UC-NRLF III II ii|i III |ii III 1 iiiiii B 3 Sb3 SbT 1 MUSICAL MEMORY AND ITS CULTIVATION m FREDERICK G. SHINN AUCENER Ltd.,London MAY and MAY Arundell House, Tisbury, Salisbury. SP3 6QU Music and Music Literature UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BERKELEY MUSIC LIBRARY MUSIC LIB. _■' '^'l' TO SIR WALTER PARRATT, MASTER OF THE MUSIC AND PRIVATE ORGANIST TO THE QUEEN, WHO, IN HIS CAPACITY OF DIRECTOR OF THE MUSIC AND DICTATION CLASSES AT THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF MUSIC, FIRST DREW THE AUTHOR's ATTENTION TO THE VITAL IMPORTANCE OF A TRAINED EAR AS THE FOUNDATION OF ALL TRUE MUSICAL EDUCATION, THIS LITTLE WORK, WHICH ADVOCATES THE PLACING OF THE SUBJECT OF EAR- TRAINING IN ITS RIGHT AND LAWFUL POSITION, IS DF.-DICATED WITH EVERY FEELING OF AFFECTION AND ESTEEM; AND WHILE HE HAS THUS KINDLY PERMITTED HIS NAME TO APPEAR ON THE FIRST PAGE, HIS BRILLIANT GIFTS AS A MUSICIAN HAVE CAUSED IT ALSO TO APPEAR ON THE LAST. Printed in England /liUSIC USRAIT UNIVERSITY I OF CALIFORNIA V BERKELEY J PREFACE, The publication of a work upon a subject so interesting and so important as Memory, in its connection with Music and Musical Performance, and about which, as far as the author has been able to discover, absolutely no literature exists, seems to call for no apology. But, because it is the first attempt to deal with this subject, because the territory which the author has endeavoured to map out was largely an unexplored one, in the survey of which he has been obliged to make his own high roads, and erect his own sign posts, he therefore wishes to claim the indulgence of his reader, if, in the investigation which he now presumes to offer to those interested in musical education, his foot has slipped, and he has taken, not perhaps one, but many wrong turnings. The purpose of this work is chiefly twofold. J^irsf, it is an inquiry into the various forms of memory employed in piano playing, and the presentation of a theory with regard to the relative extent of the employment of the various forms by different individuals, and whatever be the amount of light or darkness this inquiry may shed upon the subject, the author feels that no earnest and intelligent teacher of the piano can feel altogether uninterested in an attempt, however imperfect and incomplete, to grapple with the unsolved problems which thrust themselves before him at every lesson. Second, its purpose is to repeat once again, and if possible with stronger emphasis, that oft-told tale that Ear-training, which is largely a cultivation of the musical memory, is THE FACT of all true musical education. Until this is fully recognised and educational and examina- tion schemes modified accordingly, so long will the musical present and future of this country be overshadowed by a dark cloud, which may not affect the flavour of its choicest fruits, but will surely diminish the wealth and richness of its foliage if it does not also mar the beauty and sweetness of its blossoms. PREFACE. The book is divided into two parts, each of which is complete in itself, and although it was necessary in the P^irst Part to take some account of the Psychological aspect of the subject, yet the author has endeavoured, as far as possible, to make every Chapter of practical utility and value to the musical student of moderate advancement. For the opinions and theories expressed in this work he accepts the entire responsibility, but at the same time wishes to acknowledge the assistance he has derived from a study of the following works : — "The Senses and the Intellect," Alexander Bain ; " Teacher's Handbook of Psychology," James Sully ; " Elements of Psychology," James Sully ; "Technique and Expression," Franklin Taylor ; " The Art of Music,'* C. H. Hubert Parry ; and also the valuable suggestions and varied experiences which have been generously placed at his disposal by his friends, Miss Elizabeth Fedarb (who has also supplied the paragraph on the memorizing of Concertos), Dr. Percy Alderson and Mr. John Pointer. The last chapter entitled, " The Memories of Musicians," will be seen to be a collection of the experiences of others, and those who have willingly come forward with help include the names of Sir George Grove, C.B., Miss Constance Bache, Mr. C. Ainslie Barry^ Mr. John Bumpus, Mr. F. G. Edwards, the Rev. J. Hampton, and Mr. T. L. Southgate. To all these he owes a debt of gratitude, but especially to Sir George Grove and Mr. C. A. Barry, who have unreservedly placed themselves and their unique knowledge and experiences at his service, not only in connection with the final chapter but throughout the entire work. While to all acknowledging his indebtedness he does not in the least think that by so doing it is in any degree repaid. The author will be glad to receive communications on the subject,. as well as particulars of exceptional performances, which on some future occasion it might be possible to add to the last chapter. Sydenham, Novefnber, i8g8. TABLE OF CONTENTS. *»* The numbers refer to the Paragraphs, iinless the contrary is Ttated. PART I. MUSICAL MEMORY, ALSO AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE FORMS OF MEMORY EMPLOYED IN PIANO PLAYING, AND A THEORY AS TO THEIR EMPLOYMENT. Chapter. Page. I. — General and Special Memory i The Faculty of Memory and its various divisions, I. Special Forms of Memory, and to what they are due, 2. The Memory for Colours — for Sounds, 3. To what the natural tastes of an individual are due, 4. 3 II. — Musical Memory Musical Memoiy defined — its differences in individuals, 5. Its transi- tory employment by the listener, 6, 7. Its employment for permanent acquisition by the musician, 8-10. Upon what its value depends, 1 1. Ear-training, 12. Sense of absolute pitch, 13. III. — Musical Memory in connection with Practical Execution ... 8 The memorizing of piano music and the different forms of memory which may be employed, 14-17. IV. — Muscular Memory 10 The Muscular Sense and its retentive power, 18. Reflex Movements, 19. Muscular Memory and Technique, 20, 21. Its employment in memorizing piano music, 22. The form of suitable passages considered, 23-31. Un- suitable passages, 32. The limits of its employment, 33. Its employment in automatic form, 34. V. — Visual Memory 19 The different methods of employment, 35. In connection with the printed page, 36. In connection with the keyboard, 37. The form of suitable and unsuitable passages, 38. The connection between ^'isual and Muscular Memory, 39. The retention of chords, 40. Visual Control and Visual Memory, 42, 43. VI. — Intellectual Memory 24 The Intellectual aspect of Music, and how our memory may be employed in connection with it, 44-46. Musical Form, 47-50. The Harmonic basis of passages, 51-53- Elaboration and the forms it assumes, 54-56. VII.— On the Relative Extent of the employment of the different Forms of Memory 33 The manner in which the various forms of memoiy are employed, 58, 59. What influences the employment of the difterent forms, 60. I. The Nature of the Music to be memorized, 61, 62. II. The Method of Study em- ployed, 63, 64. III. The Peculiarities of the Individual memorizing, 65-67. Suggestions as to a final solution of the problem, 68, 69. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART II. THE CULTIVATION OF MUSICAL MEMORY. Chapter. Page. VIII. — The Necessity for the Cultivation of Musical Memory ... 38 A trained memory for sounds, a necessary part of every musician's equipment, 70. Ear-training, 71. The power of readhig music, 72, 73. The correct method of studying Harmony, 74. The performance of piano music from memory, 75. Memory playing, a form of mental training, 76. Its injudicious employment, 77. IX. — General Conditions favourable to Memorizing 41 Mental freshness the first condition, 80-82. Retentive power possessed by the Individual, 83. Power of Concentration, 84-87. Repetition of the Impression, 88. X.— Some Suggestions for a Scheme of Memory Training 44 State of advancement necessary, 91. The value of early training, 92. Principles which should guide us in the selection of pieces, 93-95 ; as to Le7igth, 96 — Form and Construction, 97, 98 — Detail, 99 — Difficulty, lOO. XI. — A Method of Studying Pieces for Memorization 48 How to study a piece intelligently, 102, 103. Analysis of the first movement of Beethoven's Sonata in F minor, Op. 2, No, i, 104-107. The Memorizing of Concertos, 108. Rehearsing from Memory, 109. Mental Rehearsal, iio. XII. — Memory Training and Examination Schemes 60 The Influence of ExaminatiorB, 111-113. The necessity of including Ear-tests in all Harmony Examinations, 114-117. Memory performance in Examinations, 118. XIII. — The Memories of Musicians 63 A collection of evidences, bearing witness to the possession of re- markable powers of memory by famous musicians, and giving particulars of exceptional memory performances by Mozart, 120. Mendelssohn, 121-123. Ferdinand Hiller, 124. Hans von Biilow, 125, 126, 129. Sir Charles Halle, with quotations from contemporaneous criticism, 127, 128. Rubenstein, 130. Dr. Hans Richter, 131. Sir Frederick Ouseley, 132, 133. Sir Walter Parratt, 134. Index to Musical Examples 71 General Index ,^ ... ... « 72 MUSICAL MEMORY. PART I. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY.— GENERAL AND SPECIAL MEMORY. 1. General and Special Memory. — The faculty of memory is one of our great primary intellectual powers, and every conscious act, and the large majority of unconscious ones, are the result of the past or present exercise of it. If it were possible for a child to be born absolutely without a memory, it could only become a helpless imbecile, and its Hfe would be a total blank, a darkness to which the darkness of the simply blind would be as brilliant sunshine. Every sane person possesses the power of retention or memory, although individuals exhibit strongly marked differences in the degree to which they possess it. Beyond, however, the difference ir; the degree of general retentiveness which individuals display, an aptitude for retaining some particular class of impression is often a noticeable feature. Thus, one will be most susceptible to sensations of colour, another to those of form, another to those of sound, and so on ; and even with sensations belonging to one class, such as auditory ones, we find that a special power of retention of musical tones does not necessarily carry with it an equal power oi retention of articulate sounds as is required in learning to speak a foreign language. From this we see that the faculty of memory is not a simple power, but one which is divisible into as many compartments as there are kinds of impression. These compartments are all more or less independent, and may, and often do, exhibit wide differences both in their original retentive capacity and their subsequent development. 2. Special Memory. — The first step towards the retention of sense- impressions is the accurate perception of them. This depends on the fineness or sensibility of the organ employed ; and as a general rule we find that the retentive power of an individual for any special class of impression varies directly with the discriminative power of the organ which responds to the particular form of excitement created by the corresponding class of sensation. 3. Let us consider this question for a moment with reference to two of our most valuable organs of sense. The possessor of an eye peculiarly 2 MUSICAL MEMORY. sensitive to colour, has the different varieties of colour brought vividly before his mind. He is compelled to take an interest in all presentations of colour, to notice and take pleasure in the delicate blending of colours, and the harmony which a happy combination of them in room-decoration or personal dress produces ; and to feel irritation, and even annoyance at the discord produced by the placing of unsuitable colours in juxta- position. Thus the interest of such an individual is most easily aroused and sustained when colour-sensations are presented to him, and that which interests one most is most readily and permanently retained. The same is true with reference to the ear. The possessor of an ear specially sensitive to musical sounds has such brought before him in a much stronger and more forcible manner than other sensations. His attention is aroused whenever he hears musical sounds, his interest in them is kindled, instinctively he acquires a liking for and an enjoyment in musical performances, fragments of favourite melodies haunt his mind, and he will be able to concentrate his attention more readily upon sensations of this class, and will therefore retain them with less difficulty and more certainty than any others. 4. In this manner special tastes and special memories are created, and these as a general rule follow local endowments which, if properly developed, may eventually influence the choice of a career or a profession. At the same time the non-possession, in a fairly high degree, of particular powers and their corresponding memories would, in callings in which the exercise of them is vital, prevent the attainment of any high degree of excellence. Perseverance can do many things, but it cannot completely overcome disabilities due to imperfect or non- sensitive natural organs. Both the possession and non-possession of natural gifts should be carefully considered before a profession is finally decided upon. MUSICAL MEMORY. CHAPTER II. MUSICAL MEMORY. 