f'-fX> .^HIBRARY6>/r <^l ilB -< > ■XI C3 ■33 > 2: ^^WE-lJNIVERS/A < FOff^ ^^WEUNIVER% i =0 >4, -vOF-r ^ ■y, .^N?>' 0-' mo/t, . l^T-- -T- c^" "Y/0^ ^ •^\lFI!NIVr??,V/; .vin'v.ivrnrr, vn.- < — n -^ r"-' (3 CD cm ^. >- T AWEUNIVERS/a s ^VlOSANGElfj^x. %Ji3AINn-3WV' CX3 - =o Cr >;lOSANCElfx^ -n <-J O .5' cp *r' rJNVSOV^" %a3AINflJV\V ^111BRARYQ<- -s^^ "^" ' '"^'0/^. aWEUNIV' ^ '^^OJITVDJO'f^ 4? ^~\;OFCA[IF0/?^ K^ C5 i>0 ^-^ Cc: 'IBRARYOr 30 -o^^-llBRARYO^, )jO>^ -^(tfOJIlVJ-JO"^ 33 ^^MEUNIVER% ^illBRARV6)/-^ ^^^^ HBRARY^)/:^ O i( % 33 1-- '^OJIlVJjO'i^ -11 < (vcrAiicnn '9r ^OFCAllFOff^ vr ' i? ^ ' - > THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS PEORIA, ILLINOIS Copyright 1916 by Scott, Foresman and Company 33 ROLI-t27 ... -r ... • • • • • _ - . . • » , •>. •.<".". « . ... • . » . • . . • . « • •• ■ •« • Printed in llic United Slale.i of America PREFACE Place for the Book. As a textbook, Industrial Arts Design is a practical guide for designing in wood, clay, and l)ase and precious metals. It is intended for individual student use in the High Schools, Normal Schools, and Colleges and as a reference book for elementary school teachers. Its more complex problems are intended as definite helps to the industrial arts designer or craftsman. The wood prob- lems are treated with special reference to their adaptability to bench and cabinet work. Need of the Book. It has been written to fill a decided demand for a textbook that shall, without loss of time, directly apply well- recognized principles of general design to specific materials and problems encountered in the Industrial Arts. A brief description of the decorative processes adapted to the materials under discussion with the design principles directly applying to these processes, insures designs that may be worked out in the studio or shop. It is hoped that this provision will eliminate the large number of impractical designs that are frequently entirely unfitted to the technic of the craft. This lack of mutual technical understanding between the teacher of design and the shop work instructor is the cause of friction that it is hoped will be removed by the methods advocated in these pages. The Author s Motive. It has been the intention to reduce unre- lated and abstract theories to a mininuim and reach directly rules and conclusions that shall be applical)le to typical materials in com- mon use in the schools and industries. The original conception materialized in the pul)lication of a series of articles upon Design in the Itidustrial Arts Magazine, in 191.5. These articles were fav- orably received and their results in the schools proved highly satis- factory. Through this encouragement, the articles have been re})rinted in book form, enriched by the addition of illustrations, review questions, and three chaj)ters on color with its ap])licati()ns. Industrial Arts Dlskjn develops the princijjles of industrial design in a new and logical form which, it is believed, will simj)lify the teaching of craft design. Chapters I to V deal with the elemen- tary problems confronting the designer as he begins the first steps on liis working drawing; Clia])ters ^M to ^TTT sliow the methods by which he may express his in(hvi(hiahty through contour or outline eiiricliment, while Chapters JX to XVII ex])lain tlie treatment of tiie most (hfticult form of decoration, that of surface enrichment. The Appendix. 'V\\v a])p('n(lix is added to show I lie maimer in i i<^ l^J^^J which the rules may be directly applied to a course of study in either pottery or art metal. The present work is not intended to include the chemistry of glaze mixing or other technical requirements to which reference is made in the appendix; consequently the reader is referred to "The Potter's Craft" by C. F. Binns and "Pottery" by George J. Cox for fuller explanations of the formulae and technical- ities of the craft. Source of Principles. The principles herein advocated are directly related to architectural design which is to be regarded as the standard authority for the industrial arts designer. It w^as necessary to state these princij)les in the form of sufficiently flexible rules which would allow the student to use his own judgment, but at the same time, restrict him to the essential principles of good design. Rules. This presentation of the principles of design by means of flexible rules in concrete form, serves to vitalize design by virtue of their inmiediate application to the material. The rules likewise save time for both pupil and instructor. This is regarded as an important factor, inasmuch as the amount of time usually allotted to classroom teaching of design is limited. While these rules are applied to the specific materials, the designer may readily adjust them to other materials and find them equally applicable. Direct copying of designs from the illustrations is a dangerous expedient and is to be discouraged as a form of plagiarism which will eventually destroy the student's initiative, originality, and reputation for creative w^ork. Results. From the tests so far observed, it has been seen that under design guidance, the projects become more noticeably indi- vidual in character, lighter and better in construction, and more fully adjusted to their environment. The student's interest and initiative in his work are strengthened, and he completes the truly valuable cycle of the educative process of evolving his own idea and crystal- lizing it in the completed work. It is hoped that this book will tend to develop higher standards of good design in schools, industrial establishments, and the home. In conclusion, the author expresses his thanks to the following for their valuable suggestions and assistance in contributed illus- trations: Miss D. F. Wilson, Miss Edna Howard, Miss Elizabeth Upham, Miss A. M. Anderson, Mr. J. M. Dorrans, Mr. J. B. Robinson, author of "Architectural Composition," and others to whom reference is made in the text. If /• jjr- • William Harrison Varnum. M aaison, Wisconsin. April, J916. [4] CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. Divisions of Industrial Arts Design 7 II. The Primary Mass and Its Proportions .... 13 III. Horizontal Major Divisions of the Primary Mass 19 IV. Vertical Major Divisions of the Primary Mass . 33 V. Appendages and the Rules Governing Them ... 43 VI. Enrichment of the Contours or Outlines of Designs in Wood 57 VII. Enrichment of the Contours or Outlines of Designs in Clay 77 VIII. Enrichment of the Contours or Outlines of Designs in Base and Precious Metals 87 IX. Surface Enrichment of Small Primary Masses in Wood 99 X. Surface Enrichment of Small Priiniary Masses in Wood. (Continued) 117 XL Surface Enrichment with Minor Subdivisions of Large Primary Masses in Wood 133 XII. Surface Enrichment of Clay 145 XIII. Surface Enrichment of Precious Metals. Small Flat Planes 160 XIV. Surface Enrichment of Large Primary Masses in Base and Precious Metals 179 XV. Color: Hue, Value, and Chroma; Stains . . . .194 XVI. Color and Its Relation to Lndi strial Arts Design. Large Surfaces of Wood; Wall and Ceiling Areas 201 X^TI. Color and Its Relation to Ixdi strl\l Arts Design. Small Surfaces in Clay and Metal . . '■209 Complete Summary of Rules 218 Appendix 223 (a) A C()nij)l('l(' Course of Study for the A])])lied Arts \u Tlun Hase and I*i"eciou.s Metals. Rela- tion of the Rules to the Problems 224 (b) A C<)nij)lele Course of Study for the Aj)])lied Arts in Potlei-y. !{(>lation of the liides to the Problems 237 Lndkx 245 o INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN Chapter I DIVISIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN This book has been written with the view of presenting design from the standpoint of the industrial arts. An instructor generally experiences difficulty in finding the exact word to use when crit- icizing a student's drawing. The student has equal difhculty in understanding the criticism. There is little wonder that he is confused, when the rather ambiguous terms "good-looking," "ugly," "squatty," and "stiff" are used to express qualities that can be expressed only in terms of design. The lack of understanding between the pupil and the teacher may be compared to the attitude of the average individual "who knows w^hat he likes." He is on an equally insecure footing regarding industrial design. His reason for liking or disliking a certain thing may depend upon some whim or fancy, the poi)ular fashion of the times, or a desire to possess a duplicate of something he has seen. As a consumer with purchasing power, he should have the ability to analyze inteUigcntJy the contents of catalogs and store windows with the thought of securing the best in industrial art — something that may })e accepted as standard one hundred years from now. It is, therefore, the intention to present design of industrial character in its simplest form, freed from technicalities or ambiguous statements. It is intended to give the average individual not par- ticularly interested in drawing or design a knowledge of the subject, based upon principles that lune survived for hundreds of years in architectural monuments and history. It is possil)le llial the presentation of these principles may enable the instructor in the public schools to guide his pupil away from the heavy and expensive stereotyped designs, and by clear and simple crilicism, lead him to better forms of construction. He may also be [7J Non-technical Criticism Intelligent Analysis Results of Clear Criticism [8] Plate 1 19] helped to lead the pupil to design problems in harmony with his home surroundings and thus avoid the introduction of an inharmo- nious element into what may possibly be a harmonious setting. The teacher, pupil, or layman should use his knowledge of the subject as a basis for criticism or appreciation of the field of the industrial arts. In order to start successfully upon a design, it is necessary to know what qualities a good industrial article should possess. Whether one is designing a bird-house, a chocola,te set, or a gold pendant, the article must meet three needs: (1) It must be of service to the community or to the individual; (2) It must be made of some durable material; (3) It must possess beauty of proportion, outline, and color. Ruskin said that a line of beauty must also be a line of service. The "stream line body" in automobile construction is the result of the automobile maker's attempt to combine beauty with service. This is the attitude that should govern the union of beauty and service in all of the industrial arts. There are three divisions or phases in the designing of a struc- ture and its enrichment. These are: (1) Structural Design; ('■2) Contour Enrichment; (3) Surface Enrichment. Some objects are carried through onh' one of these divisions, while others are developed through all three of them. Plate 1, illustrative of the first division, deals naturally enough with the planning of the constructive or utilitarian lines of an object and its parts. It nuiy be termed Structural or Constructive Design. Questions of how high or how long an object should be, to harmonize with its width, the proper placing of rails, shelves, and brackets, I he determination of the greatest and least diameter of vase forms have to be decided in this i)eriod of Proj)ortions and S[)ace R(>lalions. The knowledge of tools and materials, and of the manner in wliich they may be used for constructive purposes, influences the solution of these questions and others wliich we shall shortly discuss. Strictly utilitarian objects are seldom carried past this stage of develoi)ment. Plate 2 indicates the next logical division — Contour Eiu'ichment — or the period of the enriclnneiil ol' llie structural outline or con- tour. The bounding Vwws, or contours, of the structure may be Requirements of an Indus- trial Problem Divisions in Design Evolution and Enrichment First Major Division Second Major Division [10] Plate 2 [11] enriched in many ways, as, for example, curving certain portions to soften the severity of the plain structure. The garden urn and small stool have contours treated in this manner. Chippendale, Sheraton, and Hepplewhite furniture, simplified to the accepted range of shop technic, vary the straight lines of mission furniture and come within the possible developments of this division. The cement fence post at C, Plate 2, is a strict utilitarian problem without interest. The post at D, enriched by a bevel, has equal utilitarian and increased aesthetic interest and value. Plate 3 illustrates the last division of evolution and concerns itself with the application of design to the surface of the otherwise complete structure. This division is commonly called applied surface design or decorative design. It is readily seen that this division should be considered after the structure has been carefully planned. To separate this division from the period of structural or contour enrichment we will call it Surface Enrichment. It may be seen from the foregoing discussion that a design may be carried through the following steps: (1) Blocking in the enclosing lines of the design, as at Figure B, Plate 2, adding to this whatever may be needed for structural purposes, keeping the lines as nearly vertical and horizontal as possible; (2) Enriching and varying the outline or contour. It is well for elementary wood workers to use this step with extreme caution, while less reserve is necessary in clay and metal; (3) After careful consideration in determining the need of additional decoration, the last step, surface enrichment, should be used. The following chapters will take up these steps in the order stated above. The ideal method of developing the principles set forth in this chapter includes correlated activity in the shop l)y working out the project in the required material. As the technic of the indi- vidual improves, the larger range of design ])rinciples will be found to accompany and parallel his increasing skill. Effects of Second Division Third Major Division Steps in Design Evolution Ideal Correlation REVIEW Q[ ESTIONS 1. What three requirements shouM l)c iiul in ;i well designed industrial article? 2. State three major divisions in itidiist riiil arts design. 3. State briefly tlie i)roI)Iems to l)e considered in each division. 4. What is llie hist and ideal ste|) for the designer? [12] "^^^^^^AJOR 0^^^^'W^S^^^^^^^^W^fS'P^, .ROUP OF oe.jE-cT5 5Howine the: \mEf STRUCTURE ©-i' "me. irtTRODUCTlOH a^' .JRFACE ErtRlCHHEMT- ..^j , 5UKFACt E-tiRtCHMEHT CRAFriA^ .5c5i?FAce e.HKtcHHEMT A\ppue.r Plate 3 Chapter II THE PRIMARY MASS AND ITS PROPORTIONS Upon first observing a building, one seldom notices details of structure. He sees the large mass as it is silhouetted against the sky. Nearer approach discloses mouldings, cornices, and doorways; while careful analytical study shows the technical points of con- struction. The architect, in his original planning, thinks in terms of masses, widths, and heights, disregarding at first the details and color. As architecture stands for parent design principles and repre- sents some of the world's best examples of composition and design, industrial design should be based upon the best examples of archi- tectural design. To a certain degree, also, the methods of the industrial arts designer should be those of the architect. It is necessarj^ to think at first of our problem as a single mass or solid, bounded by enclosing dimensions of width, height, and thickness. Details like a mirror, handles, brackets, or knobs may project outside of this mass, but for the time being, they ma^^ be disregarded. Figure B, Plate 2, shows this manner of thinking, and will enal)le us to regard the problem as a big, simple mass so I hat the entire object, unobstructed by small details, may be seen. This is the method of ihinking about the problem which should l)recede the drawing. To further describe this mass, which will be called the single or Primary Mass, it is necessary to think of the intended service of (he project. A rather hazy idea of making a vase or a stool to be j)ut to no particular use, may have been the original motive. Now tlie exact service should be defined as it will have a marked (effect upon the sha])e of this ])riniary mass. Rule la. A primarij ukiss must he ritlicr vertical or horiznufal according /o flic intended service, unle.s-s prohitjited by technical require- ments. Service is an important factor inasnuich as it limits the intended use of tiie mass. A mass is horizontal wIhmi its largest dimension is horizontal. AVhen lli(> horizontal dimension of this The Architectural Method The Industrial Arts Method The Primary Mass Service i:i [1-1 AMALY3I5 • OF • THE • PfSinARV • M A50 ' •A HOP?IZOI^TALPRIM/\S?YKA35' — IG • t • 'A YE!?TICAL PRIMAf^V MASi; • A VERTICAL. Pf^lMAPY MASS • •A H0f?l20MTALPt?lMARV HAS5' FIG, - ^ "PHE. MAIW STRUCTUFSAL. LIMBS DE-TERMIME THE- CHAP2A.CTE.R Of= THE- "PRIM- ARY MASS- THESE. LlHE-S AR.E. IHDICATEID 3Y DARK BAMDS OR DirA£M5IOM UHES IH THE. luLU3TRATiOMS- THREE- Divisions OPZ. CLA55E5 0F MATE.RIAL_ HAve. B5-E.M EHPrtASilLED- Plate 4 [1^ mass is reduced until the main vertical dimension is longer than the main horizontal one, it becomes a vertical mass. As an example, a davenport is generally a horizontal mass intended to hold a number of people. When the mass is narrowed to the point where the verti- cal dimension exceeds the horizontal, it becomes a chair for one person. A low bowl may be intended for pansies, but as soon as the service changes and we design it for goldenrod, it becomes a vertical mass. The fable of the fox who, upon being invited to dine with the stork, found the tall vases unfitted for his use illustrates the change of mass with the change of service. Figures 1 and 4, Plate 4, are examples of horizontal masses with the dark lines indicating the dominance of the horizontal lines and planes. The shelter house contains a long bench, making necessary the long horizontal lines of the building. The calendar holder has to be a horizontal mass because of the restrictions imposed by the shape of the calendar pad. Figures 2 and 3 are vertical masses. The vase is intended for tall flowers, while the chair, as has already been mentioned, must meet the needs of a single person. Utility and service then have been found to give the primary mass a given direction or dominance. The designer now represents this mass by drawing a rectangle similar to the block outline of Figure B, Plate 2. It is now necessary to see if the foundation stones of this rectangle have been laid cor- rectly; in other words, to test the proportions of the primary vertical or horizontal mass. Rule lb. A primary }nas.s should have the ratio of one to three, three to four, three to fire, five to eight, seven to ten, or some similar proportion difficnlt for the eye to detect readily and analyze. Proportions are generally exj)ressed in terms of ratios. A surface of five by eight inches would give a ratio of five to eight; ten by sixteen feet is reduc- il)le lo ihe same ratio. Certain ratios are monotonous and ofiVnd the eye by their lack of variety. Ratios such as one to one or one to two are of this class and should be a\'()i(l(Ml. If these ratios could speak they would resemble jx'ople talking in a low monotonous lone of voice. Certain ollici- ratios arc weak and indet(M'minale, showing a lack of clear thinking. 'l'li<\\' are like jx'ople with no definite or clean- Horizontal and Vertical Primary Masses Drawing the Primary Mass Proportions of the Primary Masses [10 P1&- 5 • EX/XMPUE. OF UM SAT1-5FACTORV PRO- PORTlOH/\TE RA-TIOS ■ • • • I : 4~ ' ' ' 3 AND ' • 2. HAVE BE.eM OaED A.S THE. ■=./^Si5 OF THE PRIMARV i-lAS^- FIG, • 6 • PlXAr-^\PL.E- OF £>AXI 5 FACTOf?"