Practical Cinematography and its Applications Practical Cinematography and its Applications By Frederick A. Talbot Author of Moving Pictures" etc. Philadelphia J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY London : William Heinemann MCMXIII RADHURY, AGNEW, & CO LD., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE zs-o ft* PREFACE THIS volume has been written with the express purpose of assisting the amateur the term is used in its broadest sense as a distinction from the salaried, attached professional worker who is attracted towards cinematography. It is not a technical treatise, but is written in such a manner as to enable the tyro to grasp the fundamental principles of the art, and the apparatus employed in its many varied applications. While it is assumed that the reader has practised ordinary snap-shot and still-life work, and thus is familiar with the elements of photo- graphy, yet the subject is set forth in such a manner as to enable one who never has attempted photography to take moving-pictures. At the same time it is hoped that the volume may prove of use to the expert hand, by intro- ducing him to what may be described as the higher branches of the craft. The suggestions and descriptions concerning these applications may prove of value to any who may be tempted to labour in one or other of the various fields mentioned. 326305 vi PREFACE In the preparation of this volume I have received valuable assistance from several friends who have been associated intimately with the cinematographic art from its earliest days : J. Bamberger, Esq., of the Motograph Company, Limited, James Williamson, Esq., of the William- son Kinematograph Company, Limited, Kodak Limited, Messrs. Jury, Limited, and Monsieur Lucien Bull, the assistant-director of the Marey Institute, to whom I am especially indebted for facilities to visit that unique institution, and the investigation at first hand of its varied work, the loan of the photographs of the many experiments which have been, and still are being, conducted at the French " Cradle of Cinematography," and considerable assistance in the preparation of the text FREDERICK A. TALBOT. CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE I. ATTRACTIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF THE ART I II. THE PRINCIPLES OF CINEMATOGRAPHY . . 13 III. THE MOVING-PICTURE CAMERA AND ITS MECHANISM 21 IV. THE CAMERA AND HOW TO USE IT 35 V. HAND CAMERA CINEMATOGRAPHY . . .5! VI. DEVELOPING THE FILM 62 VII. PRINTING THE POSITIVE .... 79 VIII. ABERRATIONS OF ANIMATED PHOTOGRAPHY . 94 IX. SLOWING-DOWN RAPID MOVEMENTS . . IO8 X. SPEEDING-UP SLOW MOVEMENTS . . .124 XI. CONTINUOUS CINEMATOGRAPHIC RECORDS . 135 XII. RADIO-CINEMATOGRAPHY : HOW THE X-RAYS ARE USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE MOVING-PICTURE CAMERA .... 147 XIII. COMBINING THE MICROSCOPE AND THE ULTRA- MICROSCOPE WITH THE MOVING-PICTURE CAMERA . ' ,, . . - _ , . . l6l XIV. MICRO-MOTION STUDY: HOW INCREASED WORKSHOP EFFICIENCY IS OBTAINABLE WITH MOVING-PICTURES .... 174 viii CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE XV. THE MOTION PICTURE AS AN AID TO SCIEN- TIFIC INVESTIGATION 185 XVI. THE MILITARY VALUE OF THE CINEMATO- GRAPH IQ7 XVII. THE PREPARATION OF EDUCATIONAL FILMS . 2OQ XVIII. PHOTO -PLAYS AND HOW TO WRITE THEM . 224 XIX. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN STAGE PRODUC- TIONS 238 XX. WHY NOT NATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPH LABORATORIES ? 248 INDEX 259 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE How to take Moving-pictures of Wild Animals in safety ..... Frontispiece A Moving- picture Expedition into the Indian Jungle 4 Polar Bear Diving ...... 5 A Lion and Lioness at Lunch . . . .10 Caught ! ii Operator and Camera buried in a Hole . . .14 Making Moving- pictures of Wild Rabbits . . 14 Nest of King Regulus, showing curious Suspension . 15 Mother King Regulus feeding her Young . . .15 The Jury Moving-picture Camera .' . . .24 The Williamson Topical Camera and Tripod . . 25 The Williamson Camera threaded for Use . . 42 Lens of the Williamson Camera . . . -43 Adjustable Shutter of the Jury Camera ... 43 The " Aeroscope " Moving-picture Hand Camera . 52 Compressed Air Reservoirs of the " Aeroscope " Camera. . . :. . . : .. .;.... . 53 Lens, Shutter, Mechanism and Gyroscope , . 56 Loading the " Aeroscope " Camera . . -^ * . . 57 Mr. Cherry Kearton steadying himself upon a Precipice 58 Mr. Cherry Kearton slung over a Cliff ... 58 Vulture preparing to Fly ..... 59 A Well-equipped Dark Room showing Arrangement of the Trays 64 Winding the Developing Frame .... 65 Film transferred from Developing Frame to Drying Drum . . . . .-.;-. . 72 x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FACING FACE Film Wound on Frame and placed in Developing Tray 73 The Jury Combined Camera and Printer ... 73 The Williamson Printer 84 Water Beetle attacking a Worm .... 85 Marey's Apparatus for taking Rapid Movements . 112 Cinematographing the Beat of a Pigeon's Wing . 113 First Marey Apparatus for Cinematographing the Opening of a Flower . . . . .128 First Motion Pictures of an Opening Flower . .129 Development of a Colony of Marine Organisms . 129 Continuous Moving-picture Records of Heart-beats . 136 Continuous Moving-pictures of Heart-beats of an Excited Person . . . . . .137 Continuous Cinematography Palpitations of a Rabbit's Heart . . . . . .142 Stero-motion Orbit of a Machinist's Hand . . 143 Lines of Light indicating to-and-fro hand Movements 143 A wonderful X-ray Film made by M. J. Carvallo . 148 Moving X-ray Pictures of the Digestion of a Fowl . 149 Stomach and Intestine of a Trout . . . -152 Digestive Organs of the Frog . . . . .152 Lizard Digesting its Food ..... 152 X-ray Moving-pictures of the Bending of the Knee . 153 X-ray Film of the Opening of the Hand . . . 153 Micro-Cinematograph used at Marey Institute for investigating minute Aquatic Life . . .164 Micro-cinematography : The Proboscis of the Blow Fly 165 Micro-cinematograph used at the Marey Institute . 170 One of Dr. Comandon's Galvanic Experiments with Paramcecia . . . . . . .171 Micro-cinematography : Blow Fly eating Honey . 176 The Ingenious Gilbreth Clock . . . .177 Rack, showing Disposition of Component Parts, for Test . 177 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi MOM PAGE Film of Workman assembling Machine . . .182 Film of Rack and Bench, Floor marked off into Squares, and Clock 182 Cinematographing a Man's Work against Time . 183 Moving- pictures of a Steam Hammer Ram . .188 Dr. Fuch's Apparatus for taking Moving-pictures of the Operations of a Steam Hammer . . .189 Wonderful Apparatus devised by Mr. Lucien Bull for taking 2,000 Pictures per second . . .190 Moving-pictures of the Ejection of a Cartridge from an Automatic Pistol 191 Motion Photographs of the Splintering of a Bone by a Bullet 191 Soldiers Firing at the " Life Target "... 204 Front View of the " Life Target " showing Screen Opening - 205 Screen Mechanism of the " Life Target " . . . 206 Cinematographing Hedge-row Life under Difficulties . 207 Moorhen Sitting on her Nest 212 The Young Chick pierces the Shell . . . .212 Chick Emerging from the Shell . . . .213 Newly Hatched Chick struggling to its Feet . .213 Chick, Exhausted by its Struggles, Rests in the Sun . 214 The Chick takes to the Water . . . . 214 Fight between a Lobster and an Octopus . . 215 Story of the Water Snail . . . . ' 2 *5 The Head of the Tortoise . . ... 218 The Hawk Moth . . . ... .218 Snake Shedding its Skin or " Slough " . . . 219 The Snake and its Shed Slough . . . .219 Exterior View of Dummy Cow . . * . 226 Mr. Frank Newman and Camera hidden within Tree Trunk . * .-..-*." . . . 227 Lizard with Spider in its Mouth . . . . . 240 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PACE Digestive Organs and Eggs of a Water Flea . .241 Moving- picture Naturalist and the Lizard at Home . 241 A Novel " Hide," with Camera Fifteen Feet above Ground ........ 250 " Hide " Uncovered showing Working Platform . 251 IN TEXT FIG. PAGE 1. Mechanism of Camera showing Threading of Film 28 2. The " Pin " Frame ...... 67 3. The First Picture of the Four-spoke Wheel . 97 4. Apparent Stillness of Spokes while Wheel is Moving ....... 98 5. Apparent Backward Motion of Spokes while Wheel is Running Forwards .... 99 6. When Wheel is seen to be Moving Naturally . 100 7. Curious Illusion of seeing Twice the Number of Spokes in the Wheel ..... 102 8. Mechanism of the Nogues Camera . . .115 9. The Ingenious Radio-cinematographic Apparatus devised by Monsieur M. J. Carvallo . .151 10. Dr. Comandon's Radio - cinematographic Apparatus . 157 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY CHAPTER I ATTRACTIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF THE ART PROFIT and pleasure combine to win recruits for the art of animated photography. As an enter- tainment offered to the public, the moving- pictures have had no rival. Their popularity has been remarkable and universal. It increases daily, and, since we are only now beginning to see the magnitude of what the cinematograph can effect, it is not likely to diminish. This development has stirred the ambition of the amateur or independent photographer because the field is so vast, fertile, and promising. Remunerative reward is obtainable practically in every phase of endeavour so long as the elements of novelty or originality are manifest. The result is that it is attracting one and all. Animated photography can convey so fascinating P.C. B 2 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY and convincing a record of scenes and events that many persons sportsmen, explorers, and travellers make use of it. From the commercial point of view the issue is one of magnetic importance. In all quarters there is an increasing demand for films of prominent topical interest, either of general or local signi- ficance. The proprietors of picture palaces have discovered that no films draw better audiences than these. If they deal with a prominent incident like a visit of royalty to the neighbourhood, an important sporting event, a public ceremony, or even, such is human nature, with some disaster to life or property, they will make a stronger appeal for a few days than the general film fare offered at the theatre, because the episode which is uppermost in the mind of the public is what draws and compels public attention. Even, it would seem, when the reality itself has just been witnessed by the audience, its photographic reproduction proves more attractive than all else. The picture palace, indeed, is assuming the functions of the illustrated newspaper, and is governed by like laws. The more personal and immediate the news, the more pleased are the beholders. So there is an increasing effort to supply upon the screen in life and motion what the papers are recording in print and illustration. One can almost hear the phrase that will soon ATTRACTIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES 3 become general, " Animated news of the moment." Already the French are showing us the way. In Paris one is able to visit a picture palace for 25 centimes at any time between noon and mid- night and see, upon the screen, the events of the hour in photographic action. As fresh items of news, or, rather, fresh sections of film, are received, they are thrown upon the screen in the pictorial equivalent of the paragraphs in the stop- press column of the newspapers, earlier items of less interest being condensed or expunged in the true journalistic manner to allow the latest photographic intelligence to be given in a length consistent with its importance. It is obvious that this branch of the business must fall largely into the hands of the unattached or independent worker, who bears the same relation to the picture palace as the outside correspondent to the newspaper. A firm engaged in supplying topical films cannot hope to succeed without amateur assistance. No matter how carefully and widely it distributes its salaried photographers, numberless events of interest are constantly happening shipwrecks, accidents, fires, sensational discoveries, movements of prominent persons, and the like, at places beyond the reach of the retained cinematographer. For film intelligence of these incidents the firm must rely upon the independent worker. B 2 4 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY Curiously enough, in many cases, the amateur not only executes his work better than his salaried rival, but often outclasses him in the very important respect that he is more enterpris- ing. Acting on his own responsibility, he knows that by smartness alone can he make way against professionals. Only by being the first to seize a chance can he find a market for his wares. Thus when Bl6riot crossed the English Channel in his aeroplane it was the camera of an amateur that caught the record of his flight for the picture palaces, although a corps of professionals was on the spot for the purpose. True, the successful film showed many defects. But defects matter little compared with the importance of getting the picture first or exclusively. Similar cases exist in plenty. The amateur has an excellent chance against the professional. His remuneration, too, is on a generous scale. The market is so wide and the competition is so keen, especially in London, which is the world's centre of the cinematograph industry, that the possessor of a unique film can dictate his own terms and secure returns often twenty times as great as the prime cost of the film he has used. The market is open also to travellers, explorers, and sportsmen. These, with a cinematograph camera and a few thousand feet of film, can recompense themselves so well that the entire ATTRACTIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES 5 cost of an expedition may be defrayed. An Austrian sportsman who roamed and hunted in the North Polar icefields received over 6,000 ($30,000) for the films he brought back with him. Mr. Cherry Kearton, who took pictures of wild life in various parts of the world, sold his negatives for 10,000 or $50,000. Scientific investigators are in the same happy case. When their researches lead them to any- thing that has an element of popular appeal, there is profit awaiting them at the picture palace. The life of the ant, for instance, or electrical experiments, or interesting phases of chemistry, and many other features of organic and inorganic science, yield good returns to the scientist with a camera. Such films will command 205. ($5) or more per foot of negative. There is another branch of the work already well established. The producer of picture plays, if his plot be tolerably good and the scenes well acted and well photographed, and if the play itself promises some popular success, can com- mand a good price. At the moment there are several independent producers at work through- out the world. They have a large open market for the disposal of their wares and find no difficulty whatever in selling all they can produce. Even the largest producers, who have huge theatres and command the services of expert scenario writers 6 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY and players, do not hesitate to purchase from outside sources. A cinematograph camera, and a little luck, will make anyone's holiday profitable. The travelling amateur penetrates into places overlooked by the professional, and usually takes greater pains with his work. Afterwards he finds his market in the fact that the demand for travel pictures is so great that a good film of 300 feet will fetch 40 ( $200) and upwards. At home he may exploit his ingenuity in making trick films, a most popular feature at the picture palaces, so long as he keeps novelty to the forefront. Trick films, unfor- tunately, take so long to prepare and demand such care, skill and patience that the largest firms of producers as a rule are not eager to attempt them, because their production dis- organises the more regular and profitable work of the studio. A good trick film of 800 feet may occupy six months in preparation. But the amateur may approach what the large firm fears. To him time is no object, and he is able to main- tain his interest, care, and ingenuity to the end of the quest. On the other hand the professional worker often tires of his trick subject before the task is half completed, with the result that novelty and care are not sustained. One industrious Frenchman devoted nearly a year to the prepara- tion of a film in which resort had to be made to ATTRACTIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES 7 every conceivable form of trickery, and sold his product for 3,000 or $15,000. He also refused an offer of 5,000 ($25,000) for another film of pictures calculated to please children. To sum up, the amateur or independent cine- matographer has a vast field available for the profitable exercise of his skill. Except in regard to the topical work, which is of the rush-and- hustle order, he must show imagination in his choice of subject and craftsmanship in the execu- tion of his work. He must, that is to say, be trained so far as to be no longer an amateur in the popular meaning of the word. He must learn aptitude in the school of experience. The reward is well worth the trouble. Hitherto the amateur worker has been held back by the great expense of the necessary apparatus. The camera cost 50 ($250), and the developing and printing operations were generally supposed to be too difficult and costly for private under- taking. There was some excuse for these notions. The trade at first followed narrow lines, no welcome being held out to the amateur competitor. But circumstances have been too strong for this trade, as for others, and it burst its bonds in due time. The co-operation of the independent worker became essential as the demands of the market increased. In the production of plays, for instance, England at first led the way. But the American 8 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY and French producers came quickly to the fore. The English pioneers, not being skilled in the mysteries of stage craft, wisely retired from the producing field upon the entrance of the expert from the legitimate theatre, who realised that the moving-picture field offered him increased oppor- tunities for his knowledge and activity as well as bringing him more profitable financial returns for his labours. The British fathers of the industry devoted their energies to the manufacture of cinematographic apparatus, as they foresaw that sooner or later the amateur and independent worker must enter the industry. The activity of amateurs was needed by the English trade as a whole, and the manufacturer, with great enter- prise, brought down the cost of apparatus to a very reasonable level. This has been effected by methods not less advantageous to the purchaser than is the reduction of the price by standardisation of parts and simplification of mechanism. To-day a reliable camera for living pictures, suitable for topical and other light work, can be bought for $ or $25. A more expensive camera, the Williamson, costs 10 IDS. ($52), and is actually as good as other machines priced at four or five times that sum. On the other hand, so much as 150 ($750) can be paid. But the camera sold for this large sum demands a purchaser with some- ATTRACTIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES 9 thing more than a long purse. It demands special knowledge. Designed for studio work, it has peculiarities that are difficult to master and is not to be recommended to a beginner. With the cost of the camera the cost of other apparatus has fallen in proportion. It was realised that the amateur's dark room and other facilities are likely to be less excellent than those of the professional and that he must be provided with compensating conveniences. This problem has been solved. A complete developing outfit can now be packed in a hand-bag, and a camera and printing outfit can be carried in a knapsack no larger than is required for the whole-plate camera of the old " still-life " photographer. Simple and efficient appliances for the dark room can be purchased very cheaply. There is a portable outfit for use in field work, where it is imperative that films should be developed as soon as possible after exposure, and this outfit is now used by the majority of travellers and field- workers, such as Cherry Kearton, Paul Rainey, and others. Distinct advantage, it may be observed, comes from prompt developing. There may be vexatious delay, occasionally, but the photo- grapher is at least able to tell quickly whether his film is a success or a failure. It is better to gain this knowledge on the spot, even com- pulsorily, where another record can be taken, io PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY than to gain it later a few hundreds of miles from the chance of trying again. The capital expenditure of the cinematographer need certainly not be great. A complete outfit, the "Jury," may now be obtained for 20 or $100. It comprises a combined camera and printer, developing, troughs, film-winding frames for de- veloping and drying, and all necessary chemicals. Yet it is no toy, as might be thought, but a thoroughly reliable outfit capable of doing first- class work. Anyone who is more ambitious, or willing to spend more money, should purchase the Williamson outfit. This costs about 40, or 200. Now for other difficulties that have nothing to do with money. It has been assumed that the art of animated photography is a mystery demanding a long and weary apprenticeship. But the impres- sion is really quite wrong. Anyone who has practised still-life and snap-shot photography may become proficient in the new art within a week or two. Many of the problems encountered in the old photography are actually easier to solve in the new ; some are eliminated entirely ; others, that are intensified, are really not very hard to master. Animated photography is nothing more than a Kodak worked by machinery. Instead of the shutter being actuated by hand to make an ATTRACTIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES 11 exposure, and the film afterwards moved by turning a roller so as to bring a fresh area before the lens, the two movements, in the cinemato- graph, are combined. The rotation of the handle alternately opens and closes the lens, and moves the film forward a defined distance after each exposure. Therefore, speaking generally, if the beginner knows how to use an ordinary camera and is familiar with subsequent operations of developing and printing, he should be able to accustom himself quite readily, with little waste of material, to the different conditions of motion photography. There is