iitiiijlliljpliiiiii^^ HdiljifUfi ■!i!i:; ■i i! It' >1 n it' ■»?.^l« ^iliiii lm!!';nl- iilB^ iiiili ill iitoiiiPiiiiiiM' m m "i-iUi-tl:)' mm !i;i I l!iiilj iiiiiiilil lii wsB '\ i^v !iiC:Of "I ]rr\'f Wi,rM:u''ii;iniiiliiii(HUfni1(imiliiniii(iif! ..s,» :YHr^'' >)LQS ANut-^ii-. JAU«i EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP BY FREDERICK F. BLACHLY PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT AND DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF MUNICIPAL RESEARCH UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA AND MIRIAM E. OATMAN ,3-, 13 J , > f^^) > > • 7 , > ' } 3 '3 • )5 3 • -> 3 ") 3 3 , 'l 'j' 3 1 CHARLES E. MERRILL COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO 82760 COPTKIQHT, 1920, 1922, BT CHARLES E. MERRILL CO. [2J 3K '^ ^ PREFACE This book is an attempt to make it clear to young people that the privileges and duties of citizenship are ^ matters of everydaj^ life. Its object is to lead them to see service of all citizens government, not as a remote, incomprehensible, and rather alarming abstraction, but as a controllable agency for the The organization and structure of government have here been treated with constant reference to their purpose, the carrying on of common enterprises. The young citizen is rightly interested in the work done by public officials, ^ and in his own share in public work, rather than in the nS machinery itself. An appeal is made to the student's interest b}' the use of many illustrations based on everyday experience. The arrangement of topics, beginning with local government and proceeding to the less familiar work and organization of state and nation, is designed to lead him logically from the known to the less known. The great end of our government, the service of all the people, is emphasized at every point. While no attempt is made to mislead the pupil into the false view that no further improvements can be made in our local and general systems, the value of democratic government and the need of loyal cooperation with it are repeatedly demonstrated. The questions at the end of each chapter are intended to lead the student not only to think, but to do. To develop a body of citizens who consider the workings of their govern- iii iv PREFACE ment and take an active part in its undertakings, is the fundamental purpose of the present volume. The authors are indebted to several members of the faculty of the University of Oklahoma and to a number of other friends for helpful criticisms and suggestions. Thanks are due to various friends for valuable photographs which have been used as illustrations; and also to the American Museum of Natural History, New York, for the use of the picture reproduced on page 65. F. F. B. M. E. O. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION CHAPTER PAGE I. The Nature of Government . . 1 II. The Functions of Modern Government 7 III. The Divisions of Government . . 13 LOCAL GOVERNMENT IV. The City and Its Work; Street Build- ing, Cleaning, and Lighting . . 19 V. The City; the Police Department and Justice ...... 26 VI. The City; Fire Protection . . 33 VII. Municipal Health and Sanitation . 39 VIII. Water Supply 45 IX. Disposal of Waste .... 51 X. Education; the Public Schools . . 59 XI. Special Educational Agencies . . 64 XII. Recreation and Welfare ... 68 XIII. City Organization; the ]\Iayor-Coun- ciL Plan .... .72 XIV. The Commission and the Commission- Manager Plans . . . .77 XV. The Township 84 XVI. The County . . . . .87 VI CONTENTS CHAPTER XVII. XVIIL XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. STATE GOVERNMENTS The Development and Work of State Governments . State Constitutions . The State and Its Work Education . Care of Special Classes Public Health The Judicial Power of the State The Legislative Power of the State The Executive Power of the State State Finances .... PAGE 91 95 99 105 109 114 119 126 131 134 THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT XXVII. The Development of the National Government ..... 137 XXVIII. What the National Government Does 142 XXIX. Public Defense ..... 144 XXX. The Regulation of Commerce and of Immigration ..... 148 XXXI. The Post Office Department . . 155 XXXII. The Conservation of Natural Re- sources ...... 160 XXXIII. Paying for the Work of the Govern- ment ...... 167 XXXIV. The Federal Constitution . . . 171 XXXV. The Legislative Power of the Na- tion ...... 175 XXXVI. The Judicial Power of the Nation . 182 XXXVII. The Executive Power of the Nation . 188 CONTENTS vii XXXVIII. New Problems of the National Gov- ernment ..... 193 XXXIX. The People and the Federal Govern- ment ...... 197 XL. Political Parties and Elections . 201 XLI. International Relations . . . 208 XLII. The Future of America . . . 213 XLIII. American Citizenship — a Privilege and A Responsibility .... 221 Suggestions for Outside Reading . . . 227 Constitution of the United States . . . 230 Index . ....... 245 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I THE NATURE OF GOVERNMENT The General Need of Rules and Officers. — When people form a literary society or an athletic association or any other organization for the purpose of doing certain work, they adopt rules to guide them, and select officers to see that the rules are carried out and that the work is done. By long experience men have discovered that when a large number of persons are working together, unless they have some guiding rules and officers with authority to enforce these rules, all will be confusion and nothing will be ac- complished. There must be a president of the organiza- tion, for example, with authority to keep its meetings orderly and to decide which member "has the floor," or is entitled to speak. There must be a treasurer, with au- thority to collect dues and to pay bills. Perhaps there are other officers, with different powers. This depends, of course, on the kind of work which the organization is under- taking. It is necessary for all the members to be guided by the officers and to keep the rules. If they do not do this — if they refuse to pay dues, or engage in fist-fights during business meetings in spite of all that the president can say — the association will certainly be a failure. Obedience to au- thority is absolutely essential in order that any organiza- tion may carry on its work successfully. 1 2 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP The need of rules, and of strict regard for the rules, is naturally greater and greater as the number of people con- cerned is greater, and the work more complicated. An athletic association in one school might have a few simple rules and two or three officers; but if a league of athletic associations is formed with a branch in every school in the county, there must be a large number of rules and many officers of various ranks, such as president of the county association, a chairman of each branch association, central and local treasurers, corresponding secretaries, perhaps vice-chairmen, and members of a board of directors. To make the association a success, it would be necessary for every branch to follow its rules or obey its authority. In order to make sure that the rules of any association or league will be followed by the members, it is customary to establish penalties or punishments for disobedience. Thus, if the Lincoln Grammar School Athletic Association has a rule requiring all members to attend its monthly meet- ings, absence may be penalized by a fine of ten cents. The breaking of other rules may mean larger fines or suspension or even expulsion from the association. Why Government Is Necessary. — This makes it clear to us why government is necessary in every nation, state, county, and city. Each of these is composed of a great many people who wish to do certain things together, such as educating young people, taking care of the poor, establishing a system of waterworks, and countless other undertakings. They must have rules, or laws, and officers to carry them out; otherwise they can accomplish nothing. Just as in the case of a private association, penalties are needed in order to insure that the laws will be obeyed. Democratic Government. — When people adopt rules or THE NATURE OF GOVERNMENT 3 laws in regard to things which concern them all — that is, public affairs — and provide for officers to perform dif- ferent duties in accordance with these rules, they are said to organize a government. Government is a system by means of which public work is done. When a government has been organized by the people of any country, according to the above description, it is called a democratic govern- ment or a democracy. The United States has this form of government. Autocratic Government. — Sometimes the rules by which people are governed and the officials who carry out the rules are not chosen by the people according to their own will, but are forced upon them by a man, or a group of men, with very little interest in the wishes of the people l^ut a great deal of interest in personal advantage. Such a government is called an autocratic government or an autocracy. Citizens of the United States, and the most progressive people in all civilized countries, agree that this is an undesirable form of government. They believe that, since everyone is con- cerned in public affairs, it is not just and right for a few in- dividuals to conduct these matters for their own private benefit. Of course, the people who live under an autocratic govern- ment are always very much greater in number than those who rule them, and could easily overthrow the autocracy and set up a democracy if they would all work together. As education and enlightenment are spreading throughout the world, several nations are doing this. Representative Government. — It is impossible for all the people in a city, a state, or a nation to vote on every law that is to be passed, or on every single clerk, stenog- rapher, policeman, and fireman who is needed to carry on EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP public work. They cannot spare the time from their bus- iness to investigate every proposed law or every individual's qualifications. Therefore nearly all democracies today are representative democracies. This means that the people elect certain individuals to represent them — that is, to act in their place — and to vote upon laws according to their Chamber of the House of Representatives in the Capitol at Washington. Here representatives from every part of the country meet to carry on public business. best judgment of what the people need and desire. The people elect also some of the principal officials, such as members of the school boards, members of the city council, and governor of the state; and allow these elected officials to appoint many subordinate officers, as city superintend- ents of schools, city health officers, stenographers, secre- taries, and many more. This system has two advantages. THE NATURE OF GOVERNMENT 5 First: it saves the people a great deal of time and trouble. Second: it enables the voters, since they have only a few men to elect, to look about for very good ones. Importance of Supporting the Government. — When a democratic government has once been established, it should be loyally supported by everyone, and the laws made by the people or their representatives should be respected. What would be the effect upon our athletic association if all those who had voted against a certain rule should refuse to keep it? We can easily see that in a short time there would be no association at all, or at best merely a weak imitation of one, which could do no real work. Faithful support is essential to the success of any organization; and this is just as true of pul)lic organizations, such as state or national governments, as of private ones. We may seek to have laws changed, just as we may try to have rules of our athletic association changed; but until the laws or rules are repealed, they must be obeyed, for without loyalty, obedi- ence, and cooperation, no work can be accomplished. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Name some society or organization to which you belong, and explain its principal rules. What is the use of these rules? 2. What would be the effect upon a school if there were no rules of any kind? What would be the effect if nobody obeyed teachers, principal, or other officers? 3. Suppose firemen refused to obey the chief, laboring men re- fused to obey the superintendent, football players refused to obey the coach. What would be the consequences? 4. Are rules always agreeable? Does the fact that a rule is un- pleasant give persons to whom it applies the right to disobey it? Give reasons for your answer. 5. What methods are used in your school to compel people to obev its rules? 6 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP 6. What methods are used when persons break public rules, or laws? What is the object of punishment? 7. Give several examples of democratic governments. 8. What is meant by saying that a person represents a school, or a city, or a state? 9. If you are about to form a county athletic association, will every pupil in the county attend the meeting at which the association is to be organized? Who will attend it? How will these persons be selected? 10. Explain clearly what a representative is expected to do. 11. If you wish a certain bill passed by your state legislature, what members would you ask to work for it? Learn the names of the state senator and the state representative from your district. 12. If you wish the Congress of the United States to pass a bill, to whom would you write? Learn the names of the senators from your state and the representative from your congressional district. Find out exactly what is meant by congressional district. 13. What is loyalty to one's government? Why is it necessary? How can people show loyalty? 14. Can a person be loyal to a govermnent even though he believes that some of its laws and undertakings are wrong? Ex- plain your answer. 15. What should a loyal citizen do in order to help improve the laws that he considers mistaken? CHAPTER II THE FUNCTIONS OF MODERN GOVERNMENT Various Kinds of Public Work. — We have seen that the purpose of government is to perform public work, and it is natural that our next inquiry should be: What kinds of work do governments carry on? We can easily realize that the answer to this question will vary according to the govern- ment that we are considering. We should not expect to find the government of a barbarous country doing work of the same nature as that done by the government of a more advanced nation. There are a few things, however, which are done by practically every government. National Defense. — The first of these important kinds of work is that of national defense. From the savage tribe to the most highly civilized modern people, we find all national governments endeavoring to prevent and to over- come warlike attacks by other nations, by means of armies, navies, and necessary equipments. Quite often, govern- ments prepare not only for defense, but for campaigns of conquest. Preparation for conquest is not a necessary function, and it has led to so much suffering and injustice in the world's history that the greatest problem before modern statesmen is that of devising some plan to make it impossible in the future. Preserving Internal Order. — A second function which is carried on by nearly all governments is that of preserving internal order. We have all read in history about the deeds of robber barons, and about the wars waged by the knights 7 8 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP of the Middle Ages. Even in those times, the existing governments made some attempts to keep order; and today most governments are quite successful in doing so. Our own country is still disgraced by occasional riots and lynch- ings; but as our people become more and more advanced, they will stand firmly behind the governmental authorities and help them to put down all such disorders. Many eminent lawyers and other public-spirited persons are trying to improve our legal systems so that trials may be speedy and guilty individuals may be adequately punished, thus re- moving the danger that people may become impatient to see criminals punished and may resort to "mob rule." But even though trials are slow and it seems as if the offender is not being brought to justice rapidly, we must not become lawbreakers in order to punish others. As President Wood- row Wilson wrote: " There have been many lynchings, and every one of them has been a blow at the heart of ordered law and humane justice. ... I can never accept any man as a champion of libert}^, either for ourselves or for the world, who does not reverence and obey the laws of our beloved land, whose laws we ourselves have made." Administration of Justice. — One more type of work which is done by governments everywhere is the administration of justice. This means the punishment of criminals, the en- deavor to reform them, the settlement of disputes about property and other matters, and the carrying on of many similar functions. Other Functions of Government. — To these three main kinds of work modern governments have added many others, only a few of which can be mentioned here for lack of space. It would take several books to describe fully the work done by our own national government, and a whole library to set THE FUNCTIONS OF MODERN GOVERNMENT 9 forth all that is done by the national government, the forty- eight state governments, the city and county governments, and the governments of territories and dependencies. It is impossible, of course, to go into details, but we may glance for a moment at some of the more important things which modern governments are doing. Care of Special Classes. — The care of special classes of persons who are unable to care for themselves is now quite generally under the control of some branch of government. In this country, it is usually carried on by the governments of the various states, or perhaps by the counties. Orphan children, imbeciles, insane persons, very old persons who have no means and no relatives to support them, the deaf, the blind, wayward girls and boys whose parents are not able to keep them from doing wrong, persons suffering from certain diseases, such as tuberculosis — these and other classes of persons are cared for by agencies of the govern- ment. EducatioD. — Education and the promotion of scientific discoveries are matters of interest to all the people in a state or a nation; and all modern governments supervise, con- trol, assist, or encourage them. Our national government maintains a group of officers who compose a Bureau of Education, which collects and pubHshes material that will be of use to educators and has other important functions; but the actual control over public education is held by the individual states. This is the case for several reasons, one of which is that each state knows what type of education is best suited to its own needs. Public Health. — The care of the public health is now a matter of governmental control. Nation, state, county, and city cooperate in the endeavor to establish sanitary 10 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP conditions everywhere, to prevent the spread of disease, and to make every citizen sound, healthy, and vigorous. Means of Communication. — The provision of means of communication is a very important branch of governmental work. Our national government maintains a Post Office Department, with numerous branches in every state and Sorting the mail in a large post office. All the letters and packages must be examined for postage, address, etc.; and each one placed in the proper sack for delivery in the city or shipment to other places. territory. It is also a member of an International Postal Union, which makes it possible for a person in this country to write to a friend in China, with the full assurance that his letter will be delivered. Some governments own other means of communication, such as telephone and telegraph systems; but this is not the case in the United States. Control over Business. — All highly civilized nations to- THE FUNCTIONS OF MODERN GOVERNMENT 11 day exercise some degree of control over business. It is generally admitted that the government may properly regulate the more important businesses in a way that will be fair to everyone concerned. This is the easiest and best way to prevent business interests from being unfair to the public by charging unnecessarily high prices and by other means, and also to prevent the public from being unfair to business interests by accusing them unjustly of doing such things. Social Welfare. — The development of social welfare in all possible ways is the great general aim of modern govern- ments. All the work of a democratic government is meant, of course, to make life more worth while for every member of society; but there are a number of special activities which help directly toward this great aim. Among such activities in the United States we find, for example, the establishment of a national Children's Bureau at Washington, D. C, and the protection of health given by the enforcement of the Pure Food and Drugs Acts. Some governments provide insurance against unemployment and old age pensions. One of the interesting developments of governmental insurance is the fact that during the recent war with Ger- many the United States government itself insured the lives of its soldiers. Increasing Responsibilities of the Government. — All the kinds of work which we have discussed, and many others, have been placed in the hands of the government because the people have felt that no individual, and no small private organization, could perform the work properly. Though some persons believe that it is unwise to allow governments to undertake too many kinds of activities, there seems to be a growing tendency to place in their hands, 12 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP or under their control, more and more of the work in which large groups of people are interested. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Why is national defense undertaken by governments rather than by private associations of patriotic individuals? 2. Give historical examples of campaigns of conquest. Find how these were regarded in ancient times. How are they regarded today? Why? 3. Why is the preservation of order a duty of governments? 4. Give all the arguments that you can against mobs and mob action, even when this is used to punish criminals. What would be the effect upon peace and order if mob rule became very com- mon? Why is it not only disorderly, but often very unjust, for mobs to punish wrongdoers? 5. What can be done to lessen the evil of mob action in the United States? 6. Why is it better for the government to administer justice than to leave this to private individuals? 7. Why do governments undertake such work as the care of special classes, and of the public health, education, etc.? Why should not education, for example, be left to the parents or friends of each child? 8. What is the aim of a modern government? How can citizens cooperate in helping the government to reach this aim? CHAPTER III THE DIVISIONS OF GOVERNMENT Subdivisions of the Government. — We already know that in the United States there are several divisions of government. Each voter helps to select officers for the national government, his state government, his county government, and (if he lives in a city) for his city govern- ment. If we have thought carefully about the reasons Y*^hy governments are established, we shall understand without much difficulty why these various divisions exist. They are organized chiefly for the sake of convenience in perform- ing public work. Affairs Controlled by the City. — The government of a city is of chief interest only to those who live in that city. Nobody outside Jonesville is immediately concerned about the problem whether a new system of waterworks shall be installed there. It would be merely an annoyance for persons a thousand miles away to be asked to vote on the waterworks question. Even if they took the time to vote, they could hardly do so with much intelligence, as it would be almost impossible for them to study thoroughly the needs of Jonesville. Moreover, the expense of holding an election in which every voter in the United States was asked to take part would be heavier than the cost of the waterworks. All these considerations make it clear that it is best for the citizens of Jonesville, or of any other city, to manage their own affairs. They should elect their own officers, decide 13 14 THE DIVISIONS OF GOVERXMEXT 15 upon their own undertakings, and conduct their own pubhc business without troubhng others or being molested by outsiders. Affairs Controlled by the State. — There are, however, many public undertakings which are too large for a city to handle alone, and in which many cities, and many persons outside cities, wish to cooperate. Let us consider the problem of establishing a university, to which students might come from many cities and country districts for the benefits of free education. Great undertakings such as this are often managed, in the United States, by the state govern- ments. The same reasons that have been given for allow- ing cities to control their own affairs apply in the case of the state. The people of New Jersey are not particularly in- terested in deciding whether or not Oklahoma ought to have a state university; and it is better in every way to let those concerned in the question decide it. Matters of National Concern. — Some kinds of public business concern everybod}^ in the entire nation. There is hardly a person anywhere who is not interested in good mail service. Nearly everyone has friends or business affairs in some other part of the country, and needs the help of a well-conducted postal system in order to correspond with the friends or carry on the business. Everyone is concerned, too, in the problem of regulating the great rail- road systems which connect all parts of the United States, so that they will give good service at reasonable rates. These and many other kinds of public work which are of interest to every individual can be carried on successfully only through a government which is set up by all the people of the entire country — that is, a national government. County and Township.— The general rule is, as we have 16 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP seen, that matters which concern a city shall be managed by the city government, those which concern a state shall be managed by the state government, and those which concern all the people of the nation shall be managed by the national government. It has been found convenient to make still other divisions of government, as the county and the township, for certain particular purposes, such as assisting the state in the collection of taxes and the care of roads and Ijridges. Distribution of Governmental Control. — It is not always easy to decide which of these divisions of government should control certain undertakings, for there are several kinds of public work which are of interest to city, state, and nation. One of these is education. Every city wishes a well- educated body of citizens, in order that they may choose good officials and support progressive undertakings. But the state and the nation also need educated citizens for exactly the same reason. Which division of government should control education? This is only a single example of many public matters which concern more than one division of government. As it would be foolish and wasteful for all the divisions to under- take the same work, some way must be found of deciding which one shall manage each affair. Division of Work between State and Nation. — In this country, certain historical facts have helped to solve such problems. When the original thirteen states adopted the federal Constitution, they retained all the rights and duties which were not especially mentioned as being given over to the national government. This has had a very important effect upon the distribution of work between the state and national governments. Another historical fact that has THE DIVISIONS OF GOVERNMENT 17 had a similar influence is the custom (which has gained the force of law) of considering that the government of a state has the right to tell the inhabitants of a city within the state what functions their city government may perform, and to reserve for its own management such affairs as it does not give over to the city. Public Welfare as the Best Guide. — Such laws and customs have been of great assistance when people have wished to decide some difficult problem concerning the distribution of public work. However, the mere fact that a thing has been done in the past does not always make it advisable in the present, for circumstances are constantly changing. Convenience and public welfare are the best guides, and when old laws have been found to work in opposition to these guides, they have often been replaced by new laws, better suited to modern conditions. For instance, it used to be customary for each county or township to care for its own insane persons when their re- lations could not support them; but this is now generally done by the state. Since there were only a few insane in each county, it was seldom considered worth while to build an asylum and hire cooks, housekeepers, attendants, and physicians for perhaps a half-dozen persons. Usually this was not done, and the insane were not cared for at all or were placed in a poorhouse, where they were not given proper treatment. For much less money than it would cost the individual counties to provide good care and skilled physicians for the insane, the state can provide one or two large asylums managed by experts; hence, the care of the insane has become a state function nearly everywhere in this country. We see, then, that for the sake of convenience there must 18 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP be various divisions of government; and that the public work must be distributed among these in the way which is best suited to secure convenience and general welfare. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Name the chief divisions of government in the United States. What are some of the subdivisions of these larger divisions? 2. What is the use of having so many divisions of different sizes? " Why would it not be lietter to have every part of the United States governed by officials at Washington? Why would it not be better to abolish state and national governments, and permit each group of people in the country to govern themselves without regard to others? 3. Name public matters, besides education, which concern more than one division of government. Which one of the divisions of government takes charge of each matter that you have named? Can you learn why this is the case, in each instance? 4. Name any kinds of public work in which various divisions of government cooperate. 5. What is the common-sense standard to apply in deciding which division of govermnent should take charge of certain work? LOCAL GOVERNMENT CHAPTER IV THE CITY AND ITS WORK; STREET BUILDING, CLEANING, AND LIGHTING Local Government. — The divisions of government which perform the pubhc work of small localities are called local governments. This name is used for the governments of city, township, and county. The city gives us the most familiar example of local government. About one half of the inhabitants of the United States live in cities with a population of five thousand persons or more. As we already know, it is necessary for the dwellers in each city to do a large number of things together in order to secure good results. The pump in every j^ard has given way to the system of waterworks, generally owned or managed by the city; the lantern which our forefathers carried at night is replaced by street lights; and many other things have been given over to the city government because they can be done better, more easily, or more cheaply under public management than under private enterprise. Public Enterprises in the City. — One of the most im- portant kinds of work undertaken by the government of any city is the endeavor to make the city itself a safe and convenient place in which to live. With this purpose in view, the city builds streets and keeps them clean, lights them at night, furnishes policemen whose work it is to keep 19 20 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP order and prevent crime, arranges for the trial of persons who may be accused of committing certain offenses, and provides firemen to make the city as safe as possible from the danger of spreading flames. Let us look more closely at these valuable public enterprises. Advantages of Having Good Streets. — Nearly every modern city (except perhaps a few of the smallest ones) does a good deal of street paving. Even quite small cities generally have their chief business streets well paved. This work is done for many reasons. Well-paved streets make travel easy and prevent many accidents to both foot- passengers and vehicles. They are also of great value to business, as they make it easy for purchasers to visit stores, and for dealers-. to deliver goods. They improve the ap- pearance of a city, make it much more desirable as a place of residence than it would be without them, and conse- quently add to the value of the property which borders upon the paved streets. For all these reasons, every pro- gressive city is anxious to maintain good streets. Methods of Paving Streets. — Large cities often have their own force of laborers to carry on the work of building streets; but smaller ones, which build only a few streets each year, generally pay a contractor for doing the work. The material of which streets are made varies with the amount of traffic that will probably pass over the street, the financial condition of the city, the ease of obtaining material, and many other factors. Thus, a street running from a large freight station to the chief business section of the city would naturally have to be paved with much heavier and tougher material than a side street containing private houses. A city which was already very much in debt might have to use cheaper and poorer material than one THE CITY AND ITS WORK 21 which was just beginning to make improvements and owed no debts. A city located near a granite quarry would probably use granite slabs or blocks, while one located where asphalt can readily be obtained would be likely to pave with asphalt. This is due to the fact that the freight charges or other shipping expenses would, as a rule, be much less on the material near by, thus making it considerably cheaper for the city than material brought from a long dis- tance. All these considerations, and manj'^ others, must be kept in mind by the city authorities when they are deciding upon the material for streets. Paying for Street Construction. — There rre several methods of paying for city streets. Sometimes the city authorities compel the owners of property which adjoins a street to pay for having it paved. The value of property is increased so much by well-paved streets that this is con- sidered quite proper in the case of residence streets. Main thoroughfares, however, are sometimes paid for by the city itself. The money needed to pay for this work is borrowed by the city, which levies taxes to pay the interest on this loan and to repay later the sum originally borrowed. This method is used in order to let everyone share the cost of streets which everyone uses. More often, the property owners along main thoroughfares are taxed to pay a part of the cost of improvement, while the city pays the re- mainder. Keeping the Streets Clean. — All up-to-date cities not only build their streets, but keep them as clean as possible. Dirty streets are a disgrace to any city. They are not only ugly and a great nuisance to all who must walk or ride through them, but they mean a loss of many dollars to busi- ness men, in keeping customers away. Moreover, as breed- 22 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP ing places for germs, which the wind distributes everywhere, dirty streets are a menace to pubHc health. In small cities the streets are generally cleaned by men with brooms, shovels, and carts, or by machine sweepers. In larger cities these same methods are used, and in addition it is customary to wash the streets late at night by flushing them v/ith water from a large hose. Other methods of A street cleaner at work. The street cleaners of New York City are often called "white wings" because of their white uniforms. cleaning have been tried, and it is the hope of experts that a good vacuum cleaner may soon be perfected, which will not be choked by paper and sticks. Some cities sprinkle their streets with oil to keep down the dust, and in summer many sprinkle with water, which not only lessens the dust nuisance, but cools the atmosphere. Removal of Snow. — The question of snow removal is a very serious one, especially in the larger cities, where thou- sands of dollars are lost if traffic is tied up for even a few THE CITY AND ITS WORK 23 hours. It is usually difficult to find enough extra men to help the regular street-cleaning force in speedily removing snow. Cities have experimented for years in the hope of finding some quick and cheap method of clearing the streets after a snowfall, but they have not yet developed any system which is wholly satisfactory. In many cities snow is shoveled into heaps and carted away; in others it is shoveled into large sewers; and in a few Northern cities it is packed into a firm sheet by means of rollers, and allowed to remain on the ground all winter. This method would not be satisfactory except in cold cli- mates; if used elsewhere, the streets would be filled with melting snow every few days during the winter. Well-lighted Streets. — In addition to cleaning its streets, the modern city takes pains to keep them well lighted at night. This is not only a great convenience, but it has been found to lessen the number of accidents, as well as the number of robberies, burglaries, and other crimes usually committed in darkness. Business men find that it is of advantage to them. They can show their goods in attrac- tively decorated windows and can use other advertising devices, which would be of no value unless the streets were lighted so well that large numbers of people would pass over them each night. When a city is about to install a system of street lighting, there are many things which it must take into consideration. It must try to obtain good lighting at moderate cost. Gas and electricity are the principal fuels used in street lights today, though a few small cities still use kerosene or some other inflammable liquid. Which of these fuels is selected depends on several considerations, such as cost, quality, and dependability. Thus, a city located in a gas field would 24 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP probably use gas because it was cheaper than electricity; but if the gas flow failed several times, causing great in- convenience and suffering and the loss of a good deal of money, the city might decide that electricity was a prefer- able form of fuel, even though more costly. Of course, no kind of lighting system is worth while, no matter how cheap it may be, unless it keeps the streets well lighted. Distribution and Power of Street Lights. — The distribu- tion of lights and the power of each lamp are matters which require thought and care. Sufficient light for a residence street, where few people pass by night, would be quite insuf- ficient for a main thoroughfare, where there are pedestrians and vehicles in large numbers. The residence street re- quires only enough lights of moderate power to enable persons to pass along it without danger of falling over curbs, to protect them from being surprised by thieves, and to protect houses from attacks by burglars. In the business section or the theatrical section of a city, much more light is necessary, as the danger of collisions between vehicles increases with the number of vehicles, and the difficulties of crossing the street on foot are much greater. The streets should be so light that a person can cross them rapidly, without danger of being struck by an automobile as he hesitates which way to turn. Street intersections should have powerful lamps so placed as to throw light for many yards in every direction. Parks should be lighted thor- oughly, so that no pickpocket or other criminal can be con- cealed in them; but the lamps should be of moderate power, in order that citizens may enjoy the parks without being annoyed by a strong glare. When a city has well-constructed, well-cleaned, and well- lighted streets, and at the same time is not paying un- THE CITY AND ITS WORK 25 reasonable prices for these benefits, it has done a great deal toward making itself a desirable place in which to hve. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. What is a local government? Give examples. 2. Give examples to show that when people collect in cities, it is necessary for them to do many things together. 3. Why would it not be just as well for cities to let each prop- erty owner pave the street before his own property, instead of undertaking this work and charging the owner for it? 4. Of what materials are the streets in your own city made? Compare the materials used in the chief business streets and in residence streets. 5. What system of street cleaning is employed in your city? Are the streets kept clean? Can you suggest any methods of im- proving the street-cleaning service? Are boxes for trash placed at frequent intervals? Is their use made compulsory by ordinance? Is the ordinance enforced? 6. Is the problem of snow removal a difficult one in your city? What are the chief difficulties? What methods are used? Can you suggest remedies or ini]3rovements? 7. What system of street lighting is used in your city? Is it satisfactory? Are the lights well located? 8. Find what it cost the city last year to keep its streets cleaned and lighted. Try to obtain figures for other cities of about the same size. Do you judge that your city is obtaining satisfactory results for the money it is spending? Ought it to spend more money or less money on these services? Give reasons. CHAPTER V THE CITY; THE POLICE DEPARTMENT AND JUSTICE The Police Force. — In all cities, no matter how small, there are almost sure to be persons who would commit crimes if they were not afraid of punishment. To protect the other inhabitants against such persons, a police force is provided by every city. In small cities this force may con- sist of a single marshal; in large cities it may include many patrolmen, mounted policemen, detectives, officers of vari- ous ranks, and a city commissioner who has charge of the police department. Whether the police force is small or large, its first duty is to prevent crime, in order that the citizens may go about their affairs without danger. Prevention of Crime. — In small cities, where everybody is known by everybody else, and a stranger of suspicious ap- pearance would be noticed immediately, it is not necessary to patrol the streets. In large cities, however, where most of the inhabitants are strangers to one another, policemen must walk about the streets constantly and prevent crime by various means. For example, if a policeman sees a ragged and vicious-looking man studying the outside of a splendid mansion, as if he were trying to find an easy place to enter, the policeman orders him to move on. If the man is known to be a burglar, the policeman may arrest him on the charge of loitering. If a policeman sees some suspicious-looking person drop a satchel in the hallway of a public building, just after letters have been received from anarchists threat- ening to dynamite the public buildings, the policeman tells 26 THE POLICE DEPARTMENT AND JUSTICE 27 the man to pick up the satchel and accompany him to the poHce station for examination. CJreat numbers of crimes are prevented by watchful and efficient policemen. Detection of Crime. — Of course, it is impossible for any police force to prevent crime and misdemeanors entirely. A few persons will commit evil deeds despite every pre- caution, and large numbers of persons commit misdemeanors by breaking city ordinances against speeding in auto- mobiles, riding bicycles on sidewalks, allowing poultry to run at large, and similar actions. When persons have com- mitted offenses, whether great or small, it is the duty of the police force to arrest them and bring them before the proper authorities. This is usually easy in the case of small misde- meanors; but in the case of great crimes, such as burglary and murder, it is often very difficult to trace the guilty per- son. In this case "plain-clothes men," or detectives, are set to work to make searching inquiries and to do their best to locate the criminal. By such means as this, the police department tries to make the city safe. Traffic Police. — Policemen have many other duties than these, however. In the larger cities there are numbers of traffic policemen. These do not patrol the streets, but stand at cross-streets where thousaads of cars, trucks, other vehicles, and pedestrians pass every day, and signal "Go " or "Stop," so that the great streams of traffic may move without causing accidents. These policemen watch small children and elderly and crippled persons, and see that theyj cross the streets in safety. Strangers in large cities find policemen a great help, as they are always ready to tell where certain buildings are located, what cars should be taken to reach various sections of the city, and other things of this sort. 28 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP Women on the Police Force. — Beside the ordinary pohce force, many cities now have pohcewomen, whose particular duty it is to care for the safety of women, girls, and children. These policewomen have authority to make arrests, and do A class being instructed in the art of Americanized jiu jitsu, as adopted for police purposes in the Police Department of New York City. This shows a more humane way of handling prisoners than using the night stick to get them under restraint. SO whenever it seems necessary; but their chief work is of a preventive nature. If a policewoman sees a child in the company of adult criminals, for example, she investigates his home life. In case his parents are respectable, she tells them of their child's evil companions and asks them to help her in keeping him away from such influences. If the THE POLICE DEPARTMENT AND JUSTICE 29 parents are unfit to have the care of a child, the poHce- woman takes measures to have him placed in better sur- roundings. Policewomen have proved so beneficial that more and more cities are employing them. Training Schools for Policemen. — New York City has a very interesting training school for policemen, where they learn how to perform every sort of task that is likely to come their way, including first aid to the injured. Philadelphia and Chicago have similar schools, and as the movement spreads, we may expect to find in every large city a most efficient police force. Functions of the Judge. — The policeman is not the only person concerned in making the city safe from lawbreakers. It is necessary for every person accused of crime or misde- meanor to be tried, in order to discover whether he is guilty or whether he has been arrested by mistake, and is innocent of any wrongdoing. Even if he has done the thing of which he is accused, there may be "extenuating circumstances " — that is, reasons why his guilt is not so great as it seemed be- fore the case was investigated. A magistrate or a judge must examine every person arrested, determine whether he is deserving of punishment, and, in some cases, decide what that punishment shall be. The Purpose of Punishment. — The word punishment, as used here, does not mean revenge. When a person has broken the speed laws of a city and is fined ten dollars, this penalty is not given in a spirit of vengeance. When of- fenders are punished by the officers of the law, the punish- ment is given in order to keep the lawbreaker from repeating his offense. It is given in order to improve the conduct of the wrongdoer, and in order to save others from suffering because of his misconduct. 