^ t=RO- SHOW OEFIMITE. THIMKIHO IM THE FIG • T • DE-FIHITE thought IM OE-5IGr-l REQUIf^tS A >CNOvyuE.D&E. OF THE. 1_AW5 QF DESIGN-, A fCMQwLEOC-.E OF THE TECHMICAL LIMITATIQHS QF TOOL5 Ar\0 r-^ATER- IAL.5 AMD THE. APPLICATION OF THESE FACTS TO A CONCRETE NOOE.l_ OR N/ BE DRAvs/M • E"!5TaBL\SHIHG THE COH - STRDCTIVE ELEMENTS fSASCO (.JPOM THE BEST OF THE PRECEDING DESKr^N^" RATtO A-S" — r-s- THE COMPLETED W0RK:IN5 OFTHE. SIHGLE PRIMARV M/VSS WITH DOMiriAMCE. OF THE. HOR»Z.OMTAL. DIN/1 SIOH * PRIMCIPLE. 2. A- RELATTIOH OF HORIZONTAL. SUB- DIVISIOMS • problem: HORlZ-OriTAL SPACE- divisions- CLAS3E-a iZ-3- COLE. 2- e.TC THE. PRIMARY r-WK33 CLAS^ I THREE. HORIZ.OMTAL OlVJS»On5 K A HORIZOISTA.L Di^i.&loM THE PKlt-lARv nA£.i> CLKSS ECLAX:CLAS03r-lETAL Two HORlZ.OM-r/su \^»/'islOHS DRAW THREE. DE.5KF.M5 IM A SELECTED CLA5^ DE5IC-.M5 OF REC- TlLIMtAR .50L\D5 SHOULD IMCLUOE. PROMT AHD 510E VJEW5 ' COMPAOS CURv^E.S ARE. TO BE! AVOIDED IIM PROFILES OF CUR- VILINEAR FORMS MS CLA&5tS 2.-3 DESIGNS SHOULD HAVE. A »:>OK\ I H AH C El OF THE HORIZONTAL PROPORTION Plate 7 [^23] boundaries of the primary mass. The Hmitations of service and the restrictions of good designing give the width of the primary mass so designed as three feet and two inches, with a ratio of height to length of five to eight and one-half. It is simpler to design first the most prominent face of the object to be followed by other views later in the designing process. (c) By observing benches similar to the one being designed it will be seen that the horizontal divisions will take the form of a rail and a shelf, making two crossings of the primary mass dividing it into three horizontal spaces. Several trial arrangements of these struc- tural elements are now made with the thought of making them conform to the rule governing three horizontal spaces. Rule 2b. We shall later discuss this rule and its applications fully. (d) By selecting the best sketch of many which the designer will make he has the basis for the application of Rule '^b for the struc- tural elements. The project now begins to take on concrete form. The top board may project slightly beyond the primary mass without materially aft'ecting the value of the designed proportions. (e) The last step is the designing of the side view in relation to the front view. This enables the designer to comprehend the project as a whole. It is strongly urged that the final or shop drawing be of full size. In more elaborate designs the finer propor- tions are lost in the process of enlargement from a small sketch, often hurriedly executed in the shop. Again nuich time is lost by necessary enlargement, whereas a full size curved detail may be fjuickly transferred to wood by car])on ])aper or by holes prick(.Hl in the paper. It is not exjxMisive or difficult to execute full size draw- ings; it is in accord with shop practice and the custom sliould be encouraged and followed on all possible occasions. See Figure lO'-^a. Tiie i)rocess of designing round objects is identical to that just descri})ed as illustrated by [\w low round bowl in Plate 7. It should be designed in a rectangle of accepted proportions. Rule lb. The primary mass may have excellent proportions and yet the vase or bowl may remain devoid of interest. It may be connn()ni)lace. As will shortly be shown, the rules governing horizontal divisions serve as a check on the comm()nj)lace. A horizontal division gen- erally marks the ])oiiil when' (lie outward swell of the vase contour Designing Objects with Horizontal Divisions — (Continued) Value of a Full Size Drawing [24] MORIZOMTAL- SpACL DlviSlOMS CF THE. PRIMARY M ASS IN WOOD _00niNAMT HORITjOMTAL J Fig -8 Pie- 3 •A VERTICAL MA53wn'M TWO H0R120MTAL SPACE. DlV15lOMv3 * A H0R»2.0MTAl_ MASS na/1 TH three: HOR1Z.OMTAL tSPACE OlVl^lOrtS » STRUCTUCSAL. HCEOS SUPP1-"Y THE. HO t^lXOHT/VL, LIME S FOJe THI^ TTPE. OP 3PAveiMet * Fig- io« The HoreixoMTAu pr\mar.v mass at'a" has BEEM OlviDED INTO THREE EQUAL AMD ONE UH- EQUAL DlVlSlOMS* 8YOM IXTIHG. THE. CEHTt^AL DlVl"SlONl,GREATERUNIT>'l5 SECUP2ED AT-"B*" n<3- »i • A VERTICAL nASS NVITH TH^EE Poorly spaced 'Divi^- 10H5 ATA- CORRECTED BV PRiNClPUE: ZaAT-'B-' Pl.\te 8 [ 25 J reaches its maxinuim width. If this widest point in the primary mass (X-Plate 7) is pleasingly located between the top and bottom of a vase form the contour will be found satisfactory. It is possible to continue ad iniinitum with these illustrations » i.-^ ^ i , , . , T • • 11 . Architectural but horizontal space divisions are nearly always present in some Precedent for form, due to structural necessity or aesthetic requirements. It is an Horizontal easy matter to say that these lines must divide the primary mass into Divisions "interesting" spaces, well related to each other, or "pleasingly located," but the designer must have some definite yet flexible rule to govern his work. From the analysis of many famous historic buildings and well designed industrial projects it has been found that all horizontal masses may be analyzed as« dividing the primary mass into either two or ilirce divisions or spaces, regardless of the complexity of the project. Analysis of Horizontal Space Divisions Rule 2a. If the primary mass is divided into two liorizontal divi- sions, the dominance should he either in the upper or the lower section. Plate 7 shows this division of the primary mass — the simplest division of th^ space. A space divided just half way from top to bottom would be monotonous and expressive of the ratio of one to one. This arrangement as we have already discovered in the second chapter is not conducive to good design. By the stated rule, 2a, the varied adjustment of this doul)le liorizontal division aftords all ])()ssi})le latitude for constructive purposes. It is better to place the division in such a manner that the upper division (or l()W(^r) will not ai)j)ear i)inched or dwarfed 1)y comparison with the remaining area. Thus a ratio of one to tliree, or three to five, or five to eight is better than a ratio of one to one or one to eighteen, })ut there is no exact or arbitrary ruling on this point. Figure S iihist rates two horizontal divisions in wood construction and also the freedom of choice as to exact proportions. The eye will be found a good judge of I he proper spacings sul)ject to the limitations alreadx' mentioned. It is best to keep the design williin llu- limits of two liorizontal Two Horizontal Space Divisions Two Horizontal Divisions in Wood [26] HORIZONTAL 5PACE DIV1510IS3 OF THE. PRIMARV MASS IM CLAY ne- 12- ANA/ALL SURFACE DIVIDED INTO TWO HORIZOMTAL DIV15IOMO • THE HOOO OF THE FIRE PLACE APiD THEL DOOR. ECHO I3"Y 5IM\LAPS FR0P0RT10M5 THIS D1V\510H • UMITY THUS SECUI2ED ISVACJIEID e."V THE. THf^E-E. DlVl^lOM -SPAC- ING OF THE. PAHE-ULINS • POTTE.RV F052M e> SHOULD AT F\R5T BE UMlTEDTQTWO HOl^lZQMTAl. DIVISION.* WIOE ST PART OP VASE. T MOTE THE TRAMS LATIOM OF TWO HORlZOHTAL niV I510M5 FROM STRAIGHT LINE F\& • 15 POIMT OF 6REATE3TW10TH WELL PROC?OR,T10MEr> ^l&-\4-- R & • IS' SPACE. Dl-vis-iOMS A^E. AV'PLICABLE TO AKV MAXH^IAU- H0T2.V2.OM-rAl_ DlV»^>OM-5 IMVAvSE. FORMS MARPT THE. POIKX OF (SR-EATTEST O^ LEAST vVlOT-H • THe HOT^IZOMTAL DIVISION OF FlCri -J^-- HOW BECOr^ES THE Vv'lDE-ST "POINT OF P-IG- 14-- Plate 9 [27] space divisions in designing cylindrical clay forms, particularly in the elementary exercises. Enough variety will be found to make pleasing arrangements, and the technical results obtained by two divisions are much better than those obtained from a greater number of divisions. Figures 14, 15, and 16, Plate 9, are clay forms with the dominance placed in either the upper or lower portion of the primary mass. Figure 13 has been used to illustrate the fact that horizontal space division principles are applicable to any material. The horizontal divisions in Figure 13 are due to structural needs. A horizontal line carries this division across to Figure 14, a clay vase. The horizontal division line now becomes the one which marks the widest part of the vase. It gives the same relation between the top and bottom horizontal spaces as in Figure 13. It marks an aesthetic point in the design of the vase, or a variation of the contour, introduced by reason of its effect upon the beauty of the vase, not called for by the needs of actual service. A musical composition is often played in an orchestra first by the wood instruments, taken up and repeated by the brasses, then by the strings, and finally played as an harmonious whole by the entire orchestra. There is a close parallel in Figure 12, an adaptation of one of Gustav Stickley's designs. The two-division rule is used in the relations of the plaster and wainscoting; again in the plaster over, and the cement or tile around the fireplace. It is repeated in the arrangement of the copper and cement of the fireplace facing and hood and in the door panels. By repeating again and again similar space divisions the wall space becomes a unified and harmoni- ous whole. Varietv is secured bv the introduction of three horizontal divisions in the details of the wainscoting. This method of repeating similar space divisions is called "echoing" and is one of the most effective means known for securing the effect of imity. The horizontal subdivisions in metal are usuallv made for service. Figures 17, IS, and 11). Plate 10, are exami)les of sucli divisions. Tlie location of the clock face in Figure IS calls for the j)lacing of its horizontal axis in accordance with Kiile 2a. The lanij) in Figure 19 shows an instance wiicre I he entire design once divided by Rule 2a, may be again sul)(li\i(l('(l into a similar series of divisions. This Two Horizontal Divisions in Clay Two Horizontal Divisions in Metal [28 HORIZONTAL 5PACE DIV1510I15 IM M^JAL* THE 5H^DE 15 KM ADDITIOnAL MASS BUT IS IliCLUDEOUMOER THE RULE.- r % Q r ne- 1-8- FlC'-Zl- EXAMPL£-5 OF THE. L^CK. OF V/\R1ET> (M TIORlZjOri- T/\L S>UBOlVl5lQriS • CLA55 3 ,,„,^ou.«-^-2'^''i ric-.-23 _jil^S5!^T\ ConnoMPUvde. Jp CURVE 1—7 y FlC-t • Z.4-- MO VARIETY IM WIDTH.'* OF TOP AMD 5onoM Plate 10 [29 arrangement is quite similar to the system of repetitions seen in Figure VI and termed "echoing" the original divisions. Rule 2b. // the "primary mass is divided into three horizontal divisions or sections, the dominance should be placed in the center section ivith varying icidths in the upper and lower thirds. When it becomes necessary to divide the primary mass into more than two sections the designer's problem becomes more difficult. With the addition of a greater number of horizontal divisions there is a manifest tendency for the design to become cut up into so many small sections that the simplicity of the whole mass is lost. Here, as elsewhere, that principle which we call nnity or the quality of "holding- together" is necessary and should be the constant test of the design. The instant any part of the design seems to fly apart from the main mass it becomes the designer's duty to simplify the design or pull the parts together and thus restore the lost unity. As a restriction against loss of unity it is necessary to group all of the minor horizontal divisions into a svstem of two or three large horizontal divisions. Referring to Rule 2b, it is seen that when three divisions are used, it becomes the practice to accentuate the center section bj^ making it larger. This arrangement is designed to give weight to the center portion and by this big stable division to hold the other subdivisions together and in unitv. Two horizontal masses and one vertical mass shown in Figures 1), 10, and 11, Plate 8, illustrate the application of this three-division rule to wood construction. It is seen that the construction of rails, doors, and shelves is responsible for the fixing of all of these divisions. It may also be seen that three divisions are applicable to either the vertical or the horizontal primary mass. Figure 10 illustrates the \'i()lati()ii of this type of spacing at the ])()int .1, where I he shelves are no more pleasingly arranged than I he rounds of a ladder. Later on we shall be able to rearrange these shelves in a pleasing manner but at presenl it is belter to relieve the monotony by omitting the center shelf. This aj)plies the three division rule to the satisfactory aj)])earance of the desk at B. Similar monotony in sj)acing is seen in the screen. Figure 11. The correction in /> appeals at once as a far more satisfactory arrange- ment than that secured by placing the cross bar half way up as in A. Three Horizontal Space Divisions Three Horizontal Divisions in Wood [30] Three Horizontal Divisions in Clay Three Horizontal Divisions in Metal Freehand Curves There are no infallible rules for this readjustment beyond those already stated. The eye must in part be depended upon to guide the artistic sense aright. It is suggested that it is desirable to keep clay forms within the limitations of two divisions. Rectangular posts, pedestals, and other vertical forms in cement may be developed by the application of Rule 2a or 2b, if care is taken to group all minor divisions well within the limitations of these rules. The statement just made in reference to simplified groupings is illustrated in the candlestick and cup in Figures 20 and 21, Plate 10. The construction based upon the three functions performed by the cup, the handle, and the base, suggests the use of these hori- zontal divisions. The minor curves have been subordinated to, and kept within, these three divisions. The final result gives a distinct feeling of unity impossible under a more complex grouping. The Greek column will afl^ord an architectural illustration of a similar grouping system. The lathe bed of Figure 22 shows one of innumerable examples of space violations in the industrial arts. A slight lowering of the cross brace would add materially to the appearance and strength of the casting. Figure 23 is a copper box with the following more or less common faults of design: commonplace ratio of length and width (2 : 1) partially counteracted, however, by a more pleasing ratio of the vertical dimension, ecjual spacing in the width of cover of box and box body, and equal spacing of the hinges of the box from the ends of the box and from each other. By appljang the two and three horizontal division rules these errors may be avoided. Figure 24 shows a low bowl with a compass curve used in designing the contour. This has brought the widest part of the design in the exact center of the bowl which makes it commonplace. In addition to this the top and bottom are of the same width, lacking variety in this respect. Correction is readily made by applying a freehand curve to the contour, raising or lowering the widest point (F), at the same time designing the bottom either larger or smaller than the top. [31 INSTRUCTION SHEET Plate 7 is a sheet suggestive of the application of Rules la, lb, 2a, and 2b, with an indication of the type of problem to be required. The steps of the designing processes in either wood (class 1), clay (class -Z), or metal (class 3), are summarized as follows: SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS > (a) Construction of the rectangle representing the vertical or horizontal char- V acter of the primary mass with desirable proportions. It is better to select a typical view (Plate 6, D), preferably a front elevation. (6) Subdivide this rectangle into two or three structural sections; horizontal in character. Make two or three trial freehand sketches for varied proportions and select the most pleasing one in accordance with Rules la, lb, 2a, and 2b. (c) Translate the selected sketch to a full size mechanical drawing or at least to a reasonably large scale drawing. The structural elements: i.e., legs, rails, posts, etc., should be added and other additional views made. (f/) Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop jjurposes. ^ (e) Construct the project. ^ SUGGESTED PROBLEMS Design a nasturtium bowl, applying Rules la, lb, 2a. Design a writing table 2 feet inches high with three horizontal divisions. SUMMARY OF RULES Rule 2a. If the primary mass is divided info two horizontal divisions, the dominance should be either in the upper or the loirer section. Rule 2b. // //((■ priinary mass is divided into three horizontal divisions or sections, the dominance should be placed in the center section with varying widths in the upper and loirer thirds. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. State two methtxis of siibiiixiiiiiif^f I lie ])rim;iry mass. 2. Define the iiutmc .ind need of liori/.oiilal s|)ac(' divisions. .'5. Give five steps to be used in designing a foot stool or piano bench. 4. What i)oint constitutes a horizontal division in the contour of a simjile clay bowl.^ 5. State tlie rule governing two horizontal sijjicc divisions and fiirnisli illus- trations in wood, clay, and metal. (>. (iivc the rule governing thrci- liorizoiital space 1_\ED AMD COMSTRUOXI VE. DE-OICEiM • PRIMCIPLE3: VERTICAL SPACE. DIVI5»Ort,S OF THE. SItiGLEL HORV PRlf'VVRV rn/^SS- PROSLE.r-l : VEJ^TICAL 5UB DIVOIOM5 US CLASSES I • Z • 3-THET ARE.U^E.DTO SRE/^K. OR VAE^ LAfeGE AREAS Of= HORIZOMTAU OR VCeTlCAL r^AC)3E^« TWO DIV16I0M5- V- DOMlMAnT — B .nQmiMAnTJ, ,j THREE. DIVI5IOM<5 H EMRlCHE-D- V- "nc -c < Z f c c / vsroor> OQl^ir-'A.rsT '\ CLAS3 »V OME. CL/KSS 5 - V- TWo CL.AS3 I ■THRE.E. H 1 r T ' 1 •CLAS:^ 2.