practically but one process that he should not at first attempt. This is the perfora- tion of the film. The film is a celluloid ribbon and is punctured near either edge, at intervals, so as to enable it to be gripped by the claws of the mechanism and moved forward intermittently a definite distance three quarters of an inch through the camera. This puncturing or per- foration of the film is the most delicate of the whole cycle of operations. It can only be done by a machine of unerring precision manipulated with extreme care. The machines, though many are on the market, are somewhat expensive, and it is upon them that the steadiness of the picture on the screen depends. The inaccuracy in the perforation may be slight, a minute fraction 12 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY of an inch, but it must be remembered that each picture on the film is magnified more than fifteen thousand times upon the screen, and the errors are magnified in proportion. But these con- siderations need not trouble the amateur. He can purchase his " stock," as the unexposed film is called, perforated ready for use. In spite of the great reduction in the cost of both camera and outfit the expense of cinemato- graphy is still its drawback. The film is the culprit. It costs from id. to ^d. say, from 4 to 10 cents a foot. Yet in this case, as in others, reduction seems to be within sight. The increased demand is sure to cheapen the process of pro- duction. If the price is not then lowered as much as could be hoped the cause will be in the cost of the basic materials. These also, perhaps, will become less dear in time. Cinematography is an industry in revolution. Its possibilities are only beginning to be seen ; its followers are only beginning to be counted ; but it can hardly be doubted that the ranks of the amateur and independent workers are certain to increase considerably and rapidly. The attractions and inducements to practise the craft are too alluring to be ignored. CHAPTER II THE PRINCIPLES OF CINEMATOGRAPHY FOR complete success in moving-picture work it is essential to have an elementary knowledge of the principles upon which the art is based. Although pictures are said to be shown in motion upon the screen, no action is reproduced as a matter of fact. The eye imagines that it sees move- ment Each picture is an isolated snap-shot taken in the fraction of a second. In projection upon the screen, however, the images follow so rapidly one after the other and each remains in sight for so brief a period that the successive views dissolve into one another. The missing parts of the motion the parts lost while the lens is closed between the taking of each two pictures are not detected by the eye. The latter imagines that it sees the whole of the process of displacement in the moving objects. In fact it sees only one-half the half that occurred in those fractions of seconds during which the lens was open. What occurred while the lens was shut is not recorded. Animated photography, therefore, is an optical illusion purely and simply. i 4 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY The fact that an appearance of natural move- ment is seen under these conditions is due to a physiological phenomenon which, for the want of a better explanation, is termed "persistence of vision." This peculiarity of the eye and brain remains a scientific puzzle, and although in one or two quarters the theory of visual persistence is ridiculed, the iconoclasts have not yet brought conclusive testimony to upset it. The whole subject of persistence of vision in its relation to moving-pictures is discussed at length by the present writer in a former book to which he would refer such readers as may wish for information on this subject. 1 The eye is about one million times faster than the most rapid sensitized emulsion which chemists have yet produced. So there is nothing wrong about the popular opinion that the organ of sight is the quickest of the senses. Yet it is not so quick that it cannot be deceived. If the pictures of a cinematograph are projected upon the screen at the rate of so many per second, the effect upon the eye is that of perfectly natural movement. The laws that govern this illusion have been discovered in a very interesting way. A positive film was prepared, but between each successive image a wide white 1 See " Moving Pictures : How they are made and worked," Chapter I. OPERATOR AND HIS CAMERA BURIED IN A HOLE TO TAKE MOVING-PICTURES OF SMALL ANIMALS. By permission of the Holograph Co. MAKING MOVING-PICTURES OF WILD RABBITS. Mr. Frank Newman with his camera concealed in the bushes. PRINCIPLES OF CINEMATOGRAPHY 15 line was inscribed. This film was then passed through the projector, and the pictures were thrown upon the screen at the speed generally accepted as being necessary to convey the effect of natural movement ; but animation could not be produced at all, however rapidly the pictures were projected. The reason was simple. Immediately after a picture disappeared from the screen the white flash occurred, and notwithstanding its instantaneous character it was sufficient to wipe out the image of the picture, which without the white line would have lingered in the brain. Even when the pictures were run through the projector at thirty per second, no impression of rhythmic movement was obtained ; they appeared in the form of still-life pictures with spasmodic jumps from one to the other. They failed to blend or dissolve in the brain, notwithstanding that the white flash in some cases was only about one ten thousandth part of a second in duration. Another film of the same subject then was passed through the projector under conditions exactly similar except that the line dividing the pictures in this case was black instead of white. When this picture was thrown upon the screen, animation became apparent directly the speed attained sixteen pictures per second, because after one image had vanished from the screen it persisted in the brain, in spite of the black flash, 1 6 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY until the next picture appeared. Thus, the requisite dissolving effect was obtained. The black flash did indeed produce a defect like that which was common in the early days of cinemato- graphy and was characterised generally as "flicker." But it did not suffice to ruin the illusion of movement. A white flash destroys apparent motion, owing to the brain being ex- tremely sensitive to white : a black flash of equal duration exercises no ill effects. In the latest development of the art, one inventor has taken advantage of this peculiarity. He has perfected a practical system wherewith the shutter of the camera may be abandoned because each picture is cut off from its neigh- bour by a very thin black line. An improved mechanism jerks each picture off and brings the next one on the screen very sharply, so that an effect is produced like that obtainable with the shutter and without any impression of flicker. It may be pointed out that with this invention there are none of the aberrations described in a later chapter, such as the spokes of a wheel appearing to move in the reverse direction to which which the rim is travelling. The next question is that of the speed at which it is necessary to take and to project the pictures in order to get an apparently true impression of natural movement. This factor to-day is governed PRINCIPLES OF CINEMATOGRAPHY 17 almost entirely by commercial considerations. It has been found, as a result of elaborate investigation, that a speed of twelve to sixteen pictures per second is the minimum wherewith in monochrome pictures animation is obtainable. But this applies only to general work, such as records of ordinary scenes, topical events and stage plays, where the action of the moving objects is comparatively slow. In these instances an average of sixteen pictures per second in photographing and projecting gives completely satisfactory effects. But in reality the speed is a variable quantity : it must be adapted to the subject and the character of the work in hand. In other words, strictly speaking, the speed must be accommodated to the velocity of the subject so far as photographing is concerned, and also, in a lesser degree, to the dis- tance of the moving object from the lens. For instance, when a man, walking four miles an hour, is photographed at sixteen pictures per second, the movements recorded are far from being natural or rhythmic. On the screen he appears to walk with a disjointed action. To obtain a lifelike result, his pace should be slowed down 75 per cent., or the photographing speed should be accelerated to seventy pictures per second at the least This fact is illustrated very conclusively in pictures of soldiers marching : they appear to p.c. c i8 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY advance like automatons. Again, in photograph- ing animals, a complete movement is often lost between successive pictures. A cat in one pic- ture will be seen to the right ; in the next picture it is on the left, having sprung from one side to the other during the brief interval the lens was closed. When extremely rapid movements have to be recorded, the photographing speed has to be accelerated to an extreme degree, up to ten thousand pictures or more per second in the case of a bullet leaving the muzzle of a rifle, and up to two thousand pictures per second to catch the move- ments of a dragon-fly's wings. On the other hand, in photographing very slow movements like the growth of a plant, one picture per hour may be adequate. In projection the speed can be adjusted. The ten thousand pictures per second may be de- celerated to sixteen per second to allow the movement to be followed, and although the rifle bullet may appear to crawl through the air, the movement is perfectly correct. Similarly the very slow motions must be accelerated to sixteen pictures per second to obtain evident anima- tion. These two extreme phases of cinemato- graphic investigation are described at length in another part of this volume, but are mentioned here merely to show that the photographing speed is a somewhat elastic factor, to be adapted PRINCIPLES OF CINEMATOGRAPHY 19 to circumstances in order to produce passably natural effects. For everyday work, however, a speed of sixteen pictures per second is sufficient and represents the generally practised velocity. Possibly in the near future the speed will be accelerated to twenty, twenty-two, or twenty-four pictures per second, as the present speed is generally admitted to be too slow. The eyes of the regular picture palace patrons have become trained, as it were, with the result that there is an appreciable strain of the eyes, while the disjointed character of the movements on the screen may be detected. But when the taking and projecting speed is accele- rated by 50 per cent, the picture stands steadier upon the screen, the movements are more natural, and there is an entire absence of that automaton effect which is so characteristic of most pictures taken under prevailing conditions. These con- siderations do not affect photo-plays produced in the studio so materially, because there the actions of the players can be slowed down to suit the conditions. One of the leading manufacturers is earnestly considering the advisability of accelerating the taking and projecting speeds up to about twenty pictures per second, and private investigations and experiments have certainly demonstrated the value of such an improvement. Unfortunately C 2 20 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY two difficulties prevent its immediate realisation. An increase of only four pictures per second represents an increase of 25 per cent, in the con- sumption of the film, and therefore in its cost. The other difficulty is more serious. Existing apparatus, both cameras and projectors, are geared to eight pictures per turn of the handle. This involves two complete revolutions per second. Consequently the gearing of the mechanism would have to be altered, and this is a more trouble- some question than appears at first sight. Some time may elapse before a forward step is taken in this direction. In matters of this character the cinematograph industry is notoriously con- servative, although the moment one firm courage- ously adopts an accelerated speed, the higher quality of the resulting pictures will force the others to follow the example. As a matter of fact the decision to adopt sixteen pictures per second was taken somewhat hap- hazardly without any scientific investigation. When it became standardised, film was expensive. Accordingly, efforts were made to secure the requisite effect with the minimum expenditure of film. Machines were built to coincide with these requirements, and the original designs have been followed slavishly in their broad outlines ever since. CHAPTER III THE MOVING-PICTURE CAMERA AND ITS MECHANISM THE cinematograph camera differs entirely from the instruments used in other branches of photography. While the advanced worker and the prosperous picture-play producer employ costly and elaborate machines, the amateur, or the independent worker, in the particular field which he has selected for his operations, can get equally good results with an apparatus only a fifteenth or even a twentieth part as expensive. The range of operation with the cheaper instrument may be limited, and it may be deficient in those many little refinements which are characteristic of the professional appliance, and may lack silver-plated finish and highly-polished woodwork or morocco leather covering. But the camera itself is more important than these. The cameras, both expensive and low-priced, work upon the same fundamental principles. In the latter everything is reduced to the simplest form so as to be readily and easily understood by the beginner. They have the additional recommendation that the risk of breakdown is 22 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY eliminated, because the few essential component parts are substantially made, well-proportioned, and nicely-balanced. Serviceability and reliability are the outstanding features of the low-priced camera, and it is applicable to almost every branch of the craft. Contrary to general belief, taking the " movies " is quite as simple as snap-shot photography with a Kodak. In the latter case you press the button ; in the former you turn the handle ; the camera does the rest. The rotation of the handle, a simple operation, performs every duty through the internal mechanism. It swings the shutter across the lens, moves the film intermittently through the instrument, and coils up the exposed film in its dark box. As has been explained, the beginner is now able to make his selection from a wide variety of makes, ranging in price from 5 ($25) upwards. If one desires to gain experience in the cinematographic art with the minimum capital outlay, the Jury, "New Era," or "Alpha" cameras will suit the purpose excellently. Both are first-class, well- made machines, having perfect registration and alignment, extremely simple and easy to handle. The first-named model, which is the cheapest, is contained in a mahogany case measuring 9^ inches square by 4| inches deep, and in the unloaded condition weighs 5^ pounds. The " Alpha," which THE MOVING-PICTURE CAMERA 23 costs a little more, is full value for money, and is well worth the slightly increased price. This camera is fitted with a light-proof hinged front panel giving access to the adjustable shutter, which permits the opening of the latter to be varied within wide limits and thus enables ex- tremely rapid movements to be photographed while running the machine at the normal speed. The spool boxes carry 100 feet of film of standard gauge in each instance, and for general all-round work, such as the recording of topical events, either model will be found perfectly efficient. It may be mentioned that both models are supplied without the lens, because the average beginner in motion-picture work, having practised still-life or snap-shot photography, has usually developed a marked fancy for some particular make of lens Dallmeyer, Cooke, Ross, Zeiss-Tessar, or Voigtlander. Naturally, being familiar with the working of his favourite and knowing what he can do with it, he feels more at home when he is able to have it fitted to his moving-picture machine. Here, again, there is a wide selection to meet all purses, so that the most fastidious tastes in regard to the lens may be gratified. On the other hand, if the beginner has no marked preference, and wishes to be economical, he can get a lens capable of doing first-class work at a remarkably low price. His complete outlay 24 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY upon the camera and the lens need not exceed 6 5s., or, say, $31. If prices are not to be so strictly considered, and if the beginner wishes to have a machine of the finest type at a comparatively low figure, he cannot do better than fit himself out with a Williamson camera, the price of which, complete with lens, is 10 ios., say $52. Except for an expert, it is difficult to detect the difference between this machine and one which costs five times as much, for both are designed upon the same lines, are equally well made, and equally capable of doing the finest work. It must not be forgotten that Mr. James Williamson, the designer of the latter instrument, was one of the pioneers in cinematography, and, in his machine, the results of some twenty-five years varied and accumulated experience are incorporated. He has been able to realise just those essentials which are required for a high-class apparatus free from complexity, and this end has been achieved to excellent effect. The camera, finished in a brass-bound mahogany or teak case the latter is preferable for working in tropical countries measures 9^ inches square by 4! inches deep, is fitted with a Zeiss-Tessar 2-inch lens with focussing, and iris diaphragm. It weighs j\ pounds complete in loaded condition. It is eminently suited for all round duties, from c Q THE WILLIAMSON TOPICAL CAMERA AND TRIPOD. A. Camera. B. Handle. C. Lens. D. View finder. E. Tripod head. F. Horizontal panoramic movement handle. G. Vertical panoramic movement handle. THE MOVING-PICTURE CAMERA 25 the rush and tumble of topical work to the uneventful, quiet but exacting requirements of the laboratory. These machines by no means exhaust the selection. Other manufacturers have produced very good instruments at competitive prices, but those which I have mentioned represent probably the best in their respective classes. For the purpose of introduction to the art of cinema- tography the beginner can do no better than obtain one of them. If, after a little experience, he comes to the conclusion that he has ventured into the wrong province, then his monetary expenditure is not serious. It will be seen that the aspirant has no lack of inducement to embark upon the moving-picture industry. Provided he has acquired a certain knowledge of the elements of photography, and is possessed of average intelligence, there is no reason why he should not be able to produce pictures with his inexpensive machine that are in all ways comparable with the product of the professional worker and the costly instrument. Naturally, as the intricacies of the craft are mastered, the tyro will wish for a more elaborate apparatus. He can gratify his ambitions in accordance with his progress, or with the improvement in his financial position. The mechanism of the modern cinematograph 26 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY camera is very simple in its character and very easy to understand. The necessary parts are very few in number. In all cameras the chief object is to effect the forward intermittent move- ment of the film at regular intervals and for a defined distance. For this purpose the early types of camera were fitted with what is known as the Geneva stop movement. Opinion is divided upon its merits, some authorities con- demning it unequivocably, while others uphold it strenuously, contending that it gives a steadier and freer motion. There is much to be said in favour of the latter view. Mechanically the Geneva stop movement is perfect. So far as cinematography is concerned its advantages were proved most emphatically by Mr. Robert Paul, the first man to bring motion pictures into com- mercial application in Great Britain. He adopted this movement in his camera, and it cannot be denied that his pictures were in every way equal to those produced to-day, while his camera has never been excelled. Curiously enough, although this movement has been superseded, there is a tendency among expert workers to revive it, and many cameras specially built have been fitted with it. The movement more commonly used is that known as the "claw." It is simple, and has the advantage of bringing the film into place for an THE MOVING-PICTURE CAMERA 27 exposure with a sharp, quick jerk. But it is a move- ment which requires to be designed very finely in order to perform its work smoothly and evenly, and without inflicting any injury upon the film. The claw consists of a small lever in duplicate, which is so mounted as to have an eccentric movement and is driven direct by the main gear wheel rotated by the handle. The free upper end of each arm of the lever has a projecting pointed tooth of sufficient size to engage with the perforations on either side of the film. With the revolution of the wheel upon which it is mounted eccentrically the claw engages with the perforations, and, thus gripping the film after the manner of a ratchet and pawl, jerks it downwards a definite distance. When this downward movement is completed the claw disengages from the perforations and falls back clear of the film. Then the wheel, continuing its rotary movement, proceeds to lift the claw. When it has raised it to its highest point it brings it forward smartly to re-engage with the perforations, and causes a fresh down- ward movement of the film. The action is intermittent and occurs at regular intervals, while the movement of the film is always the same. Quick engagement and disengagement of the perforations is imperative for preventing the vibration and tearing of the film. 28 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY The mechanism of the camera may be under- stood from the diagram (Fig. i), which refers to the Williamson instrument. The sprocket A is driven directly by the operating handle, which engages with the sprocket spindle. This FIG. i. Mechanism of camera showing threading of film. sprocket A is fitted with two rows of teeth, mounted upon its periphery, and so spaced apart, both