5. Musical memory is that particular power by which we retain and can recall at pleasure, a series of musical sounds when presented to us either singly as in a melody, or in combination as in a progression of harmonies. As was stated in the previous chapter, the degree to which this power is possessed by any individual, depends upon the sensibility of the ear, Fiy-st^ with regard to the susceptibility of the ear to general sound-sensations, the excitement so caused producing a concentration of mental and nervous force ; and Secondly, with regard to its special power of discriminating the differences of musical pitch, so that it may readily perceive the difference between various melodies or various harmonies that are presented to it. Considering the marked differences which individuals display in their power of general retentiveness, it is not surprising to find such differences more marked when we come to consider their special memories, and the memory for musical sounds exhibited by different individuals forms no exception to this rule. 6. Employment of Musical Memory by the Listener. — The extent to which the large majority of people employ this power, and the vital part it plays in making the enjoyment of music possible, is perhaps not always fully appreciated. Unlike Painting and Architecture, which reveal their beauties instantaneously if one has sufficient visual power to perceive them. Music unfolds itself over a space of time, and in its simplest form — a short melody — the various notes are understood only in relation to what has gone before and to what follows. Thus, a fundamental condition of our enjoying music in any degree is the possession of the power of retaining musical sounds, though not necessarily in a high order. The necessity for the exercise of this power is, however, more obvious if we consider the structure or design of a piece of music. The design of a building is exposed to our view in a state of completeness, and if we possess an eye for proportion, a general idea of satisfaction, or the reverse, may be gained instantaneously. With music the case is quite different. The design or form of a piece of music is only intelligible to us if we can retain in our mind some idea of the various portions as they are presented to us, and can compare them with regard to tonality, rhythm, material, and relative importance with what has preceded, and later, with what follows. This is equally true of the simplest satisfactory form one can conceive, such as : — 1st Theme | Contrasted Theme | 1st Theme repeated. i| as of the most elaborate movement by Beethoven. All music demands 4 MUSICAL MEMORY. alike for its intelligent hearing an exercise of musical memory, although in immensely different degrees. 7. A study of the Sonata-form movements of Beethoven, and a comparison of the " first portion " with the " recapitulation " will show us how in the latter (which in earlier composers was mere repetition), the composer delighted to introduce surprises of every description, which, however, can only be fully appreciated and understood by the retentive listener. The following bars from the " Waldstein " Sonata will instantly occur to the mind of many pianists, where the last note in Ex. la at first almost appears to have the character of a wrong note until the insistence of the passage in this form in the following bars, banishes such an impression and reveals the substitution of A flat for G at such a striking point as being one of the composer's bold and daring methods of arresting the attention, and sustaining the interest of the listener. But for one who has retained no idea of the first version of the passage (Ex. I) the second version can have no such revelation, and therefore far less meaning. Beethoven, Op. 53. — ^il— 3.^ 0- — Another exceptionally fine instance, where Beethoven seems to have set himself to shock his pedantic listeners, quite as much as to mystify the unpedantic ones, may be seen in the Sonata in D minor, Op. 31, No. 2, if the opening of the first movement is compared with the beginning of the recapitulation. Not merely, however, in listening to movements in which there is repetition of previous material do we have to exercise our memory, but works which are evolved from one theme — such as Fugues, sets of Variations, and some modern Rhapsodies — lose all their significance and meaning, unless we can frequently compare the present with the past ; while in Opera and Oratorio, the kit motiv is a device which appeals to the same power. The intelligent listener must be constantly employing his memory even when hearing works of simple and obvious construction, while for the understanding of compositions of greater calibre and deeper meaning, a severe effort of memory is often absolutely necessary. 8. Musical Memory employed for Permanent Acquisition. — From a consideration of the transitory memory necessary to the listener we will now pass and proceed to trace briefly the development of musical memory for the purpose of permanent acquisition. The early growth of musical memory becomes manifest when a child, whose interest has been aroused by the hearing of some pretty tune, will MUSICAL MEMORY. 5 recognise it upon a subsequent appearance and even attempt to sing or hum it to himself. A child with a sensitive ear may give frequent exhibitions of this kind, reproducing in a fragmentary manner, although often with considerable accuracy, tunes he has heard in school, in church, or in the drawing-room. Often he has quite a store of melodic treasures long before he is taught to sing a major scale, the material of which he has been unconsciously employing for some time previously. A child's introduction to, and memorization of the Major scale, supplies him with the tonal foundation or basis of the greater part of music. If the ear is of average sensibility, and has been previously exercised in gathering fragments of tunes, this acquisition of the complete major scale presents little or no difficulty. On the other hand, the possessor of an ear which is less sensitive, and which has had little past experience, must carefully study and memorize the intervals between the adjacent notes, as well as the order of their progression, before he can recall it at any time with absolute accuracy. 9. Following upon the acquisition of the intervals of the major scale in gradual progression, the next step is the memorization of the intervals formed by its several notes not adjacent to one another. To have done this successfully really means that we have still more indelibly memori€ed the several notes of the scale, so that we can bring it instantly before our minds, not only as a whole, but as to any of its individual members which may be distantly situated from one another, without the aid of the intervening notes. In other words, we have familiarized ourselves with all the different intervals of the major scale. The memorization of the Minor scale with its characteristic intervals is a subsequent, as well as a more difficult operation, whilst the accurate memorization of the Chromatic scale is a task of great difficulty even to trained musicians. 10. The power to memorize notes in combination or chords, is a proof of the possession of a fairly high grade of musical intelligence. Such ability must be possessed in some degree by every one laying claim to the title of musician. As the harmony student has the different varieties of chords brought before him, if he does not already know them by sound, he must memorize the sound of each chord, at the same time as he studies its intervals, and before he studies its special treatment in any detail. 11. Upon what the Value of Musical Memory Depends. — The value of any form of memory depends entirely upon our ability not only to recall, but to reproduce and to employ in some form or other what we have stored on previous occasions. In the very large majority of facts about our life and experience, the powers of speech and written language are the media by which we convey our knowledge to others, and as a great portion of our early education is devoted to gaining proficiency in these, the possibility of dissociating the pow^r of memory from the power of reproducing what is retained, may never occur to us, much less the possibility of our being unable to convey to others what we can remember, simply because we are unacquainted with any method or language by means of which we can interpret it to 6 MUSICAL MEMORY. them. This, however, is no impossible situation to be in with regard to impressions of musical sounds which we may have stored. Many people who can remember with a fair amount of accuracy the melody or a portion of the melody of a simple song, are quite unable to write down with any degree of correctness what they remember, either because they do not understand the signs of musical notation, or if they do understand them, are unable to associate them with what they hear or with what they have retained from hearing in the past. In other words, they are unable to associate the sounds with the corresponding signs. 12. It will be seen, therefore, that the value of musical memory depends very largely upon our ability to classify what we retain upon some intelligible and generally recognised plan, and to record it in a language both definite and well understood ; and this will imply the possession of the complementary power of reading (that is, hearing in our minds) music written in this same language. How this object may be obtained, seems to us to consist in the adoption in musical education of a complete and comprehensive system of ear-training, educating the ear to discriminate different rhythms, intervals, and chords, the memory to retain the sound of such, and the intellect to classify them and associate such classification with the signs of some form of musical notation. Scales, intervals and chords represent the raw material of music, and he who can retain all the varieties of such possesses the material of musical composition. Whether he can fashion them into intelligible musical thought depends upon his knowledge of what may be called the Technique of Composition in its widest sense. Many persons who are quite ignorant of musical notation, and who have never attempted to seriously study music, are able by means of a quick and retentive ear and a certain facility of finger to reproduce upon some musical instrument (generally the piano), passages which have attracted their attention. Such efforts are commonly described as "playing by ear." Without attempting to despise such a power, for it reveals the possession of natural gifts of a fairly high order, we cannot but regret that the lack of any serious purpose which such performances frequently display, bears witness to the absence of other powers which are necessary, before natural abilities may become of true and lasting value. 13. Sense of Absolute Pitch. — In our consideration of the memorization of intervals and chords, we have always meant it to be inferred that the pitch of the notes of such was relative to some given or assumed sound and not in any sense absolute. The majority of people do not possess what is called a "sense of absolute pitch," but the fact of its existence demands that we should not pass unnoticed what is really an exceptionally perfect form of musical memory. It is apparently due to the possession of an ear of a peculiarly sensitive and retentive nature, which has the power of seizing upon definite sounds, and by the remarkably acute susceptibility of the mind to sound-sensation has ingrained them so effectually, that they have become permanent or fixed ideas of pitch. With some who possess this power it is partly the result of special sensibility, and partly the result of the constant repetition of one particular sound which has eventually become permanent, and forms a basis from which they calculate, perhaps MUSICAL MEMORY. y almost unconsciously, other sounds. This is sometimes the case with choristers, who, by singing at daily church or cathedral services, acquire a fixed impression of their intoning note, while players of string instruments often permanently memorize their "A" for a similar reason, but such acquired pitches are apt to disappear or become uncertain when frequency of repetition is interrupted or altogether ceases. The fact that many highly trained musicians do not possess this sense of absolute pitch, while many persons, otherwise unmusical do, proves it to be a natural and accidental fineness of ear with a peculiar retentive capacity for definite pitch, which does not necessarily carry with it anything else characteristic of the musician. Like other powers it generally appears first as a germ, which must he judiciously exercised and developed in order to be brought to maturity, and its growth may be rapid or slow according to the endowments of the individual. The remarkably early age at which it sometimes manifests itself in a high degree of perfection, of which Mozart was a notable example, bears evidence to the possession of phenomenal gifts rather than to any exception in the law of development of the intellectual powers. MUSICAL MEMORY. CHAPTER TTI. MUSICAL MEMORY IN CONNECTION WITH PRACTICAL EXECUTION. 14. Hitherto we have considered the faculty of Musical Memory in what may be termed its purely mental manifestations, and quite apart from its employment in connection with practical execution. We shall now consider it in relation to that; and we have chosen the piano as our single representative instrument on account of its popularity, although many of the principles stated with special reference to piano-playing may be readily adapted to the requirements of the modes of execution belonging to other musical instruments. 15. The question which now presents itself for solution is this: — Assuming a pianist to possess the necessary powers for playing a piece from memory, does he, as far as the memorization of it is concerned, rely entirely upon the power of pure musical memory which we have described in the previous chapter ? Does he retain each and every individual sound in his mind and translate them on to the key- board as he progresses ? Before we can attempt to answer this question we must glance at the operation of pianoforte playing. The playing of the piano is a most complex act. It is possible for our fingers, ears, eyes and intellect to be all more or less actively engaged throughout the progress of a piece. Now, as a result of this, when we desire to play from memory, the forms of memory belonging to these various powers are all available in some degree for the purpose. Such being the case, it would be unusual to find one special form altogether relied upon, but rather two or three operating simultaneously, assisting and controlling one another, although perhaps, to us, almost unconsciously. It is possible for pianists who possess an ear of ideal sensibility and retentive power, to retain elaborate and lengthy compositions, with all their details, entirely by their unaided musical memory ; and, provided their powers of execution and concentration are of an equally high order, their performances would probably be an instantaneous translation of the mental picture they possess on to the keyboard. But as of the many pianists who play from memory, a small minority possess an ear which, both by natural fineness and subsequent training, is equal to such a task, it is evident that many cannot rely absolutely on any single form of musical memory. 