- Cl_A>C CLASS 3 • METAU OI^AW THREE DESlCn^ IM OHE OF THE. OESIGMATED CLA5 3E.S • OE31GMS SHOULD HAVE A 0»>!iTlMCT OomiNAMCE OF EITHE-R V OR H AtHO IISCLDOE. I 2. AH0 3 vet?TICAL_ OlVlSIOlHO - THIS 5HE£-T i b INTEHOED TO SHOW THE TTPE OI= PROBLEM IK THREE MM-ERlALS AS A C^AUGE. F^OR POSSIBLE CUASS ASSIGMMEMTS- Plate 11 Chapter IV VERTICAL MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE PRIMARY MASS The design of the primary mass has now been considered under Rules la and lb, and its horizontal divisions under Rules 2a and "^b. The next logical step is the consideration of the nature of the lines that cross the primary mass in a vertical direction. In the original planning of the primary mass it was found that the hori- zontal bounding lines and the horizontal divisions were parallel to the base line of an object and that the base line was necessary to ensure stability. Vertical lines are necessary and equally import- ant to give the needed vertical support to an object. So accustomed is the eye to vertical lines in tree trunks, tall buildings, and thousands of other examples that the upward eye movement in viewing an object, having a predominance of vertical elements, seemingly adds to its height. The designer thus has a most useful device with which to increase the apparent height of an o})ject that, for structural or other reasons, must in reality not have great height. Chapter III drew attention to the influence of horizontal lines on a project. Vertical lines on an object are found to produce an analogous eft'ect vertically. Gothic cathedral builders used the vertical line, repeated again and again in bullresses, j)innacles, and spires to give great aj)])arent height to a l)uilding and to make il a unified vertical mass of great l)eauty. The modcn church sj)ire, together with the long, vertical interior columns, similarly affects our j)resent day church edifices. Tliis idea of rej)eating the vertical bounding lines of the primary mass by cutting the mass into vertical spaces is also useful in breaking up or destroying the monotony of large unl)r()k(Mi surfaces. Pilasters may cut I lie front of a bnilding into interesting spaces; j)iers may break np the regularity of a long fence; legs and panels may, each [ :5.'5 1 Nature and Need of Vertical Space Division Arcliitectural Precedent for Vertical Divisions [34] Examples of verticaj- 5pace divisions IM CLASS I CWOOD) • THE DiVlSlOms OF THIS CLA53 ARE C-EHERALLY BASED UPOM THE. STRUCTURAL REQUlREriEriTS • 0^L Fig -as • i \^rvJO EaoAL. .. VERTICA L On^lSIW^ A VARIATION OF "PWO VERTICAL DlV- ISIOHS • DorllMAMCE OF LEFT SECTlOM THREE VERTICAL Plate 12 [35] for the same purpose, cross a cabinet. While some of these may be structurally necessary and some not, they are all witnesses to the desire to produce beauty in design. As these examples are so numerous in the industrial arts, it is well to stud}" in detail their proper adaptation to our needs. Upon analyzing one yertical space diyision, it will be found to be a primary mass, yertical in character and goyerned by Rule la. Figure 25, Plate Vl, illustrates one vertical diyision. The foot is an appendage to be considered in Chapter V. Rule 3a. If the primary mass is divided into two vertical divisions, the divisiojis shonid be equal in area and similar in form. Exception may be made in case of structural requirements. By imagining two adjacent doors of equal size, the design effect of two vertical divisions may be made clear. Plate 11 illustrates a rectangle (A) divided in this manner, preliminary to the development of a prob- lem. Figure 27, Plate 12, represents the type of object to which the exception to the rule may be applied. In the design of this desk, the structure practically prohibits two equal vertical divisions, necessitating an unequal division in the section occupied by the drawers. In Plate 12, Figure 26, the designer had his vertical spacings dictated by service in the form of two doors. As service demands a tall vertical primary mass, it is but natural to design the doors to conform with the j)rimary mass. This gives a monotonously long- space for I lie glass panels and suggests structural weakness. To relieve this the designer apj)lied Rule 2a and crossed the vertical I)anels by horizontal subdivisions, relieving the monotony and still retaining the unity of the primary mass. In Figure 27 his problem was a variation of that presented in Figure 2(). Structunil limilalions called for unequal divisions of the vertical sj)ace arrangemciil . I'lic Icl'l j)()rli()n of the desk becomes dominant as demanded l)v service. The drawer oi- brace is necessarv in this design as it acts as a sort of link, l)inding the two vertical legs together. "Fhe omission of the drawer would destroy the unity of the mass. As vertical space divisions are princi])ally a])plicable to rectilinear or flat objects and niorcoxcr as it is in such forms only that they One Vertical Space Division Two Vertical Space Divisions Two Vertical Divisions in Wood [36] Tie • S.9 •NOTE. THE. [^E.P>E.TlTlOr^ OF THREE. -N/- iP/KCE. OlVlSIO^-lS IM C)lFFE.t^EHT^nATE.RlAUt> AT :x: J, DOMits/\MX ~ SECTIOM ■ rie -30 EXAMPLE.^ OP VEenCAL. <5PACE. DIVI51OMS IM CLASis Z- CLAY AMO CE-MEnT- Plate 13 [37] have structural value, they are not commonly met in cylindrical pottery ware. Vertical divisions are, however, occasionally used in architectural tiles and other flat wall objects. As three divisions are much more commonly used in clay and cement, this material will now be left for later consideration in this chapter. Vertical spacings in metal are quite similar to space divisions in wood. Wrought iron fences are, by reason of structural limitations composed of vertical and horizontal lines, varied by the introduction of piers and curved members. As they are typical of a certain branch of iron construction, two designs of the Anchor Post Iron Company have been introduced. Figure 3'-2, Plate 14, represents two equal vertical divisions made so because of structural and aesthetic demands. The piers in this instance form a part of the general design of the entire gate and must be considered accordingly. The vertical subdivision in Figure 32, Plate 14, has been repeated or echoed by the long vertical bars, alternating with the shorter ones and producing pleasing variety. The horizontal divisions are designed according to Rule '-21). In designing the newel lantern in Figure 34 the designer was required to form a vertical primary mass to conform with the similar mass of the post. This he deter- mined to subdivide vertically in practically the same manner as the cabinet in Hgure 20. Threatened with the same monotony he met the situation by subdividing the vertical sections into three horizontal divisions in accordance with Rule '^b. The structural suj)ports, however, rising up in the center of this mass, destroy its unitv. Thev would have carried out the lines of the structure of tlie newel post and conlinued I he lines of the Innlern better, if lliey had ])een attached lo the corners rather than lo the sides of the newel i)()st. l^iilc 3b. Ij the primary mass is divided info three rerfieal divisions, the eenter division should l)e the larger, irifh the remaining divisions oj equal size. A large l)uildiiig with a wing on either side will give JIM idea of this form of spacing. '^Flie size of the m;iiii building holds tlic wings to it, t lius ])reserving llic iiiiilyof 1 lie si i-ucture, while e(|ual divisions on cillicr side give balance, Plate 1 1 (/>) gives an example of a rectangle divided in lliis manner. "^I'his threes-division motive is a very old one. In the middle ages |)aiiilei-s and designers used Two Vertical Divisions in Clay Vertical Divisions in Metal Three Vertical Space Divisions .:u. [ '38 ] ...u. ■^/. ^1 m t 'S^ m P j:y Rg. • 3Z FIG -33 Fig. • 35 riG • 36 EXAMPLE-5 OF TWO AMD THREE. VERTICAL SUBDIVlSIOli^ lli CLASa 3 (HElTAl-)--- Plate 14 [39 three divisions or a triptych, as it is called, in their altar decorations. A painting of the Virgin was usually placed in the center division with a saint in each of the remaining panels to the right and left. Designers and mural decorators have been using the triptych ever since that period. The desk in Figure 28, Plate 12, is a good example of the three- vertical space rule. The drawer in the center forms the mid or dominant section and by its greater length holds the two smaller sections together. This design is better than Figure 27, which has a similar mass. The prominent vertical lines in Figure 27 counteract and destroy the effect of the long horizontal dominant lines of the table top, whereas in Figure 28, the vertical lines in the center of the design are so short that they do not interfere with the horizontal lines of the table top. Figure 28 supports the horizontal tendency of the primary mass while Figure 27 neutralizes or practically destroys its character. Figure 30, Plate 13, represents an overmantle by the Rookwood Potteries. It is typical of a class of overmantles which may be devel- oped in tiles or in cement, forming an agreeable contrast with the brick of a large fireplace. The three divisions or triptych should be proportionately related to the opening of the fireplace and to the enclosing mass of brick or wood work. We will consider Figure 29 to show how this may be carried out. Figure 29 bears a strong resemblance to Figure 12, Plate 9, and is an elaboration of a simple three-division theme of spacing. The design seems to be complex until it is analyzed into two rules. The primary mass of the entire fireplace motive (including the surround- ing panelling) has first been ])lanned witli strong and prominent horizontal lines. This was then divided vcM'tically {A) to conform with Rule 3b, the three-division theme, giving the divisions for the bookcases and mantle. The horizoiil.-il divisions (/)) were then constructed within the remaining space, aifecting the distance from tlie ])icture moulding to the manlle and from llie nianlle to tlie floor line, in accordance with Rule 2a. '^Flial left the space of the width of the cement work i(') lo be subdivided again by Rule 31), while the lop of the wainscoting panels re-echoed the previous horizontal divisions of Rule 2a. Tlie fireplace oi)ening merely carries out at D Three Vertical Divisions in Wood Three Vertical Divisions in Clay and Cement [40 THE EVOLUTION OF A OELSl&H IMVOLVIMG, THE. USE! OF= TWO HOF£lXOt-HTA\_ AtSO THRELE. VERTICAL 'SUB DlVl^. lOM^ FIG- A- THE H0(517.0MTAU AMD ^E-RTlCAX- Divisions AK.E BA>^E.O c)POM STRucTURAu REQUlREMErHTsS • FiQ,-B- THE PKir-)ARV MAS5 WITH TWO HORI"ZjOMTA1_ DIVI^IOM.5 • RULE.S-1 • Z' FI<=.-0' THE /^nODIXIOM of THR.EE. VERTIO^L- DlVIAIOM^ • RULE -3 -"b" APPEHO/».Ge. PROPOR.TIOM OF MA3i APPROXiMAXEUY q -.s- FIGD- THE ADDITION OF 5ue.-0lVI<3lOH5 AMD APPEMDAGE.- RUL^3 AMD-4-' n&-E- ADDITIOM OF DE.TAIl_5> AMD E-NRICHMEMT- FOR SHOC WORKIMG QKAV/lHCS: OME-HALF OF FI&E-- 'SHOUUD NOW BE: EMLARCFiEO TO A ruU.Sl2:E PENCIL DRA-WIMG. WITH COMSTROCTian AMD PARTIAL EH O VIEW AODEO- Plate 15 [41 the same proportionate relation that dominates all vertical divisions, Rule 3b, while the wainscoting follows the general horizontal divisions of Rule 2a. By this method we have variety in spacing and unity through repetition of similar proportions. The cement bench. Figure 31, has a three-division arrangement to break up the monotony of the long rail, and at the same time to repeat the characteristics of a horizontal primary mass. Figure 33, Plate 14, is a common example of three vertical divisions in metal suggested by the needs of service. Figures 35 and 36 are thin metal problems. The familiar pen tray is primarily a horizontal mass, so determined by its required service as a pen holder. The projecting handles form the outer divisions, and the spacing motive. Rule 3b, has been repeated in the raised projection, decorating the handles. The book rack in Figure 36 is an example of the manner in which a nearly square mass, so designed for struc- tural reasons, may, by Rules 3b and 2a, be broken into a fairly pleasing arrangement of divisions. Rule 3c. In elementary problems, if more than three vertical divisions are required, they should be so grouped as to analyze info Rules 3a and 3b, or be exactly similar. The eye becomes confused by a multitude of vertical divisions and it is nuicli better designing to keep them within the numl)er stated in this chapter. There are instances, however, when this is impossible. Under such conditions ihe following treatment should })e adopted: Unless, as stated, a large number of vertical divisions may be grouped into two or three vertical divisions it is better to make all of the divisions of the same size. This does not fatigue the eye as much as would tlie introduction of a number of complex spacings. This solution enal)les the anuiteur designer to deal with complex problems with an assurance of securing a degree of unity. Three Vertical Divisions in Metal More Than Three Divisions INSTIU ( TION SMKHT Plate lo is practically self-explanatory and shows llie order in which the various divisions, so far considered, are to he introduced into t he desij^n tof,'etlier with the f,'rou[)inf; of details within lliose divisions. Fifjiire I) introduces the additional elenicnl lennecl tlie a[)pendagc to be coii'-idir rd in (iiapter \. [42] SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS (a) Construction of the rectangle representing the vertical or horizontal char- acter of the primary mass with desirable proportions. Select the most prominent surface for this rectangle, preferably the front elevation. (6) Subdivide this rectangle into two or three structural sections, horizontal and vertical in character. Make two or three trial freehand sketches on cross section paper for varied proportions and select the most pleasing in accordance with rules. (c) Translate the selected sketch into a scale or full size drawing and add additional views to complete the requirements of a working drawing. Add additional structural elements: legs, rails, etc. {d) For shop purposes, enlarge a scale drawing to full size, dimension and otherwise prepare it for actual use. See Figure 102a, page 68, for character of this change. (e) Construct the project. SUGGESTED PROBLEMS Design a fire screen with two horizontal and three vertical major sub- divisions. Design a bookcase 4 feet 2 inches high with three horizontal and two vertical major subdivisions. SUMMARY OF RULES Rule 3a. 7/ the primary mass is divided into two vertical divisions, the divisions should be equal in area and similar inform. Rule 3b. If the primary mass is divided into three vertical divisions, the center division should be the larger, with the remaining divisions of equal size. Rule 3c. In elementary problems, if more than three vertical divisions are required, they should be so grouped as to analyze into Rules 3a and 3b, or be exactly similar. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is the nature and need of vertical space divisions? 2. State the rule governing the use of two vertical space divisions and give illustrations in wood, clay, and metal. 3. Give the rule relating to the use of three vertical space divisions and furnish illustrations in wood, clay, and metal. 4. What is the treatment of more than three vertical divisions.'' Why? Chapter V APPENDAGES AND RULES GOVERNING THEM An appendage is a member added to the primary mass for utili- tarian purposes. In the industrial arts, when an appendage is added merely for the purpose of decoration, it is as useless and functionless as the human appendix and, as a source of discord, should be removed. An appendage in industrial arts may be, among other things, a plate rail, bracket, spout, cover, or handle, all of which are capable of service either for or with the primary mass. In architecture it may be a wing or ell added to the mass of the building. Simple as its design may seem, it is often so placed in relation to the main or primary mass that it does not seem to "fit" or to be in unity with that mass. Rule 4a. The appendage should be designed in unity with, and proportionately related to, the vertical or horizontal character of the primary mass, but subordinated to it. Rule 4b. The appendage should have the appearance of floiving smoothly and, if possible, tangentiaUy from the primary mass. Rule 4c. The appendage should, if possible, echo or repeat some lines similar in character and direction to those of the primary mass. All of the foregoing rules are intended to promote the sense of unity between the primary mass and its appendages. If a mirror on a dresser looks top-heavy it is generally due to the fact that it has not l)een subordinated in size to the primary mass. Rule 4a. If the handle projects from the primary mass of an object similar to the handle on a pump, it has not been designed in accordance with Rules 4b and 4c. Again, if the apj)endage projects from a primary mass like a tall ('liiiiiney from a long fl;il building, it has violated Rule 4a and has not been ])roi)ortioiialely related to the character of the vertical or horizontal j)r()j)ortions of the })rimary mass. It should be rejidily seen that if the primary mass has one domi- nant proportion while the appendage has another, there will be a 1«1 Use of the Appendage Designing an Appendage Violations of Appendage Design [44] APPEMOAOiE . LiriK APPEMOAw&E. F1& -37 • nOTE THE teE-UATlOM OF THE. •\/- riASS OF THE. APPEnD/\&E. TO THE- VERTICAL- UtME-S OF THE. PRiriARvriA^S • FlG£)-37-38- - Hol».iT.or\TA. L MOTIVE - APPCJtO/Vst TH5SE.E VEI^TICAL DNl5lOtHS OF THE. A-PPEMDACE. REJ=EAT THE. L.OIHG VERTICAL UHE5 OF THE. TABLE- •• *j FI&-38 F=l&-40 EXAHPLES OF APPE.MDASE1S> ir^ CLA5S I (WOCiD) AOOELO TO THE. PCiriARV nASS FO(? UTIUTARIAM PUfe POSES • THE.V SHOULD ALWAY3 BE. f^ELATED TO Th^ PRirAARV MA^S BY TAriGEHTS • PARALL.ELO • OR 5>OTH' Plate 16 [45] serious clash and the final result will be the neutralization of both motives, resulting in either an insipid and characterless design or a downright lack of unity. The design of the small dressing table, Figure 37, Plate 16, with the mirror classing as an appendage, is an excellent illustration of Appendages Rule 4a. The main mass of the table is vertical in character and the in Wood mirror carries out or repeats the character of the primary mass by having a similar but subordinate vertical mass. In this instance it is so large that it has nearly the effect of a second primary mass. As tangential junctions are difficult to arrange in wood construc- tion and particularly in furniture, the break between the table top and the mirror has been softened by the introduction of a bracket or connecting link. The curves of the link cause the eye to move freely from the primary mass to the appendage and thus there is a sense of oneness or unity between the two masses. The lantern in Figure 38 becomes an appendage and is sul)ordi- nated to the large pedestal or support. The tangential junction has in this case been fully possible and the eye moves freely from the vertical lines of the base to the similar vertical mass of the lantern without noticeable break. The service of the dressing lal)le. Figure 39, with its three- division mirror makes the problem of adaptation of the apj)endage to the mass of the table, in accordance with the rules, much more ,, .^ . difficult. Under the circumstances, about the best that can be done, Apoendaee at the same time keeping williin the limitations of desired service, is and Primary to plan the mirrors in accordance witli Kuk' 3b, with the dominant Mass section in I he center. To secure an aj)proach lo unity, each section of the mirror should echo the vertical proportion of llie primary mass of I lie table. The loj) of llie writing stand, in b'igni'c tO. is an (>\ainple of a horizontal aj)j)endage which repeats Ihc horizontal chai'acter of the front or typical face of the j)rimary mass of the table. The small EE- TEXT- COMTlfiUITY OF CURVATURE Fie«-4-2 IMCL-OOes THRE.EL PIECES MOTE. THE SiniLARlTY OF THE PRIMARY r^-lASSE.>S * FIG -4-3 MOTE THE RELATIOn BETWEEN THE STRAI- GHT LIME OF THE HAN- DLE TOP AMD THE TOP OF= TM E. BOW L_ • MOTE. THE. T"AHGEMT|AL.(.'MlOM OF THE LOWER EMO OF HAMDLE AMD ©OWL.' FIG • 4-5 • FIG-44 • EXAMPLE-S OF APPEMOAGES in CLA^S 2 tPOTTER^.n ADDED TO THE PCinARY nA50 FOR UTILITAf?IAH PURPOSES -THE- PLASTICITY OF CLAY ALLOWS A PERFECT TAMGEMT I AU UMIOM WITH. THE BODY Plate 17 [51] Appendages in Metal "made by the thousand" appearance to them. One should trust Freehand to freehand sweeps, drawn freely with a full arm movement when Curves possible. All curves should spring naturally from the primary mass. Blackboard drawing is excellent practice for the muscles used in this type of designing. In a short time it will be found possible to produce the useful long, rather flat curve with its sudden turn (the curve of force) that will make the compass curve tame and commonplace by comparison. Figures 55, 56, and 57, Plate 18, show the close bond betvreen the appearance of the appendage in clay, and the one in metal. ^Yhile it is technically more difficult to adapt metal to the rules governing appendages than is the case with clay, the final results are, in most instances, equally pleasing to the eye. In most of the figures showing examples in metal, the appendages have to be secured to the primary mass by screws, rivets, or solder, whereas in clay they may be moulded into the primary mass. This tends to secure a more unified appearance; but in metal, the June- '. tion of the handle and the primary mass is often made a decorative feature of the design and gives added interest and variety to the project. The simple primary mass. Figure 58, has a horizontal space division in the lower portion of the mass. This point of variation of the contour has been used in the primary masses in Figures 55, 56, and 57, also as the starting point of that dominant appendage, the handle. Springing tangentially from the body, it rises in a straight line of extreme value in service, then with a slight turn it parallels and joins the top of the bowl, thus fulfilling the design functions of an appendage from both points of service and beauty. The spout and lid. Figure 55, may be likewise analyzed. The points of tangency, in Figure 54, become a decorative feature of the design. The liandles in the i)arts of the fire set, Figures 4S Tangential and 49, offer diflereiil j)r()blenis. It is difficult to analyze the latter Junctions figures to determine the api)endages as they are in such thorough unity with I he lunidles and are j)ra('tically subdivisions of the primary mass. Hiil referring to lli(> rnlc slating the fact that the appendages are subordinated to and attached to I he j)rimary mass, it may justly be stated that the slio\'el portion of the design may [52] Fie -4-6 FI&-47 APPEMDAGE. MAY 5E;2VE A5 a UMKCOMNECTiriGTWO PRIMARY nASS>tS- i=:ss*-^ Fig -50 EXAMPLE.5 OF APPEIi- DAGE.S IN CLASS 3* METAL- •• 5EL 'A" MOTE THE TAMC?.EriTIAL RELATlOtl BETWEEN THE APPEJiDAGE AMD PRIMARY MASS AT- T" Tie -48 FIG- 49 LirAK riG • 52. MA riG-53 • Figures 55 TO 5s rep- resent A PRinAJ2V r-OASS R'EPEATEO TO Form a set*"* the variations of the. PRIMARY r>a^SS HAVE BEEN Followed ©v SIMILAR VARI/vmOMS IN THE APPETIDACiE.