circumferentially and transversely, as to coincide with the distances between the perfora- tions of the film. A pair of twin rollers, D and E, bear against this sprocket under the tension THE MOVING-PICTURE CAMERA 29 of a spring, their object being to keep the film pressed firmly against the sprocket. The teeth engage with the film perforations, so that by the rotation of the handle and sprocket the film is fed forwards regularly, smoothly and evenly, as it is drawn from the loaded spool box B. The film is brought into position before the lens by passing through what is known as the "gate." This device H consists of two parts of which the first is fixed irremovably while the second is hinged to the first at one side and kept flat against it by means of a spring. Both of the parts are provided with an aperture or window, the exact size of a cinematograph picture i inch wide by f-inch deep through which the light passes, after admission through the lens, to strike upon the sensitized surface of the film. There is just sufficient space between the two parts of the gate to permit the film to move easily, and its object is to hold the film perfectly flat and steady during the period of exposure. Each picture is thus kept in absolute focus. The feed through the gate is accomplished by the claw N, which is mounted upon the eccentric O as already described. At the instant of exposure the claw is free of the film, or in the "out position," as it is termed, so that the sensitized ribbon is absolutely still. When an 30 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY exposure has been made, the claw, having risen to the highest point of its travel, re-engages with the film and jerks it down f inch, so as to bring a fresh unexposed surface before the lens. As the film emerges from the gate it is picked up once more by the sprocket A, the engagement of the perforations in the film with the sprocket teeth being assured by the two rollers J and K. The film then passes under the guide roller L, and is wound up on the bobbin M in the exposed film box C, the bobbin being worked through the handle that drives the mechanism. The rotation of the handle also ensures, through gearing, the revolution of the shutter P, whereby the lens is eclipsed intermittently. The shutter is a ring fitted with an opaque sector which comes before the lens and shuts out the light during the movement of the film through the gate H by the claw N. In the Williamson camera this shutter is recessed into the case. Although the lens may be of the fixed focus class the focussing distance varying with the stop used focussing can be carried out inde- pendently if very critical work is required. In the case of the Williamson camera and others of this type, focussing is accomplished by opening the shutter and the side of the camera and looking through the gate. In some cameras a focussing tube is provided. This passes from the gate to THE MOVING-PICTURE CAMERA 31 the rear of the instrument, through a space pro- vided between the superimposed film dark-boxes. It is telescopic at the forward end. Thus, when focussing is being carried out, it can be extended so as to come flush with the gate, and pushed back out of the way when all is ready for working, so that the free movement of the film is not obstructed in any way. The rear end of the tube, which extends through the rear face of the camera box, is fitted with a cap to save the film from being fogged by light entering from behind. One conspicuous advantage of the Williamson machine is that the whole of the mechanism is mounted upon a skeleton casting fixed to the interior of the mahogany case by means of four screws. By withdrawing these the whole of the internal mechanism may be removed intact, and much trouble is saved when inspection or repairs are necessary. In some cameras the intermittent movement of the film is effected by a single claw which engages with the perforations upon one side of the film only. But this movement is not perfect. All the pulling strain is thrown upon one side of the film. This gives it a tendency to move unevenly into the gate and also increases the risk of tearing. The driving gear of the camera is so adjusted 32 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY that one complete revolution of the handle com- pletes eight exposures. Consequently two revolu- tions have to be made per second to maintain the necessary speed of sixteen pictures per second. In the Williamson camera this is emphasised as a fixed speed in ordinary working, and any com- pensations demanded by the varying intensity of the light are made by altering the aperture of the lens. This is a logical method, for if the operator is required to make such compensations by varying the speed of his handle he is apt to obtain an indifferent result. It requires a very skilled operator indeed to vary the speed of the handle with judgment between the narrow limits possible. In some cameras this compensation for light is effected by varying the area of the opaque section of the shutter, but this is not so simple or effective a method as the variation of the stop. The latter can be accomplished while the camera is being driven, but in the former it is necessary that the work should be stopped while the front panel camera is opened and the shutter adjusted. As for the tripod, one cannot be too careful in choosing it. This apparently insignificant detail has a far-reaching effect upon the picture results. Any ordinary tripod used in photographic work may suffice, but its absolute rigidity is essential. A tight head, too, is most necessary, without THE MOVING-PICTURE CAMERA 33 which the operator will get a side-to-side sway upon the picture. It must be borne in mind that in turning the handle there is a tendency, especially at first, to exert an unequal pressure upon the handle side of the camera, and, unless the support and its head are kept absolutely rigid, the pictures will betray evidences of the defect. The telescopic ladder tripod is very handy for topical work. This, when it is extended and when the camera is fixed, brings the lens some 7 feet above the ground. A cross-rail placed from 12 to 25 inches above the ground, and attached to the rear legs, offers a plat- form upon which the operator can stand to work his instrument. In this way both camera and operator are brought above the heads of the crowd, and an uninterrupted view can be obtained. For moving-picture work a special type of tripod head has been evolved, which allows the camera to be moved bodily through both the horizontal and the vertical planes while exposures are being made. Thus it can follow a subject travelling in either of these directions. The movements are upon the rack and pinion principle, a small handle being fitted to each motion so that either can be operated independently of the other. By means of this panoramic attachment the main object in the picture, such as a carriage or an aeroplane, p.c. D 34 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY may be followed in either direction. But if both movements are to be completed simultaneously, the operator will require help. One person must sight the object and keep it in the picture by the manipulation of the two handles governing the respective movements of the tripod head, while the other confines his energies to turning the camera handle. Although the moving-picture camera is built substantially and strongly, its mechanism is com- paratively delicate. While it will withstand the hardest descriptions of legitimate work, it suc- cumbs readily to brutal treatment. Although operated by means of a handle, it is neither a coffee mill nor a barrel organ, but a sensitive scientific instrument, and it must be treated as such if the finest results are to be obtained. Rough usage will throw out the registration and alignment. If handled carefully a camera should perform its task for years without needing repair. The effects of wear and tear can be mitigated very appreciably by keeping the moving parts well lubricated with good oil, such as is used for clocks, which neither gums nor clogs the bearings, nor injures the mechanism in any way. CHAPTER IV THE CAMERA AND HOW TO USE IT HAVING examined the mechanism of the moving- picture camera, and the broad principles upon which it works, we must now study the way to use it. The first step is to load the film box, an operation which must be carried out in the dark room. The film is sold as a rule in standardised lengths, such as 100, 200, 350 feet, etc. With the ordinary type of camera the 100 or 200 feet lengths are used. For topical work either are quite adequate as a rule. As has been said, the film is supplied perforated and ready for use. Many firms that sell the "stock," as the unexposed film is called, attach a blank or unsensitized "lead" to one end of the roll, for the purpose of " threading-up " the camera. If this is not supplied, and if the operator wishes to avoid the waste of 2 or 3 feet of sensitized ribbon, the deficiency can easily be remedied. For the blank " lead " all that is required is about 3 feet of useless or spoiled film which, however, should not be torn or D 2 36 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY cracked. The emulsion at one end of this should be scraped off for a distance of about | inch. A pocket knife will do this very efficiently. The blank should then be laid flat upon the table, emulsion side uppermost, preferably upon a sheet of glass which secures a smooth, clean, level surface, and a little film cement applied to the scraped end of the blank. Film cement can be obtained readily and cheaply in small bottles complete with cap and brush. A bottle should always be kept to hand as it is often required, especially in joining up successive lengths of film ; but if it should so happen that none is available at the moment, glacial acetic acid may be used with equal success, although it demands more careful handling. In an emer- gency alcohol constitutes a first-class cement, but it requires extreme care and skill because it is a solvent of the celluloid base. After the cement has been applied to the cleaned end of the blank lead, the end of the unexposed coil of film is laid upon it, emulsion side uppermost, the overlap being about f inch. Care must be exercised to see that the joint is made perfectly square and that the perforation holes of each piece of film come dead true, otherwise there will be trouble in passing the joint through the camera mechanism. When it has been superimposed satisfactorily, pressure THE CAMERA AND HOW TO USE IT 37 must be applied to secure perfect adhesion. In order to ensure perfect jointing a film jointer should be used : in fact it is an indispensable and inexpensive tool. When attaching the blank lead every precaution must be taken to protect the spool of unexposed film from light ; only a very faint ruby glow should be used, for the cinematograph film is extremely sensitive. The cement dries rapidly, and the joint being found to be perfect the dark box should then be loaded. The coil of ribbon is slipped over the central bobbin. A hole large enough for this purpose is alwa}'s left in the coil. The end of the lead is then passed through the velvet-faced slot near the bottom of the box. In order to prevent the loose end slipping back into the box, in which event there must be another journey to the dark room, it should be bent back and re-entered into the slot so as to form an external loop. The dark box is then closed, and securely locked, and is ready for insertion in the camera. It is advisable to carry at least two loaded boxes, especially if each is only of 100 or 200 feet capacity. The camera is provided with two dark boxes, one placed above the other. The upper box carries the unexposed film, while the lower receives the ribbon after exposure. The camera may then be " threaded-up," or, if focussing is desired, this can be completed first. 3 8 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY With the Williamson camera focussing is un- necessary within certain distances owing to the fixed foci of the stops. These will be explained later. Many other manufacturers of cameras follow the same principle, and it is most con- venient for every-day work. Yet it may happen that the operator desires to focus critically. In this event he opens the side of the camera, lifts the pressure plate of the gate, and inserts into the gate window a small length, about 2 inches, of matt film, with the matt side towards the lens. The matt film serves exactly the same purpose as the ground-glass in the ordinary plate camera. The handle is revolved until the lens is opened, and the image thrown upon the matt film becomes apparent. This can then be focussed by moving the milled focussing screw on the lens until the picture stands out as sharply as is desired. At first the operation may appear to be somewhat awkward, because the operator has to look upon the matt film at an angle. It is easier in the case of a camera fitted with a focussing tube, for the operator has then merely to open the side of the machine to insert the matt film and push the telescopic tube out to its fullest extent to bear against the gate. By removing the cap from the tube upon the rear face of the camera, and looking through it as if through a telescope, he is able to look squarely upon his screen. THE CAMERA AND HOW TO USE IT 39 When focussing is complete the matt film is withdrawn and placed in a safe position. It is a good plan to clinch it to the bottom inner surface of the camera with drawing pins, for it can then be found when it is wanted. Should the piece be lost the defect can be repaired as follows. Take a small bit of waste film ; scrape off the gelatine emulsion ; and rough the celluloid surface with a piece of sandpaper ; or even with a rough stone surface. It is well to carry a few inches of spoiled film in the pocket for such an emergency. The film may now be threaded up. The loop of blank projecting from the dark box is picked up and the coil within is steadily unwound as the threading proceeds. The blank is first passed under the pressure roller (marked D in Fig. i), and then under the spring roller E, which can be lifted for this purpose. It must be seen that the teeth of the sprocket engage with the perforations in the film. A loop G is then made and the film is threaded through the gate H. Before this can be done the claw N must be thrown in the " out " position to obtain access to the gate, which is done by turning round the eccentric. The spring part of the gate is then opened on its hinge, and the film is slipped in from the side. Care must be observed that an ample loop is left above the gate. When the gate is closed once more another loop I similar 40 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY ' to that above the gate, is formed. The film now is passed round the under side of the sprocket A, the spring roller J being pressed back to admit of easy entrance, and the end of the blank is passed under the second or pressure roller K. Here again one must be careful to see that the insertion is square and that the sprocket teeth mesh with the film perforations. The film is then carried under guide roller L and through the velvet-faced slit into the empty film box C. This must be opened to permit the free end of the lead to be secured to the centre bobbin M, on which the film is wound in after exposure. The handle should be given a few turns to see that threading has been carried out properly, and also that it is properly attached to the bobbin M. If a sufficient length of blank is attached to the end of the unexposed film, and a piece of gummed paper is fixed on the lead about 6 inches in advance of the joint, it is possible to continue winding in on the lower bobbin until this mark appears at the mouth of the loaded dark box. If the threading has been accomplished properly the interior of the camera should be as shown in the illustration facing p. 42. Here both film boxes are shown open, though of course the upper one is kept closed during the threading process. The most important part of this operation is the formation of ample loops both above and below THE CAMERA AND HOW TO USE IT 41 the gate. Once formed they remain constant, because of the action of the teeth on the sprocket ; for the movement of the ribbon over the sprocket is equal to that produced by the claws through the gate. At first sight the necessity of these loops may not be apparent, but when it is remembered that the film is moved through the gate intermittently, sixteen times per second, with a vicious jerk, it will be seen that if there were no loop, and the film were drawn directly from the dark box, a great strain would be imposed upon it, and probably it would break. But by providing the loop an elastic feed is secured, and the film is jerked into position before the lens with the minimum of vibration and without any risk of tearing or displace- ment. Threading completed the lower dark box is closed and secured, together with the side of the camera, so that the whole of the interior is light- proof. The camera should not be re-opened after photographing has commenced until the whole of the film in the loaded box is exhausted, or, if the supply is not used, until the dark-room is regained, unless the waste of a foot or two of film is a secondary consideration. Should it become necessary to open the camera in the field, the handle should be given two or three turns to make sure that the last picture taken is wound 42 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY into the exposed film box and is thus secure from the light. Opening the side of the camera obviously ruins the whole of the unexposed film threaded through the mechanism, so that when picture taking is resumed the handle must be given a few more turns to make sure that the whole of the light-ruined film has passed through the gate. Seeing that one turn of the handle re- presents eight exposures, equivalent to 6 inches of film, it is a simple matter to estimate how many turns of the handle are necessary to clear the gate of spoiled film. Most cameras are provided with a film indicator enabling the operator to tell at a glance how many feet of film have been exposed. In this case, care must be taken to see that the indicator is returned to zero when the mechanism is threaded-up. Another convenience is the " punch " whereby it is possible to mark the film after an incident has been photographed, so that the worker can afterwards tell in the dark room by a mere touch where the exposure ended in each case, The film should be marked after every episode is finished because it is then possible, if desired, to develop the film in lengths. Indeed it is advis- able to follow this practice, and especially when the exposures have been made under varying conditions of light. By developing in sections THE WILLIAMSON CAMERA THREADED READY FOR USE. The film is taken from the upper unexposed film-box, passed over the sprocket, through the gate, under the sprocket and wound into the lower exposed film-box. THE LENS OF THK WILLIAMSON CAMERA. (For explanation see p. 43.) THE ADJUSTABLE SHUTTER OF THE JURY CAMERA. THE CAMERA AND HOW TO USE IT 43 one gets lengths of uniform density a great assistance in printing. In cinematography, as in ordinary photography, the judgment of the brilliance of the light and of the right stop to use on each occasion, is the one important factor for which mechanical provision is impossible. This is because of the extreme variation of the light conditions. But, while no hard and fast rules concerning exposure can be laid down, it is possible to give the beginner a little guidance to keep him on the safe side. Practice alone can make perfect, and experience is the more necessary because the cinematograph is an all-the-year-round machine. In topical work the operator is compelled to make the most of the existing weather conditions, no matter how deplorable they may be. Under these circumstances it is well to have what might be termed a very flexible lens. The lens, that is to say, should be fitted with the means of varying the size of the aperture, and varying it within wide limits, according to the light conditions. The simplest way of achieving this is by means of what is called an iris diaphragm. To illustrate the functions of the iris diaphragm we will take the Williamson instrument. This is fitted with a Zeiss-Tessar lens of 2-inch focus. By the aid of the iris diaphragm the 44 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY diameter of the aperture may be varied from approximately f to % of an inch. Now it is obvious that more light can be passed through the lens with the larger, than with the smaller, aperture. While the larger aperture would do excellently for filming a football match on a dull day in mid-winter, it would be useless for a seascape on a cloudless day in July. For the latter the smallest aperture would suffice. But the requirements between these two extremes must be met : in other words the aperture must be adapted to intermediate demands. By turning the milled ring in which the iris diaphragm is mounted the size of the aperture can be varied even to a minute degree and thus adjusted to any sort of light conditions. For the guidance of the operator the total rotary travel of the ring is graduated to six different definite points or as many different sized apertures. These are as follows : //3'5 gives an aperture f-inch in diameter (nearly) 4 |-inch 5 '6 |-inch 8 J-inch 11 M i-inch 16 -inch Although the differences between these successive apertures are very slight, they exercise a very THE CAMERA AND HOW TO USE IT 45 appreciable effect upon the volume of light passing through the lens, and accordingly the period of the exposure. Thus although stopf/^6 only decreases the size of the aperture by of an inch over //4, yet the effect of this reduction is to necessitate twice as long an exposure as is suited for the latter stop. Similarly //8 demands twice the exposure of that required for//5 -6, and so on, the exposure being doubled with every diminution of the stop up to the limits of the diaphragm. Yet in practice this increase of exposure between two stops is impossible, because the handle must be turned at a definite speed. It is obvious, therefore, that compensation must come from another quarter. Instead of increasing the duration of the exposure we must have a greater intensity of light for//5'6 than for 7/4. At first sight the beginner might be disposed to think that the selection of the most favourable aperture is a matter demanding extremely fine judgment and skill, especially when there are other factors which may upset calculations. Many other advantages arise from using as small an aperture as possible, such as increased sharp- ness of the picture, especially at the edges. Mr. Williamson the designer of the camera has realised this, and as a result of his unique experience, he has set down some very useful rules to guide the beginner, as to which stop should be used for 46 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY varying conditions of light and subject. In elaborating this advice Mr. Williamson rightly commences from the zero point as it were, taking moving-pictures of a football match on a dull winter afternoon, when, owing to the feeble light, the capacity of the lens and the sensitive- ness of the film are strained to the utmost. From this point he has graduated the diaphragm and its use as follows : Stop. Subject and Conditions. F/3'5 On a dull winter's day ; well-lighted interior : or on a subject at any time of the year where there are heavy shadows such as under trees. F/4 On a bright day in winter : on dull days in spring and autumn. F/s-6 Outdoor exposures during September, October, March, and April. Dull summer weather. F/8 Street scenes in bright summer weather. F/n Open fields in bright sunshine. F/i6 Bright sea and sky subjects. It must be understood that the foregoing are not set down as hard and fast guiding rules, but they THE CAMERA AND HOW TO USE IT 47 may be safely taken as some indication of what should be done under such varying conditions. They may be said to apply generally to the temperate zones where the conditions are almost identical, irrespective of geographical situation. If the beginner follows them at first he will not make very serious mistakes. But, as has been said, experience alone can finally determine the factor of lens aperture. The size of the aperture has another far- reaching effect. This is in regard to focussing. With the 2-inch Zeiss-Tessar lens of the William- son camera when the largest aperture is used, nothing important in the picture should be within a distance of 20 feet. If it is, it will not be in focus. As the diaphragm is closed this distance decreases proportionately until the infinity, INF, mark is reached. At this point practically everything is in focus. The distance when other objects are in focus at the respective stops is as follows. //3 '5 focus distance 20 feet //4 20 flS '6 IS fl* 12 flu ,, 10 //i6 5 INF everything. 