30 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP Police Courts. — The police courts and other city courts never try persons for very great crimes. A man accused of murder, for example, is considered dangerous to the whole state, and his trial is conducted by higher courts than those In the juvenile court shown here, every child will be kindly treated, and encouraged and helped in the right direction. of the city. In the city courts cases are tried which concern the breaking of city ordinances, the theft of small sums, and other minor matters. Civil Courts. — Besides the courts where offenses are tried, there are city courts which settle legal disputes over small matters. If a grocer sues to collect a bill of a few dollars, which the customer declares he has already paid, this con- troversy will be decided in a municipal court. Such cases as these, where there is no accusation of crime or misde- meanor, but merely a dispute about money or other prop- THE POLICE DEPARTMENT AND JUSTICE 31 erty, are called civil cases, and the courts in which they are tried are called civil courts. Traffic Courts and Juvenile Courts. — Some cities have special courts for different classes of persons. Among these are traffic courts for persons accused of speeding or refus- ing to stop when ordered to do so by traffic policemen, and of similar offenses; and juvenile courts, where children are tried. Before these courts were established, children who were accused of small offenses were tried in the same courts with hardened criminals. This made the children feel that they were looked upon as criminals, and often discouraged them so much that it led them to reckless con- duct. In the juvenile courts, the children who have done wrong are treated with kindness and are helped to do better, perhaps by being placed under the supervision of a pro- bation officer, who acts as a kind of guardian, keeps in touch with the children's school records, and uses every possible means of encouraging them to do right. This often prevents them from growing up as lawbreakers. Small cities seldom have many special courts; but in these cities it is customary to appoint a probation officer to care for children who are accused of wrongdoing. Thus we see that the cities of today are using every means at their command to prevent crime, and to keep those who have once offended against the law from doing so again. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. How large is the police force in your city? How is it or- ganized? 2. "Wliat salaries are paid the members of the local police force? What qualifications are required? Are any training and equip- ment supplied? 32 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP 3. Do the members of the poUce force perform any duties besides the arrest of offenders? 4. Are many arrests made, in comparison with the offenses that are known to have been committed, or do a large proportion of guilty persons escape arrest? In the latter case, can you learn whether this is due to a shortage of policemen or to lack of activity or efficiency in the force? 5. What courts are held in your city? (If your city is very small, you will probably find that the only court is that held by a justice of the peace) . If there are several courts, tell the kinds of cases that are tried in each one. 6. If there is no juvenile court in your city, learn all that you can from books and magazines about juvenile courts in other cities. Can you tell why these have spread very rapidly since they were first established? 7. Why must there be policemen and courts and prisons? 8. What are the objects of punishment? CHAPTER VI THE CITY; FIRE PROTECTION Annual Loss from Fire. — Nearly every modern city is doing a great deal to protect its residents and their prop- erties from the danger of fire. This work, however, has not progressed so well in the United States as in other countries; and the average yearly loss for each individual here is actually ten times as great as it is in some parts of Europe. Fire-Fighting Apparatus.— For one thing our American cities deserve great praise; namely, the excellent fire-fighting apparatus which 'they provide. Even the small cities gen- erally have good engines and ladder trucks, hose, and other necessary apparatus. Where the water pressure of a city is not strong and steady, it is customary to provide chemical engines, which do not depend upon water, as the chem- icals which they contain will extinguish an ordinary fire. Formerly all apparatus was drawn by horses, but motors are now generally in use. The Firemen. — Nearly every city has stations in which the fire-fighting apjiaratus is kept. In many cities the fire-station provides sleeping quarters for several men, so that there will always be men ready to go out with the engines at a moment's notice. These firemen are paid by the city and are carefully drilled in their duties. They are taught how to arrange their clothing when they go to bed, so that they can dress in a few seconds if a fire alarm comes during the night. They are taught how to take out the 33 34 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP engines and all the apparatus in the quickest possible way, for every second counts when a fire is to be conquered. They are drilled in the best methods of using the various kinds of apparatus, taught how to enter a burning building These firemen are fighting the flames which threaten to destroy the build- ing, and are rescuing inmates. By their help, everyone will escape, even though the stairways in the house are burning. with the least possible risk, drilled in dropping persons carefully from windows into large nets and in jumping into these nets from great heights, and trained in other methods of saving life and property. In some cities they are required to inspect certam districts from time to time, and to plan the best way of fighting a fire if one should break out in any section. Organization of the Fire Department. — In the largest THE CITY; FIRE PROTECTION 35 cities there is a commissioner or similar official who has entire charge of the fire department. Under him there are captains and other officers who have charge of the fire- stations in various districts. All these men, as well as the firemen, are paid by the city to give their full time to their work. Minor cities have some paid firemen and other volunteer helpers; while in the smallest cities, which can hardly afford to pay men to fight perhaps ten or twelve fires in a year, there are generally volunteer fire companies. Fire-Alarm Signals. — Every city has some system, of fire-alarm signals. Some cities have whistles, some have bells or gongs, and others have electric signals which flash a warning at the fire-station. We are all familiar with some of the arrangements by which these signals not only show that there is a fire, but direct the firemen toward it. Thus, a fire in the first ward of a city may be announced by one long blast of the fire whistle; a fire in the second ward by two blasts, etc. This works well in a small city; but in a larger one, where it is necessary to give more definite signals, the electric alarms designate the block where the fire is rag- ing. Of course, the telephone is extremely valuable in giving notice of a fire. Why Fire Losses Are Large in the United States. — With all these arrangements for conquering fire, how is it that we have such heavy losses? One answer is that we are not careful, in most parts of the United States, to prevent fires from starting. Fire is an excellent illustration of the prov- erb that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. We shall never reduce our great annual losses to a low figure, until we use every possible means of preventing fires from starting. Another reason for our heavy losses is the fact that in many cities the laws intended to protect the com- 36 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP munity from the danger of fire are not enforced. In Ameri- can cities, too, there are many frame houses with shingle roofs, while in most European cities the buildings are con- structed of non-inflammable material. The Building Code. — Most cities are now taking measures which will be very helpful in preventing fires. One of the most important of these is the adoption of a building code; that is, a set of rules laying down certain requirements for every building in crowded parts of the cit3^ These codes generally require that all theaters, office buildings, or other places where large numbers of people gather must be of fire- proof materials, and that all large apartment houses must have fireproof walls. All buildings of every sort must have fireproof roofs, so that they will not be set on fire by flying sparks. These are only a few examples of the many care- ful provisions laid down in building codes. Cities often com- pel the owners of old buildings, which were constructed before the codes were adopted, to make improvements that will lessen the danger of fire in them. Protection through Control of Business. — Besides the building code, practically all cities have ordinances regulat- ing the kinds of business that may be carried on in certain districts and in certain types of buildings. For example, nobody would be allowed to manufacture gunpowder in a crowded district of any city or in a wooden building. Garages, and other places where inflammable or explosive materials are kept, must be in fireproof buildings, as a rule. Many cities prohibit the storing of excelsior, shavings, old papers, and similar materials in any cellar or basement. All the larger cities have inspectors whose duty it is to see that the ordinances in regard to fire are obeyed, and that persons refusing to obey them are punished. As more and more THE CITY; FIRE PROTECTION 37 cities adopt these wise measures, the fire losses of the United States will he greatly decreased. Educating the Citizens in Fire Prevention. — Another important work undertaken by many cities is that of educat- ing the citizens in fire prevention. "Fire-fighting week," or some other campaign period, is advertised in the news- papers, and many articles are published showing the various causes of fire and the way to remove these causes. Public speakers discuss the subject. Every citizen is asked to clean his premises thoroughly and remove all inflammable trash. School children are instructed as to the dangers aris- ing from defective electric wiring, or from ashes which may contain live coals, or similar causes of combustion. Per- haps a number of pamphlets are prepared for school children of different grades, and are used in the schools as reading lessons, so that every pupil is given suitable instruction as to the dangers of fire and the methods of preventing it. By such means as these, great progress is being made in lowering the fire losses of many cities. It is to be hoped that education in such matters will soon become universal, and that everywhere laws will be passed imposing heavy penalties upon persons whose carelessness exposes their com- munity to the risk of destruction by fire. We may then ex- pect to see our fire losses reduced to a very low figure and our cities made much safer from this terrible danger. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. How large is the fire department of 3'our city? Are the mem- bers paid, or is it a volunteer organization? 2. What fire-fighting apparatus and equipment does your city possess? 3. Visit a fire-station and learn all you can about the city's methods of extinguishing fires. 82760 38 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP 4. Obtain a copy of the building code of your city and learn the principal requirements laid down for buildings in the fire zone. What is meant by a fire zone? Why is it not necessary to make re- quirements ciuite so strict in regard to buildings on the outskirts of the city? 5. Try to learn how much property in your city was destroyed by fire during the last year. 6. How much of this fire loss was covered by insurance? See if you can think out the reason why it is a disadvantage to everyone when property is destroyed by fire, even though it is insured. (Suggestions: What will be the effect on insurance rates if there are many large fires? What will be the effect on prices if large quantities of goods are destroyed? Suppose the city's electric plant is destroyed by fire. What difference will this make, if the plant is insured?) 7. Find out all you can about fire prevention, and write a report on this subject. CHAPTER VII MUNICIPAL HEALTH AND SANITATION Taking Pride in the Health Record. — Every modern city is interested in taking measures to keep its citizens in good health. It is now understood that, under ordinary circum- stances, a large number of cases of contagious disease and a high death rate are a disgrace to a city, for they show that the sanitary conditions are not what they should be. No city wants a bad record in regard to such matters, and for this reason some kind of work for the benefit of public health is found practically everywhere. All communities, of course, do not have equally high standards in regard to public health activities. We shall examine the work done by the more advanced cities. Organization of the Health Department. — Generally we find a committee known as a board of health, which has authority to issue orders in regard to matters that concern the public health. Sometimes we find also a health com- missioner, whose work it is to enforce these orders; inspec- tors who must investigate conditions in various parts of the city, reporting instances where the orders of the board of health have been violated; and various other officers. The Sanitary Code. — Besides the orders issued from time to time by the board of health (or by the municipal health officer in some cities), we find in all advanced cities a set of regulations which everyone must obey, called a sanitary code. These rules oblige all persons to keep their premises free from filth and make many other useful re- 39 40 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP quirements. In some cities the health authorities enforce the sanitary code, while in others there are special sanitary authorities who have charge of this work. Quarantine. — Among the rules of the board of health in almost every city we find provisions for the control of disease. Persons suffering from certain contagious diseases must remain at home; and if the disease is of a serious nature, or if it is very contagious, nobody is allowed to enter or to leave the house where the patient is. When a house is placed under these restrictions, it is said to be under quarantine. Usually a large placard is placed upon it, giving the name of the disease from which an inmate is suffering. Care of Health in the Schools. — Other rules often made by boards of health (or by boards of education in some cases) require every pupil in the public schools to be vaccinated, and to be examined by school physicians once or twice a year. This is done in order that any serious trouble may be discovered in its early stages, while it can still be cured ; and that any defects, such as poor vision, enlarged tonsils, or adenoids, may receive proper attention. In many cities the pupils are not only given these examinations from time to time, but are sent by their teachers to the school physi- cians whenever they seem to be ill. If the trouble is conta- gious, the child is sent home, and the board of health is notified, so that the home may be placed under quarantine. By these means it is nearly always possible to prevent the epidemics of contagious disease which used to be common in our schools. Sanitation in Connection with Food. — Boards of health make rules that persons who sell soda-water and ice cream, persons who keep restaurants, and all others engaged in .MUNICIPAL HEALTH AND SANITATION 41 similar trades must sterilize the dishes and silverware used by each customer. If this is properly done, any germs of contagious disease which are left on the dishes by a customer will be killed; while if his dishes are washed with others, but not sterilized, the germs may be distributed over the other dishes, and many other customers may con- tract the disease. For similar reasons, barbers are required to sterilize their combs, brushes, towels, and other imple- ments. Groceries, meat markets, dairies, and all places where food is sold must be kept in clean and sanitary condition. The food itself must be kept in such a way that no dust and dirt can reach it, and no flies or other insects can touch it. Sanitary Inspection of Public Buildings. — Tenements, theaters, factories, stores, and other places where many people gather together are carefully inspected by the health authorities, to see that they are in accordance with all the orders of the board of health and all the rules of the sanitary code. Everything about them must be clean; no filth must be allowed to remain; and any conditions which may be dangerous to health must be remedied. This is important for private houses, also, but it is particularly necessary in crowded buildings. Free Hospital Service. — In many cities the board of health is aided in its work by medical students, who are glad to gain experience by helping persons too poor to pay for the services of a doctor. Usually the best physicians in the city give some of their time to clinics, or classes, where patients may come and receive skilled treatment without charge. There are usually free hospitals in large cities, or free wards of hospitals in small cities, which will receive persons who are unable to pay for the particular 42 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP care they need. A great many private charitable organ- izations are also ready to assist the board of health, by sending convalescent persons to the country or the seashore to regain their strength, and by other means. Health Campaigns. — Most boards of health do a good deal of educational work by means of newspaper articles, lectures, placards, and various advertising devices. In this way they teach the need of personal cleanliness and the value of sanitary surroundings. They show how babies should be fed, bathed, dressed, and treated in every way. They explain how contagious diseases spread and what measures must be taken to check them. They tell of the ways in which mosquitoes and flies spread disease, and encourage campaigns to stamp out these troublesome in- sects. Other Activities of the Board of Health. — In addition to all these activities and other similar ones, many boards of health collect statistics which are useful to them in their work. They try to keep records of all births, deaths, and cases of contagious disease which occur in the city. As we have already seen, the death rate and the disease rate help to show whether a city is in good sanitary condition or not. If a city finds these figures rising too much, the board of health usually institutes a "clean-up campaign." When the birth of a child is registered, in some cities, a notice is sent to the mother telling her where to apply for advice and help in case she has any difficulty in keeping the baby well. Large numbers of babies die before they are a year old, just because their mothers are poor and ignorant and do not know how to care for them. By helping the mothers to learn proper methods of feeding and treating them, it has been found possible to save many little lives. MUNICIPAL HEALTH AND SANITATION 43 Who Should Serve on the Board of Health. — Thus we see that the people of a city are doing an important work for their own health and safety when they establish a board of health and give it authority to compel all persons to obey its rules. The best results are secured when physicians and other experts in health and sanitation serve on the board of health. If these cannot be obtained, however, any conscientious and able person who will accept a place on this board can render valuable services to his fellow citizens. Many of the most essential measures which must be taken to preserve the public health can be learned by any one of intelligence, through reading and observation. There are some things, naturally, which only an expert can fully understand; but no city need be discouraged if it cannot obtain highly trained members for its board of health, pro- vided that those who do serve are citizens of the best type. Everyone should cooperate with these officials in trying to make the city sanitary and as free as possible from con- tagious disease. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Who are the members of the board of health in your city? How are they chosen? 2. What sanitary regulations are in force in your city? 3. What are the ordinances in regard to the quarantine of contagious diseases? 4. Is there a school physician', a school nurse, or any medical or sanitary inspection and supervision of students? 5. Is any inspection made of grocery shops, restaurants, dairies, and similar places? Try to secure reports made by inspectors. What measures have been taken to bring about improvements where these were necessary? 6. Does any officer in your city or county collect statistics in 44 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP regard to disease, deaths, and births? Try to secure these statistics for the past year. 7. How many deaths were there to each thousand of the popu- lation in your city last year? The death rate per thousand in New York City was between 12 and 13 for the year 1920. How does your city compare? 8. Suggest ways in which the sanitary condition of your city could be improved. Has the city held a "clean-up campaign" recently? 9. Are the school children organized to fight flies and mosqui- toes? Is adequate instruction in hygiene given in the schools? Are the schools sanitary and well ventilated? CHAPTER VIII THE WATER SUPPLY Need of an Ample Supply of Pure Water. — A very im- portant factor in public health is water. If a city is to be sanitary, there must be an ample supply of pure water, so that every person may bathe often, and every soiled article or dirty floor or street may be cleansed. In case of fire, too, a good supply of water is needed, with a pressure that will cause it to shoot many feet. There must not only be plenty of water in a city, but all that is used for drinking purposes must be free from disease germs and from im- purities of every kind, so that it will not be dangerous to health. For these reasons most cities today supply water to their residents, or else supervise carefully any private company which is allowed to undertake this work. Planning a Water System. — When a city is about to in- stall a system of waterworks, it tries to estimate how much water is used daily, and how much will probably be used in the future. For instance, if a dyeing establishment is about to be built, this will use many gallons of water. If a great factory is being constructed, and several hundred homes for workingmen are built near it, probably many persons will move into the city, and these will require a large supply of water. All these things are considered when the system of waterworks is planned. The next problem is: Where can this water be obtained? Lakes, rivers, artesian wells, and various other sources are used in different cities, according to local conditions. It is 45 46 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP sometimes difficult to find a source of water which will yield as much as the city needs. Quite often the source is many miles from the city. In this case it is likely to cost a, good deal of money to lay pipes and make other arrange- ments for bringing the water where it is needed; but most This large dam was built to store up water for New York City. Though it forms a good-sized lake, the water held here is only a part of the city's total water supply. cities feel that the money must be spent, as an ample sup- ply of pure water is necessary to pul^lic welfare. Filtration of Water. — When a sufficient flow of water has been secured, the question arises whether it will need any special treatment or not. In many cases it will need to be filtered. By filtration such things as mud, bits of sticks, THE WATER SUPPLY 47 leaves, and other impurities are removed, as well as many harmful bacteria. We see the effect of filtration whenever a housewife is making jelly. She pours into the jelly bag a muddy-looking liquid filled with pulp and seeds, and a beautiful clear juice comes out of the bag, while all the undesirable substances remain inside. We see the same sort of filter used for water, when a salt sack is tied over the nozzle of a pump. When a large supply of water is to be filtered, however, such a filter is not advisable, for numerous reasons. Large filters are usually made of fine clean sand, through which the water passes, leaving most of its im- purities behind. Chemical Treatment of Water. — Sometimes dangerous bacteria remain even after the water has been filtered, and it is then necessary to destroy them. In order to do so, the water is given chemical treatment; that is, chemicals which will kill the bacteria without injuring the health of human beings are poured into the water before it is turned into the pipes that lead it through the city. It is rather difficult to treat water in this way without leaving some slight chemical flavor. However, those who use the water regularly soon become accustomed to this and cease to notice it. Of course, it is far better to have such water than to have tasteless water filled with harmful bacteria. It is better still, if possible, to secure water which does not need chemical treatment. Hard Water. — In some parts of the country, almost all available water is very hard. This means that it is filled with dissolved minerals, such as various kinds of alkali and other mineral substances. • These substances were in the earth through which the water passed, and the water has retained a sufficient quantity of them to make it objec- 48 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP tionable for many uses. Sometimes it is so hard that most soaps cannot make a good lather, and this makes difficulty when laundry work and cleaning are done. Sometimes the minerals are injurious to health, and often they make the skin tough, hard, and easily cracked. Occasionally, they kill plants which are regularly sprinkled with the hard water. It is very desirable to remove these minerals from the water, so far as possible. This can be done in various ways, according to the nature of the mineral. It is ordinarily done by adding to the water some chemical which will combine with the dissolved minerals and make a sub- stance that sinks to the bottom of the reservoir, leaving the water soft, or free from the minerals. The trouble and expense of doing this make it undesirable, as a rule, to soften water chemically, unless the materials which it contains are very objectionable. Expense of a Water Supply. — Even when water requires no treatment before it can be used, large sums of money are spent by the city in pumping stations, reservoirs, and equip- ment. This money is usually borrowed by the city, which must pay interest on it. The city must also lay aside some funds each year, so that the borrowed money can be repaid when it falls due: If the water must be filtered or treated chemically, the city will have the additional expense of con- structing filtration plants or other apparatus. The men who work at the city's water plant must be paid. For these and other reasons, the city finds it necessary to make a charge for its water. Sometimes meters are installed, which show just how much water is drawn out; and each household pays for the water actually used by it. In other cases a "flat rate " is charged, of so many dollars a year for each THE WATER SUPPLY 49 faucet in a building. Whatever method it may use, the city must charge enough to meet all expenses. Preventing the Waste of Water. — Since water is costly, it ought not to be wasted; yet in every city a surprising quantity of water is allowed to run away daily, without doing the slightest good to anyone. As the result of a two- year campaign against water waste in Buffalo, New York, the average daily waste was reduced 50,000,000 gallons; but even then there was still a waste of 200,000,000 gallons per day. It is very common to see in public buildings, and even in private homes, leaking faucets which allow many gallons of water to trickle into waste pipes. Why should the city go to the expense and trouble of supplying water, if it is simply to be wasted? Why should customers pay for water which they do not use? It is better for everyone concerned, when water is used carefully, and leaks and other causes of waste are prevented. Children, as well as grown people, can do much toward lowering water bills and saving the city needless labor and expense. One step in the right direction is to develop a habit of turning off all faucets carefully, instead of allowing a thin stream of water to flow, as is often done. Another step is to inform the proper person at once when a leak is noticed anywhere. If a water main bursts in the street, the superintendent of the city water works should be notified immediately. By such means as these, a great deal of water can be saved. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Where does your city obtain its water supply? 2. What processes, if any, are employed in order to make the water safe for general use? When was your city water last exam- ined by the state board of health? Wliat was its report? 50 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP 3. Is your water as pure, clear, and soft as can be obtained in your locality? Is there a plentiful supply? If not, what meas- ures can be taken to increase the supply? 4. What system of paying for water is used in your city? 5. Obtain the latest yearly rejjort of the waterworks, and see whether the price of water sold to consumers pays for the cost of operation. Is there a profit made? If so, how much? 6. From the report of the waterworks, learn how many gallons of water were pumped or otherwise obtained by the waterworks plant during the year. How many gallons were sold to customers and supplied to the city? How manj^ gallons are not accounted for? What has happened to those gallons of water? 7. Are there any defective water mains in your city? If water is lost from these, what difference does it make to the pubHc? CHAPTER IX DISPOSAL OF WASTE Why Waste Must Be Removed. — No city can be sanitary unless its garbage, rubbish, sewage, and other waste ma- terials are disposed of in a proper manner. When we read about the cities of the Middle Ages, we learn that garbage was simply thrown into the streets and allowed to decay there, while every kind of filth was abundant in the gutters. It is no wonder that plagues swept over such cities. Today we understand that it is essential to public health that waste materials shall be removed from a city. There are, of course, other reasons why this removal is necessary. There would be great danger of fire if all the newspapers, wrapping papers, and various inflammable materials discarded every da.y were allowed, to accumulate. It would be almost impossible to fintl room for ashes and other bulky substances in the yards of ordinary city dwell- ings; and they would be a great inconvenience, even if there were enough space for them. Why the City Removes Waste. — In some of our smaller cities it is customary for each household to make individual arrangements with a teamster to carry away waste mate- rials. This is a very unsatisfactory arrangement in any case, and particularly in the case of a closely built city. Garbage ought to be removed daily, especially in summer; many other kinds of trash should be taken away as soon as they accumulate; and sewage should be washed into sewer pipes immediately. Since very few persons can afford to 51 52 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP hire men to carry off garbage and other waste daily, or to build a private sewer system, many cities undertake these enterprises. This is another example of the way in which government is employed by the people to do the work in which all are interested. Disposal of Waste. — When a city collects garbage, ashes, and trash, what does it do with them? This depends on many things, such as the size of the city, its location, the kind of land on which it is located, and the nature of the country surrounding it. If the city is small, all the ma- terials may be simply dumped at some distance outside. It often happens that the man who is hired by the city to carry away the trash keeps the garbage separated from the other materials and feeds it to hogs. Reduction of Garbage. — Very large cities sometimes sell' their garbage to men who feed it to hogs or else "reduce it "; that is, separate it and change it into useful materials. When a man buys several tons of garbage daily, he often heats it and presses out all the liquid, a good deal of which is grease. This grease is saved and used for making axle grease or some other useful substance, which can be sold at a profit. The remainder of the garbage may be used for making fertilizer. Some cities have their own reduction plants, so that the income from the reduced garbage can be used toward paying the expenses of carting it away. The city of Cleveland, in Ohio, receives a large sum each year from the sale of products obtained from reduced garbage. Garbage, Buried, Emptied into Water, or Burned. — In cities near the coast, garbage is sometimes loaded on flat boats, towed out to sea, and emptied into the water, so far away that it is not likely to float back to the shore. Some DISPOSAL OF WASTE 53 cities have garbage buried, and others use it to fill low areas. If these areas are far from houses and on the extreme out- skirts of the city, and if the garbage is well covered with earth, there is not much objection to this method of dis- posal, especially since the garbage will enrich the soil. Of course, this method cannot be used in built-up parts of the city. Some cities prefer to burn their garbage, in order to make sure that all poisonous decaying substances and germs of disease, which may be contained in it, will be destroyed. It is usually burned together with dry rubbish. Experi- ments have been made, with the idea of burning garbage and rubbish as fuel for running machinery. The mixture is usually so wet, however, that it burns slowly and gives off very little heat. Some attempts have been made, especially in English cities, to utilize it for steam-power; but these attempts have not l^een highly successful. Making Land from the Waste. — Street sweepings, ashes, and other trash of this kind are, as a rule, either taken away and dumped or used for filling low or swampy places. New York City has been using its ashes in this way for a long time with very satisfactory results. It is said to have added a million dollars' worth of land to one piece of municipal' property in ten years. By-Products from Dead Animals. — Dead animals are usually sold to some dealer, who tans the skin for leather, converts the bones into fertilizer or perhaps buttons, and employs the other parts for various useful purposes. Sorting and Destroying Rubbish. — Rubbish is a difficult thing to dispose of properly, as it contains so many different materials. Quite often it is simply dumped in a place where it will be out of the way. In a few cities, including 54 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP Buffalo, Boston, New York, and Washington, the rubbish is sorted before it is thrown away or destroyed. This sort- ing separates from the rubbish everything useful, such as rubber in all forms, tinfoil, tin cans and other metal objects, rags, paper, bottles, and many other things that can be sold and used in various ways. The city sometimes has its own employees to do the sorting. In this case the money obtained by selling the useful goods helps to pay the ex- penses of collecting the rubbish and disposing of it. Some- times the city sells to private citizens or firms the right to sort the rubbish and take whatever they wish. In either case the useless remainder is discarded, perhaps being carted off, perhaps being burned. Burning Rubbish. — Some persons claim that the sorting of rubbish is unsanitary and dangerous to public health. For this reason a few American cities burn their rubbish without sorting it. As in the case of garbage, various cities have attempted to make use of the heat obtained by burn- ing rubbish, but there is always so much non-combustible material in it that it is a very poor fuel, seldom giving off enough heat to be of much value. However, some cities have found that by installing modern devices they can burn a mixture of rubbish, garbage, and ashes and obtain a con- siderable amount of heat. Sanitation of First Importance. — When a city is deciding upon the best way for disposing of its garbage and rubbish, it must think first of sanitation and public health, then of convenience and expense. If it can find a sanitary, con- venient, and inexpensive way to dispose of its waste mate- rials, it is fortunate. If it cannot do so, it must at least use a sanitary method, even though this may be somewhat ex- pensive, for public health must be preserved. DISPOSAL OF WASTE 55 The Sewage System. — Important as it is for cities to dispose of garbage and rubbish properly, it is even more important that they adopt correct measures for dis- posing of sewage, as sewage has been found to be a great menace to pubhc health. Many epidemics of typhoid have been caused by unsanitary methods of sewage dis- posal. For this reason even very small cities usually install systems of sewers, and all larger ones do so. Sewage is washed into waste pipes connected with the various buildings of a city; then into larger pipes or main pipes, commonly called mains. These mains empty into a very large pipe called a trunk, which leads out to the place where the sewage is finally disposed of. Sewage Emptied into River or Sea. — The problem of disposing of sewage in a satisfactory way is sometimes difficult. If a city is located near a river, and the river is not used to supply drinking water, either to the city itself or other communities farther down the river, then the trunk pipe may empty the sewage into the stream, and it will be washed away. As the United States is being settled more thickly, and cities and towns are growing up close together, it is very seldom that this method of sewage disposal can be used safely. Much the same thing is true of emptying sewage into the sea, which used to be the custom of towns located on the coast. Of course sea water is not used for drinking purposes; but the oysters, clams, and other shell- fish found near the shore are used for food. It has been dis- covered that unless the sewage is emptied at a long distance from the shore, it will pollute these shellfish and make them carriers of disease germs. Sewage floating near the shore is also a great nuisance to bathers. If a city cannot find a suitable place in which to empty 56 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP sewage, just as it comes from the pipes, it must face the problem of adopting some other method of disposal. In European countries sewage is often sprinkled over farm land as fertilizer, but this practice has not gained favor in the United States, though a few cities have made experi- ments in this direction. Other Methods of Sewage Disposal.— A much more common custom here is to pass the sewage through screens, which catch the solid part and let the liquid part flow past. The solid part is gathered from time to time and buried, burned, or otherwise disposed of. The liquid part may be filtered in order to purify it, or it may be treated with chemicals which will kill germs of disease. If a very large body of water is available, the liquid sewage is sometimes allowed to flow into this water, just as it comes past the screen. This is a safe method if there is enough water in the stream or lake to dilute the sewage until there are only a few germs to each gallon of water; but even so, this method should not be used if drinking water is drawn within some miles of the sewer outlet. If that is the case, the liquid sewage must be purified by filters or chemicals. Sanitary engineers and chemists are continually working out new and improved methods of treating sewage. Some of these methods employ beneficial bacteria which break up the solid parts of the sewage, and some are based upon the action of chemicals. Various methods, too complicated to be described here, are being tried in various cities, with encouraging results. Probably it will not be long before every city will be able to treat its sewage in a modern and improved manner which will make it pure and safe. Disposal of Rainwater. — Some cities allow rainwater to flow into their sewer mains, while others build separate DISPOSAL OF WASTE 57 systems of storm sewers to carry off rain and melted snow. If the sewer mains are not very large, and the city is located in a region where showers are heavy and swift, the separate system is preferable. This method is desirable, also, when the sewage is treated with expensive chemicals. In this case it may be cheaper, in the long run, to build separate storm One method of purifying sewage. At Columbus, Ohio, liquid sewage is forced through the "trickling filter " shown here, and the sun and air help in the work of purifying it. sewers, rather than to buy all the chemicals month after month, and year after year, that will be needed to purify millions of extra gallons of diluted sewage. This question of separate pipes for rainwater is one that each city must decide for itself, according to local conditions. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Has your city a sanitary system of garbage disposal? If so, describe it. If not, tell what methods are employed by private families. Are these methods sanitary? 2. Are garbage, stable waste, and other decaying substances 58 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP allowed to lie where they can serve as breeding places for flies? If so, what measures should be taken? 3. Is rubbish collected by your city? If so, how often? 4. Do tin cans lie where they can collect rainwater and serve as breeding places for mosquitoes? Mosquitoes carry yellow fever and malaria. Is there any yellow fever or malaria in your city? What other breeding places, besides tin cans, may mosquitoes find there? What can be done about these conditions? 5. If 3'our city collects rubbish, is its final disposal sanitary and generally satisfactory? 