ceded by the Dutch to the English 
 in 1605, Cape Coast Castle, from 1672, 
 was possessed by several British Afri- 
 can companies till 1843, when it was 
 taken over by government. In 1875 
 it was superseded by Accra as capital 
 of the Gold Coast. Pop. 11,614. 
 
 Cape Cod, a noted peninsula of the 
 United States on the S. side of Massa- 
 chusetts Bay; 65 miles long and from 
 1 to 20 broad. 
 
 Cape Colony, a former British 
 colony at the S. extremity of Africa ; 
 since 1910 a province in the Union of 
 South Africa. It extends about 450 
 miles from N. to S. and GOO from E. 
 to W. ; the coast line is about 1,300 
 miles. The area is 276,995 square 
 miles; the pop. 2,409,804. 
 
 The province is better adapted for 
 pasturage than for agriculture. All 
 kinds of vegetables and pot herbs, and 
 all the fruits of temperate climates 
 thrive excellently, and fruits, dried 
 and preserved, are exported. The vine 
 is cultivated, and some excellent wines 
 are made. 
 
 Sheep-rearing is the most important 
 industry, and wool is the chief export 
 (although surpassed in value by dia- 
 monds). Cattle-breeding is carried 
 on t some extent, especially along the 
 coasts and in the E. and N. districts. 
 There are no manufactures of any im- 
 portance. 
 
 Capella 
 
 The European inhabitants consist 
 in part of English, Scottish, and Irish 
 settlers and their descendants, but the 
 majority are of Dutch origin, while 
 there are also a considerable number 
 of German origin. The colored peo- 
 ple are chiefly Hottentots, Kaffirs, Be- 
 chuanas, Basutos, Griquas, Malays, 
 and a mixed race, the offspring of 
 black women and white fathers. 
 
 The constitution which was formed 
 under the acts passed in the yeara 
 1853, 1865, and 1872 vested the execu- 
 tive in the governor and an executive 
 council composed of office-holders ap- 
 pointed by the crown. The legislative 
 power was in the hands of a legisla- 
 tive council of 23 members, elected 
 for seven years, and a house or as- 
 sembly of 95 members, elected for a 
 term of five years. 
 
 The Dutch, who had early fixed 
 upon the Cape as a watering-place for 
 their ships, first colonized it under 
 Van Riebeek, in 1652. It was cap- 
 tured by the British in 1795, restored 
 at the peace of Amiens (1802), and 
 again taken in 1806. From this time 
 it has remained in the possession of 
 Great Britain, to which it was for- 
 mally assigned in 1815, along with 
 Dutch Guiana. Subsequently the area 
 of the colony was gradually enlarged 
 by the annexation of surrounding dis- 
 tricts. See SOUTH AFRICA, UNION OF. 
 
 Cape Fear River, a river of 
 North Carolina ; navigable for steam- 
 iX&tts for 120 miles from its mouth. 
 
 Capo Finistere, the westernmost 
 point of Spain, in the province of Co- 
 runna, extending S. W. into the At- 
 lantic. 
 
 Cape Hatteras, a dangerous cape 
 on the coast of North Carolina off 
 which many wrecks have occurred. 
 
 Cape Haitien, a town on the N. 
 coast of Haiti. It has an excellent 
 harbor. Pop. about 15,000. 
 
 Cape Horn, or The Horn, the ex- 
 tremity of an island of the same name, 
 forming the extreme S. point of South 
 America. It is a dark, precipitous 
 headland, 500 to 600 feet high, run- 
 ning far into the sea. Navigation 
 round it is dangerous on account of 
 frequent tempests. 
 
 Capella, the name of a star situa- 
 ted in the constellation Auriga, and is 
 of remarkable brilliancy.
 
 Cape Matapan 
 
 Cape Verde Island* 
 
 Cape Matapan, a promontory of 
 Greece, forming the S. extremity of 
 the Peloponnesus. 
 
 Capen, Elmer Hewitt, an Amer- 
 ican educator, born in Stoughton, 
 Mass., April 5, 1838; graduated at 
 Tufts College, and became a lawyer 
 and later a Universalist clergyman. 
 From 1875 he was president of Tufts 
 College. He died Mar. 22, 1905. 
 
 Capen, Nalinm, an American his- 
 torical writer ; born at Canton, Mass., 
 1804 ; was postmaster of Boston, 
 Mass. ; introduced street letter-box 
 collections. He died Jan. 4, 1886. 
 
 Cape Nome, a cape and center of 
 a remarkably rich gold mining region, 
 on the S. face of the peninsular pro- 
 jection of Alaska, which separates 
 Kotzebue Sound on the N. from Ber- 
 ing Sea on the S., and terminates on 
 the W. in Cape Prince of Wales. 
 
 In a direct line of navigation, it lies 
 about 2,500 miles N. W. of Seattle, 
 and 175 miles S. E. of Siberia. The 
 nearest settlement of consequence to 
 it prior to 1899 was St. Michael, 100 
 miles to the S. E., but that year vari- 
 ous mining camps built them- 
 selves up in closer range and reduced 
 the distance some 60 miles. The Nome 
 district as settled centers about the 
 lower course of the Snake river, which 
 discharges into the sea at a position 
 13 miles W. of Cape Nome proper. 
 
 The first discovery of gold was made 
 in September, 1898, but it was not un- 
 til July, 1899, that the beach gold was 
 discovered. In the middle of October 
 following Nome City had 5,000 inhabi- 
 tants. The yield of gold has been very 
 great, and the district is being exten- 
 sively exploited. 
 
 Cape Nun, a headland on the W. 
 coast of Morocco, extending into the 
 sea at the S. W. extremity of the At- 
 las range. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, a promon- 
 tory near the S. extremity of Africa, 
 at the termination ot a small penin- 
 sula extending S. from Table moun- 
 tain, which overlooks Cape Town. 
 Bartholomew Diaz, who discovered the 
 Cape in 1487, called it Cape of 
 Storms; but John II. of Portugal 
 changed this to its present designation. 
 It was first doubled by Vasco de Gama 
 in 1497. Here is one of the principal 
 astronomical institutions of the world. 
 
 Cape Ortegal, a rugged promon- 
 tory forming the N. extremity of 
 Spain, extending into the Bay of Bis- 
 cay. 
 
 Caper, the unopened flower-bud of 
 a low trailing shrub which grows in 
 the countries bordering the Mediter- 
 ranean. Pickled in vinegar and salt 
 they are much used as a condiment. 
 
 Capercailzie, a spedes of grouse, 
 of large size, formerly indigenous in 
 the highlands of Scotland, but which 
 became extinct, and had to be reintro- 
 duced from the Scandinavian Penin- 
 sula. 
 
 Cape River, or Bio de Segovia, 
 a river of Nicaragua, which after a 
 generally N. E. course of nearly 300 
 miles enters the Caribbean Sea, after 
 forming part of the boundary between 
 Honduras and Nicaragua. 
 
 Capernaum, a city of Galilee in 
 Palestine, about 70 miles N. by E. of 
 Jerusalem, situated on the N. W. 
 shore of the Sea of Tiberias. It was 
 here that Jesus Christ began his pub- 
 lic ministry ; and in its neighborhood 
 he delivered the Sermon n the Mount. 
 
 Capers, Ellison, an American cler- 
 gyman : born in Charleston, S. C., 
 Oct. 14, 1837. He entered the Prot- 
 estant Episcopal ministry in 1867, 
 and was chosen bishop of South Caro- 
 lina in 1893. He died April 22, 1908. 
 
 Cape St. Vincent, the S. W. point 
 of Portugal. 
 
 Capet, the name of the French race 
 of kings which has given 118 sover- 
 eigns to Europe, viz., 36 kings of 
 France, 22 kings of Portugal, 11 of 
 Naples and Sicily, 5 of Spain, 3 of 
 Hungary, 3 emperor? of Constantino- 
 ple, 3 kings of Navarre, 17 dukes of 
 Burgundy, 12 dukes of Brittany, 2 
 dukes of Lorraine, and 4 dukes of 
 Parma. 
 
 Cape Town, a city and capital of 
 Gape Colony, South Africa; became 
 the seat of the Parliament of the 
 new Union of South Africa in 1910. 
 Pop. (1910) 169.641. 
 
 Cape Verde, the most westerly 
 headland of Africa, jutting out into 
 the Atlantic Ocean, between the rivers 
 Gambia and Senegal. 
 
 Cape Verde Islands, a group in 
 the North Atlantic Ocean, belonging 
 to Portugal, about 370 miles W. of
 
 Cape Wrath 
 
 Cape Verde, which, as well as the is- 
 lands, derives its name from the green- 
 ish tinge given to the adjoining sea by 
 the abundance of sea-weed. The group 
 consists of 14 islands, besides islets 
 and rocks, having a united area of 
 about 1,790 square miles. They are. 
 in general, mountainous, rocky, and 
 very ill supplied with water ; all are 
 evidently of volcanic origin. The cli- 
 mate is exceedingly unhealthy, and 
 droughts are of frequent occurrence, 
 ^he pop. (1900, 147,424) is a mixed 
 race of Portuguese and negroes. These 
 islands were discovered in 1450. Dur- 
 ing the early part of the war between 
 the United States and Spain (1898), 
 the islands were made the rendezvous 
 of the Spanish fleet under Cervera. 
 
 Cape Wrath, a pyramidal promon- 
 tory of unrivaled wildness and gran- 
 deur, the N. W. extremity of Scotland 
 and running out into the Atlantic. 
 
 Capillaries. The tubes which con- 
 rey the blood from the left side of the 
 heart to the various parts of the body 
 are called arteries, while those which 
 return it to the right side of the heart 
 are known as veins. The name capil- 
 laries is given to the minute vessels 
 which form the connection between 
 the terminal branches of the arteries 
 and the commencement of the trunks 
 of the veins. 
 
 Capita, an expression of frequent 
 occurrence in laws regulating the dis- 
 tribution of the estates of persons dy- 
 ing intestate. When all the persons 
 entitled to shares in the distribution 
 are of the same degree of kindred to 
 the deceased person, and claim di- 
 rectly from him in their own right, 
 and not through an intermediate rela- 
 tion, they take per capita, that is, 
 in equal shares, or share and share 
 alike. 
 
 Capital, the surplus of individual 
 or national wealth which remains af- 
 ter current necessities have been met. 
 It consists of what are popularly 
 called savings. It is available for the 
 employment of new labor, and if this 
 be done judiciously it will produce a 
 further surplus ; or, in other words, 
 the capital will increase. In every 
 well ordered community it tends to do 
 BO indefinitely. Capital and labor mu- 
 tually require each other, and are not 
 natural foes, but natural friends. 
 
 Capitol 
 
 Capital, in geography, a city in 
 which reside the highest authorities 
 of a district, province, country, etc. 
 
 Capital Punishment. The pun* 
 ishment of crime by death. In the 
 United States the method is usually 
 by hanging, except in New York, 
 Ohio, New Jersey, Massachusetts, 
 North Carolina, and Virginia, where 
 electricity is used. In Utah a con- 
 demned murderer may choose shoot- 
 ing instead of hanging. Capital pun- 
 ishment has been abolished in Rhode 
 Island, Maine, Michigan, Kansas, and 
 Wisconsin, and Colorado and Iowa 
 abolished but soon restored it. 
 
 Capitation-grant, a grant of so 
 much per head ; specifically applied to 
 grants from government or governing 
 bodies to schools according to the 
 number of scholars in attendance, or 
 to the number of those passing a cer- 
 tain test examination, and to volun- 
 teer companies on account of such 
 members as reach the stage of "effi- 
 cients." 
 
 Capitation-tax, a tax or impost 
 upon each head or person. Generally 
 called a poll-tax in the United States. 
 
 Capito, or Kopfel, Wolfgang 
 Fabricns, an Alsatian reformer ; born 
 in Haguenau in 1478, entered the 
 Benedictine order, and became Profes- 
 sor of Theology at Basel, He approved 
 of Luther's action, but nevertheless in 
 1519 entered the service of Albert of 
 Mainz ; and it was not till some years 
 later that he finally declared for the 
 Reformation. He died in Strasburg 
 in November, 1541. 
 
 Capitol. A Roman height on 
 which was erected a famous temple of 
 Jupiter. The word is also applied to 
 the building in which the Congress of 
 the United States holds its sessions. 
 
 The S. E. corner-stone of the Capi- 
 tol was laid Sept. 18, 1793, "by 
 Brother George Washington, assisted 
 by the Worshipful Masters and Free 
 Masons of the surrounding cities, the 
 military, and a large number of peo- 
 ple." The N. wing was readjr for oc- 
 cupancy in 1800, the S. wing in 1808 ; 
 but both were partially destroyed by 
 the British in 1814. The foundation 
 of the main building was laid in 1818 
 (March 24), the restoration of the 
 wings having been commenced three 
 years earlier ; and the whole was com-
 
 Capitoline Games 
 
 Capron 
 
 pleted in 1827. July 4, 1851, the cor- 
 ner-stone of the S. extension was laid 
 by President Fillmore, and this was 
 finished in 1857. The N. extension 
 was occupied by the Senate in 1859. 
 The present dome, commenced in 1855, 
 was completed eight years later, and 
 Dec. 12, 18(53, the American flag float- 
 ed from its summit. The cost of the 
 entire building was $13,000,000 : main 
 building, $3,000,000; dome, $1,000,- 
 000; extensions, $8,000,000; miscel- 
 laneous items, $1,000,000. The length 
 of the entire building is 751 feet 4 
 inches ; its greatest breadth, 324 feet, 
 and it covers a little over 3% acres. 
 The distance from the ground to the 
 top of the dome is 307^ feet; the 
 diameter of the dome, 135% feet. The 
 buildings in which state legislatures 
 meet are also called capitols, but in 
 New England usually " State Houses." 
 
 Capitoline Games, annual public 
 sports, instituted at Rome 387 B. C., 
 in honor of tiupiter vjayuolmus, ami 
 to commemorate the preservation of 
 the city from the Gauls. 
 
 Capiz, a province of Panay (Vi- 
 sa yas), Philippine Islands; on the N. 
 coast; area, 1,661 square miles; pop. 
 (1903) 230,721; capital, Capiz; pop. 
 18,525. 
 
 Capo d'Istrias, loannes An- 
 tonios, Count, was born in Corfu, 
 Feb. 11, 177G ; president of the Greek 
 republic from 1828 to 1831. He de- 
 voted himself to political life, and in 
 1809 entered the diplomatic service of 
 Russia. Here his policy tended to the 
 separation of Greece from Turkey. In 
 1828 he entered on a seven years' 
 presidency of Greece ; but imbued as 
 he was with Russian ideas, he aroused 
 discontent by his autocratic measures ; 
 and on Oct. 9, 1831, he was assassin- 
 ated in a church at Nauplia. 
 
 Capote, Domingo Mendez, a 
 Cuban statesman ; born in Cardenas 
 in 1863 ; spent his youth there ; was 
 graduated at the University of Ha- 
 vana, and became one of the best 
 known lawyers in Cuba. Subsequent- 
 ly he was a professor in the Univer- 
 sity of Havana for many years. In 
 December, '1895, he joined the insur- 
 gents under Gen. Maximo Gomez ; be- 
 came a Brigadier-General ; and was 
 appointed civil governor of Matanzas 
 and of Las Villas. In November, 1897, 
 
 he was elected Vice-President of the 
 Cuban Republic. When the Cuban 
 Constitutional Convention appointed a 
 commission of five members to confer 
 with President Mc'Kinley and Secre- 
 tary Root concerning the future rela- 
 tions of the United States and Cuba, 
 he became its leader. The conference 
 was held in Washington, D. C., in 
 April, 1901. 
 
 Cappadocia, in antiquity, one of 
 the most important provinces in Asia 
 Minor, the greater part of which is in- 
 cluded in the modern province of Ka- 
 raman. It was conquered by Cyrus, 
 and was ruled by independent kings 
 from the time of Alexander the Great 
 until 17 A. D., when it became a Ro- 
 man province. 
 
 Capri, an 'island in the beautiful 
 Gulf of Naples, remarkable for sev- 
 eral remarkable caverns or grottoes in 
 its steep rocky coast. 
 
 Capricornns " the Goat," one of 
 the 12 signs of the Zodiac, between 
 Sagittarius and Aquarius ; also the 
 corresponding zodiacal constellation, 
 one of Ptolemy's original 48. 
 
 Caprimulgidse, the goat-suckers, a 
 family of birds, nearly allied to the 
 swallow tribe. 
 
 Caprivi, Georg Leo, Graf von 
 sometimes called CAPRIVI DE CAPRARA 
 DE MONTECUCULI, a German soldier 
 and statesman ; born in Berlin, Feb. 
 24, 1831; entered the army in 1849; 
 and in 1883 he became commander of 
 his old army corps. Hence he was 
 removed, on the fall of Bismarck, in 
 1890, to become Imperial Chancellor 
 and Prussian Prime Minister. His 
 principal measures were the army 
 bills of 1892 and 1893, and the com- 
 mercial treaty with Russia in 1894, in 
 which year he resigned. He died at 
 Skyren, Feb. 6, 1899. 
 
 Capron, Allen Kissam, an Amer- 
 ican military officer (son of Allyn 
 Capron) ; born in Brooklyn, N. Y., 
 June 24, 1871. He enlisted as a pri- 
 vate (1890), and rose to a sec> 
 ond lieutenancy (1893), joining the 
 " Rough Riders " on the outbreak of 
 the war with Spain. He was made a 
 captain for bravery, and was killed nt 
 Las Guasimas, Cuba, June 24, 1898. 
 
 Capron, Allyn, an American mili- 
 tary officer : born in Tampa, Fla., 
 Aug. 27, 1846. He was a son of Capt
 
 Capsicum 
 
 Carabobo 
 
 Erastus A. Capron, killed in the Mex- 
 ican war, and was graduated at West 
 Point in 1807. He rose to the rank of 
 captain (1888), and in the war with 
 Spain led an advance at the battle of 
 Santiago. He further distinguished 
 himself at El Caney. He contracted 
 typhoid in Cuba and died at Fort 
 Myer, Va., Sept. 13, 1898. 
 
 Capsicum, a genus of plants bear- 
 ing membranous pods containing sev- 
 eral seeds, noted for their hot, pungent 
 qualities. 
 
 Capstan, a strong, massive appara- 
 tus of wood or iron made to revolve, 
 and thus raise a heavy weight by 
 winding a rope round it. It is espe- 
 cially used on shipboard for weighing 
 the anchor. 
 
 amphitheatre, said to have been capa- 
 ble of containing 100,000 spectators, 
 and of some of its tombs, attest its 
 former splendor and magnificence. It 
 was destroyed by the Saracens, A. D. 
 840. 
 
 Capuchin Monkey, a name given 
 to various species of South American 
 monkeys of the genus Cebus. The hail 
 of their heads is so arranged that it 
 has the appearance of a capuchin's 
 cowl, hence the name. 
 
 Capuchins, a branch of the Fran- 
 ciscan order of monks, founded by 
 Matthew de Baschi, an Italian. So 
 called from their peculiar capuche or 
 cowl a poiiited hood attached to the 
 ordinary Franciscan coat, and said to 
 have been worn by St. Francis himself. 
 
 HALL IN BATHS OF CARACALLA. 
 
 Captain, one who is at the head or 
 has authority over others, especially : 
 (1) The Liilitary officer who com- 
 mands a company, whether of infan- 
 try, cavalry, or artillery. (2) An of- 
 ficer in the navy commanding a ship 
 of war. (3) The master of a mer- 
 chant vessel. 
 
 Capua (ancient Capoa or Capua), 
 a strongly fortified city of Southern 
 Italy, on the left bank of the Voltur- 
 no, in a fine plain 18 miles N. of Na- 
 ples. The city has a citadel, the work 
 of Vauban, and is reckoned one of the 
 keys of the kingdom. The ancient Ca- 
 pua was situated about 2^ miles from 
 the modern city. The remains of its 
 
 Capulets and Montagues, the 
 
 English spelling of the names of the 
 Cappelletti and Montecchi, two noble 
 families of Northern Italy, according 
 to tradition of Verona, chiefly mem- 
 orable from their connection with the 
 legend on which Shakespeare has 
 founded his tragedy of " Romeo and 
 Juliet." 
 
 Carabobo, a State of Venezuela, 
 between the Caribbean Sea and the 
 State of Zamora; area, 2,974 square 
 miles ; population, 198,021, mostly in- 
 habiting the fertile depression of Lake 
 Valencia, where large crops of coffee, 
 sugar, and excellent cacao are grown. 
 Capital, Valencia.
 
 Caracal 
 
 Caravel 
 
 Caracal, a species of lynx, of a 
 reddish-brown color, with black ears, 
 tipped with long black hair. It is a 
 native of Africa, India, Persia, and 
 Turkey. 
 
 Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius An- 
 toninus, eldest son of the Emperor 
 Severus, was born in Lyons, A. D. 188. 
 On the death of his father he succeed- 
 ed to the throne with his brother, Aa- 
 toninus Geta, whom he speedily mur- 
 dered. To effect his own security up- 
 wards of 20,000 other victims were 
 butchered. He was himself assassin- 
 ated by Macrinus, the pretorian pre- 
 fect, near Eaessa, in 217. Among the 
 buildings of Caracalla in Rome, the 
 baths Thermae Caracallae near Por- 
 ta Capena, were most celebrated, and 
 their ruins are still magnificent. 
 
 Caracas, the capital of the Repub- 
 lic of Venezuela and of the Federal 
 District, 6 miles (24 by rail) S. of La 
 Guaira, its port. Built on the S. slope 
 of the Avila (8,635 feet), it is 3,025 
 feet above the tide-level. The streets, 
 built at right angles, are broad and 
 well paved. There are a handsome 
 promenade and numerous public parks 
 and gardens; excellent water and gas 
 plants; street railways; and the ter- 
 mini of several steam railways. Pop- 
 ulation 72,429. 
 
 Caracci, Ludovico, Agostino, 
 and Annibale, born about the mid- 
 dle of the 16th century, were three of 
 the first painters of Italy, kinsmen, 
 fellow-students, and co-laborers, na- 
 tives of Bologna, and founders of the 
 Bolognese School. 
 
 Caraccioli, Francesco, an Ital- 
 ian admiral, born in Naples about 
 1748. When Ruffo took Naples in 
 1799 Caraccioli was arrested, and, 
 contrary to the terms of capitulation, 
 was condemned to death, and hanged 
 at the yard-arm of a Neapolitan fri- 
 gate, Lord Nelson consenting to his 
 execution, June 29, 1799. 
 
 Caractacns, a king of the Britons, 
 for nine years (43-50 A. D.) warred 
 gallantly against the Roman invaders, 
 but at length was completely over- 
 thrown by Ostorius in a battle near 
 the border of South Wales. His wife 
 and daughters fell into the hands of 
 the victors, and his brothers surren- 
 dered. Caractacus himself fled to 
 Cartismandua, queen of the Brigan- 
 
 tes, who delivered him up. He was 
 carried to Rome, 51 A. D., and exhib- 
 ited in a triumphal procession by the 
 Emperor Claudius, who was greatly 
 impressed by his dauntless bearing and 
 language. According to tradition he 
 died hi Rome about A. D. 54. 
 
 Caramel, the name of a certain 
 preparation of candy. 
 
 Carat, a weight of B l /2 grains ; the 
 tweny-fourth part of an ounce. It is 
 used by jewelers to express the fine- 
 ness of gold, the whole mass beinr 
 supposed to be divided into 24 part* 
 and said to be so many carats fine 
 according to the number of twenty- 
 fourth parts of pure gold contained in 
 it. Twenty-four carat means all 
 gold, 18 carat three-quarters gold. 
 
 Caransins, a Roman general, a na- 
 tive of Batavia. He was sent by the 
 Emperor Maximilian to defend the At- 
 lantic coasts against the Franks and 
 Saxons; but foreseeing impending dis- 
 grace, he landed in Britain and had 
 himself proclaimed emperor by his le- 
 gions (287 A. D.). In this province 
 he was able to maintain himself six 
 years, when he was assassinated at 
 York by one of his officers named Al- 
 lectus (293 A. D.). 
 
 Caravaggio, Michel Angelo 
 Amerighi, or Merighi da, a cele- 
 brated painter, born in Caravaggio in 
 1569. He died near Rome in 1609. 
 
 Caravan, a Persian word used to 
 denote large companies which travel 
 together in Asia and Africa for the 
 sake of security from robbers, having 
 in view, principally, trade or pilgrim- 
 ages. Camels are used "as a means of 
 conveyance on account of their re- 
 markable powers of endurance. 
 
 Caravansary, or Caravansera, a 
 large public building, or inn, for the 
 reception and "lodgment of caravans in 
 the desert. Though serving instead 
 of inns, there is this essential differ- 
 ence between them, that the traveler 
 finds nothing in the caravansary for 
 the use either of himself or his cattle, 
 but must carry all his provisions and 
 necessaries with him. Caravansaries 
 are also numerous in cities, where 
 they serve not only as inns, but as 
 shops, warehouses, and even ex- 
 changes. 
 
 Caravel, the name of different 
 kinds of vessels, particularly a small
 
 Caraway 
 
 ship used by the Spaniards and Portu- 
 guese in the 15th and 16th centuries 
 for long voyages. It was in com- 
 mand of three caravels that Columbus 
 crossed the Atlantic and discovered 
 America. 
 
 Caraway, a plant valued and culti- 
 vated for the sake of the well-known 
 aromatic " caraway seeds " which it 
 bears ; these being, however, in strict- 
 ness not seeds, but the mericarps, into 
 which the fruit in this order splits 
 when ripening. Caraways are chiefly 
 used entire as a spice by bakers and 
 confectioners. 
 
 Carbide, a compound formed by 
 the union of carbon with an element, 
 as iron or hydrogen. 
 
 Carbine, a fire-arm used by cav- 
 alry and artillery, shorter in the bar- 
 rel than the ordinary musket or rifle. 
 It was used by light cavalry as early 
 as the 16th century. 
 
 Carbineers, or Carabineers, for- 
 merly light horsemen, used chiefly to 
 watch and harass the enemy, defend 
 narrow passes, and act as skirmish- 
 ers. 
 
 Carbolic Acid, obtained by the dry 
 distillation of salicylic acid. It is 
 also formed by the dry distillation of 
 coal, in the coal-tar oil. It is used as 
 a disinfectant, and to preserve meat, 
 etc. Taken internally it soon proves 
 fatal, and its use should therefore b 
 carefully guarded. 
 
 Carbon, the name of the element 
 which exists, more or less pure, in 
 charcoal, coke, coal and such bodies. 
 
 Carbonari, the name given to a 
 secret political association in Italy, its 
 professed aim being- the reorganiza- 
 tion and reform of the government of 
 that country. 
 
 Carbondale, a city in Lackawan- 
 na county, Pa.; on the Lacka wanna 
 river and the Delaware & Hudson 
 and other railroads; 16 miles N. E. 
 of Scranton; is noted for its great 
 deposits of anthracite coal, its ex- 
 tensive mining interests, and its man- 
 ufactures of silk goods, chemicals, 
 and machinery. Pop. (1910) 17,040. 
 
 Carboniferous, a term applied to 
 the extensive and thick series of strata 
 with which seams of paleozoic coal are 
 more or less immediately associated. It 
 is applied as well to that great sys- 
 
 Cardamine 
 
 tern of formations which yield our 
 main supply of coal, or to some di- 
 visions of that system, such as the 
 Carboniferous limestone and the Car- 
 boniferous slates. It is also applied 
 to the fossils found in any stratum 
 belonging to the system. 
 
 Carborundum, an artificial abra- 
 sive, composed of carbon and clay 
 fused together at a high temperature. 
 
 Carboy, a large and somewhat 
 globular bottle of green glass pro- 
 tected by an outside covering of wick- 
 erwork or other material, for carry- 
 ing vitriol or other corrosive liquid. 
 
 Carbuncle, a beautiful gem of a 
 deep-red color with a mixture of scar- 
 let, found in the East Indies. When 
 held up to the sun it loses its deep 
 tinge, and becomes exactly the color 
 of a burning coal. The carbuncle of 
 the ancients is supposed to have been 
 a garnet. 
 
 Carbuncle, in surgery, an inflam- 
 mation of the true skin and tissue be- 
 neath it akin to that occurring in 
 boils. It is more extensive than the 
 latter, and instead of one has several 
 cores. It is associated with a bad 
 state of general health, from which 
 condition its danger arises, for it may 
 threaten life by exhaustion or blood 
 poisoning. 
 
 Carburetted Hydrogen, the name 
 given to two compounds of carbon and 
 hydrogen, one known as light car- 
 buretted hydrogen, and the other as 
 olefiant gas. 
 
 Carcajou, a species of badger 
 found in North America. 
 
 Carcanet, a necklace or collar of 
 jewels. 
 
 Carcass, in military language, an 
 iron case, with several apertures, 
 filled with combustible materials, 
 which is discharged from a mortar, 
 howitzer, or gun, and intended to set 
 fire to buildings, ships, and wooden de- 
 fenses. 
 
 Card, an instrument for combing, 
 opening, and breaking wool, flax, etc., 
 and freeing it from the coarser parts 
 and from extraneous matter. It is 
 made by inserting bent teeth of wire 
 in a thick piece of oblong board to 
 which a handle is attached. 
 
 Cardamine, a pretty meadow 
 plant, with large pale lilac flowers.
 
 Cardamoms 
 
 Cardinal Virtues 
 
 Cardamoms, the aromatic capsules 
 of different species of plants of the 
 natural order gingers employed in 
 medicine as well as an ingredient in 
 sauces and curries. 
 
 Cardboard, pasteboard paper 
 stiffened by several layers being joined 
 together. 
 
 Cardenas, a seaport of Cuba, on 
 .he N. coast, 75 miles E. of Havana, 
 with which it is connected by rail. It 
 has a good harbor, and exports sugar. 
 Pop. (1899), 24,861, mostly whites. 
 During the blockade of the Cuban 
 coast in the war between the United 
 States and Spain a severe engagement 
 took place here on May 11, 1898. 
 
 Cardia, the heart; also the upper 
 orifice of the stomach, called, on ac- 
 count of its vicinity to the heart, by 
 the same Greek name v 
 
 Cardiff, (" the city on the Taff ") , 
 a municipal and parliamentary bor- 
 ough and seaport, the county town of 
 Glamorganshire, Wales, situated at 
 the mouth of the Taff on the estuary 
 of the Severn. It is a rapidly increas- 
 ing town, and the principal outlet for 
 the mineral produce and manufactures 
 of South Wales. Iron shipbuilding is 
 carried on, and there are iron and 
 other works on a large scale. Pop. 
 (1901) 164,420. 
 
 Cardiff Giant, the name given to 
 a rude statue 10% feet high, dug up, 
 in 1869, at Cardiff, N. Y., and exhibit- 
 ed for months as a petrifaction. The 
 persons who thus deluded the public 
 at last confessed that the " Giant " 
 had been cut from a block of gypsum 
 quarried at Fort Dodge, la., sculp- 
 tured at Chicago, conveyed to Cardiff, 
 and there buried and " accidentally 
 discovered." 
 
 Cardigan, James Thomas Bru- 
 denell, seventh Earl of, born in 
 Hampshire, Oct. 16, 1797; sat in the 
 House of Commons from 1818 to 1837, 
 when he succeeded his father. He en- 
 tered the army in 1824, and rapidly 
 bought himself into the command of 
 the 15th Hussars, which he resigned 
 in 1833, on the acqui'tial of an officer 
 whom he had illegally put under ar- 
 rest. He commanded a cavalry bri- 
 gade under Lord Lucan in the Crimea, 
 and led the famous charge of the Six 
 Hundred at Balaklava He was in- 
 epector-general of cavalry. 1855-1860, 
 
 and died in Deene Park, March 28, 
 1868. 
 
 Cardigan Bay, a semicircular 
 bend at St. George's Channel, on the 
 W. coast of Wales, 54 miles wide from 
 N. to S., and 35 miles deep, with a 
 sweep of coast of 130 miles. 
 
 Cardinal, one of the body of coun- 
 sellors of the Pope who, next to him, 
 hold the highest dignity in the church. 
 According to the present law the 
 appointment of cardinals rests with 
 the Pope, who generally consults the 
 existing cardinals, and often receives 
 proposals from secular governments. 
 The cardinals in Conclave elect the 
 new Pope, have constant access to 
 him, and form his chief council. They 
 have a vote at general councils, and 
 since the 13th century, precedence 
 over all other members. They have 
 had since Urban VIII. the title of 
 " Eminence." The body of cardinals 
 is called the Sacred College. Their 
 insignia are the red cardinal's hat, 
 which is given them by the Pope, and 
 not worn, but suspended in the church 
 of their title, and finally buried with 
 them ; the red biretta, the sapphire 
 ring, the mitre of white silk, etc. If 
 a cardinal holds an episcopal see, he 
 must reside there ; otherwise he must 
 not leave Rome without permission. 
 At the head of the college of cardinals 
 stands the dean, who is usually Bishop 
 of Ostia and senior of the cardinal 
 bishops. It is he who consecrates the 
 newly-elected Pope, if not already a 
 bishop. In the United States the first 
 cardinal was McCloskey (1875) ; the 
 second, Gibbons (1886). Gibbons was 
 the first American cardinal to take 
 part in the election of a pope that 
 of Pius X. in 1903. 
 
 Cardinal Bird, a North American 
 bird of the finch family, with a fine 
 red plumage, and a crest on the head. 
 Its song resembles that of the night- 
 ingales, hence one of its common 
 names. 
 
 Cardinal Points, the N., S., E., 
 and W. points of the horizon ; the 
 four intersections of the horizon with 
 the meridian and the prime vertical 
 circle. 
 
 Cardinal Virtues, or Principal 
 Virtues, in morals, a name applied 
 to justice, prudence, temperance, and 
 fortitude.
 
 Carding 
 
 Carding, the process wool, cotton, 
 flax, etc., undergo previous to spinning 
 to lay the libers all in one direction, 
 and remove all foreign substances. 
 
 Carditis, inflammation of the heart 
 substance. 
 
 Cardoon, a perennial plant belong- 
 ing to the same genus as the artichoke, 
 and somewhat resembling it. It is a 
 native of Canada. 
 
 Cards, oblong pieces of pasteboard, 
 inscribed with certain figures and 
 points, and used in various games of 
 skill and hazard. The origin of this in- 
 vention is obscure. An immense va- 
 riety of games are played with cards, 
 some involving chance only, some 
 combining chance and skill, the best of 
 them furnishing very agreeable and 
 intellectual amusement. 
 
 Cardncci, Giosue, an Italian poet 
 and philologist, born in Valdicastello, 
 Tuscany, July 27, 1836. He was 
 Prof, of Literature at Bologna Univ. 
 from 1860. He died Feb. 15, 1907. 
 
 Carew, Thomas, an English poet; 
 born in 1598. He stood high in favor 
 with Charles I., and was an intimate 
 friend of the greatest poets and schol- 
 ars of his time. He died in 1639. 
 
 Carey, Henry Charles, an Amer- 
 ican economist, born in Philadelphia, 
 Dec. 15, 1793 ; trained in his father's 
 publishing house, he accumulated a 
 competence from the business and re- 
 tired to devote himself to study. The 
 " Essay on the Rate of Wages " 
 (1836) and ".The Principles of Po- 
 litical Economy" (1837-1840) won 
 him an authoritative international po- 
 sition. He died in Philadelphia, Oct. 
 13, 1879. 
 
 Carey, Mathew, an American pub- 
 lisher and prose writer, born in Ire- 
 land, Jan. 28, 1760. The best known 
 of his political writings was his "Olive 
 Branch " (1814). It was an effort to 
 promote harmony among political par- 
 ties during the War of 1812. It 
 passed through ten editions. In 1819 
 he published his " Irish Vindications," 
 and in 1822, "Essays on Political 
 Economy." He died in Philadelphia, 
 Pa., Sept. 16, 1839. 
 
 Carey, William, an English Ori- 
 ental scholar and missionary, born in 
 Northamptonshire, Aug. 17, 1761. He 
 was early apprenticed to a shoemaker, 
 but having a natural turn for lan- 
 
 Carib 
 
 guages, and zeal for the spread of the 
 Gospel, he acquired Latin, Greek, and 
 Hebrew, and likewise studied theology. 
 In 1786 he became pastor of! a Bap- 
 tist congregation at Moulton, and in 
 1787 was appointed to a similar sit- 
 uation in Leicester. In 1793 he sailed 
 for the East Indies as a Baptist mis- 
 sionary, and in 1800, in conjunction 
 with Marshman, Ward, and others, 
 he founded the missionary college at 
 Serampore. Here he had a printing 
 press, and issued various translations 
 of the Scriptures. His first work was 
 a " Bengali Grammar," and later, un- 
 der his direction the whole Bible waa 
 translated into 6, and the New Testa- 
 ment into 21 Hindustani dialects. He 
 was long professor of Sanskrit, Mah- 
 ratta, and Bengali, in Calcutta. He 
 died in Serampore, India, June 9, 
 1834. 
 
 Carhart, Henry Smith, an 
 American scientist, born in Coeymans, 
 N. Y., March 27, 1844. He was gradu 
 ated at Wesleyan University in 1869. 
 and since then has taught physics and 
 chemistry. Since 1886 he has been 
 Professor of Physics at the University 
 of Michigan. 
 
 Caria, a country of Asia Minor, 
 whose boundaries have been dissimilar 
 in different ages. Its chief town was 
 Halicarnassus. 
 
 Cariacou, the Virginia deer. It is 
 somewhat smaller than the common 
 stag. 
 
 Cariama, a bird, a native of Bra- 
 zil and Paraguay. The head is crested. 
 
 Carib, the name given by the early 
 European navigators to the inhabi- 
 tants or aborigines found on the small- 
 er of the West India Islands, and also 
 inhabiting some part of the adjacent 
 American continent. The Spaniards, 
 finding them always a bold and de- 
 termined enemy, finally expelled all 
 but a mere remnant from their native 
 possessions. Those who escaped the 
 Spanish sword sought refuge in that 
 part of Southern America near the 
 mouth of the Orinoco, except a few 
 whom the English removed and landed 
 on the island of Ruatan, in the Bay of 
 Honduras. The Ca,rib have always 
 been distinguished from the rest of the 
 American peoples by their athletic 
 stature, firmness, courage, and resolu- 
 tion.
 
 Caribbean Sea 
 
 Carlisle 
 
 Caribbean Sea, the grandest inlel 
 of the Western hemisphere, separatee 
 from the Gulf of Mexico by Yucatan, 
 and from the Atlantic Ocean by the 
 great arch of the Antilles. 
 
 Caribbees, or Lesser Antilles, 
 usually divided into the Windward 
 and Leeward Islands, a section of the 
 West India Islands. 
 
 Cariboo, or Caribou, an animal, 
 the American Woodland Reindeer, the 
 Attehk of the Cree, and Tantseeah ot 
 the Copper Indians. It is employed by 
 the Laplanders to draw their sledges. 
 
 Carica, a genus of plants which 
 contains about ten species, all natives 
 of tropical America. 
 
 Caricature, a representation of the 
 qualities and peculiarities of an ob- 
 ject, but in such a way that beauties 
 are concealed and peculiarities or de- 
 fects exaggerated, so as to make the 
 person or thing ridiculous, while a 
 general likeness is retained. 
 
 Caries, a disease of bone analogous 
 to ulceration in soft tissues. The bone 
 breaks down into unhealthy matter, 
 which works its way to the surface 
 and bursts. Caries of the teeth is 
 decay of the dentine or body of the 
 tooth. 
 
 Carillon, a species of chime, played 
 by hand or clockwork on a number 
 of bells, forming a complete series or 
 scale of tones or semi-tones, like those 
 of the organ or harpsichord. 
 
 Carinthia, a W. duchy or province 
 of Austria, on the borders of Italy ; 
 area, 4,006 square miles. It is ex- 
 tremely mountainous, generally sterile, 
 and one of the most thinly populated 
 provinces of Austria. The iron, lead, 
 and calamine mines are the main 
 sources of its wealth, though there are 
 several manufactories of woolens, cot- 
 tons, silk stuffs, etc., most of which 
 are in Klagenfurt, the capital. Pop. 
 (1900), 367,340. 
 
 Carisbrooke, a village near the 
 center of the Isle of Wight, and over- 
 looked by the ruins of its ancient cas- 
 tle, where Charles I. was imprisoned 
 13 months previous to his trial and 
 execution. 
 
 Carlen, Emilia Flygare, a Swed- 
 ish novelist, born at Stromstad, Aug. 
 8. 1807. She died in Stockholm, Feb. 
 6. 1892. 
 
 Carlen, Rosa, a Swedish novelist, 
 born in 1836; died in 1883. 
 
 Carleton, Henry Guy, an Ameri- 
 can journalist and dramatist, born in 
 Fort Union, New Mexico, June 21, 
 1855. He pursued journalism in New 
 Orleans and New York City, and has 
 written several plays. D. in 1910. 
 
 Carleton, Will, an American 
 poet, born in Hudson, Mich., Oct. 21, 
 1845. He is best known in literature 
 by his ballads of home life, many of 
 them having gained great popularity. 
 
 Carleton College, a co-educational 
 institution in Northfield, Minn. ; or- 
 ganized in 1866 under the auspices of 
 the Congregational Church. 
 
 Carli, Giovanni Rinaldo, an 
 Italian economist and archaeologist, 
 born in Capo d'Istria, April 11, 1720; 
 died Feb. 22, 1795. 
 
 Carlisle, Richard, an English 
 Radical, born in Ashburton, Devon- 
 shire, Dec. 8, 1790 ; died Feb. 10, 1843. 
 
 Carlisle, an ancient city of Eng- 
 land ; the capital of Cumberlandshire; 
 at the confluence of the Caldew and 
 Eden rivers. Pop. (1901) 45,500. 
 
 Carlisle, borough and county-seat 
 of Cumberland county, Pa.; on the 
 Cumberland Valley, and the Gettys- 
 burg and Harrisburg railroads ; 18 
 miles W. of Harrisburg. It is the 
 site of Dickinson College, Metzger 
 Female College, and the United States 
 Indian Training School. It was the 
 headquarters of Washington during 
 the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794, and 
 was bombarded by the Confederates in 
 1863. Pop. (1910) 10,303. 
 
 Carlisle, John Griffin, an Amer- 
 ican statesman, born in Kenton coun-- 
 ty, Ky., Sept. 5, 1835; received a 
 common-school education, studied law, 
 and was admitted to the bar (1858). 
 He served several terms in the lower 
 house of the State Legislature. Dur- 
 ing the Civil War ne actively opposed 
 secession, and in 1866 and 1869 was 
 a member of the State Senate. He 
 was lieutenant-governor of Kentucky 
 (1871-1875), was elected to Congress 
 (1876), and five times reelected. His 
 ability soon made him one of the 
 Democratic leaders. In the 48th, 
 49th, and 50th Congresses he was 
 chosen Speaker. In 1890 he was 
 lected United States Senator, but re- 
 igned in March, 1893, to accept the
 
 Carlists 
 
 Carlstadt 
 
 portfolio of Secretary of the Treasury. 
 At the close of his term he settled in 
 New York City to practice law. He 
 died July 31, 1910. 
 
 Carlists, a Spanish political fac- 
 tion which advocates the claims of 
 Carlos of Bourbon and his descend- 
 ants to the Spanish throne. In 1833 
 they revolted and held the advantage 
 until 1836, when Espartero inflicted 
 on them a terrific defeat at Luchana. 
 In August, 1839, their commander, 
 Maroto, treacherously made peace, 
 and the remaining Carlists soon fled 
 to France. In 1873 the grandson of 
 the first pretender raised another re- 
 volt, but after several sharp conflicts 
 was defeated, and in 1876 with his 
 chief supporters fled into France. 
 
 Carll, John Franklin, an Ameri- 
 can geologist, born in Long Island, N. 
 Y., May 7, 1828. He became identified 
 with coal oil development early in 
 life, and has perfected many oil pump- 
 ing devices. Since 1874 he has been 
 connected with the Pennsylvania Ge- 
 ological Survey. 
 
 Carlos, Don, Duke of Madrid, 
 nephew of Don Carlos of Montemolin, 
 born March 30, 1848. On the death 
 of his uncle (1861) he became head 
 of the Carlist party. In 1872 he is- 
 sued a manifesto to the Carlist party 
 at Madrid and appeared in the Basque 
 provinces, but was badly defeated at 
 Oroquieta and fled back to France. 
 In 1873 he reappeared in the N. prov- 
 inces of Spain ; captured the strong- 
 hold Estella, and had soon overrun 
 Navarre, Catalonia, Aragon, and Va- 
 lencia, with the exception of the great 
 cities. By February, 1876, the rebels 
 were hemmed in along the N. coast, 
 and the majority surrendered at Pam- 
 plona. He himself fled over the French 
 border, and has since lived in exile 
 and comparative poverty. During the 
 Spanish-American War he came into 
 notice again, and on April 13, 1898, 
 from his retreat in Switzerland, is- 
 sued a manifesto to his supporters: 
 but he accomplished nothing and 
 again went into retirement. He died 
 July 8, 1909. 
 
 Carlos I., King of Portugal; born 
 in 1863, formerly known as Duke of 
 Braganza, son of Louis I. He mar- 
 ried, in 1886, Marie Amelie de Bour- 
 bon, daughter of the Count of Paris. 
 
 On Feb. 1. 1908, both the King and 
 Crown Prince Luiz were assassi- 
 nated in Lisbon. He was succeeded, 
 by his second son, Manuel II., who 
 was dethroned in 1910. 
 
 Carlotta, Ex-empress of Mexico, 
 born in Brussels, June 7, 1840, the 
 daughter of Leopold I. of Belgium. 
 She was married to Maximilian, Arch- 
 duke of Austria (1857). She accom- 
 panied her husband to Mexico in 18G4, 
 but in 1866 returned to Europe to so- 
 licit aid from the French Emperor 
 and from the Pope. Her failure and 
 the news of her husband's overthrow 
 unbalanced her mind. She still lives 
 near Brussels. 
 
 Carlo vingians, the second dynasty 
 of the French or Franklin kings, 
 which supplanted the Merovingians, 
 deriving the name from Charles Mar- 
 tel or his grandson Charlemagne (that 
 is, Karl or Charles the Great). 
 
 Carlsbad, a town in Bohemia, on 
 the Tepl, near its influx to the Eger, 
 116 miles W. by N. of Prague. It is 
 widely celebrated for its hot mineral 
 springs, and is frequented in summer 
 by visitors of the most aristocratic 
 character from all parts of Europe. 
 
 Carlskrona, the capital of the 
 Swedish province, built on five rocky 
 islets in the Baltic, 240 miles S. S. W. 
 of Stockholm. It has a magnificent 
 harbor, with a sufficient depth of 
 water to float the largest vessels. The 
 only practicable entrance is strongly 
 defended. Pop. (1901) 23,955. 
 
 Carlsruhe, or Karlsruhe, the 
 capital of the grand-duchy of Baden, 
 founded in 1715, and built in the form 
 of a fan, with 32 streets radiating 
 from the palace. Before the palace 
 stands a bronze statue of the city's 
 founder, the Margrave Charles Wil- 
 liam ; and in the market-place is a 
 stone pyramid inclosing his remains. 
 Pop. (1900) 96,976. 
 
 Carlstadt, a fortified town of 
 Croatia, Austro-Hungary, on the Kul- 
 pa, 32 miles S. W. of Agram by rail. 
 It is the seat of a Greek bishopric, 
 and has a large transit trade. Carl- 
 stadt, in Bavaria, on the Maine, is 15 
 miles N. N. W. of Wurzburg. 
 
 Carlstadt, Andreas Rudolf Bo- 
 denstein, a German reformer, born in 
 Carlstadt in 1480. He \vas appointed 
 professor of theology at Wittenberg
 
 Carlyle 
 
 in 1513. About 1517 he became one of 
 Luther's warmest supporters. He was 
 excommunicated by the bull against 
 Luther, and was the first to appeal 
 from the Pope to a general council. 
 In 1524 he declared himself publicly 
 the opponent of Luther, and com- 
 menced the controversy respecting the 
 sacrament, denying the bodily pres- 
 ence of Christ in the sacramental ele- 
 ments. This controversy ended in 
 the separation of the Calvinists and 
 Lutherans. After many misfortunes 
 he settled as vicar and professor of 
 theology at Basel, where he died, Dec. 
 25, 1541. 
 
 Carlyle, Jane Welsh, wife of 
 Thomas Carlyle; born in Haddington, 
 Scotland, July 14, 1801. She claimed 
 descent from William Wallace and 
 John Knox and was from youth re- 
 markable for beauty, wit and intellect. 
 Her " Letters." edited by her husband, 
 were published in 1883, the work being 
 given to the world by J. A. Froude. 
 She died in London, April 21, 1866. 
 
 Carlyle, Thomas, author, born in 
 Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, Scotland, 
 Dec. 4, 1795. He was the eldest son 
 of James Carlyle, a mason, afterward 
 a farmer, and was intended for the 
 Church, with ^which object he was 
 carefully educated. His first literary 
 productions were short biographies and 
 other articles for the " Edinburgh En- 
 cyclopaedia." His career as an author 
 may be said to have begun with the 
 issue in monthly portions of his " Life 
 of Schiller " in the London Magazine, 
 in 1823, this work being enlarged and 
 published separately in 1825. The 
 largest and most laborious work of 
 his life was " The History of Fried- 
 rich II. of Prussia, called Frederick 
 the Great," the last two volumes of 
 which appeared in 1865, and after 
 this time little came from his pen. 
 While still in Scotland the sad news 
 reached him that his wife had died 
 suddenly in London. Toward the end 
 of his life he was offered a government 
 pension and a baronetcy, but declined 
 both. Carlyle died in Chelsea, 'Feb. 
 5, 1881. 
 
 Carman, Elbert S., an American 
 editor, born in Hempstead, N. Y., in 
 1836. He became owner and editor 
 of the " Rural New Yorker " in 1876, 
 in connection with which publication 
 
 Carminative 
 
 he established a farm at River Edge, 
 N. J., where he gave much of his time 
 to testing new plants, vines and seeds. 
 He died in New York City, Feb. 28, 
 1900. 
 
 Carman, Ezra Ayers, an Ameri- 
 can military officer ; born in Metuchen, 
 N. J., Feb. 27, 1834. He served 
 through the Civil War in the Army of 
 the Potomac and the Army of the 
 Cumberland ; became a Brigadier-Gen- 
 eral, U. S. V. He died Dec. 25, 1909. 
 
 Carmagnole a dance accompanied 
 by singing. Many of the wildest ex- 
 cesses of the French, revolution of 
 1792 were associated with this dance. 
 It was afterward applied to the bom- 
 bastic reports of the French successes 
 in battle. The name was also given 
 to a sort of jacket worn as a symbol 
 of patriotism. 
 
 Carmel, a range of hills in Pales- 
 tine. It has a length of about 16 
 miles, and its highest point is 1,850 
 feet above the sea. 
 
 Carmelite, an order of mendicant 
 friars. They claim to be in direct 
 succession from Elijah, but their real 
 founder was Berthold, 4k Calabrian, 
 who, with a few companions, migrated 
 to Mount Carmel about the middle of 
 the 12th century, and built a humble 
 cottage with a chapel, where he and 
 his associates led a laborious and soli- 
 tary life. The order is divided into 
 two branches, viz., the Carmelites of 
 the ancient observance, called mod- 
 erate or mitigated, and those of the 
 strict observance, who are known as 
 the barefooted Carmelites. 
 
 Carmen Sylva, the pen-name of 
 Elizabeth, Queen of Rumania, born 
 Dec. 29, 1843 ; the daughter of Prince 
 Hermann of Wied Neuwied, and 
 Maria of Nassau; married King (then 
 Prince 't Charles of Rumania in 1869. 
 Her only child, a daughter, died in 
 1874, and out of this great sorrow of 
 her life arose her literary activity. 
 In the war of 1877-1878 she endeared 
 herself to her people by her devotion 
 to the wounded soldiers, and since 
 that time she has diligently fostered 
 the national women's industries. 
 
 Carminative, a substance which 
 acts as a stimulant to the stomach, 
 causing expulsion of flatulence, also 
 allaying pain and spasm of the ; n- 
 testines. Most of the ordinary coaJi-
 
 Carmine 
 
 ments, as pepper, mustard, ginger, 
 cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, oil of pep- 
 permint, etc., are carminative. 
 
 Carmine, the fine red coloring mat- 
 ter or principle of cochineal. It is 
 used in dyeing. 
 
 Carnac, a village of Brittany, 
 France, remarkable for the sq-caiied 
 Druidical monuments in this vicinity. 
 These consist of 11 rows of unhewn 
 stones, which differ greatly both in 
 size and height, the largest being 22 
 feet above ground, while some are 
 quite small. These avenues originally 
 extended for several miles, but many 
 of the stones have been cleared away 
 for agricultural improvements. They 
 are evidently of very ancient date, but 
 their origin is unknown. 
 
 Carnatic, a region on the E. or 
 Coromandel coast of India, now in- 
 cluded in the province of Madras. The 
 Carnatic is no longer an administra- 
 tive division, but is memorable as the 
 theater of the struggle betwen France 
 and England for supremacy in India. 
 
 Carnation, in the fine arts, flesh 
 color; the uarts of a picture which 
 are naked or without drapery, exhibit- 
 ing the natural color of the flesh. 
 
 Carnation, the popular name of 
 the clove-pink. Carnations are much 
 prized for the beautiful colors of their 
 sweet-scented double flowers. 
 
 CarmMtos, a Greek philosopher, 
 born in Gyrene, in Africa, about 213 
 B. c. He studied logic at Athens un- 
 der Diogenes, but became a partisan 
 of the Academy, and an enemy of the 
 Stoics. In 155 B. c., along with Dio- 
 genes and Critolaus, he was sent as 
 ambassador to Rome, but his philoso- 
 phy made him enemies and caused his 
 return. He died at Athens, 129 B. c. 
 
 Carnegie, Andrew, an American 
 manufacturer and philanthropist, born 
 in Dunfermline, Scotland, Nov. 25, It35, 
 
 The elder Carnegie was a master 
 weaver of Dunfermline, Scotland. But 
 the newly invented steam machinery 
 drove him and his four hand looms out 
 of business, and in 1848 he and his 
 wife with their two boys decided to 
 follow some relatives across the ocean 
 to America. Here Andrew began work 
 in a steam cotton factory, tending 
 bobbins. In less than a year he had 
 been taken from the factory by one 
 who had noticed the boy, and, in the 
 
 Carnegie 
 
 new works, he learned how to run the 
 engine and was promoted to this work, 
 his salary of 20 cents a day not being 
 increased, until he did clerical work 
 for his employer as well for he had 
 some knowledge of arithmetic and 
 wrote a good hand. He next became a 
 messenger boy in the Ohio Telegraph 
 Company, shortly after which his 
 father died, and at the age of 14 he 
 became the sole support of his mother 
 and younger brother. But the weight 
 on his shoulders was merely a spur to 
 his ambition. He had not been in the 
 office a month when he began to learn 
 telegraphy, and a little friendly in- 
 struction soon had him spending all 
 his spare minutes at the key. Char- 
 acteristically, he was not content with 
 the general custom of receiving by the 
 tape, but doggedly mastered the click- 
 ing tongue of the instrument, until 
 the supposed insecurity of taking mes- 
 sages by sound was found not to ap- 
 ply to him. He became an operator 
 presently at a salary which seemed 
 to him princely, though he augmented 
 even this $25 a month by copying tele- 
 graphic news for the daily papers. 
 
 When the Pennsylvania railroad 
 needed an operator he was chosen to 
 fill the vacancy. A little later Colonel 
 Scott selected him for his secretary; 
 and before long, when Colonel Scott 
 advanced to the vice-presidency of the 
 road, the young man found himself 
 superintendent of the Pennsylvania's 
 Western Division. 
 
 One day as the young superinten- 
 dent was examining the line from a 
 rear car, a tall, thin man stepped up 
 to him, introduced himself as T. T. 
 Woodruff, an inventor, and asked if 
 he might show him an idea he had for 
 a car to accommodate passengers at 
 night. Out came a model from a green 
 baize bag. 
 
 " He had not spoken a minute be- 
 fore, like a flash, the whole range of 
 the discovery burst upon me. ' Yes,' 
 I said, ' this, is something which this 
 continent must have.' 
 
 " Upon my return I laid it before 
 Mr. Scott, declaring that it was one 
 of the inventions of the age. He re- 
 marked : ' You are enthusiastic, young 
 man, but you may tell the inventor to 
 come and let me see it.' I did so, and 
 arrangements were made to build two 
 trial cars, and run them on the Penn-
 
 Carnegie 
 
 Carnegie Institution 
 
 sylvania railroad. I was offered an 
 interest in the venture, which, of 
 course, I gladly accepted. 
 
 " The notice came that my share of 
 the first payment was $217.50 as 
 far beyojid my means as if it had been 
 millions. I was earning $50 per 
 month, however, and had prospects, or 
 at least I always felt that I had. I 
 decided to call on the local banker, 
 and boldly ask him to advance the 
 sum upon my interest in the affair. 
 He put his hand on my shoulder and 
 said : ' Why, of course, Andie, you are 
 all right. Go ahead ! Here is the 
 money.' . . . The cars paid the 
 subsequent payments from their earn- 
 ings. I paid my first note from my 
 savings, so much per month, and thus 
 did I get my foot upon fortune's lad- 
 der. It is easy to climb after that. 
 And thus came sleeping-cars into the 
 world." 
 
 But the man had not yet struck his 
 true vocation. That came presently, 
 when his attention was drawn to the 
 wooden bridges universally used at 
 that time. The Pennsylvania road 
 was experimenting with a cast-iron 
 bridge. Andrew Carnegie went out 
 and formed a company to build iron 
 bridges. He had to raise $1,250, but 
 he had behind him the confidence of a 
 Pittsburg banker, and this proved 
 easy. 
 
 From this time on the name of An- 
 drew Carnegie is inseparably associat- 
 ed with that astonishing development 
 of American iron and steel, which is 
 among the modern wonders of the 
 world. The Keystone Company built 
 the first great bridge over the Ohio 
 river ; and the Union Iron Mills ap- 
 peared in a few years as the natural 
 outgrowth of this ramifying industry. 
 Then, in 1868, Carnegie went to Eng- 
 land. The Bessemer process of mak- 
 ing steel rails had lately been perfect- 
 ed. The English railways were re- 
 placing their iron rails with steel ones 
 as rapidly as possible. The English 
 manufacturers were beginning to whis- 
 per to each other that they had a 
 firm grip of a gigantic revolutionizing 
 idea. The young Scotchman went 
 back to Pittsburg, and before the Eng- 
 lishmen were well aware of his ex- 
 istence he laid the foundatiog of the 
 steel works which have now finally 
 beaten them at their own game. 
 
 The iron-master was now fairly 
 launched on his life work. He bought 
 up the Homestead works, his most 
 formidable rival, and by 1888 he con- 
 trolled seven huge plants, all within 
 five miles of Pittsburg, which he pro- 
 ceeded to forge and amalgamate into 
 a steel-armored giant, called the Car- 
 negie Steel Company. 
 
 Next to his fame as the "Steel King," 
 Carnegie is undoubtedly most wide- 
 ly known through his remarkable list 
 of public benefactions in the shape of 
 libraries, museums, and other worthy 
 public objects, the total amount of 
 which was estimated in 1910 at over 
 $150,000,000. His most noteworthy 
 gifts were $30,000,000 for public li- 
 braries in the United States; $16,- 
 000,000 for the Carnegie Institute in 
 Pittsburg, Pa.; $15,000,000 for col- 
 lege professors' pensions; $10,000,000 
 for the Carnegie Institute in Wash 
 ington, D. C.; $10,000,000 for li- 
 braries in foreign countries; $10,000,- 
 000 for Scotch universities; $5,000,- 
 000 for a Hero Fund in the United 
 States, $1,250,000 for one in Scot- 
 land, and $1,000,000 for one in 
 France; $5,000,000 for Carnegie Steel 
 Company's employes; $5,000,000 for 
 Dunfermline (Scotland) endowment; 
 $7,500,000 for Carnegie Technical In- 
 stitute at Pittsburg; $1,750,000 for 
 Tomple of Peace at The Hague: 
 $1,500,000 for the Allied Engineers* 
 Societies in New York; $750,000 for 
 a building for the Bureau of Ameri- 
 can Republics in Washington, D. C.; 
 $18,000.000 to colleges in the United 
 States; $20,000,000 in miscellaneous 
 gifts in the United States; and $2,- 
 500,000 in the same in Europe. He 
 has published several books on busi- 
 ness and public affairs. 
 
 Carnegie Institution, an educa- 
 tional body incorporated Jan. 4, 1902, 
 in Washington, D. C., by John Hay, 
 Secretary of State ; Edwin D. White, 
 Justice of the Supreme Court; Daniel 
 C. Oilman, ex-president of Johns Hop- 
 kins University ; Charles D. Walcott, 
 superintendent of the United States 
 Geological Survey : Dr. John S. Bill- 
 ings, Director of the New York Pub- 
 lic Library; and Carroll D. Wright, 
 United States Commissioner of Labor. 
 The aims of the university, as ex- 
 pressed by the founder, are: (1) To 
 increase the efficiency of the uni^ersi-
 
 Cariiifex Ferry 
 
 ties and other institutions of learn- 
 ing throughput the country by utiliz- 
 ing and adding to their existing facili- 
 ties, and by aiding teachers in the 
 various institutions for the experi- 
 mental and other work in these insti- 
 tutions as far as may be advisable. 
 (2) To discover the exceptional man 
 in every department of study, when- 
 eyer and wherever found to enable 
 him by financial aid to make the work 
 for which he seems especially designed 
 his life work. (3) To promote origi- 
 nal research, paying great attention 
 thereto as being one of the chief pur- 
 poses of this institution. (4) To in- 
 crease the facilities for higher educa- 
 tion. (5) To enable such students as 
 may find Washington the best point 
 for their special studies to avail them- 
 selves of such advantages as may be 
 open to them in the museums, librar- 
 ies, laboratories, observatory, meteoro- 
 logical, piscicultural, and forestry 
 schools and kindred institutions of the 
 several departments of the govern- 
 ment. (6) To insure the prompt pub- 
 lication and distribution of the results 
 of scientific investigation, a field con- 
 sidered to be highly important. 
 
 The board of trustees elected by the 
 corporators of the institution was as 
 follows : The President of the United 
 States (ex-ofiicio), the President of 
 the United States Senate, the Speak- 
 er of the House of Representatives, 
 the Secretary of the Smithsonian In- 
 stitution, the President of the Nation- 
 al Academy of Sciences, and Grover 
 Cleveland (New Jersey) , John S. Bill- 
 ings (New York), William N. Frew 
 (Pennsylvania^, Lyman J. Gage (Illi- 
 nois), Daniel C. Gilman (Maryland), 
 John Hay (District of Columbia), 
 Abram S. Hewitt (New Jersey), Hen- 
 ry L. Higginson (Massachusetts), 
 Henry Hitchcock (Missouri), Charles 
 L. Hutchinson (Illinois), William 
 Lindsay (Kentucky), Seth Low (New 
 York), Wayne MacVeagh (Pennsyl- 
 vania), D. O. Mills (California), S. 
 Weir Mitchell (Pennsylvania), W. 
 W. Morrow (California), Elihu Root 
 ( New York ) , John G. Spooner ( Wis- 
 consin), \ndrew D. White (New 
 York), iUdward D. White (Louis- 
 iana), Charles D. Walcott (District 
 of Columbia), and Carroll D. Wright 
 (District of Columbia). 
 
 The trustees assembled in Washing- 
 
 Carnot 
 
 ton on Jan. 29, 1902, received from 
 Mr. Carnegie the deed of gift of $10,- 
 000,000, and elected Daniel C. Gilman, 
 LL. D., president of the Institution. 
 
 Cariiifex Ferry, a place on the 
 Gauley river, in Nicholas Co.f Va. A 
 sharp battle occurred here Sept. 10, 
 1861, between Federal troops under 
 General Rosecrans and Confederates 
 under General Floyd. Afte:. nightfall 
 Floyd retreated across the river. 
 
 Carnival, the festival celebrated in 
 Roman Catholic countries, and espe- 
 cially in Rome and Naples, with great 
 mirth and freedom during the week 
 before the beginning of Lent. In the 
 United States carnivals are annually 
 celebrated in New Orleans, in St. 
 Louis and in Memphis. That at New 
 Orleans is especially spectacular, the 
 festivities being prolonged three days 
 and attracting thousands of visitors. 
 
 Carnivora. All animals which 
 prey upon other animals are carniv- 
 orous, but the term Carnivora, as the 
 designation of a group, is now restrict- 
 ed to that order of mammals to which 
 the cat, dog, bear, and seal belong. 
 
 Carnivorous Plants, plants which 
 derive nourishment directly from the 
 bodies of insects or other small crea- 
 tures entrapped by them in various 
 ways. In all these the apparatus for 
 catching insects consists of a modified 
 leaf or portion of a leaf, and in some 
 the modifications are so curious and 
 the adaptations so perfect that the 
 plant seems almost endowed with in- 
 telligence. 
 
 Carnoclian, John Murray, an 
 American surgeon, famous for his bold 
 and skillful operations; born in Sa- 
 vannah, Ga., July 4, 1817: studied 
 at Edinburgh and at various European 
 universities; and began his practice 
 in New York city in 1847. In 1851 
 he became professor of surgery at the 
 New York Medical College, and sur- 
 geon-in-chief to the State Immigrant 
 Hospital. He died in New York, Oct. 
 28, 1887. 
 
 Carnot, Lazare Hippolyte a 
 French Democrat, born in St. Omer, 
 April 6, 1801. After the February 
 Revolution (1848) he was appointed 
 Minister of Public Instruction, but 
 soon resigned. He was elected a sen- 
 ator for life in 1875, and died March 
 16, 1888.
 
 Carnot 
 
 Caroline Islands 
 
 Carnot, Lazare Nicolas Mar- 
 guerite, a French statesman, general, 
 and strategist; born in Burgundy, 
 May 13, 1753. In 1791 he was ap- 
 pointed deputy to the constituent as- 
 sembly. In the following March he 
 was sent to the Army of the North, 
 where he took command and success- 
 fully repulsed the enemy. On his re- 
 turn he was made member of the Com- 
 mittee of Public Safety, and directed 
 and organized the French armies with 
 great ability and success. In 1797 
 Carnot was appointed Minister of 
 War by Napoleon (1800). But he | 
 remained in principle an inflexible 
 Republican, voted against the consul- 
 ship for life, and protested against 
 Napoleon's assumption of the imperial 
 dignity. For seven years after this 
 Carnot remained in retirement, pub- 
 lishing several valuable military 
 works. In 1814 Napoleon gave him 
 the chief command at Antwerp, and 
 in 1815 the post of Minister of the 
 Interior. After the Emperor's sec- 
 ond fall he retired from France. He 
 died in Magdeburg, Prussia, Aug. 3, 
 1823. 
 
 Carnot, Marie Francois Sadi, 
 President of the French Republic ; 
 born in Limoges, Aug. 11, 1837; a 
 grandson of the famous war minister 
 of the Revolution. During the siege 
 of Paris in 1871 he was made prefect 
 of the Seine-Inferieure and showed 
 
 freat ability as commissary-general. 
 n politics he was an earnest Repub- 
 lican. Elected to the National As- 
 sembly in 1871 by the Cote d'Or, he | 
 soon rose to prominence. In 1876 he 
 was chosen secretary of the Chamber ' 
 of Deputies ; in 1878 Secretary of ! 
 Public Works. He w T as Minister of 
 Public Works in 1881-1882 and 1886. 
 In December, 1887, on the resignation 
 of M. Grevy he was chosen President. , 
 His policy was one of peace, with for- 
 eign nations, careful development of 
 the army and navy, and economy in 
 all departments. While attending an 
 exposition at Lyons, June 24, 1894, 
 he was stabbed by a fanatical Italian 
 Anarchist, from the effect of which 
 he died the next day. 
 
 Caro, Miguel Antonio, a Colom- 
 bian prose-writer and poet ; born in 
 Bogota, Colombia, Nov. 10. 1843. He 
 became an editor and contributor to 
 periodicals. He died Aug. 5, 1909. 
 
 Carob, a tree, native of the Levant. 
 It is an evergreen, and produces long 
 horn-like pods filled with a mealy, suc- 
 culent pulp of sweetish taste, used for 
 food for horses, and sometimes even 
 for human beings, and called St. 
 John's bread. 
 
 Carol, a song of praise sung at 
 Christmastide. It originally meant a 
 song accompanied with dancing, in 
 which sense it is frequently 'used by 
 the old poets. 
 
 Caroline, Queen of England; 
 daughter of the Duke of Brunswick- 
 Wolfenbuttel ; born May 17, 1768. In 
 1795 she was married to the Prince of 
 Wales, afterward George IV. The 
 marriage was not to his liking, and 
 after the birth of the Princess Char- 
 lotte he separated from her. Many 
 reports were circulated against her 
 honor, and a ministerial committee 
 was formed to inquire into her con- 
 duct. But the people in general sym- 
 pathized with her, regarding her as an 
 ill-treated wife. When the Prince of 
 Wales ascended the throne in 1820 
 he offered her an income of 50,000 on 
 condition that she would never return 
 to England. She refused, and in 
 June of the same year entered Lon- 
 don amid public demonstrations of 
 welcome. The government now insti- 
 tuted proceedings against her for adul- 
 tery, but the public feeling and the 
 splendid defense of Brougham obliged 
 the ministry to give up the divorce 
 bill after it had passed the lords. 
 Though banished from the court, the 
 queen then assumed a style suitable 
 to her rank. She died Aug. 7, 1821. 
 
 Caroline Islands, a group in the 
 Western Pacific, lying between the 
 Marshall and Pelew islands, with an 
 area of about 270 square miles, and a 
 population of some 22,000 ; but the 
 Pelew group is now generally in- 
 cluded in the Caroline Archipelago 
 (area, 560 square miles; population 
 36,000) , which thus stretches across 
 32 of Ion. and 9 of lat. There are 
 some 500 small atolls in the archi- 
 pelago, but three-fourths of both' area 
 and population are included Jn the 
 five volcanic islands of Babeltnouap, 
 Yap, Rouk, Ponape (Ascension), and 
 Kusari (Strong Island) ; these are all 
 fertile and well watered, and many 
 of the low-lying lagoons, though lesB 
 so, are well wooded and to some ex-
 
 Carolns 
 
 tent inhabited. The climate is moist, 
 but not unhealthy, and is tempered 
 by cooling breezes. The people belong 
 to the brown Polynesian stock. The 
 islands were discovered in 1527 by the 
 Portuguese, and called Sequeira ; in 
 1686 they were annexed and rechrist- 
 ened in honor of Charles II. by the 
 Spaniards, who, however, shortly 
 changed the name to New Philippines. 
 After the failure of several missionary 
 attempts in the 18th century, Spain 
 took little active interest in the group 
 until August, 1885, when the German 
 flag was hoisted on. Yap. The sharp 
 dispute which followed was submitted 
 to the Pope as arbitrator, who decided 
 in favor of Spain, but reserved to 
 Germany special trade privileges. In 
 1887 disturbances broke out at Po- 
 nape, in which the governor, who had 
 arrested one of the American Protes- 
 tant missionaries, was killed by the 
 natives ; but the rising was shortly 
 put down. In February, 1899, Ger- 
 many purchased from Spain the Caro- 
 line and Pelew islands, and all of the 
 Ladrones excepting Guam, which had 
 been ceded to the United States in the 
 treaty of peace. 
 
 Carolinium, an element possess- 
 ing radio-active powers of great inten- 
 sity. With another named Berzelium, 
 it was discovered in 1904, by Prof. C. 
 Baskerville of North Carolina. 
 
 Carotid, the great arteries of the 
 neck. 
 
 CAEP. 
 
 Carp, a fresh-water fish. It is a 
 native of Asia, but has been extensive- 
 ly introduced into the United States. 
 
 Carpathian Mountains, (Ger- 
 man, Karpathen), a range of moun- 
 tains in Southern Europe, chiefly in 
 [Austria, nearly 800 miles in length. 
 
 Carpeanx, Jean Baptiste, a 
 French sculptor, born in Valenciennes, 
 May 14, 1827; died Oct. 11, 1875. 
 
 Carpenter 
 
 Carpel, the leaf forming the pistil. 
 Several carpels may enter into the 
 composition of one pistil. 
 
 Carpentaria, Gulf of, a large 
 gulf on the N. coast of Australia. 
 
 Carpenter, Charles Carroll, an 
 American naval oflicer, born in Green- 
 field, Mass., Feb. 27, 1834. He was 
 promoted rear-admiral Nov. 11, 1894; 
 was commander-in-chief of the United 
 States Asiatic squadron from Aug. 27, 
 1894, till Nov. 9, 1895; and was re- 
 tired on reaching the age-limit, Feb. 
 28, 1896. During the summer of 1895 
 he rendered invaluable service in 
 China in protecting American mission- 
 aries and in cooperating with United 
 States Minister Charles Denby and the 
 British and Chinese authorities to 
 preserve peace, particularly after the 
 Kucheng massacre. He died April 1, 
 1899. 
 
 Carpenter, Esther Bernon, an 
 American prose writer, born in Wake- 
 field, E. I., 1848 ; died in 1893. 
 
 Carpenter, Francis Bicknell, 
 an American painter, born in Homer, 
 N. Y., Aug. 6, 1830. In 1852 he be- 
 came an associate of the National 
 Academy. Among his works are a 
 portrait of President Lincoln, in the 
 capitol at Albany, N. Y., and the 
 "Emancipation Proclamation" (1864), 
 in the capitol at Washington. He 
 died in New York city, May 23, 1900. 
 
 Carpenter, Gilbert Saltonstall, 
 an American military officer, born in 
 Medina, O., April 17, 1836; was ad- 
 mitted to the bar in 1861, and imme- 
 diately afterward entered the Union 
 army. He served through the Civil 
 War, in which he received the brevet 
 of captain for gallantry in the battle 
 at Stone river. Subsequently he ren- 
 dered service in various Indian cam- 
 paigns ; was commissioned a brig- 
 adierrgeneral of volunteers in the war 
 with Spain in 1898; and became col- 
 onel of- the 18th United States In- 
 fantry, June 20, 1899. His volunteer 
 appointment was for his gallantry at 
 El Caney, Cuba. Died Aug. 12, 1904. 
 
 Carpenter, Louis G., an Ameri- 
 can engineer; born in Orion, Mich., 
 March 28, 1861. In 1888 he became 
 Professor o'f Engineering at the Colo- 
 rado Agricultural College, where he 
 organized the first course in irriga- 
 tion engineering given in any Amer-
 
 Carpenter 
 
 icon college. He founded the Amer- 
 ican Society of Irrigation Engineers 
 In 1891. 
 
 Carpenter, Louis K., an Ameri- 
 can military officer, born in Glass- 
 boro, N. J., Feb. 11, 1829. He served 
 in the Army of the Potomac through 
 numerous engagements, was an aide- 
 de-camp to General Sheridan, was 
 commissioned colonel of volunteers 
 in 1865, subsequently served in var- 
 ious Indian campaigns, became col- 
 onel of the Fifth United States Cav- 
 alry in 1897, and brigadier-general of 
 volunteers in 1898, and brigadier-gen- 
 eral, U. S. A., Oct. 18, 1899, for ser- 
 vices in the Spanish-American war, 
 and particularly as commander of the 
 Department of Porto Principe, Cuba. 
 He was retired Oct 19, 1899. 
 
 Carpenter, Mary, an English 
 philanthropist, born in Exeter, April 
 3, 1807. Trained as a teacher, and 
 afterwards a governess, she took an 
 active part in the movement for the 
 reformation of neglected children, and 
 besides advocating their cause in her 
 writings, she founded a ragged school 
 and several reformatories for girls. 
 She founded in 1835 a "working and 
 visiting society," of which she was sec- 
 retary for more than 20 years. She 
 promoted the Industrial Schools Act 
 of 1857, and some of her proposals 
 were adopted in the amended Acts of 
 1861 and 1866. In the prosecution 
 of her philanthropic labors she vis- 
 ited India four times, and in 1870 in- 
 stituted the National Indian Associa- 
 tion, whose journal she edited. She 
 attended a .congress on women's work 
 at Darmstadt as a guest of the Prin- 
 cess Alice, and visited the United 
 States JL 1873. She died June 14, 
 1877. Shi was the author of a num- 
 ber of popular books. 
 
 Carpenter, Matthew Hale, an 
 American legislator, born in More- 
 town, Vt, Dec. 22, 1824. He studied 
 at West Point, and was admitted to 
 the bar in 1845. He removed in 1848 
 to Wisconsin and was sent to the 
 United States Senate from that State 
 in 1869 and in 1879. He died in 
 Washington, D. C., Feb. 24, 1881. 
 
 Carpenter, Stephen Cutter, an 
 American journalist, born in England. 
 He came to the United States in 1803, 
 and settled in Oharleston, S. C., where 
 
 Carr 
 
 he founded and published with John 
 Bristed the "Monthly Register Maga- 
 zine and Review of the United States." 
 His works included : "Memoirs of 
 Jefferson, Containing a Concise His- 
 tory of the United States from the 
 Acknowledgment of Their Indepen- 
 dence, with a View of the Rise and 
 Progress of French Influence and 
 French Principles in that Country." 
 He died about 1820. 
 
 Carpenter, 'William. Benjamin, 
 an American physiologist, born in Ex- 
 eter, Oct. 29, 1813; died Nov. 13, 
 1885. 
 
 Carpenter, William Henry, an 
 American philologist, born in Utica, 
 New York, July 15, 1853. He re- 
 ceived a university education in the 
 United States and Europe. Became 
 professor of Germanic Philology in 
 Columbia University. He has pub- 
 lished numerous works in the line of 
 his specialty. 
 
 Carpentry, the art of combining 
 pieces of timber to support a weight 
 or sustain pressure. 
 
 Carpet, a thick fabric, generally 
 composed wholly or principally of 
 wool, for covering floors. They were 
 originally introduced from the East, 
 where they were fabricated in pieces, 
 like the modern rugs. 
 
 Carpet-bagger, a political ad- 
 venturer, who goes about the country 
 pandering to the prejudices of the ig- 
 norant with the view of getting into 
 place or power, so called because re- 
 garded as having no more property 
 than might fill a carpet-bag. Orig- 
 inally applied to needy adventurers 
 of the Northern States, who tried in 
 this way 'to gain the votes of the 
 negroes of the Southern States after 
 the close of the Civil War. 
 
 Carr, Engene Asa, an American 
 army officer, born in Concord, N. Y., 
 March 20, 1830; graduated at the 
 United States Military Academy in 
 1850. He was in active service 
 throughout the Civil War, command- 
 ing the 4th Division of the Army of 
 the Southwest, and subsequently act- 
 ing as commander of the same army. 
 In December, 1863, he was assigned to 
 the Army of Arkansas. At the close 
 of the war he was promoted to Brig- 
 adier-General. U. S. A., and brevetted 
 Major-General of volunteers. In 1868-
 
 Carr 
 
 1809 he was engaged against the Sioux 
 and Cheyenne Indians, and afterward 
 took part in other expeditions against 
 hostile Indians. He fought in 13 en- 
 gagements with Indians, was four 
 times wounded in action, and received 
 a Congressional Medal of Honor and 
 the thanks of the Legislatures of Ne- 
 braska, Colorado, and New Mexico. 
 Retired in 1893; died Dec. 2, 1910. 
 
 Carr, Joseph. Bradford, an 
 American military officer, born in Al- 
 bany, N. Y., Aug. 16, 1828. He joined 
 the militia in 1849. Was later ap- 
 pointed colonel of the 28th New 
 York Volunteers, and led them at 
 the battle of Big Bethel and in 
 McClellan's Peninsular campaign. He 
 took part in the battles of Chancellors- 
 ville and Gettysburg, and for his brav- 
 ery throughout the war he was bre- 
 yetted a Major-General of volunteers. 
 After the war he became prominent in 
 Republican politics in New York State 
 and was elected Secretary of State in 
 1879, 1881, and 1883. In 1885 he 
 was an unsuccessful candidate for 
 lieutenant-governor. He died in Troy, 
 N. Y., Feb. 24, 1895. 
 
 Carr, Lucien, an American arch- 
 aeologist, born in Missouri in 1829. 
 
 Carr, Sir Robert, a British com- 
 missioner in New England. In 1664 
 he was appointed commissioner by 
 Charlete II., with Nicolls, Cartwright, 
 and Maverick. On Aug. 27, Carr and 
 Nicolls captured New Amsterdam and 
 named it New York. They took Fort 
 Orange Sept. 24, and named it Albany. 
 He died June 1, 1667. 
 
 Carrageen, or Carrigeen, called 
 also Irish moss, a name applied to sev- 
 eral species of marine alga3 found 
 abundantly near Waterford, Ireland, 
 at a place called Carragheen, from 
 which the name is derived. It is some- 
 times confounded with Iceland moss, 
 which is a lichen. 
 
 Carrara, a town of Central Italy, 
 in the province of Massa-Carrara. It 
 is celebrated for the famous Carrara 
 marble, a white saccharine limestone, 
 which derives its value from its tex- 
 ture and purity. The quarries have 
 been wrought from the age of Augus- 
 tus, and seem to be now as inexhaus- 
 tible as ever. 
 
 Carraray, a small island of the 
 Philippine archipelago, about 30 miles 
 
 Carrillo 
 
 long and 6 miles wide. It has coal 
 deposits. The population is sparse 
 and wholly uncivilized, subsisting by 
 trade with the neighboring islands of 
 Samar and Luzon. 
 