* riG-56 FIG FIG -58 • Plate 18 [53] legitimately be classed as an appendage. This will explain the need of a curve at the junction points and the feature of the decorative twists in Figure 49. Both designs may be analyzed into three hori- zontal divisions. The andirons, Figures 50 to 53, illustrate interesting transitions in wrought iron from the primary mass to the appendage. The Andiron vertical shaft of wrought iron has been treated as a primary mass Design while the feet may be classed as appendages. In Figure 50 we have an example of a frankly square junction point. Figure 51 discloses a weld with rounded corners, forming a more pleasing junction than does the abrupt angle of Figure 50. This conforms to Rule 4b. The appendage legs echo or repeat the vertical lines of the primary mass and there is consequently a sense of unity between them. In Figure 52 the appendage foot is curved, and the primary mass has a similar curve on the top of the vertical column to apply Rule 4c to repeat the curve. The small links at A" indicate an attempt to make the junction point more pleasing to the eye, but the link is too large to accomplish the desired result successfully. In Figure 53 the links have been materially reduced in size and in the amount of curvature. In this example the eye goes unhampered from appendage to primary or back again, without perceptible interrup- tion and the unity of the mass, seriously threatened in Figure 52, is restored in Figure 53. In Figure 46 there is an example of a link })econiing large enough to be classed as an appendage connecting two primary masses, e.g., the lantern and the wall. Under these conditions, one end of the appendage harmonizes with the lantern and the other end with the wall. Figure 47 shows a cast brass candlestick which is an excellent example, from the Studio, of tangential junction. Clay may readily stand as the most adaptable material for appendages, with metal ranking second, and wood third. Tlie grain of wood seems to interfere with the tangential jnnction of the append- age and j)rimary mass. Aj)pendages of wood are, however, (|uile necessary at times. Their use is merely a matter of lessening the contrast of conflicting lines in an addition of lliis natnre. The band and bracket saws are recjuired in many instances to construct the connecting lin]< l)etween ()})posing masses of wood. Influence of Tools and Materials [54] • Applied ai^id Comstfeuctive. Desigm » • Principle. A relatiom of prii^a^rv r-^/^ss to /\pp>ehoage.& • PRO&LE.M; APPLICATIOM TO CLA55E.5 ^AMD3* :Crccc(XO; // CLAS^ 2." 3 AM APPE-MOAGE. 15 /\ SUBORDINATE. MA:5^ added to THE. PRIMARY MA3,5 FOR UTIUTARIAM PURPOSED* IT .5HOULO HARMOHI2.E WJ-TH THE: PRIMARY MASS IM OUTLINE. AHO PROPORTION AMD IF PO 351 BUE. , SPRING TAMGEHTIALUY FROM IT--- DRAW THREE. DE.5ICinC> ILLUC)TRATiriev PRINCIPLE. 4-. Plate 19 [55] Hand building or casting is the means used to construct the append- influence of ages in plastic materials. Appendages in cement are seen in the Tools and uprights for cement seats and are generally translated into the Materials primary mass by means of mouldings or curves. [tontinued) Forging or thin and raised metal construction affords many examples of the adaptability of material in constructing appendages. Rivets form decorative features at the junction points and should be placed with great care and relation to the decoration and the point of tangencv. INSTRUCTION SHEET FOR CLASS PRESENTATION The typical views to be used in classroom work, with the ordinary range of problems, are shown on Plate 19. These typical views should be supple- mented by dimensions, cross sections, and other views whenever necessary. Wood construction has been omitted from this sheet, l)ut its development in design is quite similar to the steps indicated in the summary. SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS (a) Draw the primary rectangle. (6) Subdivide the rectangle into two or three horizontal and, if necessary, vertical divisions. (c) Estimate the dimensions of the appendage necessary to perform the desired service in the best manner. {d) If the appendage is a handle, place it in such a position that it not only appears to but actually does support the weight of the primary mass, (e) Complete the contour curves of the primary mass based upon tlu' horizontal division wiiich acts as a unit of measurement or a turning point. (/) Join tlie appendages to the primary mass l)y means of tangential curves. {g) Establish unity between the {)rimary mass and tlic appendages by ai)plying Rules 4a, -tb, and 4c. (/() Dimension and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use. See Plate sJG. SUGGESTED PROBLEMS Design a sugar bowl, cream pitcher, and teai)()t. Consider them as differ- ent members of one set. Design a sideboard .'3 feet .'J inciies high with phite rack, the design to contain two vertical and two horizontal divisions exclusive of the appendage. SUMMARY Ol' IMLES Rule 4a. Thf (tjipciidaijc .shiiiild be dcxiijncd in iiiiilij with, and prnjmrtinnati'hj related to, the vertical or horizontal character of the primary mass, but subordinated to it. [56\ Rule 41). The appendage should have the appearance of flowing smoothly and, if possible, tangentially from the primary mass. Rule 4c. The appendage shonld, if possible, echo or repeat some lines similar in character and direction to those of the primary mass. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. State the nature and use of the appendage. •2. What is the relation of the size of the appendage to the size of the primary mass? 3. How should the appendage be attached to the primary mass.' 4. How does Rule 4c help to secure unity between the appendage and the primary mass.' 5. Are compass curves permissible in appendage design.' 6. State influence of tools and materials upon appendage design. Chapter VI ENRICHMENT OF THE CONTOURS OR OUTLINES OF DESIGNS IN WOOD With this chapter we introduce contour enrichment, the second major division of industrial arts design. A critic of furniture designed by the average manual arts student lias stated frankly that while it might have been honestly constructed Need and it was, in the first place, too heavy for a woman to move about the Value of house and, in the second place, it represented a decidedly uneco- Enrichment nomical use of that valuable material, wood. Tliat there is a basis in fact for this statement cannot be denied. Is it true, then, that furniture must of necessitv be clumsv and heavv when it is sufficientlv simplified in constructive processes for school work.^ We may say emphatically, "No!" One may correct the proportions of an object and reduce the size of the materials in it to a mininuim but still fail to secure the desirable elements of lightness and interest. The object may still look heavy and remain a })ox-like structure void of tlie grace synonymous with I lie best in design. It is, however, possil)le to correct the clumsy and heavy appearances by imparting to the design elements of grace and lightness. Two methods may be used, singly oi- together: (1) Enrichment of the Functional Outlines or Contours; (2) Surface Knrichment sometimes called Space l-'illing. These may be roughly classified respectively as three and two dimension enrichment. "^riie first, or outline enrichment, concerns itself with llie structural lines. As all designing ])rocesses should start with the structure, it will be our j)olicy to do so. '^I'he ])resent chapter will deal only with enrichment of outlines of wood })rojects. Rule .>a. Outline cnriclufwiit should be subordinated to and support the siructurc. Rule ."ib. Onl/iiic cnric/uncnl .should add grace, lujhlucss, and variety to the design. Contour Enrichment [58] • COMMON ERF^OR.5 IM COMTOUR EIMRICHMEMT ; FlG-5"9- FIG-SO- FIG-SI' MOMOTOMOUS CUKVE:5 AMD FAULTY • H DlviSlOMS • R05E.TTES • FIG- e>2- C0^1PASS CURVES FIG • es • LACKOF COMTIMUITYAMO DHITY m FIG- es- MOMOTOM005 CURVES H FIG -67 • VIOLATES "SERVICE.. ETC- r c fi c g r ^ i u , FIG -64- .. ORNAMEMT COMPASSCUI?- VE5 WITH MO GRQUPIHG THE APPEMOAGE FAILS TO &E CONVINC- INGLY ATTACHEDTO THE PRIMARY MASS- y FIG • 66 • LAOCOF SIMPLICITY CUf?VES OF EXTRAVAGANCE uctcor COMTJHUlTY A FIG 69 ■ MOMOTOIiY FIG- 68- Plate 19a [59] It is the purpose of enrichment to add to the problem (1) grace; (2) hghtness; (3) variety; (4) unity. If it is apphed in a proper manner it should likewise add to the apparent structural strength. We should carefully guard the design, therefore, against (1) enrich- ment that has a tendency to obscure or destroy the structural lines; in other words, enrichment that is not subordinated to the structure, and (2) enrichment that adds nothing to the structure by its appli- cation; that is, one which does not increase either the apparent strength or the beauty of the object. As an example of this first point, the turned candlestick with the candle supported by a stack of turned balls alternating with tauri or thin discs tends to obscure completely the sense of support. Again, the landscape gardener feels that he is violating a fundamental principle in design if b}^ planting vines to grow around a building, he obscures the foundation, and the roof appears, consequently, to rest on and be supported by the stems and leaves of the vines. Thus it is seen that the eye registers a sense of structural weakness when the main supports of an object disappear and are no longer to be traced under the enrichment. Under the second point falls the indiscriminate ])lacing of unrelated objects in the contour enrichment. Naturalistic objects similar to the claw foot and the human head, for example, should give way to natural curves that add to the appearance of total strength. AVhere are we to find these curves suited to our purpose? Up to this j)oint em})hasis has been })lac(Ml upon straight and curved lines immediately connected witli ])ure service. For grace and lightness it is necessary to depart a I limes from the rigidity of straight lines. To understand the character of this departure let us consider a simj)le bracket as a su})port for a shelf. This bracket acts as a link, connecting a xcrlical wall or leg with a horizontal member or shelf. A bracket shajx'd hke a 4,3-(legree triangle, Figure 10, page 24, gives one the sense of chimsincvss. If the feehng of grace is to l)e inij)arted tlie eye must move smoothly along the outline of the bracket, giving one a sensation of aesthetic pleasure. A curved line will j)r()(lu((' this elfect more comph^tely than will a straight line. One nnisl likewise" get the f(H'ling that the cur\e of the bracket is designed to sui)])oit the shelf. Purpose of Contour Enrichment Requirements of Contour Enrichment Valuable Curves for Outline Enrichment [GO] • riATURAL AMD GEOMETRIC CURVED WITH THEIK USE IM FUnCTlOMAL. OUTUME. EMI^lCHriEnT • CURVE OF FORCE AS HATUKE>S SUPPORTING CURVE A GREEK- FRAGMEMT FIG 7Z- HGUEES "70 T2. REPRESEMT THf^ CURVE OF FORCE y^5 SEEM IH HATURE AMD ORNAkMEHT • " F " FIG- TI- THE CURVE. OF f=-OPtCE. AX.VS AH APPROXIMATE CURVE. QF FORCE / .!> 1 /THECORVE OF FORCE AS A 5UPPORT1MG . CUKVE IM THE jhy IHDUSTRIAU Pie. -TA- APPLICATIOH5 OF" THE CURVE. OF Fo«:ce. FIG 77- FIG-T6 I LLC! 5- TRATIMG ECHO OF -51MILAR Curved AT "E" -^ Plate 20 [61 The Curve of Force Turning to Figure 70, Plate '20, we find that whenever nature Valuable desires to support a weight she is inchned to use a pecuhar curve seen Curves at F. Possibly through continued observation the eye has asso- ciated this curve with strength or supporting power. Figure 71 has detailed this curve. It is found to consist of a long, rather flat portion with a quick and sudden turn at its end. The curve is known to designers as the Curve of Force and is most valuable in all forms of enrichment. Designers even in early ages used it in some form as will be noted from the fragment of Greek sculpture in Figure 7*2. Its beautv rests in its varietv. A circle has little interest due to its rather monotonous curvature. The eye desires variety and the curve of force administers to this need and gives a sense of satisfaction. As designers on wood, how are we to utilize this curve for purposes of outline enrichment.^ For approximate similarity of curvature an ellipse constructed as shown in Figure 73 will be found convenient. By drawing several ellipses of varying sizes upon sheets of tin or zinc, a series of templates of utmost practical value may be formed and used as was done in securing the curves of force in Figures 74 and 75. If the rail or shelf is longer than the post, measured downward from the rail to the floor or to the next shelf, the ellipse should be used with its major axis placed in a horizontal position. Figure 75. If, on the contrary, the j)ost is longer than the shelf the ellipse should have its major axis in a vertical position. Figure 74. Figures 70 and 77 show other instances of the use of tlie a})proximate curve of force. Many simihir practical ai)i)licati()ns will occur to the designer. We have classed the l)racket as a link connecting a vertical and horizontal struct ure. Mouldings may likewise be considered as Mouldings links connecting similar horizontal or vertical surfaces by bands of graded forms. Inasnuicli as they elfecl the onllini^ lh(\\- are consid- ered in this chapter. As the mouldings are to assist the eye to make I lie junij) from one surface to another by easy steps, the position from which the mouldings are to be seen determines to some extent I heir design. Figure 78 shows \\w relation of the s))eclalor to three types of mouldings at J, />. and (' . The top or vroirti (.1) is to l)e seen from An Approxi- mate Curve of Force 6-2 EMK-ICHMEMT OF" THE- COMTOUR. O^ OUTLIHE ©V MOOl-DlH&S APPUED -TO WOOO--- TYPE5 or MOUUOIN&- ■ WOOD TuRHIHG PKO&LEnS • 77 ^f COMTIHUITY ^l 1 1 A IS c FIG -TQ FIG-- 83 n CROWN BEAD aiRVE OF FOKCE M r HTEKTIEDI/Me BEAD nODiFlED CU(?VE OF FOKCE j: H0TE:THEME£Tlrt6 OF TWO CURVES IS WITH A ^UAKE- ■5COT1A ^Z_ r p BASE =^' IHTERMEOIATE &*v£E Fie. - ©4- ^ ^^ ^ ? • COnTRA5T .;^ FIG.- So- PRACTICE CORVES ■^ " y r: C^-MA RE.CTA C"^MA REVER5A FIG -TO- VZL SCOTIA. -^o i-P FIG- SI- CQHTiriuouS CURVES ^ s. FAULTS ^ 0 FIG- 83 REPKESEHTi K COKKECTL-Y OESIGHEO CAHOLESTICK W\TH OUTUUE EMI^lCHMEliT^ C--ROUPED IH ACCOKOAMCE WITH KULEi a A AMD &• F1&OT2E S4- IS ATYPICAL FAULTS DEMG-M VIOLATING PKoPOKTlOHATE. CI^UPIMG AMO COKTINUITY WITH LACK OF GOMTRAST • T L-O FIG CQMTKA^TED 82. - CUtiVES ■ Tlate 21 [ 68 ] below. On a large project the angle of the mouldings with the body of the object should be approximately 45 degrees. The intermediate moulding {B) is lighter than the crown and forms a transitional link that may l)e seen from either above or below. The lower or base moulding (C) is the widest member of the group as demanded by our sense of stability. It is seen from above. Both for sanitarv and structural reasons it projects but slightly from the base. With this grouping in mind it is needless to say that a faulty moulding is one, some portion of which, hidden by intervening moulding, cannot be seen by the spectator. Architectural design and history have formulated a series of curves, geometric in character, that are regarded as standards in the Industrial x\rts. Some of the more prominent curves with their constructions are shown in Figure 79. The horizontal divisions are analj^zed in accordance with Rules 2a and "^b. It is noticed that the Scotia possesses a curve having the shai)e of the curve of force, while the two Cvmas are saved from monotonous division by means of their reversed curves, illustrating the contrast of direction. The curves of Figure 80 are excellent lines for freehand practice in design- ing mouldings and will develop the principle of continuity of curvature or the smooth transition of one curve into the next. To keej) this continuity from the monotony of a ^Marcel Wave it is customary to break continuous curves by a fillet such as a straight line as shown at D, Figures 81, 82, and 83. When the desired outside diameter has been reached, contrast of direct ion is necessary and pleasing as a return. Figure 82. A glance at the curves so far considered will (|ui('kly determine wlielher they are fitted for the crown, intermediate or base mouldings. A ('ur\'(^ should join a straight line with either a tangential or right angle junction, which makes for positiveness in contour expression. Aj)j)lication of tliese curves to onlline ein-ichment for wood hirning projects is to be governed by a sli'ici adhenMiee to Kules 2a <»r 2b, otherwise confusion and lack of unity will rcsnll. Figure 8.3 sli(»ws a major grouping nndci- IJnle 2l) with I lie subdivisions and minor curN'es arranged under Hules 2a and 2l). l^'igure 81- shows a disregard t'oi- I'ulcs and the result is an undesirable monotony of eonloui'. If smooth and e\'en eonlinuity oi' eurxature is gi\en Mouldings {Continued) Continuity and Contrast Grouping of Curves [64] Figure 85. — Modern Candlesticks Figure 86. — Modern Book Trough Courtesy of Berkey and Gay 05 ] Evolution of Enriched Outline Design considerable thought, together with that for systematic grouping and variety, a pleasing result from wood turning (a much abused Init pleasing form of outline enrichment) may be secured. Figures 85 and 86 are illustrations from the industrial field with moulding curves grouped, following and supporting the structural lines of the object. The columns in Figure 86 might, however, be advanta- geousty reversed. Large objects designed to be seen from a distance require larger Materials space divisions for their mouldings than do small objects seen from a nearer point. Material affects the curve somewhat. Smaller mouldings are more suited to the expensive woods like mahogany while larger curves may be used in pine or oak. We now have at our command a number of interesting and serviceable curves suited to the material. Plate 2"^ is a sheet of api)lications. Figures 87 to 94 deal with the book-rack end and in this, as in the initial chapter, architecture is referred to as the source for manv law^s of industrial design. It has seemed wise to illustrate some of these important parallels as follows: We will assume the type of joint construction of the book-rack end as settled and the question of enrichment to be under consideration. Figure 87 is a simple primary mass without enrichment. It is comparable to the plain box-like structure with monotonous outline and without interest. The eye follows tlie outhne in the direction of the arrows, i)ausing at the s(|uare corners, which inten-u])t a free movement by a harsh right angle. The base (an apj)endage) rei)eats in each instance the lines of the j)rimary mass. Figure 88. Hound corners, by IVcHMiig the design from the right angles, accelerate I he eye movement and give a sense of added interest and grace to the contour. Figure 89. The cornice of a building suggests a similai- arrange- ment which may be addccl to tli<' i)rimary mass. It adds the element of contrast of direction ;iii(l xariety of widths. Figure 90. The in.iiii |)rimary mass of a building with two e(|ual ap|)endag(\s will suggest the enrieliiiieiit of the outline^ in sym- pathy with three \-ei'tie.