16. Considering, however, the possibility of the employment of several widely contrasted forms of memory, it is not surprising to find that those who play from memory frequently possess no exact knowledge of the MUSICAL MEMORY. 9 forms they do employ, or the extent to which they employ them. In some passages they think they rely more upon one form than another, as in the playing of a brilliant arpeggio, which the fingers having traversed many times, eventually come to play quite automatically, though it would be exceptional not to find that same passage memorized also by some other form of memory, so that if our so-called "finger" memory should temporarily fail, the other form could come to its assistance. But whatever be the amount of assistance supplied by these non-musical forms of memory, it is obvious that our musical memory must still supply us with a clear general idea of the piece we are playing, and our ear must exercise throughout its course a criticism of its rhythm, the accuracy of its notes, gradations of tone and interpretation. 17. In the following chapters we shall consider separately the forms of memory belonging to the Muscular Sense (by which we control the movements of the fingers, the hand and the arm for the purpose of execution), the Eye, and the Intellect, in their connection with the performance from memory of piano music, as well as the special province and the particular kind of passage most suited to each form of memory, and shall then endeavour to ascertain if there be any principle or law to which the employment of the various forms in different individuals conform. lO MUSICAL MEMORY. CHAPTER IV. MUSCULAR MEMORY. 1 8. As by the aid of Verbal memory we can retain successions of words, and by Musical memory successions of notes and harmonies, so by the power of memory possessed by our Muscular sense, we are able to retain trains or successions of movements. It is a law of our Intellect that movements, like other forms of sensation, occurring in close succession, tend to bind themselves together ; so that after a series has been repeated many times, the revival of one movement will probably revive, in correct order, any others which may follow. We know that the opening phrase of a melody will bring the whole strain before the mind, and that a Hne of poetry will often recall a stanza ; and this " Law of Contiguity," as it is called by Psychologists, is not less true in connection with our Muscular sense or when applied to a series of movements. 19. Reflex Movements. — But with movements we can proceed further than simply memorising them, so that they can be reproduced by a continuous effort of Will for that special purpose. We can by sufficient repetition gradually convert them into automatic, mechanical or, correctly speaking, reflex actions ; that is, we can employ them and rely upon the accurate performance of them while other matters are engrossing our attention. An immense number of our actions, which at one time demanded special care and attention before they could be accurately performed, have by repetition been converted into unconscious or reflex ones. An example is supplied by the movements employed in dancing. Such a complicated step as that of the Waltz, which is acquired only after much careful repetition, is eventually employed with the greatest accuracy and certainty, quite unconsciously and mechani- cally, and while the attention is devoted entirely to other matters. When for the performance of a series of movements, voluntary attention becomes absolutely unnecessary, such movements may be said to be perfectly acquired. 20. Muscular Memory and Technique. — In learning to play upon a musical instrument like the piano, which requires rapid and accurate finger movements, the acquisition and memorization of such enters very largely into what is known as the Technical side of our studies. Our earliest efforts are directed to secure correct finger-movements for striking the keys when the hand is in an easy and natural position (five-finger exercises). From this we proceed to acquire facility in making similar movements when the hand is either extended, contracted, or in the position for passing the thumb under (broken chords, scales, etc.), and our frequent repetition of these exercises, and similar ones of a more advanced nature, is not only to enable us to gain perfect control over the MUSICAL MEMORY. H muscles which control our hand and fingers, but aJso, as a result of the frequent repetition of the same series of movements, to enable our muscular sense eventually to memorize those series of movements which are most frequently employed in piano playing, the perfect and instinctive performance of which is the foundation of all good technique. These trains and successions of movements are, as it were, stored up, in order that they may be ready for use when required, and employed with the least possible effort, or even without conscious effort, and they represent the foundation up m which still more difficult and complicated movements are built. In studying, therefore, the technique of new pieces, the difficulties we have to overcome are the adaptation of previously acquired successions of movements to new figures, and the acquisition of new series. 2 1. From this it will be seen how very largely the cultivation and exercise of the muscular memory enters into the study of piano playing, and it is only to those who possess a delicate muscular sense, that any high degree of proficiency therein is possible. The power of producing beautiful tone and its many varieties which characterize expressive and finished playing depends, after the possession of a fine ear, entirely upon the possession of a delicate muscular sense, which has been trained until it is under complete control. By the natural possession of such, many are able to acquire in a few months a control in tone-production which others are unable to acquire in a lifetime ; and in the muscular sense as in other senses, where a special delicacy of discrimination of movement exists, a special retentiveness for such will be found to co-exist. 2 2. It is impossible to say how far piano music can be memorized simply by the aid of muscular memory, as the movements must always be associated with some other forms of sensation, such as touch, sound, and generally sight, all of which greatly assist in linking the movements together ; but few will deny that in performing music from memory, especially that of a rapid and brilliant nature, the assistance which can be supplied by this form of memory is invaluable and almost unlimited in extent. In our present consideration of muscular memory, we shall, however, always regard it as a supplementary form with which other forms of memory are working simultaneously, and which exercise over it a certain amount of control and guidance; and we shall limit our attention to a consideration of those forms of passage which we conisider specially secure when memorized by the sense under discussion, without in any way denying the possibility of memorizing other passages by this same power. 23. Passages suitable to be Memorized by Muscular Memory. — It must be obvious that the general style of passages most readily and securely memorized by means of muscular memory, or as it is often yet less correctly called " Finger -memory," will be such as require rapid and precise finger movernents, and especially what may be termed " brilliant " passages, that is, extended passages founded on scales and arpeggios, and requiring for their performance a strong, clear touch. It is not infrequently the case, that after learning to play a piece composed of difficult passages of this class, with which are 12 MUSICAL MEMORY. interspersed less difficult passages of a perhaps more cantabile nature, we find we can play the difficult portions from memory but not the other portions. This is due to the greater number of repetitions which the former have required and received, with the result, that, without any special wish or desire on our part, our muscular sense has memorized the entire series of movements, and as soon as the start is given, the fingers and hand are unerringly guided over the whole passage with the least amount of voluntary or conscious control, or perhaps without any. Wheti such passages progress in a systematic form, and are constructed upon some pattern extending over an octave, so as to adfnit of a regular method of fingering, employing the majority of the fingers, ani affording little opportunity for them either to operate in the wrong order or to make a false movement, such passages belong to the class most securely memorized by muscular memory. For the sake of convenience we shall describe these as belonging to Class /. 24. Class I. — This class will include most scale passages of con- siderable extent belonging to one form of the normal scale. Such fulfil all the requisite conditions, in addition to having had the necessary movements acquired in our technical studies. The points which re- quire our attention are the scale to which the passage belongs and the initial and final notes : — Weber, Op. 39. iff Ex. 2. _ ■ , _^_^ _^i^ ;r febfl' tk -M :hk ;o C minor. When a scale passage leaves one form of scale by introducing notes foreign to that form, and becomes a mixture of two forms, as major and chromatic : — Ex. 3. .^. . .^. _ Weber, Op. 39. fefc IB MUSICAL MEMORY. M or minor and chromatic, the points where it differs from the form which chiefly prevails must be carefully noted and retained by some other form of memory. Should the order of the progression established in one octave be repeated in subsequent octaves : — Chopin, '^^^7w^ r^^^ ^^1^ r m the task is considerably lighter than when no such regularity prevails. But in every instance we should associate it primarily with that normal form which it most closely resembles, in order that we may have the smallest number of differences to remember intellectually* This method of memorizing scale passages is only suitable in its 25- application to passages of considerable extent, and that move in one direction for some length of time. Scale passages in which the direction of the movement changes every few notes, as in Ex. 5 : — Mendelssohn, Op. 5. will generally be found to be based upon some progression of chords, and the bass of this progression will often supply a rough outline of the moving part. In such passages the memorization of the harmonic frame vrork is the safest method of procedure. * The principle of reducing everything to its smallest and simplest form will be more fully discussed in Chapter VI, on Intellectual Memory. 14 MUSICAL MEMORY, 26. In addition to scale passages, to Class I also belong passages in "grand arpeggio" form, where the same figure, and consequently the same finf^er-movements are repeated through several octaves. Ex. 6. Chopin, Op. 47. 27. Passages of hardly less security than these, and which may be included in the same class, are those constructed upon a figure recurring at smaller intervals than that of an octave, but which employ almost identical series of finger movements. Ex 7 is a type of such, and the Finale of Beethoven's Sonata in A flat. Op. 26, contains many similar passages. To remember their harmonic framework is a precautionary measure : — Ex. 7. 3 2 _^- ^32' Mendelssohn, Op. 14. Is [__J_I L Ex. 7a. |AS9^=^ t;^ 28. Already we have had to refer to the harmonic basis of passages as something from which the student may derive valuable assistance, and it may be well to state once foi all, that we shall assume our reader possesses a reasonable acquaintance with the subject of Harmony, the value of which to every musical student needs no advocacy from us. 29. We now come to the next class of passage which can be memorized largely by means of muscular memory. Class II, comprises passages evolved from a figure or pattern^ which figure, however, both ifi its form and progress io?i, accomodates itself to the harmonic structure of the passage. The greater the irregularity of a passage, the larger number of repetitions does it require before the series of movements are securely memorized ; if, however, we can discover some principle of construction running throughout the passage, and to which we can reduce its apparent irregularities, we shall have found out that which will not merely help us in reading the passage, but also which will greatly add to our security when memorizing it. ^ll^SICAI, MEMORY. The following will illustrate this lorm of passage :- Ex. S. 2 1 :i 5 _^ 15 Chofin, Op. 4. Ex. 9- 5 2 3 1 Mendelssohn, Op. 25. ^ — \ — \ — h 5^ii«r=— =n=^zpz— Elj^i^zpizq Ex. 9 a. i; When memorizin.L!; these and all similar passages, we should first reduce them to their simplest harmonic basis (Exs. 8a and 9a), and then note the principle upon which the figure of the passage is formed, that is, the order in which the essential and auxiliary notes occur. (See Chap. VI) Class II will also include passages like the following : — Ex. 10 MENDELS30HN, Op. 28. Ex. 10 a. 8va. |tl=JESEt^^SEd=^=F=i ^ g:|J=^ m '^EEp,^ 2 ^^- -f 41=-^-= W where the figure is modified to suit, not the different intervals of the same chord but those of another chord, the passage being founded on a progression of chords. A memorization of this progression (Ex. lo a), is a great assistance towards a memorization of the elaborated form. i6 MUSICAL MEMORY. 3a The above passage (Ex. 10) continued to tnt 14th bar from that whicn we liave numbered i, affords an excellent example of passages in which, with regard to some points, the rehance upon muscular memoi> is unsafe. Confining our attention to the treble part, we see that bars I to 7 are repeated an octave lower in bars 8 to 14, with the exception of the first figure of 6 notes in bars 3 and 5, corresponding to the first figure in bars 10 and 12. Ex. II. -j!^-t^=:j-f-4 = l^-.. I ; I ! I : j I j;^ IJJ Jkg£^_-ijj bars. bar 10. ^1*5- The alteration in the form of the figure is the same in both cases, and this somewhat simplifies matters ; but ifi the 7ne?norization of this passage, and all others which start alike hut differ in the course of their progress, we must retain all such differences mentally, and rigorously control our muscular memory at every place where there is a likelihood of a false step. 31. Class III. — The last class ivhich we have to consider in connection with this form of memory, comprises passages luhich are not constructed upoft any regular figure, or if some design does underlie them, the imita- tio?is of it are of such an laicertain character that they ?nay be legiti?nately described as irregular. Many passages belonging to this class demand for their performance considerable extension of the hand and fingers, and also in their progress traverse a large portion of the keyboard, Chopin, Op. 52. Ex. 12. 