 Carreno, Teresa, a Venezuelan 
 pianist, born in Caracas, Dec. 22, 
 1853. After successful tours in Eng- 
 land, the United States and Germany, 
 she was appointed, in 1893, court 
 pianist to the King of Saxony. 
 
 Carriage, a general name for any 
 vehicle intended for the conveyance of 
 passengers either on roads or rail- 
 ways. Mounted on wheels. 
 
 Carrier, a person, corporation, or 
 vehicle regularly employed in carrying 
 goods, messages, or other articles. 
 
 Carrier, Jean Baptiste, an infa- 
 mous character of the first French 
 revolution, born in 1746. Though an 
 obscure attorney at the beginning of 
 the revolution, he was chosen, in 1792, 
 member of the National Convention. 
 In October, 1793, he was sent to Nan- 
 tes to suppress the civil war, and to 
 finally put down the Vendeans. The 
 prisons were full ; there was dearth of 
 provisions, and Carrier determined to 
 lessen the "useless mouths" by sum- 
 mary measures. He first caused 
 priests to be conveyed to a boat with 
 a perforated bottom, under pretense of 
 transporting them, but instead they 
 were drowned by night. Carrier also 
 caused multitudes of prisoners to be 
 shot without any pretense of trial. 
 Some months before the fall of Robes- 
 pierre, Carrier was recalled. On the 
 9th Thermidor (July 2V), 1794, he 
 was apprehended and bi ought before 
 the revolutionary tribunal, which con- 
 demned him to the guillotine. 
 
 Carriere, Eugene, a French genre 
 painter, born in 1849; was awarded 
 several medals, and the Lesrion of 
 Honor. 1889. Died March 27. 1900. 
 
 Carriere, Moriz, a German phi- 
 losopher, born in Griedel, Hesse, 
 March 5, 1817; died in Munich, Jan. 
 19, 1895. 
 
 Carrier Pigeon, a variety of the 
 common domestic pigeon used for the 
 purpose of carrying messages. 
 
 Carrillo, Branlio, a statesman of 
 Costa Rica, born in Cartago in 1800/ 
 He was twice president of the repub- 
 lic (1835-1837 and 1838-1842), and 
 greatly promoted its material prosper-
 
 Carringto& 
 
 ity. Carrillo's government was over- 
 turned by Mora/an in 1842. He was 
 assassinated in Salvador in 1845. 
 
 Carrington, Edward, an Ameri- 
 can military officer, born in Virginia, 
 Feb. 11, 1749; was lieutenant-colonel 
 of General Harrison's artillery regi- 
 ment, quartermaster-general under 
 General Greene, a delegate to the Con- 
 tinental Congress, and foreman of the 
 jury in Aaron Burr's trial for trea- 
 son. He died Oct. 28, 1810. 
 
 Carrington, Henry Beebe, an 
 American military officer, born in 
 Wallingford. Conn., March 2, 1824. 
 He began the practice of law in Co- 
 lumbus, O., in 1848, and took an ac- 
 tive part in the anti-slavery movement. 
 In the convention which met in 1854 
 to organize the Republican Party, 
 Carrington was on the committee ap- 
 pointed to correspond with the dif- 
 ferent States and make the movement 
 National. In 1861 he was appointed 
 colonel of the 18th United States in : 
 fantry, served through the war, and 
 afterward was in service on the plains 
 till 1869 ; was retired in 1870 ; Profes- 
 sor of Military Science and Tactics in 
 Wabash College, Ind., till 1873. 
 
 Carrington, Panl, an American 
 statesman, born in Charlotte county, 
 Va., Feb. 24, 1733; was graduated at 
 William and Mary College. He was 
 a member of various conventions dur- 
 ing the Revolution, and became a mem- 
 ber of the Court of Appeals, and in 
 the Virginia convention voted for the 
 adoption of the Federal Constitution. 
 He died June 22, 1818. 
 
 Carrington, Richard Christo- 
 pher, an English astronomer, born in 
 Chelsea, May 26, 1826. Died in Sur- 
 rey, Nov. 26, 1876. 
 
 Can-ion Crow, a name given to 
 a smal<. species of vulture called the 
 Black Vulture. 
 
 Carroll, Charles, the last surviv- 
 ing signer of the Declaration of Amer- 
 ican Independence, born in Annapolis, 
 Md., Sept. 20, 1737. He studied at 
 Paris, became a member of the Inner 
 Temple at London, returned to his 
 native country in 1764, was elected to 
 Congress in 1775, and, along with the 
 other members, signed the Declaration 
 on Aug. 2 of the following year. In 
 1804, he withdrew to private life at 
 Carroll toil, his patrimonial estate. He 
 
 Cart 
 
 survived by six years all the other 
 signers of the Declaration, and died in 
 Baltimore, Nov. 14, 1832. 
 
 Carroll, Henry Bang, an Amer- 
 ican religious editor, born in Dennis- 
 ville, N. J., Nov. 15, 1848. He super- 
 vised the compilation of religious sta- 
 tistics for the Eleventh Census, and in 
 1898 was chosen by President MeKin- 
 ley to prepare a report on the internal 
 conditions of Puerto Rico. 
 
 Carroll, John, cousin of Charles 
 Carroll, and first Roman Catholic 
 bishop in the United States; born in 
 Upper Marlboro, Md., Jan. 8, 1735. 
 In 1775 he engaged in the duties of 
 a parish priest, and in 1786 he was 
 appointed vicar-general, and settled at 
 Baltimore. In 1790 he was conse- 
 crated, in England, Catholic bishop 
 of the United States, and returned 
 with the title of Bishop of Baltimore. 
 A few years before his death he was 
 created archbishop. He died in 
 Georgetown, D. C., Dec. 3, 1815. 
 
 Carrot, a biennial umbelliferous 
 plant, cultivated for the table and as a 
 food for cattle. 
 
 Carson, Christopher, commonly 
 called Kit, an American trapper and 
 scout, born in Kentucky, Dec. 4, 1809. 
 He served under General Fremont in 
 his Rocky Mountain expeditions, and 
 fought in the Mexican and Civil 
 Wars, attaining the rank of brevet 
 Brigadier-General. He died at Fort 
 Lynn, Col., May 23, 1868. 
 
 Carson, Hampton Lawrence, an 
 American publicist, born in Philadel- 
 phia, Pa., Feb. 21, 1852. He was 
 graduated at the University of Penn- 
 sylvania (1871), and is now a Lec- 
 turer on Law at that University. 
 
 Carson and Newman College, a 
 co-educational institution in Mossy 
 Creek, Tenn., organized in 1850 under 
 the auspices of the Baptist Church. 
 
 Carson City, the capita, of the 
 State of Nevada. The city is located 
 in a mining district and is the seat 
 of a United States mint. 
 
 Carstens, Asians Jakob, a Dan- 
 ish artist, born near Sleswick, May 10, 
 1754. He died in the deepest poverty 
 in Rome, May 25, 1798. 
 
 Cart, a species of carriage. It has 
 but two wheels, in which respect it 
 differs from the ordinary wagon.
 
 Cartagena 
 
 Cartagena, capital of the State of 
 Bolivar, Republic of Colombia. The 
 streets are narrow, wtth high houses, 
 but the place is well built, and possess- 
 es a university, a handsome cathedral, 
 and several churches. Pop. about 20,- 
 000. 
 
 Cartagena, or Cartliagena, a 
 fortified town and seaport of Spain, 
 with a harbor which is one of the lar- 
 gest and safest in the Mediterranean. 
 Pop. 84,171. 
 
 Cartage, (1) a river and almost 
 landlocked bay or lagoon, communi- 
 cating with the Caribbean Sea, near 
 the N. extremity of the Mosquito 
 Coast. (2) A town of Costa Rica, 
 12 miles E. of the present capital, San 
 Jose, on a plain to the S. of the con- 
 stantly smoking volcano of Irazu 
 (11,500 feet). Founded in 1522, the 
 place had 23,000 inhabitants in 1823, 
 and was capital of the State till 1841, 
 when it was all but destroyed by an 
 earthquake. (3) A town of Cauca, 
 in^ Colombia, founded in 1540, on the 
 Rio Viejo, three miles above its junc- 
 tion with the Cauca, and producing 
 cocoa, tobacco, and coffee. 
 
 Carte-blanche, a blank sheet of 
 paper to be filled up with such con- 
 ditions as the person to whom it is 
 given may think proper; hence abso- 
 lute freedom of action. 
 
 Carte-de-visite, a small likeness 
 affixed to a card, so called from photo- 
 graphs of very small size having been 
 originally used as visiting cards. 
 
 Cartel, an agreement for the deliv- 
 ery of prisoners or deserters ; also, a 
 written challenge to a duel. Cartel- 
 ship, a ship commissioned in time of 
 war to exchange prisoners. 
 
 Carter, Framklim, an American 
 educator, born in Waterbury, Conn., 
 Sept. 30, 1837; was president of Wil- 
 liams College in 1881-1901. 
 
 Carter, Samuel Powliatan, an 
 American naval and military officer, 
 born in Elizabethtown, Tenn., Aug. 
 6, 1819. He fougkt in the Mexican 
 War in coast attack, and in 18d6 took 
 part in the capture of the Barrier 
 forts, Canton, China. All through the 
 Civil War he was of great service to 
 the government, and for his gallantry 
 was brevetted Major-General of volun- 
 teers. In 1882 he was promoted to 
 Rear- Admiral on the retired list. Be 
 
 Carthage 
 died in Washington, D. C., May 26, 
 
 Carter, Sir Frederic Bowker 
 Terring+on, a Canadian jurist, born 
 in St. John's, Newfoundland, Feb. 12, 
 1819. He served in the Newfoundland 
 Assembly from 1855 to 1878, and two 1 
 years later became Chief Justice of 
 Newfoundland. He was knighted in 
 1878. He died in St John's, Feb. 
 28, 1900. 
 
 Carter, Thomas Henry, an 
 American politician, born in Scioto 
 county, Ohio, Oct. 30, 1854.He re- 
 moved to Montana in 1882, was Mon- 
 tana's first representative in Congress 
 (1891), became United States Senator 
 from that State in 1892, and was 
 chairman of the National Republican 
 Committee in 1892-1896. 
 
 Carteret, Sir George, one of the 
 proprietors of New Jersey, born on 
 the island of Jersey in 1599. He early 
 manifested an interest in coloniza- 
 tion, and became, with Sir John Ber- 
 keley, one of the proprietors of New 
 Jersey. He died Jan. 14, 1679. 
 
 Carteret, Fkilip, an English nav- 
 igator. As commander of the "Swal- 
 low," he joined an exploring expe- 
 dition to the Southern seas, discover- 
 ing PitcaJrn, Osnaburg, Queen Char- 
 lotte, Sandwich and Solomon Islands, 
 besides correcting several errors of 
 former surveys. He retired from the 
 navy in 1794, with the honorary rank 
 of Rear-Admiral, and died in South- 
 ampton, July 21, 1796. 
 
 Carthage, the most famous city of 
 Africa in antiquity, capital of a rich 
 and powerful commercial republic, sit- 
 uated in the territory now belonging to 
 Tunis. The policy of Rome in en- 
 couraging the African enemies of 
 Cartnage occasioned the third Punic 
 war, in which Rome was the aggres- 
 sor. . This war, begun B. C. 150, ended 
 B. C. 1*6, in the total destruction of 
 Carthage. After the destruction of 
 Carthage her territory became the 
 Roman province of Africa. Twenty- 
 four years after her fall an unsuccess- 
 ful attempt was made to rebuild Garth- 
 age by Caius Gracchus. This was 
 finally accomplished by Augustus, and 
 Roman Carthage became one of the 
 most important cities of the empire. 
 It was ta^ en a nd destroyed by th 
 Arabs in 638.
 
 Cartilage 
 
 Carthage, city and capital of 
 Jasper county, Mo.; near Spring river 
 and on the Missouri Pacific and other 
 railroads; 150 miles S. of Kansas 
 City; is the center of an extensive 
 lead region; and has zinc mines, 
 stone and lime works, flour mills, 
 canneries, woolen mills, and machine 
 and furniture plants. It was the 
 scene of a Civil War battle, July 5, 
 1861. Pop. (1910) 9,483. 
 
 Cartier, Sir George Etienne, a 
 Canadian statesman, born in St. An- 
 toine, Quebec, Sept, 6, 1814. He was 
 active in bringing about the estab- 
 lishment of the Dominion of Canada 
 in 1867. He died May 20, 1873. 
 
 Cartier, Jacques, a French navi- 
 gator, born in St. Malo, Dec. 31, 1494. 
 He commanded an expedition to North 
 America in 1534, entered the Straits 
 of Belle Isle, and took possession of 
 the mainland of Canada in the name 
 of Francis I. He subsequently went 
 to found a settlement in Canada, and 
 built a fort near the site of Quebec. 
 He died about 1554. 
 
 Cartilage, a texture or substance 
 possessed of elasticity, flexibility, and 
 considerable cohesive power. Tem- 
 porary cartilage is present in place of 
 bone in very early life, aud as develop- 
 ment goes on ossifies. Permanent car- 
 tilage, on the contrary, retains its 
 character to the last, never ossifying. 
 
 Cartilaginous Fishes, a general 
 designation for those fishes whose 
 skeleton consists of cartilage instead 
 of bone, and which comprise the sharks 
 and skates or rays. 
 
 Cartoon, in painting, a drawing 
 intended to be used as a model for a 
 large picture in fresco. In modern 
 times the term is also applied to a pic- 
 torial sketch relating to some notable 
 character or events of the day. 
 
 Cartoons have become a leading fea- 
 ture of American journalism and of 
 political campaigns, and some " car- 
 toonists " receive large salaries. 
 
 Cartouch, a tablet intended to re- 
 ceive an inscription which resembles 
 a scroll of paper rolled up at the ends. 
 It is also applied to the modillion that 
 supports the corona of a cornice used 
 in, interior decoration. 
 
 In military language it is a canvas 
 or leather cartridge-box ; a case for 
 holding musket-balls and powder; a 
 
 .80. 
 
 Carver 
 
 wooden bomb ; a ticket of leave, or 
 dismissal, given to a soldier. 
 
 Cartridge, a case of paper, parch- 
 ment, metal, or flannel suited to the 
 bore of firearms, and holding the exact 
 charge, including, in the case of small 
 arms, both powder and bullet 
 
 Cart wright, Edmund, an English 
 inventor, born in Marnham, April 24, 
 1743. In 1785 he brought his inven- 
 tion, the first power-loom, into action. 
 He died in Hastings, Oct. 30, 1823. 
 
 Cartwright, Peter, an Auetican 
 clergyman, born in Virginia, Sept. 1, 
 1785 ; ordained in Kentucky in 1806, 
 and in 1823 removed to Illinois, where 
 he labored for nearly a century. He 
 also sat in the State Legislature there, 
 and in 1846 was defeated by Abraham 
 Lincoln in an election for Congress- 
 man. He died near Pleasant Plains, 
 111., Sept. 25, 1872. 
 
 Cartwright, Sir Richard John, 
 a Canadian statesman, born in King- 
 ston, Ont, Dec. 4, 1835. He was 
 Minister of Finance from 1873 until 
 1878. He is an able speaker and an 
 authority on finance. In 1897 he was 
 a member of a Canadian commercial 
 commission to the United States. 
 
 Carnpano, a growing port of the 
 Venezuelan State of Bermudez, on the 
 N. coast of the peninsula of Paria, 
 with a lighthouse and good roadstead. 
 Pop. 12,389. 
 
 Cams, Marcus Aurelius, a Ro- 
 man emperor, born in 222, succeeded 
 to the throne in 282 A. D., after the as- 
 sassination of Probus. He was a good 
 and able ruler and conquered the Sar- 
 matians, wrested Mesopotamia, Seleu- 
 cia, and Ctesiphon from the Persians, 
 and was about to make an invasion be- 
 yond the Tigris when he was killed in 
 283. 
 
 Carver, John, a "Pilgrim 
 Father," the first governor of the Ply- 
 mouth colony, born in England about 
 1575. Be joined the Leyden colony of 
 English exiles about 1608, and assisted 
 in securing a charter from the Virginia 
 Company and in selecting and equip- 
 ping the "Mayflower." He was elected 
 governor after the "Mayflower" 
 reached Provincetown, and established 
 by a treaty with the Indians peaceful 
 relations. He was re-elected in March, 
 1621, but died a few days afterward.
 
 Cary 
 
 His chair and sword are still preserved 
 as Pilgrim relics. 
 
 Cary, Alice, an American poetess, 
 born near Cincinnati, O., April 26, 
 1820. In 1852 she, with her sister, 
 Phoebe, removed to New York City, 
 where they lived during the rest of 
 their lives. She died in New York 
 City, Feb. 21, 1871. 
 
 Cary, Annie Louise, an Ameri- 
 can singer; born in Wayne, Me., Oct. 
 22, 1842; studied in Milan, made her 
 operatic d^but in Copenhagen in 1868, 
 and returned in 1870 to the United 
 States, where she remained until 1882, 
 when she married Charles M. Ray- 
 mond, and retired from the stage while 
 her voice was still unimpaired. 
 
 Gary* Edward, an American jour- 
 nalist ; born in Albany, N. Y., June 
 5, 1840. He has long been connected 
 with the "New York Times." 
 
 Cary, George Lowell, an Amer- 
 ican theologian; born in Medway, 
 Mass., May 10, 1830. He was grad- 
 uated at Harvard College in 1852 ; and 
 since 1862 has been Professor of New 
 Testament Literature in Meadville 
 Theological Seminary, of which he is 
 also president. 
 
 Cary, Phoebe, an American poetess 
 and prose-writer, sister of Alice ; born 
 in Cincinnati, O., Sept 4, 1824. She 
 died in Newport, R. L, July 31, 1871. 
 
 Cary, Samuel Fenton, an Ameri- 
 can politician ; born in Cincinnati, O., 
 Feb. 18, 1814; represented Ohio in 
 Congress in 1867-1869; was the only 
 Republican _ representative to vote 
 against the impeachment of President 
 Johnson ; and was an unsuccessful can- 
 didate for vice-president in 1876, on 
 the "Greenback" ticket, headed by 
 Peter Cooper. 
 
 Caryatides, or Caryates, a term 
 used to signify the figures which are 
 sometimes introduced to support a 
 cornice instead of columns. 
 
 Caryocar, large trees, natives of 
 the hottest parts of South America, 
 much esteemed for their timber. The 
 separated portions of the fruit consti- 
 tute the Souari or Suwarrow nuts of 
 commerce, the kernels of which are de- 
 licious. 
 
 Caryophyllus, the Clove-tree, a 
 native of the Moluccas. The cloves of 
 commerce are the unexpanded flower- 
 
 Case 
 
 buds dried. They form a well-known 
 spice. 
 
 Carysfort Reef, a coral reef near 
 the S. extremity of Florida. 
 
 Casabianca, Louis, a French 
 naval officer, born in Bastia about 
 1755, and in 1798 was captain of the 
 flagship "I/Orient" in the expedition 
 to Egypt. He was mortally wounded 
 at the battle of the Nile, Aug. 1, 1798 ; 
 the ship caught fire ; his 10-year-old 
 son would not leave him, and both 
 were floating on the wreck of the 
 ship's mast when the final explosion 
 took place. 
 
 Casanare, a river of the Republic 
 of Colombia, which flows through a re- 
 gion called by the same name, and 
 after an easterly course of 180 miles 
 empties into the Meta. 
 
 Casareep, or Cassiripe, a sauce 
 or condiment made from the juice of 
 the Bitter Cassava or Manioc root, 
 which also furnishes tapioca. 
 
 Casas Grandes, an old Indian 
 town of Mexico, in the State of Chi- 
 huahua, 125 miles S. W. of El Paso. 
 
 Casati, Gaetano, an Italian ex- 
 plorer, born in Monza, in 1838. He 
 explored Bahr-el-Ghazel, and, after 
 long captivity among African tribes- 
 men, was rescued by Stanley. He died 
 in Rome, Italy, March 7, 1902. 
 
 Casca, Publins Servilius, a Ro- 
 man conspirator, assisting in the as^ 
 sassiuation of Julius Caesar, 44 B. c. 
 
 Cascade Range, a chain of mount- 
 ains in the States of Oregon and 
 Washington. It takes its name from 
 the cascades formed by the Columbia 
 river breaking through the mountains. 
 
 Casco Bay, a bay on the S. W. 
 coast of Maine ; is about 20 miles wide 
 and so deep as to constitute one of the 
 best harbors of the world. 
 
 Case, in grammar, a modification 
 or inflection of a noun, pronoun, or 
 adjective, by which a different shade 
 of meaning is communicated to the 
 word. 
 
 Case, Augustus Ludlow, an 
 American naval officer, born in New- 
 burg, N. Y., Feb. 3, 1813 ; entered the 
 navy as a midshipman in 1828, served 
 in the Mexican war. He was a light- 
 house inspector in 1867; chief of bu- 
 reau of ordnance, 1869 ; and command- 
 er of the European squadron in 1873.
 
 Case-hardening 
 
 Cassel 
 
 Ee was retired in 1875, and died in 
 Washington, D. C., Feb. 17, 1893. 
 
 Case-hardening, the process of 
 converting the surface of malleable- 
 iron goods into steel, thereby making 
 them harder, less liable to rust, and 
 capable of taking on a better polish. 
 
 Casein, or Caseine, an albuminoid 
 substance found in milk, soluble in 
 alkali. 
 
 Casey, Silas, an American officer, ! 
 born in East Greenwich, It. I., July : 
 12, 1807 ; was graduated at the United 
 States Military Academy in 1826 ; j 
 served in the Mexican and Civil Wars. ' 
 Was given charge of organizing the ' : 
 volunteers near Washington ; brevetted ! 
 Major-General U. S. A., 1865; and. 
 retired in 1868. He died in Brooklyn, I 
 N. Y., Jan. 22, 1882. 
 
 Casey, Thomas Limclii, an 
 American military engineer, born in 
 Madison Barracks, Sackett's Harbor, 
 N. Y., May 10, 1831; the oldest son 
 of Gen. Silas Casey. He graduated I 
 from West Point in 1852, and entered i 
 the Engineer Corps of the army. Was 
 placed in charge of the construction 
 of various National buildings; was 
 president of the Board of Engineers 
 for fortifications at New York. He 
 died in Washington, D. C., March 25, 
 1896. 
 
 Casgrain, Abbe Henry Ray- 
 mond, a Canadian historical -writer ; 
 born in Riviere Quelle, Quebec, Dec. 
 . 16, 1831. Was ordained a priest ; 
 was professor at St. Anne's College 
 till 1859, and afterward vicar at Que- 
 bec Cathedral. 
 
 Cashel, a town in Tipperary 
 county, Ireland, about 49 miles N. E. 
 of Cork ; containing the most interest- 
 ing ruins in Ireland. These consist of 
 a cathedral, founded in 1169 ; a stone- 
 roofed chapel, built in 1127; Hore 
 Abbey, founded in 1260 ; the palace of 
 the Munster Kings ; and a round tower 
 90 feet in height and 56 feet in cir- 
 cumference. 
 
 Casignran Bay, a considerable in- 
 let on the E. coast of Luzon. Philip- 
 pine Islands, reached through Casig- 
 uran Sound. 
 
 Casimir-Perier, Jean Paul Pierre, 
 a President of the French Republic, 
 born in Paris, Nov. 8, 1847 ; was 
 chosen successor of President Carnot 
 on the first ballot (June, 1894). He 
 
 resigned the office of President, Jan. 
 16. 1895, and was succeeded by Felix 
 Faure. He died March 11, 1907. 
 
 Caspian Gates, a name given to 
 the Russian fortress Dariel, situated in 
 a narrow defile of the Caucasus, on the 
 Terek, 80 miles N. of Tiflis. 
 
 Caspian Sea, a great salt lake of 
 Western Asia, wholly enclosed, hav- 
 ing no outlet whatever to the ocean, 
 and surrounded by Tartary, Persia, 
 the Caucasian countries, and the Rus- 
 sian governments of Orenburg and 
 Astrakhan. Its greatest length from 
 N. to S. is 760 miles ; average breadth, 
 200 ; area, about 120,000 square miles. 
 
 Cass, Lewis, an American states- 
 man, diplomatist, and soldier, born in 
 Exeter, N. H., Oct. 9, 1782 ; served in 
 the War of 1812 ; was governor of 
 Michigan Territory (1813-1831) ; Sec- 
 retary of War (1831-1836) ; minister 
 to France (1836-1842) ; United States 
 Senator (1845-1848) ; Presidential 
 candidate (1848) ; United States Sen- 
 ator (1849-1857) ; Secretary of State 
 (1857-1860). He died in Detroit, 
 Mich., June 17, 1866. 
 
 Cassation, Court of, a French 
 institution which gives the national 
 jurisdiction coherency and uniformity 
 without endangering the independence 
 of the courts." 
 
 Cassatt, Alexander Johnston, 
 railroad president ; b. Pittsburg. Dec. 
 8, 1839. He was educated at Heidel- 
 berg Univ. and the Rensselaer Poly- 
 technic Institute ; became a railroad 
 rodman in 1861, and rose through suc- 
 cessive positions to president of the 
 Pennsylvania Railroad Co. in 1899. 
 He died Dec. 28, 1906. 
 
 Cassatt, Mary, an American figure- 
 painter, born in Pittsburg, Pa. ; stud- 
 ied art in Europe ; and lived some 
 time in Spain and France. As an 
 etcher she ranks among the best. Her 
 studio is at Paris. 
 
 Cassava, a South American shrub, 
 about 8 feet in height, with broad, 
 shining, and somewhat hand-shaped 
 leaves, and beautiful white and rose- 
 colored flowers. From Cassava the 
 tapioca of commerce is prepared. 
 
 Cassel, or Kassel, formerly the 
 residence of the Elector of_ Hesse-Cas- 
 sel, is now the chief town in the prov- 
 ince of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, on the 
 Fulda, 91 miles N. N. E. of Frank-
 
 Cassia 
 
 fort-on-the-Main. There are many 
 fine walks and public gardens in the 
 vicnity ; among the latter are the 
 gardens of Wilhelmshohe, in which is 
 situated the ex-elector's summer pal- 
 ace, the residence of the late Emper- 
 or Napoleon III., after his being taken 
 prisoner at Sedan, from Sept. 5, 1870, 
 to March 19, 1871. Pop. (1900), 
 105,055. 
 
 Cassia, a genus of plants. Be- 
 tween 200 and 300 species are known. 
 They are trees, shrubs, or herbs. They 
 are found in India, Africa and the 
 warmer parts of this country. Sev- 
 eral furnish Senna. 
 
 Cassianns, Joannes Eremita, or 
 Joannes Massiliensis, an early 
 monk and theologian, born about 3GO. 
 He died about 448, and was afterward 
 canonized. 
 
 Cassicus, an American genus of 
 insessorial birds, the Cas"sicans. The 
 crested oriole, a South American bird, 
 constructs a pouch-shaped nest of the 
 length of 30 inches. 
 
 Cassini, Count, a Russian diplo- 
 matist, born in St. Petersburg. He 
 was the first Russian ambassador to 
 the United States. 
 
 Cassiqniari, or Cassiqniare, a 
 large river of South America, in Ven- 
 ezuela, which branches off from the 
 Orinoco and joins the Rio Negro, a 
 tributary of the Amazon. 
 
 Cassins, full name, Cains Cassius 
 Iionginus, one of the assassins of 
 Julius Csar; killed himself 42 B. c. 
 
 Cassock, a close garment resem- 
 bling a long frock coat, worn by 
 clergymen under the surplice or gown. 
 In the Church of Rome they vary in 
 color with the dignity of the wearer; 
 those of priests being black, bishops 
 puple, cardinals scarlet, and Popes 
 white. 
 
 Cassowary, a family of birds. The 
 shortness of their wings totally unfits 
 them for flying, and it would seem 
 impossible for nature to have furnished 
 muscular power sufficient to move 
 wings large enough to sustain their 
 great weight in the air. The wings 
 of the ostrich are of some assistance 
 to it in running, but those of the cas- 
 owary are too short even to be of 
 service in this way. Its whole plum- 
 age is so poorly supplied with feathers 
 
 Castilla 
 
 as to resemble, at a little distance,' a 
 coat of coarse or hanging hair. The 
 cassowaries have three toes, all pro- 
 vided with nails. 
 
 Cast, in the fine arts, an impres- 
 sion taken by means of wax or plaster 
 of Paris from a statue, bust, bas-relief 
 or any other model, animate or inani- 
 mate. 
 
 Castanet, a small, slightly concave, 
 spoon-shaped instrument of ivory or 
 hard wood, of which a pair are fas- 
 tened to the thumb and beaten to- 
 gether with the middle finger. 
 
 Caste, an hereditary class of society 
 in India, the members of which are 
 theoretically equal in rank, and, as a 
 rule, follow the same profession or 
 occupation. Through the long ages 
 during which Indian caste has existed, 
 the original four castes have split into 
 an immense multitude. Different 
 castes refuse to eat together or inter- 
 marry. 
 
 Castellon, Francisco, a Nicara- 
 guan revolutionist, born about 1815. 
 He was the leader in a revolt at Leon 
 in 1853, which was unsuccessful, and 
 fled to Honduras, whence he returned 
 in June of the next year. It was by 
 his invitation that the filibustering ex- 
 
 E edition under William Walker went 
 rom the United States in 1854. He 
 died Sept. 2, 1855. 
 
 Castile, Spain an ancient kingdom 
 comprising Old Castile and ,. New Cas- 
 tile, the former extending from the 
 Bay of Biscay southward to New Cas- 
 tile, and now divided into 8 provinces ; 
 area 25,405 square miles ; pop. 1,764,- 
 440. New Castile occupied the centre 
 of the peninsula, and is now divided 
 into 5 provinces; area, 28,010 square 
 miles; pop. 1,853,314. The Kingdom 
 of Castile was united to that of Leon 
 in 1230. 
 
 Castillo, Ramon, a Peruvian 
 statesman; born in Tarapaca, Aug. 
 30, 1796. Early in life he served in 
 the Spanish army, but in 1821 he 
 joined the insurrectionists in Peru and 
 distinguished himself in the successful 
 struggle of that country for independ- 
 ence. In 1845 he was elected Presi- 
 dent of Peru. , On the expiration of 
 his term he retired to private life; 
 but as the new President proved tyran- 
 nical, Castilla led a revolt against him, 
 drove him into exile, and in 1855 was
 
 Castillon 
 
 Castle Garden 
 
 himself re-elected President. He 
 served till 1862. He died in Tarapaca, 
 May 30, 1867. 
 
 Castillon, a town in the French 
 department of Gironde, on the right 
 bank of the Dordogne, 33 miles E. of 
 Bordeaux by rail. Beneath its walls, 
 on June 13, 1453, the English met 
 with a signal defeat, their leader, Earl 
 Talbot of Shrewsbury, and his son, 
 being slain. Part of the battle is de- 
 scribed in the fourth act of Shake- 
 speare's " King Henry VI.," Part I. 
 
 Casting, the running of melted 
 metal into a mold prepared for the 
 
 them in being designed for military 
 purposes only, and not as places of 
 permanent residence. 
 
 Castlebar, the capital town of 
 County Mayo, Ireland. It is on the 
 Castlebar river, 10 miles N. E. of 
 Westport In 1641 occurred here the 
 massacre of the English Parliamentary 
 army in the Irish rebellion ; in 1789 
 Castlebar was held for a fortnight by 
 the French general, Humbert ; and in 
 1846-1847 it sufferec greatly from 
 famine. 
 
 Castle Garden, the former immi- 
 grant depot in New York, at the point 
 
 A FEUDAL CASTLE AT BOUEN, FBANCE. 
 
 purpose, so as to produce an article 
 of a certain shape. 
 
 Cast-iron, the name given to the 
 iron obtained from the blast-furnace 
 by running the fused metal into molds 
 prepared for the purpose. 
 
 Castle, a building constructed for 
 the purpose of repelling attack. The 
 castella left by the Romans were con- 
 structed on the general model of their 
 stationary encampments, and though 
 they may have suggested the castles 
 of the Middle Ages, they differed from 
 
 of Manhattan Island, in Battery Park. 
 In the early days of the city the place 
 was a small, fortified island a few feet 
 from the main-land ; later it became a 
 public hall for assemblies and con- 
 certs. Here Jenny Lind made her 
 American d6but. Many years ago the 
 island was incorporated with the gen- 
 eral area of the Battery by filling the 
 intervening space with earth and rock : 
 new buildings were erected, and the 
 place was devoted to the purpose of 
 landing steerage immigrants. In 1890 
 it ceased to be used as an immigrant
 
 Castletown 
 
 depot, and was turned over to the 
 Park Commissioners of the city of 
 New York, anal is now an aquarium. 
 
 Castletown, a seaport and former 
 capital of the Isle of Man, on Castle- 
 town Bay, 11 miles S. W. of Douglas. 
 Castle Rushen, now a prison, occupies 
 the site of a Danish fortress of the 
 10th century, which was almost wholly 
 demolished by Robert Bruce in 1313. 
 The grounds of Rushen Abbey (llth 
 century), near the station, are now 
 market gardens. Near by is the small 
 building where the House of Keys as- 
 sembled for about 170 years. 
 
 Castor and Pollux, two demi- 
 gods known by the ancients under the 
 joint name of Dioscuri, that is, sons 
 of Zeus or Jupiter. Mythology makes 
 Jupiter ^ reward their affection by 
 translating the two brothers into con- 
 stellations, under the name of Gemini 
 stars which never appear together, 
 but when one rises the other sets, and 
 so on alternately. 
 
 Castor Oil, a fixed oil obtained 
 from the seeds of the castor oil plant. 
 Given in doses or one or two teaspoon- 
 fuls, with a little peppermint water, it 
 forms a gentle laxative for habits eas- 
 ily acted on by medicine ; while a dose 
 of a tablespoonful, or a little more, 
 will almost always succeed. 
 
 Castro, Inez de, a lady of noble 
 birth, secretly married to Pedro, son 
 of Alphonso IV., King of Portugal, 
 after the death of his wife Constantia 
 (1345). The old King Alphonso, 
 fearful that this marriage would in- 
 jure the interests of bis grandson 
 Ferdinand, resolved to put Inez to 
 death. Three noblemen, Diego Lopez 
 Pacheco, Pedro Coelho, and Alvarez 
 Gonsalvez, were his counsellors, and 
 carried it out themselves by stabbing 
 Inez within the convent where she 
 lived. Two years after King Alphpn- 
 BO died, and Pedro, inducing the King 
 of Castile to give up to him two of 
 the murderers, who had taken refuge 
 there (the third, Diego Lopez, man- 
 aged to escape), put them to death 
 with cruel tortures. The king then 
 made public declaration of the mar- 
 riage that had taken place between 
 him and the deceased Inez; and had 
 her corpse disinterred and placed on 
 a throne, adorned with the diadem and 
 royal robes, to receive the homage of 
 
 Cat 
 
 the nobility. The body was then buried 
 with honors. The story of Inez is one 
 of the finest episodes in Camoens's 
 " Lusiad." 
 
 Castro, Cipriano, President of 
 Venezuela, b. 1858 near Capacho, of 
 peasant parents. Te became a coffee 
 grower and politician, and in 189D 
 took Caracas with a few troops and 
 was elected President. He em- 
 broiled his country with almost every 
 civilized Power; was especially ar- 
 rogant towards the United States; 
 and in 1908-1909 fled the country 
 and was deposed. 
 
 Castro, Jose Maria, a Costa 
 Rican statesman, born in San Jose, 
 Sept. 1, 1818; educated at the Uni- 
 versity of Leon, Nicaragua, and held 
 positions under the government of 
 Costa Rica. In 1846 he was Vice- 
 President ; in 1847 elected President. 
 After Costa Rica withdrew from the 
 Central American States, he resigned 
 the presidency, but held diplomatic po- 
 sitions. From 1866 to the rise of the 
 Jimenez government (1868), he was 
 again President. 
 
 Casuistry, that branch of ethical 
 science which professes to deal with 
 cases of conscience. It lays down 
 rules or canons directing us how to 
 act in all matters of moral doubt. 
 
 Caswell, Richard, an American 
 lawyer, born in Maryland, Aug. 3, 
 1729 ; removed to North Carolina in 
 1746 ; was president of the Provincial 
 Congress which framed the State Con- 
 stitution (1776), and first governor 
 of the State, three times re-elected ; 
 was also a delegate to the convention 
 which framed the Federal Constitu- 
 tion in 1787. He died in Fayette- 
 ville, N. C., Nov. 20, 1789. 
 
 Cat. The cat is originally from 
 the European forests. In its wild 
 state it differs from the domestic ani- 
 mal in having a shorter tail, a flatter 
 and larger head, and stronger limbs. 
 At what period cats became inmates 
 of human habitations, it is scarcely 
 possible to determine, but there is 
 good reason to believe that they were 
 at first domesticated in Egypt. The 
 varieties of this animal in a domestic 
 state are very numerous. Of all the 
 varieties the Persian, the Angora, and 
 the new, tall and gray Malta variety 
 are the most remarkable.
 
 Catacombs 
 
 Catacombs, caverns, grottoes, sub- 
 terraneous caves, destined for the se- 
 pulture of the dead. The name of 
 catacombs, according to Gregory, wa 
 at first applied to designate exclusively 
 the cave in which the bodies of St. 
 Peter and St. Paul were buried, and 
 
 A CATACOMB GRAVE. 
 
 it was only at a later period that it 
 came to be given to all the subterran- 
 eous passages which were used as pub- 
 lic burying-places. It is now regarded 
 as certain that in times of persecution 
 the early Christians frequently took 
 refuge in the catacombs ; but it is not 
 less certain that the catacombs served 
 also as places of burial to the early 
 Christians, and that in spite of the 
 contrary opinion which prevailed for 
 two centuries, the catacombs were not 
 for the most part abandoned quariies, 
 but were excavated by the Christians 
 themselves. 
 
 The catacombs of Paris, situated on 
 the left bank of the Seine river, are 
 almost equally celebrated. By the 
 light of wax tapers, a person may de- 
 scend about 70 feet to a world of si- 
 lence, over which the Parisian police 
 keeps watch as strictly as over the 
 world of noise and confusion above. 
 He will then enter a gallery where 
 only two can go abreast. A black 
 streak on the stones of the walls points 
 out the way, which, from the great 
 number of by-passages, it would be dif- 
 ficult for the visitor to retrace with- 
 out this aid or without guides. 
 
 Catafalque, a temporary and or- 
 namental structure, placed over the 
 coffin of a distinguished person or over 
 a grave. 
 
 Catalan, a blast furnace for re- 
 ducing ores, extensively used in the N. 
 of Spain, particularly in the province 
 of Catalonia. 
 
 Catalan!, Angelica, an Italian 
 singer, born in Sinigaglia, near An- 
 cona, in October, 1779; in her seventh 
 
 Catamarca 
 
 year she displayed such wonderful vo- 
 cal powers that strangers flocked from 
 all quarters to hear her. She made 
 her debut at Venice in 1797 and ex- 
 perienced a succession of triumphs in 
 every country in Europe for upwards 
 of 30 years. The Italian Opera in 
 Paris was twice under her direction ; 
 but her husband's interference and ex- 
 travagance brought her into much 
 trouble. She died in Paris, June 13, 
 1849. 
 
 Catalepsy, a form of mental disor- 
 der, akin to hysteria, which is charac- 
 terized by the person affected falling 
 down suddenly in a state of real or 
 apparent unconsciousness, and, save 
 for some occasional muscular twitch- 
 ings of the face and body, remaining 
 rigid and statue-like for a period of 
 time which varies from one minute to 
 some hours or even days, and then all 
 at once recovering consciousness as if 
 aroused from sleep. 
 
 Catalonia, an old province of 
 Spain, bounded N. by France, E. and 
 S. E. by the Mediterranean, S. by Va- 
 lencia, and W. by Arragon. The 
 country is mountainous, but intersect- 
 ed with fertile valleys, while the 
 mountains themselves are covered with 
 valuable woods and fruit-trees. Wheat, 
 wine, oil, flax, hemp, vegetables, and 
 almost every kind of fruit are abund- 
 ant. There are mines of lead, iron, 
 alum, etc. Catalonia, though less fer- 
 tile than most of Spain, stands pre- 
 eminent for the industry of its inhab- 
 itants, who speak the Catalan dialect; 
 area. 12,483 square miles. Population, 
 1,942,245. 
 
 Catalpa, (from the native Indian 
 name in Carolina, where it was dis- 
 covered by Catesby in 1726), a genus 
 comprising four or five species of trees, 
 natives of North America, the West 
 Indies, Japan, and China. 
 
 Catamaran, a kind of boat used 
 t>y the Hindoos of Madras, the island 
 of Ceylon, and the parts adjacent. It 
 is formed of three logs of timber, se- 
 cured together by means of three 
 spreaders and cross lashings through 
 small holes. 
 
 Catamarca, a W. province of the 
 Argentine Republic, sinking S. E. 
 from the Andes to the Salt Marshes, 
 which separate it from Cordoba. Area, 
 42.018 square miles ; population.
 
 Catamount 
 
 130,000. Catamarca, the capital, lies 
 82 miles N. E. of Rioja. 
 
 Catamount, the North American 
 tiger. 
 
 Catanduanes, a small island in 
 the Phi'ippine archipelago, E. of Lu- 
 zon, about 90 miles long and 50 miles 
 wide. It is mountainous and said to 
 have rich gold deposits. Pop. (1903) 
 39,288, all civilized. 
 
 Catania, a city on the E. coast of 
 Sicily, in the province of Catania, at 
 the ioot of Mount Etna. It has been 
 repeatedly visited by tremendous 
 earthquakes, one of the worst of which 
 was in 1093, when 18,000 people were 
 lestroyed. Population, 129,051. 
 
 Catapult, a machine of the an- 
 :ients for projecting missiles, chiefly 
 arrows. They may be described as a 
 kind of gigantic cross-bows. 
 
 Cataract, in medicine, an opacity 
 of the crystalline lens of the eye, or of 
 Us capsule, or both. In cataract the 
 lens becomes opaque, loses its trans- 
 parency, and is no longer capable of 
 transmitting the light. The causes of 
 cataract are numerous. The treat- 
 ment of cataract is by a surgical oper- 
 ation on the eye, and different opera- 
 tions have been tried and recommend- 
 ed. They all consist in removing the 
 diseased lens from its situation oppo- 
 site the transparent cornea. 
 
 Cataract, in geography, a water- 
 fall, called in America briefly " falls." 
 Many cataracts are remarkable foi 
 their sublimity, the grandest be'ng the 
 Falls of Niagara, on the Niagara 
 river, between Lakes Erie and On- 
 tario. The river, more than a mile 
 above the falls, is -divided by Grand 
 and Navy islands, and has a gradual 
 descent of 57 feet from this place. 
 The banks preserve the level of the 
 country, and in some parts rise 100 
 feet from the water. At the falls the 
 rivei is % of a mile broad, and the 
 precipice which breaks its course 
 curves irregularly so as to form nearly 
 a semicircle on the Canadian side, but 
 is straighter on the American side. An 
 island, called Goat island, divides the 
 cataract into two principal portions 
 the American fall on the E. and the 
 Horseshoe on the W., or Canada side. 
 The American fall descends almost 
 perpendicularly from a height of 162 
 feet, and is about 1,000 feet in width. 
 
 Cataract 
 
 The Horseshoe fall is 4 feet less in 
 height, but is wider and surpasses the 
 other much in grandeur. The water 
 rushes over the precipice with such 
 force that it forms a curled sheet, 
 which strikes the river below 50 feet 
 from the base of the precipice, and vis- 
 itors can pass behind the falling sheet 
 of water. 
 
 The Montmorency river, which joins 
 the St. Lawrence a few miles below 
 Quebec, forms a magnificent cataract, 
 250 feet in height. The Missouri, in 
 the upper part of its course, descends 
 357 feet in 16^ miles. There are four 
 cataracts, one of 87, one of 19, one of 
 47, and one of 26 feet in height. The 
 Yosemite river, in California, forms a 
 series of magnificent falls, with a total 
 descent of 2,600 feet. The first of 
 them is a plunge of 1,500 feet, and is 
 followed, after a series of beautiful 
 cascades, by a final plunge of about 
 400 feet. Fully 200 miles from the 
 mouth of the Hamilton river in Lab- 
 rador there is a magnificent series of 
 cataracts known as tho Grand Falls, 
 the largest cataract having a height of 
 over 300 feet. In the republic of Co- 
 lombia, South America, a magnificent 
 cataract, called that of Tequendama, 
 is formed by the Bogota river. The 
 river precipitates itself through a nar- 
 row chasm, about 36 feet broad, to 
 the depth of over 600 feet. On the 
 Potaro river in British Guiana, is a 
 grand fall known as the Kaieteur Fall, 
 740 feet high, and about 370 broad, a 
 second fall of 88 feet occurring imme- 
 diately below the principal one. 
 
 The most remarkable waterfall of 
 Africa is a cataract on the Zambesi 
 ailed Victoria Falls. The stream, 
 about 1,860 yards broad, flowing over 
 a bed of basaltic rock, is suddenly pre- 
 cipitated into a tremendous fissure to 
 the depth of about 370 feet. The 
 Breadth of this fissure or crack is only 
 from 80 to 90 yards, and tt j pent-up 
 waters are then hurried through a 
 prolongation of the chasm to the left 
 with furious violence. The so-called 
 ataracts of the Nile are not, properly 
 speaking, cataracts. A more correct 
 designation for them would be " rap- 
 ids." The Stanley Falls on the Kon- 
 ro comprise seven cataracts. On the 
 Tugela river, in Natal, there are the 
 Tugela Falls. On the Umgeni river, 
 'n the same country, are the falls of
 
 Catarrh 
 
 the Great Umgeni (364 feet) and the 
 Kar Kloof Falls (350). There seem 
 to be no waterfalls of more note in 
 Asia than those of the Cavery river 
 of India. 
 
 One of the grandest falls in Europe 
 is that of the Ruikanfoss ("smoking 
 fall"), on the Maan river, in Nor- 
 way. The height of the cataract is 805 
 feet. In Sweden, on the Gotha river, 
 a few miles below its outlet from 
 Lake Wener, are the celebrated falls 
 of Trollhatta, which have a height of 
 over 100 feet. The cascade of Gavar- 
 nie, in the Pyrenees, is reputed the 
 loftiest in Europe, being over 1,300 
 feet in height. Its volume of water, 
 however, is so small that it is con- 
 verted into spray before reaching the 
 bottom of the fall. Another water 
 fall in the Pyrenees is that of Secu- 
 lejo, in the neighborhood of Bagneres- 
 de-Luchon. It ascends from the Lac 
 d'Espingo, into the Lac de Seculejo, 
 or d'Oo, a singularly romantic moun- 
 tain reservoir, from a height of 820 
 feet, and is the most copious of the 
 Pyrenean waterfalls. The Swiss Alps 
 likewise contain some falls of great 
 sublimity. 
 
 Catarrh, a running or discharge 
 which takes place from the various 
 outlets of the body. 
 
 Cat Bird, a species of American 
 thrush, which during the summer is 
 found throughout the Middle and New 
 England States, frequenting thickets 
 and shrubberies. Its note is striking- 
 ly similar to the plaint of a kitten in 
 distress. The plumage is a deep slate- 
 color above and lighter below, and it 
 is about 9 inches in length. During 
 the winter it inhabits the extreme S. 
 of the United States. The cat bird 
 frequently attacks the common black 
 snake, which, in the absence of the 
 bird, rifles its nest. 
 
 Catechism, any compendious sys- 
 tem of teaching drawn up in the form 
 of question and answer. The first 
 Christian catechisms are said to have 
 been composed in the 8th or 9th cen- 
 tury. Luther published a short cate- 
 chism in 1520, and his larger and 
 smaller ones in 1529. The Geneva 
 Catechism was sent forth in 1536. The 
 Church of England Catechism was first 
 published in 1549 or 1551, but in a 
 shorter , form than now. The cate- 
 chism of the " orthodox " Greek 
 
 Catharine 
 
 Church was published in 1542. la 
 1566 the Council of Trent produced a 
 catechism ; the ' Rakovian Catechism, 
 which is Socinian, was put forth in 
 1574, and the shorter and larger cate- 
 chisms of the Westminster Assembly 
 of Divines appeared, the former in 
 1647, and the latter in 1648. Cate- 
 chisms of other sects have been pub- 
 lished. 
 
 Catechu, a gum, is soluble in 
 water ; on exposure to the air the so- 
 lution turns red. Catechu has been 
 used to prevent the formation of boiler 
 incrustations. 
 
 Catechumen, he who learns the 
 elements of any science ; one who is 
 undergoing a course of religious in- 
 struction with a view to his admission 
 into the Church. 
 
 Caterpillar, the larvae of butter- 
 flies, moths, and hawk-moths. 
 
 Cat-fish, the sea-wolf, a native of 
 the West Indian seas, so called from 
 its round head and large, glaring eyes ; 
 also a fresh-water fish of different spe- 
 cies, the common cat-fish, called also 
 horned pout, and bull-head. 
 
 Cat-gat, the name given to the 
 material of which the strings of many 
 musical instruments are formed. It is 
 made from the intestines of the sheep, 
 and sometimes from those of the horse, 
 but never from those of the cat. 
 
 Cathari, a name akin to " Puri- 
 tans," applied at different times to 
 various sects of Christians. It be- 
 came a common appellation of several 
 sects which first appeared in the llth 
 century in Lombardy and other coun- 
 tries, and which were violently perse- 
 cuted for their tenets and usages. 
 They had many other local names. 
 The Cathari proper held a community 
 of goods, abstained from war, mar- 
 riage, and the killing of animals, and 
 rejected water baptism. 
 
 Catharine I., Empress of Russia. 
 The early history of this remarkable 
 woman is uncertain. According to 
 some accounts she was the daughter 
 of a Swedish ofiicer named Rabe, who 
 died shortly after she was born ; ac- 
 cording to others her father was a 
 Catholic peasant in Lithuania, by 
 name Samuel. It is said that she was 
 born in 1686, named Martha, and 
 placed by her parents in the service 
 of a Lutheran clergyman. She re-
 
 Catharine 
 
 moved to Marienburg, and entered the 
 service of a clergyman named Gluck, 
 who caused her to be instructed in the 
 Lutheran religion. Here she was mar- 
 ried to a Swedish dragoon. But a few 
 days after he was obliged to repair to 
 the field, and the Russians, within a 
 short period, took Marienburg in 1702. 
 Martha fell into the hands of General 
 Tcheremetieff, who relinquished her to 
 Prince Menzikoff. While in his pos- 
 session she was seen by Peter the 
 Great, who made her his mistress. She 
 became a proselyte to the Greek 
 Church, and assumed the name of 
 Catharine Alexiewna. In 1712 the em- 
 peror publicly acknowledged Catharine 
 as his wife. Upon the death of Peter 
 she was proclaimed empress and auto- 
 crat of all the Russias. Catharine died 
 suddenly on May 17, 1727, in the 42d 
 year of her age. 
 
 Catharine II., Empress of Russia ; 
 born in Stettin, May 2, 1729, where 
 her father, Christian Augustus, Prince 
 of Anhalt-Zerbst, and Prussian field- 
 marshal, was governor. The empress 
 Elizabeth of Russia, daughter of Peter 
 the Great, and Catharine I., selected 
 her for wife of Peter, her nephew 
 and heir, and the marriage took 
 place, September 1, 1745. It was 
 not a happy one. Among the friends 
 of her husband Count Soltikoff was 
 distinguished for talent and the graces 
 of his person. He attracted the atten- 
 tion of Catharine, and an intimate con- 
 nection between them was the conse- 
 quence. When Soltikoff grew indiffer- 
 ent a young Pole, Stanislaus Augustus 
 Poniatowski, celebrated both for his 
 good and ill fortune, gained the affec- 
 tions of the grand princess. Their in- 
 timacy was known to the empress, but 
 did not appear to displease her ; and it 
 was at her recommendation that Au- 
 gustus III. appointed Poniatowski his 
 ambassador at the court of St. Peters- 
 burg. This connection created alarm 
 at Paris. In January, 1762, Elizabeth 
 died, and Peter III. ascended the 
 throne. The emperor now became still 
 more alienated from his wife. Peter 
 lived in the greatest dissipation, and 
 on such intimate terms with a lady of 
 the court, named Elizabeth Woronsoff, 
 that it was generally thought that he 
 would repudiate Catharine and marry 
 his mistress. Peter was imprisoned 
 and murdered by the Orloffs, and Cat h- 
 
 Catharine 
 
 arine became emoress. A fit of apo- 
 plexy ended her life on Nov. 17, 1790. 
 Apart from her debauchery she waa 
 an enlightened and progressive ruler, 
 and deserves to be remembered grate- 
 fully by Americans for having refused 
 to sell her subjects to George III. to 
 fight in the Revolution. 
 
 Catharine de' Medici, wife of 
 Henry II., King of France; born in 
 Florence in 1519, the only daughter of 
 Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino, 
 and the niece of Pope Clement VII. 
 Francis I. consented that his son 
 Henry should marry her only because 
 he did not believe she ever would 
 ascend the throne, and because he was 
 in great want of money, with which 
 Lorenzo could furnish him. The mar- 
 riage was celebrated at Marseilles in 
 1533. The massacre of St. Bartholo- 
 mew was her work. She had two 
 daughters, Elizabeth, married to Philip 
 II. of Spain in 1559, and Margaret of 
 Valois, married to Henry of Navarre, 
 afterward Henry IV. She died in 
 1589. 
 
 Catharine of Arragon, Queen of 
 England, the youngest daughter of 
 Ferdinand of Arragon and Isabella of 
 Castile; born in 1483 or 1485. In 
 1501 she was married to Arthur, 
 Prince of Wales. Her husband dying 
 about five months after, the king 
 caused her to be contracted to his re- 
 maining son, Henry, and a dispensa- 
 tion was procured from the Pope for 
 that purpose. In his 15th year the 
 prince made a public protest against 
 the marriage ; but yielding to the rep- 
 resentations of his council, he con- 
 sented to ratify the contract, and on 
 his accession to the throne in 1509 
 was crowned with her. The want of 
 male issue proved a source of disquie- 
 tude to him, and scruples, real or pre- 
 tended, at length arose in his mind 
 concerning the legality of their union, 
 which were enforced by a growing pas- 
 sion for Anne Boleyn, one of the 
 queen's maids of honor. He made ap- 
 plication to Rome for a divorce from 
 Catharine. An encouraging answer 
 was returned, and a dispensation 
 promised. Overawed, however, by the 
 power of the Emperor Charles V., 
 Catharine's nephew, the conduct of the 
 pontiff became embarrassed and hesi- 
 tating. Catharine could not " be in- 
 duced to consent to an act which
 
 Catharine 
 
 Cathedra] 
 
 would render her daughter illegiti- 
 mate. Being cited before the papal 
 legates, Cardinals Wolsey and Cam- 
 peggio, she declared that she would 
 not submit her cause to their judg- 
 ment, but appealed to the court of 
 Rome. The subterfuges of the Pope 
 induced the king to decide the affair 
 for himself; and the resentment ex- 
 . pressed on this occasion by the court 
 of Rome provoked him to throw off his 
 submission to it, and declare himself 
 head of the English Church an act 
 of royal caprice more important than 
 most in history. In 1532 he married 
 
 r 
 
 married Charles II., but her hus- 
 band's infidelities and neglect, and her 
 childlessness were a source of mortifi- 
 cation to her. In 1693 she returned to 
 Portugal, where, in 1704, she was 
 made regent, and in the conduct of 
 affairs during the war with Spain 
 showed marked ability. She died in 
 1705. 
 
 Cathartic, having the property or 
 power of cleasing the bowels by pro- 
 moting the evacuations of excrements, 
 etc., purgative. 
 
 Cathedral. The principal church 
 of a diocese, and the Cathedral city is 
 
 CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE 
 
 Anne Boleyn ; upon which Catharine 
 retired to Ampthill. Cranmer, now 
 raised to the primacy, pronounced the 
 sentence of divorce. She died in 
 January, 1536. Shortly before her 
 death she wrote a letter to the king, 
 recommending their daughter (after- 
 ward Queen Mary) to his protection, 
 praying for the salvation of his soul, 
 and assuring him of bet- forgiveness 
 and unabated affection. 
 
 Catharine of Braganza, wife of 
 Charles II., King of England, and 
 daughter of John IV.. King of Portu- 
 gal, was born in 1638. In 1662 she 
 
 DIVINE, TfEW TORY CITY. 
 
 the seat of the bishop of the diocese, 
 and his throne is placed in the Cathe 
 dral church, which is the parish 
 church of the whole diocese. The dis- 
 tinction between Cathedral and colle- 
 giate churches consists principally in 
 the see of the bishop being at the for- 
 mer. The governing body of a Cathe- 
 dral is called the dean and chapter. 
 St. Peter's, at Rome, is unequaled hi 
 magnitude and splendor by any other 
 Christian fane in the world. St. 
 Peter's was begun in 1503, and was 
 consecrated in 1626. Milan Cathedral 
 was commenced in 1387, but is still
 
 Cathedral Peak 
 
 Catorca 
 
 unfinished. The Duomo, Florence, was 
 begun in 1298, and was finished in 
 1444. The Cathedral at Cologne was 
 begun in the middle of the 13th cen- 
 tury, and only partly finished in 1509, 
 after which work was not resumed on 
 it till 1830. In 18G3 the interior was 
 thrown open to the public. In 1880 
 it was finished. The Cathedral at 
 Strasburg was completed in 1601, and 
 is one of the grandest Gothic struc- 
 tures in Europe. Notre Dame, Paris, 
 was begun about 1163. St. Paul's, 
 London (the present edifice, the first 
 having been destroyed in the great fire 
 of 1666), was begun in 1675, and was 
 finished in 1710. It is built in the 
 form of a Latin cross. The Cathedral 
 of Mexico was begun in 1573, and was 
 finished in 1667. The Cathedral of 
 St. John the Divine (P. E.), in New 
 York, will, when completed, be the 
 most splendid structure of the kind on 
 this continent. 
 
 Cathedral Peak, a peak of the 
 Sierra Nevada Range, situated in 
 Mariposa county, Cal. Height, 11,000 
 feet. 
 
 Catherine Harbor, a Russian 
 port in the far N. on the Murman 
 coast of the Kola peninsula. It was 
 formally opened in 1900, the city hav- 
 ing been built by imperial command. 
 
 Catheter, a term applied in sur- 
 gery to a tube, usually of silver or in- 
 dia-rubber, which is introduced into 
 the bladder through the urethra, for 
 the purpose of drawing off the urine 
 when it cannot be discharged in the 
 natural way. 
 
 Catholic Benevolent Union, an 
 organization of Roman Catholics in 
 the United States, founded in 1881 as 
 a fraternal and protective order. 
 
 Catholic church, the universal 
 Church, the whole body of true be- 
 lievers in Christ ; but the term is often 
 used as equivalent to the Roman or 
 Papal Church. 
 
 Catholic Epistles, the epistles in 
 the New Testament addressed not to 
 individual men or to individual 
 churches, but to the general body of 
 Christians. They are James, I and II 
 Peter, I John and Jude. 
 
 Catholic Knights of America, 
 an organization of Roman Catholics 
 in the United States, founded in 1887 
 as a fraternal and protective order. 
 
 Catholic University of Amer- 
 ica, an institution in Washington, D. 
 C., founded in 1889, under the auspi- 
 ces of the Roman Catholic Church, for 
 postgraduate study exclusively. 
 
 Catiline (Lucius Sergius Cati- 
 lina), a Roman conspirator; born 
 about 108 B. c. Disappointed in his 
 ambition he plotted a massacre of his 
 political antagonists, and the destruc- 
 tion of the Roman Republic. Cicero 
 exposed the conspiracy, and executed 
 the leading conspirators, except Cati- 
 line, who fell in battle, January 5, 62 
 B. c., together with his whole army. 
 
 Cat Island, or Gnanahani, an 
 island of the Bahama group for cen- 
 turies supposed to be identical with 
 the San Salvador of Columbus, a sur- 
 mise now disproved. Length, 36 
 miles; breadth, 3 to 7 miles; popula- 
 tion, 2,378. 
 
 Catlin, George, an American au- 
 thor and painter, born in Wilkes- 
 barre, Pa., June 26, 1796. From 1832 
 till 1839 he traveled and lived among 
 the Indians of America, of whom he 
 painted hundreds of portraits. He died 
 in Jersey City, N. J., Dec. 23, 1872. 
 
 Cato, Marcus Porcins, a great 
 Roman statesman, called (to distin- 
 guish him from the censor, his great 
 grandfather) Cato of Utica, the place 
 of his death; born 95 B. c. He op- 
 posed Caesar, and upon the triumph 
 of the latter, he killed himself at 
 Utica, Africa, 46 B. c. 
 
 Cato, Marcus Porcins, the Cen- 
 sor, surnamed Priscus ; born in Tus- 
 culum, 234 B. c. He served his first 
 campaign, at the age of 17, under 
 Fabius Maximus, when he beseiged 
 Capua. Five years after he fought 
 under the same commander at the 
 siege of Tarentum. After the capture 
 of this city he became acquainted with 
 the Pythagorean Nearchus, who ini- 
 tiated him into the suLlime doctrines 
 of his philosophy, with which, in prac- 
 tice, he was already conversant. After 
 tie war was ended Cato returned to 
 his farm. Cato was poor and un- 
 known ; but his eloquence and the in- 
 tegrity and strength of his character, 
 soon drew the public attention to him, 
 and he was chosen to the highest of- 
 fices. He died in 149 B. c. 
 
 Catorce, a mining town of San 
 Luis Potosi, Mexico, which received its
 
 ABERDEEN-ANGUS (Bull) 
 
 b % 
 TEXAS STEER 
 
 SHORTHORN(BUII) 
 
 DUTCH BELTED (Bull) 
 
 HOLSTEIN (Bull) 
 
 HOLSTEIN (Cow) 
 
 DUTCH BELTED (Cow) AYR S H IRE (Cow) 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY F. E. WRIGHT. 
 
 STANDARD BR
 
 WEST HIGH LAN D (Cow) 
 
 AYRSHIRE(Calf) 
 
 LONG HORN (Bull) 
 
 IDS OF CATTLE
 
 FIGURES 
 
 /A/ S7ATES REPRESENT NUMBER W THOU/ANDS 
 
 CATTLE 
 
 OTHLK THANHIUCHCOWJ 
 ON FARMS AWfiANGEJ 1912 
 
 NUMBCfi IM THOUSANDS 
 
 37,260 THOUSAND 
 CATTLE. 
 
 r/GUBS IN STATES fiEPfiEJEJVT M/MBfi /V TffOUTAMDS 
 
 ONFMMJ AND RANGES 19/2 
 
 HUMBER IN THOUSANDS 
 
 Z0.699TMOUJAHD 
 M/LCHCOHtf
 
 Catskill Mountains 
 
 Caucus 
 
 name, signifying 14, from a gang of 
 robbers, formerly a constant menace 
 to its inhabitants. When the French 
 invaded Mexico, a mint was started 
 here, and worked until 1867. The 
 amount coined was about $52,000,000. 
 The population is variable, ranging 
 from 8.000 to 15,000, according to the 
 state of mining. 
 
 Catskill Mountains, a chain of 
 the Appalachian system, beginning in 
 Greene county, N. Y., on the W. side 
 of the Hudson river. The scenery of 
 these mountains is remarkably pic- 
 turesque and beautiful, while from the 
 higher points may be seen extensive 
 and interesting views, taking in a rad- 
 ius from the Green Mountains of Ver- 
 mont to the West Point Highlands. 
 
 Cattegat, or Kattegat, the bay 
 or arm of the sea between the E. coast 
 of Jutland and toe W. coast of 
 Sweden, to the N. of the Danish is- 
 lands. It is connected with' the Baltic 
 Sea by the Great and Little Belt, and 
 by the Sound, and the Skager Rack 
 connects it with the North Sea. The 
 length of the Cattegat is about 150 
 miles, and its greatest breadth 85 
 miles. Its greatest depth is 30 
 fathoms. 
 
 Cattell, James McKeeii, an 
 American psychologist, born in Easton, 
 Pa., May 25, I860, graduated at La- 
 fayette College and studied at Leipsic, 
 Paris, Geneva, and Gottingen, and be- 
 came Professor of Experimental Psy- 
 chology in Columbia University, 1891. 
 
 Cattle, a collective term, denoting 
 ,all animals of the bovine or ox kind. 
 
 Cattle-plague. The name is given 
 In the United States specifically to the 
 {disease known as "Texas fever." Al- 
 though this pest lias from time to time 
 broken out there has never been any 
 'general epidemic. The appellation 
 "cattle plague" is also loosely given to 
 'another disease among cattle which is 
 known as the "lumpy-jaw," a most 
 virulent and incurable affection. Ex- 
 periments have been time and again 
 ineffectually tried to find a cure for 
 this disease. 
 
 Catty, in China and the Malayan 
 Archipelago, a weight of 1 1-3 pounds. 
 
 Catnbig, a small town in the island 
 of Samar, Philippine Islands. The 
 place is garrisoned by United States 
 troops, who, in June, 1900, withstood 
 
 an attack by 600 insurgents. Pop. 
 (1903) 9,563. 
 
 Catullus, Valerius (whose prae- 
 nomen is stated by some to be Caius, 
 by others Quintus), a famous Roman 
 poet ; born 86 B. c. The common opin- 
 ion is that he died 57 B. c., in the 30th 
 year of his age, but this is no doubt 
 erroneous, as there are allusions in his 
 own works which prove him to hava 
 been alive in the consulship of Vatin- 
 ius as late as 47 B. c. 
 
 Catnlus, Quintus Lutatius, a 
 Roman general, historian, and poet, 
 born about 152 B. c. ; died 8 . B. C. 
 
 Cauca, a river of Colombia, in 
 South America, which,, after a N. 
 course of 000 miles, falls into the Mag- 
 dalena. Its valley is one of the richest 
 and most populous districts of the con- 
 tinent, and it gives name to the largest 
 of the Colombian States; area, 257,- 
 402 square miles; population, (est. ), 
 700,000. It possesses the most pro- 
 ductive platinum mine in America. 
 Capital, Popayan. 
 
 Caucasia, a province of the Rus- 
 sian Empire, between the Black and 
 Caspian Seas, and extending from the 
 frontier of Persia on the S. to the 
 Kuma-Manych depression on the N. 
 The Caucasus Mountains divide the 
 territory into Cis-caucasia and Trans- 
 caucasia. The total area of Caucasia, 
 the two parts being nearly equal, is 
 180,843 square miles, and the popula- 
 tion, in 1897, Trans-caucasia being the 
 most thickly settled, 9,248,695. 
 
 Caucasian Race, the white man, 
 one of the three more remarkable va- 
 rieties of the species Man, the two 
 others being the Yellow, or Mongolian, 
 and the Black, or Ethiopian. The 
 Caucasian Race occupies all Europe 
 and Western Asia as far as the Gan- 
 ges, likewise Northern Africa and the 
 greater part of America. 
 
 Caucasus, a chain of mountains be- 
 tween Europe and Asia, extending 
 from S. E. to N. W., and occupying 
 the isthmus between the Black and 
 Caspian seas. The length is computed 
 at 700 miles, the breadth is various; 
 from Mosdok to Tiflis it may be esti- 
 mated at 184 miles. 
 
 Caucus, in the political momencla* 
 ture of the United States, a gathering 
 preliminary to a public meeting of
 
 Candex 
 
 citizens for election or for other pur- 
 poses, generally political. 
 
 Caudex, in botany, the stem of a 
 tree, more especially the scaly trunk 
 of palms and tree-ferns. 
 
 Candine Forks, a pass of South- 
 ern Italy, in the form of two lofty 
 fork-shaped defiles, in the Apennines 
 (now called the valley of Arpaia), 
 Into which a Roman army was enticed 
 by the Samnites, 321 B. C., and being 
 hemmed in was forced to surrender. 
 
 Caul, a popular name for a mem- 
 brane investing the viscera, such as the 
 peritoneum or part of it, or the peri- 
 cardium ; also a portion of the amnion 
 or membrane enveloping the fetus, 
 sometimes encompassing the head of a 
 child when born. 
 
 Cauliflower, an esculent vegetable 
 for which a very rich, light, warm soil 
 is required. The Cauliflower is light, 
 easily digested, and nutritious. 
 
 Caulking, of a ship, driving a 
 quantity of oakum into the seams of 
 the planks in the ships' decks or sides 
 in order to prevent the entrance of 
 water. After the oakum is driven 
 very hard into these seams 'it is cov- 
 ered with hot melted pitch to keep the 
 water from rotting it. 
 
 Canra, a river of Venezuela, rises 
 among the sierras of the frontier, and 
 flows N. N. W. to the Orinoco. On 
 both sides stretches the territory of 
 Caura (22,485 square miles), with yn- 
 mense forests of tonka beans. 
 
 Cans, Caulx, or Cauls, Salomon 
 de, a French engineer, born, in Dieppe 
 iu 1576. At Frankfort, in 1G15, ap- 
 peared his "Causes of Kinetic En- 
 ergy," which contains a description of 
 a machine for forcing water to a high 
 level by steam, being the forerunner of 
 the modern steam engine. He died in 
 Paris, June 6, 1626. 
 
 Cause, that which produces an 
 effect. In law, suit or action. 
 
 Caustic, a name given to substances 
 which have the property of burning, 
 corroding, or disintegrating animal 
 matter; or of combining with the 
 principles of organized substances and 
 destroying their texture. 
 
 Cantin, a river in Chile; flows W. 
 through a province named after it, 
 nnd empties into the Pacific Ocean. 
 Its length is about 200 miles. The 
 
 Cavaignao 
 
 province of Cautin has an area of 
 3,127 square miles ; pop. 78,221 ; capi- 
 tal, Temuco ; pop. 7,078. 
 
 Cautionary Towns, four towns 
 in Holland (the Briel, Flushing, Kaiu- 
 mekins, and Walcheren), so named be- 
 cause they were given to Queen Eliza- 
 beth in 1585 as security for their re- 
 paying her for assistance in their 
 struggle with Spain. They were re- 
 stored to Holland by James I. 
 
 Cavaignac, Jacques Marie En- 
 gene Godefroy, a French politician, 
 son of Louis Eugene Cavaignac, born 
 May 22, 1853. In August, 1898, he 
 added to the excitement over the Drey- 
 fus prosecution by forcing Lieutenant- 
 Colonel Henry to confess to a forgery 
 of certain letters bearing on the case, 
 that officer committing suicide shortly 
 after. C. died Sept. 25, 1905. 
 
 Cavaigmac, Louis Eugene, a 
 French general who became famous in 
 connection with the events of 1848; 
 born in Paris, Oct. 15, 1802. Cavaig- 
 nac was in Africa when the revolution 
 of February, 1848, took place. He 
 was offered the portfolio of the minis- 
 ter of war, and accepted it. The meas- 
 ures which he adopted to guard against 
 the crisis which was evidently ap- 
 proaching were prompt and decisive. 
 In a few days an army of nearly 30,- 
 000 men was assembled in and around 
 Paris. On June 23 the terrible Com- 
 munist insurrection burst forth, and 
 for three days Paris presented the 
 most dreadful scene of tumult and 
 bloodshed which had been witnessed 
 there since the massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholomew. About 15,000 persons per- 
 ished, and property was destroyed to 
 the value of upward of $1,000,000. By 
 the energy of General .Cavaignac, aided 
 by the loyalty of the army and the na- 
 tional guard, the insurrection was sup- 
 pressed on June 20. On that day the 
 National Assembly delegated the en- 
 tire executive power to Cavaignac as 
 dictator, who resigned it again into 
 its hands on the 29th, and received it 
 anew on the same day. He was de- 
 feated in the elections for the presi- 
 dency in the month of December fol- 
 lowing, and Louis Napoleon was pre- 
 ferred to the office. On Dec. 20 he re- 
 signed his dictatorship. The last years 
 of his life were spent at his country- 
 seat, where he expired suddenly of 
 heart disease on Oct. 28, 1857.
 
 Cavaille-Coll 
 
 Cavendish 
 
 Cavaille-Coll, Aristide, a French 
 organ builder, born in Montpelier, Feb. 
 2, 1811. He invented the pressure 
 method lor sounding tones of different 
 depths and heights. He died in Paris, 
 Oct. 13, 1899. 
 
 Cavalier, a horse-soldier; an armed 
 horseman ; a knight ; the name given 
 to the supporters of King Charles I., 
 during the Great Civil War in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Cavalier, Jean, a leader of the 
 Camisards, or Protestants of Cevennes, 
 when forced into rebellion against 
 Louis XIV., by the persecutions of the 
 Catholics, born in Cevennes, 1G79. He 
 defeated the best generals that came 
 against him, and compelled Marshal de 
 Villars to make a treaty with him. He 
 died in 1740. 
 
 Cavalotti, Felice, an Italian 
 statesman, born in Milan, Nov. 6, 
 1842. He fought under Garibaldi and 
 gained celebrity; was a political jour- 
 nalist He fought 32 duels, in the last 
 of which he was killed in Rome, 
 March 6, 189& 
 
 Cavalry, one of the three great 
 classes of troops. The use of cavalry 
 is probably nearly as ancient as war 
 itself; but some nations used chariots 
 in war before they became accustomed 
 to fight on horseback. The Egyptians 
 are said to have had cavalry before the 
 time of Moses. The Israelites often 
 had to encounter cavalry, but had none 
 themselves till the time of Solomon. 
 Cavalry are usually armed with 
 straight swords or sabers, _pistols, and 
 carbines. In the United States army 
 a cavalry regiment consists of six 
 squadrons of two troops or companies, 
 containing 63 men each. 
 
 Cave, or Cavern, an opening pro- 
 luced by nature in the solid crust of 
 tie earth. Caves are principally met 
 vith in limestone rocks, in gypsum, 
 ^metimes in sandstone, and in vol- 
 canic rocks (basalt, lava, tufa, etc.). 
 
 The most celebrated caverns in the 
 United States are Madison's Cave, in 
 Rockingham Co., Va. ; Weyer's Cave, 
 in the same county; Luray Cave, in 
 Page Co., Va. ; and the Mammoth 
 Cave, in Edmondson Co., Ky., which 
 incloses an extent of about 40 miles of 
 subterraneous windings. One of its 
 chambers, called the Temple, is said to 
 cover a space of nearly 5 acres, and to 
 
 be surmounted by a dome of solid rock 
 120 feet in height. The Cumberland 
 mountains, in Tennessee, contain some 
 curious caverns, in one of which, at a 
 depth of 400 feet, a stream was found 
 with a current sufficiently powerful to 
 turn a mill. Another cave in the same 
 State is named Big Bone Cave, from 
 the bones of the mastodon which have 
 there been discovered. In the Rac- 
 coon mountains, near the N. W. ex- 
 tremity of Georgia, is a cave called 
 Nickojack Cave, which has been ex- 
 plored to the distance of 3 miles. A 
 stream of considerable size runs 
 through it, which is interrupted by a 
 fall. Caves are sometimes found 
 which exhale poisonous vapors. The 
 most remarkable known is the Grotto 
 del Cane, a small cave near Naples. 
 In Iceland there are many caves, 
 formed by the lava from its volcanoes. 
 In the volcanic country near Rome 
 there are many natural cavities of 
 great extent and coolness, which are 
 sometimes resorted to as a refuge from 
 the heat. In South America is the 
 cavern of Guacharo, which is said to 
 extend for leagues. 
 
 Caveat. In the United States this 
 name is given to a notice lodged in 
 the patent-office by a person who 
 wishes to patent an invention, but de- 
 sires to be protected till he has per- 
 fected it. It stands good for a year. 
 
 Cave Dwellers, prehistoric men 
 dwelling in caves, and cave-dwelling 
 animals of corresponding periods ; also 
 cave-dwelling men of more recent his- 
 toric times. In America, caves with 
 human remains have been investigated 
 in a number of States. There are re- 
 mains that have been deposited within 
 the period of authentic history. There 
 are still cave-dwelling Indians in 
 Northern Mexico. 
 
 Cavendish, Frederick Charles, 
 Lord, second son of the Duke of De- 
 vonshire, an English statesman ; born 
 in Eastbourne, Nov. 30, 1836. He sat 
 in Parliament from 18G5 till 1882, 
 when he succeeded Mr. Forster as 
 chief secretary for Ireland. On May 
 6, he and Mr. Burke were stabbed to 
 death in the Phoenix Park. Eight 
 months later, twenty "Irish Invinci- 
 bles" were* tried for the murder, and, 
 Carey and two others having turned 
 Queen's evidence, five of the rest were 
 hanged, three sentenced to penal servi-
 
 Cavendish 
 
 tude for life, and the remaining nine 
 to various terms of imprisonment. 
 Carey disappeared ; but in July news 
 came from the Cape that he had been 
 shot dead by an Irishman named 
 O'Donnell. O'Donnell was taken back 
 to London and hanged. 
 
 Cavendish, or Candish, Thomas, 
 an English circumnavigator in the 
 reign of Elizabeth ; born about 1555. 
 Having collected three small vessels for 
 the purpose of making a predatory 
 voyage to the Spanish colonies, he 
 sailed from Plymouth in 1580, took 
 and destroyed many vessels, ravaged 
 the coasts of Chile, Peru, and New 
 Spain, and returned by the Cape of 
 Good Hope, having circumnavigated 
 the globe in 2 years and 49 days, the 
 shortest period in which it had then 
 been effected. In 1591 he set sail on 
 a similar expedition, during which he 
 died, in 1592. 
 
 Cave Temple, a cave used as a 
 temple, but the name is especially ap- 
 plied to temples excavated in the solid 
 rock. 
 
 Caviare, a prepared article of food 
 consisting of the salted roes of several 
 kinds of large fish, chiefly of the com- 
 mon sturgeon. It is prepared chiefly 
 in Russia, where it is greatly esteemed 
 as food. It is used also in America. 
 
 Cavite, a small seaport of Luzon, 
 Philippine Islands; about 11 miles S. 
 W. of Manila and fronting directly on 
 the bay; pop. (1903) 4,494. The town 
 dates almost from the first occupa- 
 tion of the Spaniards and was elab- 
 orately fortified with docks and arse- 
 nals in the 18th century. O'\ May 1, 
 1898, Admiral Dewey won his great 
 victory off Cavite. The Americans 
 immediately occupied the arsenal, and 
 upon the arrival of American troops 
 Cavite was fortified and made a naval 
 and military base. The province of 
 the same name has an area of 2,188 
 square miles,- DQD. (1903) 134,779. 
 
 Cavonr, Count Camillo Benso 
 di, an Italian statesman, born in 
 Turin, Aug. 10, 1810. He became a 
 member of the Sardinian Chamber of 
 Deputies in 1849. In 1852 he became 
 premier, and took an active part in 
 cementing an alliance with Great Brit- 
 ain and France, and making common 
 cause with these powers against Rus- 
 sia during the Crimean War. This 
 
 Caxias 
 
 caused a war with Austria, in which 
 Sardinia was aided by France (1859). 
 In 1860 Garibaldi's expedition to 
 Sicily took place ; but toward this 
 Count Cavour was forced to maintain 
 an apparent coldness. He lived to see 
 the meeting of the first Italian Parlia- 
 ment, which decreed Victor Emman- 
 uel king of Italy. He died June 6, 
 1861. 
 
 Cavy, a genus of South American 
 rodents. It includes the guinea pig. 
 All have a short tail, or none at all, 
 and bear a slight resemblance to a pig. 
 
 Cawnpur, a town, India, North- 
 west Provinces, on the right bank of 
 the Ganges, which is here about a mile 
 wide, 130 miles N. W. from Allahabad, 
 628 miles N. W. of Calcutta, and 2(56 
 miles S. E. of Delhi. Pop. about 197,- 
 000. In 1857 the native regiments sta- 
 tioned here mutinied and marched off, 
 placing themselves under the command 
 of the notorious Nana Sahib. General 
 Wheeler, the commander of the Euro- 
 pean forces, defended his position for 
 some days, but was induced to surren- 
 der to the rebels on condition of his 
 party being allowed to quit the place 
 uninjured. This was agreed to ; but 
 after the European troops, with the 
 women and children, had been em- 
 barked in boats on the Ganges, they 
 were treacherously fired on by the 
 rebels ; many were killed, and the re- 
 mainder conveyed back to the city, 
 where the men were massacred and the 
 women and children placed in confine- 
 ment. The approach of General Hav- 
 elock to Cawnpur roused the brutal in- 
 stincts of the Nana, and he ordered 
 his hapless prisoners to be slaughtered, 
 and their bodies to be thrown into a 
 well. The following day he was 
 obliged to retreat to Bithoor. 
 
 Caxamarca, or Cajamarca, a de- 
 partment and town of Peru ; area of 
 the department about 14,200 square 
 miles ; pop. 213,400. The town is sit- 
 uated about 70 miles from the Pacific 
 Ocean, 280 N. of Lima. Pop. 18,400. 
 It was the scene of the imprisonment 
 and murder of Atahualpa, the last of 
 the Incas. 
 
 Caxias, (1), a town of Brazil, in 
 the State of Marannao, on the navi- 
 gable Itapicuru, 190 miles from its 
 mouth, with an active trade in cotton. 
 Pop. 10,000. (2) an Italian agricul-
 
 Cast on 
 
 tural colony in the Brazilian State of 
 Rio Grande do Sul, founded in 1875. 
 Pop. lb.680. 
 