48 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY At first sight the fact that the camera is operated by the turning of a handle makes it seem to be absurdly simple. One or two experi- ments however, will prove that it is far from being as easy as it looks. The salient point is to turn the handle steadily and evenly so as to complete two revolutions per second. The first pictures will be found to be very unsatisfactory, having an eccentric jerky effect instead of a smooth easy animation. An even pressure must be maintained throughout the complete rotation, and, before the beginner attempts to take any pictures and thereby waste expensive film, he would do well to practise handle-turning until he has become proficient. If the turning movement is timed with a watch, and "one" corresponding to a second is counted for each double turn, a perfectly steady turning movement will soon be attained. Some cameras are fitted with an indicator which records the number of feet of film consumed. But no anxiety need be felt if this convenience is absent. The operator need only count one, two, three, and so on, while turning the handle, each number representing a double turn. In this way, as 16 pictures, equivalent to one foot of film, are made with every double turn and every one count, the number reached at the end of the task will show how many feet of ribbon have been used, and if this is deducted from the amount originally THE CAMERA AND HOW TO USE IT 49 held by the loaded box it is easy to tell the length of film unused. When the upper box has been exhausted and the lower box filled, the latter is withdrawn and packed away to be opened in the dark room only. The empty upper box is taken out and slipped into the lower position to act as a receiver from the next loaded film- box. In photographing, the operator must keep his eyes riveted upon the view finder, to make sure that the subject he desires is in the field of the lens. The movements can be followed easily, and there should be no difficulty in keeping the most important part of the subject in the centre of the picture. To follow the subject either in a horizontal or vertical plane it is' necessary to turn the handle controlling the panoramic movements of the tripod head. This mechanism should be turned slowly and steadily with one hand, while the other is turning the camera handle. It is by no means an easy, simple matter to follow a subject in this way without any disconcerting jerky movement, since it involves doing two things at once. For a beginner it is particularly exacting, as an eye must be kept fixed upon the view finder to follow the moving object. But after a little experience the whole of these movements are carried out in a semi-mechanical manner. In cinematography, p.c. E So PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY it is the diligent, careful, and persevering worker who scores successes. In the beginning failures may be galling and frequent, but practice and experience are the best teachers. One can soon become adept in a fascinating art. CHAPTER V HAND CAMERA CINEMATOGRAPHY DURING the past few years competition among professional moving-picture photographers has become exceedingly keen, especially in connection with the filming of topical events. The operator often is faced with prodigious obstacles, the sub- jugation of which is not always easy, or even possible. For instance, in a dense crowd the conventional apparatus, from its bulkiness, weight, and proportions, cannot be handled, and, even if set upon its tripod with the lens elevated above the heads of the people, there is the serious danger of the whole being upset by the swaying motion of the mass of spectators. Yet at the same time a place in the crowd constitutes an ideal point of view. Again, there are many situations where the use of a tripod is impracticable, if not dangerous. Take the aeroplane. An operator seated in a flying machine and desirous of recording the moving scenes beneath, cannot support his machine upon the conventional device for this purpose. He has to hold it as best he can, and E 2 52 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY so secure his pictures under extremely trying conditions. Although films innumerable are taken by persons seated in aeroplanes, only a very small proportion ever come before the public eye, for the majority are failures. Nowa- days, also, the filming of aeroplane flights from a fixed point on the ground is by no means easy. In order to follow the evolutions of flying machines, more particularly at comparatively close ranges and when travelling at high speeds, two operators are required, one to turn the camera handle, and the other to sight and follow the object both through its horizontal and vertical planes in such a way as to keep it in the centre of the picture. To do this he has simultaneously to turn the two handles operating the panoramic and elevating gear of the tripod head, and often in opposite directions. The task must be done without the slightest jerk, or the success of the film is marred. One of the most disconcerting effects upon the screen is a jumpy panoramic movement either horizontally .or up and down. It worries the eye, and more often than not reduces the picture to an almost unintelligible blur. But perhaps the most unnerving and difficult conditions under which moving-pictures can be taken are those pertaining to the filming of wild animal life at close range under natural con- ffi a. g o ^ Ji 13 > s HAND CAMERA CINEMATOGRAPHY 53 ditions. In this case a good nerve, a steady hand, and acute presence of mind, are indis- pensable. A wild elephant trumpetting madly and dashing towards the camera at full speed, or a lion springing towards the operator may form the subject for a thrilling incident in a film, but does not inspire confidence in the cinematographer. Under such conditions a tripod outfit is worse than useless. It not only endangers the operator's life, but the pictures taken under such conditions are invariably of poor quality, even if they survive the results of the animal's mad frenzy. To stand one's ground and to keep turning the camera handle steadily at two revolutions per second up to the last moment with the sang-froid of someone filming a street procession would put too great a strain on human nature. Even the coolest man would not obtain first-class results at uncomfortably close quarters. Instead of turning the handle in a steady rhythmic manner the motion would be in a series of erratic jerks, some fast and some slow, producing a result which the public would ridicule. Mr. Cherry Kearton, whose pictures of jungle life constitute some of the marvels of the cinematographic art, considers that this branch of cinematography cannot be excelled for thrilling excitement. The operator must stand his ground undismayed, because the close-quarter pictures 54 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY are always the most fascinating. Yet at the same time he must keep a corner of one eye fixed upon an avenue of retreat, so that he can get clear in the nick of time when the crisis arises. The attention given to the photographic work must be reduced to the absolute minimum, so as to be practically automatic ; the camera must be as small and as compact as possible, for the only way of escape lies often up a tree. Several inventors have devoted their energies to the evolution of a reliable hand-camera, capable of fulfilling the same duty in cinematography as the snap-shot instrument in still-life work. The tripod was sacrificed, but then there arose another difficulty. This was in the necessity of moving the film mechanism by means of the handle. In fact, under many conditions of working, such as in the jungle, it would be quite impracticable. What was required was an efficient moving-picture machine, small, light, and compact, working upon the principle of "you-press-the-button-and-I'll-do- the-rest." It is a perplexing problem to solve, and the first commercially practicable idea in this direction was conceived by the Polish scientist Kasimir de Proszynski. He has produced a camera com- pletely self-contained and wholly automatic in its operation. Dimensions and weight have been kept down. In loaded condition, with 300 feet HAND CAMERA CINEMATOGRAPHY 55 of film, it is 12 inches long, 8 inches wide, 6^ inches deep, and weighs only 14 pounds. It works upon the " press-the-button " system, the film-moving mechanism and shutter running the whole time the button is depressed. The power comes from cylinders of compressed air by which a tiny engine is driven. All that the operator has to do is to sight his subject and to keep his finger on the button, while he follows the object on the view finder. When this camera, known as the " aeroscope," appeared upon the market, it aroused consider- able interest, but its reliability was doubted. It was not until Mr. Cherry Kearton decided to give it a trial that it came to be regarded more seriously as a feasible moving-picture machine. This naturalist-cinematographer took it with him on one of his expeditions, and was able to record some startling incidents which would not have been possible otherwise. Familiarity with the camera and experience in the field convinced him of its serviceability, provided that certain modifications were effected. These were carried out, and the camera is now regarded as an excel- lent instrument for work that could not be achieved by any other machine. It is fitted, as has been said, with a small engine driven by compressed air. The air is stored in six small cylinders of an aggregate capacity of 5 6 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY 600 feet. This is sufficient to expose 600 feet of film. The cylinders are charged with air in the manner of a motor tyre and with a similar kind of pump. An indicator on the side shows constantly the air pressure remaining in the reservoirs, while a regulator enables the speed to be varied. The driving mechanism is very light, small, and compact, and contains but a small number of parts, so that the risk of failure is not great. Though it constitutes the most delicate part of the whole mechanism, and requires careful handling, it works remarkably well so long as it is kept clean and well lubricated. Another prominent feature of the mechanism is what is termed an equilibrator. Practically speaking this is a small gyroscope, and is introduced to subdue any small vibrations or tremblings which arise while the instrument is working. This part of the mechanism has been criticized on the ground that a gyroscope, to be effective, must be of appreciable weight. Many operators dispute the necessity for its introduc- tion. They point out that the beneficial effects are not proportionate to the extra weight involved. Furthermore, being an additional piece of mechanism, it enhances the risk of derangement. Against these contentions, how- ever, the operators who have worked the instrument maintain that it nullifies all the THE LESS, SHUTTER, COMPRESSED AIR-DRIVEN MECHANISM, AND GYROSCOPE, WHICH COUNTERACTS SLIGHT VIBRA- TIONS, OF THE ' AEROSCOPE." < I PS 3 w -d S 3 o --- o _ < SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION 189 a continuous animated record of the movement of the ram of the hammer. Attached to the ram is an index which moves up and down over a scale divided into centimetres. Both the index and the scale are illuminated so that the result given by the camera shows a series of photo- graphic images of the oscillating motion. Above the illuminated finger and scale is a clock similar to Marey's chronoscope and Gilbreth's time- piece, driven by clockwork, and in synchrony with the remainder of the mechanism. This scale likewise has its points of division illuminated. Its use is to supply the time factor without which such experiments are useless. The ram, the index-finger, the scale and the clock are all recorded upon the film, so that it is possible to tell the varying speeds at which the ram moves throughout its travel. The photographing speed may be varied as desired, and as a different position is caught in each picture, the distance the ram travels between two successive exposures, together with the time occupied in completing the cycle of movement, may be accurately gauged. The combination of the paper tape recorder with the photographic part of the apparatus affords a complete record of the ram's performance. The results are naturally of a severely technical igo PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY character and of interest only to persons con- cerned with mechanics. But to these they are very important indeed. The experiments which have been completed by Dr. Fiichs have thrown much light upon a difficult engineering problem. They have served to answer questions affecting the design of the hammer and its most economical efficient operation which would otherwise have been insoluble. From the public point of view the films possess no interest whatever, inasmuch as the subject is illuminated and photographed in such a way that only the features of technical interest are brought out strongly upon the film. Another interesting and profitable province of the cinematograph is that concerning ballistics. This has been worked out by Monsieur Lucien Bull at the Marey Institute with his camera capable of taking two thousand pictures per second under the illumination of the electric spark. While this investigator did not apply his invention directly to ballistics he indicated the manner in which such work could be carried out. The success of his experiments, however, prompted another investigator to enter the field. This was Dr. Cranz, of the Berlin Military Academy. The apparatus this professor evolved has been devoted exclusively to the study of the flight of projectiles and to photographing the (I) (2) FILMS PREPARED BY PROFESSOR CRANZ WITH HIS REMARKABLE CAMERA. (1) Moving-pictures of the ejection of a cartridge from an automatic pistol. (2) Motion photographs of the splintering of a bone by a bullet. SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION 191 action of the mechanism of the magazine type of firearm. The Cranz apparatus is somewhat more com- plicated than that designed by Monsieur Bull, though the fundamental principle of operation is the same. The film, resembling an endless belt, is passed round two steel cylinders, one of which is driven by an electric motor. Images of standard size are produced under the illumina- tion of the electric spark, which concentrates the maximum amount of light upon the moving object. The photograph is in silhouette, and the disposition of the apparatus is such that five hundred consecutive pictures can be made in one-tenth of a second, the period of exposure varying between one-millionth and one-ten- millionth of a second. The outstanding feature of the installation is the special and novel type of interrupter. It consists of a pendulum by which the sparking is started before the projectile is fired and made to continue until the film has been exhausted. Some of the results obtained by this apparatus are very remarkable. When the films are pro- jected upon the screen at the average speed of sixteen pictures per second the flight of the bullet can be followed with ease. One film shows the effect of a bullet striking a sus- pended india-rubber ball filled with water, and 192 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY brings out the remarkable formations the ball assumes during the infinitesimal part of a second when the bullet is passing through it. Another interesting film shows the effect of a high velocity bullet striking a bone, and the manner in which the bone is splintered and smashed by the force of the impact conveys a realistic impression of the destructive force of the modern rifle projectile. The deadliness of the automatic pistol is well known. Since seven shots may be discharged in four seconds, the movements of the mechanism are too rapid to be followed by the naked eye. Yet by means of the Cranz apparatus every motion is caught, and the whole is slowed down in projection to such a degree that the complete cycle of the firing of the shot and the expulsion of the cartridge, which normally occupies only a fraction of a second to complete, occupies about thirty seconds upon the screen. When these pictures were exhibited for the first time a number of black specks were observed to accompany the expulsion of the spent cartridge. These proved to be grains of powder which had not been ignited. Their existence had never before been suspected, and the result was curious. After minute examina- tion of the pictures a change was effected in manufacture of the cartridge so that the waste of powder through non-ignition should be reduced SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION 193 to the minimum. The success achieved in this direction was shown by the absence of non- ignited grains in subsequent pictures. Another wonderful series of moving pictures was prepared by an American ophthalmic surgeon. He embarked upon elaborate re- searches to gain further information about the eye and its peculiarities both in sickness and in health. The illumination of the eye was carried out very cleverly, so as to obtain the greatest possible brilliancy without causing fatigue to the subject. Accordingly his pictures were absolutely normal. In these experiments glass plates were used, for the reason that they give results much finer and more detailed than celluloid. In celluloid the grain of the base of the film is apt to be disturbing to very fine studies. In this way a great deal of new information was gained. One of the most remarkable discoveries was that the sensitive- ness of the organ of sight is far greater than was previously supposed, and that the eye never is absolutely still, even when commonly regarded as being fixed and steady. During the past two or three years the uses of the cinematograph in medicine have been much extended. A former chapter has described its appli- cation to the study of microbic life, but the latest innovation is to employ it in the operating room. p.c, o 194 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY The pages of the medical papers are filled with reports of curious and unusual surgical opera- tions, but mere reports are necessarily somewhat imperfect. In view of these circumstances it occurred to one eminent surgeon that a cinemato- graphic record would form a first-class supple- ment to the technical description. The initial experiment proved a complete success, and accordingly the practice has been extended. In this direction France, Germany, and the United States are taking a very active part. Films of this character can be made to serve two useful purposes. They are valuable for the trans- mission of practical information between medical men and are useful in the lecture room among the students. Suppose a hospital in New York has a strange and unusual case for operation. Only the students in that establishment have the opportunity of witnessing it. But by the aid of the moving-picture camera and a lecture it can be reproduced in photographic animation upon the screen for the benefit of medical graduates in the various hospitals throughout the world. In research work, such as the study of new and unusual diseases, especially those of a tropical nature, it is possible to obtain a con- tinuous record of a subject from the moment of infection through the various stages of the SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION 195 malady. For instance, in the study of sleeping sickness in Uganda, Colonel Bruce had formerly to content himself with a graphic record or chart of the fluctuations of a patient's condition, with explanatory notes introduced here and there when a sudden change in the temperature or general behaviour of the patient developed. With the cinematograph it is possible to obtain a pictorial record which conveys a more forceful and exact impression of the symptoms. An interesting indication of what could be done in this direction was the film prepared by Dr. Comandon. He used a monkey for his subject, infecting it with the microbe of sleeping sickness discovered by Colonel Bruce. The effects which the bacteria produced upon the monkey were admirably illustrated, together with the changes that various remedies wrought in its condition. So far as concerns the application of the cine- matograph to scientific research the greatest strides have been made in physiology. This was due to Marey's enthusiasm in this branch of science, and the establishment of the Physiological Institute in Paris where such investigations were carried out upon a most exhaustive scale. The results of Marey's investigations are given in several volumes and in hundreds of papers which he sent to the various French scientific societies. There is no reason why the contributions of the o 2 196 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY cinematograph to physiological knowledge should not be equalled in other branches of science. Up to the present the investigation of scientific phenomena with the aid of motion-pictures has not been carried far, but there are many signs that its sphere will be extended in the future. CHAPTER XVI THE MILITARY VALUE OF THE CINEMATOGRAPH AMONG the many uses of the cinematograph, frivolous and useful, amusing and instructive, perhaps none has proved so difficult or illusive as the attempt to apply it to soldiering for the pur- pose of improving marksmanship. The motion- picture had scarely impressed itself upon the public when the war departments of the various powers were flooded with suggestions and patents for its employment in this sphere. Needless to say the majority of these ideas were found to be impracticable, and probably this is the reason why the animated target has not been seriously taken up by military authorities. Notwithstanding the many disabilities under which the cinematograph labours, it is generally admitted that it has real practical value in this field up to a certain point. It is able to induce the recruit to aim quickly and surely, and this is to-day recognised as being the governing con- sideration whether the range be point-blank or long-distance. 