8va— ,:•■•■•, :u 1 J^Vt and, as a consequence of their difficulty, receive in practice a far greater number of repetitions than passages of simpler and more obvious construction. Thus we often memorize such passages by muscular memory in merely learning to play them with ease and accuracy, and even when the music is before us, we frequently play such from liiemory; MUSICAL MEMORY. 17 that is, we .00k at the keyboard and not at the music, in order that we may exercise an amount of visual control over the performance of them. (Chap. V). 12. In passages of the style described above, the chance of confusion arising with regard to the finger movements is sHght, such, however, is not the case with irregular figures and passages which circle chiefly around a comparatively few and closely situated notes, keeping the hand in a contracted rather than in an extended condition. The employment of a large number of simple and similar movements occurring closely upon one another as in Chopin's Etude, Op. 25, No. 2 : — Ex. 13. ^-fcrfr^-Tti — w m »li- m f » m »\t. j*^ — »-*fcr #t^ [7 (/ pT r ! ir r ! \ T ' '^-r^^i= ^^- ' .i- ^ ' -I. ^ — * 4- admits of a greater possibility of confusion in reproducing them chiefly by the aid of muscular memory than when the series of movements are more strongly defined, and more widely separated. A condition which adds to the security of muscular memory in passages like the above- mentioned, is the ability to employ as many different fingers as possible, provided, of course, that the employment of them is in accordance with a good system of fingering. A series of movements starting, say, with the first finger, is less likely to become confused with the next series starting from the same finger if, between the two appearances of this finger, there are three of the other fingers employed instead of only one or two. 33. The three classes into which we have broadly divided brilliant piano passages, have merely brought into prominence particular forms of passage for which our muscular memory may be relied upon with a large amount of security. Theoretically speaking, any passage of unbroken finger movements of moderate extent can be memorized by this form of memory ; but this is far from saying that all such are suitable. Series of slow finger movements cohere together with less certainty than series of quick movements. Besides this, in slow cantabile passages, we do not require so much the assistance of muscular-memory, as such passages are more readily retained by some other power. Notwithstanding this, the suggestions of muscular-memory are often valuable even in passages of slow tempo^ although in such cases the assistance rendered is of a far less vital character than in passages in quick te?nf.o. 34. Before quitting this subject we may draw attention to the fact, that in playing passages in which the part for one hand has say, three i8 MUSICAL MEMORY. notes, against two or four in the part for the other hand, we may employ in one hand muscular-memory in an almost automatic form, whilst we devote the greater part of our attention to the performance of the other. Thus the bass of Chopin's Fantasie-Impromptu, the treble of the de- velopment of the first movement of Beethoven's Sonata in G, Op. 1 4, No. 2, beginning : — Ex. 14. I fr'^'?^ ''^ *'^ - ^ ^-pi^ and many like passages would possibly be played in this manner MUSICAL MEMORY. '9 CHAPTER V. VISUAL MEMORY. 35. The power of memory possessed by the eye may be employed to assist the pianist in two quite different ways. It may retain the image of the printed book, or it may retain the image of the notes upon the keyboard. On the other hand its assistance can be wholly dispensed with, as is proved by the number of blind pianists, some of no mean ability. 36. Retention of a Mental Picture of the Printed Page. — How far it is possible to retain by this form of memory an accurate mental picture of a page, or of many different pages of printed music, with all their elaborate and complicated details, will depend upon the special memory for Forms which an individual may possess, but we cannot conceive the task of memorizing by this method the music of modern composers, with all its wealth of detail, to be otherwise than a laborious one, and one which the pianist of average ability will be likely to employ to any very great extent. It is true we can often recall the general outHne of a piece, and perhaps some of its more prominent details, by associating them with their position on the different pages ; but the pianist with an ordinary memory for printed symbols will probably not remember much more than this by this form of memory. When a piece is thoroughly memorized, it is by no means impossible or even particularly difficult to revive it mentally in its printed form, but this may be done largely by the aid of other forms of memory, and our Visual memory may render little vital assistance. As a general rule those who possess this particular form of memory in a high degree, will soon discover the fact and make use of their possession. Those who do not will find that for musical purposes the cultivation of other forms is more remunerative. 37. Retention of a Mental Picture of the Progression on THE Keyboard. — In addition to its power of retaining the symbols of musical notation, the Visual memory can also retain the order of the progression of the notes on the keyboard. In the earliest stages of pianoforte playing, the beginner learns to name the different notes correctly by recognising their position in relation to the grouping of the black notes. When this stage is passed he has to associate them with their position on the stave, and to play exercises of simple progressions from printed music. Here, two difficulties confront him, f^rst— that of translating the musical notation on to the keyboard, and second — that of making correct finger movements. Until he has had considerable practice, he cannot, without looking, judge the requisite 20 MUSICAL MEMORY. Stretch of the hand, nor the position of the finger required in order to strike accurately notes separated by an interval of several notes. But, as the habit of looking at the keyboard, if too freely indulged in, is a bar to progress in sight reading, the teacher must be careful not to allow the keyboard to monopolize more attention than is absolutely necessary to secure accurate movements, and to gradually reduce the attention in this direction, as the hand and fingers become more secure in their movements, and more completely under voluntary control. The tendency of beginners to play their pieces largely by the aid of visual memory, that is, by remembering the order of the notes on the keyboard, is the greatest possible hindrance in sight-reading, but when considerable advancement in execution and sight-reading has been made, this question of visual memory, loses its importance as hindering progress, and we may find this form one which we shall employ but to a very limited extent. 38. A method for accurately estimating the amount of assistance which this, or any other form of memory may contribute to the complex act of memorizing, is as far as possible to consider such in isolation, and apart from its combination and co-operation with other forms of memory. For this purpose let us take a dumb keyboard, and try I0 memorize some passage of single notes and of moderate length, not by means of the printed music, but by seeing some other person play it upon this keyboard. In this case, assuming that a knowledge of Harmony does not exist, we have a task which exercises merely our power of remembering the order of the notes upon the keyboard by the aid of visual memory. We are appealing to the eye, and therefore the regular distribution of colour (black and white), and the repetition of a figure or pattern, will represent the simplest exercises for this form of memory. Thus, scale passages, grand arpeggios and all other passages based upon the recurrence of some established pattern, are easily retained. Ex, 15 illustrates this : — Chopin, Op. 31. ^ ... -^ MUSICAL MEMORY. 21 whilst irregularly formed passages, such as Ex. 1 2, are only retained with much greater difficulty. 39. Connection Between Visual and Muscular Memory. — In some respects the classification of passages for visual memory bears a resemblance to the classification for muscular memory ; in fact, the ultimate analysis of visual memory reduces it to a most delicate form of muscular memory, and its superiority is due to the sensibility and retentiveness of the muscles of the eye. In muscular memory, passages formed upon the exact repetition of a figure, and therefore requiring the repetition of one series of movements, correspond in visual memory to passages formed also upon the exact repetition of a figure, but which, however, must produce a regular pattern with regard to black and white notes. Ex. 6 fulfils the requirements of both forms of memory, and w^ould generally, although probably unconsciously, be memorized by both. 40. Retention of Progressions of Chords. — In considering notes in combination, the irregular dispersion of black and white notes makes progressions of chords in general, too difficult to be retained merely by the aid of the eye, and other forms of memory will be found more suitable. There are, however, some few instances in which the regular sequence of notes considerably lessens the difficulty. Ex. 16 is a type of such : — Ex. 16. Beethoven, Op. 2, No. 3. 41. Hitherto we have considered passages which are most easily memorized by this form of memory. We shall now show how it may sometimes be forced into employment in passages which are not specially suited for it, but simply as a result of the employment of what we shall term Visual Control 42. Visual Control and Visual Memory. — In piano playing we employ Visual Control when, on account of the special difficulty of a passage, we think that by fixing our attention on the keyboard we are more likely to play the passage with perfect accuracy. It is, however, by no means necessary that on the many occasions on which we employ visual control that we also employ visual memory. A passage may be memorized by the ear and by the intellectual memory, that is, we remember the sound of it and that it is formed upon some chord, or some progression of chords, yet w^hen we reproduce such a passage upon the keyboard we may wish to keep a careful surveillance 22 MUSICAL MEMORY. over the finger-movements, to see that they occur exactly as we would desire, but our musical and our intellectual memory would supply all the information respecting the passage. It is not remembered by the eye, but the eye controls the performance of it. The practice which many who play from memory adopt, of carefully watching the keyboard throughout their performance of a piece, even in passages where visual control would be quite unnecessary, is doubtless adopted to assist in securing a continuous and complete concentration upon the work in hand. Later on we shall see that this is an essential point to consider in memory-playing. 43. Although the employment of visual control does not necessarily imply a simultaneous exercise of visual memory, yet the employment of the former tends to force into employment the latter; and it is therefore within the scope of this investigation to draw attention to the types of passage, during the performance of which we often prefer to look at the keyboard, and which therefore may eventually become memorized by the eye. Numerous extended brilliant passages of this kind must occur to the mind of every pianist, and a quotation is unnecessary. Of passages which include wide skips and extensions, and in which the assistance of the eye would probably be sought to secure a correct performance, Chopin's 19th Prelude, beginning as follows, is a fair type : — Ex. 17. Chopin, Op. 28, No. 10. »'tgz3n^ -•^ -^- tJP^ t=xt ^ iz=t ^ T^ a^=£ 3^=1: :»: Of passages founded on chords in different positions, the sixth variation of Mendelssohn's " Variations Serieuses " may be mentioned. Ex. 18. J^ Mendelssohn, Op. 54. I I -•- N y -• ^ ^ ■-■ ^ H: MUSICAL MEMORY. 23 whilst passages which require the hands to be crossed, and of which the Adagio from Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 2, No. 3, is an example, are also liable to be memorized in this way : — Ex. 19. Although the eye possesses a greater power of retention than any other sense, yet in playing piano music from memory we shall frequently find that visual memory is the power which we rely upon least of all, and it may, as we stated in the opening paragraph of this Chapter, be dispensed with altogether. 2 4 MUSICAL MEMORY. CHAPTER VI. INTELLECTUAL MEMORY. 44. Music appeals primarily to the ear, yet the study of its material and of the manner in which elaborate passages, movements and com- plete works are evolved from the limited amount of raw material which IS the common property of composers, is a subject appealing very largely to the Intellect or powers of reason. The classification of chords and the consideration of the special treatment required by each class, forms the subject of Harmony — a highly intellectual study. The moulding of our ideas into intelligible form, the ordering of them in proper sequence, their development into larger forms constructed on certain definite prin- ciples and fulfilling endlessly varied conditions, forms the matter of an intellectual study of a much higher grade and far wider range — the Technique of Composition. Whilst, therefore, Music on its spiritual side is a language of emotion which appeals to our feelings by means of auditory sensations, yet it is at the same time an intellectual stuay of almost unlimited extent. In the present chapter we shall consider iiow far our memory, employed upon the Intellectual aspect of music, can help us when playing. 