 Caxton, William, an English 
 printer and scholar, born in the Weald 
 of Kent, about 1422. His "Recuyell 
 (collection) of the Histories of Troy." 
 translated by him from the French, 
 appears to have been printed in 1474, 
 most probably at Bruges in Belgium. 
 It was the first book in English repro- 
 duced by typography. He set up a 
 printing-office in Westminster, 1477 ; 
 and on Nov. 18 of that year issued 
 "The Dictes and Sayings of the Philos- 
 ophers," folio, a work ever memorable 
 as the first book printed in England. 
 He printed in all 71 separate works. 
 He died in 1491. 
 
 Cayenne, a fortified seaport, capi- 
 tal of French Guiana, on an island at 
 the mouth of a river of the same name. 
 Cayenne is chiefly known as a great 
 French penal settlement. The climate 
 is extremely unwholesome for Euro- 
 peans, large numbers of the convicts 
 having been carried off by various ma- 
 lignant fevers. The name of the capi- 
 tal is sometimes used for the whole 
 of French Guiana. Pop. 12,700. 
 
 Cayenne Pepper, or Capsicum, 
 the name given to the powder formed 
 of the dried and ground fruits, and 
 more especially (he seeds, of various 
 species of Capsicum. 
 
 Cayes, or Anx Cayes, a seaport 
 of Haiti, on the S. W. coast, 95 miles 
 W. S. W. of Port-au-Prince. Pop. 
 8,000. 
 
 Cayley, Arthur, an English math- 
 ematician, born in Richmond. Surrey 
 Co., England, Aug. 10, 1821. In 1882 
 he gave a course of mathematical lec- 
 tures at Johns Hopkins University. 
 He died Jan. 26, 1895. 
 
 Cayman Islands, three islands sit- 
 uated about 140 miles N. W. of Ja- 
 maica, of which they are dependencies. 
 Grand Cayman, the largest and the 
 only one inhabited, is 20 miles long 
 and from 7 to 10 broad, and has two 
 towns or villages. Pop. about 2.500. 
 The other two islands are Little Cay- 
 man and Cayman Brae. 
 
 Caynga Indians, a tribe of In- 
 dians dwelling in New York State, one 
 of those forming the Six Nations. 
 They lived around Cayuga Lake, where 
 less than 200 of them remain. 
 E. 31. 
 
 Cecil 
 
 Cayuga Lake, a lake of Central 
 New York, noted for the picturesque 
 scenery of its surroundings. 
 
 Cayuse, or Willetpoo, a tribe of 
 North American Indians who formerly 
 inh bite* the region oetween the Des 
 Chutes river and the Blue Mountains, 
 Oregon, and also parts of Washington, 
 S. of the Yakima river. 
 
 Cazanran, Augustv R., a 
 Franco-American author and play- 
 wright, born in Bordeaux, France. Oct. 
 31, 1820. In 1848 he became impli- 
 cated in an Irish rebellion, fled to the 
 United States, and obtained employ- 
 ment as a reporter. During the Cri- 
 mean War he acted as war corespon- 
 dent to a London daily. When 1 in- 
 coln was shot he was at the theater as 
 dramatic critic, and wrote the first ac- 
 count of the assassination. He died 
 in New York, Jan. 27, 1889. 
 
 Ceara, a State of Brazil, on the N. 
 coast, with an area of 40,253 square 
 miles, and 805,087 inhabitants. The 
 interior presents a succession of wood- 
 ed hills and wide plateaus. The capi> 
 tal, Ceara, had formerly only an open 
 roadstead, but extensive harbor im- 
 provements, with breakwater and via- 
 duct, have been provided. It is the 
 terminus of a railway to Baturite and 
 has a large trade. Pop., 40,902. 
 
 Cebn, one of the Philippine Islands, 
 between Luzon and Mindanao, 135 
 miles long, with an extreme width of 
 30 miles. Sugar cultivation and the 
 manufacture of abaca are the chief in- 
 dustries. Pop., 653,727. The town of 
 Cebu, on the E. coast of the island, the 
 oldest Spanish settlement in the Phil- 
 ippines, is a place of considerable 
 trade. It is about GO miles from Ma- 
 nila and has a population of 31.079. 
 
 Cebus, a genus of American 
 monkeys, characterized by a round 
 head and short muzzle, long thumbs, 
 and a long, prehensile tail, entirely 
 covered with hair. 
 
 Cecil, Robert, Earl of Salisbury, 
 an English statesman," second son of 
 William Cecil, born about 1563. He 
 went to France as assistant to the 
 English ambassador. On the death of 
 Sir Francis Walsingham he succeeded 
 him as principal secretary. Having 
 secretly supported the interests of 
 James I. previous to his accession to 
 the crown he was continued in office
 
 Cecropia Moth 
 
 Celebes 
 
 under the new sovereign and raised to 
 the peerage. In 1G08 he was made 
 Lord High-Treasurer, an office which 
 he held till his death, in 1612. 
 
 Cecropia Moth, the largest moth 
 of the United States. It belongs to the 
 silk worm family, and its caterpillar 
 spins a large cocoon from which a 
 coarse silk may be prepared. 
 
 Cedar, a tree which forms large 
 forests on the mountains of Syria and 
 Asia Minor. It is an evergreen, grows 
 to a great size, and is remarkable for 
 its durability. Of the famous cedars 
 of Lebanon comparatively few now re- 
 main, and the tree does not grow in 
 any other part of Palestine. Cedar 
 timber was formerly much prized, but 
 in modern times is not regarded as of 
 much value, perhaps from the trees 
 not being of sufficient age. The name 
 is also applied to many trees which 
 have no relation to the true cedar, as 
 the Bermuda cedar, used for making 
 pencils, the red or Virginian cedar, the 
 Honduras cedar, and the red cedar of 
 Australia. 
 
 Cedar Bird, a name given to the 
 American wax-wing, from its fondness 
 for the berries of the red cedar. 
 
 Cedar Creek, scene of a memorable 
 battle between Union and Confederate 
 armies in the American Civil War, at 
 Alacken, Shenandoah Co., Va. On 
 O*ct. 19, 1864, at daylight, during Gen. 
 Sheridan's absence, his army was sur- 
 prised by the Confederates under 
 Early, who turned the left flank and 
 took the camps of the 8th and 19th 
 corps, with 20 guns and some prison- 
 ers. Gen. Wright, in command of the 
 Federals, retreated and reformed their 
 line. Gen. Sheridan arriving 10 A. M., 
 after a famous "ride," celebrated in 
 T. B. Read's poem, repelled an assault, 
 routing the Confederates, retaking 
 what had been lost, capturing 30 guns 
 and 2,000 prisoners. The cavalry pur- 
 sued next day, and in the night Early 
 retreated. 
 
 Cedar Lake, a lake of Canada, in 
 the Saskatchewan district, a sort of 
 expansion of the Saskatchewan river, 
 receiving the waters of this large 
 stream to pour them over the Grand 
 Rapids into Lake Winnipeg. Between 
 Grand Rapids and Cedar lake is an- 
 other expansion, known as Cross lake. 
 Cedar lake is nearly 30 miles long, and 
 
 where widest 25 broad ; area about 312 
 square miles. 
 
 Cedar Mountain, an elevation in 
 Culpepper Co., Va., where, in the 
 American Civil War, on Aug. 9, 1862, 
 Gen. Banks was defeated by a superior 
 Confederate force under General Jack- 
 son, and retired for reinforcements 
 from General Pope, with a loss of 
 1,400 killed and wounded, 400 prison- 
 ers, and many missing. The Confed- 
 erates, who held the field two days and 
 then fell back to meet Lee at Gordons- 
 ville, lost 1,314. 
 
 Cedar Rapids, a city in Lynn 
 county, la.; on the Cedar river, here 
 spanned by a handsome bridge, and 
 on the Burlington, Cedar Rapids & 
 Northern and other railroads; 80 
 miles S. W. of Dubuque; has an ex- 
 tensive trade in corn, oats, hay, 
 dairy products, poultry, horses, cat- 
 tle, and swine; manufactures cereal 
 foods, farming implements, wind- 
 mills, cutlery, and furniture; "and 
 contains the shops of the Burlington, 
 Cedar Rapids & Northern railroad, 
 large pork-packing plants, Coe Col- 
 lege (Presb.), and College of the 
 Sacred Heart (R. C.). Pop. (1910) 
 32,811. 
 
 Celandine, a name given to two 
 plants, the greater celandine and the 
 lesser celandine. 
 
 Celaya, a town in the Mexican 
 State of Guanajuato, on the Rio Laja, 
 about 150 miles N. W. of the City of 
 Mexico. The burning of its bull-ring, 
 on Easter Sunday, 1888, caused con- 
 siderable loss of life. Population, 
 21,245. 
 
 Celebes, one of the larger islands 
 of the Indian Archipelago, between 
 Borneo on the W. and the Moluccas on 
 the E. It consists mainly of four 
 large peninsulas separated by three 
 deep gulfs; total area, 71,470 square 
 miles. No part of it is more than 70 
 miles from the sea. Celebes is moun- 
 tainous and has several active vol- 
 canoes. It has also broad grassy 
 plains and extensive forests. Gold is 
 found in all the valleys of the N. 
 peninsula. Copper occurs at various 
 points, and tin also. Diamonds and 
 other precious stones are found. The 
 island is entirely desitute of feline or 
 canine animals, insectivora, the ele- 
 phant, rhinoceros, and tapir, etc. The
 
 Celery 
 
 inhabitants may be classed into two 
 groups: the Mohammedan semi-civil- 
 ized tribes, and the pagans, who are 
 more or less savages. The capital is 
 Macassar, in the S. W. of the island. 
 Pop. estimated at 1,997,800. 
 
 Celery, the common English name 
 of a species of parsley. Tiie blanched 
 leaf-stalk of the cultivated varieties is 
 used extensively for salads, etc. 
 
 Celeste, Madame, a French dancer, 
 born in Paris, Aug. 6, 1814, early 
 showed remarkable talent. She made 
 her debut in 1827 at New York, and 
 during her residence in the United 
 States married a Mr. Elliott. She re- 
 tired from the stage in 1874, and died 
 at Paris, Feb. 12, 1882. 
 
 Celestial Empire, The, a popular 
 name for the Chinese Empire, taken 
 from the Chinese words " Tien Chao " 
 (Heavenly Dynasty). Hence the 
 name "Celestials," applied to natives 
 of China. 
 
 Celestial Sphere, the background 
 of sky on which we see all celestial ob- 
 jects projected. It is supposed to be 
 of indefinite radius with the observer 
 at the center. 
 
 Celestine V., ( Pope Pietro di Mon- 
 rone), a Benedictine monk, who 
 founded the order of the Celestines, 
 which was suppressed by Pope Pius 
 VI., 1776-78. He was elected Pope in 
 1294, after an interregnum of six 
 years. A few months after, he re- 
 signed his office and was succeeded by 
 Boniface VIII., who confined him in 
 the castle of Fumone, where he died. 
 Celestine was canonized in the year 
 1313 by Clement V. 
 
 Celibacy, the state of being celi- 
 bate or unmarried ; specially applied to 
 the voluntary life of abstinence from 
 marriage followed by many religious 
 devotees and by some orders of clergy, 
 as those of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 Cell, a term of various applications : 
 (1) the compartments of a honey- 
 comb, (2) one of the small structures 
 composing the substance of plants, 
 generally indistinguishable by the 
 naked eye, and each at least, for a 
 time, being a whole complete in itself. 
 (3) A term often applied to any small 
 cavity bat properly restricted to a 
 microscopical anatomical element with 
 a nucleus cell-wall and cell-contents 
 
 __ Celt 
 
 when typically formed. (4) The space 
 between the two ribs of a vault, or the 
 space inclosed within the walls of an 
 ancient temple. (5) A structure in a 
 wrought-iron beam or girder; a tube 
 consisting of four wrought-iron plates 
 riveted to angle-iron at the corners. 
 (6) In electricity, a single jar, con- 
 taining a couple of plates, generally 
 copper and zinc, united to their oppo- 
 site or to each other usually by a wire. 
 
 Cellini, Benvcnuto, Italian 
 sculptor, born in Florence, 1500; died 
 there 1571. His chief works are : the 
 " Perseus " at Florence ; the colossal 
 " Mars " at Fontainebleau ; and a 
 " Christus " in the Escurial Palace. 
 
 Cellular Tissue, a kind of tissue 
 made of a number of separate cells of 
 minute bags adherent together. It is 
 found filling interstices between the 
 various organs in man and the verte- 
 brated animals. 
 
 Cellul*i4, an ivory-like compound, 
 which can be molded, turned, or other- 
 wise manufactured for various pur- 
 poses for which, before its introduc- 
 tion, ivory and bone were employed. 
 
 Cellulose, a substance of general 
 occurrence, and constituting the basis 
 of vegetable tissues. Corn pith cellu- 
 lose is an American preparation used 
 as a packing in warships to protect 
 them from sinking when pierced by 
 shot or shell. This packing is placed 
 like a belt three feet in thickness, in- 
 side the steel hull along the water line. 
 
 Celsiws, the name of a Swedish 
 family, several members of which at- 
 tained celebrity in science and liter- 
 ature. The best known is Anders Cel- 
 sius, born in 1701, died in 1744. After 
 being appointed Professor of Astron- 
 omy at the University of Upsal he 
 traveled in Germany, England, France, 
 and Italy, and in 1736 he took part in 
 the expedition of Maupertuis and 
 others for the purpose of measuring a 
 degree of the meridian in Lapland. He 
 is best known as the constructor of the 
 Centigrade thermometer. 
 
 Celt, the long'tudinal and grooved 
 instrument of mixed metal often found 
 in Scotland, also a stone instrument of 
 a wedgelike form found in barrows and 
 other repositories of Celtic antiquar- 
 ian remains. Though the primary ap- 
 plication of the word celt was to the 
 metallic implement, yet the stone celt
 
 Celtiberi 
 
 is believed by archaeologists and geolo- 
 gists to be the older of the two. 
 
 Celtiberi, a people of ancient 
 Spain supposed to have arisen from a 
 union of the aborigines, the Iberians, 
 and their Celtic invaders. Various 
 limits have been assigned to their 
 country, which included probably all 
 the N. of Spain as far S. as the 
 sources of the Guadalquivir. After 
 72 B. c. they do not appear in history. 
 
 Celts, the earliest Aryan settlers in 
 Europe according to common theory. 
 They appear to have been driven west- 
 ward by succeeding waves of Teutons, 
 Slavonians, and others. Herodotus 
 mentions them as mixing with the 
 Iberians who dwelt round tue fiver 
 Ebro in Spain. At the beginning of 
 the historic period they were the pre- 
 dominant race in Great Britain, Ire- 
 land, Prance, and elsewhere. The 
 Romans called them generally Galli. 
 They appear to have reached the zenith 
 of their power in the 2d and 3d cen- 
 turies B. c. Some tribes of them set- 
 tled in a part of Asia Minor to which 
 the name of Galatia was given. They 
 finally went down before the power of 
 Rome. At an early date the Celts di- 
 vided into two great branches, speak- 
 ing dialects widely differing from each 
 other, but belonging to the same stock. 
 One of these branches is the Gadhelic 
 or Gaelic, represented by the High- 
 landers of Scotland, the Celtic, Irish, 
 and the Manx ; the other is the Cym- 
 ric, represented by the Welsh, the in- 
 habitants of Cornwall, and those of 
 Brittany. The sun seems to have been 
 the principal object of worship among 
 the Celts, and groves of oak and the 
 remarkable circles of stone commonly 
 called "Druidical Circles," their tem- 
 ples of worship. 
 
 Cements, substances capable of 
 uniting bodies closely. They are va- 
 riously composed according to the na- 
 ture of the surfaces to unite, and their 
 exposure to heat or moisture. Build- 
 ing cement is a strong mortar con- 
 sisting of hydraulic limes which con- 
 tain silica, and set quickly. 
 
 Cenci, Beatrice, called the beau- 
 tiful "parricide, the daughter of Fran- 
 cesco Cenci, a noble Roman, who, after 
 his second marriage, behaved toward 
 the children of his first marriage in the 
 most shocking manner, procured the 
 
 Censor 
 
 assassination of two of his sons, on 
 their return from Spain, and abused 
 his youngest daughter Beatrice. She 
 planned and executed the murder of 
 her father and was beheaded in 1599. 
 She is the alleged subject of a painting 
 by Guido, and is the heroine of one of 
 Shelley's most powerful plays. Recent 
 researches have deprived the story of 
 its romantic elements, and have shown 
 Beatrice to be a very commonplace 
 criminal. Her stepmother and brother, 
 who were equally guilty with her, were 
 also executed. 
 
 Cenis, a* mountain belonging to the 
 Graian Alps, between Savoy and Pied- 
 mont, 11,755 feet high. It is famous 
 for the winding road constructed by 
 Napoleon I., which leads over it from 
 France to Italy, and for an immense 
 railway tunnel, which, after nearly 
 fourteen years' labor, was finished in 
 1871. The Mount Cenis Pass is 6,705 
 feet above the level of the sea, where- 
 as the elevation of the entrance to the 
 tunnel on the side of Savoy is only 
 3,801 feet, and that on the side of 
 Piedmont 4,246 feet. The total length 
 of the tunnel is nearly 8 miles. The 
 total cost amounted to about $12,000,- 
 000. 
 
 Cenotaph, an empty monument, 
 that is, one raised to a person buried 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Censer, a vase or pan in which in- 
 cense is burned, or a bottle with a per- 
 forated cap, used for sprinkling odors. 
 Censers were much used in the 
 Hebrew service, but their form is not 
 accurately ascertained. Josephus tells 
 us that King Solomon made 20,000 
 gold censers for the temple of Jeru- 
 salem to offer perfumes in, and 50,000 
 others to carry fire in. The censer 
 used in the Roman Catholic Church 
 at mass, vespers, and other offices, is 
 suspended by chains, which are held in 
 the hand, and is tossed in the air, so as 
 to throw the smoke of the incense in 
 all directions. 
 
 Censor, the title of two Roman 
 magistrates originally appointed for 
 the purpose of taking the census. But 
 their powers were much increased 
 when they had the inspection of pub- 
 lic morals, and authority to remove 
 citizens from their tribes, depriving 
 them of all their privileges except lib- 
 erty. The Censors had also the power 
 of making contracts for public build-
 
 I I Less than 2 
 E3 2 to 8 
 6 to 18 
 ^ 18 to 45 
 ^ 45 to 90 
 90 znd over 
 
 POPULATION PER SQL 1 ARE MILE, BY STATES 
 
 Zl Less than 10 per cent ' 
 10 to 20 per cent 
 
 [S3 20 to 30 per cent 
 30 to 50 per cent 
 
 PBT50 per cent and over 
 
 PER CENT OF INCREASE IN TOTAL POPULATION
 
 Census 
 
 ings, and the supply of victims for sac- 
 rifices. There is in some countries a 
 censor whose duty it is to inspect and 
 examine books, plays, etc., before they 
 are published, to insure that they shall 
 contain nothing to offend against pub- 
 lic morality or decency. In Russia 
 the office is one of unlimited authority 
 over all publications. An official ap- 
 pointed in time of war, at military 
 headquarters, to supervise and endorse 
 all press dispatches. 
 
 In China there is a Board of Cen- 
 sors whose members are theoretically 
 superior to the central administration, 
 and have a right to present any remon- 
 strance to the sovereign. It is under- 
 stood that experience with the present 
 empress dowager has made them 
 cautious. 
 
 Census, a periodical enumeration 
 of the people of any State or country, 
 with such information on other sub- 
 jects as may be desired. The United 
 States census of 1910 was authorized 
 June 29, 1909, by Congress, which 
 limited the inquiries to population, 
 agriculture, manufactures, mines and 
 mining, and directed that it should be 
 taken as of April 15, and that all re- 
 ports be completed within three years 
 from July 1, 1909. This census had 
 at its head E. Dana Durand, Director 
 of the Permanent Census Bureau, who 
 was assisted by 330 district super- 
 visors, 1,600 special agents, 70,000 
 enumerators, and 3,500 clerks for 
 combining and tabulating the enumer- 
 ators' returns. The total cost, in- 
 cluding publications, was estimated at 
 $13,000,000. The compilation and 
 tabulation were done by means of 
 cards, one for each of the approxi- 
 mately 90,000,000 persons enumerated, 
 which were punched in spaces to show 
 inquiry answers by machines resem- 
 bling typewriters or adding machines, 
 and run through automatic electrical 
 tabulating machines to record the 
 facts. Agricultural and other returns 
 were tabulated by typewriter adding 
 machines. 
 
 Cent, or Centime, the name of a 
 small coin in various countries, so 
 called as being equal to a 100th part 
 of some other coin. In the United 
 States and in Canada the cent is the 
 100th part of a dollar. In France the 
 centime is the 100th part of a franc. 
 
 Centipede 
 
 Similar coins are the centavo of Chili, 
 and the centesimo of Italy, Peru, etc. 
 
 Centanr, a mythical creature, half 
 man, half horse, said to have sprung 
 from the union of Ixion and a Cloud ; 
 the most celebrated was Chiron. They 
 inhabited Thessaly, and were also 
 called Hippocentaurs. The myth prob- 
 ably arose from some herdsman on 
 horseback, who, being seen by indi- 
 viduals unacquainted with the uses of 
 the horse, was supposed to form, to- 
 gether with his steed, one integral 
 body. It is also the name of a con- 
 stellation in the Southern Hemisphere. 
 
 Centennial Exhibition, an inter- 
 national exposition held in Philadel- 
 phia from May 10 to Nov. 10, 1876, 
 to celebrate the 100th anniversary of 
 the Declaration of Independence. The 
 various contributions of money amount- 
 ed to $6,800,000. The total attend- 
 ance was 9,910,966, of which 8,004,- 
 274 were paid. The largest attendance 
 was on Pennsylvania Day (Sept. 28,), 
 when 274,919 persons were on the 
 grounds. 
 
 Centennial State, Colorado; it 
 was admitted to the Union in 1876, 
 the 100th year of American indepen- 
 dence. 
 
 Center-Board, a contrivance used 
 in yachts or shallow keelless vessels to 
 counteract the tendency to drift to lee- 
 ward, caused by the absence of a keel. 
 It is lowered through a prepared slit, 
 in the bottom of the craft 
 
 Center of Population, the center 
 of gravity of the population of a coun- 
 try, each individual being assumed to 
 have the same weight. The center of 
 population in the United States has 
 clung to the parellel of 39 lat. and 
 has moved in a westward direction 
 during the last 110 years. 
 
 Centigrade Thermometer, a 
 thermometer scaled to represent the 
 interval between the freezing and the 
 boiling point of water, divided into 
 100 equal parts, the freezing-point 
 being taken as zero. 
 
 Centipede, a worm having a long 
 slender, depressed body, protected by 
 coriaceous plates, 21 pairs of legs, dis- 
 tinct eyes, 4 on each side, and antennae 
 with 17 joints. The name is, how- 
 ever, popularly extended to species of 
 nearly allied genera. Centipedes run
 
 Central America 
 
 Central America 
 
 nimbly, feed on insects, and pursue 
 them into their lurking-places. 
 
 GIANT CENTIPEDE. 
 
 Central America, the narrow tor- 
 tuous strip of land which unites the 
 continents of North and South Amer- 
 ica, extending from about lat. 7 to 
 18 N. The limits assigned to it in- 
 clude the six republics of Panama, 
 Guatemala, Honduras, San Salva- 
 dor, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, with 
 British Honduras. It thus has Mex- 
 ico on the N. W., Colombia or New 
 Granada on the S. E., and the Pacific 
 Ocean and Caribbean Sea on either 
 side. Its entire length is about 800 
 miles, with a breadth varying from be- 
 tween 20 and 30 miles to 350 miles. 
 The area is estimated at about 200,000 
 square miles ; the pop. at 3,200,000. 
 x Guatemala is remarkable for con- 
 taining, with exception of the island 
 of Java, the greatest number .of active 
 volcanoes known to exist within simi- 
 lar limits. The highest in Central 
 America, is Agua, which is said to 
 attain an elevation of 15,000 
 feet. This volcano has obtained 
 its name from its emitting tor- 
 rents of water and stone instead of 
 fire. The mountains of Central Amer- 
 ica do not generally attain an eleva- 
 tion equal to those of the two adjoin- 
 ing continents, with exception of the 
 volcanoes. The coast lands are gen- 
 erally narrow, and in some places the 
 mountains and high lands come close 
 down to the water's edge. The rivers 
 of this territory are small, and have 
 short courses, the longest not exceed- 
 ing from 200 to 300 miles, while many 
 of them are not more than 50. The 
 principal lake is that of Nicaragua, 
 which is upward of 100 miles in 
 
 length, and about 50 miles in breadth. 
 The other considerable lakes are those 
 of Managua or Leon, Golfo Dolce, 
 Gotfete, Peten, Atitlan, Amatitlan, 
 Guija, and Cojutepeque. 
 
 The climate is exceedingly various, 
 owing to the inequality of the surface. 
 The low grounds on the coast of the 
 Caribbean Sea are exposed to violent 
 tropical heats, and are generally un- 
 healthy ; but on the table-lands any 
 temperature, according to altitude, 
 may be obtained all the year round, 
 with a salubrious climate. The dry 
 season lasts from abqut October to 
 May ; the rest of the year is called the 
 wet season, although the rain falls 
 during the night only, the days being 
 fair and cloudless, and the air pure 
 and refreshing. The vegetable produc- 
 tions are as various as the climate. 
 Various creepers and parasitic plants, 
 and among them beautiful orchids, 
 adorn the forests. The zoology of 
 Central America differs little from 
 that of other parts of tropical Amer- 
 ica. Serpents are numerous, some of 
 them dangerous. Alligators infest 
 some of the streams and lakes, and 
 often attack domestic animals. The 
 rivers, lakes, and seas abound with 
 fish. Of the geology little is known 
 with accuracy. Gold, silver, iron, 
 lead, and mercury are found ; but 
 none are worked to any great extent. 
 Jasper and marble are worked in 
 Honduras ; and sulphur is collected 
 near the volcano of Quezaltenango. 
 There are also many salt springs ; and 
 salt is procured in large quantities on 
 the shores of the Pacific. 
 
 The population consists of three 
 classes whites ; mestizoes, or the off- 
 spring of whites and Indians ; and 
 pure-blooded Indians or aboriginal na- 
 tives. The proportions of this popula- 
 tion have been estimated at one- 
 twelfth whites, four-twelfths mixed 
 races, and seven-twelfths Indians. The 
 Roman Catholic religion is professed 
 by all. The chief occupation _of the 
 people is agriculture. The chief ex- 
 port is coffee ; others include cocoa, 
 fruits, hides, indigo, sugar. 
 
 The Spaniards in 1524 laid the 
 foundations of the city of Guatemala. 
 After the subjugation of the Quiches, 
 the remaining tribes were subdued 
 with comparative facility, and the do- 
 minion of the conquerors was perma-
 
 Central Falls 
 
 Century 
 
 nently established. The government of 
 :his country, as constituted by Spain, 
 was subject to the Mexican ; but the 
 dependence was far from being close, 
 it was denominated the kingdom of 
 Guatemala, and governed by a cap- 
 tain-general. Its inhabitants re- 
 mained true to Spain till 1821 when 
 they declared their independence ; and 
 although for a. time a large part of the 
 country was joined to Mexico under 
 the rule of Iturbide, yet on his down- 
 tall they recurred to their original 
 purpose of forming a separate repub- 
 lic, A constituent congress was con- 
 voked, which on July 1, 1823, pub- 
 lished a decree declaring the five States 
 already mentioned a republic under the 
 title of the United States of Central 
 America. Civil dissensions were not 
 long in making themselves felt, how- 
 ever, and in 1839 the union between 
 the States was formally dissolved. 
 Guatemala, Honduras. Nicaragua, and 
 San Salvador again formed a union in 
 1842, but this lasted only till 1845. 
 Since that time several atempts (one 
 in 1898) have been made to unite the 
 States, but without permanent suc- 
 cess. 
 
 Central America contains antiqui- 
 ties of a very interesting nature, which 
 indicate that the aboriginal inhabi- 
 tants of the country had even attained 
 a very respectable proficiency in the 
 knowledge of the arts of life. Ruins 
 of large cities exist in various places, 
 with remains of temples, altars, and 
 ornamental stones, statues of deities, 
 and other works of sculpture. 
 
 Central Falls, a town in Provi- 
 dence county, R. I.; on the Black- 
 stone river and the New York, New 
 Haven & Hartford railroad; 5 miles 
 N. of Providence; is in a farming 
 section; has a large trade in dairy 
 products; and manufactures cotton, 
 woolen, and hair goods, leather, and 
 machinery, having fine power from 
 the river. Pop. (1910) 22,754. 
 
 Central India, the official term for 
 a group of feudatory States in India. 
 The total area is about 77.281 square 
 miles; pop. (1901) 8,628,781. 
 
 Centralization, a term in a 
 specific sense applied to- a system of 
 government where the tendency is to 
 administer by the central government 
 matters which had been previously, or 
 
 might very well be, under the man- 
 agement of local authorities. 
 
 Central Park, the most noted park 
 in New York City, and contains 840 
 acres. It was laid out under the di- 
 rection and management of Hon. An- 
 drew H. Green, who for thirteen years 
 had absolute control of the work, and 
 who is known as " The Father of New 
 York." It contains among other ob- 
 jects of interest, the Mall, the Croton 
 Reservoirs, Cleopatra's Needle, the 
 Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Mu- 
 seum of Natural History, and several 
 lakes. 
 
 Central Provinces, an extensive 
 British territory in India. They be- 
 came a separate administration in 
 1801, and are under the authority of a 
 chief commissioner. Their total area 
 is 115,936 square miles, of which 86,- 
 501 square miles are British territory, 
 and 29,435 the territory of native pro- 
 tected states, 15 in number. Pop. 
 (1901), 9,845,318. 
 
 Central Tennessee College, a 
 co-educational institution in Nashville, 
 Tenn., organized in 1866 under the 
 auspices of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church. 
 
 Central University, a co-educa- 
 tional institution in Pella, la., organ- 
 ized in 1853, under the auspices of 
 the Baptist Church. 
 
 Central University, an educa- 
 tional institution in Richmond, Ky., 
 organized in 1873, under the auspices 
 of the Presbyterian Church. 
 
 Central Wesleyan College, a co- 
 educational institution in Warrenton, 
 Mo., organized in 1864, under the 
 auspices of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church. 
 
 Centre College, an educational in- 
 stitution in Danville, Ky., organized 
 in 1819, under the auspices of the 
 Presbyterian Church. 
 
 Centumviri, judges of ancient 
 Rome, three from each tribe, who de- 
 termined ordinary causes. The extent 
 of their jurisdiction is uncertain. 
 
 Centnrion, a Roman military of- 
 ficer commanding a company of in- 
 fantry, consisting of 100 men. 
 
 Century, an aggregate number of 
 100 of things; a period of 100 
 years. This is the uniformly accepted 
 sense of the word now. Modern chro-
 
 Century-plant 
 
 Cerebro-spinal 
 
 nology among Christian nations cen- 
 ters at the birth of Christ, and the cen- 
 turies are numbered according to their 
 order either before or after that era. 
 The word is also applied to a division 
 of the Roman tribes for the election 
 of magistrates, the passing of laws, 
 etc., on which the voting was by cen- 
 turies ; to a sub-division in the Roman 
 army. 
 
 Century-plant, a popular name 
 of the American aloe. 
 
 Cephalonia, an island of Greece, 
 W. of the Morea, at the entrance ot 
 the Gulf of Patras, about 31 miles in 
 length, and from 5 to 12 in breadth; 
 area, 348 square miles ; pop. 80,543. 
 Earthquakes are not infrequent. One 
 of the most destructive was that of 
 the year 1867. 
 
 Cephalopoda, a class of mollusks, 
 the highest in organization of that di- 
 vision of the animal kingdom. To this 
 class belong the 
 Nautili, Squids, 
 Cuttle-fish, etc. 
 The Cephalopo- 
 da receive their 
 name from hav- 
 ing organs of 
 prehension and 
 and locomotion 
 attached to the 
 head, an ar- 
 rangement to- 
 ward which a 
 g r a d u al ap- 
 proach may be 
 traced in the 
 highest gastero- 
 pod mollusks. 
 
 Cephas, a 
 surname given 
 by Christ to Si- 
 mon. In the 
 Greek it is Pet- 
 ros ("a rock") , 
 in Latin, Pe- 
 trus, and in English Peter. 
 
 Cepheus, a king or Ethiopia and 
 husband of Cassiopeia ; his name was 
 given to a constellation of stars in 
 the N. hemisphere surrounded by Cas- 
 siopeia, Ursa Major, Draco, and 
 Cygnus. 
 
 Ceram, an island in the Moluccas, 
 W. GJ. New Guinea ; area, about 7,000 
 square miles ; pop., estimated at 200,- 
 000. It is about 200 miles long with 
 
 A CEPIIALOPOD. 
 
 an average width of 35 miles. Its in- 
 terior is? traversed by mountain ranges 
 from 6,000 to 8.000 feet high. The 
 vegetation is luxuriant. The inhabi- 
 tants of the coast are of Malay origin, 
 the interior being peopled by Alfoo- 
 ries. It is under the Dutch. 
 
 Ceramic Art, that department of 
 plastic art which comprises all objects 
 made of baked clay, and including all 
 the varieties of earthenware and 
 porcelain which can be regarded as 
 works of art. 
 
 Cerastes, a genus of African vipers 
 remarkable for their fatal venom, and 
 for two little herns formed by the 
 scales above the eyes. Hence they 
 have received the name of horned vi- 
 pers. The tail is very distinct from 
 the body. 
 
 Cerate, the name of an external 
 medicament, more or less liquid, hav- 
 ing for its basis wax and oil. Simple 
 cerate consists of 8 ounces of lard and 
 4 of white wax melted together and 
 stirred till cold. 
 
 Cerberus, the three-headed dog 
 which guards the entrance of the king- 
 dom of Hades and Persephone. Or- 
 pheus, when he descended into the in- 
 fernal regions in search of Eurydice, 
 lulled him to sleep with his lyre ; and 
 Hercules dragged him from the gate of 
 Hades, when he went after Alceste. 
 
 Cercis, a handsome Asiatic tree. 
 It has received the name of the Judas- 
 tree, from the tradition that it was 
 upon a specimen of it, near Jerusa- 
 lem, that the traitor Judas hanged 
 himself. 
 
 Cerdic, a king of the West Saxons, 
 who invaded England about the end of 
 the 5th century, and established the 
 kingdom of Wessex about 516. He died 
 in 534. 
 
 Cere, the naked skin that covers 
 the base of the bill in some birds, and 
 which is supposed to exercise a tactile 
 sense. 
 
 Cereals, a term derived from Ceres, 
 the goddess of corn, and confined to 
 wheat, barley, rye, oats, and other 
 grasses, cultivated for the sake of their 
 seed as food. 
 
 Cerebration, exertion or action of 
 the brain, conscious or unconscious. 
 
 Cerebro-spinal, pertaining to the 
 brain and spinal cord together, looked 
 on as forming one nerve mass.
 
 Ceres 
 
 Ceres, an asteroid, the first found. 
 It was discovered by Piazzi on Jan. 1, 
 1801. Having observed it at Palermo, 
 in Sicily, he called it Ceres, after the 
 old tutelary divinity of that island. 
 
 Cereus, the Torth-thistle. The 
 Suwarrow or Saguaro of the Mexi- 
 cans, is the largest and most striking 
 of the genus. It rises to the height 
 of 50 or 60 feet, and looks more like a 
 candelabra than a tree of the normal 
 type. The genus are generally useful 
 as cardiac agents and anti-pyretics. 
 
 Cerigo (ancient Cythera), a Greek 
 island in the Mediterranean, S. of the 
 Morea, from which it is separated by 
 a narrow strait; area about 100 
 square miles. 
 
 Cerin.th.us, a heretic who lived at 
 the close of the apostolic age, but of 
 whom we have nothing better than un- 
 certain and confuted accounts. 
 
 Cerium (named by the discoverers 
 after Ceres), a metal found with two 
 other metals, lanthanum and didymi- 
 um, in cerite. 
 
 Ceroxylon, a genus of South 
 American palms; the wax palm. 
 
 Cerro Blanco, the highest moun- 
 tain in New Mexico ; summit 14,269 
 feet. 
 
 Cerro de Fasco, the capital of the 
 Peruvian department of Junin, stands 
 at an elevation of 14,276 feet, 138 
 miles N. E. of Lima. Near it are 
 some of the richest silver mines on the 
 continent. The climate is cheerless 
 and inclement. Pop. 7,000. 
 
 Cerro Gordo, a mountain-pass in 
 Mexico, through which passes the Na- 
 tional road from Vera Cruz to Jalapa 
 and Mexico. It is celebrated as the 
 scene of a victory by General Scott 
 with 9,000 United States troops over 
 an army of 13,000 Mexicans under 
 Santa Ana, April 17-18, 1847. This 
 victory enabled Scott to take the town 
 of Jalapa the following day. 
 
 Cerro Gordo de Potosi, a moun- 
 tain in the Andes of Bolivia ; S. W. of 
 Potosi ; 16,150 feet in height ; remark- 
 able for its deposits of silver. 
 
 Cerro Largo, a department in the 
 N. E. of Uruguay, well watered, with 
 large savannahs and forests. A-ea, 
 5.753 square miles; pop. 29,909, 
 chiefly engaged in cattle-raising. Cap- 
 ital, Cerro Largo or Melo ; pop. 5,000. 
 
 Cervidse 
 
 Cerros, or Cedros Island, an is- 
 land belonging to Mexico, in the Pa- 
 cific Ocean, off the W. coast of Lower 
 California. 
 
 Certaldo, a town of Central Italy, 
 19 miles S. W. of Florence. It is 
 noteworthy as the residence of Boccac- 
 cio, who was born and died here. His 
 house is still standing, much as it was 
 in the poet's time. 
 
 Certiorari, in law, a writ issuing 
 out of a superior court to call up the 
 records of an inferior court or remove 
 a cause there depending, that it may 
 be tried in the superior court. 
 
 Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de, 
 author of "Don Quixote," and one of 
 the greatest writers of modern times ; 
 born in Alcala de Henares, Oct. 9, 
 1547. He died April 23, 1616 (on the 
 same day as Shakespeare), in Madrid, 
 where he had resided during the last 
 years of his life. He was buried with- 
 out any ceremony, and no tombstone 
 marks the spot where he rests. 
 
 Cervera y Topete, Pascnal, a 
 Spanish naval officer ; born in the 
 province of Jerez, in 1833. Graduated 
 at the Naval Academy of San Fernan- 
 do ; entered on active service in 1851 ; 
 and was made first lieutenant in 1859 ; 
 captain in 1868; and admiral subse- 
 quently. He was a prominent factor 
 in the 10-years' war in Cuba, when he 
 succeeded in blockading the ports ; was 
 sent to London, as a representative of 
 Spain, to take part with other nations 
 in a conference bearing on naval ques- 
 tions of international importance ; and 
 commanded the fleet sent against the 
 American squadron operating in Cu- 
 ban waters after the declaration of 
 war in 1898. He took refuge in the 
 inner harbor of Santiago de Cuba, and 
 when, on July 3, he attempted to es- 
 cape, under imperative orders from his 
 superiors, his entire fleet was destroyed 
 by the squadron under the official com- 
 mand of Rear-Admiral Sampson and 
 the actual command ( in the temporary 
 absence of that officer) of Rear-Ad- 
 miral Schley. Admiral Cervera and his 
 surviving officers were sent to Anna- 
 polis, Md., as prisoners of war, and 
 soon afterward were released and 
 returned to Spain. Died Apr. 3, 1909. 
 
 Cervidae, a family of mammals. 
 The males of all the species and also 
 the female of the reindeer have ant-
 
 Cervus 
 
 Centa 
 
 lers, which are deciduous, this last 
 character completely distinguishing 
 them from the Oxen. The antlers also 
 are solid. The species are widely dis- 
 tributed and well known. None are 
 found in Africa S. of the Sahara or in 
 Australia. 
 
 Cervus, the genus of animals to 
 which the stag belongs, forming the 
 type of the deer family. 
 
 Cesnola, Lniga Palma di, an 
 American archaeologist, born in Pied- 
 mont, Italy, June 29, 1832. He served 
 in the Italian war with Austria and 
 came to the United States in 1860, 
 serving in the Civil War. He was 
 United States Consul at Cyprus, where 
 he made extensive archaeological dis- 
 coveries. Until his death, Nov. 21, 
 1904, he was director of the Metropol- 
 itan Museum of Art in New York city. 
 
 Cespedes y Borges, Carlos Man- 
 uel de, a noted Cuban patriot, born 
 in Bayamo, April 18, 1819. Impli- 
 cated in Prim's conspiracy while in 
 Spain, he was banished from there 
 and returned to Cuba. As leader of 
 the revolt of 1868 he was chosen by 
 the insurgents President of the newly 
 proclaimed republic. He was killed 
 in a skirmish with Spaniards, March 
 22, 1872. 
 
 Cestoid Worms, the Cestoda, or 
 intestinal worms, consisting of tape 
 worms and other creatures which re- 
 semble them in structure and habits. 
 The number of different kinds is great. 
 Their natural history is important in 
 reference to the health of human be- 
 ings and of the most valuable of do- 
 mesticated animals. 
 
 Cetacea, aquatic mammals which 
 depart in many important anatomical 
 points from the other members of the 
 class, their structure being so modified 
 as to render them unfit for terrestrial 
 life. The whales, the porpoise, nar- 
 whal, etc., represent the leading divis- 
 ions of the group. The body is fish- 
 like in form, the head passing grad- 
 ually into the trunk, which tapers pos- 
 teriorly and ends in a bil bate caudal 
 fin which is placed horizontally, not as 
 in the fishes, vertically. The posterior 
 limbs are wanting, and the anterior 
 are converted into broad paddles, with- 
 in which are present representatives of 
 all the bones usually found in the fore 
 limb of mammals. The fish-like aspect 
 
 is further increased by the presence of 
 a dorsal fin, as in the dolphin and fin- 
 ner whale. 
 
 The arrangement of the respiratory 
 and circulatory systems, which enable 
 the Cetacea to remain for some time 
 under water, are interesting. The nos- 
 trils open directly upward on the top 
 of the head, and are closed by valvu- 
 lar folds of integument which are un- 
 der the control of the animal. When the 
 animal comes to the surface to breathe 
 it expels the air violently, and the 
 vapor it contains becomes condensed 
 into a cloud. The blood-vessels, es- 
 pecially those of the thorax and spinal 
 canal, break up into extensive plexuses 
 or networks, in which a large amount 
 of oxygenated blood is delayed, and 
 thus the animal is enabled to remain 
 under water. 
 
 Cetewayo, a Kaffir chief, son of 
 Panda, King of the Zulus. The Natal 
 government secured the recognition of 
 Cetewayo as king in 1873. A dispute 
 which had arisen regarding lands on 
 the frontier was settled in favor of the 
 Zulus; but on the refusal of Cetewayo 
 to comply with the conditions war was 
 declared against him by the British, 
 and the king made prisoner in 1879. 
 In 1882 he was conditionally restored 
 to part of his dominions. In the fol- 
 lowing year he was driven from power 
 by the chief Usibepu, and remained un- 
 der the protection of the British until 
 his death in 1884. 
 
 Cetus ("the Whale"), a large 
 constellation lying on both sides of the 
 equator, but mostly S. of it, one of 
 Ptolemy's original 48. 
 
 Cettinje, the capital of the new 
 kingdom of Montenegro; situated in a 
 lofty mountain valley, 19 miles E. of 
 Cattaro, with which it is connected by 
 a steep road. Turkish invaders sacked 
 and burnt the town in 1683, 1714, and 
 1785, but it was each time rebuilt. 
 Pop. about 1,500. 
 
 Centa, a fortified port belonging to 
 Spain, on the coast of Morocco, oppo- 
 site Gibraltar. The mixed population 
 number about 9,700. It has resisted 
 several sieges by the Moors, and is 
 still the most important of the four 
 African Presidios. An attempt to 
 strengthen the fortifications was aban- 
 doned (1899) upon representations 
 from the British government to the
 
 Cevenncs 
 
 cabinet at Madrid. Many Cuban 
 patriots were prisoners there before 
 {Spain gave up its hold on Cuba. 
 
 Cevenncs, the chief mountain 
 range in the S. of France. With its 
 continuations and offsets, it forms the 
 watershed between the river-systems 
 of the Rhone and the Loire and Ga- 
 ronne. 
 
 Ceylon, (native Singhala, ancient 
 Taprobane) , an island belonging to 
 Great Britain in the Indian Ocean, 
 about 60 miles S. E. of the S. ex- 
 tremity of Hindustan, from wh'cb. it 
 is separated by the Gulf of Manaar 
 and Palk's Strait. Length, about 270 
 miles N. to S. ; average breadth, 100 
 mi)e ; area, 25,3(34 square miles. 
 
 Where the jungle has been cleared 
 away and the land drained and culti- 
 vated, the country is perfectly healthy ; 
 where low wooded tracts, and flat 
 marshy lands abound, covered with a 
 rank, luxuriant vegetation, the cli- 
 mate is eminently insalubrious. 
 
 Most of the animals found on the 
 opposite continent are native to this 
 island, excepting the royal tiger, which 
 does not exist here. Elephants are 
 numerous and are esteemed for their 
 superior strength and docility. Bears, 
 buffaloes, leopards, jackals, monkeys, 
 and wild hogs are numerous. Croco- 
 diles, serpents, and reptiles of all sorts 
 abound. Of the snake tribe, consisting 
 of about 26 different species, six only 
 are venomous. Among the insects are 
 the leaf and stick insects, the ant-lion, 
 the white ant, etc. 
 
 In the luxuriance of its vegetable 
 productions, Ceylon rivals the islands 
 of the Indian Archipelago, and in some 
 respects bears a strong resemblance to 
 them; its most valuable products are 
 tea, rice, coffee, cinnamon, and the 
 cocoanut. Tea is being widely culti- 
 vated. Tobacco is raised principally 
 in the N. district, and is of excellent 
 quality. Indigo grows wild, but is not 
 Bought after. 
 
 Ceylon is one of the British crown 
 Colonies, its government being conduct- 
 ed by _ a governor and two councils, 
 executive and legislative, of both of 
 which the governor is president The 
 first is composed of sis members, the 
 other of 17 members. The powers of 
 the councils are limited, being wholly 
 subservient to the governor, who can 
 carry into effect any law without 
 
 Chadwick 
 
 their concurrence. All laws must be 
 approved by the Secretary of State for 
 the Colonies before they can take ef- 
 fect. Any individual properly quali- 
 fied may be appointed to the most re- 
 sponsible situation, without reference 
 to seryice, nation or religion, and na- 
 tive Singhalese have occupied some of 
 the highest posts. Of the population 
 (1901) 3,576,990, more than half are 
 said to be Buddhists, and about 500,- 
 000 are of the Hindu religion. On the 
 W. and S. W. coast numbers of the 
 Singhalese profess the Roman Catholic 
 religion. There are a number of Epis- 
 copal clergy in the island, subordinate 
 to the Bishop of Colombo ; various 
 other Protestant bodies have places of 
 worship, but the Protestants are less 
 than half the number of the Roman 
 Catholics. 
 
 The Singhalese have a colloquial 
 language peculiar to themselves, but 
 their classic and sacred writings are 
 either in Pali or Sanskrit The Mala- 
 bars use the Tamil. English is be- 
 coming more and more common. 
 
 The principal towns of the island 
 are Colombo, Trincomalee, Kandy, 
 Galle, Gaffna, and Kornegalle. 
 
 Chacornac, Jean, a French as- 
 tronomer, born in Lyons, June 21, 
 1823. He is principally known for his 
 discoveries of asteroids, six in number, 
 and most of his work was done at the 
 Paris Observatory under Leverrier. 
 He died in Paris, Sept 26, 1873. 
 
 Chadbourne, Panl Ansel, an 
 American educator and writer, born in 
 North Berwick, Me., Oct. 21, 1823. He 
 was president of the Massachusetts 
 Agricultural College at Amherst; of 
 the University of Wisconsin ; of Will- 
 iams College. He died in New York, 
 Feb. 23, 1883. 
 
 Chaddock College, a co-educa- 
 tional institution in Quincy, 111. ; or- 
 ganized in 1857, under the auspices of 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 
 Chad-wick, French Ensor, an 
 American naval officer, born in Mor- 
 gantown, W. Va., Feb. 29, 1844. Dur- 
 ing the war with Spain he commanded 
 the armored cruiser " New York," the 
 flagship of the North Atlantic Squad- 
 rbn. 
 
 Chadwick, John White, an 
 American writer and Unitarian clergy- 
 man, bonx in Marblehead, Mass., Oct.
 
 Clurronca 
 
 19, 1840. He died in Brooklyn, New 
 York, Dec. 11, 1904. 
 
 Chaeronea, a city of Boeotia, in 
 ancient Greece, near the Cephissus, on 
 the borders of Phocis. Philip II., 
 King of Macedon, defeated tae united 
 Boeotian and Athenian forces near this 
 place, B. c. 338; and here, also, Sylla 
 defeated the generals of Mithridates 
 VI. B. c. 86. Plutarch was born here, 
 A. D. 46. 
 
 Chafer, a term loosely applied to 
 certain insects of the beetle order, es- 
 pecially such as themselves or their 
 larvae are injurious to plants. 
 
 CIiafFce, Aclna Romania, an 
 American military officer, born in Or- 
 well, O., April 14, 1842. He received 
 a public school education; entered the 
 regular army as a private, July 22, 
 1861 ; became a captain, Oct. 12, 1867 ; 
 and colonel of the 8th U. S. Cavalry, 
 May 8, 1899. On May 4, 1898, he was 
 commissioned Brigadier-General of 
 volunteers for the war with Spain ; on 
 July 8, following, was promoted to 
 Major-General ; and on April 13, 1899, 
 was honorably discharged under this 
 commission. On the last mentioned 
 date he was re-appointed a Brigadier- 
 General of volunteers, and on July 19, 
 1900, the President, having selected 
 him to command the American military 
 forces in China, commissioned him a 
 Major-General of volunteers. He 
 reached Taku, China, on July 28, and 
 led the American contingent of the al- 
 lied force which entered Peking on 
 Aug. 15, and rescued the foreign lega- 
 tioners. General Chaffee made a bril- 
 liant record in the Apache Indian 
 campaigns ; commanded the troops 
 which captured El Caney, in Cuba; 
 and afterward was chief-of-staff to 
 both Generals Brooke and Wood, when 
 governor-general of Cuba. On June 
 19, 1901, General Chaffee was ap- 
 pointed military governor of the Phil- 
 ippines. 
 
 Chaffinch, a European bird, so 
 called because it delights in chaff, and 
 is by some much admired for its song. 
 
 Cliagos Islands, a group of islands 
 in the Indian Ocean belonging to 
 Great Britain ; a S. extension of the 
 Maldive Islands. 
 
 Chagres, a town of the United 
 States of <Y>1ombiri, on the N. const 
 ^f the Isthmus of Panama, at the 
 
 Chalcedony 
 
 mouth of the Chagres river. The river 
 of the same name rises about 10 mileu 
 N. E. of Panama, makes an immense 
 bend round to the N. E., and enters 
 the Caribbean Sea. Though toward 
 its mouth it varies in depth from 16 
 to 30 feet, it is yet, by reason at once 
 of its rapidity and its falls, but little 
 available for navigation. The route 
 of the projected Panama canal is by 
 the valley of the Chagres for part of 
 its course, and the canal would cross 
 the river repeatedly. The " Chagres 
 fever " is named after the river. 
 
 Chaille-Long, Charles, an Amer- 
 ican explorer, born of French parent- 
 age, in Baltimore, Md., 1843. After 
 serving in the Confederate army he 
 went to Egypt, where he was appoint- 
 ed lieutenant-colonel by the Khedive 
 (1870). Gordon made him chief-of- 
 staff and sent him on a mission to 
 King Mtesa of Uganda. 
 
 Chain, in surveying, is a measure 
 consisting of 100 links, each 7.92 inch- 
 es in length, and having a total length 
 of 4 rods, o 1 * 66 feet. 
 
 Chain Armor, coats and other 
 pieces of mail, formed of hammered 
 iron links, constituting a flexible gar- 
 ment which fitted to the person. 
 
 Chains, series of links interlocked 
 with the adjacent ones, in such a man- 
 ner as to form continuous and flexible 
 lines. 
 
 Chain Shot, two balls connected 
 either by a bar or chain, formerly 
 used for cutting and destroying the 
 rigging of an enemy's ship. 
 
 Chair of St. Peter, at Rome, a 
 wooden chair overlaid with ivory work 
 and gold. 
 
 Chaise, a two-wheeled carriage for 
 two persons, with a top, and usually 
 drawn by one horse. 
 
 Chalcedon, a Greek city of ancient 
 Bithynia, opposite Byzantium (Con- 
 stantinople), at the entrance of the 
 Black Sea, about 2 miles S. of the 
 modern Scutari, It was finally de- 
 stroyed by the Turks, by whom it was 
 taken, about 1075. 
 
 Chalcedony, a cryptocrystalllne 
 variety of quartz, having the luster 
 nearly of wax, and either transparent 
 or translucent. Color, white, grayish, 
 pale brown to dark brown or black ; 
 tendon-color common : sometimes deli-
 
 Chalcis 
 
 cate blue. Also of other shades, and 
 then having other names. 
 
 Chalcis, a Greek town, anciently 
 the chief town of Eubcea, separated 
 by the narrow strait of Euripus from 
 the Boeotian coast, on the mainland of 
 Greece, with which it was connected 
 by a bridge. Chalcis early became one 
 of the greatest of the Ionic cities, car- 
 rying on an extensive commerce. It 
 was subsequently a place of impor- 
 tance under the Romans. 
 
 Chaldtea, in ancient geography the 
 regions of Babylonia, or more gener- 
 ally* Babylonia. The early history of 
 Chaldaea is obscure. The Chaldaeans 
 were conquered by the Assyrians, with 
 Babylon, and waged frequent wars 
 with the latter power. When the As- 
 syrian power began to wane, the Chal- 
 daeans, being a more warlike and pow- 
 erful people than the Babylonians, be- 
 came supreme ; Chaldsea and Baby- 
 lonia, by their conquests under Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, became one kingdom, and 
 the names Chaldsea and Babylonia be- 
 came synonymous terms. 
 
 CLaldee Language, a name often 
 given to the Aramean language, one 
 of the principal varieties of the an- 
 cient Semitic. Chaldee literature is 
 usually arranged in two divisions : the 
 Biblical Chaldee, or those portions of 
 the Old Testament which are written 
 in Chaldee, namely, Daniel from ii : 
 4 to yii: 28; Ezra iv : 8 to vi : 18; 
 and vii : 12-26 ; and Jeremiah x : 11 ; 
 and the Chaldee of the Targums and 
 other later Jewish writings. 
 
 Chalet, the French-Swiss name for 
 the wooden hut of the Swiss herdsmen 
 on the mountains ; but also expended 
 to Swiss dwelling-houses generally, 
 and to picturesque villas built in imi- 
 tation of them. 
 
 Chalenr Bay, or Bay of Chal- 
 eurs, an inlet of the Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence, between Quebec and New 
 Brunswick. 
 
 Chalice, a term generally applied 
 to a communion cup for the wine in 
 the Eucharist, often of artistic and 
 highly ornamental character. 
 
 Chalk, a well-known earthy lime- 
 stone, of an opaque white color, soft, 
 and admitting no polish. It is an im- 
 pure carbonate of lime, and is used as 
 an absorbent and anti-acid, and for 
 making darks for various purposes. 
 
 Chamber 
 
 Challenge, to jurors, is an objec- 
 tion either to the whole panel or ar- 
 ray, or to the jurors individually, and 
 it is either peremptory, or for cause 
 assigned. 
 
 Challenger Expedition, a cir- 
 cumnavigating scientific exploration of 
 the open sea sent out by the British 
 government in 1872-1876. In 1872 
 the "Challenger," a corvette of 2,306 
 tons, was completely fitted out and 
 furnished with every scientific appli- 
 ance for examining the sea from sur- 
 face to bottom. The ship was given 
 in charge to a naval surveying 
 staff, under Captain Nares, and to 
 a scientific staff, with Professor 
 Wyville Thomson at their head, for 
 the purpose of sounding the depths, 
 mapping the basins, and determin- 
 ing the physical and biological con- 
 ditions of the Atlantic, the South- 
 ern and the Pacific Oceans. Be- 
 tween the Admiralty Isles and Japan 
 the " Challenger " made her deepest 
 sounding, on March 23, 1875, 4,575 
 fathoms, then the deepest sounding on 
 record except two. It is interesting to 
 note here that the United States sur- 
 veying ship " Nero," in- an expedition 
 extending from April 22, 1899, to Feb. 
 11, 1900, made the two deepest sound- 
 ings on record, 5,160 and 5,269 fath- 
 oms, both in the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Chalmers, Thomas, a noted Scotch 
 divine, born hi Fife, in 1780. He may 
 be regarded as the founder of the Free 
 Church of Scotland. He died in Morn- 
 ingside, May 31, 1847. 
 
 Chalybeate Waters, those which 
 contain salts of iron in sufficient quan- 
 tity to give them a special value in the 
 treatment of cases of anaemia, etc. 
 
 Chama, a large shellfish found in 
 tropical seas, especially among coral 
 reefs. One sometimes weighs 300 
 pounds. The byssus by which it ad- 
 heres to the rock is so tough that a 
 hatchet is required to cut it through. 
 
 Chamba, a hill-state of the Punjab 
 district, British India, N. of the dis- 
 tricts of Kangra and Gurdaspur. 
 
 Chamber, a word used in many 
 countries to designate a branch of gov- 
 ernment whose members assemble in a 
 common apartment, or applied to bod- 
 ies of various kinds meeting for va- 
 rious purposes. The imperial cham- 
 ber of the old German Empire was a
 
 C Ii anil) erlain 
 
 court established at Wetzlar, near the 
 Rhine, by Maximilian I. in 1495, to 
 adjust the disputes between the dif- 
 ferent independent members of the 
 German Empire. 
 
 Chamberlain, an officer charged 
 with the direction and management of 
 the private apartments of a monarch 
 or nobleman. 
 
 Chamberlain, Joseph, an Eng- 
 lish statesman, born in London in 
 July, 18bO. In 1808 he was appoint- 
 ed a member of the Birmingham town- 
 council, was mayor of Birmingham 
 from 1873 to 1870, and chairman of 
 the Birmingham school-board from 
 1874 to 1870. After unsuccessfully 
 contesting Sheffield against Mr. Roe- 
 buck in 1874, he was returned for Bir- 
 mingham without opposition in June, 
 1870. He soon made his mark in Par- 
 liament, and on the return of the Lib- 
 erals to power in 1880 he was appoint- 
 ed President of the Board of Trade, 
 with a seat in the cabinet. Meanwhile 
 bis influence was increasing rapidly 
 outside the House ; he came to be re- 
 garded as the leader of the extreme 
 Radical party. During the last hours 
 of Mr. Gladstone's government he was 
 understood to be opposed to the re- 
 newal of the Irish Crimes Act ; and 
 during the general election of 1880 he 
 was most severe in his strictures on 
 the moderate Liberals, and produced 
 an " unauthorized " programme which 
 included the readjustment of taxation, 
 free schools, and the creation of allot- 
 ments by compulsory purchase. He 
 was returned by the western division 
 of Birmingham. On Feb. 1, 1880, he 
 beame president of the Local Govern- 
 ment Board, but resigned on March 
 20, because of his strong objections to 
 Mr. Gladstone's Home Rule measures 
 for Ireland. He became leader of the 
 Liberal-Unionists- when the Duke of 
 Devonshire went to the Upper House. 
 Lord Salisbury sent him to Washing- 
 ton as commissioner on the Canadian 
 fishery dispute, and in 1895 he was 
 made Colonial minister in the Union- 
 ist Cabinet. As such he had to face 
 the troubles in South Africa, and to 
 cherish closer fellow-feeling with the 
 Colonies. He carried the Australian 
 Federation measure in Parliament 
 (1900), and later had to face opposi- 
 tion from within the Liberal party. 
 In 1888 he was married to Mary, 
 
 Chambersburg 
 
 daughter of William C. Endicott, Sec- 
 retary of War in President Cleve- 
 land's first administration. After the 
 Boer war he visited South Africa and 
 made himself personally acquainted 
 with the situation there. His strong 
 advocacy of " fair trade," or a modi- 
 fied protective tariff caused great dis- 
 turbance in the ministry and its sup- 
 porters, and in September, 1903, Mr. 
 Chamberlain resigned as a member 
 of the Cabinet. 
 
 Chamberlain, Joshua Law- 
 rence, an American army officer and 
 educator. He was born in Bangor, 
 Me., Sept. 8, 1828 ; graduated at Bow- 
 doin College in 1852, and entered the 
 volunteer service of the Union in 1802, 
 became a Major-General in 1805, and 
 received the colors of Lee's army on, 
 its surrender. After the war he re- 
 turned to the professorship at Bow- 
 doin College which he had previously 
 held. In 1807-1871 was governor of 
 Maine, and in 1871-1883 was presi- 
 dent of Bowdoin, resigning to engage 
 in business in New York citr. 
 
 Chambers, Charles Julius, an 
 American journalist, born in Belle- 
 fontaine, O., Nov. 21, 1850. In 1870 
 he traveled through the West Indies, 
 Europe, the United States, and Cana- 
 da, as special correspondent of the 
 " New York Herald," In 1870 he 
 published an account of his few weeks 
 of experience in an insane institution, 
 entitled, "A Mad World," which ex- 
 cited great interest. 
 
 Chambers, Robert, a Scotch prose- 
 writer and publisher, born in Peebles, 
 July 10, 1802. He and his brother 
 began in poverty as small booksellers ; 
 issued penny leaflets of useful infor- 
 mation for the people which became 
 very popular, and at last took regular 
 periodical form in " Chambers' Jour- 
 nal," and the great publishing-house 
 which bears the name of both devel- 
 oped gradually. The " Chambers' En 
 cyclopaedia " was the outgrowth of the 
 " Journal." He died in St. Andrews, 
 March 17, 1871. 
 
 Chambers, William, a Scotch 
 prose-writer and editor, brother and 
 partner of Robert, born in Peebles, 
 April 10, 1800. He died in Edinburgh, 
 May 20, 1883. 
 
 Chambersbnrg, a borough and 
 county-seat of Franklin county, Pa,
 
 Chambers of Commerce 
 
 Chameleon 
 
 on the Conecocheague and Falling 
 Creeks and the Cumberland Valley 
 and Western and the Philadelphia and 
 Reading railroads, 52 miles W. S. W. 
 of Harrisburg. In Early's raid in the 
 Civil War General McCausland en- 
 tered Chambersburg with Confederate 
 cavalry, July 30, 1864, and demanded 
 a tribute of $200,000 gold; this not 
 being paid the place was set on fire 
 and two-thirds of it burned, causing a 
 loss of $1,000,000. 
 
 Chambers of Commerce, bodies 
 of merchants and traders associated 
 for the purpose of promoting the in- 
 terests of their own members, of the 
 city to which the society belongs, and 
 of the community. Of the means by 
 which these objects are sought to be 
 accomplished the following may be 
 mentioned as the most prominent : 
 (1) by representing and urging on 
 the Legislature the views of their 
 members in mercantile affairs; (2) by 
 aiding in the preparation of legislative 
 measures having reference to trade ; 
 (3) by collecting statistics bearing 
 upon the staple trade of the city; (4) 
 in some places -by acting as a sort of 
 court of arbitration in mercantile 
 questions; (5) by attaining by com- 
 bination advantages in trade which 
 might be beyond the reach of individ- 
 ual enterprise. 
 
 The first institution of the kind in 
 the United States, the New York 
 Chamber of Commerce, was organized 
 in 1768 and incorporated by royal 
 charter from King George III. in 
 1770. There are similar bodies in 
 every city and town of consequence hi 
 the United States. 
 
 Chambly, Fort, a fort at the out- 
 let of Lake Champlain at the time of 
 the Revolutionary War. It was cap- 
 tured by the Colonists in 1775, and 
 the colors of the 7th Regiment of 
 British regulars was sent to the Con- 
 tinental Congress as trophies of the 
 victory. 
 
 Chambord, Henri Charles Fer- 
 dinand Marie Dieudonne, Comte 
 de, Duke of Bordeaux, the last repre- 
 sentative of the elder branch of the 
 French Bourbon dynasty, called by his 
 partisans Henry V. of France; born 
 in Paris, Sept. 29, 1820, seven months 
 after the assassination of his father. 
 Charles X., after the revolutionary 
 
 outbreak of 1830, abdicated in his 
 favor, but the young count was com- 
 pelled to leave the country. He lived 
 successively in Scotland, Austria, 
 Italy, and England, keeping a species 
 of court, and occasionally issuing man- 
 ifestos. In 1846 he married the Prin- 
 cess Maria-Theresa, eldest daughter of 
 the Duke of Modena, and in 1851 in- 
 herited the domain of Frohsdorf, near 
 Vienna, where he subsequently resid- 
 ed. He died in Austria, Aug. 24. 1883. 
 
 Chambre Ardente, the name 
 given in France to a court of law, 
 instituted by Francis I. It was 
 hung with black and lighted with 
 torches, for the purpose of trying and 
 burning heretics ; and also to the ex- 
 traordinary commissions established 
 for the examination of poisoners, and 
 under the regent duke of Orleans for 
 the punishment of public officers 
 charged with offenses against the reve- 
 nues, as also of those who were guilty 
 of fraud in the matter of Law's bank. 
 
 Chambre des Comptes, a great 
 court established in France, prior to 
 the Revolution, for the registration of 
 edicts, ordinances, etc. 
 
 Chameleon, a genus of reptiles be- 
 longing to the Saurian or lizard-like 
 order, a native of parts of Asia and 
 Africa. The very remarkable power 
 
 HEAD OF CHAMELEON. 
 
 which these animals possess of chang- 
 ing their color, at a very early period 
 called the attention of observers to 
 their habits. Its skin is composed of 
 a sort of small, scaly grains, and un- 
 der ordinary circumstances is of a 
 greenish gray color. The eyes are 
 capable of moving independently of 
 each other, taking different directions 
 at the same moment. Several species 
 of chameleon are known, and are na- 
 tives of Africa, Madagascar, Southern
 
 Chameleon 
 
 Asia, and the Molucca Islands. They 
 pass their lives altogether upon trees, 
 feeding upon small insects, for which 
 their construction shows them to be 
 perfectly adapted. 
 
 Chameleon, a Southern constella- 
 tion containing "ine stars, lies within 
 the Antarctic Polar Circle. 
 
 Chamois, a well-known species of 
 the antelope found only in high, moun- 
 tainous regions, where they feed in 
 small flocks or families, on the highest 
 
 CHAMOIS. 
 
 cliffs affording vegetation. The cham- 
 ois are exceedingly shy, and have very 
 acute senses, so that it is only by 
 great patience and skill that the hunt- 
 er can come sufficiently near to shoot 
 them. 
 
 Chamois Leather, a leather made 
 from the skin of the Chamois, but the 
 skins of sheep, goats, deer, calves, and 
 the split hides of other animals, are 
 used for making this kind of leather. 
 
 Chamomile or Camomile, a well- 
 known plant. It is perennial, and has 
 slender, trailing, hairy, and branched 
 stems. The flower is white, with a 
 yellow center. Both leaves and flow- 
 ers are bitter and aromatic. The fra- 
 grance is due to the presence of an es- 
 sential oil, called oil of .chamomile, 
 of a light blue color when first ex- 
 tracted. It is cultivated in gardens 
 in the United States, and also found 
 wild 
 
 Chimonni, or Chamonix, a cele- 
 brated valley in France, department 
 
 Champion 
 
 Haute-Savoie, in the Pennine Alps, 
 over 3,000 feet above sea-level. It is 
 about 12 miles long, by 1 to 6 miles 
 broad, its E. side formed by Mount 
 Blanc and other lofty mountains of 
 the same range, and it is traversed by 
 the Arve. The village of Chamouni 
 is much frequented by tourists. 
 
 Champaign, a city in Champaign 
 county, 111.; on the Illinois Central 
 and other railroads; 33 miles W. of 
 Danville; has manufactures of wind- 
 mills, furnaces, boilers, brick and tile, 
 piano, and iron and steel tools; and 
 is the seat of the University of 
 Illinois. Pop. (1910) 12,421. 
 
 Champ de Mars, a large, rectan- 
 gular public place in Paris, on the left 
 bank of the Seine, about 3,300 feet 
 long and 1,600 feet wide. At the out- 
 break of the French Revolution the 
 square was constructed by the united 
 efforts of all classes of Paris, and on 
 July 14, 1790, the first anniversary of 
 the taking of the Bastille, was held a 
 grand pageant and festival at which 
 universal pledges of " Liberty, Equal- 
 ity, and Fraternity " were exchanged. 
 This spot was the scene of a bloody 
 massacre July 17, 1791. It is now 
 used chiefly as a parade-ground. In 
 its center is the Eiffel Tower. 
 
 Champerty, the purchase of an in- 
 terest in a thing in dispute, with the 
 object of maintaining and taking part 
 in the litigation, or assisting another 
 to carry on a suit under an agreement 
 to receive part of the sum or thing to 
 be recovered. 
 
 Champion, one who combats or 
 fights; specifically, in the Middle 
 Ages, a person who took up the cause 
 and fought in the place of another. 
 Single combat was one of the ways 
 frequently adopted to decide the right 
 of a cause ; and women, children, or 
 aged persons were allowed to appear 
 by a representative. At one time the 
 champions were looked upon as dis- 
 reputable, being ready,' for hire, to 
 take up any quarrel. At a later per- 
 iod, however, during the ages of chiv- 
 alry, the champion was a knight, who 
 entered the lists on behalf of an in- 
 jured lady, a child, or one incapable 
 of self-defense. The word is also ap- 
 plied to one who earns, or claims, the 
 preeminence in feats of physical prow- 
 ess, or skill
 
 Champion Hills 
 
 Chancellorsville 
 
 Champion Hills, a place in Hinds 
 county, Miss., near Vicksburg, where, 
 on May 16, 1863, the Union army 
 defeated the Confederates. 
 
 Champlain, Lake, a picturesque 
 body of water between the Green 
 and Adirondack mountains, on the 
 border of the States of Vermont and 
 New York; length about 125 miles, 
 maximum depth 280 feet. The 
 waters find an outlet at the N. end 
 by the Richelieu or Sorel river, which 
 empties into the St. Lawrence. Since 
 the construction of the canal, which 
 connects it with the Hudson river, 
 the lake has become an important 
 medium of commerce between Can- 
 ada and the United States. In July, 
 1909, the 300th anniversary of the 
 discovery of the lake was celebrated by 
 the United States, England, France, 
 Canada, New York and Vermont. 
 
 Champlain, Samuel de, a French 
 navigator, born at Brouage, Saint- 
 onge, about 1570. In 1599 he sailed 
 to the West Indies, Mexico, and Pan- 
 ama. On his return (1601) he pre- 
 pared a record of this cruise, with 
 charts, etc. In March, 1603, he sailed 
 for North America, and explored, by 
 boat, the St. Lawrence river up to 
 the Falls of St. Louis, and down to 
 Gaspe. In May, 1604, he sailed with 
 De Monts along the shores of Nova 
 Scotia, wintered on the island of St. 
 Croix, and founded a colony at Port 
 Royal. From 1604 to 1606 he made 
 careful surveys and charts of the coast 
 as far as Cape Cod. He revisited 
 France in 1607, but sailed again in 
 1608, and founded Quebec. In 1609 
 he accompanied an Algonquin and 
 Huron expedition against the Iroquois, 
 and discovered Lake Champlain. From 
 September, 1609, to March, 1610, he 
 was engaged in bringing over French 
 mechanics for his colony. He became 
 lieutenant-governor of New France 
 (Oct. 8, 1612) ; fortified Quebec 
 (1620) ; but was compelled (1629) to 
 surrender to an English fleet, and was 
 taken to England. Released in 1632, 
 he sailed again for New France. He 
 died in Quebec, Dec. 25, 1635. 
 
 Champlin, John Denison, an 
 American author, born in Stonington, 
 Conn., Jan. 29, 1834. He has writ- 
 ten many useful and instructive books 
 for the young. 
 
 .82. 
 
 Champney, Elizabeth (Will- 
 iams), an American novelist, born in 
 Springfield, O., in 1850. Many of her 
 books are illustrated by her husband, 
 J. W. Champney. 
 
 Champney, James Wells, an 
 American artist, born in Boston, 
 Mass., July 16, 1843. He studied in 
 Europe under Edouard Frere. and in 
 1882 became a member of the Nation- 
 al Academy. He died in New York 
 in 1903. 
 
 Champs-Ely sees, (Fr. " Ely si an 
 Fields"), a place of public resort in 
 Paris, which consists of an avenue 
 and the gardens surrounding it. 
 
 Chanca, Dr. (believed to have been 
 Diego Alvarez Chanca), a Spanish 
 physician, born in Seville, who be- 
 came a companion of Columbus on his 
 second voyage in 1493. 
 
 Chancel, the end of a church, in 
 which the altar is placed. It was for- 
 merly divided from the body of the 
 church by a screen and is raised above 
 the level. 
 
 Chancellor, in ancient times a 
 petty officer stationed at the fence of 
 bars or lattice-work in a law-court, to 
 introduce such functionaries as were 
 entitled to pass inside. The Lord 
 Chancellor of England was originally 
 the king's chief secretary, to whom 
 petitions were referred. He is now 
 the highest judicial functionary in the 
 kingdom. Several of the United States 
 have chancellors, high judicial officers 
 who preside over courts of chancery. 
 
 The Chancellor of the German Em- 
 pire is an officer, the extent of whose 
 power and influence has never been 
 exactly defined. In modern Germany 
 since the unification of the German 
 Empire the office has been made illus- 
 trious by its association with the 
 name of Bismarck, the first to hold 
 that position under the new regime. 
 In general terms it may be stated that 
 the German Chancellor is an executive 
 of very great powers, being at once 
 the adviser and prime minister of the 
 Emperor. 
 
 Chancellorsville, Battle of, one 
 of the great battles of the American 
 Civil War, fought at Chancellorsville, 
 Va., May 2 and 3, 1863. Gen. Jo- 
 seph Hooker commanded the Federal 
 force, and Gen. Robert E. Lee the 
 Confederate force. Although Hook-
 
 Chancery 
 
 er's army was superior in numbers, 
 being about 130,000 against 60,000 of 
 the Confederates, the adyantage at the 
 end of the battle lay with the latter. 
 During a flank movement the llth 
 corps of the Federal army, under Gen. 
 O. O. Howard, was surprised and 
 thrown into a panic near nightfall of 
 the first day. The flank movement 
 extended so far that the bullets of the 
 Confederates were turned upon their 
 own troops, and by their fire " Stone- 
 wall " Jackson was mortally wound- 
 ed. The Federal loss was 18,000, the 
 Confederate loss 13,000. 
 
 Chancery, in law, a court having 
 special defined power. In the United 
 States it is a court having equity 
 jurisdiction. American courts of equi- 
 ty are, in some instances, distinct 
 from those of law ; in others, the same 
 tribunals exercise the jurisdiction both 
 of courts of law and equity, though 
 their forms of proceeding are different 
 in their two capacities. 
 
 Chandler, Sctli C., an American 
 astronomer, born in Boston, Mass., 
 Sept. 16, 1845 ; well known for his in- 
 vestigations and observations of the 
 phenomena of variable stars, the com- 
 putation of comet orbits, and, in con- 
 nection with J. Ritchie, Jr., of Bos- 
 ton, for devising a system of astrono- 
 mical code-telegrams for the announce- 
 ment of astronomical discoveries. 
 
 Chandler, William Eaton, an 
 American politician, born in Concord, 
 N. II., Dec. 28, 1835. He was grad- 
 uated at Harvard Law School in 1855, 
 entered the New Hampshire Legisla- 
 ture in 1862, became Judge Advocate 
 General of the Navy Department in 
 1865, and Secretary of the Navy in 
 1882, serving three years. In 1887- 
 1901 he was a United States Senator 
 from New Hampshire. 
 
 Chang-Chow-Foo, or Chang- 
 Chan, a city of China, about 36 miles 
 S. W. of Amoy, which is its port. It 
 lies in a valley in the province of Fu- 
 Chien, and is surrounded by hills and 
 intersected by a river. It is the center 
 of the Fu-Chien silk industry. 
 
 Changeling, a child left or taken 
 in the place of another. 
 
 Chang-Sha, a city of China, capi- 
 tal of the Province of Hu-Nan, on the 
 Hang-Kiang, a tributary of the Yang- 
 tse-Kiang. 
 
 Chantry 
 
 Chanler, William Astor, an 
 
 American explorer, born in Newport, 
 R. I., June 11, 1867. He studied at 
 Harvard, but left the university to 
 make explorations in Africa. He was 
 elected to the New York Legislature, 
 and to Congress. He served in the 
 war with Spain. 
 
 Channel Islands, a group of is- 
 lands in the English Channel, off the 
 W. coast of department La Manche, in 
 France. They belong to Great Brit- 
 ain, and consist of Jersey, Guernsey, 
 Alderney, and Sark, with some de- 
 pendent islets. They are almost ex- 
 empt from taxation, and their inhab- 
 itants enjoy besides all the privileges 
 of British subjects. Area 112 square 
 miles, pop., 88,289. 
 
 Channing, William Ellery, an 
 American preacher and writer ; born 
 in Newport, R. I., April 7, 1780 ; 
 studied at Harvard College. His early 
 views are said to have been evangeli- 
 cal, but he soon became a decided Uni- 
 tarian, and by his zeal was termed 
 the " Apostle of Unitarianism." His 
 first appointment as a preacher was 
 in 1803, when he obtained the charge 
 of a congregation in Federal street, 
 Boston. He died in Burlington, Vt., 
 Oct. 2, 1842. 
 
 Channing, William Ellery, an 
 American poet ; nephew of William E. 
 Channing. the elder; born in Boston, 
 Mass., June 10, 1818; died in 1901. 
 
 Channing, William Henry, an 
 American Unitarian clergyman and 
 biographer; nephew of W. E. Chan- 
 ning, the elder ; born in Boston, May 
 25, 1810. Settling in England, he 
 succeeded James Martineau as pastor 
 at Liverpool. His daughter married 
 Sir Edwin Arnold. He died in Lon- 
 don, Dec. 23, 1884. 
 
 Chantilmn, or Chantabon, an 
 important commercial port of Siam, 
 near the mouth of the Chantibun river, 
 in the Gulf of Siam, occupied by the 
 French as security for the fulfillment 
 of the treaty of 1893. Pop., 30,000. 
 
 Chantry, a church or chapel en- 
 dowed for the maintenance of one or 
 more priests, for the purpose of sing- 
 ing daily masses for the souls of the 
 endowers, and such others as they 
 may appoint. Also the endowment for 
 the performance of masses for the soul 
 of the donor, or others.
 
 Chanzy 
 
 Clianzy, Antoine Eugene Al- 
 fred, a French General, born in Nou- 
 art (Ardennes), March 18, 1823; en- 
 tered the artillery as -a private, re- 
 ceived a commission in the Zouaves. 
 He was elected to the National Assem- 
 bly, and narrowly escaped being shot 
 by the Communists in 1871. In 1873- 
 1879 he was Governor-General of Al- 
 geria. Chosen a life Senator in 1875, 
 he was put forward for the presidency 
 in 1879. He was ambassador at St. 
 Petersburg in 1879-1881, and after- 
 ward commanded the 6th Army Corps 
 at Chalons, where he died suddenly, 
 Jan. 4, 1883. 
 
 Cliao-Chan, a city of China, on 
 the Han-Kiang, in the Province of 
 Kwang-tung, 195 miles N. E. of Hong- 
 Kong. 
 
 Chapala, a lake in Mexico, on the 
 high plateau of Jalisco, surrounded by 
 steep, bare mountains. 
 
 Chapel, a place of worship, for- 
 merly distinguished from a church by 
 the worship to be performed ; churches 
 being for general use, and chapels for 
 private use. In Roman Catholic 
 churches, portions of the main build- 
 ing, dedicated to particular saints, in 
 honor of whom a service is there per- 
 formed, are called chapels. The word 
 is also applied to an association of 
 union workmen in a printing-office for 
 the purpose of promoting and enforc- 
 ing order among themselves. 
 
 Chapelle, Placide Louis, an 
 American clergyman, born in Mende, 
 France, Aug. 28, 1842. He came to 
 the United States in 1859, and was 
 ordained a Roman Catholic priest. 
 For five years he was a missionary, 
 and from 1870 to 1891 held pastorates 
 in Baltimore and Washington. He 
 was made coadjutor archbishop of 
 Santa Fe in 1891, archbishop in 1894, 
 and archbishop of New Orleans in 
 1897 ; in 1898 he became Apostolic 
 Delegate to Cuba, Porto Rico, and the 
 Philippines. He died Aug. 9, 1905. 
 
 Chapin, Edwin Hnbbell, Amer- 
 ican Universalist divine (1814-80), 
 was the author of valuable moral and 
 ethical works for young people. 
 
 Chapin, John R., an American 
 illustrator, born in Providence, R. L. 
 in 1823. He received a common school 
 education and studied law, but took 
 up art. He was a pioneer in periodi- 
 
 Charcot 
 
 cal illustration in the United States. 
 In 1863 he made the designs for the 
 new series of bills for the National 
 currency. He died Nov. 12, 1904. 
 
 Chaplain, literally a person who 
 is appointed te a chapel, as a clergy- 
 man not having a parish or similar 
 charge. Chaplains in the United 
 States arciy rank as captains of in- 
 fantry ; in the navy they have the 
 rank of lieutenant, commander and 
 captain, according to length of service. 
 