198 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY One of the first practical developments in this direction was that perfected by Messrs. Paterson and Musgrave. Their wide and diversified experience of all that pertains to shooting and targets enabled them to avoid the defects of the system, which to many experimenters were not apparent owing to a lack of knowledge. The apparatus and method of operation were very simple. The target consisted of an endless roll of white paper which served as the screen, and upon which the pictures were projected from a point near the firing line. A self-recording system was incorporated whereby the result of a shot was transmitted back to the firing line to inform the marksman about the value of his hit. As the paper became perforated under the fusilade it was rolled up. The most important feature of this invention was the mechanism placed behind the screen, which synchronised with the move- ments of the objects at which the marksman aimed. In cinematographic projection, however, the throw of the picture cannot be extended beyond certain limits, that is, if a clear view is to be presented to those seated farthest away from the screen. In target practice this is a serious disadvantage. At a range of 200 feet marksman- ship would be almost impossible, owing to the indistinctness of the image upon the white wall. MILITARY VALUE i 9o At that distance one always receives an im- pression of flicker. Why this should be so is not quite apparent, though it is evidently governed by some law of optics. Suppose, for instance, that a picture is being followed from a distance of 200 feet, and a straining of the eyes is experienced. This may be overcome merely by looking at the screen through the reverse end of a pair of field glasses. As is well known, this usually makes the object appear to recede to a great distance, but when it is done in connection with moving pictures it makes the images stand out more brilliantly and distinctly, while they are far steadier, the flickering being almost entirely eliminated. In fact, if one wishes to witness a projection to the best advantage with the minimum of eye fatigue, this is the way to do it. It is obvious, under these circumstances, that the distance of the marksman from the target is restricted somewhat severely. From 75 to loo feet is considered to be the greatest distance from which shooting can be practised to ad- vantage. Since the modern automatic pistol will carry about 80 yards, while the latest types of rifles have a range of 1,000 yards or more, doubts may be raised as to the utility of the cinemato- graph in marksmanship. In the Paterson- Musgrave invention an ingenious attempt to overcome this disability was made by what 200 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY might be termed a "range compensation." This end was achieved by making the figures of varying sizes, according to their distance from the marksman, so that a target of varying size was presented. Thus in one case the man would appear in the foreground of the picture and be of relatively large size, corresponding to the target he would offer at a distance of 100 yards. Then he would be shown somewhat smaller to represent 500 yards, and so on, until at the higher distances he offered a very small target indeed. From the military point of view the incidents were made as exciting as possible, and closely analogous to actual war conditions. As a case in point, the man on the screen would be shown behind cover, and aiming directly at the man on the firing line. His movements could easily be followed. He would be seen to expose himself slightly to sight his rifle and then to fire. The effect upon the marksman firing at the target was thrilling in its apparent realism, because he un- consciously developed the feeling that he had got to shoot first, and straight, or he would be hit. The self-recording system enabled him to judge whether he had got his shot well home, while the judge could decide whether the marksman or the photographic enemy had fired first. The judicious selection of subjects for portrayal upon the screen undoubtedly served to develop MILITARY VALUE 201 a sense of smartness among the marksmen. A decided improvement in quick-sighting or snap- shooting was obtained together with a concentra- tion upon the work in hand. Projection was carried out upon purely automatic lines. The projector was set working by a button control placed at the firing point, and pressed by the marksman or his officer. The instructor or officer had thus a complete control over the whole installation, and was in a position to make sure that his instructions were being followed, as well as being able to tell whether his men were quick in sighting. Despite the many ingenious features incorporated in this idea, it does not appear to have met with official approval. There has recently been another invention, based upon a similar idea. This is what is called the " Life Target," and it is ingenious, practical, and well thought out, especially from the mechanical and electrical points of view. The original idea was suggested by a non-com- missioned Irish officer who fought through the Boer war. His suggestion in its crude form, however, was scarcely feasible, but there were three other patents available, each of which had been designed for a different purpose, and it was realised that a combination of the four would enable a practicable cinematographic target to be 202 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY produced. Even then, innumerable experiments were required before perfection was gained. In this invention the salient feature is that when a shot is fired at the screen the whole of the mechanism is stopped for a very brief period, and the hit is indicated by a bright spot of light on the target. Consequently the marks- man is able to ascertain instantly the effect of his shot, and has no need to remove his eye from the object at which he has aimed. This is a distinct advantage, because the marksman can keep his sight ready for the succeeding shot, which may be fired instantly the mechanism resumes working. Directly the film begins to move once more the previous shot represented by the illuminated spot upon the target is extinguished. The apparatus, as described, appears to be rather complicated, but as a matter of fact its working is extremely simple. The projector is mounted at a convenient place near the firing point, so that a truly square picture is presented to the marksman. In front of the firing line, and above the picture, is a very sensitive micro- phone or telephone receiver. Connected with this is a delicate relay, which really forms the heart of the mechanism. When a shot is fired the report acts upon the microphone and upon the relay in turn. MILITARY VALUE 203 Immediately a magnetic clutch, which is placed upon the motor drive of the projector, is released, and a brake arrests the movement of the projector mechanism. Thus, the passage of the film is stopped in the gate, so that the picture remains stationary upon the screen. The screen itself consists of three separate sheets of specially prepared thick paper. The front sheet is coiled upon a horizontal roller which is mounted at the bottom. From this it is carried up and over a second horizontal roller at the top of the screen space, and then down again behind the front sheet, to be coiled upon a third horizontal roller, mounted above the first one. As the lower front roller can be moved or " fed " the paper is free to travel upwards over the top roller, and down again to be wound upon the third roller. Behind these two thicknesses of vertically travelling paper is mounted a third sheet. This is coiled upon a vertical roller at one side, passed across the back of the two front sheets, and coiled round a second vertical roller on the opposite side. It is kept very taut, and serves to hold the two sheets in front in close proximity. It is moved by hand at intervals. Behind the screen are a number of arc electric lights, or other illuminants, out of the firing line. In this way the space behind the screen is 204 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY brilliantly lighted. As the paper remains stationary while the projector is running, it follows that a shot must penetrate the three thicknesses of paper, and the puncture is shown by the light from behind coming through the shot-hole. Thus the marksman can see where his shot has struck. When the projecting mechanism has been stopped, and the result has been read, the shot- hole has to be obliterated before the film is able to resume its forward movement. This is accomplished automatically as follows : The relay, while declutching the drive and applying the brake, also sets in motion a plunger in a dash-pot. The time of the vertical travel of this plunger is varied, but the mechanism remains stationary, and the shot-hole visible, during its movement. When it has reached the limit of its travel it establishes contacts which serve to set the screen mechanism in motion. On the lower horizontal roller carrying the supply of paper is a ratchet and pawl movement, actuated by a solenoid. When the plunger connected with the relay closes the screen mechanism circuit, the ratchet is moved, and the outer sheet of paper moves upward one-eighth of an inch, while its return forming the second sheet moves simultaneous^ and correspondingly downwards. The displacement of these two vertically moving * 5 = 3 = I =- = < g c ' III MILITARY VALUE 205 sheets disturbs the line of holes caused by the shot, and through which the back light was shining, so that the spot of light is extinguished, and an opaque screen is presented. The inclusion of the third or back paper not only serves as a stiifener, but also acts as a means of lessening the possibility of a repeat, especially as it is moved gradually and at long intervals in a transverse direction. The movement of the travelling surfaces of paper is extremely small, approximately the diameter of a shot-hole, so that the consumption of paper is very low. When the first roller has been exhausted it is only necessary to replace it by the roller on which the paper has been rewound, and the paper can be used over again. The possibility of three old shot-holes coming once more into line without a shot being fired is so extremely remote as not to be worth consideration. From this it will be seen that the final stage in the cycle of movements arising from the action of the rifle report upon the microphone, and the relay, is the movement of the paper forming the screen or target The time during which the pic- ture remains stationary may be varied within certain limits, but normally it is about a couple of seconds. When the paper has moved, obliterating the shot-hole, the brake on the projector is released, the magnetic clutch re-engages, and the film 206 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY resumes its travel. The ingenious means adopted for stopping and restarting the projector will be appreciated as a great feature of the invention, and though the action may appear to be abrupt, no damage whatever is inflicted upon the film. One point about this apparatus deserves atten- tion. In the ordinary projector, if the celluloid film is stopped in the gate for a fraction of a second, and is exposed to the light, it flares up instantly, owing to the great heat emitted by the illuminant and the high inflammability of the film. As it is necessary to allow the film to stand still upon the screen in this case, after the shot has been fired, means had to be found to keep it sufficiently cool to prevent combustion. This is done by a radiator arranged around the condenser, which in itself is a special kind of cooling tank. Another noteworthy point is the way in which a still-life lantern slide is thrown upon the screen when desired. The projector carries two lenses, one for animation, and the other for still-life lantern slide work. The ordinary way of bringing the latter into use is to push the front part of the projector bodily sideways so as to bring the second lens before the condenser and the light. The objection to this method is that the rigidity of the projector is likely to be disturbed, especially after a little wear, with the result that the pro- jection of the moving pictures is apt to become = " By permission of the Motograph Co. ClNEMATOGRAPHING HEDGE-ROW LlFE UNDER DIFFICULTIES. Mr. Frank Newman and his camera concealed in the scrub. MILITARY VALUE 207 unsteady. In this apparatus a mirror is placed in the lantern and set at an angle of 45 degrees. By this means the light can be diverted and thrown through the lantern slide lens. Thus it is not only possible to throw a still-life slide upon the screen at the instant when a moving-picture scene is completed, but excellent dissolving effects can be obtained. The pictures are projected at the normal speed, but this may be accelerated if necessary. Any films suited to the subject may be used, hydro- planes, airships, birds, wild animals, and so forth, just as successfully as the military films prepared specially for the worL In fact any picture where movement is portrayed is equally applicable, so that the marksman can become used to all sorts of conditions. Experience has shown, however, that a picture projected at the normal speed of sixteen per second is too rapid for the average man unless the object was moving slowly when photographed. It has been proved that practice with this target improves quick-sighting and so teaches the art of snap-shooting which is said to be the essence of modern marksmanship. After a little experience the marksman develops the tendency to sight instantaneously as he lifts his weapon. For training in revolver shooting, which is essentially short-range point-blank work, it would be difficult to conceive a better system. 208 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY Even if considered as a mere diversion the life target has many advantages. There is a sensa- tional realism which is lacking in the ordinary shooting gallery. The man at the firing point is occupying the same relative position as that of the cinematographer when he filmed the sub- ject, and when, for instance, a tiger is springing directly out of the picture, the man with the gun has just the same feeling as if caught at close quarters in the jungle. He sights and fires quickly, hoping to hit in a vital part, and the instantly appearing shot-hole tells him how he would have fared had he been face to face with the animal in its native haunts. So far as military shooting is concerned the system has its limitations. For the reasons explained the screen cannot be more than 100 feet from the firing line. It is a pure point-blank range. No allowances can be made for windage or trajectory. There is yet another factor that controls the distance between the firing range line and the screen, and that is that paper cannot be obtained in widths exceeding 9 feet. A single width must form the screen, since no light must be visible from it until it is perforated by a bullet. So there is a strict limit to the size of the target. But it is possible to get subjects life size, and nothing more is required. CHAPTER XVII THE PREPARATION OF EDUCATIONAL FILMS ALTHOUGH animated photography is regarded popularly as an amusement, and the picture palace is maintained to be the poor man's theatre, efforts are being made to lift the invention into a higher and more useful plane. It is sought to adapt it to the schoolroom, the college and the technical institute. Up to the present, however, little headway has been made in this direction, though the market is flooded with so-called educational films. Unfortunately the attitude of the responsible authorities is lukewarm, somewhat to the chagrin of those who are specializing in the preparation of these films. The authorities are "said to be prejudiced against the invention, and no doubt the impression still lingers that the cinematograph is an instrument of frivolity. Up to a point the authorities are correct in their attitude. It is the producer who is at fault, The former recognise the many advantages arising from the appeal to the eye, but unfortunately the producer looks at the question from the show- p.c. P 210 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY man's point of view. He is not content to pre- pare a subject which shall appeal only to pupils as such, but is always trying to introduce an element which shall make the film popular with adults as well. He seeks to arouse the enthu- siasm of the schoolroom and of the picture palace at one and the same time, though the two are as widely apart as the two poles, and what is suited to one is by no means adapted to the other. The patron of the picture palace must be enter- tained only. Education, if any, must be uncon- scious. On the other hand, the essential con- sideration in the school is the training and teaching of the young mind. If amusement is introduced the educational value of the film is liable to be small. In this attempt to supply two different markets simultaneously many producers over-reach them- selves. They fail to realise that a schoolroom film must be absolutely natural, that there must be no trickery or faking. There are several films on the market to-day, aiming at the require- ments of education, wherein the most attractive incidents are nothing more nor less than examples of fake photography. The educational autho- rities are only too well aware that trickery is one of the cinematographer's most useful tools, and accordingly many films of an apparently astonishing character are regarded with sus- EDUCATIONAL FILMS 211 picioiL Until all traces of faking and chicanery are abandoned the authorities are certain to look coolly on the suggestion of teaching by the cinematograph. Nevertheless the film must be prepared in such a manner that the pupil is not bored. It must be rendered interesting and fascinating or it will be no better than the old Dry-as-dust teaching. And the infusion of interest is by no means difficult. Every branch of science, every item in the curriculum, can be taught by motion pictures. One producer has prepared a novel and interesting film for teaching the alphabet and the spelling of simple words with the aid of a troupe of acrobats. The acrobats contort themselves into the shapes of letters upon the screen before the children's eyes. The children naturally follow the process with interest, and the finished letter at once impresses itself upon their minds. The spelling of the words is carried out in the same way. Another producer has a novel idea for explain- ing the principles of addition, subtraction, multi- plication, and division. He has devised animated scenes with teddy bears and oranges, and the setting itself is a schoolroom. The actors, who are children, are dressed in bear skins, and they behave in a truly grizzly manner. The very fact that this favourite toy is introduced rivets the p 2 212 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY attention of young children, and they follow the arithmetical adventures of the oranges with the utmost fascination. The bears themselves perform their parts most decorously, without any horseplay or clowning. The youngsters following the incidents upon the screen are induced to regard the projection seriously, and it has been found that afterwards, in their leisure hours, they reconstruct the incidents with their own toys. In this way they show that they have grasped the idea that was to be conveyed. In dealing with the sciences similar methods must be practised. Suppose, for instance, that it is intended to teach physics, chemistry, or electricity with the aid of moving-pictures. The film must commence at the very beginning of the subject. The text-book should be taken as a model. The producer of the film, if he is well acquainted with his subject, can devise experiments to suit any stage of knowledge. He can vary the experiment so as to bring the pupil face to face with something which has never been illustrated by diagram in the text-book. He can lead the pupil on step by step, and the more deeply he plunges into a particular science the wider is his scope for the portrayal of fascinating experiments. The preparation of films of this character offer attractive possibilities to the independent worker, (i) MOOR-HEN SITTING ON HER NEST. (2) THE YOUNG CHICK PIERCE; (3) THE CHICK EMERGING FROM THE SHELL. (4) THE NEWLY-HATCHED CHICK STRUGGLING TO ITS FEET. EDUCATIONAL FILMS 213 especially if he is familiar with teaching methods. The professional producer is often unable to reduce his subjects to the requisite simplicity. As a rule he knows little or nothing about a schoolroom, and the result is that he confines himself to the