45. We shall assume that our reader has a sound and fairly compre- hensive knowledge of Harmony, and that he also possesses clear ideas of the general principles of Musical Form. Granted this, the extent to which he will be able to employ this form of memory must depend upon his ability to analyse and to reduce to their simplest aspect both isolated passages and entire movements ; in other words, to apply processes of generalisation and classification to the materials and forms employed in musical composition. Many instances could be cited where the memorization of a passage, after reducing it to its harmonic basis, is as simple to one who understands Harmony, as the memorization of it in its elaborated form is d'fficult to those with whom Harmony is a closed book, whilst the importance of having a clear idea of the order of the chief themes and keys of a movement will be made obvious when we consider " Form " in music. 46. The aspect of music which appeals specially to the Intellect may, for the purpose of this investigation, be most conveniently considered under three heads : First, Form or Design ; Second, Harmonic basis ; Third, Elaboration. Each of these divisions we shall treat separately, noting any sub-divisions which may suggest themselves, as we proceed. 47. (I) Form or Design. — The form of a composition may be said to depend on two things : (i) the order of the appearance of the chief themes, and (2) the relationship which exists between the keys in which these themes appear. Suppose a piece of music were described after this fashion : " It begins with a melody in C major, then modulates to G major, and introduces another melody in that key. After this it MUSICAL MEMORY. 25 modulates back to C, repeating the first melody and then the second one, both in the key of C, in which key it concludes." To one who is accustomed to consider the form of compositions, this description would produce some such mental picture as the following : — KeyC. Key G. Key C. KeyC. 1st Subject. 2nd Subject. 1st Subject. 2nd Subject. which, in the terminology of musical form, might be described as an example of the binary form in miniature. Although we may know absolutely nothing about the materials and details of the piece briefly described above, yet a clear perception of its general outline, which is obtained from a knowledge of the order of the appearances of the themes and the sequence of the keys, is a help both to its intelligent study and memorization. Some may argue that the large majority of pieces proceed in such a manner as to prevent the possibility of confusion between appearances of the same passage in different keys. This is undoubtedly true, but it is also true that no small number of pieces exist, in which, if we have not a clear idea of the sequence of the keys definitely fixed in our mind, in playing from memory, a moment's inattention will make a serious error possible. Thus, what may be called the second subject of the " Aufschwung," from Schumann's " Phantasiestiicke," appears first in D fiat, and then in the recapitulation in A flat, although the passage and cadence which precedes it is identical on both occasions. Ex. 20. i '^M^ Schumann, Op. 12, No. 2. W —m-m— ^t^ --tt-^ @^ t^ ?^r=u= r-i ^^ Ex. 20; ^T a P^ r-' -4 1^- 1* A similar instance will be seen on a comparison of bars 16 and 113 of "Grillen" from the same set of pieces, and the following from the Finale of Beethoven's Sonata in C minor, Op. 10, is another : — No. 26 MUSICAL MEMORY, Ex. 21. Beethoven, Op. lo, No. i Ex. 21 a. Such passages may be regarded as the exception rather than the rule, and we admit they do not form the majority, but it is the obviousness of those cited rather than any essential difference which distinguishes them from many other passages hke the following from Brahms' Rhapsody in B Minor, the security of which depends upon a recognition of the same principle : — Ex. 22 a. Brahms, Op. 79, No. i. 48. The "Methods" of Beethoven. — Not only, however, in the general design of movements which are built upon some clear and definite plan can we enlist the services of Intellectual memory, but it can be brought to our assistance also in the parts of movements which from their very nature are, to some extent irregular, as in the "development " of Sonata-form movements. Beethoven, beyond all other composers has shown how this portion of a movement, though quite free and unfettered in its progres's, may yet be made in the highest sense coherent and satisfactory by the employment of various devices, which are valuable from an emotional point of view as they are intelligent from an intellectual one. To discuss the nature of such in any degree of detail belongs to a treatise on Musical Composition and not to a hand- book on Musical Memory, but for the benefit of those who have not yet critically studied Beethoven's " methods," we will draw attention to a few of these devices, not regarding our reader as a student of composition, but as one who when playing from memory is desirous of making his performance secure by the co-operation of as many forms of memory as is possible, and who recognises that the perception of such devices adds to this security. 49. Perhaps the most prominent of such devices is a regular progression of the bass of the harmo?iic foundation^ either descending or ascending. The descent of the bass in stepwise progression is illustrated at the beginning of the developn-ent of the first movement of the Sonata in G major, Op. 31, No. I, and also in the development of the first movement of the MUSICAL MEMORY. 27 Sonata in B flat, Op. 22, beginning at the 24th bar after the double bar. A corresponding ascent of the bass may be seen in the first movement of the Sonata in D minor, Op. 31, No. 2, beginning at bar 21, and in the transposition of this passage in the development portion, where the bass ascends stepwise, first at distances of four bars and afterwards at distances of two bars. Another and similar example will be found in this same Sonata in the development of the last movement, where at bar 32 after the double bar, the bass ascends from the lower C to the B flat above. This ascent also proceeds first at intervals of four bars, and afterwards at shorter distances. But the finest example of such a device is in the development of the first movement of the Sonata "Appassionata," where the bass ascends from the lower D flat gradually for two octaves, and then by minor 3rds for another two octaves, finally descending by 3rds throughout the whole four octaves. 50. A device of another kind is regularity in the sequence of keys. This may be seen in the development of the first movement of the Sonata in E flat, Op. 31, No. 3, where, beginning at the 12th bar after the double bar, it proceeds through keys at the distance of a 4th, that is, in the relationship of Dominant to Tonic. Another example is the development of the first movement of the Sonata in A flat. Op. no, where a descending melodic sequence in the treble takes place simultaneously with a progression of keys descending in 3rds (F Minor, D flat, B flat Minor). Another instance of the employment of 3rds in regulating the progression of keys, but this time ascending, may be seen in the "second subject" of the first movement of the Sonata in A major. Op. 2, No. 2. Many instances of the employment of other forms of sequence could be quoted from Beethoven's works, it may therefore be more interesting and instructive to give, as a concluding example, one from the works of another composer of quite different methods and genius. In Ex. 23 we see a real sequence of four bars rising a tone at each occurence. The sequence really begins eight bars before what is here printed, but this extract will be sufficient to illustrate our point. Ex. 23. - Chopin, Op. 3i_^. t^ 4.4 iiiilP|==B*^ 2Jt =t=£ 28 MUSICAL MEMORY. It should now be obvious how a clear intellectual grasp of the form of a piece, and of some of the more prominent devices, methods of construction and important modulations, will greatly assist us when memorizing it. 51. (II) Harmonic Basis. — The greater portion of piano music is the presentation, in an elaborated form, of a more or less simple harmonic basis ; and our present purpose is to show how to discover this basis, which may be memorized as the foundation upon which to build the required elaborations. The form of the elaborations and the principles upon which they progress will be considered later. Our method of procedure will be to make two subdivisions: (i) Elaborations evolved from a single chord, and (2) Elaborations evolved from a progression of chords. 52. Elaborations evolved from a vSingle Chord. — Perhaps of all recognized piano compositions, those of Mendelssohn exhibit this form of elaboration — that is, brilliant passages created out of simple chords, to the greatest extent. We have therefore chosen an example from the Sonata in G minor by Schumann, a composer whose methods are as a general rule more recondite. Ex. 24. Schumann, Op. 22. ^Jit^Jt. ^WtTT m if-rr-riir Ex. 24 a. Ex. 24 b. B=pfl By comparing Ex. 24 with the harmonic framework as printed below (Exs. 24, a and b), we shall see that the whole passage is but an elaboration of the chord of the diminished 7th on F sharp, the fourth note in each group of semiquavers being an auxiliary note resolving on to the first note of the following group, and a clear recognition of all MUSICAL MEMORY. 29 this will both facilitate and add security to the memcrization of it. The following example from the " Andantino " of the same Sonata may also be analysed and studied in a similar manner : — Ex. 25 To memorize this framework (Ex. 25 «) no great effort will be required, and when this is done, the memorization of the auxiliary notes required to complete the passage, when the relationship of the auxiliary and essential notes is clearly understood, will present little difficulty. 53. Elaborations evolved from a Progression of Chords.— In many passages belonging to this class, the chords and their progression are indicated by the part for the left hand, but in the following example — as well as in others which might be taken from the same work — such is not the case, and the harmonic basis is therefore less obvious. Ex. 26. .Chopin, Op. 20. ==i=^ ^^eeA s=^ m S I 2|: i-g-e- iE: it fe*- f- ^m± fci^ ^^-'H^- g: ^ m ^ ^ i*=^=F 30 MUSICAL MEMORY. Ex. 26 a. ^^i 1^ 1 r r i ^ ^s^ zff: 2^^ 1 '' P . *^ ©h IZ^^^ m^ 4=._f-. ;ii ^^' In this and similar passages, iiic memcrization of the harmonic basis will form a secure foundation upon which other forms of memory may build. 54. (Ill) Form and Progression of Elaboration. — The consider- ation of this, the last chief division of our subject, compels us at the outset to notice two distinct features, (i) The principle upon which the elaboration is formed, and (2) if such be in the form of a figure, repeated at regular intervals, the principle which governs its progress. 55. Principle of Elaboration. — Such may be in accordance with one of the recognised forms of broken chords, as in the following extract : — Lx. 27. m BEiEthoven, Op. 2, No. 3. etc. or it may be such as includes the employment of auxiliary notes alternated with essential notes, as in the " cadenza " of this same move- ment, where the outline in Ex. 28 <2 is elaborated into Ex. 28, simply by the employment of what are technically called "changing notes," or auxiliary notes, employed both above and below the essential notes : — Ex. 28. ^^i^^hich the student will be able thus to memorize passages intellectually, will depend entirely upon his knowledge of Harmony, Form, and the Theory of Music generally. MUSICAL MEMORY. 33 CHAPTER VII. ON THE RELATIVE EXTENT OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF MEMORY. 58. In the previous chapters we have considered the various forms of memory by which we are able to memorize piano music for performance, as well as the passages most suited to each form, and the reason of such suitability; and the most casual reader must have noticed, that there are very few passages which cannot be memorized by several different forms of memory. It was seen that the various forms do not exercise them- selves over separate provinces having clearly defined boundaries, but rather, that there was one common ground over which, with certain limitations, all had a right of way, and which it was possible for all to traverse at the same moment, though perhaps not with equal facility. 59. While admitting this we must, however, never lose sight of the fact that Music appeals primarily to our sense of hearing, and that the pre-eminent characteristic of a musician should be the possession of a trained and sensitive ear and a corresponding memory for musical sounds. In memory-playing, the memory of the ear therefore is the form which one might naturally expect to bear the greatest amount of responsibility. Yet there are many good musicians and other capable executants, who- are unable to trust their unaided ear to remember all the details of a long and complicated composition; while we believe that some who play piano music from memory, hardly rely upon their ear at all to supply information with respect to the notes. Therefore, although our investigation into the forms of memory employed is completed, we are still confronted with this not unimportant nor uninteresting question, — What influences the selection and employment of the other forms of memory which help us to complete the task that is beyond the unaided power of the ear to accomplish ? Is there any Intellectual law which controls such selection, or is it purely the result of circumstances of an accidental and capricious nature ? To a brief discussion of this problem we shall now address ourselves, and endeavour to place before our readers some conclusions which we have come to on this subject and which to us seem neither unreasonable nor unsatisfactory. If they supply but "the feeblest light, or even so much as a more precise recognition of the darkness which is the first step to attainment of light," we believe they will not be unwelcome. 60. In playing piano" music from memory the selection and emi)loy- ment of some special forms of memory in preference to other possible forms can only be due to the influence of one or more of the following conditions. First, The nature of the music itself. Second, The method of study employed. Third, The peculiarities of the individual memor- izing. These three conditions cover the whole ground, and if we can eliminate from them all the circumstances which are of a varying and 34 MUSICAL MEMORY. capricious nature, what is left must form the basis upon which any ultimate principle of selection, if such exists, must rest. With this object in view we will proceed to consider each possible source of influence separately. 