-il divisions. I{nle'5b. The rounded corners Variations again assist the eye to ti;i\'el freely around the contours, thus giving a sense of unit\' to the entire form. [66] EriRlCHME-NT OF THE. FUMCTIOMAL. OUTLlME-S OR- COhl-pOURvS A.2> A.PPL.IED TO VM'OOO • •THE EVOLUTIOM OF OUTUHE. E-HRICHMEMT OF" /\ BOOK R/^CK. EiriD V/ITH CR.05-5 REFEK.E.HCE-S TO PARALLE.l_S IH A.V^CH ITE.CTURE. • FIG • 67 FIG- ae> Fi&e>s f FFF P s a PPT VARIATION OF FIG- 67 ■ IHTF^O- DOCIHG THEr- EL FIG-Sp rn ROUE, 3 FIG.- Si- ne • 92.- A SLIGHT TAPERIMG OF THE PKIMART MASS TEnV^S TO VAKS' THE WIDTH AMD CAUSE 7riE. EYE TO MOVE in AM UPWARD DlKBCTlOrt* FlGi- 33 F^lC=i- BA- HOTE THE FACT THAT 5IMPT-E AMD SIMILAR S CURVED AMD STI^Al- I c-,HT UHE5 ARE t USEO iri EiiRlCH- < MEMT- F1&URE5 9I TO 94- PLACE. Em FHAS IS UPOH THE. TOP OR: CROVy-MlHO UMES F0C05IH6 AT POIMT'DC'--- THEOUTLIMES ARE. 5TROKGL^' D^hAMlO ' FOOT STOOL VARIATIOMS AMD DETAILS WITH OUTLIME EHRICHMEMT \HpAKTlHG \.u., F16-95- D Qi GRACE AHO LIGHTa" HE5S TQ THE ViE^lGJi FIG 96- FlG-97- FIG 98- VAR.\ATlOns OF TOP AriD BOTTOt^ RA\L5 • THE LQWEI? DESISM IS STKUC- TURALLV WEAKEMED AT'2" Bi Ert^^lCH- KEHT . FIG -99 • VARIATIOMS OFA SQUARE FIG ICXJ Plate 22 [67] ((oJiti'*< FIGM02 E>CTKAVAGAMT CUR.VE5' DISKEGARDIMG ECOrioMY or mate^i/m-- It i:> CLUMPY Ah DiACK- iriG> DIVISION Au no^- IIZIOMTALGKOUP'IHOC^) FIG-IOI K.EFI^ESEriT^ COHFU^EO OOTLiriE: EHK-lCH- MEHT- THE. CUKVES A^^E Ur1^E.LATED TO AMD 0E.5TK.OY THE. STeuCTUtSAU LIIHES--- USELESS 'bU^FAeE. ois- NAHEhT TEhD5 TQ ACCEMTUATEL T"HE. OTHET^^iSE FAOL-TVU^ ^Ki^lCHED OOTUME.- • • Figures 101 uiid 10^2 Figure 91. The j)C(liinent of a Greek teinj)le willi tlie interest centered at the toj) of the jx'dinient (x) causes a siniihir concentration of interest in the l)ook-rack end. "^Phe shglil inclination of the sides su})])hes varietx' of widths. 'I'he .-irchitect considers an ol)jecl with the interest centered in tliis manner in I he uj)j)er j)ortion, as j)ossessing more indivichi.ilil y llian a inotix-e witli purely horizontal lines across the top boundary. [68] roibW-j r-cf^LLj^J. Figure 102a [69] Figure 103. — A ^lock-ni 'rrlc|)liuiic Stnnd and Stool Criiirtcsy of Berkry and Gay [70] Courtesy of Berhey and Gay Figure 104. — Modern Chair Figure 9*2. In this figure the curved inchnation facihtates the upward movement of the eye, at the same time supplying variety of width. Figure 93. The addition of an appendage to the outhne of the Greek temple suggests a slight drop or variation in the top edge of the book-rack end which gives increased interest and grace through varietv. Figure 94. Contrast of direction is supplied in this suggestion but it is questionable whether we are adding much to the interest bv the corner. [71 Figure 105. — A Modern Serving Table Cotirte/!!/ of Berkcy and Gay Figures O.j lo !)S ;\vc \nriali()iis of one lluMiic, the fool slool, and Fii^iiTV 9!) adds sn^'u'csl Inc designs I'oi- rails. I) in Fignrc 99 shows the ein-iehnienl Hnc" eul to a de])Ui which Ihrealens the struclnral value of I he rail. "^Fhis is eon-eeted in i'^igure 101). I^'igure 100 is an ap[)liealion of t lie curve of force lo a ciiair leg />, with olher ])()ssi- [72] Figure lOoa [73] Fi{;uRE lOG. — Sheraton Table Courlcstj of Ilcrlccij and Gay bilities at A and C. Numerous applications of the varied curves under consideration are found tlirou.^liout this sheet. Before closing with enriclied outlines it is well to consider flagrant violations of this enrichment now on I he market. Figure 101 shows a typical exami)le of complete lack of unity and simplicity. It is a type of design often associated with cheai)ly constructed furn- iture. It is an ornate ])ar()dy on outline enrichment. The curves of extravagance are well shown in Figure lO'^ wliere large bulbous curves with no systematic grou])iiig combine disastrous waste of material with lack of grace or lightness. It is excellent i)ractice to redesign such examj)les as those shown in Figures 101 and lO'^ with special refercMice to Rule .>(•. Rule .5c. OufliHc cnn'r/nncfiL hi/ //.v similarity, .s/ioiild give a .scn.sc of oneness or iniilij to the de.siyn, hindifig divenjent members together. [74] h r y r y r ui u D r • do X o P u h \0 CD x: 1. U- iiJ c M^ z: < ^o z 1 ^' M i [75] Illustrations 103 to 106 are typical forms of present day outline enrichment. Limitations of space will not permit reference to the use of Period furniture, Sheraton and Hepplewhite designs are most adaptable for school uses as may be seen by comparing the Sheraton desk (Figure 106) with the foot stool in Figure 96. INSTRUCTION SHEET Figure 83 and Plates 22 and 23 are indicative of what might be obtained from a class. The problem represented on Plate 23 is advantageously colored with the intended stain and with a small section of side wall and trim visible. See Chapter IG, Figures 458 to 4G3. Figure 102a shows the method of enlarging a design into a full size working drawing for shop purposes. SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS (a) Draw the primary rectangle. (6) Subdivide the rectangle into vertical and horizontal divisions. (c) Determine parts to he treate horizontal divisions. Kule 2a. Th(> lilactc ])oiiion is I he dominant section. Unit of Measurement for Curves in Outline Enrichment Accentuation of Functional Parts in Clay Appendages 80 • OUTLIME EMRICHMEMT OF THE. PKIMA.RY I-\Av!)v5 IH CLAY • GOOD COIi.'iTRUCTlVEDESlG.HlS "A FR-ElE. AHO AOEQUATlfL E^ieODl ME.MT OF Am idea IH AFOKM PECUUA^SLY APPI^OF'KIATe TO THE IDEA ITSE LF " H EC=,El_* FlC-MOf) KiG. 103 FIG,\lO- Fl&-\Vl FlCi-nZ FiG. 1\ 3 p|G,.>\4. FiG.US' -4. F16- 116- ^■ p^lOi-llT FI&- ua Fl&llO- FICT12.0 FI&I7.\ rics- IZ'2-- Ft&.li3- ^> - A SIMPLE DEVICE- f^QK. POTTEK.V QESiC-iNiNe, COH5>5TC> OF A SHEET OF PAPEK folded oh UrSEX-X FIC 116-- ?»>Y CUTTING THE OUTUME OFOHE SlOE THE OPP'O'blTE -SiDE ^5 UKEvsi'SE. FORM ED • /K TIM TEMPLATE. MA^T5E FOKMEO FT?Of~A "THE PAPE(2 PATTETSM AKO UseO To TEST "TKE. COM 5TEOCTIOM • Fltia-q- FI&- \7.5' FI&- l-Z-S' Fig.- I2.T> ■COHiTI^DCTWE EVOLUTIOH OF OUTHrtE. EMRICHMEHT : ACCEMTUATIOM OF THE. T^>r-1 ArAt:> FOQT- -^ FIG- I'Z-fi- T JL Jk Jlk JL Jl A B ■ c- n> • MO HORL D1V13IOM3 r ■ F kOYV '• 01VlJ\On5 — F1G1E9- TWO HOK:\ZOrlTAL SPACE. DlVl'SlOM-S WITH (.iPPEK 5PACE r>OMlrtAMT -^ FH=i-l30. TWO HOteiZOHTAL ^PACE DIVISIONS WTH LOWEK SPACE OOH\HAMT TH52EE VtOKlXOHTAL.-SPACE Division 5 WITH CEMTEE 5PACE 'DoniNAHT EHKICHnEHT OF THE "SIMPLE FolCMS OH LlHE-'w* I5Y COMBlHlNG TA/O PROCESSES: ^YAR^flH& THE POSITION AMDhUMBEKOF THE H01^\Z0HTAL DiVi 5IOH5 d^CJLES 2A AHDB)AHD 2-R>i SYSTEMATICALLY VAfTflMC-. THE BASE CIS FOOT WIDTHS FKqmw" TO 2" BY MEAHO OF THE. CONVEE:eiHG LlrtE-5 'C" • THE WIDTH AHO HEI&HT OF THE PifiMAKY MASS ISCONSTAMT- Plate 24 [81] Notice the change in outhnes based upon this division. Figure 130 raises the division point of the two subdivisions into the upper half of the object. This brings out the need of an accented foot which is, however, not of sufficient prominence to be considered as a horizontal spacing. Figure 131 raises the horizontal division points, again causing the introduction of a larger foot and now qualifying it as a division of the whole mass. This then makes our design a three- division pro})lem. Rule Sb, and places it under the restrictions of Jlule 5e. The feet of all of the bowls have been svstematicallv decreased in width by the converging lines C-C while the tops have been maintained constant in width. By this simple diagram an infinite number of designs may be formed and the choice of selection from the series, thoughtfully exercised, will sui)ply the ideal bowl, ready to be translated into a full size working drawing. It is not the idea, however, to guarantee a perfect design in each one of these divisions as that would be practically impossible, but we have systematically applied a method of determination for stimulating the imagination. A series of articles bv F. H. Rhead in the Keramic Studio first sug- gested the system of development by means of graded rectangles. Plate 25 shows a further elaboration of the succeeding themes. The candlestick series. Figures 132 to 13S, introduces two or three- space division problems with contour turning points at A, Rule 5e, and with accented or eml)rvonic feet and rims. The change from the purely functional and unenriched memlKM- of Figure 132 through the series shows the enrichment changing slightly to meet the needs of the three functional parts: the base, the handle, and the candle socket, liule .5(1. Figure 139 shows a series of illustrations rei)resenting variations for containers. 'Vlw first figure is without enrichment, followed by variations of the outline in the maniUM- already suggested. Figure 1 to indicates a series of })()ur(M-s with the least nl tractive d(\sign on the left end. This unsatisfactory design is found. uj)()n analysis, to be due lo cenl rally i)laced horizontal division violating l^ilc 2;i. The dcvsign of I he ai)j)endages in Ihis series will again be found to cont'onn with I he rules in C'ha])ler \ . '^I'lie units of measure- iiHMil I'oi" I he cui'Ncs in;i\' be readih' asccrhiincd from observation. Systematic Development of Outline Enrichment in Clay Candlesticks Containers Pourers [82] OUT LIME EIUCICHMEHT OF THE. t7K\t1ARY MAsrb IM CLAX WITH METHODS OF SECORIrtG. VAK\ETY • FIG 132.- Fie.135- no 1 34-- FKS.135 FIG 13e FIG 15T- F1& JSS- UHE-MKICHE-O CAMOLE STICICC Fife, 13)2 ") V/ ITK Sl><> PoSS\e>l-E. VAKlATlOMS ..B^ <^=^ /p^ FOUR VARIATIONS OF CONTAItlEFS WITH SLI&HT CHANGE. OF 7EOPORTIOM5 FnG 139- ..=-!^ ■VA.R\ATlOKS OF POOK-E.^ ^ATlTK A"PPEKDA.&ES FIG.- I4-0- t ll WDMTW ] ' iWl B I H 1 1 - FORMS ^A•lTH the: S/M-IE -widths FORH5 V/ITH THE 3AME. HE.1&HT BUT VAKVIN& IH HEIGHT ■ ^'^>T VAV2VIHG IIH V/IDTH _ Bi l H I B 1 1 FIGKI- HOKiZOHTAL Pn FIG- 14-2. VEeriCAl- PM FI&UR.E.'S 14-1 AnD\A-2.»LLU5TR.ATE: A METHOD QF SI'STEMATICALLTr 0E5IGN1NG A SERIES OF FQ1?H5 -SIMILAR. IN OUTLINE. T*.uT VARY- ING-, IN THE PROPORTlOrt.'S OF THEl PI^IMAKV MA55ELk5 • ^ElLECTlGN OF THU MO-ST PLEASlMC OESKSM 'SHOULD !5E POLLOwe.D B^/' A FULL sii-E v/oRcinei di^awhsg,* Plate 25 [83 J . Figure 141 is useful for the following purpose. It is desirable at times to develop a number of similar forms for a set, with a grad- „. ., . ually increasing ratio of proportions, either in height or width, with Varying Figure 141 shows how the height may be increased while maintaining Primary a common width. Notice the gradual proportionate increase of the Masses height of the neck A-B as well as that of the body. The line X is of the utmost value in ascertaining the height of the intermediate bowls. The eve should now be so trained that the height of the neck A-B on the last bowl can be readily proportioned by eye measurement to that of the first bowl. X line similar to A" will give the intermediate points. F'igure 14^2 varies the width in a similar manner. Notice the gradually decreasing distances C-D-E-F, the spaces for which may be determined by the eye. iNSTRUCTiox shp:et Plate 26 suggests the sequential progression of steps leading to tlie potter's working drawing. SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS (a) Draw the primary rectangle. (6) Add limits oi functional parts: liandle, spout, C(jver, etc. (c) Establish unit of measurement for primary rectangle contour curves. {d) Design contour of primary mass and add tlie appendages to it, observing the rules jiertaining to appendages and unit of measurement. (e) Dimension and otherwise pre])are tlie drawing for the jjotter's use. This includes tlic i)lanniiig of a working drawing, one-eighth larger in all directions tlian the preliminary design, to allow for the shrinkage of the clay body. The wcjrking drawing should also l)e in })artial sections to show the construction of the interior of the ware. SUGGESTED IMtOHLEM Design a teapot, te.a cadd.\', and cui) sliowiiig a coininou uiiit.\' in coutnur design. (Plate 8£,) SUMMARY OF RUUES Rule .1(1. I'd'tn of one (lcsi(ju (liJfcriiKj in fiiiiclion should differ in appearance hnf he eo-ord niiit<(l irilh llie entire desn/ii. Rule 5e. //( cylindrieal fornix outline curves with a vertical tenileiiei/ slionld [84] euLES 5D AhD 5e conToue oe outlime cneicnntnT • claT' IhSTEUCTIOM SHCEtT • N^ ( ) -th^ -VK- -K- riGA- THf PEIHAET MASS- FIG • B • DIYIDCD imo FUnCTIOnAL PA2T5' FIG -C- E5TABU5HnErHT OFUH ITQF MEASUREnEMTV- C0MTOUJ^5 • ETC FIC-r-D- POTTEe'5 V/oe^lhG "DRAWING WITH s ADDED TO ALLOW PCiR SHCiniCAGE IM FIEinCn ■ Plate 26 [85] have their turning points- or units of measurement in accordance with the horizontal divisions of Rules 2a and .2b. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Give and illustrate the rule governing the change in the appearance of the design with the change of functional service. 2. What is the aesthetic value of curves in outline enrichment? 3. Correlate the rule governing the unit of measurement for vertical contour curves with the rules controlling horizontal divisions. 4. Show, by a diagram, the method of systematically varying the contours of circular forms: (a) by changing the horizontal divisions; (6) by varying the proportion of the primary mass. 5. What is the value of accenting the functional parts in clay design. ■* ('ourlc.iji (if Jiunrs Mitlilccn University Figure 14''2a. — OiitliiH" jind Siirf;u-(^ I'liiridniKMit \n CoWci^c Pottery [86] .CKiTLine. EMF^lCHnCMT OF THE. PElMA.K'T M^3^E^) OF THE t5A.5EI2. METALS • EHKICHMEMT OF EDGES - COKHCRIS - IMTEEME.DIATE POIHT3 " APPEmOAGES ■ SEE Platens FOFS. TEKMIHAl_C5Lirir:iOETAH_S. i D ""^-N ^xivi:) Fie 1A5 FIG, 14-4- F=-tG, 14-5- ErifClCHMEHT OF EDCE-S BV CHW^FEKIMC-i T^OUMOIHG LA^PflHG. «^ J-TJT ^ \ H q: Fie.l4-T F\ of be.iiitw The transition from one j)I;ine surface lo anotlxT is assisted by a I'ounded edge, as the eye Inkes kindly to (he >ot'lened pl.iy of light and shade. This gives u.> t he >imi)lest form of enii* linieni the beveled, cham- fered, or rounded edge, Figures 14.3 and li]:, Plate *-27. The rim of a [87] Enrichment of the Base Metals — Iron, Copper, Brass, Bronze Free and Dependent Outlines Enrichment of Edges [88 Enrichment of Functional Parts Enrichment of Comers Enrichment of Appendages thill 18-gaiige plate is likewise improved and strengthened l>y lapping the edge as shown in Figure 145, giving the rounded effect shown in Figure 144. There are six inij)()rlant functional parts with which we are brought into common contact in industrial design of base metals. There are manv more, but these are the most common and con- sequent ly are of the utmost importance to the designer as design centers. These parts are itemized as follows: (1) Corners, ('2) Ap- pendages, (3) Intermediate Points, (4) Terminals, (5) Links, (6) Details. As the decorative treatment of each part varies with the functional duty. Rule 5d, separate treatment and consideration of each part will be necessary. Corners, as extreme turning points of a design, are often found convenient for the location of screw holes, rivets, etc. These impor- tant construction elements become prominent functional parts of the design and by custom and the laws of design. Rule 5d, they are capable of receiving outline enrichment. But the contour of the corner must be related to the screws or rivets, particularly if they are near the edge, hence our outline becomes a dependent outline and as such must })e related to the rivets or screws by Rule .5f. Figures 146 to 149 show various arrangements of this type of design. The unity of the design is not lost, and the functional parts are enriched by contours related to the elements of service (rivets). Figure 153 shows another but slightly modified example of the same laws applied to hinge construction. The enriched outline in this case is closely associated with the holes in the hinge. The hinges in turn nuist be related to the object for which they are designed. Figure 150 gives a common example of corner enrichment by means of varying the edge at the corners, i.e., by rounding the tray corners. As appendages have distinct functional duties their design may vary as the design of the arm of the human figure differs from the head. Yet, as parts of the same body, they must fit the shape of the o})iect to which tliev are attached. The candle holder and handle as appendages in Figure 150 are designed in sympathetic relation by means of tangential and similar curves sufficiently varied to give the eye a feeling of variety in the design. The novel single flower holders, Figures 151 and 152, with the glass test tube acting as a [89] container show other possible forms of the appendage design. The first is informal while the second is formal, but both adhere to the first simple rules of appendage design. Rule 4a, etc. The enrichment of center or intermediate points should ])e handled with great care and with a definite reason. Careless handling may cause the design to lack unity. Figures 154 and 155 show a simple twist as enrichment. The serviceable reason for this is to obtain a grip at the point of the twist. Again, it varies the character of the Enrichment of Inter- mediate Points FicuHE l.>()a. — Candlestick, Reiidcivd hy E. R. straight edges and adds interest witlioiil loss of compactness or unity. If one is desirous of widening a vertical oi' lioii/oiilal I'od. IIummumcIi- ment made by welding a number of small rods together willi a spread- ing twist gives a pleasing and serviceable handle. Figure 15(). As the })ul)lic demands a Iiaj)])y ending to a slory or a l)lay, so does the eye demand a well-designed ending lo a design. The pari ihat terminal enrichnuMil |)lays in indnsliial design is, therefore, to say Enrichment llic least , imporlaiil lo ns as designei's. I'^igiire 157 illustrates of Terminals terminals in Ihin melal and is shown l)\' coui-Icsn- of the School Arts [90] OUTLltiE. EtlElCHMEMT OF THE. PT^inAR^ MA-CvS IH THE BA.5EJS ME.TALS • THE. EMKlCHnEHT OF TE.K.MlMAl_S , UH»C5^ AHD DE.TAIL5 • • FKE-t' OUTLIHEC) - ■;.C;^^^ -~->mi'"-> , ,., iff '1 j- am' m^m mi 1 "^1 m i S "^ mg 1 ^1 aSa^M'I'^S Q) O I \ EXPAMDinc-1 Ann bemo- IHG- FIG- lOO' 1=1GI57 ■ SAYVIHG AND FlUHG. FIG- IS'S- nOMIHG HOTE.: FOTt TO'RMlH& SEE. PLATE 21 FORMS OF TE-T^MIHAL EHl^lCHME-MT FIG -163 IJEMOIH^ DETA\\_ •THE lOMlC VOLUTE OK CUT2VE. OF BEAOTV A TEK.MIM/VL Ci_»K-VE OF- EXTREME- ir-nP=ORTA^t-tCE. H&-I6I •BEMDIMG TWISTING • V/ELDiriG •EXPAttDltHG THE ADAPTED GREEIC ■5CK.OLL ' DETA>L APPEnOA.GE. FI&162 T5EMDItiG LIHIC^ AMDTEKMI- HAL HOOC CueVES BEHDlHG "KAlSlrte.