preparation of extremely fasci- nating films of a very advanced type, suited to the student in the secondary school or to one who has mastered the rudiments of the science. But it is in the laying of a solid foundation that the teacher finds his greatest difficulty. As a rule he has to go over the ground repeatedly before the elementary points sink into the pupil's mind. This drudgery can be greatly reduced by use of the moving-pictures, if only the right type of film is shown. The professional producer main- tains that such an elementary film is useless, merely because he looks at it from the showman's point of view. Another reason why the independent cinema- tographer should embark upon this field is that he is generally more ingenious and fertile in the preparation of experiments to suit the limitations of a lesson. He will know how to be simple, so that the pupil, after the demonstration, can go into the laboratory and repeat the experiments with a knowledge of what he is doing. As the pupil advances the films may be varied. For instance, in the experiments with sulphur 2i 4 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY he can be shown how sulphur is obtained. Views can be introduced of the mines and processes as practised in Sicily or Louisiana, and in this case the difference between ancient and modern methods can be brought home to him. Similarly in regard to the subject of common table salt it is possible to show the various methods of extraction, from the solar evaporating system practised in the Caucasus and California, and the excavation of rock salt as in Galicia, to the pumping of brine and forced evaporation common to the " Wiches " of England. The film may be " lightened " by glimpses of bathing in the Great Salt Lake or the brine baths of England in order to convey pictorially the difference in the density of salt and fresh water. In many cases it is possible to reproduce upon the screen the processes of Nature, the character of the experiment varying with the stage of the pupil's knowledge. Attempts are being made to teach geography by moving-pictures, but here again the same defects appear. Most of the so-called geo- graphical films are merely the " Travel Subjects " of the picture palace, another attempt to make a subject fit both the theatre and the schoolroom. Such films are useless except to form a pictorial interlude in text-book explanation. Yet there is a remarkable scope for geographical films. Let (5) EXHAUSTED BY ITS STRUGGLES THE Ci THE Sux. (6) A FEW HOURS LATER THE CHICK TAKES TO THE WATER. The " Birth of a Moor-hen." A wonderful series of moving- pictures taken by an amateur lady cinematographer. From the " Cinema College," by permission of ihe Motograph Co. FIGHT BETWEEN A LOBSTER AND AN OCTOPUS. By permission of Pathf Frires. THE STORY OF THE WATER-SNAIL. EDUCATIONAL FILMS 215 it be assumed that the lesson is about the birth of a river. The teacher dwells at length upon the possible sources, upon the tributaries that increase the volume of water during its journey, upon the navigable reaches and the traffic, and lastly upon the discharge of the waters into the ocean. Cinematographically the rise and growth of the river may be shown far more graphically and attractively. The pupil can see every phase. The source may be an insignificant spring, the outflow from a lake, or the melting ice of a glacier. Its rapid growth can be depicted by showing the inflow of its tributaries and the many sudden changes through which it passes, its rapids and its falls, while the fact that water follows the path of least resistance may be illustrated by showing the evidences of erosion and the manner in which the river has cut its channel through friable soil, or taken advantage of a breach in a rocky rampart. At the same time the pupil can be introduced to the utility of the waterway, especially upon its upper reaches, by pictures of the craft found thereon and the traffic in which they are engaged. The varying force of the current can be illustrated, and also the flotsam and jetsam that has been brought down. Finally, gaining the lower reaches, steam and motor navigation begins, with towns and cities on the banks, and in conclusion 216 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY the pupil may be given an idea of the immensity of the estuary together with the life and industry at this point. In addition some impression of the delta can be conveyed with moving-pictures of the way in which the detritus brought down from the upper reaches, is deposited at the mouth, forming islands and sand-banks, clothed with vegetation, and, if not developed, inhabited by wild fowl. The preparation of such a film is certain to occupy a long time, and is somewhat expensive, but these items must be disregarded if the school- room is to have what it requires. A film of this character would have to be divided into certain lengths, each of which would correspond with a lesson, for the subject is too vast to be assimilated in a few minutes. Cramming by the aid of moving-pictures would be worse than under present conditions. In many cases the camera will show that existing text-book teachings are erroneous or need modification. Some idea of the utility of the cinematograph in this one particular field has been revealed by the films of the Shackleton and Scott Antarctic expeditions. They have brought home more vividly than anything else the meaning of the eternal snow, ice and cold, associated with the Polar regions, and they have served to dispel many false ideas. So far the greatest success achieved by the EDUCATIONAL FILMS 217 motion-pictures in the field of education is in connection with natural history. Many wonder- ful films bearing upon animal life have been prepared and have created sensations. The text- books tell much about the life and habits of the various members of the animal kingdom, but in this case the text-book often happens to be wrong. Mr. Frank A Newman, an industrious animal photographer, devoted months to the preparation of a film 5,500 feet in length dealing with certain phases of animal life. He confined his efforts to the study of those creatures which are familiar to all. Incidentally, he proved the value that a highly instructive film possesses in the market, for within sixty days of its first appearance upon the screen, over ^8,000 or $40,000 was realised from the disposal of the rights to exploit the film in different countries. Pictures dealing with animal, bird, fish or reptile life never fail to command high prices. Indescribable patience is demanded in their preparation. Months may pass and yield only a few hundred feet of suitable material, and the photographer has to resort to the most extra- ordinary devices to take the subjects in their natural environment. One worker, who set himself the task of filming the kingfisher, discovered the haunts of his quarry, and then quietly commenced to establish himself in its 218 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY vicinity. He had to be exceedingly cunning in his movements, masking the position he had assumed in four feet of water, with a clump of tree boughs. Concealed in this ambuscade he approached the bird, moving with extreme care, so as to convey the impression that the boughs were drifting with the stream. Behind this ambush he placed his camera, clamping it to a heavy floating base, which was anchored. In this way he was able to move undetected. When he thought that the time had come for an exposure, he commenced to turn the handle, but the whirr of the mechanism scared the bird, and he was forced to wait some time, until its courage revived and it came back. He then mounted a second camera on the floating base, and this, being empty of film, was set in motion every time the bird returned, until it grew accustomed to the unusual noise. After a few days the bird took no further notice of the sound, and then the pictures could be taken with comparative ease. Altogether some seven weeks were occupied in obtaining about 200 feet of film, during which time the operator had often to stand for hours at a time in four feet of water, awaiting his opportunities. How completely his strategy and patience were rewarded may be gathered from the fact that in one incident, where the bird is shown devouring a fish it has caught, it perched upon a branch of THE HEAD OF THE TORTOISE. By permission of Pathe Freres. THE HAWK MOTH. **'i .^tf^KT SNAKE SHEDDING ITS SKIN OR "SLOUGH." From the " Cinema College," by permission of the Motograph Ci THE SNAKE AND ITS SHED SLOUGH. EDUCATIONAL FILMS 219 the ambuscade, barely four feet from the lens, completely unaware of the fact that its actions were being recorded Another indefatigable worker is Mr. J. C. Bee Mason, whose speciality is the filming of insect life. He has produced four films depicting the honey bee. As studies they are intensely interesting, and they bring out the characteristics of the subject in a most attractive manner. The average worker might hesitate to film such a subject at close quarters. The bee is very quick to resent intrusion and disturbance in a way peculiarity its own. Mr. Mason himself admits that in the early days he received very severe punishment, but he stuck to his camera and his work with the result that in the course of time he became accustomed to the attacks of the bees and to-day a sting has no more effect upon him than upon a deal board. The result of this patience is reflected in the excellence of his films which bring bee life most intimately before the spectator. The bee is always an object of interest, and in this particular case his films have brought Mr. Mason over 3,000, or $10,000. Although here and there one comes upon a film which exactly meets with the requirements of the schoolroom, the majority can make no such claim. They are merely instructive, in an amusing kind of way, and in the picture palace 220 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY they come as a welcome relief from transpontine drama and buffoonery. Fortunately, at the present moment, there is a growing tendency to make films which the schools will really welcome. One concern is studying the situa- tion very closely. This is the Motograph Film Company of London, which has completed contracts with the most prominent European scientific cinematographers for their entire output of educational, scientific and natural history subjects. It is also endeavouring to persuade the eminent teachers of certain subjects to commit their work to the celluloid film instead of to printed books. It is a difficult quest because the professors are apt to regard the cinematograph as a joke. At the same time, once the development becomes started upon the correct lines, it cannot fail to meet with success. The independent worker also is being encour- aged by the Motograph Film Company, and the cinematographic student of scientific subjects has a very profitable market open to him. The prices paid for the films naturally vary according to their merit, but this company is prepared to pay from 25. 6d. to 215. from 60 cents to $5 per foot of film for subjects which meet with its approval. The lengths may range from 50 to 6,000 feet. Recently, an independent EDUCATIONAL FILMS 221 lady worker, who in her spare time had given attention to filming the " Life of a Moorhen," showing the building of the nest, laying of the eggs, hatching and rearing of the young, sub- mitted her film to this concern. Some two- and-a-half years had been expended upon this subject, but the quality and the incidents depicted were so excellent that the 1,000 feet of film was bought for 650 ($3,250). This film has proved that the highest class of work must be obtained from the independent worker, or amateur, if that word is preferred, for the simple reason that time is no object, the task is not hurried, and no effort is spared to obtain the finest results. Another instructive film bought by this concern shows " Big Game Hunting in the North Pole Icefields." It intro- duces one to the polar bear. Altogether this subject extends over 8,000 feet, but for a selected length of 1,900 feet the sum of 2,000 ($10,000) was paid. In the case of another celebrated Arctic film, taken during the two years' imprison- ment of the Whitney expedition in the frozen zone, and about 6,000 feet in length, the same company gave 3,000 ($15,000) for the English rights alone. Although the cinematograph has failed to make a very pronounced advance among our educational institutions, it has proved a striking success in education of another kind. This is 222 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY in regard to the propaganda for improving health and hygiene. This movement has reached its highest stage of development in the United States. The " Swat the Fly " movement, which declared a relentless war against the common house-fly, was powerfully assisted by the exhibi- tion of films depicting the fly at work in the dissemination of disease. Free exhibitions have been given throughout the United States for the purpose of bringing home to the public the serious menace that this insect offers to the welfare of the community. One or two of the films used for the purpose were bought from England, where they had been used in the picture palaces. But the organisation pledged to the extermination of the fly turned them to a far more serious purpose, and its work has met with remarkable success. Another series of health films bear upon the "Great White Scourge." They are being exhibited freely and are bringing home to the public the terrible ravages wrought by tuber- culosis. The dreaded bacillus is shown at its fell work, and the different stages of the disease are pictorially represented. Then follow a series of photographs showing how it is transmitted, and lastly some pictorial suggestions as to how it may be combated, at least in its early stages, by fresh air and sanatorium treatment. EDUCATIONAL FILMS 223 The success of the fly and White Scourge campaigns has resulted in the preparation of other films dealing with the public health, while many local authorities have taken up the idea for the purpose of improving the conditions of their localities. Many of the films used for the purpose are prepared by amateur workers, especially when the subject is of local importance, and their ventures are proving highly profitable. Experience has proved in no uncertain manner that moving-pictures will soon be the world's most powerful educator. CHAPTER XVIII PHOTO-PLAYS AND HOW TO WRITE THEM THE vogue of the picture palace has created a new profession. This is the writing of plays especially for cinematographic production. In the early days the handful of producers engaged in the craft had no difficulties in meeting their needs in this direction. The producer conceived and worked out his own ideas. The market was small, the output was restricted, and it did not matter whether the plots were good, bad, or indifferent. The public was quite content with the dramatic fare supplied upon the screen, being more impressed by the novelty of the perfor- mance than by its merits. But with the rage for picture palaces the whole business underwent a transformation. The public, having outlived the era of curiosity, and having shown by its patronage that it regarded the picture palace in the same light as a theatre or music hall, grew more and more critical. It demanded stronger plots, improved mounting and acting, as well as better photographic quality. As new firms entered the producing field, com- HOW TO WRITE PHOTO-PLAYS 225 petition became acute, and the whole photo-play industry automatically transferred itself from the pioneer to the accomplished master of stage-craft The producer, unable to prepare his scenarios himself, sought the assistance of the amateur playwright, just as the editor of a periodical solicits contributions to fill his pages. It was a golden opportunity for the unknown struggling dramatist. Foiled hitherto by lack of chance, the power of the privileged few, and the absence of enterprise displayed by theatrical managers, he handed his work to the upstart rival, the picture-play producer. It was a wise move. The dramatist did not, indeed, secure that measure of publicity upon the screen which might have been his lot upon the boards, but the financial returns were more regular. As he developed his inclinations, and his work became appreciated, he was able to anticipate a com- fortable income, owing to the steady demand that arose for his handiwork. To-day the embryo dramatist never bestows a thought upon writing for the stage ; the cinematograph will absorb all that he can produce, and as rapidly as he can complete it. No longer need a budding genius starve un- known and unappreciated in a garret. If his work possesses any merit the cinematograph will turn it to profitable account. About three hundred p.c. Q 226 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY picture-plays are placed upon the world's market every week, and consequently the consumption of plots is enormous. What is more important from the author's point of view is the expanding nature of this market, where supply cannot keep pace with demand, and the proportionate improve- ment that is manifest in the scale of remuneration. Ten years ago a plot seldom fetched more than five shillings or a dollar ; to-day the same material will command anything between 5 and $o $25 to $250. In this field of activity reputation counts for nothing. The play and the play only is the thing. The picture palace is the poor man's theatre, and this class of play-goer is relentlessly emphatic in condemnation, and equally enthusiastic in praise. It appreciates novelty in plot, and that is the one point the author has to bear in mind. So it is clear that the unknown playwright has everything in his favour ; in fact, his work is generally preferred to that of the skilled writer. It contains the very best efforts of its creator ; the other is probably of poor quality, because the man with a name does not realise what the people want, and thinks that for the cinematograph anything is good enough. The desire of the photo-play producer to encourage unknown writers has led to the in- evitable result. He is inundated with plots and By permission of the Motograph Co. MR. FRANK NEWMAN AND HIS CAMERA HIDDEN WITHIN A HOLLOW TREE TRUNK. The utmost concealment is necessary to secure wild- life under natural conditions. HOW TO WRITE PHOTO-PLAYS 227 suggestions of every description, written by every type of man, woman, and child. Needless to say, a large proportion of the submitted con- tributions are wildly impossible, or contain plots which have been worn so thread-bare that there is no possible chance of dressing them in a new guise. Fortunately the task of sifting the wheat from the chaff is not exacting. A hurried scan of the opening lines generally suffices to show whether the subject is excellent, passable, or hopeless. Picture-play writing is an art, science, or whatever one likes to call it, which can be cultivated. The average person, at some time or other, is sure to have an idea it may be an idle fleeting thought which is capable of being turned to useful account. The picture-play producer knows this very well, and accordingly holds out every inducement in the hope that sooner or later he may light upon something brilliant. A suggestion need only have some small germ of possibility, but the producer, from his experience of the theatre, and of the requirements of the picture palace, can take that germ and evolve it in the most effective manner. Under these circumstances the question arises " How should a photo-play be prepared ? " While there is no golden rule, and while each producer works in his own way, it is possible to Q2 228 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY give a few hints to the beginner. A glance at the manuscript is enough to inform the reader whether the author is a raw hand at the work or otherwise, and although every manuscript is reviewed, more interested attention is attracted by a contribution which is set out upon more or less methodical lines. In the first place it is just as well to remember that the photo-play producer of to-day is a man of wide experience. In most cases he has graduated upon the stage, and has probably passed through all the phases between a touring company and a well-known theatre. As a result of this drilling he will have assumed a wide perspective. Sheer ability will have brought him to the control of the cinema-studio stage, where the work is most exacting, and where there is a very great demand for ingenuity and resource. Having mastered the intricacies and possibilities of the photo-play stage, and what can be done by photography, he will be a thorough master of craft. The greater number of the play- producers retained by the foremost firms are men who climbed to the top rung in the theatrical profession and merely went over to the motion- picture studio because it offered them greater scope for their prowess and knowledge. Indeed, one might go so far as to say that, unless a man has served his apprenticeship behind the foot- HOW TO WRITE PHOTO-PLAYS 229 lights, he is an indifferent play-producer, because he will be ignorant of stage-craft and the technique of the profession. A man of such experience and ability is able to sum up the value of a plot in an instant. Consequently the author is well advised to con- dense his plot into as few words as possible the briefer the outline the better. In some instances it is not even necessary to indicate the characters, the period, or the scene. The plot is the only thing that is wanted : the producer, as he reads it, will conjure up in his mind the period, environment, atmosphere, and characters, wherewith such and such a story may best be worked out. There is one well-known Continental producer who never asks for more than a bald statement of the plot. If it can be conveyed in six lines he is more than satisfied. On one occasion, while seated at lunch, one of the party jestingly suggested an idea. Without a word of comment the producer scribbled the suggestion upon the back of an envelope. Returning to the studio an hour or so later, he handed a note to one of his staff, indicated how he would like it worked out, the colleague fitted in the characters, evolved the scenes, period, and situations, and the next morning the play was staged. One of the foremost French picture-play 230 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY producers follows a similar practice. He has a staff of eight writers whose sole duty is the preparation of scenarios for production. Plots as they flit through the minds of these men are jotted down