UC-NRLF REESE LIBRARY OF THK UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. ^Received , igo . Accession No. 84199 ....'•' Class No. 7T^ ; ^■< • r ' "T^ - •A -,- .■ *. - ^ .. • k--#. •» *_. < ...\v\\vvi\V\ V>O0 V A S Etching by Russell. BIRTHPLACES AND HOMES OF FAMOUS PRESIDENTS. Monticello, which is near Charlotteville, Va., was built by Jefferson's father, 1735, and here the author of the Declaration of Independence was born April 2, 1743, and died July 4, 1826. Mount Vernon, on the western banks of the Potomac, Fairfax County, Va., was built by Lawrence Washington, 1745, and named in honor of Admiral Vernon. It was the home of Washington for many years, and here he died December 14, 1799. The Bi rthplace of Washington was in Westmoreland County, Virginia, February 22, 1732, in a cabin of three rooms, where he lived until he was sixteen years of age, when he left school to become a surveyor. T he Herm itage wa s the home of Andrew Jackson, in which he lived during the last twenty-five years of his life. He removed to the place near Nash- ville, in 1804, but the house in which he last lived was not built until 1819. It is still maintained as a historic shrine. Lincoln's Birthplace was a miserable shanty in Hardin County, Kentucky, where he lived until 1816, when the family moved to Indiana, and thence, in 1830, to Illinois. Lincoln's Residenc e, when he was elected President, was in Springfield, 111., a frame building that is still standing, but in a dilapidated condition, no attempt being made to preserve it. Garfield's Birthplace was a log cabin near the village of Orange, Cuyahoga County, Ohio, where he spent his youth in hardest toil. No trace of the cabin is now visible. D^eJJNeb ster^ Jlirth place was a small frame house in the village of Salisbury, N. H. Webster's ambitions to be President were never realized, notwithstanding his great popularity. *s LIBRARY OF AMERICAN HISTORY Encyclopedic Dictionary of American Reference , BY J. Franklin Jameson, Ph. D. Professor of History in Brown University AND J. W. BUEL, Ph. D. Historian * or 1,1 r \ UNJ i'TY * DE LUXE LIBRARY EDITION j* 1 ** -S" 5 - ' 7- x Copyright igoi C R. GRAHAM ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN HISTORY. A. Abercrombie, James (i 706-1781), a British major-general, com- manding in America during part of the French and Indian War, 1758. He failed disastrously in an attack on Ticonderoga in July, 1758, losing 2,000 men killed and wounded out of a force of 15,000, and was replaced by Sir Jeffrey Amherst. Abingdon, Va., was captured on December 15, 1864, by Burbridge's division of Stoneinau's (Federal) cavalry, which defeated Echols (Con- federate). Ableman vs. Booth, an important Supreme Court case from Wis- consin. In 1854, Booth was tried before a commissioner appointed by the U. S. District Court of Wisconsin for violation of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. He was commanded to appear before the District Court, and, failing to do so, was imprisoned by the U. S. Marshal Ableman. The Supreme Court of Wisconsin issued a writ of habeas corpus and Booth was released. Later the U. S. District Court found an indictment against him. He again appealed to the Supreme Court of the State and was released. The case came before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1858. That body reversed the decisions of the Supreme Court of Wisconsin. Booth had pleaded the unconstitutionality of the Fugi- tive Slave Law. The constitutionality of that law was now maintained by the court. It was also held that the marshal, in matters of habeas corpus, must obey the sovereignty of the United States rather than that of the State, the latter having no authority within the limits of the sovereignty assigned by the Constitution to the United States. Abolitionists, a party or body of men bent on securing the immedi- ate abolition of slavery in the United States. Throughout the eight- eenth century there had been a sentiment, more or less widespread, in Vol. V.— 2 17 84189 <$ ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. favor of the emancipation of slaves. At about the close of the Revolu- tionary War most of the Northern States provided for emancipation, immediate or gradual. Before the end of the century several abolition societies had been formed. In 1816 interest in the matter revived, and the American Colonization Society was organized, its object being to promote emancipation and to colonize the freed negroes in Africa. But the movement took on a new character with the beginning of the work of William L,loyd Garrison in 1829, and with the formation of the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833, and the term Abolitionist is generally applied rather to those who took part in this new agitation than to their less uncompromising predecessors. Garrison demanded the immediate and total abolition of slavery throughout the country, all laws and constitutions to the contrary notwithstanding. The Aboli- tionists soon divided, Garrison and his followers holding aloof from all connection with political action under the Constitution, and advocating disunion, while another wing of the agitators, under the name of the Liberty Party, put forward candidates and took part in the presidential election of 1840 and 1844. In 1848 these joined the Free-soilers, and in 1855 and 1856 the Republican party. Throughout the years from 1833 to 1863 the Abolitionists continued their agitation. They did much to rouse Northern sentiment against slavery, to bring on the Civil War, and to secure, among its results, the emancipation of all slaves. The leaders of the radical Abolitionists were, beside Garrison himself, Wen- dell Phillips, John G. Whittier, Edmund Quincy, Samuel J. May, William Jay and others. Abraham, Plains of. During the French and English War. On the evening of September 12, 1759, General Wolfe made a desperate attempt upon Quebec. While the fleet attacked below the town W T olfe and his men scaled the heights above the city, routed the sentries and took his position with 3,500 troops. The French under Montcalm arrived early in the morning, made a somewhat disorderly attack and were beaten. Both generals were killed. The loss of the English was 664, of the French 640. Academies, a name given in the United States to two classes of in- stitutions : learned bodies, such as the National Academy of Sciences, and incorporated private institutions for secondary education. Of the former class, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences was founded at Boston in 1780, the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1799, the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in 1807. The National Academy of Sciences was founded in 1863, to "investigate, examine, experiment and report upon any subject of science or art," whenever AMERICAN HISTORY. i 9 called upon by any department of the national government. Of the latter class, a few dozen were in existence in 1789. Perhaps the most famous of these are Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., and Phillips Academy, Exeter, N. H., founded in 1780 and 1781, respectively. Acadia, or Acadie, the name given by the French to a province of their colonial empire in America, consisting of what is now Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and part of Maine, the important part being Nova Scotia. De Monts settled it in 1604. It was claimed by England. Argall conquered it in 1613. James I. gave it to Sir William Alexander, but he could not hold it. It was in English hands from 1654 to 1657. It was conquered by Sir William Phipps and New England troops in 1690, but retaken in 1691. Further attempts were made in 1704, 1707 and 1 7 10. The last was successful, and in 17 13 the treaty of Utrecht gave Acadia to England. Under British government the Acadians were accused of abusing their privileges as neutrals. In 1755 several thou- sand of them were transported, with much harsh treatment, to the British provinces southward. (Longfellow's " Evangeline " is founded upon this act of expatriation.) Many made their way to Louisiana. Acre Right, the share owned by any one in the common lands of New England towns. Their value varied in different towns, but was a fixed quantity in each town. In Billerica, for instance, a ten-acre lot or right was equivalent to 1 13 acres of upland and twelve acres of meadow, and so on in exact proportion. "Acts and Resolves," a publication issued by the government of Massachusetts, edited by Abner C. Goodell, Jr. It comprises all the acts and resolves of the Massachusetts Legislature from 1691 to 1780, including those obsolete and repealed. Publication began in 1869. Adair, John, born 1757, died 1840. He was an American general in the war against England, 1812, and commanded the Kentucky troops in the battle of New Orleans. Adairsville, Ga., scene of an engagement in the Civil War, May 17, 1864, between Sherman's forces and those of Joseph Johnston — one episode in the continuous fighting which marked Johnston's retreat from Dalton to Atlanta. " Adams and liberty," a song written by Robert Treat Paine, Jr., which enjoyed great popularity during the time of John Adams' spirited resistance to French aggressions in 1798 and 1799. The air, formerly called " Anacreon in Heaven," is that now known as the "Star-Spangled Banner." 20 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Adams, Abigail (1744-1818), wife of President John Adams, daughter of Rev. William Smith, of Weymouth, Mass. She was a woman of great spirit, good sense, strength of character and patriotism. Her letters to her husband, published 1848, are interesting and valuable historically. Adams, Charles Francis (1807- 1886), son of John Quincy Adams, was born in Boston, but was in Europe most of the time till 181 7. Was graduated at Harvard College in 1825, studied law, and married a daughter of Peter C. Brooks. He was a Representative in the Massa- chusetts Legislature from. 183 1 to 1834, and a Senator from 1835 to 1837. He edited the Writings of John Adams, ten volumes, and was for three years the editor of a daily paper in Boston. Originally a Whig, he in 1848 became the candidate of the Free-soil party for the Vice-Presidency on the ticket with Van Buren. From 1859 to l86x he was a member of Congress, and from 1861 to 1868 Minister of the United States in Great Britain. The relations of England to the United States during the Civil War made this post a very trying one, and Adams' tact, firmness and success were extraordinary. Few men performed services so valuable to the Union. Adams, Charles Francis, son of the former, born in Boston, May 27, 1833. Graduate of Harvard with the degree LX. D., admitted to the bar 1858. Served through the Civil War, attaining to rank of Brigadier- General (brevet). In 1884 was made president of the Union Pacific Railroad. Wrote the life of his father and of R. A. Dana, besides other important historical works. See appendix, page 474. Adams, Hannah (1756-1832), of Massachusetts, famous as one of the earliest feminine writers in America ; wrote a History of New Eng- land, 1799, and a History of the Jews, 1812. Adams, Henry (Brooks), born 1838, third son of Charles Francis Adams, as assistant professor of history at Harvard College (1870-1877), stimulated historical instruction in American universities, and in 1889-* 1891 published a classic History of the United States under Jefferson and Madison. Adams, John (1735-1826), second President of the United States, was born in Braintree (Quincy), Mass., October 19, 1735, the son of a small farmer. He was graduated at Harvard College in 1755, then taught school and studied law in Worcester. Taking up practice in Boston, he soon acquired prominence as a politician and writer, especi- ally against the Stamp Act and other injurious acts of the British govern- AMERICAN HISTORY. 21 ment. All his writings were spirited, terse, clear and pungent. In 1774 he was a delegate to the Continental Congress and was active in its work and that of the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts. In the Congress of 1775 he urged independence, and was made chairman of the Board of War. He was one of the committee of five which drew up the Declaration of Independence. After a brief mission to France in 1778, he was again sent out, in 1779, as one of the commissioners to negotiate a treaty of peace with Great Britain, which was signed in 1783. He also negotiated a loan with the Dutch. In 1785 he was ap- pointed the first Minister of the United States to Great Britain, in which capacity he showed himself, as always, active, bold and patriotic, but could not negotiate a treaty of commerce. Returning in 1788, he was in 1789 chosen the first Vice-President of the United States, and soon became, in opposition to Jefferson, a leader of the Federalist party. In 1797 he became President, with Jefferson as Vice-President, Timothy Pickering Secretary of State (1800, John Marshall), Oliver Wolcott Secretary of the Treasury (1800, Samuel Dexter), James McHenry Secretary of War (1800, S. Dexter), and Charles Lee, Attorney-General (1798, Benjamin Stoddert, Secretary of the Navy). The administra- tion had many difficulties, arising partly from the unfriendly course of the French Directory toward the ministers sent to them (see Directory ; Pinckney, C. C; X. Y. Z. Mission), partly from the Cabinet, partly from the rivalry of Hamilton, and partly from the President's own warmth of temper, vanity and hasty indiscretion in speech and writing. Popular with the mass of his party by reason of his integrity and patri- otism, he alienated the leaders by concluding an agreement with France and by reconstructing his Cabinet. These dissensions, and the un- popularity of the Alien and Sedition Acts (see arts.), gave the election of 1800 to Jefferson and the Democrats. Adams retired to private life in Quincy, Mass. In retirement he wrote much, vivaciously, often wittily, sometimes with impulsive bitterness, on public affairs, past and current. He became reconciled with Jefferson, and died on the same day with him, the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration, July 4, 1826. Lives by J. T. Morse and C. F. Adams. Writings edited by C. F. A. Adams, John Quincy (July 11, i767-P A ebruary 23, 1848), sixth President of the United States, was the eldest son of John Adams. A boy of precocious talents, he was early taken abroad by his father, studied at the University of Leyden, and at fourteen began his public career as secretary to Francis Dana, Minister to Russia. He was grad. uated at Harvard in 1788, admitted to the bar in 1791, and at once began to write on public affairs. From 1794 to 1797 he was Minister to Holland ; from 1797 to 1801, Minister to Prussia. In 1803 the Federal- 22 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. ists elected him to the U. S. Senate. Approving Jefferson's embargo, he became estranged from the Federalists, acted with the Republicans, and in 1808 resigned. In 1809 Madison appointed him Minister to Russia, and in 1814 he was one of the commissioners who negotiated the treaty of Ghent ; he then became Minister to England. From 181 7 to 1825 he was Secretary of State to President Monroe. In the election of 1824, though he received but eighty-four electoral votes to ninety- nine for Jackson, he was, by a coalition of his friends with those of Clay, chosen President by the House of Representatives. He appointed Clay Secretary of State ; Richard Rush Secretary of the Treasury ; James Barbour Secretary of Wrfr (1828, Peter B. Porter); Samuel L. Southard Secretary of the Navy and William Wirt Attorney-General. Calhoun was Vice-President. A cry of " bargain and corruption " with Clay was raised, though without foundation. Adams' administration was marked by intelligence and firmness, and by extreme integrity in all matters, especially that of appointments, but was made a stormy one by the bitter attacks of his enemies in Congress and by his own unbending and pug- nacious character. He favored protection and internal improvements at Federal expense. (See also art. Panama, Congress of.) He failed of re-election in 1828. In 1831, still vigorous at sixty-four, he entered Congress as an independent member for the Quincy district in Massa- chusetts, which he continued to represent till his death. A model legislator, active and efficient in every valuable department of congres- sional business, his most memorable services were in behalf of the right of petition, threatened by the pro-slavery members, and in other assist- ance to the anti-slavery cause. (See also Broad Seal War. ) He died at his post in the Capitol on February 23, 1848. Twelve volumes of his diary have been published, abounding in information and acute though censorious judgments on the events of his long public career, and in evi- dence of his high character and patriotism. Lives by W. H. Seward and J. T. Morse. Adams, Samuel (1722-1S03), orator, patriot and agitator, was born in Boston, a second cousin of John Adams, and studied for a time at Har- vard College. Unsuccessful in business and in the office of tax-collector for the town of Boston, he soon began to take an active part in the Bos- ton town-meetings. In 1764 he drew up Boston's early protest against Grenville's scheme of taxation. From 1765 to 1774 he was a member for Boston in the House of Representatives of Massachusetts, in which he was among the foremost in debate and as a writer of State papers. He was an adroit politician, prudent, yet zealous and inflexible in his love of liberty. He led in the protests against taxation without repre- sentation, and in 1770 secured from Hutchinson the removal of the troops AMERICAN HISTORY. «3 from the city. He instituted the system of town committees of corre- spondence. From 1774 to 1781 he was a member of the Continental Con- gress ; he signed the Declaration of Independence, and had an important part in making the Massachusetts Constitution of 1780. He was in 1781 a member of the Massachusetts Senate, and in 1788 of the State Con- vention which ratified the Constitution of the United States. Opposed to some of its provisions, he finally concluded to vote for it, which was of much influence upon others. In the party divisions which soon fol- lowed, he was of the Democratic-Republican party. From 1789 to 1794 he was Lieutenant-Governor of Massachusetts, from 1794 to 1797 Gov- ernor. Adams' public services, of the first importance in the earlier stages of the revolutionary struggle, became less valuable when the tasks of the hour were those of constructive statesmanship and administration, for which he had little talent ; but perhaps no one did more to bring about the Revolution. Adelbert College was founded in 1826 at Hudson, O., under the name of Western Reserve College. In 1882 it was transferred to Cleve- land, taking the name of a chief benefactor's son. The Medical Depart- ment was established in 1842 ; the Case School of Applied Science in 1 88 1. All are considered parts of Western Reserve University. Adet, Pierre Auguste (1763-1832), chemist and politician, was Minister of the French Republic (the Directory) to the United States from 1795 to 1797. Resigned in protest against actions of the American government which he regarded as violations of neutrality in the war then pending. Admiral. This grade in the U. S. Navy (as distinguished from vice-admiral and rear-admiral) was first established by Act of Congress on July 25, 1866. There have been but two admirals ; Farragut was commissioned in 1866, Porter on Farragut's death in 1870. On the death of Admiral Porter the grade became extinct (1891). It was re- vived for Dewey 1899. Admiralty Courts. In the colonial period the governor of each colony was vice-admiral in his colony, and as such had the right of de- ciding maritime cases, though often a judge was appointed by him for the purpose. The Constitution of the United States vests this jurisdic- tion in the Federal Courts. The District Courts judge such cases in the first instance. (See Prize Courts. ) Adventists, or Second Adventists. About 1833 Wm. Miller began to lecture on the second coming of Christ, predicting that it would occur in 1842. Other dates were subsequently set ; but at pres- 24 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. ent the leaders of the sect content themselves with general prophecy of an early advent. In 1900 the sect numbered 50,000 members. African Company, originating in an association formed at Exeter, England, in 1588, was chartered as a joint-stock company in 1618. Under successive charters it continued in existence till 1821, almost without interruption. In the period before the Revolution it was much engaged in the slave trade with the American colonies. Agassis, I/OUis J. R. (1807-1873), was born in Switzerland. In 1S46 he came to the United States, and remained here as professor of geology and zoology. In both these sciences he did work of inesti- mable value and exerted great influence upon their development in America b) r his enthusiasm, energy and organizing ability. Agnew, James, a British general in the American Revolution, dis- tinguished at the battle of Brandywine, and killed at the battle of Ger- mantown, Oct. 4, 1777. Agrarians, the name sometimes applied to the " loco-foco " or " equal rights " party formed in 1835, and which denounced special privileges. Later the Abolitionists and Republicans were branded at Agrarians by the pro-slavery part)'. Agricultural Colleges. The first important institution of this sort in the United States was the Agricultural College of the State of Michi- gan, established in 1857, though that of Pennsylvania was established in 1854. The Morrill Act of 1862 gave each State 30,000 acres of gov- ernment land or its equivalent, multiplied b}' the number of the State's senators and representatives, to found a college of the agricultural and mechanical arts. More than forty institutions of this sort have resulted. In 1890 the Federal subvention was increased. Agricultural Experiment Stations. The first government station of this sort was established at Middletown, Conn., in 1875. Professor W. O. Atwater's success in conducting this station led to the establish- ment of others in different parts of the country. Nearly every State has one or more. In 1892 there were fifty-three fully equipped experi- mental stations, employing in all about 400 trained specialists in con- ducting scientific investigations. Agricultural Societies. The first in the Uuited States, the South Carolina Agricultural Society, was founded in 1784, the Philadelphia Agricultural Society in 1785, that of New York in 1791, that of Mas- sachusetts in 1792. The first quasi-national society of this sort, the Columbian Agricultural Society, originated in a convention held in Washington in 1809. AMERICAN HISTORY. 25 Agriculture, Department of, an executive department of the Federal government, the head of which, the Secretary of Agriculture, is a member of the Cabinet. The department was founded by Act of May 15, 1862. It was given equality with the other chief executive depart- ments by the Act of February 11, 1889, and its head became in 1889 a member of the Cabinet. The weather bureau was transferred to it from the Department of War in 1891. Aguinaldo, Emilio Y. Pamy, born in the Province of Cavite\ near; Manila, about 1870. His father it is said was a Spanish officer and his' mother a Tagalo Chinese. He was for a while house-boy in the home of a Jesuit priest, who was so attracted by the extreme brightness of the boy that he gave him many educational advantages. At fifteen Aguinaldo entered the medical department of the University of Manila, where he joined the Masonic Order, which was, under Spanish laws, interdicted, and he fled to Hong Kong. It was while in Hong Kong Aguinaldo organized a revolution against Spanish rule in the Philippines, but before doing so he prepared himself for military life by serving a while in the Chinese army and studying English army tactics. He also studied the modern languages, which he acquired with amazing ease, and it is said he can converse in ten different tongues. In 1893 ne a P~ peared in the Philippines, and by his eloquence and force of character induced a large following to take up arms. The insurrection was prose- cuted with so much success that Spain conciliated the insurgents by promising a cash payment of $1,000,000, giving amnesty to all engaged in the rebellion, and conceding all the reforms demanded. These pledges were only partially fulfilled, and in 1897 Aguinaldo again raised the standard of revolt and conducted the new insurrection so resolutely^ that when war between Spain and America was declared the Filipinos; had possession of a greater part of the islands and invested Manila. When peace was declared between Spain and America Aguinaldo as- sumed dictatorship of the Philippines and demanded recognition of his government and independence of the islands. This the United States refused to grant and war was precipitated February, 1899, which con- tinued with spirit for a year. Sixty-five thousand American troops and thirty war vessels were sent to subjugate the Filipinos, which was so far successful by the beginning of 1900 that Aguinaldo was a fugitive vid his army reduced to a few guerrillas. Aix-la-Chapelle, or Aachen, in Rhenish Prussia, is of impor- tance in American history because of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, con- rluded in 1748, which ended the war of the Austrian Succession (King George's War) . The treaty restored I,ouisbourg and Cape Breton to 26 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY, the French, which gave great offense to the New Englanders who had conquered these possessions. Akerman, Amos T., born in 1823, was District Attorney for Georgia from 1866 to 1870. He was Attorney-General of the United States in Grant's Cabinet from 1870 to 1872. Alabama, a Southern State ; the ninth State admitted after the original thirteen. The region occupied by the State was originally part of the territory of Georgia, though the southern portion was the subject of dispute with Spain, and indeed with the Federal government. In 1802 Georgia ceded all her western lands to the latter, and what is now Alabama became a part of the territory of Mississippi, organized in 1798 (1804). The portion south of lat. 31 and west of the River Perdido was acquired by seizure during the war of 1812. During 1813 and 1814 oc- curred the war with the Creeks, whose defeat by General Jackson at Horse Shoe Bend caused them to concede nearly all their territory. Rapid settlement followed. In 1817 Mississippi became a State, the eastern portion of the territory being erected into the territory of Ala- bama. The name is Indian, and is said to mean " Here we rest." The population of the new territory, from but 33,000 in 1817, grew to be 128,000 in 1820. On December 14, 1819, it was admitted as the State of Alabama. Of the population mentioned, 86,000 were whites and 42,000 slaves. Population, continuing to grow rapidly, reached nearly a million in i860, and in 1890 was 1,513,000. On January it, 1861, Alabama seceded from the Union. The act of secession was revoked in 1865. 1867-68 the State was under military rule. In 1868, under a new con- stitution, Alabama was declared by Congress to be restored to the Union. "Alabama," Confederate cruiser, was built by an English firm at Liverpool expressly for the Confederacy, and, against the urgent re- monstrances of the American Minister, was permitted by the British government to escape (July 29, 1862). At Terceira she received from other English vessels her armament and crew, and set out, under Cap- tain Raphael Semmes, to destroy the commerce of the United States ( August 29) . By the end of October she had made twenty-seven prizes. After a long cruise in the waters of the West Indies, Brazil and the East Indies, the ' ' Alabama ' ' came to the harbor of Cherbourg, France. Off this harbor, after a memorable fight, she was sunk by the U. S. steam- ship " Kearsarge," June 19, 1864, after having destroyed sixty-five vessels and $10,000,000 worth of property. "Alabama" Claims, claims of the United States Government against that of Great Britain, growing out of the depredations of the AMERICAN HISTORY. 27 cruiser " Alabama " and other similar cruisers. May 13, 1861, the Queen had issued a proclamation of neutrality in the American Civil War, forbid- ding her subjects to take part with either combatant, and granting bellig- erent rights to both. Great Britain's Foreign Enlistment Act of 1819 also forbids the equipment of any land or naval forces within British do- minions to operate against any friendly nation. Nevertheless, the ' ' Flor- ida, "" Alabama, " " Georgia," " Shenandoah," and other vessels built in Great Britain, were allowed to escape, and as Confederate cruisers in- flicted enormous damage on American commerce, nearly driving it from the seas. C. F. Adams, Minister to Great Britain, protested vigorously. After the war the United States Government urgently pressed a claim for compensation. On January 12, 1866, it offered to submit the whole controversy to arbitration. Great Britain proposed limitations unac- ceptable to the United States. A treaty negotiated by Reverdy John- son providing for arbitration was rejected by the Senate. Finally a Joint High Commission, meeting at Washington in 1871, agreed upon the Treaty of Washington, which provided for arbitration of the Ala- bama Claims and several other disputed matters by a board of five arbi- trators, appointed respectively by the President of the United States, the Queen of England, the King of Italy, the President of Switzerland, and the Emperor of Brazil. Those appointed were, in the above order, Mr. Charles Francis Adams, Sir Alexander Cockburn, Lord Chief Jus- tice, Count Federigo Sclopis, M. Jacques Staempfli, and Viscount Itajuba ; Count Sclopis presided. The tribunal met at Geneva on December 15, 1871. It rejected the American claims for indirect dam- ages, but decided that the government of Great Britain had been culpable in not doing more to prevent the sailing and success of the cruisers, and awarded to the United States the sum of $15,500,000 as damages. Alamance, or Great Alamance, a creek in North Carolina, tribu- tary to the River Haw. Here, in 1771, Governor Try on, with 1,000 militia, defeated 3,000 " regulators," or rebels against the royal govern- ment, killing some 200. Out of a large number taken prisoners six were executed for high treason, and the insurrection was suppressed. Alamo, a fort at San Antonio, Tex., memorable for a siege and massacre in 1836, during the war of Texan independence from Mexico. Santa Anna, with from 1,500 to 2,000 Mexicans, besieged 140 Texans in the fort for two weeks. Finally, March 6, the fort, desperately de- fended, was taken by assault, only six of the defenders remaining alive. These six were at once butchered by order of Santa Anna, among them Colonel David Crockett, Lieut. -Colonel W. Barrett Travis and Colonel James Bowie. 28 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Alaska, a territory of the United States, formerly constituting Russian America. In 1741 Vitus Bering, sailing for the Russians, discovered the range of Mt. St. Klias. In 1783 the Russians established a trading-post on the island of Kadiak. In 1799, ty consolidation of existing companies, the Russian-American Fur Company was organized, and from this time to 1862 enjoyed a monopoly of trade in Alaska and the rule of the country. By treaty of March 30, 1867, the United States bought Alaska (area 580,000 square miles) from Russia, paying $7,200,000. In 1884 Alaska was organized as a district, with executive officers appointed by the President, but without representative insti- tutions. The population of Alaska in 1890 was less than 30,000, chiefly Indians, but the discovery of gold in 1893 on Birch Creek was followed by a rapid influx of miners, and in the beginning of 1900 the population was estimated to exceed 300,000. Circle City was the first place to re- ceive the benefits of the gold discoveries, and held its pre-eminence until 1896, when gold nuggets were found by George Crawford on the banks of Klondike River, which led to the founding of Dawson City. Other rich discoveries followed in the Upper Yukon basin (in British territory) in the Copper River district, and Cape Nome. The rush of miners was so great that railroads were built in 1899 leading to the richest districts, and several lines of steamboats were established on the Yukon that make the trip now an easy one. The gold output of Alaska, for 1900, is estimated at $30,000,000. Albany, capital of New York. In 1614 a trading-post was estab- lished here by the Dutch, and called Fort Nassau, later Fort Orange, or New Orange. When the English took New Netherland, in 1664, they changed the name to Albany, in honor of James, Duke of York and Albany, the proprietor of the province. Albany was incorporated as a city in 1686, was the meeting place of the first colonial convention in 1754, and became the capital of the State in 1797. Albany Convention, 1754. At the instance of the Lords of Trade, commissioners from the colonies of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland met at Albany on June 19, 1754, to arrange a treaty with the Six Nations. They also proceeded to consider a plan of colonial union proposed by Franklin, a member, and adopted it. It provided for a president-general of all the colonies, with veto power, and a grand council, to consist of from two to seven members from each colon}, chosen by the assemblies to serve three years. These should have power to control Indian affairs, to raise and equip forces for colonial defense, and to lay taxes therefor. The crown rejected the plan be- AMERICAN HISTORY. 39 cause it gave too much power to the colonies, the colonies because it gave too much power to the crown ; but it was among the beginnings of national union. Albemarle, the first permanent settlement in what is now North Carolina, was founded on the banks of the Chowan and the Roanoke by Roger Greene, in 1653, at tlle nead °* a sma11 b °dy °f Dissenters from Virginia. "Albemarle," a Confederate ironclad ram, which, in April and May, 1864, destroyed or disabled several of the Federal gunboats at the mouth of the Roanoke River, and captured Plymouth, N. C, with 1,600 Federal prisoners. On the night of October 27, Lieutenant Cushing, U. S. N., a youth of twenty-one, in command of a torpedo launch, get- ling within twenty yards of the "Albemarle" before he was dis- covered, blew her up with a torpedo and made a miraculous escape. Albuquerque, New Mexico, an engagement in the Civil War, April 8, 1862, the Federal Colonel Canby attacking Albuquerque as a part of the operations by which he defeated General Sibley's attempt to conquer New Mexico for the Confederacy. Alcalde, the principal official in the local government of the earlier towns of California. The office was borrowed from the Spanish settle- ments, and was first introduced in the mining camps, where the miners made laws and elected officers to enforce them. Alden, John (1599-1687), the hero of Longfellow's " Courtship of Miles Standish," accompanied the Pilgrims from Southampton as a cooper. The. youngest of the Pilgrims, he afterward became a magistrate of the colony, and was such for more than half a century. Aldie, Va., scene of a fierce cavalry fight in the Civil War, June 17, 1863, Stuart's Confederate cavalry vainly assailing a part of Pleasonton's forces, during the great Confederate invasion of the North. Aldrich, Nelson W., Senator, born 1841, a business man, represent- ative from Rhode Island from 1879 to 1881, was Senator from that State from 1881 to the present time (1900). Senator Aldrich has had an important part in all recent financial legislation, and is an important authority or all matters of the tariff. Alexander, son of Massasoit, King of the Pokanokets, chief after his father's death in 1660, died in 1662 at Plymouth. King Philip was his brother. Alexander, Sir William, called Lord Stirling (1726-1783), was 3 o ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. born in New York City. In 1757 he laid claim before the House of Lords to the earldom of Stirling, but in vain. He became Surveyor- General of New York. In 1775 he became a colonel in the Revolutionary army, a brigadier-general in 1776, and a major-general in 1777. He distinguished himself at Trenton, Brandywine, Germantowu and Mon- mouth. Alexandria, Va., was founded in 1749. When the District of Columbia was formed, Virginia's cession included this town. In 1814 it was captured and plundered by the British. In 1846 it was retroceded to Virginia. It was entered by the Union troops in 1861 under Colonel Ellsworth, who was shot while hauling down the Confederate flag. It subsequently became the seat of government of the Virginia counties which adhered to the Union. Alexandria Conference. On March 20, 1785, two commissioners from Virginia, George Mason and Alexander Henderson, met three from Maryland, Daniel Jenifer, Thomas Stone and Samuel Chase, at Alex- andria, commissioned to treat concerning the jurisdiction over the waters between the two. After four days they adjourned to Mount Vernon at Washington's request, and separated on the twenty-eighth. They discussed commercial regulations, etc., and their report to the Virginia Legislature caused the summons of the Annapolis Convention of 1786 and, indirectly, that of the Philadelphia Convention of 1787. Alexandria Government. After the secession of Virginia, April 17, 1861, the Union members of her Legislature, mostly from the western part of the State, met at Wheeling and organized a State government, which was recognized by Congress as the government of Virginia. Francis H. Pierpont was Governor. After the admission of West Virginia this Virginia government was transferred to Alexandria. President Johnson recognized it as the lawful government of Virginia. It con- tinued in operation until 1867. Alger, Russell A., born 1836 in Ohio. He was a general in the Union Army, rising from the ranks. Governor of Michigan 1884. Commander-in-chief of G. A. R. in 1889. Became Secretary of War March 5, 1897 ; resigned because of popular dissatisfaction, July 19, 1899. Algerine War. Following the example of other Christian powers, in their dealings with the piratical governments of Northern Africa, the United States Government had, in 1795, signed a treaty with the Dey of Algiers, paying him a million dollars for the ransom of American cap- tives and promising an annual payment of tribute. In 181 2 the Dey AMERICAN HISTORY. 31 declared war against the United States. When the war of 18 12 with England was ended, Congress declared war on Algiers, and Commodore Decatur, with ten vessels, sailed against her. Such successes were obtained over the Algerine navy that by the time Decatur reached Algiers the Dey was ready to submit. He signed a treaty giving indemnity, renouncing all claim to tributes or presents, and promising not to reduce prisoners of war to slavery. Decatur then exacted similar submission from Tunis and Tripoli. Algiers. The treaty of 1795 with Algiers secured commercial privi- leges to the United States on the payment of tribute. By the treaty of September 5, 1S15, the United States secured from the Dey of Algiers exemption from tribute and release of captives from slavery, and indem- nification for violation of the former treaty. AlgfOtiquitiS, a family of Indian tribes, bearing a strong resemblance to each other in manners and customs and language, which at the time of the beginning of English colonization numbered about a quarter of a million, and occupied, beside part of Canada, most of the area now in the United States east of the Mississippi and north of latitude 37 . They were in the hunting-and-fishing stage, tilling little ground, and nomadic. The chief tribes in the family, beside the Canadian members, were the Abenakis, Massachusetts tribes, Pequods, Narragansetts, Mohegans, Delawares, Nanticokes, Powhatan tribes, Pampticoes, Shawnees, west of the Alleghanies the Chippewas, Pottawatomies, Miamis, Sacs, Foxes, Kickapoos and, west of the Mississippi, the Blackfeet and Cheyennes. Alien and Sedition Acts, two acts of Congress, passed by the Federalists in 1798, under the excitement of hostile relations with France and bitter feeling against the influence of the French Revolution. The Alien Act authorized the President to order out of the country all such aliens as he might judge to be dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States or to be plotting against them. The Sedition Act pro- vided heavy fines and imprisonment for any who should conspire to op- pose the United States Government or laws, or who should print or publish any false, scandalous or malicious writings against the govern- ment, Congress or the President, intended to bring disrepute or hatred upon them or stir up sedition. These laws were regarded by the Re- publican party as unconstitutional, and subversive of the liberty of the press and of speech, and were denounced in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. They expired in 1800 and 1801 respectively. Allatoona, Ga. During Sherman's march to the sea the Confeder- ates on October 5, 1864, attacked Allatoona, where General Corse re- 32 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. pulsed them after an heroic and desperate defense, losing one-third of his garrison. Allen, Chas. Herbert, see appendix, page 474- Allen, Ethan (1737-1789), born in Connecticut, removed in early life to Vermont, and was for the remainder of his life its most conspic- uous citizen. He had an active part in the resistance of the " Green Mountain Boys " to the New York government. May 10, 1775, with a small force he captured Ticonderoga from the British. Crown Point and Skenesborough were also taken. For three years ensuing Allen was a captive with the British. Allen, William Henry (1784-1813), was first lieutenant of the "United States " under Decatur when she captured the " Macedonian " in 1812. As commander of the "Argus" he distinguished himself by taking many prizes, but was killed in the fight with the " Pelican." Allen's Farm, one of the actions in the " Seven Days," June 29, 1S62. The Federal General Sumner, having bivouacked at Allen's Farm on his retreat from Fair Oaks, was attacked here for two hours by the Confederate General Magruder. Alliance. The only important alliance made by the United States was that with France, made by the treaty of February 6, 1778. Since 1776 France had privately aided the Revolution with arms and supplies. The two treaties of 1778 provided for a defensive alliance in case Great Britain should declare war on France, and declared that no peace should be made until the independence of the United States was recognized, and then only by mutual consent. Each party guaranteed the other's possessions in America, and the United States granted to France, when France was at war, more favorable treatment than should be accorded to the other belligerent. These concessions were subsequently trouble- some to the United States in 1793. (See art. France.) " Alliance," United States vessel, took part in the cruise of John Paul Jones and the " Bonhomme Richard," and was one of the two ships remaining in the Continental service when the Revolutionary war ended. Alliance, Holy, the name given to an alliance of the absolute sov- ereigns of the Continent, concluded in 1815 at the instance of Czar Alexander I. Its object was the government of Europe by mutual con- cert based on the profession of Christian brotherhood. It ultimately tended toward the repression of all liberal and revolutionary opposition to the existing political order. In 1823 the King of Spain invoked the aid of the other powers in suppressing the revolt of his South American AMERICAN HISTORY. 33 colonies. President Monroe's enunciation of the " Monroe Doctrine," in his Message of December, 1823, was a reply to this threatened move- ment. Allison, William B., Senator, was born in Ohio in 1829. He was a delegate to the Chicago Convention of i860, a Congressman from Iowa from 1862 to 1871, and a Senator from 1873 to the present time (1900). He has several times been a prominent candidate for the Re- publican nomination for President, and is a high authority on all mat- ters of national finance. Almanacs. The first published in this country appeared at Cam- bridge, Mass., in 1639. It was compiled by William Pierce, mariner, and printed by Stephen Daye, and was called An Almanac, Calculated for New England. It was the first book printed in the colonies. The first Boston almanac was published by John Foster in 1676. In Phila- delphia the first appeared in 1686, edited by Daniel Leeds, and printed by William Bradford. In 1697, J. Clapp published an almanac in New York. Beginning with 1700, Samuel Clough published the New Eng- land Almanac at Boston for eight years. It bore the traditional Avoodcut, professing to show w r hat parts of a man's body are governed by the moon, etc.; it foretold the weather, eclipses of the year, etc. Nathaniel Ames' Astronomical Diary and Almanac started at Boston in 1725, and continued half a century, with a circulation of 60,000. Altamont, Tenn. On August 30, 1862, when Bragg was about in- vading Kentucky, the outposts of General McCook's division were attacked at Altamont by the Confederate General Wheeler, who de- feated and forced McCook to retire. Alton, 111. In 1836 Elijah P. Lovejo)', an Abolitionist clergyman, began to publish an anti-slavery paper here. His press was twice des- troyed by a pro-slavery mob. While defending his premises against a third attack in November, 1837, he was shot and mortally wounded. A monument has been erected in Alton to his memory. Amana, a communistic society owning 25,000 acres of land seventy- four miles west of Davenport, la. The society was founded by some German emigrants, who settled near Buffalo in 1842. In 1855 they moved to their present home. The present society, numbering about 1,500, is composed almost entirely of Germans, with a few Swiss and Pennsylvania Dutch. The base of its organization is religion : they are pietists and their religious head is supposed to receive inspiration directly from God, hence they call themselves " Inspirationists. " The ttame Amana is taken from the Song of Solomon, iv. 8. Vol. V.—3 34 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Ambassador. Though the term ambassador was used occasionally in respect to the first diplomatic appointments made by the Continental Congress, from that time on, in accordance with the usual practice of republics, the United States have appointed no diplomatic representa- tive of higher rank than envoys. In 1893, however, the higher grade v was authorized by act of Congress, and Thomas F. Bayard was made Ambassador to Great Britain. Ambassadors were also appointed tor France, Germany, Italy and Russia. Ambrister, a native of New Providence and an ex-lieutenant of British marines, who, together with Arbuthnot, a Scotch trader, was captured by Andrew Jackson, April 17, 18 18, during his campaign against the Seminole Indians in Florida. These men were in league vith the Indians in their raids against the States. They were both iried before an American court-martial, Ambrister pleading guilty and begging mercy. Ambrister was shot and Arbuthnot hanged, though they were British citizens. Amelia Island, Ga., was colonized by settlers under General Oglethorpe in 1736. In 1739 a party of Spaniards landed on the island and killed two unarmed Highlanders. This was the first blood shed in the Spanish war. After the prohibition of the slave trade in 1808 the island was a place of resort for pirates, smugglers and slave-traders, until in 18 17 President Monroe suppressed them. Amendments. It was one of the chief defects of the Articles oi Confederation that they provided no means for their amendment save by unanimous consent of the thirteen States. Three proposals of amendment, which would have usefully strengthened the articles, failed of obtaining this unanimous consent. The Convention of 1787, sum- moned to amend the articles, made a new constitution instead. Thi« provided for amendment on proposal by two-thirds of both Houses of Congress or by a convention, if ratification were secured from three fourths of the States, through legislatures or conventions. In fact, all have come from Congress and been ratified by State legislatures. Ir 1788 several States, beginning with Massachusetts, suggested amend- ments when ratifying the Constitution. Hence came, in the first Congress, the proposals which brought into existence the first ten amendments. Of many proposed, only fifteen amendments have been ratified since the adoption cf the Constitution. The first ten were ratified December 15, 179T. They relate respectively to I, freedom of religion, speech and the press ; 2, the right to establish State militia ; 3, the quartering of troops in private houses ; 4, the security of persons against unwarrantable searches and seizures ; 5, capital crime ; 6, crinv AMERICAN HISTORY. 35 inal prosecutions ; 7, trial by jury in common-law cases ; 8, bails, fines and punishments ; 9, the relation of constitutional and natural rights ; 10, powers reserved to the States. The series is thus of the nature of a bill of rights. The Eleventh Amendment was ratified January 8, 1798. Under its provisions no citizen or citizens of a State of the Union, or of a foreign State, can prosecute a suit against any other State of the Union in a Federal court. This relieves the dignity of the State, but weakens the power of justice toward a citizen, and facilitates repudia- tion by States. The Twelfth Amendment was ratified September 25, 1804, and settled a new method of electing the president and vice- president. Under its provisions, electors, chosen by the people, meet in their respective States and vote for the two highest officers by dis- tinct ballots. If no candidate obtains a majority the House of Repre- sentatives elects a president by ballot from among the candidates. The Thirteenth Amendment was ratified by December 18, 1865. It provided that slavery should not exist within the United States, and that Congress should make legislative appropriation for the enforce- ment of the article. This amendment was ratified by nineteen loyal States and eight of those engaged in the Rebellion. The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified July 21, 1868. It forbade the States to abridge the privileges of citizens of the Union, diminished representation in Ease the suffrage was thus restricted, closed offices to all persons who had engaged in insurrection or rebellion, and acknowledged the public debt. The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified March 30, 1870. It affirms that " the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account *>f race, color or previous condition of servitude." America, so called after Amerigo Vespucci, who claimed to have first discovered and explored the coast of the mainland in 1497-9S. The name probably originated from a little publication entitled Cosmo- graphicc Introduction edited and issued by two scholars, Ringmann and Waldseemiiller, at the little college of St. Die in the Vosges country. Ringmann is said to have been an ardent admirer of Vespu- cius, and to have inserted in his publication the four voyages of Vespucius. Tross, a bookseller of Paris, produced in 1881 a map dating as far back as 15 17, on which the name " America " appears. It is also found on Schoner's globe of 15 15, and seems to have been generally adopted from these. American Antiquarian Society, founded by Isaiah Thomas a* Worcester, Mass., in 1812 for the purpose of illustrating the antiquities of the New World as a separate department of history. It has published 36 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. several volumes of collections and of proceedings, including the ' ' Ar- chaeologia Americana." American Archives, a valuable collection of documentary materials respecting the events leading up to the Revolution. This publication was begun by Peter Force at Washington in 1833-34, under instructions from the government. It contains letters, debates, notices of public affairs and essays on constitutional government, the whole forming a complete documentary history of the colonies. The publication had included only nine volumes when appropriations ceased. Congress has never since continued this invaluable repertory. American Association for the Advancement of Science, the most important among American scientific societies. Its organization was effected at Boston in 1847. Meetings have been held each year in some American city. American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, the oldest missionary society in the United States, organized June 29, 1810. It is an incorporated body with 250 members, and supports over 500 missionaries and many schools in Europe, America, Asia, Africa and the Pacific Islands. American Historical Association, founded at Saratoga in 1884, was incorporated by Congress in 1889. It is now affiliated with the Smithsonian Institution, and its papers are published by government. Its meetings have mostly been held in Washington. It numbers (1899) about 1,100 members. American Historical Society, founded in Washington in 1836. Its meetings were held in the House of Representatives at the Capitol, and the first president was John Quincy Adams. It published one volume of transactions. American Institute, a New York institution founded in 1828 to promote domestic industry. A charter was granted by the State Legis- lature. Annual exhibitions showing the progress of industr}-, invention and manufacture have been held. American Insurance Company vs. Canter, an important case in the U. S. Supreme Court, decided in 1828. An insured cargo of cotton, wrecked on the coast of Florida, was, by a decree of a territorial court, sold to satisfy the claim for salvage. The owners abandoned the cargo to the underwriters. Canter, having bought portions of the cargo, sold the same at auction in Charleston. The insurance companjr brought suit for recovery, alleging unconstitutionality and want of authority in AMERICAN HISTORY. 