- CASTIrtG-FIGM65 Plate 28 [91] Magazine from one of the articles by Mr. Augustus Rose. The out- hnes are in part dependent in character, controlled by rivets. Notice the change of curve as the function changes from the dependent curve of the rivet area to i\\e free outline of the handle and again from the handle to the cutting blade; a functional change of marked character, but in thorough unity with the entire design. It is again emphasized that whether the design possesses a free or a dependent outline, or a combination of l^otli types, all parts of the design nuist be held together l)y entire unity. The rivets are occasionally placed toward the edge and a domed boss is used to accent the center as is shown in Figure 158. Free and Dependent Contour Enrichment The Ioxic Volute As the Curve of Force was a valuable curve in wood construction, so we find it an equally valuable curve for wrought metal. Its recurrence again and again in industrial design leads us to appreciate its value in the arts. It is the Ionic volute handed down to us in its present form from the time of the Greeks, who developed it to a high state of perfection. While its geometric development is a tedious process, it may be easily constructed for practical purj^oses by the following method. In Figure 159, P represents a small cylinder of wood, possibly a dowel. A strong piece of thread, or fine wire, is wrapped around the base of the dowel a number of times and a loop is formed in the free end. A pencil with a sharp point is inserted in the loop and the pencil and dowel are placed together on a sheet of paper. As the thread unwinds from the dowel the point of the pencil ^^ ill describe a volute which mav be devel()])ed indefinitelv. It will l)e noticed that no corresponding parts of the curve are concentric and it thus has constant varietv. It has been termed the Curve of Beauty and is found in nature in the wonderfully designed shell of the nautilus. It is advisable to form several temi)latcs for the volute out of bent wrought iron, of diiriM-eiil sizes, and to i)ractice drawing I lie curve many times lo accustom llic liaiid and the eye to its changes of direc- tion, "^rhe "eye" or cenler j)<)rti()n is sometimes terminated by tiiinning and ex})anding in I he manner shown in I'igure !(>(). Terminal Enrichment in Wrought Metal Curve of Beauty [9^1] • OUTLIME. EMI^lCHMEnrOF THE: PRIMARY MASS IH FKECIOU 3 METALS* SILVER* •A DEPErtDEHT OOTLIME RELATED TO AMD EHCL05IHGt A 5E1-1 1- PRECIOUS 5TOT1E. * CA^OCKOM AKD CUSHION COT -STOnES F1C-.-I66 FI&-167- n& 163- Fl&lC)©- FlC^TO FIG 115- FlC.ni FIG >72- FlG • ITS- FIG- 174- j^3: FIG -176- FIG. -177- FlG-n8- F1C3.- 179 - riOTF THE COH7ROLLIHG IKFLDErtCE OF THE LOMG. A?^>5 OF S70Ha n&-l60' F1& 131- FIG. 182.- FIG 163- ADEPenDEMT OU7LIHE SEEH IH 5IDE YlE^^r-• M07E RISE TO OUT HME OF "STOME MOTIVES FOR. c->«.)TurHE. EH'^lCrir-IEMT WITH COHMKUCTIOrt \l M Ml ^ _ OUTUME. Fie i&a /// «g) necessary in wrought metal enrichment. 'V\\v curves that we have considered are adapted to the materials and a comparat i\'ely large and new field of design is opened to the designer through a combination of curves mentioned. IMate 30 is self-exi)lanalory and brings out the general aj)plication of the foregoing principles as a])plie(l to cast bronze hardware. It is inter(\sting to notice the change of ein-ichnient ])aralleling Lhe eliange of funclion as outlined in linle .kI. Greek Scroll Enrichment of Links Enrichment of Details Summary of Wrought Metal Free Outline Enrichment Otttlixe ExinciiMEXP ok PiiEcious ^Metals Outline Little has been wi'illen i-egar the top view of an ai'l iclc of jewelry iiiay li;i\-e been earefnll\- designed the side \-ie\v in most inslnnees is lol.-illy neglected. Tli(> side view shonid show .-i slendx" gi-adnalion from llie surface of I he silver to (he onlline of the stone. This j)re\. Stones and Their Cuttings Relation of Stone to Contour Need of Top and Side Views [96] eULe5 5D- 5t 5F-5S COriTOUe OE OUTLIhE eMeiCMnEriT -CLAY MeiAL- insTEucTion sheet • APPEHDAGtE Linic 7Z\ peiMAev MA55 \ J TICtA- the- PEinA\2Y RECTAhGLE. ?ICtB- FUnCUOMAL "DiYI5IOn5 noTf. TH15 SHEET ILLUSTRATES THE DESlC-iN Pt^OCESSES OF A LAMP ALLCLAVPA^TS "SHOULD BE TRANSLATED IMTO A POTTERS DeAWIHG • o o O FICt • C • TWO "DESIGMS TQ>^ COHTOUP Elie^CHnEhT • FICn-"D- FIMAL SELECTIOM Feon "C" DEVELOPED ITITO WOeKIMCi D2AWin6' Plate 31 [97 While emphasis should be placed upon simplicity of outline, certain well regulated forms of enrichment may be added to the contour and enhance the beautv of the stone. Such motives with constructive steps are shown in P^igure 184 and their application in Figures 185 to 188. It will be noticed that the enrichment invar- iably leads up to the stone which is the center of interest in the design. The ornament is likewise based upon the prominent axes of the stone. Figures 189, 190, and 191 are types of beaten and raised silver work and show characteristic forms in silver, with two examples of accented outline enrichment. As thev are curvilinear forms, their design is similar in many ways to clay forms of similar proportions and uses. Motives for Outline Enrichment in Silver Free Outline Enrichment in Silver INSTRUCTION SHEET Plate 31 .shows the design steps necessary to the evolution of a hinip in two materials. A full size working drawing should follow Figure U. SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS (a) Draw the unenriehed j)riinary mass. (6) For dependent contours, locate the elements of service within the primary mass. This may be interpreted to mean rivets, screw holes, semi-precious stones, etc. (p) Deter'minc upon the portion of the contours to be enriched, gaug<'d by its need for grace, lightness, and variety. This enrichment is j)referal>ly concentrated at the following points: edges, corners, ai)])endages, inter- mediate points, terminals, links, and details. These points may be com- bine l)y conlraslsof light and shade; (3) painling or staining of lluvsurface with t iic iiilcresi dej)endent upon I lie colors or stains and llieir relalion to eacli oilier and to Ihe hue of the wood. It has been deemed wise to consider the first two lypes in the i)resenl chapter, and leave the last type for later consideral ion. In Chaj)ters \\\ Wl.and X\ II. accent nat ion has V)een j)laced on wood coloring. T\\c designer is advised to read those chaptcM's before atlemj)ting to stain or color his pi-obleni. Treating surface enrichnieni in its listc^l order we find that inlay- ing is one of t he most coinnioii and best foi'nis of enrichnieni for wood Conservative Use of Ornament Relation of Enrichment to Material Appropriate Methods of Surface Enrichment for Wood Inlaying [ 102] • STRAIGHT LIME Sui^FACE ErtKlcHMeMT OF" A 5t^ALL. PrIMAKV MaSO IM WOOO • ' BAMDS AMO BOR.OE.es ' • FOR. iriUA^lMC* - CAKVlMGt • S-rA.iri l^^e^ • AGROUPOF e>AMD5 WITH HOKlTLOriTAU OR " OriWAROVHYTHMlC nOVEMEHT • • SIMG»LE. &AMD • ^^^^ • DOUBLE BAno • - IKU-'LtL BAM D • • ACCEMTE.D • Bi^l^l ^H ^^1 ^^1 1^1 1 ^^^^H ^^1 ^^H^B IH ^Hl ^H ^B • SlhGLE. BAHD ?75 'TRIPLE BAMO- ACCEJ-ITEO FI&-I9Z • * BOF^DE.R.5 » ■■■■■■■■■■I BORDER REPETlTlOli WITHOUT ACCEMT • -BORDER. vvithOUT ACCEMT • inTRo- FI&-I33- DUCiriG EATtO- F=iei-I94- III HilHIlBlilHHllfllB •BORDER REPETITIOM • ACCEMTEO- ♦BORDER. ACCE.M-rE.O • r=ie, .I9Q Fl 0,-195 iJSJSr Jcngcm FIG- 107- ACCEMTED BOROER:^ (CSREEO FiO-196 • ACCEMTEO AMD BALANCED E.ORDE-R'3 ISARACEMIC) Plate 32 [103] work. As inlaying readil}^ adapts itself to bands and borders, emphasis is placed upon them. Rule 6i. Inlayed enriclmient should never form strong or glaring contrasts loith the parent surface. Two conspicuous errors are often associated w^ith inlaid designs. The first is the use of woods affording a glaring contrast with that of the project. Figure 209, Page 106. The right contrast of value is Errors in established when the inlay seems neither to rise from the surface nor Wood Inlay sink through it. It should remain on the surface of the plane to be enriched, for it is surface enrichment. Figures 210, 211, and 212 are illustrative of pleasing contrasts. The second specific glaring error is the use of unrelated inlay. As an example, an Indian club is created by glueing many vari-colored woods around a central core. The result of the pattern so formed has little relation to the structural lines, fails entirely to support them, and, as a result, should be discarded. Carving is difficult for the average beginner in wood working design, therefore merely the simplest forms of the craft are suggested Carving as advisable. Figure 205a. If an elaborate design is desired (Figure 205c), it should be first drawn in outline and finally modeled in relief by Plastelene. This model is then an effective guide for the carver, supplementing the original outline drawing. Carving may be roughly divided into the following groups: (1) high relief carving similar to heads, human figures, and capitals; Divisions of (2) low^ relief carving in which the planes have been flattened to a Carving comparatively short distance above the original block of wood, such as panels, which are good examples of this group; (3) pierced carving where the background has been entirely cut away in places, such as screens, which illustrate this type; (4) incised carving in which the design has been depressed bcloir I lie surface of the wood. (leo- metric chip carving is a representative tyi)e of this group. There are possible variations aud combinations of lliese groups. Rule (ij. Carved surface enrichment should hare the appearance of belonging to the parent mass. The central governing fJionght in all carved designs is to show an interesting proportion of light and shade couj)led with a unity between the raised i)()rtion of the design and the background. If (he carv- [104] SURFACE EMRlCHr^EMT OF SHALL PRIMARY MASSES IH WOOD WITH BOROER-S OF CURVED AMD STRAIGHT UHES * • FOR IMLA^lMGi - CARVING • STAIHIMG FIG • 199 • A -STRAIGHT LIME Urt IT 12EPEATE.D Axis OF SYMMETRV < OR. INCE.I»Tlve c ^ AM ACCEriTE.0 GKOUPELD AMD B/XLAtiCE-D UMIT WITH TWO FORMS OF EMRICHED APPLICATIOMS TO IH LA^ F/6-20O- THE LEADIHG, LIMES Ol^ SICE-LETOM OF A. CAE^ED BORDER THE. 0(-JALlTlE5 OF IMTEEESTlhC-. FOI^Mi FOR. CLOTH I HCf LEAOIMG L1HE5 OF A BoEOEJ^ HOTE Curves PEVEI?5A ETC /*> A FORM WITHOUT INTEREST R<5 20I ■ AMOMOTOrtOUS ADYMAniC FQI?M STKOMOi OVMAMIC FORf-IS V^'TH A FORM • WITH evrfTHM COMnON ^HyTHMIC MOVEMEMT nCiXOl.- F/C-. 203- F/CS 2.04- . FlG-IOS THE LEA01M6 LlrtES OF riGlOO ASiX. EHTtlCHED O^ CLOTHED 8"< IHTEEESTIMG FOena SUCGEST-ED BV HA^TOeAu nOTlvCJ.^ TMEMOVEMEMTIi LIP'WARD AMD OtiWARD FIG Z06 Two VAKIAT10M5 OF A CAJ^vED "OE-SIGM WITH A "STROhG OMWAKD FEELING Plate 33 10.5 iiig has a glued on appearance it becomes mechanical and resembles a stamped or machine-j)rodiiced ornament. A typical carved enrichment is carried through four steps: (1) the design is transferred to the wood surface by means of carbon paper; (2) the design is "set in" or separated from the ground by means of a grooved chisel; (3) the wood is cut away from the back of the design by a process of grounding; (4-) the leaves and flowers or other elements of the design are modeled. The designer should keep these processes in mind when developing his design. It is now essential to find the extent of the vocabulary possible for the designer of surface enrichment. lie has three large sources of information: first, geometric forms and abstract spots; second, natural organic objects such as flowers, leaves, animals, etc.; third, artificial ol^jects, pots, jars, ink bottles, and other similar objects. He may assemble or group these objects or elements for future designs into four typical systems: first, bands or borders; second, panels; third, free ornament; and fourth, the diaper or all-over patterns. Designing Bands on BoKDt:Ks Rule Ch\. Bands and borders should hare a consistent lateral, t/iat is, onirard movement. Rule Ge. Bands and Imrders should never have a prominent contrary motion, opposed to the main forward movement. Bands are particularly suitable for inlaying. They are composed of straight lines arranged in some orderly and siruclurnlly related manner. Thev are used for l)()rdering, framing, enclosing, or con- necting. They give a decided onirard molioii which lends to increase the a})])arent length of the surface to which liu\\- are aj)j)lie(I. Kefcr- riiig to Plate 3*2, Figure MH, we find ihi-ce ly|)ical l)ands, .1, />. and ('. It is ol"t("ii the custom to limit the width of the iiilayed bands lo the width of I he ciiciilai' saw cut. '^Fo secui'c unity, the ccMitci- baud in C is wider than the ontsidc sections. A possible \'ai"iation of inoti\"e in l)an«l (h'signing may be secni'ed by aeeentmg. The suiule Itand has been broken n|> at /) nito geo- nielric sections of pieasini^ length. Ibit while this design gives varieU', it al>o destr(»\s the nnil\ of a single straight line. I nit\' Steps Taken in Carving The Designer's Vocabulary Bands Accenting [106] •3UR.FA.CE EMf^lCHhAELMT OF Sr^AUL. PK.lM/\R.^ M/\^^E.5 IN NA/OOD • APPL.lC/^"TlOr-l OF BA.tSD rv. i -r.'RMf M< \wm n niinm m FiG-2oa GEomeTKic imlavd bokdek. >cv.PPUED TO THE. t>lOE. OF /\ BOX • COriTKASTIHG v/iTH INLAV 15 FI(S-207 TWO VAf?lAT10H5 OF iNL/V-r FOK. 150X COVEK- SOR.DER MOTIVE. Fl&-2t3- A BOEDER KElFTSESEK- TV^l^E OF CKlP CAJ^s.'IISCS- >T t5 GEOME-TiaC IN MOTIVE. AhlD MECHANICAL. IN APCEAS2AMCE. • C0HTK/V5TED VALUES KiZ irtLA.X FK?.'2I4- • AT'OFSTiOH OF A CARVELD AND MODELED FISAMJ Plate 34 [107] may, however, be restored by the addition of the top and bottom bands at E. This method of restoring unity is of extreme vahie in all border arrangements and is constantly used by the designer. Rule 6f. All component parts of a border should more {)t unison with the main movement of the border. Bands, as has just been stated, give distinctly "onward" move- ment. Borders are merely bands combined with other motives from the designer's vocabulary. As will be seen, bands, by their onward movement, tend to hold the other elements of the border together. Figure 193 is a border design without variety, unity, or interest. Figure 194 has added unitv to a similar border bv the addition of the double bands, but monotony is still present. Figure 195 suggests a method of relieving the monotonv bv accentuating everv other re])eat, thus sui)])lying variety and creating an analogy to march-time music. Figure 196 has accentuated the monotonous border in Figure 194 by omitting every other square. This makes a simple and effective inlay pattern and suggests a large number of possible variations that could be applied to accented band motives. Figures 197 and 198 are border motives of geometric derivation taken from the historic schools of ornament. Figure 198 illustrates the "strap ornament" of the Moorish school. The simple underlying geometric net upon which these designs arc based may be found in Meyer's Handbook of Ornament. Inceptive Axes Rule Gh. Borders intended for vertical surfaces may hare a strongly upward movement in addition to the lateral movementy provided the lateral movemeid domi nates. In addition lo the purely onward borders we now come lo a variety with a distinctly upward movenuMil as well. \\ liil(> litis ii(>w feature adds materially to the interest of the border, it also adds to the difficulty of desigm'ng. The upward m()\(Mnenl is often (-(Mileicd aI)oul an axis termed llie Axis of SyniiiK'l i\\- or lncej)li\'e Axis, alioul which are grouped and balanced (lie dill'ei'enl elenienls IVoin the designei"'s \'ocabnlai'y. \\ hen bol h sides ai'e alike, iheninl >o I'oi-nied is called a l)i lateral unit. Figure 199 show s I he I'oi-inal ion ol' a hi la tei'al unit by means of gr()n|)ing, accenting, and balancing straight lines Borders Moorish Ornament Upward and Onward Borders [108] Figurp: 21a. C'liiirlrsy of ISerhey and Gay Inlaid Band Border over an inceptive axis. By adding bands above and below and d(m- ])ling these vertical lines to gain width, we form at A and B, Fignre 199, inlaid designs with an upward and onward tendency or movement. The introduction of curved lines and natural units allows us to add more grace to these combined movements. The leading lines of a small border, designed to be seen at close range, are planned in [ 109 Cnurlra)/ of Berkey and Gay Figurp: "210. — Sinf^le and Double Rand Inlaid Tiordcr [110] Figure 216a. — Work of High School Students Courtesy of C. E. Partch Figure 200. The central line or inceptive axis is repeated at regular intervals and the leading or skeleton lines are balanced to the right and left of this axis. These leading lines, as can be readily seen, have an upward and onward movement. To insure continuity, a small link and the top and bottom bands have been added to complete the onward movement. Material for straight Ijorders may be derived from geometry, nature, or artificial forms, but for borders designed in curves, nature is generally selected as a source. Figure 201 illustrates a crude and uninteresting form, unsuited to outline enrichment. Figure 202 has brought Figure 201 into some semblance of order, but as can be readily seen by the primary' outline which encloses it, tlie widest point occurs exactly midway from top to bottom, which makes the form monotonous. This defect has been remedied in Figure 203 and an interesting and varied area appears for the first time. What Dr. Ilaney calls "the feebly flapping curve" of Figure 202 has been replaced by the vigorous and "snappy" curve of Figure 203, which gives what is termed a dynamic or rhyth- mic value in surface enrichment. [Ill] Figure 21Gb. — Work of Hi"!! School Students Cuurtcsy vf (.'. E. J'artcli Rule 6g. Edc/i component part of ci border should be .sirongli/ dynamic and, if possible, partake of the main more men fs of the l)order. Any form wliicli causes the eve to move in a Liiveii direction is slrongl}^ dynamic, and is oj)posed to the static form whicli (h)es not cause a marked eye movennMit. A circle is syml)()lic of the static form, while a triangle is dynamic. In the designer's nomenclature, the term "rhvlhmic" mav he used svn()nvm()nsi\- with "dvnnniic." Dynamic areas oi- forms should carry out the n|)\\ard and onwaid movement of the leading lines. Figure '■2()4 sliows how closely dynamic areas are coimected with natur(>'s units for design motives. A slight change in the conloui- m;iy li-ansform a leaf into excellent Tuaterial with which lo clothe I he leading lines. The cnr\-e of foi'ce, the eyma, and oilier eur\-(\s (hvsci-ihed in j)i-e\i()us eh;i})lei-s should be recognized hy I he designer iind ul ili/.ecl in I he eon I on I's of dynninie forms. [ n2 1 Figure 216c. — Instruction Sheet Problem Courtesy of C. E. Purtch The leading lines of the l)order in Figure "^OO are shown clothed or enriched in Figure 205. Vigorous dynamic spots, conventionalized from natural units, continue the upward and onward movement of the original leading lines. As will be noted, the background has been treated to allow the spots to appear in relief. Small "fussy" spots or areas have been omitted and the units, varied in size and strongly dynamic in form, })alance over an inceptive axis. The small link reaches out its helping hand to complete the onward movement without loss of unitv, while the bands above and l^elow bind the design together and assist in the lateral movement. Figure 205 shows three methods of treatment: simple spots without modeling, from AtoB\ slight indications of modeling, from B to C; full model- ing of the entire unit at C. The choice of treatment depends, of course, upon the skill of the craftsman. [113] Courtesy of Bcrkey and (jay Vu.VHK '^IT. ('iir\('(l and Accnilcd loonier and Timi)]!' Carved l?and Figure "iOi) sliows a (hvsigii \ni"i('(I rrom formal halaiicc oNcr a central axis of syumietry oi- an iiicej)! ixc axis. 1 1 lias a decided onward movement willi tlie leaxcs halaiiccMl ahoxc and Ixdow llie stem wliieli is I lie axis. 