6. Has your city a modern sanitary sewer system? Is con- nection with this system required of every property owner? If not, what means are taken to insure sanitary premises everywhere? 7. What are the ordinary conditions of rainfall in your part of the country? Is the drainage system of your city sufficient to carry rainwater off rapidly, or are there parts of the city where water may stand for some time? What improvements might be made in the drainage system? CHAPTER X EDUCATION; THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS Why We Believe in Universal Education. — One of the most important parts of the city's business is providing education. Not only the city, but the larger divisions of government, such as county, state, and nation, take a direct or indirect part in this great work. It is the ambition of all true Americans to see that every boy and girl, man and woman, in the entire country, has at least an elementary education. Why is this true? It is because we believe in self-govern- ment, and we know that only educated people can really govern themselves. If people are ignorant and unable to learn the truth about public questions, they will believe anything they are told, and will vote just as they are per- suaded to do by others. In this way they maj^ be deceived and led to vote for men who will not govern them properly. The only way to be sure that people will not be led astray by falsehoods is to educate them, so that they can study public questions for themselves. There are many other reasons why we believe in univei'sal education. Educated persons are better able to support themselves than uneducated ones. Much of the money spent in providing public schools will be saved later, because few educated persons will need to be supported by charity. Education also lessens crime. When a man can make a good living, he is less likely to enter a life of crime than if, through ignorance, he does not know how to supply his 59 60 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP needs by honest work. Thus we see that money spent on education means money saved on prisons and similar institutions. The Course of Study. — In various cities the pubhc school courses of study differ a good deal, owing partly to state laws, and partly to the particular needs of the individual cities. Nearly everywhere, however, the following subjects are studied: Reading and writing, so that each person can express his own thoughts to others, and learn their thoughts. A rithmctic, so that the student may learn to manage his own business affairs. Geography, so that he will know about the other people and , nations of the world, the splendors of natural scenery, the various products of the earth and the way in which thej^ are distributed, and many other things. History and government, so that he will understand the lessons which can be learned from the past, the meaning of our own national ideals, and the duties of a citizen. Hyg'dic and sanitation, so that each one will know how to keep himself in good health and how to secure healthful surroundings. Physical education and manual training, so that the student may learn to control his body and make it carry out the ideas of his mind. Nature study and science, in order to teach him to enjoy the wonders of nature and to understand its laws. Literature, art, and music, so that each person will be able to enjoy beautiful things. Compulsory Education. — If every child in the United States were taught these subjects in the school course of study, we should soon build up a nation of happy, useful, EDUCATION; THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 61 intelligent citizens. In our larger cities the greatest pains are taken to see that all children of school age are receiving an education. Truant officers are appointed to enforce the laws compelling parents to send children to school. It used to be considered the privilege of fathers and mothers to keep their children out of school if they desired to do so, but public opinion has changed on this point. Now it is believed that no parents have the right to let their children grow up in ignorance. The idea of compulsory education is spreading rapidly, and probably it will not be many years before every child in the country is a regular attendant at school. The High Schools. — The subjects which we have just discussed are, of course, those taught in the grade schools or elementary schools. Most cities provide high schools for all students who wish to take up more advanced work. The courses given in high schools differ even more than those given in elementary schools. Small cities may be able to offer only a few courses, while larger ones can permit the students to choose among a great many. Ordinarily, the high school offers work in one or more foreign languages as well as in English literature and composition, mathe- matics, history, and science. Some high schools offer man- ual training and domestic science, some offer bookkeeping and stenography, and a few offer training for trades and occupations. Each city decides upon these courses accord- ing to its wealth, its principal industries, the needs of its students, and other considerations. School Buildings. — Most of our American cities take a great interest in their school buildings, which aiC usually very good. It is becoming customary to place new school- houses in beautiful surroundings, if possible, and to decorate 62 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP them artistically, so that the students may feel pleasure and pride in their schools. Our cities are growing so rapidly that the schools are often overcrowded, and undesirable old buildings must sometimes be used for lack of room; but most cities are trying to overcome thjs condition, and to send every child to a roomy, sanitary, artistic school building. The School Board. — The schools are managed by a com- mittee known as a school board or a board of education. This board selects superintendents, teachers, and other school officials, decides upon their salaries, makes general rules in reference to matters of discipline and various school problems, and performs other duties, according to the pow- ers given to local school boards by state law. State Control of the Schools. — We have spoken of the city's schools, but we must not forget that all schools are partly under the control of the state, which may prescribe certain subjects of instruction, a certain length of term, and other requirements. The state not only supervises local schools, but assists them financially, as a rule; for, as we have seen, all branches of government are interested in securing universal education. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Give all the reasons that you can for the statement that education is necessary to the best type of citizenship. 2. What subjects are studied in the primary schools and the grammar schools of your own city or town? What is the use of each subject? 3. Is school attendance required by a law of your state or by an ordinance of your city, or by both? How is this law or ordinance enforced? EDUCATION; THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 63 4. Give reasons why compulsory education is becoming (luite general. 5. Find out what courses are offered in the high schools of your city. Are any of these courses selected particularly to meet some need of the locality? 6. How many school buildings does your city possess? Are these all in good condition? Have they pleasant surroundings? 7. Describe any especially interesting features of your public school system. 8. Write a few paragraphs on the value of education in a de- mocracy. CHAPTER XI SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES Normal Schools, Vocational Schools, and Colleges. — In many cities we find not only the regular public schools, but various special schools. Some large cities, such as New York, Toledo, and Omaha, have municipal colleges or uni- versities; and a number of cities have normal schools for the training of teachers. Cincinnati, Philadelphia, and many other cities have special vocational high schools, where a student may learn a trade at the same time that he is securing a good secondary education. Special Classes for Individual Instruction. — Most of our larger cities have special classes for backward pupils. These classes are very small, so that each pupil can have individual attention from the teacher. Sometimes a few months of special attention will help a backward child to understand the school work so well that he can return to the regular classes. Even where this is not the case, it has been found that such children do better work and are much happier in special classes than in regular ones. Schools or classes for the blind, the deaf, and other handi- capped children are found in a few cities, though usually these persons are cared for by the state. Night Schools. — Many cities have special night schools for adults and for young people who have been compelled to leave the regular public schools in order to go to work. A large number of subjects are taught in these schools. They offer the ordinary graded courses for the benefit of 64 SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES 65 those whose early education was neglected. In addition, they usually offer bookkeeping, typewriting, stenography, and other business subjects; and sometimes they give com- plete high school courses. There are also a few night A class of school children having a lesson in a Natural History Museum. Nature study is easj' and interesting when it can be studied in this way. schools which offer college courses, law, and other advanced work. Americanizing the Foreign-born. — Even before the great World War, some of our cities were conducting special classes for foreign-born citizens. The war has shown us how necessary it is to make sure that every immigrant who settles in the United States shall become a loyal citizen. One of the first steps toward this is to teach everyone to speak, read, and write the English language. This will 66 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP make him feel that he is a member of our nation, and will also make it easy for him to learn why the United States is worthy of his loyalty. For this reason many cities, even quite small ones, are now conducting Americanization classes for the benefit of the foreign-born. Libraries and Museums. — Schools and classes are not the only means by which the modern city educates its citizens. Nearly all cities, except the very smallest, have public libraries, where anyone can go to secure information on many topics, as well as books to read for pleasure. Many cities have museums and collections of various sorts, such as natural history museums, historical collections, and other valuable material. Frequently the city maintains a zoologi- cal garden or park, in order to enable everyone to study the appearance and habits of many animals. Free Lectures and Concerts; Exhibits. — Some cities give free lectures on current topics, art, literature, and other important subjects. The city often provides free music, in the form of band concerts and other performances. One who wishes to obtain a musical education can benefit greatly by attending these concerts, as the best classical music is usually selected for at least a part of the program. Another great educational work done by modern cities takes the form of special exhibits. Posters, pictures, models, and instructive objects in regard to a topic such as Child Welfare or How to Prevent Tuberculosis are arranged in a public place, and citizens are urged to inspect them. One hour spent at such an exhibit will usually teach a person more than he could ordinarily learn in ten hours from books. Thus we see that the modern city is doing all in its power to educate every citizen. SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES 67 FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Try to learn something from books and magazines concerning municipal colleges, universities, and normal schools. 2. Get information also in respect, to the special "shopwork " high school courses and other vocational courses offered in Cin- cinnati and elsewhere. 3. What special schools or special classes for backward or trouble- some children does your city have? Find out all that you can about these, and report to the class. 4. Does your city hold any free night schools, Americanization classes, and similar schools for the benefit of adults? Why should a city try to educate adults? 5. Is there a public library in your city? How is it managed? Is it used by many persons? Do you use it? 6. Are there museums or collections of any kind? Do j'ou visit them? 7. Does your city provide lecture courses and musical programs? Do you attend any of these? 8. What educational exhibits have been held in your city recently? What did you learn from these? CHAPTER XII RECREATION AND WELFARE Why Recreation Grounds Are Important.— It is now understood that by supplying opportunities for recreation, a city can do a great deal to prevent crime. Boys especially need the excitement and activity that they find in sports and athletic exercise, and if such opportunities are provided, they are less likely to be tempted to gamble and steal. For this reason, and also because the pubHc health is improved when many persons take outdoor exercise, most of our cities are providing places of recreation. Opportunities for Sport and Amusement.— Even the small cities usually have parks, where it is pleasant to walk or to sit and enjoy the fresh air. The parks of our larger cities are often quite wonderful. They sometimes cover several square miles, and are planted with rare bushes and trees and with beds of beautiful flowers. Frequently they contain tennis courts, golf links, baseball and football fields, and similar spaces for play. Thoughtful people believe that it is not wise to spend too much money on these large parks, however, as many small parks scattered through the city will be easier for children to reach than one large one on the outskirts. Cities located near large bodies of water usually provide bathing beaches, bath houses, and recreation piers. Inland cities often build public baths and swimming pools. Public dance halls, roller skating rinks, and ice skating rinks and ponds are all found in many cities. Music, moving pictures, 68 RECREATION AND \YELFARE 69 lectures, and various entertainments provided by the city- are not only educational, but are a much appreciated form of recreation. Community Centers. — It is becoming customary to use school buildings or other public buildings as community social centers. A community center is a place where social events of interest to a whole neighborhood may take place. Clubs of various kinds meet here, entertainments are given, meetings are held to discuss interesting questions, and other things are done which draw the people of a neigh- borhood closer together and make them more friendly and more willing to cooperate in helpful undertakings. Public Playgrounds. — School grounds and other places are often used as public playgrounds. Usually they contain sand piles, sliding boards, see-saws, swings, horizontal bars, and other helps toward interesting play. Wherever possible, a supervisor is placed in charge of a playground, so that he may prevent trouble among the children, may see that large and selfish children do not monopolize all the apparatus, and may teach new games. These playgrounds are growing in popularity, as busy mothers are often very glad to be able to send their little children to a safe place where they can enjoy themselves. Control of Objectionable Amusements. — We have seen that places for recreation are a help in preventing crime; but there are other measures taken by nearly all cities to lessen temptation. Strict rules are made that all theaters, moving-picture houses, and other places of entertainment shall not display objectionable scenes. Though these ordi- nances are not always enforced as strictly as might be de- sired, they do a great deal toward preventing representa- tions of vicious and criminal conduct, which would set a 70 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP bad example. Gambling and other objectionable practices are forbidden in almost every city. Measures to Secure Comfort and Happiness. — There are many other things done by modern cities, not only to lessen crime, but to make the city a good place in which to live. Some cities provide employment bureaus, which try to find positions for all men or women who wish work. Some provide low rates on trolleys and other conveyances for the benefit of factory workers, school children, and others. Some provide public laundries, where for a few cents, or perhaps for nothing, women may have the use of tubs and plenty of hot water, so that they can wash their clothes properly. Many cities provide municipal markets, where farmers may bring their fresh vegetables and other products, and sell them directly to those who wish to use them. Free day nurseries, where little children are cared for properly instead of being neglected while their mothers are at work, are quite common in large municipalities. As time passes, people are insisting upon more and more service from their city governments. They realize that the best way in which to secure good living conditions and a happy life for everyone is through public cooperation; that is, through government. No one man can make a city sanitary, moral, and pleasant; but all the citizens together, by putting good and able men into public offices, can make their city whatever they desire it to be. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. How many parks has your city? Are these parks well supplied with seats? Are they planted with grass, trees, and flowers? Are they kept in good condition? RECREATION AND WELFARE 71 2. What opportunities for play and recreation do the parks supply? Do many people use these opportunities for play? 3. Are the parks located so that children in all parts of the city can reach them? Are there any playgrounds especially for chil- dren, either in parks or elsewhere? 4. What other opportunities for recreation does your city pro- vide? Has it a swimming pool, a lake, or some other body of water which the public can enjoy? 5. Are social gatherings or other meetings held in your school- houses outside of school hours? How are your school buildings used to help the entire community? 6. Are the laws against gambling strictly enforced in your city? 7. What cit}^ ordinances have been passed for the protection of morals and the benefit of the community? 8. Learn of all the different things that your city is doing for moral and social welfare. What additional enterprises do you think it might undertake? CHAPTER XIII CITY ORGANIZATION; THE MAYOR-COUNCIL PLAN Organization of City Governments. — We have seen, in the early chapters of this book, that people must form an organization and select necessary officers, when they in- tend to work together. Since the modern city does all the various kinds of work that we have studied and many others, it must be organized — that is, planned and arranged very carefully — and must have a large number of officers. We cannot study all the details of the way in which city govern- ments are organized, nor can we learn about the work of every person employed by them, as many large books would be needed to describe these things fully. However, we shall look briefly at the principal plans for organizing city govern- ments, and learn the chief officials required under each plan. Laws Governing the City. — Just as our athletic associa- tion or literary society must have a constitution, telling the objects of the society and arranging for officers, a city must have written laws, telling what work it may undertake, naming the chief officers it may select, and explaining other important points. These laws are sometimes made es- pecially for a particular city, in which case they are known as a charter; and sometimes they are made by state legis- latures, to govern all cities in the state except those which have charters. Whether a city is governed by a charter of its own or by general state laws, it is usually organized 72 CITY ORGANIZATION 73 according to one of three plans: the mayor-council plan, the commission plan, or the commission-manager plan. We shall examine each of these plans in turn. The Mayor-Council Plan. — For a long time nearly all cities in the United States were organized according to the mayor-council plan. This plan varies in different cities, but usually has the following characteristics. The city is divided into small districts known as wards, and the people in each ward elect a member of a committee known as the city council. A mayor is elected by the voters of the whole city. The council makes special rules and regulations for the city, known as ordinances. The mayor sees that these ordinances are enforced, and also that the city's work is carried on according to its charter, or according to state laws, if the city has no charter. The City Council and Other Officers. — The council often does more than make ordinances. Frequently its members are divided into committees, which supervise certain parts of the city's business. Thus, there ma}^ be a committee on health, a committee on streets, a committee on street light- ing, and so on. Each committee is expected to see that its own particular part of the city's work is done as well as possible. In addition to the mayor and councilmen, the city has many other officers, some of whom are elected, and some appointed. Among the elected officers we find, as a rule, the city treasurer, the auditor (whose duty it is to see that all accounts are correct and all expenditures are made accord- ing to law), the coroner, and various others. Difficulty of Securing Experienced Officials. — During recent years there has been considerable dissatisfaction with this form of city government. People have begun to 74 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP believe that it is almost impossible for the councilmen to attend properly to the city's business, for several reasons. One reason is that they nearly always have private business, which demands a good deal of their time. Another reason is that they are seldom trained in the kind of work which they try to do for the city. Thus, the chairman of the committee on health and sanitation may be a prosperous grocer, who hardly knows what public sanitation means and has no time to learn, because his own affairs keep him busy. Much the same thing is true in regard to the mayor. A mayor is usually elected for a short term of two, three, or four years. He cannot afford to neglect his own business too much, as he will need to earn his living when his term expires. As a result, he has so little time to devote to the city's work that it is not carried on as efficiently as it should be. Naturally, he learns by experience, and he has perhaps become an expert by the time his term ends. This knowl- edge does not help the city very much, however, for a new mayor is likely to be chosen for the next term, and the city is again governed by an inexperienced man. It might be much better if the same mayor and the same council were chosen year after year, provided they were all honest and capable men who would serve the city as well as they could. But this is not likely to happen in many cases, as all political parties want to take their turn at governing the city, and the parties which are out of power work hard to put their men in. It seems probable that, for many years to come, cities organized by the mayor-council plan will have inexperienced officials. Division of Responsibility. — Another objection often made to this plan is that, when the city's affairs are mis- managed, nobody knows whom to blame. Let us suppose CITY ORGANIZATION 75 that the streets are badly Hghted, and that a committee of citizens is formed, to interview the mayor on the subject. "I am sorry," he says, "but I have no power to help. My duties are to see that the laws are enforced; but I have nothing to do with street lighting. Mr. Jones, the council- man from the third ward, is the chairman of the committee on street lighting. I advise you to see him." The citizens go to Mr. Jones, and he says, "Yes, I know the streets are badly lighted, but I can't help it. There are three of us on the committee, and the other two will not cooperate with me in trying to improve the service. You'd better see Mr. Smith and Mr. Brown." Mr. Smith and Mr. Brown are interviewed by the citi- zens' committee, and both tell this sort of story: "We stand for progressive ideas, and if we could have things our way, you would see the city splendidly lighted. But Mr. Jones opposes everything we want; and as he is the chairman of the committee, he has more influence than we have, so we don't accomplish anything." By this time the citizens feel thoroughly puzzled and do not know where to lay the blame for poor service, or what measures to take to improve the service; for the responsi- bility seems to be divided among many persons. This division of responsibility is recognized as one of the chief faults of the mayor-council plan of city government. Of course there are many instances in which this form of government has been very successful. Occasionally a city recognizes the value of experience and elects the same mayor to office for several terms. Many small cities feel that they cannot afford to pay their officials, or to pay more than a small sum; and most of these prefer to continue the mayor-council plan of government rather than to change to 76 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP a plan whose success depends upon the city's abihty to attract good men by salaries. One advantage which the mayor-council plan has above other forms of mimicipal government is the fact that everyone is familiar with it, as it has always been the standard form in this country. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION Find out whether your city is governed by a charter or by general state laws. Secure a copy of the charter or the laws, and obtain from them the answers to the following questions: 1. Under what plan of government is your city organized? 2. What officials are elected by the people? What are the duties of each official? 3. What officials are given office in some other way than by election? How does each one obtain his position? What are the duties of each? 4. What are the principal departments of work undertaken by your city? Who is at the head of each department? How much control over him do other officials have? (Remember that the power to grant money or to refuse it is an important kind of con- trol.) 5. Write a brief statement explaining the mayor-council plan of city organization, its advantages and its disadvantages. CHAPTER XIV THE COMMISSION AND THE COMMISSION- MANAGER PLANS Origin of Commission Government in Galveston. — Some years ago a great flood swept over the city of Galves- ton, Texas, destroying property of many kinds and killing about six thousand persons. A large number of pressing problems had to be faced at once, such as relieving destitute persons, cleaning up the wreckage, making the city sani- tary, and providing for rebuilding the ruined sections. The politicians who had been in power were not qualified to take charge of things in this great emergency, so it was decided to place the government of the city in the hands of a committee, or commission, of five members. After some legal difficulties were adjusted, Galveston found itself with a new charter. This charter provides that five men are to be elected from anywhere in the city, and not from any particular wards. Four of these commission- ers take charge of the city's work, which is divided into these four departments: police and fire, streets and public property, waterworks and sewage, and finance and revenue. The fifth commissioner is the mayor. He does not have a department to manage, but he is expected to see that the other commissioners work together as well as possible, and to advise and help them all. These commissioners are paid to give all their time to the city's work. Under this system of government, the city of Galveston 77 78 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP rose from its ruins with surprising speed and efficiency. Its government was so excellent that many other cities adopted similar charters (differing in certain points, of course), and people began to think the commission plan an almost perfect one. It was particularly praised because The City Hall in Galveston, Texas, which replaced the building destroyed by the flood in 1900. Here the experiments in the com- mission form of government have been worked out. it placed one commissioner, instead of a committee, at the head of each department of the city's business. Responsibility of Officials. — There are many arguments in favor of this plan of municipal organization. In the first place, some one man is responsible for every branch of city work. If the water that is furnished you bj^ the city is not pure, if it has little pressure, if your water bill is too high, you know to whom you may telephone or write about it. The commissioner cannot refer the matter to some committee of the council that will meet in three or four COMMISSION AND COMMISSION-MANAGER PLANS 79 weeks perhaps, and that is too busy to see to it anj'way. It is his business to see to it. He is paid to see to it, and all his time belongs to the city. He cannot shift his responsi- bility to someone else. Intelligent Voting. — In the second place, the government is so simple that every citizen can understand it. He does not have to vote for a long list of officers whom he knows nothing about, but simply for five men. It is entirely possible for a citizen to find out about the good and bad qualities of these few candidates and to make a choice that is based on knowledge. Business Methods. — In the third place, this commission plan makes business methods possible. Each commissioner has a certain definite amount of the work of the city as- signed to him, and he is responsible for seeing that his par- ticular activities are performed properly. He is paid enough so that he can afford to spend all his time on the city work, and most of the city charters require that he shall do so. Better City Officials. — Because the commissioners are paid fairly large salaries, are elected from a large district, and can be held responsible, the quality of city officials has been generally improved under the commission plan. Faults of the Commission Plan; Incompetent Men. — As time has passed, however, it has been seen that the com- mission plan has some faults. One of these is the same that we have observed in the mayor-council plan — the lack of experience and knowledge on the part of the commission- ers. Galveston's ablest men were willing to serve on the commission in order to bring the city out of its ruins; but not all cities have been able to secure first-class business men as commissioners. It often happens that a man is given charge of a department in which the work is com- 80 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP pletely unknown to him. Of course, it is rather hard to elect a man who is a good administrator. People vote for men be- cause they like them, because they know them well, or be- cause they can get some advantage from so doing. A man does not make a good city official simply because he is popular or is well-known. To manage a large department of the city, he should have training for such work, just as the manager of a private business should be trained. Many people think that the only way to secure trained men for such positions is to have them appointed instead of elected. The Need of One Responsible Manager. — Other people object to this form of government because the five men elected may not be able to work together. They argue that in every business or organization you must have some one to direct all the others, if any large plan is to be carried out. It would be rather difficult to manage a ball team if three or four captains were elected. Each one would want to manage affairs in his own way, and as a result no one plan would be carried out. Several cities have found that when the five commissioners do not agree, some of the city's work is almost sure to be done poorly. Suppose the com- missioners are planning the money which they will need for the year. The head of the department on waterworks and sewage says that he will need one hundred thousand dollars. Three commissioners are opposed to him, and since they are in the majority, they vote to place in the budget (that is, the plan of finances) just twenty-five thousand dollars. Of course the department will not be efficiently managed; yet the man who is in charge of it is really not to blame. Here again we find that it is difficult to know who is actually responsible for poor management. COMMISSION AND COMMISSION-MANAGER PLANS 81 The Commission-Manager Plan. — With these things in mind, thinking people have tried to devise a system that would have all the good points of the commission plan and would avoid its faults. They have studied the methods of business men in order to secure ideas for managing public business, and have worked out a system of city government known as the commission-manager plan. Under this plan, a commission is elected which has the duty of selecting a good business man to manage the affairs of the city. The commissioners are not paid tor their serv- ices, and no actual work of management is expected of them. They act very much as a board of education acts in selecting a superintendent of schools. The members of a board of education do not attempt to manage the schools; they leave that to the expert. Their duty is to select the best man available to take charge of the school system. When city commissioners select a manager for the city, they are expected to act on this same principle of choosing the most efficient man whom they can secure. They are not required to ask his religion or politics, or to select him from their own city; but they are required to find a man who understands public business and can manage it well. This man is paid a good salary, and is expected to earn it by see- ing that the city's work is done efficiently. The City Manager. — The city manager is given authority over all branches of the city's business (with a few excep- tions, such as education, which is customarily left in the hands of the school board). He has the right to appoint men to take charge of the various departments under his supervision, and to dismiss them if they do not meet his requirements. In fact, he acts just as the manager of a large private business would act. It is his 82 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP duty to see that every branch of the work is put on a basis of efficiency. The cities which have adopted the commission-manager plan of government seem, on the whole, to be well pleased with it. Under this plan there is no doubt as to the person who is responsible if things go wrong. The manager knows that he cannot throw the blame on somebody else, so he does his very best to keep the city's work running smoothly. Since he is not chosen for political reasons, he is not likely to lose his position at each election; hence he does not need to spend most of his time on private business in order to have something to fall back upon when he is dismissed. He does not expect to be dismissed unless he manages the city poorly; so in order to hold his position, he will try hard to manage it well. He knows, also, that if he makes a suc- cess of his work, some other city will probably ask him to come and manage it, at an increased salary. Many cities claim that they are saving money under this plan of government, even though they pay their managers very large salaries. They say that the managers are han- dling the city's business so carefully that wastes and mistakes are prevented, and in many cases the managers have saved more money than they are paid. Responsibility of the Public. — For all these reasons, the commission-manager plan is rapidly growing in favor, and more and more cities are adopting it. We must always remember, however, that no plan or method will work satis- factorily unless the people are constantly alert to see that they receive good service. Dishonest men will try to be- come city managers, just as they apply for all public offices; and only continual watchfulness on the part of the public will guard them against such persons. COMMISSION AND COMMISSION-MANAGER PLANS 83 FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Go to a library and find an account of the Galveston dis- aster. Why was it impossible for an ordinary city government to handle this situation? 2. Why are small committees, or even single individuals, often given complete control of affairs in times of great public emergency? 3. What advantages are claimed by advocates of the com- mission form of government over the mayor-council form? What faults can be found with the commission plan? 4. Wliy is it important for the citizens to know who is responsible for each department of public business? 5. W[\y does it sometimes happen that well-qualified men cannot secure election? 6. What advantages are there in having the heads of business enterprises appointed instead of elected? 7. Summarize the arguments in favor of the commission-manager plan of city government. Give arguments against this plan. 8. What are the necessary qualifications of a good city manager? CHAPTER XV THE TOWNSHIP Townships in Colonial Times. — Townships are not found in every state, as the work which was formerly done by them is now often divided among other units of government. However, since they exist in many states, we shall briefly examine them and their work. The township is most important in New England, where it was established in colonial times. In those days villages were usually very small and were surrounded by farms. The people of one or more small villages and the inhabitants of the surrounding country used to organize townships (or towns, as they were often called), in order to carry on cer- tain kinds of public work. These townships contained from twenty to forty square miles, as a rule, and varied in shape according to the way in which the land had been settled. Many of the original townships remain today. The New England Town Meeting. — Once a year all the voters of the township would gather in the town hall to hold a town meeting. Here they decided upon such matters as the building of highways, the measures to be taken against the owners of straying cattle, and other problems of general interest. They also elected officers to carry out various functions. In the New England states these yearly town meetings are still held. As the cities have grown up, they have sometimes established governments of their own, which have no connection with township government. In 84 THE TOWNSHIP 85 other cases, however, fairly large cities have preferred to retain the old custom of being controlled in many matters by the will of all the voters of the township. "The town of Brookline, Massachusetts, ... has a population of over 20,000 and yet retains its primitive town government. Even New Haven and Hartford, Connecticut, have con- tinued the town organization separate from the city gov- ernment." ^ The work of the township is quite important, including such things as highway construction, the build- ing of schools, the collection of taxes, the keeping of records, the enforcement of law and order, and a number of other matters. Officers of the Township. — The principal officers of a New England township are called selectmen. A board of selectmen is chosen each j^ear at the town meeting to carry on the township business. At the same time other officers are chosen, such as the town treasurer; the town clerk, who acts as secretary at the town meetings, keeps records concerning births, deaths, and marriages, and per- forms other functions; constables, whose duty it is to pre- serve order and to make arrests when necessary; and (in most townships) justices of the peace, who try persons charged with small offenses. Some officers are elected, and some are appointed by the board of selectmen. Persons who have always lived in cities are amused to learn that nearly every township has an official known as a pound- keeper, whose duty it is to shut up straying animals, and to kill them or otherwise dispose of them unless their owners pay a fine; and another official known as a fence-viewer, who inspects boundary fences to see that they are in condi- tion to keep cattle and other animals in their proper place, 1 Beard, Charles A.: American Government and Politics. 86 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP Townships Outside of New England. — In several states outside of New England the township exists, but little interest is taken in its affairs, and its functions, as a rule, are unimportant. In the Western and Southern states the township is seldom found, as the city and the county generally carry on all the work which is given to the town- ship in New England. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Are there townships in your state? If so, what work do they do? What officers have charge of the work? How are these officers given their positions? 2. If there are no townships in your state, what division of gov- ernment is in charge of the work ordinarily done by them? 3. Read in history books an account of the old New England town meeting. 4. How have conditions changed so that the township is no longer so important as it was in colonial days and in the earlier days of our life as a nation? CHAPTER XVI THE COUNTY Functions of the County. — Every state in the Union is divided into districts called counties, with the exception of Louisiana, which uses the name parish instead of county. The county aids the state in many of its functions, and also carries on certain work of its own. County government and county functions vary so much from state to state that it is almost impossible to describe them in a brief space. The following paragraphs will explain the features most commonly found. Education. — Much of the state's educational work is carried on by the county. Special county officials, such as members of school boards and superintendents of schools, supervise the public schools, examine students who desire promotion into high schools, examine candidates for teach- ers' licenses, and attend to other educational matters. The Judicial System. — In many states there are county courts, county judges, and a county prosecuting attorney, whose duty it is to secure evidence against criminals and to appear before the court and try to have them brought to justice. Public Institutions and Highways. — County buildings, such as poorhouses, jails, asylums, and other institutions for relief, punishment, or special care, are constructed and maintained by the county authorities. Ordinarily the relief of poor and destitute persons is a county function. 87 Q Z u Q Z CO S u u. O u H CO D ■& O u. O H < H CO o -J. o - P3 - n "D n _a o 'D a: U z t: ^ o w (J « -r D 1 CO Q _i O z >■ UJ 4 D O = C3 o to 3 O _o •A O a z < OQ D CLi o o Q ^1 O o u < H CO g ^ W LU 2 2; ^ o z < n o >- IX < n D O -I H -1 i ^ H CL > UJ n n c z O 03 D fe a. § a: D m LU □ o E-i P OJ 01 ^ 2 S n o o a UJ < a: « O CO □ u a c u u THE COUNTY 89 A large part of the construction and the care of highways is generally undertaken by the county. Collection of Taxes. — A very important part of the county's work is the collecting of taxes. A tax is a sum of money charged by a government in order to meet its ex- penses. State taxes are generally collected by county officials. One of the most common taxes is the general property tax. An officer, called a county assessor, makes a list of all the taxable property in the county. The sum of money which must be raised by the property tax each year is decided upon . Then the total value of taxable property is divided into this sum in order to find the rate of taxa- tion; that is, the number of cents or mills per dollar's worth of property, which must be paid to the count3^ When the rate is found, the amount of each person's taxable property is multiplied by the rate, and the product is the tax that he must pay. The property tax is collected by the county treasurer or his assistants. A part of it is paid over to the state, and the remainder is used toward the expenses of the county. In some states city taxes also are collected by the county. Other taxes are collected in various ways. The Election Board. — When elections are to be held, whether for state, county, or township officials (and some- times for municipal officials), a county election board usu- ally manages them; that is, sees to the printing of the ballots, the securing of polling places, the counting of the ballots, and other details. The Board of Commissioners. — Many county affairs are placed in the hands of a committee, generally known as the county board or county board of commissioners. This board decides upon the construction of roads, the 90 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP appointment of various officials, and numerous other ques- tions. In some cases the county board has charge of county health work, while in others there is a special board of health. The Sheriff. — An important county offi.cial is the sheriff. He has many duties, including those of arresting lawbreak- ers, suppressing riots and disorders, taking charge of the county jail, selling the property of those who do not pay taxes or whose property is to be sold under order of a court, and enforcing various orders given by the courts. The sheriff often has assistants called deputies; and if he needs special help, he may call upon any or every citizen to aid him, and the persons thus summoned must obey. The County Clerk. — The records of county elections are often kept by a county clerk, who may also keep records of proceedings in county courts, lists of mortgages and deeds to real estate, and other valuable information. Sometimes a part of this work is done by other officers. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Why is it considered advisable to subdivide a state into counties? 2. What kinds of work are done by the counties of your own state? Ask a lawyer or a county officer to visit the class and describe all the kinds of work done by your own county. 3. What officials are placed in charge of the county work? Learn the names of' the principal officials of your own county. 4. Are the various kinds of county work performed in a satis- factory manner? Should there be improvements in any department? 5. What powers over the construction of highways does your county possess? 6. What are the powers of the board of health? Are these powers being used to the best advantage? 7. Write a report on the topic, "What my County is Doing." STATE GOVERNMENTS CHAPTER XVII THE DEVELOPMENT AND WORK OF STATE GOVERNMENTS Why the State Government Is Needed. — After seeing how many kinds of work are done by local governments, we may be inclined to wonder why state governments are necessar^^ If we think carefully, however, we shall realize that no city or county can give all the protection that may be needed, or do all the things that must be done. Con- sequently, a larger governing body, such as the state, must undertake these things. Let us consider some examples which prove this need of a state government. Suppose a business man wishes to travel from his own city to another city in the state, two hundred miles away. While he is outside the boundaries of a city, who will protect him from being attacked by robbers? Who will see that there are good roads running from one city to another? Or suppose that a family living in the country must draw drinking water from a certain stream. Who will prevent other persons from emptying sewage into that stream? Again, suppose a little homeless child is found wandering along a roadside. Who will care for him and see that he is properly educated? The authority of local governments is limited to their own territory, and it would be impossible for them to take 91 92 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP action in the cases which we have just considered. To do these various kinds of work, a division of government is needed which has authority over a larger area. In our own country, this division is the state. Why Our Country Is Divided into States. — Some coun- tries are divided into districts- of other kinds, instead of states. There is a historical reason why states exist here. As we all know, our nation was originally formed by the union of thirteen states. It seemed best that new territory, also, should be formed into states, rather than districts; so our nation is now composed of forty-eight states. Varying Sizes of the States. — Our states vary greatly in size. The state of Texas, for example, is considerably larger than the combined areas of France, Belgium, Swit- zerland, and the Netherlands; while Rhode Island is not much larger than a county in some of the large Western states. Whether small or large, the state performs many useful functions, some of which we shall examine later. Powers of the States. — Before we go further in our study of the state, we must realize that its authority has certain limits. Just as the city has no authority outside its own boundaries, so the state has no power beyond its borders. Just as the state controls the city in some respects, so the national government controls the state in some respects. Here, however, we find an important difference which we must not forget. We have seen that the state gives powers to the city, either through laws or through a charter. But the national government does not give powers to the states. This is due to the fact that the original thirteen states were in existence before the federal government was set up. As independent states, they possessed all the powers that any free nation has. DEVELOPMENT OF STATE GOVERNMENTS 93 When the people of these original states decided to set up a national government, they gave it some of their powers, but kept all the others. The powers which they gave to it were those which they thought could be exer- cised by a central government better than by individual states. For example, they gave the national government power to declare war, to provide an army and a navy, to regulate commerce among the states, and to do various other things which no state could very well undertake. All these powers were listed in the Constitution of the United States of America. In order to make sure that the national government would not take away other powers from the states, an amendment was soon added to the Con- stitution, providing that ''The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by' it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." (Amendment X.) Except in the case of powers which have been especially given to the national government or prohibited to the states, we find that states have complete authority over their own territory. New York, Ohio, Nevada, and California may set up entirely different systems of public schools, may tax different kinds of propert}^ and may have different laws in regard to the preservation of game, the rights of corporations, the compensation of workingmen for acci- dental injuries, and many other things. Though the state allows subdivisions such as the city, the township, and the county to do a good deal of work, there are many duties which the state cannot give to them and must carry on itself. In the following chapters we shall learn the most important of these duties. 94 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Why is some larger division of government than the city, or even the county, needed? 2. Explain how our states came into existence. 3. How is authority divided between the state and its subdivi- sions? How is authority divided between state and nation? Ex- plain this difference. 4. How does it happen that the laws of the various states differ so greatly? Do you consider this an advantage or a disadvantage? Explain your answer fully. CHAPTER XVIII STATE CONSTITUTIONS The Constitution as the Fundamental Law. — We have already seen that when people are to undertake any work together, they must be guided by rules and regulations. Since the people in each state of our Union are doing a great deal of work through their state governments, they have written the general plan by which this work is to be done in a document known as a state constitution. Not all the laws of the state are placed in the constitution. It is merely a kind of outline making the rules which are considered most important, or, as we usually say, containing the fundamental law. Let us see what these important rules are. The Bill of Rights. — In every state constitution we find a bill of rights. This is a list of certain rights which shall belong to all citizens and shall not be taken from them by the legislature, by a judge in court, or by any other govern- mental agent. Thus, every state constitution says that citizens shall not be deprived of the right of free speech, of the right to be tried fairly when accused of crime, of the right to hold such religious views as they see fit, and of various other rights. Officers and Departments of Government. — The organi- zation of the state government is set forth in certain sec- tions in the constitution, which name the state officers (as governor, representatives, judges of various ranks, etc.), 95 96 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP tell how they shall be chosen for office, and explain the du- ties and the powers of each. State constitutions also organ- ize subdivisions of the state, such as counties and townships. Some constitutions explain the conditions under which communities may become cities and define the powers of cities. The constitution of every state in the Union, like that of the federal government, establishes three depart- ments and divides the work of government among them. They are called the legislative, the judicial, and the exec- utive departments. We shall learn presently the mean- ing of these terms, and the work given to each department. Elections. — Besides outlining the organization of govern- ipent, the state constitutions usually provide for the way in which the people shall take part in public affairs. They name the qualifications of voters, sometimes tell what sys- tem of voting and what kind of ballot shall be used, and usually guarantee honest elections. The legislature always passes laws giving more details on all these points. Education and Social Welfare. — Most state constitu- tions contain sections providing for free public schools and other helps toward social welfare. In this case, as in many more, the details of such matters are left to the legislature. Regulation of Business. — In the earliest state constitu- tions we find no mention of the regulation of business, but in all modern ones there are sections providing for care- ful inspection and regulation of businesses of various kinds. The three business enterprises which practically every modern state constitution brings under government regu- lation are banking, insurance, and the railroad business. These are all recognized as businesses in which the public has a large interest. Many persons deposit money in sav- ings banks and pay for insurance; many persons own rail- STATE CONSTITUTIONS 97 road stocks and bonds, and nearly everyone uses railroads. For these and other reasons, state constitutions generally provide that these important kinds of business shall be carefully regulated, so that the public may receive fair treatment. Taxation. — Since the work of the government is costly, state constitutions always contain sections dealing with financial problems. In order that the legislature may not be tempted to spend too much public money, most state constitutions place a limit upon its power to raise money by taxation. Often we find in these constitutions a provision that if the state is planning to undertake some unusual piece of work, such as the building of a great system of roads or the construction of canals, which will require the expenditure of large sums, the people of the state must be given an op- portunity to vote upon the matter. If they believe that the benefits which will come to them are worth more than the extra taxes they will have to pay, they will vote in favor of the proposition; if the}' think otherwise, they will vote against it. All the regulations in regard to state finances are intended to protect the people and to keep the state government working for them and not oppressing them. Amendments of the Constitution. — It is necessary from time to time that amendments be made in state constitu- tions, and all such constitutions provide methods by which they may be amended. In most cases they require a pro- posed amendment to be passed by two successive sessions of the legislature, after which it shall be voted upon by the people of the state. Thus, no change can be made hurriedly and carelessly; and no change can be made by the legisla- ture alone without consulting the people. Under ordinary 98 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP conditions this method of making amendments works well; but as it cannot be used in an emergency, some persons think that a quicker and easier method should be used. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. What is a state constitution? Why does it not contain every law by which the people of the state are to be governed? 2. Explain the meaning of bill of rights. Give reasons why such a bill is found in state constitutions. 3. Why do our state constitutions provide for the people's part in public affairs? In a free country where the right to vote is wide- spread, why are any qualifications required before people are allowed to vote? 4. Why do our most recently established state constitutions provide for the regulation of business, while earlier ones did not? 5.' Why are restrictions placed upon the financial powers of the legislature? Why are the people permitted to vote on extraordinary expenditures? 6. Why is the amending process made difficult? Do you think it should be easier? Explain your answer. CHAPTER XIX THE STATE AND ITS WORK Division of Work between State and City. — The state and the city often undertake the same kinds of work, but thej' do not do the same things. For instance, both city and state share in the task of providing pubhc schools; but the state acts chiefly as supervisor, while the city or some other division of local government does most of the actual work. However, the state itself often provides and maintains certain special schools, such as schools for the deaf and the blind, state universities, and state agricultural colleges. This is due to the facts that very few cities could afford such schools and that the students who attend them come from all parts of the state. The state shares other kinds of work with local govern- ments in much the same way. Thus, it supervises the con- struction of highways, the care of public health, and various other tasks performed by local governments. There are some things, too, which the state alone can do, and in which the local governments have no share. Important Functions of the State. — Among the many kinds of work undertaken by the state, some of the most important are as follows: the making of laws, the regula- tion of business, the providing of education, the care of special classes, the care of public health, and the adminis- tration of justice. Of these, the first one which we shall con- sider is the making of laws. » 99 100 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP Why We Have Laws. — We saw in the first chapter of this book that, just as an athletic association has to have rules to go by, so does every government. When we try to do things together, we have to make plans for doing them. For example, when we plan to build highways, we have to plan how much money will be spent, how the money will be raised, and who will have charge of the work. In case we borrow the money by selling bonds, we must make plans for repaying the loan. If the state establishes a university, it must likewise plan how it shall be managed. Such plans are usually made in the form of laws. Laws Regarding Personal Relationships. — We can readily see that there must be many kinds of laws besides those which involve the planning of work. Let us examine some of them. In the first place, we have laws or rules regulating certain human relationships, such as marriage and divorce. Before a man and a woman can be married, the law says that they must procure a license. This is a permit from the state to get married. This permit is required in order that the state may know who is responsible for the care of any children that they may have, who is entitled to receive property in case of the death of the parents, and for various other reasons. Laws Regarding Property. — We have many laws regard- ing property rights. These laws say what kind of things shall be property, how property shall be transferred from one person to another, what evidences shall be given that property has been transferred, who shall inherit property, and how property may be bequeathed. Thus, the laws maj'^ provide that certain kinds of game or wild animals shall not be the property of any individual, even the man on whose land they are found, and that they must not be killed or captured. On the other hand, it may THE STATE AND ITS WORK 101 provide that a limited amount of certain game may be killed and shall be the property of the man who kills it; but at the same time the owner may be forbidden to sell the game, or to transfer it to another person except by giving it away. In case real estate is to be transferred, the law may require deeds to be signed by everyone concerned, so that there will be written evidence that the property has changed hands. Every state has laws regulating the making of wills, and laws naming the relatives who shall inherit property, if a person dies without leaving a will. We can easily see how necessary these property laws are. Laws Relating to Business. — Another large set of social rules or laws consists of those which help to create certain kinds of business organizations or else to regulate business. Let us examine some of these. Suppose that you deposit your money in a savings bank. You wish to know ab- solutely that you can get it again when you want it. But how do you know that the banker is not careless or dishon- ' est, so that when you ask him for your money, he will be unable to give it to you? If there were no laws regulating savings banks, this is just what might happen. Suppose, however, the state law says that no money placed in sav- ings banks can be invested by those banks in anything but United States government bonds, state bonds, or city bonds of certain sorts. Now these bonds, being backed by the whole national government, state government, or city gov- ernment, always are a good investment and always will sell for just about as much as their face value. They can always be sold very easily. Because of this regulation by the state regarding the kind of securities in which a sav- ings bank may invest, you are able to go to the bank at any time, after a few days' notice, and get your money. 102 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP Laws to Protect the Citizens.— The state makes many laws in order to protect the health, safety, and welfare of its citizens. It may pass laws, for instance, prohibit- ing the selling of impure foods or milk, and the sell- ing of goods that are of short weight. It may say that cattle affected by certain diseases shall be dipped in a certain solution in order to free them from the dis- eases. It may say that no one shall be a railroad en- gineer unless he takes an examina- An inspector of weights and measures visiting- xt i • the pubHc markets to test the correctness of the tlOn tO See tliat IllS scales and measures used. There is a heavy fine for pyps are ffOod and attempting to cheat the consumer by using faulty ^ ° ' scales. All condemned weights and measures are nO One shall prac- destroyed. ,• i- • tice medicme un- less he has taken certain studies or passed certain exam- inations. Every state has many laws defining various crimes, fel- onies, and misdemeanors, forbidding all persons to commit these acts, and fixing penalties for disobedience. In all these ways, therefore, the state passes laws for THE STATE AND ITS WORK 103 the welfare of its citizens. It is the state, much more than either the national or the local governments, that makes laws regulating the everyday lives of its citizens. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Name as many kinds of work as you can which are shared by state and local governments. Explain the reason why this is true, in each case. 2. Why are the laws of a state ordinarily more numerous and more complicated than those of a city? 3. Name several enterprises that must be planned by the state. What would be the result if these were undertaken without care- ful plans? 4. Give examples of laws in regard to property and the use of property. Why may not a person use his property exactly as he pleases? 5. Why do the laws regulate very carefully the savings bank and insurance companies, which handle the money of a great many people and promise to repay it under certain conditions? 6. Why are many crimes punished by the state rather than the city? 7. Why are many laws in regard to health, safety, and general welfare made and enforced by the state? Wliat would be the result if a city made laws in regard to contagious diseases, but no division of government made such laws to govern people living outside the city who came in on errands? tn a o o a o T3 03 a o o to > '3 o 03 > >, Si I CQ 104 CHAPTER XX EDUCATION State Supervision of Schools. — As we already know, cities and school districts have direct charge of our pubhc schools; but every state does more or less work in supervising, di- recting, and helping the local school authorities. It is rather difficult to describe this work, as it varies greatly from state to state. We may sa}-, however, that in every state we find some person or persons with authority to inspect the work of all pubhc schools, map out courses of study, require reports, and give examinations. In some cases this authority is placed in the hands of a board of education or a board of regents; in other instances it be- longs to one person, such as a state superintendent of educa- tion; while occasionally we find both a board of education and a state superintendent. County superintendents of schools are often selected to supervise the work of the school districts, examine teachers, grant certificates to those who meet requirements, and perform many similar duties. Financial Aid from the State. — In most states the local school authorities have the legal right to decide the school problems; but in order to induce them to decide in favor of progressive methods, the state often gives special financial aid to schools which maintain a certain standard of work. For example, if a school is kept open for a given number of weeks during the year, if the textbooks used are approved by the state educational authorities, if the teachers are 105 106 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP properly qualified, and if various other requirements are met, the state pays to the local school board a certain amount of money. Most local school authorities are very willing to keep their schools up to the state standard in order to secure this financial help. Opportunities for Higher and Professional Education. — Man}^ states maintain not only ordinary public schools, but normal schools, colleges, and universities, where instruction is given free of charge. State universities are more com- mon in the Western states than in the Eastern ones, owing to the fact that many long-established private colleges and universities are found in the East. The majority of state universities offer a wide variety of courses, including not only literature, science, mathematics, and languages, but many subjects which will enable stu- dents to prepare for a profession or a chosen life-work. At many of these universities students may prepare to be electrical or chemical engineers, pharmacists, dentists, physicians, or lawyers — to mention only a few possibilities. Agricultural Colleges. — A number of states maintain separate agricultural colleges, with experimental farms, herds of registered cattle, examples of improved farm ma- chinery, and the necessary buildings and apparatus for training students in every branch of modern scientific agriculture. Some of these colleges offer short courses of a few weeks arranged so that farmers can attend them at seasons when farm work is not pressing. The colleges occasionally send out lecturers and demonstrators to meet farmers who cannot spare even the few weeks needed for a short course, and to show them how to deal with a rust or a blight, how to treat certain diseases of cattle, how to test soil or seed, and various other things. Much of the wonder- EDUCATION 107 fill progress made by the American farmer since the be- ginning of the twentieth century is due to the educational work carried on by our states. Inspection of Schools. — In the various states there are many different plans for inspecting and examining schools. High schools are often inspected by officials connected with the state university, so that the university can be sure that their preparation for higher work is sufficient; while the graded schools are inspected by county or state officials. The object of inspection is to see that all schools are doing the very best work possible. School Attendance. — Many states have laws requiring the schools to remain in session annually for a definite number of weeks. In most states, also, children of specified ages are required to attend school for a certain number of days each year. Thus we find that the state is opening to every citizen the great opportunity^ of receiving an education. Almost any \x)y or girl of ambition can take advantage of this opportunity, and receive training that will mean a happy life, a useful occupation, a good income, and the power of serving state and nation as an intelligent citizen. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. What authorities are in control of the work of education in your state? What are their powers and duties? 2. What subdivisions, as counties and school districts, aid the state in its work? What officers are found in each subdivision? What are the duties of these officers? 3. Under what conditions does your state give financial aid to local school districts? ]\Iake a list of the requirements for all schools receiving such aid. Does your own school meet these re- quirements, or surpass them? 108 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP 4. What colleges, universities, and normal schools are main- tained by your state? Send for catalogues from these, and describe ■the work done by each. 5. Describe the system of school inspection used in your state. 6. What laws are in force in your state as to the attendance of children at school? Do you think that conditions in your state are such that a longer attendance should be required? Give reasons for your answer. 7. Write a report on the topic, "What my State is Doing to educate its Citizens." CHAPTER XXI CARE OF SPECIAL CLASSES Special State Institutions. — Every state maintains in- stitutions for the care of special classes of persons who are not able to care for themselves, and whose relatives are either unable to support them or unable to provide suitable conditions and proper training. In some cases these in- stitutions make no charge; in other cases they require payments from those inmates whose families are able to pay. Taking Care of the Mentally Weak. — The care of the insane is a very important part of the state's work today. Instead of being allowed to wander about the country to be the sport of heartless persons, or being chained in dark cells if they seem dangerous, as used to be the case, the insane are today kept in clean, comfortable buildings and given the best of care. They are examined by experts who try to find the cause of their mental trouble, and to re- move this cause if possible. In many cases cures are made; and even when the mental powers cannot be restored com- pletely, it is often possible to improve a patient's condition so much that he can do pleasant and useful work. Feeble-minded persons are also cared for by the state. Unlike the insane, these persons have never had good minds, but have been "foolish," as the common saying goes, all their lives. The feeble-minded are of many grades, from the person whose mind is just a little below the normal 109 no EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP standard, to the poor idiot who seems to have no mind at all. Of course it is impossible to give good minds to people born without them; but feeble-minded persons of the higher grades can often be trained to do various kinds of work which will enable them to support themselves. This makes their lives happy and saves the state a good deal of expense. Taking Care of Wayward Children. — Delinquent young persons — that is, boys and girls who have repeatedly broken the laws or perhaps even committed serious crimes — are sent to special state institutions. Here they are kept out of temptation and are trained in some useful trade or other means of self-support. How much better this is than the old-fashioned method of sending delinquent chil- dren to jail! The adult criminals there taught the children to pick pockets, snatch purses, and do all the other wrong things which they themselves practiced. This method was almost sure to turn a wayward child into a criminal, while a good industrial education will make it possible for him to earn an honest living and be a good member of society. Taking Care of Homeless Children. — Orphans, children •deserted by their parents, children whose parents are not able to rear them properly, and other children who must depend on charity for their support are often cared for in state institutions. There are still many private charitable institutions and children's homes in existence, but these are nearly all inspected and supervised by the state, to make sure that the children kept in them are receiving proper care. While children are in these homes, they are educated in the subjects taught in the regular public schools; and in many cases they attend some public school near by. They are also trained in various kinds of work, so that if they are not adopted by private families, they will be able CARE OF SPECIAL CLASSES 111 to support themselves when they become too old to remain in the institutions. The Care of Tubercular Patients. — Many states are now undertaking the care of persons afflicted with certain dis- eases which have proved to be dangerous to the public The men in this picture served in the army during the World War and were wounded or otherwise disabled. They are being trained to operate linotype machines. health. A vigorous campaign has been carried on every- where to educate the public in fighting tuberculosis, and in many states public sanatoria have been built especially for tubercular patients. Like many other state institu- tions, these generally ask fees from those who are able to p&y, but admit poor persons free of charge. Here the most desirable sanitary conditions, the most suitable food. 112 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP and the best of care are provided, and the medical attention and the nursing are of the highest order. These institutions have saved many Hves directly, and have helped indirectly to save many more by the educational effect which they have had in proving that tuberculosis can be cured by right methods of treatment. Helping the Handicapped. — Most states have special institutions where the blind, the deaf, the crippled, and other persons with some defect may be educated and trained. Modern science has devised many ways of teach- ing them, until now they are not only educated like other persons, but are trained to earn their livings. After the deaf have been taught to speak and to understand lip- reading, they can enter many different occupations. The blind learn weaving, wood-carving, certain kinds of metal- work, and many other things. Cripples learn whatever their individual cases will permit. During the World War, many new methods were devised for training injured men, and since the war much valuable work has been done by various states, as well as by the federal government, in the work of teaching them trades and occupations. Some states have other institutions for special classes of persons, such as homes for old soldiers. Every state in the Union undertakes the care of some of the special classes which we have just examined, and thus prevents much suffering and does a great deal of good. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Explain the difference between insanity and feeble-minded- ness. What kind of treatment is needed in each case? 2. Why is it usually the state that cares for the insane and the feeble-minded? What institutions for the care of such persons are CARE OF SPECIAL CLASSES 113 maintained by your state? What can you learn of the work of these institutions? 3. Name your state institutions for the care of dehnquent children. What kinds of training are given in these? What is the value of such institutions? 4. Does your state maintain a home for the care of orphans and other dependent children? Does it inspect private institu- tions maintained for this purpose? What legal requirements are made of all institutions that care for children? What training is given the children? 5. Are any institutions for the cure of tuberculosis and the train- ing of handicapped persons maintained l)y your state? Find out as much as possible about the work of these institutions. 6. Do state institutions for the care of special classes of persons benefit you and other citizens, as well as the imiiates? Explain your answer CHAPTER XXII PUBLIC HEALTH Advance in Public Health Work. — If we were able to look back upon the work of the state a hundred years ago, we should see that at that time it did very little for its citizens compared to what it is doing today. This is par- ticularly true in regard to health. A century ago nothing was known about germs, and people did not know that most diseases can be prevented. Today, however, we know that all such diseases as smallpox, typhoid fever, diphtheria, and tuberculosis are caused by germs. If we can keep these germs from entering into people's systems, we have to a large extent prevented disease. To prevent dangerous germs from spreading and to keep people from coming into contact with them, requires great vigilance on the part of the state, for these germs come to people in many different ways. Typhoid germs may be spread, for instance, by impure milk, impure water, or food which has become contaminated by them. Other germs may be spread in different ways. The problem of the state is to see to it that food, milk, and water are pure, and that persons who have contagious diseases do not pass on the germs to other people. Protection of the Water Supply. — A good deal of this work of protecting health is done by cities, as we have seen; but their authority is not sufficient to meet all needs. For example, a city cannot prevent persons who live out in the 114 PUBLIC HEALTH 115 country from throwing sewage and garbage into the stream from which the city's drinking water is drawn; nor can it prevent persons who have smahpox or scarlet fever from handhng apples, potatoes, or other articles of food which are to be shipped into the city. The state, however, has the power to regulate all such dangerous practices. In order to protect people from the germs that come from an impure water supply, the states are now beginning to regulate the use of all the streams of the state in order to keep them pure. Some of the states, for instance, will not let sewage or other impurities be dumped into their rivers. Some of them are seeing that the stagnant waters of the state are drained so that they will not furnish a good breeding place for mos- quitoes, which are known to carry the germs of malaria and other diseases. Some states also provide that, before any town or city can establish a water supply or increase its water supply, it must first consult the state board of health. Protection of the Food Supply. — States are also taking measures to protect the food supply. It has been found out that in many instances foods have been adulterated, or harmful preservatives have been added to them. Many states are passing laws which require all those who manu- facture food or who deal in food to be licensed. The state also lays down certain standards of purity for food and requires all food manufactured or sold to come up to these standards. In case any dealer does not comply with the law, his license is revoked. Prevention of Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis has been called ''the Great White Plague." Thousands of persons in each state have been dying from this one disease each year. At last the states are awakening to the fact that 116 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP tuberculosis is a disease that is not only curable but also preventable. We have found that there are several condi- tions which tend to cause tuberculosis, and that by prevent- ing these conditions we can to a large extent prevent the disease. The victims of tuberculosis suffer from this dis- ease largely because of overcrowding in houses without sufficient fresh air and light, working at such occupations as The dust shed by these grinding and polishing wheels is carried into the hoods and away through the pipes, so that the workers do not breathe it. marble-cutting, where dust is continually breathed, in- sufficient clothing and food, and lack of cleanliness. There are several ways in which the state can prevent tuberculosis. It can carry out an educational campaign, showing the causes of this disease and the methods of curing it. It can demand that houses and factories be built in such a way that there shall be plenty of light for each person, and that these places shall not be overcrowded. It may also PUBLIC HEALTH 117 demand sufficient ventilation in all houses and factories. IMuch can be done by educating the people to a greater degree of cleanliness. Work of the State Health Authorities. — State boards of health are found in most states. In some the state health activities are intrusted to a commissioner of health or to both a board and a commissioner. In certain states the state health authorities may request and advise, but not compel, the local boards of health to do various things, siich as to quarantine certain diseases, to send samples of drinking water for examination, and to enforce sanitary regulations. In other cases the state health authorities are given the power to compel obedience, so that no ignorant or obstinate local board of health can interfere with the w'elfare of all the people of the state. State health authorities do man}^ things besides those which we have named. In case an epidemic occurs, it is their duty to use every possible method of stamping it out. They usually do a great deal of educational work, such as publishing pamphlets and newspaper articles on sanitation and the prevention of disease. Sometimes they distribute vaccine serum and other serums and antitoxins, regulate all dairies and slaughter-houses to insure cleanliness, and carry on research into the methods of curing certain dis- eases. We can easily see how valuable this work is and how much illness and suffering are saved to the people of a state by the activities of the state health authorities. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Explain how germs cause disease. 2. Why has our knowledge of germs led to new methods of fighting diseases, and new care and precaution in regard to their spread? 118 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP 3. Explain how flies and mosquitoes spread disease. 4. Mention ways in which drinking water may become con- taminated. 5. Is your state taking any measures to exterminate flies and mosquitoes? 6. What state laws regulate the water supply of cities and towns? 7. What laws in regard to purity of food are in force in your state? What officers enforce these laws? What powers and duties have they? 8. Is your state taking any active measures for the prevention of tuberculosis? If so, describe these. 9. How is your state board of health organized? What are its chief activities and duties? 10. What has the state board of health done recently to improve the public health or to stamp out disease? CHAPTER XXIII THE JUDICIAL POWER OF THE STATE The Old Method of Punishing Criminals. — One of the most important branches of the state's work is the adminis- tration of justice; that is, the fair settlement of legal dis- putes, the protection of citizens against fraud, the punish- ment of criminals, and similar matters. In olden times many crimes were punished by the injured person or his relatives. The punishments were often excessively severe. The relatives of the criminal would defend him and seek for vengeance upon the family which had punished him. Thus the two families would become bitter enemies, and often their quarrels would be taken up by their friends, so that disorder and murder would be common. In all the more civilized parts of the world it is now seen that such a state of affairs is very objectionable, as it means that one crime leads to another, year after year. Advantages in Punishment by the Government. — It has been found much better to give over to governments the power to punish crime. There are several reasons why this is an improvement on the old system. The punishments are more likely to be fair when they are laid down by law . than when they are planned by the injured person. Since the judge and the jury are not friends or enemies of either vside, and their decision is impartial, there is no excuse for undertaking a quarrel with them and committing more crimes. The criminal is sure of having his side of the story 119 120 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP heard in court; and in case a person is falsely accused, he has the opportunity to prove his innocence. Judges and official trials have existed from early times, but they were often ignored by persons who preferred private vengeance. Today, however, all modern governments have complete power to deal with lawbreakers, and a person who commits a crime of vengeance is punished for it. The result is that we have much more order and safety than formerly. The Judicial Power of the States. — In the United States most crimes are punished by the individual states. Treason and certain other crimes against the nation are punished by the federal government, but it cannot undertake the work of doing justice in every case of lawbreaking in this great country. As we already know, minor violations of law are punished by the city; but it is the state which punishes for murder, arson, burglary, forgery, and many other offenses. A man who commits such a crime is con- sidered to be a dangerous person to everyone in the state; therefore, the state inflicts the penalty for his offense. Other reasons why the state, rather than the city, does this work are as follows : some crimes are committed outside of cities ; few cities could afford to maintain prisons suitable for the retention and training of men who must remain in them for long periods of time, particularly as only a few persons would occupy the prisons; one ihan may rob banks or com- mit other crimes in several different cities, and the best way to p:mish him is to place him in the hands of the state. The authority to try offenders, punish crime, and decide legal disputes justly, is known as the judicial power. The state exercises its judicial power by means of a system of courts. It permits cities, villages, and other subdivisions to take over some of the work of doing justice by establish- THE JUDICIAL POWER OF THE STATE 121 ing courts for the trial of unimportant cases, as we have seen. Justices of the Peace and Municipal Courts. — The lowest court is held by a justice of the peace, who decides disputes The judge who conducts the trial is seated at the raised desk. The jury in their "box " at the left of the picture are listening to the examination of witnesses. over small amounts or tries persons accused of petty of- fenses. Thus, if the man renting your father's house will not pay his rent for the month, the case may be brought before the justice of the peace. If a boy steals your watch, he might be brought to this court for trial. In large cities there are often established two courts that do the ordinary work of the justice of the peace. One of these municipal courts may hear civil cases, or cases in which only property or money is involved; while the other may hear the cases 122 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP of persons accused of petty stealing, fighting, spitting on the sidewalk, and like offenses. County Courts. — In most states, also, there are county -courts; that is, courts that hear and decide certain cases arising in the county. They, as a rule, hear cases of more importance than the cases tried in the courts of the justice of the peace or the municipal courts. Questions involving larger sums of money or more serious offenses are brought before them. In many instances they hear appeals from the lower courts; that is, if one of the parties beheves that he did not secure justice in the court of the justice of the peace, or in the municipal court, he may have the case tried in the higher court. District Courts and the Supreme Court. — In many states there is a district, superior, or circuit court, which may try cases involving an}^ amount of money or any crime. The judges of these courts may be elected from larger districts than the county. They hold terms of court in the different parts of the state at different times of the year. At the head of our state judicial system stands, as a rule, some supreme court or court of last resort. It deals pri- marily with appeals from the lower courts. Its decisions are final. Special Courts. — In many states other courts are organ- ized for special purposes, such as children's courts that deal with wrongdoing by children. We also have probate or surrogate courts that settle the affairs of people who have died. Trial by Jury. — According to both custom and law, anyone accused of serious offenses has the right to be tried by a jury. A jury is a group of persons, usually twelve in number, who decide whether or not the prisoner's guilt is THE JUDICIAL POWER OF THE STATE 123 proved. Each prisoner is entitled to appear in court before the judge and the jury, to tell his side of the case, to pro- duce witnesses in his defense, to hear the witnesses against him, and to have the advice and help of a lawyer. The case against the prisoner is conducted by an officer known as a The lesson on the blackboard sliuws that these prisoners cannot read and write. An education might have helped to keep them out of jail; and it is hoped that they may learn enough here so that after their release they will earn their living in honest ways. prosecuting attorney. He explains to the jury the reasons why the prisoner has been brought to trial, and calls wit- nesses to give evidence against him. Of course, the prison- er's lawyer tries by means of argument and witnesses to prove the man's innocence. After both sides have completed their evidence and argu- ments, the judge explains to the jury what points they should consider in making their decision, and tells them 124 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP about the law in regard to the case before them. The jury are then taken to a private room, where they decide upon their verdict. If it is "guilty," the judge pronounces sentence; that is, tells the prisoner what his punishment is to be. The Legal Penalty for Crime. — In giving sentence, the judge is always guided by law. For example, the law may say that a certain minor offense shall be punished by a fine of not less than fifty dollars nor more than one hundred and fifty dollars; or that a greater crime shall be punished by imprisonment of not less than two years nor more than five years. The judge cannot give sentences outside these limits. If the prisoner has never committed a crime before, the judge will probably give the lightest sentence permitted by law; if the prisoner is an old offender, the judge will probably give the heaviest legal penalty; but it is the law, rather than the judge's own feelings, by which he is guided. This is much better than permitting the judge to impose any penalty of which he might happen to think, as it pre- vents easy-going judges from allowing criminals to go almost unpunished, while at the same time it prevents those of severe nature from imposing unfairly heavy penalties. Some civil cases — that is, disputes about property or money — are also tried before a jury; but very minor cases, both civil and criminal, are tried by the judge alone. The County Jail and the State Prison. — When it is con- sidered necessary to imprison a person as a penalty for crime, he is sent to either a county jail or a state prison, according to the nature of his ofTense and the length of his imprison- ment. The county jail is managed by local authorities, but it is really a part of the state system of penal institutions; for, THE JUDICLIL POWER OF THE STATE 125 as we have already learned, the county is in many respects acting for the state. As persons are sent to county jails for short terms, not much attempt is made to educate or train the prisoners in these institutions. In most state prisons, however, where the inmates are serving long terms, edu- cational work is undertaken. The idea is spreading rapidly that it will benefit not only the inmates of the prisons, but society in general, to place each prisoner in a position to earn an honest living when he is discharged. In many state prisons, classes are held for the benefit of those whose educa- tion has been neglected, useful trades are taught, and every encouragement is given the prisoners to resolve upon leading honest lives after their release. Much has already been done in this direction, and more is being accomplished every year. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Why is it necessary that criminals shall be punished? 2. What is the difference between punishment and revenge? 3. Why is the punishment of wrongdoers more likely to be just when administered by public officials than when left to pri\'ate individuals? What do you mean by just punishment? 4. Whj' do the states, rather than cities or the federal govern- ment, punish most persons guilty of serious crimes? 5. What is a court? What is a trial? 6. Why should a person accused of wrongdoing be given a trial? 7. Why is a person tried even if he confesses that he has com- mitted the crime of which he is accused? 8. Why are several courts of various grades needed? 9. Why should persons sometimes be permitted to appeal from the decision of one court to a higher court? 10. What is a jury? Why are most important cases tried with the help of a jury, instead of being left to the judge alone? 11. Why are most up-to-date prisons introducing educational work? What should be the objects of sending a man to prison? What kind of treatment is most likely to help a criminal to reform? CHAPTER XXIV THE LEGISLATIVE POWER OF THE STATE The Lawmaking Body. — In every governmental organ- ization there must be some person or persons with authority to make the rules and regulations, or laws. In all the state governments in the United States the bodies, or groups of people, that do this work are called legislatures. The legis- lature in each state is chosen by the people and given the power and right to make all rules and regulations for the state. This authority is called the legislative power. The laws made by a state legislature must not conflict with the national Constitution, with federal laws and treaties, or with the state constitution. Except for these limitations, the legislature can make all the laws that are necessary for the health, safety, protection, and welfare of the people of the state. The Two Houses of the Legislature. — In every state of the Union the legislature is composed of two branches. One of these, known as the lower house, is usually called the house of representatives, or the assembly; while the other, or the upper house, is usually called the senate. As a rule the lower house is much larger than the upper, consisting of from fifty to one hundred and fifty members; while the upper house consists of only about thirty to fifty members. Ordinarily the members of the lower house are about three times as numerous as those of the upper house. The mem- bers of the lower house are elected from smaller districts 126 THE LEGISLATIVE POW^R OF THE STATE 127 than the members of the upper house. The result is that usually the upper house is composed of persons of more abihty than the lower house; for as a rule the larger the district from which a man is chosen, the better will be the man, as the voters have a wider choice. In many states, also, the senators have longer terms than the representatives. It is these differences that make the upper house generally more powerful than the lower house. Reasons for a Two-House Legislature. — If we should ask the reason for having two houses of the legislature instead of one, the reply would be that it is largely historical. When the state constitutions were adopted, many men believed that if there were only one house, the great majoritj^ of the people, being without property or land, would elect rep- resentatives who might injure the property rights of the wealthy. They wished, therefore, to have an upper house composed chiefly of large property owners, in order to keep the multitude of the common people from exercising too much power. In this way the lower house would represent the majority of the people, while the upper house would represent the minority. Many also believed that if only representatives from the common people were elected to office, they would pass much legislation that was hasty and not well considered; while if all laws had to be passed by two houses, they would be thoroughly discussed and care- fully framed. Many people today believe that, since it has been shown that the representatives of the people do not violate the rights of the wealthy, and since having two houses causes slowness and lack of responsibility for the making of good laws, it is best to have a one-house legislature. However, no state has as yet established such a legislature. 128 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP Election of Representatives. — The members of both houses of the legislature are chosen by the people. In most states one or more members of the lower house are elected by the people of each county. In many states the members of the upper house, or the senate, are chosen from larger districts, usually composed of several counties. In all cases the people vote directly for those who represent them. Whether or not we have good government in our states, therefore, depends to a large degree upon the in- telligence of the people in choosing these representatives. If the people are able to choose good, honest, and capable men, the affairs of the states will be carried out in the right way. If they choose bad men or men without ability, the work of the state government, which we must always remember is a part of our own work, will suffer. It is the duty of each citizen, before he votes, to look up the record of each candidate who is running for the legislature in order to find out who is most likely to serve the people well. The Presiding Officer. — Just as it is impossible for a roomful of people to make plans when all are talking at once, so likewise it is impossible for the legislature. Every legislature, therefore, has its own rules and regulations, telling how it shall carry on business. In order that every- one shall not talk at once, and that order may be preserved, each house of the legislature has a presiding officer. This officer is usually called the speaker. The speaker has a good deal of power, as he has the right to recognize a member who desires to speak; that is, to allow him to address the house. He d,lso has considerable power in appointing com- mittees. Standing Committees. — Besides having rules stating who shall speak and how he shall speak, it is also necessary THE LEGISLATIVE POWER OF THE STATE 129 to divide the work that such a large body must do. The members of the legislature must plan for the collection of money; they must plan for expending money; they must plan for the making of laws on very many subjects. It is almost impossible for every member to make a deep and careful study of every problem that comes before the legislature, as some of the more important problems demand weeks of investigation. Therefore it is customary to appoint standing committees, each of which is to study certain problems and report to the entire house the results of its investigation. The recommendations of the committee are usually considered and discussed by the legislature before the final vote is taken. The Initiative. — About half the states in our Union pro- vide some means of permitting the people to take a direct part in lawmaking, instead of leaving this function entirel}^ to the legislature. In some states the people have the power known as the initiative; that is, the right to begin lawmak- ing, by obtaining a certain number of signatures to a pro- posed law or constitutional amendment. When the requi- site signatures are obtained, the legislature must vote upon the measure, or the people must be given the oppor- tunity to vote upon it at an election, according to the laws of the particular state. The Referendum. — The referendum is the right enjoj-ed by the people in some states to have bills, or proposed laws, referred to them for approval, after being passed by the legislature. The exact circumstances under which this is done vary from state to state. In most states where the referendum exists, if a certain number of voters sign a petition asking that the people be given an opportunity to vote upon a measure before it actually becomes law, an 130 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP election must be held; and if the measure is defeated in this election, it fails to become law. The initiative thus gives the people an opportunity to secure desirable laws, and the referendum enables them to protect themselves from undesirable ones. As we have already learned, the referendum is found in practically every state in regard to constitutional amendments and unusual expenditures, but it is not so widespread in regard to ordi- nary legislation. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. What is legislative power? Why is it essential that all divi- sions of government shall possess this power? What is a legislature? 2. What are the exact titles of the upper and the lower houses of your state legislature? How many members are elected to each house? Name the members of these houses who represent the part of the state Avhere you live. 3. Explain why the two-house legislature is common in the United States. 4. When did your state legislature hold its latest session? Name some important measures passed by it. Was there general satis- faction with its work? If not, who are to blame? Explain your answer. 5. Why is a great deal of the work of legislatures done by com- mittees? Why is not every measure fullj^ discussed by the entire legislature? 6. What are the powers of the speaker? What principles should guide him in appointing committees? 7. Explain initiative and referendum. What is the value of each? Could either of these rights be misused? Explain. CHAPTER XXV THE EXECUTIVE POWER OF THE STATE Enforcing the Laws. — Laws would be of little use unless there were some person or body of persons to enforce them. For instance, there would be no use in making a law that the schools should be in session eight months in the year, unless somebody were made responsible for carrying on the schools. Those people in any government who carry out the laws are called executives. Most of the state constitu- tions provide that the governor of the state shall be the chief executive; that is, the one to whom the people must look to see that the laws of the state are carried out. Work- ing with him, there are several other state officials who help him enforce the laws. Qualifications of the Governor. — In each state in the Union we have a governor, who is always elected by the people. He is considered responsible for the enforcing of the laws of the state. Many states prescribe certain quali- fications for this office, among which are citizenship in the state, sometimes a certain length of residence in the state, and often a requirement as to age. Except in a very few states, there are no property qualifications. The Governor's Influence on Legislation. — The governor has a considerable amount of power, as a rule. Though he has no direct influence in the making of laws, his indirect in- fluence is large. Often he is the leader of his political party in the state, and so the members of the legislature more or less follow him. He has a right to make recommendations 131 132 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP to the legislature, and these are likely to be adopted by the party leaders in the legislature and made into laws. In all the states except one, the governor has the power of vetoing laws; that is, he has the power to withhold his consent to any bill that the legislature may pass. In case he does this, the bill does not become law unless passed again by a two-thirds vote of both houses. Because the governor has this power, he may keep bills from being con- sidered, or from being passed, by a threat to veto them. The governor also has power, under certain circumstances, to call a special session of the legislature to consider meas- ures that he deems important. As the measures are thus forced on the attention of the members of the legislature and they can consider no others at a special session, the governor is often able to secure legislation in this way. Thus, we see that a good deal of power in planning the work of the state and its laws is in the hands of the governor. Since he is elected by the people of all the state instead of only a small district, they naturally look to him as the one to determine, to a large extent, the plans of the state. The Power of Appointment. — The governor's power of appointment gives him great influence. He has man}' boards, commissions, and officers to appoint. In many states he appoints the members of the board of health, the board of agriculture, the board of parole, the prison com- mission, and various other officers. The power of appoint- ment and removal of officers gives him a certain control over the administration of these departments, for an officer is likely to consider the wishes of the person who appoints him and can remove him. The Governor's Military Power. — The governor in every state is the commander in chief of the state militia, except THE EXECUTIVE POWER OF THE STATE 133 in time of actual war; and as such, he has large powers in putting down riots, insurrections, and disturbances. In case of war or insurrection within the boundaries of the United States, or in case military power is needed to enforce its laws, Congress may call state militia to the aid of the federal government. (Constitution of the United States, Article I, Section 8, paragraph 15.) This was done in 1916, when troops were sent to the Mexican border. The Pardoning Power. — To the governor belongs the rather important power of pardoning those who have been convicted of crime, if in his opinion there is some good reason for giving them lenient treatment. Other Executive Officers. — The governor, of course, is not the only state executive officer. There are many chairmen of boards and commissions, and numerous other executive and administrative officers, such as the secretary of state, the attorney general, the state treasurer, and the state superintendent of public instruction, each of whom is placed in charge of certain branches of the state's work. It is not necessary for us to consider the duties of these officers, as we have already learned something of the work done by their departments. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. What is an executive? What is executive power? Who is the chief executive of each of our states? 2. Explain how the governor can influence the making of laws, even though he has no direct legislative power. What is meant by a veto? How does the governor's veto power help him in in- fluencing legislation? 3. Why do most states give the governor power to appoint the heads of executive boards? 4. Under what conditions may a governor call out the state militia? When does it pass out of his command? CHAPTER XXVI i A STATE FINANCES Sources of State Revenue. — We have seen in former chapters that the state carries out a great many activities. Each of these activities evidently requires the expenditure of money. Where do the states get the money to do all this work? If we examined the financial systems of all the states, we should see that there are many different sources from which money may be obtained. A state like New York, for instance, may raise large sums by charging a small amount on each sale of stock. A state like Oklahoma, which has vast stores of oil, zinc, and other metals, may levy a small tax on each dollar's worth of oil or zinc produced. But most of the states have the same sources, though they have some special ways of collecting revenue; that is, raising money toward the expenses of government. Property Tax. — By far the largest amount of state revenue is derived from the general property tax. This tax usually consists of a certain number of cents or mills on the dollar to be paid for each dollar's worth of property in the state. Thus, if a man has ten thousand dollars' worth of land, buildings, horses, cows, and furniture, and the state tax is one cent on every dollar of valuation, he would pay one hundred dollars in taxes to the state. Often the state exempts a certain amount of property from taxation; as a rule, about three hundred dollars' worth. We generally consider that persons who have less 134 STATE FINANCES 135 than this amount of property are hardly able to pay taxes. Certain charitable, educational, and religious institutions are often excused from paying the general property tax. Income Tax. — A number of states obtain a part of their revenues by taxing the incomes of their citizens. Ex- emptions are always made, so that the tax is borne by those best able to pay. Inheritance Tax. — Another source of revenue that is being used by some states is the inheritance tax. This is a tax levied upon property that passes to others after the death of the person owning it. In some cases, if the amount transferred is small, the tax is very light, but it rises as the amount of the property transferred increases. The law may provide, for instance, that no tax at all shall be levied upon an inheritance of less than five thousand dollars, which goes to a near relative. On larger amounts a tax of one, two, three, or four per cent may be levied, according to the size of the inheritance and the relationship of the heir to the person who has left the estate. Taxes on Corporations. — Many states secure revenue from corporations. Some of them charge all companies organized in the state an organization tax, or a tax upon the right to do business as a corporation. Some states charge corporations organized in other states a license tax for the privilege of doing business within their borders. There is also, in some states, a tax on the right that is given a corporation to use streets and public highways. Poll Tax. — In several states the government receives some revenue from the poll tax, which is a small tax, usu- ally a dollar or so, upon each individual or each male in- habitant in the state between certain ages. Income from Property and Service. — Nearly all states 136 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP receive some income from public property, such as the sale or renting of lands, or the collection of tolls for the use of canals, and from charges for services furnished by the state. Income from Fines and License Fees. — All states obtain money from fines and penalties of various sorts. Many receive considerable revenue from charging license fees for the use of automobiles, for permission to hunt game, and for other privileges. Restrictions on Expenditures. — The state legislature is the body charged with planning how the state's money shall be spent. Nearly all states provide some restrictions upon the amount of money that the legislature may appropriate. Many of them also require a vote of the people for large expenditures of money, such as are needed for the building of highways and canals. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Since the work of the state is carried on for the public wel- fare, who should pay for this work? 2. How does the state obtain money to pay its expenses? Why does it exempt certain persons and institutions from taxation? 3. Name the principal kinds of taxes levied by the state. 4. Secure the latest report of your state treasurer, and see if you can discover sources of revenue which have not l^een discussed in the text. Which of these might be used in every state? Which of them depend on certain local conditions? 5. Why do most state constitutions limit the authority of the legislature to expend money? 6. Why is it customary to call for a popular vote when large sums are to be expended? THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT CHAPTER XXVII THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT Why a National Government Is Needed. — We saw in Chapter III that city governments are not large enough units to carry out some important kinds of work that we must do collectively, such as building and repairing high- ways, furnishing protection to the citizens traveling over the state, and giving justice to all citizens. If we think a moment, we can easily see that even the state government is not a large enough unit to look after all our interests. Let us consider why this is so. Suppose you were an orange grower in California and wished to ship oranges to Chicago or New York. If each state had a right to charge you for letting the oranges pass through its territory — as it would have, if the states were not united into a nation — you can easily see that by the time you had paid all these charges you would have to ask such a high price for your oranges that no one would wish to purchase them. Or suppose that a railway company wished to build a line from New York to San Francisco and found that two or three of the states, which the line must cross, would not let the railroad go through their territory. You can readily see what difficult}^ might be experienced. National Control of Commerce. — Let us imagine again that we had no national government and that each state 137 138 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP could do as it pleased in every way. Texas might charge citizens of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Colorado such high tariffs on all wheat or oil shipped from the port of Galveston to Europe that it would not be profitable to raise wheat or to produce oil. Probably if Texas tried to do this, the other three states would unite, form an army, and try to secure a port on the Gulf of Mexico in order to be free from paying this tariff. We can see that if the complete control of com- merce were left to state governments, they would continu- ally be fighting one another. As it is, however, the national government guarantees that all goods may be shipped be- tween states without any duty or charge whatsoever. The result is that one of the main causes of warfare between the states is removed. National Protection against Enemies. — If we had forty- eight states all jealous of one another and quarrehng with one another, we can see how easily any one state might be defeated by a European nation or any other nation. If Texas had to depend entirely on herself for protection against Mexico and also had hostile states on her north, she would continually be fearing for her safety. As it is now, with all the states working together for their protection through the national government, it would be almost im- possible for any nation to defeat us. From these few illustrations it is evident that we need a national government. The First Union of the States. — As all of us know who have studied history, the first union of the states took place in 1777, when the Continental Congress adopted the "Ar- ticles of Confederation and Perpetual Union." By this step the thirteen colonies entered into a rather loose union or confederation. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 139 Financial Weakness. — This confederation soon proved too weak to do the things that the people considered a national government should do. One reason for its weak- ness was the fact that Congress had to depend on the states for money instead of collecting it in the form of taxes from individuals. As the states were careless and slow in making payment, and Congress had no way of forcing them to do better, the national government soon found that it was unable to pay its debts or carry on its work; for a government, like a person, cannot work without money. Commercial Rivalry. — There was also much commercial rivalry among the states. Each state was trying to levy high tariffs or importation duties on the goods of every other state. This resulted in much bad feeling between the states, and there was even danger that they might go to war with one another for these reasons. Since the national govern- ment did not have sufficient control over commerce, it could not remedy this bad situation. Weakness in Foreign Relations.— The foreign commerce of the states was equally bad. England and other European countries did not respect the states or believe in their power, and so levied high tariffs against them. Because the states were weak and were quarreling among themselves, they could not retaliate. Weakness in Defense. — The nation was also unable to protect itself from danger from foreign aggression. It could not collect enough money to prepare for defense, and it had to depend on jealous states for its supply of troops. It had no power itself, such as the national government has today, to say to each man, "You are needed in the army." Before it could get any men, it had to secure the consent of the states. 140 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP The Constitutional Convention. — These and other reasons made the patriotic and thoughtful men of the country de- termine to amend and change the Articles of Confederation in such a way that the national government would have more power. Several times the question of making such changes was suggested. Finally at a convention at Annapolis in 1786, called to make an agreement regarding the navigation of the Potomac, Alexander Hamilton of New York suggested that all the states send representatives to a convention to be held in Philadelphia for the purpose of giving more power to the national government. All the states except Rhode Island responded to this call and sent delegates. Among these delegates were many of the famous men of the country, including George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris, Edmund Randolph, and Alexander Hamilton. Many of them had had training in government and prac- tical administration. Several, in fact, had been governors of their own states or had taken some other part in public life. It is rather interesting to note that although a college education was a rare thing in those days, more than one half the members of the convention were college graduates. Adoption of the Constitution. — After holding sessions from May to September, this convention completed a Con- stitution, which was submitted to the states for ratification. It was provided by the convention that as soon as nine of the states had ratified the Constitution it should go into effect. The required number of states had ratified it by the midsummer of 1788, and the other four states gave their consent later. By this Constitution powers were given to the national government which remedied the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 141 The Growing Power of the National Government. — When the government of the United States under the C'onstitution was first established, there were many who behoved that it would not be a success. Many more beheved that the state governments would continue to be stronger than the na- tional government. Neither of these predictions, however, has proved true, for during every year from its beginning until the present time the power of the national govern- ment has been steadily growing. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Of what value is our national government in keeping peace among the states? 2. What is its value in protecting us from foreign enemies? 3. How does the national government help to make travel and commerce easy and safe? 4. What were the Articles of Confederation? What were the chief defects and weaknesses of these Articles? What were the relations of the states to one another at this time? 5. Describe the convention at which our present federal Con- stitution was adopted. \Yhat kind of men composed this con- vention? 6. What was the chief difference between the new Constitution and the old Articles of Confederation? CHAPTER XXVIII WHAT THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT DOES National Welfare. — The national government carries out so many different kinds of work that it is impossible in this book to describe any but the most important. We shall see, in examining our national government, that it works for the welfare of the citizens at large, instead of for those in only a small community. Foreign Relations and Commerce. — In the first place, the national government rather than the state government has complete control over all dealings of the United States with other countries. It is the national government that declares war and makes peace with other nations. Only the national government has the right to maintain an army and a navy. All regulation of foreign commerce is in the hands of the national government. If certain goods are not allowed to come in from a foreign country, it is the national govern- ment that acts in this matter rather than the state govern- ments. Also, if it is decided to make a charge for letting goods come in from a foreign country, the regulation of this charge is left to the national government. Coining Money. — The national government is given control over all currency used in the country. It alone has the right to coin money. Interstate Commerce. — All commerce between the states is regulated by the national government. It is therefore the national government, and not the state, which regulates the rates the railways shall charge between two cities in different states. 142 WHAT THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT DOES 143 Immigration and Naturalization. — The national govern- ment determines what people may come into the United States from foreign countries, and what people cannot come. The Mint at Philadclpliia. Here gold, silver, and nickel are made into coins and stamped with the designs that distinguish the coins of the United States. It also says who may become a citizen of the United States. Postal Service. — The post offices and post roads are under the control of the national government. In con- nection with the Post Office Department, it conducts the parcel post system and the postal savings bank. These are only a few of the many important services which the government of the United States performs for its citizens. In the following chapters we shall examine some of them in more detail. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. What is the principal difference between the work of the national government and the work of a state or a city government? 2. Name some of the powers of the national government. Why has each of these powers been given to it, rather than to the states? CHAPTER XXIX PUBLIC DEFENSE National Control of Army and Navy. — It is easy for us to see why public defense should be a national function rather than a function carried out by the states. It is much less expensive to have one large army than to have forty- eight armies, one in each state. It is much more efficient to have the whole army under one command rather than under many commands. This was shown in the World War, when the command of all the allied armies was in- trusted to General Foch. If the states are not allowed to keep armies, there is much less danger that they will fight among themselves. The same reasons and others might be given for letting the national government alone control the navy. Military Powers of Congress. — The lawmaking body of the United States, the Congress, is given not only the very important power of declaring war, but also the power of raising and supporting armies. This power is without any limitation, except that Congress shall make no appropria- tions of money for this purpose for a longer term than two years. The Regular Army. — It has never been the policy of the United States to maintain a large standing army, after the example of many European nations. She has relied, in case of emergency, upon the militia of the several states and upon volunteers; and in case of prolonged war she has drafted men into service. 144 PUBLIC DEFENSE 145 The regular army has always been recruited by volunteers and has always been rather small. In Washington's term of office as President it contained only about 5000 men. During the Civil War, Congress authorized the increase of the standing army to 35,000 men, and during the Spanish- American War it was increased to 65,000. By a provision of the National Defense Act of 1916 the army was increased to 207,000. The present tendency is to decrease its size, and in June, 1921, an act was passed reducing the number of enlisted men to 150,000. The Power to Support Armies. — Under its power to support armies. Congress may carry on many functions. During the World War, by virtue of this power Congress established the systems of food and fuel administration; officers' training schools were established in most of the colleges and universities of the United States; the regu- lation of health and disease was undertaken in the cities near training camps; and railroad lines were built in France. In fact, during a great war Congress can bend every energy of the country toward the winning of that war. Control of the Army. — At the head of the army and the navy is the President of the United States, who has general supervision and control over all military and naval activi- ties. Directly under him is the Secretary of War, who has charge of the organization, equipment, and control of the army. The Secretary of War is a civilian who is appointed by the President. We can thus see that, although the army is powerful, it is always under the control of the people, for it is raised and supported by Congress, the power to declare war rests with Congress alone, and the army is directly under the command of the President. Development of the Navy. — The navy of today really 146 PUBLIC DEFENSE 147 began in 1885, when a complete reorganization of the Navy Department took place. Some years later, the Spanish- American War showed us the importance of a large navy, and since that period our naval program has steadily been growing, until at the opening of the World War ours stood third in the navies of the world. It has been rapidly de- veloped until now only Great Britain has a larger navy. In order to prevent naval development from becoming too great a burden upon our people and a menace to world- peace, the United States has inaugurated a movement for reducing the naval strength of the greatest sea-powers. We shall learn more of this in Chapter XLI. The President is the commander in chief of the navy. The actual work of supervision of the navy is under the Secretary of the Navy. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Give as many reasons as you can why it is better for our country to defend itself by means of one army, and one naw, in- stead of allowing each state to have an army and a nav}'. 2. Read the Constitution of the United States, Article I, Sec- tion 8, paragraphs 11-18. Name as many things as you can which Congress has done with the object of "carrying into execution the foregoing powers," although these things are not actually named in the Constitution. 3. What measures are being taken to train men, so that even without maintaining a large standing army, we can always be sure of a good-sized reserve force? CHAPTER XXX THE REGULATION OF COMMERCE AND OF IMMIGRATION Regulating Foreign and Domestic Commerce. — Congress is given the power by the Constitution to regulate both foreign commerce and commerce between the states. We have seen in Chapter XXVII why it is necessary that this work should be under the control of the national govern- ment rather than the state. In 1921 the United States exported $6,516,315,346 worth of merchandise and received from other countries merclmndise valued at $3,654,449,430. We can see that the regulation of such an immense amount of trade is a very important matter. We may well ask the question, "How does Congress regulate foreign commerce?" Tariff on Imports. — The chief regulation upon foreign commerce consists of levying taxes on certain goods that come into the United States. This is done for several reasons. It is an easy way to collect revenue to help pay the expenses of government. Those who approve of high taxes, or tariffs, on imported goods claim that these tariffs help new industries in this country, by keeping out foreign competition until the industries are well started here, or at least by making the foreign goods so high priced that people will prefer to buy the American-made articles. They also claim that the tariff is good for workingmen. They say that the manufacturer who is selling goods made 148 REGULATION OF COMMERCE AND IMMIGRATION 149 in America at a high price can afford to pay high wages, while if he had to cut down his prices to compete with foreign goods, he would have to cut wages also. On the other hand, those who oppose high tariffs claim that the buyer, not the manufacturer, ought to be con- sidered. They say that it is not fair to protect manufac- turers and let them ask high prices, when they would have to sell goods more cheaply if low-priced foreign articles were allowed to come in without charge. They claim that the manufacturers who do not enjoy the protection of the high tariff pay just the same wages as those who do; while the latter are simply enabled to make very large profits which benefit nobody but themselves. They say, also, that any industry which cannot be carried on without the high tariff to protect it (except a new, or "infant" industry, which may need a little help) is not necessary to the general wel- fare; and that the money invested in it ought to be used in some other field of business, where it can earn profits with- out forcing the public to pay high prices. This question of the tariff has been one of the great po- litical questions before the people of the United States for a whole century. It has, to a large extent, divided the coun- try into two parties. The Republicans contend for a high tariff for the reasons given above; while the Democrats contend that we should have a tariff for revenue only. Since 1916 we have had a tariff commission, whose duties are to make a study of the tariff needs of the different parts of the country. The actual making of the tariff is, however, left to Congress. The Need of Restricting Immigration. — Another im- portant duty undertaken by our national government, through Congress, is the regulation of immigration. If 150 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP every person in the whole world were absolutely free to come to the United States to live, we can see that the country might soon have an enormous population, with all kinds of religion, all the different languages of the world, and many different customs. Many people might come into the United States who would not make good citizens. If all these people actually came to us, we might find so many differences among them that it would be impossible for them to cooperate and work together for the welfare of the coun- try. If there were no public control over immigration, we might soon find that other countries were sending us all their paupers, their criminals, and their defective classes. For these and other reasons it is necessary that the government shall have control over immigration. Restrictions on Immigrants. — Congress, therefore, passes laws saying what people can come into the United States and under what conditions. Under the present law, ad- mission is refused to aliens who are illiterate, who have cer- tain physical and mental defects, who have been criminals, who are morally defective, or who may become paupers. Admission is refused also to cheap contract laborers, that is, people who have made a contract to work for some em- ployer at wages so low that they cannot live decently in this country. Some oriental peoples are also excluded. Before an alien can come into the United States, he must be examined, to prove that he is not a member of any of the debarred races, that he has a strong body, that he has no serious mental defects, that he can read and write some language, that he is not morally defective, that he is not an anarchist or a polygamist, is not a contract laborer, or has not been assisted to emigrate. The alien must pay a tax of $8 to the government for the cost of making the exam- REGULATION OF COMMERCE AND IMMIGRATION 151 inations. How large is this problem of examining all the immigrants may be gathered from the fact that from 1905 to 1914 an average of over a million immigrants came to this country annually. A federal law of 1921 provides that the number of aliens of any nationality who may be admitted in any fiscal year The women at the left of the picture are seeking admission to the United States. Each one will be examined in turn. The woman seated by the table is now taking her examination. shall be not more than three per cent of the number of foreign-born persons of the same nationality who were residing in the United States when the 1910 census was taken. Bureau of Immigration. — In order that the work of ex- amination and exclusion may be well carried out, it is in- trusted to the bureau of immigration, at the head of which is the commissioner general of immigration. This bureau 152 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP is a subdivision of the Department of Labor, about which we shall hear later. It maintains various stations at the principal ports of the United States, where the immigrants may be examined. The most important of these stations are at New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, Galveston, San Francisco, and Seattle. Regulating Interstate Commerce. — By the Constitution, Congress is given the power to regulate and control com- merce between the states. There are many ways in which it does this. It may regulate the rates charged by railway companies or other companies engaged in interstate com- merce, may regulate the kinds of service that shall be given, and may make requirements as to safety appliances. It may prevent combinations in restraint of trade between states; that is, any sort of agreement or arrangement which will interfere with the ordinary course of business. It may inspect drugs and foods, and may regulate many other matters. In all these cases it establishes agencies to carry out the law. The principal agencies that do the actual work of regulating interstate commerce are as follows: 1. The Interstate Commerce Commission has charge of carrying out the federal laws in regard to railway and steamship companies, sleeping car and express car com- panies, telephone and telegraph companies, and oil pipe companies, whenever they are engaged in interstate com- merce. This commission is charged with the duty of seeing that these companies charge reasonable rates, and that they do not discriminate between shippers or localities. 