37 the Territorial Court of Florida. The district judge pronounced the decree of the Florida court a nullity. The Circuit Court, however, con- firmed the decree of the Territorial Court and maintained Canter's claims. This judgment was also confirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States on the ground that the act of the Territorial legisla- ture of Florida, in erecting the Territorial Court, was not inconsistent with the laws of the United States, and was therefore valid. The opinion of the court is of importance because of Judge Marshall's decision respecting the basis of the government of territories. American Jack, see appendix, page 474. American Party. Hostility to the political influence of foreigners showed itself in the formation of small and local nalivist parties in New York and Philadelphia in 1835 and 1844. About 1852, when the old parties, Democratic and Whig, were obviously in a state of dissolution or re-formation, and when immigration had taken on large proportions, nativism revived. A secret, oath-bound fraternity, with numerous lodges, and with conventions which made nominations secretly, attained sudden importance. From the professions of ignorance with which its members met all questioning, they were called " Know-nothings." In 1854 the Know-nothings carried Massachusetts and Delaware ; in 1855, most of New England, New York. Maryland, Kentucky and California, and polled a large vote in the South, mainly from former Whigs. Their platform demanded more severe naturalization laws and the selection of none but natives for office. In national convention at Philadelphia in February, 1856, they nominated ex-President Millard Fillmore for the Presidency, and A. J. Donelson, of Tennessee, for Vice-President. Bnt the slavery issue thrust all others aside, and the ticket received but 874,534 votes in a total of over 4,000,000, and but eight electoral votes, those of Maryland. The party soon died out, though the Constitutional Union party of i860 was in a way its successor. Recently the American Protective League and other similar organizations have revived the nativist program. American Republican Party, formed in New York in 1842, as the successor of the Native American party of 1835. They demanded that public offices should be filled only by native Americans, and that naturalization should not be allowed until after a sojourn of twenty-one years in the country. It was a precursor of the Know-nothing party. American Whigs, the first political party of America, came into existence in the struggles preceding the Revolution. They resisted the arbitrary measures of King George III. and declared their independence of him. They opposed the Tories, the supporters of the crown in $8 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY, America, and after the Revolution confiscated the property of banished Tories. Americus Vespucius, Latinized from Amerigo Vespucci (1452- 1512), was born at Florence. He engaged in trade in the employ of the house of Medici, and became known as an expert astronomer, cal- culator and map-maker. He made four voyages to America, two in the Spanish, and two in the Portuguese service. The first voyage in 1497- 98 was until recently confounded with the second voyage made in 1499- 1 500 along the northern coast of South America. In 1501-02 he visited the Brazilian coast, and in 1503-04 sailed in the same direction. He was pilot-major of Spain from 1508 till his death at Seville. To the region of his Brazilian discoveries he gave the name of Mundus Novus. This was considered to be a Quaria Pars, a ; ' fourth part," added to the previously known world of the old maps ; and a teacher of geography, Waldeesmuller, in the town of St. Die, in Lorraine, proposed in 1507 the name America for the Quarta Pars. His little treatise, Cosmo- graphics Introduction spread the suggestion, and the name America came gradually to be transferred from Brazil to the entire Continent. Ames, Oaks (1804-1873), of Massachusetts, manufacturer. His firm carried on an enormous business in the manufacture of shovels, espe- cially in the early days of the gold-finding in California and Australia. They had a large interest in the building of the Union Pacific E.ailroad, which they transferred to the Credit Mobilier. He was a member of Congress from 1862 to 1873. He was censured by the House for his connection with the Credit Mobilier scandal. Amherst, Jeffrey, I/Ord (1717-1797) soldier, was commissioned major-general by Pitt and sent to co-operate with Prideaux against the French in Canada. Took Ticonderoga in 1759. In 1760 he was ap- pointed Governor-General of British America ; in 1763, titular Governor of Virginia ; and from 1793 to 1795, commander-in-chief of the British army. Amherst College was founded by the Congregational ists in 1S21. Its most famous presidents were Edward Hitchcock and Julius IT. Seelye. Amistad Case, The. In 1839 the cargo of negro slaves on board this Spanish vessel, bound for Puerto Principe from Havana, rose and killed the whites and took possession of the ship. The ship was seized by a U. S. war vessel off Long Island and carried to New London. The U. S. District Court of Connecticut decided that the slaves were " prop- erty rescued from pirates "and should be returned to their Spanish AMERICAN HISTORY. 39 owners, under the treaty between the United States and Spain. The Supreme Court of the United States reversed this decision, declaring that the blacks, having been kidnaped from a foreign country, were free men and not bound by treaties with Spain. Amnesty. In 1862 Congress authorized the President to offer full pardon to all persons, excepting the most prominent movers in the Rebel- lion who would swear an oath of allegiance to the United States. Presi- dent Lincoln issued the first proclamation of amnesty December 8, 1863. On March 26, 1864, a supplementary proclamation was issued. The next proclamation was issued by President Johnson May 29, 1865. A bill was passed in 1867 repealing the act of 1862, but President Johnson ignored it, adhering to his constitutional right to pardon. On Sep- tember 7, 1867, President Johnson issued another proclamation extend- ing pardon to all but a few classes. July 4, 1868, pardon was offered for treason to all, except those under indictment, and December 25, 1868, full amnesty to all. The Congressional Act of May 22, 1872, re- moved political disability from all but the most prominent Confederates. " Amy Warwick," a vessel belonging to persons living in Rich- mond, and captured July 10, 1861, by the U. S. cruisers as "enemy's property." The vessel was at the time of capture on the high seas from Rio Janeiro to Richmond, laden with tobacco and not attempting to run the blockade. This capture first distinctly raised the question of the right of the United States to exercise war powers in suppressing the Confederacy. Anarchists. The Anarchists of the United States are almost entirely foreign born. Chief and best known among them is Johann Most, who edited the Anarchist paper Freiheit. Their greatest strength is in Chicago, where they incited a serious riot May 4, 1886. Several leaders were executed and others were imprisoned, but were pardoned in 1893 by Governor Altgeld, of Illinois. Popular reaction since 1886 has done much to decrease Anarchistic tendencies. Anarchy, see appendix, page 474. Anatomy I/awS. Massachusetts in 1784 passed an act providing that the bodies of those killed in duels or executed for killing another in a duel should be given to the surgeons to be dissected. New York in 1789 passed a law punishing the disinterment of bodies for purposes of anatomy. Massachusetts in 1831 passed the first liberal law for the benefit of anatomy passed in any English-speaking country, giving to the surgeons the bodies of criminals and of State paupers who died without leaving relatives. But the New York law of 1789 had given judges the power to order the dissection of executed criminals as a part 4 o ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. of their sentence. Most States have since 1831 passed acts more or less liberal to authorize dissection. Anderson, Fort, North Carolina, was garrisoned in 1865 by 6,000 Confederates under Hoke. February 18 it was assaulted by fifteen Federal war vessels commanded by Admiral Porter and by a land force under Schofield and Terry. The attack from land and sea was simul- taneous. The garrison fled almost immediately, leaving ten heavy guns and much ammunition. The national flag was raised the next day. Anderson, Robert (1805-1871), of Kentucky, soldier, served in the Black Hawk, Florida and Mexican Wars. He was severely wounded at Molino del Rev. In November, i860, he took command of the troops and forts in Charleston Harbor. In December he withdrew all his troops to Fort Sumter, which, after a bombardment of thirty-six hours by the Confederates, he was compelled to evacuate April 13, 1861. On April 13, 1865, he again hoisted the flag, on the fourth anniversary of Sumter's fall. Anderson, Thomas McArthur, born in Chillicothe, Ohio, January 22, 1836, graduate of St. Mary's College and Cincinnati law school. Filtered the Civil War as a private and rose rapidly by promotion in the regular army until he became major-general of volunteers August 13, 1898. In the first expedition to the Philippines he commanded the first division, 8th Army Corps. Anderson vs. Dunn (1821), an action of trespass, brought for as- sault and battery and false imprisonment against Dunn, sergeant-at- arms of the House of Representatives, by Anderson, a member of the House, who was arrested by order of the House for a breach of privilege. The Supreme Court decided that the Constitution authorizes the House to punish its members for contempt, and judgment was affirmed for the defendant. Andersonville, Sumter County, Georgia, site of a Confederate mil- itary prison for Federal soldiers during the Civil War. The mortality of this prison was very great, 12,926 soldiers dying there. Henry Wirtz, a Swiss adventurer, the superintendent of the prison, was tried, after the war, by a military commission and hung for excessive cruelty, November 10, 1865. As to the culpability of the Confederate govern- ment, opposite views have been maintained. Andersonville is now the site of a national cemetery for Union soldiers. Andre, John (1751-1780), acting adjutant-general to Sir Henry Clinton, and the unfortunate victim of Arnold's treason. After varied AMERICAN HISTORY. 41 experiences in the Revolutionary War he was sent by Clinton to arrange with Benedict Arnold the details of the latter's projected treachery. The two conferred in secret near Stony Point, on the Hudson, and Andre* started back to New York. When near Tarrytown he was stopped by three Americans, searched and delivered to the military authorities. A military court condemned him to death as a spy, and he was hanged at Tappan, across the river, on October 2, 1780. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, and a monument was many years after- ward erected in Tarrytown in memory of the affair. The three patriots, John Paulding, David Williams and Isaac Van Wart, were rewarded by Congress. .. . . Andrew, John A. (1818-1867), the famous War Governor of Massa- chusetts, had become known as a lawyer and member of the Legislature, when in i860 he was elected by the Republicans as Governor. His years of office, 1861 to 1866, coincide with the Civil War period, and he was the heart and soul of the patriotic sentiment in the State. His serv- ices in equipping and forwarding the militia, in co-operating with other executives, and his advocacy of radical measures in the latter half of the war, entitled him to a conspicuous place in the group of "War Governors. ' ' Andrews, U, Benjamin, born in 1844, became president of Brown University in 1889. He was a U. S. Commissioner to the International Monetary Conference at Brussels in 1892. He wrote "Institutes of General History, " "Institutes of Constitutional History, " and "Insti- tutes of Economy. ' ' He was elected superintendent of schools in Chi- cago in 1898. Andrews, Stephen Pearl (1812-1886), of New York, author, was an ardent Abolitionist, the founder of the present s}'stem of phono- graphic reporting and an accomplished linguist, and tried to create a universal language called "alwato," but he failed to accomplish this ambition. Andros, Sir Edmund (1637-1714), was born in London, and was early in life a soldier and bailiff of the Island of Guernsej\ He began his American career as Governor of New York in 1674-81 ; to which in 1680 he added by seizure New Jersey. When his patron, the Duke of York, had become king as James II., he appointed Andros in 1686 Governor of the northern colonies, including New England and New York. Andros was arbitrary in his headquarters in Boston and else- where in New England, though the story of the " charter oak " of Con- necticut is by some considered apocryphal, The overthrow of James 42 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. II. led the people of Boston to depose Andros in April, 1689, and de was sent to England, but not tried. He was again Governor, 1692-^8, this time of Virginia. Angell, James B., born in Rhode Island in 1829, educator, was professor of modern languages and literature in Brown University from 1853 to i860; editor of the Providence Journal from i860 to 1866; president of the University of Vermont, from 1S66 to 1871, since which time he has been president of the University of Michigan, except during 1880 and 1881, when he was Minister of the United States in China. Became Minister to Turkey, 1897 to 1898. Annapolis, Md., was founded in 1649 by Puritan refugees from Virginia and became the capital of the colony in 1689. It was first called Providence, but was incorporated as a city in 1696, and received its present name (after Queen Anne) in 1708. The U. S. Naval Academy was established here in 1845. Anne (1664-1714), Queen of Great Britain from 1702 to 1714. In 1704 a proclamation of Queen Anne, regarding the colonial currency, ordered a uniform scale of legalized depreciation in the colonial coinage S3'stem. A proclamation of Queen Anne in 1713 forced the slave trade upon the colonies, England having been granted the monopoly of this trade under the provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht. (See Queen Anne's War.) Annexations. After the adoption of the Federal Constitution the different States ceded all the territories to the west of them and included in their original charters, to the Union. Many of these territories nominally extended to the Pacific coast, but, in practice, only as far as the Mississippi River. Louisiana and the Floridas were then under Spanish dominion, and thus the navigation of the Mississippi River was blocked, causing great inconvenience to settlers west of the Alleghames. It had ever been the fixed policy of Spain to exclude all foreign com- merce from this stream. She had refused to treat with Jay upon tnis point in 1780-82. In 1786 the United States withdrew its demand for a navigation treaty, but the clamorings of the Western settlers caused their renewal, and, in 1795, Thomas Pinckney, Envoy Extraordinary, nego- tiated a treaty of friendship and boundaries, by which free navigation of the Mississippi was opened, as well as the port of New Orleans. In 1800 Spain retroceded Louisiana to France, to which country it had belonged until the peace of 1763. The treaty of 1795 was abrogated and the West was again in a ferment. It was proposed in the Senate that the President order out 50,000 militia and capture New Orleans. Instead James AMERICAN HISTORY. 43 Monroe was sent to co-operate with Robert R. Livingston for the pur- chase of New Orleans in 1803. A prospective war with England induced France to sell all Louisiana, and the purchase was negotiated for $15,000,000 on April 30, 1803, the treaty being signed by Livingston and Monroe for the Union, and Barbe-Marbois for France. By this step j efferson obtained for the United States 1, 171,931 square miles of territory, comprising Alabama and Mississippi south of paralled 31 , all Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Dakota, Montana, Minnesota west cf the Mississippi, most of Kansas, a large part of Colorado, and Wyoming. The Federalists angrily attacked this move of Jefferson as being utterly unconstitutional, and the President did not attempt to defend himself, but sought indemnity. Florida was next annexed. The United States claimed Florida, but Spain denied having ceded it to France with Louisiana. In 1810 the people of West Florida declared their independence. Governor Claiborne, of New Orleans, was sent by the President to take possession of Mobile and West Florida. In 1818 Spain was much annoyed by a war with the Seminoles, and accordingly a treaty was concluded February 22, 1S19, by which Florida was ceded to the Union in consideration of the payment of $5,000,000 for Spain in private claims by citizens of the States. Texas had been claimed by both France and Spain, but after the revolt of Mexico was in reality under Mexican rule. In 1836 Texas seceded and declared herself free, defeating the Mexican General Santa Anna, but was not recognized by Mexico. The United States, England, France and Belgium recognized the new republic. Many politicians favored the annexation of Texas, and in 1844 Calhoun, Secretary of State under Tyler, actually concluded a treaty to this effect, which was rejected by the Senate. After con- siderable maneuvering and political intrigue, a joint resolution was passed in the Senate February 27, 1845, and in the House February 28, and Texas was admitted to the Union. As a result of the Mexican War and by the payment of $15,000,000 and $3,250,000 in claims of private citizens against Mexico, California, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada and part of Arizona and Colorado were added to the Union in 1848 (545*783 square miles). By the Gadsen Treaty in 1853 the southern part of Arizona, 45,535 square miles, was purchased from Mexico. Alaska, 577,390 square miles, was ceded to the United States for $7,200,000 on June 30, 1867, by Russia. The Spanish War, 1898, added Porto Rico, Cuba and Guam, an island of the Ladrones, and, for the payment of $20,000,000, the Philippine group, and in the same year Hawaii was annexed. Antarctic Expedition. In 1839 Captain Wilkes, of the U. a Navy, conducted an exploring expedition toward the South Pole. He 44 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. divscovered in January, 1840, a portion of a large continent in latitude 6i° 30' S. and longitude 161 K. He traced the coast westward to longi- tude 101 E., but was prevented from landing by the ice. Anthony, Henry Bowen (1815-1884), was born at Coventry, R. L, and died at Providence. He was graduated at Brown University in 1833, and became the editor of the Providence Journal and the most influential of New England journalists. He was elected Whig Governor of Rhode Island in 1849 and 1850. From 1859 to 1884 he was uninter- ruptedly Republican U. S. Senator from Rhode Island, and was .several times chosen president pro tempore of the Senate. His career there is among the longest on record. His valuable collection, the Harris Library, was left to Brown University. Anthony, Susan B., born in 1820, of New York, reformer, es- pecially in matters connected with the civil status of women. In 1854 and 1855 she held conventions in every county of New York in favor of Woman Suffrage, and has done much to secure the passage of laws giv- ing to women more control over their property than is permitted by the common law. Antietam Creek, Md., one of the great battles of the war ; a two days' fight between the Federals and Confederates under McClellan and Lee, September 16, 17, 1862. McClellan commanded 87,000 troops ; Lee 41,000. The Confederates were stationed along the Antietam Creek, their flanks resting on the Potomac River, having placed strong guards at three of the four stone bridges which crossed the creek. Hooker's brigade was dispatched across the fourth and unguarded bridge to at- tack the Confederate flank, while the batteries of both sides kept up a continual fire. Scarcely more than a skirmish took place when dark- less fell. At sunrise Hooker assaulted Jackson with some success, but reinforcements at that point forced him to give way. The hottest of the fighting continued on this flank throughout the morning, constant reinforcements being sent to Jackson, and Franklin and Sumner com- ing lip to assist Hooker. Burnside had early been ordered to capture the bridge in his front and cross to attack Lee's center, but this he de- layed doing until he found it almost an impossibility. Finally, how- ever, he succeeded, and crossing, he dislodged the Confederates, who were stationed upon the heights overlooking Sharpsburg. At this point Hill arrived with 2,000 fresh Confederate troops, who, uniting with Lee, drove Burnside out and retook the heights. Both sides suffered severely, the Union loss being 12,410 and the Confederates 12,512 ; there was mutual desistance, and Lee withdrew on the 19th. The battle was followed by the emancipation proclamation. AMERICAN HISTORY 45 Anti-!Federa.li8tS 9 a political party which first came into existence in opposing the ratification of the Constitution. Its leaders were George Clinton, Patrick Henry and others. Failing in this they were for a time utterly demoralized. During the First Congress this party showed itself but little, but in the first session of the Second Congress there were symptoms of an Anti-Federalist revival. They opposed Ham- ilton and his followers and gradually became champions of the strict construction of the Constitution and opponents to what they termed " monarchical " Federalism. After the rise of the " Republican " party under Jefferson the Anti-Federalists lost their identity in the advocacy of its principles (1793)- Anti-I\, and in Massachusetts. With more or less variations in the form a large majority (37) of the States have now (1894) followed this plan of voting, the exceptions being the Caroliuas, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, Texas and Idaho. Ball's Bluff, Va. Here, September 21, 1861, Colonels Baker and Evens, with 1,900 Federal soldiers of McClellan's army, fell in with a Confederate ambush and were utterly routed. Evens had been sent to reconnoiter and capture, if possible, a supposed Confederate camp near Leesburg. The camp could not be found, and Evens sent to Stone, his superior, for further orders. Baker was sent to join him, arriving in time to share the defeat. The Confederates fought from the shelter of the woods. The Federal troops were driven over the Bluff and many killed in a hand-to-hand fight, among them Colonel Baker, ex-Senator from Oregon. Baltimore, Md., was founded in 1729-30. At the outbreak of the Revolution it had 6,000 inhabitants. In 1777 a mob assailed a Tory editor (Goddard). In 181 2 there was a more serious outbreak against a Federal paper, Hanson's Federal Republican. In 1814 the British were repulsed from the city in the battle of North Point and the bom- bardment of Fort McHenry. On April 19, 1861, a body of Federal troops on their way to Washington were attacked in Baltimore by a mob and a number of citizens and soldiers were killed. On May 13 , General Butler took military possession of the city. He was succeeded by General Banks and later by General Dix. Population in i860, 212,418; in 1890, 434>i5i- Bancroft, Edward (1744-1820), an American of literary and scien- tific tastes residing in England during the Revolutionary War, through friendship with Deane and Franklin obtained information which he sold to the British government. Bancroft, George (1800-1891), the most famous American his- torian, was born in Worcester, Mass., the son of a clergyman. He was graduated from Harvard College and studied extensively in Germany. Returning, he taught, and became active as a Democratic politician. In 1834 he published the first volume of a history of the United States, which speedily attained enormous popularity. The volumes appeared successively from this time to 1882. Under Polk Bancroft was Secre- 62 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. tary of the Navy, 1845-46, established the Naval Academy at Annapolis, and caused the seizure of California. From 1846 to 1849 ne was Min- ister to Great Britain ; from 1867 to 1874 to Germany. His history is still the most important history of the United States by a single author. The last portion was separately published as a History of the Formation and Adoption of the Constitution. His narrative is learned, picturesque and ardently patriotic. Bank of North. America, chartered by Congress at Philadelphia, December 31, 1781, upon the suggestion of Robert Morris. It also re- ceived a charter from Pennsylvania in 1783. Morris believed this national bank would relieve the financial situation. Bank of trie United States vs. Halstead. This case came be- fore the Supreme Court of the United States on a certificate of division from the Circuit Court of Kentucky in 1825. Certain property, includ- ing real estate, was exposed to sale for debt, but, less than three- fourths of its appraised value being bid, it was not sold. The Supreme Court decided that it had jurisdiction in a case to which the Bank of the United States was a party, and that a law which forbade sales of land under execution for less than three-fourths of its appraised value did not apply to writs of execution issued by Federal courts. Bank of the United States vs. Planters' Bank of Georgia, an important Supreme Court case. This was a suit brought by the Bank of the United States for payment of a promissory note of which it was the indorsee for the Planters' Bank of Georgia. The State held stock in the latter bank. The case was tried in the Circuit Court, where there was a division of opinion as to jurisdiction. The Supreme Court decided in 1824 that, if a State became a party to a banking or commercial enter- prise, the State could be sued in the course of the business ; also that the Circuit Court had jurisdiction in such matters. Bankruptcy. The power to establish uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcy is conferred upon Congress by the Constitution, notwith- standing which the power has been exercised four times and always with unsatisfactory results. The first bankruptcy act passed Congress and became a law April 4, 1800, but was repealed in 1803, and no fur- ther attempt was made to adopt a new act until 1841, when a bill passed in August of that year by a small majority that continued in force less than two years. A third bill was introduced and adopted in March, 1867, but was repealed in 1878. Thereafter several attempts were made, at nearly ever}'- session of the national Legislature, to pass an acceptable bill, but it was not until 1898 that another uniform law was passed, AMERICAN HISTORY. 63 which went into effect July 1 and is now in force, though great opposi- tion to its provisions has been made in nearly every State and its repeal is continually threatened. Banks. Nearly all the colonies emitted paper money (bills of credit), and frequently these bills were issued under the forms of banking. The English government opposed these schemes. In 1781 the Continental Congress chartered the Bank of North America, but its power to do yo was doubted, and the bank was chartered by Pennsylvania in 1783. Vp to 1 791 the only banks in the United States were this and two others, one in Boston and one in New York. In 1791, at the instance of Alex- ander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, Congress, against consider- able opposition, incorporated the Bank of the United States, with a capital of $10,000,000. The United States was to subscribe $2,000,000 of this. The charter was to run twenty years. The bills of the l:ank were to be receivable in payment of dues to the government, and it had the power to establish branch banks. The power of Congress to incor- porate such a bank w r as denied by Jefferson and others. But Hamilton argued that such powers were implied in the very nature of a sovereign government, and were conferred by the clause in the Constitution giving Congress power to pass ' ' all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution " the enumerated powers. This view was upheld by the Supreme Court in the case of McCulloch vs. Maryland, which established the constitutionality of the Bank Act. The first bank of the United States led a prosperous and useful existence till 1S11, -when its charter expired, Congress refusing to recharter it. During the crisis of the War of 1812 only State banks, mostly ill-regulated, existed. In 1816 the second Bank of the United States was organized, with a charter running twenty years and a capital of $35,000,000, four-fifths of it in government stocks. The government was to have the appointment of five of the twenty -five directors and the bank was to have the custody of the public funds. In 1829 President Jackson, angered by the bank's refusing a political favor, began a series of attacks upon it. In 1832 Congress passed an act renewing its charter. Jackson vetoed it. In the election of 1832 Jackson was victorious over the Whigs and the bank, which he considered, and had indeed forced to be, dangerously implicated in politics. In September, 1833, by his orders, the Secretary of the Treasury caused the government deposits to be diverted from the bank, and lodged in State banks (called "pet banks"). The Senate's pro- tests were unavailing. In 1836 the bank's charter expired. Tyler, in 1841, vetoed two bills to revive it, and in 1846 the Independent Treasury s}'stem, already tried in 1840-41, was permanently established. From 1836 to 1863 State banks alone existed. In the earlier part of this 64 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. period they were often uncontrolled by the State governments and quite unsound, banks being established and bills issued by adventurers pos- sessing no capital to sustain them. New York provided a system of State supervision, which was in part the germ of the national bank sys- tem of 1863. In that year, February 25, the National Bank Act was passed. It permits any five persons to establish a national bank and, on depositing United States bonds with the Comptroller of the Cur.- rency, to issue bank notes to an amount not exceeding ninety per cent, of the par value of those bonds. The notes so issued are guaranteed by the government, which inspects the banks from time to time, and are receivable in payment of taxes. On March 3, 1865, an act was passed imposing a tax of ten per cent. 011 the circulation of State banks, but this was subsequently repealed, and this imposition being removed, State banks increased until their number now exceeds that of national banks. Banks, Nathaniel P., born in 1816, originally a machinist, was Representative from Massachusetts from 1853 to 1857. In 1855 he was chosen Speaker, after a contest lasting more than two months, on the 133d ballot. He was Governor of Massachusetts in 1858, 1859 an( i J 86o. As major-general in the Civil War he fought the indecisive battle of Cedar Mountain and took Port Hudson, but was unsuccessful in the Red River Expedition of 1864. Again a member of Congress from 1865 to 1873 ; from 1877 to 1879 I all °^ from 1889 to 1891. Died September 1, 1894. Banks, Savings. The first incorporated in the United States was the Boston Provident Savings Institution, incorporated December 13, 1 816. The Philadelphia Savings Fund Society went into operation the same year, and was incorporated in 1819. In 1818 savings banks were incorporated in Baltimore and Salem, Mass., and in 1819 in New York, Hartford, Conn., and Newport and Providence, R. I. There are now more than a thousand, with deposits amounting to more than 1450,000,000. Baptists. In most of the colonies the Baptists were persecuted. In Rhode Island they were especially numerous. They had much to do with that agitation for religious liberty which culminated in the passage of the first amendment to the Constitution of the United States. In 1762 there were fifty-six Baptist churches in the region now occupied by the United States ; in 1792, 1,000 ; in 1812, 2,433 \ in l8 3 2 > 5»3 22 J in 1852, 9,500 ; in 1872, 18,397. According to the census of 1890, there were in that year, of all varieties of Baptists, 41,629 church organizations, with 3» 594)^93 communicants. In 1845 the Baptists split into a northern and AMERICAN HISTORY. 65 a southern body, because of differences arising out of the question of slavery. Bar at aria, Pirates of, a band of Louisiana outlaws, who, undo* their chief Lafitte, rendered General Jackson material assistance in his Louisiana and New Orleans campaign in 1815. They had refused offers from the British. Barbour, James (1775-1842), Governor of Virginia from 181 2 to 1815 ; Senator from that State from 1815 to 1825 ; Secretary of War from 1825 to 1828 ; then for a year Minister to England. Barbour, Philip P. (1783-1841), brother of the preceding, was a Representative from Virginia from 1814 to 1825, and from 1827 to 1830. He was Speaker of the House of Representatives from 1821 to 1823, and a Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1836 to 1841. Barker, Wharton, see appendix, page 475. Barlow, Joel (1754-1812), born in Connecticut, was graduated r.t Yale College and, as one of the " Hartford Wits, " distinguished himseif in literature, especially by the publication of his epic poem, " The Vision of Columbus," in 1787. Going abroad as a land ag~nt in 17SS, he engaged in Republican politics in England and France, negctL.ted the treaty with Algiers in 1795, and devoted himself for several years to literary and mercantile pursuits, residing at Paris. Other poems of his were " Hasty Pudding " and " The Columbiad." In i8or he returned to America. Appointed in 181 1 Minister to Napoleon, he died in Poland in 1812. Barnburners, a faction of the Democratic party in New - York State, so called from an alleged eagerness for radical measures, in al- lusion to the story of the Dutchman who burned down his barn to clear it from rats. The election of Polk in 1844 resulted in a split of the party in New York into two factions, the "Barnburners," representing the Van Buren wing and opposing the extension of slavery in the terri- tories, and the "Hunkers," representing the administration and its views. In 1848, in the Democratic National Convention, there were con- testing delegations from New York representing the two factions. Un- able to secure complete recognition, the Barnburners joined in the Free- Soil Convention, voted for Van Buren, and so helped to elect Taylor. The breach between Barnburners and Hunkers was healed in 1852, more or less perfectly. Barnes, Joseph K. (181 7-1883), surgeon-general U. S. A. from 1863 to 1882, founded the Army Medical Museum and the invaluable library of the surgeon-general's office. // Vol. V.— 6 66 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Barney, Joshua (1759-1818), a naval officer in the Revolutionary War, distinguished himself by gallantry and by various adventures, and in 1782 commanded the " Hyder Ali " in its capture of the " General Monk." From 1794 to 1800 he was in the naval service of the French Republic. In 1814 he was appointed to the command of the flotilla which was to defend Chesapeake Bay, and was severely wounded at the battle of Bladensburg. Barre', Isaac (1726-1802), a British colonel, Member of Parliament from 1 76 1 to 1790, obtained great popularity in America by his opposi- tion to the Stamp Act and to the American policy of Lord North's ad- ministration. Barren Hill, Pa., twelve miles from Philadelphia. In the Revolu- tionary War, the Americans, commanded by Lafayette, eluded an at- tempt of Howe to capture them at this point, May 20, 1778. . », Barron, James (1769-1851), commodore in the U. S. Navy, com- manded the ' ' Chesapeake ' ' when the ' ' Leopard ' ' attacked and cap- tured her, in 1807. Barron was tried by court-martial, found guilty f negligence in preparation, and suspended for five years. In 1820 h killed Commodore Decatur in a duel arising out of this trial. Barrowists, the followers of Henry Barrow, or Barrowe, a church reformer of the latter part of the sixteenth century. They advocated church government by elders, and freedom of religious thought within certain limits. Their creed resembled somewhat that of the modern Congregationalists, and the Pilgrim Fathers and the Congregational Church of New England sprang from them. (See Brownists. ) Barrnndia, Jose' M., Guatemalan revolutionist, sailed from Aca- pulco, Mexico, to San Jose\ Guatemala, in an American merchant vessel (1890). At San Jos6, the Guatemalan authorities, in an attempt to arrest him on board the steamer, killed him. U. S. Minister Mizner and Commander Reiter, U. S. Navy, refused to interfere, since interna- tional law conceded jurisdiction in such cases to the authorities of the country. The Navy Department censured Reiter. Barry, John (1745-1803), born in Ireland, an active commander in the Revolutionary navy. In the "Lexington" he captured the " Edward," the first British war-vessel taken by a commissioned officer of the U. S. Navy. In 1781, in the " Alliance," he captured the " Atalanta " and the " Trepassy." On the revival of the navy in 1794 he was named senior officer, with the rank of commodore. Barry, William T. (1785-1835), born in Virginia, attained distinc- AMERICAN HISTORY. 67 tion in Kentucky politics, and was Postmaster-General to Jackson from 1829 to 1835. He was the first Postmaster-General who was admitted as a member into the Cabinet. Bartholdi, Frederic, born 1834, French sculptor, executed, at the instance of the French-American Union, the colossal statue of " liberty Enlightening the World," which has been placed on Bedloe's Island to adorn New York harbor. Bartlett, William Francis (1840-1876), a Massachusetts officer in the Civil War, especially conspicuous for gallantry in action, left his class at Harvard to enter the army as a private in 1861, and rose before the end of the war to be a brevet major-general. He was wounded at Yorktown and Port Hudson, and taken prisoner at Petersburg. Barton, Clara, born iii Massachusetts in 1830, bore an important part in caring for the wounded on the battle-fields of the Civil War ; also in the Franco-German and Spanish-American Wars. In 1881 she became president of the American Red Cross Society, and in 1884 represented the government at the Red Cross Conference at Geneva. Bates, Edward (1793-1869), born in Virginia, became a prominent lawyer in Missouri. Having warmly opposed the repeal of the Mis- souri Compromise, he was a somewhat prominent candidate for the Republican nomination to the Presidency in the Chicago Convention of i860. He was attorney-general under Lincoln from 1861 to 1863. Baton Rouge, lya., capital of the State since 1849, was taken by a part of Farragut's fleet in May, 1862, immediately after his capture of New Orleans. On August 5 General Williams was attacked there by the Confederate General Breckenridge, but the attack was repulsed, the ram "Arkansas " failing to support it. General Williams was killed. Battle Hymn of Republic, see appendix, page 475. " Battle of the Kegs," a celebrated humorous poem of the Revo- lutionary War, written by Francis Hopkinson. Its theme was an un- successful attempt of the Americans, in January, 1778, to destroy the British shipping at Philadelphia by floating down combustibles from above. L * Batture Cases. Some fifteen years before the cession of Louisiana to the United States, one Gravier had purchased a plantation along the Mississippi adjoining New Orleans. Portions of it had been cut up into lots and formed the village of St. Mary. Meantime an alluvial deposit or river beach had begun to form along the levee of the Gravier plan- tation and was used as a boat landing by the citizens of St. Mary, though the batture, under the law, still formed a part of the Gravier 68 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. estate. This estate was purchased in 1808 by Edward Livingston, oi New York, who immediately began improvements on the batture for his own private ends. The people raised a great outcry, but Livingston obtained a favorable verdict and proceeded with his improvements. Finally, however, the Territorial Court, in 1809, decided to appeal to President Jefferson, on the ground that the batture was public property under a French law which gave alluvions to the government. By Jefferson's orders, he having a private grudge against Livingston, the latter was dispossessed of the batture. Livingston immediately brought suit against Jefferson and the United States Marshal. The suit against the President was not allowed, but the Supreme Court decided that the batture be restored to Livingston. Bay Psalm Book, the first book (except an almanac) printed in the English-speaking parts of America, was published at Cambridge in 1640. Bay State, a name given to Massachusetts, the early title of which was " The Province of Massachusetts Bay." Bayard, James A. (1767-1815), born in Philadelphia, settled in Delaware as a lawyer. He represented Delaware in the House of Rep- resentatives from 1797 to 1803, and in the Senate from 1805 to 1813. He was one of the chief leaders of the Federalists in Congress, and in 1801 had a principal part in persuading the other Federalist Congressmen to vote for Jefferson rather than Burr when the election of a President fell to them. He was one of the five American negotiators who concluded in 18 14 the Treaty of Ghent. His sons and grandson represented Dela- ware in the Senate from 1836 to 1845, and from 1851 to 1885. Bayard, Thomas F. (grandson of James A.), born in Delaware in 1828, practiced law in Philadelphia and Wilmington from 185 1 to 1869. From 1869 to 1885 he was Senator from Delaware, and was one of the most able and prominent of the Democratic Senators. In 1877 he was a member of the Electoral Commission which decided the disputed Hayes-Tilden election. In 1881 he was president pro tempore of the Senate. In 1880 and again in 1884 he had many votes in convention as a candidate for the Presidency. In 1885 President Cleveland ap- pointed him Secretary of State, in which office he served with credit till 1889, pursuing constantly a pacific policy toward foreign nations. In 1893, when the grade of ambassador was for the first time established in the American diplomatic service, he was appointed our representative in England with that title, and was the first to bear it. Died 1898. Bayatd vs. Singleton, North Carolina. This was a suit for AMERICAN HISTORY. 69 the recovery of certain property, tried before the Court of Appeals of North Carolina in 1787. The property in question had been confiscated and sold to the defendant under an act of the Legislature passed during the Revolution, authorizing the confiscation of property belonging to an alien. Counsel for the defendant moved the suit be dismissed in ac- cordance with an act of the Legislature of 1785, which "required the courts in all cases where the defendant makes affidavit that he holds the disputed property under a sale from a commissioner of forfeited estates, to dismiss the case on motion." This the court refused emphatically and Judge Ashe boldly pronounced that act of Legislature " unconstitu- tional and void." Judgment was, however, found for the defendant on the ground that aliens cannot hold land, and if they purchase, the land is forfeited to the sovereign. This is one of the earliest instances of a court's pronouncing upon the constitutionality of an act of the Legisla- ture. Ashe's decision is therefore important. Bayonne Decree, a decree issued on April 17, 1808, by the Em- peror Napoleon, in the course of his attempts to reduce England to terms by destroying the commerce of neutral powers like the United States. On pretext of falling in with the embargo policy of the Ameri- can government, he ordered that all American vessels which should enter the ports of France, Italy and the Hanse Towns should be seized, • ' because no vessels of the United States can now navigate the seas without violating the law of the said States." Bayou Teche Expedition, an expedition sent up the Bayou Teche by General Banks in April, 1863. It completed the conquest of all Louisiana west of New Orleans and south of the Red River. Bean's Station, Tenn. On December 14, 1863, after Longstreet had raised the siege of Knoxville, 4,000 Union cavalry under Shackel- ford here fought Longstreet' s cavalry under Gracie. Bear Flagf War, an insurrection against the Mexican government in California, raised in June, 1846, by a small body of settlers from the United States. The insurrection is supposed to have been fomented by Captain John C. Fremont, then in California with a small force of United States troops. A dozen Americans seized some government horses, and then, reinforced by others, seized Sonoma, and raised a flag bearing the figure of a bear. A republic was proclaimed. A force of the Cali- fornian government was defeated. Captain Fremont joined the revolu- tionary forces with his troops. In July, the Mexican War having begun, Sloat raised the American flag at Monterey, and the Bear Flag War be- came merged in the American operations for the conquest of California* / 70 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Beaufort, S. C, was occupied by the Federal forces on December 6, 1861, having been abandoned by the Confederates after the naval fight at Hilton Head. Beaumarchais, Pierre A. C. de (1 732-1 799), the brilliant author of the "Barbier de Seville," and the "Mariage de Figaro," rendered highly valuable services to the American cause in the Revolutionary War, persuading the French government to send the Americans large amounts of money, arms and ammunition, and extensively using his own credit in their behalf. The debt of the American government to him was never discharged. Beauregard, P. Gustave T. (1818-1893), born in Louisiana, was graduated at West Point in 1838. He was employed in the engineer service of the United States until 1861, when he resigned and entered that of the seceded States. Placed in command of the defenses of Charleston, he opened fire on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861. With General J. B. Johnston he won the victory of Bull Run on July 21. In the spring of 1862 he was ordered to Tennessee. When General A. S. Johnston was killed at Shiloh Beauregard succeeded him in the com- mand, but was forced to retire, and subsequently to evacuate Corinth. From September, 1862, to April, 1864, he defended Charleston against General Gillmore and Admirals Dupont and Dahlgren. In May, 1864, he aided Lee at Petersburg ; in the autumn he aided in the vain attempt of the Confederates to stop Sherman's march through Georgia. He surrendered with Johnston in April, 1865. He was afterward manager of the Louisiana State lottery until his death in 1894. Beaver Creek, Md., scene of a skirmish on July 10, 1863, when, on General Lee's retreat from Gettysburg, Sedgwick's corps came upon his rear guard. Beaver Dam, Upper Canada. At the end of Dearborn's cam- paign, Colonel Boerstler, with a force of 540, sent out from Niagara to Beaver Dam, was defeated and forced to surrender by a British and Indian force of 260, June 24, 1813. Beaver Dam Creek, Va. In the "seven days'" fighting after Fair Oaks, General A. P. Hill's corps, while waiting for the arrival of Jackson, attacked McCall's division of McClellan's army in a strong position at Beaver Dam Creek, June 26, 1862, and were repulsed with heavy loss. Beeeher, Henry Ward (1813-1887), son of the eminent Rev. Dr. Lyman Beeeher, and from 1847 to his death pastor of a great congrega- tion in Brooklyn, had always an active part in public affairs. In 1863 AMERICAN HISTORY. 71 he made many speeches in England, endeavoring to influence English public opinion in favor of the Northern cause in the Civil War. A civil action for $100,000 was brought against Mr. Beecherby Theodore Tilton for alienating his wife's affections, and after a trial lasting six months ( 1875-6) the jury deliberated for a week without being able to arrive at a verdict. The trial created great interest, especially among religious persons, and the case is regarded as being one of the most important of its kind ever tried in American courts. Behaim, Martin ( 1459- 1 506), a Nuremberg cosmographer, resided in Lisbon and Fayal from 1480 to 1490, was a friend of Columbus, and shared his views as to the possibility of reaching land by sailing west- ward. A globe which he constructed after returning to Nuremberg is a famous and valuable record of geographical knowledge. Behring Sea Question. Soon after the acquisition of Alaska by the United States the Pribylov Islands, which are the breeding-grounds of the fur seal, were leased to the Alaska Commercial Company, who were to have a monopoly of seal-killing, under stringent regulations de- signed to prevent the extermination of the seals. In spite of the vigilance of the government in guarding the islands, depredations increased, American and Canadian vessels pursuing the seals upon the open sea. In 1886 the American government set up the claim that Behring Sea was mare clausum and asserted its jurisdiction over the eastern half of it. Russia had purported to grant such rights of jurisdiction when ceding Alaska in 1867, yet in 1822 the United States had protested against Russia's claim to have rights of sovereignty over the sea, out- side the usual three-mile limit of territorial jurisdiction. In conse- quence of the new doctrine, many seizures of Canadian and American sealers were made by a government vessel. Great Britain claimed damages. After much negotiation, mainly between Secretary Blaine and Sir Julian Pauncefote, it was agreed to submit to arbitration the questions of the rights of the United States in Behring Sea and of the regulations necessary for the protection of the seals if it were decided that the United States had not exclusive jurisdiction over the matter. Two arbitrators were to be appointed by the United States, two by Great Britain, and one each by the President of the French Republic, the King of Italy and the King of Sweden and Norway. The arbitrators appointed by these respectively were : Justice John M. Harlan of the Supreme Court, Senator John T. Morgan, Lord Hannen, Sir John S. D. Thompson, Baron de Courcel, the Marquis Emilio Visconti-Venosta, and Gregers \V. W. Gram. The tribunal began its sessions at Paris on March 23, 1893, and rendered its decision on August 15. It decided 72 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. against the American claim to exclusive jurisdiction of any sort over the waters of Behring Sea outside the three-mile territorial limit, established a close season for seals in those waters from May i to July 31, and for- bade pelagic sealing within sixty miles of the Pribylov Islands, sealing in steam vessels or with fire-arms. These regulations were to be carried out by the British and American governments concurrently. Belgium. Commercial regulations were effected by the United iStates with Belgium by the treaty of 1845, the convention of 1858 and that of 1863, the treaty of July 20, 1863, the treaty of 1875, and the con- vention of 1884. Naturalization rights were recognized by the conven- tion of November 16, 1868, and consular rights by the conventions of December 5, 1868, and of March 9, 1880. The extradition of criminals was regulated by the conventions of 1874 and 1882. Belknap, William W. (iS29-iS9o),of Iowa, became major-general in the Civil War. From 1869 to 1876 he w r as Secretary of War in Pres- ident Grant's Cabinet. He was impeached in 1876 for receiving bribes, but resigned a few hours before the resolution for impeachment passed the House. He then claimed not to be impeachable, and enough Sena- tors took this view to prevent his conviction. Bell, Alexander Graham, born in Scotland in 1847, physicist, came to the United States in 1872. Inventor of the telephone, which he first exhibited publicly at Philadelphia in 1876. Bell, John (1797- .1869), was born at Nashville, and graduated at the university of that city. He had been a lawyer and State Senator before he entered the House of Representatives as member from Tennessee in iS27. He served there until 1841, being Speaker in 1835-37. He was one of the founders of the Whig party. In 1841 he was Secretary of War, and in 1847-59 he was U. S. Senator from Tennessee. When the Conservatives, under the name of the Constitutional Union party, de- cided to make a campaign for the Presidency in i860, Bell was their candidate, and the Bell and Everett ticket received the electoral votes of three States. Bellamy, Udward (1850-1898), of Massachusetts, for several years was assistant editor of the Springfield Union. Was a contributor to va- rious magazines, and the author of " Looking Backward " and " Equal- ity," which made him famous. Belle Isle, a small island in the James River, opposite Richmond, converted by the Confederates into a place of confinement for Union prisoners, where as many as 11,000 captives were kept a short while in 1863. AMERICAN HISTORY. 