'V\\v '"I'epeal"" lias Itccii re\-ers(>(l a I 11 and is more ])]easing lliaii (lie j)orlion al .1. Tlie area of (lie l)aeki;roiiiid, in ils relation lo thai used for ornainenlal ion or "liiliiii;." eaiinol be predetermined witli (\xaclness. "^I'liere should l)e no Idank sj)aces for tlie eye lo bridge. Some designers allow about onc-tliird ground [114] i X a ft, <5> a ^ .^^,^—..^ Ll -,f/' —^Zji :3a T Point of Concentration — Effect upon Structure [Uo] for two-thirds filling or enrichment. This proportion gives a full and rich effect and may be adopted in most instances as satisfactory. When a border is used to parallel a rectangle it is customary to strengthen the border at the corners for two reasons: first, to strengthen, apparently, the structure at these points; second, to assist the eye in making the sudden turn at the corner. The corner enforcement aft'ords momentary resting points for the eye, and adds pleasing variety to the long line of border. The strengthened point is called the poiJtt of concentration or point of force. Its presence and effect may be noted by the symbol P. C. in Figures 207, 208, 213, and 214. Figure 213 represents the rather angular and monotonous chip Carving carving motive. It is, however, a simple form of carved enrichment for wood construction. Figure 214 shows the more rhythmic flow of a carved and modeled enrichment. Two methods of leaf treatment are given at A and B. F'igures 215, 216, and 217 are industrial and ])ublic school examples of the forms of surface enrichment treated in this chapter. Chip INSTRUCTION SHEET Plate 35 shows the necessary working drawings for wood inhiy and is supplied as a typical high school problem by Mr. C. E. I'artcli of Des Moines, Iowa. See Figure '21Gc. SUMM.\RY OF DESIGN STEPS (a) Draw the piimary rectangle, appendage, etc. (6) Subdivide the rectangle into its horizdiital and vertical subdivisions. (c) Design very simple contour eiiriciitneiit . {(l) Determine the location of zone of enrichuient, auti tlic amount and methud of enriching the surface, (e) Make several pri. I nlayed enrichment should never form strong or glaring contrasts tvifh the parent surface. Rule Gj. Carved surface enrichment should have the appearance of belonging to the parent mass. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Give the reasons why surface enrichment may be used as decoration. 2. State an original example illustrating when and where to use surface enrichment. 3. Name an oltject from the industrial arts in which the structure has been weakened or obscured by the application of surface enrichment. Name • an example of the correct use of surface enrichment and state wherein it has been correctly applied. 4. How should surface enrichment of small masses differ from that applied to larger masses; in what manner does the fiber of the wood affect the design.^ 5. Name three means of enriching the surface of wood. IJriefly describe the processes of inlaying and carving, with the design restrictions govern- ing each. 6. Give three sources of ornament open to the designer of surface enrichment. 7. Draw an accented triple band motive for inlay. 8. What is the inceptive axis; a l)ilateral unit? What are leading lines; dynamic forms ; points of concentration.* 0. Design an upward and onward continuous carved border for wood and base it upon a vertical inceptive axis. Treat as in .\, Figure 205. 10. Illustrate the manner in which structure may be apparently strengthened by a band or border. Chapter X SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF SMALL PRIMARY :\IASSES IN WOOD— Contiiuied Enclosed and Free Ornament Chapter IX dealt with methods of developing continuous or repeating ornament (bands or borders). This leaves enclosed and Enclosed free forms of surface enrichment to be considered in this chapter. Ornament As an enclosed form, a panel may be enriched by geometric, (Panels) natural, or artificial ornament. It is enclosed in a definite boundarv of bands or lines and may be a scjuare or other polygon, circle, elli})se, lunette, spandrel, lozenge, or triangle. As the decoration does not have the continuous repeating movement of the bonh'r and as it covers an enclosed area, it is necessarily treated in a ditterent manner from either band or bordcM*. lis object is to decorate a plane surface. The enrichment may l)e made by means of carving, inlaying, or j)ainting. Free ornament means the use of motives not severelv enclosed ])v l)ands or panels. Free ornament is generally aj)])lie(l lo centers oi- pree u])per j)ortions of surfaces to relieve a monolonous area not suited to Ornament either panel or border treatment. It may liax'e an u])\\ar(l or a radial movemeU'l dependent iijxxi the cliai'aclcM- of the member to be ein'iched. AVe then have three forms of ])()ssible surface enrichnieiit : I'epeal- ing or continuous motives, enclos(Ml niolix-es. and fi'ee motives. Our Summary next j)oint is to consider w here t he last I wo may be used ap])ropriately in surface em"i( liiiieiil . The j)anel of a small |)i'imai'y mass of wood may be eiii-iched at any one of three j)la('es: first, at (he margins; second, a! the center; third, o\-er llie enlii'e >ni't'aee. 'I'lie exact |)ositioii is a mallei' to be determined l)y I he si rnci iiral design and I he ul ilitai'ian re(|nii'enienls of the j)roblem. For exani})le, a bread board or LaboreL to]) would [117] [ 118 Zone of Enrichment Structural Reinforce- ment Marginal Zone Enrichment require the enrichment in the margin with the center left free. A table leg might require an enrichment in the center of the upper portion of the leg, while a square panel to be inserted in a door, Figure '233, Page 124, might require full surface treatment. Each area of panel enrichment should have one or more accented points known as points of concentration. The design should become more prominent at these places and cause the eye to rest for a moment before passing to the next point of prominence. The accented portion of the design at these points should be so related to the structure that it apparently reinforces the structure as a whole. Corners, centers of edges, and geometric centers are salient parts of a structure; we shall therefore be likely to find our points of concentration coin- ciding with them. Let us then consider the first of these arrange- ments as applied to enclosed enrichment. Marginal Panel Enrichment Enclosed Enrichment for Partly Enriched Surfaces Rule 7a. Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be related to the outlines of the primary mass and to the panel it is to enrich. Rule 7b. Marginal points of concentration in panels should be placed (1) preferably at the corner or (2) in the center of each margin. Rule 7c. To insure unity of design in panels, the elements compos- ing the points of concentration and the links connecting them must be related to the panel contour and to each other. The marginal method of enrichment may be used when it is impossible to enrich the entire surface because the center is to be used for utilitarian purposes or because it would be aesthetically unwise to enrich the entire surface. The marginal zone is adapted to enriching box tops, stands, table tops, and similar surfaces designed preferably with the thought of being seen from above. We shall call such surfaces horizontal planes. As the design is to be limited to the margin, the panel outline is bound to parallel the contours, or outlines, of the surface to be enriched. It is well to begin the design by creating a panel parallel to the outlines of the enriched surface. Figure 218. The next step is to place the point of concentration in the marginal zone and within this figure. Common usage dictates the corners as the proper points. iin] It may be the designer's practice to use the single or double bands, Figures 218, !^19, '-ZW, with a single accentuation at the corners. The spots composing the point of concentration must have unity with the enclosing contours and with the remainder of the enrichment. Figure 220 is, in this respect, an improvement over Figure 219, But these examples are not true enclosed panel enrichment. They are the borders of Chapter IX acting as marginal enrichment. It is not until we reach Figure 221 that the true enclosed enrichment appears, when the panel motive is clearly evident. In this figure a single incised l)and parallels the contours of the figure until the corner is reached. Here we find it turning, gracefully widening to give variety, and supj)orting the structure by its own increased strength. The single band in Figure 221 acts as a bridge, leads the eye from one point of concentration to the next similar point, forms a compact mass with the point of concentration, and parallels the enclosing contours of the enriched surface. In Figure 222 the point of concentration is to be found in the center of each margin. This bilateral unit is clearly designed on and about the center lines of the square panel. These points of con- centration take the place of previous concentrations at the corners which were based upon the square's diagonals. AVliile accenting based upon the center lines is accepta})le, this means of concentration does not seem so successfully to relate the accented part to the structural outlines as that of concentration based upon the diagonals. The latter, therefore, is recommended for beginners. The corners of Figure 222 are, however, slightly accented by means of the bridg- ing spots x-x. The diagonals and center lines of the surface enriched squares of Figures 221 and 222 and similar structural lines are inceptive axes, as they are center lines for new design groups. It may then be said I hat a strong basic axis or similar line depending upon the structure, may become the center line or inceptive axis upon which U) construct a bilateral design. It is only necessary to have this inceptive axis pass through the enrichment zone of the paneh Hereafter in the drawings, inceptive axes will l)e desigtiated by the al)breviation I. A. while the point of concent nit ion will be indicated by the abbre- viation P. C. Points of Concentration Points of Concentration in ttie Corner of Margin Points of Concentration in the Center of Margin Inceptive Axes or Balancing Lines [ 120 ] • 5UKFACE EMK-lCHMEnr OF SMAl^L. PRinAf^V MASSES Ih V/OOD •MARLe^lMAU EH^lCHnEMT OF 5QUA.R.E. AISEAS • •S^MBOUS: $ "POlMT OF CQHCEMXKATlOM;-4^ INCEPTIVE AX15 • •TOOU FT^CX:E.S5E3 ■ inL-Al'ltS& AMD CAK^lHG • 7ar' \ ? FIG- 2.\& BAMD MOTIVES *>HOW- 1N&'5 AT THE COiertET^S FIG • 21s • FIG- 2ZO 5EO /^t> IM.CEPT'.VE Ay^i |ih iiiiini!ii!iiiiimiiiiMii| j||ji|]n DIAMETERS OSEO AS INCEPnvE Ajcii- • /^-7c PIG- 223 — CAK-^&D MARGiMAO^EHTSlCHMEHT f^lG- 2.2.4- L-E/^OINCS UtHES FOR FlG 223 Plate 36 [ 1^21 ] The strongest plea for the inceptive axis is the fact that it inter- locks surface enrichment with the structure, insuring a degree of inceptive unity that might otherwise be unattainable. Axis The carved enrichment of Figure 223 fully illustrates this point. The analytical study of Figure '-2'-24 shows the diagonal used as an inceptive axis, with the leading lines grouped about it at the corner point of concentration. Free Enkiciiment Rule 8a. Free ornament for jmrtly orfnlly enriched surfaces should he based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the structure. Rule 8b. Free ornament should be related and subordinated to the sfr uct ural su rfaces . Rule 8c. Poijits of concentration in free enrichment of rerticaUy placed masses are usually located in and around the inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the desitjn. This method of surface enrichment is used lo relieve the design of heavy meml)ers in the structure or to distribute ornanuMil Center over the surface of lighter parts in a piece of furniture. An Zone example is noted in Figure 246, Page 128, where the upper portion of Enrichment the legs has center enrichment. As can be readily seen, the enrich- ment is generally free in character with little or no indication of enclosure. Figure 22,5 shows the ai)plication of free enrichment to a ])aneled screen or hinged door. The P. (\ is in the u|)])er j)ortion of the door and is re-echoed in the door frames, while the ornanuMit itself is stronjilv dvnamic in movement witli a decided uT)wnrd tcMidiMicv in symi)athy with the proportions of the door. This motive might be (level()j)ed by inlay, cnr\ing, or j)aint. Figure 22(1 is a carved (iothic leaf, ai)pr()prialely used as cnrich- UKMit of heavv furniture. The unit ma\' be raised al)()\(' th(' surface or, ('\en more easily, dej)ressed or incised into the surface. The small corner spot is added with the intention of bringing the leaf into sympathetic conformity with the contours. Note liow the eeiitei- line of both units in Figures 22.") and 22() coincides with the ineej)ti\-e axis of the structure. Let it again l)e i-(>iterate(l llial this binding of the surface eiuiclinient to the structure bv means of I lie coincidence [ 122] SUJ^FACE. EMKICHME-MT OF 5MALL PRIMARY MAS^E3 IM WOOD •FEE-E. CEMTEK EMt^lCHnE-HT FOl^ N^E.RTICAl_ At^EAvsS • •TOOL. PROCe-SSE^: IMLAYIH&.LOWE'E.LIEF CARviNCn* FIG- ^-ZjS -R)EHlTUf2EnETA\L LOW BELIEF GOTHIC CARVIhG- r»& 225 — IHLAID- PAIMTED- CA.JSVED FlCi-E^T- PAPEK. CCTTEK • INCISED DECOR.ATION I? fi-b FIG- 229- PIEI^CEO EMKICHHEJ"1T ^{Gy-ZZG- B00l<-5TALl_- UDW KEUEF CAvRVlNG • FKEE ArtO KARC-^iriAUEfH^lCHriEMT- i^=^ ~~U 1- w j.^] J 1 ._, _ -^ I ! S"b(?^ flc-1 • 230 ohk.elate.d piekcej5 hh;?.ichme.ht- Plate 37 [ 1^23 ] of the axes of symmetry and the inceptive axes causes the most positive kind of unity. No part of this form of enrichment should be carved sufficiently high to give it the appearance of being separated from the main surface. Figures 227 and 228 are additional examples of free enrichment. Figure 228 has introduced by its monogram the individual touch of ownership so essential to the success of school designing. The monogram represents free enrichment while the border is marginal decoration with the point of concentration in the center of the top edge. Both types of enrichment are related to each other and to the structural contours. Figure 229 is typical free pierced enrichment. The wood in the enriched portion is removed and the resulting figure supplies added lightness of construction and variety to the surface. One encounters this form of enrichment in the average school project with greater frequency than either inlaying or carving. It is with the thought of adding to the possibilities of school project decoration that the latter forms have been introduced. A word regarding the errors often encountered in pierced enrichment of the character of Figure 229 may not be amiss. Pui)ils, believing the square to be the last word in this form of enrichment, place the figure on the member to be enriched with little though I of its possible relation to the structural contours; the result is the un-unified design ilhistrated in Figure 230. To correct this, reference should be made to Rule 81). Examples of Free Enrichment Pierced Free Enrichment Errors in the Use of Pierced Enrichment Full Panel Enhkiiment Rule 7d. The contours of fully enriched panels .should pandJcJ the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions. This is the richest and most elaborati^ form of enriclimeni wlien carried lo ils full jxM'feclion. Il generally lakes the t'oriii of a panel Full Surface filled willi a])pro])riate (h'sign material. This panel may be us(>d to Enrichment enrich the |)lain end of a ])rojeel such as a book siall and thus cover the enl ire sni'faee. oi' il may be inserted into a lai'ge |)i-iniai-y mass and accenlnale ils center as in a dooi', in a inannei- >iinilai- to I-'ignre 233. Its use, \vliale\'er its ))osition, leads us Lu Llic consideration of methods of designing full |)ane]s. [124] 5UK.FACE EMi^lCHMEMT OF 5M/\LL PElf^AKV M ASSY'S in WOOD • • EHCLQ5ED E-HKICHME-MT: SQUAKE AMD &ECTAM G U LARL PAMEL5— TOOL PKOCE53E5- CAKIVIHC?. . IML-A'^ING. • FIG.- 2.31 FI&-2-32. ■5 IM cemter: FI&-2.34-- DATA- FIG -235 APPU- CATIOM OF DATA- FIG 2.3T FlG-238- FIG £33 APPLICATIOM OF FIG5 231-^• t 4^ Ut* h FIG ^39 FIGURES 2.35 AMD SAO AI^E RECOM- MENDED T^PES FOR. BEIKIPL.E. UHVT- FIG ZA-O- FIG- 236- Plate 38 [ 1^25 ] Rule 7e. The points of concentration for a Jnllij enriched square panel may he in its center or in its outer margin. In planning designs for full panels, it would be well to consider: Square first, square panels; second, rectangular panels; third, varied panels. Panels The point of concentration may be kept in the corners of a square panel, as designed in Figure 231, or it may be placed in the center, as shown in Figure 23*2. The effects, when assembled, are indicated in Figure 233. To secure these effects, a square panel is commonly divided into quarter sections by center lines. The diagonals of each quarter should be drawn before proceeding with the details of the design. These diagonals and center lines are the building lines or leading axes of the pattern. The leading lines and details are then grouped around these center and diagonal axes in a manner quite similar to the method used in Figures 223 and 224. These leading lines are then clothed with enrichment by applying the processes indicated in Chapter IX. Without going into detail we may say that it is good practice: first, to draw the square panel; second, to draw the center lines and steps in diagonals; third, to locate points of concentration; fourth, to make Panel the leading lines move inwardlv to center concentration or oulwardlv Designing to corner concentration; fiflli, to clothe these lines with ornament having strongly dynamic movement corresponding to the leading lines; sixth, to fill in remaining space with ornament, supporting the movement towai'd j)()ints of concentration, vww lliougli shglil and minor contrasts of direction are added lo give variety. When the entire design is completed one should ask the following questions: Does the design have unity? Does it seem loo lliin and spindling? And most of all, do the points of concentnition and shaj)e of the j)anel fit the structural onl lines and 7)rop()rti()ns? We cannot fit a s(|uare ])eg into a roniid hole; iicilhcr can we fit a s(|nai'e j)anel into a circnlar or rectangular mass without considerable change lo the panel. Figures 231- and 23.> hax'c been drawn with I he '\i\c:\ of snggesling a sinij)lc and modified form of |)an('l cinMchnicnl w hich may \)c readily handled by the ix'gimiei-. 'I'he I i'e(> as a deeoia 1 1\ c >\ nibol is appro- priate to wood, and its adaption lo a scjuare panel is drawn at Figure 23.>. [ 1^26 ] .5UK.rACE ErilSICHMEHT OF SMALL "PKlMAK.'-r MAS5E.5 IM NA/QOD • • EMCLOSE-D PATiEL Eril^CHMEMT — FORMAL AHD FEEE. BALANCE. • • APPLICATIOH OF hAn-URA^\_ AHO ARTIFICIAL MOTIVE S> • MOTE. THE 5lOiMIFICAMr USE OF THE. jNICBcrrTLE AHD FEATHER PE.H FOJiBH- I?ICHIN& A KAC.li;.— ' • FIGZ41 LETTER RACK.