 Clia-Poo, or Cha-Pu, a seaport 
 town of China, in the Province of 
 Cheh-Chiang (or Che-Kiang), on the 
 N. side of Hang-Chau Bay, 35 miles 
 from Ning-Po. ' 
 
 Chapter, one of the chief divi- 
 sions of a book. As ^the rules and 
 statutes of ecclesiastical establish- 
 ments were arranged in chapters, so 
 also the assembly of the members of a 
 religious order, and of canons, was 
 called a chapter. 
 
 Chapter-House, the building at- 
 tached to a cathedral or religious 
 house in which the chapter meets for 
 the transaction of business. 
 
 Chapultepec, a rocky elevation 
 about 3 miles S. W. of the City of 
 Mexico. During the war with the 
 United States, Gen. Pillow stormed 
 the castle on this hill, Sept. 13, 1847. 
 The Emperor Maximilian made Cha- 
 pultepec his principal palace, and it 
 is now occupied by the President, por- 
 tions used by a school and observa- 
 tory being still reserved for them. 
 
 Charade, a species of enigma, or 
 riddle, the subject of which is a name 
 or word that is proposed for solution 
 from an enigmatical description of its 
 several syllables taken separately as so 
 many individual words, and then from 
 a similar description of the whole 
 name or word. 
 
 Charcot, Jean Martin, a French 
 physician, born in Paris, Nov. 29, 
 1825. His specialty was nervous ami 
 mental diseases, and he performed 
 many curious and successful experi- 
 ments in hypnotism and mental sug- 
 gestion. He died Aug. 16, 1893. 
 His son, JEAN MARTIN, became an 
 eminent scientist: led an expedition 
 to discover the South Pole in 1908; 
 and while he failed he reached lat. 
 70 S., and mapped 120 miles of 
 hitherto unknown coast.
 
 Chares 
 
 Chares, a Rhodian sculptor, born 
 in Lindus, Rhodes ; lived about 290- 
 280 B. c. He was a pupil of Lysippus 
 and the sculptor of the Colossus of 
 Rhodes, one of the " seven wonders of 
 the world." 
 
 Charge d'affaires, a representa- 
 tive of a country at a less important 
 foreign court, inferior to an ambassa- 
 dor, or a minister, to whom is intrust- 
 ed all matters of diplomacy. 
 
 Charge of the Light Brigade, 
 The, or " Death charge of the 600 at 
 Balaclava," Oct. 25, 1854, a remark- 
 able military movement made by the 
 13th Light Dragoons, the 17th Lan- 
 cers, the llth Hussars, commanded by 
 Lord Cardigan, the 8th Hussars, and 
 the 4th Light Dragoons. The Rus- 
 sians were advancing in great strength 
 to cut off the Turkish force from the 
 British. Lord Raglan sent an order 
 to Lord Lucan to advance, and Lord 
 Lucan, not understanding what was 
 intended, applied to Captain Nolan, 
 who brought the message, and Nolan 
 replied : " There, my lord, is your 
 enemy." Lucan then gave orders to 
 Lord Cardigan to attack, and the 600 
 men rode forward into the jaws of 
 death. In 20 minutes 12 officers were 
 killed and 11 wounded ; 147 men were 
 killed and 110 wounded, and 325 hors- 
 es were slain. 
 
 Charing-Cross, the titular center 
 of London, so named from a cross 
 which stood until 1647 at the village 
 of Charing in memory of Eleanor, wife 
 of Edward I. It is now a triangular 
 piece of roadway at Trafalgar Square. 
 
 Chariot, in ancient times a kind of 
 carriage used either for pleasure or in 
 war. 
 
 Charivari, an imitative word, hav- 
 ing its origin in slang, describing a 
 mock serenade of discordant music 
 with such accompaniments as tin ket- 
 tles, shouting, whistling, groaning, 
 hissing, and screaming, and the like. 
 
 Charlemagne, Charles the Great, 
 King of the Franks, and subsequently 
 Emperor of the West, was born in 
 742, probably at Aix-la-Chapelle. His 
 father was Pepin the Short, King of 
 the Franks. On the decease of his 
 father, in 768, he was crowned king, 
 and divided the kingdom of the Franks 
 with his younger brother Carloman, at 
 whose dtath in 771 Charlemagne made 
 
 Charles 
 
 himself master of the whole empire, 
 which embraced besides France, a 
 large part of Germany. He attracted 
 by his liberality the most distinguished 
 scholars to his court, and established 
 an academy in his palace at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle where he died and was buried 
 Jan., 814. His tomb was opened to 
 examine the relics in 1000, 1481, 1483, 
 1861, and July 18, 1906. 
 
 Charleroi, a fortified and impor- 
 tant manufacturing town of Belgium, 
 in the province of Hainault, on the 
 navigable river Sambre, 33 miles S. of 
 Brussels. The town is the center of 
 the large coal-basin of Charleroi. 
 
 Charles VII., King of France; 
 born in Paris, Feb. 22, 1403, and 
 though only the fifth son of Charles 
 
 VI. and Isabella of Bavaria, became, 
 by the successive deaths of his elder 
 brothers, heir-presumptive to the 
 crown. That he should ever succeed 
 to it was then extremely problemati- 
 cal, as Henry V. of England was pur- 
 suing his career of conquest, and short- 
 ly afterward, by the treaty of Troyes, 
 secured to himself the hand of Charles' 
 sister Catharine, and the succession to 
 the French throne after her father's 
 death. On the Kirfg of England's 
 death in 1422 his son Henry VI. was 
 proclaimed King of France at Paris. 
 The war with the national party, rep- 
 resented by the Orleanist faction, with 
 the dauphin at their head, was main- 
 tained for several years by the Eng- 
 lish, under the command of the Duke 
 of Bedford. So successful^ did the 
 latter conduct operations that Charles 
 was nearly ready to abandon the 
 struggle when his fortunes were re- 
 trieved by one of the most singular in- 
 cidents recorded in history. This was 
 the arrival in his camp of the Maid 
 of Orleans : who by the enthusiasm 
 which she inspired turned the tide of 
 success against the English. Through 
 the intervention of the Earl of Suf- 
 folk a marriage was concluded be- 
 tween the young King Henry VI. and 
 Margaret of Anjou, niece of Charles 
 
 VII. s queen. In the treaty entered 
 into on this occasion the territory of 
 Maine was secretly surrendered to 
 France, and subsequently, on hostili- 
 ties being resumed between the two 
 countries, the troops of Charles con- 
 quered the whole of Guienne, and final- 
 ly expelled the English from all their
 
 Charles 
 
 possessions in France except Calais. 
 The last years of Charles' reign were 
 embittered by domestic broils, in which 
 his son and successor Louis XI. took 
 a prominent part against his father. 
 He died at the castle of Mehun, near 
 Bourges, on July 22, 1461. His share 
 in the treacherous murder of the Duke 
 of Burgundy, and base abandonment 
 to her fate of Joan of Arc, are stains 
 on his memory which can never be 
 effaced. 
 
 Charles IX., King of France, born 
 in 1550, ascended the throne at the 
 age of 10 years, after the death of his 
 brother Francis II. During his reign 
 occurred the Massacre of St. Bartholo- 
 mew's Day. Charles died, childless, in 
 1574. He was succeeded by his broth- 
 er Henry III. 
 
 Charles X., Comte d'Artpis, 
 King of France ; born in Versailles 
 in 1757 ; grandson of Louis XV., the 
 youngest son of the dauphin, and 
 brother of Louis XVI. After the 
 downfall of Napoleon he entered 
 France with the title of lieutenant- 
 general of the kingdom, and issued a 
 judicious proclamation, promising the 
 reign of law and an entire oblivion 
 of the past. In 1824 he succeeded his 
 brother, Louis XVIII., under the title 
 of Charles X., and gained a momen- 
 tary popularity by the abolition of the 
 censorship of the press. He was ig- 
 nominiously driven from the throne in 
 1830. After formally abdicating in 
 favor of his grandson, the Duke de 
 Bordeaux, he revisited England, re- 
 sumed his residence for a short time 
 at Holyrood, and finally settled at Go- 
 ritz in Styria, where he died of chol- 
 era in 1836. 
 
 Charles V., Emperor of Germany 
 and King of Spain (in the latter ca- 
 pacity he is called Charles I.) ; the 
 eldest son of Philip, Archduke of Aus- 
 tria, and of Joanna, the daughter of 
 Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain ; born 
 in Ghent, Feb. 24, 1500. Philip was 
 the son of the Emperor Maximilian 
 and Mary, daughter of Charles the 
 BoM, last Duke of Burgundy. Charles 
 birth gave him claim to the fairest 
 countries of Europe. In 1519 Charles, 
 on the death of Maximilian, was elect- 
 ed emperor. 
 
 The progress of the Reformation in 
 Germnny demanded the care of the 
 new emperor, who held a Diet at 
 
 Charles 
 
 Worms. Luther, who appeared at this 
 Diet with a safe conduct from Charles, 
 defended his cause with energy and 
 boldness. The emperor kept silent ; 
 but after Luther's departure a severe 
 edict appeared against him in the 
 name of Charles, who thought it his 
 interest to declare himself the defend- 
 er of the Roman Church. 
 
 After the defeat and capture of 
 Francis I. of France the power of 
 Charles became a source of uneasiness 
 to most other princes of Europe. Pope 
 Clement VII. placed himself at the 
 head of a league of the principal 
 States of Italy against the emperor, 
 but their ill-directed efforts were pro- 
 ductive of new misfortunes. Rome 
 was taken by storm by the troops of 
 the Constable of Bourbon, sacked, and 
 the Pope himself made prisoner. 
 Charles V. publicly disavowed the 
 proceedings of the Constable, went 
 into mourning with his court, and car- 
 ried his hypocrisy so far as to order 
 prayers for the deliverance of the 
 Pope. On restoring the holy father to 
 liberty he demanded a ransom of 400,- 
 000 crowns of gold, but was satisfied 
 with a quarter of that sum. He also 
 released, for 2,000,000, the French 
 princes who had been given to him as 
 hostages. Henry VIII. of England 
 now allied himself with the French 
 monarch against Charles, who accused 
 Francis of having broken his word. 
 The war terminated in 1529 by the 
 treaty of Cambray, of which the con- 
 ditions were favorable to the emperor. 
 Charles soon after left Spain, and was 
 crowned in Bologna as King of Lom- 
 bardy and Roman Emperor. In 1530 
 he seemed desirous, at the Diet of 
 Augsburg, to reconcile the Reformers 
 to the Roman Church ; but not suc- 
 ceeding, he issued a decree against the 
 Protestants, which they met by the 
 Schmalkaldic League. He also pub- 
 lished, in 1532, a law of criminal pro- 
 ceedure. Having compelled Solyman to 
 retreat, he undertook, in 1535, an ex- 
 pedition against Tunis, reinstated the 
 dey, and released 20.000 Christian 
 slaves. 
 
 The disturbances caused in Ger- 
 many by the Reformation induced the 
 emperor to accede to the peace of 
 Crespy witn France in 1545. The pol- 
 icy of Charles was to reconcile the 
 two parties, and with this view he al-
 
 Charles 
 
 ternately threatened and 'courted the 
 Protestants. After some show of ne- 
 gotiation the Protestant princes raised 
 the standard of war. The emperor 
 declared in 1516 the heads of the 
 league under the ban of the empire, 
 excited divisions among the confed- 
 erates, collected an army in haste, and 
 obtained several advantages over his 
 enemies. John Frederick, the Elector 
 of Saxony, was taken prisoner in the 
 battle of Muhlberg in 1547. Charles 
 received him sternly, and gave him 
 over to a court-martial consisting of 
 Italians and Spaniards, under the 
 presidency of Alva, which condemned 
 him to death. The elector saved his 
 life only by renouncing his electorate 
 and his hereditary estates, but he re- 
 mained a prisoner. Meanwhile the 
 emperor appeared somewhat more mod- 
 erately inclined toward the vanquished 
 party. On coming to Wittenberg he 
 expressed surprise that the exercise of 
 the Lutheran worship had been dis- 
 continued. The Landgrave of Hesse- 
 Cassel, one of the heads of the Prot- 
 estants, was compelled to sue for 
 mercy. Notwithstanding his promise 
 Charles deprived him of his freedom. 
 After having dissolved the League of 
 Schmalkalden the emperor again occu- 
 pied himself with the plan of uniting 
 all religious parties, and for this pur- 
 pose issued the " Interim," which was 
 as fruitless as the measures proposed 
 by him at the Diet of Augsburg. The 
 fortunes of war changed, and the 
 Protestants dictated the conditions of 
 the treaty of Passau in 1552. 
 
 Charles saw all his plans frustrated 
 and the number of his enemies increas- 
 ing. He abdicated the imperial throne, 
 and selected for his residence the mon- 
 astery of St. Justus, near Plasencia 
 in Estremadura, and here he ex- 
 changed sovereignty, dominion, and 
 pomp for the quiet and solitude of a 
 cloister. His death took place Sept. 
 21, 1558. 
 
 Charles I., King of England and 
 Scotland ; born in Scotland in 1GOO ; 
 was the third son of James VI. and 
 Anne of Denmark. Soon after the 
 birth of his son James succeeded to 
 the crown of England, and on the 
 death of Prince Henry in 1612, Rob- 
 ert, the second son, having died in in- 
 fancy, Charles became heir-apparent, 
 but was not created Prince of Wales 
 
 Charles 
 
 till 1616. His youth appears to have 
 passed i-espectably, little being record- 
 ed of him previous to his journey into 
 Spain in company with Buckingham, 
 in order to pay his court in person to 
 the Spanish Infanta. Through the 
 arrogance of Buckingham this match 
 was prevented, and the prince was 
 soon after contracted to Henrietta 
 Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of 
 France. In 1625 he succeeded to the 
 throne on the death of his father. 
 Charles began to employ his threat- 
 ened mode of raising funds by loans, 
 benevolences, and similar unpopular 
 proceedings ; which were wholly op- 
 posed to the rising notions of civil 
 liberty throughout the nation, and to 
 the constitutional doctrine which ren- 
 dered the Commons the guardian and 
 dispenser of the public treasure. Civil 
 war followed, and Charles was defeat- 
 ed and captured. He was tried before 
 a special tribunal on the charge that 
 he had appeared in arms against the 
 Parliamentary forces, and sentence of 
 death was pronounced against him, 
 and only three days were allowed him 
 to prepare for his fate. The interpo- 
 sition of foreign powers was vain. 
 After passing the three days in re- 
 ligious exercises, and in tender inter- 
 views with his friends and family, he 
 was led to the scaffold. His execution 
 took place before the Banqueting 
 House, Whitehall, on Jan. 30, 1649, 
 where the ill-fated king submitted to 
 the fatal stroke, in the 49th year of 
 his age. 
 
 Charles II., King of England, Ire- 
 land, and Scotland ; son of Charles I. 
 and Henrietta Maria of France ; born 
 in London, May 29, 1630. He was a 
 refugee at The Hague on the death of 
 his father, on which he immediately 
 assumed the royal title. He first in- 
 tended to proceed to Ireland, but was 
 prevented by the progress of Crom- 
 well. He therefore listened to an in- 
 vitation from the Scots, who had pro- 
 claimed him their king on Feb. 5, 
 1649, and arrived in the Cromarty 
 Firth, June 16, 1650. In 1651 he 
 was crowned at Scone ; but the ap- 
 proach of Cromwell with his conquer- 
 ing army soon rendered his abode in 
 Scotland unsafe. Hoping to be joined 
 by the English royalists, he took the 
 spirited resolution of passing Crom- 
 well and entering England, Carlisle
 
 Charles 
 
 readily throwing open its gates to re- 
 ceive him. He was immediately pur- 
 sued by that active commander, who 
 gained the battle of Worcester, and 
 Charles, after a variety of imminent 
 hazards, being on one occasion shel- 
 tered for 24 hours in the branches of 
 the famous Boscobel oak, reached 
 Shoreham, in Sussex, and effected a 
 passage to France. 
 
 It is the province of history to state 
 the circumstances that produced the 
 Restoration, which General Monk so 
 conducted that Charles, without a 
 struggle, succeeded at once to all those 
 dangerous prerogatives which it had 
 cost the nation so much blood and 
 treasure, first to abridge and then to 
 abolish. This unrestrictive return 
 was not more injurious to the nation 
 than fatal to the family of the Stu- 
 arts, which, had a more rational pol- 
 icy prevailed, might have occupied the 
 throne at the present time. On May 29, 
 1060, Charles entered his capital amid 
 universal and almost frantic acclama- 
 tions; and the different civil and re- 
 ligious parties vied with each other in 
 loyalty and submission. In 1662 he 
 married the Infanta of Portugal, a 
 prudent and virtuous princess, but in 
 no way calculated to acquire the af- 
 fection of a man like Charles. The 
 indolence of his temper and the ex- 
 penses of his licentious way of life 
 soon involved him in pecuniary diffi- 
 culties ; and the unpopular sale of 
 Dunkirk to the French was one of his 
 most early expedients to relieve him- 
 self. After a troubled reign he died 
 from the consequences of an apoplectic 
 fit, in February, 1685, in the 55th 
 year of his age. 
 
 Charles XII., King of Sweden; 
 born in Stockholm, June 27, 1682 ; 
 was instructed in the languages, his- 
 tory, geography, and mathematics. On 
 the death of his father in 1697 when 
 he was but 15 years old, he was de- 
 clared of age by the estates. Fred- 
 erick IV. of Denmark, Augustus II. of 
 Poland, and the Czar Peter I. of Rus- 
 sia concluded an alliance which re- 
 sulted in the Northern War. The 
 Danish troops first invaded the terri- 
 tory of the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp. 
 Charles proposed in the Council of 
 State the most energetic measures 
 against Denmark. After making some 
 arrangements respecting the internal 
 
 Charles 
 
 administration he embarked at Carls- 
 crona in May, 1700. Thirty ships of 
 the line and a great number of small 
 transports, strengthened by an English 
 and Dutch squadron, appeared before 
 Copenhagen. Arrangements were being 
 made for the disembarkation when 
 Charles, full of impatience, plunged 
 from his boat into the water, and was 
 the first who reached land. The Danes 
 retired before the superior power of 
 the enemy. Copenhagen was on the 
 point of being besieged when the 
 peace negotiated at Travendal was 
 signed (Aug. 8, 1700), by which the 
 Duke of Holstein was confirmed in all 
 the rights of which it had been at- 
 tempted to deprive him. Thus ended 
 the first enterprise of Charles XII., 
 in which he exhibited as much intelli- 
 gence and courage as disinterested- 
 ness. 
 
 After thus checking Denmark tha 
 attacks of Augustus and Peter were 
 to be repelled. The former was be- 
 sieging Riga, the latter menaced Nar- 
 va and the country situated about the 
 Gulf of Finland. Without returning 
 to his capital, which he never revisit- 
 ed, Charles caused 20,000 men to be 
 transported to Livonia, and went to 
 meet the Russians, whom he found 
 80,000 strong in a fortified camp un- 
 der the walls of Narva. On Nov. 30, 
 1700, between 8,000 and 10,000 Swedes 
 placed themselves in order of battle, 
 under the ftre of the Russians, and 
 the engagement began. In less than 
 a quarter of an hour the Russian 
 camp was taken by storm. Thirty 
 thousand Russians perished on the 
 field or threw themselves into the 
 Narva; the rest were taken prisoners 
 or dispersed. After this victory Charles 
 crossed the Dwina. attacked the m- 
 trenchments of the Saxons, and gained 
 a decisive victory. Charles might now 
 have concluded a peace which would 
 have made him the arbiter of the 
 North ; but instead of so doing he pur- 
 sued Augustus to Poland. Augustus 
 attempted in vain to enter into nego- 
 tiations with Charles, who refused to 
 negotiate with him. 
 
 The war continued; the Swedes 
 gained a brilliant victory at Clissau ; 
 in 1703 all Poland was in the posses- 
 sion of the conquerors : the cardinal 
 primate declared the throne vacant; 
 and by the influence of Charles the
 
 Charles 
 
 Charles 
 
 new choice fell on Stanislaus Leczin- 
 sky. Augustus hoped to be secure in 
 Saxony, as Peter had meanwhile oc- 
 cupied Ingria, and founded St. Peters^ 
 burg, at the mouth of the Neva. Bat 
 the victor of Narva despised an enemy 
 on whom he hoped, sooner or luter, 
 to take an easy revenge, and invaded 
 Saxony. At Altranstadt he dictated 
 the conditions of peace in 1706. The 
 Livonian Patkul, who was the prime 
 mover of the alliance against Sweden, 
 was delivered up to him on his de- 
 mand, and was broken on the wheel. 
 The King of Sweden, however, before 
 he left Germany, required the em- 
 peror to grant to the Lutherans in Si- 
 lesia perfect freedom of conscience ; 
 and the requisition was complied with. 
 
 In September, 1707, the Swedes left 
 Saxony. They were 43,000 strong, 
 well clothed, well disciplined, and en- 
 riched by the contributions imposed 
 on the conquered. Six thousand men 
 remained for the protection of the 
 King of Poland ; with the rest of the 
 army Charles took the shortest route 
 to Moscow. But having reached the 
 region of Smolensk he altered his plan, 
 at the suggestion of the Cossack het- 
 man Mazeppa, and proceeded to the 
 Ukraine, in the hope that the Cossacks 
 would join him. But Peter laid waste 
 their country, and the proscribed Ma- 
 zeppa could not procure the promised 
 aid. General Lewenhaupt, who was 
 to bring reinforcements and provisions 
 from Livonia, arrived with only a few 
 troops. Pultawa, abundantly fur- 
 nished with stores, was about to be 
 invested when Peter appeared with 
 70,000 men. Charles, in reconnoiter- 
 ing, was dangerously wounded in the 
 thigh ; consequently, in the battle of 
 July 8, 1709, he was obliged to issue 
 his commands from a litter, without 
 being able to encourage his soldiers by 
 his presence. They were obliged to 
 yield to superior force, and the enemy 
 obtained a complete victory. Charles 
 saw the flower of his army fall into 
 the power of those Russians so easily 
 vanquished at Narva. He himself, to- 
 gether with Mazeppa, fled with a small 
 guard, and was obliged to go several 
 miles on foot. He finally found ref- 
 uge and an honorable reception at 
 Bender, in the Turkish territory. 
 
 After his romantic return from Tur- 
 key to Sweden Charles continued to 
 
 fight. He was besieging Frederikshall, 
 when, on Nov. 30, 1718, as he was in 
 the trenches, leaning against the para- 
 pet and examining the workmen, he 
 was struck on the head by a cannon 
 ball. He was found dead in the same 
 position, his hand on his sword, in his 
 pocket the portrait of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus and a prayer book. A century 
 afterwards, Nov. 30, 1818, Charles 
 XIV. caused a monument to be erect- 
 ed on the spot where he fell. 
 
 Charles XIII., King of Sweden; 
 born Oct. 7, 1748; second son of King 
 Adolphus Frederick, and Louisa Ul- 
 rica, sister of Frederick the Great of 
 Prussia. His education was directed 
 chiefly to the learning of naval tactics, 
 for which purpose he engaged in sev- 
 eral cruises in the Cattegat. The 
 death of Adolphus Frederick recalled 
 him to Sweden, where he took an im- 
 portant part in the revolution of 1772. 
 His brother Gustavus III. appointed 
 him governor-general of Stockholm, 
 and Duke of Sundermannland. In 
 1774 he married Hedwig Elizabeth 
 Charlotte, princess of Holstein-Got- 
 torp. In the war with Russia in 1788 
 he received the command of the fleet, 
 defeated the Russians in the Gulf of 
 Finland, and, in the most dangerous 
 season of the year, brought back his 
 fleet in safety to the harbor of Carls- 
 crona, after which he was appointed 
 governor-general of Finland. After 
 the murder of Gustavus III. in 1792, 
 he was placed at the head of the re- 
 gency, and happily for Sweden, pre- 
 served the country at peace with all 
 other nations. In 1796 he resigned 
 the government to Gustavus Adolphus 
 IV., who had become of age, and re- 
 tired as a private man to his castle 
 of Rosersberg. A revolution hurled 
 Gustavus Adolphus IV., in 1809, from 
 the throne, and placed Charles at the 
 head of the State, as administrator of 
 the realm, and some months after- 
 ward, June 20, 1809, as King of Swe- 
 den, at a very critical period. He had 
 already adopted Prince Christian of 
 Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg as 
 his successor, and after his death, 
 Marshal Bernadotte, who was elected 
 by the Estates, in August, 1810, to 
 take the place of the prince. On him 
 he bestowed his entire confidence. May 
 27, 1811, he founded the Order of 
 Charles XIII., which is conferred
 
 Charles 
 
 Charles Emannel 
 
 solely on Freemasons of high degree. 
 June 21, 1816, he acceded to the holy 
 alliance. His prudent conduct in the 
 war between France and Russia, in 
 1812 procured Sweden an indemnifica- 
 tion for Finland by the acquisition of 
 Norway, Nov. 4, 1814. He died Feb. 
 5, 1818. 
 
 Charles, Archduke of Austria; 
 third son of the Emperor Leopold II. ; 
 born in Florence, Sept. 5, 1771. In 
 his 20th year he distinguished himself 
 in the battles of Jemappes and Neer- 
 winden, in both of which the French 
 republican armies were beaten, and 
 was appointed governor-general of 
 Belgium in 1793. In the campaign the 
 following year victory favored the 
 French under Pichegru, and the Neth- 
 erlands were lost. He was appointed 
 in 1796 field-marshal of the empire 
 and commander-in-chief of the Aus- 
 trian army on the Rhine, and after 
 notable victories in the winter of 1797 
 he captured Kehl, the only position 
 the French occupied in Germany. 
 Meanwhile Bonaparte had finished his 
 conquest of Italy, and was rapidly 
 pushing his way into the heart of Aus- 
 tria. Charles was sent against him ; 
 but it was too late. He was com- 
 pelled to conclude the treaty of Leo- 
 ben (1797), which was followed by 
 the peace of Campo Formio. After 
 the fruitless congress at Rastadt he 
 again put himself at the head of the 
 Rhine army. In the protracted strug- 
 gle in the heart of Germany Napo- 
 leon's genius was on every occasion 
 triumphant, once only, at Aspern, did 
 Charles snatch a victory from him 
 (May 21, 22, 1809), but the bloody 
 battle of Wagram (July 5, 6) laid 
 Austria at the feet of the French em- 
 peror. The military career of Charles 
 closes here. His literary work is com- 
 prised in " Principles of Strategy " 
 (1814). He died April 30, 1847. 
 
 Charles Edward Stuart, called 
 TIIE PRETENDER, grandson of James 
 II., King of England, son of James 
 Edward and Clementina, daughter of 
 Prince Sobieski ; born in Rome in 
 1720. The last scion of the royal 
 house of Stuart, irom the very cradle 
 he was inspired with an impulse that 
 induced him, at the early age of 22, 
 to attempt the recovery of the throne 
 of his ancestors. Supported by the 
 court of Rome, be went to Paris in 
 
 1742, and succeeding in gaining over 
 to his views Louis XV., and an army 
 was on the point of sailing from 
 Dunkirk for England when the Eng- 
 lish Admiral Norris dispersed the 
 whole French fleet before it had 
 gained the open sea. He now resolved 
 to trust to his own exertions. With 
 borrowed money, and seven trusty of- 
 ficers, he landed, July 28, 1745, at 
 Lochnanuadh, Scotland, and found 
 many adherents, who went over to his 
 party. With this he marched for- 
 ward, conquered the British troops 
 and caused himself to be proclaimed 
 Regent of England, Scotland and Ire- 
 land. His force was now 7,000 
 strong. With this he advanced, and 
 laid siege to Carlisle, Nov. 15, which, 
 after three days, surrendered, and 
 supplied him with arms. 
 
 He now caused his father to be 
 proclaimed King, and himself Regent 
 of England ; removed his headquar- 
 ters to Manchester, and soon found 
 himself within 100 miles of London, 
 where many of his friends awaited 
 his arrival. He was compelled to re- 
 tire in the beginning of 1746. As a 
 final attempt he risked the battle of 
 Culloden, against the Duke of Cum- 
 berland, April 16, 1746, in which his 
 army was defeated and dispersed. 
 Five months later, on Sept. 20, 1746, 
 after much wandering and hardship, 
 he sailed from Scotland, and arrived 
 in France destitute of everything. By 
 the interest of Madame de Pompadour 
 Charles now received an annual pen- 
 sion of 200.000 livres for life ; he had 
 also 12,000 doubloons yearly from 
 Spain. 
 
 He died Jan. 31, 1788, in the 68th 
 year of his life. His body was car- 
 ried to Frascati, and entombed in a 
 style worthy of a king. A scepter, 
 crown, and sword, and the escutch- 
 eons of England and Scotland adorned 
 his coffin ; and his only brother then 
 living, the Cardinal of York, per- 
 formed the funeral services for "dead 
 King Charles." The Cardinal of York 
 received a pension from Great Britain 
 after 1799, and died in Frascati, July 
 13, 1807. 
 
 Charles Eruanuel I., Duke of 
 Savoy, surnamed THE GREAT; born at 
 castle of Rivpli in 1562. He proved 
 his courage in the battles of Mon- 
 brun, Vigo, Asti, Chatillon, Ostage,
 
 Charles Mart c I 
 
 Charlton 
 
 at the siege of Berne, and on the 
 walls of Suza. He died of apoplexy in 
 Savillon, in 1630. 
 
 Charles Martel, son of Pepin 
 Heristal (mayor of the palace under 
 the last kings of the Merovingian 
 dynasty). His father had governed un- 
 der the weak Kings of France with so 
 much justice, and so much to the 
 satisfaction of the people that he 
 was enabled to make his office heredi- 
 tary in his family. Childeric II., 
 King of the Franks, refusing to ac- 
 knowledge Charles Martel as mayor 
 of the palace, the latter deposed him, 
 and set Clothaire IV. in his place. 
 After the death of Clothaire he re- 
 stored Childeric, and subsequently 
 placed Thierri on the throne, show- 
 ing how absolute was the control of 
 the mayor, and that the royal dig- 
 nity was a mere phantom. Charles 
 Martel rendered his reign famous by 
 the great victory which he gained in 
 October, 732, over the Saracens, near 
 Tours, from which he acquired the 
 name Martel, signifying hammer. He 
 died in 741. 
 
 Charleston, a city, port of entry, 
 and county-seat of Charleston Co., 
 S. C. ; the first city in population and 
 importance in the State, situated at 
 the confluence of the Ashley and Coop- 
 er rivers, 7 miles from the ocean. 
 Charleston has one of the safest and 
 most commodious harbors in the 
 United States. It is "defended by Forts 
 Sumter and Moultrie. Area, 5% 
 square miles. Pop. (1910) 58,833. 
 
 Charleston was founded in 1670, re- 
 ceiving from France about 1685 a 
 large influx of Protestant refugees. 
 It was taken by the British in 1780, 
 but evacuated in 1782. It was here 
 that the first open movement was 
 mad? in favor of secession. In 1860 
 and 1861 the harbor was the scene of 
 several conflicts, and Fort Sumter 
 was reduced to ruins. In August, 
 1863, the city was bombarded, and in 
 February, 1865, after 565 days of 
 continuous military operations, dur- 
 ing which period 2,550 shells reached 
 the city, it was occupied by Federal 
 troops. OB Aug. 31 and Sept. 1, 
 1886, the city was partially destroyed 
 by an earthquake. Earth tremblings 
 continued for some months thereafter, 
 but with indomitable energy the city 
 
 was soon restored to its former beauty 
 and prosperity. 
 
 Charleston, city and capital of 
 Kanawha county and of the State of 
 West Virginia; at junction of the 
 Great Kanawha and Elk rivers an-1 
 on the Chesapeake & Ohio and other 
 railroads; 130 miles S. W. of Wheel- 
 ing. It is an important commercial 
 center, with steamer connections with 
 all Ohio and Mississippi river ports; 
 is in a bituminous coal, salt, iron, 
 petroleum, and natural _ gas sect'' on; 
 has shipyards and railroad repair 
 shops; and manufactures fire-brick, 
 wire nails, engines, boilers, and woolen 
 goods. Pop. (1910) 22,996. 
 
 Charlestown, a former city and 
 seaport of Massachusetts, since 1873 
 part of the municipality of Boston, 
 with which it is connected by bridges 
 across Charles river. Bunker Hill 
 is in its limits, and there is, on th 
 site, a commemorative monument 220 
 feet high, the cornerstone of which 
 was laid by Lafayette in 1821. 
 
 Charlestown, a village and county- 
 seat of Jefferson Co., W. Va., noted 
 as being the place of the capture, 
 trial, and execution (Dec. 2, 1859), 
 of John Brown. Pop. (1910) 22,996. 
 
 Charlotte, a city and county-seat 
 of Mecklenburg Co., N. C.; the center 
 of the Southern cotton mill industry, 
 having 100 mills within a radius of 
 200 miles. The Mecklenburg Decla- 
 ration of Independence was adopted 
 here in 1775. Pop. (1910) 84,014. 
 
 Charlottenbnrg, a town of Prus- 
 sia, about 3 miles from Berlin, with a 
 royal palace and park, also a num- 
 ber of industrial and manufacturing 
 establishments. Pop. (1900) 189,290. 
 
 Cliarlottesville,a city and county- 
 seat of Albermarle Co., Va. It is the 
 seat of the University of Virginia and 
 of Monticello, the home of Thomas 
 Jefferson. Pop. (1910) 6,765. 
 
 Charlottetown, a city and capital 
 of Prince Edward Island, Canada, on 
 Hillsborough bay, at the confluence of 
 three rivers, and on the Prince Ed- 
 ward Island railway. Pop. 12,000. 
 
 Charlton, John, an English ar- 
 tist, born in Bamborough, Northum- 
 berland, June 28, 1849. Died in 1893. 
 
 Charlton, John, a Canadian 
 statesman, born near Caledonia, N 
 Y., Feb. 3, 1829. He removed to
 
 Charm 
 
 Canada in 1849, and entered business 
 and political life. He was elected as 
 a Liberal to the Canadian House of 
 Commons in 1872, and has held his 
 seat ever since. He is best known 
 as a promoter of moral legislation. 
 
 Charm, anything believed to pos- 
 sess some occult or supernatural pow- 
 er, such as an amulet, spell, etc. 
 
 Charnel-house, a chamber or 
 building under or near churches where 
 the bones of the dead are deposited. 
 
 Charon, the ferryman who conduc- 
 ted the souls of the departed in a boat 
 across the Stygian lake to the infernal 
 regions. 
 
 Charpoy, in the East Indies, a 
 small, portable bed, consisting of a 
 wooden frame resting on four legs, 
 with bands across to support the bed- 
 ding. 
 
 Cliarqui, jerked beef, the Chilian 
 name of which the English term is a 
 corruption. 
 
 Chart, a representation of a portion 
 of the earth's surface projected on a 
 plane. The term is commonly re- 
 stricted to those intended for navi- 
 gator's use, on which merely outlines 
 of coasts, islands, etc., are represented. 
 A globular chart is a chart construct- 
 ed on a globular projection. A Mer- 
 cator's chart is a chart on the pro- 
 jection of Mercator. A plane chart 
 is a representation of some part of 
 the superficies of the earth, in which 
 the spherical form is disregarded, the 
 meridians drawn parallel, the parallels 
 of latitude at equal distances, and the 
 degrees of latitude and longitude 
 equal. A selengraphical chart is a 
 chart representing the surface of the 
 moon ; and a topographical chart is a 
 chart of a particular place, or of a 
 small part of the earth. 
 
 Charter, a written instrument, ex- 
 ecuted with usual forms, given as evi- 
 dence of a grant, contract, or other 
 important transacation between man 
 and man. 
 
 Charter-house a celebrated 
 school and charitable foundaticn in 
 London, England. 
 
 Charter Oak, a tree which for- 
 merly stood in Hartford, Conn., in 
 the hollow trunk of which the colonial 
 charter is said to have been hidden. 
 The story is that when Governor An- 
 
 Chase 
 
 dros went to Hartford in 1687 to de- 
 mand the surrender of the charter, 
 the debate in the Assembly over hia 
 demand was prolonged until darkness 
 set in, when the lights were suddenly 
 extinguished, and a patriot, Captain 
 Wadsworth, escaped with the docu- 
 ment and hid it in the oak. The ven- 
 erable tree was preserved with great 
 care until 1856, when it was blown 
 down in a storm. 
 
 Charter Party, an agreement in 
 writing concerning the hire of a ves- 
 sel and the freight, containing the 
 name and burden of the vessel, the 
 names of the owner, master, and 
 freighter, and every other particular 
 as to rate of freight, duration of voy- 
 age, time of loading and unloading, etc. 
 
 Chartist, a name given to a politi- 
 cal party in England whose views 
 were embodied in a document called 
 the "People's Charter." The chief 
 points were, universal suffrage, vote 
 by ballot, annual parliaments, pay- 
 ment of members, equal electoral di- 
 visions, and the abolition of property 
 qualification for members. 
 
 Chartres, Robert Philippe 
 Louis Eugene Ferdinand D'Or- 
 leaus (Due de) grandson of Louis 
 Philippe, King of the French, was 
 born in Paris, Nov. 9, 1840. When 
 only two years old he lost his father, 
 and six years later the Revolution 
 drove him, along with his family, into 
 exile. He joined the Union army iu 
 the first campaign of the American 
 Civil War in 1802. Died in 1910. 
 
 Chartreuse, La Grande, a fa- 
 mous monastery of France, in the de- 
 partment of Isere, 14 miles N. of 
 Grenoble, among lofty mountains, at 
 an elevation of 3,281 feet above sea- 
 level. The access to it is very diffi- 
 cult. It was built in 1084, but hav- 
 ing been several times pillaged and 
 burnt down, the present building was 
 erected after 1676. 
 
 Charybdis, an eddy or whirlpool 
 in the Straits of Messina, celebrated 
 in ancient times, and regarded as the 
 more dangerous to navigators because 
 in endeavoring to escape it they ran 
 the risk of being wrecked upon Scy- 
 lla, a rock opposite to it. 
 
 Chase, Ann, an American patriot; 
 born in Ireland in 1809; came to the 
 United States in 1818 ; settled in New
 
 Chase 
 
 Orleans in 1832; removed to Tampico, 
 Mex., in the following year, where 
 she met and married Franklin Chase, 
 United States consul, in 1836. Dur- 
 ing the War with Mexico, in the ab- 
 sence of her husband, she remained 
 at the consulate to protect the Amer- 
 ican records. On one occasion a mob 
 attempted to pull down the American 
 flag that floated over the consulate, 
 but she protected it with drawn re- 
 volver, c.ud declared that the flag 
 should not be touched except over her 
 dead body. Later through her efforts 
 the city of Tampico was taken. She 
 died in Brooklyn, N. Y.. Dec. 24, 1874. 
 
 Chase. Salmon Portland, an 
 American jurist ; born in Cornish, N. 
 H., Jan. 13, 1808; educated at Wind- 
 sor, Vt., in his uncle's family at Co- 
 lumbus, O., and in Dartmouth Col- 
 lege ; taught school in Washington, 
 while studying law with William 
 Wirt; opened law practice in Cincin- 
 nati. In 1846 he argued the Fugitive 
 Slave Law with William H. Seward, in 
 a celebrated case, and his support of 
 the anti-slavery cause soon made him 
 a leader of the Free Soil and Re- 
 publican parties. In 1849 he was 
 elected to the United States Senate; 
 in 1855 Governor of Ohio; in 1860 
 was a prominent candidate for the Re- 
 publican presidential nomination ; ap- 
 pointed Secretary of the Treasury by 
 President Lincoln, in 1861, and in 
 1864 became Chief -Justice, in which 
 office he presided at the impeachment 
 trial of President Johnson. He died 
 in New York city, May 7, 1873. 
 
 Chase, Samuel, one of the signers 
 of the American Declaration of In- 
 dependence; born in Somerset Co., 
 Md., April 17, 1741. He was admitted 
 to the bar at the age of 20. Having 
 become a member of the colonial legis- 
 lature, he distinguished himself by his 
 bold opposition to the royal governor. 
 He took the lead in denouncing and 
 resisting the famous Stamp Act. His 
 revolutionary spirit placed him at the 
 head of the active adversaries of the 
 British government in his State. The, 
 Maryland Convention of June 22, 
 1774, appointed him to attend the 
 meeting of the General Congress at 
 Philadelphia in September of that 
 year. He was also present at the 
 session of December following, and in 
 the subsequent Congresses during the 
 
 Chasseux 
 
 most critical periods of the Revolu- 
 tionary War. That of 1776 deputed 
 him on a mission to Canada along 
 with Dr. Franklin, Charles Carroll, 
 of Carrollton, and the Rev. John Car- 
 roll, afterward Roman Catholic arch- 
 bishop of Baltimore. He signed the 
 Declaration of Independence with 
 promptitude. In June, 1783, the 
 legislature of Maryland sent him to 
 London as a commissioner to recover 
 stock of the Bank of England, and 
 large sums of money which belonged 
 the State. In 1791 he accepted the 
 appointment of chief-justice of the 
 General Court of Maryland. Five 
 years afterward President Washing- 
 ton made him an associate judge of 
 the Supreme Court of the United 
 States. He was impeached by the 
 National House of Representatives. 
 The trial of the judge before the Sen- 
 ate is memorable on account of the 
 excitement which it produced, the 
 ability with which he was defended, 
 and the nature of his acquittal. He 
 continued to exercise his judicial func- 
 tions with the highest reputation till 
 1811. He died June 19 of that year. 
 
 Chase, William Henry, an Amer- 
 ican military officer ; born in Massa- 
 chusetts in 1798; was graduated at 
 the United States Military Academy. 
 At the outbreak of the Civil War he 
 entered the Confederate army, and 
 was prominent in the seizure of the 
 Pensacola navy yard. He died in 
 Pensacola, Fla., Feb. 8, 1870. 
 
 Chase, William Merritt, an 
 American artist, born in Franklin, 
 Ind., Nov. 1, 1849. He studied paint- 
 ing in oil at the National Academy in 
 New York and subsequently in Eu- 
 rope with Piloty. He has made < a spe- 
 cialty of portraits and figure pieces. 
 
 Chasing, the art of working decor- 
 ative forms in low-relief in ^old, sil- 
 ver, or other metals. 
 
 Chassaignac, Charles Louis, UP. 
 American physician ; born in New 
 Orleans, Jan. 5, 1862 ; was graduated 
 at the Medical Department of the 
 University of Louisiana; and was 
 president and Professor of Genito- 
 Urinary Diseases at the New Orleans 
 Polyclinic in 1902. 
 
 Chasseur, a male attendant upon 
 persons of distinction, attired in a 
 military dress, and wearing a sword. 
 It is also the name given by the
 
 Chastellux 
 
 Chattanooga 
 
 French to bodies of light infantry 
 which act as skirmishers and sharp- 
 shooters. 
 
 Chastellux, Francois Jean, 
 Chevalier de, a French historian ; 
 born in Paris in 1734 ; entered the 
 army in 1749; distinguished himself 
 as colonel in the Seven Years' War, 
 and later served in the American 
 Revolution as major-general under 
 Rochambeau, and gained the friend- 
 ship of Washington. He died in 
 Paris, Oct. 28, 1788. 
 
 Chasuble, the upper garment worn 
 by a Roman Catholic priest during 
 the celebration of mass. 
 
 Chatard, Francis Silas Mareau, 
 an American clergyman; born in Bal- 
 timore, in 1834. He became rector 
 of the American College in Rome, 
 and in 1878 Bishop of Vincennes, Ind. 
 
 Chateaubriand. Francois Au- 
 gust e, Vicomte de, a French au- 
 thor and politician; born in St. Malo, 
 Brittany, Sept. 4, 1768; died in Paris, 
 July 4, 1848. 
 
 Chatham, a town and port of 
 entry in Northumberland county, 
 New Brunswick; on the Miramichi 
 river and the Intercolonial railroad; 
 82 miles N. W. of Moncton; is the 
 center of a fertile section, with largo 
 grain and livestock interests; and 
 has machine shops and pulp aud 
 lumber mills. Pop. (1901) ,868. 
 
 Chatham, city, port of entry, and 
 capital of Kent county, Ontario, Can- 
 ada; on the Thames river and the 
 Canadian Pacific railroad; 67 miles 
 S. W. of .London; has a large ship- 
 ping trade in lumber and farm prod- 
 ucts; and is principally engaged in 
 manufacturing. Pop. (1901) 9,068. 
 
 Chatham, a town, naval arsenal, 
 and seaport of England, county Kent, 
 on the Medway, about 34^ miles by 
 rail from London. The royal dock- 
 yard was founded by Queen Elizabeth 
 previous to the sailing of the Armada. 
 It has been greatly enlarged in re- 
 cent years, and has now capacious 
 docks, in which the heaviest warships 
 can be equipped and sent directly to 
 sea. The town is defended by a strong 
 line of fortifications which also serve 
 as a Sank defense for the metropolis. 
 Pop. 40,800. 
 
 Chatham, William Pitt, Earl 
 of, one of the most illustrious states- 
 
 men of Great Britain ; son of Robert 
 Pitt, of Boconnoc, in Cornwall ; born 
 Nov. 15, 1708; educated at Eton and 
 Oxford. On quitting the university 
 he became a cornet in the Blues, and 
 in 1735 represented the borough of 
 Old Sarum in the House of Com- 
 mons, where he attracted universal 
 notice. Pitt uniformly supported the 
 cause of the people. Foreseeing the 
 separation of the American colonies 
 from the mother country if the arbi- 
 trary measures then adopted should 
 be continued ; he advocated, especially 
 in 1766, a conciliatory policy and the 
 repeal of the Stamp Act. In the same 
 year he was invited to assist in form- 
 ing a new ministry, in which he took 
 the office of privy-seal. In 1768 he 
 resigned, as he found himself inade- 
 quately seconded by his colleagues. In 
 the House of Lords he continued to 
 recommend the abandonment of the 
 coercive measures employed against 
 America, particularly in 1774 ; but his 
 warning was rejected, and in 1776 the 
 colonies declared themselves indepen- 
 dent. On April 7, 1778, though la- 
 boring under a severe illness, he re- 
 paired to the House, to attack the 
 unjust and impolitic proceedings of 
 the ministers toward the colonies. At 
 the close of his speech he fainted and 
 was conveyed out of the House, and 
 afterward removed to his country- 
 seat at Hayes, in Kent, where he died 
 May 11. The Parliament annexed an 
 annuity of 4,000 to the earldom of 
 Chatham ; his debts were paid, and 
 he was honored with a public funeral, 
 and a magnificent monument in West- 
 minster Abbey. Another was erected 
 in 1782 in Guildhall. 
 
 Chatham Islands, a small group 
 in the Pacific, lying 360 miles E. of 
 New Zealand, to which they politically 
 belong. Pop. 420. 
 
 Chattanooga, city and county-seat 
 of Hamilton Co., Tenn. It is sit- 
 uated on high grounds at the foot of 
 Lookout Mountain, and in the midst 
 of picturesque scenery. It is the site 
 of a National Soldiers' Cemetery, with 
 over 13,000 graves, and the Chatta- 
 nooga and Chickamauga National 
 Military Park. Chattanooga was set- 
 tled in 1836. and was originally called 
 Ross's landing. It was incorporated 
 in J851. and in 1863 was occupied and 
 nearly destroyed by Union forces. It
 
 Chattels 
 
 Check 
 
 was the scene of three of the greatest 
 battles of the Civil War: Chicka- 
 mauga, Missionary Ridge, and Look- 
 out Mountain. Pop. (1899), 29,100; 
 (1900), 32,490; (1910) 44,604. 
 
 Chattels, property movable and 
 immovable, not being freehold. The 
 word chattels is originally the same 
 word with cattle, all property being 
 reckoned in early periods by the num- 
 ber of heads of cattle possessed, or 
 their equivalent. 
 
 Chatterton, Thomas, an English 
 youth whose genius, eccentricity, and 
 melancholy fate have gained him much 
 celebrity ; born in Bristol in 1752, of 
 poor parents. He died of self-ad- 
 ministered poison in 1770, when not 
 yet 18 years old. His works were 
 more extensively read as the public 
 became acquainted with the history 
 of his misfortunes. The most remark- 
 able are the poems published under 
 the name of "Rowley," which he 
 composed at the age of 15 years. 
 
 Chaucer, Geoffrey, " the father 
 of English poetry" ; born in London 
 probably about 1340. He was the son 
 of a vintner named John Chaucer. 
 His most celebrated work, "The Can- 
 terbury Tales," was written at differ- 
 ent periods between 1373 and 1400. It 
 consists of a series of tales in prose 
 supposed to be told by a company of 
 pilgrims to the shrine of St. Thomas 
 (Becket) at Canterbury in 1386. In 
 its pages we get such pictures of Eng- 
 lish life and English ways of thought 
 in the 14th century as are found no- 
 jdiere else. He died in London, Oct. 
 25, 1400, and was buried in Westmin- 
 ster Abbey. 
 
 Chautauqua, a beautiful lake in 
 New York, 18 miles long and 1/3 
 broad, 726 feet above Lake Erie, 
 from which it is 8 miles distant. On 
 its banks is the village of Chautau- 
 qua, the center of a religious and 
 educational movement of large and 
 growing interest. This originated In 
 1874, when the village was selected 
 as a summer place of meeting for all 
 interested in Sunday-schools and mis- 
 sions. Since then the Chautauqua 
 Literary and Scientific Circle has 
 taken origin here, consisting of a 
 regular and systematic course of read- 
 ing, extending over four years and 
 entitling the student to a diploma. 
 
 Chauveau - Lagardc, Claude 
 Francois, a French advocate ; born 
 in Chartres, in 1756. He studied law 
 in his native town and began to prac- 
 tice in Paris shortly before the out- 
 break of the Revolution. He became 
 celebrated for his eloquent defense of 
 those on trial in the Reign of Terror. 
 He was the advocate of Marie An- 
 toinette at her trial and also of Char- 
 lotte Corday. He died in 1841. 
 
 Chauvenet, William, an Ameri- 
 can astronomer and mathematician ; 
 born in Milford, Pa., May 24, 1819. 
 He was graduated at Yale and became 
 professor of mathematics and astron- 
 omy at the United States Naval 
 Academy in 1845, and professor of 
 astronomy at Washington University, 
 St. Louis, in 1859. In 1862 he be- 
 came chancellor of the last institu- 
 tion. He died in St. Paul, Minn., Dec. 
 13, 1870. 
 
 Chauvinism, a French word de^ 
 rived from Nicolas Chauvin, a sol- 
 dier of the French Republic and of 
 the First Empire. His name be- 
 came a synonym for a passionate ad- 
 mirer of Napoleon, and the word 
 Chauvinism was formed to signify the 
 almost idolatrous respect entertained 
 by many for the First Emperor; and 
 now used for exaggerated devotion. 
 
 Chazars, a people of the Finnic 
 stock known in the 7th century on 
 the shores of the Caspian; in the 9th 
 century their kingdom occupied the 
 S. E. of Russia from the Caspian 
 and the Volga to the Dnieper. Their 
 capital was long at Astrakhan, called 
 by them Balandshar. They were sin- 
 gularly tolerant of all religions, Jew- 
 ish, Christian, and Moslem ; and a 
 large part of the nation formally 
 adopted the Jewish faith from Jews 
 who fled from the persecutions of the 
 Emperor Leo. The power of the Cha- 
 zars was ultimately broken in the 
 12th century by the Byzantine em- 
 perors and the Russians. 
 
 Check, or Cheque, a draft or bill 
 on ' a bank, payable on presentation. 
 A check may be drawn payable to the 
 bearer, or to the order of some one 
 named ; the first form is transferable 
 without endorsement and payable to 
 any one who presents it; the second 
 must be endorsed, that is the person 
 in whose favor it is drawn must write 
 his name on the back of it.
 
 Cheese 
 
 Cheese, the curd or caseine of 
 milk, with variable quantities of but- 
 ter and common salt, pressed into 
 molds and ripened by keeping. 
 
 Cheetah, the East Indian name for 
 two species of feline animals, the 
 leopard and the hunting leopard, the 
 latter being much used in India for 
 hunting game. 
 
 Chee-foo (properly the name of 
 the European colony of the Chinese 
 town of Yen-Tai), a treaty port on 
 the N. side of the peninsula of Shan- 
 tung, at the entrance to the Gulf of 
 Pechili, in which it is the only port 
 that remains open throughout the 
 winter. The foreign quarter is in 
 some sense a colony of Shanghai, and, 
 having the best climate of all the 
 treaty ports, it is much resorted to by 
 convalescents. The Chinese town, 
 built on the sandy shore, with exceed- 
 ingly dirty streets, has fortifications, 
 a signal-station, and about 32,000 in- 
 habitants. The port was the scene 
 of a naval demonstration in 1900, 
 when British and American warships 
 th-eatened to bombard the forts if 
 their hostile attitude was not aban- 
 doned. Tnere were 150 missionaries 
 in the city, whose rescue from peril 
 was thus effected. 
 
 Cheli-Cliiang, or Cheh-Kiang, a 
 maritime province of China proper, 
 of very great commercial importance, 
 containing three treaty ports, Ning- 
 Po, Wan-Chau (Wen-Chow), and 
 Hang-Chau ( Hang-Chow) , all of which 
 are to be connected with Shanghai 
 by a projected railway. Cheh-Chiang 
 is famed for its native system of edu- 
 cation. It contains the great relig- 
 ious and literary center of China, 
 Hang-Chow, where thousands of can- 
 didates yearly resort for the public 
 examinations. Hang-Chow is also the 
 capital of the province, which is ruled 
 by a viceroy. Marco Polo visited the 
 province in the 14th century, when it 
 contained beautiful temples, now in 
 ruins. The Italians in 1900 laid 
 claim to part of Cheh-Chiang as a 
 sphere of influence, but failed in their 
 demands. The area of the province is 
 34,700 square miles; pop. 11,843,000. 
 
 Cheironectes, the Frog-fish, a 
 genus, comprising some of those fishes 
 popularly known under the name of 
 anglers. They are most grotesquely 
 and hideously shaped, having the pec- 
 
 Chemistry 
 
 toral fins supported like short feet 
 on peduncles, by means of which they 
 can creep over mud or sand when 
 left dry by the receding tide. 
 
 Cheirotherinm, a name given to 
 a great unknown animal that formed 
 the larger footsteps upon the slabs of 
 the Trias, or upper New Red Sand- 
 stone, and which bears a resemblance 
 to the human hand. 
 
 Chel-ab-kn-kil, or Ab-ku-kil- 
 chel, an Indian priest who lived in 
 Yucatan and flourished in the 15th 
 century. His name is mentioned in 
 almost every Yucatanic legend, and 
 fragments of history composed by him 
 are found in documents of Yucatan 
 and Central American missions. 
 
 Chelmsford, Frederic Augustus 
 Thesiger, Lord, born May 21, 1827, 
 an English soldier; served in the Cri- 
 mea and through the Indian mutiny, 
 and in 1877 was appointed command- 
 er of the forces and lieutenant-gov- 
 ernor of Cape Colony. He restored 
 Kaffraria to tranquillity, and was 
 given the chief command in the Zulu 
 war of 1879. On his return to Eng- 
 land he was made G. C. B. He 
 died April 9, 1905. 
 
 Chelsea, a city in Suffolk county, 
 Mass., practically a suburb of Bos- 
 ton; on Chelsea harbor, the Mystic 
 river, and the Boston & Maine rail- 
 road; 3 miles from the State house 
 in Boston; is the seat of a United 
 States Naval Hospital, Marine Hos- 
 pital, and Soldiers' Home; and is 
 chiefly engaged in manufacturing. 
 Pop. (1910) 32,452. 
 
 Chelsea, a borough of London, Eng- 
 land, on the Thames, opposite Bat- 
 tersea, and chiefly distinguished for 
 containing a royal military hospital, 
 originally commenced by James I. as 
 a theological college, but converted by 
 Charles II. for the reception of sick, 
 maimed, and superannuated soldiers. 
 
 Chelyuskin, Cape, (formerly 
 Northeast Cape, and sometimes called 
 Cape Severe), the extreme N. point of 
 Asia, on a peninsula of the same 
 name, which forms the W. arm of the 
 E. half of the Taimyr peninsula. It 
 is named after a Russian officer who 
 led an expedition thus far in 1742, 
 and here succumbed, with his wife, 
 to the fatigues of the journey. 
 
 Chemistry, the science treating 
 of the relations and combinations of
 
 Chemnitz ' 
 
 atoms, or, that branch of natural 
 science which considers the combina- 
 tion of two or more substances to 
 form a third body with properties un- 
 like either of the components; and 
 the separation from a compound sub- 
 stance of the more simple bodies pres- 
 ent in it, each possessing distinct 
 properties. Considering that the steps 
 of the combination and decomposition 
 of substances can never be correctly 
 understood without an intimate knowl- 
 edge of the properties of substances, 
 it follows that the science of chem- 
 istry must take into notice likewise 
 the description of all the simplest as 
 well as of the most complex bodies. 
 Chemistry ranks as one of the arts 
 as well as one of the sciences, and 
 the division of Practical Chemistry 
 comprehends the rules and processes 
 which must be followed and the me- 
 chanical means for the prosecution of 
 the art. 
 
 Chemnitz, a town of Saxony, at 
 the base of the Erzgebirge, and at the 
 confluence of the Chemnitz river, with 
 three other streams, 51 miles S. S. E. 
 of Leipsic. It is the principal manu- 
 facturing town of the kingdom, its 
 industry consisting in weaving cot- 
 tons, woolens, and silks, and in print- 
 ing calicoes, chiefly for German con- 
 sumption. It supplies the world with 
 cheap hosiery, and makes mixed fab- 
 rics of wool, cotton, and jute for the 
 markets of Europe and the United 
 States. It has several extensive ma- 
 chine-factories, producing locomotives 
 and other steam-engines, with ma- 
 chinery for flax and wool spinning, 
 weaving, and mining industry. 
 Created a free imperial city as early 
 as 1125, Chemnitz, suffered much 
 during the Thirty Years' War. Pop. 
 (1900) 206,584. 
 
 Chemnitz, Martin, a German 
 Protestant theologian ; born in the 
 mark of Brandenburg in 1522. Died 
 at Brunswick in 1586. 
 
 Chemulpo, Korea, a seaport town 
 (since 1883 a treaty-port), on the W. 
 coast, 25 miles by rail W. S. W. of 
 Seoul, the capital. It was a landing- 
 point for the Japanese occupation of 
 Korea, during the Russo-Japanese 
 Conflict (1904), and witnessed the 
 first fight, in the sinking of the Rus- 
 sian warships, the Variag and Korietz. 
 The imports attain a value of $3,- 
 
 Cherbonrg 
 
 500,000 in some years; the exports 
 $1,500,000. Pop. 41,000; the bulk of 
 the 3,000 foreigners are Japanese. 
 
 Cheney, Charles Edward, an 
 American clergyman ; born in Can- 
 andaigua, N. Y., Feb. 12, 1836. He 
 was ordained a clergyman of the 
 Protestant Episcopal Church in 1858. 
 Becoming rector of Christ Church, 
 Chicago, he incurred censure for het- 
 erodoxy and was tried on that charge 
 and deposed from the priesthood. He 
 at once became a leader in the Re- 
 formed Episcopal movement, and was 
 consecrated bishop of the new denomi- 
 nation in 1873, a post he has since 
 held. 
 
 Cheney, Ednah Dow (Little- 
 hale), an American writer ; born in 
 Boston in 1824. She became presi- 
 dent of the New England Woman's 
 Club and the Massachusetts Suffrage 
 Association. She died in 1904. 
 
 Cheney, John Vance, an Ameri- 
 can writer, born in Groveland, N. Y., 
 Dec. 29, 1848. 
 
 Cheney, Theseus Apoleon, an 
 American historian ; born in Leon, N. 
 Y., March 16, 1830. He died in 
 Starkey, N. Y., Aug. 1878. 
 
 Chenile, a round fabric or trim- 
 ming made by uniting with two or 
 more sets of warps, a fine filling or 
 weft. The fabric is then twisted, as- 
 suming a cylindrical shape with weft 
 projecting radially from the central 
 line of warps. 
 
 Cheops, the name given by Herodo- 
 tus to the Egyptian despot whom the 
 Egyptians themselves called Khufu. 
 He belonged to the rulers who had 
 for their capital Memphis ; lived about 
 2800-2700 B. C., and built the largest 
 of the pyramids. According to He- 
 rodotus he employed 100,000 men on 
 this work constantly for 20 years. 
 
 Cherbourg, a strongly fortified 
 arsenal and seaport of France, in the 
 department of La Manche (The Chan- 
 nel), 196 miles W. N. W. of Paris. 
 It is the works by which it has been 
 converted into a great naval fortress 
 that give it its special importance. 
 These altogether have cost $40,000,- 
 000, and were chiefly carried out 
 under Napoleon I., Louis Philippe, 
 and Napoleon III. A United States 
 consul is resident at Cherbourg. Pop, 
 36,326.
 
 Cherbnliez 
 
 Cherbnliez, Victor, a French ro- 
 mancist ; born in Geneva, of a noted 
 family of litterateurs, July 19, 1829. 
 He died in Paris, July 1, 1899. 
 
 Cherokee Indians, a tribe of the 
 Appalachian family of North Amer- 
 ican aborigines, which occupied for 
 centuries the country E. and S. of 
 the Alleghanies. After the coloniza- 
 tion of North America by the whites, 
 a series of wars broke out at periods 
 ranging from 1759 to 1793; when, by 
 a treaty entered into with the United 
 States, they ceded their territory in 
 the Southeastern States, in consid- 
 eration of a certain cash payment, 
 and an annual subsidy being continued 
 to them. In 1805 they made further 
 concessions of their lands, and, in 
 1812, fought bravely on the American 
 side. In 1817-1819 new treaties were 
 made, which resulted in the Cherokees 
 being forced to a reservation of ter- 
 ritory afforded them W. of the Missis- 
 sippi. A remnant of the tribe re- 
 mained, however, jn the original reser- 
 vation in North Carolina. In Okla- 
 homa they occupy at present an area 
 of 7,861 square miles in the N. E. The 
 Cherokees have a chief, an assistant, 
 and a legislature, all chosen by vote. 
 They live in dwellings, not in wig- 
 wams. They have an asylum for or- 
 phans, seminaries, and 100 private 
 schools. Their capital is Tahlequah. 
 In the original North Carolina reser- 
 vation the Cherokees number 1,351. 
 They occupy an area of 98,211 acres. 
 
 Cherry, a fruit-tree of the prune or 
 plum tribe, very ornamental and there- 
 fore much cultivated in shrubberies. 
 The American wild cherry is a fine 
 large tree, the timber of which is much 
 used by cabinet-makers and others. 
 The fruit is somewhat astringent. 
 
 Chernbini, Lnigi Zenobio Sal- 
 vatore, founder of the French Con- 
 servatory and instructor of hundreds 
 of eminent musicians ; born in Flor- 
 ence, Sept. 1, 1760. In the interval 
 from 1780 to 1788, he composed eleven 
 Italian operas, including "Ifigenia in 
 Aulide," the most successful of the 
 series. He died in Paris, March 15, 
 1842. 
 
 Chesapeake Bay, in Maryland 
 and Virginia, and dividing the former 
 State into two parts, is the largest 
 inlet on the Atlantic coast of the 
 
 E. 33. 
 
 Chess 
 
 United States, being 200 miles long, 
 and from 4 to 40 broad. Its entrance, 
 12 miles w r ide, has on the N. Cape 
 Charles, and on the S. Cape Henry, 
 both promontories being in Virginia. 
 Chess, the most purely intellec- 
 tual of all games of skill, the origin 
 of which has been much disputed, but 
 probably arose in India 5,000 years 
 ago, and thence spread through Persia 
 and Arabia, to Europe and America. 
 The game has undergone many modi- 
 fications during its diffusion through- 
 out the world, but retains marked 
 traces of its Oriental origin. The 
 game is played by two persons on a 
 board which consists of 64 squares, 
 arranged in 8 rows of 8 squares each, 
 alternately black and white. Each 
 
 CHESS. 
 
 player has two sets of pieces of op- 
 posite colors of 16 men each, and of 
 various powers, according to their 
 rank. These sets of men are arrayed 
 opposite each other, and attack, de- 
 fend, and capture like hostile armies. 
 The superior officers occupying the 
 first row on each side are called pieces, 
 the inferior' men, all alike, standing 
 on the row immediately in front of the 
 pieces, are called pawns. 
 
 The chessmen being placed, the phy- 
 ers begin the engagement by moving 
 alternately ; each aiming to gain a nu- 
 merical superiority by capturing his 
 opponent's men, as well as such ad- 
 vantages of position as may conduce to 
 victory.
 
 Chester, a city and port of entry 
 in Chester county, Pa.; on the Dela- 
 ware river and the Philadelphia, Wil- 
 mington & Baltimore and other rail- 
 roads; 15 miles S. of Philadelphia; 
 is the oldest city in the State set- 
 tled in 1643 by Swedes; has an ex- 
 cellent harbor, one of the most noted 
 ship-building plants in the world, and 
 manufactories of cotton and woolen 
 goods; and is the seat of the Crozer 
 Theological Seminary (Bapt.). Pop. 
 (1910) 38,537. 
 
 Chester, capital of the county of 
 Cheshire, England, 16 miles S. E. of 
 Liverpool. St. John's Church is sup- 
 posed to have been founded by Ethel- 
 red in 698. Pop. (1901) 36,281. 
 
 Chesterfield, Philip Dormer 
 Stanhope, fourth Earl of, an English 
 statesman and litterateur ; born in 
 London, Sept. 22, 1694. He entered 
 public life in 1715, and took an active 
 part in the petty intrigues and party 
 squabbles which make up the parlia- 
 mentary and court history of the reign 
 of George II. The only writings of 
 this accomplished person that are at 
 all remembered are his " Letters " to 
 his son, remarkable for their ease of 
 style and their knowledge of society, 
 but notoriously reprehensible for the 
 principles of conduct which they in- 
 culcate. He died March 24, 1773 
 
 Chestmmt, a genus of plants, allied 
 to the beech. The common or Spanish 
 chestnut is a stately tree, with large, 
 handsome, serrated, dark-green leaves. 
 The fruit consists of two or more 
 seeds enveloped in a prickly husk. 
 Probably a native of Asia Minor, it 
 has long been naturalized in Western 
 countries. Two American species of 
 
 chestnuts have edible fruits. The 
 horse-chestnut is quite a different tree 
 from the common chestnut. 
 
 Chetah, the hunting leopard of 
 India, a native of Arabia and Asia 
 Minor. It has its specific name (ju- 
 tata, crested or nianed) from a short 
 mane-like crest at the back of the head. 
 When used for hunting it is hooded 
 and placed in a car. When a herd of 
 deer is seen, its keeper places its head 
 in the proper direction and removes 
 its hood. It slips from the car, and, 
 approaching its prey in a stealthy man- 
 ner, springs on it with several bounds. 
 It is about the size of a large grey- 
 hound, has a cat-like head, but a body 
 more like a dog's. A slightly different 
 species inhabits Africa- 
 Chevalier, Michel, a French 
 economist ; born in Limoges, Jan. 13, 
 1806. He became a councillor of state 
 (1838), professor of political economy 
 in the Coll6ge de France (1840), mem- 
 ber of the chamber of deputies (1846), 
 and a member of the Institute (1851). 
 He died in Montpellier, Nov. 28, 1879. 
 Cheviot, (from the name of a bor- 
 der mountain range in Scotland the 
 Cheviot hills), (1) a variety of moun- 
 tain sheep, named from the Cheviot 
 hills, where they abound; (2) a kind 
 of coarse woolen cloth used principal- 
 ly for men's clothing. 
 
 Chevreul, Michel Eugene, a 
 French chemist ; born in 1786. He 
 wrote various works on chemistry, 
 dyeing, etc. Died 1889, 103 years old. 
 Chevy Chase, the name of a cele- 
 brated British Border ballad, which 
 is probably founded on some actual 
 encounter which took place between 
 its heroes, Percy and Douglas.
 
 CATTLE PENS 
 
 KNOCKING PENS CATT 
 
 UKUSSHU BEEF READY FOR GOVERNMENT INSPECTION
 
 LTLLING DEPARTMENT 
 
 CATTLE READY FOR HEADING AND SKINMNG 
 
 , n- ..., 
 
 & INDUSTRY
 
 Cheyenne 
 
 Cheyenne, city, capital of the 
 State of Wyoming, is situated on a 
 plateau 6.075 feet above the sea and 
 contains Fort Russell, a United States 
 military post, and the main repair 
 shops of the Union Pacific railroad. 
 Pop. (1910) 11,320. 
 
 Cheyenncs, a tribe of American 
 Indians, originally of Algonquin or 
 Dakota stock, at one time settled in 
 Wyoming. To the number of 2,069 
 (1899), they were settled in Okla- 
 homa on a reservation of 529,682 
 acres. They are in a backward state 
 of civilization and possess a primitive 
 form of tribal government. 
 
 Cliiang-lisi, or Kiang-si, one of 
 ihe 18 provinces into which China 
 proper is divided. The area is 72,176 
 square miles. Pop. ( 1900, estimated ), 
 29,000,000, the last official census 
 (1879) returning 24,534,118. ' The 
 province contains the treaty port of 
 Kin-Kiang or Chin-Chiang, on the 
 Yang-tze-Kiang, a town of 53,000 in- 
 habitants. Here are established fa- 
 mous manufactories of porcelain. The 
 province produces tea and silk, besides 
 porcelain. 
 
 Chiang-Su, or Kiang-Su, an im- 
 portant maritime province of China 
 proper. It has an area of 44,500 
 square miles (about that of Pennsyl- 
 vania), and a population estimated in 
 1900 at 28,000,000, the last official 
 census in 1882 returning 20,905,171. 
 The great commercial importance of 
 this province is denoted by its posses- 
 sion of four treaty ports, Shanghai, 
 Nanking, Su-Chow, and Chin-Kiang. 
 Half the foreign population of China 
 (14,000 in 1900) is established in this 
 province. The capital is Nankiang. 
 Commercially the province is con- 
 trolled by the English, who have in- 
 vested largely in railways, mills and 
 government concessions. 
 
 Chiapas, a State of the Republic 
 of Mexico, on the Pacific slope, having 
 an area of 27,111 square miles and a 
 population of 310,599. The capital, 
 San Cristobal, is also the principal 
 town. The State is in many parts 
 mountainous, and is also in many 
 parts traversed by noble streams, in- 
 cluding the Rio Chiapas. It forms 
 part of the Central American table- 
 land, and has a fine climate, although 
 the whole region is largely clothed In 
 primeval forests. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Chiaro-oscnro, that branch of 
 painting which has for its object the 
 combination and arrangement of the 
 light and shadow of a picture to the 
 best advantage. 
 
 Cnibchas, or Mnyscas, a tribe of 
 South American Indians who formerly 
 lived E. of the Magdalena river, oc- 
 cupying the region from its head wat- 
 ers to the Sierra Nevada de Merida. 
 They were partially civilized. They 
 were ruled by women as well as men 
 in the line of succession, and believed 
 in a Supreme Being. They were con- 
 quered in a war with the Spaniards in 
 1537 and their descendants constitute 
 a large part of the present population 
 of Colombia. 
 
 Chibouque, a Turkish pipe with a 
 long stem. 
 
 Chica, or Chicha, the name given 
 in Brazil to a species of Sterculia, the 
 seeds of which are eaten. They are 
 about the size of a pigeon's egg, and 
 have an agreeable taste. Also a red 
 coloring matter used by some tribes 
 of North American Indians to stain 
 the skin. The word is also used as a 
 name of a dance popular among the 
 Spaniards and the South American 
 settlers descended from them. 
 
 Chicago, city, port of entry, and 
 county-seat of Cook Co., 111. ; the sec- 
 ond city in population in the United 
 States. It is built on the S. W. shore 
 of Lake Michigan, about 18 miles N. 
 of its S. extremity. It is the center 
 of the Western and Lake commerce 
 and has a large water front of 30 
 miles. A portion of the shore is pro- 
 tected by a massive wall. The city is 
 one of the greatest commercial centers 
 in the world, and is connected by 
 steamship and railroad lines with all 
 parts. The lake shore is protected by 
 breakwaters, forming a splendid har- 
 bor at the mouth of the Chicago river. 
 The exterior breakwater is 5,436 feet 
 long, and extends in a N. E. and S. 
 W. direction about one mile from the 
 shore. Piers and breakwaters, built 
 as continuations of the shores of Chi- 
 cago river, form a harbor of about 455 
 acres, with an average depth of 16 
 feet. At the mouth of the Calumet 
 river, in South Chicago, is another 
 harbor 300 feet wide between piers. 
 The Erie canal, terminating at Buf- 
 falo, provides a means of commercial 
 communication with the Atlantic
 
 Chicago 
 
 ports. Area 188 square miles; pop- 
 ulation (1890), 1,099,850; (1900), 
 1,098,575; (1910) 2,185,283. 
 
 The city was built originally on the 
 flat prairie, at an elevation too low 
 to secure proper drainage. When this 
 became apparent the grade of the 
 whole city was raised 7 feet and the 
 streets and buildings brought to the 
 new level. The Chicago river traverses 
 the city, and by its peculiar course 
 divides it into three sections, known 
 as the North, South and West Sides, 
 which are connected by many bridges. 
 
 The city owns an extensive water 
 works system. It was found that as 
 the city grew, the old water supply 
 became inadequate, and in order to 
 reach a point in the lake where the 
 water would be uncontaminated by 
 sewage, cribs were built two to four 
 miles out, with a tunnel connecting 
 them with the shore. In 1900 there 
 were five of these cribs, 35 miles of 
 tunnel and 1,802 miles of main. On 
 Jan. 17, 1900, a drainage canal was 
 opened to carry off the city's sewage. 
 It consists of an open drain connect- 
 ing the Chicago and Des Plaines 
 rivers, and extending thence to the 
 Illinois and Mississippi rivers. 
 
 Chicago is surrounded by some of 
 the largest and finest parks and boule- 
 vards in the country. The park area 
 is 2,232.1 acres, and the boulevards 
 extend over 66 miles. There are six 
 large parks, Lincoln, Humboldt, Gar- 
 field, Douglas, Washington, and Jack- 
 son, all connected by boulevards trav- 
 ersing the most beautiful sections of 
 the city and forming a drive system 
 which cannot be excelled. The Sheri- 
 dan road, which is an extension of the 
 boulevard system, is a superb drive- 
 way running N. along the lake shore 
 to Fort Sheridan, 25 miles distant. 
 
 Chicago is noted for the number, 
 size and height of its public and bus- 
 iness buildings, and for their hand- 
 some and complete interior finishings. 
 Among them are : the Auditorium, ten 
 stories high, contains the largest thea- 
 ter and opera house in the world, cap- 
 able of seating 7,000 persons, a 
 great hotel with 400 guest rooms, and 
 also 136 offices and store rooms, cost 
 $2,000,000; the Art Institute, which 
 ranks among the first art museums in 
 the country ; Board of Trade Build- 
 ing; Chicago Stock Exchange, 13 
 stories high ; the Monadnook building. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 16 stories high, containing 1,600 of- 
 fices and costing $2,500,000; the Ma- 
 sonic Temple, 21 stories high and 
 costing $3,500,000 ; the Public Library, 
 a magnificent structure costing $2,- 
 000,000 and containing a library of 
 250,000 books; the Woman's Temple, 
 12 stories high, containing 300 offices 
 and costing $1,500,000 ; the City Hall 
 and County Court and Criminal Court 
 buildings ; the Newberry Library, and 
 numbers of handsome club buildings, 
 stores and theaters, besides many ele- 
 gant and costly private residences. 
 
 According to the Federal census of 
 1900 there were reported 19,202 manu- 
 facturing establishments, employing 
 $534,000,689 capital and 262,621 per- 
 sons; paying $131,065,337 for wages 
 and $538,401,562 for materials; and 
 yielding products of an aggregate value 
 of $888,786,311. The principal in- 
 dustries were wholesale slaughtering 
 and meat packing, foundry and ma- 
 chine shop products, men's clothing, 
 in factories ; iron and steel, agricul- 
 tural implements, railroad cars, print- 
 ing and publishing, masonry, and malt 
 liquors ; bakery products, coffee and 
 spices, furniture, electrical supplies, 
 women's clothing, soap and candles, 
 wholesale slaughtering (without meat 
 packing), linseed oil, planing mill 
 products and confectionery. Chicago 
 is the greatest live stock and grain 
 market in the world, as well as the 
 greatest railroad center. 
 
 \t the close of the school year 1899- ' 
 1900, the children of school census age 
 aggregated 656,516; the enrollment in 
 public day schools was 213,134 and 
 in private and parochial schools ( large- 
 ly estimated) 86,614, and the average 
 daily attendance in public day schools 
 was 199,821. For higher education 
 there were 15 public high schools, one 
 public normal school, one endowed nor- 
 mal school, 15 private secondary 
 schools, St. Ignatius College (R. C.. 
 opened 1869), and the University of 
 Chicago (1892). The principal pri- 
 vate secondary schools are Lewis In- 
 stitute, Chicago Institute, Seminarr, 
 of the Sacred Heart, De La Salle In- 
 stitute, University School, Harvard 
 School, Kirkland School, St. Xayier's. 
 Academy, and Kenwood Institute. 
 There were 26 training schools for 
 nurses, mostly connected with hospitals 
 and sanitariums. Chicago has nearly 
 800 churches. There are about 150
 
 Chicago Drainage Canal 
 
 Chicliei 
 
 hospitals and other charitable institu- 
 tions in the city. Among the largest 
 of the former are the Mercy, Cook 
 County, Michael Reese, United States 
 Marine, and the Hahnemann. The 
 benevolent institutions include the 
 Old People's Home, Newsboys' Home, 
 Washington Home for the Reforma- 
 tion of Inebriates, Foundlings' Home, 
 Home for the Friendless, and the Prot- 
 estant, St. Joseph's and St. Mary's 
 Orphan Asylums. 
 
 The site of Chicago was first visited 
 by Joliet and Marquette, French mis- 
 sionaries and explorers, in 1673. In 
 1685 a fort was built there, com- 
 manded by an officer in the Canadian 
 service, and before the end of the 17th 
 century the Jesuits made it a mission 
 post. Indian hostilities prevented fur- 
 ther occupation till the United States 
 government established there the fron- 
 tier post of Fort Dearborn in 1804, 
 which was destroyed by Indians in the 
 War of 1812, but rebuilt in 1816, 
 when a permanent settlement began. 
 
 In 1830 the entire population was 
 only 70 persons, but in 1835 a town 
 was organized, and in 1837 it was 
 incorporated as a city with 4,000 in- 
 habitants and an area of 10 miles. On 
 Oct. 8 and 9, 1871, occurred the mem- 
 orable fire which reduced a large 
 part of the city to ashes, destroyed its 
 entire business center, and swept over 
 an area of more than three square 
 miles, causing a loss of about $190,- 
 000,000. Nearly 20,000 buildings were 
 consumed, 100,000 people were made 
 homeless, and 200 lives were lost. An- 
 other disastrous fire broke out in 1874 
 in the heart of the city, which con- 
 sumed 18 blocks and over 600 homes, 
 with a loss of over $4,000,000. Within 
 a very short time after these disasters 
 Chicago was rebuilt in a much more 
 substantial and elegant manner, and 
 it has since continued its steady 
 march to prosperity. In May, 1886, 
 anarchist riots at the Haymarket re- 
 sulted in the death of six police offi- 
 cers, the wounding of several others, 
 the conviction of eight rioters, and 
 the execution of four. The World's 
 Columbian Exposition was held in 
 Chicago from May 1 to Oct. 30, 1893. 
 Fully $17,500,000 were expended in 
 the construction of the fair and its 
 operation, and it was visited by 17,- 
 000,000 people. In October, 1903, Chi- 
 
 cago celebrated the hundredth anniver- 
 sary of the beginning of settlement 
 there. 
 
 On Dec. 30, 1903, the Iroquois Thea- 
 tre, a new structure, was destroyed by 
 fire and over 600 persons mostly 
 women and children perished. 
 
 Judge Ed. F. Dunne was elected 
 mayor, April, 1905, and since then the 
 municipal ownership of street rail- 
 roads and other public services has 
 been a fruitful source of agitation lead- 
 ing to active reforms. 
 
 Chicago Drainage Canal, a 
 canal intended chiefly for carrying off 
 the sewage of Chicago, but which may 
 be used for commercial purposes ; be- 
 gun in September, 1892 ; completed in 
 January, 1900. The main channel is 
 29 miles long, extending from Chicago 
 to Lockport on the Illinois river, into 
 which stream it discharges. About 9 
 miles of the channel is cut through 
 solid rock, with a minimum depth of 
 22 feet and a width of 160 feet on the 
 bottom in rock, which makes it the 
 largest artificial channel in the world. 
 The length of the waterway from the 
 mouth of the Chicago river to its ter- 
 minus S. of Joliet is about 42 miles. 
 The cost of the canal was estimated 
 at about $45,000,000. 
 
 Chicago, University of, a co-edu- 
 cational (non-sectarian) institution in 
 Chicago, 111., founded by John D. 
 Rockefeller, dating from Sept. 10, 
 1890, when the institution was incor- 
 porated under the laws of Illinois. A 
 previous institution known as the Uni- 
 versity of Chicago had gone out of ex- 
 istence, owing to financial difficulties, 
 in 1886. A number of Baptists de- 
 sired to have a college in Chicago, and 
 succeeded in interesting John D. 
 Rockefeller in the plan. He promised 
 $600,000 toward the establishment of 
 the college if $400,000 more should be 
 raised by June, 1890. This amount 
 was duly raised, and the plan was 
 enlarged in scope so as to include a 
 university instead of a mere college. 
 Further large gifts were made by Mr. 
 Rockefeller and by others, and the 
 doors were opened for instruction Oct. 
 1, 1892. 
 