73 Belligerent Rights were accorded to the Confederacy by a proc- lamation issued by the Queen of Great Britain recognizing the existence of war between the United States and the so-called Confederate States, and the right of each to the exercise of belligerent powers on the ocean, but not recognizing the national independence of the latter, and en- joining neutrality on her own subjects. Similar recognitions of bel- ligerent rights were made by France and the other chief commercial powers of Europe, and by Brazil. Bellomont, Earl of (Richard Coote) (1636-1701), was an English politician, appointed by William III. Governor of New York and Massachusetts in 1695. He arrived in 1698, and addressed himself to the suppression of piracy and illegal trade, both rife in the colonies. The capture of the notorious pirate Captain Kidd was accomplished during his administration. Bellows, Henry W. (1814-1882), of New York, clergyman, became pastor of the First Congregational (Unitarian) Church of New York City in 1839. In the Civil War he was president of the U. S. Sanitary Commission. Belmont, August (1816-1890), of New York, financier, came to the United States in 1837. Was appointed Minister to Holland in 1854. Was a liberal patron of the fine arts. Belmont, Mo., a small town occupied by a detachment of Con- federates from General Polk's army. It was destroyed, and the Con- federates driven to the Mississippi River by General Grant, November 7, 1861. Bemis Heights. (See Sarotaga.) Benjamin, Judah P. (1811-1884), was born at St. Croix, in the West Indies, of English Hebrew descent. He was educated at Yale, and as a lawyer became the head of the Louisiana bar. He was Whig U. S. Senator from that State, 1853-61. He sided with the Confederates, and entered President Davis' Cabinet, serving in turn as Attorney- General, Secretary of War, and Secretary of State. On the collapse of the Confederacy he made his escape to England, and was soon equally famous for his grasp of English law. He became a Queen's Counsel, and died in Paris. Bennett, James Gordon (1795-1872), of New York, journalist, came to America in 1819 ; established the Herald in 1835. He first introduced the " Money Article," the employment of regular European correspondents, and the systematic sale by newsboys. During the 74 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Civil War he employed sixty-three war correspondents. The Herald sometimes yielded him an income of $100,000 a year. Bennington, Battle of, August 16, 1777. As he marched southward from Canada, General Burgoyne sent 500 Germans under Colonel Baum to seize the American stores at Bennington. Not daring to take the offensive Baum awaited attack on the bank of a stream. The Americans under Stark outnumbered the British two to one, but were inferior in drill and equipment. Half their force, whom Baum took to be Tories, got to a position in his rear. Being attacked both in front and in rear, the Germans were routed completely. Just at that moment 500 German reinforcements came, but this was offset by the appearance of 500 fresh men under Colonel Warner. Only sixty or seventy Germans reached camp. Out of their thousand 207 were killed and 700 captured. The American loss was fourteen killed and forty-two wounded. Benton, Thomas Hart (1782-1858), was born in North Carolina, and settled early in Tennessee. He became a lawyer and a member of the Legislature and acquired the title of colonel in the War of 181 2. Though an ardent supporter of Jackson in later times, he had a personal encounter with him in Nashville in 1813. He now became a journalist in Missouri, and served that State uninterruptedly as U. S. Senator from 1821 to 1851. During this long period he was second in prominence only to the famous trio, Clay, Calhoun and Webster. He played a distinguished part in securing favorable land laws, in opening the West and in furthering post-roads. His conservatism in finance earned for him the title of " Old Bullion." He championed Jackson during the latter' s Presidency, and was active in procuring the passage of the Expunging Resolutions (which see) . Later he was a vigorous oppo- nent of Calhoun. He was in 1853-55 a member of the House of Representatives, but was defeated as candidate for Governor of Missouri in 1856. He published in 1854-56 his * ' Thirty Years' View, ' ' or historical memoirs ; his ' ' Abridgment of the Debates of Congress ' ' was published in fifteen volumes. Bentonville, N. C. Here, during his march from Savannah through the Carolinas, Sherman, at the head of 65,000 National troops, encountered 24,000 Confederates under Johnston. A battle took place March 18, 1865, Johnston having come up in great haste from Smithfield, intending to surprise Sherman. The latter, however, was ready for him and Johnston was thrown on the defensive near Mill Creek. Johnston was partially defeated and retreated to Smithfield. Bering, or Bearing, Vitus (1680-1741), Danish navigator in the. AMERICAN HISTORY. 75 Russian service. In 1728 Peter the Great sent him on an expedition in the course of which he discovered the strait which bears his name. Berkeley, George (1684-1753), the celebrated philosopher, was dean of Derry in Ireland. In his advocacy of education in the Bermu- das, he sailed thither, and reached Newport en route in 1729. His plaus miscarried, but he remained in Newport until 1731, returning then to Great Britain, where he became bishop of Cloyne. His interest in American matters was evinced by his famous lines, "Westward the course of empire," etc., and more practically by the gift to Yale of his farm near Newport, as well as by gifts of books to Yale and Harvard. Berkeley, Sir William (about 1610-1677), was an Englbh cour- tier, who in 1642 was appointed Governor of Virginia. He continued in this office, with the exception of an intermission during the Crom- wellian regime, until 1677. His gloating remark over the colony's backward condition in education and a free press is well known, and his oppression evoked a caustic comment even from Charles II. His inefficiency in conducting the relations with the Indians led to an armed uprising in 1676 under Nathaniel Bacon. This was suppressed after Bacon's death, but Berkeley was soon recalled. Berlin Decree, The, was issued by Napoleon November 21, 1806, and declared the British Islands in a state of blockade. It forbade commerce with them and trade in their merchandise and declared all merchandise belonging to Englishmen or transported from England lawful prize. Its effect was to inflict great injury on the American carrying trade. Bermuda Hundred, Va., a position selected by Butler, who, in 1864, commanded the Army of the James, numbering about 25,000 Fed- erals, where he might intrench himself and await Grant's arrival. In the vicinity of this position there was constant fighting between Butler's troops and those of the Confederate Beauregard, whose forces were 20,000 strong. The fighting continued from May 16 to 30. On the sixteenth Heckman's brigade was destroyed by the Confederates, who were then pushing on to Bermuda Hundred, when Ames and Gillmore came up and Beauregard's plans miscarried. On the nineteenth the Confederates assaulted the Federal rifle pits under Ames and Terry, but without success. Skirmishing continued until the thirtieth, when the Confederates desisted. Bermuda Hundred was a valuable position, since it was very near both Richmond and Petersburg. Bernard, Sir Francis (1714-1779), royal Governor of Massachu- setts, was appointed in 1760 and removed in 1769 because of his incessant 76 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY conflicts with the assembly. In 1768 he caused British troops to be quartered in Boston. Bernard, Simon (1779- 1836), French soldier and chief engineer in the U. S. Army, came to the United States with Lafayette in 1824. His principal work was the planning and construction of Fortress Monroe. Berrien, John McPherson (1781-1856), of Georgia, statesman, was Judge of the Eastern District of Georgia from 1810 to 1821, "U. S. Senator from 1825 to 1829 and from 1840 to 1852. Was At- torney-General under Jackson from 1829 to 1831, when he resigned. Beveridge, Albert J., see appendix, page 475. Beverly's Ford, Va., scene of a sharp cavalry fight during the Civil War, between Buford, Pleasanton and Gregg, commanding 9,000 Federals, and Stuart leading 12,000 Confederates. Hooker had sent Pleasanton to find Stuart, who was said to be near Beverly's Ford. Pleasanton planned to surprise the Confederates, but his plan miscarried. Stuart was fully prepared for him. Plea- sonton was badly beaten. Bible Revision. On the invitation of the British committee for the revision of the Bible, a committee of United States scholars and divines was organized in 1871 and began active work in Oc- tober, 1872. This committee was composed of twenty-seven mem- bers, who met each month in the Bible House, New York. Their intention was to adapt King James' version to the present state of the language. The revised New Testament was published in 1887. The revised Old Testament appeared in 1885. Bible Societies. The first Bible Society of this country was founded at Philadelphia in 1808. It was quickly followed by others at Hartford, Boston, New York and Princeton. May 11, 1816, the American Bible Society was organized at New York by a con- vention of representatives from thirty-five smaller societies, which felt the need of united and centralized effort. Nearly every denomi- nation, except the Roman Catholic, was represented. Sectarian jealousy and party prejudice were laid aside in order to insure combined endeavors in promoting "a wider circulation of the Holy Scriptures without note or comment." The American Foreign Bible Society was established in 1836 by the Baptist denomination, which withdrew from the American Society because of some dis- agreement. The total issues of the American Bible Society from 1816 to 1892 have been S5»53i>oo8. Biddle, Clement (1740-1814), of Pennsylvania, "Quaker Soldier," AMERICAN HISTORY. 77 was an officer in the Continental Army from 1776 to 1780 and U. S« Marshal during the Whiskey Rebellion. Biddle, James (1783-1848), naval officer, in the War of 1812, in command of the "Hornet," captured the "Penguin." In 1817 he took possession of Oregon for the United States. Biddle, Nicholas (1750-177S), of Philadelphia, naval officer, one of the first captains appointed by Congress in 1775. In 1778, while en- gaging the " Yarmouth," British, 64 guns, his ship, the " Randolph," 32 guns, blew up. Biddle, Nicholas (1786-1844), after leaving Princeton entered the diplomatic service, and afterward edited the magazine, the Portfolio. He was a member of the Pennsylvania Legislature, and became a gov- ernment director of the United States Bank and its president. In this latter position he was a central figure in the fierce struggle which Jackson waged with the bank. He resigned the presidency in 1839. Bienville, Sieur de (Jean Baptiste le Moyne) (1680-1765), was a member of a noted French family of colonizers. He accompanied his brother Iberville to the Mississippi region, and in 1701 assumed the direction of the colony of Louisiana. In 17 13 he was appointed Lieu- tenant-Governor of the colony, and in 1718 Governor, and in the same year he founded New Orleans. He was removed in 1720, but was re- appointed in 1733, returning to France in 1743. Bierstadt, Albert, born in Germany in 1830, painter, was brought to the United States in 1831. Made extended tours in Colorado and California, obtaining there materials for his most celebrated pictures. Big Bethel, Va. Here an unsuccessful attempt, directed by Gen- eral Butler, was made by General Pierce, with four regiments, to dis- lodge outposts of Magruder's Confederate encampment at Yorktown, June 10, 1861. The Federal regiments, under Townsend and Bendix, en route for the Big Bethel camp, mistook each other for the enemy, 1 and fired. This created great confusion. Pierce arrived and pushed on to the Confederate earthwork on Back River, destroying the camp at Little Bethel. The Federal troops crossed Back River and charged the earthwork, but were repulsed with considerable loss, Major Theodore Winthrop losing his life. Big Black River, Miss. In this battle, which took place May 16, 1863, during Grant's pursuit of Pemberton toward Vicksburg, the Con- federates were defeated, and lost heavily both in killed and captured. McClernand, swiftly following the retreating Confederates, came upon 78 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. them drawn up on both sides of the Big Black River. McClernand led 10,000 Federals, Pemberton 8,000 Confederates, his main command having gone on toward Vicksburg. McClernand began the fight. He was for a time unsuccessful, but Lawler, discovering a weak spot in the Con- federate line, immediately took advantage of it and charged impetu- ously. The Confederates were routed. Biglow, John, born in 1817, of New York, in 1849 became, with William Cullen Bryant, joint owner of the Evening Post, and was man- aging editor till 1861, when he went to Paris as U. S. Consul, and was Minister to France from 1865 to 1867, when he became Secretary of State of New York. He is trustee under the will of Samuel J. Tilden and his literary executor. His chief literary work was the editing of the full text of Franklin's Autobiography. "Biglow Papers," two series of extraordinarily brilliant. political satires written by James Russell l,owell. The first, satirizing the Mexican War and contemporary politics, from the point of view of the New England Abolitionists, appeared (1846-1848) in the Boston Courier and the National Anti-Slavery Standard. The second, satirizing the South and contemporary politics during the period of Civil War and reconstruction, appeared (1861-1866) in the Atlantic Monthly. The papers are attributed to Hosea Biglow, a typical young Yankee farmer, Rev. Homer Wilbur, a typical old-school New England clergyman, and Birdofredum Sawin, a character intended to represent the non-Puritan element in the New England democracy. Billeting Act, an act passed by Parliament in 1765 directing colonial legislatures to make specific contributions toward the support of an army. Bernard, Governor of Massachusetts, caused it to be printed in the colony laws. It was resisted in New York and in South Carolina. Bills of Credit. This was the term employed in the eighteenth century to indicate paper money issued by any government, and made a legal tender for debts. The Constitution of 1787 forbids any State to issue bills of credit, or to make anything but gold and silver a legal tender. This was done because of the discreditable and disastrous over-issues by the States during the twelve years preceding. A similar prohibition upon the Federal government was discussed but not incor- porated in the Constitution. Hence, in 1862, the Federal government issued ' ' greenbacks ' ' which were to be a legal tender. (See ' ' Iyegal Tender Cases.") Bills of Rights. The first in America was the Declaration of Rights AMERICAN HISTORY. 79 which accompanied the Virginia Constitution of 1776. It was the work of Colonel George Mason, and was largely based on the English Bill of Rights of 1688. Its phraseology was extensively followed in the constitutions of other States, most of which contained bills of rights, defining the rights of the individual citizen as over against his gov- ernment. The Constitution of 1787 was strongly criticised for not in- cluding such a set of statements, and their absence made its ratification difficult. Accordingly the Federalists, in the First Congress, as they had promised, carried through amendments of this nature, and these now stand as the first ten amendments to the Constitution. Biloxi, Miss, first settlement made in what is now Mississippi by white men, was founded in 1699 by Pierre Lemoyne d'Iberville. Bingham, John A., born in 1815, of Ohio, lawyer, was a Republican member of Congress from 1855 to 1863 and from 1865 to 1873, and sat as judge-advocate at the trial of President Lincoln's assassins. Binney, Horace (1780-1875), of Philadelphia, and an acknowledged leader of its bar. Such of his arguments as are in print are the admira- tion of the legal profession, not only in this country, but in Great Britain, notably that in the case of Bidal vs. Girard's Executors. He powerfully supported President Lincoln by his pamphlets on the right to suspend the writ of habeas corpus. Birney, David B. (1825-1864), of Pennsylvania, soldier in the Civil War, became major-general and commanded the Third Corps at Gettys- burg after General Sickles was wounded. Birney, James Gillespie (1 792-1857), was a graduate of Princeton, and a lawyer and politician in Kentucky. He became enthusiastically devoted to the Abolitionist cause, and was editor of the Philanthropist. He became secretary of the National Anti-Slavery Society, and when in 1840 and 1844 the Abolitionists, as the Liberty party, put a ticket in the field, he was their candidate for President. Bishops. Few things more exasperated the colonists than the scheme of appointing and sending out a bishop from England. It is said that there was a project of making Dean Swift bishop of the American colonies. In 177 1, at the instance of the clergy of New York and New Jersey, the plan was again urged. The clergy of Virginia generally assented. But throughout America the dissenters and the Episcopal laity opposed. After the Revolution the case was altered. The first Episcopal bishop, Samuel Seabury, of Connecticut, was consecrated by Scotch non-juring bishops in 1784. The Methodists began to use the So ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. term bishop in 1787. The first Catholic bishop, John Carroll, of Bal- timore, was consecrated in 1790. Bissell, Wilson S., born in 1847, of New York, lawyer, in 1873 became a member of the law firm of Bass, Cleveland & Bissell in Buffalo, and was appointed Postmaster-General by President Cleveland in 1893. Black, James (1823-1893), of Pennsylvania, reformer, was a leader in the organization of the Templars, was the first to propose a distinct Temperance party and in 1872 was its candidate for the Presidency. Black, Jeremiah. S. (1810-1883), of Pennsylvania, jurist, was one of the Judges of its Supreme Court from 185 1 to 1857, became Attorney- General under Buchanan, serving as such till December, i860, when he became his Secretary of State and exerted himself to save the govern- ment from falling into the hands of the secessionists. In 1861 and 1863 he was reporter of the U. S. Supreme Court. Black Cockade, a badge worn first by the American soldiers during the Revolution, and later, during the hostility toward France occasioned by the X. Y. Z. dispatches, adopted by the Federalists as a patriotic emblem and as a rejoinder to the tri-colored cockade worn by the Republicans as a mark of affection toward France. " Black Friday," Friday, September 19, 1873, on which, with a great financial crash in Wall Street, including the failure of Jay Cooke & Co., the leading American bankers, the panic of 1873 began. Also, Sept. 24, 1869. Black Hawk War. Under the provisions of the treaty with the chiefs of the Sac and Fox Indians at Prairie du Chien, July 15, 1830, their land east of the Mississippi was ceded to the whites. Black Hawk, a prominent chief, refused to submit to the treaty. In 1831 he made an attack upon some Illinois villages, but was driven off by a force of militia under General Gaines in June of that year. The next spring he returned with a strong force and began to massacre the whites. General Scott marched some United States troops against him. Black Hawk was defeated at the Wisconsin River July 21, 1832, by General Dodge, and again, August 2, by General Atkinson at Bad Axe River. This ended the war. Black Rock (near Niagara), was, in the War of 1812, bombarded by the British November 17, 1812. The barracks were fired, valuable property destroyed and a magazine exploded. No lives, however, were lost. Next year Lieutenant Colonel Bisshopp, with 400 men, crossed the Niagara July 11, 1813, to capture the stores and shipyard at this AMERICAN HISTORY. 81 place. The attack at first was successful, but the Americans rallied and with the aid of friendly Indians drove the British back to their boats in confusion, with the loss of their commander. The total British loss was seventy ; the Americans lost eight men and a large quantity of military stores. Later, General Riall, with 1,000 British regulars and Indians, crossed the Niagara, December 30, 1813, and attacked the Americans, 2,000 strong, at Black Rock and Buffalo. The American militia behaved in a cowardly manner and were forced back to Buffalo, which, however, was at once abandoned. The village was then plundered and burned, together with four war- vessels. This ended the measures of retaliation for the burning of Newark. "Black Warrior," an American merchant vessel, seized and con- fiscated by Cuban customs officers in May, 1854. This seizure was used as an excuse for proposed filibustering expeditions against Cuba. Spain, however, made compensation for the seizure. Blackburn, Joseph C. S., born in 1838, of Kentucky, served in the Confederate Army through the war, and was a member of Congress from 1875 to 1885, since which he has been in the U. S. Senate, being last chosen by the Legislature February, 1900. Blackfeet Indians received their name after their separation from the Kena Indians and migration to the Missouri. Those in the United States are in Montana, and have often been at war. Blackstock Hill, Battle of, November 20, 1780. In the fall of 1780 the patriots of South Carolina became more active. At Blackstock Hill General Sumter defeated Tarleton's cavalry after a sharp en- counter. The disgrace of Fishing Creek was thus wiped out. Blackstone, William, died in 1675, a clergyman of the Church of England, and pioneer, was the first settler in Boston (1625). His laud became the famous " Common " ; he was afterward the first white set- tler of Rhode Island. Bladensbtirg;, Md., near Washington, laid out in 1742, is cele- brated as the site, not only of the battle, but of the dueling-grouud where many famous duels growing out of quarrels in Washington were fought, e. g-., that in which Barron killed Decatur in 1820. Toward tlie latter part of the War of 181 2 General Ross and Admiral Cockburn wtth about 5,000 men appeared in Chesapeake Bay to attack Washington. The American forces fell back to Bladensburg (four miles from Wash- ington) and awaited the British. The Americans numbered about 7,090 men, but were scattered and untrained. August 24, 1814, the British Vol. V.— 6 $2 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. advanced to the attack. The American artillery held them in check for a time, but the troops rallied and pushed forward. The Americans fled in wild disorder ; the confusion spread and soon, General Winder, the American commander, gave orders for a general retreat. By this battle Washington was exposed to capture. The American loss was seventy- six men ; the British more than 500 killed and wounded. Blaine, James Gillespie (January 31, 1830— January 27, 1893), was born at West Brownsville, Pa. He was graduated at Washington College in Pennsylvania in 1847, and became a teacher. In 1854 he settled in Augusta, Me., and assumed the editorship of the Kennebec Journal. He was soon a power in State journalism and politics, was elected to the Legislature in 1858, and was chairman of the Republican State Committee. He entered Congress as a Representative from Maine in 1863, and acquired a brilliant reputation as an able and versatile debater and an aggressive party leader. These qualities with his knowledge of parliamentary law made him Speaker of the House for three terms, 1869-1875. In 1876-1881 he was United States Senator. This prominence and his " magnetic " character brought him to men's minds as a candidate for the Presidency. In 1876 he was one of the two leaders for the Republican prize ; in 1880, while beaten himself by the persistency of the Grant advocates, he dictated the nomination of Garfield, and entered the latter' s Cabinet in March, 1881, as Secretary of State. His interference in the Chilian-Peruvian imbroglio is a matter of history. He resigned office in December, 1881, soon after President Arthur's accession. In 1884 he was on the fourth ballot nominated to the Presidency, and between his advocates and those of Mr. Cleveland there ensued one of the most extraordinary and exciting personal cam- paigns on record. His reputation had been assailed before, particularly from his alleged connection with the Little Rock Railroad matter, and a formidable section of the Republican party bolted his candidacy. So much the more vigorous was the support of the many friends of the " Plumed Knight." The defection of the Mugwumps and the singular alliterative utterance of Mr. Burchard are variously assigned as the cause of his loss of New York State by a small majority, and consequent loss of the election in the country at large. In 1889 he became Secre- tury of State in President Harrison's Cabinet. He will probably be best remembered in this office for his furtherance of the Pan-American con- ference and advocacy of reciprocity. He suddenly resigned in June, 1892, and was an unsuccessful candidate for the Republican nomination. He died at Washington. His political reminiscences and comments are given in his " Twenty Years in Congress " (published 1884-1886). Blair, Francis Preston (1791-1876), was a prominent politician AMERICAN HISTORY. 83 for half a century. As the editor of the Washington Globe he wielded a great influence in the Jacksonian wing of the Democratic party. After the political disintegration caused by slavery, he became one of the founders of the Republican party, but avoided advocating a radical policy. Toward the close of his life he acted again with the Democrats. Blair, Francis Preston (1821-1875), was the son of Francis P. Blair, He served in the Mexican War, after which he practiced law and was a member of the Missouri Legislature. He was a Republican Congressman from Missouri in 1857-59 an( I 1861-63. He took an important part in saving Missouri for the Union at the opening of the war, and was afterward distinguished as a division and corps com- mander in the Vicksburg campaign and in Sherman's march through Georgia to the sea. Joining the Democratic part) r , he was on its ticket with Seymour as unsuccessful candidate for Vice-President in 1868. His last important office was that of United States Senator from Mis- souri in 1871-73. Blair, Henry W., born in 1834, of New Hampshire, Senator. In the Civil War he became lieutenant-colonel, and was twice severely wounded at Port Hudson. He was a Representative in Congress from 1875 to 1879, and U. S. Senator from 1879 to 1891. He introduced the so-called " Blair School Bill," which twice passed the Senate but failed in the House. Blair, Montgomery (1813-1883), of Maryland, statesman, served in the Seminole War. Was Mayor of St. Louis in 1842, and Judge of the Court of Common Pleas of Missouri from 1843 to 1849, but removed to Maryland in 1852. In 1861 he was appointed Postmaster-General by President Lincoln. His resignation was accepted in 1864, after which he acted with the Democratic party. Blakeley, Johnston (1781-1814), of North Carolina, naval officer, was made master-commander in 1813 and appointed to the new sloop " Wasp," with which, in 1814, he captured the " Reindeer," after a se- vere action of nineteen minutes, for which Congress voted him a gold medal. After capturing several more vessels, the ' ' Wasp ' ' foundered at sea with all on board. Bland, Richard (1710-1776), of Virginia, called the " Antiquary,'* was a member of the House of Burgesses from 1745 till the Revolution, and a very active patriot, and in 1774 a delegate to Congress. Bland, Richard P., born in 1835, was a lawyer and business man and came into prominence as a Democratic Congressman from Missouri. Since 1873 he has been steadily a member of the Lower House, generally 84 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. a leading member, and several times chairman of the important com- mittee on coinage. He is one of the best-known advocates of the free and unlimited coinage of silver. He was a chief promoter of the Bland Act in 1875, and has championed the white metal persistently with or against the trend of his party or of the country. Died 1899. " Bland Dollar," so called after Congressman Bland, of Missouri, author of the Bland Act of 1875, under the provisions of which the Sec- retary of the Treasury was to purchase each month sufficient bullion to coin 2,000,000 of silver dollars of 412 >£ grains each, to be considered a legal tender. Coinage began in 1878. Blennerhassett, Harman (1764 or 1765-1831), was born in Eng- land. Becoming imbued with republican ideas, he disposed of his es- tates and came to the United States in 1797 and purchased an island in the Ohio River, upon which he erected a fine mansion. He became in- terested in the schemes of Aaron Burr, to which he contributed large sums and for complicity in which he was arrested on a charge of treason, but discharged. The proceedings ruined him. "Blessing of the Bay," the first seaworthy vessel built in the United States. She was built at Mistick, Mass., for John Winthrop, and was launched July 4, 163 1. She was used for a number of years in trade with the Connecticut colonies and the Dutch settlers of New York. Bliss, Cornelius N., born in 1833, cotton manufacturer. Secretary of the Interior under McKinley from 1897 to 1899. Block, or Blok, Adriaen, Dutch navigator, visited Manhattan (now New York) about 1613 and again in 1614 in the " Tiger," which being accidentally burned he built the ' ' Unrest, ' ' a sixteen-ton yacht, in which he coasted as far north as Nahant, discovering the Housatonic and the Connecticut and the island which bears his name. Blockade. At the outbreak of the Civil War the Federal govern- ment, in lieu of a competent navy, only twelve serviceable vessels being at home, fitted out a miscellaneous fleet of merchant craft for blockading the Confederate ports. The Confederate government had passed a law requiring every English vessel that entered its ports to bring arms and supplies as part of its cargo, and thus munitions were never lacking, as long as admission could be gained. Blockade runners commonly went first to the British port of Nassau, in the Bahamas, and thence to Con- federate ports. They often got through, but the blockade was wonder, fully successful, considering the extent of coast, and the condition of the navy, especially after the capture, early in the war, of New Bern, Ply- mouth, New Orleans, etc. It finally accomplished its object of " starv- AMERICAN HISTORY. 85 ing the Confederacy." United States cruisers exercised the right of stopping and searching neutral vessels in the manner usual in interna- tional war. Vessels captured because of attempts to break the blockade or to carry contraband goods, or as property of the enemy, were taken into port and submitted to the adjudication of the prize courts, as prizes of war. Congress passed no new laws establishing any new principles respecting condemnation ; and the prize courts proceeded entirely upon the rules of international law. The capture of the brig ' ' Amy Warwick" on the high seas, bound from Rio Janeiro to Richmond with a cargo of tobacco, first distinctly raised the question of the right of the United States to exercise war powers in suppressing the insurrection. The brig was captured as " enemy's property," since she belonged to persons at Richmond. Bloody Bill, sometimes called the Force Bill, passed by Congress March 2, 1833. Its aim was to enforce the tariff of 1832, which the Legislature of South Carolina had declared null and void. Bloody Shirt. To wave the bloody shirt meant, in Congress or other places, to revive the memories of the Civil War by impassioned allusions. The term was mostly used in the times about 18S0. Blount, James H., born in 1837, of Georgia, was elected a Demo- cratic Representative in Congress from 1873 to 1893. I 11 March, 1893, he was appointed Special Commissioner to investigate affairs in Hawaii and the conduct of American officials there in connection with the then recent revolution in that government. In May he was appointed Min- ister to the Hawaiian Islands, but returned in the autumn. " Blue Laws." At the second stated meeting of the newly-formed General Court of New Haven, held in that town in April, 1644, it was ordered that ' ' the judicial laws of God, as they were delivered by Moses, ' ' should be considered binding on all offenders and should be a rule to all the courts of the jurisdiction, " till they be branched out into particulars hereafter. " These provisions have developed the current notions of New Haven's Criminal Code, and these notions have been greatly aided by the absurd code of ' ' Blue Laws, ' ' published in a history of Connecticut by the Rev. Samuel Peters, an ingenious and highly un- reliable writer. Here are specimens of the Blue Laws sometimes quoted : " No one shall run on the Sabbath day. or walk in his garden, or elsewhere, except reverently to and from meeting." " No woman .shall kiss her child on the Sabbath or fasting day." " No one shall read Common -prayer, keep Christmas or saints' days, make minced pies, dance, play cards, or play on any instrument of music except the drum, trumpet and jews-harp." 86 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Blue lights. During the second war with England, Decatur made several attempts on dark nights to escape from the blockaded port of New London (1813). He declared that his failure was due to signals of blue lights flashed from the shore to warn the British. This led to the opponents of the war being stigmatized as " Blue-light Federalists." Blue lodges, a secret pro-slavery order in Western Missouri, formed about 1854 to aid the Southern mission work of establishing slavery in Kansas. In March, 1855, they crossed the Missouri and forcibly deposited their ballots for the pro-slavery candidates. Board of Admiralty, organized by the Continental Congress, Oc- tober 28, 1779, from the earlier and more numerous Marine Committee. It consisted of two members of Congress and five others and had charge of all naval and marine affairs. It was abolished February 7, 1781, upon the creation of the Secretary of Marine. Board of Trade and Plantations. Oliver Cromwell made some attempts to establish a board which should supervise and regulate the commerce of the colonies in America. No definite results were reached, however, until 1660, when Charles II. established two separate councils, one for trade and the other for foreign plantations. These were from 1672 to 1675 united. The " Board of Trade and Plantations " was established in 1695, and was the governing body having charge of the English colonies in America from that time to 1768, when the " Secre- tary of State for America " was called into existence. In 1782 the board was abolished. Board of War. On June 12, 1776, the Continental Congress, urged by an appeal from Washington, established a Board of War and Ord- nance, based upon the contemporary English Ordnance Department. It consisted of five members of the Congress, and John Adams was made chairman. October 17, 1777, it was resolved to create a Board of War, to consist of three members (later five) , not delegates. The board had charge of all matters pertaining to war, including records, supplies, the raising of troops and money. The original Board of War and Ord- nance, however, continued to exist. In 1781 a Secretary of War was instituted, who in 1782 took the place of the board. Body of liberties, a c °d e of 100 fundamental laws established by the General Court of Massachusetts in December, 1641. Hitherto there had been no written law in the colony, justice having been administered wholly upon principles of equity. The Body of Liberties was drafted by Nathaniel Ward, pastor of the church at Ipswich. It laid down the AMERICAN HISTORY. 87 fundamental principles of the sacredness of life, liberty, property and reputation, and prescribed general rules for judicial proceedings. Boers. A term (meaning farmers) applied to the native Dutch of the Transvaal and Orange Free State of South Africa. These descend- ants of Hollanders settled about Cape Colony in the latter part of the eighteenth century, from which they were driven by the English in 1836. They are a clannish and brave people, who fought back the Zulu, Kaffir and Buseto tribes, possessing much of their country by force, and organized the republics known as the Transvaal and Orange Free State. They were at war with the English again in 1880 and 1881, and beat their enemy in a battle on Majuba Hill, February of the latter year. Independence was granted the Boers by England, but discovery of gold and diamonds in 1887 caused a great rush of foreigners into the Trans- vaal that was followed by contention over the refusal of the Boers to grant naturalization to Uitlanders, except under what the English re- garded as unjust conditions. Disputes thus aroused brought about the Jameson raid, 1894, and grew more rancorous until 1899 (October 11), when President Kruger declared war against the English. The Amer- ican Consul (Macrum) at Pretoria hastily resigned his post and affairs throughout South Africa immediately took on a serious aspect. The war was stoutly prosecuted by the Boers invading Natal and gaining many victories, at Dundee, Ladysmith, Colenso, Modder River, Bloem- fontein, Spion Kop, etc. Americans took great interest in the war, public sympathy being pretty equally divided and funds were collected for the help of both sides. Many Americans enlisted to fight in the Boer ranks, while the wealthy contributed largely in money to aid the English, besides purchasing and outfitting a hospital ship, the " Maine." Bohemia Manor, a grant of 5,000 acres of land along the Elk River made by L,ord Baltimore, in 1666, to Augustine Herman, a Bohemian surveyor, who promised therefor to make a map of Maryland. Herman obtained papers of denization and was naturalized with his family under the first act of that kind passed in the province. Boise City, Idaho, was first settled as a trading-post of the Hudson Bay Company. The town was laid out in 1863 and became the capital of the State (then territory) in 1864. Boker, George H. (1823-1890), of Philadelphia, author, wrote several successful plays and many patriotic lyrics. He was U. S. Min- ister to Turkey from 187 1 to 1875 and to Russia from 1875 to 1879. Bolivar, Simon (1783 -1830), liberator, was the most prominent figure in the struggle of the Spanish South American provinces for in- 88 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. dependence, being at times absolute dictator. He had the warm sympathy of American public men. Bolivia. A treaty of peace, friendship, commerce and navigation was concluded between the United States and Bolivia May 13, 1858. The rights of neutrals in this treaty were carefully explained. Bollman's Case. Bollman was brought before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1807 on a writ of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum, charged with being implicated in a treasonable attempt to levy war upon the United States. (See Burr, Aaron.) The argument of the counsel for the defendant turned upon the authority of the Supreme Court to issue writs of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum, also upon the nature of a treasonable act. It was decided that the court could issue writs of habeas corpus ad subjiciendum, but judgment was found for the plaintiff for lack of precision in evidence, to prove the place of commission of the treasonable act. Also it was decided that a mere conspiracy to subvert the government by force is not treason ; an actual levying of war is necessary. Bonaparte, Charles i/ucien Jules I/aurent (1803-1857), orni- thologist, eldest son of L,ucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, came to Philadelphia and published several valuable works on his favorite science. In 1848 was a republican leader in Rome and vice-president of the constituent assembly. Bonaparte, Elisabeth (Patterson) (1785-1879), wife of Jerome Bonaparte (youngest brother of Napoleon), to whom she was married in 1803 by Archbishop Carroll with all requisite legal formalities. She sailed for Europe in 1805, but the opposition of Napoleon prevented her landing and she was obliged to take refuge in England. The mar- riage was annulled by a decree of the Council of State, and she returned to America. Jerome married the Princess Caroline of Wiirtemberg. Bonaparte, Jerome (1784-1860), King of Westphalia, youngest brother of Napoleon. His marriage with Miss Patterson, of Baltimore, in 1803 was declared null by Napoleon, who made him, in 1807, King of Westphalia. He commanded a division at Waterloo. From his exile at Trieste he returned to France and was made field marshal in 1850. Bonaparte, Joseph (1 768-1844), King of Spain, elder brother of Napoleon, was made King of Spain by Napoleon in 1808, but left it after his defeat by Wellington at Vittoria. He came to the United States after Waterloo and, except for a brief period, lived till 1841 in Bordentown, N. J., where he was very popular. AMERICAN HISTORY. 89 "Bonhomme Richard," an old East Indiaman fitted upas a man- of-war by the French at L' Orient in 1779, and commanded by Paul Jones. She sailed from L' Orient under American colors, but with French in- structions and accompanied by two French vessels, the " Alliance " and the " Pallas." Jones attempted to enter the harbor of Leith, Scotland, but was prevented by storms. On September 23 the vessels encountered a British merchant fleet, guarded by two British warships, the " Serapis " and the " Countess of Scarborough." The " Pallas " quickly captured the "Scarborough," a small twenty -gun vessel. Jones unhesitatingly attacked the "Serapis," though his vessel was far inferior at every point. He lasned the "Serapis' " bowsprit to the "Richard's" miz- zenmast and raked the former's deck with musketry. The "Serapis " poured broadside after broadside into the ' ' Richard. ' ' Finally a bucket of hand grenades, thrown down the " Serapis' " hatchways, compelled her commander to surrender. Jones transferred his crew to the " Serapis," and the " Richard " sank in a few hours. Bonus Bill, a bill submitted by Calhoun, December 23, r8i6, appro- priating $1,500,000 " for constructing roads and canals and improving the navigation of watercourses." The bill was passed, being strongly supported by New York and the South. It was supposed the money would immediately be applied to the construction of a canal between Albany and the Lakes. President Madison vetoed the bill during the last days of his administration, insisting that internal improvement measures needed a constitutional amendment. Accordingly New York State undertook the construction of the Erie Canal. Bonvouloir, M. de, French diplomatist. His reports to Vergeunes of his conferences with Franklin at Philadelphia in 1775 did much to bring about the French alliance. Boone, Daniel (1735-J820), w r as born in Pennsylvania and died in Missouri. He was a daring and .skillful hunter in North Carolina, and in 1769 started for the region which is now Kentucky, thus becoming the pioneer in the settlement of that State. He founded Boonesborough on the Kentucky River, and was for many years the chief hero among the many rude and picturesque figures of the frontier. He excelled es- pecially in Indian warfare, the most striking episode of which was per- haps the battle of the Blue Licks in 1782. Countless stories are related of his adventures and hair-breadth escapes. His last years were passed in poverty, though a grant of lands was finally bestowed upon him by Congress. Boonville, or Booneville, Mo. Here, June 17, 1861, Captain Nathaniel Lyon, commanding about 2,000 Federal troops, defeated / 90 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Price, the Confederate general, whose army numbered several thousand poorly armed and unorganized volunteers. This battle was the outcome of numerous secessionist plots fomented by Governor Jackson, of Mis- souri, and General Price. Lyon captured twenty prisoners, two six- pounder guns and the supplies of the Confederate camp. Booth, Edwin (1833-1893), actor, first appeared as such at the Boston Museum in 1849. He was brilliantly successful, not only in the United States, but in England and Germany, in Macbeth, King I,ear, Othello, Iago, Richard III., Shylock and other parts, and especially in Hamlet, with which his name is inseparably connected. Booth, John Wilkes (1839- 1865), actor, during the Civil War was a violent secessionist. On the night of April 14, 1865, he shot President Lincoln at Ford's Theater, Washington. He was concealed for a time by friends in Maryland, but fled to Virginia, where he was shot in a barn by his pursuers, April 26. Booth, Junius Brutus (1796-1852), actor, after establishing his reputation in England came to the United States in 1821, where, and in occasional visits to England, he greatly extended his fame. Border Ruffians, a name applied to the pro-slavery men of Mis- souri who, in 1855 and after, during the struggle in Kansas, were accus- tomed to cross over into that State to carry elections and harass the anti-slavery settlers. The name was sometimes used by these men them- selves and not always regarded as a term of reproach. Border States, a name applied to the Slave States of Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky and Missouri, as lying next to the Free States, and sometimes including North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas. These States were particularly anxious both before and during the Civil War for an amicable settlement of all difficulties. They originated the Peace Conference of 186 1. Of the Border States only Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas seceded. Borie, Adolph 1$. (1809-1890), of Philadelphia, merchant, acquired a large fortune and gave large sums to aid soldiers in the Civil War. From March to June, 1869, he was Secretary of the Navy. Boroughs. William Penn's charter of the territory west of the Delaware River authorized him, in 1681, to erect the country, among other divisions, into boroughs similar to those of England. This system of boroughs continues in Pennsylvania to the present time, and exists also in New Jersey, Minnesota and Connecticut. In New Jersey boroughs were established in the early part of the last century ; in AMERICAN HISTORY. 91 Connecticut in the early part of the present century. Their growth was gradual. Beginning with 1619 Virginia had eleven boroughs. These were later reduced to two. Lord Baltimore's charter entitled him to create boroughs in Maryland. Gorges also established boroughs in Maine under his charter of 1639. Boscawen, Edward (1711-1761), British admiral, distinguished himself at Porto Bello and Carthagena, and in 1758 in conjunction with Lord Amherst reduced Louisbourg and Cape Breton. Boston, capital of Massachusetts, was founded by John Winthrop and his company in 1630. The settlement grew in prosperity until the French and Indian War, when it suffered heavy exactions. Opposition to the measures of the British ministry began here. The Stamp Act and Tea Act aroused indignation. Troops were quartered in the town. On December 16, 1773, a party disguised as Mohawk Indians emptied three cargoes of tea into the harbor. The port was closed by the British Parliament June 1, 1774. The British army, besieged in Boston by the Americans from June, 1775, evacuated the town in March, 1776. The Constitution of the State was here adopted in 1780. In 1822 Boston became a city. From 1830 to i860 it was regarded as the headquarters of the anti-slavery and other reform movements. The city was visited by a disastrous fire in 1872, which burned on two days, November 9 and 10, involving a loss of over $80,000,000. The population of Boston in 1708 was 12,000; 1719, 18,000; 1780, 23,000; 1800, 25,000; 1850, 139,000 ; 1875, 360,000 ; 1890, 448,477. Boston Athenaeum, a library supported by subscription and founded, with a governing board of trustees, April 7, 1807. When John Quincy Adams went as Minister to Russia he deposited his library in the Athenaeum, nearly doubling its collection. A valuable collection of coins, antiques and curiosities is also contained in the Athenaeum. It now possesses over 105,000 volumes. " Boston " Case (1837). A Georgia fugitive slave escaped on the ship "Boston" bound for Maine and reached Canada. The Governor of Georgia charged the captain with slave-stealing and demanded his return as a fugitive from justice. The Governor of Maine refused, whereupon the Legislature of Georgia called upon Congress to so amend the laws as to compel the Maine Governor to comply. No action was taken. Boston Massacre. During 1769 and the early months of 1770 con- tinual quarrels and misunderstandings occurred, between the Boston populace and the British soldiers stationed in the town, over the 92 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. persistent non-observance of the navigation acts. In February, 1770, a pressgang from the British frigate • ' Rose ' ' boarded a ship belonging to Hooper, of Marblehead, and a riot followed. On the night of March 5, the ringing of fire bells brought together a large crowd and the usual collision w r ith the soldiers took place. The soldiers fired. Three persons Avere killed and several others severely wounded. The news of the Boston Massacre spread rapidly, strengthening the revolutionary spirit. The soldiers were acquitted. " Boston News letter," the first genuine newspaper published in the United States. The first issue appeared at Boston April 24, 1704. The paper was a weekly, was edited and published by John Campbell, then postmaster at Boston, and was printed by Bartholomew Green. It was issued every Monday and appears to have been the outgrowth of a series of news letters from London, which Campbell, as controlling the news center, in his capacity of postmaster, received from time to time and sent to the Governors of the several New England colonies. These letters were a digest of the happenings, political and social, in England and on the Continent, with here and there a suggestion as to the politics and government of the American colonies. The Boston News Letter consisted at first of two pages, eight by twelve inches. Its publication was suspended in 1776. Boston Port Act, an act proposed in Parliament by Lord North and passed March 31, 1774, in retaliation for the destruction of cargoes of tea in Boston harbor. The act provided for the discontinuation of " landing and discharging, lading or shipping of goods, w T ares and merchandise at the town and within the harbor of Boston." Commerce was transferred to Salem and Marblehead. General Gage arrived to enforce this measure on June 1. Much indignation and sympathy were felt for the Bostonians throughout the colonies, and material aid in gifts was rendered them. Broadsides were forthwith issued in Boston and Worcester against the use of British goods. Boston Public library, authorized by an act of the Massachusetts State Legislature April 3, 1848, and formally opened in Mason Street near its present site March 20, 1854. The second building was begun September 17, 1855, and was completed in 1858. Gifts of books and money have been made by a number of prominent New Bnglanders. The Library with eleven branches contains nearly 600,000 volumes. The new building is now completed. Boston, Siege of. Immediately after Lexington and Concord, Boston was invested by 16,000 Americans under General Ward. The AMERICAN HISTORY. 