and pigeon-holed. The outside contributions which come in with every post are scanned, and those thought suitable are dissected, their ideas are torn out and re-com- mitted to paper, for filing, while the author is rewarded with payment according to the merit of his work. At this establishment no lengthy scenario submitted by an unknown writer is considered. Time is too valuable when eight or ten stages have to be kept going. The staff is fully occupied upon the work in hand, and cannot wade through pages of often indecipher- able hand-writing. The method of this particular producer in the case of an ordinary play is to have an abstract, prepared by the retained scenario writer, indicating the scenes, their sequence, characters, and other details, with a brief synopsis of the plot, the whole being set out upon a sheet of foolscap. Upon this material the producer works, explaining to the company the story of the play and the situations, as they progress step by step. Many producers, however, prefer the scenario to be submitted in a more complete form, though requirements of brevity and terseness must be HOW TO WRITE PHOTO-PLAYS 231 observed. They like the list of characters to be given, together with a suggested period and setting. The cast should be kept as small as possible, as a plethora of characters in a photo- play is apt to be bewildering. Also the producer can amplify the cast if he wishes to do so. The plot should be set out in narrative form. A bald synopsis is quite sufficient because the scenario expert will judge the merits of the manuscript from this alone. In order to assist the producer the main points and situations may be indicated. After the synopsis there should be some sugges- tions for working out the story scene by scene. These are not essential, but they sometimes give the reader a better impression of the story, and help him in staging the play. The chances are a hundred to one that the play never will be staged as written by the author, yet its brief evolution is often appreciated. When the author works out his plots he must steer clear of introducing wild impossibilities or hopelessly impracticable suggestions. The producer is admittedly a clever man, and is able to get wonderful effects with the aid of the camera, nor does he hesitate to employ trickery when it will further his purpose, but there are limitations even to trick photography. There was one manuscript in which the author, after taking his villain through adventures 232 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY innumerable, suggested a sensational means of eliminating him altogether. The man was speeding across a frozen river to escape the vengeance of the hero when the ice opened up suddenly, let him through, and then closed on him to hide him from sight and memory. Need- less to say, this plot met with scanty considera- tion. In another case the plot turned upon a lady's ring. The lady was standing by a river, and the ring slipped from her finger into the water to be caught and swallowed by a fish. Some days later the hero was fishing in the same stream. He had a bite, hooked his catch, cut it open, and found the ring. It is difficult to say who experienced the most amazement, the hero when he opened his fish, or the producer when he read the story. In the photo-play profession it is novelty of the plot which brings success. The farther the author can get away from conventionality, the bigger will be the reward. This is where the average amateur shows deficiency. He is content to follow the footsteps of others. Again, many photo-play writers, instead of striving to be original, prefer to steal ideas from a novelist or short story writer. This work, needless to say, is sheer waste of time. The producer and his staff follow the periodicals and the publishing- seasons very closely, so that it is easy for them HOW TO WRITE PHOTO-PLAYS 233 to detect a stolen plot. Moreover, it must be remembered that to-day the leading producing firms have arrangements with authors, publishers and editors, for the exclusive use of their pro- ductions. These sources form a stand-by, as it were, to be brought into use when the fount of original scenarios dries up. When novels and magazine stories are to provide fare for the screen the producer entrusts the work of adapta- tion to one of his staff who has a more intimate idea of what is required, and will perform the task far more satisfactorily than the ordinary contributor. The photo-play author has one great advantage over his colleague who writes for the stage. The latter has to supply dialogue, and often the success or failure of his work turns upon this factor. In writing for the screen dialogue is a lost quantity. It is action which is required, because the spectator has to follow the play from what he sees, and not from what he hears. Accordingly the requirements of action must be kept in mind. In the average studio the actor either extemporises dialogue to fit the part or situation, or else the producer prompts him. It is true that one or two producers stipulate that the photo-play shall be written out in detail as if it were to be played behind the footlights, but such producers may be set down as incom- 234 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY petent or behind the times. A few years ago one of the Continental firms insisted that every play should be written out in full, but a few months' experience showed the folly of this procedure. Plays mounted in this manner lacked that grip and movement which is necessary in photographic pantomime. The audience could not retain the thread of the story, and the interest consequently flagged. The members of the company, being compelled to learn their lines, and to rehearse continually, went through their parts like puppets. Accordingly this method of mounting and acting has been abandoned in favour of the other in which the company, absolutely ignorant of the plot and story, is taken through it step by step and maintained at concert pitch throughout. The writer should make a point of selecting a striking or catchy title for his work. Often when the plot itself is useless the producer will buy the manuscript merely to apply the title to some other production. A word of warning may be given to the in- experienced photo-play author. Advertisements are freely inserted in the various periodicals offering to teach the art of writing plays for the cinematograph, and to submit the plots to the various producers in the manner of a literary agency. No matter how speciously and attrac- HOW TO WRITE PHOTO-PLAYS 235 lively the advertisements are written, the offers they contain should not be accepted. The author will do best to submit his work directly to the producer and to treat with him alone. The art cannot be taught by schools ; it can only be acquired by experience. Nor does the agency possess more favourable opportunities for getting the work accepted than the writer himself, while the so-called expert who maintains that he can lick a plot into shape is merely a charlatan. If the plot is good, whether written by a raw or a highly trained hand, it will command its price, because the producer is no respecter of persons. Also, by treating directly, the author comes into touch with the producer, and often learns points and receives encouragement which cannot be transmitted through a middle man. How is the work rewarded ? This is a question which is often asked. So far as the British market is concerned the photo-play author receives scant encouragement. British enter- prise has not risen to the level of that of the United States or the Continent. The British firms neither realise the value of a good plot nor the advantages of prompt and smart business methods. Here and there may be found a firm which is keenly alive to the value of the outside worker, but they are few and far between. On the other hand the American and Continental 236 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY houses give an immediate decision, treat the outside contributor kindly, extend profitable words of advice if the work is promising, and pay promptly. A plot for which a British firm con- siders 105. od. ($2.50) to be an adequate remunera- tion will realise $25 ($) in the American market. The British producer will consider i ($5) to be a princely price for a good plot, and so long as this impression is retained the British photo-plays will remain inferior to their competitors. On the other hand, the American firms deal liberally with their authors, and are quite prepared to pay from $25 to $150 .5 to ,30. Fortunately signs of awakening are becoming evident among the British firms. Good plots, like gold nuggets, are somewhat scarce, and one or two of the latest and most progressive establishments now pay up to 10 ($50). Picture-play producers are finding greater and greater difficulty in obtaining first-class plots. The standard of excellence has been set so high, owing to the extremely critical character of the picture palace patron, that the highest work only now stands a chance of being accepted. The rivalry among the producers has become keen, because a strong picture-play can command a world-wide sale. One Italian firm, in the effort to forge ahead of its competitors, went so far as to offer a prize of ; 1,000 ($5,000) for the best HOW TO WRITE PHOTO-PLAYS 237 scenario in open competition. It is admitted among the manufacturers that within the course of the next few years the royalty system must come into operation, so that the photo-play author will be elevated to the level of his confrere writing for the theatre. In France a society has been founded for the protection of photo-play writers. This organisa- tion protects its members by securing higher rates of payment, by introducing the work of beginners to the film-producers, and last, but not least, by advertising the writer. Ten years ago the picture-play author was regarded with disdain, and was considered to be little more than an indifferent literary hack. To- day he is regarded as a powerful force. From the lowest and most ill-paid level he is rising to the highest rungs, where his rewards are excellent and his opportunities unbounded. CHAPTER XIX RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN STAGE PRODUCTIONS ALTHOUGH the mounting and staging of photo- plays has been greatly improved, the art has still many imperfections. This is partly due to the conservative character of the industry. There is a lack of initiative and enterprise ; the producers are content to keep in the one groove which was established years ago. No one can deny that enormous sums of money are expended upon the mounting of the productions, nor assail them from the photographic viewpoint. But there is a lack of art which at times is sadly jarring. This was to be expected. When the English pioneers embarked upon the play-producing business they knew nothing about stage-craft. Their ambition was rather to perfect the photo- graphic quality of the films. So rapidly did the movement advance, however, and so insistent was the public in its demands for better, larger, and more lavishly staged plays, that the pioneer found himself out-distanced. At this juncture came the man who had won his spurs in the RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 239 theatre, and who was thoroughly expert in the technique of stage-craft. His professional know- ledge lifted the art out of the hands of the pioneers, who retired from the scene. The introduction of the professional element commenced in France, and was taken up immediately by the Americans. These two countries went ahead so rapidly that Great Britain was soon left behind. The world became flooded with French and American productions, and in this healthy race the latter soon went ahead and took premier position. The French industry, being threatened, pulled itself together, and taking a cue from American methods it overhauled its organisations and increased its expenditure, with the result that it soon attained the level of excellence achieved by the United States. At a later date the Italian industry, which was in a languishing condition, followed suit. Money was sunk in the enterprise, huge studios were built, and talented artists were engaged to act before the moving-picture camera. Great Britain lagged in this race, and it is only recently that the British producers, by a change of method have been able to make up the leeway. The British movement was rather of a sporadic nature. It was left to one or two enterprising firms to show the way. But others have followed, and to-day there is the keenest 2 4 o PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY rivalry in producing, nor is expense considered so long as the public gets what it wants. To sink 3,000 ($15,000) in a single production has become quite a common venture. In many cases, however, in spite of these changes, photo-plays still follow the lines that prevailed ten years ago. The blemishes, defects, and anachronisms are just as pronounced now as they were then, though they are suffered in silence by the public. Many faults are hidden by the gorgeous and lavish mounting of the scenes, while the rapid action of the players serves to distract attention from the shortcomings of the environment. But the feeling of actuality, which ought to be the great feature of the cinematograph, is missing. The scenic acces- sories might be left out for all the effect that they produce. As a matter of fact the photo-play stage occupies to-day the position of the theatre twenty years ago. The scenery is for the most part make-shift, crudely painted in the neutral black and white, the stock room being ransacked to discover pieces of canvas to fit the situation. There is no attempt to create an artistic effect. Also there is an entire absence of reality or individuality. A cell scene, for instance, bears every sign of being built of canvas and battens, and so does the exterior of a mediaeval castle, By permission of Pathe Freres. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND EGGS OF A WATER FLEA. By permission of Pathe Freres. THE MOVING-PICTURE NATURALIST AND THE LIZARD AT HOME. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 241 or the inside of a conservatory, and completed by a factory hand. Sometimes the shortcomings of the studio- stage are avoided by setting the plays in an outdoor surrounding, and in this instance a far more realistic effect is produced. The audience is unconsciously carried away. This has been specially realised by some of the American, Danish and Italian firms. In France the Gaumont Company has shown equal enterprise. So far as possible the elaborate productions of this company are acted in a scene suited to the plot, whether it be a sixteenth century castle or a modern hotel There is ample opportunity for doing this, and the present popularity of the photo-play proves the wisdom of the policy. During the summer months as many as six different companies will be working in as many different corners of Europe, acting plays in the open air for the picture palaces. Even the interiors in Gaumont films are often real and not merely constructed for the occasion. As a rule the studio is used only during the winter when the climatic conditions are unfavour- able for outdoor work. This is the chief reason why the Gaumont films to-day are in such demand, and why the company has forced its way to the front. The conveyance of players to a suitable natural p.c R 242 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY setting is expensive, but it represents all the difference between success and failure. Of course, there are occasions when a natural setting demands a certain amount of artificial embellishment. This was the case in the filming of Hamlet, as presented by Sir Forbes Robertson and his company. A sea background and a battlemented castle were required. The former was quite easy to find, but the combination of the two was more difficult. The problem was solved by the choice of Lulworth Cove as the scene and by erecting a solid set to represent the castle. In this case the preparation of the extemporised castle was so thorough and care- ful that it looks like a weather-beaten stone building. The photo-play stage will be forced to emulate the current practice of the theatre. It must bring the artist to bear upon the work. At the moment it is merely a combination of the photographer and the stage-manager or producer. The latter is not always an artist, though he is clever at making existing facilities suit his purpose. The theatre is holding its own principally because it respects the artistic side of the issue. Indivi- duality is encouraged. The photo-play stage will have to follow the same line of action. Directly this is done the picture palace will become a spirited rival of the theatre. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 243 For this reason the efforts of Sir Hubert von Herkomer, the eminent British artist, are being followed with interest. He was attracted to the photo-play producing business owing to the artistic atrocities perpetrated by the professional producer of film plays. He is not attempting to achieve any revolution, except in the mounting and acting of plays for the camera, but in this sphere he hopes to bring about a recognition of the part that the artist must play. There is a complete absence of sensationalism about the artist-producer's work, and in this respect he goes against the conventions. He is deliberately flouting many of the accepted tenets of the photo-play production, and his attitude is certain to meet with some hostile criticism. But from the realist point of view he is correct. His matter-of-fact productions give verisimilitude to the scene and story, and brings them within the range of probability. There is no straining after effect. No detail is introduced unless it has a distinct bearing on the subject. The costumes are faithful to the last button. If a sixteenth century farmhouse is wanted, it is built, and built so well that in the picture it has every appearance of having been built of stone. A feature which will be appreciated in the Herkomer productions is the suppression of the harsh and distressing blacks, greys and whites, R 2 244 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY which under brilliant illumination often convey the impression of snow. Nor do the players seem to be suffering from anaemia. These appear to be trivial matters in themselves, but they greatly affect the ultimate whole. The robust aspect of the peasant who lives out of doors is faithfully conveyed, and he is thrown up in sharp contrast to the white-faced townsman. In the conventional picture-play, on the other hand, there is no individuality of facial expression, because one and all are made up in the same way. Sir Hubert von Herkomer has commenced his work in a logical way. He confesses that until he began it he knew nothing about it. He was not harassed by a partial knowledge of how things are done. He is essentially a pioneer, content to work out his own ideas, and possessed of views upon stage-craft which are not to be despised. They had a good effect upon the theatre twenty or thirty years ago, and have lately been revived by another enthusiast. So Sir Hubert von Herkomer is not likely to be the slave of tradition. He maintains that in the average photo-play everything is sacrificed to rapid action. This is true, and it is done purposely to distract atten- tion from the weakness of the rest. The spectator must fix his attention upon the characters or he RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 245 loses the thread of the story. No time is given him to see the deficiency of atmosphere or environment. The result is that everything is rushed through as if the villain and hero were racing the clock. To realise this it is only necessary to follow the film-play of a well-known historical story. Familiarity with the incident here gives the spectator a chance of taking in the setting and the mounting. If there are mistakes, interest gives way to mirth and all concentration is lost. The picture is followed with no more enthusiasm than a pantomime. This is the main reason why producers are chary of portraying well-known historical episodes upon the screen. One educational authority has described such films as burlesques, and that is among the causes of opposition to the cinematograph as an educa- tional medium. In one instance an attempt was made to film an incident in one of Fenimore Cooper's stories with white actors made up as Red Indians. It was acted in a well-kept private forest instead of in the wild woods of Canada. But young and old proved to be too familiar with this author's works. They had too true a notion of the Canadian timber wilderness to be impressed by the substitute on the screen, and received the presentation with the ridicule it deserved The sight of a Red Man slouching through the bush with out-turned feet and trying 246 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY to conceal himself behind a tree less than six inches in thickness, proved to be merely comic. But other things equally ridiculous are found in many of the films of to-day, and that is the reason why the scenes are so judiciously rushed. By slowing down the speed of acting, though without reducing the sustained interest, Sir Hubert von Herkomer contends that the public will be put in a position to grasp the whole subject, and will be able to follow it more rationally and comprehensibly. At the same time the players will have time and scope to perform their parts properly. There is not the least reason why this should not be achieved without allowing the action to flag or the interest to drop. The lighting of the subject is another important feature to which Sir Hubert von Herkomer is giving attention. The illumination must be arranged to suit the situation, and as cine- matography offers the utmost latitude in this respect, it is unnecessary to rush to violent extremes. In many productions the studio stage is suffused with such an intense glare that all facial expression and shadows are sacrificed. Sir Hubert has realised how great is the scope for improvement in this direction, and is altering the whole principle of stage lighting. Similarly, in outdoor work he is supplementing sunshine RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 247 with arc lights, so as to secure the steady illumination necessary for good effects. The combination of brilliant daylight and artificial illumination is a novelty in photo-play production, but when the action is taking place under trees, where the shadows are heavy and in sharp con- trast with scattered patches of brilliant