 Chichen-Itia, the largest of over 
 50 ruined towns in the Mexican prov- 
 ince of Yucatan, a few miles W. S. W. 
 of Yulladolid, with the remains of aa 
 ancient Indian city.
 
 Chickadee 
 
 Chignecto Bay 
 
 Chickadee, the popular name of 
 the black-cap titmouse. 
 
 Chickahominy, a river in Virginia, 
 affluent of the James and running 
 parallel to it for many miles from its 
 source N. W. of Richmond. On and 
 near it occurred many of the most 
 important events of McClellans 
 Peninsular campaign in 1802. The 
 second battle of Cold Harbor under 
 Grant took place in 1864. 
 
 Chickamauga, Battle of, an en- 
 gagement fought Sept. 19-20, 1863, 
 between the Union army under Rose- 
 crans and the Confederate under 
 Bragg and Longstreet. Out of about 
 100,000 troops engaged, some 30,000 
 were reported as killed, wounded and 
 missing a very bloody and prac- 
 tically drawn battle, though claimed 
 as a Confederate victory, and causing 
 the replacement of Rosecrans by 
 Grant. But for the splendid stand 
 made by General George H. Thomas 
 it would have been a Union defeat. 
 
 Chickasaw, an Indian tribe, occu- 
 pying a reservation near the center 
 of Oklahoma in Grady county. The 
 tribe has a chief and a legislature 
 chosen by popular vote. 
 
 Chickasha, city and capital of 
 Grady county, Okl.; near the Wich- 
 ita river and on the Chicago, Rock 
 Island & Pacific and other railroads; 
 39 miles S. of Oklahoma City; was 
 the chief town of the Chickasaw Na- 
 tion in the former Indian Territory^ 
 is largely engaged in mercantile and 
 farming interests; and has lumber, 
 flour, cotton, and cotton-seed oil mills, 
 and brick yards. Pop. (1910) 10,320. 
 
 Chicopee, a city in Hampden 
 county, Mass.; on the Chicopee and 
 Connecticut rivers and the Boston & 
 Maine railroad; 4 miles N. of Spring- 
 field; is an important manufacturing 
 city, with fine water power from 
 Chicopee Falls; chief products, cot- 
 ton and brass goods. Pop. (1910). 
 25,401. 
 
 Chief, in heraldry, the upper part 
 of the field cut off by a horizontal line. 
 It generally occupied one-third of the 
 area of the shield. 
 
 Chief Justice, the title of the chief 
 member of the United States Supreme 
 Court, also of the judges holding simi- 
 lar rank in some of the States. In 
 Canada it is the title of the leading 
 
 judge of the Dominion and Provincial 
 Supreme Courts, and in England the 
 presiding judge in the Queen's Bench 
 Division of the High Court of Justice 
 is called a " Lord Chief Justice." 
 
 The following is a list of the per- 
 sons appointed as Chief-Justice of the 
 Supreme Court of the United States 
 from its establishment : 
 
 John Jay, of New York. 
 
 Oliver Ellsworth, of Connecticut. 
 
 John Marshall, of Virginia. 
 
 Roger Brooke Taney, of Maryland. 
 
 Salmon Portland Chase, of Ohio. 
 
 Morrison R. Waite, of Ohio. 
 
 Melville W. Fuller, of Illinois. 
 
 Edward D. White, of Louisiana. 
 
 Chigi, a princely Italian family, 
 whose founder was Agostino Chigi 
 (died 1512), of Siena, who in Rome 
 became banker to the popes, and was 
 noted for his pomp and encourage- 
 ment of art. 
 
 CHICORY. 
 
 Chignecto Bay, an inlet at the 
 head of the Bay of Fundy, in British 
 North America. It separates Nova 
 Scotia from New Brunswick, is 30 
 miles long and 8 broad, and has an 
 isthmus of only 14 miles in width be- 
 tween it and Northumberland Strait, 
 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In Oc- 
 tober, 1888, work was begun on the
 
 Chignon 
 
 construction of a ship railway across 
 the neck of land connecting Nova 
 Scotia with the main land of Canada. 
 The promoters had spent nearly $4,- 
 000,000 on the work, when in 1890 
 a financial depression in London pre- 
 vented them from obtaining further 
 capital. In March, 1901, the under- 
 taking was revived. 
 
 Chignon, (1) the back of the neck, 
 (2) back hair; the back hair of wo- 
 men, a protuberance of artificial hair 
 on the hinder part of the head, worn 
 by women about 1866-1875. 
 
 Chigo, Chigre, or Jigger, a 
 West Indian and South American spe- 
 cies of apterous insect of the flea kind, 
 which penetrates the skin and breeds 
 there, unless speedily eradicated. 
 
 Chihuahua, the largest State of 
 Mexico; bounded on the N. and N. E. 
 by New Mexico and Texas ; area, 87,- 
 802 square miles; pop. (1895), 262,- 
 771. The State is better adapted for 
 stock-raising than for agriculture; the 
 fertile districts are mainly confined 
 to the valleys and river courses. Cot- 
 ton is grown in the S. The silver 
 mines were for centuries among the 
 richest in Mexico, and mining is still 
 the chief industry. The capital, Chi- 
 huahua, 225 miles S. of El Paso, rises 
 like an oasis in the desert, among 
 roses and orange groves. Pop. about 
 20,000. 
 
 Chilblain, a sore on the hands or 
 feet produced by cold, especially if 
 the parts were previously much heated 
 
 Child, Lydia Maria, an American 
 prose-writer ; born in Medford, Mass., 
 Feb. 11, 1802. She was an ardent 
 abolitionist, and published the first 
 book written on that subject, entitled 
 "Appeal for that class of Americans 
 called African." Dr. Channing went 
 over to Roxbury to thank her for it. 
 She died in Wayland, Mass., Oct. 20, 
 1880. 
 
 Children, Societies for the Pre- 
 vention of Cruelty to, organiza- 
 tions that had their origin in New 
 York City, and have since been adopt- 
 ed in most American and many 
 European cities. 
 
 Children's Crusade, The, a sin 
 gular movement in 1212, preached in 
 France by Stephen, a peasant boy, 
 and in Germany the same year by 
 Nicholas, also a peasant boy. Some 
 
 Chile 
 
 90,000 children left their mothers and 
 schoolmasters in the spring "to rescue 
 the Holy Land from the infidels." Part 
 perished by shipwreck and the rest 
 were sold into slavery. 
 
 Childs, George William, an 
 American philanthropist and pub- 
 lisher; born in Baltimore, Md., May 
 22, 1829. He published the Philadel- 
 phia " Public Ledger," 1864-1894. He 
 assisted in establishing a home for 
 printers at Colorado Springs. He died 
 in Philadelphia, Feb. 3, 1894. 
 
 Chile, a Republic of South Amer- 
 ica, bounded on the N. by Peru, E. 
 by Bolivia and the Argentine Repub- 
 lic, S. and W. by the Pacific Ocean; 
 area, 307,620 square miles; pop. (ac- 
 cording to revised calculation, and 
 omitting 50,000 Indians), 2,712,145; 
 capital Santiago (pop. 296,695). 
 
 The climate of Chile is temperate. 
 The temperature is remarkably even 
 and pleasant, and always cool at 
 night. The S. wind blows fiercely 
 during many days of summer, dry 
 and cold; the N. wind brings heat, 
 tempest and rain ; other winds are 
 unknown. Central Chile, between lat. 
 32 and 36, is fertile. In Southern 
 Chile generally the land is poor, and 
 on account of excessive rain of hardly 
 any value for agriculture, which, in- 
 deed, is carried on in a very primitive 
 fashion, but the soil of the valleys, 
 where large herds of cattle graze, is 
 very fertile. 
 
 Chile was the first South American 
 State to construct railways. In 1902 
 there were 2,800 English miles of 
 lines open to traffic, of which the 
 State owned 1,320 miles. The revenue 
 of the State railways in 1902 was 
 13,259,607 pesos, expenditures, 12,- 
 878,248 pesos. The cost of the State 
 lines by recent report amounted to 
 82,269,660 pesos. A railway system 
 crossing the Andes has 18 miles in 
 Chile and 88 in the Argentine Repub- 
 lic, connecting the Atlantic and Pa- 
 cific Oceans from Buenos Ayres to 
 Valparaiso. There were 9.832 miles 
 of telegraph lines with 229 offices, 
 through which 1,255,806 telegrams 
 were sent during the year. 
 
 The government is that of a repub- 
 lic, the chief magistrate being a 
 President, elected for five years, who 
 is thereafter ineligible to immediate 
 reelection. The President has a cab-
 
 Chile 
 
 inet consisting of six members and a 
 Council of State of 11, six of whom 
 are named by Congress. Legislation 
 is conducted by a Chamber of Depu- 
 ties, chosen by popular vote, and who 
 serve three years, renewable by thirds 
 every three years ; and a Senate, mem- 
 bers of which are chosen for nine 
 years. For administrative purposes 
 Chile is divided into 23 provinces and 
 1 territory, and the provinces in turn 
 into departments, suo-delegations and 
 districts. Each province is governed 
 by an intendant, who also acts as 
 governor of the department in which 
 the capital of the province is situated. 
 The departments are governed by gov- 
 ernors, the minor divisions by sub- 
 delegates and inspectors. The estab- 
 lished religion of Chile is Roman 
 Catholic, but the constitution guaran- 
 tees freedom of worship. Education 
 receives much attention, but is not 
 compulsory. 
 
 The name of Chile is supposed to 
 be derived from an ancient Peruvian 
 word signifying "snow." The N. por- 
 tion, as far as the river Maule, formed 
 part of the dominions of the Incas of 
 reru, and the S. was held by the val- 
 iant Araucanians. The first European 
 to land in Chile was the Portuguese 
 discoverer Magellan, at Chiloe, in 
 1520. After the conquest of Peru by 
 Pizarro, an expedition was made to 
 Chile from that country overland, un- 
 der the leadership of Diego de Alma- 
 gro, in 1535. This expedition pene- 
 trated as far as the Rio Clano, but 
 returned unsuccessful. Another was 
 sent under command of Pedro Val- 
 divia in 1540, which succeeded in an- 
 nexing the territory as far as the river 
 Maipu. Santiago, the capital, was 
 founded by Valdivia in 1542. Dur- 
 ing the colonial period the governors 
 of Chile were appointed by the King 
 of Spain, but were subordinate to the 
 viceroys of Peru. In 1810 a revolt 
 against the Spanish power broke out, 
 in which Don Bernardo O'Higgins, son 
 of one of the last viceroys of Peru, 
 but a native of Chile, played a con- 
 spicuous part, and finally became the 
 first dictator of the new republic. The 
 conflict between the Spanish troops 
 and the Republican army continued 
 until 1826, when peace was definitely 
 settled and Chile left to govern itself. 
 The first constitutional president was 
 Gen. Blanco Encalada. The govern- 
 
 Clii-Ll 
 
 ment was unsettled till 1830. In 
 1833 the present constitution was 
 adopted. Revolutions broke out in 
 1851 and 1859, but since then there 
 has been no serious attempt to over- 
 turn the government by force of arms. 
 In 1864 Chile gave Peru very valuable 
 support in her war with Spain. In 
 1879 Chile declared war against Bo- 
 livia on account of an alleged viola- 
 tion of treaty rights, and immediately 
 after against Peru, with which Bolivia 
 was allied. For a time the Peruvian 
 fleet kept the Chilians in check, but 
 in August, 1879, the Peruvian ironclad' 
 " Huascar" was captured by the 
 Chilian men-of-war " Cochrane " and' 
 "Blanco Encalada," both armor- 
 plated. After this event the success 
 of the Chilians was uninterrupted. 
 Peruvian towns were bombarded, and 
 their other warships captured. Final- 
 ly Lima was taken by storm on June 
 21, 1881. The Chilians occupied Lima 
 and Callao until Oct. 30, 1885, when 
 a treaty of peace was signed between 
 Chile and Peru. Up to 1900 no treaty 
 of peace had been signed by Chile and 
 Bolivia ; a treaty of indefinite truce 
 having been agreed to in 1884. In 
 1885 Jose Manuel Balmaceda, repre- 
 senting the Liberal party, was elected 
 President. The hostile factions or- 
 ganized a rebellion and formed a 
 junta, under whose management the 
 forces of Balmaceda were repeatedly 
 defeated. He committed suicide Sept. 
 19, 1891. In a riot in Valparaiso 
 some United States marines were set 
 upon and wounded. Reparation was 
 demanded and refused, and war be- 
 tween Chile and the United States 
 seemed imminent. Two war vessels 
 were sent to Chile to enforce the de- 
 mands of the U. S. and an apology 
 and compensation were given. In 1902 
 the boundary dispute with Argentina, 
 arbitrated by Great Britain, led later 
 to a treaty of continuous peace. 
 
 Clii-Li, or Chili-Li, one of the 18 
 provinces into which China proper Is 
 divided. It has an area of 58,949 
 square miles. It is in many respects 
 the most important of the Chinese 
 provinces, containing as it does the 
 imperial capital, Peking, the treaty 
 port of Tien-Tsin, and the only com- 
 pleted line of railway in the Empire. 
 The Great Wall runs across the whole 
 of the N. part of Cni-Li, while on the 
 coast are the forts of Taku, and the
 
 Cliilkat Inlet 
 
 Chin* 
 
 nearest approach to a naval station 
 belonging to the Chinese government. 
 There are Christian missionaries of 
 many denominations throughout the 
 province. No census has been taken 
 since 1879, when the population was 
 returned as 17,937,000. In 1900 the 
 population was estimated at 25,000,- 
 000, including a large Manchu element. 
 Chi-Li has valuable coal mines at 
 Kai-Ping, and other mineral resources. 
 The soil is fertile. The provincial 
 capital is Pao-Ting-Fu, 80 miles from 
 Peking. 
 
 Chilkat Inlet, the W. arm of 
 Lynn Canal, an inlet in Alaska. 
 
 Chilkat, or Dalton, Pass, a route 
 in Alaska traversed by miners in 
 reaching the gold fields of the Klon- 
 dike. 
 
 Chilkoot Inlet, the Eastern arm 
 of Lynn Canal, an inlet in Alaska. 
 
 Chilkoot Pass, a pass over the 
 mountains in the Northern part of 
 Alaska, traversed by thousands of 
 gold-seekers in the Klondike gold fields 
 excitement in 1897-1898. By way of 
 the Chilkoot Pass is the most direct 
 route to Dawson City, the principal 
 starting point to the Klondike region. 
 
 Chillicothe, Ohio, capital of Ross 
 County, 50 miles S. of Columbus, was 
 the capital of Ohio (1800-10). It is 
 an agricultural and industrial centre. 
 Pop. (1910) 14,508. 
 
 Chillon, Castle, a fortress of 
 Switzerland, in the canton Vaud, 6 
 miles S. E. of Vevay. It stands on 
 an isolated rock at the E. end of the 
 Lake of Geneva. It was built in 1238, 
 by Amadeus IV. of Savoy, and was 
 long used as a State prison. 
 
 Chiloe, the insular province of 
 Chile ; consists of the island of that 
 name on the W. coast, which is 
 115 miles long, with a maximum 
 breadth of 43 miles, and is separated 
 from the mainland by a narrow 
 strait on the N., and by a gulf 30 
 miles wide on the E. ; and of a number 
 of neighboring islets, mostly unin- 
 habited ; total area, 8,590 square 
 miles ; population, 77,750, almost all 
 Indians living on the principal is- 
 land. 
 
 Chimborazo, a conical peak of the 
 Andes, in Ecuador, 20.517 feet above 
 the sea. but only about 11.000 above 
 the level of the adjacent Quito valley. 
 
 China, or the Chinese Empire, a 
 vast territory in Asia, comprehending 
 five great divisions : China Proper or 
 the Eighteen Provinces (Shih-pa- 
 Shang), and its dependencies, Man- 
 churia, Mongolia, Jungaria and East 
 Turkestan, also Tibet, which, however, 
 is practically independent. The whole 
 empire has an area estimated at 4,- 
 277,170 square miles ; pop. 426,050,- 
 000. The dependencies are described 
 under their respective headings, and 
 this article refers to China Proper, 
 ancient Cathay or The Middle King- 
 dom, the centre of power and popula- 
 tion, with an area estimated at 1,532,- 
 420 square miles; pop. 407,253,029. 
 It occupies the E. slope of the table- 
 lands of Central Asia, and is almost 
 in the form of a square. Two-thirds 
 of the interior are estimated to be 
 mountainous ; the central and northern 
 hills are off-shoots of the Kuen-lun 
 range, while in the southeast extensive 
 chains stretch from the Tibetan high- 
 lands to the eastern seaboard. Be- 
 tween these mountain-systems, and al- 
 most parallel flow the two gieat rivers 
 of China, the Hwang-hq, and the Yang- 
 tze. Besides these rivers and their 
 numerous tributaries, the most notable 
 are the Se-Kiang in the south, and the 
 Pei-ho in the north. The waterways 
 are the highways of China ; joined by 
 a vast network of canals, they form a 
 gigantic system of inland communi- 
 cation, always thronged with craft of 
 every description. The coast-line, an 
 irregular curve of about 2,500 miles, 
 is fringed with islands, the largest of 
 which, Formosa, was ceded to Japan 
 after the war of 1894-5. The greater 
 part of China lies within the temper- 
 ate zone, but the climate is marked 
 by a great range of temperature, from 
 tropical heat in the south, to arctic 
 conditions in the north, according to 
 seasons. The flora, forestry, and 
 fauna, are allied to the climatic con- 
 ditions. China is well supplied with 
 minerals, including gold, silver, cop- 
 per, and iron ; there are extensive coal- 
 fields, inexhaustible beds of kaolin, 
 or porcelain earth, and salt is abun- 
 dant. Covering an immense area in 
 the north, is the loess deposit, a 
 brownish-yellow earth of great fertil- 
 ity, wafted thither by the simoons and 
 winds of the ages, from the disin- 
 tegrating Himalayan plateaux. Agri-
 
 China 
 
 China 
 
 culture is held in veneration ; rice as 
 the principal food of the people is 
 the staple crop, but other grains also 
 are grown. The mulberry tree is ex- 
 tensively cultivated for silkworms, 
 while the opium poppy, and the tea- 
 plant, furnish important crops. The 
 chief manufactures 'are silk, paper, 
 porcelain and cotton goods ; the inven- 
 tiveness of the Chinese is of ancient 
 date, paper-making, printing, gunpow- 
 der, etc., having been discovered by 
 them long before they were known to 
 Occidental nations. Besides an enor- 
 mous domestic trade, a considerable 
 and increasing import and export 
 trade is carried on ; tea, raw and man- 
 ufactured silk being exported, and cot- 
 ton goods, metals, metal goods, and 
 opium being imported. Thirty-five 
 treaty ports are now open to foreign 
 commerce. The principal cities are, 
 Peking the capital, with about 1,700, 
 000 population, Canton, Tientsin, 
 Han-kau, Nanking, Shanghai, Ning- 
 po, Fu-chau, Amoy, Swatow, and 30 
 or 40 more, with a population from 
 800,000 to 1,500,000. In 1903 2,800 
 miles of railway were open for traffic, 
 and 1,300 miles more were projected ; 
 .there were nearly 14,000 miles of tele- 
 graph lines which are being extended 
 throughout the Empire, Peking is in 
 direct telegraphic and railway com- 
 munication with Europe. China is 
 being gradually opened up to foreign 
 intercourse through missionary and 
 political influence, but a great part of 
 the country is still unknown to for- 
 eigners. The modern development of 
 the export trade, railways, telegraphs, 
 etc., has been due to foreign rivalry 
 for China's trade, and has led to a 
 complication of interests whence have 
 arisen the political catch-phrases, 
 " The Integrity of the Chinese Em- 
 pire," " The Open Door." Various 
 foreign " spheres of influence," and 
 " concessions," recognized and granted 
 by the Chinese Government, are the 
 Russian, British, and French "spheres 
 of influence," and the American and 
 German " concessions," respectively 
 centred the Russian in Manchuria, 
 the British at Wei-hai-Wei and in the 
 Kau-lung Peninsula opposite their in- 
 Bular possession, Hongkong ; the 
 French at Pakhoi and the southern 
 provinces of Kwang-si, and Yun-nan, 
 the American in Han-kau, Wu-chang, 
 
 and Canton ; and the German at Kiao- 
 chau. 
 
 Ethnologically the Chinese belong 
 to the Mongolian race, with the char- 
 acteristic conformation of the head 
 and face, tawny skin, black and lank 
 hair (which as a sign of subjection to 
 their Tartar conquerors they wear in 
 the form of a queue or "pig-tail"), 
 oblique eyes, high-cheek bones, and 
 monosyllabic language. They are 
 peaceable and domesticated ; capable 
 of a high degree of organization and 
 local self-government, thrifty, sober, 
 industrious, literary but unimagina- 
 tive, and thoroughly imbued with a 
 practical, commercial spirit. The prin- 
 ciple of filial piety, and ancestral wor- 
 ship form the basis of Chinese society. 
 Vacillation, duplicity, and insincerity, 
 largely the result of excessive polite- 
 ness and the desire to please, gam- 
 bling, and opium smoking, are among 
 their vicious traits. Education is 
 general, and is largely fostered by the 
 Chinese executive system which is 
 based on those noteworthy competi- 
 tive examinations, which are intended 
 to sift out from the millions of edu- 
 cated Chinese, the best and ablest for 
 the public service. Many young men 
 of the higher classes are sent to the 
 United States and Europe for instruc- 
 tion in English and the sciences. In 
 1898 an " Imperial University of 
 China " was established by imperial 
 decree. Dr. William A. P. Martin, 
 an American missionary and educator, 
 was appointed first president of this 
 institution, and three of its professors 
 are from the United States. 
 
 The Confucian, the Buddhist, and 
 the Taoist, are the chief forms of re- 
 ligion ; Confucianism and Taoism are 
 indigenous, but Buddhism was intro- 
 duced from India. Confucianism, the 
 basis of their social and political 
 systems, has been professed by all 
 their greatest men, and is still the sole 
 belief of the educated classes. 
 
 For many years the Empress Dow- 
 ager ruled the empire as regent or 
 as practical empress. She died No- 
 vember 15, 1908, the Emperor Kuan 
 Hgsu having died November 9. Pu- 
 Yi, a child emperor two years old, suc- 
 ceeded, the government being placed in 
 the hands of a regent. The provincial 
 governor or imperial delegate possesses 
 the power of life or death, and under
 
 China 
 
 him are the superintendent of provin- 
 cial finances, the provincial criminal 
 judge, and the provincial educational 
 examiner ; each communicates through 
 the governor with his especial board 
 in Peking. China has (on paper) an 
 enormous army, each of the 18 prov- 
 inces being supposed to provide a mil- 
 itary force or corps of 8,000 to about 
 68,000 men, and aggregating from 540,- 
 000 to 660,000, known as the Ying 
 Ping or National Army, and cal|ed 
 also the Green Flags and the Five 
 Camps five being the unit of sub-di- 
 vision. The elite of the army is the 
 Shen-Che-Yeng (Black Flags), the for- 
 eign-drilled Tientsin Army corps, about 
 35,000 strong, and the Pa-ki or Eight 
 Banners containing about 300,000 
 Manchu warrior-descendants. Since 
 the Chino- Japanese War (1894-95), 
 there is .no effective Chinese fleet, al- 
 though a few swift cruisers have been 
 added to the Chen-Hai and the Kang- 
 Chi which alone remained of the Pei- 
 Yang squadron. The imperial reve- 
 nue is derived from land and property 
 taxes, customs, and excise, and is said 
 to amount to $250,000,000, half of 
 which is paid in kind. Prior to the 
 Boxer troubles (1900-1901), the exter- 
 nal debt amounted to about $270,000,- 
 000; to this was added in Oct. 1901 
 the indemnity of $375,000,000 de- 
 manded by the allies. 
 
 China's authentic history begins 
 with the Chow dynasty founded by 
 Woo-wang, which lasted from 1100 
 B. c. to 258 B. c. Confucius was born 
 under Ling-wang of this dynasty about 
 550 B. c. Chow-siang, the founder of 
 the Tsin dynasty, from which China 
 takes its name, overcame all rivals, 
 and died in 251 B. c. Che-Hoang-ti 
 his great-grandson was the first to 
 assume the title of "Hoang" (em- 
 peror); during his reign, in 214 B. 
 c., the great wall was begun as a 
 protection against marauding Tar- 
 tars. 
 
 The Mongols under Genghis Khan 
 and his son Ogdai conquered China in 
 the 13th century, and in 1259 Kublai 
 Khan, a nephew, ascended the throne 
 and founded the Mongol dynasty. In 
 the 13th century Marco Polo, the 
 Venetian traveler visited China, and 
 published in Europe the earliest au- 
 thentic account of the country. In 
 1368 the native Ming dynasty in the 
 
 China Sea 
 
 person of Hungwu gained the ascend- 
 ency, which it retained until replaced 
 in 1618 by the present Manchu dynas- 
 ty, in the person of Tungchi. Diplo- 
 matic connections with Occidental na- 
 tions did not commence until the Brit- 
 ish embassy of Lord Macartney ar- 
 rived at Peking in 1792, and it was 
 not until after the war with Great 
 Britain in 1840, occasioned by the de- 
 plorable imposition of the opium traf- 
 fic on China, that commercial treaties 
 opened the country to foreign trade. 
 The first treaty with the United States 
 was negotiated by Caleb Gushing in 
 1844. War with Great Britain again 
 occurred in 1856 over the Chinese seiz- 
 ure of a Hongkong vessel, France 
 joining in, to secure better protection 
 for missionaries and trade. From 1850 
 to 1865 southern China was disturbed 
 by the Taiping Rebellion. In 1894-95 
 occurred the war with Japan over 
 Korea, which resulted in a series of 
 brilliant land and naval victories for 
 Japan, and the payment of a large in- 
 demnity by China. In 1898 Russia 
 and Germany acquired Chinese con- 
 cessions of land. In 1900 occurred 
 the Boxer troubles, when a belligerent 
 section of the natives exasperated by 
 the continued encroachments of the 
 " foreign devils " and " barbarians," 
 murdered the German ambassador, 
 and besieged the foreign legations in 
 Peking for two months until relieved 
 by the allied forces of Russia, Ger- 
 many, Gt. Britain, the U. S., and 
 Japan. Early in 1905 there arose a 
 widespread demand for radical reforms 
 in administrative methods, and an en- 
 suing period of official temporizing led 
 to a f 9rmidable revolution . The throne 
 promised an early constitutional gov- 
 ernment; provincial assemblies were 
 authorized; a National Assembly was 
 convened on Oct. 2, 1910; and a Parlia- 
 ment of two houses was pledged in 
 three years' time. Meanwhile the rev- 
 plution spread; Mongolia declared its 
 independence; a provisional republic 
 was founded in Shanghai; the imperial 
 Manchu dynasty abdicated on Feb. 12, 
 1912; and on Feb. 15, following, the 
 National Assembly elected Yuan-Shih- 
 kai president of the Chinese republic. 
 
 China Sea. that part of the North 
 Pacific Ocean bounded N. by Formosa, 
 N. W. by China, W. by Anam and
 
 Chinchilla 
 
 the Malay peninsula, S. E. by Borneo, 
 and E. by the Philippines. It is called 
 also the SOUTH SEA. Manila, Hong- 
 kong, and Singapore, are on its shores. 
 Chinchilla, a genus of South Amer- 
 ican herbivorous rodents very closely 
 allied to the rabbit, which they resem- 
 ble in the general shape of the body, 
 
 CHINCHILLA. 
 
 in the limbs being longer behind than 
 before, and by the nature of the fur, 
 which is more woolly than silky. 
 
 Chinchon, a town of Spain, 25 
 miles S. E. of Madrid. After a Coun- 
 tess of Chinchon, wife of the Governor 
 of Peru in 1038, Peruvian bark 
 was named " Chinchona," now habit- 
 ually misspelled " Cinchona." 
 
 Chinese-fire, a pyrotechnic compo- 
 sition, consisting of gunpowder, 16; 
 niter, 8 ; charcoal, 3 ; sulphur, 3 ; cast- 
 iron borings (small), 10. 
 
 Chinese Lantern, a lantern made 
 of thin paper, usually variously col- 
 ored and much, used in illuminations. 
 
 Chinese Swallows' Nests, curi- 
 ous productions, which sell at a high 
 price in China, though they have no 
 special points of recommendation be- 
 yond many other gelatinous ingredients 
 in soups. They are formed of a secre- 
 tion from the mouth of the bird itself. 
 
 Chinese Tartary, an old name of 
 Turkestan. 
 
 Ching, a Chinese prince; born in 
 Peking about 1840. He is related to 
 the Chinese imperial family. He was 
 at the head of the Tsung-li-Yamen, but 
 was deposed in 1900 for his efforts to 
 protect the legations in Peking, during 
 which he attacked the Boxers. 
 
 Ching-hai, or Chin-hai, a sea- 
 port of China, in the province of Cheh- 
 Chiang (Cheh-Kiang), 9 miles from 
 the treaty port of Ning-Po. 
 
 Chippeway* 
 
 Chin-Kiang, or Chin-Chiang, a 
 
 city of China in the province of Kiang- 
 Su (or Chiang-Su), about 490 miles 
 S. of Tien-Tsin. Chin-Kiang was de- 
 clared a treaty port in 1801. 
 
 Chinon, an antique town in the 
 French department of Indre-et-Loire. 
 Crowning a lofty rock are the ruins of 
 its vast old castle, the "French Wind- 
 sor" of the Plantagenets, the death- 
 place of Henry II.; and later the resi- 
 dence of several French sovereigns, 
 where, in 1429, Joan of Arc revealed 
 her mission to the Dauphin. 
 
 Chinooks, a tribe of Indians, now 
 nearly extinct, on the Columbia river, 
 or in Oregon. 
 
 Chinook Wind, a strong, dry west 
 or south wind in Wyoming and Mon- 
 tana, which descends from the moun- 
 tains, like the hot winds of Kansas, 
 and the Fohn winds of Switzerland. 
 
 Chintz, a cotton cloth gaily printed 
 with designs of flowers, etc., in five 
 or six different colors. It was a favor- 
 ite in the time of Queen Anne, long 
 before cotton prints became cheap. The 
 name has since been applied to goods 
 lacking the graceful and artistic char- 
 acter of the genuine article. 
 
 Chios, (now called by the natives 
 Chio, Italianized into Soip), one of the 
 most beautiful and fertile islands in 
 the JEgean sea, belonging to Turkey, 7 
 miles off the coast of Asia Minor, at 
 the entrance to the Gulf of Smyrna. 
 It has an area of 320 square miles, and 
 a population of about 70,000, almost 
 all Greeks. Earthquakes are, however, 
 not rare, and one in 1881 caused the 
 death of 3,558 persons, and the de- 
 struction of property to the value of 
 over $15,000,000. 
 
 Chipmunk, a small animal much 
 like a squirrel, known as the striped 
 squirrel. 
 
 Chippendale, Thomas, an Eng- 
 lish cabinet-maker ; went to London 
 from Worcestershire before 1750. The 
 style of furniture named from him was 
 less heavy and severe than that of his 
 successors, and was rather elaborate, 
 delicate and baroque, with classical 
 tendencies. 
 
 Chippeways, or Ojihways, a 
 
 tribe of North American Indians in 
 
 the United States and Canada. They 
 
 are distributed in bands round both 
 
 j sides of the basin of Lake Superior,
 
 Chiqnimula 
 
 where they once owned vast tracts. 
 They are of the Algonquin stock, tall, 
 active and well formed, subsist chiefly 
 by hunting and 6shing and number 
 about 18,000. 
 
 Chiquimnla, a small town in the 
 E. of Guatemala, which gives name to 
 a province and to the Isthmus of Chi- 
 quimula. 
 
 Cliiquinquira, the largest town in 
 the department of Boyaca, Colombia, 
 was an Indian place of pilgrimage be- 
 fore the conquest, and the Spaniards 
 having found here a miraculous image 
 of the Virgin, the church where this is 
 preserved is now visited by some 
 60,000 pilgrims annually. 
 
 Cliiquitos, or Naqninoneis 
 ("men"), an Indian tribe of Bolivia, 
 dwelling between the Paraguay and 
 the Madeira. 
 
 Chiriqui, the westernmost admin- 
 istrative division of the Republic of 
 Panama, adjoining Costa Rica; area, 
 6,500 square miles ; pop. 43,000. It is 
 well wooded, and has rich pasturage, 
 especially on the Atlantic coast, where 
 the climate is very moist. 
 
 Chiron, a centaur, half man and 
 half horse, son of Philyra and Saturn, 
 was famous for his knowledge of mu- 
 sic, medicine and shooting. He taught 
 mankind the use of plants and medic- 
 inal herbs, and he instructed in all the 
 polite arts, the greatest heroes of his 
 age, Achilles, ^Esculaplus, Hercules, etc. 
 
 Chisholm, William Wallace, 
 Republican politician and Unionist, 
 born in Morgan County, Ga., 1830; 
 was fatally shot by a mob in 1877. 
 
 Chisleu, the ninth month of tbe 
 Jewish year, commencing with the new 
 moon in December or the latter part of 
 November. The modern Jews fast on 
 the sixth day of this month. 
 
 Chitral, a small mountain State in 
 the upper basin of the Kashkar or 
 Kunar, a tributary of the Kabul river, 
 and bordering on Kashmir and Kafiris- 
 tan, is 5.200 feet above sea-level. 
 The people are Moslems, but mostly 
 speak a language close akin to that 
 of their pagan neighbors in Kafiristan. 
 
 Chittenden, Rnssel Henry, an 
 American educator; born in New 
 Haven. Conn., Feb. 18, 1856. He be- 
 came Professor of Physiological Chem- 
 istry at Yale in 1882, and since 1896 
 
 Chlopickl 
 
 has been director of the Sheffield Scien- 
 tific School. 
 
 Cliittenden, Thomas, an Ameri- 
 can colonial and State governor ; born 
 in East Guilford, Conn., Jan. 6, 1730. 
 He was one of the pioneers of Ver- 
 mont, and acquired a fortune from his 
 lands. In 1778 he became governor of 
 Vermont, before its formal separation 
 from New York was recognized. Dur- 
 ing the Revolutionary War the British 
 and the Continental Congress received 
 overtures from him, his terms being 
 recognition of Vermont's statehood. He 
 retired from public life in 1796 and 
 died in Williston, Vt., Aug. 24, 1797. 
 
 Chittim, or Kittim, in the Old 
 Testament, is usually identified with 
 Cyprus. 
 
 Chitty, Joseph, an English law- 
 yer and legal writer ; born in 1776. He 
 achieved eminence as a barrister in 
 London, but his celebrity rests mainly 
 upon his legal works. He died in 
 London, Feb. 17, 1843. 
 
 Chinsi, a town of Central Italy, 
 102 miles N. N. W. of Rome. It is 
 in connection with the discovery of 
 Etruscan antiquities that the place 
 is chiefly heard of. During the 19th 
 century immense quantities of these 
 remains were found in the neighbor- 
 hood in the grottoes that served the 
 ancient Etruscans as tombs. 
 
 Chivalry, the uses and customs 
 pertaining to the order of knighthood. 
 Chivalry declined and fell with the feu- 
 dal system, of which it was a normal 
 growth. The institution of the mili- 
 tary orders, the Knights Templar, the 
 Knights of St. John and the Teutonic 
 Knights was an interesting develop- 
 ment of chivalry. 
 
 Chladni, Ernst Florens Freid- 
 rich, a German physicist ; born in 
 Wittenberg, Nov. 30, 1756. Died in 
 Breslau, April 4, 1827. 
 
 Chlopicki, Joseph, a Polish gen- 
 eral ; born in Galicia, March 24, 1772. 
 He served under Kosciuszko during the 
 first revolt of the Poles (1794), and 
 then engaged in Napoleon's service, un- 
 der whom he took part in the battles 
 of Eylau, Friedland, Smolensk and 
 Moskowa. On the outbreak of the 
 Polish revolution of 1830 he was elect- 
 ed Dictator, but soon resigned that 
 office, fought at Grochow and Wavre, 
 and after the cessation of hostilities
 
 Chloral 
 
 retired into private life. He died in 
 Cracow, Sept. 30, 1854. 
 
 Chloral, produced by the action of 
 chlorine on alcohol, since the discov- 
 ery of its anaesthetic effects by Dr. 
 O. Liebrich in 1869, is extensively 
 employed medicinally in the form of 
 chloral hydrate. 
 
 Chlorine, a gas. From its wide 
 affinities and great activity in the free 
 state, chlorine is one of the most use- 
 ful and powerful instruments with 
 which the chemist deals. By it such 
 metals as platinum and gold are at- 
 tacked and made soluble in water, 
 while its power over organic sub- 
 stances is very great. 
 
 Chlorine is largely consumed in the 
 arts. Thus it is used in the manufac- 
 ture of potassic chlorate for making 
 lucifer matches ; in the conversion of 
 the yellow to the red prussiate of pot- 
 ash, in the preparation of chloride of 
 sulphur for the vulcanizing process, 
 and above all as a bleaching and dis- 
 infecting agent. 
 
 Chloroform, is formed by the ac- 
 tion of the sun's rays on a mixture of 
 chlorine and marsh gas ; also by the 
 action of caustic potash on chloral or 
 chloracetic acid, or by the action of 
 nascent hydrogen on tetrachloride of 
 carbon. It is prepared on a large scale 
 by distilling water and alcobc,! with 
 bleaching powder. Chloroform is a 
 colorless, mobile, heavy, ethereal liquid. 
 
 The vapor of chloroform, when in- 
 haled for some time, produces a tem- 
 porary insensibility to pain. Inhaled 
 in small doses it produces pleasurable 
 inebriation, followed by drowsiness ; in 
 larger doses it causes loss of voluntary 
 motion, suspension of mental faculties, 
 with slight contraction of the muscles 
 and rigidity of the limbs ; then if the 
 inhalation is continued a complete re- 
 laxation of the voluntary muscles 
 takes place, but if carried too far it 
 causes dangerous symptoms of apnoea 
 or of syncope, and the patient must be 
 restored by artificial respiration. 
 
 Chlorosis, one of the most formid- 
 able diseases to which plants are liable, 
 and often admitting of no remedy. 
 Many forms of the disease exist, of 
 which those of clover, onions, cucum- 
 bers and melons are best known. 
 
 In medical practice an affection in 
 which the skin of the body, and es- 
 
 Chocolate 
 
 pecially that of the face, assumes a 
 peculiar greenish cast, and hence fs 
 popularly known as green-sickness. 
 
 Choate, Joseph Hodges, an Amer- 
 ican diplomatist ; born in Salem, 
 Mass., Jan. 24, 1832. He is a descen- 
 dant of John Choate, who came from 
 England in 1G40. He was graduated 
 at Harvard College in 1852; admitted 
 to the bar in Boston in 1855 ; removed 
 in 1856 to New York, where he be- 
 came a partner in the law firm of 
 Evarts, Choate & Beaman. His abil- 
 ity as a lawyer and public speaker 
 soon gave him a reputation which has 
 seldom been equaled among the leaders 
 of the New York bar. From Jan.. 1899, 
 until his retirement, May, 1905, he 
 was U. S. Ambassador to Gt. Britain. 
 
 Choate, Rufus, an American law- 
 yer ; born in Essex, Mass., Oct. 1, 
 1799; was graduated at Dartmouth 
 College in 1819; taught there for one 
 year ; was admitted to the bar and 
 began practice in Danvers in 1823; 
 removed to Salem in 1828; was a 
 member of Congress in 1830-1834, re- 
 signing in the latter year ; removed to 
 Boston ; was successor of Daniel Web- 
 ster in the United States Senate in 
 1841-1845 ; returned to Boston in the 
 latter year and resumed practice. He 
 traveled in Europe in 1850; was a 
 delegate to the Whig National Con- 
 vention in Baltimore in 1852. After 
 Webster's death Mr. Choate was ac- 
 knowledged the leader of the Massa- 
 chusetts bar. He made many political 
 speeches, the most brilliant, while a 
 United States Senator, including those 
 on the Oregon Boundary, the Tariff, 
 the Fiscal Bank Bill, the Smithsonian 
 Institution, and the Annexation of 
 Texas. He gave much attention to lit- 
 erary studies. He died in Halifax, 
 N. S., Julv 13, 1858. 
 
 Chocolate, a preparation of the 
 seeds of Tneobroma Cacao, made by 
 grinding the seeds mixed with water 
 to a very fine paste. It was intro- 
 duced from America to Europe by the 
 Spaniards. It is highly nutritious, 
 containing a large propo v tipn of nitro- 
 genous flesh-forming material. On this 
 account it is used as portable food by 
 many mountaineers. In the solid 
 form, mixed with much sugar, cream, 
 and various confections, Chocolate is 
 largely used as a sweetmeat, and is 
 introduced in pastry.
 
 Choctaws 
 
 Chorazin 
 
 Cioctaws, an Indian tribe that 
 now occupies a reservation in the S. 
 E. portion of Oklahoma; area, 10,450 
 square miles. The chief and legisla- 
 ture are chosen by popular vote. 
 Grain, cotton and fruit are raised bv 
 the tribe, which maintains schools 
 and orphan homes. They number 
 about 18,456. A number of denom- 
 inations maintain mission schools. 
 The tribe's trust funds aggregate 
 over $549,500. There are numerous 
 Choctaw physicians, lawyers and 
 clergymen, but the tribe is not as 
 civilized as some others. 
 
 Choir, an organized body of singers 
 in church services. In ecclesiastical 
 architecture the choir is the part of 
 the building in a cathedral or colle- 
 giate chapel set apart for the per- 
 formance of the ordinary daily ser- 
 vice. 
 
 Choke-cherry, a species of cherry, 
 so called from the astringent nature of 
 the fruit ; it is indigenous to North 
 America, the true choke-cherry being 
 the Prunus Virginiana; the fruit is 
 small and hangs in racemes. 
 
 Choke-damp, the name given by 
 miners to the fire-damp resulting from 
 an explosion of gas in mines v 
 
 Choking, the effect caused by a 
 morsel of food, liquid, or other obstruc- 
 tion, passing into the larnyx or up- 
 per opening of the windpipe, instead 
 of the gullett. It results generally 
 from a breath being suddenly drawn in 
 coughing or laughing, while food or 
 fluid is in the mouth ; and a violent fit 
 of coughing follows till the offending 
 substance is expelled from the wind- 
 pipe. Sometimes, however, a larger 
 mass is drawn into the opening of the 
 windpipe, completely blocking it and 
 arresting respiration altogether. This 
 condition is one of extreme danger and 
 the sufferer, if not at once relieved, 
 will certainly and quickly die of suffo- 
 cation. 
 
 Cholera, a Greek term now univer- 
 sally employed in medicine as indicat- 
 ing one of two or three forms of dis- 
 ease, characterized by vomiting and 
 purging, followed by great prostration 
 of strength, amounting in severe cases 
 to fatal collapse. The milder forms of 
 Cholera occur almost every summer 
 and autumn, even in temperate lati- 
 tudes, while the more devastating and 
 
 fatal forms of the disease are general- 
 ly supposed to originate only in tropi- 
 cal countries. The very fatal forms of 
 the disease are commonly called Asia- 
 tic, Oriental, or Epidemic Cholera. 
 
 What is called Cholera morbus is a 
 bilious disease, long known in most 
 countries, and is characterized by co- 
 pious vomiting and purging, with vio- 
 lent griping, cramps of the muscles of 
 the abdomen and lower extremities, 
 and great depression of strength. It 
 is the most prevalent at the end of 
 summer or the beginning of autumn. 
 Cholera infantum (infants' cholera) 
 is the name sometimes given to a se- 
 vere and dangerous diarrhoea to which 
 infants are liable in hot climates or 
 in the hot season. 
 
 Cholos, in Peru, the name for those 
 who are partly of white, partly of 
 Indian parentage, the most numerous 
 class of the community. 
 
 Cholula, a decayed town of the 
 Mexican State of Puebla. Cortes 
 found in it 40,000 houses and 400 
 temples, including the great Teocalli. 
 Now the place only contains 9,000 in- 
 habitants. It was a great center of 
 the Aztec religion. 
 
 Chonos Archipelago, a group of 
 islands lying off the W. coast of Pata- 
 gonia. Two are large, but they are all 
 barren and scantily inhabited. 
 
 Chopin, Frederic Francois, a 
 Russian pianist and musical composer, 
 of French extraction ; born in Warsaw, 
 March 1, 1809; died Oct. 17, 1894 in 
 Paris, where the best part of his life 
 was spent. His characteristic piano- 
 forte compositions include Nocturnes, 
 Polonaises, Valses, and Preludes. 
 
 Chop-sticks, the Chinese substi- 
 tute for a knife, fork, and spoon at 
 meals, consisting of two smooth sticks 
 of bamboo, wood, or ivory. 
 
 Chorale, or Choral, the psalm or 
 hymn tune of the German Protestant 
 churches. 
 
 Choral Music, vocal music in 
 parts; music written or arranged for 
 a choir or chorus, and including ora- 
 torios, cantatas, masses, anthems, etc. 
 
 Choral Service, a service with in- 
 toned responses, and the use of music 
 throughout wherever it is authorized. 
 
 Chorazin, one of the cities in which 
 Christ's mighty works were done, but
 
 Chord 
 
 named only in his denunciation (Matt, 
 xi: 21; Luke x: 13). It was known 
 to St. Jerome, who describes it as on 
 the shore of the lake, 2 miles from 
 Capernaum. 
 
 Chord, in music, the simultaneous 
 and harmonious union of different 
 sounds, at first intuitively recognized 
 by the ear, and afterwards reduced to 
 a science by the invention of the laws 
 or rules of harmony. 
 
 Chorea, St. Vitus' dance, a dis- 
 order of the nervous system character- 
 ized by a peculiar convulsive and ir- 
 regular action of the voluntary mus- 
 cles. The name is derived from St. 
 Vitus, who is said to have had the 
 power of curing persons afflicted with 
 that disease. 
 
 Chorus, originally an ancient Greek 
 *" N 'r v i for a troop of singers and dan- 
 cers, intended to heighten the pomp 
 and solemnity of festivals. 
 
 Clio-Sen, new name given by 
 Japan to Korea on annexation of the 
 latter in 1910. 
 
 Chosroes I., or Khosrcn the 
 Great, King of Persia, succeeded 
 Cabades, A. u. 551. He was fierce and 
 cruel, but possessed many good quali- 
 fies, and encouraged the arts and sci- 
 ences. He concluded a peace with 
 the Romans, but afterward invaded 
 their territories, but was defeated by 
 Tiberius v He died in 579. 
 
 Chouans, the name popularly given 
 during the Vendean civil war in 
 France, to the peasants of Brittany 
 and Lower Maine. 
 
 Chouteau, Auguste, an American 
 pioneer ; born in New Orleans, La., 
 in 1739. He was from his early youth 
 a fur trader, and with his brother 
 Pierre he founded the city of St. Louis 
 in 1764. He died in St. Louis, Feb. 
 24, 1829. 
 
 Chouteau, Pierre, an American 
 pioneer ; born in New Orleans, in 
 1749. With his brother Auguste he 
 set out in 1763, joining a government 
 expedition. He stopped in the heart 
 of an unsettled country and founded, 
 with his brother, the city of St. Louis. 
 He died in St. Louis, July 9, 1849. 
 
 Chouteau, Pierre, Jr., an Ameri- 
 can capitalist, son of the preceding; 
 born in St. Louis, Jan. 19, 1789. He 
 worked for his father and began trad-, 
 
 ChrUt 
 
 ing in fur early in life. After estab- 
 lishing posts for the sale of skins 
 throughout the trans-Mississippi re- 
 gion he purchased the fur-trading in- 
 terests of John Jacob Astor. He died 
 in St. Louis, Sept. 8, 1865. 
 
 Chrism, the name given to the oil 
 consecrated on Holy Thursday, in the 
 Roman Catholic and Greek Churches, 
 and used in baptism, confirmation, or- 
 dination, and extreme unction. 
 
 Christ, the name given as a title of 
 eminence to Jesus our Saviour, whom, 
 in the words of St. Peter (Acts x: 
 38), "God anointed," as king, priest, 
 and prophet, " with the Holy Ghost 
 and with power." The two names, 
 Jesus Christ, are not analogous to a 
 modern Christian name and surname; 
 in reality the great Being so desig- 
 nated had but one personal appella- 
 tion Jesus ; Christ being added by 
 Jesns himself (John 4: 26) to desig- 
 nate His office, function, or mission. 
 
 Christ, Disciples of, a denomina- 
 tion of Christians in the United States 
 from which has sprung since 1900 
 a body known as the CHURCHES OF 
 CHRIST. In September, 1809, Thomas 
 Campbell, a Scotch minister of the 
 seceders' branch of the Presbyterian 
 Church, then living in Western Penn- 
 sylvania, issued a " Declaration and 
 Address " deploring the divided state 
 of the Church, and urging as the only 
 remedy a complete restoration of 
 apostolic Christianity and the rejec- 
 tion of all human creeds and confes- 
 sions of faith. The Christian Asso- 
 ciation of Washington, Pa., waa 
 formed for the purpose of promoting 
 the principles set forth in this " dec- 
 laration." It was not the intention 
 of the Campbellites to form a dis- 
 tinct religious body, but to effect the 
 proposed reforms in the churches. 
 The Disciples maintained that having 
 accepted the Bible as their only rule 
 of faith and practice, and the only 
 divine basis for the union of all 
 Christians, they were led to reject in- 
 fant baptism and adopt believers' im- 
 mersion only. They observe the Lord's 
 Supper each-first day of the week, and 
 heartily and practically accept and 
 exalt the doctrine of the divinity of 
 Christ. The two denominations have 
 8,741 ministers, 9,040 churches, and 
 1,142,539 communicants, besides sev-
 
 Cliristadelphians 
 
 Christian Church 
 
 eral universities and colleges of high 
 rank, and a number of religious pub- 
 lications. 
 
 Christadelphians, a religious 
 body who believe that God will raise 
 all who love Him to an endless life in 
 this world (but that those who do not 
 shall absolutely perish in death) ; that 
 Christ is the Son of God, inheriting 
 moral perfection from the Deity, our 
 human nature from His mother; and 
 that there is no personal devil. In the 
 United States they had in 1890, 63 or- 
 ganizations with 1,277 members, scat- 
 tered over 20 States. Their founder 
 was Dr. John Thomas, an Englishman, 
 who came to the United States in 
 1844. 
 
 Christ Church, College of, a 
 notable institution in Oxford, England. 
 
 Christian II., King of Denmark, 
 Norway, and Sweden ; son of Hans 
 and grandson of Christian I., King 
 of Denmark, etc. ; born July 2, 1480. 
 Upon rebellion breaking out in 
 Sweden, Christian sent an army com- 
 manded by Otto Krumpen, who defeat- 
 ed the Swedes in the decisive battle 
 of Bogesund (Ulrikehamn), Jan. 19, 
 1520, in which Steen Sture the ad- 
 ministrator was killed. Stockholm, 
 under the command of the widow of 
 Sture, stood a siege of four months, 
 during which period the rest of the 
 country was subdued, and on Nov. 4, 
 Christian was crowned King of 
 Sweden. He was one of the most 
 cruel monsters of history, and is 
 known as " The Nero of the North." 
 Sweden revolted under Gustayus Vasa, 
 who expelled the Danish garrisons and 
 became king of Sweden, and founder of 
 the illustrious house of Vasa. Chris- 
 tian was dethroned in Denmark, and 
 died in 1559. 
 
 Christian IX. (of Schleswig-Hol- 
 stein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg) ; born 
 in 1818, succeeded Frederick VII. as 
 King of Denmark, in 1863. The Kings 
 of Greece, of Norway, Queen of Great 
 Britain. Dowager Czarina of Russia, 
 were his children. He died Jan. 29, 
 1906. 
 
 Christian Architecture, a style 
 of architecture adopted for religious 
 buildings after the introduction of 
 Christianity. 
 
 Christian Brothers, a designation 
 for teaching orders of men connected 
 
 E. 34. 
 
 with the educational system of the Ro- 
 man Catholic Church. 
 
 Christian Church, The, consists 
 of those who have been baptized in 
 the name of Christ and who accept His 
 doctrines and live in harmony with 
 them. The Church, in its broadest 
 sense, consists of true believers in all 
 ages ; but the Christian Church was 
 established through the life and work 
 of Christ Himself, and consists only of 
 His followers. Its first great increase 
 was at Pentecost, where 3,000 souls 
 were converted ; shortly afterward 
 5,000 were added to the Church. 
 Stephen was the first to suffer martyr- 
 dom. Paul made three great mission- 
 ary tours, and the result was the or- 
 ganic unity of the Church in its firs) 
 period. 
 
 Christian Churches in America. ; 
 The colonization of North America 
 sprang froin religious motives. The 
 colonists sought freedom here becausa 
 of the oppressions at home. Periods 
 of American Church History: (1) 
 From 1607-1660, revival and progress. 
 (2) 1660-1720, trial, disputes with 
 Great Britain, religious decline. (3) 
 From 1720-1750, great revivals. (4) 
 From 1750-1783, political agitation, 
 freedom from British rule. (5) From 
 1783 to the present, extensive revivals, 
 separation of Church and State, abo- 
 lition of slavery, evangelization. The 
 Protestant Episcopal Church- was 
 founded by the James River Colony 
 (1607) ; its first General Convention 
 was in 1785 ; it ratified the Thirty- 
 nine Articles in 1832. The Puritan 
 Pilgrims landed at Plymouth in 1620, 
 and began the development of Congre- 
 gationalism. The Cambridge Plat- 
 form was established in 1648. The 
 Reformed (Dutch) Church was estab- 
 lished in 1628 in New Amsterdam 
 (New York). The first independent 
 organization was in 1771. The Bap- 
 tists began in Providence, R. I., in 
 1639, through Roger Williams. The 
 Reformed (German) Church was or- 
 ganized in 1741. The Lutherans were 
 established first in New York in 1669; 
 the first Synod was held in 1748. The 
 Presbyterians were organized at the 
 close of the 17th century. The first 
 Presbytery was established in Phila- 
 delphia in 1706. and the first General 
 Assembly in 1789. The first Metho- 
 dist Society in the United States was
 
 Christiancy 
 
 established in New York in 1766, and 
 the first Conference was held in Phil- 
 adelphia in 1771. The Reformed 
 Episcopal Church was organized in 
 New York in 1873, under Bishop Cum- 
 mins. The Roman Catholic Church 
 in the United States was first estab- 
 lished in Maryland through immigra- 
 tion in 1632. The Episcopal See of 
 Baltimore was established in 1789. 
 For statistics of the American 
 Churches see the separate articles. 
 
 Cliristiancy, Isaac Peckham, an 
 American editor and diplomatist; born 
 in Johnstown (now Bleeker), N. Y., 
 March 12, 1812. He was one of the 
 founders of the Republican party. In 
 1875 he was chosen United States 
 Senator from Michigan, and in 1879 
 became Minister to Peru. He died in 
 Lansing, Mich., Sept. 8, 1890. 
 
 Christian Endeavor, Young 
 People's Society of, a society dis- 
 tinctly religious in all its features; 
 organized Feb. 2, 1881, in Williston 
 Church, Portland, Me., by the Rev. 
 Francis E. Clark, D. D. From one 
 small association it has expanded into 
 over 72,000 societies, in all parts of 
 the world, with an aggregate member- 
 ship of over 3,500,000. In addition 
 to the main organizations in the United 
 States it has been found necessary to 
 form branches, among which are the 
 Juniors, organized March 27, 1884, at 
 Tabor, la., by the Rev. J. W. Cowan 
 and Miss Belle Smith ; the Intermedi- 
 ate, organized by the Rev. A. Z. Con- 
 rad, of Worcester, Mass. ; and the 
 Mothers', suggested by Mrs. Amanda 
 B. Fellows, of Chicago, and organized 
 in April, 1893, at Topeka, Kan., by 
 Mr. F. C. Barton. The first Chris- 
 tian Endeavor Society in England was 
 organized in 1887, and was followed 
 by similar ones in other countries, and 
 the constitution has been printed in 
 over 30 different languages. The 
 movement is not a denominational one. 
 Any society belonging to an evangel- 
 ical Church, which adopts the leading 
 principles as set forth in the constitu- 
 tion, including the prayer-meeting 
 pledge, and which guarantees these 
 principles by the name Christian En- 
 deavor either alone or in connection 
 with a denominational name is admit- 
 ted to all the privileges of the organ- 
 ization. 
 
 Christiana 
 
 The distinctive features in the 
 Christian Endeavor movement are its 
 work among the young people, leading 
 them to consecrate their lives to the 
 active service of God ; the weekly 
 prayer-meetings, which each member 
 takes a solemn pledge to attend regu- 
 larly (unless unavoidably detained), 
 and to take part in ; and the reconse- 
 cration meetings held once a month, 
 at which special efforts are made to 
 see if each one has been faithful to his 
 pledges. 
 
 Christian Era, the era or epoch 
 introduced by the birth of Christ. It 
 was calculated back about the year 
 532, by a monk, Dionysius Exiguus. 
 It is thought that he fixed the advent 
 too late by four years, and that con- 
 sequently Jesus was born, if the con- 
 tradiction in terms can be permitted, 
 in B. c. 4. 
 
 Christiania, a city and port, the 
 capital of Norway, at the head of the 
 long narrow inlet called Christiama 
 Fjord, about 60- miles from the open 
 sea. The houses are mostly of brick 
 and stone, generally plain buildings, 
 devoid of architectural pretension. 
 Important public buildings are the 
 royal palace, the house of representa- 
 tives or Storthing, the governor's pal- 
 ace, and the cathedral. The manufac- 
 tures of the city consist of woolen 
 cloth, ironware, tobacco, paper, 
 leather, soap, spirits, glass, etc., and 
 there are extensive breweries. The 
 exports are principally timber and 
 iron. The environs are exceedingly 
 beautiful. Pop. 227,626. 
 
 Christianity, the religion of which 
 Jesus Christ is not only the founder, 
 but also the object, since it is by Him 
 and in Him that man recovers his 
 union with God by an effective recon- 
 ciliation. 
 
 Christians, a religious denomina- 
 tion, founded in 1810 from threefold 
 sources, Methodist, Baptist, and Pres- 
 byterian, growing out of secessions 
 from each of those bodies. The de- 
 nomination was first called " The In- 
 dependent Baptist Church." The 
 members discard creeds and adhere 
 closely to Biblical terminology in stat- 
 ing their views. The first General 
 Convention was held in 1819. In 
 1854 resolutions in regard to slavery 
 were adopted which were offensive to
 
 THE FIRST CHURCH OF CHRIST, SCIENTIST IN BOSTON 
 
 THE MOTHER CHURCH AND ITS EXTENSION 
 
 MRS. MAY BAKBR G. KDD1 
 
 eta** im, w. t. .
 
 Christian Science 
 
 Christian Science 
 
 the Southern members, who withdrew, 
 and formed a Southern Convention. 
 
 Christian Science, a system of 
 religion, the practice of which consists 
 in the overcoming of sin and the heal- 
 ing of disease. The discoverer and 
 founder of Christian Science was the 
 Rev. MARY BAKER GLOVER EDDY (q.v.), 
 of Concord, N. H. It was estab- 
 lished by her in 1866, and has had 
 a remarkable development. It is based 
 upon the Bible and set forth in a work 
 by Mrs. Eddy, entitled " Science and 
 Health, :ith Key to the Scriptures," 
 first published in 1875. " Science and 
 Health," pages 114 and 358, states that 
 " Christian Science, understood, coin- 
 cides with the Scriptures and sustains 
 logically and demonstratively every 
 point it presents." "Christian Science 
 explains all cause and effect as mental, 
 not physical. It shows the scientific 
 relation of man to God." Christian 
 Science affirms the spiritual personal- 
 ity of God, as opposed to all material 
 theories. God is held to be the divine 
 principle of all being, matter having no 
 actual existence. The spiritual uni- 
 verse manifests but one real mind, 
 God, of whom man is the idea or re- 
 flection. Christian Science is then at 
 once the science of God, of man, and 
 of life. God is absolute good. He has 
 not created nor consented to any form 
 of evil, sickness, or death ; His laws 
 provide for life only. Sin, sickness 
 and death are abnormal conditions of 
 mortal mind and have no existence 
 outside of carnal thought. Disease is 
 a belief, not a reality. When man fully 
 awakes to the fact that bodily ills and 
 mortality are the results of fear, igno- 
 rance and sin, he will be in a position 
 to deal with and master disease on a 
 true scientific basis. Christian Science 
 is thus not only a system of faith, but 
 a method of healing ; disease being in 
 its teaching not an actual fact, but a 
 distorted belief, while th cure begins 
 with discarding a belief in the reality 
 of disease. In attestation of its teach- 
 ings, it points to cures of so-called in- 
 curable diseases, such as cancer, con- 
 sumption, locomotor ataxia, etc., with- 
 out the aid of material remedies, but 
 through strictly metaphysical methods. 
 Mrs. Eddy says in her book, " Retro- 
 spection in Introspection," page 41 : 
 " I claim for healing scientifically the 
 following advantages : 1. It does away 
 
 with all material medicines and recog- 
 nizes the antidote for all sickness, as 
 well as sin, in the immortal mind ; 
 and mortal mind as the source of all 
 the ills that befall mortals. 2. It is 
 more effectual than drugs, and cures 
 when they fail or only relieve, thus 
 proving the superiority of metaphysics 
 over physics. 3. A person healed by 
 Christian Science is not only healed 
 of his disease, but is advanced morally 
 and spiritually. The mortal body being 
 but the objective state of the mortal 
 mind, this mind must be renovated to 
 improve the body." 
 
 The services are uniform, consisting 
 of meetings on Sundays and on Wed- 
 nesday evenings. No sermons are 
 preached by a personal pastor, but a 
 sermon made up of selections from the 
 Bible and " Science and Health, with 
 a Key to the Scriptures," written by 
 Mrs. Eddy, is read by two readers, 
 called the first and second readers, gen- 
 erally a man and a woman. At the 
 Wednesday evening meetings testi- 
 monies of healing and remarks on 
 Christian Science are given by the 
 members of the congregation. 
 
 The absence of creed and dogma in 
 the Christian Science Church, its free- 
 dom from materialism, mysticism, and 
 superstition, also the simplicity, uni- 
 formity, and impersonality of its form 
 of worship and organization, are 
 among the distinguishing features 
 which characterize this modern relig- 
 ious movement. Hypnotism, mesmer- 
 ism, spiritualism, theosophy, faith-cure 
 and kindred systems are classed by 
 Christian Science as foreign to their 
 form of worship. Those practising 
 these beliefs are denied admission to 
 the Christian Science Church. 
 
 The rapid growth of this religion, 
 of which we have given only a brief 
 outline, is shown by the increase in the 
 number of its adherents, it having 
 more than 1,000 churches and societies 
 in the United States and foreign lands, 
 while its followers and sympathizers in 
 this country are estimated to be over 
 a million. The First Church of Christ, 
 Scientist, erected at Boston, in 1894, 
 has the enormous membership, resident 
 and non-resident, of over 40,000, and 
 the membership of the branch churches 
 is about the same, many of them being 
 also members of the Mother Church. 
 All Christian Science churches, other
 
 Christian University 
 
 Christmas Island 
 
 than the Mother Church in Boston, are 
 branches of that church. A spacious 
 auditorium with a seating capacity of 
 5,000 and built at a cost approaching 
 $2,000,000, has been added to the 
 church at Boston, and was dedicated 
 in June, 190G, 30,000 persons being 
 present on that occasion. Magnificent 
 and costly church buildings have been 
 erected in New York City, Philadel- 
 phia, Chicago and many other cities, 
 including a beautiful granite edifice in 
 Concord, N. H., the gift of Mrs. Eddy, 
 whose home was for years in that city. 
 She now, resides in Brookline (New- 
 ton), Mass., a suburb of Boston. 
 There are at present more than 4,000 
 practitioners of Christian Science 
 healing in the United States. 
 Branch churches exist in many for- 
 eign countries, including Great Britain 
 and Ireland, Canada, Mexico, the Ba- 
 hamas, British West Indies, Cuba, 
 the Hawaiian Islands, Philippine 
 Islands, Sandwich Islands, France, 
 Germany, Norway, Switzerland, Italy, 
 Australia, India, China, and South 
 Africa. 
 
 Besides the text-book of Christian 
 Science, Mrs. Eddy's principal works 
 are: "People's Idea of God" (188G) ; 
 "Christian Healing" (1886) ; "Unity 
 of Good" (1887); "Retrospection 
 and Introspection" (1891) ; "No and 
 Yes" (1891); "Christ and Christ- 
 mas" (1893); "Pulpit and Press" 
 (1895); "Church Manual" (1895); 
 "Miscellaneous Writings" (1897); 
 " Christian Science vs. Pantheism " 
 (1898); "Messages to the Mother 1 
 Church " ( 1900-1901-1902 ) . 
 
 The Christian Science Publishing 
 Society publishes " The Christian Sci- 
 ence Journal" (monthly); " Der 
 Herold Der Christian Science" 
 (monthly German) ; "The Christian 
 Science Sentinel" (weekly); "The 
 Christian Science Monitor" (a daily 
 newspaper) ; and numerous pamphlets 
 and tracts in English, French and 
 German. 
 
 Christian University, a Co-edu- 
 cational institution in Canton, Mo. 
 
 Christie, William Henry Ma- 
 honey, an English astronomer ; born 
 in Woolwich, Oct. 1, 1845. On the 
 retirement of Airy as Astronomer 
 Royal in 1881, Christie was appointed 
 his successor, a position which he still 
 
 holds. He is best known for his spec- 
 troscopic work with the Greenwich 
 Equatorial, especially that relating to 
 the motion of stars in the line of sight. 
 
 Christina, Queen of Sweden ; born 
 in 1G26. She was the daughter of the 
 great Gustavus Adolphus, and on her 
 father's death, in 1632, was crowned 
 queen, being then only six years of 
 age, with the five principal ministers 
 of state appointed by Parliament her 
 guardians. Having resolved to aban- 
 don Protestantism, she, in 1654, in an 
 assembly of the states at Upsala, abdi- 
 cated her crown, reserving to herself 
 an annual income of $200,000. She 
 forthwith left Sweden, and traveled in 
 male attire to Brussels, where she 
 made a secret profession of the Roman 
 Catholic faith. At Innsbruck, she 
 made a more formal and public avowal 
 of it. She next rode to Rome, where 
 the reception accorded to her was an 
 ovation. There she did homage to 
 Pope Alexander VII., and received the 
 honor of his name, in addition to her 
 own, being thenceforward styled Chris- 
 tina Alexandra. In 1656 she went 
 to France, where she lived principally 
 at Fontainebleau, Compiegne, and 
 Paris. During the year following, she 
 excited universal horror and disgust 
 by the cruel assassination of her mas- 
 ter of the horse, the Marquis Monal- 
 deschi. In 1660 her successor on the 
 Swedish throne died, and she there- 
 upon repaired to Sweden to claim it 
 for herself ; but her conversion to the 
 Roman Catholic Church proved a bar 
 to her resumption of the crown, and 
 she was compelled to return to Rome, 
 where she died in 1689. 
 
 Christison, Sir Robert, a Scotch 
 physician, born in Edinburgh, July 18, 
 1797, attained eminence as a toxicolo- 
 !gist, professor of medical jurispru- 
 dence, and author. He died Jan. 27, 
 1882. 
 
 Christmas, the festival of the Na- 
 tivity of Christ, observed by the Chris- 
 tian Church yearly on the 25th of De- 
 cember, commonly accepted as the date 
 of the birth of Christ. 
 
 Christmas Island, a British isl- 
 and in the Pacific, with some guano 
 deposits. Another Christmas Island, 
 annexed to Great Britain in 1888, lies 
 about 250 miles S. W. of Java, is 6 
 miles long by 4 broad, partly volcanic,
 
 Christophe 
 
 partly coralline in structure. There 
 ib a third Christmas Island off Cape 
 Breton. 
 
 Christophe, Henri, a King of 
 Haiti, was an African, slave ; born in 
 Grenada, West Indies, in 1767, who 
 received his freedom as a reward of 
 faithful service. On the outbreak of 
 the negro insurrection in St. Domingo, 
 1801, he became one of its leaders. 
 After the deposition of Toussaint, 
 Christophe served under his successor, 
 Dessalines. In 1811 Christophe ob- 
 tained undisputed possession of a por- 
 tion of the island with the title of 
 King of Haiti. He committed suicide 
 in 1820. 
 
 Christopher's, St. (commonly 
 called St. Kitt's), a British island in 
 the West Indies, one of the Leeward 
 Islands, 23 miles in length, and in 
 general about 5 in breadth ; area, 68 
 square miles. The interior consists of 
 many rugged precipices and barren 
 mountains. The chief town, a seaport 
 with open roadstead, is Basse-Terre. 
 The island has a legislature of its own, 
 with an executive subordinate to the 
 governor of the Leeward Islands, resi- 
 dent in Antigua. It was discovered 
 by Columbus in 1493. Pop., 29,127. 
 
 Christy, Charles, an American 
 minstrel ; born in New York city, in 
 1828. He was an actor from boyhood, 
 singing on the minstrel stage. He 
 died in Kansas City, Mo., Feb. 13, 
 1897. 
 
 Chromium, an element discovered 
 in the native chromate of lead of Si- 
 beria. It was afterward found com- 
 bined with iron. It is the coloring 
 matter of the emerald and beryl, and 
 has received its name from the brill- 
 iant colors of its compounds. 
 
 Cliroinium (or Chrome) Steel, 
 steel in which the carbon is replaced 
 by the metal chromium. It is claimed 
 that this steel can sustain a greater 
 degree of heat than ordinary steel. 
 
 Chrome-lithography, the art of 
 printing chromo-lithographs. Color 
 printing was not successful till it was 
 combined with lithography, invented 
 between 1796 and 1800 by Alois Sene- 
 felder of Prague. In the art an out- 
 line drawing is first traced, then va- 
 rious stones are taken, one for each 
 color, to which the drawing is trans- 
 ferred. 
 
 Chronology 
 
 Chromosphere. During total 
 eclipses it is observed that a red-colored 
 envelope surrounds the sun, and shoots 
 up to great distances from the surface. 
 It seems to have been first recognized 
 by Secchi ; and the projecting portions 
 of it are commonly described as " red- 
 colored protuberances " and " red 
 flames." To this red envelope the 
 name chromosphere was given by Sir 
 J. Norman Lockyer, and till 1868, 
 when M. Janssen and Mr. Lockyer al- 
 most simultaneously pointed out a 
 method of viewing it, it was never 
 seen except during eclipses. 
 
 Chronicle, an historical account of 
 facts or events disposed chronologically 
 or in the order of time. Most of the 
 historians of the Middle Ages were 
 chroniclers who set down the events 
 which happened within the range of 
 their information, according to the 
 succession of years. 
 
 In Scriptures, the name of two 
 books, consisting of an abridgement of 
 sacred history from its commencement 
 down to the return of the Jews from 
 the Babylonish captivity. 
 
 Chronograph, the name given to 
 various devices for measuring and reg- 
 istering very minute portions of time 
 with extreme precision. 
 
 Chronology, the doctrine of sci- 
 ence of time, or of computing dates : 
 the method of ascertaining the true 
 periods, or years, when past events 
 took place, and arranging them in 
 their proper order, according to their 
 dates. The following are the leading 
 systems of chronology existing among 
 the several nations of the world : Chi- 
 nese and Japanese Chronology : In 
 these calculation is made by cycles of 
 60 years, each year of the cycle sepa- 
 rately named. Hindu Chronology : 
 (1) Historical : No system is universal 
 in India or exclusive. Two of the 
 chief are the era of Salivahana (A. D. 
 77), and that of Vicramaditya (B. c. 
 57). (2) Astronomica 1 . : The Hin- 
 dus have four ages. We are now in 
 the Kali Yooga, beginning 3101 B. c. 
 
 Greek Chronology : In the time of 
 Herodotus, and subsequently in that 
 of Thucydides, the Greeks had no 
 chronology spanning wide intervals of 
 time. It was not till B. c. 194 that 
 Eratosthenes, the " father " of Greek 
 chronology, began to count by Olym-
 
 Cliuquisaca 
 
 piads, the first of which was dated 
 from what we now should call B. c. 
 776. 
 
 Roman Chronology : The method 
 of Roman reckoning was by the con- 
 sulships, which, of course, could give 
 no indication of time unless their or- 
 der was carefully preserved, and even 
 then was clumsy. A much simpler 
 and better plan was by calculating 
 years from the building of the city. 
 This Varro placed in what would now 
 be called B. c. 753, while Cato pre- 
 ferred 752. 
 
 Jewish Chronology : Up till the 
 15th century the Jews followed the 
 era of the Seleucidae. Since then they 
 have dated from the creation of the 
 world t which they fix 3760 years and 
 three months before the commence- 
 ment of the Christian era. 
 
 Mohammedan Chronology : Dates 
 are counted from the Hegira, that is, 
 the time of Mohammed's flight from 
 Mecca to Medina, A. D. 622. 
 
 Christian Chronology : Since the 
 6th century dates have begun to be 
 reckoned from the birth of Christ, 
 though the system did not become uni- 
 versal in Europe till many centuries 
 subsequently. 
 
 Chronometer, any instrument that 
 measures time, as a clock, watch, or 
 dial ; but, specifically, this term is ap- 
 plied to those time-keepers which are 
 used for determining the longitude at 
 sea, or for any other purpose where 
 an accurate measure of time is re- 
 quired, with great portability in the 
 instrument. 
 
 Chrysalis, the last stage through 
 which certain insects pass before be- 
 coming a perfect insect. It is also 
 known by the name, pupa. 
 
 Chrysanthemum, a genus of her- 
 baceous or slightly shrubby plants, 
 represented in the United States by 
 the well-known ox-eye daisy, and the 
 corn marigold, besides which many va- 
 rieties have been introduced from 
 other countries. 
 
 Chryseis, the daughter of Chryses, 
 priest of Apollo, famed for beauty and 
 for her skill in embroidery. She fell 
 to Agamemnon's lot in the course of 
 the Trojan War, but was afterward 
 restored, in order to stop a plague 
 among the Grecians, which Apollo had 
 sent at the request of her father. 
 
 Chrysippus, a famed Greek philos- 
 opher ; about 280-206 B. c. ; born prob- 
 ably at Soli in Cilicia. He attended 
 at Athens the lectures of Cleanthes, 
 the successor of Zeno, and after his 
 death became head of the Stoic school. 
 He wrote over 700 books. 
 
 Chrysis, the golden wasp, or ruby- 
 tail fly. They are magnificently col- 
 ored with metallic hues. They are 
 parasitic, depositing their eggs in the 
 nests of the solitary mason-bees, on 
 the larvae of which their larvae live. 
 
 Chrysoberyl, a gem almost as hard 
 as sapphire, and the finer specimens 
 of which are very beautiful, particu- 
 larly those which exhibit an opales- 
 cent play of light. It is of a green 
 color, inclining to yellow, semi-trans- 
 parent, or almost transparent, and has 
 double refraction. 
 
 Chrysolite, a green-colored ortho- 
 rhombic mineral of a vitreous luster, 
 transparent or translucent. 
 
 Chrysostom, John, St., (" golden- 
 mouthed "), a celebrated Greek father 
 of the church ; born in Antioch about 
 A. D. 344 ; died at Comana, in Pontus, 
 in 407. 
 
 Chub, an American fish, of the 
 genus carp. It is indifferent food, and 
 rarely attains the weight of 5 pounds. 
 Allied European species receive the 
 same name. 
 
 Chulmt, or Chupat, a colony in 
 Patagonia, so named from a river 
 which drains a large part of its area. 
 The entrance to the river, about 500 
 miles S. of the" river Platte, is bad, 
 but the bar can be crossed by vessels 
 of from 7 to 12 feet draught. Its 
 principal interest lies in its Welsh 
 settlement, which has remained almost 
 wholly Welsh-speaking. 
 
 Chnkiang, or Canton River, the 
 " Pearl River " of the Chinese, is the 
 lower part of the Pekiang, and has a 
 navigable channel of about 300 miles. 
 Opposite Canton it is about ^4 mile 
 wide, and is crowded with shipping. 
 
 Chung-King, a Chinese port in 
 Szechuen, on the Yang-tze-Kiang, at 
 the junction of the Pei river. It was 
 declared open in 1890, and has ac- 
 quired a thriving trade. Pop. (1900) 
 about 125,000. 
 
 Cliuquisaca, or Sucre, a city of* 
 South America, the former capital of
 
 Church 
 
 Bolivia; well situated on a plateau 
 between the Amazon and La Plata 
 rivers, 9,343 feet above sea-level. Pop. 
 20,000. The province of Chuquisaca 
 has an area of 39,890 square miles; 
 pop. 280,710. 
 
 Church, Benjamin, an American 
 soldier ; born in Duxbury, Mass., in 
 1639. He commanded forces with dis- 
 tinction in King Philip's War and in 
 the famous battle of 1675 with the 
 Narrangansetts won renown. He 
 killed King Philip in 1676; died in 
 January, 1718. 
 
 Church, Benjamin, an American 
 physician ; born in Massachusetts, 
 about 1710. He was a leader in the 
 *' Boston tea-party." He secretly 
 corresponded in cipher with the Brit- 
 ish, and, being detected, failed to ex- 
 culpate himself. He sailed for the 
 West Indies in 1776, and was lost at 
 sea. 
 
 Church, Francis Pharcellus, an 
 American editor; born in Rochester, 
 N. Y., Feb. 22, 1839: died in 1906. 
 
 Church, Frederick Edwin, an 
 American landscape-painter ; born in 
 Hartford, Conn., May 4, 1826. His 
 *' View of Niagara Falls from the 
 Canadian Shore," is regarded by many 
 as the most successful representation 
 of the great cataract. He died in 
 New York city, April 7, 1900. 
 
 Church, William Conant, an 
 American journalist ; born in Roches- 
 ter, N. Y., Aug. 11, 1836. 
 
 Church Army, an English relig- 
 ious organization, founded in London 
 in 1882 having for its objects the 
 training of working men for ecclesi- 
 astical service among the laboring 
 classes. 
 
 Church Discipline, the practice 
 of the Christian Church in dealing 
 with such of its office-bearers and 
 members as have by public scandal 
 caused hindrance to its common spirit- 
 ual life. 
 
 Church Government, the regula- 
 tion and ordering of spiritual matters, 
 or those pertaining to the discipline 
 and work of the Church. 
 
 Churchill, Randolph Henry 
 Spencer, Lord, third son of the sev- 
 enth Duke of Marlborough ; born Feb. 
 13. 1849; entered the British Parlia- 
 ment in 1874, and became a leader of the 
 
 Church 
 
 Conservative party. On the defeat of 
 Gladstone's Irish Bill in 1886 Church- 
 ill became leader of the House of Com- 
 mons and Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer, posts which he unexpectedly 
 resigned in December, 1886. Died in 
 London, Jan. 24, 1895. Lord Ran- 
 dolph married, in 1874, Miss Jennie, 
 daughter of the late Leonard Jerome, 
 of New York City. Their son WINS- 
 TON LEONABD SPENCER, born 1874, 
 educated at Harrow and Sandhurst, 
 entered the army in 1895, saw active 
 service in Cuba (1895), in India 
 (1897-98), Egypt (1898), and in 
 South Africa (1899). He is the 
 author of several descriptive campaign 
 works, and is a member of the British 
 Parliament. In 1900, Lady Randolph 
 married George Cornwallis West. 
 
 Churchill, Winston, an Ameri- 
 can author ; born in St. Louis, Mo., 
 Nov. 10, 1871. He was graduated 
 from the United States Naval Acad- 
 emy in 1894. and became an editor of 
 the " Army and Navy Journal." He 
 wrote " Richard Carvel " ; " The Cri- 
 sis " ; " The Crossing " ; " Coniston." 
 
 Churchill River, a river of the 
 Northwest Territories of Canada, 
 which rises in La Crosse Lake, forms 
 or passes through various lakes or 
 lake-like expansions, and discharges 
 into Hudson Bay, at Fort Churchill. 
 
 Churching of Women, a form of 
 thanksgiving after child-birth, adopted 
 from the Jewish ceremony of purifica- 
 tion, and practiced still in the Roman 
 Catholic and Anglican Churches. 
 
 Church of God, a Christian sect 
 which originated in 1830, in a move- 
 ment in which John Winebrenner, 
 previously a minister in the German 
 Reformed Church, was most promi- 
 nent. A new society was organized 
 by him, and others who accepted his 
 views, which took the name of the 
 Church of God. It holds the doctrines 
 of the Evangelical churches, with bap- 
 tism by immersion only, subsequent to 
 faith ; feet-washing ; the administra- 
 tion of the Lord's Supper in the even- 
 ing; all the instrumentalities of revi- 
 vals; and protests against the traffic 
 in intoxicating drinks. 
 