93 ffcrart attempt to narrow the lines resulted in the defeat of the Americans at Bunker Hill ( oners captured. Braddock, Edward (about 1 695-1755), was an English general of the old school, who was sent by the government as generalissimo in America soon after the opening of the French and Indian War. He confidently expected to reduce the French posts, and marched from Virginia on Fort Duquesne, taking few precautions, and disregarding the advice of Washington and others. On July 9, 1755, his army was entrapped on the banks of the Monongahela near the fort by an inferior FYanco-Indian force. Braddock had five horses shot under him and was mortally wounded in a contest in which he showed little general- ship, but much bravery. He died four days later. Braddock's Field (July 9, 1755). On May 10, 1755, General Brad- dock took command of 2,200 men at Fort Cumberland to advance upon AMERICAN HISTORY. 95 Fort Duquesne. The army moved slowly, clearing a way, and on July 7 was about eight miles from the fort. The fort was strongly situated and well garrisoned ; but the commandant determined to strike a blow on the advancing English. On the morning of the ninth an ambuscad- ing party of 900 left the fort. The British had passed the ford of the Monongahela, and were advancing through thick woods when they were assailed from all sides. They stood bravely, but could see no foe. Being huddled together they were fairly mowed down. Their courage at length forsook them — they broke and fled. The mortality was terri- ble. Of eighty-six officers sixty-three were killed and disabled. Of 1,373 troops only 459 came off unharmed. The French loss was trifling. Colonel Washington distinguished himself by his bravery. Braddock was mortally wounded. Dunbar, next in command, insisted on retreat, and left the frontier unguarded. Bradford, William (1588-1657), was born at Austerfield, in England, and was prominent in the company of Separatists, who, in 1607-08, left England for Holland. He was among the leaders of the " Mayflower " Pilgrims, and on the death of Carver, in April, 1621, was chosen Governor of the struggling Plymouth Colony. This post he retained, with a few intermissions, until his death. Governor Bradford was the author of a very valuable " History of the Plymouth Plantation " down to the year 1647. This volume, which had remained in manu- script, and had been frequently quoted, disappeared from Boston during the confusion of the Revolution, and was singularly discovered in England in the Fulham library in 1855, and printed the next year. Bradley, Joseph P. (1813-1892), jurist, was appointed an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States by President Grant in 1870, which office he held until his death. He was a member of the celebrated " Electoral Commission" of 1877, and is generally regarded as having given the casting votes which decided the contest in favor of Hayes. Bradstreet, Anne (1612-1672), of Massachusetts, poetess, married Governor Bradstreet in 1628. Some of her poems were published, and received great praise from her contemporaries. They are interesting as the work of the first poetess of New England. Bradstreet, John (1711-1774), soldier, served in Pepperell's regi- ment in the expedition against Louisbourg in 1745. In 1758 he cap- tured Fort Frontenac, served with Amherst against Ticonderoga in 1759, and negotiated a treaty of peace with Pontiac in 1764. He was made major-general in 1772. 96 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Bradstreet, Simon (1603-1697), colonial Governor of Massa- chusetts, to which he came in 1630, in .1660 was sent to England to congratulate Charles II. on his accession, was Governor from 1679 to 1686, and again after Andros' recall till 1692. He was in the service of Massachusetts sixty-two years. He opposed the witchcraft delusion. Bragg - , Braxton (1817-1876), was graduated at West Point in 1837. In the Mexican War he was distinguished at the battle of Buena Vista. He resigned from the army, and on the outbreak of the Civil War joined the Confederates. He served at Shiloh and succeeded Beauregard in command in the West. In the summer of 1862 he invaded Kentucky, and was defeated at Perryville. He was defeated again at Murfrees- boro', but in 1863 won the battle of Chickamauga. Grant defeated his army at the battles around Chattanooga, and General Bragg was re- moved from command. He served against Sherman toward the close of the war. Bragg, Edward S., born in 1827, of Wisconsin, soldier. In the Civil War he rose to the rank of brigadier-general and was a prominent member of the Forty-fifth, Forty-sixth, Forty-seventh and Forty -ninth Congresses. Braintree Resolutions. Opposition to the Stamp Act, 1764, had its beginning in Braintree, Massachusetts, when Samuel Adams drafted and circulated a petition to the selectmen of the town praying them to call a meeting of the people to take action in the premises, and to instruct their representatives in the court in relation to the stamps. Mr. Adams, in order that his designs might not miscarry, drafted the resolutions himself, which being presented were unanimously adopted, and later met with general approval from the citizens of Boston. Branch, John (1782-1863), was Governor of North Carolina from 1817 to 1820. He was a Democratic U. S. Senator from 1S23 to 1829, and was Secretary of the Navy in Jackson's Cabinet from 1829 to 183 1. Brandjrwine, Battle of, September 11, 1777. On Howe's advance upon Philadelphia from the head of Chesapeake Bay, Washington took up a strong position at Brandy wine Creek, though he had but 11,000 to oppose to Howe's 18,000. While Knyphausen engaged the center, Corn- wallis attempted a flank movement upon the American right. He met with obstinate resistance from Sullivan's division, which had formed a new front, but he forced it to retire. The American center was now obliged to fall back ; this movement was directed in a masterly way by General Greene. The right, attacked by Knyphausen in front and Cornwallis on the flank, also accomplished its retreat in good order. AMERICAN HISTORY. 97 The British were thus masters of the field. It was a battle in which the flank movement was warranted, but it was met with a promptness and sagacity which saved the Americans from defeat. About 1,000 Ameri- cans fell. The British losses slightly exceeded that number. Brant, Joseph (1742-1807), chief of the Mohawk Indians, served in the British army during the Revolutionary War. He was active in the massacre at Cherry Valley and at Minisink in 1779. H e led a tribe in St. Leger's expedition against Fort Stanwix in 1779. After the war he aided the U. S. government in negotiating Indian treaties. Brashear City, I/a., a battle of the Civil War, occurring during Banks' command of the Federal army in Louisiana, June 23, 1863. Banks had several times engaged Dick Taylor during this campaign, and his outposts were stationed in. Brashear, while Banks himself was in pursuit of the Confederates. Taylor, aware of the weakness of the Federal force, 2,000 in all, eluded Banks, and joining Green and Mou- ton, together they hurried down to the town with 15,000 men. The Federals were easily defeated and the town captured, together with 1,000 prisoners and large quantities of valuable stores. Five thousand refugee negroes were seized and returned to slavery. Brazil. A commercial treaty was concluded between the United States and Brazil December 12, 1828. By the convention of January 27, 1849, Brazil agreed to pay 500,000 milreis to settle claims of American citizens. An agreement regarding trade-marks was made in 1878. A reciprocity treaty was concluded January 31, 1891. Bread Riots. In 1837, during the period of general financial panic, prices rose enormously. Rents were exorbitant and flour was twelve dollars per barrel. During February and March the poor of New York held frequent riotous meetings, which culminated in violent assaults upon flour warehouses. In several instances storehouses were broken open and the mob helped themselves. The militia was called out to quell the disturbance. Breckenridge, John (1760-1806), was a member of the Kentucky Legislature from 1797 to 1800. In 1798, with Jefferson and Nicholas, he draughted the famous " Kentucky Resolutions " and introduced them in the Legislature. He was a Democratic leader in the U. S. Senate from 180 1 to 1805, and was prominent in the legislation concerning the annexation of Louisiana. He was Attorney-General in Jefferson's Cabinet from 1805 to 1806. Breckenridge, John Cabell (1821-1875), Vice-President of the United States, was a grandson of John Breckenridge. He fought in the Vol. V.— 7 98 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Mexican War, and was a Democratic Congressman from Kentucky, 1851-55. He was elected Vice-President in 1856 on the ticket with Buchanan, and served from 1857 to 1861, and was the youngest man ever elected to the office. In i860 he was the unsuccessful candidate for President of the ultra slavery wing of the Democratic party, and received seventy-two electoral votes. He was U. S. Senator in 1861, but joined the Confederates and was expelled from the Senate. He was at the battle of Shiloh in 1862, and commanded at the defense of Baton Rouge the same year. He led the right wing at Murfreesboro', was at Chickamauga and Chattanooga, gained the battle of Newmarket in 1864, and served at Cold Harbor, in the Shenandoah Valley, in East- ern Tennessee, and at Nashville. For a short time before the end of the Rebellion he was Confederate Secretary of War. Breckenridge, William C. P., born in 1837, attained the rank of brigadier-general of cavalry in the Confederate service. He represented Kentucky in the U. S. Congress as a Democrat from 1884 to 1895, when he was defeated by the public indignation caused by the Madeline Pol- lard scandal. Breda, Treaty of, was a treaty concluded between England, France, Holland and Denmark at Breda in 1667. Among its provisions, those relating to America were the restoration of Acadia (Nova Scotia) to France by England, while England secured her claims in the West Indies and retained New Netherlands (New York) from Holland. Bremen. An extradition convention was concluded in 1853 between the United States and Bremen. Brentwood, Tenn., a minor battle of the Civil War, occurring March 25, 1863, in which Wheeler, Forrest and Wharton, commanding 5,000 Confederates, defeated 800 Federals under Bloodgood and G. C. Smith. Bresci, Gaetano, see appendix, page 476. Brevard, Ephraim (1750-1783). was a prominent and influential patriot of North Carolina. He was secretary of the Mecklenburg Con- vention of 1775, and is said to have been the author of the famous (alleged) declaration which anticipated by over a year the Declaration of Independence of Congress. He served in the Continental army, and was taken prisoner at Charleston in 1780. Brewster, Benjamin H. (1816-1888), was Attorney-General of Penn- sylvania from 1867 to 1869. He was Attorney-General in Arthur's Cabinet from 1881 to 1885. He distinguished himself in the prosecution of the Star Route trials. AMERICAN HISTORY. 99 Brewster, William, " Elder » (1560-1644), led a band of " Sepa- ratists " from England to Holland in 1608. He obtained a grant of land in North America from the Virginia Company and brought over the first company of Pilgrims to what is now Plymouth, Mass., in 1620. He was pastor of the Plymouth colony till 1629. Brier's Creek, Battle of, March 3, 1779. General Lincoln de- tailed Ashe with 1,500 men to narrow the lines about the British in Savannah. The British turned his position at Brier's Creek, and of Ashe's force only 500 again reached the American camp. Briggs Case. In his address on the occasion of his installation into the Edward Robinson professorship of Biblical Theology in the Union Theological Seminary, of New York, January 20, 1891, Professor Charles A. Briggs asserted that reason is a fountain of divine authority no less savingly enlightening than the Bible and the Church. His views were deemed not in accordance with the Presbyterian Confession of Faith. Charges were brought against Dr. Briggs before the Presbyte- rian General Assembly. He was supported by his colleagues in the seminaiy. In 1892 Briggs was tried and acquitted by the New York Synod, the several charges not having been sustained. Bright, Jesse D. (1812-1875), was Lieutenant-Governor of Indiana in 1841. He represented Indiana in the U. S. Senate as a Democrat from 1845 to 1862, when he was expelled for having, in a letter to Jef- ferson Davis, recognized him as president of the Confederate States. He was a member of the Kentucky Legislature in 1866. Brinton, Daniel G., born in 1837, has made valuable contributions to the study of American archaeology, ethnology and linguistics. He wrote " American Hero-Myths," "The American Race, " and edited a " Library of Aboriginal American Literature." Died 1899. Bristoe, or Bristow Station, Va. Here, August 27, 1862, while Jackson was awaiting Lee's arrival with reinforcements from Long- street's division, 40,000 troops under McDowell were sent against him by General Pope. A brief engagement ensued, Jackson retiring slowly toward Manassas Junction with the main body and leaving his rear- guard to cope with McDowell. October 14, 1863, during Lee's opera- tions in Northern Virginia, Warren, commanding a large force of Meade's Union Army, encountered here and defeated A. P. Hill, leading a strong body of Confederates. Warren lost 546 killed and wounded. The Confederate loss was slightly greater. Bristol, R. I., was not settled by white people until the termination of King Philip's War in 1679. Until 1747 it was a part of Massachu* ioo ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. setts. It was the ancient residence of King Philip, who was killed here in 1676. During the Revolutionary War it was bombarded by the Brit- ish, and much of the town destroyed by fire. In the French and Rev- olutionary Wars and the War of 181 2 it was noted for its privateers. Bristow, Benjamin, born in 1832, attained distinction as a lawyer, served in the Civil War and afterward in the Kentucky State Senate and as District Attorney. In 1870-72 he filled the office of Solicitor- General. His national importance rests on his conduct of the treasury department under Grant in 1873-76. His reputation for reform led to his candidacy for the Republican nomination for President in 1876. In this contest, however, Blaine and Bristow, the two leading candidates, were set aside, and Hayes received the nomination. Died 1896. Broad River, Battle of, November 12, 1780. Cornwallis, having learned the size and position of Sumter's force above Camden, sent Major Wemyss against him with mounted infantry. He charged the picket, but his force was repelled and himself wounded and taken prisoner. Broad Seal War, a controversy arising from disputed election returns in Middlesex County, N. J. In the congressional elections of 1838 the clerk of this county had thrown out the vote of South Amboy for the Democratic nominees on the ground of defects in the returns. The Democrats protested, but the Whig representatives were declared elected and given certificates under the broad seal of the State. When Congress met, December 2, 1839, the House contained 119 Democrat? and 118 Whigs outside of New Jersey. The clerk refused to recognize the five New Jersey Whigs and the greatest confusion followed until, on December 5, John Quincy Adams was elected Speaker pro tempore. On December 17 the House, after much wrangling, chose R. M. T. Hunter, of Virginia, permanent Speaker. The Democratic contestants were finally seated. Brock, Sir Isaac (1769-1812), came to Canada from England in 1802 in the British Ariny. In 1810 he took command of the troops in Upper Canada and prepared the country for defense. In 1812 he received the surrender of General Hull's army at Detroit with all the stores, arms and cannon. He was killed at the battle of Queenstown. Broke, Sir Philip B. V. (1776-1841), commanded the British ship "Shannon," which in 1813 captured the American ship " Chesapeake," Captain Lawrence, off Boston harbor after an engagement of fifteen minutes. Brook Farm, a communistic industrial and literary establishment AMERICAN HISTORY. 101 founded in Massachusetts, in 1841, by George Ripley, and other persons of socialistic tendencies. It was suggested by the schemes of Robert Owen and the writings of Fourier. The farm was bought and stock as- signed on a communistic basis, and labor, manual or mental, received compensation on a time basis. The establishment failed in 1846, one of the largest buildings being destroyed that year by fire. Nathaniel Hawthorne and Horace Greeley were among those interested in the scheme. Brooklyn, N. Y., was settled in 1636 by a few Walloon colonists. English and Dutch settlers followed, and in 1667 a charter was granted the town. In 1776 the site of the present town was the scene of the battle of Long Island. In 1834 Brooklyn became a chartered city and in 1899 was consolidated with Greater New York. Brooks, Phillips (1835-1893), was rector of Trinity Church, Boston, from 1869 to 1 89 1. He was Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Massachusetts from 1 89 1 to 1893. He was regarded in England and the United States as the greatest preacher of his Church. Brooks, Preston S. (1819-1857), served during the Mexican War. He represented South Carolina in the U. S. Congress as a States-rights Democrat from 1853 to 1859. In l8 56 he savagely assaulted Senator Sumner with a cane in the Senate chamber for certain expressions in a speech " on the crime against Kansas." The resolution for his expul- sion from the House was not carried. Brown, Aaron V. (1795-1859), represented Tennessee in the U. S. Congress as a Democrat from 1839 to 1845. He was Governor of Ten- nessee from 1845 to 1847, and Postmaster-General in Buchanan's Cabinet from 1857 to 1859. Brown, Benjamin Gratis (1826-1885), was a member of the Missouri Legislature from 1852 to 1858. He edited the Missouri Democrat from 1854 to 1859. He commanded a brigade during the Civil War. He rep- resented Missouri in the U. S. Senate as a Republican from 1863 to 1867, was Governor of Missouri in 1871, and having an important part in the Liberal Republican movement, was the Liberal Republican and Democratic candidate for Vice-President on the ticket with Horace Greeley in 1872. Brown, Charles Brockden (1771-18T0), was the first American to adopt literature as a profession. He wrote upon topics of the times, and published six successful novels which were unsurpassed in America lentil the appearance of Cooper's works, 102 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Brown, Fort, scene of the two opening engagements of the Mexican War. Captain Thornton, of General Taylor's dragoons, was captured after some fighting on April 25, 1846, byTorrejon, the Mexican general. On May 3 of the same year Arista, commander-in-chief of the Mexican forces, opened fire upon the fort with the batteries of Matamoras. The fort is now so called because commanded by Major Brown, who with- stood a bombardment of 168 hours, and died on May 8. It was origin- ally Fort Texas. Brown, Jacob (1775-1828), had been a militia general in New York when the War of 1812 called out his abilities. He gained a victory at Sackett's Harbor in 1813, was made a major-general in the regular army, and in i3i4 won the victories of Chippewa and Lundy's L,ane. In 1821 he succeeded to the command of the army as general-in-chief. Brown, John (1736-1803), of Providence, R. I., a rich merchant, led the party which destroyed the " Gaspee " in 1772. He was a delegate from Rhode Island to Congress from 1799 to 1801. Brown, John (1 744-1 780), of Massachusetts, aided in the capture of Ticonderoga and took Fort Chambly in 1775. He served under Mont- gomery at Quebec. In 1777 he captured Ticonderoga together with jarge supplies. Brown, John [of Ossawatomie] (1800- 1859), was born at Torrington, Conn., and early removed his home to Ohio. He was engaged in the wool business and farming, and developed into an ardent and uncom- promising abolitionist. On the outbreak of the Kansas troubles he settled near Ossawatomie in 1855, and took an active part in the desul- tory warfare in that region, including the " Pottawatomie Massacre " of 1856. He had many sympathizers in the Northern States, and by 1859 his plans to liberate the slaves were matured. Having collected a small force, well armed, he suddenly on October 16, 1S59, seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry in Virginia. He was immediately blockaded, captured after a desperate resistance, tried by a Virginia court, and exe- cuted at Charlestown, Va., December 2, 1859. The effect of this abor- tive undertaking was immeasurable. It helped to " clear the air " both in the North and South and was an important link in the chain of events leading up to the war. Brown became a hero in the songs of the Northern armies. His life is written by F. B. Sanborn. Brown, Joseph Umerson, born in 1821, had risen to prominence as a lawyer when he became Governor of Georgia. His service in this position lasted from 1857 to 1865, including the Civil War period. In this struggle he took an active part, seizing Forts Pulaski and Jackson AMERICAN HISTORY. 103 at the beginning of 1861, and advocating earnest resistance, though he was several times opposed to President Davis. He was Chief Justice of the State Supreme Court and U. S. Senator 1881-91. Died 1894. Brown, Nicholas (1769-1841), of Providence, R. I., a successful merchant, was a liberal benefactor of Rhode Island College, which in 1804 changed its name to Brown University in his honor. Brown University was founded in 1764, by a union of Baptists with other sects, at Warren, R. I. In 1770 it was removed to Providence. It received its present name in 1S04. Francis Way land was its president from 1827 to 1855. From 181 1 to 1828 it had a medical school. Browning, Orville H. (1810-1881), represented Illinois in the U. S. Senate as a Republican from 1861 to 1863. He advocated the abolition of slavery. He was Secretary of the Interior in Johnson's Cabinet from 1866 to 1869. Brownists, the nickname applied to the religious Separatists of England during the latter part of the sixteenth century. Robert Brown, who introduced the Separatist doctrines, was a Church of England clergyman of Norwich until 1580, when he began declaiming against the discipline and ceremony of the Church. The Puritans were largely influenced by the Separatist doctrines. The Pilgrim Fathers were Brownists. Brownlow, William Gannaway ( 1805-1877) , was in early life a Methodist preacher, and for many years edited the Knoxville Whig. He strongly opposed secession and became known as the " Fighting Parson." During the war he was a center of the Unionist feeling in Eastern Tennessee, and was at one time imprisoned. He was Governor of the State in 1865-69, and U. S. Senator 1869-75. Brown's Ferry, Tenn., a skirmish of the Civil War during the maneuvers around Chattanooga. At this place, October 27, 28, 1863, portions of I,ongstreet's Confederate troops were surprised and routed by the Federals under Hooker and Smith. The latter general secured an advantageous position upon a height overlooking the ferry. Howard with a small force cut off the pickets on one side while Geary did the same on the other. The Confederate pickets had therefore to surrender. Brownstown, Mich. Major Van Home with 200 men was here defeated August 5, 1812, by a body of Indians in ambush ; seventeen men were killed and mail containing important information as to the needs at Detroit was captured. Brownsville, Texas, captured November 5, 1863, during Banks* io 4 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. expedition to the Rio Grande, by Dana with a small party of Federal soldiers. Bee, the Confederate general, was encamped at this place with a small force and was defeated and driven out. Bruce, Blanche K. (1841-1898), was a slave in early life. He represented Mississippi in the U. S. Senate as a Republican from 1875 to 1 881. He became Register of the Treasury in 1881. Brussels Conference, an international monetary conference, held at Brussels in the autumn of 1892 at the suggestion of the United States government. The debate was chiefly upon the initial thesis of the American program suggested in the invitation to the convention, i.e., that it was desirable to find some means of increasing the use of silver in the currency systems of the nations. No definite step was taken at this conference. Bryan, William J., lawyer; born i860, Salem, 111. In Congress 1891-92. Nominated for President, July 10, 1896, Democratic National Convention at Chicago. Defeated Nov. 3, 1896. Electoral vote, Bryan 176, McKinley 271. In May, 1898, he raised the 3d Regt. Neb. Vol. Inf., of which he became colonel. July 4, 1900, he was again nominated for President by the Democrats, at Kansas City. Bryant, William Cullen (i794-i878),poet, first won distinction by his poem ' ' The Embargo " in 1807. He was editor-in-chief of the New York Evening Post from 1828 to 1878. The paper was noted for its democratic spirit and strongly supported the government during the Civil War. Pie aided in forming the Republican party and entered zealously into all public questions. His most famous poem was ' ' Thana- topsis." Bryn Mawr College, near Philadelphia, was founded in 1884 by Jas. W. Taylor, M. D. Buchanan, James (April 23, 1791 — June 1, 1868), the fifteenth President of the United States, was born near Mercersburg, Pa. He graduated at Dickinson College in 1809, studied law, and soon entered the Pennsylvania Legislature. In 182 1-3 1 he was Congressman and served as chairman of the Judiciary Committee. President Jackson sent him as Minister to Russia in 1832 : he returned the next year and in 1834 entered the U. S. Senate. In that body he continued until 1845, when he entered President Polk's Cabinet as Secretary of State. While secretary he was called on to conduct the delicate questions arising from the Oregon dispute, the acquisition of Texas, and the Mexican War. He had been in 1844 mentioned for the Presidency and was a candidate in 1852. During 1853-56 he was U. S. Minister to England. As the Democratic candidate for President in 1856 he was elected ovei AMERICAN HISTORY. 105 Fremont the Republican and Fillmore the Know-Nothing, and served for the term 1857-61. His foreign policy was generally successful. As his term went on, the absorbing slavery question overshadowed all other issues. After the election of Lincoln and the beginning of seces- sion it was President Buchanan's misfortune to have the conduct of affairs for three or four months of extreme excitement. His so-called "temporizing policy" during this period met with severe criticisms. After the close of his term he lived in retirement, and died at Lancaster, Pa. His life has been written by G. T. Curtis. Buckingham, William A. (1804-1875), one of the " War Gov- ernors," was Governor of Connecticut from 1858 to 1866. He actively supported the Civil War. He represented Connecticut in the U. S. Senate as a Republican from 1869 to 1875. Btickner, Simon B., born in 1823, fought with distinction at Cou- treras, Churubusco and Molino del Rey. He fought at Fort Henry, and commanded a brigade at Fort Donelson, which he surrendered to General Grant when left in command. He led a brigade in General Bragg's army in Tennessee, and commanded a division at Murfreesboro, and Chickamauga. He was Governor of Kentucky from 1887 to 1891. Buckshot War. The control of the Pennsylvania House of Rep- resentatives in 1838, on which depended the choice of a United States Senator, turned upon the election in Philadelphia (October 9), where the Democratic candidates for the Legislature were elected by small majorities ; but their Congressional candidate was defeated. There- upon the Democratic return judges cast out 5,000 Whig votes, claiming fraud. The Whig judges then issued certificates of election to both their Congressional and Legislative candidates, and these returns were accepted by the W T hig Secretary of State. At the opening of the Leg- islature, at Harrisburg, December 4, 1838, armed partisans were present. The Whig Senate adjourned because of the mob, and in the Hou.se two warring bodies assembled. The W T hig Governor called on the militia, and tried, without effect, to obtain Federal aid. The Democratic House was finally recognized December 25. Bucktails, a name first given to the Tammany Society of New York City, from the circumstance of the members of the organization wear- ing a buck's tail in the hat as a badge. The Bucktails, from 1812 to 1828, were anti-Clintonian New York Democrats. They were the most vigorous opponents of the Clinton canal policy from its inception (1817), and the name was finally applied to all who protested against thia policy throughout the State, Under Martin Van Buren the Bucktail* 106 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. obtained control of the State temporarily. After Governor Clinton's death, in 1828, they became the Democratic party of the State. Buel, James William, born at Golconda, 111., October 22, 1849. Son of a tanner, without educational advantages except such as he made himself. Taught a country school and in 1868 received an hon- orary scholarship, by competitive examination, in University of Illinois, of which institution he was afterwards librarian. Went to Kansas 1870, was editor of a country paper, and afterwards engaged in journal- ism in St. Louis. In 1882 he made an extensive tour of Russia and Siberia, fortified by letters of commendation from Secretary of State Frelinghuysen. He visited all the most noted convict settlements, and in 1883 published the results of his investigations in his well-known standard work, " Exile Life in Siberia." He followed authorship con- tinually and wrote twenty-five large books, chiefly of a historical char- acter. His best known, " The Beautiful Story," had a sale of 1,300,000 copies. He also wrote, in conjunction with Giuseppe Verdi, the world- famous composer, " The Great Operas," the most sumptuous publication ever issued in America, the retail price of which is $1,250. Buell, Don Carlos (1818-1898), graduated at West Point in 1841, and served in the Mexican War. In the Civil War he was appointed in 1861 to the Department of the Cumberland, and occupied the strategic point of Bowling Green. Part of his army arrived on the battle-field of Shiloh in time to render important aid in retrieving the fortunes of that contest. In the same year, 1862, he skillfully maneuvered against Bragg' s army of invasion, and defeated it at Perry ville October 8. He was soon after superseded by General Rosecrans. Died 1898. Buena Vista, Mexico. Here was fought a celebrated battle be- tween the American army, under General Taylor, and the Mexicans, under General Santa Anna. It is sometimes called Angostura after the plateau upon which Taylor drew up his army. This battle lasted two days, February 22, 23, 1847, was attended with considerable loss on both sides, and remained undecided until late in the second day, when Taylor, by concentrating his batteries against the enemy's center, and ordering his riflemen to cover his right flank, gained a complete victory. The first day's fighting had been confined to unsuccessful attempts by the Mexicans to drive Taylor from his position on Angos- tura heights. Hostilities were suspended during the night, the two armies suffering from the intense cold. The battle was nearly lost to the Americans at one time. Lane and O'Brien in charge of three guns and the second Indiana volunteers were driven from their position along the southern ridge of the heights, and were obliged to retreat to AMERICAN HISTORY. 107 Buena Vista. Taylor arrived in time to cover their retreat with the second dragoons and the Mississippi riflemen. Santa Anna's poor generalship alone prevented Taylor's defeat. Number engaged, Amer- icans 4,769, Mexicans 17,000. Buffalo, N. Y., was founded in 1801, and became a military post in 1813, when it was burned by the British. It was rebuilt after the war and in 1832 attained the rank of a city. After the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 its growth was rapid. It is selected as the seat of the Pan-American exposition 1901. Bulacan, a city of 10,000 population, situated at the head of Manila Bay, Philippine Islands. Bull Run, Va,, the scene of two important battles of the Civil War. The first great battle of the war took place July 21, 1861, between Mc- Dowell, commanding 29,000 Union soldiers, and Johnson and Beaure- gard, leading 28,000 Confederates. Six Confederate brigades lay posted along the stream, and upon these McDowell resolved to begin his attack. Tyler was sent across the stone bridge to threaten the Con- federate front. Hunter and Heintzelman were dispatched to make a detour and attack the enemy's flank and rear. But Johnston had also decided to hasten the attack in order to anticipate Patterson's arrival with reinforcements for McDowell. However, the latter moved first, so Johnston acted on the defensive. Tyler and Hunter were slow in their movements ; still by midday McDowell had turned the Con- federate's left and uncovered the stone bridge. The Union troops followed the defeated Confederates across Young's Branch, but were held in check on the plateau beyond by Jackson, who here acquired his sobriquet of " Stonewall," until Johnston and Beauregard had time to come up and rally the disordered ranks. At about three o'clock, when both armies were exhausted by fighting, the arrival of 2,300 fresh Confederate troops, under Kirby Smith, who had escaped Patterson, turned the tide. McDowell was driven from the plateau, which had been the object of contention for three hours. McDowell in vain tried to cover his retreat with 800 regulars. There was a panic which spread almost to Washington. — Bull Run the second, or the battle of Manassas, occurred August 29, 30, 1862. General Pope, commanding a Union army of 40,000 men, advanced to attack Jackson, who was awaiting re- inforcements from Lee at Bristoe station. McDowell had been dis- patched to intercept Lee's conjunction with Jackson, but he was imme- diately recalled and ordered to join Pope at Manassas Junction. Jackson, finding the way open, immediately retired toward Manassas Junction and took a strange position near Gains ville behind an old railroad grading. 108 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Pope ordered Sigel to attack him at daylight August 29. All the morning a duel of batteries continued and Pope, arriving about noon from Centre- ville, found both armies badly cut up. Pope expected McDowell and Porter to join him. The former arrived with 27,000 men, but the latter never came. The battle continued until sunset, Jackson seeming several times on the point of retreating before such heavy odds. But Long- street came up and the fighting ceased for the night. It began again the next day. The Confederates made a brilliant counter-charge and swept Pope from the field. Bullock, Rufus B., born in 1834, was Governor of Georgia from 1869 to 1870, when he resigned because of the opposition to negro rep- resentatives in the Legislature, whose rights he supported. Bulwer, Sir William Henry T,. J$. (1801-1872), was British Min- ister to the United States from 1849 to 1852. He negotiated with Senator John M. Clayton the Clayton-Bulwer treaty which related to the estab- lishment of a communication between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by canal at the Isthmus of Panama, each party guaranteeing neutrality of communication. Bum-boat, a small boat used to convey provisions and other articles from harbor ports to vessels at anchor. They are common in the har- bors of Cuba and the Philippines. Buncombe, effusive rhetoric irrelevant to the business in hand. It is said that, many years ago, a member of Congress from Buncombe County, N. C, replied, on being taxed with the irrelevancy of his speech, " I am speaking not for you, but for Buncombe." Bunker Hill, Battle of (June 17, 1775). After the investment of Boston by the Continental troops it became evident that Boston was un- tenable unless the surrounding heights were secured. This General Gage intended to do. The committee of safety anticipated him and sent 1,200 men under Colonel Prescott to seize and fortify Bunker Hill, on the night of the sixteenth. Breed's Hill, a more advanced though less protected position, was fortified instead. Dawn disclosed the American works to the British and a lively cannonade was directed upon the works. About three p. m., 3,000 British veterans under Howe and Pigott charged up the hill, but a deadly volley awaited both. They gave way and retreated. In the meantime the village of Charlestown had been fired by shells from the fleet. Again the British charged. The Americans reserved fire until they were within thirty yards. Again the British ranks gave way before the fatal fire. Owing to confusion at headquarters neither reinforcements nor ammunition were promptly AMERICAN HISTORY. 109 dispatched to the American troops. About five o'clock the British charged again. They were at first shaken by the American fire, but the latter's cartridges were soon spent and after a stubborn hand-to-hand fight they left the field. The most lamented among the slain was the gallant General Warren, who had fought as a volunteer in the ranks. 1,054 of the British, or over one-third of their whole number, perished; of the Americans about a quarter, or 449. Bunker Hill is thus one of the bloodiest battles of modern times. The immediate result was the pos- session of a strategic point by the English ; upon the Americans its moral effect was to encourage their spirits and to inspire general respect for their soldierly ability. Bunker Hill Monument. The corner-stone was laid June 17, 1825, by Lafayette, before an enormous and enthusiastic crowd, among them many aged survivors of the battle fought fifty years before, who had gathered from far and near. After the singing of "Old Hundred," Daniel Webster delivered his famous address. The monument was completed June 17, 1843, and again Webster delivered the address be- fore a tumultuously appreciative audience, among them President Tyler and some of his Cabinet. Burchard, Samuel D. (1812-1891), lecturer and preacher in New York. During the political campaign of 1884 he made a speech at a "ministers' meeting " called by the Republican party managers, during which he stigmatized the Democrats by the words " Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion. " This helped to lose the Republicans the election, by alienating the Roman Catholic vote. Bureau of American Republics. A bureau established under the recommendation of the Pan-American Conference of October, 1889, for the prompt collection and distribution of commercial information con- cerning the American Republics. Bureaus of I/abor Statistics. The first such government office established was that of Massachusetts, created by Act of June 23, 1869. Pennsylvania established one in 1872. Connecticut had one from 1873 to 1875, and re-established it in 1885. That of Ohio was established in 1877, that of New Jersey in 1878, those of Indiana,, Missouri and Illinois in 1879, those of California, Wisconsin, New York and Michigan in 1883, those of Maryland and Iowa in 1884. The U. S. Bureau of Labor was established by Act of June 27, 1884 ; an Act of June 13, 1888, sub- stituted the Department of Labor. Since then thirteen other States have organized such bureaus. Burgesses, House of, the lower branch of the Colonial Legislature no ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. of Virginia. The first House of Burgesses was summoned in 1619. The House met at Jamestown in the seventeenth century, at Williamsburg in the eighteenth. It consisted of two burgesses from each county, and one from each of three towns and William and Mary College. The printed journals begin with the year 1732. The forms of procedure were those of the House of Commons. The last session of the burgesses occurred in 1774. Burgoyne, John (1723-1792), one of the chief British commanders in the Revolutionary War, was a member of the House of Commons, and an army officer ; he reached the grade of lieutenant-general, served in Canada in the early stages of the war, and was in 1777 intrusted with the command of a large force which was to pierce the American center. He ascended Lake Champlain and captured the forts without great difficulty. But his march from the head of the lake to Fort Edward was delayed by Schuyler's obstructions, while the auxiliary force under St. Leger came to grief, and Baum's diversion into Vermont was defeated at Bennington. He fought the first indecisive battle of Stillwater with Gates' army September 19, 1777 ; in the second battle on October 7 he was defeated, and was obliged to surrender with nearly 6,000 men at Saratoga October 17. He returned to England the next year and pub- lished in 1780 his "State of the Expedition." He was an author of some note, composing a number of poems and comedies. Burke, Edmund (1 729-1 797), the English orator and statesman, was born in Ireland, educated in Trinity College, Dublin, and gained attention in literature, especially as the author of a treatise on ' ' The Sublime and Beautiful. ' ' After some years spent as private secretary he was returned to the House of Commons in 1766. In the exciting debates attendant on the American Revolution he took a leading part. He favored constitutional order, freedom, championed the colonies, and held the first rank as an orator and political thinker. In 1774 he de- livered a great speech on American taxation, and the next year favored strongly a policy of conciliation. In 1782, and again in 1783, he held the office of paymaster of the forces, and draughted Fox's East India Bill. Burke led the attack on Warren Hastings in the House of Commons in 1786-87, and in 1788 was one of the managers in that statesman's impeach- ment and made a celebrated speech. Soon after the outbreak of the French Revolution Burke, as a lover of order and conservatism, broke with his friend Fox, denounced the Revolution, and published his "Reflections" on that event. The best biographies are by Prior and Morley. Burkesville, Va. Here Sheridan, pursuing the Confederates, de* AMERICAN HISTORY. in feated and fleeing from the battlefield of Five Forks, overtook, April 3, 1865, a body of their cavalry. They endeavored to make a stand and receive the Federal assault, but in vain. Sheridan dispersed them, taking many prisoners. This battle is to be remembered in connection with the close of the campaign around Richmond and Petersburg. Burlingame, Anson (1820-1870), rose to prominence in Massa- chusetts as a lawyer and politician. In 1855-61 he was Republican Congressman, aud in 1861 he was sent as U. S. Minister to China. His diplomatic services there were so important that in 1868 he was ap- pointed by the Chinese Government a special envoy to the United States and Europe. He negotiated at Washington in 1868 the Burlingame Treaty with China, and effected treaties with England, Prussia, Holland and other European countries. Burnet, David G. (1789-1870), was active in securing the inde- pendence of Texas. He was chosen provisional president of the re- public in 1836 and afterward served as vice-president. Burns Case (1854), the last great fugitive slave case in Boston. Burns was an escaped slave of a Virginia planter and was arrested in Boston on the charge of theft. He was then claimed as a fugitive. This aroused the people to fever-excitement, and large meetings, ad- dressed by Wendell Phillips and Theodore Parker, were held in Faneuil and Meionaon Halls on the evening of May 26. The audience, refus- ing to wait until morning, armed themselves with clubs and axes and broke into the jail, but were driven away by a pistol shot. Burns was tried and the order for his rendition issued. He was conveyed to the cutter ' ' Morris, ' ' surrounded by a large military force. The streets were thronged and many of the houses were draped in black. Indict- ments for riot brought against Phillips, Parker and others were quashed on technical grounds. Burnside, Ambrose Everett (1824-1881), commander of the Army of the Potomac, graduated at West Point in 1847. He invented a breech- loading rifle, retired from the army and engaged in business. In the Civil War he led a brigade at the first battle of Bull Run and was in 1862 placed in command of an expedition to North Carolina ; this force captured Roanoke Island on February 8, and Newbern March 14. He was now made a corps commander in the Army of the Potomac, and rendered important service at the battle of South Mountain and at Antietam, where he held the stone bridge against repeated attacks. In November, 1862, he succeeded McClellan in command of the army. On December 13 was fought the fatal and ill-advised battle of Fred- ii2 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. ericksburg, and in January, 1S63, General Burnside was superseded by Hooker. Having been appointed to the command of the department of the Ohio he kept down treason, and was later in 1863 besieged in Knoxville by Longstreet. Pie acted as corps commander in the Army of the Potomac at the Wilderness, Cold Harbor, Petersburg, etc. 1* 1866-68 he was Republican Governor of Rhode Island, and in 1875-8' U. S. Senator from the same State. Burr, Aaron (February 6, 1756 — September 14, 1836), was born at Newark, N. J., and was the grandson of Jonathan Edwards. He grad* uated at Princeton in 1772, and joined the army at the outbreak of the Revolution. He served in Arnold's famous expedition through Main* to Canada, and afterward rose to the rank of colonel. Studying law, he rose soon to a position among the leaders of the New York bar, an served in New Jersey from 1777 to 1778. He was commander at Wyoming, Pennsylvania, at the time of the massacre. He served with distinction in General Sullivan's Indian expedition of 1779. Butterfield, Daniel, born in 1831, led a brigade at Hanover Court House and Gaines' Mills. He commanded a corps at Fredericksburg and was chief of staff at Chancellorsville, Gettysburg, Lookout Moun- tain and Missionary Ridge. He commanded a division at Resaca, Dal- las and Kenesaw. He resigned in 1869 an 49 6 ; in 1890 it had increased to 746,258. (History by Hollister.) Conquistadores, Spanish for conquerors, the name given to those AMERICAN HISTORY. 