2. The Federal Trade Commission has the task of seeing that persons, partnerships, and corporations do not use unfair methods of competition in interstate commerce. In case the commission believes that unfair practices are REGULATION OF COMMERCE AND IMMIGRATION 153 being used, it makes an investigation and has a hearing. At the end of this hearing the commission makes an order which must be obeyed by the party that has been unfair, unless, upon an appeal to a circuit court of appeals, the order of the commission is modified or set aside by the court. This commission also gathers, puts in shape, and publishes information on the organization, methods of management, and practices of any corporation engaged in interstate trade, with the exception of banks and rail- road companies, which are controlled in a different manner. The Purpose of National Regulations. — The objects of the national government in regulating foreign commerce, interstate commerce, and immigration are to secure the pros- perity of all the American people, to prevent undesirable foreigners from injuring them in any way, and to do justice to both business interests and the general public. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Explain what is meant by a tariff on imports. 2. Show clearly why a tariff makes the price of the goods higher. 3. What arguments are given by those who fa^or high tariffs? Explain fully each of these. 4. Wliat arguments are given by those who oppose liigh tariff? Explain each one carefully. 5. What is meant by "tariff for revenue only " ? 6. Wliy does Congress place restrictions upon immigration from foreign countries? 7. What qualities make an immigrant a desirable citizen? What qualities make him undesirable? 8. What restrictions and conditions has Congress made in re- gard to immigration? 9. What is interstate commerce? 10. Why is the control of interstate commerce placed in the hands 154 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP of Congress, instead* of being left to treaties or agreements between the states? 11. Explain some of the ways in which Congress regulates inter- state commerce. 12. What is the work of the Interstate Commerce Commis- sion? 13. What is the work of the Federal Trade Commission? CHAPTER XXXI THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT Value of the Postal Service. — In Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution of the United States, Congress is given the power "to establish post offices and post roads." It has* used this power to develop our present great postal system, which renders many public services of a very important type. The carrying of letters, cards, newspapers, magazines, and other mail is not only a great convenience to practically every person in the country, but it is a valuable help to all kinds of business. The distribution of newspapers and periodicals does much to educate the public, and for this reason the charges for carrying such things are made as low as possible. Agreements are made with foreign countries in regard to the exchange of mail service, so that communication is possible among persons in almost all parts of the world. The Parcel Post. — The parcel post service has been of great benefit to the public. Though it was estabhshed only a short time ago, going into effect on January 1, 1913, it has already come to be looked upon as indispensable. Per- sons living on farms or in parts of the country removed from large markets and stores, as well as from railways and express offices, are now able to order goods by mail, and to receive them promptly through the parcel post service. Rural Mail Delivery. — The rural delivery mail routes 1.55 156 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP have done much to make country Kfe happier. Instead of being shut off from the outside world, as in the past, with no newspapers, magazines, or letters available except when an occasional journey could be made to the nearest town, those who live in the rural districts today are in daily touch with public affairs and personal friends, through the rural delivery system. Special Postal Privileges. — The privilege of having mail registered or insured for a small extra payment is very valuable indeed to those who wish to send important docu- ments or costly goods through the mail with almost positive certainty that they will be delivered in safety. When it is necessary that a piece of mail shall reach its destination as quickly as possible, special delivery service may be secured in all cities and many smaller places. As soon as a special delivery letter reaches its destination post office, a mes- senger is sent out to deliver it to the person to whom it is addressed, not waiting for the usual carrier to take it. Another convenient feature of our postal system is the privilege of having purchases sent by mail, to be paid for on delivery. This so-called C. O. D. service is very popular. Postal Savings Banks. — In 1910 Congress passed a law establishing postal savings banks. At first no person was allowed to deposit more than $500 in these banks, but on July 2, 1918, an act took effect which raised this maximum to $2500. The advantage of the postal savings banks over other savings banks is that they will receive deposits as low as one dollar, and that they issue ten-cent stamps which may be saved upon a card until the purchaser has a dollar's worth, which will then be credited to his account when he hands in his card to the postmaster. With the help of these stamps, children or persons who have only a THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT 157 very small amount of money can save little by little. Two per cent interest is paid the depositor of funds in these postal savings banks, and the safety of the money deposited is guaranteed by the national government. Thrift Stamps. — During the World War the system of selling thrift stamps and war-savings certificates through the Post Office Department was put into operation. The sales made in this way were very large. During the fiscal year 1918, through the agency of postmasters, 80,965,404 war savings stamps and 201,702,334 thrift stamps were sold. These sales helped the federal government by pro- viding it with money to carry on its work, and at the same time helped each purchaser to save money for the future, as the stamps are really certificates of loans which will be repaid by the government. Postal Money Orders. — A long-established branch of our postal service is the sale of money orders. A person may pay a sum of money to a postmaster and receive a certificate which he can send to a distant place. The person receiving the certificate will be able to secure the amount of money deposited in the first post office, from his own post office many miles away. The fee for this service is small, and the safe delivery of the money is almost certain. If the order is lost or destroyed, the money will be refunded. Other Postal Services. — Other types of service given by the Post Office Department are railway mail service, motor vehicle service in cities, and air service between certain cities of the United States. All these branches will develop more and more in the near future. The work which we have described does not by any means cover all that is done by the Post Office Department; but it will make it clear to us why the Postmaster-General 158 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP must have four Assistant Postmasters-General to supervise the various branches of service. Revenues and Expenses. — There are more than 54,000 post offices in the United States. They employ a large number of persons and do an important business. In 1921 the revenues of the postal service were more than $463,000,000, while its expenditures were $620,000,000. i~ /^^l^ -■ - 4 > ■ ^^P^p .../^v"'^l H rf^^V*;*-M J\ t- ' "*■. - '! "•s, " fc^.. 2 t ■ • ■ _ "Ml The mail which has been brought by airplane from a distant city is being transferred to a motor truck, which will take it from the aviation field to the post office. In addition to this deficit, we must note the heavy cost of construction, upkeep, and replacement of federal post office buildings. If all of these items were counted, it would be found that the government renders the great benefits of the postal service at far less than cost. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Of what value to the public is the United States postal service? 2. Why are newspapers and magazines carried for a low rate of postage? THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT 159 3. Describe the parcel post service. Obtain the rules govern- ing this service, and explain the zone system. 4. Tell of the various special postal services which can be pur- chased at a low rate. 5. Describe the postal savings bank system. Wliat kinds of depositors find this system of great value? 6. What is a money order? Explain its advantages. 7. Would it be possible for the post office department to lower its rates very much? Explain your answer. CHAPTER XXXII THE CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES Consequences of Wasting Our Resources. — President Roosevelt once said, before a conference of governors, that "the conservation of our natural resources and their proper use constitute the fundamental problem which underlies almost every other problem of our national life." We can readily see why this is so. If our iron becomes exhausted, we shall have to import steel products from other countries at high cost. When we consider how much our modern civilization depends upon iron and steel, we realize that the exhaustion of our iron supply alone would make our country much less desirable to live in. If our land becomes worn out through careless use, it will not raise so much as formerly, and in consequence each farmer will have to work harder, the price of all farm products will increase, and everyone will have to live in a less comfortable fashion than before. If we let our forests })e used without thought for the future, we shall soon find that it will be difficult to provide enough homes for our people. If we let a few people control our resources and become immensely wealthy, the rest of us are just so much the poorer. Our natural resources consist very largely in those great supplies of minerals, forests, and lands with which the United States is so richly endowed. Probably no other country has a greater diversity of these resources. Wasting the Forests. — The original forests of the United 160 THE CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 161 States covered about 850,000,000 square acres. At the present time they cover only about 550,000,000 square acres. But these figures look on paper very much better than the actual facts. While it is true that we have cut or destroyed only about one third of our acreage, this por- tion represents the very best part of the timber. Much See how wastefully thid forest has been treated. Much timber is left to decay, and there are no young trees coming on. How long would our forests last if all were treated like this? of that which remains consists of inferior kinds of timber and trees of very much less value. At the present rate of consumption it is estimated that our forests will be ex- hausted within the next forty or fifty years, unless we take definite steps to protect them and start on a large project of replanting. Forest Reserves. — The conservation of forests has been 162 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP started by the government along two main lines. The first is the system of setting aside forest reserves. National forests, of which there are today something hke 168,000,000 square acres, have been set aside by the federal govern- ment and are carefully protected by it. Several of the states also have set aside forest reservations. All together, nearly one half of the forest land in the United States is owned by either the states or the national government. Much of this land, however, is not particularly good, and the very best of our timber land is owned and controlled by private individuals and corporations. Conservation by Fire Prevention and Planting. — ^The second method of conserving our forests consists in planting trees and preventing fires. The care of the national forests is intrusted to the National Forest Service, which is a bureau of the Department of Agriculture. The forest service per- forms many very valuable functions, among which are the planting and care of young trees, the harvesting of mature timber, the leasing of forest lands for sheep and cattle, and the building of roads through the forests. Mineral Resources. — Unlike the forests, the mineral resources of the country cannot be replaced after they are exhausted. For many years we fully believed that we had an inexhaustible mineral supply in the United States. With our rapid development in population, however, the use of minerals has increased so greatly that unless careful steps are taken it will be only a few years, relatively speaking, before our best mineral resources have been exhausted and we must depend on the lower grades. Finally, we may find ourselves without these necessary factors of modern civili- zation. The mineral resources of the United States maj^ be clas- THE CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 163 sifted as coal, iron ore, precious metals, oils, building stone, and miscellaneous minerals. These have all been produced by careless methods which have wasted much valuable material, and the minerals themselves have been used very extravagantly. Coal, for example, has been wasted by the old-fashioned system of mining which left great pillars of this valuable fuel in each mine to support the roof. Of course, artificial supports should be placed in the mines, and the coal should be taken out. Then, coal has been wasted by careless burning, which often led to the throwing away of a good deal of coal in ashes; and also by the use of coal to run machinery or to generate electricity, when water power from streams and falls would have answered the purpose. The same kind of thing is true of the production and use of other mineral resources. The only methods which will remedy the situa- tion are greater care in production, so that no waste is per- mitted, and careful and sparing use of the products, in order to make them last as long as possible. Resources in Land. — Like our other natural resources, land used to be so abundant in the United States that it seemed almost impossible for the supply to run low. But our population has increased from a little more than 5,000,000 people in 1800, to more than 105,000,000 in 1920. In spite of the great additions to our territory since 1800, we have not nearly so much land, in proportion to our population, as we had then. It used to be possible for settlers to find in the western plains miles upon miles of rich fertile land upon which they could settle and make their fortunes. This land was often carelessly used, so that in many cases its richness has been destroyed. The best lands were settled long ago; yet it was necessary to provide 164 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP more homes for our people and more opportunities for agri- culture. Reclamation of Arid Land. — Both the federal govern- ment and the governments of the states became interested in this land question, with the result that in 1877 the Desert Land Act was passed. This act offered large tracts of arid land to settlers at the very low rate of twenty-five cents an acre, on condition that the settlers should do a certain amount of irrigation within three years. This was followed by an act of 1895, providing that the federal government should give lands to the states in the arid sections of the country, on the condition that the states should arrange to have this land irrigated and settled. In 1902 there was passed an important act providing for the irrigation of certain lands by the federal government itself. The land is sold to settlers, who must also pay the government for the work of irrigation. This work, and the similar work of draining swampy lands and otherwise making useless lands into valuable ones, is known as reclamation. It is conducted by a Reclamation Service Bureau under the Department of the Interior (of which we shall hear more later); and in the 1918 report of this department we are told that the reclaimed lands yielded a crop during the previous year "more than that produced for any New England state at the last national census. Thus, in effect, a new state has been added to the nation." Improved Agricultural Methods. — In addition to re- claiming land, the federal government is doing much to teach the best methods of making use of land. Rotation of crops, testing of soils, the addition of suitable fertilizers in order to keep the land rich, and many other valuable lessons are taught by the literature and agents of the De- THE CONSERVATIOX OF NATURAL RESOURCES 165 partment of Agriculture. ]\Iuch of our nation's prosperity depends upon agriculture; and the government is doing all in its power to teach the best and most progressive methods of meeting all agricultural problems. Diseases of livestock, remedies for blights and rusts of various kinds, methods of fighting destructive insects, and numerous other problems are studied carefully by government experts, and accounts of the discoveries made by them are printed and circulated, often free of charge. Most states do work of this same type, devoting themselves more particularly to the problems of their own domain. With such helps, our land can be used to the best advantage, so that it will bring forth an abun- dance of food. "Care and conscience" are the two essentials which must be required of all who control or use our natural re- sources. With "care and conscience," we shall be able to supply ourselves abundantly, and yet leave plenty for many generations that will follow us. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. What is meant by natural resources? 2. What are the principal natural resources of the United States? Why is it necessary to use these carefully? 3. Describe the work of the United States in conserving forests. 4. How does the conservation of forests l^enefit tlie general public? What would be the result u]ioii t!:e prices of furniture, timber, and wood in all forms, if no such policy were pursued? 5. Can you explain why a number of states are undertaking forest conser^•ation? 6. Why do thoughtful persons emphasize the necessity of great care in our production and use of mineral resources? 7. What is the difference between mineral supplies and forests, as natural resources? 8. Name many ways of helping to conserve mineral resources. 166 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP 9. What can be done to improve land whose fertihty has beea destroyed by careless use? Why is it necessary to care for land in a country so large as ours? 10. What is meant by the reclamation of land? What kinds of lands are reclaimed? Describe the various ways in which the work of reclamation is done. 11. Tell all that you can of the work of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. CHAPTER XXXIII PAYING FOR THE WORK OF THE GOVERNMENT National Expenditures. — The many and varied activi- ties of the national government require the expenditure of enormous sums of money. This expenditure averages over one bilUon dollars a year, or about ten dollars per capita — that is, for each man, woman, and child in the United States. Where and how is this money obtained? Excise Taxes and Customs Duties. — For many years the government derived nearly all its revenue from two sources: internal revenue, or excise taxes laid on liquors of various kinds, tobacco, and a few other articles; and customs duties, or tariffs, laid on imports from foreign coun- tries. The reasons why these taxes were depended upon to such an extent are easy to see. In the first place, they yield large sums of money. Again, they are quite easy to collect, as inspectors and collectors employed by the government can watch factories and ports in order to make sure that the taxes are paid. They are also less irritating to the public than taxes collected from the final purchaser of the goods, such as a tax of one cent on each ten cents' worth of perfume or soda water. Of course, it is the public that actually pays the excise and customs taxes, for when the tobacco manufacturer or the importer has paid the tax, he simply adds that amount to the price which he asks. However, the purchasers of to- bacco and imported goods do not think much about this, 167 168 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP as a rule; and in any case they are not constantly annoyed by the demand for taxes a dozen times a day. Hence these taxes are much favored. The amount of money received from excise taxes will be much less in the future than in the past, as the constitutional amendment establishing national prohibition has cut off the revenue from taxation of liquors. Income Taxes and Excess Profits Tax. — Since 1909 Congress has not depended altogether on these two forms of taxation. In that year it began to tax the incomes of cor- porations, and since 1913 it has taxed also the incomes of individuals. The rate of taxation on individual incomes rises rapidly as the size of the income increases. During the World War and the years directly following it (until 1922), Congress raised a large amount of money by an excess profits tax. This is a tax on all business profits above a certain percentage. It is interesting to note that during the last half of 1917 and the first half of 1918, the receipts from these last three forms of taxation nearly equalled the in- ternal revenue receipts. Those who favor income taxes and excess profits taxes argue that ability to pay is the best basis of taxation, and that large incomes and excess profits both show ability to pay- Borrowing by the Government; The National Debt. — In time of war or emergency, and when great public works are to be undertaken, the government secures much money through borrowing it from private individuals, and giving promises to pay the money back at a certain time with interest. These various promises to pay are called notes, bonds, and war savings certificates. From 1888 until 1916, the debt of the country was always just about a billion dollars, or about ten dollars per capita. PAYING FOR WORK OF THE GOVERXMEXT 1G9 In carrying on the World War, however,, the government rapi()ly increased the national debt until by 1919 it amounted to more than twenty-five billions of dollars; and it is now about $237.00 per capita. Method of Spending Money. — Probably the weakest spot in our national government is its expenditure of money. In every well-organized business the manager and the board of directors make plans for expending mone}'. In the national government the President and the members of his cabinet have very little to do with financial planning, which is carried on through a number of committees in Congress, such as the committee on army and navy and the committee on rivers and harbors. These various committees do not act in harmony with one another. Each wishes to secure as much money as possible for the branches of service under its own jurisdiction. Those who plan for the raising of money are not the same group of persons as those who plan for the spending of moneJ^ Therefore we often have a large surplus in the treasury, which means that the government has collected more money from the people than it needs ; or else we have a large deficit, which means that the government must borrow in order to pay the appropriations that have been passed. The Budget System. — This financial problem has been solved in several other countries by providing that the legislative body shall not consider any motion or bill in- volving an expenditure, unless such an expenditure is recom- mended by the prime minister and the cabinet. Many thinking people have tried to work out some satisfactory system for the United States whereby a budget — that is, a scientific plan for the raising and spending of money — shall be made the basis of all financial operations. A budget 170 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP law of 1921 provides that the President shall prepare a budget, with the help of a budget bureau; and shall present it to Congress at the opening of each session. Since there is no limitation upon the power of Congress to alter, revise, or even reject the budget, the law is httle more than a first step in the right direction. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Explain excise taxes. Explain customs duties. Why have these two taxes formerly been the chief source of income of the national government? 2. What is a corporation tax? An income tax? An excess profits tax? Can you explain the basis on which these taxes are levied? 3. In what ways did our national government borrow money from the public during the World War? What was the effect of this war on our national debt? 4. What is a budget? What is the use of a budget? 5. Why should the same persons plan to raise money and to expend it for various kinds of work? What is the effect when those who plan to raise it have no connection with those who plan to spend it? CHAPTER XXXIV THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION Organizing the Government. — In Chapter XXVII we saw how the federal Constitution was estabhshed. In this chapter we shall find out what the federal Constitution is^ and how it influences our government. In the first place, the Constitution organizes the national government. It says who shall be the chief executive officer, how he shall be elected, what his powers shall be, and how he may be removed. It likewise organizes the legis- lature and the courts. Powers of National and State Governments. — In the second place, the Constitution says what powers the na- tional government shall have and what powers the states shall retain. We have seen why certain powers were given to the national government instead of being left with the states. We have seen that to the national government were given those powers which would keep the states from fighting with one another, which w^ould protect them from foreign oppression, and which would accomplish other things essential to the common welfare. These powers, we learned, are the powers over foreign and interstate commerce, power over the army and navy, power over post offices and post roads, etc. All powers not delegated to the national government were left to the states or to the people of the United States as a whole. A list of the powers of the national government 171 172 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP and of the state governments, as given by Professor Munro,^ is as follows: Federal Powers State Powers 1. 4. 5. Taxation for federal pur- 1. Taxation for local purposes poses Borrowing on the nation's credit Regulation of foreign and interstate commerce Currenc}'^ and coinage Foreign relations and trea- 2. Borrowing on the state's credit 3. Regulation of trade within the state 4. Civil and criminal law 5. The police power ties 6. Armj' and na\y 7. Postal service 8. Patents and copyrights 9. Regulation of weights and measures 10. Admission of new states 6. Education 7. Control of local government 8. Charities and corrections 9. Suffrage and election 10. Organization and control of corjwrations Limitations on the Government. — In the third place, the federal Constitution places certain great limitations on both the national government and the state governments. The people feared that the governments might perhaps become oppressive, as certain European governments had been. To make sure that those in control of the govern- ments would not oppress the people, these limitations were placed in the Constitution. In order to learn some of the limitations placed on the national government, read the Constitution of the United States, Article 1, Section 9; also the first ten amendments. To learn some of the limitations placed upon the states, read Article 1, Section 10, of the Constitution, and Amend- ments XIII, XIV, and XV. 1 Munro, W. B., The Government of the United States, page 46. THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION 173 Methods of Changing the Constitution. — In the fourth place, the national Constitution provides a method by which it may l)e amended from time to time, as the necessity arises. There are two main ways of changing the Constitution : (1) by a two-thirds vote of both houses of Congress plus a favorable vote of three fourths of the states; (2) by a con- stitutional amendment being presented by two thirds of the states for adoption and then ratified by three fourths of the states. So far only the first method has been used. The Amendments. — Since the Constitution was estab- lished, it has been amended nineteen times. The first ten amendments were made very shortly after the main part was adopted; the eleventh was adopted in 1798 and the twelfth in 1804. The next three amendments were adopted as a result of the Civil War; while the sixteenth and seven- teenth were both adopted in the same year, 1913. The eighteenth amendment is known as the prohi})ition amend- ment and was adopted in 1919. The nineteenth amend- ment, providing that the right to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex, was passed by both houses of Congress in 1919 and rartified in 1920. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. What is meant by tlie statement that tlie federal Constitu- tion organizes the national government? 2. When authority was distributed between the national govern- ment and the state governments, what rule was followed? Look at the list of powers given in the text, and show how each one comes under this rule. .3. Why was it considered necessary to place limitations upon the powers of both national government and state governments? 174 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP Make as long a list as you can of these limitations, and explain the meaning of each. 4. Why did the makers of our federal Constitution establish a method for amending it? What is likely to be the case with any pubhc document that cannot be amended? 5. Read all the amendments to the Constitution, and explain each one. CHAPTER XXXV THE LEGISLATIVE POWER OF THE NATION The Legislative Power of Congress. — According to the Constitution of the United States, the making of national laws is intrusted to Congress. Congress is composed of two houses called the Senate and the House of Representatives. No bills can become laws unless they are passed by both of these houses. The power given to Congress to make laws is known as legislative power. Number of Representatives; Their Qualifications. — The House of Representatives is much the larger of the two houses of Congress, having at the present time 435 members. The number of representatives which each state sends to Congress depends upon the number of people living in that state. The Constitution provides that a person shall have cer- tain qualifications in order to be eligible to the office of representative. He must be at least twenty-five years old, must have been a citizen of the United States for seven years, and when elected must be an inhabitant of the state from which he is chosen. Each member of the House of Representatives is elected for a two-year term, and all members of the house are elected at the same time. Number of Senators. — The Senate is much smaller than the House of Representatives, having only two members from each state, no matter what its size. Thus, New York with over ten million people has only the same number of 175 176 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP senators that Nevada or Wyoming has. At the present time, since there are forty-eight states, there are just double that number of senators. Election of Senators; Their Qualifications. — Previous to the adoption of the seventeenth amendment to the Con- stitution, the members of the Senate were elected by the different state legislatures. Since that time, however, they have been elected by the people of the state. Each senator is elected for a six-year term, and one third of the members of the Senate retire every second year. No state elects both of its senators at the same time, unless some unex- pected vacancy should occur. Senators are elected at the regular state elections, and all those who have a right to vote for state officers also have a right to vote for senators. In case a senator dies or resigns, the governor calls a special election, unless a state election is near at hand, in which case the governor may appoint a person to fill the vacancy until this election is held. Like the members of the House of Representatives, senators are required by the Constitution to have certain qualifications. A senator must be thirty-five years of age, nine years a citizen of the United States, and an inhabitant of the state from which he is chosen. The Influence of the Senate. — The Senate has always been a much more powerful body than the House of Rep- resentatives. This is due to several facts: the senators are elected from much larger districts than the representatives, are as a rule older men with more experience, have longer terms, and are members of a much smaller body, thus giving each one of them a larger chance to make himself felt. Other factors that give the Senate greater influence are the fact that many officers, heads of departments, and other public THE LEGISLATIVE POWER OF THE NATION 177 servants appointed by the President must be approved by the Senate, and the fact that it shares with the President the treaty power. Powers of Congress. — If you will read Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution, you will see that Congress is there given power over eighteen large functions or activities. The Senate Chamber in the Capitol at Washington. We shall have time here to describe only some of the most important of these. * The Power to Tax. — Congress is given almost unlimited powers over taxation. We can readily see why this is so, if we will think for a few moments. Suppose that two or three nations were attacking the United States, and sup- pose that Congress were limited in the amount of taxes it could levy in order to obtain money to protect the nation. 178 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP If it could not secure funds, the country might perish. You can see that, if the World War had continued a few years longer, it might have been necessary for Congress to levy exceedingly heavy taxes in order to carry on the war successfull3\ As it was, through the combined power of taxation and borrowing, the government secured money that would equal more than one third of the value of the goods produced in the United States during any one year. The Power to Borrow. — Congress also has the power to borrow money. In the case of a great national undertaking, Congress often decides that all the cost of paying for it should not be collected from the people within one year or even a few years. Therefore it borrows money, which it agrees to pay back gradually, instead of collecting the entire amount at once from taxation. The Panama Canal cost over $378,000,000. If all that large sum of money had been raised by taxation in one year, in addition to the other money that had to be raised, it would have proved a heavy burden on the people. The government, therefore, bor- rowed this monej^ for a long term of years. In time of war also the government borrows much money, instead of calling upon the people to pay all the needed funds into the treasury through taxes. During the World War the government raised five large loans, totaling several billions of dollars. The power of determining whether it is best for the country to borrow money or to raise it by taxation is left to Congress. Regulating Commerce. — One of the most important powers of Congress is the power to regulate commerce. Three kinds of commerce are mentioned in the Constitu- tion as subject to this regulation: commerce with foreign THE LEGISLATIVE POWER OF THE NATION 179 nations, among the several states, and with the Indian tribes. Foreign Commerce. — The regulation of foreign commerce by the nation instead of the states accomphshes many valu- able results. In the first place, it prevents friction between the inland states and the states having harbors upon the ocean, or states which border on foreign countries and those which do not. If New York were able to tax foreign com- merce, she would grow very wealthy from doing so, while the inland states would regard her with envy. As it is now, the money that is received at the port of New York goes to the national government and is distributed throughout the states in the form of services to the people. By having the national government regulate this commerce, it is possible to establish much better tariff relations with other coun- tries than if the states had charge of such regulation. Re- ceipts from foreign commerce are also a very good way for the national government to collect part of its revenue. Interstate Commerce. — Congress has the power to regulate commerce among the states. The word commerce has been given a very broad definition by the courts, so that it includes many kinds of business intercourse between the states. It includes the sending of goods from one state to another, the sending of telephone and telegraph messages, the transportation of passengers, and the shipping of oil in pipe lines. Probably there is no other single power of Congress that has done so much to make us one nation instead of many states. The merchant, instead of being dependent upon the protection of many states in which he does business, depends upon the power of Congress to protect him. Goods which pass through various states, instead of being taxed 180 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP upon entering or leaving each state, are entirely free from such restrictions. A traveler is not compelled to stop at each state line to have all of his papers and baggage exam- ined; he can travel freely from one part of the country to another. Because the national government, instead of the states, regulates interstate commerce, it is possible to carry on business on a large national scale. The War Power. — The war power of Congress is also very great. Congress has the right to declare war and to do everything necessary to carry on war successfully. It can raise armies *and equip them, build navies, provide for the training and education of soldiers and sailors, and in fact do practically anything that will aid in winning a war. How great is this power may be seen from the declaration of war with Germany. In this declaration it was stated that Congress pledged the entire resources of the country to the carrying on of the war. During the war, Congress controlled the food supply, operated the railroads, built ships, and established training camps for officers in nearly every college in the land. Under the war power, also, Congress may set up a military government in any country that is conquered by the United States. After we secured the island of Porto Rico in 1898, for instance, a military government was set up and was continued for some little time. Other Powers of Congress. — We have discussed the power over naturalization sufficiently elsewhere. Among other powers of Congress that we shall not have time to discuss fully are the powers over currency, weights and measures, and patents and copyrights. Congress makes laws in regard to these and many other matters, for the benefit and welfare of the entire nation. THE LEGISLATIVE POWER OF THE NATION 181 FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Review the reasons given in Cliapter XXIV in regard to the custom of having a two-house legislature. With these in mind you will be able to answer the following questions: (a) Why were two houses of Congress established? (6) What is the meaning of the difference in qualifications as to age and residence, between members of the two houses? (c) Why must every bill be passed by both houses before it becomes a law? 2. Examine a history of the United States to learn why all the states are allowed the same number of senators, while the number of representatives varies according to population. 3. Explain how it is that the Senate, though much smaller than the House of Representatives, has become more influential. 4. Make a list of the powers given to Congress in Article 1, Section 8, of the Constitution, expressing these in j^our own lan- guage. Explain, in each case, wh_y the power was given to Con- gress rather than to the individual states. 5. Who are the senators from your state? How many repre- sentatives has your state? Who is the representative from your district? CHAPTER XXXVI THE JUDICIAL POWER OF THE NATION Necessity for Federal Courts. — Why, we may ask, is it necessary for the national government to have a system of courts, when the state does so much in protecting its people from fraud, injustice, and crime? There are several rea- sons why federal courts are necessary. Suppose two states were disputing with each other regarding a boundary line. It is evident that neither of these states would believe that the courts of the other state would be unprejudiced in set- tling the dispute. They would, however, trust the national court to give them justice. Again, if a citizen of California owed a citizen of Washington a sum of money, the citizen of Washington might believe that he would be discrimi- nated against if he brought his suit in a California court. The California citizen might feel the same way about trust- ing the Washington court. Both of them would know, however, that the national court, having no interest one way or the other in the matter, would give them a fair trial. It would not look well if foreign ambassadors, ministers, or consuls should be compelled to bring their lawsuits in state courts or to be sued by state courts. They represent their governments and should be treated with as great re- spect as though they really were the foreign governments. Such a respect would make it necessary, therefore, that they should sue or be sued in a court representing the whole United States. 