 Church, States of the, or Papal 
 States, a territory that stretched 
 from the Po to near Naples, and in 
 1869 had an area of 15,774 square
 
 Church- warden 
 
 Cilia 
 
 miles and a pop. of 3,000,000. The 
 war of 1859 and the popular vote of 
 1860 left the Pope only the Comarca 
 of Rome, the legation of Velletri, and 
 the delegations of Civita Vecchia, 
 Frosinone, and Viterbo, 4,493 square 
 miles in extent, with a pop. of about 
 700,000, the rest being united with 
 Italy, and in 1870 the remnant of the 
 Pope's temporal possessions were an- 
 nexed to the kingdom of Italy, of 
 which Rome became the capital. The 
 Pope is, however, still permitted to 
 keep up the state of e, sovereign with- 
 in the precincts of the Vatican. 
 
 Church-warden, one of two Epis- 
 copalian parochial officers chosen an- 
 nually at the Easter vestries, one by 
 the minister and one by the parish- 
 ioners. Their duties are generally to 
 act as legal representatives of the 
 parish. 
 
 Churrus, the resinous exudation of 
 the leaves and flowers of Indian hemp. 
 It is used by the natives of India as 
 an intoxicating drug. 
 
 Chumbusco, Battle of, fought in 
 Mexico, Aug. 20, 1847. After the bat- 
 tle of Contreras, fought on the same 
 day, Santa Ana, with some 27,000 
 men, made a stand at this hamlet, on 
 the river Churubusco, 6 miles S. of the 
 City of Mexico, to resist the advance 
 of the United States army under Gen. 
 Scott. Of 8,000 United States troops 
 in the two actions there were 139 
 killed and 926 wounded ; the Mexicans 
 lost 4,000 killed and wounded, 3,000 
 prisoners, 37 guns, and much ammuni- 
 tion. 
 
 Chusan, the principal of the group 
 of islands known as the Chusan Archi- 
 pelago ; lies about a mile off the B. 
 coast of China, opposite Ningpo. It 
 has an area of over 230 square miles, 
 and a population of 200,000 to 250,- 
 000. 
 
 Gibber, Colley, an English dram- 
 atist ', born in London, Nov. 6, 1671 ; 
 was one of the m9t successful stagers 
 of plays in the history of the theater. 
 In 1730, he was appointed Poet Laure- 
 ate. His autobiographic " Apology " is 
 his best work. He died Dec. 12, 1757. 
 
 Cibitu, or Sibutu, a southern 
 Philippine island, 14 miles long and 2 
 miles wide. It is flat, with a conical 
 mountain in the center, 500 feet high. 
 It was sold by Spain (with Caygay- 
 
 an) to the United States in 1900, 
 upon payment of $100,000, having 
 been overlooked in the terms of the 
 treaty of peace. Pop. (1903) 280. 
 
 Cicely, a popular name applied to 
 several umbelliferous plants. Sweet 
 Cicely is found in North American 
 woods from Canada to Virginia. 
 
 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, a Ro- 
 man orator; born in Arpinum, in the 
 year of Rome 647 (106 B. c.). He 
 was one of the greatest orators the 
 world has known, and a statesman and 
 patriot of singularly pure conduct and 
 motives. He was executed at the in- 
 stance of the Triumvirate Octavian- 
 us, Antony and Lepidus, B. c. 43. 
 
 Cid, The, Don Rodrigo (Buy) 
 Diaz, Count of Bivar ; born in 1026. 
 The model of the heroic virtues of his 
 age, and the flower of Spanish chiv- 
 alry, styled by his enemies, the Moors 
 of Spain, cid (the lord), and by his 
 king and countrymen Campeador 
 (champion), he continues to live in. 
 the poetry of his country. The Cid 
 died at Valencia, in the 74th year of 
 his age (1099). What this hero won, 
 and for many years defended, the 
 united power of Leon and Castile was 
 scarcely able to preserve against the 
 encroachments of the infidels. His 
 dead body was mailed and mounted on 
 his favorite steed and marched out 
 against the enemy, who fled at its ap- 
 proach. 
 
 Cider, a liquor made from the juice 
 of apples. 
 
 Cienfnegos, a port and town of 
 Cuba, on the S. coast, at the mouth of 
 lagua bay, 140 miles from Havana. 
 Cienfuegos is the center of the Cuban 
 sugar trade. Pop. 59,128. 
 
 Cigar, a small roll of manufactured 
 tobacco leaves carefully made up, and 
 intended to be smoked by lighting at 
 one end and drawing the smoke through 
 it. The cigars of Havana, Cuba, are 
 considered the best brands. 
 
 Cilia, the hair which grows from 
 the margin of the eyelids. The term 
 is also applied to microscopic fila- 
 ments, or plates which project from 
 animal membranes and are endowed 
 with quick vibratile motion. In most 
 of the lower animals the respiratory 
 function is effected by means of the 
 vibratile cilia.
 
 Cilicia _____ 
 
 Cilicia, an ancient division of Asia 
 Minor, now included in the Turkish 
 province of Adana. In early ages 
 Cilicia was ruled by its own kings, the 
 people, who were probably akin to 
 Syrians, and Phoenicians, being notori- 
 ous pirates. The country fell succes- 
 sively under Persian, Macedonian, 
 Syrian and Roman rule. 
 
 Ciiuarrones, a name used in the 
 Spanish colonies of America for fugi- 
 tive slaves, of whom in the 16th cen- 
 tury many hundreds collected on the 
 Isthmus of Panama, where they built 
 walled towns, attacked the Spanish 
 settlements, and became a terror all 
 over the country. They finally be- 
 came amalgamated with the Indian 
 tribes. 
 
 Cimarosa, Dpmenico, an Italian 
 composer ; born in Aversa, Dec. 17, 
 1749. He became famous when 21 
 with a comic opera, " The Pretended 
 Parisian." ID the ensuing 30 years 
 he wrote over 80 comic operas. As a 
 writer of comic operas Cimarosa has 
 never been surpassed. He died in 
 Venice, Jan. 11, 1801. 
 
 Cimbri, a Celtic tribe, inhabiting 
 Jutland, having joined with the Teu- 
 tons, and which entered Illyria, where 
 they defeated Cn. Papirius Carbo, at 
 the head of a consular army, B. c. 113. 
 Marius collected a large army and 
 went to oppose them. The Cimbri 
 and Teutones separated into two bod- 
 ies, the former taking the road" through 
 Helvetia, and the latter pressing for- 
 ward to assail the Roman army. Their 
 intention was to reunite their forces 
 on the Lombard plains. The Teu- 
 tones were attacked and overwhelmed 
 by the Romans, and 100,000 men are 
 said to have perished on that occasion, 
 B. c. 102. The Cimbri in the mean- 
 time had reached the valley of the 
 Adige, where they defeated the Roman 
 army under Quintus Catulus. He 
 formed a junction with Marius and 
 allured them into an unfavorable po- 
 sition, in which- they were defeated 
 and exterminated, B. c. 101. 
 
 Cimmerian Bosphorns, an an- 
 cient name for the Strait of Kaffa. 
 
 Cimmerii, or Cimmerians, a no- 
 madic race, inhabiting the Crimea and 
 parts of the neighboring country, hav- 
 ing been expelled by the Scythians, 
 passed along the shores of the Euxine, 
 
 Ciiichonism 
 
 invaded Asia Minor, and pillaged Sar- 
 dis, the capital of Lydia, B. c. 635. 
 In that country they were said to have 
 remained until about B. C. 617, when 
 they were defeated and driven out of 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 Cimon, an ancient Athenian gen- 
 eral and statesman, was a son of the 
 great Miltiades. He fought against 
 the Persians in the battle of Salamis 
 (480 B. c.), and shared with Aristides 
 the chief command of the fleet sent to 
 Asia to deliver the Greek colonies from 
 the Persian yoke. He died shortly 
 after, in 449, while besieging Citium 
 in Cyprus. 
 
 Cinchona, a genus of trees found 
 exclusively on the Andes in Peru and 
 
 CINCHONA. 
 
 adjacent countries, and recently intro- 
 duced into India, producing a medic- 
 inal bark of great value known as Pe- 
 ruvian bark. 
 
 Cinchona Bark, the bark of sev- 
 eral species of trees used in medicine, 
 or for the extraction of the alkaloids, 
 quinine, cinchonine, etc., which they 
 contain. 
 
 Ciiichonism, a group of symptoms, 
 chiefly connected with the nervous sys- 
 tem, produced by the presence of qui- 
 nine in the system. There are noises 
 in the ears. These noises are accom-
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 parried "with more or less deafness. 
 Affections of sight are less common. 
 These symptoms usually pass away in 
 a few days after discontinuing the 
 drug. 
 
 Cincinnati, a city and .county-seat 
 of Hamilton Co., O. It is the second 
 city in the State in population and 
 the tenth in the United States, accord- 
 ing to the census of 1900. It is built 
 on the N. shore of the Ohio river, di- 
 rectly opposite Govington, Ky. ; and 
 is connected with the Kentucky shore 
 bv five bridges; area SS 1 /^ square 
 miles; population (1910) 364,463. 
 
 The city owns an extensive water- 
 works system, costing $10,291,722. 
 The principal park in Cincinnati is 
 Eden Park, situated on a hill over- 
 looking the city and the Ohio river. It 
 contains 216 acres and two reservoirs, 
 so constructed as to resemble natural 
 lakes. Burnet Woods, in the N. part 
 of the city, contains 170 acres of 
 woodland. Hopkins, Lincoln, and 
 Washington are smaller parks, form- 
 ing magnificent pleasure grounds. 
 Spring Grove Cemetery is one of the 
 most beautiful in the West, and con- 
 tains about 600 acres, well wooded, 
 and many handsome monuments and 
 mausoleums. 
 
 The public buildings include the (U. 
 S.) Government Building, of granite, 
 cost $5,200,000; (U. S.) Marine Hos- 
 pital; the Y. M. C. A. Building, cost, 
 $201,063; the County Court House, 
 and jail, built in Romanesque style; 
 the City Hospital; the City Hall, 
 erected at a cost of over $1,000,000; 
 and the Chamber of Commerce. Cin- 
 cinnati is also celebrated as the site 
 of one of the earliest astronomical ob- 
 servatories in the United States, 
 founded about the same time as that 
 of Harvard University and the Naval 
 Observatory at Washington. The ob- 
 servatory has since been moved to 
 Mount Lookout, a suburb of Cincin- 
 nati, and a much better site than that 
 first selected. The institution is best 
 known for the work done there by 
 Prof. Ormond Stone, one of its former 
 directors, on the measurement of 
 double-stars and the discovery of many 
 new ones. It contains an 11-inch re- 
 fractor and a new meridian circle. The 
 University of Cincinnati, opened in 
 1873, had twenty years later, a student 
 body of 1,200, with 175 instructors, 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 and an equipment and endowment val- 
 ued at $3,500,000. 
 
 The Federal census of 1905 reported 
 2,171 manufacturing establishments, 
 employing $130,271,811 capital and 
 66,774 persons; paying $83,258,492 for 
 stock used and $27,389,569 for wages; 
 annual value of products $166,059,050. 
 The Rookwood Pottery (q. v.) is fa- 
 mous for its porcelain. 
 
 There are many "beautiful churches 
 and fine public schools. Among mu- 
 nicipal benevolent and penal institu- 
 tions are the City Infirmary, the 
 Work House, and the House of Ref- 
 uge for incorrigible or homeless boys 
 and girls. Besides large public hospi- 
 tals, there are several private ones, and 
 many orphan asylums and homes. 
 
 Cincinnati, named in honor of the 
 Society of the Cincinnati, was first 
 settled by white men in 1780, and was 
 incorporated as a city in 1819. Mounds 
 containing various relics show that a 
 portion of the site of the city was an- 
 ciently occupied. The first steamboat 
 descending from Pittsburg visited the 
 town in 1811 ; the Miami canal was 
 completed in 1830 ; the first railway 
 was opened in 1845. 
 
 Cincinnati, a society or order in 
 the United States, established by the 
 officers of the Revolutionary army in 
 1783, " to perpetuate their friendship, 
 and to raise a fund for relieving the 
 widows and orphans of those who had 
 fallen during the war." The badge 
 of the society is a bald eagle suspended 
 by a dark-blue ribbon with white bor- 
 ders, symbolizing the union of France 
 and the United States. On the breast 
 of the eagle there is a figure of Cin- 
 cinnatus receiving the military ensigns 
 from the senators, round the whole are 
 the words " Omnia reliquit servare 
 rempublicam." Membership descends 
 to the eldest lineal male descendant, 
 and, in failure of direct male descent, 
 to male descendants through interven- 
 ing female descendants. The general 
 society is composed of the general of- 
 ficers and five delegates from each 
 State society, and meets triennially. In 
 1854 it ruled that proper descendants 
 of Revolutionary officers who wert 
 entitled to original membership, but 
 who never could avail themselves of it, 
 are qualified for hereditary member- 
 ship, if found worthy, on due applica- 
 tion.
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 Cincinnatns, Lucius Quinctius, 
 a wealthy patrician in the early days 
 of the Roman Republic, born about 
 519 B. c. He succeeded Publicola in 
 the consulship, and then retired to 
 cultivate his small estate beyond the 
 Tiber. The messengers - of the senate 
 found him at work on his farm when 
 they came to summon him to the dicta- 
 torshio. He rescued the army from 
 its peril, and then returned quietly to 
 his farm. At the age of 80 he was 
 again appointed dictator to oppose the 
 ambitious designs of Spurius Mselius. 
 
 Cinematograph, a device for 
 showing pictures of men, animals, etc., 
 in motion. 
 
 Cinnabar, red sulphide of mercury, 
 the principal ore from which that met- 
 al is obtained, occurring abundantly in 
 California, China, etc. It is of a 
 cochineal-red color, and is used as a 
 pigment under the name of vermilion. 
 
 Cinnaniic Acid, an acid which ex- 
 ists in the free state in the balsams of 
 tolu and Peru, in liquid storax, and in 
 gum benzoin. 
 
 Cinnamon, an aromatic substance 
 consisting of the bark of a tree, from 
 which the essential oil of Cinnamon is 
 distilled. The oil has aromatic car- 
 minative, and stimulant properties. 
 
 Cinque Ports, (Five Ports), the 
 sea-port towns of Dover, Sandwich, 
 Hastings, Hythe, and Romney, Eng- 
 land ; to which three others were af- 
 terward added, viz., Winchelsea, Rye, 
 and Seaford. These towns are incor- 
 porated, with peculiar privileges ; are 
 under the government of a lord war- 
 den, to whom writs for the election of 
 members to parliament from them are 
 directed ; and the members so elected 
 are termed Barons of the Cinque 
 Ports. 
 
 Cintra, a town in Portugal, 15 
 miles W. N. W. Lisbon, finely situated 
 on the slope of the Sierra de Cintra. 
 The kings of Portugal have a palace 
 with fine gardens at Cintra. The town 
 is celebrated for the con vent 5 on en- 
 tered into there in 1808, by which the 
 French, after their defeat at Vimeira, 
 were conveyed to France. Pop. 4,751. 
 
 Ciphers, signs used to represent 
 numbers, whether borrowed signs, as 
 letters, with which the Greeks desig- 
 nated their numbers, or peculiar char- 
 
 Circe 
 
 acters, as the modern or Arabic ones. 
 The ciphers, such as they are at pres- 
 ent, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0, did not 
 come into common European use until 
 the llth century. 
 
 Cipher 'Writing, a method of 
 sending important intelligence in a 
 manner so effectually disguised that 
 only those for whom the news is in- 
 tended can understand the meaning of 
 what is written. By this method one 
 word may be used to represent an en- 
 tire sentence and thus not only is the 
 cost of transmitting a message mate- 
 rially reduced, but the contents be- 
 come known only to the person for 
 whom it is intended or to the possessor 
 of a key. Cipher codes are employed 
 by the State Departments of all gov- 
 ernments and frequently changed. The 
 special code is entrusted to the per- 
 sonal custody of diplomatic officials 
 embarking on a mission, who retain 
 possession of it and destroy it if their 
 lives are endangered. 
 
 Cipriani, Giambattista, an Ital- 
 ian history-painter and designer ; born 
 in Florence in 1727, of an old Pistpja 
 family. He died in Hammersmith, 
 England, Dec. 14, 1785. 
 
 Circassia, or Tcherkessia, a 
 mountainous region in the S. E. of 
 European Russia, lying chiefly on the 
 N. slope of the Caucasus, partly also 
 on the S., and bounded on the W. by 
 the Black Sea, and now forming part 
 of the Lieutenancy of the Caucasus. 
 The mountains are intersected every- 
 where with steep ravines and clothed 
 with thick forests. Its climate is 
 temperate, its inhabitants healthy and 
 long-lived. 
 
 The Circassians, properly so called, 
 have been estimated to number from 
 500.000 to 600,000. 
 
 Circe, a daughter of Sol and Perse, 
 celebrated for her skill in magic and 
 poisonous herbs, who lived on an is- 
 land called ^Ea, on the coast of Italy. 
 Ulysses, on his return from the Trojan 
 war, visited her coast ; and all his 
 companions, who ran headlong into 
 pleasure and voluptuousness, were 
 changed by Circe's potions into swine. 
 Ulysses, fortified against all enchant- 
 ments by an herb called moly, which 
 he had received from Mercury, de- 
 manded from Circe the restoration of 
 his companions to their former state. 
 She complied, loading the hero with
 
 Circle 
 
 honors ; and, for one whole year, he 
 forgot his glory in his devotion to 
 pleasure. 
 
 Circle, a plane figure contained by 
 one line, which is called the circumfer- 
 ence, and is such that all straight lines 
 drawn from a certain point (the cen- 
 ter) within the figure to the circum- 
 ference are equal to one another. 
 
 Circle, Magic, a space in which 
 sorcerers were wont to protect them- 
 selves from the fury of the evil spir- 
 its they had raised. This circle was 
 usually formed on a piece of ground 
 about 9 feet square, in the midst of 
 some dark forest, churchyard, vault, 
 or other lonely and dismal spot. In- 
 side the outer circle was another some- 
 what less, in the center of which the 
 sorcerer had his seat. The spaces be- 
 tween the circles, as well as between 
 the parallel lines which inclosed the 
 larger one, were fillled with all the 
 holy names of God, and a variety of 
 other characters supposed to be po- 
 tent against the powers of evil. With- 
 out the protection of this circle, the 
 magician, it was believed, would have 
 been carried off by the spirits. 
 
 Circuit Court, a court in the 
 United States next in rank to the 
 United States Supreme Court. The 
 country now has nine circuits, each 
 consisting of several States, and each 
 is allotted to one of the nine justices 
 of the Supreme Court, who must at- 
 tend at least one term of court in each 
 district of his circuit every two years. 
 The judges of each circuit and the jus- 
 tice of the Supreme Court for the cir- 
 cuit constitute a Circuit Court of Ap- 
 peals. 
 
 Circular Notes, notes or letters of 
 credit furnished by bankers to persons 
 about to travel abroad. 
 
 Circular Numbers, numbers whose 
 powers end on the same figures as 
 themselves; as 0, 1, 5, etc. 
 
 Circulation, in anatomy and 
 physics, the term used to designate 
 the course of the blood from the heart 
 to the most minute blood-vessels (the 
 capillaries), and from these back to 
 the heart. 
 
 Circulation of Sap, in plants, its 
 ascent from the root to the leaves and 
 bark, and its partial descent after the 
 elaboration, which it undergoes in 
 these organs. 
 
 Circus 
 
 Circumcision, an operation con- 
 sisting in removing circularly the pre- 
 puce of infants. God commanded 
 Abraham to use circumcision as a sign 
 of his covenant ; and in obedience to 
 this order, the patriarch at 99 years 
 of age was circumcised, as also his son 
 Ishmael, and all the males of his 
 household (Gen. xvii : 10-12). God 
 repeated the precept to Moses, and or- 
 dered that all who intended to partake 
 of the Paschal sacrifice should receive 
 circumcision, and that this rite should 
 be-performed on children on the eighth 
 day after their birth (Ex. xii : 44). 
 The Jews and all the other nations 
 sprung from Abraham, as the Ishmael- 
 ites, the Arabians, etc., have always 
 been very exact in observing this cere- 
 mony. At the present day it is an es- 
 sential rite of the Mohammedan reli- 
 gion, and though not enjoined in the 
 Koran, prevails wherever this religion 
 is found. 
 
 Circumference, or Periphery, 
 the curve which incloses a circle, el- 
 lipse, oval, or other plane figure. 
 
 Circumnavigator, one who sails 
 round the globe. The first European 
 known to have circumnavigated the 
 globe was Magellan or Magalhaens, a 
 Portuguese, who accomplished the feat 
 in A. D. 1519. From him the Straits 
 of Magellan derive their name. 
 
 Circnmpolar Stars, those that ap- 
 pear to move around the pole and per- 
 form their circles without setting. 
 
 Circumstantial Evidence, evi- 
 dence obtained from circumstances, 
 which necessarily or usually attend 
 facts of a particular nature, from 
 which arises presumption ; any evi- 
 dence not direct and positive. 
 
 Circumvallation, or Line of 
 Circnmvallation, in military affairs 
 a line of field-works consisting of a 
 rampart or parapet, with a trench 
 surrounding a besieged place, or the 
 camp of a besieging army. 
 
 Circus, among the Romans, a 
 nearly^ oblong building without a roof, 
 in which public chariot-races and ex- 
 hibitions of pugilism and wrestling, 
 etc., took place. The modern circus is 
 a place where horses and other animals 
 are trained to perform tricks, and 
 where exhibitions of acrobats and va- 
 rious pageantries, including a large 
 amount of buffoonery, are presented.
 
 Cirrhosis 
 
 Cirrhosis, a chronic nonsuppura- 
 tive inflammation. The term was orig- 
 inally applied to the liver, and was 
 due to alcoholic indulgence. 
 
 Cirta, the Capital of the ancient 
 Massy Hi in Numidia. After the defeat 
 of Jugurtha it passed into the hands 
 of the Romans, and was restored by 
 Constantine, who gave it his own 
 name. 
 
 Cisalpine Republic, a former 
 State in North Italy. After the bat- 
 tle of Lodi, in May, 1796, General 
 Bonaparte proceeded to organize two 
 States one on the S. of the Po, the 
 Cispadane Republic, and one on the 
 N., the Transpadane. These two were 
 on July 9, 1797, united into one under 
 the title of the Cisalpine Republic, 
 which embraced Lombardy, Mantua, 
 Bergamo, Brescia, Cremona, Verona, 
 and Rovigo, the duchy of Modena, the 
 principalities of Massa and Cararra, 
 and the three legations of Bologna, 
 Ferrara, and the Romagna. The re- 
 public had a territory of more than 
 16,000 square miles, and a population 
 of 3,500,000. Milan was the seat of 
 the government or Directory. In 1802 
 it took the name of the Italian Re- 
 public, and chose Bonaparte for its 
 president. A deputation from the re- 
 public in 1805 conferred on the Em- 
 peror Napoleon the title of King of 
 Italy ; after which it formed the king- 
 dom of Italy till 1814. 
 
 Cisleitliania, or Cisleithan 
 Provinces, Austria proper or Austria 
 W. of the river Leitha, which partly 
 forms the boundary between it and 
 Hungary. 
 
 Cisneros-Betanconrt, Salvador, 
 'a Cuban patriot ; born in Puerto Prin- 
 cipe in 1832. During the Revolution 
 'of 1868-1878, he was president of the 
 Cuban House of Representatives, and 
 during a part of the time president of 
 the Cuban Republic. In 1895 he was 
 re-elected president of the new Cuban 
 Republic. 
 
 Cissoid, a curve in geometry, the 
 locus of the vortex of a parabola roll- 
 ing upon equal parabola. 
 
 Cist, a place of interment of an 
 early or prehistoric period, consisting 
 of a rectangular stone chest or inclos- 
 ure formed of rows of stones set up- 
 right, and covered by similar flat 
 stones. 
 
 City 
 
 Cistercian, a monastic order in 
 connection with the Roman Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 Cistern, a tank for holding water. 
 Cisterns differ from wells in,' that they 
 do not get their water from natural 
 sources, such as springs, but through 
 channels made by the hand of man. 
 
 Citation, a summons or official no- 
 tice given to a person to appear in a 
 court as a party or witness in a cause. 
 
 Cithern, or Cittern, an old instru- 
 ment of the guitar kind, strung with 
 wire instead of gut. 
 
 Cities of Refuge. Moses, at the 
 command of God, set apart three cities 
 on the E. of Jordan, and Joshua added 
 three others on the W., whither any 
 person might flee for refuge who had 
 killed a human creature inadvertently. 
 The three on the E. of Jordan were 
 Bezer, Ramoth, and Golan ; the three 
 on the W. were Hebron. Shechem, and 
 Kedesh. (Deut iv : 43 ; Josh, xx : 1-8.) 
 
 Cities of the Plain, Sodom and 
 Gomorrah, chief of those five cities 
 which, according to the commonly re- 
 ceived account, were (destroyed by fire 
 from heaven, and their sites over- 
 whelmed by the waters of the Dead 
 Sea. 
 
 Citizen, a member of a State or 
 community, an inhabitant of any State 
 or place. " All persons born or natu- 
 ralized in the United States, and sub- 
 ject to the jurisdiction thereof, are cit- 
 izens of the United States and of the 
 State wherein they reside." Constitu- 
 tion of the United States, Amend, xiv., 
 Sec. 1. 
 
 Citric Acid, is a very widely dis- 
 tributed acid, being present in most 
 common fruits, such as gooseberries, 
 currants, lemons, citrons, cherries, and 
 many others. 
 
 Citron, a tree of the genus Citrus. 
 A small evergreen shrub introduced 
 into the S. parts of Europe and Asia. 
 
 City, a municipal organization char- 
 tered by the sovereign authority, and 
 endowed with certain powers of self 
 government. In remotely ancient 
 times a city was usually itself a cen- 
 ter of sovereign power. This feature 
 survives only in cities like Hamburg 
 and Bremen. It does not exist in 
 American or English cities, which are 
 as much under the control of the State
 
 Ciudad-Rodrigo 
 
 Civil Service 
 
 as the smaller village, and which are 
 in effect simply corporations organized 
 for the better management of corpor- 
 ate affairs, the protection of health, 
 the general safety, and so forth. 
 
 Cindad-Rodrigo, a fortress in 
 Spain, in Leon, on the river Aguada. 
 In the Peninsular War it was taken 
 by storm by the British under Wel- 
 lington, after a siege of 11 days. The 
 Cortes gave him the title of Duke of 
 Ciudad-Rodrigo. 
 
 Civet, a genus of carnivorous an- 
 imals, natives of the warmer regions 
 of Asia and Africa. In general ap- 
 pearance the civets remind one of ani- 
 mals of the cat tribe, which they also 
 resemble in habits. The odoriferous 
 substance which these animals yield, 
 called, from them, civet, when largely 
 diluted with oil or other materials be- 
 comes an agreeable perfume. At a 
 time when perfumes were more fash- 
 ionable than they are at present civet 
 was very highly esteemed. 
 
 Civic Crown, among the Romans, 
 the highest military reward, assigned 
 to him who had preserved the life of 
 a citizen. It bore the inscription " Ob 
 civem servatum," that is, " for saving 
 a citizen," and was make of oak leaves. 
 The person who received the crown 
 wor? it in the theater, and sat next 
 the senators, and when he came in all 
 the assembly arose as a mark of re- 
 spect. 
 
 Civics, the science that treats of 
 citizenship and the relations between 
 citizens and the government. It em- 
 braces ethics, or social duties ; civil 
 law, or governmental methods ; eco- 
 nomics, or the principles of finance and 
 exchange ; and the history of civic de- 
 velopment. 
 
 Civil Damage Acts, legislative 
 bills, passed in several of the United 
 States, giving to husbands, wives, chil- 
 dren, parents, guardians, employers, 
 and others who have sustained injury 
 in person or property or means of sup- 
 port, by an intoxicated person in con- 
 sequence of such intoxication, the right 
 of action against the person who sold 
 or gave away the liquor which caused 
 Buch intoxication, have been held to be 
 constitutional. In some cases the 
 right of action has been extended to 
 the owner of the premises where such 
 Intoxicating liquor has been obtained. 
 
 Civil Engineering, the science or 
 
 art of constructing machinery for man- 
 ufacturing purposes, constructions and 
 excavations, for general transit, as 
 canals, docks, railroads, etc. 
 
 Civilization. The influences by 
 which men operate upon each other in 
 society produce in their aggregate the 
 particular state and tendencies of each 
 society, and these constitute what is 
 called the civilization of the society. 
 Civilization, then, may be denned as 
 the sum of the results of individual 
 influence upon society. When these 
 influences are on the whole beneficial, 
 civilization is progressive ; when they 
 are injurious, it is retrograde. The 
 common use of the word civilizaton as 
 an equivalent of progress or refinement 
 is a sufficient indication of the belief of 
 mankind that these influences are on 
 the whole beneficial; and the contin- 
 ued existence of society is in itself a 
 confirmation of this belief. 
 
 Civil Service, that branch of the 
 public service which includes the non- 
 military servants of the government. 
 In January, 1883, the United States 
 Congress passed a law to prevent the 
 abuse of the appointing power of the 
 officers of government. The Presi- 
 dent was authorized to appoint, with 
 the advice and consent of the Senate, 
 three civil service commissioners, 
 whose duty is to aid the President in 
 preparing suitable rules which shall 
 provide for open competitive examina- 
 tions for testing the fitness of appli- 
 cants for the public service, such ex- 
 aminations to be practical in their 
 character, and so far as may be relat- 
 ing to those matters which will fairly 
 test the relative capacity and fitness 
 of the persons examined to discharge 
 the duties of the service. All the 
 places arranged in classes are to be 
 filled by selections according to grade 
 from among those standing highest as 
 the result of such examinations. The 
 appointments to the public service in 
 the departments at Washington are to 
 be proportioned upon the basis of pop- 
 ulation to the several States and Ter- 
 ritories and the District of Columbia. 
 The law provides a period of probation 
 before any absolute appointment is 
 made, and exempts all persons in the 
 public service from all obligation to 
 contribute to any political fund or to 
 render any political service. It for-
 
 Civil War 
 
 bids any person in the public service 
 using his official authority to coerce 
 the political action of any other person 
 or body. Non-competitive examina- 
 tions in all proper cases are provided 
 for after notice given of a vacancy, 
 the appointing power to give notice in 
 writing to the civil service commission 
 of the persons selected for appointment 
 among those who have been examined. 
 Power is given this commission to 
 make regulations for, and to have con- 
 trol of, such examinations, subject to 
 the rules made by the President. The 
 civil service commission is required to 
 report annually to the President, for 
 transmission to Congress, its own ac- 
 tion, the rules and regulations, and 
 the exceptions thereto in force, the 
 practical objects thereof, and any sug- 
 gestions for the more effectual accom- 
 plishment of the purposes of the law. 
 Provision is made for holding exami- 
 nations at convenient places twice each 
 year in every State and Territory of 
 the United States. 
 
 The statute punishes by fine and 
 imprisonment all in the public service 
 who wilfully defeat, obstruct, or de- 
 ceive any person in respect to his or 
 her right of examination, or who shall 
 corruptly and falsely mark, or report 
 upon the proper standing of any per- 
 son examined, or aid in so doing, or 
 who shall furnish to any person any 
 special or secret information for the 
 purpose of either improving or injur- 
 ing the prospects of any person so ex- 
 amined appointed, employed, or pro- 
 moted. It was provided that after six 
 months from the passing of the act, 
 no officer or clerk was to be appointed 
 until after passing examination, unless 
 specially exempted by the act ; and no 
 person in the habit of using intoxicat- 
 ing beverages to excess is to be ap- 
 pointed to or retained in any employ- 
 ment to which the act applies. 
 
 Civil War, American, the war in 
 the United States, caused by the at- 
 tempt of the Southern States to estab- 
 lish an independent government under 
 the name of the Confederate States of 
 America. 
 
 The result of the war was to estab- 
 lish the fact that the United States is 
 a nation, and that no State has the 
 right to secede from the Union. It 
 also resulted in the abolition of slav- 
 ery, and the 13th Amendment to the 
 
 Clairvoyance 
 
 Constitution, adopted after the war. 
 extinguished slavery in the United 
 States. During the Civil War there 
 were 2,778,304 men mustered into ser- 
 vice on the Union side and about 600,- 
 000 on the Confederate. The number 
 of casualties in the volunteer and regu- 
 lar armies of the United States dur- 
 ing the war, according to a statement 
 prepared by the Adjutant-General's of- 
 fice, was as follows : Killed in battle, 
 07,058; died of wounds, 43,012; died 
 of disease, 199,720 ; other causes, such 
 as accidents, murder, Confederate pris- 
 ons, etc., 40,154; total died, 349,944; 
 total deserted, 199,105. Number of 
 soldiers in the Confederate service who 
 died of wounds or disease (partial 
 statement), 133,821. Deserted (par- 
 tial statement), 104,428. Number of 
 United States troops captured during 
 the war, 212,608; Confederate troops 
 captured, 476,169. Number of United 
 States troops paroled on the field, 16,- 
 431 ; Confederate troops paroled on 
 the field, 248,599. Number of United 
 States troops who died while prisoners, 
 30,156; Confederate troops who died 
 while prisoners, 30,152. 
 
 Claflin, Mary Bucklin, an Amer- 
 ican prose-writer ; born in Hopkinton, 
 Mass., July, 1825. She was the wife 
 of Governor Claflin, of Massachusetts. 
 For 18 years she was a trustee of Bos- 
 ton University; and of Wellesley Col- 
 lege from its foundation till her death, 
 which occurred in Whitinsville, Mass., 
 June 13, 1896. 
 
 Claflin University, a co-educa- 
 tional institution in Orangeburg, S. 
 C. ; organized in 1869, under the aus- 
 pices of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, exclusively for the colored 
 race. 
 
 Clairvanx, a village of France, on 
 the Aube, 10 miles S. E. of Barsur- 
 Aube ; is remarkable as the site of the 
 once famous Cistercian Abbey, founded 
 in 1115 by St. Bernard, who presided 
 over it till his death in 1153, when he 
 was buried in the church. 
 
 Clairvoyance, defined as the power 
 of perceiving without the use of the 
 organ of vision or under conditions in 
 which the organ of vision with its nat- 
 ural powers alone would be useless. It 
 comprises the sight of things past, 
 present, or future, and various meth- 
 ods are observed in its performance.
 
 Clam 
 
 Clam, the popular name of certain 
 bivalvular shell-fish of various genera 
 and species. The giant clam has the 
 largest shell known, and the animal is 
 used as food in the Pacific. The com- 
 mon American clam is found in gravel- 
 ly mud, sand, and other soft bottoms, 
 especially between high and low water 
 mark. They are largely used for bait, 
 and are a much-relished article of 
 food. 
 
 Clan, a tribe or number of families, 
 bearing the same surname, claiming to 
 be descended from the same ancestor 
 and united under a chieftain repre- 
 senting the ancestor. 
 
 Clapboard, a thin, narrow board 
 commonly used for covering the sides 
 of wooden buildings. 
 
 Clapperton, Hugh, an African 
 traveler ; born in Dumfriesshire, Scot- 
 land, in 1788. He was the first Euro 
 pean who traversed the whole of Cen- 
 tral Africa from the Bight of Benin 
 to the Mediterranean. He died in Af- 
 rica in April, 1827. 
 
 Claque, a body of hired applause- 
 makers, openly employed in France 
 and sometimes secretly resorted to 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Clare, St., born in 1193, of a noble 
 family of Assisi ; in 1212 retired to the 
 Portiuncula of St. Francis, and in the 
 same year founded the order of Fran- 
 ciscan nuns. She died Aug. 11, 1253. 
 THE NUNS OF THE ORDER OF ST. 
 CLARA (also called the Poor Clares) 
 at first observed the strictest Benedic- 
 tine rule, but the austerity of this rule 
 was mitigated by St. Francis in 1224, 
 and further modified by Urban IV. 
 in 1205. A large proportion of the 
 nuns adopted Urban's rule. 
 
 Clarence, Duke of. See GEORGE. 
 DUKE OF CLARENCE. 
 
 Clarendon, Constitutions of, a 
 code of laws adopted in the 10th year 
 of Henry II. (1164), at a council of 
 prelates and barons held in the village 
 of Clarendon, in Wiltshire, in Janu- 
 ary of the above year. Ten of the ar- 
 ticles were condemned, and six allowed 
 by Pope Alexander III. The six arti- 
 cles approved of were of comparatively 
 slight importance, mostly confirming 
 the privileges of the ecclesiastical 
 order. 
 
 Clarendon, Edward Hyde, Earl 
 of, Lord High Chancellor of England ; 
 
 ClarK 
 
 born in Dinton, Wiltshire, in 1608. 
 During the civil wars he zealously at- 
 tached himself to the royal cause, was 
 made successively chancellor of the ex- 
 chequer and privy councillor. After 
 the failure of the royalist arms he took 
 refuge in Jersey, and then joined 
 Prince Charles in Holland. He con- 
 tributed to the Restoration, accom- 
 panied Charles II. to London, and was 
 made Lord Chancellor. His daughter 
 Anne was married to the Duke of 
 York, afterward James II., and two 
 daughters, Anne and Mary, both as- 
 cended the English throne. He died in 
 Rouen in 1674. 
 
 Claret, a name given to wines of a 
 light-red color. 
 
 Clarification, the act or process 
 of making any liquor clear and bright 
 by freeing it from visible impurities. 
 It differs from purification in that a 
 liquid, though clear to the sight, may 
 still contain a large amount of im- 
 pure matter. 
 
 Clarinet, or Clarionet, a musical 
 instrument. It consists essentially of 
 a mouth-piece furnished with a single 
 beating reed, a cylindrical tube ending 
 in a bell, and provided with 18 open- 
 ings in the side, half of which are 
 closed by the fingers and half by the 
 keys. 
 
 Clark, Abraham, an American 
 patriot ; born in Elizabethtown, N. J., 
 Feb. 15, 1726. He was a dele- 
 gate to the Continental Congress and 
 signed the Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence. He aided in framing the Con- 
 stitution of the United States. He 
 died in Rahway, N. J., Sept. 15, 1794. 
 
 Clark, Alexander, an American 
 clergyman and writer ; born in Jeffer- 
 son county, Ohio, in 1834. Died in 
 Georgia, July 6, 1879. 
 
 Clark, Alonzo Howard, an Amer- 
 ican scientist : born in Boston, April 
 13, 1850. Since 1881 he has been con- 
 nected with the Smithsonian Institu- 
 tion. 
 
 Clark, Alvan, an American astro- 
 nomical-instrument maker ; born in 
 Ashfield, Mass., March 3, 1804. He 
 was at one time a portrait painter. 
 His attention was turned to telescope 
 making and he achieved a world-wide 
 reputation. He died in Cambridge, 
 Mass., Aug. 9, 1887. His son, Alvan 
 Graham Clark, born in Fall River,
 
 Clark 
 
 Claris 
 
 Mass., July 10, 1832, was associated 
 yith his father and his brother George 
 in the manufacture of telescopes. He 
 died in 1897. 
 
 Clark, Champ, an American states- 
 man; born in Anderson county, Ky., 
 March 7, 1850; received a collegiate 
 education; admitted to the bar in 
 1875; settled in Bowling Green, Mo., 
 to practice in 1880; Democratic mem- 
 ber of Congress, excepting one term, 
 since 1893; minority leader there ia 
 1908-1911; elected Speaker in 1911. 
 
 Clark, Charles Dickson, an 
 American jurist ; born in Laurel Cove, 
 Tenn., Oct. 7, 1847. He practiced as 
 a lawyer in his native State until 
 1895, when he was appointed Judge of 
 the United States Court for two dis- 
 tricts in Tennessee. He died in 1908. 
 
 Clark, Charles Edgar, an Ameri- 
 can naval officer ; born in Bradford, 
 Vt, Aug. 10, 1843. He entered the 
 naval service in 1860; was promoted 
 captain in 1896. In March, 1898, he 
 took command of the battleship "Ore- 
 gon," and when war with Spain was 
 deemed inevitable he received orders to 
 proceed to Key West, Fla., with all 
 haste. After a most remarkable voy- 
 age of over 14,000 miles, he joined the 
 American fleet in Cuban waters on 
 May 26, and commanded his ship at 
 the battle of Santiago. Was assigned 
 to duty at the League Island navy 
 yard ; promoted rear-admiral June 16, 
 1902; and retired Aug. 10, 1905. 
 
 Clark, Daniel, a Canadian patho- 
 logist; born in Granton, Scotland, 
 Aug. 29, 1836. < He was taken to Can- 
 ada when a child ; practiced medicine 
 in Ontario with great success. He 
 has paid especial attention to the care 
 of the insane and since 1875 he has 
 been at the head of the Provincial 
 Asylum for the Insane at Toronto. 
 
 Clark, Edward, an American ar- 
 chitect ; born in Philadelphia, in 1824. 
 He studied architecture, and after 
 serving as assistant was made chief 
 architect of the United States Capitol 
 in 1864, serving till his death in 1902. 
 
 Clark, Francis Edward, an 
 American clergyman ; born in Aylmer, 
 Quebec, Sept. 12, 1851. He became 
 pastor of a Congregational Church at 
 Portland, Me., and there organized the 
 first Young People's Society of Chris- 
 tian Endeavor, Feb. 2, 1881, 
 
 E. 35. 
 
 Clark, or Clarke, George Rogers, 
 
 an American pioneer ; born near Mon- 
 ticello, Va., Nov. 19, 1752. He studied 
 surveying, and settled in Ohio, serving 
 in the Indian wars of that time and 
 region. He removed to Kentucky in 
 1775, procuring the organization of 
 that territory. On the outbreak of the 
 Revolutionary War he led the patriot 
 army on the frontier, campaigning 
 against the British throughout Illinois, 
 Ohio and Kentucky. His success in 
 this saved much territory to the colo- 
 nies in the final treaty of peace with 
 Great Britain. He died near Louis- 
 ville, Ky., Feb. 18, 1818. 
 
 Clark, Henry James, an Ameri- 
 can naturalist and prose-writer ; born 
 in Easton, Mass., June 22, 1826; was 
 associated in work with Agassiz for 
 several years. He died in Amherst, 
 Mass., July 1, 1873. 
 
 Clark, James Gowdy, an Ameri- 
 can balladist ; born in Constantia, N. 
 Y., June 28, 1830. He was well known 
 as a concert singer and song writer. 
 Among his most popular songs are 
 "The Beautiful Hills," "Freedom's 
 Battle Hymn," etc. He served as a 
 volunteer during the Civil War, and 
 died in Pasadena, Cal., in September, 
 1897. 
 
 Clark, John Bates, an American 
 economist ; born in Providence, R. I., 
 Jan. 26, 1847. He is prominent as 
 a political economist In 1900 he was 
 Professor of Political Economy at Co- 
 lumbia University. 
 
 Clark, John Emory, an American 
 scientist ; born in Northampton, N. 
 Y., Aug. 8, 1832. After serving in the 
 Civil War he became Professor of As- 
 tronomy at Antioch College. Since 
 1873 he has been Professor of Mathe- 
 matics at the Sheffield Scientific 
 School of Yale University. 
 
 Clark, Jonas Gilman, an Ameri- 
 can philanthropist; born in Hubbards- 
 ton, Mass., Feb. 1, 1815. He is noted 
 as the founder of Clark University. 
 Worcester, Mass. He also conferred 
 gifts on his native town. He died in 
 Worcester, Mass., May 23, 1900, and 
 bequeathed $200,000 to Clark Uni- 
 versity outright and $1,000,000 and 
 the residue of his estate conditionally. 
 
 Clark, Lewis Gaylord, an Amer- 
 ican journalist and humorous writer; 
 born in Otisco, N. Y., March 5, 18iO.
 
 Clark 
 
 In 1834 he became editor of the 
 "Knickerbocker Magazine," and made 
 it the foremost literary publication of 
 that time. He died in Piermont, N. 
 Y., Nov. 3, 1873. 
 
 Clark, Thomas March, an Amer- 
 ican clergyman ; born in Newburyport, 
 Mass., July 4, 1812. He entered the 
 Presbyterian ministry and in 1836 be- 
 came an Episcopalian priest. He was 
 chosen Bishop of Rhode Island in 
 1854, He uied Sept. 7, 1903. 
 
 Clark, Walter, an American 
 jurist ; born in Halifax, N. C., Aug. 
 19, 1840. He became a lawyer in 
 1868, judge of the Superior Court in 
 1885 and of the Supreme Court in 
 1889. 
 
 Clark, William, an explorer; 
 brother of George Rogers Clark ; born 
 in Virginia, Aug. 1, 1770 ; emigrated 
 with his family at the age of 14 to 
 the falls of the Ohio, in Kentucky, on 
 the present site of Louisville. In 1808 
 'he was appointed in conjunction with 
 Capt. Meriwether Lewis to the com- 
 mand of an expedition designed to ex- 
 plore the N. W. territory. His journal 
 and the account kept by him of the 
 astronomical observations made by him 
 and Captain Lewis have been pub- 
 lished. He was appointed in 1813 
 governor of the Northwest Territory 
 and superintendent of Indian affairs, 
 which offices he retained till 1820, 
 when Missouri was created a State. 
 Two years afterward he was again 
 appointed commissioner and superin- 
 tendent of Indian affairs. He died in 
 St. Louis, Mo., Sept. 1, 1838. 
 
 Clark, William Andrews, an 
 American capitalist ; born near Con- 
 nellsyille, Pa., Jan. 8, 1839. He set- 
 tled in Montana in 1863, and acquired 
 a great fortune. He was the Demo- 
 cratic choice for United States Senator 
 from Montana in 1890 and 1896, and 
 in 189& the Legislature elected him. 
 In April, 1900, the United States Sen- 
 ate declared his election void ; but his 
 legislature reflected him Jan. 16, 1901. 
 
 Clark, William Bullock, an 
 American scientist ; born in Brattle- 
 boro, Vt., Dec. 15, 1860. He became 
 instructor in Geology at Johns Hop- 
 kins University in 1887, and since 
 1894 has been Professor of Geology 
 there. In 1891 he was appointed Di- 
 rector of the Maryland Weather Ser- 
 vice. 
 
 Clarke 
 
 Clark, "Willis Gaylord, an Amer- 
 ican poet, twin brother of Lewis Gay- 
 lord ; born in Otisco, N. Y., March 5, 
 1810; died in Philadelphia, Pa., June 
 12, 1841. 
 
 Clarke, Augustus Feck, an Amer- 
 ican physician ; born in Pawtucket, R. 
 I., Sept. 24, 1833. He was an army 
 surgeon during part of the Civil War, 
 and subsequently entered private prac- 
 tice. He has been sent to every Inter- 
 national Medical Congress since 1887, 
 and since 1894 has been Dean of the 
 College of Physicians and Surgeons in 
 Boston. 
 
 Clarke, Benjamin Franklin, an 
 American educator ; born in Newport, 
 Me., July 14, 1831. He became Pres. 
 of Brown University in 1898. 
 
 Clarke, Sir Caspar Purdon, 
 Anglo-American archaeologist and art- 
 critic, b. 1846. He studied art, archi- 
 tecture and archaeology, became direc- 
 tor of the London South Kensington 
 Museum, and in 1905 of the Metropol- 
 itan Museum of Art, N. Y. C.; re- 
 signed the latter in 1910. 
 
 Clarke, Creston, an American 
 actor; born in Philadelphia, Aug. 20, 
 1865. He made his d6but in London, 
 1882, and has attained success in 
 tragic r61es. 
 
 Clarke, Edith Emily, an Ameri- 
 can librarian ; born in Syracuse, N. 
 Y., Nov. 5, 1859. She became chief 
 cataloguer of public documents for the 
 National Government in 1895, and li- 
 brarian of the University of Vermont 
 in 1898. 
 
 Clarke, Frank Wigglesworth, 
 an American scientist : born in Boston, 
 Mass., March 19, 1847. He has been 
 chief chemist of the United States 
 Geological Survey since 1883. 
 
 Clarke, James Freeman, an 
 American Unitarian clergyman and 
 author ; born in Hanover, N. H., April 
 4, 1810; settled in Boston, Mass., in 
 1841, and was pastor of the Church of 
 the Disciples which was organized es- 
 pecially for him, and of which he had 
 charge till his death. From 1867-1871 
 he was Professor of Natural Religion 
 University. He died in Boston, Mass., 
 June 8, 1888. 
 
 Clarke, John Mason, an Ameri- 
 can scientist ; born in Canandaigua, N. 
 Y., April 15, 1857. He was Professor 
 of Geology at Smith College and sub-
 
 Clarke 
 
 sequently became State Palaeontologist 
 of New York. 
 
 Clarke, John Sleeper, an Ameri- 
 can actor ; born in Baltimore, Md., 
 Sept. 3, 1833. He was a theatrical 
 manager and a brother-in-law of Ed- 
 win Booth. He died in London, Eng- 
 land, Sept. 14, 1899. 
 
 Clarke, McDonald, an American 
 poet ; born in Bath, Me., June 18, 
 1798. He was an eccentric character, 
 familiarly known as "the mad poet" ; 
 the subjects of Clarke's verses were 
 usually the belles of the city and topics 
 of the day. He died in New York, 
 March 5, 1842. 
 
 Clarke, Mary Bayard, an Amer- 
 ican author ; born in Raleigh, N. C., 
 about 1830. While living in Cuba she 
 published verses, and after her return 
 in 1855 she wrote "Reminiscences of 
 Cuba." 
 
 Clarke, Rebecca Sophia 
 (" Sophie May "), an American writer 
 of children's stories; born at Nor- 
 ridgewock, Me., 1833; died in 1906. 
 
 Clarke, Richard Henry, an Amer- 
 ican author ; born in Washington, D. 
 C., July 3, 1827. He was made pres- 
 ident of the Society of American Au- 
 thors in 1891. 
 
 Clark University, a co-educa- 
 tional institution in Atlanta, Ga. ; or- 
 ganized in 1870 under the auspices of 
 t the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 
 Clark University, Worcester. 
 Mass., an institution founded in 1887 
 by Jonas Oilman Clark (q. v.), and 
 designed for advanced students in sci- 
 ence. At the death of Mr. Clark in 
 1900, the University received a bequest 
 of $2,500,000 for the establishment of 
 an undergraduate department. 
 
 Claude Lorraine, a landscape 
 painter whose real name was Claude 
 Gelee, but who was called Lorraine 
 from the province where he was born 
 in 1600. He traveled in Italy, France 
 and Germany, but settled in 1627 in 
 Rome, where his works were greatly 
 sought for, and where he lived much 
 at ms ease until 1682, when he died 
 of gout. He excelled in luminous at- 
 mospheric effects, of which he made 
 loving and elaborate studies. He 
 made small copies of all his pictures 
 in six books known as " Libri di 
 Verita" (Books of Truth), which 
 /orm a work of great value. 
 
 Clavicle 
 
 Clandianns, Claudius, a Roman 
 poet of the 4th century. He stood 
 high in favor with the Emperora 
 Honorius and Arcadius, and was pro- 
 moted to the highest honors of the 
 state. He was the last of the non- 
 Christian poets of Rome. 
 
 Claudius I., Tiberius Drusua 
 Nero, sur-named Germanicus and 
 Britannicus, the fourth Emperor of 
 Rome ; born in Lyons, B. c. 10. After 
 spending 50 years of his life in a 
 private station, he was, on the murder 
 of Caligula, his nephew, A. D. 41, pro- 
 claimed Emperor by the soldiers, and 
 confirmed in the sovereignty by the 
 Senate. He died, A. D. 54, of poison 
 administered by his second wife Agrip- 
 pina. 
 
 Claudius, Appius, a Roman de- 
 cemvir (451 and 450 B. c.) , who gained 
 the high favor of his fellow-citizens 
 by his ability and activity. In the 
 latter year he began to show his real 
 aims toward absolute power. The in- 
 dignation of the Roman populace 
 reached a height on account of his 
 tyrannical action toward Virginia, 
 daughter of a plebeian named Lucius 
 Virginius. The patrician gained pos- 
 session of the maiden by pretending 
 that she was the born slave of one of 
 his clients. Her lover Icilius sum- 
 moned her father from the army. To 
 save his daughter from dishonor, the 
 unhappy father seized a knife and 
 slew her. The popular indignation 
 and the father's appeal to the army 
 overthrow the decemviri, and Appius 
 was flung into prison, where he died 
 by his own hand. 
 
 Clausel, Bertrand, a marshal of 
 France ; born in Mirepoix in 1773. 
 He accompanied Junot and Massena 
 to Spain in 1810. In 1813 Napoleon 
 rewarded his valor by conferring on 
 him the chief command of the forces 
 in the N. of Spain. On the restora- 
 tion of the Bourbons he came to the 
 United States, and lived here for a 
 long time, but when Charles X. was 
 overthrown, in 1830, he received from 
 Louis Philippe the command of tne 
 French troops in Algeria, which he 
 retained till 1836. He died in 1842. 
 
 Clavichord, a key and stringed 
 instrument, not now in use, being su- 
 perseded by the pianoforte. 
 
 Clavicle, the collar-bone. It con- 
 nects the upper limb with the trunk.
 
 Clavijero 
 
 Clavijero, Francisco Xavier, 
 Mexican historian, b. 1731 ; d. 1787. 
 
 Claxton, Kate (MBS, CHARLKS A. 
 STEVENSON ) , an American actress ; 
 born in New York city in 1848. She 
 made her debut at Daly's Theater be- 
 fore she was out of her teens, but her 
 success dates from 1873. Since 1896 
 she has been touring the country in 
 emotional plays. 
 
 Clay, the name of various earths, 
 iwhich consist of hydrated silicate of 
 aluminum, with small proportions of 
 the silicates of iron, calcium, mag- 
 nesium, potassium, and sodium. Their 
 tenacity and ductility when moist and 
 their hardness when they are dry has 
 made them from the earliest times the 
 materials of bricks, tiles, pottery, etc. 
 
 Clay, Cassias Marccllus, an 
 American diplomatist ; born in Mad- 
 ison county, Ky., Oct. 19, 1810. He 
 was an opponent of slavery and sup- 
 ported Lincoln for the Presidency. 
 From 1862 to 1869 he was Minister to 
 Russia. In 1886 he published his 
 speeches. His old age was marked by 
 eccentricity. He died in 1905. 
 
 Clay, Frederick, an English com- 
 poser; born in Paris, Aug. 3, 1840. 
 His most successful production was 
 *' The Black Crook." He died in Lon- 
 don, Nov. 27, 1889. 
 
 Clay, Henry, an American states- 
 man ; born in " The Slaihes " district, 
 Hanover county, Va., April 12, 1777. 
 Becoming a student of law, in his 21st 
 year, he was admitted to the bar, and 
 began practice at Lexington, Ky. His 
 success was signal and imn^ediate. 
 About 1804 he entered politics, and 
 in 1806 became United States Senator 
 for a single year, to fill the unexpired 
 term of Mr. Adair; and in 1811 was 
 elected to, and chosen speaker of, the 
 House of Representatives, remaining 
 in that post till 1814, when he was 
 sent abroad as one of the commission- 
 ers to negotiate the treaty of peace 
 with England at Ghent. On his re- 
 turn he was again sent to Congress, 
 and reflected to his old position as 
 speaker. He had a prominent share 
 in the vehement discussions about 
 slavery which were excited in 1820 by 
 the question respecting the admission 
 of Missouri into the Union ; and he 
 was (if not the author) the earnest 
 advocate of the famous " compromise " 
 
 Clay 
 
 on that subject. In 1824 he was a 
 candidate for the Presidency against 
 J. Q. Adams, General Jackson, and 
 W. H. Crawford, and no choice be- 
 ing effected in the Electoral College, 
 when the matter came up to the House 
 of Representatives Clay and his 
 friends voted for Mr. Adams, thereby 
 securing his election. During the en- 
 tire period of the Adams administra- 
 tion, 1825-1829, Clay was Secretary 
 of State, and performed the duties of 
 that office with consummate ability. 
 In 1831, he returned to the United 
 States Senate, and became the leader 
 of the opposition to General Jackson's 
 government, and strove, but ineffectu- 
 ally, against the removal of the de- 
 posits from the United States Bank. 
 Through his influence also, the " Com- 
 promise Bill," as it was called, was 
 passed through Congress, which put 
 an end to the Nullification contro- 
 versy by a partial abandonment of the 
 protective system. 
 
 In 1832, he was again the candi- 
 date of his party for the presidency, 
 though with little chance of success, 
 owing to the overwhelming popularity 
 of General Jackson, who was re- 
 elected. In March, 1842, he resigned 
 his seat in the Senate, and retired in- 
 to private life, till 1844, when he 
 came forward a third time as a can- 
 didate for the Presidential chair. In 
 one of the most exciting political con- 
 tests that ever occurred in the United 
 States he was again defeated, but 
 by a very small numerical majority. 
 The immediate consequence of this 
 defeat was the annexation of Texas, 
 a measure to which he had given his 
 strenuous opposition. This was vir- 
 tually the termination of his public 
 career, though, in 1849, he consented 
 to resume his seat in the Senate, in 
 view of the perilous contest which 
 was then impending between the slave- 
 holding party and its opponents, on 
 the California and territorial ques- 
 tions. He was the author of the cele- 
 brated " Compromise of 1850," as it 
 was termed, through which, after a 
 long and vehement struggle, this dis- 
 pute was, for the time being, adjusted. 
 The excitement and exhaustion occa- 
 sioned by this last great controversy 
 gave the final blow to his already en- 
 feebled constitution, and he died in 
 Washington, June 29, 1852.
 
 Claymore 
 
 Claymore, formerly the large two- 
 banded, double-edged sword of the 
 Scotch Highlanders ; now a basket- 
 hilted, double-edged broad-sword. 
 
 Clay pole, Edward Waller, an 
 American geologist born in England, 
 June 1, 1835. He became Professor 
 of Geology and Biology in the Cali- 
 fornia Polytechnic Institute in Pasa- 
 dena, and served also on the Geological 
 Survey of Pennsylvania. He was a 
 member of a number of geological 
 societies in America, London, and 
 Edinburgh, and of the American 
 Association for the Advancement of 
 Sciences. He died in Long Beach, 
 Cal., Aug. 17, 1901. 
 
 Clayton, John Middleton, an 
 American statesman ; born in Sussex 
 county, Del. in 1796. He was suc- 
 cessively United States Senator, chief 
 justice of his native State, and United 
 States Senator a second time, when 
 he became Secretary of State under 
 Gen. Taylor. In this capacity he 
 negotiated the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. 
 Clayton resigned his office on General 
 Taylor's death in 1850, but remained 
 in the Senate till his death, Nov. 9, 
 1856. 
 
 Clayton, Powell, an American 
 military officer; born in Bethel, Pa., 
 Aug. 7, 1833. When the Civil War 
 broke out he entered the Union army 
 as captain of the 1st Kansas In- 
 fantry, and in 1864 was promoted 
 Brigadier- General of volunteers. At 
 the close of the war he settled in Ar- 
 kansas ; was elected governor in 1868 ; 
 United States Senator in 1871-1877; 
 appointed Minister to Mexico in 1897, 
 and raised to the rank of ambassador 
 in 1899. 
 
 Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, a con- 
 vention between the United States 
 and Great Britain, concluded April 
 19, 1850, and deriving its name from 
 John M Clayton, Secertary of State 
 of the United States, and Sir Henry 
 Bulwer, British Minister of Wash- 
 ington. The object of the treaty was 
 to aid the construction of an inter- 
 oceanic canal on either the Nicaragua 
 or Panama routes. 
 
 Clearance of Vessels, the exam- 
 ination of them by the proper custom- 
 house officers, and the giving of a 
 certificate that the regulations have 
 been duly complied with. 
 
 Clement 
 
 Clearing-house, a financial insti- 
 tution which makes daily adjustment 
 of debits and credits among the banks 
 constituting its membership. 
 
 Cleary, James Vincent, a Cana- 
 dian clergyman ; born in Waterford, 
 Ireland, Sept. 18, 1828. In 1880 was 
 appointed Bishop of Kingston, Cana- 
 da, the see being made an archbishop- 
 ric in 1889. 
 
 Cleef, (I.), Joseph van, surnamed 
 the Fool ; born in Antwerp in 1480, 
 one of the most celebrated painters of 
 his time. He died insane in 1529. (2) 
 John, a painter ; born in Rome in 
 1646. belongs to the Flemish school. 
 He died in 1716. 
 
 Clef, a character placed at the be- 
 ginning of a stave, to show the ele- 
 vation of that particular stave in the 
 musical system, and to denne the posi- 
 tion and name of each note. 
 
 Clematis. See TRAVELER'S JOY. 
 
 Clemencean, Georges Benja- 
 min, French statesman and author, b. 
 Mouilleron-en-Pareds, 1841, became a 
 physician, mayor of Montmartre 1870. 
 deputy 1871 ; championed Dreyfus and 
 as Minister of Interior directed the 
 separation of Church and State. 
 
 Clemens, Samuel Langhorne, 
 best known by his pen-name MARK 
 TWAIN, an American humorist, born 
 in Florida, Mo., Nov. 30, 1835. After 
 a common-school education, he was in 
 turns compositor, Mississippi pilot, 
 Confederate soldier, a Nevada news- 
 paper reporter, gold-miner, and a lec- 
 turer. He sprang into celebrity in 
 1869 with the " Innocents Abroad." 
 Also wrote " A Tramp Abroad," 
 " Huckleberry Finn," " Pudd'nhead 
 Wilson," etc. As a writer he pos- 
 sessed a remarkable fund of humor. 
 Died April 20; 1910. 
 
 Clement VII., Pope, (Giulio de 
 Medici), nephew of Lorenzo the Mag- 
 nificent, and cousin of Leo X., suc- 
 ceeded Adrian VI. in 1523. It was 
 during his reign that schism occur- 
 red which ultimately resulted in the 
 separation of England from the Rom- 
 ish Church. He died in 1534, and was 
 succeeded by Paul III. 
 
 Clement XI., (Giovanni Francesco 
 Albani), born in Pesaro, 1649, suc- 
 ceeded Innocent XII., 1700. He issued 
 the famous Unigenitus bull. Died in 
 1721, succeeded by Innocent XIII.
 
 Clement 
 
 Clement XIII., (Carlo llczzoni- 
 Co), born in Venice, 1693, succeeded 
 Benedict XIV., 1758. The Jesuits hav- 
 ing been expelled from France, Spain, 
 Portugal, and Naples, he made great 
 but useless efforts to reinstate them. 
 He died in 1769. He was succeeded 
 by Clement XIV. 
 
 Clement XIV., (Giovanni Vin- 
 cenzo, Antonio Ganganelli), born in 
 St. Arcangelo, 1705. Being of a con- 
 ciliating disposition, he lived on good 
 terms with all the European courts. 
 He died in 1774, and was succeeded 
 by Pius VI. 
 
 Clement, Jacques, the assassin of 
 Henry III. of France; born in 1567. 
 Having fatally stabbed the king, he 
 was at once killed by the courtiers ; 
 but the populace, instigated by the 
 priests, regarded him as a martyr ; and 
 Pope Sixtus V. even pronounced his 
 panegyric. 
 
 Clement, William Henry Pope, 
 a Canadian lawyer ; born in Vienna, 
 Ont, May 13, 1858. He has written 
 "The Law of the Canadian Consti- 
 tution " (1892) , a work that was made 
 a text-book in the principal colleges 
 and universities of the Dominion. 
 
 Clementi, Muzio, an Italian pian- 
 ist and composer; born in Rome in 
 1752. He represented perhaps the 
 highest point of technique of his day, 
 and his influence on modern execution 
 has led to his being characterized as 
 " the father of pianoforte playing." 
 He died in England in 1832, and was 
 interred in Westminster Abbey. 
 
 Clemson Agricultural College, 
 an educational (non-sect.) institution 
 in Clemson College Station, S. C. ; or- 
 ganized in 1890. 
 
 Cleon, an Athenian demagogue, or- 
 iginally a tanner by trade. He was 
 sent in 422 against Brasidas, but al- 
 lowed himself to be taken unawares, 
 and was slain while attempting to flee. 
 
 Cleopatra. Among several Egyp- 
 tian princesses of this name, the most 
 renowned was the eldest daughter of 
 Ptolemy Auletes, wife of his eldest 
 eon Ptolemy, with whom she shared 
 the throne of Egypt. She accompan- 
 ied Antony on his march against the 
 Parthians, and when he parted from 
 her on the Euphrates he bestowed 
 Cyrene, Cyprus, Crelosyria, Phoenicia, 
 
 Clermont 
 
 Cilicia, and Crete on her, to which he 
 added part of Judea and Arabia at 
 her request. The war between Aug- 
 ustus and Anthony commenced, and at 
 Actium the fleets met Cleopatra, 
 who had brought Antony a reinforce- 
 ment of 60 vessels, suddenly took to 
 flight, and thus caused the defeat of 
 her party. They fled to Egypt, and de- 
 clared to Augustus that if Egypt was 
 left to Cleopatra's children they would 
 thenceforth live in retirement. But Au- 
 gustus demanded Antony's death and 
 advanced toward Alexandria. Antony 
 threw himself upon his sword, and 
 Augustus succeeded in getting Cleo- 
 patra into his power. She still hoped 
 to subdue him by her charms ; but her 
 arts were unavailing, and becoming 
 aware that her life was spared only 
 that she might grace the conqueror's 
 triumph, she determined to escape this 
 ignominy by a voluntary death. She or- 
 dered a splendid feast to be prepared, 
 desired her attendants to leave her, 
 and put an asp, which a faithful ser- 
 vant had brought her, concealed 
 among flowers, on her arm, the bite of 
 which caused her death (30 B. C.). 
 At the time of her death she was 39 
 years old, and had reigned over Egypt 
 22 years. 
 
 Cleopatra's Needles, two obe- 
 lisks that were set up at the entrance 
 of the Temple of the Sun, in Helio- 
 polis, Egypt, by Thothmes III., about 
 1831 B. c. In 1819 one of these obe- 
 lisks was presented by the Egyptian 
 Government to England, but as no one 
 knew how to move them, it was not 
 taken to London until 1878. Later 
 the other obelisk was presented to the 
 United States, and is now in Cen- 
 tral Park, New York city. 
 
 Clergy, the body or order of men 
 chosen or set apart to the service of 
 God, in the Christian Church ; in con- 
 tradistinction to the lay worshipers. 
 
 Clerk, ona who has charge of an 
 office or department, subject to a 
 higher authority as a board, corpora- 
 tion, etc. ; a secretary, as, the Clerk 
 of the House of Representatives or 
 Senate ; Clerks of the various courts, 
 clerks of cities, etc. 
 
 Clermont, The, the name given by 
 Robert Fulton to the steamboat in 
 which he made his first trip from New 
 York city to Albany in 1807.
 
 Cleveland 
 
 Cleveland, city, county-seat and 
 port of entry of Cuyahoga Co., O. It 
 is the first city in population and im- 
 portance in Ohio and seventh in the 
 United States in 1900. The city has 
 a harbor secured by artificial break- 
 waters. Pop. (1910) 560,663. The 
 principal industries, according to 
 the value of the products, are 
 the manufacture of iron and steel 
 ($24,276,197) ; foundry and machine 
 shop products ($15,428,053) ; slaugh- 
 tering and meat packing, whole- 
 sale ($7,514,470) ; malt liquors ($4,- 
 033,915). Cleveland is the center of 
 the malleable iron trade in the United 
 States, and surpasses all other lake 
 ports in the building of iron and steel 
 vessels, some having been built 380 
 feet in length and costing $500,000. 
 Cleveland was settled in 1796, under 
 the direction of Gen. Moses Cleave- 
 land, agent of the Connecticut Land 
 Company. It was situated in the 
 " Western Reserve " of the State of 
 Connecticut, and its early settlers 
 were mostly from that State. 
 
 Cleveland, Grover, an Amer- 
 ican statesman ; twice President of the 
 United States; born in Caldwell, Es- 
 sex Co., N. J., March 18, 1837; son 
 of a Presbyterian clergyman. He set- 
 tled in Buffalo and studied law, and 
 in 1863 became assistant district at- 
 torney of Erie Co., N. Y. After be- 
 coming in succession sheriff and may- 
 or of Buffalo, he was chosen governor 
 of New York in 1882. In 1S84 he 
 received the Democratic nomination 
 for the presidency, and was elected, 
 defeating James G. Elaine. He was 
 renominated in June, 1888, but was 
 defeated by Benjamin Harrison, Nov. 
 following. After a successful law 
 practice of four years he was again 
 nominated by the Democratic Na- 
 tional Convention of 1892, in spite 
 of the opposition of the delegates from 
 his own State, and elected by very 
 large majorities. Some of the meas- 
 ures of his administration were : The 
 settlement of the Venezuelan bound- 
 ary question with Great Britain ; the 
 consolidating of post-offices in large 
 centers so as to increase the scope 
 of the civil service rules ; and most 
 notably the conclusion in January, 
 1897, of a general arbitration treaty 
 with Great Britain, which, however, 
 
 Climate 
 
 was rejected by the Senate. He mar- 
 ried Frances Folsom in 1886, and re- 
 tired to private life at Princeton, N. 
 J., on the close of his term, dying 
 there, June 24, 1908. 
 
 Cleveland, Rose Elizabeth, an 
 American prose-writer, sister of 
 Grover Cleveland ; born in Fayette- 
 ville, N. Y., 1846. After the inaugu- 
 ration of her brother (1885) she be- 
 came the " mistress of the White 
 House," remaining there until 1886. 
 
 Cleves, (German Kleve), a town 
 in Rhenish Prussia. In the center of 
 the town rises the old and renowned 
 Schwanenburg (Swan's Castle), the 
 ancient residence of the dukes of 
 Cleves, founded, says tradition, by Ju- 
 lius Caesar. Prussia (Brandenburg) 
 acquired Cleves in 1609. Pop. 10,936. 
 
 Clianthns, a genus of plants, hav- 
 ing crimson, scarlet, and flesh-colored 
 flowers. 
 
 Clients, in ancient Rome, citizens 
 of the lower ranks who chose a patron 
 from the higher classes, whose duty it 
 was to assist them in legal cases, to 
 take a paternal care of them, and to 
 provide for their security. In modern 
 times the word client is used for a 
 party to a lawsuit who has put his 
 cause into the hands of a lawyer. 
 
 Cliff Dwellers, a race of Indians 
 who lived in the cliffs bordering on the 
 valleys of the Rio Grande and Rio 
 Colorado. Their homes were built 
 in the recesses of these cliffs at a 
 height often several hundred feet from 
 the ground. How the inhabitants sub- 
 sisted is not known, but probably 
 mainly by hunting and fishing, as the 
 soil about these localities is barren. 
 
 Climacteric, critical, dangerous, 
 pertaining to the great climacteric, or 
 to any one of lesser peril. A climac- 
 teric disease is a disease affecting both 
 men and women about the 63d year 
 of age, but varies in the time of its 
 coming, according to the constitution 
 of the individual. Its most common 
 predisposing cause is mental anxiety 
 or suffering. 
 
 Climate, in its most general ac- 
 ceptation, embraces all those modifi- 
 cations of the atmosphere by which 
 our organs are sensibly affected ; such 
 as temperature, humidity, variations 
 of barometric pressure, the tran- 
 quillity of the atmosphere or effects
 
 Climax 
 
 of winds, the purity of the air, 
 or its mixture with gaseous emana- 
 tions more or less salubrious ; and 
 lastly, that serenity of the sky so im- 
 portant on account of the influence 
 which it exercises not only on the 
 development of organic tissues in vege- 
 tables and the ripening of fruits, but 
 also on the ensemble of moral sen- 
 sations which mankind experience in 
 the different zones. 
 
 Climax (a gradual ascent), a rhe- 
 torical figure in which a series of 
 propositions or objects are presented 
 in such a way that the least impress- 
 ive comes first, and there is a regular 
 gradation from this to the most im- 
 pressive or final. 
 
 Climbing Perch, an Indian 
 species of perch which quits the wa- 
 ter and makes its way for consider- 
 able distances over the land. It is 
 even said to climb trees, whence its 
 specific name. 
 
 Clinch, Charles Powell, an 
 American poet and play-writer; born 
 in New York city, Oct. 20, 1797. He 
 died in New York, Dec. 16, 1880. 
 
 Clinton, city and capital of Clin- 
 ton county, la.; on the Mississippi 
 river, here crossed by three bridges, 
 and on several trunk line railroads; 
 60 miles S. E. of Dubuque; is the 
 trade center for a large section; 
 manufactures iron bridges, boilers, 
 saws, paper, wagons, and furniture; 
 has large packing houses and railroad 
 shops; and is the seat of Wartburg 
 College (Luth.). Pop. (1910) 25,577. 
 
 Clinton, De Witt, an American 
 lawyer and statesman ; born in Little 
 Britain, N. Y., March 2, 1769. He 
 was successively United States Sen- 
 ator from New York ; mayor of New 
 York city ; lieutenant-governor ; can- 
 didate for President and governor. He 
 was the chief originator of the Erie 
 Canal (1817-1825). He died -in 
 Albany, N. Y., Feb. 11, 1828. 
 
 Clinton, George, Vice-President 
 of the United States ; born in Little 
 Britain, Ulster Co., N. Y., July 26, 
 1739. He was a member of Congress 
 in 1776, and voted for the Declaration 
 of Independence, but was summoned 
 to the army as Brigadier-General be- 
 fore it was prepared for signature. In 
 1777 he was elected governor and at 
 the same time lieutenant-governor of 
 
 Clock 
 
 the State of New York, which latter 
 office was, on his acceptance of the 
 other, conferred upon Mr. Van Cort- 
 landt. He held the office of governor 
 during the next 18 years. He was 
 again chosen governor after spending 
 five years in private life, in 1801, and 
 in 1804 became Vice-President of the 
 United States. He died in Washing- 
 ton, D. C., April 20, 1812. 
 
 Clinton, Sir Henry, a British 
 general, born about 1738 ; was sent in 
 1775 with the rank of Major-General, 
 to America, where he distinguished 
 himself in the battle of Bunker Hill. 
 He defeated the Americans at Long Is- 
 land, but had to evacuate Philadelphia 
 to Gen. Washington. In 1782 he re- 
 turned to England. He died in Gib- 
 raltar, Dec. 23, 1795. 
 
 Clinton, James, an American mil- 
 itary officer ; born in Little Britain, 
 Ulster Co., N. Y., Aug. 9, 1736. He 
 accompanied Montgomery to Quebec 
 in 1775, and was appointed Brigadier- 
 General the following year. He aft- 
 erward served against the Indians 
 under Sullivan, in 1779, and was 
 present at the surrender of Corn- 
 wallis. He died Dec. 22, 1812. 
 
 Clio, glory, renown, the muse of 
 history and epic poetry, represented 
 as bearing a half-opened roll of a book. 
 
 Clive, Robert, Lord Clive and 
 Baron of Plassey, an English soldier 
 and statesman ; born in Shropshire, 
 Sept. 29, 1725. His military successes 
 established British predominance in 
 India. Having been censured by Par- 
 liament for alleged wrongdoing in In- 
 dia he committed suicide Nov. 22, 
 1774. 
 
 Cloaca, a sewer, an underground 
 drain or conduit. The Roman Cloaca 
 Maxima is said to have been con- 
 structed about 588 B. c. and is still 
 used in the drainage of Rome. 
 
 Clock, an instrument for measur- 
 ing and indicating the time of day. 
 The first measure of time was the sun- 
 dial, followed by the hour-glass ; next 
 the clepsydra, or water clock. These 
 have been in use 2,000 years. The 
 next improvement was the substitu- 
 tion of a weight for the water. A 
 pendulum was added about A. D. 
 1000. The anchor escapement, in- 
 vented in 1666-1680, and the dead-
 
 Cloister 
 
 Clovis 
 
 beat escapement in 1700, gave a new 
 impulse to clockmaking. There has 
 been no material change in the prin- 
 ciples on which clocks are made, ex- 
 cept in the substitution of steel 
 springs for weights and in the finer 
 movements, and in the addition of the 
 hair-spring to regulate still further 
 the action of the escapement or pen- 
 dulum, since 1700. 
 
 Cloister, the square space attached 
 to a regular monastery or large 
 church which forms part of the passage 
 of communication from the church to 
 the other parts of the establishment. 
 
 Clootz, Jean Baptiste de, a 
 Prussian baron, one of the wildest and 
 most violent actors in the early 
 scenes of the French Revolution. He 
 was born in Cleves in 1755. He was 
 in 1792 sent to the French National 
 Convention as deputy from the de- 
 partment of the Oise. He was among 
 those who voted for the death of Louis 
 XVI. Becoming an object of sus- 
 picion to Robespierre, he was arrest- 
 ed, and guillotined in 1794. 
 
 Closure, a rule in British parlia- 
 mentary procedure adopted in 1887 
 by which, at any time after a ques- 
 tion has been proposed, a motion may 
 be made with the speaker's or chair- 
 man's consent " That the question be 
 now put," when the motion is imme- 
 diately put and decided without de- 
 bate or amendment. 
 
 Cloudberry, or Mountain Bram- 
 ble, a fruit found in America, Eu- 
 rope, and Asia of the same genus with 
 the bramble or blackberry. 
 
 Cloud Burst, a sudden and violent 
 rainfall, covering a limited territory 
 and of brief duration. It is caused 
 by the contact of a warm current of 
 air, surcharged with moisture, with 
 a cold current, the result being swift 
 condensation and immediate precipi- 
 tation of the water formed. 
 
 Clouds, formations owing their or- 
 igin to aqueous vapor diffused in the 
 atmosphere, supplied from the evapo- 
 ration of the sea and other water sur- 
 faces, under the influence of solar 
 heat, and diffused through the agency 
 of winds. Air can absorb, or hold, 
 only a certain amount of invisible 
 vapor. Should the temperature, under 
 this condition, be lowered, condensa- 
 tion takes place, and clouds are form- 
 
 ed. Should the cooling continue, these 
 globules unite and are finally precipi- 
 tated in the form of rain, and, with 
 sufficiently reduced temperature, as 
 snow. Mists and fogs are simply in- 
 cipient states of clouds, and when in 
 contact with cold bodies produce, by 
 deposition of moisture, dew, and hoar 
 frost. Tropical countries generally 
 have a dry and wet season, and there 
 are other localities where rain may 
 fall irregularly at all seasons. Fifty 
 inches per annum may be regarded 
 as a moderate rainfall, and below 20 
 inches a very light one, and generally 
 insufficient for agricultural purposes. 
 
 Cloud, St., a town of France, in 
 the department of Seine-et-Oise, on 
 the border of Paris. The historical as- 
 sociations of this place are intimately 
 connected with the royalty of France. 
 Its palace, which is very beautiful, 
 was originally the property of the 
 Dukes of Orleans, and was a summer 
 residence of the Kings of France. 
 Here, in 1799, Napoleon I. dismissed 
 the Assembly of Five Hundred, and 
 caused himself to be proclaimed first 
 consul ; and in 1830, Charles X. put 
 his signature to the ordinances which 
 cost him his throne. 
 
 Clove Bark, a name vaguely used 
 for various aromatic drugs ; some be- 
 longing to the clove, others to the cin- 
 namon alliance. 
 
 Clover, or Trefoil, a genus of 
 plants containing a great number of 
 species, natives chiefly of temperate 
 climates, and some of them very im- 
 portant in agriculture as affording 
 pasture and fodder for cattle. 
 
 Cloves, a very pungent and aro- 
 matic spice, the dried flower-buds of 
 a tree a native of the Molucca Isl- 
 ands, belonging to the myrtle tribe, 
 now cultivated in Sumatra, Mauri- 
 tius, Malacca, Jamaica, etc. Every 
 part of the plant abounds in the vola- 
 tile oil for which the flower-buds are 
 prized. 
 
 Clovis I., King of the Franks, us- 
 ually called the founder of the French 
 monarchy ; born in 467. He was the 
 son of Childeric I. and succeeded him 
 in 481. During his reign he recovered 
 from the Romans all their posses- 
 sions in Gaul. He disgraced himself 
 by the unjust and cruel measures he 
 took to get rid of several of his kin-
 
 Clowes 
 
 dred, possible competitors for the 
 crown. He died in Paris, in 511, 
 after dividing his kingdom between his 
 four sons. He was the first Christian 
 king of France. 
 
 CLOVES. 
 
 Clowes, William Laird, an Eng- 
 lish naval critic and miscellaneous 
 writer; born in London, Feb. 1, 1856. 
 Was correspondent for various news- 
 papers. His works include " The 
 Naval Pocket Book," " Black Amer- 
 ica," etc. 
 
 Clown, the buffoon or practical 
 jester in pantomime and circus per- 
 formances. 
 
 Club, an association or number of 
 persons combined for the promotion of 
 some common object, whether politi- 
 cal, social or otherwise. Well-estab- 
 lished clubs have been organized in 
 all the leading cities of the United 
 States, and clubs exclusively for wom- 
 en have become numerous, one of the 
 most notable pioneers in this line be- 
 ing the Sorosis of New York. 
 
 Clubbing, a diseased condition of 
 plants of the cabbage family produced 
 by the larvae of insects, consisting in 
 
 Clyde 
 
 the lower part of the stem becoming 
 swollen. 
 
 Club Foot, a short, deformed foot. 
 In 1831 Dr. Stromeyer cured a man 
 of this defect by dividing the tendons 
 of the contracted muscles with a very 
 thin knife. There are three prin- 
 cipal forms : When the foot is turned 
 inward. When it is turned outward. 
 When the patient can only put the 
 toes on the ground. 
 
 Clngny, or Clnny, a town of 
 France in the department of Saone- 
 et-Loire, 46 miles N. of Lyons. The 
 monks of the order of Cluny were 
 the first branch of the order of Bene- 
 dictines. The Benedictines having be- 
 come very lax in their discipline, St. 
 Odo, abbot of Cluny in 927, not only 
 insisted on a rigorous observance of 
 the rules by the monks under him, 
 but introduced new ceremonies of a 
 severer nature. The order was abol- 
 ished in 1790. 
 