173 Spanish adventurers who conducted expeditions of conquest in the New World. Conrad, Charles M. (1804-1878), represented Louisiana in the U. S. Senate as a Whig from 1842 to 1843, ano ^ i n Congress from 1848 to 1850. He was Secretary of War in Fillmore's Cabinet from 1850 to 1853. Conservative, a name given to those Democrats who during the years from 1837 to 1840 voted with the Whigs against the sub-treasury bill, which was then supported by the Democrats at large. On other questions the Conservatives generally adhered to the principles of their party. Constable. In colonial times the duties of the constable were both varied and extensive. In New England he was usually appointed by the selectmen of the town ; in Virginia and Maryland by the Hundred ; in some States he was appointed for the parish. The constable gave notice of town meetings, collected and disbursed taxes, was often over- seer of the roads, made arrests and preserved the peace, and filled some judicial functions. His scope of office varied for different States and even for different towns, but was in earlier times of more importance and dignity than now. "Constellation," the United States man-of-war commanded by Truxton, which, February 9, 1800, during the troubles with France of that period, defeated and captured the French frigate " L,'Insurgente " in the West Indies. Truxton was presented by Congress with a gold medal for his bravery. Constitution. The first written constitution of modern times seems to have been the Union of Utrecht, or Constitution of the United Neth- erlands, framed in 1579. The first suggestion of a written Constitution for England was made in the "Agreement of the People," drawn up in 1647. During the Commonwealth England had two written Constitu- tions, the Instrument of Government, 1653, and the Humble Petition and Advice, 1657. Vane's "Healing Question" (1656) first suggested the separate constitutional convention. The first written Constitution which any American community framed for itself was the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, 1639. At the time of the Revolution the desire to have governments of limited powers made it inevitable that the Constitutions should be set down in writing. The existence of colonial charters helped to familiarize the idea. " Constitution,' * the most famous of American frigates, a vessel of 174 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. forty-four guns, was finished in 1798. Under Barry it had some service against the French in 1799. On July 5, 181 2, under Captain Hull, it started from Annapolis and ran into a British fleet of five frigates. For three days it avoided an attack by masterly seamanship and at last escaped without damage. On August 19 it encountered the " Guer- riere," Captain Dacres, not far from Cape Race. The " Constitution " was the stronger ship in the proportion of ten to seven, but Captain Dacres of the ' ' Guerriere ' ' believed the Americans could not fight. Within thirty minutes after the battle began his vessel was a wreck and seventy-nine of his men killed or wounded. This victory greatly strengthened the Americans in self-confidence and prestige. On De- cember 29, 1812, in the West Indies, the " Constitution " encountered the "Java," thirty-eight guns, Captain Lambert. After two hours' battle and an hour spent in repairing damages, Captain Bainbridge (now commander of the "Constitution") was about to renew the attack, when the " Java" surrendered. The British lost about 100 killed and 200 wounded. The Americans lost thirty-four in all. The " Constitution " in this battle earned the name of " Old Ironsides." Both the "Guerriere" and the "Java," on capture, were so disabled that they were blown up. December 30, 1813, the "Constitution," Captain Stewart, sailed toward the West Indies. February 14, 1814, it captured the "Picton," sixteen guns, and a convoy. Next year, February 15, 1815, it attacked and captured two vessels, the " Cyane," thirty-six guns, and the " Levant," eighteen guns. The latter was afterward recaptured, the " Constitution " itself narrowly escaping cap- ture at the same time from three British frigates. Constitution of the United States. The first Constitution of the United States was the Articles of Confederation. Its defects and failure caused many to consider the desirability of drastic amendment. The Alexandria Conference of Maryland and Virginia led to the An- napolis Convention of 1786, this to the Convention of 1787 at Phila- delphia. That convention forthwith proceeded, not to amend the Confederation, but to make a new Constitution. This Constitution differed from its predecessor in that it dealt directly with individuals, that it invested the Federal Government with coercive powers, that it provided an efficient executive, and that it was susceptible of amend- ment by easier means than unanimous consent. Since it went into operation in 1789 it has been developed by amendment, by interpreta- tion and by custom. Courts, especially the Supreme Court, have de- veloped it by interpretation. Under Chief Justice Marshall the court much enlarged the powers of the Federal Government in this way. AMERICAN HISTORY 175 Expansions of this sort have come mostly from the clauses giving Congress the taxing power and the power to regulate commerce, and from the war powers of the President and Congress. Usage has added such features as the committee system, the Speaker's power, the spoils system, the gerrymander and so forth. In fact we have a written Con- stitution plus an unwritten Constitution. Constitution Union Party, a name assumed by the remnants of the Whig party in the South in the election of i860. The party held a convention at Baltimore May 9, i860, in which delegates from twenty States were present. John Bell, of Tennessee, was nominated for Presi- dent and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts, for Vice-President. The platform of the party was of the most general character, recognizing " no political principle but the Constitution of the country, the union of the States and the enforcement of laws." In the election it carried Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia, but failed utterly in the North. The Civil War blotted it out immediately. Constitutions, First State. Upon the establishment of independ- ence in 1776, the thirteen colonies necessarily passed from the crown. Not one of the thirteen was a State prior to that event, though a few had established temporary governments at the suggestion of Congress. Massachusetts remained under the form of government fixed by her colonial charter until 1780, Connecticut until 1818 and Rhode Island until 1842. New Hampshire was the first to modify and establish a local government. She did so in January, 1776. South Carolina, Vir- ginia and New Jersey followed in March, June and July of the same year, Delaware and Pennsylvania in September, Maryland in November, North Carolina in December, Georgia and New York in 1777. By 1780 all had formed local governments except Connecticut and Rhode Island. Consul. Consuls have been appointed from the beginning of the Government. By acts of 1848 and i860 they are empowered to hear and determine judicial cases in uncivilized countries. Continental Money. The second Continental Congress, in its straits for money, began in June, 1775, to issue paper money. Alto- gether, about $242,000,000 were issued up to the end of 1779, when further issues were stopped. For the first year these issues continued equal in value to gold ; then they began to depreciate. In two years they had become reduced till they stood at two to one. In three years they stood at four to one ; in September, 1779, at twenty to one ; in the ensuing March at forty to one. Congress now required the notes to be brought in, to be redeemed at their market value, or, to a certain extent, replaced 176 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. by " new tenor " notes at twenty to one, the new issues to bear interest at five per cent. The old notes sank to one thousand to one, and finally ceased to circulate. Continentals, the regular troops of the American army during the Revolution, enlisted and paid by the Continental Government and com- manded by Washington. They are to be distinguished from the militia and guerrilla companies. The name was first applied in June, 1775, when Congress appropriated $6,000 for the support of a " Continental army," and appointed Washington commander-in-chief. Washington at once took command of the forces then beleaguering Boston, and ten companies of expert riflemen were enlisted in Pennsylvania and Virginia. Contraband. Under the laws of war, goods (such as arms) which may aid an enemy to prolong the war are called contraband and held liable to seizure and condemnation, if a neutral tries to introduce them into the country of the other belligerent. In 1861 General B. F. Butler attempted to apply this distinction and regulation to the slaves of Southerners, when they fell into his hands. Contrecoeur, born about 1730 ; French soldier. In 1754 he con- ducted a French force down the Allegheny River and constructed Fort Duquesne, in attempting to capture which Braddock was defeated the next year. Contreras, Mexico, a short battle between Pillow's and Twiggs' divisions of General Scott's army and Valencia, an officer of General Santa Anna, on August 19-20. Pillow and Twiggs had been left by Scott upon the construction of a road during his approach to the city of Mexico. August 19, Valencia made an attack, but was repulsed and ordered by Santa Anna to retreat. This he refused to do and the next day his camp was attacked and his forces routed. Americans 4,000, Mexicans 6,000. Convention, Constitutional. In almost all the States, the new Constitutions framed at the beginning of the Revolutionary period were made by the Revolutionary Conventions which were managing all the affairs of the State, in the absence of any constitutional government. But soon the feeling grew that Constitutions should be made by conven- tions which the people chose especially for that purpose. The Massa- chusetts Constitution of 1780 was so made, and was submitted to the people afterward. Since then this has been the regular practice, both in the case of old States making new Constitutions, and in that. of new States formed out of territories and old States ; and also in that of re- constructed Southern States. A convention held at Montgomery, Ala., AMERICAN HISTORY. 177 identical with the Confederate provisional Congress, framed the Consti* tution of the Confederate States, March, 1861. Convention, Nominating". In the first stages of American political life, candidates for offices within the gift of the people either themselves made public announcement of their candidacy or were nominated by more or less private or informal caucuses of party leaders. Next came the legislative caucus (which see), the candidate of a party being chosen by a caucus of the members of the Legislature belonging to that party. Though a sporadic case of a nominating convention (at Harrisburg) as early as 1788 is mentioned, yet in general the legislative caucus was the ordinary practice at that time. But this gave, in the case of a given party, no representation of those districts whose legislative delegates were not of that party. Hence arose a modification of the caucus ; the legislative caucus being supplemented by the addition of delegates specially sent up from those unrepresented districts. This w T as the half-way stage to the nominating convention pure and simple, which consisted of delegates from all parts of the State, chosen especially and solely for the purpose of making nominations. This institution, which has prevailed universally ever since, arose soon, as improved means of communication between different parts of a State made it easy for such bodies to be convened. In Pennsylvania the fully developed nominating convention of the modern type appears in (1792) 18 17, in New Jersey in 1812, in Rhode Island and New York in 1825. After becoming fully developed in the States, the system was applied to Federal elections. The Presidential nominations of 1824 (except Crawford's caucus nomi- nation) had been made on no well-defined plan, those of 1828 mostly by State Legislatures. The first national nominating convention was that held by the Anti-Masons at Baltimore in September, 1831, by which Wirt and Ellmaker were nominated. The National Republican Con- vention at Baltimore, December, 183 1, followed. In May, 1832, a Dem- ocratic Convention nominated Van Buren for Vice-President. In 1835 the Democrats at Baltimore nominated Van Buren and Johnson in National Convention ; the Whigs held none. In 1840 both parties adopted this practice, which has since been followed without exception. Beginning with that year, the principal conventions have been the fol- lowing: 1839, Whig, at Harrisburg, nominating Harrison and Tyler; 1840, Democratic, at Baltimore, nominating Van Buren but no Vice- President ; Liberty party at Albany, nominating Birney and Earle ; 1844, Whig at Baltimore, Clay and Frelinghuysen ; Democratic at Bal- timore, Polk and Dallas ; Liberty party at Buffalo (1843), Birney and Morris ; 1848, Democratic at Baltimore, Cass and Butler ; Whig at Phil- adelphia, Taylor and Fillmore ; Free-Soil at Buffalo, Van Buren and Vol. V.— 12 178 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Adams ; 1852, Democratic at Baltimore, Pierce and King ; Whig at Bal- timore, Scott iittd Graham ; Free-Soil at Pittsburg, Hale and Julian ; 1856, American ("Know-Nothing") at Philadelphia, Fillmore and Donelson ; Democratic at Cincinnati, Buchanan and Breckinridge ; Re- publican at Philadelphia, Fremont and Dayton ; Whig at Baltimore, ratified the American nominations ; i860, Democratic (Moderate) at Charleston and Baltimore, Douglas and Johnston; Democratic (Extreme) at Charleston, Richmond and Baltimore, Breckinridge and Lane ; Con- stitutional Union at Baltimore, Bell and Everett ; Republican at Chi- cago, Lincoln and Hamlin ; 1864, Republican (Radical) at Cleveland, Fremont and Cochrane ; Republican (Regular) at Baltimore, Lincoln and Johnson ; Democratic at Chicago, McClellan and Pendleton ; 1868, Republican at Chicago, Grant and Colfax ; Democratic at New York, Seymour and Blair ; 1872, Liberal Republican at Cincinnati, Greeley and Brown ; Republican at Philadelphia, Grant and Wilson ; Democratic at Baltimore, ratified the Liberal Republican nominations ; 1876, Green- back at Indianapolis, Cooper and Carey ; Republican at Cincinnati, Hayes and Wheeler ; Democratic at St. Louis, Tilden and Hendricks ; 1880, Republican at Chicago, Garfield and Arthur ; Greenback at Chi- cago, Weaver and Chambers ; Democratic at Cincinnati, Hancock and English ; 1884, Republican at Chicago, Blaine and Logan ; Democratic at Chicago, Cleveland and Hendricks ; Prohibitionist at Pittsburg, St. John and Daniel ; Greenback Labor party, Butler and West ; 1888, Pro- hibitionist at Indianapolis, Fiske and Brooks ; Democratic at St. Louis, Cleveland and Thurman ; Republican at Chicago, Harrison and Morton ; 1892, Republican at Minneapolis, Harrison and Reid ; Democratic at Chicago, Cleveland and Stevenson ; Prohibitionist at Cincinnati, Bid- well and Cranfell ; People's party at Omaha, Weaver and Field. Convention of 1787, the body which framed the Constitution of the United States, was first suggested by a private letter of Alexander Ham- ilton in 1780. The State Legislatures were slow in considering the matter. The convention was really brought about by the recommenda- tion of a previous convention of delegates from several States, who had assembled at Annapolis in September, 1786, to consider the regulation of trade. Virginia taking the lead, delegates were chosen to a conven- tion to amend the faulty Articles of Confederation. By June 2, 1787, delegates from New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Virgin- ia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Geor- gia and Maryland, had assembled at Philadelphia, those from the first seven States having arrived May 25. On May 29 Edmund Randolph, of Virginia, presented a plan for "a more energetic government," and inclining to reduce the " idea of States " to a minimum. He proposed AMERICAN HISTORY. 17$ a correction of the Articles of Confederation ; representation by popula- tion ; two branches of Congress, the first chosen by the people, the second by the first on nomination by the State Legislatures ; that Con- gress should legislate concerning commerce and taxes and should have a veto power over State laws ; that Congress should choose the execu- tive, who should have veto power, and a number of other clauses. Charles Pinckney, of South Carolina, submitted another draft of a Con- stitution. These were considered and reported favorably. After much debate it was decided that a national government ought to be established. June 15, William Paterson, of New Jersey, submitted a draft which was in nearly every respect incompatible with Randolph's, leaving far more to the States, that the small States might be protected. On the motion of Ellsworth a compromise was effected by giving the States an equal representation in the Senate and a representation proportionate to population in the House. A compromise was also effected regarding the regulation of commerce and the taxation of exports. The third compromise forbade Congress to prohibit the slave trade, and established a fugitive slave law. July 24, a committee of detail was appointed. August 6, this committee of detail reported a draft strongly resembling the Constitution. A month was spent in debate, and on September 12 this draft, amended by the third great compromise, was given to a com- mittee of style, consisting of Gouverneur Morris, Johnson, Madison, Hamilton and King. September 13, the Constitution was reported to the convention very nearly in its present form. In the debates the leaders of the nationalizing party were : Hamilton, Madison, King, Wilson and Morris ; of the States' rights, Lansing, Yates, Paterson, Martin. On September 17, 1787, the convention adjourned, after sending the Con- stitution to Congress for transmission to the States. Its proceedings were marked by great moderation and wisdom. It consisted mostly of somewhat conservative men. A movement toward a second general convention in 1788, started by George Clinton, Patrick Henry and other Anti- Federalists, proved abortive. Convention, Revolutionary. In English history, conventions, resembling Parliaments in everything but in not being summoned by the crown, were held 1660 and in 1689. Thence the name came to America and was similarly applied, as in Massachusetts in 1689 and in South Carolina in 1718, to irregular meetings of the popular branch of the Legislature, summoned in the absence of executive authority. In the troubles that led to the Revolution, when royal governors dissolved assemblies, they often met again at once in "conventions." These representative bodies soon came to have all authority, to the exclusion of the royal government. In the provisional governments which man- 1 80 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. aged the Revolution in each State, the controlling body, up to the time when the first Constitution was made for the State, was the convention. These revolutionary conventions were sovereign bodies, and most com- monly they made the State's first Constitution, though soon the feeling grew that this should be done by a special convention elected by the people for that express purpose. Conventions, supposed to represent the sovereignty of the State in a more complete degree than legislatures could, controlled the nullification proceedings in South Carolina in 1832, and passed the ordinances of secession on behalf of the Southern States in i860 and 1861. Convention Troops. On October 14, 1777, the British General Burgoyne, finding himself surrounded at Saratoga, proposed to sur- render to General Gates. Accordingly, October 16, a convention was signed fixing the terms of capitulation. It was decided that Burgoyne, his officers and troops should march out of camp with the honors of war, and should be accorded passports to England upon promising to abstain from war against the States. In obedience to these terms the troops were marched to Boston, there to await transports from Howe. During the winter the troops remained quartered on Prospect Hill and Winter Hill, the officers being placed at Cambridge. Numerous delays followed. Congress disliked the terms ; an expression of Burgoyne's was construed as a repudiation of them. Finally General Heath was instructed by Congress to suspend the embarkation indefinitely. Bur- goyne and his staff returned to England on parole. The troops were transferred to Rutland, Vt., and afterward to Charlottesville, Va., where they remained till the close of the war. Conventionalists, in the Pennsylvania politics of 1 804-1808, the name assumed by those extreme Democrats who desired to see a new convention called, to modify the Constitution of the State in a radically democratic sense, as opposed to the so-called "Constitutionalists." Their leaders were Leib and Duane. Convicts. In 1619, by order of King James I., one hundred convicts were sent from England to be sold as servants. For more than a cent- ury this practice was from time to time followed in the case of the royal colonies, in spite of colonial protests. Conway Cabal. An intrigue by Gates, Lee, Mifflin, Wilkinson and others of Washington's officers, in 1777, for the promotion of Brig- adier-General Conway contrary to Washington's judgment. Washing- ton was accused of incompetence and partiality, and finally Congress was prevailed upon to promote Conway to major-general and inspector- AMERICAN HISTORY. 181 general. In 1778 Conway was wounded in a duel and apologized to Washington, confessing his wrong. Cook, James (1728-1779), naval captain, commanded a frigate at the capture of Quebec in 1759. In 1768 he made an expedition, during which he sought for the great continent supposed to exist near the South Pole. From 1772 to 1775 a more thorough exploration was made. In 1776 he conducted an expedition to discover a northwest passage by way of Behriug Strait. He discovered the Sandwich Islands, where he was killed by the natives of Hawaii. Cooke, Jay, born in 1821, established the banking firm of Jay Cooke & Co., at Philadelphia, in i86r, which was the agent of the United States for the war loans during the Civil War. Its failure on September 19, 1873 (" Black Friday "), began the panic of that year. Cooley, Thomas M., born in 1824, of Michigan, jurist, was ap- pointed to compile the statutes of Michigan in 1857, and was reporter of the Supreme Court in 1858. He was a Justice of the Supreme Court of Michigan from 1864 to 1885 and Chief Justice in 1868-69. H e w as chairman of the Interstate Commerce Commission from its beginning in 1887 till 1 89 1. He now holds the chair of American History in the University of Michigan and is lecturer on constitutional law and political science. He has published a ' ' Digest of Michigan Reports ' ' and has edited an edition of Blackstone's "Commentaries," with copious notes. Died 1898. Cooper, Edward, an active business man, son of Peter Cooper, was born in 1824. He was mayor of New York from 1879 to 1881 and 1883, and was active in* the overthrow of the Tweed ring. Cooper, James Fenimore (1789-1851), was born in Burlington, N. J. He entered the navy in 1801, but resigned in 181 1. In 182 1 he published ' ' The Spy, ' ' the first of his historical novels and one of the first of American historical novels. This was followed by ' ' The Pio- neers," "The I^ast of the Mohicans," and a long series of romantic novels dealing with the Revolution, frontier life, sea life and the Amer- ican Indian. He aLso wrote a history of the American Navy. Cooper, Peter (1791-1883), philanthropist, was born in New York City. He greatly promoted the progress of industrial improvement in the United States, and in 1854-59 erected the "Cooper Unior/ for the Advancement of Science and Art," where the working classes Way re- ceive free instruction. He was a careful thinker on questions of gov- ernment and finance. In 1876 he was the Presidential candidate 6( the National Independent Greenback party. 1 82 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Cooper, Thomas (1759-1840), scientist. An English Democrat, he emigrated to the United States in 1795. He was one of those tried un- der the Sedition Act, was president of the College of South Carolina, and was one of the founders of political economy in America. Copper. The mining of copper was carried on to a limited extent in Connecticut, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, in colonial times, and its existence was known of as early as 1660 by Jesuit missionaries about Lake Superior in Michigan. The first systematic mining for copper was begun in Michigan in 1844. From 1867 to 1881 about ninety per cent, of the copper product of the United States came from Lake Superior. Immense copper fields have since been opened in Montana and Arizona. Copperhead, the name applied to Northerners who sympathized with the South in the Civil War. Copyright. Clause 8 of the Constitution authorized Congress to issue copyrights to authors and artists and patents to inventors. Prior to the adoption of the Constitution the States issued copyrights, and the first act of Congress recognized the rights thus granted. The first law was enacted in 1790, giving to authors exclusive right to their works for fourteen years, with the liberty of renewal for the same num- ber of years. In 1831 the term was made twenty-eight years, with the right of renewal for fourteen years. A copy of the title of the book or a description of the article must be sent to the Librarian of Congress, and not later than the day of publication two copies of the book must be sent to the Librarian. Copyrights were formerly issued by the Clerks of the District Courts of the United States. In 1891 Congress passed an act granting the privileges of copyright to foreigners of nations whose governments give American citizens similar privileges. This reciprocity was to be determined by proclamation of the President. It was at once extended to Great Britain, France, Belgium and Switzerland, and sub- sequently to Germany and Italy. Corcoran, William W. (1798-1888), a banker and successful fin- ancier during the Mexican War, was noted as founder of the Louise Home and the Corcoran Art Gallery at Washington, D. C, and for liberality toward charitable institutions. Corinth, Miss., fortified and occupied by General Beauregard, commanding 53,000 effective Confederate troops, and captured May 30, 1862, by Generals Halleck and Pope, leading an army of over 100,000 Federals, after some twelve days spent in skirmish, siege and bombard- ment. Beauregard's lieutenants were Van Dorn and Price. Corinth was bat weakly fortified, but this fact was unknown to the Federal AMERICAN HISTORY. 183 generals, strong outposts of Confederate troops being constantly op- posed to their advancing columns. Pope sent Elliot, Hatch and Sheri- dan with strong detachments to make a circuit of forty miles around the town and strike the railroad. Stanley's division pushed forward, and, after a sharp skirmish with the Confederate outposts, secured and fortified a position directly opposite the Confederate works. Paine, Crittenden and Nelson joined him there. Sherman had meantime cap- tured a loop-holed log house, manned by Confederates and situated south of Corinth. Sharp-shooters annoyed him from this place. The house was destroyed and Sherman advanced close to Beauregard's earthworks. Beauregard, seeing himself nearly hemmed in, began to evacuate on the night of the twenty-ninth, destroying as much as he could, but leaving many valuable stores, nevertheless. His evacuation was concealed by the shouting of his men and the blowing of whistles, which the Federals mistook for reinforcements. Later, the place, when in Federal possession, was assaulted, but without success, by a large Confederate force commanded by Price and Van Dorn, October 3-4, 1862. Rosecrans held the place with 20,000 Federals troops posted behind three rows of earthworks. Hamilton held the right, Davies the center and McKean the left. Price advanced from the left and Van Dorn from the right. The assault was begun by an impetuous charge by the latter general. Little was done, however, the first day. Early October 4, Price's column advanced, drawn up, like a wedge. The charge w T as a daring one, but the Confederates were driven back and literally cut to pieces. The Texau and Mississippi troops under Rogers fared as badly, their charge ending the assault. They fled in great disorder and were pursued for some distance by an Ohio regiment. Cornell, J$Zta. (1807-1874), founder of Cornell University (1868), was a member of the first Republican National Convention, was elected to the New York Assembly in 1862-63, au ^ served in the State Senate from 1864 to 1867. Cornstalk, an Indian chief who led a clever and spirited attack upon General Lewis at Point Pleasant, near the mouth of the Great Kanawha (1774). Each side lost about seventy-five killed and one hundred and forty wounded. Cornwallis, Charles, Earl, and later Marquis Cornwallis (1737-1805), served in the Seven Years' War. He took his seat in Parliament and favored the Americans during the preliminary troubles. Having been made lieutenant-general he was sent to America in 1776, fought in the battle of Long Island, and pursued Washington's army 1 84 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. through New Jersey. He was defeated at Princeton, decided the victory of Brandy wine in 1777, and served at German town and Mon- mouth. Having been appointed to the command of the Southern army he overwhelmed Gates at Camden in 1780, but in his contest with Greene he was worsted, although he won a technical victory at Guil- ford Court House in 1781. Then followed his campaign in Virginia against Lafayette, the siege of his army in Yorktown, and its surrender to the Franco-American troops on October 17, 1781. He was the ablest of the British commanders in the war. As Governor-General of India, 1786-93 and 1805, he rendered valuable military and administrative services. He was also lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 1 798-1801, at the epoch of the Union. Corps, in the Civil War. First Corps organized March 13, 1862, and commanded by McDowell ; afterward reorganized and merged in the Army of the Potomac and commanded by Wadsworth, Newton and Hancock in succession ; disbanded in 1865. Second Corps organized August 12, 1862, and at first commanded by Banks ; afterward by a number of other generals ; disbanded in 1865. Third Corps organized August 12, 1862, and commanded by Heintzelman ; disbanded in 1864. Fourth Corps organized August 1, 1863, and commanded by Keyes ; afterward consolidated with the Twentieth and Twenty-first Corps ; disbanded in 1865. Fifth Corps organized July 2, 1862, and com- manded b}>- Banks ; afterward by Porter in the Army of the Potomac ; disbanded in 1865 ; many successive commanders. Sixth Corps organ- ized July 22, 1862, with Franklin in command ; disbanded in 1865. Seventh Corps organized July 22, 1862, with Naglee in command ; merged with Eighteenth Corps in 1863. Eighth Corps organized July 22, 1862, and commanded by Schenck and Lockwood ; afterward by Lew Wallace ; disbanded in 1865. Ninth Corps organized July 22, 1862, and commanded by Burnside and others in succession ; disbanded in 1865. Tenth Corps organized September 3, 1862, with Mitchell in command ; discontinued in 1864, but reorganized in 1865 and continued till the close of the war under various generals. Eleventh Corps origi- nally organized as the Second Corps ; organized as the Eleventh Sep- tember 12, 1862, and commanded by Banks ; consolidated with the Twelfth in 1864, and constituted the Twentieth ; disbanded in 1865. Twelfth Corps first organized as the Third Corps ; as Twelfth Septem- ber 12, 1862 ; afterward merged with the Eleventh to form the Twenti- eth, with Banks in command ; disbanded in 1865. Thirteenth Corps or- ganized October 24, 1862, with McClernand in command ; reorganized in 1865 and commanded by Granger. Fourteenth Corps organized October 24, 1862, and commanded by Rosecrans ; disbanded in 1865. Fifteenth AMERICAN HISTORY. 185 Corps organized December 18, 1862, and commanded by Sherman ; disbanded in 1865. Sixteenth Corps organized December 18, 1862, and commanded by Hurlbut ; disbanded in 1865. Seventeenth Corps organized December 18, 1862, with McPherson in command ; disbanded in 1865. Eighteenth Corps organized December 24, 1862, and com- manded by Foster ; reorganized in 1864, and commanded by W. F. Smith ; disbanded in 1865. Nineteenth Corps organized January 5, 1863, with Banks in command ; organization abolished in 1864, and entirely disbanded in 1865. Twentieth Corps organized January 3, 1863, and commanded by McCook ; afterward reformed from Eleventh and Twelfth in 1863 ; disbanded in 1865. Twenty-first Corps organized January 9, 1863, and commanded by Crittenden ; consolidated with "the original Twentieth in 1863 to form the Fourth. Twenty-second Corps organized February 2, 1863, with Heintzelman in command ; disbanded in a few months. Twenty-third Corps organized April 27, 1863, with Hartsuff in command ; disbanded in 1865. Twenty-fourth Corps or- ganized December 3, 1864, and commanded by Ord ; disbanded in 1865. Twenty-fifth Corps organized December 3, 1864, of colored troops, and commanded by Weitzel and Heckman ; disbanded in 1866. Potomac Cavalry Corps organized April 15, 1863, and commanded by Stoneman and afterward by Sheridan. Wilson's Cavalry Corps not organized under Act of Congress, as the others were. Engineer and Signal Service Corps organized in 1864. Corrigan, M. A., Archbishop, see appendix, page 480. Cortereal, Gaspar, born in Lisbon, died in 1501. He received a license from the King of Portugal to make a voyage of discovery in 1500. He is reported to have visited a country far to the North, which was probably Greenland. He made a second voyage with three ships in 1501, during which he sailed for six or seven hundred miles along the coast of America. His vessel was never heard from. Cortex, Hernando, born 1485 at Medellin, Spain, educated for the law, but adopted the profession of arms and distinguished himself under Velasquez in a cruel expedition against Cuba. In 15 18 he was intrusted with command of 700 men and 10 fieldpieces to subjugate the Empire of Mexico, a hazardous enterprise which he accomplished after incred- ible hardships and a campaign that lasted more than three years. Notwithstanding his valor and conquests, jealousies at the court caused him to be coldly received upon his return to Spain in 1540, and he died in Seville, 1547, in povery and neglect. Corwin, Thomas (1794-1865), statesman, was a member of the Ohio Legislature 1822-1829, and of the U. S. House of Representatives in 1831, where he represented the Whig party until 1840, when he was 1 86 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. elected Governor of Ohio. He was elected to the U. S. Senate 1844- 1850 and to Congress in 1858 and i860. He was appointed Minister to Mexico by President Lincoln, serving from 1861 to 1864. Cotton. The cotton plant began to be cultivated in Virginia in the times of the earliest colonists. Small patches were grown, and the lint, picked from the seed by hand, was woven into cloth for domestic use. The development of cotton manufacture was gradual, and it was not until 1750, when the fly shuttle was invented, that the industry be- came extensive through the Southern States of the Union. The spin- ning jenny was invented in England in 1767 and immediately brought into use in this country. In 1769 Arkwright patented a spinning frame, or " throstle," in which was a useful device for spinning with rollers. Arkwright adapted to this machine the principle now known as the ' ' flyer. ' ' Samuel Crompton combined the principles of the fly shuttle and the " throstle " in 1779, and Cartwright invented the power loom in 1785. The first steam engine used in a power mill was set up in 1785, thus supplying the mechanical power so long needed. Eli Whitney's cotton gin, invented in 1792, brought about an enormous increase in the cotton industry. The first successful cotton factory in the United States was that of Samuel Slater, of Pawtucket, R. I., established in 1790. In 1810 the whole consumption of cotton in this country was 10,000 bales ; in 1815 it had reached 90,000. The total product in 1890 was 14,188,103 bales, with a capital of $354,000,000 employed in the industry. Cotton Gin, invented by Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts, in 1792. With this machine the preparation of cotton for market was enormously facilitated and the cotton industry increased proportionately. The price of slaves immediately rose and the faint glimmerings of emancipation sentiment in the South were quickly extinguished, slave labor being invaluable in the cultivation of cotton. Cotton lyoans, loans negotiated by the Confederate Government. It induced the planters to promise that, when their cotton was sold, certain sums or a certain proportion of the crop should be paid to the government for the management of the war. In return, and on this basis, the government issued eight per cent, bonds. The loan proved worthless to subscribers. " Cotton Whigs," a name given in the decade preceding the Civil War to those Whigs in the North who were willing, for the sake of conciliating the Southern Whigs, to make as little opposition as possible to the extension of slavery. AMERICAN HISTORY. 187 Couch, Darius N., general, born in South East, N. Y., in 1822. He was graduated at the U. S. Military Academy, and served against the Seminoles in 1849-50. During the Civil War he served as colonel and brigadier-general, and commanded the Second Army Corps at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. He was quartermaster-general of Connecticut in 1877-78 and adjutant-general in 1883-84. Died 1897. Council. Under the colonial governments, the council, legislative council, or executive council was a body partaking of the nature and functions of an Upper House of the Legislature, and of a privy council. The name was retained for the Upper House of the Legislature by Dela- ware until 1792, by Georgia until 1798, by South Carolina until 1790 and by Vermont until 1836. In later days this name has also been applied to the Upper House of the Territorial Legislatures. In a few States the Governor has an executive council. Count of Presidential Votes. The two Houses meet in the House of Representatives. The votes are opened by the president of the Senate and handed to tellers, who count the votes and announce the result. In 1876 double returns were received from certain States. In 1877 an act was passed applicable to that election only, that no vote should be rejected except by concurrent vote of both Houses, and that disputes should be decided by a special Electoral Commission. In 1887 an act was passed providing that the determination by the States, under State laws, of all contests as to the appointment of electors, shall be final, so far as is possible. County. In England the county was the primary subdivision of the kingdom. In the sparsely settled Southern colonies it was natural that the county institutions of England should be kept in existence rather than those of the smaller areas. Here, therefore, county government prevailed. In 1634 eight shires were erected in Virginia ; called counties in 1639 ; in 1680 there were twenty. In Maryland the term county first appears in 1638. In South Carolina the original subdivision of the colony was the parish, to which afterward was added the district. Except for the years 1 786-1 790, the county did not come into existence until 1868. These Southern counties had institutions and officers re- sembling those of English counties — lieutenants, sheriffs, justices and quarter sessions. In Massachusetts counties were first incorporated in 1643 \ Dut tne life °f local government was mainly in the towns. In Rhode Island no counties were erected until 1703. In the Middle colo- nies the county came into existence with the beginnings of English rule or soon after. 1 88 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Court, General, the proper title of the Legislature of Massa chusetts. Its origin is from the Massachusetts Company. In the seven, teenth century the general stockholders' meeting of the corporation was called its general court. Hence the primary assembly of the free- men of the Massachusetts Company was from the first called the general court, and the name remained when the assembly became representative. Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture, a tribunal which constituted the main portion of the Federal judiciary before 1789. General Washington made the first suggestion of a Federal prize court, to hear appeals from State courts in cases of capture of prizes. From 1776 to 1780 Congress heard appeals by means of committees. The complications arising out of the case of the sloop " Active," which em- broiled the Federal Government with Pennsylvania and showed the weakness of the former, led to the establishment of a permanent Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture, in 1780. The court held sittings from that time to 1787, and consisted of three judges. The court and the committees which preceded it took cognizance of 118 cases. It was a precursor of the U. S. Supreme Court. Court of Claims. This court, founded in 1855, hears claims against the government on any regulation of an executive department or on any contract, express or implied, with the government of the United States. Before the establishment of this court, those having just claims against the government had no remedy but to petition Congress. The court at first reported its proceedings to Congress, and that body acted upon the reports. Since 1863 report to Congress has not been required. Covode Investigation, an action taken by the Thirty-sixth Congress during President Buchanan's administration in inquiring into certain charges made by two Anti-Lecompton Democrats of the House, who alleged that the administration had endeavored to influence them corruptly to vote for the Lecompton Bill. A committee of five investi- gated the charges, the Republican majority sustaining them, and the Democratic minority exonerating the President. No action was taken. Cowboys, the name given to British camp-followers and marauders who infested the neutral ground between the two armies in New York State during the Revolution. They were constantly skirmishing with the " Skinners," the Continental marauders. Cowpens, Battle of the, January 17, 1781. When Cornwallis marched into North Carolina he sent Tarleton with 1,100 men against Morgan. On Tarleton's approach Morgan took his position at the AMERICAN HISTORY. 189 Cowpens upon the slope of a hill. His militia was in front, his regulars on higher ground, and at the top of the slope Colonel Washington with the cavalry. As the British advanced Pickens' militia delivered a num- ber of deadly volleys and retired behind the lines. The regulars then met the enemy with a murderous fire, followed by a bayonet charge. At the same time the American cavalry struck their right flank and the militia formed again behind the lines on the left. The rout was complete. The British loss was 230 killed and wounded and 600 taken prisoners, a number equal to the whole American force engaged. In point of tactics this was one of the most brilliant battles of the war. Cox, Jacob D., born in 1828, during the Civil War was promoted to be major-general and commanded at the battle of Kingston, N. C. He was Secretary of the Interior 1869-1870, and Representative in Congress 1877-1879. Cox, Samuel S. (1824-1889), was editor of the Columbus, Ohio, Statesman, in which he published the gorgeous article which gave him the sobriquet of " Sunset " Cox. In 1855 he was Secretary of Legation to Peru, and 1885-86 Minister to Turkey. He spent twenty years in Congress, beginning in 1857, and was an effective .speaker, lecturer and writer. Coxe, Tench (1756-1824), successively a Royalist, Whig, Federalist and Republican, was a commissioner to the Annapolis Convention in 1786, member of the Continental Congress in 1788 and Assistant Secre- tary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1792. Craft Case, an important fugitive slave case. In 1848 William Craft and his wife Ellen, who was nearly white, fled from Macon, Ga. Pollen impersonated a Southern lady, carried her right arm in a sling that she might not be expected to write, bandaged her face and wore green goggles. William accompanied her as her servant. The couple at length reached Boston, and here engaged the attention of Theodore Parker. After the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 their identity was discovered and they M^ere finally obliged to leave the city. They reached England, where the remainder of their days were spent in peace. Craney Island (Chesapeake Bay) commanded the approach to Norfolk. 1,500 troops were sent on June 3, 1813, from the British fleet under Admiral Warren to capture the island, which was defended by 737 men directed by General Robert B. Taylor. The American artiller)' opened upon them with terrible effect. Five of the transport barges were sunk and the rest retreated. The British loss was eighty-one, the i 9 o ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Americans lost none. This defeat frustrated all hope of capturing Norfolk. Crawford, George W., born in 1798, was Attorney-General of Georgia from 1827 to 1831. He was a Whig member of Congress in 1843. He was Governor of Georgia from 1843 to J 845. He was Secre- tary of War in Taylor's Cabinet from 1849 to 1850. Crawford, William (1 732-1 782), participated in Braddock's ex- pedition against Fort Duquesne, fought at Long Island, Trenton and Princeton during the Revolutionary War, and was captured and put to death in an expedition against the Wyandot and Delaware Indians. Crawford, William Harris (1772-1834), served in the Georgia Legislature and obtained distinction as a lawyer. He was a member of the U. S. Senate in 1807-13, being president pro tern, for a part of the time. His career in this office, followed by his ministry to France in 1813-15, and his long service as Secretary of War, 1815-16, and of the Treasury, 1816-25, brought him prominently forward as a candidate for Monroe's successor in the Presidency. He was one of the four candi- dates voted for in the famous election of 1824, receiving forty-one electoral votes, and with Adams and Jackson he was, after that indecisive contest, brought before the House of Representatives, and like Jackson he went down before the Adams and Clay forces. He left the reputation less of a statesman than of a political manipulator. Crasjy Horse, an Indian chief of the Sioux nation, brother-in-law of Red Cloud. With Sitting Bull he destroyed General Custer's com- mand on the Little Big Horn in 1876, but surrendered to General Crook in 1877. Credit Mobilier, a corporation chartered by the Pennsylvania Legislature as the " Pennsylvania Fiscal Agency," which in 1864 be- came a company to construct the Union Pacific Railroad. In the Presidential campaign of 1872 the Democratic leaders charged the Vice- President, the Vice-President elect, the Secretary of the Treasury, Speaker of the House and other prominent men with accepting Credit Mobilier stocks in return for political influence. An investigation which followed resulted in the censure of Representatives Oakes, Ames and James Brooks. Creek Indians originally lived on the Flint, Chattahoochee, Coosa and Alabama Rivers, and in the peninsula of Florida. It was not until the overthrow of the French power that they came completely under English influence. During the Revolution the Creeks joined the Brit- AMERICAN HISTORY. 191 ish, assisting in an attack on Wayne's army in 1782. In 1790 they made a friendly treaty, but renewed hostilities in 1792. Another treaty was made in 1796, and in 1802 and 1805 they began to cede lands. Joining the English in the War of 1812, they attacked Fort Mimms, August 30, 1813, and massacred 400 people. They suffered repeated defeats, and were completely overthrown by General Jackson at Horseshoe Bend, March 27, 1814. A treaty of peace followed in which they surrendered large tracts of land. Early in the century a part removed to Louisiana and later to Texas. A treaty was made in 1825 ceding more lands, but was repudiated. The nation then divided, one party favoring emigration, the other opposing it. In 1836 a part aided the Government against the Seminoles, but the remainder attacked the frontier towns of Georgia and Alabama. General Scott reduced them, and the tribe was removed to a reservation between the Arkansas and the Canadian. The Civil War divided the tribe, those adhering to the Union being finally defeated by the Confederates. In 1866 the Creeks ceded a large tract to the Government. "Creole" Case. On November 7, 1841, seventeen negroes rose against the officers of the brig " Creole," bound from Hampton Roads to New Orleans with a cargo of slaves. One of the vessel's owners was killed, and the vessel was captured and run into Nassau. Here all were set at liberty except those charged with murder. The demand for their surrender, made by the administration, was refused by Great Britain, but the matter was finally adjusted by the treaty of August 9, 1842. During the progress of negotiations J. R. Giddings, of Ohio, offered a series of resolutions which laid down the fundamental positions of the anti -slavery party. Creswell, Jolm A. J. (1828-1891), was a member of Congress from 1863 to 1865. He was Postmaster-General of the United States from 1869 to 1874. Crisp, Charles Frederick, of Americus, Ga., was born in Shef- field, England, in 1845. He served in the Confederate army from 1861 to 1864. In 1866 he was admitted to the bar, and from 1872 to 1877 was Solicitor-General of Georgia. He served as Judge of the Supreme Court of Georgia from 1877 to 1882, when he resigned and accepted a nomina- tion to Congress, of which he was chosen Speaker in 1891 and again in 1893. Died 1896. Crittenden, George C. (1812-1880), son of J. J., a major and lieu- tenant-colonel in the Texan Revolution, joined the Confederates as i 9 2 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. brigadier-general, and as major-general was defeated in a rash attack upon General Thomas at Fishing Creek. Crittenden, John Jordan (1787-1863), was in early life a lawyer, Attorney-General of Illinois Territory, and a soldier in the War of 1812. Few Americans have been U. S. Senators at such different periods. Crittenden was in the Senate from Kentucky in 1817-19, and again in 1835-41, 1842-49, and 1855-61. In the intervals he was a U. S. District Attorney, was Attorney-General under Harrison in 1841, and again un- der Fillmore in 1850-53. He was a prominent Whig. He supported Bell and Everett in i860, and after the election he came forward with the " Crittenden Compromise" in the vain attempt to avert the impend- ing war. He sided with the North, and in 1861-63 was a member of the House of Representatives from Kentucky. Crittenden, Thomas !•., son of J. J., born in 1815, a lieutenant and aide to General Taylor in the Mexican War, was Consul to Liver- pool 1849-53 and served with distinction in the Civil War, commanding a division at Shiloh and a corps at Chickamauga. Crittenden Compromise. In i860 Senator John J. Crittenden in- troduced a proposition for a constitutional amendment which would permanently divide the Union into a free-state and a slave-state portion, the boundary being the line of 36 30'. The United States was to pay the owner for any fugitive slave rescued. The proposition met with no success in Congress. Crockett, David (1786-1836), a famous frontiersman, with Gen- eral Jackson in the Creek War, was a member of Congress from 1827 to 1831 and from 1833 to 1835. He was one of the last six survivors at Fort Alamo who were massacred by Santa Anna. Croghan, George, born in Louisville 1791, son of a continental offi- cer, entered the army in 18 n and participated in the battle of Tippe- canoe in that year. Distinguished himself in a sortie from Fort Meigs, for which he was appointed aide-de-camp with rank of major, and as- signed to the defense of Fort Stephenson. Fearing that Croghan would be crushed by Tecumseh's Indians and the British, Harrison ordered him to burn the Fort and retreat, but he protested against the order and obtained permission to defend the place. W T hen, therefore, on August 1, 1813, the English commander summoned Croghan to surrender, he received a defiant reply. An attack was made by an overwhelming number from four sides, which Croghan bravely met with his little band, killing one-fifth of the enemy's force, and winning one of the AMERICAN HISTORY. 193 greatest victories, considering the number of men engaged, in the annals of history. Croker, Richard, born in 1843, in Ireland. He became leader of Tammany in 1885, and has since been a great force in New York City and State politics. Crompton, William, born in 1806, devised a loom for the manu- facture of fancy cotton goods in 1837, which, since its adaptation to woolens in 1840, has been employed almost exclusively. Crompton's Gap, Va., was the scene of a stubborn four hours' fight between the forces of General McClellan and Howell Cobb, September 14, 1862, in which the losses on both sides were severe, and neither gained any marked advantage. Cromwell, Oliver (1599-1658), Lord Protector of England from 1653 to l6 5 8 , was appointed in 1643 one of a board of commissioners for the general management of all the English colonies in America. After his elevation he proposed to the colonists of Massachusetts that they move to Jamaica, then recently conquered (1656). During the war be- tween England and Holland he sent at the solicitation of Connecticut a fleet with a land force on board for protection against the Dutch settlers, and to take summary possession of New Netherland ; but the war soon ended. Crook, George (1828-1890), commanded the Pitt River expedition in 1857, and during service in the Civil War was brevetted lieutenant- colonel and commanded the second cavalry division at Chickamauga. He had charge of the cavalry of the Army of the Potomac from March 26, 1865, till the surrender at Appomattox, and from 1866 on was chiefly occupied in quelling Indian disturbances. In 1888 he was appointed a major-general of the U. S. army. Cross Keys, Va., an indecisive action, June 8, 1862, between 12,- 750 Federals under Frdmont and Ewell's column of Jackson's army of 17,000 Confederates. Ewell was reinforced by Taylor and Patton lead- ing a Louisiana and a Virginia brigade. Fremont's line of battle, a mile and a half long, was advantageously arranged. The Federals be- gan the battle, advancing steadily under a heavy fire, Stahl's Pennsyl- vania troops faring the worst. He was, however, supported by Bohlen, Schenk and Milroy, and thus was not compelled to retreat. Taking a strong position on a hill, he was repeatedly cannonaded by the Confed- erates, but they were easily driven off by his superior batteries. Crown Lands. After the treaty of Paris, in 1763, a royal proclama- Vol. V.