182 THE JUDICIAL POWER OF THE NATION 183 Let us suppose, again, that the United States govern- ment were suing a citizen. It would not be very dignified for the nation to have to ask a state court to hear its suit. The state court might refuse permission to bring suit, and even if it did so, it might be prejudiced. Suppose that a person broke a law of the United States. It surely would not do for the national government to de- pend, for the enforcement of that law, upon the state courts. In case the states did not wish to enforce the law, or refused to do so, people would soon feel that the laws of the United States need not be respected. Unless we had federal courts, the United States laws would be differently interpreted in different states, thus leading to much confusion and injus- tice. For these reasons and some others, it is necessary for the national government as well as the states to have courts. Cases Decided in the Federal Courts. — The next ques- tion that we may ask is, "What kinds of cases come before the United States courts?" All the kinds of cases that have been mentioned in this chapter may be tried by federal courts; that is, all cases between states, all cases affecting representatives of foreign governments, and all disputes where the national government is one of the parties to the suit. The federal courts may hear cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; that is, cases in regard to ships which sail upon waters controlled by the national govern- ment, or in regard to the debts or financial dealings of such ships, the conduct of officers and sailors belonging to them, etc. They also decide cases between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. Besides these cases, any case arising under the Consti- tution, the laws, or treaties of the United States may be 184 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP tried in the federal courts. A few illustrations will show how cases come into the federal courts in this way. The Constitution of the United States prohibits any state from denying any person within its jurisdiction — that is, under its control — the equal protection of its laws. If any state should pass a law saying that all voters who had not been born in the state must pay a tax of one dollar a year before they could vote, while all who had been born in the state were exempted from this tax, such a law could not be en- forced. A man might sue the state in a federal court, claim- ing that in being required to pay a dollar, while his neighbor was exempted, he was deprived of equal protection of the laws. The court would decide that this was true, and that the law was not valid because it conflicted with the federal Constitution. Let us consider a case arising under the laws of the United States. A federal statute might provide that no adulterated food should be shipped from one state into an- other. A federal pure food inspector finds that the A. B. C. Preserve Company is shipping from Kansas City to Denver "strawberry jam" which, as a matter of fact, is largely composed of apples. The case will be brought into the federal court to find out if the law really has been broken. If it has, the federal courts will determine, according to law, what the punishment will be. A case might arise under a treaty, if the United States had a treaty with Great Britain agreeing to prohibit the manufacture of phosphorus matches, and a citizen of the i United States were found manufacturing them. The Supreme Court. — Just as in the state governments there are various courts for various purposes, so there are in the national government. At the head of the judicial THE JUDICIAL POWER OF THE NATION 185 system of the United States stands the Supreme Court. This court is composed of a chief justice and eight associate justices. Any six of them may constitute a quorum and so render a vaHd decision. This court has jurisdiction over two classes of cases^ that is, the authority to hear and decide them: namely, The United States Supreme Court meets in this room, of the judges at the right of the room. Notice the seats those cases that come to it directly and those cases that come by way of appeal from the lower courts. In the first class of cases are all those affecting ambassadors, consuls, and other public ministers of foreign powers and cases in which a state is a party. It is easy to see why these cases should come before the highest court in the land immedi- ately, since one class deals with representatives of other 186 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP nations, and the other with states. If a person thinks that some lower court has not granted him a right, privilege, or immunity that he should have under the Constitution, laws, or treaties of the United States, he can, under certain conditions, appeal from the decision of the lower court and jhave his case heard in the Supreme Court. Circuit Courts of Appeals. — Below the Supreme Court are nine circuit courts of appeals, each having jurisdiction in one of the nine circuits into which the United States is divided. From two to four judges are appointed in each circuit, according to the amount of work to be done. They hold sessions in various cities, at which they hear appeals from the lower federal courts. In many cases their decisions are final, and no appeal to the Supreme Court is allowed. District Courts. — The entire territory of the United States, including Alaska, Porto Rico, and Hawaii, is divided into eighty-three judicial districts. Each state constitutes at least one district, and some of the larger and more popu- lous states have several districts. For example. New York has four and California has two. Usuall}^ one judge is ap- pointed for each district. These district courts hear cer- tain cases arising under the Constitution, laws, and treaties of the United States, and several other classes of cases. They also hear appeals from state courts where a federal question is involved. Special Courts. — Besides these courts, the United States has a few courts for the hearing of special cases, which in- clude the court of claims and the court of customs appeals. ' The Judicial Department. — This system of federal courts, with the necessary judges and other officials, is known as the judicial system of, the United States; and the power to judge cases given to the courts under the Con- THE JUDICIAL POWER OF THE NATION 187 stitution is known as judicial power. Like the government of the states, the federal government is divided into three departments, legislative, judicial, and executive. In Chap- ter XXXV we learned of the work of the legislative de- partment and we shall examine the executive department in the next chapter. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Explain the necessity for federal courts. 2. What kinds of cases come before the federal courts? Show that state courts are not in a position to deal properly with such cases. 3. Why would it not be advisable to leave to the states the power of enforcing the national Constitution, laws, or treaties? 4. What is the Supreme Court of the United States? What kinds of cases does it hear? 5. Explain the work of the circuit courts of appeals. 6. What is the work of the district courts? Why are so many of these courts needed? CHAPTER XXXVII THE EXECUTIVE POWER OF THE NATION The President. — The authority to see that laws are obeyed and plans carried out is called executive power. The executive power of the United States is placed in the hands of the President, who is assisted by a group of men called a cabinet. The President of the United States is elected for a term of four years. No President has ever served for more than two terms, though there is no legal reason to prevent longer service. The first President, George Washington, retired to private life at the end of his second term, and the custom which he estal)lished has never been broken. Duties of the President. — The President is given several very important duties and powers. He is commander in chief of the army and navy of the United States. He may make treaties with foreign nations — though the Senate is expected to advise him in this work, and the treaties are not valid unless indorsed by a two-thirds vote of the Senate. He may nominate ambassadors, consuls, and ministers to foreign countries, judges of the Supreme Court, and other officers, and if the Senate approves his nominations, he may appoint these persons to office. It is the duty of the President to inform Congress con- cerning public affairs, and to ask it to consider plans and measures which he believes would be of benefit to the coun- try. In case there is need for legislative action at a time 188 THE EXECUTIVE P0\\T:R OF THE NATION 189 when Congress is not in session, the President may call a special session. Before acts of Congress become laws, they are sent to the President for his signature ; if he returns any bill to Congress with objections, it cannot become a law unless two thirds of the members of both houses vote for it. The Cabinet and the Departments. — The Constitution of the United States does not make definite arrangements for a cabinet; but those who wrote it certainly understood that the President would need assistants to manage the various departments of executive work, for in Article II, Section 2, we find the words, "He may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices." Congress has passed acts at various times, arranging for several departments, each of which has a chief official. The heads of all the departments are chosen by the President, and it is their duty not only to carry out the laws and plans made by Congress, but to give the President advice and help. The cabinet at present consists of ten members: Secre- tary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of War, Attorney General, Postmaster General, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of the Interior, Secretary of Agriculture, Secretary of Commerce, and Secretary of Labor. Each one of these manages a department which performs great public services. We shall look briefly at some of these services. Of course, it will be impossible to remember them all, and it is not necessary to do so. The Department of State has charge of the foreign relations of the United States. It contains divisions, or bureaus, devoted to Latin-American affairs, Mexican affairs, Far Eastern affairs. Near Eastern affairs, etc. It 190 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP contains a Diplomatic Bureau and a Consular Bureau, which aid the President in selecting men to represent the United States abroad, and perform various other functions in connection with the diplomatic service. The Depart- ment of State also keeps the official records of the United States and publishes the laws. The Treasury Department cares for the money belong- ing to the United States. It has charge of collecting reve- nues and of coining money. The work of caring for public health, the United States life saving service, and the secret service work are managed by this department. The War Department is in charge of military affairs. There are many subdivisions within the department, each devoted to some special branch of work, as quartermaster's service, military engineering, ordnance, engineering in rivers and harbors, etc. The Department of Justice has charge of the work of prosecuting certain offenders against the laws of the United States, and also of giving the President legal advice in re- gard to questions of public law. This department handles applications for pardons, supervises and controls federal prisons, and does much other work of like nature. The Post Office Department and its work have already been studied in Chapter XXXI, so we shall not need to discuss it here. The Navy Department has charge of the construction and maintenance of government vessels, shipyards, and docks, and the naval service in general. Because of our great expanse of seacoast and our island possessions, it has been generally felt during the last few decades that the United States needs a large navy; and the navy has conse- quently been expanded very rapidly. Its development has THE EXECUTIVE POWER OF THE NATION 191 recently been checked in the interests of world peace, as we shall learn in a later chapter. The Department of the Interior has charge of a good deal of verj' important work. It manages the distribution of pubHc lands, the reclamation service, the national park service, Indian affairs, pensions, patents, education, and various other lines of activity. The Department of Agriculture carries on the valuable work of gathering and distributing information upon many subjects of importance to the farmer. It manages the Weather Bureau and a Bureau of Markets, whose object is to help producers to find markets for their crops. The forest service and the work of developing public roads are also undertaken by this department. The Department of Commerce, as its name implies, is es- tablished to encourage and help the trade of the country. It includes a bureau of foreign and domestic commerce, a lighthouse ])ureau, a bureau of navigation, a bureau of fish- eries, etc. This department also has charge of taking the census every ten years. The Department of Labor is intrusted with the work of studying labor conditions, of publishing useful information in regard to them, and of working to improve them. This department has charge of the naturalization service and of the United States employment service. It also includes a Children's Bureau, which has published valuable material upon the proper care and treatment of children, and similar topics. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Name the chief executive officer of the United States. 2. Can you explain why both the President t.nd the Senate must take part in arranging treaties with foreign countries? 192 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP 3. Why should power be given to the President to call special sessions of Congress? 4. When was the latest special session of Congress called? What measures did it consider? 5. What is a cabinet? What are the duties of cabinet mem- bers? Why are so many executive officers needed? 6. Make a written list of the cabinet officers and the depart- ments which they represent. Find the names of the cabinet mem- bers at the present time, and add these to the list. Under each department write some of its chief functions. The neatest and best list may be fastened upon the wall for reference. CHAPTER XXXVIII NEW PROBLEMS OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT New Government Problems. — As time passes, the federal government finds new problems constantly arising. To- day it faces many important undertakings which were hardly dreamed of in the time of Washington and Jeffer- son. Let us look at a few of these. Road Building. — In recent years there has been a grow- ing interest in the question of good roads. People wish to travel in automobiles through all parts of the country and to send loaded automobile trucks long distances. This is impossible unless there are good roads in every state. Real- izing the value of good roads for travel and commerce in times of peace, and for the moving of men and military supplies in time of war, the federal government has under- taken to aid the states m building highways. It does this in three ways. Sums of money are given to states which will appropriate a given amount of their own funds for road building, so that the roads are paid for by state and nation acting together. The federal gov- ernment also prepares specifications as to the nature of the roads, in order that they may be of good quality, able to bear heavy traffic, and built to last for years. To prevent carelessness or dishonesty in building the roads, federal in- spectors are supplied, whose work it is to see that the high- ways meet the specifications. Many states have already accepted the help of the federal 193 194 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP government. Therefore, we may hope within a few years to find a magnificent system of highways running through- out the country. Public Education. — For many years the federal govern- ment has assisted in the work of public education, by main- taining a Bureau of Education at Washington, with a com- missioner of education at its head. The chief work of this bureau has been to gather and publish valuable information concerning educational affairs. This information has been distributed to educational authorities and others interested in studying such questions, and it has been very useful in help- ing and guiding those who plan the work of the public schools. It has been proposed to give federal money and help to the states in improving and developing their educational systems, and in providing special schools for the reeduca- tion of disabled soldiers and others who need particular kinds of training to enable them to support themselves. The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 provides for the appro- priation of certain sums of money from the national treas- ury for the purpose of aiding the states and cooperating with them under certain conditions "in paying the salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural sub- jects, and teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, and in the preparation of teachers of agricultural, trade, industrial, and home economics subjects." This cooperation between nation and state assures the steady de- velopment of industrial and vocational education. Americanization. — During the great war, the federal gov- ernment found itself confronted with new educational prob- lems. It was discovered that large numbers of Americans are unable to read and write, and that many immigrants who have Hved in this country for years cannot even NEW PROBLEMS OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 195 speak English and do not understand our principles of government. As we know, a democratic government demands educated citizens. The federal authorities took immediate steps to educate the illiterate English-speaking men in the training camps, and to teach the English language to those who did In this Americanization class, the students are being taught the English language, and American manners and customs. This will help to train them for intelligent citizenship. not understand it. The men who were in the camps are only a small number of the men and women who need such training, and an effort is being made to reach the others. Federal and state authorities are working hand in hand to stamp out illiteracy, to teach our language and our stand- ards to immigrants, and to induce them to become natural- ized as soon as possible. This latter work is known as 196 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP Americanization; and it may be expected to produce ex- tremely good results in making us a truly united people, cooperating for the same great purposes. Employment Service. — Another problem which has grown up during the last few years, and particularly since the great war, is that of federal employment service. Much has already been done, and more will be done in the future, to keep all parts of the country informed about conditions of work and supplies of labor everywhere, and to assist those who need work to reach places where they can secure it. In these and many other ways, our national government is working for the benefit of all the people. Its services have always been very great, but they are constantly becom- ing greater, as modern conditions bring new needs. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Why has the national government undertaken the work of helping the states to construct good roads? 2. Explain the methods by which the government helps in providing good roads. 3. Of what advantage would it be to all citizens if good high- ways ran through all parts of the country? 4. Why do city, state, and nation, all join in promoting public education? 5. What is the work of the United States Bureau of Education? 6. Learn all that you can about the federal government's work for the reeducation of disabled soldiers. 7. Give the chief provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act. 8. Explain the meaning of Americanization and learn all you can about this work. 9. Is the work of the federal employment bureaus of benefit to anyone beside laborers? If so, to whom? Explain your reasons for this statement. 10. How is it that the work of our national government has grown so much since the Constitution was adopted? Is this growth likely to continue, or not? Explain your answer. CHAPTER XXXIX THE PEOPLE AND THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT Our Varied Citizenship. — Owing to the fact that our great country has been very Hberal in permitting immigra- tion from many other lands, our nation today is composed of men and women of every race. Some have hved in the United States only a short time; some are descended from many generations of American citizens. Many still cling to certain ideas, habits, and customs of their original homes in other parts of the world. Fundamental Principles of Democracy. — Since these various types of people compose one nation, and since they must cooperate in carrying on a democratic government, it is very important that all shall understand the principles of our government. We have already seen that much is being done to teach American ideals and standards to all who dwell among us. Of course, it would be ridiculous to try to make all persons think alike on every subject, and it would be opposed to the meaning of liberty; but there are a few fundamental principles on which we must agree if we are to have a democratic government. For example, we must agree that governments should be conducted for the benefit of all the people, and not for the power and glory of a few. We must agree that the will of the people shall be carried out; and that if there are differ- ences of opinion, the will of the majority shall prevail. We must agree that rioting, murder, and all other uses of vio- 197 198 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP lence by discontented minorities must be sternly suppressed, for there is no excuse for violent methods in a country where political liberty is so great as in the United States. We must agree that, as improvements in our laws or our methods of government are needed from time to time, the people shall demand these improvements in peaceable and orderly ways. We must agree that, since the officials who govern us are chosen by the people or the representatives of the people, it is the people who are really responsible for good government. Whatever our individual differences may be, if we all cherish these principles we shall be able to make even greater national progress in the future than we have done in the past. The Best Type of Citizens. — Since the responsibility for good government rests upon the people, who choose their own leaders, it is not an exaggeration to say that the best type of government is impossible without the best type of citizens. In order to make democratic government thoroughly efficient and good, in every sense of the word, what qualities must be found in the people? First of all, as we have already seen, the people must be educated, so that they will understand what they are doing, will know what measures are for their welfare, will be able to choose good officials, and will not be misled by dishonest politicians. Next, they must be unselfish, ready to work for the benefit of their fellow citizens, even though this may take time from their personal pursuits. They must be public-spirited, so that their first thought about any pro- posed measure will be, "Is this for the general welfare?" rather than, "How does this affect me?" Loyal Citizens. — One more quality is absolutely essential to the success of popular government — loyalty. Early in THE PEOPLE AND THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 199 our study of government we saw that, in order for a common undertaking to be carried on successfully, it is necessary for those who are displeased with any measure to submit to it until they are able to have it changed in a regular and orderly manner. Loyalty does not demand unquestioning obedience to law, but it does demand obedience to law. It means a feeling of union with all one's fellow citizens; a desire to cooperate with them for the good of everyone; and a willingness to submit to the will of the majority, even when one believes them to be mistaken, until one has per- suaded them to a different view. In a country where free speech is permitted and all adults may vote, there is no excuse for violent opposition to the government or resist- ance to law, even when a law seems unjust and oppressive; for the remedy lies in the hands of the people themselves. The loyal citizen will seek to improve his governmental system whenever this is necessary; but he will not be tempted to suppose that rebellion is better than persuasion. He will not only submit to law, but he will take an active interest in the making of law, and will watch his represen- tatives carefully to see that they carry out the will of the people for whom they are acting. The loyal citizen feels love and pride toward his government; not the foolish pride that refuses to see anything good in other cities, states, or nations, but the true patriotism which means a determi- nation to do all in one's power to make one's government the best possible agent for the service of all the people. - FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. Why is it necessary that those who wish to live together under a democratic government should agree on certain prin- ciples? Wliat would be the result if only a few persons agreed on 200 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP any principle of government, and the whole nation were divided into small groups, each of which disagreed with all the other groups? Is it necessary that all people should agree on every point? Ex- plain. 2. Name all the principles you can on which you believe that American citizens should agree. Give your reasons for each state- ment. 3. Where should the blame be placed if a democratic government is not so efficient as it ought to be? Explain. 4. What are the necessary qualities of a good citizen? 5. Write on one of these topics: The Ideal American Citizen; Who is Responsible for Our Government? CHAPTER XL POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS Reasons for Political Parties. — It is practically impos- sible to get a large body of people to agree absolutely regard- ing any work that ought to be done or the methods that should be used. This accounts for the existence of parties, since parties consist of people joined together for carrying out certain policies which they believe to be right. People who believe in a particular policy regarding what the gov- ernment ought to do, organize an association, or party, in order to accomplish their ends. Thus, the people who consider a high tariff necessary for the business welfare of the country may organize a party and try to elect enough people to Congress to pass laws wliich will provide for a high tariff; and there may be another organization of those who believe that it will be to their interest and the interest of the country to have a low tariff or no tariff at all. People may believe that the most essential thing for the welfare of the country is to have all public utilities and other large businesses controlled by the national government. These people may likewise organize a party to carry out their views. We can thus see that because people believe dif- ferently regarding governmental policy, they will attempt to secure enough votes to elect, to the legislative and other branches of the government, people who will carry their policies into effect. History of Political Parties. — Although the forefathers 201 202 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP who established our government did not beheve in parties and tried in every way to discourage them, yet because of differences in opinion they were inevitable. Even in the Constitutional Convention there were two distinct parties: those who believed that the states should be subordinate to the Union and who wished a strong central government, and those who believed that the national government should be given as little power as possible and that the states should be superior to the national government. It will be impossible in this brief work to tell the history of the polit- ical parties, but in the library you can probably find books that will give good accounts of party development. The principal parties in the United States at the present time are the Republican, the Democratic, and the Socialist. The Republican Party. — The Republican party grew up in the middle of the past century, and in 1860 elected Lincoln to the presidency. During the Civil War this party drew to itself all who believed in the maintaining of the Union, the upholding of the Constitution, a high tariff, and homesteading in the West. The successful outcome of the war left the Republican party very strong. During the war it had found it necessary to levy high tariffs in order to pay war expenses. This policy was continued after the war and so drew to this party the support of the large busi- ness and manufacturing interests of the country. Although this tariff policy has come to be less of an issue than for- merly, yet even today it constitutes the chief line of differ- ence between the Republican and Democratic parties,! at least as far as policy is concerned. The Democratic Party. — The Democratic party after the Civil War was composed largely of those who believed in a low tariff; and generally speaking, its members repre- POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS 203 sented the agricultural interest not only of the South but also to quite a large extent of the West and the Middle West. If we should take a map of the United States and mark all the states red that in 1916 went Democratic and mark all the states blue that went Republican, we could see more clearly perhaps than in any other way what was the issue between the two greatest parties in the United States: The states that are marked red, it will be seen, are the Southern and the Western states, most of which are largely agricul- tural states. The states marked blue are the great manu- facturing and commercial states. The agricultural states do not wish a high tariff, because they have goods which they wish to sell abroad, such as cotton and tobacco; and in exchange they desire to obtain manufactured goods from Europe as cheaply as possible. A high tariff will make them pay much more for these goods than otherwise. The manufacturing states, on the other hand, are interested in having a high tariff to protect their manufactured goods from competition with foreign-made goods. The Socialist Party. — The Socialist party, which vir- tually took its present form in 1900 as a result of the union of the Socialist-Labor and the Social-Democratic parties, demands certain great economic and political changes. It believes, according to its platform, in the public ownership of railroads, telegraphs, and telephones, and in the national ownership of forests, mines, oil, and other natural resources. It also believes that the control of all industry should be in the hands of the people instead of in the hands of capitalists; and that the state should insure workers against unemploy- ment, and should provide old age, sickness, and accident pensions. It wishes to have the United States Senate abol- ished, to elect by popular vote all judges for short terms of 204 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP office, and to take away from the Supreme Court the right to declare laws unconstitutional. The Prohibition Party. — The Prohibition party, which held its first national convention in 1872, has worked pri- marily for the prohibition of the manufacture and sale of in- toxicating liquors. Although this party was never able to secure a single vote in the electoral college, it has accom- plished its main aim — the national prohibition of liquor — by the eighteenth amendment, which was adopted in 1919. Aim of the Party. — In case a party can elect a sufficient number of persons to Congress to secure a majority of votes, and can also elect the President of the United States, it will be abie to secure legislation that will carry out its policies, and will also be able to enforce this legislation. The political party, therefore, devotes its principal work to seeing that its adherents are elected to office. Party Organization. — In order to be sure that a party will be able to elect members of Congress, it is necessary that the party shall organize everywhere in the United States. We thus have national political organizations of some sort throughout the country, even in small places. The members of each party hold public meetings to explain their policies, distribute literature, advertise in newspapers and periodicals, and use every available means of persuading others to join them. Presidential Conventions. — Each party sends represen- tatives from every state to a national convention, at which the party's "platform" or statement of principles is written, and its candidates for the offices of President and Vice President are selected. The makers of the Constitution did not wish to have these officers elected by parties, so POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS 205 they provided that each state should appoint persons known as electors, who should choose the President and the Vice President. (See the Constitution, Article II, Sections 2 and 3; also the twelfth amendment.) They thought that these electors would vote for able men without regard to party. This plan, however, did not work out. Each party nomi- nates as electors persons who can absolutely be depended on to vote for those whom the party has nominated for Presi- dent and Vice President. Therefore, although the people do not vote directly for these officials, they know that the electors will cast their votes. for the party candidates; so in choosing electors, the people are really choosing the President and Vice President. The hopes of our forefathers that the electoral college, as the body of electors is called, would be free from party influence have not been realized. National Parties in Local Elections. — Since national parties are thoroughly organized, with branches every- where, their members work to elect not only the national officers, but also the state and local officers. While it may seem absurd to select a man for mayor because he believes in or does not believe in a high tariff, yet it is inevitable that party politics will continue to play considerable part in state and local government. The electing of persons to state and local office because of national politics may be harmful as candidates are often helped by the party to win such offices simply as a reward for faithful work in the national campaign, and not because they are the best per- sons for the positions. Special Issues in Local Elections. — On the other hand, the difficulty of organizing and continuing parties which really represent state or local issues is so very great that it is not ordinarily attempted. "Reform," "fusion," or 206 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP "independent" parties seldom outlive one or two campaigns. This is due partly to the fact that issues in the state or local governments are not so long continuing or so well-defined as national issues. They vary from time to time. For instance, in one election the municipal issue might be whether or not the city should own or operate its own electric light plant. Another year the issue might be bonds for waterworks, while in a third year the issue might be the strict enforcement of certain laws. Evidently no one of these issues would form the basis of a permanent party, but it might be so important at the time as to cause the best citizens to vote as they thought right, regardless of party. There is a growing tendency to pay little attention to party lines in city affairs, and to vote for the best candidate regardless of his ideas on national politics. This will, doubtless, lead to better and more efficient municipal gov- ernment. Principles Advocated by the Party. — Political parties, in the national government, and also to a certain degree in the state governments, have several important functions to per- form. To a large extent they select issues or principles and present them to the electorate. This may be true of a rather weak party as well as one that is very strong. The Prohibition party, for instance, clearly presented one issue to the voters of the United States for years until it was finally adopted. The Populist party, although of short life, presented many issues to the voters of the United States. The same may be said of the Progressive party. Every party, of course, endeavors by means of united action to secure the adoption of its principles. Party Responsibility for Officers. — To quite a large ex- tent, also, the parties stand in the position of bondsman to POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS 207 the candidates they select. If John Smith is nominated for office by the Democratic party, that party practically guarantees that he is the proper man for the place. In case he is elected and fails to do efficient work, the party suffers at the polls at the next election, provided he holds an office of sufficient importance to arouse the interest of the people. Educating the Voter. — Through extensive campaigns waged all over the United States by speakers, the press, magazines, and cartoons, the political parties do a good deal of work in the field of public education. If issues were more clearly defined, and if people voted more generally on issues instead of by habit or tradition, evidently much more education could be given the people in this way. The Party, a Useful Tool. — At all events, the party is a definite part of our political system. . Whether we make it a useful organ in the accomplishment of our ends depends largely upon ourselves. If we will join the party really representing most fully our political. beliefs, and then work with it toward the advancement of ends which we consider good and proper, we shall make of the party a most useful tool in our growing democracy. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. How do you account for the estahUshment of parties? 2. What principles does each of the main parties stand for? 3. Why is it necessary for national parties to organize all over the United States? 4. What is the work of a national political convention? 5. Are parties necessary? Give reasons for your answer. 6. What should be our attitude toward the party? 7. Why do experts in municipal government encourage inde- pendent voting in city elections, regardless of party lines? CHAPTER XLI INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Entangling Alliances. — In his farewell address as Presi- dent of the United States, George Washington warned the people of this country to beware of entangling alliances with European nations. As we were far removed from these nations by a large ocean, so that we had little interest in their affairs, and as we had all the work we could well do in opening and developing our great western country, this was sound advice at the time when it was given. Closer Connections with Foreign Nations. — Since that day, however, enormous changes have taken place. We have grown from a weak nation, composed of thirteen states all more or less jealous of one another and with a population of only about four millions, to a great unified nation of over a hundred and five millions, made up of people from all European nations and distributed across a large continent. Steam and electricity have shortened the distance between us and Europe from months to daj^s, as far as travel is con- cerned; while as for communication, all over the United States we know at our breakfast tables each morning whaf; happened in Europe the day before. No longer is our in terest confined to the settling of the West, for that h^ largely been settled. Commercial Relations. — Today, as never before, v e depend on all the rest of the world for things we need — ' 'U Ireland for linen, on France for millinery and art works, »n 208 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 209 England for certain manufactured goods, on China for teas and rice, on South America for coffee, rubber, meat, and hides, on the islands of the sea for certain fruits, and on Japan for silks. Not only are we dependent on these lands for articles we need, but we also have goods to exchange for these articles. No longer will the home market satisfy our business men; they wish the markets of the world. Diplomatic Relations. — Now whether we like it or not, these commercial relationships with the rest of the world make it necessary for us to enter into other relationships as well. If our merchants are seeking trade in Japan, South America, or any other part of the world, they wish to be assured that their lives and property will be safe there. This means that a treaty must be established between the United States and the foreign country, arranging for trade rights, legal protection, and other things necessary to the welfare and safety of people doing business in foreign lands. Ambassadors or ministers must be exchanged in order that each nation may have an official representative in the other country concerned. Consuls must be sent from each coun- try to the principal cities of the other, to look after the rights and interests of their fellow countrymen who may be there. Thus commercial relations lead to diplomatic relations. The Family of Nations. — Even if our nation wished to keep entirely to itself, it would not be able to do so. The World War has demonstrated that it is quite impossible for us not to be affected very seriously by warfare in Europe, no matter how much we may desire to remain neutral. For these and other reasons, it is necessary for us to give up our policy of "no entangling alliances" and "splendid isolation." We must definitely face the fact that we are a part of the family of nations and have our share of respon- 210 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP sibility for making the world free from war or the fear of wai , and also for helping to improve the social and economic conditions of other peoples. Just as no man in the com- munity can say, "It is none of my business if others fight, are dirty, are poor, or have diseases," so it is no longer pos- sible for any nation to say the same thing. Commerce and communication have made the people of the world depend- ent on one another. The problem confronting our nation, therefore, is how we can best help to make a world where there is no war, no poverty, no misery, no disease, and no conditions which help to tear us all down. This problem is not ours alone. Every civilized country is facing it to- day, and many attempts have been made to solve it. One of the most interesting of these is the League of Nations. The League of Nations.— At the conclusion of the World War, the treaty which was signed by most of the nations concerned, known as the Treaty of Versailles, contained the plan, or covenant, for a League of Nations with per- manent headquarters at Geneva, Switzerland. This League of Nations is intended to prevent wars by removing their causes so far as possible, by providing for the peace- able solution of disputes which ordinarily lead to war, and by undertaking to help any member of the League against attacks from other nations. The United States did not become a member of the League of Nations, but it is well understood abroad, as well as at home, that our earnest desire is to avoid war; and our influence in world affairs is felt to be on the side of peace. Though we are not included in the League of Nations, an American, Dr. John Bassett Moore, is a member of the Court of International Justice established by the League to settle disputes between various countries. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 211 The Disarmament Conference. — In 1921 the United States invited several of the most important nations to send representatives to a conference at Washington, to consider the question of disarmament. This conference met in November of that year. It was found necessary to hmit the conference to the discussion of naval disarmament, leaving the question of land disarmament for future settle- ment. The work of the conference was embodied in several important treaties, which were signed by the representatives of the various countries affected by them. The United States, Great Britain, France, and Japan signed a treaty pledging themselves to respect one another's possessions in the Pacific Ocean, and to build no more fortifications there. These nations, and Italy, signed a treaty which binds them to refrain from using submarines to attack merchant ships in time of war, and from using poison gas. Important treaties in regard to China's relations with other nations, especially with Japan, were signed. One of the most important of the several treaties which were entered into at this conference is the "five-power treaty," which binds the United States, Great Britain, France, Japan, and Italy to reduce their navies according to the specifications contained in the agreement and to limit future navy building very strictly. The so-called "naval holiday" which this treaty is de- signed to bring about will, if faithfully observed, have two desirable results. In the first place, it will mean a consider- able lightening of the burden of taxation which the building of large navies has placed upon the people of the three great naval powers (the United States, Great Britain, and Japan). Its more important result, however, will be the 212 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP removal of the fear that one nation desires to conquer another by means of its naval strength, since the reduced size of the various navies suits them for defense rather than conquest. As fear of attack is one of the motives leading people into war, the removal of this fear will be a great step toward the establishment of permanent peace. America's Position Today. — It is evident that we occupy a very different position in the world, from that which we held at the beginning of our life as a nation. Our vast territory, our large population, and our great national wealth have given us an importance which we did not formerly possess. Our influence in world affairs is now so great that we must make a special effort to use it well. We must endeavor to set an example of democracy at its best, and to lead the world forward toward the goal of universal peace and social justice. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. What did President Washington mean by "entangling alli- ances" ? Give reasons why his advice to avoid participation in European affairs was sound at the time. 2. Explain fully how circumstances have changed so that it is now impossible for us to keep entirely to ourselves. 3. Why did we enter the World War? Read everything you can find which will help you to answer this ciuestion. 4. What do you conclude as to the possibility of avoiding all share in the concerns of other nations? 5. What is a League of Nations? In order to make it a success, what must be the attitude of all the great nations, and of the indi- vidual citizens? 