6i. Our First condition referring to the Nature of the Music TO BE MEMORIZED, includcs not only a recognition of the peculiar character of Music as organised sounds, but also of such other special features thereof as may be brought into prominence when it is played upon a keyboard instrument like the piano, and may therefore in performance be brought into contact with other forms of memory such as Muscular Memory. Music addresses its universal appeal to the ear, while the moulding of its materials appeals to the intellect of the music- ally educated. Any ultimate principle of selection must therefore first and foremost be consistent when applied to facts which refer to the very essence and nature of music. Again, when music is considered with reference to performance on the piano, complete control over certain parts of the muscular organism is a vital condition of success. Another fact therefore which our ultimate principle must recognize is the in- dispensible conditions of musical performance. Both of these are too obviously fundamental to need further discussion. 62. Besides these two sources of influence, our first condition will also include the influence which may be the result of the special form which various passages assume. Certain passages, when brought into connection with the keyboard, may on account of its peculiarities be more readily memorized by one form than another. At the same time, however, there are many passages which are suitable to be memorized by several forms — such as Ex. 6, which appeals equally to the musical, visual, or muscular memory — and any final principle should give us some indication of the one special form which will be chiefly relied upon in such instances. We may therefore regard the influence derived from the particular form of passages as of an accidental nature, and which may be dismissed from further consideration. 63. We will now pass to our Second possible source of influence — the Method employed in Studying a Piece. Here two cases off"er themselves for consideration. Firsts the memorization of pieces which lie ivithin the siude?ifs executive poivers. In these cases he repeats the whole or portions simply that he may impress them upon his memory, and the various forms of memory employed would have equal opportunity to assist in the task of memorizing. Their suitability to the task and the relative superiority of them in the individual would probably determine the extent of their employment. Our Second case would be the memorization of pieces which are beyond the student's execiitive powers, and which he learns to play and memorize simultaneously. In studying such, he often, in the first instance, concentrates his attention chiefly on acquiring and perfecting the necessary finger movements, and by frequent repetition of such, in order to secure absolute certainty of performance, probably memorizes large portions of the piece by muscular memory, the mere repetition of the movements required bringing that form into employment. Beyond noting that his tone was clear and firm such would not engage much MUSICAL MEMORY. 35 of his attention. Thus it will be seen that the frequent repetition which is required in order to acquire the power of playing passages, which are relatively speaking, dit^cult, inevitably forces into employment the muscular memory to a larger extent than would be the case if greater powers of execution were posessed. On the other hand, if to play the correct notes of a passage presents no difficulty, but it presents one in securing the correct gradation and varieties of tone, then our attention would be chiefly directed to listening and criticising the succession of notes and the tone of such, and although the movements would be repeated, and thus to some extent memorized, yet because they present little or no difficulty and consequently receive a smaller amount of attention, the muscular memory would be less secure than the musical one. 64. The special difficulty which a passage presents to a student will be that to the overcoming of which he will direct the greater part of his attention, and the organ of sense chiefly appealed to will be as it were forced into employment to a greater extent than other powers, and the passage will tend to be most securely memorized by this form of memory. The influence in the selection of special forms v;hich is exerted by the method of study, varies therefore, it will be seen, accord- ing to the difficulties presented by the piece, and we shall have to look still deeper into the matter if any fundamental principle of selection is to be discovered. 65. We have now considered the influence exerted by the music itself, and by the method of studying it; but beyond bringing into prominence the fact that the special nature of music and the necessary conditions of its performance favour the employment of certain powers rather than others, we have discovered no data from which it would be possible to deduce a principle or law admitting of general application, as to the relative extent to which the various forms of memory are employed. We will therefore turn our attention to the Third source of influence arising out of the Peculiarities of the Individual engaged in MEMORIZING, for it is clear that if a principle does exist, his personal endowments should supply us with the data from which it must be discovered. 66. Here two distinct aspects claim our attention. The first is the relatively different degrees of retentive power possessed by the various senses employed, as exhibited in the average individual. Thus the eye possesses the greatest power, the ear a lower power, and the muscular memory a power much lower still, while our power of intellectual memory would correspond to our power of general retentiveness. The other aspect of the individual which we have to note is the pos.session of superior or inferior natural gifts, such as a peculiarly sensitive ear, or eye, or a delicate muscular sense. Beyond recognizing the twofold aspect in which the powers of the individual may be regarded, it will not be necessary to discuss them otherwise than collectively, and with this object we shall therefore turn our attention for a moment from a consideration of the single faculty of memory, and glance at the com- plete group of powers or faculties, as exhibited by the individual, and the influence which these may have in directing his tastes and pursuits. 36 MUSICAL MEMORY. 67. The pursuits of individuals, when not influenced by outward circumstances or necessity, tend in the direction of their natural aptitudes and abiUties We prefer to do what we can do well, with the least amount of trouble — or what we think we can do well, for a "good performance " is but a relative term. It is only matured judgment, or necessity, which induces us to devote ourselves to what is not only not pleasant, but may be repugnant — often not to what we can do well, but to what pays well. Thus, as a rule, our interests follow the bent of our superior faculties, or our special local endowments. The superiority of any organ of sense, either in its natural condition, or because education and opportunities have given it a more complete development than the others, inevitably carries with it a special interest in the class of sensation with which it is associated, and the development of a memory for corresponding impressions invariably follows. This is a rough and general idea of our intellectual tendencies when left to take their own course. The powers which we possess in a superior degree, unconsciously direct our attention in special directions, and force us to view what is presented to us in a particular light, and therefore to remember it most easily in that aspect. Is it unreasonable to suggest that this kind of natural law supplies the most probable and satisfactory basis for an ultimate principle of selection w^itli regard to the various forms of memory which may be employed upon a ])assage of piano music ? 68. To calculate to any definite extent the amount of assistance supplietl by the various forms of memory is quite impossible, yet, after making due allowan- e for the special nature of nmsic, the requirements of musical performance, the inequalities of the retentive capacities of the powers employed, and the various accidental circumstances which may influence the result, we think the statement of this principle in the following general terms supplies no unsatisfactory solution to the problem under discussion, thus : — In memorizing piatio music ive shall employ and rely upon the several for?ns of memory possible^ in a greater or less degree according to the relative superiority of them in us {both fiatural and acquired), and according as we find the employment of one form easier and more reliable than another. A kind of instinctive feeling induces us to unconsciously select some forms in preference to others, and we employ that which most readily appears on the scene to help us whenever anything is presented for memorization. 69. The relative superiority of our faculties, to which this principle of selection conforms, will influence us in our manner of regarding passages, and cause individuals to look at the san^.e passage from quite different standpoints. Thus one who has dived deeply into the Theory of Music may view passages in quite another light to one who has but a super- ficial knowledge of it ; and while one with a fine and retentive ear may rely chiefly on musical memory, another who possesses a dull and imperfectly trained ear, although able to say within reasonable limits what a passage is not, may by this faculty be unable to supply any further information as to what // is. But whichever form of memory we seem to rely most upon, the instances where such was working entirely alone and without assistance from other forms, w^ould be rare and, in many instances, unsafe. MUSICAL MEMORY 37 PART II. THE CULTIVATION OF MUSICAL MEMORY. CHAPTER VIIL THE NECESSITV FOR THE CULTIVATION OF MUSICAL MEMORY. 70. The adequate training of the faculty of memory in one or more of its forms, although of varying importance in different branches of education, can in none be regarded as unimportant. The artist must have a trained memory for colours and forms, the linguist for articulate sounds, and of not less importance is it that the musician should have one for musical sounds. To be able to retain and recall at pleasure the sound of the intervals and chords commonly employed in music, is the least we have a right to expect from every musician. From those of higher claims and pretentions we get much more, and among our many gifted living musicians, the possession of wonderful memories is not their least remarkable characteristic. 71. Ear-Training. — The distinguishing feature of a musician should be the possession of a trained ear, and in the words of a previous chapter, this may be said to include three distinct possessions, namely: the ear trained to discriminate different intervals and chords, the memory trained to retain their sound, and the intellect trained to classify them, and to associate the classification with the signs of some form of musical notation. From this it will be seen that what is termed "ear-training," is very largely a cultivation of the memory for musical sounds, and considering the important position which this subject ought to hold, and the inadequate attention it generally receives, in most schemes of musical education, we shall make no apology for devoting some small space to its discussion. 72. It has always seemed to us not a little curious that the character- istic feature of the musician, a trained ear, should have so small an amount of special attention, particularly in the training of keyboard players. Not only is this the case with elementary pupils, amongst whom it is practically ignored, but even amongst pianists who in some respects are proficient executants. Yet that such is a fact is proved every day by the inability of so many of this class to hear mentally, with any degree of certainty, what is printed, merely by looking at it — in other words, to read music. The power of reading music is analogous to the power of reading ordinary literature, and should not be confused 38 MUSICAL MEMORY. with the power of "playing at sight," for which the term is frequently loosely applied. It does not necessarily imply the power of performance at all. To read music means to hear mentally the sound of what is printed, just as our ability to read ordinary literature means our under- standing the language employed. And as our ability to read a foreign language depends upon our power to recall the meaning of every word, so our ability to read music depends upon our ability to recall the sounds which are represented by the signs before us, or to combine sounds which we have previously stored, into the new forms presented. 73. The immense popularity of the piano, through the medium of which we are able to produce the accurate sounds of what is printed by associating the printed signs with the arrangement of notes on the keyboard, has made the power of reading music not absolutely necessary to the executant, and it has therefore unfortunately become a neglected power. Despite this fact, the possession of it must still be regarded as one of the chief distinguishing features of the musician, and he should be able to read his Bach, and his Beethoven, as the Greek scholar does his Homer, and the German his Schiller. If we then admit that one of the leading departments of musical education is the learning to read music — and in order that we may do this, a trained ear is the chief requisite — it seems obvious that from the very first, a certain amount of attention should be devoted to this branch of study, and that in every rational scheme of musical education, no unimportant place should be given to ear-training or a cultivation of the musical memory. 