— 13 i 9 4 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. tfon from Great Britain set aside all lands west of the colonies as " crown lands," exclusively under the jurisdiction of the home govern- ment, and as reserved for the use of the Indians. The colonists were forbidden to make purchase of, or settlement in, any of this reserved territory without the Royal permission. After the Revolution this re- serve was claimed by various States. Crown Point, was fortified by the French in 1731, and, in spite of expeditions against it in 1755 and 1756, was held by them until 1759. It was then abandoned by reason of the fall of Ticonderoga. In 1775 at the beginning of the Revolutionary War, as a part of the scheme to seize the route to Canada, and capture the British stores at Ticonderoga {q. v.) and Crown Point, Seth Warner was dispatched against the latter place. On the morning of May 10, while Arnold and Allen were busy at Ticonderoga, Warner seized Crown Point, thus gaining possession of more than 200 cannon, and a great supply of powder and ball. Orowninshield, Benjamin W. (1772-1851), of Massachusetts, was Secretary of the Navy from 1814, in Madison's, until 1818 in Monroe's Cabinet, was a Presidential elector in 1820, and a Democratic member of Congress from 1823 to 183 1. Cuba. In 1849-52 three filibustering expeditions were made against Cuba from this country. They were incited by Narcisso Lopez, a South American military adventurer, who persuaded Governor Quitman and other Southern expansionists that the island was ripe for revolt from Spain and annexation to the United States. These expeditions failed and Lopez was executed by the Cuban authorities. Again, in 1854, Southern annexationists attempted to fit out an expedition for the cap- ture of Cuba, but were prevented by a timely warning from the Presi- dent. In that year an American steamer, the " Black Warrior, ' ' was seized by the Cuban authorities. Indemnity was demanded from Spain, which was accorded finally, but not before the Ostend Manifesto had been issued by a conference of our ministers to the English, French and Spanish courts, demanding the sale of Cuba by Spain. The " Vir- ginius" affair (which see) occurred in 1873, during one of the at- tempts of Americans to assist revolting Cubans. In 1891 the United States made a reciprocity treaty with Spain respecting trade with Cuba and Porto Rico. Spanish -American War, 1898 (which see), was begun in behalf of Cubans in revolt since 1895. Matanzas batteries bombarded, April 27, 1898. June 24, battle Siboney. July 1, El Caney taken. July 1 to 17, battles of Santiago. August 14, Captain- General Blanco received orders to suspend hostilities. January 1, 1899, ■— \ AMERICAN HISTORY. 195 military occupation by American forces. The population, by enumera- tion, January 1, 1900, was 1,572,840. Cullom, Shelby M., born in 1829, chosen Speaker of the Illinois Legislature in i860, was a member of the war commission at Cairo in 1862 and a member of Congress from 1865 to 1871. As chairman of the Illinois delegation at the Republican convention he placed General Grant in nomination in 1872 and General Logan in 1884 ; and from 1883 to 1897 was U. S. Senator. Culpeper, John, leader of an insurrection in the Northern colony of the Carolinas in favor of popular liberty in 1678. While in England negotiating for the new government he was indicted for high treason, but was acquitted. Cumberland Church, Va. It was at this place the Confederates won their last victory in the Civil War, April 7, 1865, when General "Tiger" Anderson's brigade struck the flank of a brigade of the Army of the Potomac and captured it after hours of severe fighting, in which the losses on both sides were great. On the second day following the flags were furled at Appomattox. Cumberland, Port. This fort was erected in Maryland at the instance of General Braddock in 1755 during his fatal expedition against the French Fort Duquesne. Colonel James limes was left in command with a small force and thither Braddock 's forces fled after their defeat by the French and Indians. Colonel Washington afterward com- manded the fort, to protect the settlers from Indian raids. — In 1755, Fort Beausejour on the Maine frontier, which had been built by the French in 1754, was captured by English troops and the name changed to Fort Cumberland. Cumberland Gap, Tenn., captured by the Nationals under Morgan during the battle of Chattanooga and afterward abandoned. It was occupied by the Confederates in 1863, and from it General Frazier commanding 2,000 men was dislodged by 8,000 Federals under Burn- side. Frazier resisted for four days, but his provisions gave out and Burnside was reinforced by Shackleford's brigade. Frazier surren- dered September 9. Cumberland Presbyterian Church. This denomination was a development of the " Great Western Revival of 1800." The Presbytery in Kentucky appointed lay preachers, who were said to be illiterate and unsound in doctrine. The suspension of these by the synod resulted in a schism in 181 1 and the formation of the above named sect. In the 196 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. main it is an attempt to steer between the Calvinism of the Presbyterians and the Arminianism of the Methodists. They now number over 165,000 members, largely confined to the South. Currency Bill. For several years the most vital question dividing the Democratic and Republican parties was that which concerned the currency. The former demanded the remonetization-of silver at a parity of 16 to 1, and the latter denouncing such a scheme as an approach to repudiation. After the election of McKinley, proposal was directly made not only to reform the currency, but to adopt the gold 'standard, which was finally consummated February 15, 1900, by Senate action in adopt- ing, by a vote of 46 to 29, a bill which provides as follows : The dollar of 2 5t% grains of gold, nine-tenths fine, shall be the standard unit of value, and all forms of United States money shall be maintained at a parity with it ; and Treasury notes and greenbacks shall be redeemable in gold. The Secretary of the Treasury is to set apart a fund of $150,000,000 in gold for the redemption of these notes, and, to maintain this fund at a figure not below $100,000,000, he is empowered.to sell bonds of the United States bearing interest at not exceeding three per cent. It also made the duty of the Secretary of the Treasury, as fast as standard silver dollars are coined, to retire an equal amount of Treasury notes, and to issue silver certificates against the silver so coined. Under certain pro- visions, too, gold certificates shall be issued against the gold held in the Treasury. No United States notes nor Treasury notes shall be issued in denominations of less than ten dollars, and no silver certificates in denominations of more than ten dollars. The Secretary of the Treasury is also authorized to refund the bonded debt of the United States in thirty-year bonds, bearing two per cent, interest, the principal and in- terest of these bonds to be paid in gold. The two per cent, bonds shall be issued at not less than par. Any national bank, by depositing with the United States bonds of this country, shall be permitted to issue cir- culating notes to the face value of the bonds deposited, no bank being allowed to issue circulating notes in excess of the amount of the paid-in capital of the bank. Curry, J. I,. M., see appendix, page 481. Curtiil, Andrew G., born in Pennsylvania in 1815, a Presidential elector in 1848, and Governor of Pennsylvania from 1861 to 1865. He was one of the " war Governors " who supported the National Govern- ment, and furnished 25,000 men known as the " Pennsylvania Reserve." He was appointed Minister to Russia in 1869 and was elected to Con- gress by the Democratic party, serving from 1881 to 1887. Died 1894. Curtis, Benjamin R. (1809-1874), appointed to the U. S. Supreme Court in 1851 by President Fillmore, dissented in the Dred Scott cas- AMERICAN HISTORY. 197 and resigned in 1857. He was one of the counsel for President Johnson in the impeachment trial of 1868. Curtis, George Ticktior (1812-1894), a Boston lawyer from 1836 to 1862, when he removed to New York, was largely engaged in pro- fessional and historical investigations, and published many valuable works, among them being ' ' Commentaries on the Jurisprudence, Prac- tice and Peculiar Jurisdiction of the Courts of the United States " and a "History of the Origin, Formation and Adoption of the Constitution of the United States," and the first volume of a " Constitutional History of the United States." Curtis, George William (1824-1892), was in early life a member of the famous Brook Farm community, a European traveling corre- spondent of the New York Tribune, and an editor of Putnam's Monthly. ,His later reputation rests on four forms of achievement : as an eloquent and cultured lyceum lecturer and platform orator ; as the author of several books, including "Nile Notes," "Lotus Eating," " Prue and I," "Trumps," " Potiphar Papers," etc. ; as an editor of Harper's Weekly and the writer of " Easy Chair" of Harper's Magazine, and as a politician. He was a noted delegate in the Republican National Conventions of i860, 1880 and 1884. He was identified with civil serv- ice reform from the start, and was by President Grant appointed in 1871 a commissioner for the purpose of drawing up rules. The National Civil Service Reform League was largely his work. Curtis, Samuel R. (1S07-1866), an Ohio lawyer from 1841 to 1846, became adjutant-general of militia in 1846, and in the Mexican War commanded at Camarago against General Urrea. Pie was a Congress- man from Iowa from 1857 to 1861, when he was commissioned brigadier- general and gained a great victory at Pea Ridge, Ark. He commanded Fort Leavenworth during the Price raid in 1864, and was U. S. Commis- sioner to negotiate Indian treaties. Cushingf, Caleb (1800-1879), graduated at Harvard and rose to eminence at the Massachusetts bar. He was a Representative from Massachusetts in Congress in 1835-43, having been a Whig and, from Tyler's time, a Democrat. He was a U. S. Commissioner to China, a brigadier-general in the Mexican War, and an unsuccessful candidate for Governor of Massachusetts. In 1853-57 he was a member of Pierce's Cabinet as Attorney-General. In i860 he presided over the Democratic National Convention which met at Charleston. His high reputation as a lawyer led to his appointment as U. S. counsel before the Geneva Tribunal of 1872, and to his nomination by Grant as Chief Justice of x 9 S ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. the Supreme Court. He failed of confirmation to the latter office, and was sent as U. S. Minister to Spain in 1874, where he remained until 1877. Cusliing, Frank H., born in 1857, was chosen curator of the Eth- nological Department of the National Museum in 1876, and from 1879 to 1884 lived among the Zufii Indians, studying their language, habits and history, the results of which he has published. Cusliing, I^uther S. (1803-1856), from 1832 to 1846 clerk of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, was reporter of the Massachu- setts Supreme Court decisions from 1850 to 1856. He was author of " Cushing's Manual of Parliamentary Practice." Cusliing, William (1732-1810), Judge of the Massachusetts Superior Court in 1772, Chief Justice in 1777 and the first Chief Justice under the State Constitution in 1780, was Associate Justice of the U. S. Su- preme Coi;rt from 1789 to 1810. dishing", William B. (1842-1874), in 1861 captured the first prize of the war, and in 1864 by extraordinary boldness destroyed the Confed- erate ironclad "Albemarle." He was promoted lieutenant-colonel and distinguished himself at Fort Fisher. Cusliman, Charlotte S. (1816-1876), a noted American actress, was born in Boston. She was a very successful actress in historical plays, and from 1870 developed marked abilities as a dramatic reader. Custer, George Armstrong (1839-1876), born in Ohio, served throughout the Civil War and distinguished himself at Gettysburg as commander of the Michigan brigade, also winning fame at Winchester, Fisher's Hill, Cedar Creek, Waynesboro, Five Forks and Dinwiddie Court House. In 1876, being then a general in the regular army, he was overwhelmed by the Sioux Indians at the Little Big Horn River, and his entire command was slain. Custer Massacre. On June 26, 1876, General George A. Custer, with 200 regular soldiers, was sent in quest of a band of Sioux Indians that had broken away from their Dakota reservation and were commit- ting many depredations. Custer came suddenly upon the Indians, 2,500 strong, commanded by Sitting Bull, in the valley of the Little Big Horn, and having no chance to escape, a desperate battle ensued, in which Custer and all of his brave soldiers were slaughtered, not one escaping. A monument has been erected upon the site of this great tragedy. AMERICAN HISTORY. 199 Customs Revenue. The Continental Congress desire to have a revenue from customs, but the States would not all agree to this. From 1789 on, a great part of the revenue of the Government has been de- rived from this source, about five-sixths from 1789 to 1830, except in war-time, sometimes more than nine-tenths in the period from 1837 to 1861, and from one-half to three-fifths in the period since 1868. At first amounting to about $3,000,000 per annum, customs have of recent years averaged about $200,000,000. Cynthiana, Xy., burned during the Civil War by the Confederate guerrilla Morgan, June 10, 1864. Morgan also, with 2,000 Confederates, defeated 600 Federals under Burbridge and Hobson, but was, June 12, defeated in return by a superior force at Cynthiana. D. Dabney's Mills, Va. Here, during Grant's and Lee's campaigns about Richmond and Petersburg, in 1865, there occurred, February 6 and 7, some severe skirmishing between Crawford's division of Warren's Federal corps and a Confederate force under Pegram. The Federal leaders were endeavoring to lengthen their line toward Hatcher's Run when Pegram fell upon them. The Confederates were defeated and Pegram was killed. Dabney, R. I,., see appendix, page 481. Dacres, James R. (1788-1853), British naval officer, commanded the " Guerriere " when it was beaten by the " Constitution," August 19, 181 2. Later, commanding the "Tiber," he captured the "Leo" in March, 1815. Dade, Francis I*., born in Virginia, a lieutenant, captain and, in 1828, a brevet-major in the U. S. army, was killed in a treacherous attack of the Seminole Indians, in 1835, near Fort King, Florida. Dahlgren, John Adolph (1809- 1870), entered the U. S. navy at an early age. He became noted as the designer of the improved Dahlgren cannon. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was assigned to the com- mand of the Navy Yard at Washington. He was naturally made chief of the ordnance bureau, was promoted to be rear-admiral, and com- manded in the attack on the Charleston defenses in 1863. His last im- portant service was in co-operation with General Sherman, in the taking of Savannah, in 1864. Dahlgren, Ulrie, son of Rear-Admiral Dahlgren, born in 1842, 200 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Took a course in civil engineering and the law, but entered the Union army in 1862 and took charge of a naval battery on Maryland Heights. He was General Siegel's chief of artillery at the second battle of Bull Run. He lost a leg at Hagerstown, Md., July, 1863, and was killed in a raid of his own planning to relieve the Union prisoners in Richmond, 1864. Daiquiri, a landing-place on the coast of Cuba, twenty miles from Santiago, where General Shafter, with twenty transports, debarked a force of 16,000 men June 22 and 23, 1898, to begin operations against Santiago. Daiquiri was shelled by a convoy of American war-ships and the enemy driven back into the country. The landing was accomplished without a single loss. Dale, Richard (1756-1826), was first lieutenant on the "Bon Homme Richard," and served with Paul Jones on the " Alliance" and the ' ' Ariel. ' ' He commanded the Mediterranean Squadron during the troubles with Tripoli. Dale, Samuel (1 772-1841), a U. S. army scout in 1793, commanded a battalion against the Creeks in 1814. He was appointed with Colonel George S. Gaines to remove the Choctaw Indians to their reservation on the Arkansas and Red Rivers. Dallas, Alexander James (1759-1817), born in Jamaica, took the oath of allegiance to Pennsylvania in 1783, and was U. S. District At- torney from 1801 to 1814, when he became Secretary of the Treasury in Madison's Cabinet. On his suggestion the Second National Bank was incorporated in 1816, and to his efforts is largly due the financial success of the U. S. Government from 1814 to 1817. Dallas, George Mifflin (1 792-1864), Vice-President of the United States, had a training in diplomacy and law, was mayor of Philadelphia, and district attorney. From 1831 to 1833 he was U. S. Senator from Pennsylvania, and was Attorney-General of the State in the two suc- ceeding years. In 1837-39 he was U. S. Minister to Russia. When Polk was nominated by the Democrats in 1844, Dallas received the second honor, as a kind of protectionist gift to hold Pennsylvania. They were elected, and Dallas served as Vice-President 1845-49. I 11 spite of his supposed protectionist leanings Dallas gave the casting vote in the Senate in favor of the Walker Tariff of 1846. His last public office was that of Minister to England in 1856-61. Dallas (Vicinity), Ga., a four days' fight between Johnston's and Sherman's armies, during the latter's advance upon Atlanta in 1864. AMERICAN HISTORY. 201 The fighting took place May 25 to 29. The Confederates, about 40,000 strong, were under the immediate command of Hardee, and lay en- trenched about Dallas. McPherson attacked them with 20,000 Federals. Schofield was ordered to flank the Confederate right, but as he made this attempt Johnston himself struck heavily upon Mcpherson's main command. However, the Federals moved to the left along the Con- federate front and gained the Allatoona Pass. Johnston was thus forced to leave his intrenchments and retire, May 29. Dalton, Ga., is now a railroad terminus and has a large grain trade. A year before the close of the Civil War it was an important strategical position, and for a while, during Sherman's operations around At- lanta, was the headquarters of the Confederate army. Dana, Charles A. (1819-1897), from 1848 to 1862 managing editor of the New York Tribune \ edited by Horace Greeley ; was appointed Assistant Secretary of War in 1863, and in 1867-1868 organized and be- came editor of the New York Sun. Dana, Francis (1743-1811), a Massachusetts delegate to the Con- tinental Congress in 1776, was Congressman in 1778 and secretary to the embassy of John Adams in 1779. He was Minister to Russia from 1780 to 1783. In 1785 he was made Justice of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, and was a delegate to the Annapolis Convention in 1786, and Chief Justice of Massachusetts from 1791 to 1806. Daniel, John "W., Senator and orator, born in Virginia in 1842, a Confederate adjutant-general, was Representative from Virginia from 1885 to 1887, and Senator from 1887 to the present time (1900). Danites, a secret organization among the Mormons who were called also the " Destroying Angels." Many crimes were reputed to them in Utah, chiefly of murdering apostates and enemies of the Mormon Church. They have also been charged with inspiring or perpetrating the Mountain Meadow Massacre. Daniel, William, of Maryland, was born in 1826. He was promi- nent in Maryland prohibition movements, a delegate to the State con- vention for the emancipation of slaves in 1864, and a candidate for Vice-President on the Prohibition ticket in 1884. Died 1897. Darbytown Road, Va. Along this highway there occurred, during the campaign around Richmond and Petersburg, three brief fights be- tween the Federals and Confederates. In the first, July 29, 1864, Hancock's corps of Grant's army, having been sent to co-operate in the mine explosion of Petersburg, met and defeated a large force of Con- 202 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. federates, Gregg's and Kautz's cavalry bearing the brunt of the fight. Again, October 7, Kautz's cavalry was defeated with heavy loss along the Darbytown road ; many Federals were killed and wounded and nine pieces of artillery were lost. October 13, Butler endeavored to drive the Confederates from some new works he was constructing along this road. The Tenth Corps took the chief part in this engagement and were badly defeated, so Butler desisted from the work. Dare, Virginia, born in 1587 at Roanoke, Va. (N. C), was the first English child born in the New World. She was the granddaughter of John White, Governor of the colony sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1587. Darien, The Scheme of, was one of the most disastrous speculations of which history gives any account. The enterprise was projected by William Paterson, founder of the Bank of England, who organized the Darien Company, in 1695, under a charter obtained by act of the Scottish Parliament sanctioned by royal authority. The object was to establish a colony on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama, and so form a commercial entrepot between the eastern and the western hemisphere. Scotland at the time had very little foreign trade, and the scheme for its enlargement proposed by Paterson met with so much favor that the com- pany was easily promoted. The English Parliament, however, actuated by jealous rivalry, opposed the scheme, and finally gave it unequivocal-con- demnation. The opposition, however, did not prevent the fitting out of five ships with 1,200 colonists, who set sail from Leith, for Panama, July 25, 1698. They reached their destination in four months and bargained with the natives for a strip of country, to which they gave the name New Caledonia, and fixed the site of what was to be the capital city, New Edinburgh, where they built a fort called New St. Andrew. Having established themselves, the colonists issued a proclamation of perfect freedom of trade and religious toleration to all who would join them. England refused to hold intercourse with the colonists, who soon fell under the deadly influence of the climate, and as supplies could not be obtained from home the colonists died so rapidly from disease and starvation that at the end of one year only thirty survived to reach home through Spanish assistance. Dartmoor Massacre, a massacre of a number of American sailors captured during the Revolution and confined in Dartmoor Prison, in Devonshire, England. It occurred April 6, 1815. In the prison were 6,000 Americans and 10,000 Frenchmen. The former becoming im- patient for their liberty, since the war was then long ended, attempted to escape. They were set upon by the guards and a number of them AMERICAN HISTORY. 203 were killed. An investigation of the matter was made and the British Government offered ample satisfaction. Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H., was founded by Congrega- tionalists, and chartered in 1769. It is famous in constitutional history for having supplied the test case as to whether the State Legislature had the power to dissolve private trusts. It originated out of a school for Indians established at Lebanon, Conn., by Rev. Eleazar Wheelock. His son, John Wheelock, succeeded him in the presidency. Daniel Webster was graduated here in 1802. The Medical School was founded in 1797, the Chandler Scientific School in 1852, the New Hampshire College of Agriculture in 1868. Daughters of the American Revolution, a society of the female descendants of distinguished soldiers, sailors and patriots of the Revo- lution, organized at Washington October 11, 1890. There are now twenty-odd State branches. David, William R. (1756-1820), born in England, arived in Amer- ica in 1763. He commanded at Stony Ferry in 1779, and in 1781 was appointed commissary-general of the Southern army. He was a mem- ber of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 from North Carolina, and of the special embassy to France in 1799. He was prominent among the North Carolina Federalists. Davie, Wm, R., see appendix, page 481. Daviess, Joseph H. (1774-1811), was killed at Tippecanoe. While U. S. Attorney for Kentucky he advocated the trial of Aaron Burr in 1806 on a charge of unauthorized warfare which could not be sustained and brought him into disfavor. Davis, Charles H. (1807-1877), founder of the American Nautical Almanac, was connected with the U. S. navy from 1823 to 1867. In 1862 he was chief of the board of navigation, and commanded the Mis- sissippi flotilla, and was superintendent of the naval observatory from 1865 to 1867 and from 1870 to 1877. Davis, Cushman A., see appendix, page 481. Davis, David (1815-1886), jurist, graduated at Kenyon College in Ohio, and settled to the practice of law at Bloomington, 111. He was a member of the Illinois Legislature, a State judge, and an intimate friend of Abraham Lincoln. He was a delegate to the Republican National Convention at Chicago in i860. President Lincoln appointed him an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, where he remained from 1862 to 1877, being in the latter j^ear a member of the Electoral Commission. His reform tendencies had, meanwhile, made him the candidate for President, in 1872, of the Labor Reform party, and brought him some 204 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. votes at the Liberal Republican Convention in the same year. In 1877- 1883 he was U. S. Senator from Illinois, and at one time president of the Senate. While in that body he was classed as an Independent, though he acted frequently with the Democrats. Davis, Henry Winter (1817-1865), was born in Maryland. He attained considerable celebrity as a lawyer, and was elected to the Con- gress of the United States as a Democrat, serving from 1855 to 1861, and decided a tie vote for Speaker, in 1859, by voting for Mr. Pennington, the Republican candidate. He was again a member of Congress from 1863 to 1865, and served as chairman of the Committee on Foreign Affairs. Though representing a slave State, he was an ardent advocate of emancipation and negro suffrage, but opposed the assumption of extraordinary powers by the executive. Davis, Jefferson (June 3, 1808 — December 6, 1889), President of the Southern Confederacy, was born in Kentucky, and graduated at West Point in 1828. He saw some service in the Black Hawk War, but re- signed from the army and became a cotton planter in Mississippi. He represented that State in Congress in 1845-46, but left Congress to take part as colonel in the Mexican War. In the storming of Monterey and the battle of Buena Vista he distinguished himself and was straightway chosen to the U. S. Senate, where he served 1847-51 and 1857-61. In 185 1 he ran unsuccessfully as the States-rights candidate for Governor of Mississippi. In President Pierce's administration Mr. Davis was the Secretary of War 1853-57. He had become one of the Southern leaders, received some votes for the Democratic nomination for President in i860, and in January, 1861, he left the U. S. Senate. He was thereupon elected provisional President of the Confederacy February 9, 1861, and was inaugurated February 18. In November of the same year he was elected President and was inaugurated February 22, 1862. From the second year of the w r ar till the close many of his acts were severely criti- cised in the South itself. Many Southerners admit that President Davis' actions, especially his interference in military matters, impaired the prospects of success. An instance in point was his removal of General J. E. Johnston from command in 1864. Early in 1865 he conducted un- successful negotiations for peace. On the second of April the successes of Grant's army obliged President Davis to leave Richmond ; he took the train for Danville, and after consultation proceeded southward and was captured by the Federals near Irwinswille, Ga., May 10, 1865. Un- til 1867 be was confined as a prisoner in Fort Monroe. He was in 1866 indicted for treason, released on bail the following year, and the trial was dropped. He passed the remainder of his life at Memphis and later AMERICAN HISTORY. 205 in Mississippi, dying in New Orleans. He was the author of " Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government," two volumes. Davis, Jefferson C. (1 828-1 879), Federal general, after serving during the Mexican War, was in Fort Sumter at the time of the bom- bardment in 1861, served with distinction at Pea Ridge and Stone River, and commanded a corps in Sherman's march through Georgia. Davis, John (1550-1605), an English navigator, in 1585, 1586 and 1587 made attempts to discover a northwest passage, penetrating as frr as the strait which bears his name. Davis, John (1 787-1854), was a National Republican Congressman from 1825 to 1834, when he became Governor of Massachusetts. From 1835 to 1840 he was a U. S. Senator, and opposed the administrations of Jackson and Van Buren. After again serving as Governor from 1840 to 1841, he was returned to the Senate from 1845 to l8 53- He opposed the Mexican War and the introduction and extension of slavery, and re- ceived the appellation of ' ' Honest John Davis. ' ' Davis, John C. Bancroft, jurist, was born in Massachusetts in 1822. From 1869 to 1871, from 1873 to I ^75, and in 1881 he was Assistant Secretary of State of the United States. In 187 1 he represented the U. S. Government in the arbitration of the "Alabama" claims at Geneva, having been secretary of the commission concluding the Treaty of Washington. From 1877 to 1881 he was a Judge of the U. S. Court of Claims, and in 1883 became reporter of the U. S. Supreme Court. Davis, John W. (1 799-1859) , was Speaker of the Indiana Legislature in 1832 and a Democratic U. S. Congressman from 1835 to 1837, 1839 to 1841 and from 1843 to 1847. He was Speaker of the House from 1845 to 1847, and U. S. Commissioner to China from 1848 to 1850. Dawes, Henry I,., born in 1816, was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention in 1853. He was a Representative from Massachusetts from 1857 to 1873, and succeeded Charles Sumner in the Senate in 1875 and served till 1893. He was for a time chairman of the Ways and Means Committee in the House, and has been prominent in legislation for the tariff and for Indian education. Day, William R., lawyer, born in Ohio in 1849. Became Assistant Secretary of State in McKinley's Cabinet in 1897, and succeeded John Sherman as Secretary of State in 1898. President of the Paris Peace Commission. In 1899 was appointed U. S. Circuit Judge. Daye, Stephen, an English printer who in 1638 brought over a font 206 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. of type and printing outfit, and in the following year set up his press at Cambridge. His first publication was an almanac for New England, issued in 1639. The next year Thomas Welde and John Eliot, two ministers of Roxbury, and Richard Mather, of Dorchester, translated the Hebrew Psalms into English verse, making a volume of three hundred pages. This was the first book printed on this side of the Atlantic. Dayton, Jonathan (1760-1824), was born in New Jersey. In 1776 he entered the Continental army, in which he held numerous commis- sions, and under Lafayette commanded at Yorktown. In 1783 he was elected to the Legislature, and was made Speaker in 1790. In 1787 he was a delegate to the convention which framed the Federal Constitution. He was elected U. S. Congressman from New Jersey, serving from 1791 to 1799, being chosen Speaker of the House from 1795 to 1799, and was a U. S. Senator from 1799 to 1805. A friend of Burr, he had a part in Burr's conspiracy of 1807. Dayton, William 1,. (1807-1864), a U. S. Senator from New Jersey from 1842 to 1 85 1, was candidate for Vice-President in 1856 on the Republican ticket, and was Attorney-General for New Jersey from 1857 to 1 86 1, when he was appointed Minister to France, where he served during the Civil War, till his death. Deane, Silas (1737-1789), born in Groton, Conn., died in Deal, England. He was a member of the Connecticut Committee of Cor- respondence, and afterward a Representative in the Continental Congress. In 1776 he was sent to France to purchase supplies for the Confederacy. Vergennes, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, referred him to Beaumarchais, a secret agent of the French Government, and with him Deane negotiated. He was accused of extravagance and dishonesty, chiefly by his colleague, Arthur Lee. Deane, Lee and Franklin nego- tiated treaties of amity and commerce with France, which were signed February 6, 1778. Deane was recalled the same year at the instigation of Lee. Congress^ refused him a hearing for some time and finally required a full statement. Returning to France for the necessary papers, he found himself unpopular there, and had to retire to Holland. He died just as he was re-embarking from England for America in 1789. Dearborn, Fort (Chicago), was evacuated August 15, 1812, by orders of General Hull ; burned next day. The Americans while retreating were attacked by hostile Indians, and two-thirds of their number massacred, including twelve children. The survivors sur- rendered on promise of safety, were taken to Fort Mackinaw, and finally were sent back to their homes. AMERICAN HISTORY. 207 Dearborn, Henry (1751-1829), a captain at Bunker Hill, distinguished himself at the battles of Stillwater, Saratoga and Monmouth. He became major-general in 1795. He was a U. S. Congressman from 1793 to 1797, and Secretary of War in Jefferson's Cabinet from 1801 to 1809. From 1822 to 1824 he was Minister to Portugal. Deatonsville, Va. Near this place the Confederate army under Ivee, while in full retreat from Petersburg, at the close of the last campaign about that city and Richmond, was struck April 6, 1864, by Crook, commanding the left of Sheridan's pursuing forces. Crook's forces were repulsed by superior numbers, but his assault enabled Custer to join him and attack Lee a little further on at Sailor's Creek. E well's forces were cut off and compelled to surrender. De Bow, James D. B. (1820-1867), of South Carolina, statistician, a voluminous writer of magazine articles upon economics and finance, was appointed Superintendent of the Census from 1853 to 1855. Debt. At the installation of the new Government in 1789, the foreign debt amounted to $13, 000,000, the domestic debt to $42,000,000, and Hamilton also persuaded the Congress to assume State debts contracted in the Revolution to the amount of $21,500,000 more. It was then funded. In 1796 it amounted in the total to $83,800,000. It then began to be reduced and, though raised by the expenditures for the Louisiana purchase, was brought down to $45,200,000 in 1812 by the skillful management of Hamilton and Gallatin successively. The War of 181 2 brought it up to $127,000,000 in 1816, but the abounding prosperity of the country enabled the Government to pay it all off, virtually, by 1835. It then grew again. The Mexican War brought it up from $15,600,000 to $68,300,000, whence it again declined to $28,700,000 in 1857. The Civil War required not only heavy and almost indiscriminate taxation but enormous loans, so that the debt on the thirty-first of August, 1865, amounted to $2,845,000,000. Successful efforts to refund at lower rates of interest, together with the prosperity of the country and the great revenue from customs, enabled the debt to be reduced to $2,000,000,000 in 1878, if cash in the Treasury be subtracted, $1,500,000,000 in 1883, and to $1,000,000,000 in 1889. On November 1, 1893, the total debt, less cash in the Treasury, amounted to $820, 109,339. Since that date several issues of bonds have been made by which the debt has been consid- erably increased. Debts, British. At the outbreak of the Revolution, many Ameri- cans owed money to British citizens, merchants and others. The Treaty of 1783 provided for their payment. But many obstacles were 208 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. thrown in the way, State governments having provided, or even pro- viding after the ratification of the treaty, that they might be paid into the treasury of the State, which would then refuse to entertain suits on the part of the creditors. The apprehension that a Federal judiciary would compel these debts to be paid was one cause of opposition to the Constitution of 1787. In 1796, in the case of Ware vs. Hylton, the Su- preme Court decided that such debts must be paid. Decatur, Stephen (1779-1820), was born in Maryland. He began service in the U. S. navy on the " United States " in 1798, and in 1803 commanded the « ' Argus, ' ' and later the ' ' Enterprise. " In 1804 he dis- tinguished himself by successfully destroying the "Philadelphia," which had fallen into the possession of Tripoli. In 1812, on the " United States," while commanding an Atlantic squadron, he captured he British ship "Macedonian," and in 1814, after a stubborn battle, was compelled to surrender the unseaworthy ship "President." In 1815, with ten vessels, he humbled the Barbary powers, and concluded a treaty by which tribute was abolished and prisoners and property were restored. He was one of the navy commissioners from 1816 to 1820, when he was killed by Commodore Barron in a duel. Declaration of Independence. Absolute separation from Great Britain was not at first contemplated by the colonies. New England favored it, but the Southern States were opposed. The transfer of the war to the southward in May and June, 1776, brought them to this view. The North Carolina Convention took the first step toward independence by a resolution ' ' to concur with those in the other colonies in declaring independence," April 22, 1776. Virginia, May 17, 1776, prepared the title of the document by directing her Representatives to propose in Congress a "Declaration of Independence." Such a resolution was offered by Richard Henry Dee, June 7, 1776. This resolution was adopted July 2. Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman and Robert R. Livingston were the committee appointed to draft the Declaration. The draft was formulated almost entirely by Jefferson. Before July 1, Pennsylvania, Maryland and New Jersey had instructed their delegates to vote against the Declaration. This instruc- tion was rescinded, South Carolina came over to the majority, and Del- aware's vote, at first divided, was in the affirmative. The Declaration was, therefore, adopted, by the unanimous vote of twelve States, New Vork alone not voting, July 4, 1776. The New York Convention after- ward ratified the Declaration. The engrossed copy was signed on Au- gust 2. The Declaration sets forth the rights of man and of the colonists, enumerates their grievances against the British Government, and de- AMERICAN HISTORY. 209 clares "that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." Declaration of Independence, Signers of. New Hampshire : Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. Massachusetts : John Hancock, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. Rhode Island: Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. Connecticut: Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntingdon, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. New York : William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Fran- cis Lewis, Lewis Morris. New Jersey : Richard Stockton, John Wither- spoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. Pennsylvania : Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. Delaware: Csesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. Maryland : Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Car- roll, of Carrollton. Virginia : George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. North Carolina : William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. South Carolina : Edward Rutledge, Thomas Hey ward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. Georgia : Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. Declaration of Rights. In 1765 the Stamp Act Congress pub- lished a " Declaration of Rights and Grievances of the Colonists of America," in which they protested against the Stamp Act and all efforts to tax them in a parliament in which they could not be represented, and claimed for themselves all the rights of British subjects. A similar declaration of rights was issued by the Continental Congress of 1774, adapted to meet also the aggressive acts which had more recently been passed by Parliament. Another such was included in the Decla- ration of Independence. For the statements of the rights of the individ- ual as over against his government which accompanied most of the new Constitutions of his period, see Bills of Rights. Declaratory Act, an act passed by Parliament, March 7, 1766, vindicating the previous enactments affecting the colonies, and declar- ing that the king, with the advice of Parliament, had full power to make laws binding America in any cases whatsoever. This law accom- panied the repeal of the Stamp Act. Decoration Day, known as " Memorial Day " in the Southern States. The custom that led up to it originated in the South before the close of the Civil War. Early in the spring of each year the Southern women were in the habit of decorating the graves of their Vol. V.— 14 aio ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. dead soldiers with flowers, and thus an unwritten law fixed May 30 as the day of observance. Similar observances had been inaugurated in the North with no especial unanimity. May 5, 1868, General John A. Logan, then commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic, issued an order fixing May 30 of that year for strewing with flowers the graves of dead soldiers. There has been no Federal legislation re- garding Decoration Day, but many States have made it a legal holiday. Deep Bottom, Va., selected by Butler during the campaigning around Richmond and Petersburg in 1864 as a position from which to threaten Lee. A lodgment was effected there June 21, and Foster was there posted with a strong force. Lee, fearing this position, made several ineffectual attempts to secure it, and at last Grant ordered a counter attack on August 15 and 18. Hancock turned the Confederates' advance position, while Foster feinted an attack upon his front. The plan worked so successfully that Miles' brigade outflanked the Con- federates' outpost and carried away four guns. Lee fell back to Bailey's Creek, but continued to hold his strong defensive work at Chapin's Bluff. Deerfield, Mass., was first settled in 1670. During King Philip's War a company under Captain Lothrop was attacked at Bloody Brook, in Deerfield, by savages in ambush and almost totally destroyed. Deerfield was sacked by French and Indians in 1704 and many of the inhabitants killed. Delancey, Oliver (1708-1785), brother of Governor James De- lancey, commanded the New York troops in Abercrombie's campaign in the French and Indian War, and during the Revolutionary War was commander of a brigade of Tories. At the close of the war he retired to England. Delancey, Oliver (1752-1822), son of the preceding, an officer in the British army, served with distinction throughout the American war, and finally became full general in the British service. Delano, Columbus, born 1809, member of Congress from Ohio, was Secretary of the Interior in Grant's Cabinet from 1870 to 1875. Delaware. In 1631 the Dutch from New Netherland founded a settlement in what is now Delaware, but it proved temporary. In 1638 the Swedish West India Company settled a colony on the site of Wil- mington. The colony of New Sweden, lying along the shores of Dela- ware River and Bay, became involved in quarrels with the neighboring settlements of the Dutch, who claimed the region. In 1655 Governor AMERICAN HISTORY. 211 Stuyvesant conquered the region for the Dutch. In 1664 it fell, with all New Netherland, into the hands of the English. William Penn in 1682 obtained possession of what is now Delaware, and for twenty years it was governed as a part of Pennsylvania, except from 1691 to 1693. In 1703 the " territories " or " three lower counties on the Delaware " obtained recognition as a separate colony, with an assembly of its own, though the proprietary always appointed the same man Governor of both Pennsylvania and Delaware. Delaware framed its first Constitution as a State in 1776. On December 7, 1787, Delaware ratified the Con- stitution of the United States, and was the first State to do so. The vote in convention was unanimous. In 1792 a second State Constitution was established. That of 1831, the last made, differs little from this. Up to 1850 the State was usually Federalist and Whig, since then it has usually been Democratic. Though a slave State it took no part in se- cession. The population, which in 1790 was 59,096, in 1890 was 168,493. Delaware, Crossing of the. On Christmas night, 1776, after a period of discouragement, Washington made his way across the River Delaware through the floating ice, and on the next da} T , at the head of 2,400 men, surprised, attacked and captured a force of 1,000 British troops (Hessian mercenaries) under Rahl. Delawares, an Indian tribe, a branch of the Algonquin family, who, when the whites first came to the Delaware River, were found dwelling near it. Penn bought much land of them. At first a peace- able tribe, they were largely under the control of the Five Nations. Later, they became warlike, and had a- part in the war with Pontiac. In 1774 they received a signal defeat. After 1768 there were none east of the Alleghanies. The Christian Delawares, converts of the Mora- vians, were largely massacred by the Americans at Gnadenhiitten, near the close of the Revolutionary War. From Ohio the tribe emigrated to Missouri in 181S, in 1829 into Kansas, and in 1868 into the Indian Ter- ritory, having now become almost completely civilized. Delawarr, Thomas West, I,ord, a man of noble and philan- thropic character, was appointed Governor of Virginia in 1609, and administered the colony with success until 161 1. In that year he entered the river that bears his name. He died in 1618. Delfthaven, a small town in South Holland, port of Delft, is famous in American history as the place at which the Pilgrim Fathers embarked on board the " Speedwell " for Southampton, July 22, 1620. De Lome, Dupuy, Spanish Minister to the United States from 2i2 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. 1893 to 1898, when he resigned in consequence of the friction caused by an indiscreet letter written by him to a Spanish agent. De I/Ong, George W. (1844-1881), a lieutenant-commander in the United States navy, commanded the " Jeannette " in her Arctic voyage via Behring Strait. His vessel being crushed in the ice, he made a long and adventurous journey to the Siberian mainland and up the Lena Delta, but died of exposure and starvation when almost within reach of help. Democracy. Democracy, though one of the foremost elements in American constitutional life, has grown up entirely outside the Consti- tution. The Constitution leaves the suffrage to be prescribed entirely by the States. An important landmark in its history, in the Federal Government, is the inauguration of Jackson in 1829. He was felt to be the people's candidate, and his election was regarded as their triumph. From this time on American Democracy was recognized as the perma- nent and characteristic system of politics in the United States. With this has gone a liberal policy in regard to naturalization and immigration. Democratic Party, historically the most important of American political parties, having been in continuous existence for fifty years. The rise of such a party as soon as national politics began under the new Constitution, was natural. The love of individual liberty, rather than strong government, was native in the minds of most Americans. Those who felt this most strongly would be likely to look with appre- hension upon the Federal Government, and the possibility of its en- croaching upon the States under cover of the new Federal Constitution. They were therefore likely to be advocates of strict construction of the Constitution and of States' rights. To these elements of party feeling, which had drawn the Anti-Federalists together in 1788, was added a few years later a strong sympathy of many Americans with the French Revolution and the desire that the government should aid France in her contest with England. Thomas Jefferson put himself at the head of the party drawn together by agreement in these sentiments and led them in opposition to the Federalists. The party took the name of Democratic-Republican, still its official title. Before Monroe's admin- istration its members were more commonly called Republicans, since then most commonly Democrats. From the first the party was strong- est in the Southern States. From its origin in 1792 to 1801, it was in opposition. In 1798 and 1799, upon the passage of the Alien and Sedi- tion laws, it took strong ground for States' rights in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. The election of Jefferson in 1801 brought it into power. The chief tenets of the party were, belief in freedom of re- AMERICAN HISTORY. 213 ligion, of politics, of speech and of the press, in popular rule, in peace, in economical government, in the utmost possible restriction of the sphere of government, in hospitality to immigrants, and in the avoidance of foreign complications. Placed in control of the government, the majority of the party drifted away from its self -con- structionist ground, and supported measures of a nationalizing char- acter. After the War of 18 12 the Federalist party went out of exist- ence, and the Democratic party had complete possession of the field. In 1820 Monroe was re-elected without opposition. But opposing tendencies in the nation and in the party were already showing them- selves, and preparing the way for a new party division, between the Whigs, advocates of protection and other nationalizing measures, and those Democrats who held to the old program of States' rights and free trade and restricted government. With the accession of Jackson in 1829, new social strata came into power in the Democratic party, the widening of the suffrage giving it a more popular character. Managed by skillful politicians, not without the aid of the "spoils system," the party won every Presidential election but two (1840, 1848) from this time to i860, destroyed the U. S. Bank, annexed Texas, and carried the country through the war with Mexico. But meanwhile the slavery question, coming into increasing prominence, was gradually forcing a division between the Democrats of the South and the great body of those in the North, who were unwilling to go so far in the protection of slavery by national authority as was desired by their Southern allies. The final split came in the nominating convention of i860. Two candidates were nominated, Lincoln and the Republicans won the election, and the Civil War broke out. Though many " War Democrats " aided the administration in preserving the Union, the party was discredited in the eyes of many by its previous connection with the Southern leaders and the pro-slavery cause, and won no Presi- dential election till that of 1884, when in the minds of many the war issues were extinct and economic questions had taken their place. De- feated in 1888, it was again successful in 1892. At present the party is hardly more strict constructionist than the Republican, nor more marked by devotion to States' rights. Since the Chicago Convention of 1896, the party has been chiefly noted as the advocate of free silver, although not harmonious on this issue. Democratic Societies, clubs formed in many American towns in 1793, in imitation of the Jacobin and other political clubs of France, to express sympathy with that country and the principles of the French Revolution, and to propagate extreme Democratic views on American politics. They opposed the strongest measures of Washington's admin- 2i 4 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. istration, especially those employed in the suppression of the Whiskey Insurrection of 1794, and were vigorously denounced by him. Soon after this they declined and went out of existence. Denmark. A commercial treaty was concluded between the United States and Denmark in 1826. By treaty in 1857 the United States paid Denmark $393,000 in commutation of the Sound dues. October 25, 1867, a treaty was concluded with Denmark, providing for the cession of the Islands of St. Thomas and St. John for $7,500,000. Denmark ratified it, but the U. S. Senate, at the instance of Senator Sumner, re- fused to do so. A convention relative to naturalization was concluded in 1872. Dennlson, William (1815-1882), " War Governor " of Ohio, was elected Governor in i860. An ardent Republican and anti-slavery man, he with great energy and ability prepared the State for the Civil W r ar and organized and supplied its forces. He was chairman of the Re- publican National Nominating Convention in 1864, and from that year to 1866 was Postmaster-General, in the cabinets of Lincoln and Johnson. Departments, Executive. Executive departments of the U. S. Government existed before 1789. The Continental Congress at first transacted all executive business through committees ; then through commissions composed partly of its own members, partly of others. In 1776 the Treasury Office of Accounts was established, and a comptroller, auditor and treasurer were added two years later. In 1781 four execu- tive departments were organized, under a Superintendent of Finance and Secretaries of War, Marine and Foreign Affairs, respectively. A Postmaster-General had been provided in 1775. In 1784 the Treasury Department was put in the charge of a board of three, but otherwise the system continued until the inauguration of the new government in 1789. In that year Congress provided for departments of State, the Treasury and War, and instituted the office of Attorney-General. The first plan contemplated separate departments of foreign affairs and home affairs, but finally these were united in the Department of State. The Navy Department was established in 1798, the Interior Department in 1849, the Department of Justice in 1870, the Department of Agriculture in 1889. For details of their history, see articles under their individual names. Depew, Chauncey Mitchell, born at Peekskill, N. Y., April 23, 1834. Graduated at Yale 1856, and admitted to the bar two years later. Began practice of law in Peekskill and for his first opinion received $1.75. He was very poor in the beginning but soon established a good practice. In 1864 was appointed Minister to Japan. Previous to his AMERICAN HISTORY. ai5 appointment, however, he had served as a member of the N. Y. Assembly 1861-2, and Secretary of State 1863. I n I 866 he became attorney for the N. Y. C. & H. R. R., and in 1869 attorney for the entire Vanderbilt System. In 1S74 he was regent of the University, State of New York and in 1885 declined election to U. S. Senate, and also declined position of Secretary of State in President Harrison's Cabinet. He was a prominent candidate for President 1888, famous as an orator and after-dinner speaker, and chosen to the U. S. Senate from New York for term 1899-- I905- Deposits, Removal of the. President Jackson, on being success- ful in the election of 1832, believed himself authorized by the popular voice to pursue to extremities his war upon the Bank of the United States (see Bank). By the Act of 1816 creating the bank, the funds of the Federal Government were to be deposited in it, subject to removal by the Secretary of the Treasury, who should state to Congress the reasons for so doing. Jackson, believing that the bank was unsound, and that its influence was used to corrupt politics, determined that the deposits should be removed. McL,ane, Secretary of the Treasury, not favoring this course, was transferred to the State Department. The new Secre- tary, Duane, refused to give the necessary order, and was dismissed by Jackson. Roger B. Taney was then appointed, and ordered the removal, more strictly cessation, of deposits, September 26, 1833. Jackson set forth his reasons to Congress, 011 its assembling. The Senate replied by a vote of censure. Jackson sent in a protest, declaring that the matter rested entirely within his competence as head of the Executive Depart- ment. In 1837 his friends succeeded in inducing the Senate to expunge its resolution of censure. Derne Expedition. General William Eaton, U. S. Consul at Tunis, persuading his government to lend the co-operation of its naval forces in the Mediterranean, marched from Egypt across the desert with Hamet, rightful bashaw of Tripoli, in an attack upon his usurping brother Joseph. On April 27, 1805, he took Derne. Upon this success a highly favorable treaty was extorted from the bashaw, Hamet being induced to retire. De Russy, Fort, I^a., wrested from Dick Taylor, commanding about 12,000 Confederates, by A. J. Smith, leading an army of some 10,- 000 Federals. This battle is to be remembered in connection with Banks' Red River expedition. It occurred March 14, 1864. Smith had been ordered to join Banks. Hearing that Taylor was at Shreveport he fol- lowed him to Fort de Russy. After a cannonade of two hours Smith ordered a charge, when suddenly the garrison surrendered. 