sunlight, the players are apt to present a phantom appear- ance. Sometimes they are scarcely distinguish- able. The introduction of auxiliary light relieves the shadowy places and softens the general effect. Needless to say the manipulation of powerful arc lights under such conditions demands skilful handling, but in the Herkomer films the improved results certainly show that the labour is not wasted. Whether the combination of artist and pro- ducer will prove successful time alone can show. There will be a certain amount of commercial opposition, lacking in artistic feeling, and hostile to innovation. But the appearance of the artist and his resolution to work out his schemes logically should surely be encouraged by the public. The same reforms that changed and improved the theatre, enabling it to hold its own against the all-conquering picture palace, have a mission to the latter also. They can lift it to the higher level that is its obvious destiny. CHAPTER XX WHY NOT NATIONAL CINEMATOGRAPH LABORATORIES? CONSIDERING the position which the motion- picture has attained in our social and industrial life, the establishment of national cinematograph laboratories appears not only to be opportune, but necessary. At the present moment, if one conceives an idea for the solving of some abstruse problem by means of animated photography, one is handicapped by the lack of opportunity and facilities for carrying out the work. Either the apparatus required must be made specially, or purchased, in which case heavy expenditure may be incurred, or, one must go to Paris and make use of the Marey Institute, either by becoming a member of it or by serving as the representative of a contributory society. There, one is able to pursue the line of study quietly, easily, and economically, and, even if the ultimate results are disappointing, or the cherished theories prove to be untenable, certain benefits are sure to accrue from the experiments. The time is not wasted. The Marey Institute is unique and wonderful. Its operations are world-wide. Its founder, NATIONAL LABORATORIES 249 Dr. E. J. Marey, was a prodigious worker who pursued his scientific investigations without any idea of personal gain. When first he entered the arena of science he began his experiments in a large room upon the fifth floor of a house in the Rue dePancienneComedie, Paris, which formerly belonged to the Com^die Francaise. Here he fitted up as good a laboratory as he could afford, dividing the spacious apartment, by wooden partitions, into working and living rooms. His studies soon aroused widespread attention, and their results were subsequently embodied in his classical work, " The Graphic Method." But some ten years before this volume appeared his investigations had received recognition. In 1867 the Minister of Public Instruction offered him the use of a laboratory at the College of France, so as to be able to carry out his researches to better advantage. During this period he invented numerous instruments the sphymograph, cardiograph, pneumograph, thermograph, and odograph with which he made invaluable contributions to scien- tific knowledge. It was Konig's work which attracted Marey to animated photography, as a handmaid of science, the outcome being his greatest discovery, which he named chrono- photography. Marey was much impressed by Jannsen's astronomical revolver with which, in 2 5 o PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY 1873, a series of photographs of the transit of Venus were taken in 70 seconds. This caused him to build a photographic gun, with which gulls in flight were secured. The work of Muybridge, the English investigator residing in San Francisco, aroused his enthusiasm to the highest pitch, and enabled him to perfect his system of taking a series of successive photo- graphs upon a single glass plate. Finally, in 1893, he produced his first moving-picture camera working with celluloid films. But some twenty years before this last achieve- ment he had conceived the idea for an Inter- national Institution where experiments of this character, in connection with motion photography, might be carried out to the advantage of the sciences. He realised that the elucidation of physiological phenomena was quite beyond the capacity of a single individual. He outlined his scheme at the Fourth Physiological Congress, held at Cambridge (England) in the early seventies, while Monsieur H. Kronecker, of Switzerland, a great admirer of Marey's work, who succeeded to the presidential chair of the Institution after the founder's death, urged a similar plea at an exhibition of scientific apparatus held in London in 1876. Marey's broad-mindedness met with its reward. With the assistance of private friends and By permission of the MotograpkCo. A NOVEL "HIDE" CONTRIVED BY MK. J. T. NEWMAN WITH CAMERA FIFTEEN FEET ABOVE THE GROCND. The working platform is covered with boughs so as not to alarm the forest life being cinematographed. By permission of the ^fotograph Co. THE "HIDE" OPENED TO SHOW WORKING PLATFORM, TRESTLE SUPPORT, OPERATOR AND CAMERA PLACED FIFTEEN FEET ABOVE THE GROUND. NATIONAL LABORATORIES 251 contemporary scientific societies throughout the world he obtained adequate funds for the establishment of the Institution, the necessity for which he had advanced so vigorously. The City of Paris gave valuable help by granting the use of a tract of land attached to its physiological station, and here Marey established a com- modious building with spacious workrooms, a library, lecture hall, and other conveniences, for the profitable prosecution of cinematographic research. Since the foundation of the " French Cradle of Cinematography," innumerable and valuable con- tributions to scientific knowledge have been made by investigators of all nationalities, who have gone to Paris to take advantage of the facilities offered. Many extraordinary films dealing with the various branches of science have been pre- pared. Many of the most prominent scientists of all nations, France, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Roumania, Switzerland, the United States of America, are numbered among its members. It may be said truthfully that the Marey Institute has anticipated all the great develop- ments that have been made during recent years concerning the instructional or informative side of film production. Unfortunately the original investigations were made so long ago, before the possibilities of animated photography were 252 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY appreciated, that they have been forgotten by, or are unknown to, the present generation. Many an inventor, enthusiastic about a develop- ment which he has perfected in the art, has received a rude shock when his work became public and he learned that he had been forestalled years before at the Marey Institute. Nearly all of the so-called scientific films, which arouse widespread interest to-day, were prepared originally at the Marey Institute. The combination of the cinematograph with the microscope, the X-rays, and other apparatus, the recording of the growth of plants and animals, the photographing of rapid movements all these were demonstrated at this establishment a generation ago. Surely what has been possible at a French establishment is not beyond the resources of other countries ? When one recalls the valuable assistance given to science by the French Institute, there should be no hesitation in other countries to emulate the idea, and to establish national institutions for a similar purpose. Animated photography is still in its infancy. Its educational and scientific possibilities are scarcely yet realised. There were many years during which no one realised the full advantages of ordinary photography in the provinces of investigation and experiment, and animated NATIONAL LABORATORIES 253 photography is passing through a similar phase. This is largely because of the showman, who is enterprising, and has captured the fort for himself. Probably no other industry has been responsible for the creation of so many million- aires in so short a period, yet there is no industry which can render so great a service to science. It should not be difficult to establish national institutions, on Marey's lines, in every country which has great industrial and commercial interests at stake. So far as Great Britain is concerned it might be attached to the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington. This estab- lishment has an extensive array of scientific apparatus of all descriptions capable of being utilised in conjunction with the moving-picture camera, so that the additional outlay would not be excessive. Not only would it be possible to utilise the invention in connection with existing experiments, but independent and original investi- gation could be undertaken. There are many points of science which can be determined only by moving-pictures. Although Marey covered the ground very completely during his lifetime, as a perusal of "Movement" will show, many new spheres of application have appeared since his time. It is quite possible that if some of his investigations were repeated in the light of 2 5 4 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY later knowledge, the new results would be quite as striking as the old. In Germany the cinematographic laboratory might be attached to the world-famed testing- laboratory at Charlottenburg. At present, although the recording instruments in use are of a most modern and perfect description, there are innumerable instances where improvement might be effected by photographic methods. The German military authorities were not slow to appreciate the value of Professor Cranz's system of photographing projectiles in flight. Directly the initial experiments were concluded the work was taken up by the War Department. Although certain particulars of the apparatus employed and its method of operation have been published, the essential details have been kept secret. It is admitted that the method evolved by Cranz is imperfect in certain features, but the authorities have the germ of a useful invention, and are now developing it indepen- dently. In Italy also the value of the cinemato- graph is being appreciated in a certain direction. The Minister of Marine has established a special department of photography and cinematography in Rome, after personal investigation of the utility of the invention during the naval manoeuvres. The United States of America has been no NATIONAL LABORATORIES 255 more progressive than Great Britain in giving recognition to animated photography, but there are indications that this lethargic attitude is to be abandoned Certain influential interests have suggested the establishment of a cinematographic bureau of standards, emphasising the usefulness of the invention for supplying measurements of time and work. Apart from this movement other independent enthusiasts have recommended the formation of moving-picture laboratories in connection with the various training institutions, so that students might be trained on the correct lines. Doubtless the perfection of continuous- record cinematography, and of cameras capable of working at the highest speeds, will stimulate the movement, for they provide a method of getting information which even the cinematograph has not hitherto been able to give. There are a thousand problems incidental to industry and commerce which now defy solution, but could be solved by animated photography. Aviation, which at present is occupying the attention of every nation, is a case in point. The mechanical part of the science has been investi- gated minutely but little progress has been made in studying the effect of the air upon the planes, so as to discover the best forms of cutting edge. Present endeavour is content to work upon the results obtained by Marey with his chrono- 256 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY photographic apparatus some twenty years ago. No attempt has been made to ascertain whether it is possible to improve upon his work, or to determine whether the data he gathered is in need of modification. Another field of investiga- tion is in regard to the testing of metals, woods, and other materials, to discover their behaviour under varying degrees of strain. A national cinematographic laboratory need not be expensive either to establish nor to maintain. The Marey Institute might be taken as a model. After the death of Marey, in 1905, the means of carrying on the institution were completely reorganised. The work it was accomplishing was recognised as being too valuable to be allowed to cease. The French Government took up the question and decided to grant an annual subvention of 960 ($4,800). The German, Swiss, Russian, and other Govern- ments, as well as various scientific institutions of all nations, also decided to subscribe regularly to its support. In this way, with the addition of some private subscriptions, about 1,500 ($7,500) is contributed annually. Other contributions are made in kind, such as the film, all of which is given by the firm of Lumiere. Considering the work accomplished by the Marey Institute it is maintained very economically. The annual expenses average about 1,200 or NATIONAL LABORATORIES 257 $6,000. The paid staff comprises the assistant sub- director and an assistant, two highly skilled mechanics, and one or two minor officials, the important posts being filled honorarily. Private investigators are encouraged to use the Institute and its equipment. The scientific institutions of the different countries are given certain facilities in return for a small payment. Thus an annual subscription of 40 ($200) entitles the representative of an institution to the widest use of the laboratory. He is not only given free and unrestricted use of all the apparatus, but is provided with a bedroom, so that his expenses are reduced to disbursements upon meals and other personal requirements. Everything requisite for his study, as well as accessories, such as light, film, developers, etc., are provided free of charge. The laboratory is well provided with all sorts of appliances. There are cameras of various designs adapted to special classes of work, dark rooms for developing, rooms for experiments, a workshop with skilled mechanics, a library stocked with literature bearing upon cinema- tography and its relation to the sciences, and a large and lofty hall furnished with a projector and screen. As the Institute stands in its own grounds of over 3,000 square yards, there are ample facilities for out-door investigations. p.c. s 258 PRACTICAL CINEMATOGRAPHY The experimenter at this Institution has advantages placed at his disposal which will not be found elsewhere in any other part of the world. The majority of the appliances have been designed by the staff mechanics, and in their manufacture extreme ingenuity has been dis- played. Much of the apparatus might possibly provide an income in the form of royalties if it were commercially exploited. But it is a rule of the Institute that no instrument may be patented. Its work is for the benefit of all. Undoubtedly the near future will see the foundation of national cinematographic labora- tories in some form or other. The value of animated photography is not yet appreciated. Directly the sciences realise its significance, and see that it constitutes an indispensable aid to investigation and research, the invention will be given the recognition it deserves. Then it will be turned into more useful channels than at present. Individual investigation will be encouraged, and discoveries more wonderful than any of which we know will be made. INDEX AEROSCOPE, the, hand camera, tions and opportuni- 5557 ties, I 12, 21 34, 92 Aldrich, Mr. J. G., and the 93, 125, 133 134, use of micro-motion, 176 212 213, 220 221 ; Alpha camera, 22 23 Aurora Borealis, attempt to picture plays, 225 237 (ft) scientific value of. See film the, 1 86 Automatic cameras. See Scientific investigation. (c) Educational value. See under Cameras. Educational films. (d) in conjunction with the X-rays. See Radio- BRUCE, Colonel, study of sleep- ing sickness, 195 Bull, M. Lucien, optical illusions explained, 96107 ; experiments with a bee, 119 1 20 ; continuous- cinematography. (e) in conjunction with the microscope. See Micro- cinematography. Claw, the, 26 27 ; movement described, 29 30 ; single record camera, 137 ; study of ballistics, 190 claw, 31 Comandon, Dr. Jean, 147 148 ; system described and illustrated 157 160 ; inves- tigations with ultra-micro- CAMERAS, automatic, 54 59 ; scope described and illus- cost of, 7 10, 22 24 ; directions for use, 35 50 ; V*nH ram^ra en c-5 liior'h trated, 1 68 172, 195 Continuous records. See Re- rnrH rnn-Hnnrmc speed cameras, 109, 112 116 ; 118 120, mechanism explained, 25 34 Cardiograph, the, 249 Carvallo, M. M. J., 147 148 ; apparatus described and illustrated, 149 152 ; scien- tific experiments, 154 156 Chrpnophotography, 136 146; discovery of, 249 ; the chronoscope, in 112 Chronoscope, the, in 112 Cinematography (a) for the amateur, attrac- Cooke lens, 23 Cranz, Dr., of Berlin, military academy, 109 ; apparatus invented by, 190 193, 254 Crookes' tube, 153 DALLMEYER lens, 23 Dastre, Dr., of the Sorbonne, 172 Demeny, Georges, 143 ; inves- tigation with the continuous record, 144 145 Developing. See under Film. 260 INDEX Driving gear, 31 32 Drum, the, 76 EASTMAN Company, stock, 63, 78 ; developing solution, 70 Educational films, 209 223 Einthoven, Professor (Dutch scientist), 137 ; chronopho- tography, 142 Equilibrator of hand camera, 56 Experiments and investiga- tions : study of bacteria, 168 172 ; filming of a bee, 219 ; with continuous records, 140 145 ; study of functions of digestion, 15.- 156 ; flight of projectiles, 191 193 ; filming of a kingfisher, 217 218 ; in micro-motion, 177 180 ; by an ophthalmic surgeon, 193 ; growth of plants, 124 129 ; technical, 187, 188 189. See also Scientific investi- gations. Exposure, length of, 43 47 FILM (unexposed), cost, 12 ; description, n ; developing, 6574, ?8 ; drying, 7577 ; Eastman stock, 63 ; fixing, 74 75 ; the indicator, 42 ; loading the box, 35 37 ; matt film, 38 39 ; thread- ing, 28 29 (ill.), 39 41 ; printing, 79 93 ; special for Carvallo apparatus, 153 ; winding, 77 Film jointer, 37 Film-pictures : prices, 5 7, 217 221 Fixing-bath, formula, 74 Focus-lamp, 89 Focussing, 30 31, 38 ; effect of length of exposure, 47 Formulae : Eastman developer, 70 ; restrainer for over- exposed films, 71 ; fixing bath, 74 ; soaking solution, 75 " French Cradle of Cinema- tography," 251 Fiichs, Dr. Otto, investiga- tions, i 88 190 GATE, the, described, 29 Gaumont, Company, picture plays, 241 Geneva stop movement, 26 Gilbreth, Mr. Frank B., 143 ; micro-motion study, 1 75 184 " Graphic Method, The," book by E. J. Marey, 249 " Great White Scourge, The " (film), 222 Gun, photographic, 250 " HAMLET," filming of play, 242 Hand camera. See under Cameras. Health films, 222 223 Herkomer, Sir Hubert von, and picture plays, 243 247 High-speed cameras. See under Cameras. ILLUMINANT, 130 132, 190 ; in micro-cinematography, 167, 170 International Institution for Cinematographic Research, 250 251. See also Marey Institute. Interrupter, 158 159 ; of Cranz apparatus, 191 Iris diaphragm, use illustrated, 45 ; table of stops, 46 47 JANNSEN'S astronomical re- volver, 249 250 Jury autocam, 58 59 INDEX 261 Jury duplex, 80 ; printing apparatus, 82 85 Jury outfit, 10 KBARTON, Mr. Cherry, jungle pictures, 5. 53 ; use of aeroscope, 55 LENS, the, 23 25 ; iris dia- phragm, 43 47 ; for radio- cinematography, 1 60 " Life of a Moorhen " (film), 221 " Life Target, the," apparatus, 201 207 Lnmiere Brothers, 172, 256 MAREY, Dr. E. J., in 114. 249 250 ; physiological research, 195 Marey Institute, founding of. 248 252 ; later develop- ment, 256 258 ; micro- cinematography, 166168 ; radio-cinematography. 147 156 ; slow-movement records, 125 130 Mason. J. C. Bee, films of insect life, 219 Matt film, 38 39 Mechanics and cinemato- graphy, 187 190 Micro-cinematography, 161 *73 Micro-motion study, 174 184 Military value of cinema- tography, 197 208 Motograph Film Co., edu- cational films, 220 " Movement," book by E. J. Marey, 185 Movement, intermittent, 26 31 " Movies." the. 22 P.C. Muybridge, investigator, 250 NATIONAL Cinematographic Laboratories, a plea for, 248, National Physical Laboratory at Teddington, 253 New England Butt Co., 176 1 80 New Era camera, 22 Newman, Mr. Frank A., 217 Nogues, M. M. P., camera described and illustrated, 114; claw motion device, 153 ODOGRAPH, the, 249 " One-turn-one-picture," prin- ciple. 125, 133 Optical illusion. 13 14 ; illu- sions described and ex- plained, 95 107 " Out-position " of claw, 29 Over-exposed film, restrainer for, 71 PATERSON and Musgnve, Messrs.. 198 201 Path6 Freres. 156, 169 Paul. Mr. Robert. 26 Persistence of vision, law of, 14, 122 Photographic gun, 250 Photo play. Set Picture play. Physiological Institute. Paris. *95 Picture palace as illustrated newspaper, 2 Picture play, 224 226 ; hints on construction, 227 234 ; warning to amateurs, 234 235 ; commercial value, 235 237 " Pin " frame, 6768 (ill.) Pneumograph. the, 249 Printing, 79 93 Proszynski, Kasimir de, 54 Punch, the, 42 262 INDEX RADIO-CINEMATOGRAPHY, 147 1 60 Rainey, Paul, 9 Rapid movement, record of, 108 116 ; projection of, 117 122 Records, continuous, 136 ; apparatus, 137 138 ; scien- tific experiments with, 139 146 Reinforced screen, 158 Revolver, astronomical, 249 250 Ries, Dr. J., investigations, 168 Robertson, Sir Forbes, in picture play, 242 Ross lens, 23 Ruby light, the, 68 SCIENTIFIC investigation, 185 196. See also under Ex- periments and investiga- tions. Slow movements, record and projection of, 124 133 Soaking solution formula, 75 Speed, photographic and pro- jecting, 16 20 ; slowing down, 108 123 ; speeding up, 124134 Spitta, Dr., 164 Spool winder, 77 Sprocket, 28 (ill.) Stock, 34 " String " galvanometer, 137 " Swat the Fly," health film, THERMOGRAPH, the, 249. Time registration, tuning-fork, 103 107 ; chronoscope, in 112 Trick films, difficulties of, 6 Tripod, 3234 Tuning-fork control, 103 107 VIEW finder, the, 49 WILLIAMSON, Mr. James, 24 ; micro - cinematographic studies, 164 Williamson outfit, 10 ; camera, 8, 24 28 (ill.) ; printer, 80, 85 87 (ill.) ; focussing, 30, 38, 47 ; mounting, 31 ; driving gear, 32 ; iris dia- phragm, 43 46 X-RAYS and cinematography. See Radio-cinematography. ZEISS-TESSAR lens, 23 24, 43 University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 305 De Neve Drive - Parking Lot 17 Box 951388 LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90095-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. 1158 00509 2399 IX SOUTHEfW REGIONAL U8RARYFAOUTY AA 000458434 8