 Clnricaune, in Irish mythology, 
 an elf of evil disposition who usually 
 appears as a wrinkled old man, and 
 has knowledge of hidden treasures. 
 
 Clnseret, Gustavo Paul, a 
 French officer and Communist ; born 
 in Paris, June 13, 1823 ; he came to 
 the United States soon after the 
 breaking out of the Civil War, and 
 after serving on General McClellan's 
 staff became a Brigadier-General. Sub- 
 sequently he returned to Paris, and 
 was War Minister of the Commune 
 in April, 1871. From Paris he fled 
 to England and Mexico, and was con- 
 demned to death by military tribunal 
 in 1872. He was, however, pardoned 
 and allowed to return to Paris in 
 1880. He died in Toulon, Aug. 23, 
 1900. 
 
 Clustered Column, in architec- 
 ture, a pier which appears, to consist 
 of several columns or shafts clustered 
 together. 
 
 Clutha, the largest river in 
 New Zealand, in the S. part of the 
 South Island. It receives the waters 
 of Lakes Hawea, Wanaka, and Wa- 
 katipu, and flows in a S. E. direction, 
 having a length of 150 miles. It is 
 called also Molyneaux. 
 
 Clyde, a river of Scotland, which 
 has its sources amid the hills that 
 separate Lanarkshire from the coun- 
 ties of Peebles and Dumfries and
 
 Clymer 
 
 forms an extensive estuary before it 
 enters the Irish Sea. The Clyde, by 
 artificial deepening, has been made 
 navigable for large vessels up to Glas- 
 gow. 
 
 Clymer, Ella Dietz, an American 
 poet ; born in New York. She began 
 her career as an actress in 1872 ; in 
 1881 she abandoned the stage. She 
 was one of the founders of the "So- 
 rosis" Society, and its president in 
 1889. 
 
 Clymer, George, an American pa- 
 triot ; born in Philadelphia in 1739. 
 He was prominent in public affairs 
 prior to the Revolution, and became 
 one of the first Continental treas- 
 urers. He was chosen in 1776 to 
 succeed a member of the Continental 
 Congress who had refused to sign the 
 Declaration of Independence, to which 
 he promptly affixed his signature. In 
 1787 was a member of the convention 
 that framed the Constitution of the 
 United States. He was a member of 
 the First Congress of the United 
 States. He died in Moinsville, Pa., 
 Jan. 23, 1813. 
 
 Coach, a large, close, four-wheeled 
 vehicle, generally constructed to carry 
 passengers inside and outside ; used 
 for purposes of State for pleasure, or 
 for traveling. Italy, France, Spain, 
 and Germany all claim the honor of 
 having invented coaches. In the first 
 half of the 19th century, the greater 
 part of the passenger traffic of the 
 United States was by coaches. m 
 
 Coadjutor, a Latin term, nearly 
 synonymous in its original meaning 
 with assistant. The term is especial- 
 ly applied to an assistant bishop. 
 
 Coagulation, the act or process 
 of being coagulated, or of changing 
 from a liquid to a curd-like semi-solid 
 state, produced without evaporation 
 and without crystallization. 
 
 Coahuila, a State of Mexico, sep- 
 arated from Texas by the Rio Grande, 
 has an area of 59,280 square miles, 
 partly mountainous. The climate is 
 healthy, though extremes of heat and' 
 cold are usual. The state is rich in 
 minerals. It has a valuable pastur- 
 age, and in many parts a most fer- 
 tile soil ; but no district of Mexico is 
 so little known, or has been less de- 
 veloped. Pop. (1900) 280,899; capi- 
 tal, Saltillo. 
 
 Coal 
 
 Coal, a solid mineralized vegetable 
 matter that can be used for fuel. The 
 entire coal area of the United States 
 is about 200,000 square miles. But 
 though the coal measures of the 
 States are of vast extent there has 
 been doubt whether the amount of 
 workable coal is as great as has been 
 stated. The coal areas of the United 
 States are seven in number. They 
 are : The Massachusetts and Rhode 
 Island area, the Allegheny area, the 
 Michigan area, the Illinois, Indiana, 
 and Western Kentucky area, the 
 Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, 
 and Texas area, those of the Rocky 
 mountains and of the Pacinc Coast. 
 Excluding these last from the calcu- 
 lation, we have a total area of 191,- 
 200 square miles underlaid by coal- 
 bearing strata. Of the two generally 
 recognized classes of coal, anthracite 
 and bituminous, the former composes 
 the whole of the coal of the Massa- 
 chusetts and Rhode Island area, and 
 of a part of the Pennsylvania and 
 Colorado. With slight exceptions, 
 bituminous coal occupies the rest of 
 the districts named. The greatest de- 
 velopment of workable coal strata is 
 in the Allegheny mountains and to 
 the W. of them, extending continuous- 
 ly from Pennsylvania and Ohio to 
 Alabama. 
 
 Commercially speaking, the anthra- 
 cite division may be said to consist 
 of Pennsylvania alone, although a 
 small amount of anthracite coal is 
 mined in Colorado. The original coal 
 beds of New England have been meta- 
 morphosed into graphite and graphitic 
 coal. This area is confined to East- 
 ern Rhode Island, and the counties of 
 Bristol and Plymouth, Mass. The 
 product mined from the beds requires 
 a considerable degree of heat for com- 
 bustion, and can be used only with 
 other combustible material or under 
 an intense draft or blast. The entire 
 annual output is but a few thousand 
 tons. The anthracite region of Penn- 
 sylvania as a whole, has a maximum 
 length of about 115 miles, a maximum 
 breadth of about 40 miles; area 
 about 1,700 square miles ; but the area 
 underlaid by workable coal beds is 
 only about 470 square miles. 
 
 The bituminous coal areas of the 
 United States may for convenience be 
 grouped into seven divisions : The
 
 Coal Gas 
 
 Triassic area, composed chiefly of the 
 Richmond basin, in Virginia and 
 the Deep River and the Dan River 
 fields, in North Carolina. No exten- 
 sive mining operations are now car- 
 ried on in this area. The Appala- 
 chian field, immediately W. of the E. 
 border of the Appalachian range, and 
 extends from New York on the N. to 
 Alabama on the S., its direction be- 
 ing N. E. and S. W. ; length, about 
 900 miles; width, from 30 to 180 
 miles, the best and most productive 
 beds being those of the Pittsburg dis- 
 trict and of West Virginia. The N. 
 bituminous area : All in Central 
 Michigan. The coal here found is 
 used mostly for local supply. The 
 central area : Three-fourths are in 
 Illinois, less than one-sixth in In- 
 diana, and about one-twelfth in West- 
 ern Kentucky. The W. field: The 
 most extensive mining operations have 
 been carried on in Iowa and Missouri ; 
 its area is greater than that of any 
 other one coal field in the United 
 States. The Rocky Mountain and the 
 Pacific: California, Oregon, and 
 Washington. 
 
 According to Government reports, 
 the aggregate production of anthra- 
 cite and bituminous coal in the Unit- 
 ed States amounted in 1900 to 240,- 
 965,917 long tons (or 269,881 ,827 
 short tons), with a value of $300,- 
 891,364. 
 
 Dr. Ferdinand Fischer, of Gottin- 
 gen, concludes that the attainable coal 
 supply of the whole of America is at 
 least 684,000,000,000 tons. Germany's 
 supply amounts, in round numbers, to 
 160,000,000,000 tons ; ' that of Great 
 Britain to 81,500,000,000 tons; that 
 of Austria-Hungary, Belgium, and 
 France together to 17,000,000,000 
 tons. The coal deposits of Russia are 
 little known, though the resources are 
 undoubtedly enormous. All our later 
 information with regard to China has 
 tended to confirm the conclusions 
 reached by Von Richthofen as to the 
 enormous wealth in coal of that em- 
 
 B're. His figures are reproduced by 
 r. Fischer at 630,000,000,000 tons 
 of anthracite and an equal quantity 
 of bituminous coal. 
 
 Japan has large coal resources, par- 
 ticularly in the S. province of Kiu- 
 ehiu. Borneo is rich in coal forma- 
 tions, as also is New South Wales. 
 
 Coast Survey 
 
 Africa and South America are poorer 
 in coal than any of the other conti- 
 nents. 
 
 In the United States the output 
 of coal has reached 480,363,424 
 short tons, valued at $614,798.898, in 
 a single year, Pennsylvania leading; 
 and the world's production has 
 reached 1,167,941.188 short tons in a 
 single year, the United States, Great 
 Britain, and Germany leading. 
 
 Coal Gas, a mixture of gases pro- 
 duced by the destructive distillation 
 of coal at regulated temperatures. It 
 is used in lighting streets, houses, 
 etc., and for cooking and heating pur- 
 poses. Coal gas is colorless and has 
 a disagreeable smell. 
 
 Poisoning by coal gas is known 
 only as an accident. Occasionally sud- 
 den fatal consequences ensue among 
 workmen from exposure to a sudden 
 rush of undiluted gas from gasometers 
 and mains. More commonly, slowly 
 fatal cases result from the gas-tap 
 in a bedroom being left open care- 
 lessly. 
 
 Coaling Stations, depots estab- 
 lished by maritime governments at 
 various important points throughout 
 the world, where the ships of the 
 navy may obtain supplies of coal. The 
 utility of such stations, when proper- 
 ly fortified, as points of refuge, de- 
 fense, and repair for warships in the 
 event of war can hardly be over-esti- 
 mated. 
 
 Coal Tar, a thick, sticky, dark- 
 colored substance, produced in the de- 
 structive distillation of bituminous 
 coal. It is of commercial value in 
 the production of aniline and its dyes. 
 
 See ANILINE. 
 
 Coan, Titus, an American mis- 
 sionary ; born in Killingworth, Conn., 
 Feb. 1, 1801. After spending sev- 
 eral months on a dangerous expedition 
 in Patagonia, he went to the Sand- 
 wich Islands, occupying the Hilo sta- 
 tion 47 years, and in that time con- 
 verting 14,000 natives. He died at 
 Hilo, Hawaii, Dec. 1, 1882. 
 
 Coast and Geodetic Survey, 
 United States, a branch of the 
 Treasury Department charged with 
 the survey of the Atlantic, Gulf, and 
 Pacific coasts of the United States, 
 including the coast of Alaska; th 
 survey of rivers to the head of tide-
 
 Coast Defense 
 
 Cobnrg 
 
 water or ship navigation ; deep-sea 
 soundings, temperature and current 
 observations along the coasts and 
 throughout the Gulf Stream and 
 Japan Stream flowing off from them ; 
 magnetic observations and gravity re- 
 search ; determinations of heights by 
 geodetic leveling, and of geographical j 
 positions by lines of transcontinental 
 triangulation, which with other con- 
 necting triangulations and observa- 
 tions for latitude, longitude, and azi- 
 muth, furnish points of reference for 
 State surveys and connect the work 
 on the Atlantic coast with that on 
 the Pacific. 
 
 Coast Defense, a system of forti- 
 fications with auxiliary mines and 
 torpedoes to protect a country from 
 hostile attack or occupation on its 
 coast lines. 
 
 Coast Guard, a British force for- 
 merly under the customs department, 
 old intended only to prevent smug- 
 gling, but now organized also for pur- 
 poses of defense and governed by the j 
 admiralty. 
 
 Coati, or Coati-Mondi, a name 
 of South American plantigrade car- 
 nivorous mammals, belonging to the 
 bears, but recalling rather the rac- 
 coon or civet, and having a long pro- 
 boscis or snout. 
 
 Coatzacoalcos, a river of the Isth- 
 mus of Tehuantepec in Mexico; is 
 navigable for large vessels for 30 
 miles, and is part of a route surveyed 
 for an iuter-oceanic canal 
 
 Cobalt, a town in the Nipissing 
 district of Ontario, Canada; on Lake 
 Nipissing and the Northern Ontario 
 railroad; 10 miles S. of New Lis- 
 keard, and about 300 miles N. of 
 Toronto; is the center of the Domin- 
 ion's newly-developed silver-mining 
 region; had an output of about 30,000 
 tons from 32 mines, valued at about 
 $12,000,000, in 1909. The town was 
 settled early in 1906, was wiped out 
 by fire, and was rapidly rebuilt. 
 
 Cobb, Howell, an American states- 
 man ; born in Cherry Hill, Ga., Sept. 
 7, 1815. In 1843 was elected to Con- 
 gress as a Democrat. He served eight 
 years and was Speaker of the House 
 one term. Elected governor of Georgia 
 in 1851, he returned to Congress in 
 1855, and was made Secretary of the 
 Treasury by President Buchanan in t 
 
 1857, resigning in 1860 to urge seces- 
 sion. He held a Confederate military 
 commission in the Civil War, but saw 
 little service. He died in New York 
 city, Oct. 9, 1868. 
 
 Cobb, Sylvanns, an American 
 novelist ; born in Waterville, Me., 
 1823. He was a most prolific story- 
 writer. He died in Hyde Park, Mass., 
 July 2, 1887. 
 
 Cobden, Richard, an English pol- 
 itician, the " Apostle of Free Trade," 
 born in Sussex, June 3, 1804. Through 
 his life he rigidly advocated non-in- 
 tervention in the disputes of other 
 nations, and maintaining it to be the 
 only proper object of the foreign pol- 
 icy of England to increase and 
 strengthen her connections with for- 
 eign countries in the way of trade 
 and peaceful intercourse. He died in 
 London, April 2, 1865. 
 
 Cobden Club, an association 
 formed about a year after the death 
 of Mr. Cobden for the purpose of 
 encouraging the growth and diffusion 
 of those economical and political prin- 
 ciples with which Mr. Cobden's name 
 is associated. 
 
 Cobijai, or Puetro La Mar, a 
 seaport formerly belonging to Bolivia, 
 now in the territory of Antofagasta, 
 Chile. 
 
 Coble, or Cobble, a low, flat- 
 floored boat with a square stern, used 
 in salmon-fishery. 
 
 Coblentz, or fortified town of Ger- 
 many, capital of Rhenish Prussia, and 
 connected by a pontoon-bridge over 
 the Rhine with the fortress of Ehren- 
 breitstein, this, along with its other 
 fortifications, rendering it one of the 
 strongest places in Germany, and ca- 
 pable of accommodating 100,000 men. 
 Pop. 39,633. 
 
 Cobra de Capello, that is, " ser- 
 pent with a hood " ; the Portuguese 
 name of an East Indian serpent, and 
 of an African serpent of the same 
 genus, the asp, both reptiles of the 
 most venomous nature. The species 
 of the viper kind are all remarkable 
 for the manner in which they spread 
 out or distend the sides of the neck 
 and head when disturbed or irri- 
 tated. 
 
 Cobnrg, the name of a family in 
 Germany, dating from the 5th cen- 
 tury, noted for intermarriages with
 
 ftalrarg 
 
 royal houses, especially during the 
 19th century. 
 
 Cohurg, or Koburg, a town of 
 Germany, capital of the duchy of 
 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. On an eminence 
 overhanging the town is the ancient 
 castle or fortress, from which exten- 
 sive views are obtained. It is now con- 
 verted into a museum, with extensive 
 collections of various kinds, includ- 
 ing relics and writings of Luther, who 
 j-esided here for three months in 1530 
 and wrote some of his works. Pop. 
 (1900) 20,4(50. 
 
 Coca, the dried leaf of a shrub, 
 4-8 feet high, growing wild in Peru, 
 and cultivated there on the Andes, 
 Vetween 2,000 and 5,000 feet high. It 
 Constitutes a stimulant which tends 
 to enslave those who use it to a great- 
 er extent, it is said, than opium in 
 China, or strong liquor here. 
 
 Cocaine, an alkaloid obtained from 
 Coca leaves, and surgically employed 
 as a powerful local anaesthetic. Its 
 abuse is demoralizing. 
 
 _ Cocculns Indicus, a popular name 
 given to a species of plant which fur- 
 nishes certain dried berries constitut- 
 ing an article of commerce. They are 
 imported from the East Indies. It 
 has been used in form of ointment in 
 certain skin diseases, and in decoction 
 for killing vermin in the hair of chil- 
 dren and animals. They are com- 
 monly known in the United States as 
 fish-berries. 
 
 Coccus, a spherical shaped bacte- 
 rium hurtful to greenhouse plants, 
 and called by gardeners, bugs. 
 
 Coccyx, the lowermost portion of 
 the vertebral column, consisting of 
 four, or more rarely five or three, di- 
 vided terminal vertebras. 
 
 Cochabamba, a central depart- 
 ment of Bolivia, with offshoots of the 
 Eastern Cordilleras, and extensive 
 plateaus. Agriculture and cattle-rais- 
 ing are the chief occupations. Area, 
 23,320 square miles; pop. (1900) 326,- 
 163. 
 
 Cochin, a seaport of Hindustan. 
 Its harbor, though sometimes inacces- 
 sible during the S. W. monsoon, is the 
 best on this coast. Cochin was one of 
 the first places in India visited by 
 Europeans. In 1663 the Dutch took 
 
 Cocli 
 
 the place, in 1795 the British. Pop. 
 17,600. 
 
 Cochin China, a country forming 
 part of the peninsula of Southeastern 
 Asia, and generally regarded as com- 
 prising the whole of ANAM and Lower 
 or French Cochin, China. The terri- 
 tory covers 23,082 square miles, and 
 in 1897 had an estimated pop. of 2,- 
 034,453. 
 
 Cochin China, a term applied to 
 a variety of the domestic fowl, im- 
 ported from Cochin China. 
 
 Cochineal, a dye-stuff employed in 
 dyeing scarlet and crimson ; consists 
 of the bodies of the females of a spe- 
 
 COCHINEAL INSECT. 
 Female and Male, the latter with wings. ' 
 
 cies of Coccus, which feeds upon 
 plants of the Cactus family. The 
 cochineal insect is a small creature, a 
 pound of cochineal being calculated to 
 contain 70,000 in a dried state. 
 
 Cochrane, Thomas, 10th Earl of 
 Dundonald ; a British naval officer ; 
 born in Amesfield, Scotland, Dec. 14, 
 1775. In 1814 he was accused of con- 
 spiring to circulate a false report of 
 Napoleon's death for speculative ends, 
 and though he protested his innocence 
 he was imprisoned for a year, fined, 
 and was expelled from the navy and 
 the House of Commons. In 1832 he 
 was cleared of the charges brought 
 against him in 1814, and was restored 
 to the Order of the Bath and to the 
 English navy. While in disgrace in 
 England he performed great exploits 
 as commander of the Chilian navy in 
 Chile's war of independence. He died 
 in Kensington, England, Oct. 31, 1860. 
 
 Cock, the full grown male of 
 the domestic fowl, colloquially known 
 as the "rooster" It is believed
 
 Cockade 
 
 Cock's-foot Grass 
 
 that the race was first domesticated 
 in the Eastern countries, and gradu- 
 ally extended to the rest of the world. 
 
 Cockade, a plume of cock's feath- 
 ers, worn by Americans in the Revo- 
 lution as a patriotic emblem. A bow 
 of colored ribbon was adopted for the 
 cockade in France, and during the 
 French revolution the tricolored cock- 
 ade red, white, and blue became 
 the National distinction. National 
 cockades are now to be found over all 
 Europe. 
 
 Cockatoo, a genus of birds of the 
 parrot family, but distinguished from 
 true parrots by the greater height of , 
 the bill, and its being curved from the I 
 base, and by the lengthened, broad, 
 and rounded tail. The true cockatoos 
 are also all of generally whitish plum- 
 age, but often finely tinged with red, 
 orange, and other colors, or mixed 
 with these colors in more brilliant dis- j 
 plays. 
 
 Cockatrice, a fabulous monster 
 anciently believed to be hatched from j 
 a cock's egg. It is often simply an- , 
 other name for the basilisk. 
 
 Cockburn, Sir Alexander, an 
 English jurist; b9rn Dec. 24, 1802; 
 studied at Cambridge ; was called to 
 the bar in 1829, and soon became dis- 
 tinguished as a pleader before Parlia- 
 mentary committees. In 1847 he be- 
 came member of Parliament for 
 Southampton in the Liberal interest ; 
 became Solicitor-General and was 
 knighted in 1850 ; was made Chief- 
 Justice of the Common Pleas in 1856 ; 
 and Lord Chief-Justice in 1859. He 
 represented Great Britain at the Ge- 
 neva arbitration in the " Alabama " j 
 case. He died Nov. 20, 1880. 
 
 Cockbnrn, Sir George, a British 
 naval officer ; born about 1772. He 
 entered the navy in early youth, and ; 
 about 1812 obtained the rank of rear- i 
 admiral. He took part in the cap- 
 ture of Washington City in 1814 and 
 conveyed Napoleon to Saint Helena in 
 1815. He died in 1853. 
 
 Cock Chafer, the popular name of 
 a beetle in England. It crawls awk- 
 wardly on the ground, and when it 
 flies does so heavily and with a whir- 
 ring hum. 
 
 Cocker, a aog of the spaniel Kind, 
 allied to the Blenheim dog, used for 
 
 raising woodcocks and snipes from 
 their haunts in woods and marshes. 
 
 Cocker ell, Charles Robert, a 
 British architect; born in 1788. His 
 excavation of the Temple of Zeus at 
 .iEgina, in 1811, contributed largely 
 to the British Museum. He died in 
 1863. 
 
 Cock Fighting, an amusement 
 practiced in various countries, first 
 perhaps among the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans. It is a favorite sport in the 
 island of Cuba, in the Philippines, 
 and in some of the United States, 
 though in the latter it is now general- 
 ly prohibited by local laws. 
 
 Cockle, the popular name of the 
 shells classed by naturalists under the 
 genus Cardium. Their appearance is 
 familiar. The most common one is 
 found in sandy bays near low water. 
 
 Cockney, a nickname for a Lon- 
 don citizens. The word is often, but 
 not always, employed slightingly as 
 implying a peculiar limitation of taste 
 or judgment. 
 
 Cock of the Plains, a large North 
 American species of grouse, inhabiting 
 desolate plains in the W. States. 
 
 Cock of the Rock, a South 
 American bird of a rich orange color 
 with a beautiful crest, belonging to 
 the manakin family. 
 
 Cock of the Walk, a phrase ap- 
 plied to a dominant bully or master 
 spirit. 
 
 Cock of the Woods, See CAPER- 
 CAILZIE. 
 
 Cockpit, in a ship of war, the 
 name still given to the compartment in 
 the lower part of the ship where the 
 wounded are attended to during action. 
 
 Cockroach, an insect common in 
 houses, particularly in seaport towns. 
 It is often called the black beetle, an 
 erroneous name, for it is not a beetle 
 at all, but an orthopterous insect 
 
 Cockscomb, the comb of a cock, 
 being a sort of ensign or token which 
 the fool was accustomed to wear. Also 
 a name sometimes given to certain 
 flowers which are astringent and are 
 used as a medicine in Asia. 
 
 Cock's-foot Grass, a genus of 
 grasses. In the United States this 
 grass is called orchard grass, and in 
 extensively cultivated. To this genus 
 belongs also the tussac grass.
 
 Codes 
 
 Codes, Horatius, a hero of an- 
 cient Rome, who alone, in 506 B. C., 
 opposed the whole army of Pqrsenna 
 at the head of a bridge, while his com- 
 panions were destroying it behind him. 
 When this was effected, Codes, though 
 wounded by the darts of the enemy, 
 and impeded by his arms and armor, 
 leaped into the Tiber and swam safely 
 across. 
 
 Cocoanut, a woody fruit of an 
 oval shape, from 3 or 4 to 6 or 8 
 inches in length, covered with a 
 fibrous husk, and lined internally with 
 a white, firm, and fleshy kernel. The 
 tree which produces the cocoanut is a 
 palm, from 40 to 00 feet high. The 
 trunk is straight and naked, and sur- 
 mounted by a crown of feather-like 
 leaves. The nuts hang from the sum- 
 mit of the tree in clusters of a dozen 
 or more together. This palm is a na- 
 tive of Africa, the East and West In- 
 dies, and South America, and is now 
 grown almost everywhere in tropical 
 countries. Food, clothing, and shelter 
 are among the products of this tree. 
 
 Cocoon, the silken sheath spun by 
 the larvae of many insects in passing 
 into the pupa or resting stage. The 
 most typical and perfect cocoons are 
 those of many moths, a familiar ex- 
 ample being that of the silkworm. 
 
 Cod, a genus of fishes. The most 
 interesting of all the species is the 
 common or Bank cod. An extent of 
 about 450 miles of ocean, laving the 
 chill and rugged shores of Newfound- 
 land, is the favorite annual resort of 
 countless multitudes of cod, which 
 visit the submarine mountains known 
 as the Grand Banks to feed on the 
 crustaceous and molluscous animals 
 abundant in such situations. 
 
 The liver of the cod, when fresh, is 
 eaten by many with satisfaction, but 
 it is more generally reserved by fish- 
 ermen for the sake of the large quan- 
 tity of fine limpid oil which it con- 
 tains. This is extracted and forma 
 the well-known and highly valued cod 
 liver oil. 
 
 Among American species there have 
 been enumerated 10 that are taken 
 to the New York market, and are 
 caught on the coasts adjacent. 
 The importance of this fishery and 
 the great national interests which 
 it involves, has made it a fruitful 
 source of diplomatic discussion, and 
 
 Cade 
 
 led to the establishment of various 
 regulations, to which all are obliged 
 to conform who participate in its ad- 
 vantages. 
 
 Ccddington, William, the found- 
 er c* the colony of Rhode Island ; born 
 in England, in 1001, and arrived in 
 Massachusetts in 1030. He remained 
 in Boston for several years, but not 
 being able to agree with the authori- 
 ties of the colony, be removed in 1038 
 to Aquidneck, or Rhode Island, where 
 he founded a colony to be governed 
 " by the laws of the Lord Jesus 
 Christ." It was soon found necessary 
 to abandon this vague scheme, and in 
 1640 he himself was chosen governor, 
 and in 1647 aided in the formation of 
 a regular body of laws. He was un- 
 able to secure the reception of Rhode 
 Island into the colonial confederacy. 
 In 1674 and 1675 he was again elected 
 governor. He died in 1678. 
 
 Code, a systematic collection or 
 digest of laws, classified and simpli- 
 fied. 
 
 In the United States. The acts of 
 Congress have been codified and are 
 spoken of as the United States Code, 
 and in each State the acts of the dif- 
 ferent legislatures are usually annu- 
 ally printed and periodically codified. 
 Both the State and Federal authori- 
 ties have court and legislative repor- 
 ters for aiding in the codification of 
 the laws. 
 
 Code, Cipher, a system of arbi- 
 trary words to designate prearranged 
 or predetermined words, figures or 
 sentences. 
 
 Code, Civil, or Code Napoleon. 
 One of the first labors of Bonaparte, 
 when consul, was to give France a 
 code. Under his rule the adoption 
 of the "Code Napoleon" was made- 
 obligatory on all the countries sub- 
 ject to the French. . After the battle 
 of Leipsic, in 1813, which freed Ger- 
 many from the power of France, it 
 ceased to be obligatory in the German 
 States, but it continued to influence 
 considerably their legislation. At 
 present this code is recognized in the 
 kingdom of Belgium (with some modi- 
 fications), in the grand-duchy of Ba- 
 den, in the kingdom of Italy, and else- 
 where in Europe. In the United 
 Slm-co it was a model for the code of 
 Louisiana.
 
 Codex 
 
 Codex, a roll or volume, specially 
 used in compound terms, as Codex 
 Justinianus, Code of Justinian, Codex 
 Theodosianus, Code of Theodosius. In 
 Biblical criticism a manuscript of any 
 portion of the New or Old Testament, 
 especially of the former. 
 
 Codicil, a supplement to a will, 
 whereby anything omitted is added, or 
 any change demanded by the altered 
 circumstances of the testator or the 
 beneficiaries is effected. 
 
 Codling Moth, a small moth which 
 infests apple trees. In the Northern 
 States it flies in May, laying its eggs 
 in the calyx after the blossoms fall; 
 in a few days the larva hatches, in 
 three weeks it becomes fully grown. 
 
 Cod-liver Oil, an oil obtained 
 from the liver of the common cod. 
 
 Codinan, John, an American sea* 
 captain and miscellaneous writer; 
 born in Dorchester, Mass., 1814. Died 
 J'j Boston, Mass., April 6, 1900. 
 
 Codrington, Sir Edward, an 
 English naval officer ; -born in Glouces- 
 tershire in 1770. He entered the navy 
 in 1783 ; obtained a gold medal for his 
 services at the battle of Trafalgar, 
 and was afterward actively employed 
 both in the Peninsular and second 
 American wars. In 1827 he com- 
 manded the united squadron that over- 
 threw the Turkish fleet in the battle 
 of Navarino. From 1832 to 1837.be 
 was member of Parliament He died 
 in London in 1851. 
 
 Cody, William Frederick, a for- 
 mer United States government scout; 
 born in Scott county, la., Feb. 20, 
 1845 ; better known as "Buffalo Bill," 
 a name earned while employed by the 
 Kansas Pacific railway to furnish 
 meat for its laborers, when he slaugh- 
 tered 4,280 buffaloes in 18 months. In 
 1872 he was elected to the Nebraska 
 Legislature, and in 1883 organized the 
 "Wild West Show," which has been 
 seen all over the United States, as 
 well as in many foreign countries. He 
 has been employed frequently by the 
 United States Government as a guide 
 and scout in the Indian country. 
 
 . Coe College, a co-educational in- 
 stitution in Cedar Rapids, la. ; organ- 
 ized in 1881, under the auspices of the 
 Presbyterian Church. 
 
 Ccele-Syria, (that is, " Hollow- 
 Byria"), the large valley lying be- 
 
 E. 36. 
 
 Coffee 
 
 tween the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon 
 mountain ranges in Syria. Near its 
 center are the ruins of Baalbec. 
 
 Coenobites, the name given to 
 those monks who live together, in con- 
 ;radistinction to anchorites or her- 
 mits, who live in a solitary fashion. 
 
 Ccenr de Lion, a title given to sev- 
 eral historical personages, as Richard 
 [. of England ; so-called from the prod- 
 igies of personal valor performed by 
 tiim in the Holy Land ; Louis VIII. of 
 Prance, frequently called Le Lion ; 
 and Bolaslas I. of Poland, also called 
 "The Intrepid." 
 
 Coffee, the seed of an evergreen 
 shrub, which is cultivated in hot cli- 
 mates, and is a native of Abyssinia 
 
 COFFEE PLANT AND KERNEL. 
 
 and of Arabia. This shrub is from 15 
 to 20 feet in height, and belongs to 
 the Rubiacese. The fruit is of an oval 
 shape, about the size of a cherry, and
 
 Coffee Bug 
 
 of a dark-red color when ripe. Each 
 of these contains two cells, and each 
 cell a single seed, which is the coffee 
 as we see it before it undergoes the 
 process of roasting. 
 
 It was not till 1774 that the plan- 
 ters of Brazil, now the greatest pro- 
 ducers of coffee in the world, began 
 its cultivation. It is now widely culti- 
 vated in South and Central America. 
 
 Since the middle of the 18th century 
 both the culture and consumption of 
 coffee have continually increased. The 
 principal supply of the United States 
 is derived from Brazil, which fur- 
 nishes 75 per cent, of the whole im- 
 port. It is known in commerce as 
 " Rio." Coffee acts as a nervous stim- 
 ulant, a property which it owes main- 
 ly to the alkaloid caffeine. In 1903 
 the supply of coffee so far exceeded 
 the demand that the Brazilian authori- 
 ties ordered the destruction of part of 
 the product. 
 
 Coffee Bug, an insect of the coccus 
 family, very destructive in coffee plan- 
 tations. 
 
 Coffee House, a house of enter- 
 tainment where persons are supplied 
 with coffee and other refreshments. 
 
 Cofferdam, a water-tight inclosure 
 formed by piles driven into the bot- 
 tom of a river and packed with clay, 
 etc. It is used as a dam while laying 
 bare the bottom of the river. 
 
 Coffin, the box or chest in which 
 corpses are inclosed before being com- 
 mitted to the ground. Coffins were 
 in use in Egypt at a remote period 
 of antiquity. But among the clas- 
 sical nations the later practice was 
 to burn the dead and deposit the ashes 
 in an urn. 
 
 Coffin, Charles Carleton, an 
 American novelist and lecturer ; born 
 in Boscawen, N, H., July 26, 1823; 
 began life as a civil engineer ; after- 
 ward gave his attention to telegraphy. 
 In 1851 he began to write for the Bos- 
 ton papers ; and during the Civil War 
 and the Austro-Prussian War of 18(!6 
 was war correspondent. He died in 
 Brookline, Mass., March 2, 189G. 
 
 Coffin, Levi, an American phil- 
 anthropist ; born near New Garden, 
 N. C., Oct. 28, 1798. He was a far- 
 mer's boy and early evinced interest 
 in the negro's welfare. Proving suc- 
 cessful in business, he actively aided 
 
 Coin 
 
 slaves to gain freedom, largely through 
 the " underground railroad." He died 
 in Avondale, O., Sept. 16, 1877. 
 Coghlan, Joseph Bullock, a 
 
 naval officer, born in Kentucky, re- 
 ceived an appointment from Illinois to 
 the Naval Academy 1860-3, and rose 
 by successive stages to rear-admiral in 
 1902. In the Spanish American War, 
 he commanded the Raleigh during the 
 operations in the Philippines, 1898. 
 He became commander of the North 
 Atlantic station, 1902, and retired in 
 1906. He died Dec. 5, 1908. 
 
 Cognac, a town in France, depart- 
 ment of Charente; 22 miles W. of 
 Angouleme. It is famous for its 
 brandy. Pop. 19,500. 
 
 Colioes, a city in Albany county, 
 N. Y.; at junction of the Hudson 
 and Mohawk rivers; on the Erie 
 canal and several railroads; 9 miles 
 N. of Albany; has a fine waterfall, 
 and cotton, woolen, and knit goods, 
 machinery, paper, and tube plants. 
 Pop. (1910) 24,709. 
 
 Coimbra, capital of the Portu- 
 guese province of Beira, on a hill 
 above the Mondego river, here crossed 
 by a stone bridge, 135 miles N. N. 
 E. of Lisbon. Coimbra was the cap- 
 ital of Portugal for about two cen- 
 turies and a half from its erection into 
 a kingdom in 1139. The University 
 of Coimbra, the only one in Portugal, 
 was originally established at Lisbon 
 in 1288, but was permanently trans- 
 ferred here in 1537; attached to it 
 are a museum, an observatory, a bo- 
 tanical garden and a library of over 
 60,000 volumes. Pop. 17,300. 
 
 Coin, a piece of metal on which 
 certain characters are stamped by au- 
 thority, giving the piece a certain legal 
 current value. Homer speaks of brass 
 money, 1184 B. 0. The invention of 
 coin is ascribed to the Lydians, whose 
 money was of gold and silver. Julius 
 Ca3Sar first obtained permission of the 
 Senate to place his portrait on the 
 coins, and the example was soon fol- 
 lowed. The Britons and Saxons coined 
 silver. 
 
 United States gold coins are nine- 
 tenths fine; the silver coins, nine- 
 tenths fine ; the copper-nickel coins, 
 such as the 5-cent piece, are one 
 fourth nickel and three-fourths cop- 
 per ; the bronze coins are 95 per cent.
 
 Coinage 
 
 "opper and 5 per cent, tin and zinc. 
 Tbe alloy in the gold coins is silver 
 a-jd copper; in the silver coins, cop- 
 per. It is a felony to counterfeit 
 coins. 
 
 Coinage, the act or process of coin- 
 ing money. In the United States 
 there is free and unlimited coinage of 
 gold ; that is, standard gold bullion 
 may be deposited at the mints in any 
 amount, to be coined for the benefit 
 of the depositor, without charge for 
 coinage; but when other than stan- 
 dard bullion is received for coinage a 
 charge is made. Tbe depositor re- 
 ceives in gold coin the full value of 
 the gold in his bullion, less such 
 charges as are specified by law. Sub- 
 sidiary silver and standard silver dol- 
 lars, under existing law in the United 
 States, are coined only on Govern- 
 ment account. They are coined from 
 bullion, purchased by the Govern- 
 ment, and the profits of such coinage 
 belong to the Government. 
 
 Coke, Sir Edward, a great Eng- 
 lish jurist and author of law books, 
 the son of a Norfolkshire gentleman ; 
 t>orn in 1551 ; died in 1634. 
 
 Cola-nut, the seed of a South 
 American tree, which is used as a 
 stimulant, and also as an astringent 
 in tropical diarrhoea. 
 
 Colbert, Jean Baptiste, a French 
 statesman and financier, born in 
 Rouen in 1G19. He died in 1683. 
 His son, also named Jean Baptiste, 
 born in 1651, succeeded his father as 
 minister of marine, and minister of the 
 king's household. He raised the 
 French navy to its highest power, and 
 in 1684 he Jed in person the mari- 
 time expedition against Genoa. He 
 died in 1690. 
 
 Colbnrn, Zerah, an American 
 mathematical prodigy ; born in Cabot, 
 Vt, Sept 1, 1804; displayed remark- 
 able powers of calculation. At the 
 age of 6 he answered correctly such 
 questions as " How many hours in 
 1811 years?" in 20 seconds; and a 
 few years later complicated problems 
 were solved with equal rapidity. He 
 served as a Methodist preacher and 
 was Professor of Languages in Nor- 
 wich University, Vermont, where he 
 died March 2, 1840. His remarkable 
 faculty disappeared as he grew to 
 manhood. 
 
 Cole 
 
 Colchicum, the meadow saffron, 
 found in meadows and pastures of the 
 north temperate regions. 
 
 Colcliicnm Corni, the fresh conn 
 of common meadow saffron, which is 
 collected about the end of June, and 
 stripped of its coat, sliced transversely 
 and dried. The taste is bitter and 
 acrid. 
 
 Cold, the term by which is signi- 
 fied a relative want of sensible heat. 
 Great or prolonged atmospheric cold 
 is a most powerful depressing agent, 
 and is a fruitful cause of disease and 
 even of death. 
 
 Cold is applied in various ways in 
 the treatment of disease. The tonic 
 and stimulating effects of a temporary 
 application of cold are familiar in the 
 cold morning bath, or the use of cold 
 water sprinkled on the face of a per- 
 son who has fainted. 
 
 Cold Cream, a cooling ointment 
 applied to the skin, rendering it soft 
 and pliable. 
 
 Colden, Cadwallader, an Amer- 
 ican scientist and colonial official ; 
 born in Dunse, Scotland, Feb. 17, 
 1688; emigrated to America in 1708. 
 He devoted himself to botany and as- 
 tronomy. Was surveyor-general of 
 New York and president of the Coun- 
 cil. He sided with the crown in the 
 contest over the Stamp Act. Died at 
 Long Island, N. Y., Sept. 28, 1776. 
 
 Cold Harbor, a village in Hanover 
 county, Virginia, 2 miles N. E. of 
 Chickahqminy Creek, and 9 miles N. 
 E. of Richmond. It is noted as the 
 scene of two battles during the Civil 
 War; June 3, 1864, between the Con- 
 federates under General Lee and the 
 Federals under General Grant : and a 
 smaller encounter, June 27, 1862, at 
 Games' Mill, at this place. 
 
 Cold Storage, the method now 
 generally employed to preserve per- 
 ishable articles of food by the air of 
 freezing machines, which reduce the 
 temperature of the air. 
 
 Coldstream Guards, a regiment 
 in the Foot Guards or Household Bri- 
 gade, the oldest in the British army. 
 
 Cold Wave, a term used for a 
 drop of at least 20 in temperature 
 in 24 hours. It is due to steady winds 
 from the N. W. 
 
 Cole, King, a legendary British 
 king.
 
 Cole 
 
 Cole, Thomas, an American land- 
 scape painter ; born in Lancashire, 
 England, Feb. 1, 1801. He painted 
 " The Voyage of Life," showing child- 
 hood, youth, manhood, and old age. 
 Very popular and well-known through 
 engravings. He died in Catskill, N. 
 Y., February, 1848. 
 
 Coleman, Arthur Philemon, a 
 Canadian educator; born in Lachute, 
 Quebec, April 4, 1852. Became Pro- 
 fessor of Geology and Natural History 
 in Victoria University, and in 1891 
 Professor of Assaying and Metallurgy 
 in the School of Practical Science, 
 Toronto. 
 
 Coleman, Leighton, an American 
 clergyman; born in Philadelphia, May 
 3, 1837. Becoming an Episcopalian 
 priest, after holding important rector- 
 ships was made bishop of Delaware 
 in 1888. He died Dec. 14, 1907. 
 
 Colenso, John William, an Eng- 
 lish clergyman; born in Cornwall, 
 Jan. 24, 1814. In 1854 he was ap- 
 pointed first bishop of Natal, South 
 Africa. A tempest of disapprobation 
 burst forth when he published " The 
 Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Criti- 
 cally Examined." The Bishop of Cape 
 Town declared Colenso deposed from 
 his see; but on an appeal to the Privy 
 Council the deposition was pronounced 
 null. He died in Durban, Natal, June 
 
 20, 1883. 
 
 Coleoptera, an order of insects 
 which has been recognized since the 
 days of Aristotle. The number of 
 species amounts to 100,000. They are 
 sometimes collectively called beetles, 
 and many of them are known as wee- 
 vils, lady-bugs, etc. The glow-worm 
 and the blistering fly belong to this 
 order. 
 
 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, an 
 English poet and philosopher ; born in 
 Ottery, St. Mary, Devonshire, Oct. 
 
 21, 1772. Leaving college he first en- 
 listed and afterward took up his resi- 
 dence at Bristol with two congenial 
 spirits, Robert Southey and Lovell. 
 The three conceived the project of 
 emigrating to America and establish- 
 ing a community in which all should 
 be equal, on the banks of the Susque- 
 hanna. This scheme never became 
 anything more than a theory, and was 
 finally abandoned when the three 
 friends married three sisters, the 
 
 Coligny 
 
 Misses Fricket, of Bristol. In 1796 
 he took a cottage at Nether Stowey, 
 in Somersetshire, where, soothed and 
 supported by the companionship of 
 Wordsworth, he wrote much of his 
 best poetry, in particular the " An- 
 cient Mariner." He died July 25, 
 1834. 
 
 Coles, Cowper Fhipps, an Eng- 
 lish naval architect; born in Hamp- 
 shire in 1819. In 1855 he constructed 
 a gun-raft which was favorably re- 
 ported on ; ultimately produced a form 
 of turret-ship, the general idea of 
 which had probably occurred to him 
 independently, although its develop- 
 ment owed much to the invention of 
 John Ericsson. A vessel was built 
 from his designs, and on Sept. 7, 1870, 
 turned bottom upward in a gale and 
 sank off Cape Finisterre, almost all 
 on board, including Coles, being 
 drowned. 
 
 Colfax, Sclinyler, an American 
 statesman; born in New York, March 
 23, 1823 ; removed in 1836 to Indiana, 
 where in 1845 he acquired a news- 
 paper at South Bend. He was a dele- 
 gate to the Whig conventions of 1848 
 and 1852 ; was elected to Congress in 
 1854, by the newly-formed Republican 
 party, and reflected until 1869, being 
 thrice chosen Speaker; and in 1868 
 he was elected vice-president of the 
 United States, in Grant's first term. 
 He spent the remainder of his life in 
 political retirement, making public ap- 
 pearances only on the lecture platform, 
 and died in Mankato, Minn., Jan. 13, 
 1885. He was the founder of the 
 Daughters of Rebekah branch of 
 American Odd Fellowship. 
 
 Colgate University, an educa- 
 tional institution in Hamilton, N. Y. ; 
 organized in 1819, under the auspices 
 of the Baptist Church. 
 
 Coligny, Gaspard de, Admiral of 
 France; a great Huguenot leader and 
 martyr; born in Chatillon-sur-Loing 
 in 1517 ; distinguished himself under 
 Francis I. in the battle of Cerisoles 
 and under Henry II., who made him 
 colonel-general of the French infantry, 
 and in 1552 admiral of France. After- 
 the death of Henry II. the intrigues 
 of Catharine de' Medici, induced him 
 to place himself at the head of the 
 Calvinists against the Guises. An 
 advantageous peace seemingly put a 
 stop to this contest (1570). Coligny
 
 Colima 
 
 appeared at court, and was with his 
 adherents loaded with favors. Charles 
 IX. gave him 100,000 francs as an 
 indemnification for his injuries, to- 
 gether with a seat in the council. 
 As the admiral was leaving the Lou- 
 vre, Aug. 22, 1572, his right hand 
 and left arm were wounded by a shot 
 from a window. Maurenal had fired 
 at him, according to the plan of Cath- 
 arine de' Medici, probably with the 
 knowledge of the Duke of Guise. 
 Charles caused search to be made for 
 the assassin at the moment when the 
 massacre of the Protestants was al- 
 ready prepared. The slaughtf c began 
 on the night of St. Bartholomew's, 
 Aug. 24, 1572. The Duke of Guise 
 hastened with a numerous suite to the 
 house of the admiral. One Behme, or 
 Besme, at their head, entered with his 
 drawn sword and pierced him with 
 several stabs and threw the body out 
 of the window into the courtyard. The 
 'corpse was given up for three days to 
 'the fury of the people, and finally was 
 hung up by the feet on a gibbet, at 
 ;Montfaucon. Montmorency, a cousin 
 of Coligny, had it taken down, and 
 secretly buried in the chapel of the 
 Icastle of Chantilly. 
 
 Colima, a Mexican State on the 
 Pacific coast, with an area of 2,272 
 square miles, and a pop. (1900) of 
 65,026. The soil is very fertile, 'the 
 climate warm. The capital is Colima, 
 1,450 feet above the sea, about 40 
 miles E. N. E. of the port of Man- 
 zanillo. Pop. 19,305. Beyond the 
 State frontier, about 35 miles N. E. of 
 the capital rises the volcano of Co- 
 lima (12,750 feet). 
 
 Coliseum, more properly Colos- 
 seum, a gigantic ruin in Rome, the 
 greatest amphitheater which Roman 
 .magnificence ever erected. At present 
 (care is taken not to touch the ruins 
 of the coliseum, but it is gradually 
 crumbling away of itself. Only a por- 
 tion of the upper range remains, the 
 lower part is comparatively entire. 
 The Coliseum received its name from 
 the colossal statute of Nero which 
 was placed in it. 
 
 Collect, a name given to certain 
 brief and comprehensive prayers, found 
 in liturgies and public devotional of- 
 fices. 
 
 Collectivism, a word of recent or- 
 igin, intended to express the central 
 
 Collie 
 
 idea in the economic theory of social- 
 ism, that industry should be carried 
 on with a collective capital. 
 
 College de France, a celebrated 
 institution founded by Francis I., in 
 1530, now a very important educa- 
 tional institution, giving instruction 
 over a very wide field of literature, 
 history, and science. It is indepen- 
 dent of the University of France. 
 
 College Fraternities, societies 
 existing in American colleges which 
 are named from the letters of the 
 Greek Alphabet and therefore com- 
 monly called "Greek Letter Societies." 
 They are secret only in their grips 
 and passwords, their object being 
 chiefly literary and social. 
 
 College of the City of New 
 York, non-sectarian, founded 1848, 
 occupying fine new buildings in N. Y. 
 C., opened 1906. Instruction is free 
 to city residents. 
 
 Colleges for Women, institutions 
 of higher learning, designed to give 
 women practically the same advan- 
 tages of instruction and research as 
 are afforded to men. They are of 
 three types. Independent colleges for 
 women of the same grade as those for 
 men are peculiar to the United States. 
 The earliest institution was Mount 
 Holyoke College. Affiliated colleges 
 in which the standards of entrance and 
 graduation are the same as in the 
 men's colleges with which they are 
 affiliated. Tne prevailing system of 
 coeducation in the United States for 
 both men and women began in Ober- 
 lin College, in Ohio, in 1833. 
 
 Collegiate Church, in England, 
 a religious house built and endowed 
 for a society or body corporate inde- 
 pendent of any cathedral. 
 
 Collie, a breed of the dog of ob- 
 scure origin, which is highly valued. 
 Many anecdotes are told of the col- 
 lie, who from his intimate association 
 with man has acquired almost human 
 intelligence, a good dog being able to 
 separate the sheep under bis care 
 from those of other flocks. The collie 
 often deteriorates in intelligence when 
 kept merely as a companion. When 
 not spoilt, however, no dog makes 
 such an agreeable companion as the 
 collie, as his instinct is to attach him- 
 self to one person, to whom he be- 
 comes devoted,
 
 Collier 
 
 Collier, Robert Laird, an Amer- 
 ican Unitarian clergyman : born at 
 Salisbury, Md., Aug. 7, 1837. Start- 
 ing in life as an itinerant Methodist 
 preacher, he held prominent Unitarian 
 pulpits in Chicago and Boston. He 
 died near Salisbury, England, July 27, 
 1890. 
 
 COLLIE. 
 
 Collingwood, Cutlibert, Lord, 
 an English naval commander : born in 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1750. His 
 most distinguished service was at 
 Trafalgar, w,here his skill and resolu- 
 tion drew warm praise from Nelson. 
 On the latter's death Collingwood, as 
 senior officer, took command of the 
 fleet, and gave proof of his judgment 
 and nautical skill in his dispositions 
 for the preservation of the captured 
 vessels. He died while cruising off 
 Minorca on March 7, 1810. 
 
 Collins, Edward K., an Ameri- 
 can shipowner : born in Truro, Mass., 
 Aug. 5, 1802. He early entered the 
 shipping business, and after serving 
 as superintendent of a packet line, he 
 established in 1836 the Dramatic 
 Packet Line from New York to Liver- 
 pool. In 1849 the Collins line be- 
 tween the same ports was inaugurated. 
 The "Arctic" and the "Pacific" of 
 this line are memorable in the his- 
 tory of marine disasters. The gov- 
 ernment having withdrawn mail sub- 
 sidies, the line ceased operations in 
 1858. He died in New York City, 
 Jan. 22, 1878. 
 
 Collins, Patrick Andrew, an 
 American politician : born in Fermoy, 
 Ireland, March 12, 1844. He came 
 to the United States when four years 
 
 Collot 
 
 old. He served in the Massachusetts 
 Legislature, was a delegate to various 
 Democratic National Conventions, sat 
 in Congress and was Consul-General 
 at London. He was prominent in 
 Irish organizations ; became Mayor of 
 Boston, 1901 ; died Sept. 15, 1905. 
 
 Collins, "William, an English 
 painter, father of the novelist; born 
 1788, died 1847. He was felicitious 
 in depicting child life, as attested by 
 "Happy as a King" ; "Boys with a 
 Bird's Nest," etc. 
 
 Collins, William Wilkie, an 
 English novelist; born in London, 
 Jan. 8, 1824. He wrote a biography 
 of his father in two volumes in 1848, 
 and from that time he made literature 
 his profession. His principal works 
 which have been translated into 
 French, German, Italian, Russian, 
 and other languages, include "The 
 Woman in White"; "No Name"; 
 "The Moonstone" ; "Man and Wife" ; 
 "The New Magdalen"; "The Two 
 Destinies" ; "Heart and Science" ; 
 "Blind Love". He died in London, 
 Sept. 23, 1889. 
 
 Collision, in maritime affairs, the 
 shock of two ships coming into violent 
 contact, whereby one or both may 
 suffer more or less injury. 
 
 Collodion, or Collodinm, a sub* 
 stance prepared by dissolving one part 
 of gun cotton in a mixture of 36 fluid 
 parts of ether and 12 fluid parts of 
 rectified spirit 
 
 Collodion Process, a process in 
 photography invented by Archer, who 
 described it in 1851. 
 
 Collot, D'Herbois, Jean Marie, 
 one of the most sanguinary leaders in 
 the French Revolution; born in Paris 
 in 1750. Before the Revolution he 
 was a clever strolling player. He 
 joined the club of the Jacobins and 
 became a member of the Convention, 
 and of the Committee of Public Safe- 
 ty. In 1793 he went to Lyons, where 
 he had more than 16,000 persons put 
 to death, and made it a capital crime 
 to look sad or pitiful. An attempt 
 was made to assassinate him, which! 
 only made him more popular, and he 
 contributed powerfully to the fall of 
 Robespierre. He was soon after de- 
 nounced, arrested, and in March, 
 1795, transported to Cayenne, whera 
 he died in 1796.
 
 Collyer 
 
 Collyer, Robert, an American 
 (clergyman ; born in Keighley, York- 
 shire, England, Dec. 8, 1823. He came 
 to the United States in 1849, being 
 then a Wesleyan preacher and a black- 
 smith, but became a Unitarian and 
 preached some years in Chicago, -where 
 be founded Unity Church in 1860. He 
 was made pastor of the Church of the 
 Messiah, New York City, in Septem- 
 ber, 1879, and pastor emeritus in 1896. 
 Colman, Samuel, an American 
 painter ; born in Portland, Me., March 
 4, 1832; studied in Europe in 1860- 
 1862; was elected a member of the 
 [National Academy in 1862; and first 
 president of the American Society of 
 Painters in Water Colors. 
 
 Colocynth, the pith of the bitter 
 apple; which is violently purgative. 
 It is imported from Turkey. In large 
 doses colocynth is an irritant poison. 
 
 Cologne, a city of Rhenish Prus- 
 sia, on the left bank of the Rhine, 
 forming, in connection with Deutz, 
 which serves as a tete-du-pont on the 
 opposite side of, the river (across 
 which are several bridges), a fortress 
 of the first rank. The old fortifica- 
 tions, dating from the Middle Ages 
 have been swept away, new works be- 
 ing constructed in accordance with 
 the principles of modern fortification. 
 The most important edifice of all is 
 the cathedral, begun in 1248, one of 
 the finest and largest Gothic struc- 
 tures in Europe. It was only com- 
 pleted in the 19th century, there being 
 expended on it in 1828-1884 over 
 $5,000,000. Pop. (1900) 372,229. 
 
 Colombia, a South American Re- 
 public extending along the Pacific 
 Coast from the Isthmus of Panama 
 to Ecuador, and along the Caribbean 
 Sea, east to Venezula. It comprises 
 eight departments, with an area esti- 
 mated at 473,202 square miles; pop. 
 3,593,600. Chief towns: Bogota (the 
 capital), Medellin, Bucaramanga, 
 Cartagena, Popayan, Ibagug, Tunja, 
 Santa Marta. Panama a former de- 
 partment seceded in 1903 (see PAN- 
 AMA). The surface of the country 
 is varied, lofty mountains occupying 
 the west, and vast low-lying plains 
 the east. The climate ranges from 
 mountain cold -with snow and ice, to 
 southern tropical conditions. Agri- 
 Culture is largely carried on, but primi- 
 
 tively; stock raising is the chief 
 branch of industry. 
 
 Among the natural mineral products 
 are gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, 
 coal, sulphur, zinc, antimony, arsenic, 
 cinnabar, rock-salt, crystal, granite, 
 marble, lime, gypsum, jet, amethysts, 
 rubies, porphyry and jasper; while 
 much of the world's platinum is ob- 
 tained from the upper San Juan, and 
 the principal source of the finest emer- 
 alds is at Muzo in Boyaca. 
 
 The government is that of a repub- 
 lic, the chief magistrate being a pres- 
 ident, elected for six years. The legis- 
 lative power vests in a Congress of 
 two Houses, called the Senate and 
 House of Representatives. Congress 
 elects for a term of two years, a sub- 
 stitute, who succeeds to the office of 
 president or vice-president, should a 
 vacancy occur during the term. 
 
 In 1870 a system of compulsory edu- 
 cation was adopted which has on the 
 whole proved successful. Parochial 
 secondary, normal t and technical 
 schools are now within general reach 
 and nearly all the departments boast 
 universities of more or less efficiency. 
 The State Church is the Roman Cath- 
 olic, which in the management of its 
 own affairs is independent of civil 
 authority; toleration in matters of 
 religion is guaranteed; but, by the 
 terms of a concordat entered into 
 with the Pope in 1888, in the univer- 
 sities and all educational establish- 
 ments public instruction is directed in 
 conformity with the dogmas of the 
 Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 In 1863 a constitution was adopted, 
 based on that of the United States of 
 America, with a president elected for 
 two years; but this proved altogether 
 unsuited to the Colombians, and, after 
 twenty years' trial, brought about the 
 revolution of 1884-1885. In 1886 a 
 new constitution with central Federal 
 authority was adopted. In 1905. the 
 national currency was reorganized on 
 a gold basis. 
 
 Colombo, a seaport town, the cap- 
 ital of Ceylon. It has an extensive 
 fort, within which t are some of the 
 best houses, and which occupies a pro- 
 jecting point of land. Through the 
 construction of a breakwater and othet 
 works there is excellent harbor accom- 
 modation ; and numerous vessels call 
 here. Pop. X1901), 158,093.
 
 Colon 
 
 Colon, the greatest and widest of 
 all the intestines, about eight or nine 
 bands' breadth long. 
 
 Colon, or Aspinwall (the former 
 the official name), a free port of 
 Panama, on Manzanillo Island, on the 
 N. side of the Isthmus of Panama, at 
 the Atlantic extremity of the inter- 
 oceanic railway, and near that of the 
 Panama canal. Established in con- 
 nection with the railway, it had an 
 important transit trade before the 
 canal was begun, and since then the 
 place has been entirely transformed, a 
 new town with wide and regular 
 streets having been built on a tract of 
 land reclaimed by the canal company. 
 There is extensive harbor accommoda- 
 tion. Pop. est. at 8,000 to 10,000. 
 
 Colonel, the commander of a regi- 
 ment, whether of cavalry, infantry or 
 artillery. Any rank above a colonel 
 constitutes the bearer of it a general 
 . officer. In the United States army a 
 colonel is commander of troops below 
 a brigadier-general, and above a lieu- 
 tenant-colonel. 
 
 Colonia, a department of Uruguay, 
 on the Plata, below the Uruguay river. 
 Area, 2,192 square miles; pop. (1902) 
 53,223. Its capital of the same name 
 (pop. 2000), is on the Rio de la Plata, 
 almost opposite Buenos Ayres. 
 
 Colonna, a village in the Papal 
 States, which gave its name to one of 
 the most powerful and celebrated aris- 
 tocratic Roman families. 
 
 Colonna, Frospero, son of An- 
 tonio Colonna, prince of Salerno. He 
 assisted Charles VIII. of France to 
 conquer Naples, but subsequently aided 
 in retaking it for the House of Aragon. 
 He served under the great Gonsalvo, 
 and was charged by him to conduct 
 Cesare Borgia prisoner to Spain. In 
 1513 Prospero defeated the Venetians 
 near Vicenza, was captured by the 
 French two years later, but won sev- 
 eral victories over them in 1521 and 
 the following years. He died in 1523. 
 
 Colonnade, a range of columns. 
 A Colonnade differs from an arcade in 
 this respect, that the columns of the 
 former support straight architraves in- 
 stead of arches. 
 
 Colonns, in Roman law, a freeman 
 of inferior rank, corresponding with 
 the Saxon ceorl and the German rural 
 slaves. 
 
 Color 
 
 Colony, a settlement formed in 
 one country by the inhabitants of an- 
 other. Colonies may either be formed 
 in dependence on the mother country 
 or in independence. In the latter case 
 the name of colony is retained only in 
 a historical sense. 
 
 Since the United States has acquired 
 Porto Rico, the Philippines and Sulu 
 Islands, and the Ladrone Island of 
 Guam, the question of colonial govern- 
 ment has become a national issue. 
 
 There are 126 colonies in the world 
 and nearly as many distinct forms of 
 colonial government, varying from 
 practical independence to absolute con- 
 trol by the mother country. 
 
 Colophon, the device or imprint 
 at the end of a published work, which 
 in old books frequently stated the 
 name of the author as well as the prin- 
 ter's name, along with the date and 
 place of publication, most of which 
 information is now put in the title 
 page. 
 
 Color, the name given to distin- 
 guish between the various sensations 
 that lights of various rates of vibra- 
 tion give to the eye. The optic nerves 
 are excited by vibrations of the light- 
 bearing ether when the rapidity of the 
 vibrations is not greater than or less 
 than two limits, which perhaps vary 
 slightly with different eyes, just as 
 some ears cannot hear intensely shrill 
 sounds or dull sounds that are per- 
 ceived by others. Every vibration be- 
 tween these limits is recognized as 
 light ; its intensity or brightness is ob- 
 served ; but besides this, the eye is 
 differently affected by light of different 
 times of vibration, in a way that it is 
 not possible to describe. It is to this 
 variation in the sensation that the 
 name color is given. The word color 
 is also applied to the properties of 
 bodies that cause them to emit the 
 light that thus affects our senses. 
 
 The colors of the spectrum are 
 usually said to be seven red, 
 orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, 
 violet; although in reality there is an 
 enormous, if not an infinite number 
 of distinct colors in it. These colors 
 are frequently called the primary col- 
 ors, and other tints and shades are 
 producible by mixing them; but in a 
 stricter sense the primary colors are 
 three in number, namely, red, green 
 and violet (or blue). These three
 
 ROYAL GORGE, COLORADO THE BRIDGE
 
 Color-Photography 
 
 colors or kinds of light cannot be re- 
 solved into any others. In the scien- 
 tific sense of the word white and black 
 are not considered colors, a white 
 body reflecting, and a black body ab- 
 sorbing all the rays of light, while 
 color is due to separation of the rays of 
 light by partial absorption and reflec- 
 tion or by refraction. 
 
 Color-Photography. See PHO- 
 TOGRAPHY. 
 
 Colorado, a State of the Union, 
 bounded by Wyoming, Nebraska, Kan- 
 sas, Oklahoma, New Mexico and Utah ; 
 gross area, 103,645 square miles ; ad- 
 mitted to the Union July 4, 1876: 
 number of counties 57 ; population 
 (1900) 539,700; (1910) 799,024; capi- 
 tal, Denver. 
 
 Colorado is very mountainous, being 
 traversed by the Rocky Mountains, 
 which extend over nearly the entire 
 breadth of the State. The average 
 altitude of the State is 7,000 feet, the 
 lowest portion being 3,000 feet above 
 the sea, and there are over 100 moun- 
 tain peaks more than 13,000 feet 
 high. The valleys are a distinguishing 
 feature of the scenery, and are known 
 as parks. San Luis is the largest and 
 has an area of 8,000 square miles, 
 quite level, and at an elevation of 
 7,000 feet. The only lake of any size 
 in Colorado is in this park, is about 
 6 miles in length and is fed by nearly 
 20 streams. Colorado is the principal 
 watershed in the Western States, 
 many of the largest rivers having their 
 origin here, among them the Platte, 
 Colorado, San Miguel, Arkansas and 
 Rio Grande del Norte. Nearly all 
 these rivers wind their way through 
 rocky canyons, varying from one to 
 3,000 feet in depth. "Monument 
 Park " and the " Garden of the Gods " 
 contain " buttes," rising above the 
 meadow land, shaped like towers and 
 pillars, caused by erosion. 
 
 Colorado has about 15,000 square 
 miles of fertile arable land, and about 
 70,000 square miles of grazing land. 
 Most of the land will produce abun- 
 dant crops under irrigation, which is 
 now being carried on extensively, one 
 irrigating canal having a length of 54 
 miles. The mountains are well cov- 
 ered with pine, spruce, and fir for- 
 ests. The climate is very healthful 
 and uld, and people suffering from i 
 pulmonary and asthmatic troubles find 
 
 much relief here. There are various 
 mineral springs, which are valuable 
 for medicinal purposes. The hot sul- 
 phur springs in Middle Park and 
 Wagon Wheel gap, and the hot iron, 
 and soda springs in Manitou are pop- 
 ular resorts. 
 
 Colorado is by far the first State 
 in the Union in mineral wealth. In 
 1900 it ranked first in the production 
 of gold, silver and lead, and beside 
 being rich in copper, zinc and man- 
 ganese, ranked eighth in iron and 
 ninth in coal. Agriculture and man- 
 ufactures are flourishing, and educa- 
 tion and religion are liberally main- 
 tained. 
 
 The governor is elected for a term 
 of two years, and receives a salary of 
 $5,000 per annum. Legislative ses- 
 sions are held biennially. The Legis- 
 lature has 35 members in the Senate 
 (elected for four years) and 65 in 
 the House (elected for two years), 
 each of whom receives $1,000 per term. 
 There are 4 Representatives in Con- 
 gress under the last census. 
 
 The name Colorado comes from that 
 of the river, meaning " red water." Ex- 
 plorations were made here by United 
 States army oflicers in 1806, 1819 
 and 1842-1844, and several fur-trading 
 stations were established. Gold was 
 discovered in 1858, and as a conse- 
 quence of this Denver Boulder and 
 Auraria were speedily founded and 
 made a county in the territory of Kan- 
 sas. In 1861 Colorado, according to 
 its present limits, was organized as a 
 territory, and in 1876 was admitted 
 into the Union, receiving the popular 
 designation of the " Centennial State." 
 
 COLORADO BEETLE. 
 a, insect; b, caterpillar; c, eggs. 
 
 Colorado Beetle, a beetle first de- 
 scribed by Thomas Say, in 1824, from 
 specimens found by him near the Up- 
 per Missouri. The larva feeds greed- 
 ily on the potato, and having at- 
 tracted notice in Colorado for its 
 ravages among the crops of that escu-
 
 Colorado River 
 
 Colqnitt 
 
 lent in the territory, it moved eastward 
 year by year, till in 1874 it had 
 reached the Atlantic seaboard. It 
 is popularly known as the potato bug. 
 
 Colorado River, or Colorado of 
 the West, a great river of the United 
 States and Mexico, formed by the 
 junction of the Green and Grand riv- 
 ers. From the mouth of the Little 
 Colorado the river bends W., and for 
 the first 200 miles shoots through the 
 wonderful " Grand Canon." The walls 
 of this water-worn trench are often 
 vertical, or nearly so, for a distance 
 of thousands of feet at a time ; some- 
 times they slope steeply, or constitute 
 magnificent terraces. The cliffs or 
 rock-walls attain a height of from 
 4,000 to 7,000 feet above the stream, 
 which runs with a varying descent of 
 from 5 to 200 feet to the mile, and 
 whose channel now contracts to 30 
 feet in width and now widens to 300 
 feet. There are frequent whirlpools 
 and waterfalls. Below the canon the 
 valley opens, and there is much fertile 
 bottom-land. 
 
 Further on the Colorado twice again 
 bores its way through deep canons, 
 the sides of which in some places pre- 
 sent walls of solid rock nearly 7,000 
 feet high. Thence it pursues a tor- 
 tuous course, the last portion being 
 through Mexican territory, to its 
 mouth in the Gulf of California. From 
 the source of the Green river the 
 Colorado measures a total length of 
 about 2,000 miles. 
 
 Colorado River, one of the chief 
 streams of Texas. Rising in the high 
 table lands of Bexar, it empties into 
 Matagorda Bay. Austin, Bastrop 
 and Columbus are on its banks, and 
 Matagorda near its mouth. 
 
 Colorado Springs, city and capi- 
 tal of El Paso county, Col.; at. the 
 base of the Rocky Mountains, near 
 Pike's Peak, and on several rail- 
 roads; 6,000 feet above sea-level; 75 
 miles S. of Denver; is widely noted 
 for its grand scenic attractions, which 
 include the famous Garden of the 
 Gods, Manitou and Monument Valley 
 Parks, and South Cheyenne Canon: 
 is the seat of Colorado College (non- 
 sect.), the State Institution for the 
 Deaf and Dumb, and the Childs- 
 Drexel Home for Union Printers; 
 and is chiefly engaged in mining. 
 Pop. (1910) 29,078. 
 
 Color Hearing, a vision of colors, 
 which in some persons is thought to 
 accompany their perception of sounds. 
 The facts are not yet brought under 
 any scientific rules ; they seem to vary 
 with different experimenters. 
 
 Coloring, one of the essential parts 
 of painting namely, that part which 
 relates to colors. 
 
 Color Printing, the art of pro 
 ducing pictures, designs, cards, etc., in 
 various colors by means of litho- 
 graphy, printing from metal blocks, 
 etc. 
 
 Colpssians, Epistle to the, a let-, 
 ter written to the Colossians by the 
 Apostle Paul either from Rome or ( 
 Caesarea, at the same time that he. 
 wrote the epistles to the Ephesians 
 and to Philemon. It contains a sum-' 
 mary of Christian doctrine, especially 
 dwelling on the divine power and 
 majesty of Christ, and a series of 
 practical exhortations to specific du-! 
 ties of Christian morality. 
 
 Colossus, in sculpture, a statue of 
 enormous magnitude. The celebrated 
 colossus of Rhodes was reckoned one 
 of the seven wonders of the world. This 
 statue which by some has been reck- 
 oned among the fables of antiquity, 
 was raised by the Rhodians 5 n honor 
 of Apollo. 
 
 Of other colossal statues, those 
 which were executed by Phidias are 
 among the most celebrated for beauty 
 and elegance of workmanship. 
 
 In the United States a figure of 
 "Liberty Enlightening the World," 
 151 feet high (with pedestal 305), has 
 been erected in New York, overlooking 
 the harbor and serving as a beacon. 
 It was the work of the French sculp- 
 tor Bartholdi, and was constructed 
 mainly through the efforts of a French- 
 American Union formed in 1874. In 
 1880 it was presented by France to 
 the United States, and six years later 
 it was placed on its present site, Bed- 
 loe's Island. 
 
 Colquitt, Alfred Holt, an Amer- 
 ican legislator ; born in Walton 
 county, Georgia, April 20, 1824. He 
 served in the Mexican war, and was 
 elected to Congress in 1852 as a Demo- 
 crat. Upon the outbreak of the Civil 
 War he entered the Confederate army 
 as a captain." He was elected gov- 
 ernor of Georgia in 1876 and United
 
 Columbia University 
 
 States Senator in 1882 and in 1888. 
 He died iu Washington, D. C., March 
 26, 1894. 
 
 Colt, Samuel, an American in- 
 ventor; born in Hartford, Conn., July 
 19, 1814. He went to sea as a sailor 
 boy when aged 15. His attention be- 
 ing drawn to firearms while at sea, 
 he began to perfect a revolver and 
 patented it in 1835. Its great success 
 led to the erection by him at Hart- 
 ford of one of the most extensive 
 weapon factories in the world. He 
 died in Hartford, Jan. 10, 18G2. 
 
 Colton, Gardner Qnincy, an 
 American scientist ; born in Georgia, 
 Vt., Feb. 7, 1814. While lecturing on 
 chemistry and physics, accident led 
 him to a discovery of the anaesthetic 
 properties of nitrous oxide, or "laugh- 
 ing gas," credit for which is also given 
 to Dr. Horace Wells. He died in 
 Rotterdam, Holland, Aug. 11, 1898. 
 
 Colton, Walter, an American 
 writer ; born in Rutland, Vt., May 9, 
 1797. Died in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 
 22, 1851. 
 
 Coltsfoot, a composite plant, abun- 
 dant in the United States in moist 
 and clayey soils. The leaves have 
 been used medicinally as an infusion, 
 or have been smoked like tobacco for 
 the cure of asthma. 
 
 Cplnber, "a linnsean genus, compre- 
 hending all the snakes now included 
 under the family Colubridae. The 
 species are very numerous, some of 
 them beautifully colored, and all are 
 harmless. The black snake which 
 must not be confounded with the Boa 
 Constrictor is common in all the 
 Southern and South Atlantic States. 
 It is rarely molested by those who 
 know its habits, as it is very useful in 
 destroying rats and kindred vermin. It 
 sometimes attains a length of eight or 
 nine feet 
 
 Columba, St., a native of Ire- 
 land (Gartan in Donegal) ; born in 
 521. About 563 he landed in the is- 
 land of Hy, now called lona, and 
 founded his church. About 565 he 
 went on a mission of conversion among 
 the northern Picts, and traversed the 
 whole of Northern Scotland, preach- 
 ing the Christian faith and founding 
 monasteries, all of which he made sub- 
 ject to that which he had set up on 
 the island of Hy. The Columban 
 
 Church was in some points opposed 
 to Rome. He died in lona, 597. 
 
 Columbia, the popular name of 
 the United States; derived from Co- 
 lumbus, the discoverer. 
 
 Columbia, city and capital of 
 Richland county and of the State of 
 South Carolina; on the Congaree riv- 
 er and several railroads; 130 miles 
 N. W. of Charleston; contains be- 
 sides the State Capitol, the State 
 Penitentiary, State Insane Asylum, 
 Federal Building, South Carolina Col- 
 lege, Allen University, Benedict Col- 
 lege, Presbyterian Theological Sem- 
 inary, and Presbyterian and Colum- 
 bian Colleges for Women. Pop. (1910) 
 26,319. 
 
 Columbia, District of. See DIS- 
 TRICT OF COLUMBIA. 
 
 Columbia River, after 'the Yukon 
 the largest river on the W. aide of 
 America ; rises in British Columbia, 
 on the W. slope of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains; has a very irregular course, 
 generally S. W. through Washington; 
 forms the N. boundary of Oregon for 
 about 350 miles ; and enters the Pa- 
 cific by an estuary 35 miles long and 
 from 3 to 7 wide. Its estimated 
 length is 1,400 miles. The extraor- 
 dinarily abundant salmon-fisheries of 
 the Columbia have been largely devel- 
 oped. 
 
 Columbia University, a seat of 
 learning in New York city. The char- 
 ter of King's College, the original 
 
 LIBRARY OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. 
 
 name of Columbia, was granted by 
 George II., and finally passed the seals 
 on Oct. 31, 1754, from which day the
 
 Columbus 
 
 Columbus 
 
 college dates its existence. King's 
 College played a conspicuous part in 
 securing and confirming the independ- 
 ence of the United States. The Revo- 
 lutionary War caused a suspension of j 
 the activities of the college, and in 
 1776 the college building was used as 
 a military hospital. After eight years 
 the college work was resumed by act 
 of the Legislature, May 1, 1784, under 
 the name of Columbia College. 
 
 The original site of the college was 
 in what became later the block bound- 
 ed by College Place, Barclay, Church 
 and Murray streets. From 1857-97 it 
 was at Madison Ave. and 49th to 50th 
 streets. In 1892, 17 acres of land on 
 Morningside Heights from HGth to 
 120th sts. were purchased for $2,000,- 
 000, and here in 1897 the college was 
 reorganized as a university. It has 48 
 departments of instruction, and over 
 3,000 students yearly. J. Pulitzer 
 gave $2,000,000 for a school of jour- 
 nalism, 1903. Hartley and Livingston 
 dormitory halls were opened, 1905. 
 Barnard (Ladies) Coll., Teachers 
 Coll., and Natl. Acad. of Design 
 schools, affiliated, are near. The cen- 
 tral library building and other costly 
 buildings including St. Paul's Chapel, 
 completed 1907. form a fine group. 
 
 Columbus, city and capital of 
 Muscogee county, Ga.; on the Chatta- 
 hoochee river and the Central of 
 Georgia and other railroads; 100 
 miles S. W. of Atlanta; is the trade 
 center of the Chattahoochee valley; 
 is in a corn, cotton, and fruit section; 
 and has large cotton mills, cotton 
 compresses, flour mills, and iron 
 works. Pop. (1910) 20,554. 
 
 Columbus, a city, capital of the 
 State of Ohio, and county-seat of 
 Franklin county; on both sides of the 
 Scioto river, about 70 miles from its 
 mouth; and 100 miles N. E. of Cin- 
 cinnati. It is the center of 18 rail- 
 road lines, and the fourth city in the 
 State in population and importance. 
 Area, 16* square miles. Pop. (1900) 
 125,560; (1910) 181,548. 
 
 Columbus, Christopher, (in 
 Spanish CHKISTOVAL COLON ; in Ital- 
 ian, CHRISTOFORO COLOMBO, which is 
 his real name) , born in Genoese terri- 
 tory, probably between 1430 and 1450. 
 The place of his birth is as uncertain 
 as the year, several towns in Genoese 
 
 territory (among others Genoa itself) 
 and at least one town out of it, claim- 
 ing the honor; but it seems to be es- 
 tablished that the last claim at least 
 is unfounded. His father, Domenico 
 Colombo, a poor wool-comber, gave 
 him a careful education. He soon 
 evinced a strong passion for geograph- 
 ical knowledge, and an irresistible in- 
 clination for the sea. The details of 
 his early life are confused and unsat- 
 isfactory. He appears to have gone 
 to sea at an early age, and to have 
 navigated all parts of the Mediter- 
 ranean and some of the coasts beyond 
 the Straits of Gibraltar. 
 
 In 1470 we find Columbus at Lis- 
 bon, where he married the daughter 
 of Bartolommeo de Palestrello, a dis- 
 tinguished navigator, who had founded 
 a colony in Porto Santo, an island re- 
 cently discovered and belonging to the 
 Madeira group, and had left many 
 charts and nautical instruments. Co- 
 lumbus made use of these materials, 
 and his opinion that the other side of 
 the globe contained land, belonging to 
 Eastern Asia and connected with In- 
 ,dia, which was, as yet little known, 
 became more and more fixed. While 
 the Portuguese were seeking to reach 
 India by a S. E. course round Africa, 
 he was convinced that there must be 
 a shorter way by the W, He applied 
 in vain to the city of Genoa for as- 
 sistance, and equally fruitless were 
 his endeavors to interest John II. of 
 Portugal in the enterprise. He also 
 sent letters on the subject to Henry 
 VII. of England, with the same ill 
 success. He then determined to ap- 
 ply to the Spanish court, Ferdinand 
 and Isabella, being at this time the 
 sovereigns of Spain, and after an eight 
 years' struggle with the obstacles 
 thrown in his way by ignorance and 
 malice, he received three small vessels. 
 These were named the " Pinta," the 
 " Nina," and the " Santa Maria " ; 
 and according to Jal each of them was 
 fully decked and had four masts and 
 a crew of 90 men. The dignity of 
 high-admiral and viceroy of all the 
 countries he might discover was con- 
 ferred on him, the former to be hered- 
 itary in his family. A certain share 
 of the profits arising from his expedi- 
 tion was secured to him by a written 
 contract with the sovereigns. 
 
 It was early in the morning of Fri-
 
 Columbus 
 
 Columbus 
 
 day, Aug. 3, 1492, that Columbus set 
 sail from the port of Palos. Eighteen 
 years had elapsed since he conceiyed 
 the idea of this enterprise. Having 
 provided himself at the Canary Is- 
 lands with fresh water, he sailed S. 
 W. into an ocean never before navi- 
 gated. But when 21 days had 
 elapsed without the sight of any land, 
 the courage of his men began to sink. 
 It was certain, they said, that they 
 should perish, and their visionary com- 
 mander ought to be forced to return. 
 Some of them even proposed to throw 
 him overboard; and Columbus had to 
 exert all the powers of his daring and 
 commanding spirit to prevent an open 
 rebellion. 
 
 The occurrence of a strange phe- 
 nomenon, which surprised even him, 
 filled his pilots with consternation : 
 the needle deviated a whole degree. 
 But the sea appeared suddenly covered 
 with grass, and again showed symp- 
 toms of shoals and rocks. Numbers 
 of birds were also seen. Columbus 
 sailed in the direction from which they 
 flew. For some days the voyage was 
 continued with revived courage, till at 
 last the dissatisfaction of the crews 
 began to break out into open violence ; 
 but Columbus, after endeavoring to 
 v pacify his men by promises, finally as- 
 sumed a different tone, and told them 
 it was useless to murmur ; that he was 
 determined to persevere. Fully con- 
 vinced that he must be near the land, 
 he promised jp. reward to whosoever 
 should first discover it. On the nights 
 of Oct. 11 and 12 Columbus himself 
 descried a light which sometimes flick- 
 ered in the distance and sometimes dis- 
 appeared, and at two o'clock in the 
 morning of the 12th a cannon shot 
 from the " Pinta " announced that a 
 sailor belonging to that vessel had dis- 
 covered land. 
 
 It was the island of Guanahani 
 which Columbus believed to belong to 
 Eastern Asia and to be connected with 
 India, a belief which he carried with 
 him to his grave. Hence the mistaken 
 name of Indians applied to the natives 
 of America, and that of West Indies 
 applied to the group of islands of 
 which Guanahani forms one. On 
 landing Columbus threw himself on 
 his knees and kissed the earth, return- 
 ing thanks to God. The natives col- 
 lected round him in silent astonish- 
 
 ment, and his men, ashamed of their 
 disobedience and distrust threw them- 
 selves at his feet, begging his forgive- 
 ness. Columbus drawing his sword 
 planted the royal standard, and in the 
 name of his sovereigns took possession 
 of the country, which, in memory of 
 his preservation he called St. Salva- 
 dor. He then received the homage of 
 his followers, as admiral and viceroy, 
 and representative of the sovereigns. 
 
 Having received information from 
 the natives that there was a rich gold 
 country toward the S., Columbus di- 
 rected his course toward that region, 
 and reached Cuba on Oct. 28, and Es- 
 panola (Hispaniola, Haiti) .on Dec. 
 G ; but as one of his vessels was 
 wrecked, and the other separated from 
 him, he resolved to carry the news 
 of his success to Spain. Having built 
 a wooden fort from the wreck of his 
 vessel, he left in it 39 volunteers, and 
 set out on his return Jan. 4, 1493. 
 The day after he left the island he 
 met the " Pinta " which had been 
 missing. Both vessels were afterward 
 nearly wrecked in a tremendous storm. 
 Columbus, more interested for his dis- 
 covery than for himself, wrote an ac- 
 count of his voyage on a piece of 
 parchment which he secured in a cask, 
 and threw the whole overboard, in the 
 hope that it might be carried ashore. 
 He had hardly finished this work when 
 the gale subsided. March 15, he re- 
 entered the port of Palos amid the ac- 
 clamations of the people, the thunder 
 of cannon, and the ringing of bells. 
 He hastened immediately to Barcelona 
 where the court then was, and entered 
 the city in a triumphal procession 
 with the productions of the newly dis- 
 covered countries carried before him. 
 A chair was placed for him next to 
 the throne, and seating himself, he 
 gave an account of his discoveries. 
 He was created a grandee, and all the 
 marks of royal favor were lavished on 
 him. 
 