216 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Desert I,and Act, an Act of Congress, March 3, 1877, allowing, on credit for three years, an entry of 640 acres of desert land for purposes of irrigation and improvement. De Smet, Peter John (1801-1872), a Belgian Jesuit, was a professor in the University of St. Louis from 1828 to 1838. From 1838 he was a missionary among the Pottawatomies ; from 1S40 on, a missionary of remarkable zeal and success among the Flatheads and other tribes of the Northwest. In the first fifteen years of his mission he estimated that he had traveled 120,000 miles. His influence over the Indian tribes was immense. De Soto, Fernando (1496 ?-i5 I 2), a Spanish noble, came to America in 1519 in the service of Pedrarias Davila, and accompanied Pizarro in the conquest of Peru. In April, 1538, he set out from Spain with 600 men, commissioned to undertake the conquest of Florida, reputed to be a land of great wealth. His well-appointed expedition landed in Tampa Bay in May, 1539. During the next three years he wandered over large parts of what are now Alabama and Mississippi. In the spring of 1541 he discovered the Mississippi River. Crossing it, he penetrated as far westward as to the highlands of the White River. Returning, he died on the banks of the Mississippi in the spring of 1542. Some of his followers escaped to Mexico. Detroit, Mich. The site was visited by the French in 1669. Detroit was settled in 1701 by a party under Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac. It fell to the British in 1763, and was besieged by Pontiac ; ceded to the Americans in 1783, but not occupied until 1796. On Aug. 16, 1812, General Hull, with 2,000 men, made an inglorious surrender of Detroit to the British and Indians under General Brock and Tecumseh. Hull was cashiered. Harrison retook the town in October, 18 13, after Perry's victory on Lake Erie. From 1805 to 1847 Detroit was the capi- tal of Michigan Territory aud State. See appendix, page 482. Dewey, George, admiral, born in Montpelier, Vt., 1837. Appointed to Naval Academy 1854, graduated therefrom 1858 and was assigned to the 4 ' Wabash. ' ' He was an ensign when Fort Sumter was fired on, and one week after that first overt act of the Confederacy Dewey received his com- mission as a lieutenant. He was immediately assigned to duty on the war sloop ' ' Mississippi, ' ' a sidewheeler of seventeen guns, that was attached to the West Gulf Squadron. He was on the • • Mississippi " when she ran the blockade at New Orleans and also when she was blown up by the batteries at Port Hudson. Subsequently he was with the North Atlantic blockading squadron on the gunboat ' ■ Agawam, ' ' and after the close of thts AMERICAN HISTORY. 217 war he served on the ' ' Kearsarge ' ' with the European Squadron. In 1890 he received his first command, of the " Narragansett, " and held the position of captain of the "Dolphin," and afterwards of the " Pen- sacola." In 1888 he was made chief of the Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting, which gave him the rank of commodore, and was promoted to actual commodore in 1896 and placed at the head of the Board of Inspection and Survey. On January 1, 1898, he was transferred to the Asiatic Squadron, of which he took command January 2, raising his flag on the protected cruiser "Olympia." He was at Hong Kong with a fleet of six vessels when war between the United States and Spain was declared. The vessels comprising his fleet were the following : "Olympia," "Boston," "Baltimore," " Raleigh," " Concord " and "Petrel," and the collier "Zaffiro," storeship "Norstan," and dis- patch boat "McCulloch." On April 23 he was notified by the Acting Governor of the British Colony at Hong Kong to leave the harbor by 4 o'clock A. M. of the 25th, but before the expiration of this time limit, acting upon orders from the Navy Department at Washington, he sailed for Manila, Sunday afternoon the 24th, to engage the Spanish Squadron in Manila Ba}'. The six hundred miles of sea voyage was accomplished April 30, and on the night of May 1 he steamed with his fleet past Corregidor Island at the mouth of the bay, and early in the morning (5 o'clock) attacked the Spanish fleet, which comprised eleven vessels, as follows : " Reina Cristina " (Montojo's flagship), " Cas- tilla, " " Don Antonio de Ulloa, " " Don Juan de Austria, " " Isla de Luzon," " Isla de Cuba," " General Lezo," " Marquis del Duero," " El Correo," "Velasco," "Isla de Mindanao" (transport), "Rapido" and "Hercules" (tugs), and two torpedo boats. After a brisk engagement Dewey destroyed all these vessels, except the four latter, which were captured, killing a large number of Spanish sailors, but suffering no loss himself except the slight wounding of seven men on the " Baltimore." The effects of this unprecedented victory was of the utmost importance, and stamped Dewey as one of the greatest naval heroes of history. On August 13 Dewey, operating in conjunction with the land forces under General Merritt, forced a surrender of Manila, the day following the signing of a peace treaty between Spain and America. Dewey's return to America, September 27 (1899), was the occasion of the most magnificent welcome probably ever extended to a hero by any nation. Three days were devoted to celebration in New York, the last one (30th) being essentially Dewey day, when a grand procession and naval display were the chief features. The public's gratefulness took also material form in the raising of $50,000, with which a splendid residence was purchased and furnished in Washington for Dewey. 218 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Soon after he married Mrs. Mildred Hazen, the widow of General Hazen, and caused much public criticism by deeding to her the house that had been presented to him. Three days later, however, his wife transferred the property to Admiral Dewey's son George. As a mark of great public appreciation for his distinguished services Congress revived the grade of Admiral and conferred this highest office in the navy upon Dewey. Dexter, Samuel (1761-1816), a noted lawyer of Massachusetts, was successively, for short periods in 1800 and 1801, Secretary of War and of the Treasury in the Cabinet of President John Adams. Dias, Porfirio, the greatest of Mexican generals and statesmen, was born at Oaxaca, Mexico, 1830, and received a classical education at the Oaxaca Institute. He entered upon a study of the law, but when the war with the United States broke out (1846) he joined the National Guard and served throughout the struggle. On Santa Anna's accession to the dictatorship Diaz left the army and took up the practice of law, which he continued until the revolution against the French (1854), when he returned to the army but was soon made a prisoner. Making his escape, he headed a body of troops that harassed Maximilian's forces until he was a second time taken prisoner (at Oaxaca, 1865) by the French. A second time he contrived to escape, and with 5,000 men be- sieged and captured Pueblo 1867, and then marched on Mexico, which surrendered to him June 21 following. When the French were forced to withdraw from Mexico, at the demands of the United States, and Maximilian was executed, Diaz was an unsuccessful candidate for the Presidency. In 1872, and again in 1876, he headed revolts against the government, and after much severe fighting occupied the capital. In 1877 he was chosen President of the Republic to fill the unexpired term of Lerdo, who was a fugitive. In 1884 Diaz was again elected President, and the law prohibiting a re-election being repealed, he has succeeded himself at every election since, his last term expiring 1904. To Diaz Mexico is indebted for her rise, progress and standing as a nation. He has made property secure by preserving a stable government, and deserves the confidence of his people. Dickerson, Mahlon (i77°- l8 52>) > a New Jersey and Pennsylvania lawyer, was Governor of New Jersey from 1815 to 1817, and a Senator from that State from that time to 1833. From 1834 to 1838 he was Secretary of the Navy, serving under Jackson and Van Buren. Dickinson, Don M., born in 1846, was Postmaster-General in Cleveland's Cabinet from 1888 to i88q. AMERICAN HISTORY. 219 Dickinson, John (1732-1808), a Philadelphia lawyer, was in 1765 elected to the Colonial Congress, and in 1768 distinguished himself by writing "Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer" in defense of the liberties of America. Elected to the Continental Congress in 1774, he wrote its ' ' Address to the Inhabitants of Quebec, " its " Declaration to the Armies," its " Address to the States," and its two petitions to the king. He opposed the Declaration of Independence as premature, but served loyally in the army. Again a member of Congress, he was chosen president of Delaware in 1881, and was president of Pennsylvania from 1782 to 1785. He was a member of the Federal Convention of 1787, and advocated the adoption of the Constitution. Dickinson College, one of the older American colleges, was founded at Carlisle, Pa., in 1783, and named in honor of John Dickinson, then president of the State, who gave it valuable gifts. A Presbyterian institution from its foundation to 1833, it was then transferred to the Methodists. President Buchanan and Chief Justice Taney were among its alumni. Dieskau I^udwig, August von (1701-1767), a soldier of Saxon birth, who had served under Marshal Saxe in the French sendee, was sent to Canada as major-general in 1755, and commanded an expedition against the English colonies by way of Lake Champlain. At first victorious in the fight near Fort Edward, he was finally defeated. Dighton Rock, a rock lying in the tide on the side of Taunton River, in Berkeley, Mass., formerly in Dighton, and marked with a curious inscription, attracted early attention on the part of antiquaries. Rafn, 1837, declared that its markings were a runic inscription of the Northmen, relating to the expedition of Thorfinn Karlsefue, but this view has now been generally abandoned, though the central portion may be Norse. Dingley, Nelson, lawyer and journalist, born 1832 in Maine. He was speaker of Maine Legislature 1863 to 1864. Governor 1874 to 1875. Elected to Congress i88r, and has served continuously to date, 1897. Author of the Dingley Tariff Bill. Died 1899. Dinwiddie, Robert (1690 ?-i77o), a Scotchman, was Governor of Virginia from 1752 to 1758. His chief merit was his perception of the military abilities of Washington, whom he sent upon the mission to the French commander on the Ohio, and then upon the military expedition which opened the French and Indian War. In the conduct of the war, he quarreled with the Virginian Assembly, and suggested taxation of ♦lie colonies. 220 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Direct Taxes. Congress has levied direct taxes on but five occa- cions. In 1798, 1813, 1815 and 1816 a direct tax was levied by Federal authority on lands, houses and slaves. In August, 1861, to meet expenses of the Civil War, a direct tax of $20,000,000 was levied on all lots of ground with their improvements and dwelling-houses. The operation of the act was suspended on July 1, 1862. By Act of March 2, 1891, $15,000,000, collected under this act, were refunded to the States. Directories. The first city directory issued in the United States was published in New York as early as 1786. It was a small volume of eighty-two pages and contained only some nine hundred names. Since that time annual directories have appeared in New York. Directory. The French Directory of five members was established as the Executive Government of France in 1795, and was suppressed by Bonaparte in 1799 (November 9). It came into collision with the gov- ernment of the United States because of the action of France in seizing American provision-ships and permitting illegal captures of American vessels by her privateers. Our government recalling Monroe in 1796, the Directory refused to recognize his successor, C. C. Pinckney, and complained of the failure of the United States to stand by the treaty of alliance of 1778. New envoys were sent out by President Adams, — Pinckney, Marshall and Gerry, — but were dismissed without satisfac- tion, after attempts made to bribe the U. S. Government (see X. Y. Z. Mission). A virtual state of war ensued (1798), but in 1799 Adams, on a more favorable turn of affairs, sent a new embassy, Murray, Ellsworth and Davie. When they arrived Bonaparte had already overthrown the Directory. With his government the treaty of Morfontaine (September 30, 1800) was concluded. Disciples, Church of the, also called "Christians" and "Catnp- bellites," a religious body founded in 1809 by Thomas and Alexander Campbell. Taking the express teachings of the Bible as the only au- thoritative guide in religious matters, their purpose was to bring about Christian unity. Their first stage consisted in the uniting in one body of various Protestants of Western Pennsylvania, chiefly Presbyterians and Baptists. Thence they spread westward. In 1831 they were joined by another body which had grown up upon similar principles in Ken- tucky and neighboring States. In 1867 the number of Disciples in the United States was estimated at 425,000. The census of 1890 ascribed to them 7,246 organizations and 641,000 members. District. The name District has been given in American history to divisions of the country resembling territories in organization, but with- AMERICAN HISTORY. 221 out representative or elective institutions. Existing instances are the District of Columbia and that of Alaska. An early instance was the District of Louisiana, which from 1804 to 1812 comprised all that portion of the Louisiana Purchase which lay north of the northern boundary of the present State of Louisiana. In South Carolina the counties were at one time called districts. District Courts. The Judiciary Act of 1789 provided for two classes of U. S. Courts inferior to the Supreme Court, — Circuit Courts and District Courts. Each District consisted of one State, and had its district judge. Since then, some States have been divided, and these Federal courts of the lowest grade now number more than sixty. District of Columbia. The Constitution of 1787 gave Congress power ' ' to exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of the United States." In 1790, after warm discussions, the present site was selected. A ten-mile square was laid out on the Potomac. Maryland ceded sixty -four square miles on the north bank of the river, Virginia thirty-six square miles on the south. In 1791 this area received the official name of the Territory of Columbia. The seat of government was removed thither in 1800. In 1846 the portion south of the Potomac was retroceded to Virginia. The laws of Maryland and Virginia were in force in the district, unless repealed by Congress ; e. g., their slave laws. From 1871 to 1874 the district had a Territorial gov- ernment, with elective institutions. This proved extravagant, and government by commissioners under the authority of Congress was sub- stituted. Dix, John A. (1798-1879), born in New Hampshire, was in the army from 18 12 to 1828. From 1833 to 1840 he was Secretary of the State of New York, and became a member of the " Albany Regency." From 1845 to 1849 ne was a Democratic Senator. In the last months of Buchanan's administrate .1 he was Secretary of the Treasury, and aided to restore confidence in the Federal Government. An ardent " War Democrat," he served through the war as a major-general of volunteers. From 1872 to 1874 he was Governor of New York, and is famous for the saying, ' ' If any man attempt to haul down the flag shoot him on the spot." Dixon, Jeremiah, English mathematician, with Charles Mason, ran " Mason and Dixon's Line," beginning in 1766. Dobbin, James C. (1814-1857), represented North Carolina in the 222 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. U. S. Congress as a Democrat from 1845 to 1847. He was Secretary of the Navy in Pierce's Cabinet from 1853 to 1857. Dole, Sanford B., born in Hawaiian Islands (son of a missionary), 1844, educated at Oahee College, Hawaii, and Williams College, Mass. Studied law in Boston and admitted to the bar there, engaged in prac- tice in Honolulu. He was a leader in the reform movement 1887, was judge of the Hawaii Supreme Court 1887-93, m which latter year he was placed at the head of the provisional government ; became president by provision of the constitution of 1894 to hold that office until 1901. He was commanded by President Cleveland, through Minister Willis, to relinquish to Queen Lilioukalani her constitutional authority, but refused, upon the ground that President Cleveland had no right to interfere, and was sustained in this position. Dollar. The Spanish milled dollar was the type of the American silver dollar. By Act of 1792, 37 itf grains of pure silver and 24^ grains of pure gold were declared to be equivalent to each other and to the dollar of account. The silver dollar was first coined in 1794, weighing 416 grains (371 % plus alloy). In 1837 the weight of alloy was so re- duced that the weight of the coin should be 412 */£ grains. The gold dollar was first coined in 1849. In 1873 provision was made for a trade dollar of 420 grains, for use in the trade with China and Japan. From 1873 t° ^S the issue of the old silver dollar was suspended. The gold half-dollar and quarter-dollar were never coined by the U. S. Govern- ment. The silver half-dollar has been coined since 1794. Its weight, at first 208 grains, was subsequently reduced to 206.25 in 1837, to 192 in 1853, and raised to 192.9 in 1873. The quarter-dollar, coinage of which began in 1796, has undergone corresponding changes of weight. Donaldson, Udward (1816-1889), rear-admiral, served in the U. S. navy from 1835 to 1876. In the Civil War he took part in the capture of New Orleans and in the passage of Vicksburg, and at the battle of Mobile Bay commanded the '• Seminole." Donaldsonville, I/a., occupied in 1863 by a baud of Confederate guerrillas and bombarded, June 28, by Admiral Farragut during his operations along the Mississippi River in command of the Union fleet. Donation I^ands. August 4, 1842, Congress passed a donation act for the Territory of East Florida. Persons who could bear arms were allowed one quarter-section of land upon which to settle. September 27, 1850, a donation act was passed for Oregon, granting settlers from 160 to 640 acres. Donelson, Andrew Jackson (1800-1871), nephew of General Jack. AMERICAN HISTORY. 223 son, was private secretary to his uncle during the latter 's Presidency, Minister to Prussia and the German Confederation from 1846 to 1849, and in 1856 was nominated for the Vice-Presidency by the American party on the ticket with Fillmore. Donelson, Fort, Tenn., an important Confederate fortification on the Cumberland. After the capture of Fort Henry, on the Tennessee, February 8, 1862, General Grant moved his forces over to the Cumber- land and attacked Fort Donelson. The Federal gunboats were driven off at first, but Grant's land forces attacked the fort in such numbers and with such vigor that surrender became necessary. Grant, in a memorable letter, demanded its unconditional surrender of General Buckner, who commanded it after the flight of Floyd and Pillow. 15,000 Confederates were made prisoners by this victory, and the fall of Nashville and Columbus became inevitable. An attempt to recapture this place from the Federals was made February 15, 1863, by Wheeler, leading 4,500 of Bragg's Confederate army. The garrison of the fort was 600 Federals under Harding. Wheeler demanded a surrender, but Harding replied by sending out skirmishers, to dela}*- an attack while he sent for aid to Fort Henry. In the evening the gunboat " Fair Play," Lieutenant Fitch, came up the river, and the Confederates withdrew. Doniphan, Alexander W. (1808-1887) , colonel in the Mexican War, accomplished amid many hardships a difficult march from New Mexico to Chihuahua, and near the latter place defeated a Mexican force more than four times as numerous as his own. Donnelly, Ignatius, see appendix, page 482. Donop, Count (1740-1777), commander of Hessians in the Revolu- tionary War, was mortally wounded in an attempt to take by assault Fort Mercer, near Red Bank, N. J. , October 22, 1777. Doolittle, James R., born in New York in 1815, from 1853 to 1856 was Judge of the Wisconsin Supreme Court, was U. S. Senator from 1857 to 1869, and a delegate to the Peace Convention of 1861. Died 1897. Dorchester Heights were, at Washington's command, occupied and fortified by General Thomas with 2,500 of Washington's troops March 4 and 5, 1776. This proved so dangerous to Howe that he was obliged to evacuate Boston with all speed. Dorr Rebellion, an effort made in 1840-42 to overturn the State government of Rhode Island by revolutionary means. After the Decla- ration of Independence, Rhode Island retained her charter government. Many of the citizens, headed by Thomas W. Dorr, of Providence, be- 224 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. came discontented with the existing government and its limited suffrage. Mass meetings were held, and in October, 1841, a convention of dele- gates prepared a Constitution, which was submitted to a popular vote, and was claimed to have received a majority of the votes of the State. The legitimate government treated these proceedings as nugatory, and, in a measure, criminal. May 3, 1842, the "suffrage legislature" as- sembled at Newport, with Dorr as Governor. King, the legitimate Governor, proclaimed martial law. The suffrage party appealed to arms. Their troops were dispersed and Dorr fled. He was afterward captured and convicted of treason, but was pardoned in 1852. Double IJagle, or twenty-dollar gold piece, coinage authorized by Congress March, 1849, coinage begun in 1850. Legal tender to an un- limited amount. So called from the figure of the national bird stamped on reverse. Doubleday, Abner (1819-1893), general, born in New York, aimed the first gun in the defense of Fort Sumter, and served with distinction at Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. He retired from the army in 1873. Douglas, Stephen Arnold (April 23, 1813— June 3, 1861), was born at Brandon, Vt. He worked on a farm, taught school, and at the age of twenty-one began the practice of law in Illinois. Soon afterward he was Attorney-General of the State, member of the Legislature, and an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for Congress. In 1840 he became Secretary of State of Illinois, and in 1841 Judge of the Supreme Court of the State. Judge Douglas was in the House of Representatives from 1843 to 1847, and in the Senate from 1847 to 1861. During this period, when the slavery issue came to overshadow all other questions, the " Little Giant," as Douglas was affectionately styled, became one of the leaders of his party. In Congress he favored the acquisition of the whole of Oregon, and was chairman of the important Committee on Territories. He advocated the compromise of 1850, and formulated the doctrine of Popular Sovereignty (which see). In accordance with the latter idea he reported in December, 1853, the famous Kansas-Nebraska Bill (which see) . His name was presented to the Democratic National Conventions in 1852 and 1856. While running for re-election to the Senate in 1858, he carried on a joint debate with Lincoln, which brought the latter into national prominence. Douglas was nominated for President by the Northern wing of the Democratic party in i860, but received only twelve electoral votes, although a large popular vote was thrown for him. He survived the outbreak of the Civil War but a AMERICAN HISTORY. 225 few months, supporting to the end the cause of the Union. L,ife by Sheahan. Douglass, Frederick, the most eminent of American negroes, was born in Maryland in 18 17. He escaped from slavery in 1838, and was educated by William Lloyd Garrison. He lectured for the Mas- sachusetts Anti-Slavery Society from 1841 to 1845, an d then labored in Europe till 1847. In 1871 he was commissioner for the District of Columbia, and in 1872 was Presidential elector-at-large for New York. He was U. S. Marshal for the District of Columbia from 1876 to 1881, and Recorder of Deeds from 1881 till 1886. From 1889 to 1891 he was U. S. Minister to Hayti. Died 1895. Dover, N. H., one of the oldest towns in the State, was settled in 1623. On the night of June 27, 1689, the town was attacked by Indians, and twenty-three of the inhabitants were killed. Dover became a city in 1855. Dow, Neal, temperance reformer, was born in Maine in 1804. He secured the passage of the Maine liquor law in 185 1, and was a member of the Legislature from 1858 to 1859. He served during the Civil War, lectured in England in 1857, 1866 and 1874, and in 1880 was the Pres- idential candidate of the Prohibition party. Died October 2, 1897. Downes, John (1786-1855), entered the navy in 1802, commanded the " Essex " and captured the " Georgiana," which, named " Essex Junior," he afterward commanded till 1814, and from 1819-1821 com- manded the " Macedonia," from 1828 to 1829 the " Java," and from 1832 to 1834 the Pacific squadron. Downing, Sir George (1623 ?-i684), of the class of 1642 of Harvard College, went to England in 1645, and was envoy of Cromwell and of Charles II. to the Netherlands, 1657-1663 and in 1671. He is said to have instigated the conquest of New Netherland. Drafts, methods employed twice by the United States Government and twice by the Confederacy for raising and increasing the armies. The first measure, introduced into Congress in 1814, during the war with Great Britain, was due to a proposal by New York and Virginia of a Federal classification and draft from the State militia. This bill was prepared largely by James Monroe, but was highly unacceptable to the Federalists and proved a failure, though the army was much in need of men. In 1863 a somewhat similar plan was introduced in Congress, but was objected to by the Democrats on the grounds of unconstitution- ality and failed. Accordingly May 3, 1863, another bill passed both Vol. V.— 15 226 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Houses, which had no reference to the militia but called every able- bodied citizen of military age into the Federal service. A commutation of $300 for exemption was permitted, and persons refusing obedience were treated as deserters. April 16, 1862, and July 18, 1863, the Con- federate Congress passed conscription laws levying on all persons be- tween the ages of eighteen and forty-five years. The unpopularity of the conscription caused the " drafts riots " in New York City July 13- 16, 1863, when the city was for four days in the possession of the mob. Drake, Sir Francis (1546-1566), an Elizabethan navigator, made an expedition to Mexico in 1567, and to South America in 1572. He explored the Pacific coast from 1577 to 1579, landed on the coast of California and returned to England by the Pacific and Indian Oceans, making a successful circumnavigation of the globe. Dranesville, or Drainsville, Va. Here December 20, 1861, J. E. B. Stuart, commanding 2,500 Confederates, attacked 4,500 Federals under Ord, who was engaged in loading his forage wagons. The fight was short, but severe. The Confederates were greatly outnumbered and were defeated. Draper, William F., manufacturer, born in Massachusetts, 1842. Served in Union army from 1861 to 1864, rising to rank of general. Served in Fifty -third and Fifty-fourth Congresses. Became Ambassa- dor to Italy May, 1897. Drayton, William H. (1742-1779), born in South Carolina, went to England, and in 1771 was appointed a privy councilor of South Carolina. He was deprived of his crown offices on account of sympathy with the colonies, and was made president of the Provincial Congress in 1775. In 1776 he became Chief Justice of South Carolina and in 1777 president, and in 1778 was a member of the Continental Congress. Dred Seott vs. Sanford. In 1834 Dred Scott, a negro slave of Missouri, was taken by his master, who was a surgeon in the regular army, first into Illinois and then into Minnesota, a region from which slavery was expressly excluded by the celebrated Missouri Compromise of 1820. While in Minnesota Scott was married with his master's con- sent, but on being brought back to Missouri in 1838, he and his wife and children were sold to another master. Scott brought action for trespass in a St. Louis court, and a decision was made in his favor on the ground that, under the provisions of the Missouri Compromise, the negro was free. The Supreme Court of Missouri reversed this decision, and the case came before the Federal Circuit Court in 1854. The de- fendant slaveholder pleaded that Scott was not a citizen entitled to sue AMERICAN HISTORY. 227 and be sued in the U. S. Courts. The court held the contrary, but the jury's verdict decided the plaintiff still a. slave. The case came before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1857. Here the judgment of the Circuit Court was reversed, and the case dismissed on the ground that no negro, bond or free, could plead in the U. S. Courts as a "citizen." The court then, though denying its jurisdiction over the dispute, discussed the constitutional points. Scott's status in Illinois was declared determined by his Missouri domicile. As regarded the Minnesota Territory the court declared the Missouri Compromise un- constitutional and void, it being held that States alone could prohibit slavery from their boundaries. Chief Justice Taney read the opinion of a majority of the court, Justices Curtis and McLean dissenting. Scott was afterward freed by his master. The decision aroused great excite- ment in the North. Drewry's Bluff, or Fort Darlingf, on James River, Va., attacked May 15, 1862, by five Federal war-ships, including the "Monitor." Captain Farrand held the fort with 20,000 Confederates. The Federal fleet was badly disabled and had to retire. Again, May 13-16, 1864, during Butler's operations with the Army of the James around Bermuda Hundred, Fort Darling, or Drewry's Bluff, was the scene of some sharp fighting. It was held at that time by Beauregard, who had about 20,000 men. Butler made an attack the morning of the fourteenth and succeeded in carrying some of the Confederate lines. Beauregard hastened to strengthen his position with reinforcements, which oppor- tunely arrived. On the sixteenth Beauregard made a return attack with a strong force and compelled Butler to retire. Butler's army was also about 20,000 strong. Drummond, Sir George Gordon (1771-1854), a British soldier, served in Canada from 1808 to 181 1 and from 1813 to 1816. He stormed Niagara, captured Oswego, commanded at Lundy's Lane, and from 1814 to 1816 administered the government of Canada. Drummond, William, died in 1677. He was appointed Governor of Albemarle (*. e. , North Carolina) by Governor Berkeley, or Virginia (1663-67). Afterward he was prominent as a leader in the Bacon Re- bellion of 1676, and was executed by Berkeley. Duane, William J. (1780-1865;, a distinguished lawyer, became Secretary of the U. S. Treasury in 1833, and was removed by President Jackson for refusing to withdraw the deposits from the U. S. bank. Duche, Jacob (1737-T798), Episcopal clergyman in Philadelphia, 228 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. espoused the patriot cause at the beginning of the Revolution. He was the first chaplain of the Congress in 1774. He despaired of success for the colonies, and in 1777 advised Washington by letter to abandon the attempt. This made him so unpopular that he went to England. Dug Spring, Mo., a sharp skirmish, August 1, 1861, between Gen- eral Nathaniel I^yon's Federal force of 5,500 and McCulloch's Confed- erate volunteers numbering 12,000. McCulloch was worsted. "Duke's I/awS." A code of laws drawn up in 1664 by Colonel Nicolls, then governing the colonies of the Duke of York's patent. They were first arranged for the government of the Dutch settlers of Long Island. They prohibited the election of magistrates, but provided for trial by jury, equal taxation, tenure of lands from the Duke of York, freedom of religion, liability to military duty, and recognition of negro slavery under certain restrictions. Du Jyhut, Daniel G., died in 1709, was engaged as fur-trader and explorer on the frontier, and was of much service to the French col- onists in aiding them against Indian attacks. Duluth is named for him. Dummer's War, a war during 1724-25 between the border settlers of Vermont and Maine, and the Indian tribes incited by the French of Canada. William Dummer was then acting Governor of Massachusetts, and it was through his efforts that the trouble was terminated by a treaty with the Indians in 1725. Fort Dummer was erected at the present site of Brattleboro' in 1724. May 9, 1725, Captain John Lovewell defeated the Indians in a bloody battle at Fryeburg, Maine. Four sagamores signed the treaty with Dummer at Boston in November of the same year. Dunkers (Dunkards or Brethren), a denomination of American Bap- tists who originated in Germany in 1708 but were driven by persecution to this country between 17 19 and 1729. They are now most numerous in Ohio. In 1790 a number who held Universalist views seceded and still remain apart. They strive to reproduce the exact order of the apostolic church, dress plainly, refuse to go to law or to engage in war, take no interest on money lent to the brethren, and take especial care of the poor. Their membership is estimated at about 10,000, but they themselves keep no statistics. Dunmore, John Murray, Earl of (1732-1809), a descendant of the Stuarts, succeeded to the peerage in 1766 and became Governor of New York in 1770 and of Virginia in 1771. In 1774 the Virginians under Patrick Henry, took up arms against his government. He fled in 1775, AMERICAN HISTORY. 229 and during the first year of the Revolution conducted petty warfare and led plundering expeditions on the coast, burning Norfolk, but was dis- lodged in 1776. Du Pont, de Nemours, Pierre S. (1739-1817), celebrated French economist, twice president of the National Assembly, resided in America from 1798 to 1802 and in 1815 settled in Delaware. Dupont, or Du Pont, Samuel Francis ( 1803-1865) , entered the navy in his youth, but had no opportunities for distinction until the Mexican War, when he took San Diego. His great naval feat was in the first year of the Civil War ; he captured the fortifications of Port Royal harbor on November 7, 1861, and followed up this success by seizing Tybee and reducing many points on the coast of Georgia and Florida. For these successes he was made rear-admiral. The unsuc- cessful attacks on the defenses of Charleston under his lead, in 1863, were made against his better judgment. Duquesne, !Fort, erected at the junction of the Allegheny and Mo- nongahela Rivers in Pennsylvania by the French under Captain Contre- cceur in 1754. It became at once the center of French military opera- tions in that section. In 1755 Braddock was sent to capture it. He was defeated July 9 by the French and Indians. Major Grant and 800 men were defeated and cut to pieces in a second expedition against the fort October 15, 1757. In the summer of 1758 General Forbes with 6,000 men moved against it. His march was slow. The rains ruined roads as soon as constructed. A reconnoitering party under Grant was cut off. At length the whole force advanced. On the evening of September 24 the fort was evacuated and blown up. By Forbes' slow advance the pa- tience of the Indians in alliance with the French had been exhausted and the garrison reduced to less than 1,000. The place was named Fort Pitt (Pittsburg) in honor of the English Minister, and a strong fort erected there the next year. Dustin, Hannah, of Massachusetts, born about 1660, was taken prisoner by the Indians in 1697 and, aided by a boy, Samuel Leonard, killed ten of her captors in camp and escaped to her home in Haverhill, after notable adventures. Dutch. The chief settlements of the Dutch in the American colo- nies were in New Netherland, now New York, and the adjoining part of New Jersey. They were successful in commerce and industrious in agriculture, but indifferent to politics. Probably at the time of the Revolution more than half of the population of the State were of Dutch descent, and Dutch was still spoken in the villages along the Hudson in 2 3 o ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. the earlier years of this century. Of late, efforts have been made to prove that the chief influence in the formation of American institutions was Dutch rather than English, that for instance the ideas of a written constitution, the ballot, freedom of religion, democracy, equal partition of the goods of an intestate, the recording of deeds by the State, and free schools, were derived from Dutch example. In the case of most of these claims, it must be said that they are still quite unproved. It is true that the Netherland Republic was in 1620 far in advance of England in respect to freedom, institutional development and general civiliza- tion, and that it was then in close association with England, and that the Pilgrim Fathers and some other colonists were well acquainted with the life of the Dutch. In the case of free schools, legistration of deeds and the laws of succession, and a few other particulars, a proba- bility of Dutch influence has been shown. But in the case of the fundamentals of American constitutional life, the new theory not only has not been proved, but is in most respects highly improbable. Duxbury, Mass., was founded by Miles Standish about 1630, and incorporated as a town in 1637. Duzine, the twelve patentees of the settlement of New Paltz, made some miles west of what is now Kingston on the Hudson, in 1677, by Louis Dubois and others. The ' ' Duzine ' ' were elected as the legislative and judicial body of the colony, and they and later Duzines maintained control during 100 years. Dwight, Theodore W. (1822-1892), from 1858 to 1891 professor of law in Columbian College, was a member of the New York Constitu- tional Convention of 1867, and from 1874 to 1875 a member of the Com- mission of Appeals. He was one of the most famous of American teachers of law. Dwight, Timothy (1752-1817), of Connecticut, divine, poet and teacher, while chaplain in the Continental army composed his poem " Columbia." From 1795 to 1817 he was president of Yale College and did much to broaden and advance higher education. His "Travels in New England and New York " are noteworthy. D wight, Timothy, born in 1828, an editor of the New Englander from 1856, was a member of the committee to revise the English version of the Bible, from 1878 to 1885, and in 1886 w T as chosen president of Yale University. Resigned 1899. AMERICAN HISTORY. 231 E. E Pluribus Unum. First suggested as the motto of the United States by Franklin, John Adams and Jefferson, August 10, 1776, they having been appointed the committee to choose a design for the Great Seal. It was probably suggested by the similar motto of the Gentle- man's Magazine, which had a popular circulation in the colonies at that time. It occurs in a Latin poem ascribed to Virgil and called "Moretuni." It first appeared on coin in New Jersey in 1786, when copper coins were issued in that State. Eads, James B. (1820-1SS7), was noted for his achievements in engineering, among them being the construction of the St. Louis bridge, with a central span of 520 feet, and the jetties at the mouth of the Mis- sissippi River. Eagan, Charles P., born in 1S41, commissary -general during the war with Spain. His reputation was involved in the charges made by General Miles relative to " embalmed beef," he made counter-accusa- tions, and was relieved from duty by McKinley in 1899. Eagle, a gold coin of the value of ten dollars. So called because of the figure of the national bird, which is stamped on the reverse. It was authorized in 1792 and coinage was begun in 1794. It has always been legal tender to an unlimited amount. The first delivery of eagles was made September 22, 1795, 400 in number. It was not coined from 1805 to 1837. By Act of 1834 its weight was slightly reduced. Eagle, American, see appendix, page 482. Early, Jubal Anderson (1815-1894), Confederate general, was attorney for Virginia from 1842 to 1844 and from 1848 to 1852, and served as major in the Mexican War from J847 to 1848. In 1861 he be- came a colonel in the Confederate army and fought at Bull Run and Williamsburg. Promoted to brigadier-general in 1863, ne was a com- mander at Fredericksburg and Gettysburg. Successful at first in his Shenandoah campaign, he was defeated by Sheridan on the Opequan, at Fisher's Hill and at Cedar Creek, and by General Custer at Waynes- boro. For these defeats he was retired. He was president of the South- ern Historical Society. East India Company, the Dutch trading company under whose auspices Henry Hudson in his vessel, the "Half Moon," sailed up the Hudson River and established three trading posts. The object of the 232 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. company was not colonization, but a monopoly of the fur trade. In 1621 a similar monopoly was granted by the States General to the newly- formed West India Company. I£aton, Dorman B., was born in Vermont in 1823. Prominent in promoting civil service reform, he was appointed a member of the Civil Service Commission by President Grant in 1873 and in 1883 by President Arthur, serving till 1886. He drafted the national civil service act of 1883, and has written extensively upon the subject. Eaton, John, bom in New Hampshire in 1829, served during the Civil War, and was appointed U. S. Commissioner of Education, serving from 1870 to 1886. He was president of the International Congress of Education at New Orleans, and vice-president of the Congress at Havre, France. Eaton, John H. ( 1 790-1 856), was a U. S. Senator from Tennessee from 1818 to 1829, was Secretary of War in Jackson's Cabinet from 1829 to 1831, and Minister to Spain from 1836 to 1840. He was one of Jack- son's closest friends and political advisers. Eaton, Margaret I,. (1796-1879) (" Peggy O'Neill "), a woman of great beauty and of fascinating manner, but of low social position, mar- ried John H. Eaton in 1828. When he became Secretary of War she was refused recognition by the families of the Cabinet members. Her cause was supported by President Jackson, who attempted to enforce her recognition, which led to the disruption of the Cabinet in 1831. Eaton, Theophilus (1591-1658), a prosperous English merchant, came to Massachusetts in 1637, explored the Connecticut coast, and in 1638 planted a colony at New Haven, of which he became one of the 1 ' Seven Pillars ' ' who formed the government and was made the first Governor. He was one of the commissioners who formed the " United Colonies of New England " in 1643. Eaton, William (1764-1811), born in Connecticut, served in the Revolutionary War from 1780 to 1783, and was Clerk of the Connecticut House of Representatives from 1791 to 1797. He was Consul at Tunis, where he conducted important negotiations from 1799 to 1803, and was U. S. Naval Agent to the Barbary States from 1804 to 1805. In 1805 he conducted the celebrated Derne expedition. Eden, Sir Robert, born in England, died in 1786. He was made Governor of Maryland in 1768, and ruled with moderation, causing the Maryland colonists to hope for reconciliation with Great Britain at the outbreak of the Revolution. In 1776 he was obliged to depart. ' V> oK Til r > AMERICAN HISTORY. ' 233 Edes, Benjamin (1732-1803), from 1755 to 1798 was editor of the Boston Gazette and Country Journal, which became very influential during the Revolutionary period. He materially aided the members of the ' ' Boston Tea Party " in 1 773. Edison, Thomas A., was born in Ohio in 1847. One of the most successful of inventors, he accomplishes his great achievements empir- ically by almost incessant labor. Among his inventions are the carbon telephone, the phonograph, the microtasimeter, by which has been measured the heat of the sun's corona, and the quadruplex system of telegraphy. Edmunds, George Franklin, Senator, was born in Vermont in 1828. He was a representative in the Vermont Legislature from 1854 to 1859 (except one year), serving as Speaker for three years, and was president pro tempore of the State Senate from 1861 to 1862. He drew up the resolutions adopted at the convention for uniting the Republicans and the War Democrats. In 1866 he was appointed to succeed Solomon Foote, deceased, in the U. S. Senate, and held office till his resignation in 1891. In 1877 he was a member of the Electoral Commission. While in the Senate he served as chairman of the Judiciary Committee, and had the drafting of many important bills. His services in the Senate were marked by uprightness of character, ability to detect imperfections in pending legislation, and hostility to irregular procedure. Edmunds Act, a bill submitted by Senator Edmunds, of Vermont, and passed by Congress March 22, 1882, to regulate and restrict the polygamous institutions of the Mormons in Utah. Under its provisions Mormons were in a great measure excluded from local offices, which they had hitherto wholly controlled. Many persons were indicted and punished for polygamy also. Education, Bureau of. This office was established in 1867 for the purpose of collecting statistics showing the condition and progress of education in the States and Territories, and of diffusing such informa- tion as might promote the cause of education throughout the country. At first an independent office, it was in 1868 made a bureau of the De- partment of the Interior. Educational Land Grants. In the disposal of the lands of the Northwest Territory large tracts were, in some instances, granted to the States formed therefrom, to be sold by the State Legislatures for an educational endowment ; or else the lands were sold by the Federal Government, and a percentage of the proceeds bestowed upon the State for the erection of schools and colleges. When Illinois became a State 234 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. three per cent, of the proceeds of the sales of public lands was granted for this purpose, to be paid as fast as the sales were made. Iu 1829 the Legislature borrowed the school fund for State purposes, aud failed to pay interest thereon, hence the Federal grant was withheld for some years. The total amount received was 1712,745.24. In Michigan, the charge of the public lands was intrusted first to the Territorial, and then, in 1835, to the State Legislature. In general, these grants were mismanaged by the States. Edward, Fort, erected on the Hudson River in 1755, and at first called Fort Lyman after the builder ; an important post during the French and Indian War. It was garrisoned, in 1755, by the Earl of Loudoun and 2,500 men, and afterward by General Webb. From this fort there were frequent expeditions against the French along the Cana- dian border. After the massacre at Fort William Henry, in 1757, the remnant of the latter's garrison took refuge in Fort Edward. The French General Montcalm proposed to attack Fort Edward, but failed to do so. During the winter of 1757 the troops under General Webb, tired of inaction, mutinied and caused serious trouble. Captain Havi- land then assumed command, and dispatched a scouting expedition under Rogers against the French border in 1758. This party was defeated near Lake George. Udwards, Jonathan (1703-1758), born in Connecticut, was the most eminent metaphysician America has ever produced. In 1727 he was ordained pastor at Northampton, Mass., where he remained until 1750. From 1 75 1 to 1758 he preached to the Indians at Stockbridge. He was a most prolific writer upon religion and metaphysics, and in 1754 published his famous " Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will." Egfgleston, Udward, was born in 1837. He is a popular novelist and the author of a series of biographies of American Indians and a history of social life in the colonies. 3$ight-Hour I/aw. The Act of August 1, 1892, restricts to eight hours the working day of all laborers and mechanics employed by the United States Government, by the District of Columbia, or by any con- tractor upon any of the public works. Violation of this law is punish- able by fine and imprisonment. J$l Bracito, N. M., a short, but hotly contested, battle between Colonel Doniphan's army of 900 men and a force of 1,100 Mexicans, under an officer named Ponce de Leon, December 24, 1846. These troops charged upon the Americans, but were easily repulsed by a volley AMERICAN HISTORY. 