74. The Correct Method of studying Harmony. -^The vital necessity of such a mode of procedure, and a proof of its present neglect, is most obvious when the study of Harmony and those still more ad- vanced studies, which eventually lead to some form of musical composi- tion, are entered upon. No one will deny that all musical studies must appeal to the sense of hearing. Now, if Harmony is one of these, and the one which teaches us how to take correctly our first steps in musical composition — and this we believe it to be — its signs must ever suggest in the mind living sounds, and the moment the exercises become a skilful manipulation on paper of crotchets and quavers, and appeal merely to the understanding and not to the ear, the study loses its true character, and becomes largely a non-musical one, which to some extent might be pursued by the intelligent deaf and dumb. For the student to devote nearly his whole attention to the treatment of chords on paper, without being able to hear mentally what is written down, is the result of a method of harmony-teaching and examining very much in vogue in the present day, and which is in open defiance to that great principle of education which affirms that the Thing (in the present instance the soimd), should be first perceived, and its Sigfi introduced afterwards. Unfortunately, our present method is to emphasize the sign at the expense of the sounds and to work Harmony exercises after the manner in which we play a game of chess. Our one object is to check-mate our o[)ponent — the so-called teacher — by correctly resolving the discords and avoiding forbidden consecutives. When we have successfully accomplished this, we generally feel some not un-natural desire to hear what our exercise sounds like, and we MUSICAL MEMORY. 39 forthwith go to the piano to discover its beauties. If our task has been the harmonization of a melody, or any similar exercise which leaves the selection of chords to the pupil, it is curious how rarely a progression which could in any sense be described as beautiful is discoverable. We do not think we are overstating the case when we say that no student discovered what a special gift he possessed for introducing the greatest number of ugly harmonic progressions in the smallest number of bars, until he began to harmonize melodies. The student we do not condemn, but we do not acquit either the method by which he is taught, the teacher who employs the method, or the examiner who connives at its employment by examining harmony students entirely by paper work, and who thereby tends to encourage a radically wrong perception of the subject. The solution of this problem is the dear 7nemorization of the sound of every chord as it is introduced for study, and before any but a very general idea of its treatment is given j and to prove this has been done effectually by the ability to write chords and short progressions of such from dictation ; as, however, we believe the cure really lies in the hands of musical examiners, we have reserved our final words on this subject until Chapter XII. 75. The Performance of Piano Music from Memory. — Hitherto we have considered the necessity of the cultivation of musical memory quite apart from its connection with performance, we will now endeavour to show the necessity, or at least the advisability, of the cultivation of it (and also of the other forms employed) from the point of view of the executant who is desirous of becoming a fully equipped musician. 76. At the present time all the greatest executants play without the book, and many who are not great, in this respect follow in the train of those they fain would rival, and we cannot but think that every one who is looking forward to public performance, must recognize the fact that memory-playing is no unimportant condition in helping to secure success. But putting aside all thoughts of public performance, simply as a form of mental training, we think all fairly advanced piano students should be taught to play to some extent without the book. Before we teach school boys to recite Shakespeare, we do not inquire whether they are intended for the "Lyceum," or the House of Commons, or for public reciting and speaking of any kind. Their learning to recite from memory is amongst other things a means of training their memory for continued and sustained effort, and as such is a valuable intellectual exercise. If musical education means, not merely gaining a certain facility in performing upon one, or more musical instruments, and a knowledge of Harmony and Counterpoint sufificient to create in us a holy horror of "fifths," and "tritones," but in its true sense embraces a harmonious training and development of all the physical, intellectual and emotional powers employed by the musician, then we see no reason for omitting a course of memory training for sustained effort from the education of the piano student. The neglect with which this power is treated in musical education often leads students to assert that they have no memory for musical performance. The majority of individuals possess the various powers of memory in some degree, but whether they know how to train them, and to exercise 40 MUSICAL MEMORY. them with the greatest advantage, and thus acquire the security necessary for musical performance, is quite another question. 77. Because, however, we have insisted upon a musician possessing a cultivated memory for musical sounds, and recommended that he should also possess one for musical performance, we hope our readers will not infer that we have any desire to increase the amount of public or semi- public memory-playing which is prevalent at the present day. In fact we do not hesitate to pronounce the fashion, now so universally adopted, of playing without the book, to be one of questionable value, if it is not in some cases absolutely harmful. It is not to those who possess great powers of concentration and retention that any harm can accrue ; these doubtless play far better without the assistance of the music, but for those who do not feel their memory absolutely secure, yet whom pubUc opinion, more or less compels to play from memory, the prolonged strain of anxiety and nervousness, in addition to casting its shadow over their performance, exercises, for a considerable period previous to this, no slight or salutary influence upon their bodily and mental health. Despite this, the judicious introduction of memory-playing, simply as a form of training and not for public exhibition, cannot, we think, be without distinct value. 78. In the following chapters we shall offer for our reader's consider- ation some suggestions with reference to the study of music for memory performance. First, with regard to the general co?iditions ivhich favour memorization, drawing attention to their application to the special subject before us ; Second, the principles which should guide us in framing a sche?nefor training the memory of the piano student ; Third, the method £f studying pieces for memorization. MUSICAL MEMORY. 41 CHAPTER IX. GENERAL CONDITIONS FAVOURABLE TO MEMORIZING. 79. In the present chapter we shall consider quite briefly the conditions which are favourable to acquisition or memorizing in any form, and show some of the special applications of these to the particular subject before us, the memorization of piano music. 80. In general education the memorizing of new materials is the operation requiring the greatest expenditure of mental vigour. In applying this statement to the memorizing of piano music, we may have to modify it somewhat in the letter, although not in the spirit. The memorizing of new pieces by the piano student, can hardly be said to exactly correspond with the learning of a number of unknown words by the student of Latin or Greek. To the fairly advanced and intelligent pianist who knows something of Harmony, a new piece is often but a presentation of old materials in a fresh aspect, or in a new construction, rather than the introduction of absolutely new matter, at least to any very great extent. Considering the immense amount of really fine and original music which exists, the very limited amount of material from which it is evolved is one of the most remarkable facts connected with the Art. Again, in studying a piano piece, our first efforts are generally directed towards acquiring the power to play it; and if its technical difficulties are sufficient to require us to repeat some passages many times over, we shall probably memorize these by muscular memory whilst we are learning to play them, if not also by other forms as well ; the two operations of improving the ] owers of execution, and of memorizing, frequently proceeding simultaneously. The task, there- fore, which may be said to make the greatest demand upon the mental power of the piano-student will be the studying of a new piece (with the object of ultimately performing it from memory), which not only presents technical difficulties to him, but which presents an aspect of musical materials with which he is unfamiliar, and a mode of construction upon a higher intellectual basis than that of his previous studies. To turn our attention to a mature work by Beethoven or Schumann, after studying works say by Mendelssohn, would illustrate this transition to a higher plane of thought and conception ; and such a task should be under- taken when mind and body are quite fresh. Mental operations, in which the intellect is interpreting a new style and the memory is receiving new impressions, cannot be successfully undertaken when the nervous powers are at a low ebb. 81. For recalling and reproducing the storages of previous occasions a similar mental and physical condition is not so vital, and it is not unusual to see in schemes for practice-time, suggested in pianoforte 42 MUSICAL mp:mory. primers, the concluding portion allotted to playing from memory, yet the fresher we are, the more successful and complete will be our efforts in this direction. Failure in such may be due, not to insufficient or imperfect ingraining, but to a low state of nervous force at our command when we wish to revive previous acquisitions. 82. Beyond the general condition of mind and body there are three special conditions upon which the success of memorizing depends. These are (i) degree of retentiveness peculiar to the individual, (2) power of concentration possessed by him, (3) repetition of the impression to be retained. 83. 1. Degree of Retentiveness peculiar to the Individual. — This refers to the power of memory bestowed upon us by nature, and which, according to the latest theories of Psychologists, is a limited quantity in each individual — special memories, such as those for colours, sounds, etc., varying directly as the discriminative power of the organ employed. By continuous and judicious exercise our various forms of memory may be developed to their fullest extent, yet there is a limit beyond which we cannot go ; and no form can be said to be unlimited in capacity. Such being the case, the importance of economising the power we possess, and regarding everything in its simplest aspect, is obvious. Our aim should be to remember passages and complete movements by that method which will reduce our mental labour to a minimum. In the common things of life, and in the study of the Sciences, this end is obtained by generalisation and classification, and what we have termed the Intellectual aspect of music is simply an application of the same principles to its material. 84. II. Power of Concentration possessed ey the Individual. — To concentrate ourselves upon any subject, or to give our whole mind and attention to any work we may be engaged upon, is the most rapid and successful means of accomplishing and mastering it. If our occu- pation be some form of memorizing, the ability to direct all our powers towards this one object is an immense help to us; in fact the acquire- ment of this power of voluntary concentration is one of the chief ends of education. Although the exercise of this power depends very largely upon an effort of the Will, yet the assistance to be secured by a co- operation of the Feelings is an invaluable one, and indispensable in early training. We give our attention most readily and most com- pletely to those employments of which the simple performance affords us pleasure, or for which we have a natural taste. As explained in our first chapter, a taste for anything is generally the result of the pos- session of a corresponding superior natural organ, which by its special sensibility brings a particular form of sensation prominently before the mind, and the exercise of any organ which we possess in a superior degree, always affords us a certain amount of pleasure. Thus the greatest motive to conce?itratio?i, a present einploymeiit inducitig a present pleasure, is presented 7vhen our employment brings into play our superior natural organs, or in other words, when it coincides with our fiatural tastes. 85. With children and those possessing immature minds generally, this is by far the most efficient means of securing the attention. When MUSICAL MEMORY. 43 teaching these the piano, the interest is more readily secured and retained in pieces of a picturesque and suggestive character with suitable titles, than in pieces of a more classical style, such as Etudes and Sonatinas. To overcome the difficulties of the former they will readily give their best efforts, while the latter receive but an unwilling service and a half-hearted devotion. At the same time we must bear in mind that the prettiness of a melody may create a desire to proceed rapidly, and probably carelessly, and this may prevent due attention being given to the finger-movements ; but in most five-finger exercises there is little temptation to transfer the interest to the melodic direction ; their beauty does not increase — or perhaps it would be more truthful in many cases to say their ugHness does not lessen — as they proceed. This motive to secure concentration — a present performance producing a present pleasure — will also be a powerful one with advanced performers who play music of very different styles, and who will probably feel more in sympathy with some than with others. This is due partly to natural taste, and partly to education. Many enjoy Mendelssohn and Chopin, to w^iom Bach and Brahms afford no pleasure. Other conditions being the same, the pieces which give us the greatest pleasure to play will be more easily retained than pieces from which we derive less pleasure. 86. A less powerful motive to concentration, yet one which appeals strongly to minds of some maturity, is presented when we are engaged in an employment which induces pleasure in prospect. It is this motive of future or prospective good which supports the musical student in his daily practice of technical exercises and the less interesting class of studies. 87. Besides the exercise of our power of concentration for acquisition, the exercise of it continuously and completely for a considerable time is of course necessary for all memory or reproductive performances of any extent. 