 On Sept. 25, 1493, he set sail from 
 Cadiz with three large ships of heavy 
 burden, and 14 caravels, carrying 1,500 
 men. On Nov. 3 he discovered the 
 island of Dominica, and afterward 
 Mariegalante, Guadeloupe, and Porto 
 Rico, and on the 22d he arrived at 
 Hispaniola. Finding the colony he 
 had left destroyed, he built a fortified 
 town, which he called, in hdnor of the
 
 Columbus 
 
 queen, Isabella, and of which he ap- 
 pointed his brother Diego governor. 
 He immediately left the island in or- 
 der to make new discoveries, visited 
 Jamaica, and returning after a voyage 
 of five months, worn down with fa- 
 tigue, found to his great joy that his 
 brother Bartplommeo, who had es- 
 caped from his captivity, had arrived 
 at Isabella with provisions and other 
 supplies for the colony. 
 
 In the meantime a general dissatis- 
 faction had broken out among his 
 companions, who, instead of the ex- 
 pected treasures, had found hardships 
 and labor. They set on foot many 
 calumnies, and gave the most unfavor- 
 able description of the country and 
 the viceroy. Columbus thought he 
 could not better oppose these reports 
 than by sending considerable treasures 
 to his sovereigns, and for this purpose 
 collected gold from the natives, which 
 was not done without violence and 
 some cruelty. Aguado, a personal en- 
 emy of Columbus, was sent as commis- 
 sioner to investigate the complaints 
 against the great discoverer, who, 
 thinking it time to vindicate himself 
 in the presence of his sovereigns, pre- 
 pared to return to Spain. Having 
 appointed his brother Bartolommeo 
 adelantado, or lieutenant-governor, he 
 embarked for Spain in March, 1496, 
 with 225 Spaniards and 30 natives. In 
 Spain calumny was silenced by his 
 presence, and probably still more by 
 his treasures. Yet his enemies were 
 powerful enough to detain the supplies 
 intended for the colony a whole year, 
 and to retard the fitting out of a new 
 expedition. 
 
 It was not till May 30, 1498, that 
 he sailed with six vessels on his third 
 voyage. To man these vessels crim- 
 inals had unwisely been taken a 
 measure which Columbus himself had 
 advised, and which had been taken up 
 with great satisfaction by his enemies. 
 Three of his vessels he sent direct to 
 Hispaniola ; with the three others he 
 took a more S. direction for the pur- 
 pose of discovering the mainland, 
 which information derived from the 
 natives induced him to supppose lay 
 to the S. of his former discoveries. He 
 visited Trinidad and the continent of 
 America, the coasts of Paria and Cu- 
 mann, and returned to Hispaniola, 
 convinced that he had reached a conti- 
 
 Colnmbus 
 
 nent. His colony had been removed 
 from Isabella, according to his orders, 
 to the other side of the island, and a 
 new fortess erected called St. Domin- 
 go. Columbus found the colony in a 
 state of confusion. 
 
 After having succeeded in restoring 
 it to tranquillity by his prudent meas- 
 ures, in order to supply the deficiency 
 of laborers he distributed the land and 
 the inhabitants, subjecting the latter 
 to the arbitrary will of their masters, 
 and thus laying the foundation ci that 
 system of slavery which has lasted 
 down to pur time. His enemies, in 
 the meantime, endeavored to convince 
 his sovereigns that he had abused his 
 power, and that his plan was to make 
 himself independent, till at last even 
 Isabella yielded to the wishes of Ferdi- 
 nand, who had previously become con- 
 vinced of the truth of the slanders. 
 Francisco de Bobadilla was sent to 
 Hispaniola, with extensive powers, to 
 call the viceroy to account. As soon 
 as he reached the island he summoned 
 Columbus to appear before him, and 
 put him in irons. His brothers were 
 treated in the same manner ; all three 
 were sent to Spain, accompanied by a 
 number of written charges, drawn up 
 from the statements of the bitterest en- 
 emies of Columbus. Columbus endured 
 this outrage with noble equanimity, 
 and wrote, as soon as he had arrived 
 in Cadiz, Nov. 25, 1500, to a lady of 
 the court vindicating his conduct and 
 describing in eloquent and touching 
 language the treatment he had re- 
 ceived. The fetters with which he had 
 been bound he kept to the day of his 
 death, and his son Hernando states 
 that he even ordered that they should 
 be inclosed with him in his coffin. Or- 
 ders were immediately sent directing 
 him to be set at liberty, and inviting 
 him to court, where his sovereigns re- 
 ceived him with the same distinction 
 as formerly. Isabella was moved to 
 tears, and Columbus, overcome by his 
 long suppressed feelings, threw himself 
 upon his knees, and for some time 
 could not utter a word for the violence 
 of his tears and sobbings. He then 
 defended himself by a simple account 
 of his conduct, and was reinstated to 
 his dignities. Ferdinand even con- 
 sented to dismiss Bobadilla which was 
 intended for the first step toward the 
 promised restoration of the great dis-
 
 Columbus 
 
 Columbus 
 
 coverer in his dignities. But these 
 dispositions in the monarchs were 
 soon changed. There was much talk 
 of great expeditions, and in the mean- 
 time Nicolas de Ovando y Lares was 
 sent as governor to Hispaniola. Co- 
 lumbus still urged the fulfilment of 
 the promises solemnly made to him ; 
 but after two years of delay he be- 
 came convinced that there was no in- 
 tention to do him justice. 
 
 But his noble mind had now learned 
 to suffer, and he was principally desir- 
 ous of completing his work. Suppos- 
 ing the continent which he had seen 
 to be Asia, he did not doubt that he 
 should find, through the Isthmus of 
 Darien, a way to the East Indies, from 
 which the first fleet of the Portuguese 
 had just returned richly laden. In 
 four slender vessels supplied by the 
 court for this purpose Columbus sailed 
 from Cadiz on his fourth and last voy- 
 age, May 9, 1502, with his brother 
 Bartolommeo and his son Hernando; 
 arrived contrary to his original inten- 
 tion off St. Domingo, June 29, and was 
 denied permission to enter the port 
 for the purpose of refitting his vessels, 
 and escaping a storm that was ap- 
 proaching. He succeeded, nevertheless, 
 in anchoring his small squadron in a 
 place of safety, and rode out the storm 
 while a fleet of 18 vessels, which had 
 put to sea in spite of his warning, was 
 almost entirely destroyed. He then 
 continued his voyage to Darien, but 
 without finding the expected passage. 
 Two of his vessels were destroyed by 
 a gale ; the two others were wrecked 
 off Jamaica, where he was scarcely 
 able to save himself and his compan- 
 ions. Here the severest trials awaited 
 the constancy of Columbus. Separated 
 from the other part of the world, his 
 destruction seemed to be certain. But 
 he succeeded in procuring a few canoes 
 from the natives, and prevailed on 
 some of his boldest and best men to 
 attempt a voyage to Hispaniola, in 
 two canoes, in order to inform the gov- 
 ernor of his situation. Several months 
 elapsed without a glimpse of hope. 
 Part of his companions, reduced to 
 despair, rebelled, repeatedly threatened 
 his life, separated from him, and set- 
 tled on another part of the island. 
 Here they alienated the minds of the 
 natives by their cruel treatment so 
 much that they ceased to bring them 
 
 supplies. The death of all seemed in- 
 evitable ; but Columbus, whose courage 
 rose with the danger, preserved his 
 men in this crisis. 
 
 He had fortunately ascertained that 
 a total eclipse of the moon was about 
 to take place, and threatened the na- 
 tives with the vengeance of his God if 
 they should persist in their enmity. 
 As a proof of his assertion the moon, 
 he said, would lose its light, in token 
 of the chastisement which awaited 
 them. When they beheld his threat 
 verified they hastened to bring him 
 provisions, and implore his interces- 
 sion with the Deity. But hostilities 
 now broke out between him and the 
 rebels, in which several of the latter 
 were killed, and their leader was 
 taken prisoner. After remaining a 
 year on the island, relief at last ap- 
 peared. The two canoes had reached 
 Hispaniola in safety, but the messen- 
 gers could not prevail on the governor 
 to undertake the deliverance of the 
 admiral. They finally bought a vessel 
 themselves, and it was on board this 
 ship that Columbus left Jamaica, June 
 28, 1504. He went to St. Domingo, 
 but only to repair his vessel, and then 
 hastened back to Spain. He arrived 
 in Spain sick and exhausted. The 
 death of the queen soon followed, and 
 he urged in vain on Ferdinand the ful- 
 fillment of his contract. After two 
 years of illness, humiliations, and des- 
 pondency, Columbus died in Vallado- 
 lid, May 20, 1506. His remains were 
 transported, according to his will, to 
 the city of St. Domingo, but on the 
 cession of Hispaniola to the French, 
 they were removed in January, 1796, 
 with great pomp, to the cathedral of 
 Havana in Cuba. A splendid monu- 
 ment was erected to him in a convent 
 at Seville, where his body lay before 
 being transferred to St. Domingo. In 
 1898 the remains of the discoverer 
 were removed to Spain, Cuba being no 
 longer a Spanish possession since the 
 war with the United States. 
 
 In the vigor of manhood Columbus 
 was of an engaging presence, tall, well 
 formed, and muscular, and of an ele- 
 vated and dignified demeanor. His 
 visage was long, his nose aquiline, hia 
 eyes light gray, and apt to enkindle. 
 His whole countenance had an air of 
 authority. Care and trouble had 
 turned his hair white at 30 years of
 
 Column 
 
 age. He was moderate and simple in 
 diet and apparel, eloquent in dis- 
 course, engaging and affable with 
 strangers, and of great amiability and 
 suavity in domestic life. His temper 
 was naturally irritable, but he subdued 
 it by the benevolence and generosity of 
 bis heart. Throughout his life he was 
 noted for a strict attention to the of- 
 fices of religion ; nor did his piety con- 
 sist in mere forms, but partook of that 
 lofty and solemn enthusiasm with 
 which bis whole character was strong- 
 ly tinctured. Of a great and inventive 
 genius, a lofty and noble ambition, his 
 conduct was characterized by the 
 grandeur of his views and the mag- 
 nanimity of his spirit. For further 
 information respecting the life of Co- 
 lumbus various authorities are avail- 
 able to the inquirer. His son Ferdi- 
 nand wrote a memoir, but the original 
 is lost, though an early Italian version 
 exists which has been translated into 
 English and other languages. His 
 own journal of his first voyage may 
 also be read in English, both it and 
 Major's " Select Letters of Colum- 
 bus " being published by the Hakluyt 
 Society. 
 
 Column, in architecture, a round 
 pillar. In military tactics, a deep, 
 solid mass of troops, formed by plac- 
 ing several bodies of men behind each 
 other (sections, platoons, companies, 
 squadrons, and even several battal- 
 ions). The column is either an open 
 or a close one. 
 
 Column of July, a monument 
 erected in Paris, in 1840, on the site 
 of the old Bastille in honor of the citi- 
 zens killed in the revolt against the 
 government in 1830. 
 
 Column of Trajan, a monument 
 erected in Rome in 114 A. D. in honor 
 of the Emperor. 
 
 Column of Vendome, a monu- 
 ment erected in the Place de Ven- 
 dome, Paris, by Napoleon I., to com- 
 memorate his victories over the Rus- 
 sians and Austrians in 1805. 
 
 Coma, a morbid state which, if 
 considered a distinct disease, is a mild- 
 er form of apoplexy, but which may 
 be properly regarded as a symptom 
 rather than an idiopathic affection. 
 
 Comanches, an aboriginal tribe of 
 North American Indians, whose hunt- 
 in? grounds were the regions now 
 
 Comedy 
 
 known as Texas and Northern Mexico. 
 They were very numerous between 
 1700 and 1750, having a tribal organ- 
 ization under chiefs of their own se- 
 lection. They hunted on horseback, 
 and were estimated to number 400,000 
 when first encountered by the whites. 
 They have dwindled to insignificant 
 proportions, and in 1899 numbered 
 1,553, on a reservation ia Oklahoma. 
 
 Combat, Single, a very ancient 
 usage, evidenced by Goliath (1 Sam: 
 xvii), and by Ajax in the "Iliad." The 
 barbarous practice survives in Euro- 
 pean countries, without its excuse of 
 superstition, in the modern duel, which 
 is legally prohibited in the United 
 States. Until the early part of the 
 19th century the law of England per- 
 mitted the guilt or innocence of ac- 
 cused persons to be decided by combat 
 between accuser and accused. 
 
 Combes, Justin Louis Emile, 
 French statesman, born 1835. He be- 
 came Minister of Education in 1895, 
 and Premier in 1902. lie has been 
 distinguished by his anti-clericalism. 
 
 Combs, Leslie, diplomat, b. Little 
 Compton, R. I., July 31, 1852. Iden- 
 tified with official positions in Ken- 
 tucky ; in 1902 he became min. to 
 Guatemala ; and 1906, min. to Peru. 
 
 Comedie Francaise, the national 
 subsidized theater of France, formed in 
 1680 by the fusion of the two bodies 
 into which Moliere's company of actors 
 had split. It is managed under rules 
 made in 1812, with later amendments. 
 
 Comedietta, a dramatic mposi- 
 tion of the comedy class, but not so 
 much elaborated as a regular comedy, 
 and generally consisting of one or at 
 most two acts. 
 
 Comedones, a name applied to the 
 little cylinders of sebaceous and epi- 
 thelial substance which are apt to ac- 
 cumulate in the follicles of the skin 
 and to appear on the surface as small 
 round black spots. When squeezed 
 out they have the appearance of mi- 
 nute maggots or grubs, with black 
 heads, and thence have derived their 
 name. 
 
 Comedy, a dramatic representation 
 of a light and amusing nature, in 
 which are satirized pleasantly the 
 weaknesses or manners of society and 
 the ludicrous incidents of life.
 
 Comets 
 
 Comets, those celestial bodies, 
 which consist of a bright star-like 
 nucleus, encircled by a coma, and 
 having a nebulous train or tail often 
 of great length. The singularity of 
 their shape, and the irregularity of 
 their appearance, terrified the ancients, 
 who connected their visits with the 
 great, especially the calamitous, events 
 of nations. Their appearance, how- 
 ever, is no more remarkable than the 
 appearance of the moon. They are so 
 distant, and either their motions are 
 so rapid, or their substance is so rare, 
 that none of them have been found to 
 have any material action on such of 
 the planets as they have come near 
 though the planets have had a consid- 
 erable influence on them. 
 
 Comitia, with the Romans, the as- 
 semblies of the people in which the 
 public business was transacted and 
 measures taken in conformity with the 
 will of the majority. They existed 
 even under the kings. 
 
 Comity of Nations, the interna- 
 tional courtesy by which effect is given 
 to the laws of one State within the ter- 
 ritory and against the citizens of an- 
 other State. 
 
 Commander-in-chief, the su- 
 preme commander of the united forces 
 of any country. In the United States 
 the President for the time being is 
 commander-in-chief of the army and 
 navy, and of the militia of the several 
 States when the latter is in the Na- 
 tional service and formed part of the 
 National provisional army. In all 
 other cases the governor of each State 
 is the Commander-in-chief of the State 
 troops. 
 
 Commandery, among the Knights 
 Templar, Hospitallers, etc., a district 
 under the administration and control 
 of a member of the order, called the 
 commander or preceptor. 
 
 Commencement, in educational 
 institutions, the day when graduates 
 receive their diplomas. 
 
 Commensurable, an appellation 
 given to such quantities or magnitudes 
 as can be measured by one and the 
 same common measure. Commensur 
 able numbers are such as can be meas- 
 ured or divided by some other num- 
 ber without any remainder. 
 
 Commentary, a term used (1) in 
 the same sense as memoirs, for a nar- 
 
 E. 37. 
 
 Commission 
 
 rative of particular transactions or 
 events, as the " Commentaries " of 
 "izesar. (2) A series or collection of 
 comments or annotations. 
 
 Commerce, a mutual exchange, 
 )uying and selling whether abroad or 
 at home ; but in a more specific or lim- 
 ted sense it denotes intercourse or 
 :ransactions of the character now de- 
 scribed with foreign nations or with 
 colonies; mutual exchange or buying 
 and selling at home being designated* 
 not commerce, but trade. 
 
 Commerce and Labor, Depart 
 ment of, an executive department of 
 .he United States government, created 
 in 1903. It comprises the Divisions 
 of Appointment, Publications, and 
 Supplies ; the Bureaus of Corpora- 
 tions, Manufactures, Labor, Census, 
 Statistics, Fisheries, Navigation, Im- 
 migration, Naturalization, the Light- 
 house Board, Coast and Geodetic Sur- 
 vey, and Steamboat Inspection Service. 
 Commercial Law, the law which 
 regulates commercial affairs among 
 the 'merchants of different countries or 
 among merchants generally. 
 
 Commercial Treaties, compacts 
 between two countries for the purpose 
 of improving and extending their com- 
 mercial relations ; each country en- 
 gaging to abolish or to reduce to an 
 agreed rate or otherwise modify the 
 duties on articles of production and/ 
 manufacture imported from the one 
 country into the other. They are usu- 
 ally for a limited period, but may be 
 renewed and modified according to al- 
 tering conditions. 
 
 Commissary, an ecclesiastical 
 term, an officer of a bishop who exer- 
 cises spiritual jurisdiction in remote 
 parts of a diocese, or one intrusted 
 with the performance of the duties in 
 the bishop's absence. Also, in the 
 army a term applied to officers charged 
 with furnishing provisions, etc., for 
 its use. 
 
 Commission, a formal act of 
 trust ; a warrant by which any trust 
 is held or authority exercised. A 
 written document, investing a person 
 with an office or certain authority. A 
 certificate issued by authority by 
 which a military officer is constituted ; 
 as, a captain's commission. A body of 
 persons joined in an office of trust, or 
 their appointment ; as, a building com*
 
 Commission 
 
 Common Schools 
 
 mission. Brokerage, allowance, or com- 
 pensation made to a factor, agent, etc., 
 for transacting the business of anoth- 
 er; as one per cent, commission on 
 sales. Commission of bankruptcy, a 
 commission appointed to investigate 
 the facts relative to an alleged bank- 
 ruptcy and to secure all available as- 
 sets and effects for the creditors con- 
 cerned. A commission merchant is one 
 who sells goods on behalf of another, 
 being paid by a certain percentage, 
 called his commission. Putting a war- 
 ship in commission is fitting her out 
 for service after she has been laid up. 
 
 Commission Government, a 
 
 form of municipal government that 
 has recently become popular in the 
 United States and been adopted in 
 more than 100 large cities. It aims 
 to put an end to partisan bossism, 
 graft, and official corruption, by sub- 
 stituting for the ordinary municipal 
 government one consisting of a mayor 
 and a small commission. The vari- 
 ous executive departments are divided 
 between the commissioners, who are 
 elected by the city at large; all 
 franchises are submitted to popular 
 vote; no ordinances passed by the 
 commissioners can go into effect 
 under 30 days; and within this period 
 10 per cent, of the voters can obtain 
 a referendum to the entire body of 
 voters if a proposed measure Is 
 deemed unwise. 
 
 Commodore, in the United States 
 navy, formerly an officer ranking 
 next above a captain. The grade was 
 abolished in 1899, when all com- 
 modores became rear-admirals. 
 
 Commodns Antonius, Lucius 
 Anrelius, a Roman Emperor ; born 
 in 161 A. D. ; the son of Marcus Aure- 
 lius. He went so far in defiance of 
 decency as to fight in the circus like 
 a gladiator, and then gave himself out 
 to be a god, and would be worshipped 
 as Hercules. He was at last poisoned 
 by Marcia (one of his concubines, 
 whose life he had intended to take), 
 and then strangled by an athlete. The 
 
 i vices and misgovernment of Commo- 
 dus contributed powerfully to hasten 
 
 \ the fall of the empire. He died Dec. 
 31, A. D. 192. 
 
 Common, that which belongs as a 
 privilege or right equally to more than 
 one, to many, or to the public at 
 
 large ; free to all ; general ; universal ; 
 public ; having no separate owner ; as, 
 the common weal. 
 
 The word is also applied to an open 
 and (generally) uninclosed space, the 
 use of which is not restricted to any 
 individual, but is free to the public or 
 to a certain number. 
 
 Common Council, the council of a 
 city or corporate town, empowered to 
 make by-laws for the government of 
 the citizens. 
 
 Commoner, in Great Britain, a 
 term applied to all citizens except the 
 hereditary nobility. 
 
 Common Law, the unwritten law, 
 the law that receives its binding force 
 from immemorial usage and universal 
 reception, in distinction from the writ- 
 ten or statute law. It consists of that 
 body of rules, principles, and customs 
 which have been received from former 
 times, and by which courts have been, 
 guided in their judicial decisions. 
 Wherever statute law, however, runs 
 counter to common law, the latter is 
 entirely overruled. 
 
 Common Pleas, in law, pleas 
 brought by private persons against 
 private persons, or by the government, 
 when the cause of action is of a civil 
 nature. In many States of the United 
 States it is a court having jurisdiction 
 generally in civil actions. 
 
 Common Prayer, Book of, the 
 public form of prayer prescribed by 
 the Church of England to be used in 
 all churches and chapels, and which 
 the clergy are to use under a certain 
 penalty. The Book of Common Pray- 
 er is used also by the English-speaking 
 Episcopal Churches in America, as 
 well as by some non-Episcopal bodies. 
 
 Commons, the people who have a 
 right to sit or a right to vote for rep- 
 resentatives in the English House of 
 Commons, and all who in England are 
 under the rank of peers without ref- 
 erence to their voting privileges. 
 
 Common Schools, a term used in 
 the United States as equivalent to 
 the system of free public schools, orig- 
 inating in colonial times, and now 
 universal throughout the Union, and 
 justly regarded as the foundation of 
 American liberty, progress and self- 
 government. Its highest development 
 is in the North, but it is making 
 great progress in the South, and is
 
 Commonwealth 
 
 being extended to Cuba, Porto Rico, 
 Hawaii, and the Philippine Islands, 
 
 Commonwealth, the state or con- 
 dition of a country without any ref- 
 erence to the form of government un- 
 der which it may be at the time. Owing 
 to the semi-independent position of the 
 States of the American Union the 
 term commonwealth is of frequent ap- 
 plication to the various members of 
 the Union, Massachusetts being offi- 
 cially known as the " Commonwealth 
 of Massachusetts." The new Austra- 
 lian Federation is known as the " Com- 
 monwealth of Australia." 
 
 The word is also applied to the 
 period in the history of England dur- 
 ing which the Parliamentary army 
 and the Protector Oliver Cromwell 
 exercised the power of government. 
 
 Commune, the unit or lowest di- 
 vision in the administration of France. 
 In France there are about 36,000 
 communes, with a considerable meas- 
 ure of self-government, with the pow- 
 er of holding property, etc. 
 
 The rising of the Commune of Paris 
 in 1871 . was based on discontent at 
 Paris, where the people found them- 
 selves in possession of arms after the 
 siege of the Germans. The rising be- 
 gan on March 18, 1871, and was only 
 suppressed 10 weeks later after long 
 and bloody fighting between the forces 
 of the commune and a large army of 
 the central government, (3,500 Com- 
 munists having fallen during May 
 20-30, and 38,578 been taken prison- 
 ers, many of whom were executed, and 
 others transported. 
 
 Communion. In theology, the act 
 of partaking with others of the sacra- 
 mental symbols in the Lord's Supper. 
 
 Communism, a system of society 
 in which common property is the rec- 
 ognized form. In later times it is an 
 attempt to prevent or remedy the evils 
 arising out of the inequalities of pri- 
 vate property by holding property in 
 common. But in primitive societies, 
 in the hunting and pastoral stages of 
 civilization, communism was universal. 
 
 Socialism is a vague phenomenon 
 which must not be identified with 
 communism. Yet the movement is 
 largely colored with communistic con- 
 ceptions, and in some of its schools a 
 thoroughgoing communism is taught 
 with lax notions as to the relation, of 
 
 Company 
 
 the sexes. Different both from social- 
 ism and this aggressive communism 
 are the communistic societies still ex- 
 isting in the United States. The lat- 
 ter are simply quiet efforts to realize 
 for their members a happier state of 
 things by community of property, but 
 without a revolutionary propaganda 
 and remote from the main current of 
 modern social development. 
 
 Comnenus, the name of a family, 
 originally Italian, of which many 
 members occupied the throne of the 
 Byzantine empire from 1057 to 1204, 
 and that of Trebizond from 1204 to 
 1461. 
 
 Como, Lake, (anciently Lacus 
 Larius) , a lake in the N. of Jtaly, at 
 the foot of the Alps ; fed and drained 
 by the river Adda, which carries its 
 surplus waters to the Po. It is cele- 
 brated for the beautiful scenery of its 
 shores, which are covered with hand- 
 some villas, gardens, and vineyards, 
 mountains rising behind to the height 
 of 7,000 feet. 
 
 Comoro Islands, a volcanic group 
 in the Indian Ocean, between the N. 
 extremity of Madagascar and the con- 
 tinent of Africa. They are four in 
 number: Great Comoro, Mohilla, Jo- 
 hanna, and Mayotta. Mayotta be- 
 longed to France since 1843, and in 
 1886 the others became a French pos- 
 session. 
 
 Company, a word of various appli- 
 cations, including : 
 
 (1) A number of persons legally 
 associated for the performance of any 
 duty or the carrying on of any business. 
 
 (2) The partners in any firm whose 
 names do not appear in the title or 
 style of the firm ;*in this use the word 
 is generally contracted to Co. 
 
 (3) A society, corporation, or guild 
 for the promotion and protection of 
 the interests of any trade. When com- 
 panies are authorized by the State or 
 Government, they are termed corpora- 
 tions. 
 
 In military language, the smallest 
 command of a captain of infantry. In 
 the United States a company of in- 
 fantry (full strength) numbers 100 
 men. In Europe it varies in strength 
 from 48 rank and file (peace strength) 
 to 120 (as in England), which is the 
 limit of a dismounted officer's com-
 
 Comparative Anatomy 
 
 Comstock 
 
 mand, to 250 (as with the Continental 
 armies), where the captain is mounted. 
 
 Comparative Anatomy, as dis- 
 tinguished from special anatomy ; the I 
 science which examines and compares 
 the structure of two or more different 
 kinds of animals, so as to discover 
 their points of resemblance and un- 
 likeness ; and as such it is a most im- 
 portant department of the science of 
 biology. 
 
 Compass, an instrument used to 
 indicate the magnetic meridian or the 
 position of objects with respect to that 
 meridian, and employed especially on 
 ships and by surveyors and travelers. 
 Its origin is unknown, but it is sup- 
 posed to have been brought from 
 China to Europe about the middle of 
 the 13th century. 
 
 Compasses, a mathematical in- 
 strument used for describing circles, 
 measuring lines, etc. They consist 
 simply of two pointed legs movable on 
 a point or pivot. 
 
 Competition, the act of endear- 
 oring to gain what another endeavors 
 to gain at the same time. In political 
 economy it is simply the form taken 
 by the struggle for existence as ap- 
 plied to industry. 
 
 Competition as applied to the pub- 
 lic service is regulated by the state. 
 The salaries in the various grades, 
 and the conditions of employment, are 
 fixed by authority. The chief ma- 
 terial stimulus is the hope of promo- 
 tion. 
 
 Complexion, the term generally 
 used to signify the special color or hue 
 of a person's skin. 
 
 Composite Order, a term denot- 
 ing the last of the five orders of archi- 
 tecture. As its name implies, it is 
 composed of two orders, the Corinth- 
 ian and the Ionic. 
 
 Composition, an arrangement 
 which a bankrupt or person in pecu- 
 niary difficulties makes with his cred- 
 itors, and by which he arranges to 
 pay them a certain proportion onlj 
 of the debts due. 
 
 Compostella, Order of St. 
 James of, an order of Spanish 
 knights formed in the 12th century to 
 protect the Christian pilgrims who 
 flocked in vast numbers to Santiago- 
 de-Compostella, where the relics of St. 
 
 James were preserved. In time they 
 attained great wealth, thereby excit- 
 ing the jealousy of the crown, which 
 succeeded in securing the grand-mas 
 tership in 1522, whereupon the ordeo 
 rapidly declined. 
 
 Compound Fracture, a fracture 
 in which the bone is broken and the 
 surrounding integuments have been 
 pierced, making a wound from the ex- 
 ternal surface to the bone. 
 
 Compounding; of Felony, the ac- 
 cepting of a consideration for forbear- 
 ing to prosecute ; or the agreeing to 
 receive one's goods again from a thief 
 on condition of not prosecuting. This 
 is an offence punishable by fine and! 
 imprisonment. 
 
 Compound Spirits, rectified spir- 
 its to which has been added one or 
 more flavoring ingredients. They are 
 called also compounds. 
 
 Compound Steam-engine, a 
 form of steam-engine originally pat- 
 ented by Hornblower in 1781, in 
 which steam at a relatively greater 
 pressure was allowed to expand in a 
 small cylinder, and then, escaping into 
 a larger cylinder, to expand itself 
 against a larger piston. 
 
 Compressed Air, atmospheric air 
 compressed by means of pumps, etc., 
 and used in driving stationary andl 
 locomotive engines and excavating ma- 
 chines; as also in working pneumatic 
 dispatch-tubes, railway-brakes, etc. 
 
 Compurgation, a mode of defense 
 allowed by the Anglo-Saxon law in 
 England, and common to most of the 
 Teutonic tribes. The accused was 
 permitted to call a number of men, 
 styled compurgators, who joined their 
 oaths to his in testimony to his inno- 
 cence. They were persons taken from 
 the neighborhood, or otherwise known, 
 to the accused, and acted rather in. 
 the character of jurymen than that of 
 witnesses, for they swore to their be- 
 lief, not to what they knew; that is, 
 on the accused making oath of his in- 
 nocence they swore that they believed 
 he was speaking the truth. 
 
 Comstock Lode, a large and ex- 
 tremely rich metallic lode in the W. 
 part of Nevada, on the E. slope of 
 the Virginia mountains. To it belong 
 the Big Bonanza and other mines, 
 which have yielded gold and silver to 
 the value of over $300,000,000.
 
 Go xute 
 
 Coiute, Isidore Auguste Marie 
 Francois Xavier, a French philos- 
 opher ; born in Montpellier Jan. 12, 
 1798. He invented a religion which 
 consists in referring the whole har- 
 mony of existence to, and concentrat- 
 ing its essence in one great Being, 
 whom he termed Humanity. A sys- 
 tem is propounded by him in which 
 he has drawn up a regular calendar 
 of demigods, presiding over the 
 months, weeks, and days of the year, 
 and having each their appropriate 
 festivals. The thirteen months into 
 which he divided the year he called 
 Moses, Homer, Aristotle, Archimedes, 
 Caesar, St. Paul,. Charlemagne, Dante, 
 Gutenberg, Shakespeare, Descartes, 
 Frederick, and Bichat. He himself 
 assumed the office of high priest of 
 this new religion, performing mar- 
 riages and funeral rites on behalf of 
 his disciples. He died in Paris Sept. 
 5, 1857. 
 
 Conaty, Thomas James, an 
 American clergyman ; born in Ireland, 
 Aug. 1, 1847. He was graduated at 
 Montreal Theological School and or- 
 dained a Roman Catholic priest In 
 1896 he was made rector of the Cath- 
 olic University of America, in Wash- 
 ington, D. C., and on Nov. 24, 1901, 
 he was consecrated titular bishop of 
 Samos. 
 
 Concentration Camp, a term 
 that came into use during the last 
 Spanish War in Cuba. It arose from 
 the practice of the Spanish command- 
 er Weyler, gathering all the non-com- 
 batants of a district into one place, so 
 that they could not give aid to their 
 countrymen who were in arius. The 
 British in the Boer War and the 
 Americans in the Philippines establish- 
 ed similar camps. 
 
 Conception, Immaculate, in the 
 Roman Catholic Church, the doctrine 
 that the Virgin Mary was born with- 
 out the stain of original sin. It was 
 received in the Roman Church as an 
 opinion, but not as an article of faith 
 till 1854, when the Pope issued a bull 
 which makes the Immaculate Concep- 
 tion a point of faith. 
 
 Concerto, a composition for the 
 display of the qualities of some espe- 
 cial instrument, accompanied by oth- 
 ers and usually applied to a solo in- 
 strument in a band or orchestra. 
 
 Concord 
 
 Conch, a marine shell, especially of 
 the Strombus gigas; and, in art, a 
 spiral shell used by the Tritons 
 as a trumpet, and still used by some 
 African people in war. 
 
 Conchology, the science of shells. 
 Two well-marked stages in its devel- 
 opment are traceable. At first shells 
 were studied without any reference to 
 the animals of which they constituted 
 the hard frame-work or skeleton. Sub- 
 sequently the study took a wider 
 scope, and for the first time became 
 worthy of being called a science, when 
 the animals and their shells were 
 viewed as parts of one common whole. 
 When shells were looked upon as lit- 
 tle more than ornamental objects, 
 those who studied conchology were 
 not generally of a high order of intel- 
 lect ; but since the rise of geology and 
 the discovery that, of all fossils, shells 
 are able to furnish the most definite 
 information regarding the several 
 strata, and consequently regarding the 
 history of bygone times, scientific 
 minds of the very first class have 
 given keen attention to them. 
 
 Conciergerie, La, a noted prison 
 in Paris, which was a part of the 
 Palais de Justice. Many royal prison- 
 ers were there confined, and during 
 the Reign of Terror it was the scene 
 of fearful butcheries, 328 prisoners 
 being put to death in one week. Marie 
 Antoinette went from her cell in this 
 prison to her execution. 
 
 Conclave, the place where the car- 
 dinals assemble for the election of the 
 Pope ; also the electoral assembly of 
 the cardinals themselves. Pope Greg- 
 ory X., whose election had been de- 
 layed for three years, established in 
 the council at Lyons (1274) the regu- 
 lations of the conclave. The cardi- 
 nals are shut up together in a par- 
 ticular suite of apartments in the 
 palace where the pontiff dies, and they 
 are supposed to have no communica- 
 tion with the outside world during the 
 period of the election. The compan- 
 ion, either lay or clerical, whom the 
 cardinal is allowed to take with him 
 into the conclave during the election 
 of a Pope is called a conclavist. The 
 office is one of great delicacy and 
 trust. 
 
 Concord, in music, the combina- 
 tion of two or more sounds pleasing
 
 Concord 
 
 to the ear. Concords are the octave, 
 the lifth, third, and sixth. 
 
 Concord, a town in Middlesex 
 county, Mass., 20 miles west of 
 Boston. It was for many years the 
 Beat of the famous Concord School 
 of Philosophy, and is the site of the 
 Concord State Reformatory. During 
 the early part of the Revolution the 
 Americans had a large stock of arms 
 and military stores at Concord. Gen. 
 Gage, the British Commander in Bos- 
 ton, hearing of this sent a body of 
 soldiers to destroy these stores, and 
 on their way they fought the battle 
 of Lexington, the first of the war. 
 When they reached Concord they de- 
 stroyed what stores they could find, 
 but were soon driven off by the Amer- 
 icans (April 19, 1775). Pop. (1900) 
 5,652; (1910) 6,421. 
 
 Concord, a city, capital of the 
 State of New Hampshire, and county- 
 seat of Merrimac county ; 75 miles N. 
 W. of Boston. Concord was settled 
 by the whites in 1725, on the site of 
 an Indian village, but till 1765 it was 
 called Rumford. It became a city in 
 1853. It is noted as the place where 
 Hannah Dustin, another woman, and 
 a boy, who had been taken captive by 
 Indians at Haverhill, Mass., killed the 
 10 Indians, when asleep, with hatch- 
 ets, and so escaped. Pop. (1900) 19,- 
 632; (1910) 21,497. 
 
 Concord, city and capital of Ca- 
 barrus county, N. C.; on the Southern 
 railroad; 21 miles N. E. of Charlotte; 
 manufactures cotton and iron. Pop. 
 (lulO) 8,715. 
 
 Concordance, a book of reference 
 in which all the important words in 
 the Bible are arranged alphabetical- 
 ly part of the verse being extracted 
 with each. The first English Con- 
 cordance to the New Testament was 
 that of Thomas Gybson, before A. D. 
 1540; the first to the whole English 
 version of the Bible that of Marbeck, 
 A. D. 1550. The elaborate and well- 
 known work of Cruden appeared first 
 in 1737. 
 
 Concordat, a compact, a conven- 
 tion, or an agreement entered into be- 
 tween the Pope and a sovereign prince 
 or a governmpnt for regulating the 
 affairs of the Church within the king- 
 dom. The most notable one was that 
 
 between Pope Pius VII. and Na- 
 poleon Bonaparte in 1801, which was 
 abrogated by the French Govern- 
 ment in 1906. 
 
 Concrete, a composition used in 
 building, consisting of hydraulic or 
 other mortar mixed with gravel or 
 stone clappings about the size of a 
 nut. It is used extensively in build- 
 ing under water, and is frequently 
 used to make a bed for asphalt pave- 
 ments, or to form foundations for 
 buildings of any kind. 
 
 Concubinage, the act or state of 
 living with one of the opposite sex 
 without being legally married. 
 
 Concurrent Jurisdiction, the 
 jurisdiction of different courts author- 
 ized to take cognizance of the same 
 kind of case. 
 
 Concussion of the Brain, a 
 shaking of the brain produced by a 
 sudden shock or any similar cause, 
 and generally resulting in at least 
 temporary insensibility. Sometimes 
 recovery takes place in a few min- 
 utes, the sufferer first seeing every- 
 thing inky black, then dark red, then 
 pink, after which the landscape re- 
 turus. In severer cases insensibility 
 may remain for days instead of min- 
 utes. In the worst cases the coma is 
 never removed, but is succeeded by the 
 yet deeper sleep of death. 
 
 Concussion of the Spinal Cord, 
 due to similar causes acting on the 
 vertebral column instead of the head. 
 The symptoms vary much with the 
 site and severity of the injury. In 
 many c^ses they are altogether absent 
 or quite trivial at first, and only at- 
 tract attention after some hours or 
 days have elapsed ; yet, and probably 
 for this very reason, the injury not 
 being treated at first, serious after- 
 effects are much more common than 
 in cases of concussion of the brain. 
 Here also, however, complete recovery 
 is the rule. 
 
 Conde, the name of a French fam- 
 ily, the younger branch of the Bour- 
 bons, who took their name from the 
 town of Conde, Department of Nord. 
 The greatest of these was Louis, 
 Prince of Conde, born in 1621, who 
 defeated William of Orange, after- 
 ward William the Third, of England, 
 at Senef in 1674, and died in 1686.
 
 Condensation 
 
 Condensation, the reduction of 
 anything to another and denser form, 
 as of a vapor or gas to a liquid, or a 
 liquid to a solid ; the passage of gases 
 or vapors from the aeriform to the 
 liquid state. It is sometimes called 
 also the liquefaction of vapors. 
 
 Condensed Milk, milk reduced 
 greatly in bulk and rendered propor- 
 tionately denser. 
 
 Condenser, an apparatus for re- 
 ducing to a liquid form the steam in 
 front of the piston, so as to obtain a 
 partial vacuum at that point, and thus 
 utilize the natural pressure of the at- 
 mosphere. . 
 
 Condiments, or seasoning agents, 
 are those substances which are em- 
 ployed at table for the purpose of im- 
 parting a flavor or seasoning to the 
 ordinary solid or liquid food. 
 
 Condonation, in the legal phrase- 
 ology both of Great Britain and the 
 United States, means forgiveness 
 granted by the injured party, and may 
 be urged by the guilty party as a de- 
 fense against an action of divorce on 
 the ground of adultery. 
 
 Condor, the popular name of the 
 great vulture of the Andes. These 
 birds prefer to dwell above all animal 
 life, and at the extreme limit of even 
 Alpine vegetation, inhaling an air too 
 highly rarefied to be endured, unless 
 by creatures expressly adapted there- 
 to. The appetite of these birds seems to 
 be limited only by the quantity of 
 food that can be gorged into their 
 stomachs ; and when thus overloaded 
 they appear sluggish, oppressed, and 
 unable to raise themselves into the 
 air. But the condor does not exclu- 
 sively feed upon dead or putrefying 
 flesh ; he attacks and destroys mid- 
 dling-sized or small quadrupeds ; and 
 when pinched by hunger a pair of 
 these birds will attack a bullock, and 
 by repeated wounds from their beaks 
 and claws harass him until from fa- 
 tigue, he thrusts out his tongue, which 
 they immediately seize and tear from 
 his head. It does not appear that they 
 have ever attacked men. 
 
 The nesting-time of the condor va- 
 ries with the latitude, and the place 
 selected for the nest is usually some 
 inaccessible ledge of rock. It lays 
 two white eggs from 3% to 4 inches 
 long, which are hatched in about ( 
 
 Coney Island 
 
 seven weeks. The development of the 
 young birds is very slow since they 
 are not able to fly until they are a 
 year old, and they have to remain with 
 the parent birds for a year or two 
 longer. They are ocasionally seen 
 even on the shores of the southern 
 ocean, in the cold and temperate re- 
 gions of Chile, where the Andes so 
 closely approach the shores of the Pa- 
 cific. 
 
 Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoine 
 Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis de, 
 a French writer ; born near St. Quen- 
 tin, Sept. 17, 1743. During the trou- 
 bles of the first French Revolution his 
 sympathies were strongly engaged on 
 the side of the people. By the city 
 of Paris he was elected deputy to the 
 legislative assembly, of which he was 
 soon appointed secretary, and in Feb- 
 ruary, 1792, president. On the trial 
 of Louis he was in favor of the se- 
 verest sentence not capital ; at the 
 same time he proposed to abolish cap- 
 ital punishments, except in case of 
 crimes against the State. The fall of 
 the Girondist party, May 31, 1793, 
 
 Srevented the constitution which Con- 
 orcet had drawn up from being ac- 
 cepted, and as^he freely criticised the 
 constitution wnich took its place, he 
 was denounced as being an accom- 
 plice of Brissot. Lest he should en- 
 danger the safety of Madame Verney 
 who had given him refuge, he fled 
 from Paris, and wandered about till 
 arrested and thrown into prison, 
 where, March 28, 1794, he was found 
 dead on the floor, having apparently 
 swallowed poison. 
 
 Condottieri, a class of mercenary 
 adventurers in the 14th aad 15th cen- 
 turies, who commanded military bands, 
 amounting to armies, on their own 
 account, and sold their services for 
 temporary engagements to sovereign 
 princes and States. 
 
 Conduit, a line of pipes or an un- 
 derground channel of some kind for 
 the conveyance of water. 
 
 Cone, in geometry, a solid figure 
 described by the revolution of a right- 
 angled triangle about one of the sides 
 containing the right angle, which side 
 remains fixed. 
 
 Coney Island, a small island in 
 the Borough of Brooklyn, about 10 
 miles S. E. of New York city. It i
 
 Confederate States 
 
 Confirmation 
 
 about 5 miles in length and from half 
 to three-quarters of a mile in width; 
 separated from the mainland by Coney 
 Island creek. It is connected with 
 New York and Brooklyn by steam 
 and electric railroads and steamboat 
 lines. It is a popular summer resort. 
 
 Confederate States of Ameri- 
 ca, The, the name adopted by the 
 Southern States when they seceded 
 from the Union and formed a govern- 
 ment at Montgomery, Ala., Feb. 4, 
 1861. The Constitution of the Con- 
 federate States was modeled after that 
 of the Federal Constitution, and in 
 some important differences has won 
 the approval of even Northern states- 
 men. It recognized Almighty God and 
 invoked His favor and guidance. It 
 guarded carefully the doctrine of the 
 " sovereignty of each State." It ex- 
 pressly forbade the slave trade, or the 
 importation of slaves from any for- 
 eign country other than the slave- 
 holding States and Territories of the 
 United States. It forbade "boun- 
 ties " or " trusts " of any kind, and 
 provided a " tariff for revenue." It 
 gave Cabinet officers the privileges of 
 the floors of its Congress, allowed 
 the President to veto any part of a 
 bill and approve the remainder, giving 
 his reasons for such action, and fixed 
 the term of office of the President at 
 six years and made him ineligible for 
 a second term. 
 
 Confederate Veterans' Associ- 
 ation, a federation of all organiza- 
 tions of survivors of the Civil War 
 on the Southern side. This associa- 
 tion was organized at New Orleans, 
 June 10, 1889. Its avowed purpose 
 is strictly social, literary, historical, 
 and benevolent. 
 
 Confederation, Articles of, a 
 form of constitution adopted by the 
 Continental Congress of the United 
 States in 1777 and ratified by the 
 colonies in the next four years. It 
 provided for a Congress of one house 
 only, in which each State should have 
 one vote. This body was empowered 
 to declare war and peace, make treat- 
 ies with foreign powers, regulate the 
 value of coin, etc., but as it had no 
 power to enforce its laws upon the 
 States, it soon fell into contempt and 
 on March 4, 1798, expired by limita- 
 tion under the provisions of the pres- 
 ent Constitution. 
 
 Confederation of the Rhine, 
 
 the league of Germanic States formed 
 by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1800, and 
 including Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Ba- 
 den, Hesse-Darmstadt, the Kingdom of 
 Westphalia, etc. It extended over 
 125,100 square miles, and comprised 
 14,608,877 inhabitants. The failure 
 of Napoleon's Russian campaign ot 
 1812 shook the structure, and the 
 league soon after broke up. 
 
 Conference, in diplomacy, a meet- 
 ing of the representatives of different 
 powers for the purpose of adjusting 
 differences ; also, an annual gathering 
 of the ministers, with a number of 
 lay representatives of the several 
 Methodist congregations, to deliberate 
 upon the affairs of the religious de- 
 nomination to which they belong. 
 
 Confession, act of confessing ; 
 that which is confessed ; acknowledg- 
 ment of a crime or fault ; open dec- 
 laration of guilt, failure, debt, accu- 
 sation, etc. ; avowal ; profession ; dis- 
 closure of sins or faults to a priest; a 
 formulary of articles of faith ; a creed. 
 In law, confession is where a prisoner 
 indicted of an offense, and brought to 
 the bar to be arraigned, upon the in- 
 dictment being read to him, and the 
 court demanding what he can say 
 thereto, confesses the offense and in- 
 dictment to be true. Confession, in 
 civil cases, is where the defendant con- 
 fesses the plaintiff's right ; or, in pros- 
 ecutions under penal statutes, by 
 which confession there may be a miti- 
 gation of a fine against the penalty 
 of a statute, though not after a ver- 
 dict. 
 
 Confessional, in Roman Catholic 
 churches and chapels, a kind of in- 
 closed seat in which the priest sits to 
 hear persons confess their sins. 
 
 Confession of Faith, a statement 
 of religious beliefs ; a kind of elaborate 
 creed. What is most distinctively 
 known by this name is the document 
 prepared by the Assembly of Divines 
 which met at Westminster in obedience 
 to an ordinance of Parliament issued 
 June 12, 1643. 
 
 Confirmation, the act of confirm- 
 ing ; that which confirms ; additional 
 evidence ; proof ; convincing testi- 
 mony ; assurance ; establishment ; rat- 
 ification; as the confirmation of a 
 treaty.
 
 Confiscation 
 
 In theology, the laying on of hands 
 by the bishop, for the conferring of 
 the grace of the Holy Spirit ; a rite 
 by which a person arrived at years of 
 discretion takes on himself the per- 
 formance of the baptismal vow made 
 for him by his sponsors. 
 
 In law, a deed of conveyance at 
 common law, whereby an estate or 
 right which is voidable is made sure 
 and unavoidable, 
 
 Confiscation, the act of condemn- 
 ing as forfeited, and adjudging to the 
 public treasury, the goods of a crim- 
 inal in part punishment of a crime. 
 The subject of confiscating the prop- 
 erty of those iii rebellion was warmly 
 discussed both in and out of the United 
 States Congress, at the beginning of 
 the Civil War, and a bill to that ef- 
 fect was finally passed by Congress, 
 and approved by President Lincoln, in 
 1862. The decision of the courts that 
 confiscated property could be held only 
 during the lifetime of the offender, 
 and not against his heirs, practically 
 nullified measures of confiscation. 
 
 Confucius, or Kongfutse, that 
 is, " the teacher, Kong," the famous 
 Chinese sage; born about 550 B. c. in 
 the province of Shan-tung, then be- 
 longing in part to the small vassal 
 kingdom of Lu. The deaths of his 
 favorite disciples Yen Hwin and Tze- 
 lu 481 and 478 did much to further 
 his own, which took place in the lat- 
 ter year. Confucius left no work de- 
 tailing his moral and social system. 
 The teaching of Confucius has had, 
 and still has, an immense influence in 
 China, though he can hardly be said 
 to have founded either a religion or a 
 philosophy. All his teaching was de- 
 voted to practical morality and to the 
 duties of nian in this world in rela- 
 tion to his fellowmen ; in it was 
 summed up the wisdom acquired by 
 his own insight and experience, and 
 that derived from the teaching of the 
 sages of antiquity. It is doubtful if 
 he had any belief in a personal god. 
 
 Conger, Edwin Hnrd, an Ameri- 
 can diplomatist ; born in Knox coun- 
 ty, Illinois, 'March 7, 1843. Enlisted 
 in the Union army, attaining the 
 brevet rank of major. At the close of 
 the Civil War he studied law, begin- 
 ning the practice of his profession in 
 Galesburg, 111., and removing to Iowa 
 
 Congo 
 
 in 18G8. He was elected to Congress 
 in 1884 ,and twice reflected as a Re- 
 publican. In 1890 he was appointed 
 Minister to Brazil, serving four years. 
 In 1897 he was again appointed to 
 that post and hi the following year 
 was transferred to China. He was at 
 his post throughout the Chinese crisis 
 of 1900, in Peking, being imprisoned 
 with his family and the entire diplo- 
 matic corps in the British legation, 
 compound from June 20 to Aug. 15. 
 They were rescued by the allied forces 
 barely in time to save all from a 
 general massacre. He returned to the 
 U. S. in May. 1901 ; ran unsuccess- 
 fully for Governor of Iowa ; in March, 
 1905, was appointed ambassador to 
 Mexico, but resigned the following Oc- 
 tober. He died May 18, 1907. 
 
 CONGER-EEL. 
 
 Conger, a large sea-eel, 5, 6, or, 
 in rare cases, even 10 feet long. Its 
 xipper parts are brownish-white, and 
 the lower dirty-white ; the lateral line 
 spotted with white, the dorsal and 
 anal fins white margined with black. 
 A smaller species is found in the Medi- 
 terranean. 
 
 Congestion, an abnormal accumu- 
 lation of blood in the capillary ves- 
 sels, speedily producing a disordered 
 function of the capillaries themselves. 
 
 Conglomerate, in geology, peb- 
 bles, gravel, or any similar collection 
 of rounded water-worn fragments of 
 rocks, the whole bound together by a 
 silicious, calcareous, or argillaceous 
 cement. 
 
 Congo. See KONGO.
 
 Congregation 
 
 Congregation, an assembly, gen- 
 erally a religious assembly ; in its 
 most ordinary use, an assembly of 
 Christians met in one place for wor- 
 ship. The word is also used in the 
 Church of Rome to describe communi- 
 ties of ecclesiastics who live together 
 under rule, but without being bound 
 by vow, or at least by solemn vow. 
 The papal boards at Rome in charge 
 of departments of church service are 
 also called Congregations. 
 
 Congregationalism, or Inde- 
 pendency, a form of evangelical 
 Christianity which vests all ecclesias- 
 tical authority in the individual be- 
 lievers associated in a local church, 
 complete in itself, but holding ad- 
 visory cooperative relations with simi- 
 , jar bodies. Congregationalism holds 
 in common with other evangelical 
 Christians the great facts of sin and 
 of redemption through the incarnation 
 and atonement of Christ as taught in 
 the Bible. Congregationalism denies 
 that there is any authority in Scrip- 
 ture for uniting the churches of a na- 
 tion or province into one Church or 
 corporation, to be ruled by a bishop 
 or bishops, superior to the bishop or 
 pastor of the particular congregations 
 or by a presbytery or a synod con- 
 sisting of the pastors or elders of the 
 several congregations of the nation or 
 province. This principle of Church 
 polity is the specialty which plainly 
 distinguishes Congregationalism from 
 Episcopacy, Presbyterianism, Metho- 
 dism, and other denominations whose 
 churches are organized into a body 
 having over its members any authority 
 other than advisory. Usually each 
 church has one minister or pastor, 
 who is chosen by the free suffrages of 
 the membership, but there may be 
 more than one. In addition to the 
 pastor or pastors, home mission- 
 aries and evangelists are sometimes 
 appointed. Home missionaries and 
 evangelists, if employed by a church 
 for local service, are under the super- 
 vision of the church and not of the 
 pastor, save as he is an agent of the 
 church. Those commonly known as 
 home missionaries and many evangel- 
 ists, while members of some local 
 church, are usually clergymen who 
 have been formally inducted into the 
 ministerial office according to the 
 usages of the denomination. 
 
 Congregationalism 
 
 Standing in the ministry is given 
 (1) by the action of the church au- 
 thorizing one of its members or any 
 other person it may deem qualified to 
 exercise ministerial functions; (2) by 
 the action of a voluntary association 
 of Congregational ministers approv^ 
 ing a candidate after due examina- 
 tion, and commending him for a lim- 
 ited time as such to the churches; (3) 
 by an action of a Council of Churches 
 called by some local church or acting 
 in its name, ordaining a man as pas- 
 tor or evangelist or missionary, or in- 
 stalling a minister as pastor of the 
 church Calling the council. The secu- 
 lar affairs of the church are adminis- 
 tered by trustees appointed by the 
 church, not all necessarily members of 
 the church. In some matters, like 
 calling and installing a pastor, the 
 church and the society act conjointly. 
 The principles of this polity are held 
 also by the Baptists, Unitarians, Uni- 
 versalists, and other denominations. 
 
 The first Congregational Church in 
 England, of which there was any rec- 
 ord, was formed in London about 
 1571. One of the most famous of the 
 early churches in England was formed 
 at Scrooby, in Lincolnshire. It met 
 in the house of William Brewster, 
 under the pastoral care, for a time, of 
 Richard Clyfton. The famous John 
 Robinson, M. A., succeeded him, and 
 many regard him as the true founder 
 of Independency. To escape persecu- 
 tion, members of this Church fled to 
 Holland, from whence, through the 
 influence of John Robinson, after 12 
 years, they crossed the Atlantic and 
 landed at New Plymouth, the Pilgrim 
 Fathers of the " Mayflower." In the 
 cabin of the " Mayflower " was signed 
 the famous compact which might be 
 called the magna charta of American 
 Congregationalism. 
 
 In 1638 Harvard College was found- 
 ed. In 1658 the Savoy Confession was 
 adopted, and still remains Unitarian 
 principles spread, about 1800, widely 
 in the Congregational churches of 
 America, and though a separation took 
 place between the Unitarians and the 
 Trinitarians, both still retain the 
 Congregational form of church govern- 
 ment. " Congregationalism," accord- 
 ing to Dr. Schaff, is the ruling sect of 
 the six Northeastern States, and has 
 exerted, and still exerts, a beneficial
 
 Congress 
 
 Congress of the TJ. S. 
 
 influence upon the religious, social, 
 and political life of the whole nation." 
 
 In addition to the Conference, or 
 Association of Churches, by which 
 they cooperate for common ends, a Na- 
 tional Council meets triennially " for 
 advisory and not juridical ends." Its 
 declaration, like that of a council of 
 local churches, " hath so much force 
 as there is in the reason of it." In 
 the United States Congregationalists 
 have over 5,700 organizations, 5,790 
 churches, and 700,000 members. 
 There are six National Societies, 
 through which the charities of Congre- 
 gationalists mainly flow. 
 
 Congress, an assembly either of 
 sovereign princes, or of the delegated 
 representatives of sovereign States, 
 for the purpose of considering matters 
 of international interest. In the 
 United States, though the term has 
 now a different meaning, it had a sim- 
 ilar origin, the first congress being 
 that of the delegates from the various 
 British colonies, who met on Oct. 7, 
 1765, for the purpose of considering 
 their grievances. Previous to signing 
 a treaty of peace, a meeting of pleni- 
 potentiaries usually takes place, to 
 which the name of a congress is some- 
 times applied, though it seems more 
 properly to be reserved for those more 
 important meetings at which exten- 
 sive schemes of future policy are de- 
 termined on, and the balance of power 
 among the various European states 
 readjusted. 
 
 Congress, Library of, an institu- 
 tion in Washington, D. C., which, de- 
 spite its restricted name, is really 
 the National Library of the United 
 States. The Library of Congress was I 
 established in 1800, destroyed in 1814 
 by the burning of the Capitol, after- 
 ward replenished by the purchase by 
 Congress of the library of ex-Presi- 
 dent Jefferson, in 1851 ; 35,000 vol- 
 umes destroyed by fire; in 1852, par- 
 tially replenished by an appropriation 
 of $75,000; increased (1) by regular 
 appropriations by Congress; (2) by 
 deposits under the copyright laws; 
 (3) by gifts and exchanges; (4) by 
 the exchanges of the Smithsonian In- 
 stitution, the library of which (40,- 
 000 volumes) was, in 1866, deposited 
 in the Library of Congress, with tho 
 stipulation that future accessions 
 should follow it. Fifty sets of Gov- 
 
 ernment publications are placed at the 
 service of the Library of Congress for 
 international exchanges through the 
 Smithsonian. 
 
 The collection in the main library 
 is now the largest single collection in 
 the Western Hemisphere. It com- 
 prises 750,000 printed books, 250,000 
 pamphlets, 26,500 manuscripts, 52,000 
 maps and charts, 277,000 pieces of 
 sheet music, and upward of 90,000 
 photographs, prints, engravings, and 
 lithographs. The law library of 103,- 
 000 volumes is not included. The 
 main collection is rich in Federal doc- 
 uments, history, political science, juris- 
 prudence, and Americana in general, 
 including important files of American 
 newspapers and original manuscripts. 
 The exhibition cases on the second 
 floor contain many rare books, includ- 
 ing the records of the Virginia Com- 
 pany. The Smithsonian deposit is 
 strong in scientific works, and in- 
 cludes the largest assemblage of the 
 transactions of learned societies which 
 exists in this country. 
 
 In 1897 the main collection was re- 
 moved from the Capitol to the build- 
 ing erected for it under the acts of 
 Congress. The building occupies three 
 and three-quarter acres upon a site 10 
 acres in extent at a distance of 1,270 
 feet E. of the Capitol, and is the larg- 
 est and most magnificent library 
 building in the world. The floor space 
 is 326,195 square feet, or nearly 8 
 acres. The book stacks contain about 
 45 miles of shelving, affording space 
 for 2,200,000 volumes. Were the long 
 corridors, now used in part for exhi- 
 tion purposes, completely shelved, the 
 building would accommodate over 4,- 
 000,000 volumes. The library con- 
 tains a reading room for the blind. 
 
 Congressman at Large, in the 
 United States, a member elected to the 
 House of Representatives by the vot- 
 ers of the entire State instead of by 
 districts. 
 
 Congress of Religions, an as- 
 semblage of representatives of all the 
 Christian denominations and other re- 
 ligious bodies of the world, held at 
 Chicago during the World's Colum- 
 bian Exposition of 1893. 
 
 Congress of the United States, 
 the legislative branch of the Federal 
 Government, deriving its powers from 
 the Constitution. It consists of a
 
 Conibos 
 
 Senate and a House of Representa- 
 tives. The powers of Congress are 
 enumerated in Article 1, section 8, of 
 the Constitution, and all powers not 
 granted to Congress, or prohibited to 
 the States, are reserved to the States 
 or to the people ; but the power of 
 Congress is absolute within the scope 
 of its authority. The Senate is com- 
 posed of two members from each 
 State, the members of the House are 
 apportioned on the basis of population. 
 Bills that have passed both Houses 
 are sent to the President, who may 
 either sign or veto them, or do neither, 
 in which case the bill becomes a law 
 after 10 days unless Congress has 
 previously adjourned. Legislation ex- 
 ceeding the constitutional power of 
 Congress will be declared unconstitu- 
 tional by the Supreme Court, if that 
 body is appealed to by either party 
 to any controversy arising in an at- 
 tempt to enforce such laws. Each 
 House is, by the Constitution 1 , " the 
 judge of the elections, returns and 
 qualifications of its own members." 
 
 Conibos, a tribe of Indians in 
 Eastern Peru, allied to the Ucayale 
 tribe. The Spanish missionaries tried 
 to convert them in 1683, but were 
 driven out after 1695, when Father 
 Ritchie was killed by the savages. 
 They were an agricultural people and 
 built villages. They are now partial- 
 ly civilized and are often employed as 
 canoe men and rubber gatherers. 
 
 Conic Sections, three curves, the 
 hyperbola, the parabola, and the el- 
 lipse; so called because these curves 
 are formed by the intersection of the 
 surface of a cone with planes that 
 cut the cone in various directions. 
 
 Contain, a genus of umbelliferous 
 plants, including the common hem- 
 lock. Various species of hemlock oc- 
 cur in this country, Europe and Asia. 
 
 Conjunction, in astronomy, one 
 of the aspects of the planets. Two 
 heavenly bodies are in conjunction 
 when they have the same longitude 
 that is, when the same perpendicular 
 to the ecliptic passes through both. 
 If they have, at the same time, the 
 same latitude they appear from the 
 earth to be in the same spot of the 
 heavens, and to cover one another. 
 The sun and moon are in conjunction 
 at the period of new moon. 
 
 Connanght 
 
 Conjunctiva, the mucous mem- 
 brane which lines the inner surface of 
 the eyelids and the fore part of the 
 globe of the eye. Conjunctivitis is an 
 inflamed state of the conjunctiva. 
 
 Conjuring, the production of 
 effects apparently miraculous by nat- 
 ural means. The earlier professors of 
 the art claimed supernatural powers ; 
 and in ages when the -most elementary 
 principles of physical science were 
 unknown beyond a very limited circle, 
 it was not difficult to gain credence 
 for such a pretension. The modern 
 conjurer makes n< such claim, but 
 tells the public frankly that his mar- 
 vels are illusory, and rest either on 
 personal dexterity or on some inge- 
 nious application of natural princi- 
 ples. See LEGERDEMAIN. 
 
 Conklin, Jennie Maria (Drink- 
 
 water), an American author ; born 
 in Portland, Me., April 14, 1841. She 
 was educated in the public schools, 
 and while still in her teens won fame 
 with her stories for children. In 1880 
 she married Rev. Nathaniel Conklin. 
 She originated the " Shut-In Society," 
 an organization of invalids for corre- 
 spondence. She died in New Vernon, 
 N. J., April 28, 1900. 
 
 Conkling, Roscoe, an American 
 legislator; born in Albany, N. Y., 
 Oct. 30, 1829; was admitted to the 
 bar in 1850; sat in Congress as a 
 Republican, and was elected to the 
 United States Senate. He became an 
 influential member of his party ; in 
 1876 he received 93 votes for the 
 Presidential nomination, and in 1880, 
 by his support of Grant and his per- 
 sonal opposition to Blaine, divided the 
 Republicans into two sections. In 
 1881 he and his colleague, Thomas C. 
 Platt, suddenly resigned from the Sen- 
 ate owing to a dispute with President 
 Garfield on a question of patronage, 
 and sought reelection ; but both were 
 rejected, though vigorously supported 
 by Vice-President Arthur. Conkling 
 afterward practised law in New York 
 city. He died April 18, 1888. 
 
 Connaught, H. R. H, Prince 
 Arthur, Duke of, third son of late 
 Queen Victoria and uncle of King 
 George V.; born, 1850; married Prin- 
 cess Louise of Prussia in 1879; be- 
 came British and Prussian field-mar- 
 shal; succeeded his brother (King Ed-
 
 Connecticut 
 
 ward VII.) as Grand Master of 
 Free Masons; appointed Gov.-Gen. of 
 Canada, suceeding Earl Grey in 1911. 
 
 Connecticut, a State in the North 
 Atlantic division of the North Amer- 
 ican Union; bounded by Massachu- 
 setts, Rhode Island, Long Island 
 Sound, and New York ; gross area 
 4,845 square miles ; one of the origi 
 nal 13 States ; number of counties, 8 ; 
 population (1900) 908,355; (1910) 
 1,114,756; capital, Hartford. Connec- 
 ticut lies on the S. slope of the New 
 England hill region. The highest ele- 
 vation is Bear Mountain, Salisbury, 
 2,354 feet. The State is drained by 
 three large rivers and their tributar- 
 ies ; the Connecticut, rising in New 
 Hampshire, bisects the State in a N. 
 and S. direction, and is navigable for 
 50 miles ; the Thames, formed by the 
 Shetucket, Yantic, and Quinnebaug, is 
 navigable las far as Norwich ; and the 
 Housatonic, with its main branch, the 
 Naugatuck, navigable to Derby. The 
 coast line is about 100 miles in length 
 and affords many excellent harbors, of 
 which New Haven and New London 
 are the largest. 
 
 The climate is temperate, and there 
 are no swamps or marshes. The trees 
 include several varieties of oak, pine, 
 cedar, tamarack, chestnut, beech, wild 
 cherry, ash, basswood, hickory, wal- 
 nut, willow, poplar, dogwood, syca- 
 more and holly. 
 
 Of various mineral productions iron 
 ore is the most abundant. Copper and 
 lead exist, but have never been mined 
 with much profit. Silver occurs in 
 minute quantities. There are immense 
 quarries of red sandstone at Portland 
 and Cromwell, and marble and lime- 
 stone is quarried at Canaan and 
 Washington, while the largest amount 
 of orthoclase quarried in the United 
 States comes from Glastonbury and 
 Middletown. The agricultural inter- 
 ests of the State are very important. 
 Cereals, fruits, and vegetables grow in 
 great abundance in the W. valleys, 
 and tobacco in the valley of the Con- 
 necticut. 
 
 Connecticut is one of the foremost 
 manufacturing States in the Union. 
 In 1900 there were 9,128 manufactur- 
 ing establishments reported, employing 
 $314,696,736 capital and 176,694 per- 
 sons; paying $82,767,725 for wages 
 and $185,641,210 for materials; and 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 having a combined output valued at 
 $352,824,106. The principal articles 
 were rolled brass and copper, foundry 
 and machine shop products, hardware, 
 cotton goods, woolen goods, silk and 
 silk goods, plated and Britannia ware, 
 hats and caps, brass castings and fin- 
 ishings, corsets, and worsted goods. 
 
 Education is compulsory, and the 
 public schools are conducted on the 
 highest plane. The strongest religious 
 denominations numerically in the 
 State are the Roman Catholic, Con- 
 gregational, Methodist Episcopal, Prot- 
 estant Episcopal, Baptist, Luth- 
 eran, Presbyterian, and Disciples of 
 Christ 
 
 The total length of railroads within 
 the State Jan. 1, 1900, was 1,024.55 
 miles, of which 16.40 miles were con- 
 structed during the previous year. 
 
 The governor is elected for a term 
 of two years and receives a salary of 
 $4,000 per annum. Legislative ses- 
 sions are held biennially. The Legis- 
 lature has 258 members in the House 
 and 35 in the Senate, each elected for 
 a term of two years, and receive $300 
 for the regular sessions and mileage 
 one way at 25 cents per mile. Con- 
 necticut sends five Representatives to 
 Congress. 
 
 The first settlement in Connecticut 
 was made at Hartford, in 1633, by the 
 Dutch. The first constitution was 
 adopted in Hartford in 1639, and 
 formed the basis of the charter of 
 1662. In 1686 the royal governor, 
 Andros, attempted to obtain the char- 
 ter, but it was hidden in the hollow 
 of an oak tree. On the dethronement 
 of James II. the Colonial government 
 resumed its functions. Connecticut 
 took an active part in the French-In- 
 dian, Revolutionary, 1812, and Civil 
 Wars. She instructed her delegates 
 in the Continental Congress to pro- 
 pose a declaration of independence, 
 and was the fifth State to ratify the 
 Federal Constitution. The Hartford 
 Convention, most memorable of gath- 
 erings in the State, assembled Dec. 
 15, 1814. It protested against the 
 war with England and against the ac- 
 tion of the National Government with 
 reference to State defense. This con- 
 vention, which adjourned Jan. 5, 1815, 
 raised the Federal party in the estima- 
 tion of the people.
 
 Councils ville 
 
 Conscription 
 
 Connellsville, a borough in Fay- 
 ette county, Pa.; on the Youghio- 
 gheny river and the Baltimore & 
 Ohio and other railroads; 53 miles 
 S. E. of Pittsburg; is best known as 
 the largest coke-making place in the 
 world. Pop. (1910) 12,845. 
 
 Connelly, Cell a Logan, an 
 American journalist and popular au- 
 thor; born in Philadelphia, in 1839; 
 died June 18, 1904. 
 
 Connelly, James H., an Ameri- 
 can journalist; born in Pittsburg, 
 Pa., in 1840. He began newspaper 
 work when 17 years old. His 
 writings include short stories and spe- 
 cial articles for newspapers and maga- 
 zines, and novels. He died in 1903. 
 
 Connemara (" the Bays of the 
 Ocean"), a boggy and mountainous 
 district occupying the W. portion of 
 county Galway, Ireland ; about 30 
 miles in length and 15 to 20 miles in 
 breadth. Its coasts are very broken, 
 and there are numerous small lakes. 
 
 Conning Tower, the place in mod- 
 ern battleships where the commander 
 stands during a naval engagement, 
 and from which he directs the move- 
 ments of the ship and men. 
 
 Conon, an Athenian general, was 
 the son of Timotheus. Having been 
 defeated in a naval engagement at 
 ^gospotamos by Lysander, he for a 
 time went into exile ; but being aided 
 by Artaxerxes, King of Persia, he re- 
 turned and defeated the Spartans near 
 Cnidos, 394 B. C. Conon then began 
 to rebuild the fortifications of Athens, 
 and restored it to liberty and security ; 
 but being sent on a political mission 
 to Tiribazus, a Persian satrap, he 
 was imprisoned, and it is not known 
 what became of him. 
 
 Conrad, George, pseudonym of 
 Prince George of Prussia ; a German 
 dramatist ; born Feb. 12, 1826. 
 
 Conrad, Robert Taylor, an 
 American lawyer and dramatist ; born 
 in Philadelphia, June 10, 1810; died 
 there, June 27, 1858. 
 
 Conradin, the son of Conrad IV., 
 Duke of Suabia, and the last of the 
 house of Hohenstauffen ; born in 1252. 
 As the greatest part of the possessions 
 of his family had been swept away, 
 Conradin accepted the invitation of 
 the Italian Ghibellines to place him- 
 self at their head. He crossed the 
 
 Alps with 10,000 men ; was well re- 
 ceived at Verona, and, notwithstand- 
 ing the treason of his relatives Mein- 
 liard and Louis of Bavaria, who left 
 him with but 3,000 men, he entered 
 South Italy.' Charles d'Anjou, on 
 whom the crown of Naples had been 
 bestowed by Pope Urban IV., met 
 
 Dnradin at Tagliacozzo, defeated him, 
 knd caused him to be beheaded, in 
 12G8. 
 
 Conrad von Wnrzbnrg, one of 
 the most celebrated poets of the Mid- 
 dle Ages. His last poem, which he 
 left in an unfinished condition, has for 
 its subject, " The Trojan War." He 
 died in Basel in 1287. 
 
 Consanguinity, the quality or 
 state of being related by blood ; near- 
 ness of kin; descent from a common 
 ancestor. 
 
 Conscience, the moral sense, the 
 internal monitor which signifies ap- 
 proval when we do well, and inflicts 
 more or less acute and lasting pain 
 when we act sinfully. 
 
 Conscience, Hendrik, a Flemish 
 novelist, one of the re-creators of 
 Flemish literature ; born in Antwerp 
 Dec. 3, 1812. His first story, "In 
 the Wonder-Year 15GG," was received 
 with popular favor, and his delinea- 
 tions of lowly Flemish home life be- 
 came familiar throughout Europe. He 
 died in Brussels Sept. 10, 1883. 
 
 Conscience Money, stolen or 
 wrongfully acquired money returned 
 to its rightful owner when conscience 
 is awakened to a sense of right deal- 
 ing. In the United States such money 
 paid into the Treasury at Washington 
 by self-avowed debtors anonymously is 
 known as the Conscience Fund. 
 
 Consciousness, the state of being 
 conscious ; knowledge or perception of 
 what passes in one's own mind. The 
 act of the mind which makes known 
 an internal object. Internal sense or 
 knowledge of guilt or innocence. Con- 
 sciousness is the recognition by the 
 mind of its own acts. 
 
 Conscription, the enlisting of the 
 inhabitants of a country capable of 
 bearing arms, by a compulsory levy, 
 at the pleasure of the government. 
 
 During the American Civil War 
 conscription was enforced both North 
 and South. In the South every man 
 and boy able to shoulder a gun was
 
 Consecration 
 
 .obliged to serve, er^ept those abso- 
 lutely needed as millers, bakers, and 
 in other necessary occupations. 
 
 Consecration, the act of solemnly 
 dedicating a person or thing to the 
 service of God. In the Jewish law, 
 rites of this nature are frequently en- 
 joined, the Levites and priests, the 
 tabernacle and altar, etc., being spe- 
 cially dedicated or consecrated to God. 
 
 Consent, in law, is understood to 
 be a free and deliberate act of a ra- 
 tional being. It is invalidated by 
 any undue means intimidation, im- 
 proper influence, or imposition used 
 to obtain it. Idiots, pupils, etc., can- 
 not give legal consent; neither can 
 persons in a state of absolute drunk- 
 enness. 
 
 Consequential Damages, in law, 
 are such losses or damages as arise out 
 of a man's act, for which, according to 
 a fundamental principle in law, he 
 is answerable if he could have avoided 
 them. The same law applies to rail- 
 ways and corporations generally, as 
 determined in numerous cases. 
 
 Conservative, as applied to one of 
 the two great parties in English poli- 
 tics, was first used by J. W. Croker 
 in an article in the " Quarterly " for 
 January, 1830, and was by Macaulay 
 in the " Edinburgh " for 1832 referred 
 to as a " new cant word." Conserva- 
 tive accordingly began to supersede 
 Tory about the time of the Reform 
 Bill controversies. The plural form 
 of the word has been assumed as a 
 distinctive name by certain political 
 parties in many nations. These par- 
 ties are sometimes actually, and al- 
 ways avowedly, opposed to changes* 
 from old and established forms ard 
 practices. In United States histo-y 
 these names have never been in gen- 
 eral use, but in Van Buren's admin's- 
 tratipn the name of Conservatives was 
 applied to those Democrats that at the 
 special session of Congress, of Sep- 
 tember, 1837, opposed the establish- 
 ment of the sub-treasury system. In 
 the Congress that met in December, 
 1839, they had practically disappea-ed. 
 The name was also assumed by South- 
 ern whites during the reconstruction 
 period 1 following the Civil War, to 
 show their adherence to the old State 
 governments, the abolition of which 
 by Congress they opposed. The name 
 
 Consignment 
 
 was also used at the North during this 
 period. The Democrats applied it to 
 themselves to draw moderate Repub- 
 lican votes. 
 
 Conservatory, a name given to a 
 systematic school of musical instruc- 
 tion. 
 
 The term in gardening, is generally 
 applied by gardeners to plant-houses, 
 in which the plants are raised in a 
 bed or border without the use of pots, 
 the building being frequently attached 
 to a mansion. The principles of their 
 construction are in all respects the 
 same as for the green-house, with the 
 single difference that the plants are 
 in the free soil, and grow from the 
 floor instead of being in pots placed 
 on shelves or stages. 
 
 Considerant, Victor-Prosper, a 
 French Socialist; born in Salins in 
 1808. After being educated at th& 
 Polytechnic School of Paris, he en- 
 tered the army, which, however, he 
 soon left to promulgate the doctrines 
 of the Socialist Fourier. On the 
 death of his master (1837), Consider- 
 ant became the head of his school, and 
 undertook the management of the 
 " Phalange," a review devoted to the 
 spread of their opinions. Having 
 gained the support of a young English- 
 man, Mr. Young, who advanced the 
 money Considerant established, on a 
 large estate in the department Eure 
 et Loire, a socialist colony, but the 
 experiment failed, and with it the 
 " Phalange " fell to the ground. la 
 1849 Considerant was accused of high 
 treason and compelled to flee from 
 France. In Texas he founded a so- 
 cialist community, which flourished 
 for a time, but afterwards came to 
 nothing. Considerant returned to 
 France in 1869. He died Dec. 27, 
 1893. 
 
 Consideration, in law, the thing 
 given, or done, or abstained from by 
 agreement with another, and in vievr 
 p c that other doing, giving, or abstain- 
 ing from something. 
 
 Consignment, a mercantile term 
 which means either the sending of 
 goods to a factor or agent for sale, or 
 the goods so sent. The term is chiefly 
 used in relation to foreign trade. In 
 most countr'es a consigner can claim 
 his goods and collect all outstanding 
 debts for goods sold on his account by
 
 Consistory 
 
 a consignee who has suspended pay- 
 ment. 
 
 Consistory, an assembly of ecclesi- 
 astical persons; also certain spiritual 
 courts holden by the bishops in each 
 diocese. At Rome the consistory de- 
 notes the judicial court constituted by 
 the college of cardinals. The repre- 
 sentative body of the reformed church 
 in France is styled consistory. 
 
 Consols, securities of a consolida- 
 ted indebtedness, whether of public 
 or private corporations, are in En- 
 gland quoted as consols. The term is 
 generally applied to the British pub- 
 lic debt securities, which, in Septem- 
 ber, 1903, were at the lowest figure 
 for many years. 
 
 Consort, he, she, or that which 
 shares the same lot with another; a 
 companion ; a partner ; an intimate 
 associate ; a wife or husband ; applied 
 in a modern sense chiefly to persons of 
 royal degree or position, in countries 
 where women are able to reign. It is 
 also applied to a ship sailing irx com- 
 pany with another. 
 
 Conspiracy, a secret agreement or 
 combination between two or more per- 
 sons to commit any unlawful act that 
 may injure any third person or per- 
 sons. Specifically a combining falsely 
 and maliciously to indict, or to procure 
 the indicting or conviction of any in- 
 nocent person of felony. In June, 
 1900, the House Committee on the Ju- 
 diciary, of the United States Con- 
 gress, reported a bill that aroused 
 widespread interest in the labor and 
 business world because it contained a 
 definition of the word conspiracy.. The 
 bill provided that no agreement or 
 contract between two or more persons 
 to do, or not to do, any act is contem- 
 plation or furtherance of any trade 
 dispute between employers and em- 
 ployees in any Territory of the Unit- 
 ed States, or who may be engaged in 
 interstate or foreign trade, shall be 
 deemed criminal, nor shall those en- 
 gaged therein be indictable or pun- 
 ishable for the crime of conspiracy if 
 such act committed by one person 
 would not be punishable as a crime, 
 nor shall any injunction be issued 
 with relation thereto. Provided, that 
 the provisions of this act shall not ap- 
 ply to threats to injure the person, 
 property, business or occupation of 
 
 Constance 
 
 any person, firm, or corporation, to 
 intimidation or coercion, or to any 
 acts causing or intended to cause an 
 illegal interference by overt acts with 
 the rights of others. 
 
 Constable, in the Middle Ages, an 
 officer under certain European crowns, 
 who had the command of the army, 
 and the cognizance of military mat- 
 ters, and who was judge of the court 
 of chivalry. 
 
 In the United States, a constable is, 
 generally, a petty officer, whose duties 
 include a limited judicial power as 
 conservator of the peace, a ministerial 
 power for the service of writs, etc., 
 and some other duties not strictly re- 
 ferable to either of these heads. 
 
 Constable, Archibald, a Scotch 
 publisher; born in 1774. He was the 
 original publisher of the " Edinburgh 
 Review," the poems of Sir Walter 
 Scott, the "Waverlev Novels." the 
 " Supplement to the Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica," and other valuable works. 
 In 1825 he projected the well-known 
 series of works, " Constable's Miscel- 
 lany." In 1826, however, the firm 
 was compelled to stop payment with 
 liabilities exceeding $1,250,000. Sir 
 Walter Scott, who was heavily in- 
 volved, practically sacrificed his life in 
 the endeavor to meet his creditors. 
 Constable himself did not long survive 
 his misfortunes, as he died July 21, 
 1827. 
 
 Constable, John, an English 
 landscape painter, born in Suffolk, 
 June 11, 1776. Mr. Henry Marquand 
 has presented two fine pictures by him 
 to the Metropolitan Museum of Art 
 in New York City. Constable died in 
 London, March 30, 1837. 
 
 Constable of Bourbon. See 
 BOURBON, CHARLES, DUKE OF. 
 
 Constance, city and lake port of 
 Germany, in the grand-duchy of Ba- 
 den, occupying the only territory be- 
 longing to Gertnany on the S. side of 
 the Lake of Cpnstance and about 35 
 miles N. E. of Zurich. Constance is 
 said to have been founded in 378 A. D. 
 by Constantius Chlorus as a bulwark 
 against the Alemanni. In the Middle 
 Ages, when it reached the height of 
 its prosperity, it was frequently called 
 Kpstnitz. It was annexed to the Aus- 
 trian dominions in 1549, and to Baden 
 in 1805. Pop. 21,300.
 
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