6. Read in magazines and books a full account of the work of the naval disarmament conference at Washington in 1921. CHAPTER XLII THE FUTURE OF AMERICA Forces That Control our Future. — If we try to look ahead and to imagine the future of our country, we must first take into consideration certain great forces which have controlled our national life to a very large extent ever since we became a nation, and which will control us even more in the future. These forces may be said to be the enormous development in the use of machinery, the growth of rapid communication, the improvement and the spread of educa- tion, the development of the democratic spirit, and the rapid growth of the spirit of cooperation. All these factors have played and are playing a significant role in the devel- opment of all the countries in the world, but in no place, perhaps, more than in the United States. Development of Machinery. — In a very real way, the thousands of machines that we have developed give us the equivalent of millions and millions of untiring hands work- ing for us day and night. While other countries also use a great deal of machinery, perhaps no other land can use it so profitably as the United States. Because we have not had relatively such a large population as many European countries, and our scale of wages has been very high, we have developed more machines than other countries to do the work of men. Moreover, our large tracts of agricul- tural land make farming by machinery profitable; whereas in some of the smaller countries of Europe with their 213 214 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP tiny plots of land, such things as steam or traction plows, thrashing machines, binders, and harvesting machinery could not be used to advantage. By the proper use of machinery, in our large land of wonderful resources it is possible for us to produce enough so that every single person can live in health, comfort, and happiness. With these millions of iron hands toiling con- tinually for us, we can produce enough goods of all sorts to abolish poverty and to do away with the bad conditions that cause disease. Thus to a large extent we could prevent crime and misery, for most crime and misery are caused by poverty and disease. Development of Rapid Communication. — The second great factor that we shall consider is a result of the first. Because of the development of steamships, railroads, airships, telephones, telegraphs, wireless, and radio, the world is for all practical purposes very much smaller than when this country was first established. It takes scarcely longer to go from end to end of the United States now than it took our fathers to travel from New York to Philadelphia or from Philadelphia to Washington. We can telephone to any place in the United States within a few moments. By the use of radio and telephone, people in the Catalina Island off the California coast can exchange direct con- versation with people on a steamship far off the Atlantic coast. With radio, people all over the country can listen to lectures and concerts in New York, Chicago, San Fran- cisco, and many other places. Such possibilities of com- munication were undreamed of a half-century ago. Learning to Know One Another. — But why, you may ask, is this great development in communication a large factor in the future of our country? In the first place, THE FUTURE OF AMERICA 215 we are now linked up with all the rest of the world in a way that we have never been before. Every morning we read what is happening not only in our own land, but in every land under the sun. In hundreds of magazines we see pictures and descriptions of other peoples. In our moving pictures we see events from all parts of the world that hap- pened only a short time before. When we become ac- quainted with people, be it only through description or picture, we soon lose our fear and distrust of them and come to understand them and respect them. Because of the rapid and convenient means of travel, people from all over the world are knowing one another better than has ever been possible before in the history of the world. This will gradually tend to draw all the people of the world closer together in cooperation. Drawing the World Together. — The mighty bands of commerce also are drawing us close together. We need the products of other lands in order to live our lives to the best advantage, and these foreign lands need our products. Because we have been among the first to develop these won- derful new inventions of communication, we shall be among the first to be interested in the other peoples of the world and to know and understand them. Because of our enor- mous wealth resulting from our natural resources, people have come here from all lands; they form a close bond of union between our country and other countries. Our wealth enables us to buy largely in the markets of other lands. Our extensive manufactures make us go all over the world seeking markets. Through these ways, therefore, we shall be among the first to know the people of all the world. For all these reasons, we are in a position to become one of the great leaders in the Hfe of the world. America should 216 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP stand, and must stand, a leader in the future development of a world fit for everyone to live in. Drawing the Nation Together. — Rapid communication is also a most important factor in helping us as a nation to work together. Does anyone suppose that without all the telephones, telegraphs, railroads, automobiles, and airships which we employed within a few weeks after we entered the great war, we could have united so quickly, almost as one family? Now these same means of communication are helping us to unite in carrying on, with the same coopera- tion, the works of peace. Development of Education. — Education was named in the beginning of this chapter as one of the great factors that will influence the life of America in the future. How will it do this? As we become better educated, we shall invent more machinery to do things for us; and as we have seen before, the proper use of machinery tends to make a better and higher civilization. Not only will the use of machinery help us to make more products, but it will enable us to have more free time to study, travel, and play. Education will also help us to make better plans for our industrial life. If everyone were well educated, we could undoubtedly pro- duce much more than we can at present. But education will help us in other ways, too. It will help us to understand much better the world in which we live. When we really understand the causes of disease, poverty, and our other ailments, we shall know much better how to fight them. When we understand our relationships with one another better, we shall be able to work together in a way that we never have done before. The better edu- cated we are, the easier it is for us to cooperate. The Democratic Spirit. — The fourth factor of profound THE FUTURE OF AMERICA 217 significance, not only in this country but also in all the world, is the development of the democratic spirit. This is the rapidly developing feeling that each person should be free: free to develop all his powers and capabilities through working in harmony with others. If we stop to think about it, we see that this is the only way in which we can be free. Am I more free when I take a gun and have to protect myself all alone, or when I cooperate with all others in protecting society by helping to establish courts, pohce, and other means of protection? Am I more free when I have to depend on my own care in seeing that my milk, meat, and canned goods are pure, or when I contribute a small tax to the national government, the state government, and the city, and they look after all these things for me? Formerly men thought only of living under a government in which they were free from arbitrary oppression by kings and rulers. Now we wish to be free also from all those things that endanger our lives, our health, or our welfare. But freedom from these things can come only through co- operation. Cooperation: Learning to Work Together. — The fifth and perhaps the greatest factor that will influence our future is the factor of cooperation. In order to use our wonderful machinery in the best way, we must learn how to cooperate. Of what good is a vast machine that can turn out thousands of pairs of shoes a day, if because of con- flicts between the laborers and those who own it, the machine is idle? Even to use our machinery to the best advantage, we must learn how to work together. Because of our edu- cation and means of communication, we can the more easily understand one another, make plans on a larger scale, and so develop cooperation. 218 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP Cooperation in Government. — The greatest of all the agencies of cooperation at the present time are the different units of government — the city, county, state, and nation. It is largely through them and by them that we shall be able to solve the problems which must be met in order that we may live peaceful, healthful, prosperous, and happy lives. What, then, do we owe to these governments? In the first place, we should do everything in our power to make them the right kind of machines for carrying on our work. Just as a machine that is wrongly planned, not carefully watched and guarded, will fail to do good work, so governments that are not planned properly and are not carefully controlled by the citizens will fail to do efficient work. We must give our loyal support to our country, not only in times of war but also in times of peace. This means that we should give time to working on the problems which must be solved in government; that we should be willing to take our part in actually carrying on government if we are able to do so; that we should study the problems of government so as to learn how to vote properly on public questions. Our Future. — Evidently, then, in the future we shall use machinery much more than in the past. This will mean not only the production of more goods, but the setting free of time and energy for the higher things of life. We shall, through development in the means of communication, learn more and more how to appreciate and understand one another, and so we shall be willing to cooperate. Through development in education, we shall become able to produce more, to understand and solve our problems THE FUTURE OF AMERICA 219 better, and to cooperate in carrying on great enterprises for human welfare — great enterprises of government. Need of Changes in Government. — Because these factors are changing our lives rapidly and changing the ways that we view things, it may perhaps be necessary for us, from time to time, to make changes in the plan of government of city, state, and nation, in order that these governments may more efficiently do the work required of them. While we should not make changes unless we see clearly that they will be good for us, yet we should not be afraid of necessary improvements, any more than an automobile manufacturer is afraid to make a change if he is sure that it will improve his car. We should do as our ancestors did who helped make this country what it is today; that is, we should make the changes that are necessary for bettering conditions at the present time. Let us always remember the sound advice of Lord Macaulay: "It is time that we pay a decent rever- ence to our ancestors, not by doing what they under other circumstances did, but by doing what they under our cir- cumstances would have done." FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. If a steam plow can plow ten acres a day while a man and a team can plow only two, and it costs no more to run the plow than to feed a team of mules, who will be better off, the man with the steam plow or the man who uses the mules? What does this show as to the value of m^achinery? 2. Why can we u^i^e machinery to much better advantage than most other coimtries? 3. Point out three ways in which the rapid development of com- numication has made the people of the world more interested in one another's business than formerly. 4. Try discussing any subject in which you are much interested 220 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP with a person who has a good education and one who has little education. Which of these persons is the more free from prejudice, and which has the greater sympathy with your problem? 5. What effect has education upon men's attitude toward people of other lands? 6. Does the word deniocracij mean only the right to vote? What does it mean to you? CHAPTER XLIII AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP— A PRIVILEGE AND A RESPONSIBILITY Who Are the Citizens? — The Constitution of the United States declares that ''All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state in which they reside." The expression "subject to the jurisdiction thereof" means coming under the authority of the United States. If the ambassador from France and his wife should have a son born while they were living in Washington, this child would not be a citizen of the United States, even though born here, because he would be considered to come under the authority of France. Most persons born in this country, however, are subject to its jurisdiction; and of course when persons are naturalized, they place them- selves under its authority. All these persons, of every race and age, and of both sexes, are citizens of the United States. Citizens as Partners of the Nation. — What does it mean to be a citizen? First of all, it means that everyone is a partner in helping the nation to carry out its great prin- ciples of freedom, justice, and service. Even those who are too young to help decide public questions can aid in the work which must be done. Children as well as grown people did a great deal to win the World War; they are doing a great deal to promote public health; and there are 221 222 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP many other kinds of public work in which they can render valuable services. Privileges of Citizens. — To be a citizen of the United States means also the possession of certain rights and priv- ileges. It means that each one has a right to share in the services given by the government. For example, any citi- 1 JH H 1 ■s 1 S il i •If. m sBl'! ■Y~A ^^m 1 " 11 ■ ^ **^ ! ■ ,: "y^'^^^' . ;iH'^ ■ ^^^^^M -'-. -_— -^' — I^S.^ ■.Jg£^:^^ , kexviaa ' ! 1 IIP "''WW*. As ', >;d|BHipmP^ 1 ^ 4 These men are taking the oath of allegiance to the United States; that is, they are solemnly promising to renounce the authority of all other governments and to accept that of our government. zen may receive free of charge, upon his request, useful liter- ature on the raising of fruits and vegetables, methods of canning food products, the care of children, and many other topics. Every citizen of the United States is protected in many ways by the laws of the country. Every citizen shares in the benefits brought about by federal Pure Food laws, measures restricting immigration, and other useful laws. Every citizen has the right to his own religious AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP 223 views, to free speech, and to many things for which people are still struggHng in some countries. These are only a few of the rights and privileges enjoyed by citizens of the United States. Responsibilities of Citizens. — Every citizen has re- sponsibilities as well as privileges. If the public work is to be done well, each one must feel responsible for learn- ing what measures are right and desirable, and for working to see that these measures are carried out. If good citi- zens refuse to take this responsibility, there are always plenty of dishonest and undesirable persons who will quietly take charge of public affairs and manage them for personal profit rather than for the good of all. Each citizen is responsible for keeping before himself and before others the ideal of progress. No human insti- tution is perfect; and as conditions change, laws and public measures must be changed also. While we look to the great men of the past for help and inspiration, we must not be misled into making them our only guides. The needs of the present and our hopes for the future must always be kept in mind, so that our country may continue to be among the most progressive nations of the world. Studying Public Questions. — In order to exercise our responsibilities properly, we must all be willing to devote a part of our time to public affairs. Public questions demand careful study, and every good citizen ought to examine such questions from all sides. Even those too young to vote should do this, in order to gain a knowledge of these matters which will be useful later. Everyone who is privileged to vote should regard it as his duty to exercise this privi- lege, for he must remember that unless the people take part in public affairs, there can be no real democracy. As 224 EVERYDAY CITIZENSHIP soon as good citizens neglect public matters, they fall under the control of dishonest men, who are always seeking an opportunity to place themselves in power. Helping the Government. — Even more time than that devoted to the study of public questions and to voting should be given to the duties and responsibilities of citi- zenship. Whenever the government needs help, whether in conducting a baby-saving campaign, in fighting tuber- culosis, or in carrying on any other great enterprise, every citizen should be willing to give all the help that he possibly can. How Can We Make America a Leader? — We must always remember that a democratic nation is not a ma- chine which can be started and left; it is a partnership in which every citizen must do his share all the time. It is the hope and the cherished vision of every true American to see his country a leader among free nations, a land where liberty and justice prevail, where each citizen has the op- portunity to live a happy and useful life, and where the best and most progressive institutions flourish. But it takes hard work to make dreams come true, and the loyal citizen will be ready to do his share of the work. An intelli- gent, interested, helpful body of citizens, willing to cooperate for the good of all, can make America's future even greater than her splendid past. FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION 1. When is a person a citizen of the United States? Are citizens and voters the same? Explain. 2. Name some of the rights of citizens. 3. Name some of the duties of citizens. 4. Is it fair to ask for rights and privileges if we refuse to carry out our duties? Why? AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP 225 5. Can a democratic country succeed if citizens are selfish, lazy, and unconcerned about public affairs? Explain your answer, and describe the results of such an attitude. 6. Why is it necessary to think of progress? Is not our country great and rich already? 7. What do you think of the so-called good citizen who refuses to take an interest in politics because so many dishonest and selfish men are in control? Why do such men control pohtics? What is the remedy? 8. Why do public questions demand study? What is the use of looking at a question from all sides? 9. Why should citizens aid in carrjnlng out pubUc work? 10. What do you want America to be in the future? How can you show that this wish is genuine? 11. Write an article on the topic, "My Rights and My Duties as an American Citizen." SUGGESTIONS FOR OUTSIDE READING General Reference Beard, Charles A., Ainerican Government and Politics, Mac- millan, 1914. Beard, Charles A., Readings in American Government and Politics, Macmillan, 1911. Leacock, Stephen, Elements of Political Science, Houghton Mifflin, Revised edition, 1920. Willoughby, W. F., Introduction to the Studtj of the Government of Modern States, Century, 1919. Wilson, Woodrow, The State. Special Edition, December, 1918, Heath. Local Government Streets Munro, W. B., Principles and Methods of Municipal Adminis- tration, Macmillan. Police and Justice Fold, L. F., Police Administration, Putnam. Beard, Charles A., American City Government, Century, 1912. Fire Fighting and Prevention Munro, W. B., Principles and Methods of Municipal Adminis- tration, Macmillan. Health and Sanitation Hill, H. W., The New Public Health, Macmillan, 1916. The Water Supply Folwell, A. P., Water Supply Engineering, Wiley, 1917. 227 228 SUGGESTIONS FOR OUTSIDE READING Disposal of Garbage, Sewage, etc. Munro, W. B., Principles and Methods of Municipal 'Adminis- tration, Macmillan. Baker, M. N., Municipal Engineering and Sanitation. Public Schools Dutton and Snedden, The Administration of Public Education in the United States, Macmillan. Recreation and General Welfare Lyle, W. T., Parks and Park Engineering, Wiley, 1916. Beard, Charles A., American City Government, Century, 1912. The Mayor-Council Plan Munro, W. B., The Government of American Cities, Chap. VIII, Macmillan. The Commission and the Commission-Manager Plans Munro, W. B., The Government of American Cities, Chaps. Ill, XII, XV, Macmillan. The Township-County Government Fairlie, J. A., Local Government in Counties, Towns, and Vil- lages, Century, 1906. Maxey, C. C, County Administration, 1919. King, C. L. (Ed.), County Government, Annals of the American Academy, Vol. 47, 1913. State Government Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics, Chaps. XXII to XXXII, Macmillan. Munro, W. B., The Government of the United States, Chaps. XXVII to XXXVI, Macmillan. Mathews, J. M., Principles of American State Administration, Appleton, 1917. Holcombe, A. N., State Government in the United States, Mac- millan. Whipple, G. C, State Sanitation, Harvard University Press. Jenks, Edward, The State and the Nation. SUGGESTIONS FOR OUTSIDE READING 229 Party Government in the United States Hadley, A. T., Undercurrents in American Politics, Yale Uni- versity Press. Ray, P. O., Introduction to Political Parties and Practical Politics, Scribners. Woodburn, J. A., Political Parties and Party Problems in the United States, Putnam. The Federal Government Beard, Charles A., American Government and Politics, Mac- millan. Munro, W. B., The Government of the United States, Macmillan. Young, James T., The New American Government and Its Work, Macmillan. Bryce, James, The American Commonwealth, Macmillan. Fairlie, J. A., The National Administration of the United States, Macmillan. Ashley, R. L., The American Federal State, Macmillan. Yard, R. S., Book of National Parks, Scribners, 1919. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES PREAMBLE We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the com- mon defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Con- stitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct taxes i shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their re- spective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole num- ber of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons. ^ The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three ; Massachusetts, eight ; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one ; Connecticut, five ; New York, six ; New Jersey, four ; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one ; Maryland, six ; Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five ; South Carolina, five ; and Georgia, three. 1 See the Sixteenth Amendment. 2 See the Fourteenth Amendment. 230 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 231 When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the execu- tive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker, and other ofl5cers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Benators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have one vote.i Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year ; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year ; of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. Whea sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to re- moval from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. Section 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legis- lature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meet- ing shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Section 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to » See the Seventeenth Amendment. 232 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its mem- bers for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel & member. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any ques- tion shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Section 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensa- tion for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his con- tinuance in office. Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objection at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration, two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within tea days (Sunday excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 233 and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States and with the Indian tribes ; To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States ; To establish post-offices and post-roads ; To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations ; To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; To provide and maintain a navy ; To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions. To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the militia and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline pre- scribed by Congress ; To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings ; — and To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into 234 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES execution the foregoing powers, and all other powera vested by this Con- stitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. Section 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not bo prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless ■when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken.' No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of ap- propriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. Section 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any impost or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and impost, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships-of-war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four 1 See the Sixteenth Amendment. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 235 years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows : Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or representative, or person holding any office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. The electors ' shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the eame State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persona voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall sign and certify and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said house shall, in like manner, choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice President. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years resident within the United States. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what officer shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 1 See the Twelfth Amendment. 236 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensa- tion which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faith- fully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." Section 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive depart- ments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose ap- pointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be estab- lished by law : but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such meas- ures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagree- ment between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive am- bassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Section 4. The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and con- viction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors, ARTICLE III Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at CONSTITUTION^ OF THE UNITED STATES 237 stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. Section 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; — to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; — to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; — to controversies between two op more States ; — between a State and citizens of another State ; i — between citizens of different States ; — between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Section 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only ia levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE ^V Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Section 2. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, * See the Eleventh Amendment. 238 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Section 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence. ARTICLE V The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption, of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the confederation. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the LTnited States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATEb 239 ARTICLE VII The ratification of the Conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the eame. AMENDMENTS Amendments I-X were adopted in 1791; XI in 1798; XII in 1804; XIII in 1865; XIV in 1868 ; XV in 1870; XVI and XVII in 1913 ; XVIII in 1919. ARTICLE I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for redress of grievances. ARTICLE II A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre- Bcribed by law. ARTICLE IV The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the person or things to be seized. ARTICLE V No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war and public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of hfe or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. ARTICLE VI In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the 240 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have com- pulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assist- ance of counsel for his defense. ARTICLE VII In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of common law. ARTICLE VIII Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be con- strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. ARTICLE XI The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against any of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. ARTICLE XII The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an in- habitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice President, and of the number of votes for each, which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the presi- dent of the Senate ; — the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; — the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 241 majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the foiu-th day of March next following, then the Vice Presi- dent shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice President, shall be the Vice President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole num- ber shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally in- eligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap- propriate legislation. ARTICLE XIV Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representa- tion therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such 242 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President or Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who having previously taken oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have en- gaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, au- thorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV Section 1. The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap- propriate legislation. ARTICLE XVI The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. ARTICLE XVII Section 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. Section 2. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of elec- tion to fill such vacancies : Provided, That the Legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED^ STATES 243 Section 3. Thia amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. ARTICLE XVIII Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manu- facture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all terri- tory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited. Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the Legislatures of the sev- eral States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress. ARTICLE XIX Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of eex. Section 2. Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by ap- propriate legislation. INDEX Agricultural colleges, 106 Agriculture, Department of, 164, 165, 191 improved methods of, 164, 165 Secretary of, 189 Allegiance, oath of, 222 Alliances with foreign nations, 208 Amendments, to federal Con- stitution, 173, 239 to state constitutions, 97, 98 Americanization, 65, 194-196 Amusen^.ents, city provisions for, 68, 69 Appointments, by governor, 132, 177 by President, 177, 188, 189 Army of the United States, 144, 145, 185 control of, 144, 145, 190 size of, 144-145 Articles of Confederation, 138, 139 Assembly, state, 126 Attorney General, federal, 189 prosecuting, 123 Autocracy, 3 Automobile, license fees, 136 Ballot, 88, 89 Banks, regulation of, 101 Bill of Rights, 95 Birth record, 42 Bhnd, care of, 99, 112 Bonds, government, 101, 168 Borrowing money, by govern- ment, 168, 169, 178 Budget, system, 169, 170 law of 1921, 169, 170 Building, code, 36 inspection of, 41 Business, regulation by govern- ment, 10, 96, 97, 101 Cabinet, 189-191 Canals, construction of, 97, 136 Census, 191 Charter of city, 72, 77, 78 Childien, care of, 100 care of homeless, 110, 111 care of wayward, 9, 110 Children's Bureau, 11, 191 Circuit courts of appeals, 186 Citizen, definition of, 221 privileges of, 222, 223 responsibilities of, 197-199, 223, 224 City, affairs controlled by, 13, 14 charter, 72, 77, 78 council, 73 courts, 121 government, by commission- manager plan, 81, 82 by commission plan, 77-79 by mayor-council plan, 73-76 manager, 81, 82 officers of, 73, 77-78, 81, 82 organization of, 72-82 Collection of taxes, 89 Colleges, 106 agricultural, 106, 107 municipal, 64 245 246 INDEX Commerce, bureau of, 191 Department of, 191 foreign, 142, 143, 148, 149, 179, 208, 209, 215, 216 interstate, 143, 152, 153, 179, 180 national control of, 137, 138 regulation by Congress, 178-180 Secretary of, 189 Commission form of city govern- ment, 77-80 Commissioner-Manager plan of city government, 80-82 Commissioner, of city, 77-81 of county, 89 of health, 39, 117 Committees in Congress, 169 in state assembly, 128-129 Communication, systems of, 10, 208, 214 Community centers, 69 Concerts, free, 66 Confederation, Articles of, 138 Conference at Washington, 211 Congress, continental, 138, 139 members of, 175 powers of, 144, 145, 175, 177-180 Conservation, need for, 160, 161 of foiests, 160-162 of food, 145 of land, 163, 164 of minerals, 162, 163 of natural resources, 160-165 Constitution, adoption of, 140 amendments of, 97, 172, 173, 239 federal, 93, 171-173, 230 state, 94-98 Constitutional Convention, 140 Consular, bureau, 190 service, 209 Continental Congress, 138,139 Convention, Constitutional, 140 Presidential, 204, 205 Cooperation, in government, 217, 218 spirit of, 213 Copyrights, 180 Corporations, government con- trol of, 96 taxes on, 135 County, clerk, 90 courts, 87, 122 government, 15, 16, 87-90 jail, 87, 124, 125 judicial system in, 87 records, 90 work of, 87-90 Course of study, school, 60 Courts, cases tried in, 183, 184 circuit, 122, 186 city, 121 civil, 30, 31 county, 87, 122 district, 122, 186 federal, 182-187 juvenile, 31, 122 municipal, 121 of appeal, 186 of International Justice, 210 police, 30 probate, 122 special, 122, 186 state, 120-122 superior, 122 supreme, federal, 184-186; state, 122 traffic, 31 Crime, prevention of, 19, 20, 26, 27. (See Police.) Crippled, care of, 112 Currency, 143, 180 INDEX 247 Deaf, care of, 9, 112 Death, rate, 39, 42 records, 42 Debt, national, 168, 169 Defense, national, 7, 139, 144-147 under Articles of Confederation, 139 Delinquents, care of, 110 Democracy, definition of, 3 fundamental principles of, 197, 198 spirit of, 212, 213, 216, 217 Democratic party, 149, 202, 203 Departments, of city govern- ment, 19-82 of government, 95, 96 of national government, 174- 191 of state government, 118-134 of the President's cabinet, 181- 191 Desert Land Act, 164 Diplomatic, bureau, 190 relations, 209 Disarmament Conference, 211 Disease. {See Health). District courts, 122, 186 Divisions of government, 13, 18 Duties, 167. (See Tariff.) Education, boards of, 62, 81, 105 bureau of, 9, 191 compulsory, 60, 61 course of study, 60 exhibits to j^romote, 66 federal work for, 194 for citizenship, 216 for the handicapped, 112 higher, 106 in fire prevention, 37 of prisoners, 125 Education, professional, 106 special agencies for, 64-66 to prevent tuberculosis, 111, 112 work of city for, 59-66 work of county for, 87 work of state for, 96, 99, 105- 107 {See Schools.) Elections, boards of, 88 in initiative and referendum, 129 influence of parties in, 204-207 local, 205, 206 of President, 204, 205 of Vice President, 204, 205 state, 127, 128 Electoral College, 205 Employment service, 70, 191, 196 Excess profits tax, 168 Executive department, defined, 131 of nation, 188-191 of state, 131-133 Exports, 148 Federal government, 137-224 trade commission, 152, 153 Feeble-minded, care of, 109, 110 Fence-viewer, 85 Filtration of water, 46, 47 Finances, of national govern- ment, 167-170 of state, 1.34-136 Fire, alarm signals, 35 apparatus for fighting, 33 Department, 34, 35 losses from, 33, 35-36 methods of preventing, 36-37 Fisheries, bureau of, 191 Five-Power Treaty, 211 Food, administration, 145 inspection of, 40, 41, 102, 115 Pure Food Act, 11 248 INDEX Foreign commerce, 139, 142, 143, 148, 149, 179, 208, 209, 215, 216 mail service, 10, 155 relations, 142, 143, 208-212 Forest, conservation of, 160-162, 191 Fuel administration, 145 Galveston, Texas, 77, 78, 79, 80 Gambling, 70 Garbage, methods of removing, 51-53 Government, autocratic, 3 definition of, 3 democratic, 3-5, 197, 198 divisions of, 13-18 functions of, 6-12 need of, 1-2 of city, 13-15, 1^84 of county, 15, 16, 87-90 of nation, 15, 137-224 of state, 15, 91-136, 171, 172 of township, 15, 16 representative, 3 responsibilities of, 11 Governor, influence of, 131-133 qualifications of, 131 powers of, 131-133 Handicapped, helping the, 112 Health, boards of, 39-43, 115, 117 campaigns, 42, 116, 117 Department, 39-43, 117 government control of, 9 in buildings, 41 in schools, 40 sewage, a menace to, 55, 115 work of city for, 39-43 work of state for, 114-117 Hospital service, 41, 42 House of representatives, na- tional, 175 of state legislatures, 126-128 Immigration, 143, 149-152, 195 need for restricting, 149, 150 bureau of, 151, 152 Imports, 148, 149 Income taxes, 135, 168 Inheritance tax, 135 Initiative, 129 Insane, care of, 9, 17, 109 Inspection of factories, 41, 116, 117 of food, 40, 41, 102, 115 of public buildings, 41 of schools, 107 of weights and measures, 102 Institutions, care of special classes, 8, 99, 109-112 Insurance, governmental, 11 state control of, 96 Interior, Department of, 191 Secretary of, 189 International, alliances, 208-212 postal union, 10 Interstate commerce, 143, 152, 153, 179, ISO Irrigation, 164 Jail, county, 87, 124, 125 Judge, 119, 120, 123, 124 functions of, 29 Judicial system, of city, 30 of county, 87 of nation, 182-187 of state, 118-124 Jury, 119, 122-124 Justice, administration of, 8 Department of, 190 of supreme court, 169 of the peace, 121 Juvenile court, 31, 122 INDEX 249 Labor, Department of, 191 Secretary of, 189 Land, conservation of, 164, 165 made from waste, 53 Laws, criminal, 102 for protection of citizens, 102 kinds of, 100-102 need for, 100 regarding business, 101 regarding personal relation- ships, 100 regarding property, 100, 101 state, 99-102 League of Nations, 210 Lectures, free, 66 Legislative department, of nation, 175-180 of state, 126-130 Legislature, state, 126-129 of two houses, 126, 127 Libraries, 66 Licenses, 136 Life-saving service, 190 Lighthouse bureau, 191 Losses from fire, 33, 36, 37 Lynching, 8 Machinery, influence of, 213, 214 Markets, bureau of, 191 Marriage, laws regarding, 100 Mayor, 73-77 Mayor-council plan of city gov- ernment, 72-76 Military power of Congress, 144, 180 of governor, 132, 133 of President, 145 Militia, state, 132, 133 Minerals, conservation of, 162, 163 Mint at Philadelphia, 142 Money, coining, 143, 180, 190 Moving-picturelhouses, 69 Municipal courts, 121. (»SeeCity.) Museums, 66 National debt, 168, 169 defense, 7, 139, 144-147 National government, 15-17, 137- 224 departments of, 175-191 development of, 137-141 limitations on, 172 need for, 137, 138 powers of, 171, 172 work of, 142, 143 Natural resources, conservation of, 160-165 kinds of, 160 Naturalization, 143, 191, 221, 222 Naval Disarmament Conference, 211 Holiday, 211 Navigation, bureau of, 191 Navy, 145, 147 Department, 190 Secretary of, 147, 189 reduction of, 147, 211, 212 Normal schools, 64 Panama Canal, 178 Parcel post, 143, 155 Pardons, 133, 190 Parish, 87 Parks, 68, 191 Parties, political, 201-207 aims of, 204 history of, 201, 202 in local elections, 205, 206 organization of, 204 principles of, 206 reasons for, 201 250 INDEX Parties, responsibility for officers, 206, 207 Patents, 180, 191 Peace, steps towards permanent, 210-212 Pensions, 191 Playgrounds, 69 Police, 26-29 courts, 30 department, 26-31 duties of, 26-29 traffic, 27 training schools for, 29 women, 28 Political parties, 201-207 Poll tax, 135 Population of United States, 163 Porto Rico, 180 Post Office Department, 10, 155- 158, 190 expenses of, 158 revenues of, 145 Postal, money orders, 157 savings banks, 143, 156, 157 service, 10, 143, 155-158 Postmaster General, 157, 158, 189 Pound-keeper, 85 President, cabinet of, 189-191 duties of, 188, 189 election of, 204, 205 military powers of, 145 term of, 188 veto power of, 189 Presiding officer of state legisla- tures, 128 Prisons, 124, 125, 190 Prohibition, amendment, 173, 243 party, 204 Property, inheritance ofj 100, 135 laws regarding, 100 tax, 89, 134, 135 Property, transfer of, 100, 101 Protective tariff, 148 Quarantine, 40 Radio, 214 Railroads, control of, 96, 97, 143, 179, 180 Rainwater, disposal of, 56, 57 Reclamation of arid lands, 164, 191 Recreation, 68-70 Referendum, 129 Regents, board of, 105 Representative democracy, 4 Representatives, election of, 128, 175 House of, 4, 126-129 number of, 175 qualifications of, 175 term of, 175 Republican party, 149, 202 Revenue, fedeial, 158, 190 state, 134-136 Roads, care of, 89 construction of, 89, 97, 135, 191, 193 Rubbish, sorting and destroying, 53, 54 making land from, 53 Rural mail dehvery, 155, 156 Sanitary code, 39 Sanitation. (See Health.) Schools, attendance at, 107 boards, 62, 81, 105 buildings, 61-62 course of study in, 60 elementary, 60-61 financial aid for, 105, 106, 194 for training policemen, 29 health in, 40 high, 61, 106 INDEX 251 Schools, inspection of, 107 night, 64, 65 special classes in, 64 superintendent of, 62, 81, 105 vocational, 61, 64 {See Education.) Secret service, 190 Secretary, of Agriculture, 189 of Commerce, 189 of Labor, 189 of the Navy, 147, 189 of State, national, 189 of the Interior, 189 of the Treasury, 189 of War, 145, 189 Selectmen, 85 Senate, state, 126-128 United States, 175-177, 188 Senators, United States, election of, 176, 177 number of, 175, 176 qualifications of, 177 term of, 176 Sewage, 55, 56, 114, 115 Sheriff, 90 Smith-Hughes Act, 194 Snow, removal of, 22, 23 Social welfare, 11, 96 Socialist party, 203 Soldiers, care of old and disabled, 112 Speaker of assembly, 128 Special classes, care of, 99, 109-112 in schools, 64 State, affairs controlled by, 14 Department of, 189, 190 finances, 134-136 functions of, 99 government, 15, 91-136, 171, 172 judicial system, 118-125 State, laws, 100-103 legislature, 126-129 officers of, 95, 96 powers of, 92, 93, 171, 172 prison, 124, 125 size of, 92 supervision of schools, 62, 99, 105-107 taxes, 134-136 universities, 106 Streets, advantages of good, 20 cleaning, 21, 22 lighting, 23, 24 paving, 20, 21 Superintendent of scK'vils, 62, 81, 105 Supreme court, national, 184— 186 state, 122 Surrogate court, 122 Tariff, 148, 167, 202, 203 commission, 149 for revenue only, 148 protective, 148 Taxation, as result of "naval holiday," 211 power of Congress, 177, 178 rate of, 89 Taxes, 97 collection of, 89 corporation, 135 definition of, 89 excess profits, 168 excise, 167 income, 135, 168 inheritance, 135 poll, 135 property, 89, 134, 135 state, 134, 135 252 INDEX Theaters, 69 Thiift stamps, 157 Town meeting, in New England, 84,85 Township, government of, 15, 16, 84-86 Traffic police, 27 courts, 31 Treasury, Deixirtment, 190 Secretaiy of, 189 Treaties, Five-Power, 211 foreign, 209, 210, 211 of Naval Disarmament Con- ference, 211 on relations with China, 211 ratification of, 177, 188 Treaty of Versailles, 210 Trial, by jury, 122-124 Tuberculosis, prevention of, 9, 66, 111-112, 114, 115, 117 Typhoid fever, 114 Universities, 64, 106, 107 Versailles, Treaty of, 210 Veto power of governor, 132 of President, 189 Vice President, election of, 204, 205 Voting, 59, 79, 96, 97. {See Elec- tions.) War, Department, 190 declaration of, 180 powers of Congress, 180 Secretary of, 145, 189 The World War, 111, 112, 144- 147, 168, 180, 210, 211, 221 War savings stamps, 157 Waste, disposal of, 51-57 making land from, 53 reason for removal, 51, 52 Water, chemical treatment of, 47 filtration of, 46, 47 _^ hard, 47, 48 paying for use of, 48 preventing waste of, 49 protection of, 114, 115 supply, 45-49, 115 Weather Bureau, 191 Weights and measures, 102, 180 Wills, 101 Wilson, President, 8, 146 Woman suffrage, 173 Women on poUce force, 28 This book is DUE on the last date stamped helow PEB 8 mi ^f P?EC'0 MLB) MARI5I9SH Form L-9-15to-7,'32 Ut oUU I ncni^ "■-" iiiriini ii 111 11 AA 000 558 284 6 2