88. III. Repetition of the Impression to be Retained. — The amount of repetition necessary to securely memorize a series of im- pressions will depend upon the two previous conditions, viz., the power of memory possessed by the individual for the special class of impression, and the degree to which he can concentrate himself. Any deficiency in these must be compensated for by additional repetition. At the same time it must not be overlooked that, in the average individual, the different senses possess the power of memory in very unequal degrees. The Visual memory is in general the strongest power, then comes the Auditory, and in a lower position the Muscular memory. One presen- tation might be sufficient for either of the former, but would be wholly inadequate for the latter. 89. The consideration of these general conditions has naturally proceeded on lines very similar to their exposition in other works on Memory, but while it is admitted that they may be found in every text- book on the subject, any text-book like the present in which they were omitted, and the reader's attention not drawn to their special application, would be incomplete. 44 MUSICAL MEMORY. CHAPTER X. SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR A SCHEME OF MEMORY TRAINING. 90. We shall now endeavour to show the appUcation of some of the general principles which underhe any course of memory training to the special needs and studies of the piano student. 91. State of Advancement Necessary. — Before the question of memory-playing is presented to the pupil, all the different departments of piano-playing — the training of the hand and fingers to move with facility and certainty, the ear to criticise both correctness of notes, rhythm, and gradation of tone, and the power of reading music with some degree of fluency — all should be in a moderate state of advancement, otherwise the attention may be withdrawn from vital matters which are insecure, and directed towards that which, at this stage of advancement, is not of the greatest moment, even if in some cases desirable. Playing from memory is an ultimate condition of performance and can never be advanced as an excuse for any remissness in the rendering of a piece. The teacher must decide for each individual pupil when it can be safely introduced, and every competent teacher will know that to some pupils whose practice is little, whose progress is less, and whose musical intelligence is nil, it should never be introduced at all. 92. The Value of Early Training. — Psychologists tell us that the natural power of memory is greatest between the ages of 9 and 14, and after the latter age it gradually becomes less. The greater ease with which in after life we appear to make new acquisitions is ostensible, and not real, our extended knowledge prevents anything from being absolutely new to us, and few subjects which we attack have not many vital associations and connections with our present knowledge. This is not less true with regard to music. Many are able to employ and rely upon their memory for musical performance, in mature years, with a greater ease and security, and to a far larger extent than was possible for them to do when they were quite young. This is partly due to training and exercise, but also partly due to the employment of Intellectual memory in connection with music, and regarding and memorizing music in an aspect which appeals but in a small degree to those of an early age, even if it is presented to them. We must not, however, be understood to minimise the importance of teaching young pianists of sufficient advancement to play from memory, especially if such are looking forward to careers as public performers. The security which the habit of memory-playing formed in youth gives, and the power of continuous concentration thus acquired, can rarely be developed to an equal degree when such efforts are not attempted until mature years are reached. MUSICAL MEMORY. 45 93. Principles which should guide us in the Selection of Pieces. — When the powers of execution and general musical knowledge and intelligence of the pupil are sufficiently advanced to warrant our bring- ing the question of memory-playing before him, our next consideration is what should influence us in selecting pieces for memorization. Such selection should naturally progress from short and simply constructed pieces, to long and difficult ones. It is we believe due to a disregard of this, to us, most obvious condition of training, that the inability of many excellent pianists to play from memory is due. Playing without the book is frequently not attempted until a high degree of execution is reached, when pieces both lengthy and difficult are studied, and the student's first efforts are often directed to the attempt to memorize such pieces, viz., those of his daily practice. The result is often failure, and he instantly decides that he has no memory for musical performance. He forgets that his powers of execution and understanding have arrived at the stage of advancement sufficient to grapple with the difficulties of these pieces only after years of gradual progress, yet he expects his memory to make the step in one bound. When judiciously trained and regularly exercised, the memory may develop sufficiently to meet the constantly increasing demands made upon it by the increasing power of execution acquired, but such is not necessarily the case. There are many excellent pianists who have trained memories, and who habitually play to some extent from memory, but who do not trust themselves to play without a book pieces which they consider beyond their powers of memory. 94. A progressive training, then, as is required for the development of all the other powers, is also a vital condition for developing the memory to its fullest extent. In ear.y attempts the chief object should be to isolate the difficulty of memorizing, and to ehminate as far as possible all other difficulties, that is, to select pieces well within the executive and interpretative powers of the pupil. Something which has been learnt and put aside for a time is often useful to begin with, as in such pieces not only have the technical difficulties been conquered, but a good general idea of the piece is probably retained. 95. Putting aside the question of the memorization of past pieces, our selection should be guided by the following conditions, the qualification of which, as to shortness and simplicity, being regarded as relative to the powers of the pupil. The pieces should be — First, Short in length ; Second, Simple in form and construction ; Third, Simple in detail ; FouriJi, Moderate in difficulty. 96. (I.) The first, Short in length, hardly needs comment. It is an obvious condition of all early sustained effort, and how far it will limit such will depend on the natural strength of the memory, and upon the power possessed of continuous concentration for the purposes of reproduction. Successful public reciters and speakers, as well as public performers, must possess both of these powers in a high degree. The pianist may have to begin his memory playing with the shortest of Mendelssohn's " Lieder," but after regular exercise and continually increasing effort he may not stop until he has reached Beethoven's longest Concerto. 4^ MUSICAL MEMORY. 97. (II.) Simpliciiy in Form and Construclion is a condition which demands fuller consideration. The simplest form which intelligible musical thought assumes, is that of an air or melody, and the simplest form employed in piano music is an accompanied melody. Pieces of this class, possessing one melodic idea with a simple harmonic accompaniment which merely colours and supports the melody, and does not introduce any special features of a new melodic or rhythmic nature, are the easiest to remember. Directly we introduce in combination with our chief melodic idea, others, either melodic or rhythmic, of a contrasted nature, and thus increase the interest and importance of our accompanying matter, we add to the complexity of what is to be memorized, and therefore increase the difficulty of memorizing. Music which answers to this description, while being built upon a harmonic foundation, is often both poly- melodic and poly-rhythmic in character. As it increases in complexity, so the memorizing of it increases in difficulty, until we reach the most difficult style of all to memorize — contrapuntal music, where every part is of equal importance and difficulty. Thus, disregarding any sympathy we may have for one style rather than another, our extremes of simplicity and difficulty are represented respectively by simple harmonic construction and pure contrapuntal construction. The greater portion of piano music lies somewhere between these two, and while being harmonic in structure, exhibits a combination of different melodies and rhythms which is of the essence, if not the actual form of contrapuntal music. 98. It is impossible to indicate any definite boundary lines between the different styles, but as a broad principle we may say, that the more brilliant and less intellectual a composition is, the more does its construction tend towards a simple rather than a complex harmonic structure. There is less material employed, and therefore it is easier to memorize. Thus the music of composers such as Mendelssohn and Weber, is as a general rule easier to remember than that of Beethoven, Schumann, and Brahms, while these again are simpler than Bach. This classification will not of course apply to every piece by these composers. Tliere are pieces by Bach which are easier to remember than some of the piano fugues of Mendelssohn, but the general style of the majority of their works has guided us in placing them in this order, and suggestions as to general lines of study is all we presume to offer. 99. (III.) Simplicity in Detail. — It is most important that we should learn every piece thoroughly from the book before attempting to memorize it as a whole, in order that we may note every detail with regard to phrasing and expression, as well as to notes and rhythm. Unless we are complete masters of such details when the book is before us, they will certainly fare badly when we have the additional task of remembering them. In our early efforts, if we are not most watchful, the extra demand made upon us when playing without the book will tend to make other things suffer, and perhaps what may be rendered in- correctly and most easily pass unnoticed, is bad phrasing and expression. Our first efforts, therefore, should be directed to pieces which are not characterized by too great a wealth of detail of this description. Here, MUSICAL MEMORY. 47 again, as a general rule, the works of Mendelssohn make less demand upon us than those of Beethoven, and many of Beethoven's less than those of Chopin and Schumann. Until our memory is quite reliable for pieces which are simple both in construction and detail, it is unwise to attempt pieces of a more complex and intricate nature. 100. (IV.) Our last condition is Moderate in Difficulty. — In order to give an adequate interpretation of a work from the book, it is necessary that all its technical difficulties should be well within our powers, and this condition should be still more emphasised if to the difficulty of performance we add the extra effort of playing from memory. It is idle to pretend that we are in any sense interpreting a piece, if, whether we are playing from the book or not, all our powers are employed in overcoming its technical difficulties. 101. As previously stated the qualifications of these conditions are purely relative to the powers of the pupil, and the extent to which they apply to any special piece must be decided by the teacher, or if the student has not the guidance of such, he must experiment with his own powers, and decrease his test pieces in length and difficulty, until he has discovered the degree to which he can securely memorize, even if it be but the shortest and simplest of Mendelssohn's " Lieder." Upon such a foundation he must gradually build, ever remembering that only by regular daily exercise and constant effort to remember pieces of greater length and difficulty, will he fully develop his retentive powers and make them thoroughly reliable and secure. 4$ MUSICAL MEMORY. CHAPTER XI. A METHOD OF STUDYING PIECES FOR MEMORIZATION. 102. Before proceeding to the ultimate condition of the performance of a piece, that of memorizing it in its entirety, in addition to the power of playing it with accuracy and suitable expression, a thoroughly intelligent understanding of it should be acquired. By this we mean a recognition of its leading themes, the order of their occurrence, and the relationship of the keys in which they appear, also, if there be a wealth of elaboration which prevents one from perceiving readily the form of the themes or the order of some of the progressions; the outlines of such themes or such progressions, should be written out by the pupil. No earnest student will regard these demands as unreasonable, and when complied with, they will form a solid, mental foundation upon which he can safely and gradually graft all the details of a piece in correct order. 103. In many compositions, especially those in sonata- form, there is a large amount of recapitulation and repetition, and passages frequently occur which, while resembling one another in the main, differ in small yet not unimportant details. In such passages, unless the points of difference are clearly brought before the mind of the student, are carefully compared, and specially memorized, such details may possibly suffer. We will therefore lead the student through the first movement of Beethoven's First Sonata, showing him how such may be analysed, and drawing his attention to points of interest in the structure and methods employed, as well as to other features which may help him towards the accurate memorization of it. It will be seen that by so doing we can appeal only to the Intellectual memory. In the other forms, repetition is the chief means of bringing such into employment, but in regarding a piece Intellectually we bring to our assistance previously acquired knowledge of the theory of music and musical composition. How far a student needs, or can employ the suggestions given, each must judge for himself. fe& Allegro. 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