235 from rifles. This occurred during Doniphan's celebrated expedition against Chihuahua to join and relieve General Wool. 331 Dorado, meaning " The Gilded Man." Among the Muysea Indians of Bogotd it was customary, at the time of the Spanish explorations of the sixteenth century, for each new chief, with his naked body anointed with resinous gums and covered with gold dust, to head a solemn pro- cession to the Lake of Govita, and to wash himself therein after much impressive ceremony. At the same time the assembled savages cast into the lake gold trinkets and precious stones, as offerings to the goddess of the lake, the drowned wife of a former chieftain. Hence the term el dorado came to be applied to any place where gold was re- ported to exist. Many expeditions were undertaken in search of the mythical el dorado by the Spaniards. South America, Mexico and Florida were all, at different times, supposed to be the country of the long sought el dorado. flection I,aws. Each colony and State has had its own laws for local elections. The Constitution gives the Congress power to regulate Federal elections. Elections to the Senate were first put upon a uni- form plan by Federal legislation in 1866, and elections to the House by Act of 1875. Elections. In the colonial period only Massachusetts (till 1691), Connecticut and Rhode Island elected their Governors. But in all the people elected their Representatives in the Assembly, and this was done cither by ballot or, as in Virginia, after the English manner, viva voce. Election disturbances were common in the Southern colonies, though laws against violence and treating prevailed. Under the Constitution of 1787 the Federal Congress did not pass laws controlling the election of Senators until 1866, when the present system was introduced, nor of Representatives, completely, until 1875. The first Presidential election was held in January and February of 1789. The times of election formerly varied much in different States, but now nearly all elect their Congressmen in November. Electoral Commission, a commission appointed by an Act of Congress, January 29, 1877, to investigate certain charges of fraudulent return of electoral votes from Florida, Louisiana, Oregon and South Carolina, during the Presidential election of 1876. Hayes and Tilden were the respective Republican and Democratic candidates for that term. The commission numbered fifteen : three Republican Senators, two Democratic Senators, three Democratic Representatives, two Republican Representatives, and five Associate Justices of the Supreme Court. 236 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Bradley, the fifth Justice selected, had the casting vote. February 9, the commission sustained the validity of the Hayes electoral ticket in Florida, and later gave similar decisions regarding the other States. The appointment of a commission of this sort was hitherto an unheard- of step and has by some been deemed unconstitutional. Electors. The Constitution provides that a number of electors for choosing the President and Vice-President shall be appointed by each State, equal to the number of Senators and Representatives from that State, no one of them holding a public national office. Electors have been chosen in four different ways : by joint ballot of the State Legis- latures, by a concurrent vote of the two branches of the Legislature, by a general vote and by a district vote. By 1872 the general ticket method was adopted in every State. An elector is chosen from each Congressional district. Originally the electors voted for two persons without designating either as President or Vice-President. The one receiving the greatest number of votes was President. If no one had a majority the House was to choose from the five highest. Under the Twelfth Amendment the electors vote for President and Vice- President as such, and if the election goes to the House of Represent- atives the choice is from the three highest instead of from the five highest, as originally provided. Eliot, John (1604-1690), "the Apostle of the Indians," emigrated to Boston from England in 1631. Soon after his arrival he began studying the Indian language and translated portions of the Gospel, and in 1646 began to preach to the Indians without the aid of an interpreter. In 1660 he founded an Indian church at Natick, and in 1663 a catechism was published, the first publication ever made in the Indian language. The same year he completed a translation of both the Old and New Testaments. Eliot's Indian Bible is now a rare book, commanding a very high price. Elisabeth (1533-1603) , Queen of England from 1558 to 1603, granted in 1578 to Sir Humphrey Gilbert letters patent to conquer and possess any heathen lands not already in the hands of Christians. Gilbert's expedition failed. In 1584 Elizabeth granted a similar charter to Raleigh. In 1585, with the Queen's assistance, Raleigh sent seven vessels and 100 colonists to settle in Virginia, which had been taken in the Queen's name under the charter of 1584 and named by Elizabeth. In 1602 Gosnold named (one of) the Elizabeth Islands for her. Elifcabethtown (Brockville, near the Thousand Islands). Here, in the War of 1812, were confined some American prisoners. February 7, AMERICAN HISTORY. 237 1813, Major Forsyth crossed the river, released the captives, seized some military stores and a number of British, and returned without the loss of a man. Ulk Creek, Ind. Terr. Here General Blunt, leading 2,400 National soldiers toward Fort Blunt, encountered the Confederate General Cooper at the head of 5,000 men. A brief fight took place in which Cooper was worsted. Ulkins, Stephen B., born in 1841, was a delegate in Congress from New Mexico from 1873 to ^77, and was Secretary of War from 1 89 1 to 1893, in the Cabinet of President Benjamin Harrison. Elected to United States Senate 1895. Ellicott, Andrew (1754-1820), of Pennsylvania, surveyed and laid Out the City of Washington in 1790, and was surveyor-general of the United States in 1792. In 1796 he was appointed a commissioner to determine the boundary between the United States and the Spanish possessions on the south. Elliot, Jonathan (1784-1846), came to New York from England about 1802, served in the navy in 1812 ; was editor of the collection called " Elliot's Debates on the Constitution," and author of numerous political works concerning the United States. Elliott, Jesse D. (1782-1845), entered the navy in 1804, captured the " Detroit " and " Caledonia " from the British at Fort Erie in 1812, commanded the " Madison " at the capture of York, and served with distinction in the battle of Lake Erie. Ellmaker, Amos (1 787-1 851), served in the Pennsylvania Legisla- ture from 1812 to 1814, was State Attorney-General from 1816 to 1819 and in 1832 was the Anti-Masonic candidate for Vice-President of the United States. EUskwatawa, born about 1770, a Shawnee Indian prophet, brother of Tecumseh, ordered the attack at Tippecanoe in 181 1. Ellsworth, Oliver (1 745-1807), was admitted to the Connecticut bar in 1771, and became State's Attorney in 1775. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1778 to 1783, and from 1780 to 1784 was a member of the Governor's Council. He was Judge of the Con- necticut Supreme Court from 1784 to 1787, when he became a member of the Federal Convention at Philadelphia, and was of influence in securing the compromise in the Constitution which reconciled the in- terests of the small States and the large States. He was a U. S. Senator from 1789 to 1796, when he resigned ; was Chief Justice of the U. S. 23S ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Supreme Court from 1796 to 1800, and Envoy Extraordinary to France in 1799. Elsworth, E. E. (1837-1861), in 1861 was appointed colonel of a regiment of Zouaves, and was shot by the proprietor of a hotel in Alex- andria, Va., while tearing down a Confederate flag from the hotel. Ulmira, New York, was the scene of a sharp engagement, August 29, 1779, between 600 Americans led by Generals Sullivan and Clinton, against 700 Tories and savages that had fortified themselves at that point. The Americans were successful, and driving out the enemy laid waste the country and destroyed forty Indian villages. Emancipation Proclamation. During the first eighteen months of the Civil War President Lincoln listened unmoved to the clamorings of abolitionists for an emancipation proclamation. He declared he would preserve the Union without freeing the slaves, if such a thing were pos- sible. September 22, 1862, he issued a preliminary proclamation that, unless the inhabitants of the revolted States returned to their allegiance by January 1, the slaves should be declared free. This had no effect. January 1, 1863, the proclamation was issued declaring the freedom of slaves in all the States which had seceded except fort} T -eight counties of West Virginia, seven counties in Virginia, including the cities of Nor- folk and Portsmouth, and thirteen parishes of Louisiana, including New Orleans. These districts were practically under the control of the Union army. Lincoln expected the proclamation to take effect grad- ually. Its legal effect has been disputed ; its practical effect was enormous. Embargo, a prohibition of commerce by national authority, laid in various forms and at various times from 1794 until 1815. Upon the declaration of war between France and Great Britain in 1793, each government ordered the seizure of neutral vessels bound for the ports of the other. This caused great excitement in the United States, and the first embargo was laid March 26, 1794, to continue for thirty days and afterward prolonged to sixty. In consequence of the depredations of England and France upon the neutral commerce of the United States, the non-importation act was passed April 18, 1806, prohibiting trade with Great Britain and her colonies, but it did not go into effect until December 4. On December 22, 1807, Congress, at the instance of Mr. Jefferson, passed an embargo act, prohibiting the sailing of any merchant vessel from any American port, save coasters. The act was extensively evaded. The embargo failed to bring either England or France to terms, and meanwhile it inflicted great injury on the shipping AMERICAN HISTORY. 239 interest and the export trade of the United States. On February 28, 1809, an act was passed repealing the embargo, and replacing it by a non-intercourse law which forbade British or French vessels to enter American ports. Another embargo act was passed in 1813, during the Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1803-1882), called the sage of Concord, an eminent American poet and philosopher, was born in Boston. He was ordained a preacher of the Gospel in 1829, but resigned his pastor- ate in 1832, because he could not sympathize with the formalities prac- ticed in the Church. He then began his career as an eminent lecturer, giving courses of lectures for the most part upon biographical and philosophical subjects. He contributed largely to periodicals and pub- lished numerous works in literature and philosophy. His influence upon the more thoughtful portion of the American public has never been surpassed. He resided in Concord, Mass., during all the latter part of his life. Emory, William K., born in 181 1, was one of the Mexico and U. S. boundary commissioners, and served with distinction during the Civil War, at Yorktown, Sabine Crossroads, Fisher's Hill and Cedar Creek, attaining the rank of major-general. Endicott, John (1588 ?-i665), arrived from England in 1628 to as- sume the government of the colony at Salem, where he continued Gov- ernor till 1630, at which time the government of the Massachusetts Company and colony was transferred to New England. From 1641 to 1644 and in 1650 he was Deputy Governor, and was made Governor in 1644, 1649, an( * fr° m 165 1 to 1665 except 1654, when he was again Deputy Governor. In 1645 he was appointed to the highest command in the colonial army, and in 1658 was made president of the colonial commissioners. He was a man of firm convictions but of choleric dis- position, who tolerated no divergence from the strictly orthodox in religion, and meted out a severe type of justice to all who disobeyed the laws of the colony. Endieott, William C, born in 1827, was a Judge in the Massa- chusetts Supreme Court from 1S73 to l8 82, and from 1885 to 1889 was Secretary of War in Cleveland's Cabinet. England, John (1786-1842), born in Ireland, was made Bishop of North and South Carolina and Georgia in 1850, and was the first Cath- olic clergyman invited to preach in the Hall of Representatives 3t Washington. 2 4 o ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. English, William H., born in 1822, was secretary of the Indiana Constitutional Convention in 1850, Speaker of the State Legislature in 1851, U. S. Congressman from 1853 *° 1861, and the Democratic candi- date for Vice-President in 1880. Died 1896. " Enterprise," an American brig of fourteen guns, Captain Burrows. September 5, 1813, the brig, while sailing off the Maine coast, met the British brig •' ' Boxer, ' ' also of fourteen guns. Both vessels opened fire at the same time. The wind was light and the cannonading very de- structive. The ' ' Enterprise, ' ' crossing the bows of the ' ' Boxer, ' ' gave such a raking fire that the latter surrendered. The battle lasted forty minutes. Both commanders were killed. Two days later the prize was taken into Portland harbor. Entomological Commission, a commission created by Act of Congress, March 3, 1877, and placed under the supervision of the Inte- rior Department. Epworth league, an organization of young people of the Metho- dist Episcopal Church formed in 1889. There are now (1893)10,972 local leagues and over 650,000 members. Equal Rights Party, 1884, the title assumed by a party headed by Belva Lockwood in 1884. Belva Lockwood was its self-nominated Presidential candidate, her platform advocating woman suffrage. Era of Good Feeling, a name applied to the period between 1817 and 1823, during Monroe's administration, when national political contests were suspended, the Democrats having a triumphant majority and the Federalist party being almost extinct. The War of 181 2 was ended and the new issues of tariff and internal improvement had not arisen. Mon- roe's inaugural address soothed the few Federalists and the leaders of both parties joined in receiving the President and announcing the " era of good feeling." Eric the Red, a Norwegian who is reported to have been banished from Iceland and to have gone on a voyage of discovery about 981, in which he landed at a place previously discovered by Gunniborn. On his return three years later he called it Greenland. Thither about 985 he led an expedition and planted a colony. About 986 a vessel on its way to the settlement wandered from its course and landed on a coast nine days' sail south of Greenland, and in 1000 a. d., a son of Eric the Red made a voyage of discovery to this region and named it Vinland, which is supposed to have been somewhere on the New England coast. Authorities differ as to the authenticity of this account, but the general AMERICAN HISTORY. 241 opinion prevails that some such discoveries were made, though the de- tails are not reliable. Ericsson, John (1803-1889), born in Sweden, early in life gave promise of great achievements in invention. He came to the United States in 1839, and in 1841 produced the war steamer "Princeton," which revolutionized the navies of the world. During the Civil War he was employed in building monitors ; the first of which, the " Monitor," destroyed the Confederate ironclad " Merrimac " in 1862. He is the author of a great number of valuable inventions, the most important of which are connected with engines and naval equipments. Erie Canal, the most important artificial water-course in the United States. Its construction was conceived by De Witt Clinton in 1812 and begun as a State work in 1817, being completed in 1825. It extends 363 miles through New York State, through what was, at the time of its commencement, a wilderness, from the Hudson River at Albany and Troy to Lake Erie at Buffalo. Clinton had at first intended it should be a national enterprise, and from the interest he displayed, he was deputed with others to lay the plan before the General Government, but without success. It was executed instead as a State work, chiefly during his Gov- ernorship of New York. It contributed enormously to the development of the West and of the trade prosperity of New York City and State. Property along the canal has increased enormously and the tolls have been a valuable addition to the State revenue. Erie, Fort, Can., during the War of 1812, was abandoned and fired with all its stores, May 28, 1813, by orders of General Vincent. The same day the Americans crossed the Niagara and took possession of the ruins. After the Americans had withdrawn from the Canadian shore, the British rebuilt the fort and stationed there 170 men under command of Major Buck. July 3, 1813, General Jacob Brown, preparatory to an invasion of Canada, invested the fort, and on demand it surrendered. The fort was now strengthened, and made capable of enduring a siege. After the battle of Niagara, the British advanced against the American position. From August 7 to 14 the bombardment was almost incessant. At two o'clock on the morning of the fifteenth, the British, 1,500 strong, tried to surprise the Americans. Attacks were made upon three points, but one only was successful. The main bastion of the fort was captured and held against all attack. Suddenly its magazine blew up with tre- mendous force, the attack was renewed and the British retreated, leaving 221 dead, 174 wounded and 186 prisoners. The Americans lost, all told, 137 men. The siege still continued, the attacking works were continu- ally pushed nearer ; but on September 17 General Brown, in charge at Vol. V.— 16 242 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. the fort, planned a sortie to destroy the British works. An attack in three divisions was arranged and executed undercover of a fog. It was completely successful. The works were captured and destroyed, the British broke camp and gave up the siege, leaving behind over 800 men killed, captured or wounded. When the Americans finally abandoned Canada, Fort Erie was blown up November 5, 1814, and never rebuilt. Erskine, David Montagu, Baron (1 776-1855), was British Min- ister to the United States from 1806 to 1809 (being then simply Mr. Erskine). In 1809 he officially announced that atonement would be made for the " Chesapeake " outrage, and that the British orders in council would be withdrawn, provided the American embargo and non- intercourse acts ceased as to Great Britain. In consequence of this, President Madison proclaimed that, on June 10, 1809, all interdicts against Great Britain would cease. The British Ministry repudiated the Erskine arrangements and declared them unauthorized. President Madison was, therefore, compelled to restore the suspension of inter- 3 course on August 9. "Ussex," U. S. frigate of thirty-two guns, Captain Porter, was at- tacked on August 13, 181 2, by the " Alert," a twenty-gun sloop-of-war. One broadside from the " Essex " nearly sunk the " Alert," and caused its surrender. Late in the year the ' ' Essex ' ' started on an independent cruise in the Pacific. Here it did noble service. It captured nearly every British whaling vessel off the west coast of South America, and deprived the enemy of $2,500,000 worth of property and 360 seamen. In February, 1814, it was surprised while in the port of Valparaiso by the appearance of two British men-of-war, the "Phcebe," thirty-six guns, and the "Cherub," twenty-two guns. On March 28, 1814, the " Essex " set sail for the open sea, and was at once attacked by the enemy. It was a desperate and bloody battle. After two-thirds of its men had been killed or disabled, including every officer but one, and with his vessel a helpless wreck, Captain Porter surrendered. Ivssex Junto, the name applied first by John Hancock in 178 1 to a group of leaders of Essex County, Massachusetts, and their adherents. They were upholders of the commercial interests of the country, and desired a stronger Federal Government. Upon the development of the Federal party they at once fell in line and were extreme members of that party. President Adams accused them of trying to force a war with France in 1798-99, and thus they acquired a national reputation. During the embargo period the name became a synonym for New Eng- land Federalism. Among its number were Fisher Ames, Cabot, tht Lowells, Pickering, Theophilus Parsons, Higginson and Goodhue. AMERICAN HISTORY. 243 Estaing:, Charles H. T., Count d' (1729-1794), a French naval officer, commanded the fleet sent in 177C to aid the colonies against Great Britain, and brought Gerard, the first French Envoy to the United States. He planned an attack upon the British fleet in Newport harbor, but the campaign was not successful, and in 1779 with General Lincoln he attempted to take the city of Savannah by assault. He cap- tured a number of British vessels, and on his return to France he pre- vailed upon the Ministry to send 6,000 men to America under Count de Rochambeau. Eustis, James B. (1S34-1899), belonged to the Louisiana branch of the famous Eustis family. Was U. S. Senator from 1879 to 1891, and Minister to France from 1893 to 1897. Died 1899. I$U8tis, William (1 753-1825), represented Massachusetts in Con- gress from 1801 to 1805, and from 1820 to 1823. From 1809 to 1813 he was Secretary of War in Madison's Cabinet. From 1814 to 1818 he was Minister to Holland, and from 1823 to 1825 was Governor of Massa- chusetts. Eutaw Springs, Battle of, September 8, 1781. Shortly after the capture of Ninety-Six, Greene moved upon the British so secretly they were not aware of his presence. At Eutaw Springs he came upon them. At 4 a. m. on September 8, Greene attacked the British in his usual order. The militia in the first line under Marion and Pickens did gallant service and was supported by the regulars in the second line. A bayonet charge followed, the British were routed and many fell or were made prisoners. A little later the retreating British took shelter in a brick house. Greene's artillery was brought to bear upon it in vain. The gunners were shot and the pieces captured. A cavalry charge by Colonel Washington was repulsed and that officer was taken prisoner. Thus there were two engagements. In the first Greene won a brilliant victory, in the second he lost many of his best men. The total Ameri- can loss was 554, that of the British 1,000. Again a tactical defeat proved to the Americans a strategic victory. In the course of the night the British retreated to Charleston in such haste as to leave their wounded. Evans, Sir George de I,acy (1 787-1870), led the British soldiers who destroyed the public buildings in Washington in 18 14, and served at Bladensburg, Baltimore and New Orleans. Bvarts, William Maxwell, lawyer and Senator, was born in Boston in 1818. In i860 he was chairman of the New York delegation to the Republican convention. In 1865 and 1866 he established the unconsti- 244 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. tutionality of State taxation of U. S. bonds or National Bank stock, and in 1868 was counsel for President Johnson in the impeachment trial. From 1868 to 1869 he was Attorney-General of the United States, and in 1872 was U. S. counsel on the "Alabama " claims at Geneva. In 1877 he was the Republican counsel before the Electoral Commission, and was Secretary of State from 1877 to 1881, in the Cabinet of President Hayes. He was a delegate to the International Monetary Conference in 1881, and from 1885 to 1891 was a U. S. Senator from New York. Everett, Edward (1794-1865), an eminent American statesman, orator and scholar, was born in Massachusetts. He was graduated from Harvard at the age of seventeen, and in 1813 was ordained pastor of a church in Boston, but resigned in 1814. In 1819 he accepted a position as professor of Greek at Harvard College and held it until 1829, when he became editor of the North America?i Review. From 1836 to 1840 he was Governor of Massachusetts, chosen by the Whigs. He was ap- pointed Minister Plenipotentiary to Great Britain, and served from 1841 to 1845, when he became president of Harvard, resigning in 1849. He was Secretary of State for four months in 1852 at the close of President Fillmore's administration, and from 1853 to 1854 was a member of the U. S. Senate. In i860 the " Constitutional Union party " made him its candidate for the Vice-Presidency. Evertseti, Cornells, a Dutch naval officer, born in Zealand. In command of a squadron he secured the surrender of New York by the British in 1673, changed its name to New Orange, and re-established the old form of government, with Colve as Governor. Ewell, Richard S. (1817-1872), general, was graduated at the U. S. Military Academy in 1840, and served in the Mexican War from 1846 to 1848. He entered the Confederate army as a brigadier-general, fought at Blackburn's Ford and at Bull Run, and was promoted major- general in the Shenandoah campaign. He served with distinction at Malvern Hill and at Cedar Mountain. In 1863 he commanded Jackson's troops, and fought at Gettysburg, the Wilderness and Spottsylvania Court House. He surrendered to Sheridan in 1865 at Sailor's Creek with his entire force of 6,000 men. lowing, Thomas (1789-1871), statesman, born in Ohio, was admit- ted to the bar in 181 6. From 1831 to 1837 he represented Ohio in the U. S. Senate, where he supported Clay's tariff system, advocated the recharter of the U. S. Bank, and also the M Force Bill," and opposed the removal of the deposits from the U. S. Bank. In 1841 he was ap- pointed Secretary of the Treasury in Harrison's Cabinet, and was the AMERICAN HISTORY. 245 first Secretary of the Interior, serving in Taylor's Cabinet from 1849 to 1850. From 1850 to 1851 he was in the U. S. Senate, succeeding Thomas Corwin. Excise I^aw. The first excise law was passed after an excited de- bate in 1790, Secretary Hamilton insisting upon the necessity of such an enactment. It levied a tax varying from nine to twenty-five cents upon every gallon of liquors distilled in the United States and a higher rate for imported liquors. Iyower rates were established in 1792. The op- position was strong throughout the country, culminating in the Whiskey Insurrection in Pennsylvania in 1794. During Jefferson's administration the excise was abolished, but was revived in 1813 during the War of 1812, imposing a tax on liquor, sugar, salt, carriages, and instruments of exchange, and a stamp duty. In 181 7 these duties were repealed and no excise duty was levied until 1862, during the Civil War. This system embraced taxation upon occupations and trades, sales, gross re- ceipts and dividends, incomes of individuals, firms and corporations, manufactures, legacies, liquors, tobacco, distributive shares and succes- sions. (See Internal Revenue.) Exectitiye. The executives of the colonials were their Governors, appointed by the crown in most colonies, elected by the people in Rhode Island and Connecticut and in early Massachusetts. At the outbreak of the Revolution, after the royal Governors had ceased to control, and before the new Constitutions were set up, the executive was the com- mittee or council of safety. The States, in making their Constitutions, mostly instituted Governors, though some created an executive council, forming an executive like that of Switzerland. From 1775 to 1789 the U. S. Government had no other executive than Congress. The Constitution of 1787 gave executive powers to the President, the Senate sharing in the executive powers of appointment and treaty making. There was talk in the convention of a plural executive, but a single head was finally resolved on. Executive departments had already come into existence. The Continental Congress at first managed all execu- tive business through committees. Later, commissions were formed, partly of its own members, partly of others. Early in 1781 Congress organized departments under single heads — the Secretary for Foreign Affairs the Superintendent of Finance, the Secretary of War and the Secretary of Marine. Exhibitions. The first exhibition of national importance held in the United States was one held in New York in 1853, the next the Cen- tennial of 1876, held at Philadelphia, both as an international exposi- 246 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. tion of this country's progress in its hundreth year of existence and an anniversary. The Centennial was under the management of the city of Philadelphia, and was open from May 10 to November 10. Many foreign nations were represented. The exhibition cost over $15,000,000. The International Cotton Exposition was held at Atlanta, Ga., from October 5 to December 31, 1881. It was suggested by Mr. Edward Atkinson, of Boston, and was designed to show the progress in the manipulation of cotton. The Southern Exposition opened at Louisville, Ky., August 1, 1883, and continued 100 days. The World's Columbian Exposition was created by Act of Congress April 25, 1890. The dedica- tion ceremonies took place October 21, 1892, and the opening May 1, 1893. The exposition terminated October 30. The total cost was about $25,000,000. The exposition was held at Jackson Park, Chicago, nearly every nation being represented. The Midwinter Exhibition in Califor- nia, 1893-94, is also to be noted, and the Omaha Exposition of 1898. Expansion, see appendix, page 482. Expatriation. There is no law in the United States permitting the voluntary expatriation of a citizen. Expatriation has been pleaded be- fore the Supreme Court frequently, but has been allowed in no case. It has been claimed that freedom of emigration involved the right of voluntary expatriation, and many learned authorities have argued that such is the fact, and that expatriation is a natural right. So far as cus- tom and usage sanctions the right has been accorded, the United States Government having in a number of instances refused protection to both native-born and naturalized citizens, on the ground that they have expatriated themselves. Expenditures. In 1794 the total expenditures of the Federal Gov- ernment amounted to $6,300,000, in 1814 they temporarily ran up to $34,700,000. In 1834 they were $18,600,000 ; in 1854, $55,000,000. During the war they ran up to $1,295,000,000 in 1865. Then they declined to $237,000,000 in 1878. During the ensuing decade they averaged $260,000,000 per annum. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1893, they were $459,400,000. Of the annual expenditures, interest charges have sometimes been a large amount. In times of peace, expenditures for the army have usually been about two-thirds those for the civil depart- ments of government work, those for the navy about two-thirds those of the army. Since 1888 pensions have been the largest item, amount- ing to $140,000,000 annually. Exports. The specie value of American exports in 1790 was $20,200,000. Except in years of war and embargo exports steadily rose until in 1836 they amounted to $129,000,000. In i860 they amounted to AMERICAN HISTORY. 247 $400,000,000 ; in 1870 to $451,000,000 ; in 1880 to $871,000,000 ; in 1892 to $1,113,000,000 ; in 1899 nearly $2,000,000,000. Express. This system of transportation was begun March 4, 1839, by William F. Harnden, who established express communication be- tween New York and Boston. Alvin Adams and P. B. Burke started the Adams Express Company in 1840. The Wells-Fargo Company was started in 1845, tne United States Express Company in 1853. Expunging Resolution. In 1834 a resolution of censure had been adopted by Congress against President Jackson for removing cer- tain money deposits from the Bank of the United States. This resolu- tion was expunged by the ' ' Expunging Resolution ' ' of January 16, 1837, Senator Benton being the prime mover toward its adoption. Clay, Webster and Calhoun opposed it with vehemence. A black line was drawn in the Journal around the resolution of censure, and the words " Expunged by order of the Senate this sixteenth day of January, 1837," inserted. Extradition, International. The first treaty of the United States which made any provision for extradition was the Jay Treaty of 1794, and Congress made no law to carry this into effect. After this, the first ex- tradition treaty concluded by the United States was the treaty of 1842 with Great Britain. In 1875, in the case of a criminal who had committed an offense not mentioned in the treaty, the United States procured his extra- dition on another charge, then tried him on the first. Great Britain protested against this. In many ways the treaty of 1842 had become in- applicable to modern conditions. In 1886 the Phelps-Rosebery Conven- tion, which aimed to substitute a more satisfactory system, was rejected by the Senate. But in 1889 the Senate ratified the Blaine-Pauncefote Con- vention, which accomplished the desired results. Extradition treaties have been concluded with all the leading countries of the world, and most of the minor countries : France, 1843 ; Hawaii, 1849 J Switzer- land, 1850 ; Prussia, 1852, etc. Extradition, Interstate. The New England Confederation of 1643 provided for the mutual extradition of criminals, and so did the Articles of Confederation. The Constitution provides that a person charged with crime in any State, who flees to another State, shall, on demand of the Governor of the State from which he fled, be given up. An act of 1793 provided the process. Ezra Chapel, Ga. Here, July 28, 1864, Hood, leading about 30,000 Confederates from his intrenchments in Atlanta, which was then in- vested by Sherman's Army of the Tennessee, advanced against the 248 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Federal troops, consisting of three corps under Sherman and Logan. The Federals were engaged in throwing up earthworks, but stopped hastily and received Hood's charge stanchly. Hood was defeated with great loss and forced back to his fortifications within the town. Fair Oaks, or Seven Pities, Va., a two days' engagement in the Peninsular campaign, May 31, June 1, 1862, between the Confederates, numbering about 35,000 men under Johnston, and a detachment of some 11,000 troops of McClellan's army under Casey. That leader had been sent across the Chickahominy River, and was accordingly isolated from the main army. Johnston decided to attack him. He therefore sent Hill and Longstreet against Casey's left flank and Gustavus Smith against his right. Casey was overwhelmed, and retreated to Couch's position at Seven Pines, where the latter was fiercely defending him- self and waiting for reinforcements from Heintzelman. The Confeder- ates were forcing their way down along the Chickahominy to Bottom's Bridge, when they were intercepted by Sumner's batteries and routed with great slaughter. Fairehild, Charles S., born in 1842, was Attorney-General of New York from 1876 to 1878. He was Assistant Secretary of the Treasury in Cleveland's Cabinet from 1887 to 1889. Fairehild, Lucius, born in 1831, was Governor of Wisconsin from 1865 to 1871. He was U. S. Consul at Liverpool from 1872 to 1878, Consul-General in Paris from 1878 to 1880, and U. S. Minister to Spain from 1880 to 1882. Died 1896. Fairfax, Thomas, sixth Baron (1691-1782), came from England to an inherited estate of over five million acres in Virginia, where he lived from 1745 to 1782. He was a patron and intimate friend of Washington. Falling Waters, W. Va., a smart skirmish between Federal and Confederate troops under Generals Patterson and Johnston respectively. This occurred early in July, 1861, during Patterson's campaign in West Virginia. Faneuil Hall, the gift to Boston (1742) of Peter Faneuil, a mer- chant. The hall was begun in 1740. It was designed to be both a mar- ket-house and a place of public meeting. In 1761 it was destroyed by AMERICAN HISTORY. 249 fire. It was restored in 1763, and was used as a theater during the British occupation of Boston, in 1775. In 1805 it was enlarged by the addition of a third story and an increase in width. During the Revolu- tion it was the usual meeting place of patriots, and was the scene of many stirring debates and important resolutions. It has been called the " Cradle of American Liberty." Fannin, James W. (1800-1836), of Texas, commanded a force in 1836 at Coleta River against General Urrea. After his surrender 357 of their number, including Fannin, were shot by the Mexicans. Farewell Address. Upon Washington's retirement in 1796 he adopted the suggestion made him by Madison, and delivered a farewell address to the American people, partly from Madison's draft of 1792 and partly from a draft made by Hamilton and himself. Its most important paragraph was a recommendation of abstention from interference in European affairs. Andrew Jackson also delivered a farewell address in 1837. Faribault, John P. (i769?-i86o), a pioneer of great influence over the Indians among whom he traded ; was the first to cultivate land west of the Mississippi and north of the Des Moines. Farmers' Alliance, an anti-secret, national organization of agri- culturists for mutual improvement and furtherance of political ends. It was founded in New York in 1873 an ^ spread rapidly westward. Alli- ances were at first State organizations. The national organization was completed in 1889 with the " Agricultural Wheel " under the name of " National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union." Annual conven- tions have been held at different places, the most noted at Ocala in 1890. The Alliance is opposed to national banks, the alien ownership of land, special privileges and Federal election laws. Farmington, Miss., occupied by General Pope's brigade of Hal- leck's Federal army, May 20, 1862. Halleck was engaged in concen- trating his forces about Corinth, and Pope was ordered to push on and occupy Farmington. Buell was to join Pope at this place, but was delayed, and Pope's advance was therefore slow. Two brief, but severe, engagements took place May 3 and 9, before Pope finally joined Buell. The Confederates were defeated. Farmington, Tenn., a battle of the Civil War during Wheeler's raid through Tennessee. At Farmington Wheeler fell in with Crook, leading a strong National force, who effectually stopped his ravaging in that neighborhood by defeating him. 250 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Farragut, David Glasgow (1801-1870), the most famous naval hero of modern times, entered the U. S. navy at the age of nine, rn the War of 181 2, while a mere boy, he was intrusted with important missions ; but in the long period of peace he found little opportunity for distinction. A Southerner by birth, he threw in his lot with the Union, and toward the end of the first year's fighting in the war he was assigned to important command. He had charge of the flotilla in the approach to New Orleans in April, 1862 ; his fame was founded on the passage of the river past the forts on April 24, which caused the fall of the city and its delivery into the hands of the Federals under Butler. On June 28 he ran the batteries of Vicksburg, and the following year, having meanwhile received the rank of rear-admiral, he contributed to the fall of Port Hudson and the final opening of the river. The greatest event in Farragut's life, and one of the greatest naval battles in modern times, was the battle of Mobile Bay on August 5, 1864. Farragut's oversight of the contest while lashed to the mast of his flag-ship, the 4 ' Hartford, ' ' has become one of the most familiar episodes of the war. The office of vice-admiral was specially created for him in December, 1864, and that of admiral in 1866. Faulkner, Charles J. (1806-1S84), author of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, was a U. S. Congressman from Virginia from 1 851 to 1859, Minister to France from 1859 to 1861, when he was recalled as disloyal. He was a U. S. Representative from 1875 to 1877. Federal Hall, in New York, the building upon the balcony of which George Washington received the oath and made his first in- augural address, April 30, 1789. The hall had been fitted up for the use of the first Congress. " Federalist,' ' a collection of papers first published in the Inde- pendent Journal, of New York City, by Hamilton, Madison and Jay, from October, 1787, until March, 1788. They were eighty-five in num- ber and appeared under a joint signature, " A Citizen of New York," at first, afterward " Publius." The first of these essays appeared immedi- ately after the adoption of the Constitution. They were in explanation and defense of the new system of government. Gouverneur Morris was also invited to take part, but was prevented by private business. Jay wrote five, Hamilton fifty-one, Madison twenty-six and their joint effort contributed three, by the most probable conclusions. These papers did much toward securing the ratification of the Constitution, and form one of the most important commentaries on the Constitution. Federalists, Federal Party, the first political party which had AMERICAN HISTORY. a$£ control of the Federal Government. When the Constitution of 1787 was before the people for ratification, those who favored its adoption took the name of Federalists, giving to its opponents that of Anti- Federalists. In the First Congress, definite party divisions were not found. Before the second had ended, there was a definite division be- tween Federalists and those who called themselves Republicans or Demo- crats. Hamilton was the leader of the former, Jefferson of the latter. Hamilton's financial measures had been acceptable to those who desired strong government, the commercial classes, those who wished to see the Union drawn still more closely together, still further in the direction of centralization and national consolidation. Their opponents stigma- tized them as monarchists. Beside Hamilton and Vice-President John Adams, the party's chief leaders were Fisher Ames, Cabot, Sedgwick, Strong, Pickering and Quincy, of Massachusetts ; Ellsworth, Tracy, Griswold and Hillhouse, of Connecticut ; Rufus King, Jay and Gouv- erneur Morris, of New York ; Dayton, of New Jersey ; Bayard, of Dela- ware ; Marshall, Henry Lee, of Virginia, and C. C. Pinckney, of South Carolina. Washington was more inclined to this party than to the other. Its strength was always greatest in New England. When war broke out between England and France in 1793, the Federalists, con- servative and averse to the French Revolution, favored Great Britain. In 1796 they elected John Adams President, but failed to elect Thomas Pinckney Vice-President. In 1797 they tried to bring the country into war with France, but Adams, never so extreme as the bulk of the party, prevented this ; the result was a schism in the party. In 1798 the party passed the Alien and Sedition laws, which forever destroyed their popularity. In the election of 1800 Adams and Pinckney were decisively defeated by Jefferson and Burr ; the causes were, the acts mentioned, internal dissensions, and the indifference of intellectual and acute leaders to popular feelings. During the administrations of Jeffer- son and Madison the party dwindled. As an opposition party, it took strict-constructionist ground. Some of its leaders engaged in projects for a disruption of the Union. Finally, its unpatriotic course in the War of 181 2 and the odium excited by the Hartford Convention des- troyed it utterly. Holding the government during the critical years 1789-1801, it had given it strength, but it distrusted the people too much for permanent success in America. Fenceviewers, town officers appointed in the early days of the New England colonies to look after fences. They had to take care that the fences were four feet high, of reasonable strength and in a good state of repair, and they had considerable authority to carry out these orders. 252 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. Fenians, an organization of Irish-American revolutionists, estab- lished in 1861, which advocated the forcible separation of Ireland from England. By 1863 they had a large following in this country, John O'Mahoney being the moving spirit. Emissaries visited all parts of the country. The British Government watched them closely and spoiled their nearly matured plans for revolution by seizing, September 15, 1865, their organ, the Irish People, in Ireland and arresting a number of their leaders, Mby, O'Leary and O'Donovan Rossa. O'Mahoney proposed to establish an independent government in America, and a convention was held at New York in 1865 for that purpose, O'Mahoney being elected president. The Fenians made several attacks along the Canadian frontier in 1866, and rebellion broke out in Ireland in 1867. It was quickly suppressed and the Fenians rendered harmless. Ferguson, Patrick, died in 1780. He was a British soldier who came to America in 1777, fought at Brandy wine, was active along the Hudson in 1779, and was promoted major for services at the siege of Charleston. He enlisted many loyalists in South Carolina, but was defeated at the battle of King's Mountain. Ferry, Thomas W., born in 1827, was a member of the Michigan House of Representatives in 1850, and Senator in 1856, and was a mem- ber for Michigan in the Chicago Republican Convention of i860. He was a Representative in the U. S. Congress from 1865 to 1871, and a U. S. Senator from 1871 to 1883. He acted as president of the Senate from 1875 to 1877, during which time he presided over the impeach- ment trial of Secretary Belknap, and over the joint meetings during the electoral count of 1877. D. 1896. Fessenden, William Pitt (1806-1869), was born in New Hamp- shire. He was admitted to the bar in 1827, and soon began practice in Portland, Me. He served in the Maine House of Representatives from 1832 to 1840, 1845 to 1846, and 1853 to 1854. He was a member of the Whig National Conventions of 1840, 1848 and 1852, and became one of the founders of the Republican party. He was elected to the U. S. Con- gress from 1841 to 1843, and served in the U. S. Senate from 1854 to 1864, when he was appointed Secretary of the Treasury by President Lincoln, and served till 1865. He was again a U. S. Senator from 1865 to 1869. While in the Senate he made a famous speech against the Kansas-Nebraska bill, and in 1861 was appointed chairman of the Fi- nance Committee, where he very ably sustained the national credit. He was one of the seven Republican Senators who voted for the acquittal of President Johnson in the impeachment trial of 1867. AMERICAN HISTORY. 253 F. F. V.'S, an abbreviation of " First Families of Virginia," applied generally to the Southern aristocracy. The term was of Northern origin. Field, Cyrus West (1819-1892), born in Massachusetts, was en- gaged in business in New York till 1853. He conceived the idea of a submarine telegraph across the Atlantic, and formed the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company, consisting of Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor, Marshall Roberts and Chandler White. The necessary rights for fifty years were obtained, and communication was secured in 1858, but the cable proved worthless after a few weeks. The Atlantic Telegraph Company was formed and attempts were made with the " Great Eastern " in 1865 and 1866, the last of which was com- pletely successful. For this great achievement he was honored both at home and abroad. After this success he was active in improving the rapid transit system of New York. Field, David Dudley (1805-1894), was prominent in law reform movements. From 1847 to 1850 he was a commissioner to prepare " Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure," now in several instances adopted ; and from 1857 to 1865 was chairman of a New York commis- sion to prepare political, penal and civil codes. In 1873 he published • ' Outlines of an International Code, ' ' which has attracted wide atten- tion. Field, Stephen J., brother of Cyrus W. and David D., born in Connecticut in 1816, practiced law with his brother, David Dudley, and went to California in 1849, being one of the founders of Marysville. In the first State Legislature he served on the Judiciary Committee, where he was active in improving the judiciary system. From 1857 to 1864 he was Judge of the California Supreme Court, and Chief Justice from 1859 to 1863, when he was appointed to the U. S. Supreme Court by Presi- dent Lincoln . He was a Democratic member of the Electoral Commis- sion in 1877. Retired 1898, and died 1899. Fifty-four forty or fight. Under the treaty with Spain of 1819, parallel 42 was fixed as the northern limit of that country's possessions in America. Between 42 and 54 40' lay the special ' • Oregon country, ' ' claimed by both England and the United States. English fur-traders had passed to the south of parallel 49 , below which surveys had been made by the United States, and where settlements were being slowly made. In 1844 the hot-headed among the Democrats started the cry, "Fifty-four forty or fight," referring to 54 40', for which limit they wished to resort to war. For a time war seemed inevitable, but in 1846 254 ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY. a treaty was concluded fixing the boundary between the British and United States possessions at 49 north latitude. Filibusters, a name borrowed from the West Indian freebooters of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and applied to associations originating in the United States for the ostensible purpose of freeing Cuba and other West Indian islands or Central American districts from European control. The acquisition of Texas was a successful filibuster- ing expedition. In 1850 I^opez, a Cuban, Governor Quitman, of Missis- sippi, and others, were arrested for violating the neutrality law of 1818, by a proposed filibustering expedition against Cuba. They were after- ward released. In 1855 General William Walker, with a California company, sailed on a filibustering expedition against Nicaragua. He took possession of the country, was elected President and was recognized by the American Minister. He surrendered to the United States, but organized another expedition in i860. He was captured and shot by the President of Honduras. This ended filibustering. The term " fili- buster ' ' as used in respect to parliamentary proceedings, in the sense of engaging in dilatory tactics, is no doubt derived from this, in the mean- ing of carrying on irregular warfare. Fillmore, Millard (1800-1874), was born in New York. He was admitted to the bar in 1S23 and began practice in Aurora, N. Y. He was elected by the Anti-Masons a member of the New York House of Representatives from 1829 to 183 1, and drafted the bill abolishing impris- onment for debt. He represented New York as a Whig in the Congress of the United States from 1833 to 1835, and again from 1837 to 1843, when he served as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee and drafted the tariff bill of 1842. From 1847 to J S49 he was State Comp- troller. In 1848 he was elected Vice-President of the United States on the Whig ticket with Zachary Taylor for President. After the death of Taylor on July 9, 1850, he became President and served until March 3, 1853. During his administration the Compromise Acts of 1850 were passed and the Japanese expedition of 1852 was arranged. In 1856 he was defeated as the National American candidate for President of the United States. He commanded a corps during the Civil War, and was president of the Buffalo Historical Society. Fire Department. The first volunteer t* re company in America wa9 organized in Philadelphia, 1736. Fire-eaters, a name given, especially in the fifties, to those Southern politicians who were most extreme in their advocacy of Southern claim* and in their hostility to the North and to anti-slavery agitation. AMERICAN HISTORY. 255 Fiscal Bank of the United States. In 1841, Tyler having just taken Harrison's place as President, the Sub-Treasury Act was repealed, and the Whigs passed an act chartering the Fiscal Bank of the United States. Tyler vetoed the bill, to every one's surprise. Another bill, framed with Tyler's approval, was then passed, but its opponents had filled the President's mind with jealousies and suspicions, so he vetoed this bill also, and the Whigs could not override the veto. Fish, Hamilton (1808-1893), born in New York City, was admitted to the bar in 1830. He was elected to the U. S. House of Representatives from New York, serving from 1843 to l8 45> an