- FDKMAl 6ALAMCE FIG 24-2- book: 5TALL FOI^MAl e^ALAHCEL- F\_^-r AMD r~100E.LE.O TR.EATME.MT. ':^ jL • FI(l. in l^'igure 244 this may be carried even to the ])oinl of duplical iug in reverse order the outside pan(4s of the Triptych. [130] ■l^ULELS 7DT0 7E-- ENCLOSED SUi^FACE. EHi^lCHMEMT NA^ITH APPLICATIOM OF 5TILL LIFE! TO A FuLLrf EMI^ICHELD SUiSFACE. • • iHS'reucTiOM Sheet • / JMK. POT FIGi-ft- 5TILL LIFE GeOUP- BOOKl flGB- STILL UFe GeOUP AMALYZIED AHD eC50LYED IhTO DE5I&M ELCnEHTS ADAPTED TO HATCeiAL • FiCi C- ADAPTATlOn TO STAIHED suEFACE EneiciinenT of. a BOOkC STALL- 2cs: FIG ■ D ■ ADDITIONAL DATA SUPPLIED FOR COM 5Tf^L)CTl\/E Plate 40 [131] Figure 245 again reverts to artificial motives, illustrated in free balance. The jet of steam is the unifying factor which brings the cup into harmony with the enclosing space. Figure 246 shows illustrations of free balance and border enrichment from the industrial market. INSTRUCTION SHEET Plate 40 indicates the necessary design steps for a panel surface enrichment correlating with still life drawing. Note the connection between the ink bottle, pen, and book as used to decorate a book stall. SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS For Square Panel Surface Enrichment (a) Draw the primary rectangle of the principal surface, appendages, etc. (6) Subdivide into major vertical and horizontal divisions. (c) Design simple contour enrichment. Determine location of zone of enrich- ment (the panel), the amount and method of enriching the surface. (d) Draw outline of the panel which should be sympathetically related to the contours. {e) Draw diameters, diagonals, or center lines of the panel. Regard these as possible inceptive axes. (/) Locate points of concentration on either diameters, diagonals, or center lines. (g) Draw leading lines in sympathy with the contours of the panel, the inceptive axis, and the point of concentration. (h) Clothe the leading lines with enrichment that shall be appropriate to the structure, the material, and the intended service. Note the result. Is the panel agreeably filled without appearing overcrowded or meager? Several preliminary sketches should be made. (0 .Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare tlic drawing' for shop use. SUGGESTED PROBLEM Design a glove l)ox and cnricli tlie cover with a simple carM'd i)aiicl with marginal panel enriclimi'iit. SUMM.\RY OF RULES Enclosed Surface Enrk iiment for Partly Enruiikd Panels Rule ~a. MV1DI0M^ FO!S- LAl^GE. FR-lhAA^V MASSES IH >/VOOO • • • • ACCEMTUATtOH OP" HlMOR_VE-iSXlCAu OlV\;S>IOM S - FIG-Z4-1- TWO VERTICAL AMD tQUALDlVISlOMS- 3^• TlCAl- DIVISIONS • 3E)- FIG- 24-9- THEE.E VEF^TICAL. OWISIOMS • 3B- niNOJe. 2>A F1G-Z50- THElEE. VERTIOAU DivlOIOHS • SB- MlHOte • 2.Av FlG-25l-THl^EE VQ^iCAL DIV1S1QH5CWITHOUT T^EPE-TlTCfl IH APPEMOAGE) -^-A- MJNORL-2.A- FIG- 25ZTHKEE VERTICAL. Dw iS 10N5 K.EFEATE.O IH APPEHDA&E. • -40 • Plate 41 [135] to produce inlays, it is practicable to use stock inlays, thus simplifying the process. In a three-part design it is the designer's desire to gain the effect of lightness and height by the use of Rule 3b. As a simple treatment of a three-part design. Figure 248 needs little comment. Figures 249 and 250 are examples of dividing, by means of minor divisions, the outer sections of a three-part design. The small drawers in the right and left sections of Figure 250 might have been improved in proportion by again applying Rule 2a to their design, thereby varying the measure of their heights. The enclosed panel enrichment affords pleasing variety to the otherwise unvaried front panels. Rule 7g. Figures 251 and 252 show unbroken drawer runners continuing through all three vertical sections, thus definitely binding these sections together. It is seen that this device is conducive to unity, whenever two or three vertical divisions have been used. Figure 252 is a repetition of Figure 251, but shows the echo or continuation of the three divisions of the primary mass into the appendage. The use of the single or double band enrichment still further binds the minor subdivisions of the primary mass into ideal unity with the appendage. Minor Sub- divisions of Three Verti- cal Major Parts or Divisions Unbroken Vertical Divisions Sequential Progression of Minor Horizontal Space Divisions Rule 2c. A primary mass may be divided iuio three or more smaller horizontal masses or seetions by placing the larger mass or masses at the bottom and by seqnentially reducing the height measure of each inass toicard the smaller division or divisions to be located at the top of the mass. Rule 2c. Let us now imagine the center section of a three-part design to l)e removed and extended upward. Its transformation by this process into a cal)inet or chiffonier similar lo Figure 253, Plate 42, introduces the new prin('i])le of sequodial progression. Instead of adhering to the limitation of Rules 2a and 2b, this arrange- ment shows that the horizontal divisions ni.iy be grMdually decreased in liciglil IVom the })oll()in toward llic lop of llic primai'v mass. By this rhythmic decrease in the measure of I lie li- 2. C illll lllll Fie-25 AMD 3C. Plate 44 141] are of equal size. Variety has been secured by means of the horizontal spacings. Free Balance This form of design is inherent in the Japanese system. It con- sists in the planning and balancing of unequal areas over a geometric center. It is not subject to definite rules as is the more formal balancing. The reader is referred to Mr. xVrthur Dow's excellent book on Composition for further discussion of the subject. Figure 272, Plate 45, is an example of partly formal and partly free balance and its method of treatment. Figures 273 and 274 are pierced designs, thoroughly related to the structure and in no way weakening it. Figure 273 is representative of a type which, if carried to extremes, will cause the structure to become too weak for service; it is, therefore, necessary to guard and restrict this form of enrichment. The carving of Figure 275, com- bined with the contour enrichment, forms a pleasing variation to this common type of furniture design. Small minor details in furniture construction should be designed with as much care as the larger major or minor parts. The larger areas or spaces in small details similar to stationery shelves and pigeon holes must harmonize in proportion with the space in whicli th(\v ure ])laced and of which they are a part. The three-part or three-vertical division system. Rule 3b, is generally used to design the small details in furniture as may be seen in Figures 27G, 277, 278, and 279; while the rule of se(|uence, l^ule 2c, may be emi)loyed again to subdivide these small details in a horizon- tal direction with as nuich variety as is consistent with unity. Figure 280 is a leaded glass surface enrichment for doors. Note the leading lines of the enriciiment as tliey ])nnill('l the dominant proportions of the panel opening. Free Minor Space Treatment Free Balance Carving and Piercing as Applied to Large Masses Small Minor Details of Large Pri- mary Masses INSTRTCTION SHKHT Plulc 4(! is ;i lyj)i(;il lii^jli scIiodI slicct of dcsi^'ii pn accent ll.ltiil liy pen sllM(li»>^. Sec IM:ile I."). lilriiis, willi the masses SlMMAin Ol' DKSK.N STKl'S (a) to (e). Sec similar steps in rii.iptcr l\. [ 14^^ ] • SUl^FACE EMRlCHMEhT ^HD I^lhOR. SU& DlVie>lOri5 FOR LARGE. PRlMARV MA^^)0&5 IM WOOD • •Fi^EE MlhOR SFACIMG^ • APPLNDAGLS • PIERCED /KMD CARVED Eh^lCHMEhT Fie-ZTG- FlC-.- 2-78 FIG- 277- MINOR. iPA^ClMC-. FIG- 2.QQ FIG- Z7S- ■SULE.5 3?>- C ■ ETC. Plate 45 [143] SUGGESTED PROBLEM Design a sideboard 3 feet 3 inches high with plate rack. The primary mass should have three minor horizontal divisions and three minor vertical divisions, with the horizontal divisions accented. SUMMARY OF RULES Sequential Progression of Minor Horizontal Space Divisions Rule 2c. A primary riiass may he divided into three or more siualhr horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the height measure of each mass toward the smaller divi- sion or divisions to be located at the top of the mass. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What are minor subdivisions in wood construction.' 2. What is the effect of a design with dominant vertical iii;ijiir divisions.'' State its use. 3. Show some customary methods of dividing three vertical major (11% isioiis into minor subdivisions. 4. State the rule of sequential progression. Give illustrations from tlie industrial arts. 5. Describe the transitional stage between the point where tiie dominance of the vertical motive ceases and the horizontal influence begins. 6. What is the effect of a design with doniinanf horizontal major divisions.' State its use. 7. Show some customary methods of subdividing horizontal major divisions into minor subdivisions. 8. What should be the relation in a design between the details of a ])rojeet and the divisions of the primary mass? [ 144 Chapter XII SURFACE EXKICHMEXT OF CLAY In some respects the surface enrichment of clav is similar to ^ • -. .- 1 e 1 £ 1 1 • -1 • 1 ' 1 1 • 1 • Limitations that oi wood as, tor example, the snnilarity produced by mlays m f^j. Surface clay and in wood. On the other hand the enrichment of clay is Enrichment unhampered by the restricting effects of unequal resistance of the material, such as the grain of wood. Again it is limited to those effects or forms of enrichment that are capable of withstanding the intense heat to which ceramic decoration is subjected. See Frontis- piece. ■ ■LI H^^HH^ ■■■ ^^V ^ iT u^^Ihb^^^^^ ^^^ ^Sl Oi^VtH V ''-*^^- J^SK^tm 1 O^^fli^l ^^^^H ^^gl^Hp j^ Ih^H' ^i^^^H HL^JU ^^■iil^^l ('i)iirlfsy of I lie Rookirooil J'uttcrivs Figure :^81. — Filliim' llio Sair^ars hcforo Firiiiif Before proceeding willi ;i design il i^ well for one lo imdcrsl.-iiid clearly tlie possibilities of r\:iv curicliiiM iil . lie iiin^l know \\li;il ^ * * DccorfltivG kind of designs are best suited io chiy .-is a nicdiuin. to I lie intended Processes of service, and to the nil imate a])])li(;it ion of I li(> lieat of t lie jx)! teiy kiln. Surface AVilhoul entering into teclnn'calit ies let us briefly discuss the follow- Enrichment [ 14G] Figure 282.— Stacking the Kiln Courtesy The Rookwood Potteries [147] ing processes. The first three deal with finger and tool manipulation Forms of of the clay body and are consequently the simpler of the processes. Manipulation The last five are concerned chiefly with the addition of coloring pigments either to the clay or to the glaze and are, therefore, more complex in character. Processes Rule 9a. Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to be able to ivithstand the action of heat to which all ware must be submitted. Rule 9b. hicised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of the material. 1. This is the simplest form of enrichment, a process familiar to the earliest primitive potters and appropriate now for beginners. Incising It consists of the process of lowering lines or planes into the clay body to the depth of from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch. These lines or planes should be bold and broad. They may be made with a blunt pencil or a flat pointed stick. A square, rectangular, or round stick may be used as a stamp with which to form a pattern for incising. Illustrations of simj)le incising may be found in Figures 283, 284, 295, 319, 330. The tiles shown are about six inches square. 2. This process is less common and, as its name implies, is carried out by cutting through the clay. It may be done with a fine wire. Piercing Either the background or the design itself may be thus removed. The eft'ect produced is that of liglitening an ()l)ject such as the top of a hanging flower holder, a window fl.owcr box, or a lantern sliade. 3. Bv adding clav to I lie main bodv, and 1)V working this clav iiilo low relief flower or geometric forms, one has the I)asic process of Modeling modeling. The slightly raisetl areas of clay form a pleasing ])lay of light and shade that varies the otherwise ])lain surface of tiie ware. The process should be used with caution, for over-modeling, 1^'igure 325, will obstruct the structural outlines and, because of ils oxer prominence as decoration, will cease to i)e surface ennchNicnt. in the technical language of the designer over-modeling is an enrichnuMit which is not subordinated to the surface. In articles intcMidcd for service this high relief modeling is nnsanilary and nnsatisfaelory. Figures 28() and 287 sliow incising with slight modeling, while 324, 328, and 329 are examj)les of more complex enrichment. [148] Plate 47 [149] With the introduction of the second group comes an added interest and difficulty, that of the introduction of color. Pigments that will withstand the application of heat are suggested at different points. 4. This process consists of removing certain areas from the clay body to the depth of one-eighth inch and filling in the depression with tinted clay. Tints formed Ijy the addition of ten per cent or less of burnt umber or yellow ochre to the modeling clay will give interesting effects. Figures 284, 285, 320, and 321 show forms which may be developed by this process. Sgraffito, an Italian process, is more difficult than inlaying, but the effect is similar. A thin layer of colored clay is placed over the natural clay body, and the design is developed by cutting away this colored coating in places, thus exposing the natural clay body. Figure 306. There are variations of this plan that may be attempted bv the advanced designer. 5. Slip is clay mixed with water to the consistency of cream. For slip painting this mixture is thoroughly mixed with not more than ten per cent of coloring pigment as represented by the underglaze colors of the ceramist. This thick, creamy, colored slip is then painted on the surface of the clay l)()dy while danij), much as the artist would apply oil colors. The ware, when thorough ly dried, is glazed and fired, which produces the effect shown in Figures 290, 291, and 327. The color range is large; almost any color may be used with the exception of reds and strong yellows. A colorless trans- l)arent glaze should be used over beginner's slij) i)ainting. 6. This ])rocess refers to the direct introduction of the colored pigment into the glaze. Hy varying the glaze formula we may have a clear, transparent, or glossy glaze similar lo Figure 317, a dull surfaced opacjue effect, termed a matt ghize. Figure 332: or a glossy but opaque faience glaze similar to the blue and while Dutch tiles. There are other forms such as the crystalline and "reduced" glazes, bill these as a rule are far beyond the ability of I he Ix'giiiiiiiig crafls- nian in ceramics. Tt is possible lo use these three tvjx's of gla/.e(| smraee in \arioiis ways. l^V)r exam])le, a vase form willi an iiileresi iiig eoiiloiii- may be left without fur' her surface eiirieliineiil e\ce|)l llial siij)pli(>(i by clear glaze or by a coloi'cd malt sjmil.ir lo ceilaiii ly])es of Teco ^^a^e. Introduction of Coloring Pigments Inlay Slip Painting Colored Glazes Combinations [150] •5UKFACE EMRllCHMEriT OF CL/\-Y ' SHALLOW C1R1CULA.K. FOV^I^CS : PLATED) ETC- KEY TO T3ROCE55E3 OF EMKlCHnEhT B-Y MAMIPULATIOh OFTHE CL/Vi' BODY • 1 • IHCISlMGi • 2 • PlEKCIHQ- 3 • MODEUMG • B-^ ADDITIQM OF COUOR." A- ■ IN THE CL.AY : iriLA'C- SC-KAsFFlTO ■ 5- UPON THE. CUAY; SLIP PAiriT^MG ' 6- IM THE. glaze; ACCEMTED COMTTDOl^ I clear: T-fPElS-. ', MATT [ OPAQUE (FA\Ertce) 7- UnOEl^ THEl&LAZE ; UMDElCC.LAZEP'AinTlHCi 8 UPON -THE glaze: POeCELAIh FAlHT\MC,S?ArFITO') Plate 48 [151] It is likewise possible to apply transparent glazes over incised designs, inlay or slip painting, increasing their beauty and the serviceability of the ware. A semi-transparent glaze is sometimes placed over slip painting giving the charm inherent to the Vellum Ware of the Rook- wood Potteries. Figure 33*2. Greens, blues, yellows, and browns, with their admixtures, are the safest combinations for the craftsman who desires to mix his own glazes. 7. This process may be seen in the examples of Newcomb Pottery illustrated particularh^ in Figure 314 or 3^26. The underglaze pigment is thinly painted upon the fired "biscuit," or unglazed ware. A thin, transparent glaze is then placed over the color, and in the final firing the underneath color shows through this transparent coating, thus illustrating the origin of the name underglaze or under-the-glaze painting. Sage-green and cobalt-})lue underglaze colors are fre- (juently used in Newcoml) designs with harmonious results. The outline of the design is often incised and the underglaze color, settling into these channels, helps to accentuate the design. Figure 314. 8. This is popularly known as china painting and consists of painting directly upon the glazed surface of the ware and placing it in a china kiln where a temperature between 600 degrees and i)()0 degrees C. is developed. At this point the coloring ])igment melts or is fused into the porcelain glaze, thus insuring its reasonal)le permanence. Figure SO^. The eight processes briefly described may be readily identified on the plates by referring to the figures corresponding to those which number the processes and are added to each figure number. Two i)rocesses are sometimes suggested as possible for one i)r()blem. Ditterent clay forms recjuire different modcvs of treatment. To simplify these treatments will now be our problem. 1 1 has been found convenient to form four divisions based ui)on the general geomclric shape of the ware. Tlie first, IMate 47, includes rectangular and square areas; the second, Plate 4S, shallow and circular forms; the third, Plate 49, low cylindrical forms; and I he fourth, Plat(> .>(), high cylindrical forms. The first \\\vvv dixisions lia\-e distinct modes of design treatment, while the fourth interlocks to a considerable extent with the third method. We shall now consider each plate with reference to its use and possil)le forms of enrichment. For the Underglaze Painting Porcelain or Overglaze Painting Classification of Structural Clay Forms [ 1.5^2 1 • 5UR.FACE1 EnR-lCHMEMT OF C\-A.V • UOW C"^L-\nDR.ICAL_ T=^O^MS> • cf: for additional LOW SOwL SUG- GE^TlOhS- SEE PLATE. 3 • 1^^ HOTE. : THE LETTEiS: FOLLOW I MC-^ EACH NUMSEK 5HOW5THE zone OF EriJ^lCHMEMT-THE neUEE SUGGESTS EMi^lCHMEHT f-' r, Id I n G 30T - D « S FIG -SOa- A • 60Ka FIG -309 -A-60S8 L FIG -31 1 A- 60^5 3 Jl! ^M M i FIG siz-A-Goea FIG 313-A- I -1-6 (MATT) mmt Fl<3. ^I4--D- l+T F-1&-315-- E. • S- MATT FIG-31T-D-)-h7 FIC-T316- 15THE APPROACH TO Hl&HEK FOl?n^' MOTE THE m- POKTAliCE OF F1G-318-D THE VERTICAL I i- T LINE-' ■ Plate 49 [153] sake of brevity, the results have been condensed into tabulated forms. Each geometric form or type on these plates has not only distinc- tive methods of design treatment but characteristic locations for placing the design as well. These places or zones of enrichment have been indicated in the following tabulated forms by the letters in parentheses. There are a number of zones for each plate. For example, Plate 47 has its distinctive problems as tiles, weights, etc., and five characteristic zones of enrichment described on pages 153- 155 and indicated by the letters A, B, C, D, E, followed by a brief description of that zone. Each zone is still further analyzed into its accompanying type of design, inceptive axis, point of con- centration, and illustrations. Each plate has the proper zone of enrichment immediately following the figure number and in turn followed by the process numl)er. Problems: Tiles for tea and coffee pots, paper weights, window boxes; architectural tiles for floors, and fire places. {A) Zone of Enrichment: In the margin. Reason for Choice: Central area to be devoted to zone of service requiring simplicity in design. Type of Design: Bands or borders. Inceptive Axis: For corners; the bisector of the angle. Points of Concentration: The corners and, if desired, at equal intervals between the corners. Illustrations: Figures 283, 284, 280, 287, 288. Square and Rectangular Areas, Plate 47 Marginal Enrichment (B) Zone of Enric/uiicnt: center of surface, free onianient. Type of Design: Initials, monograms, street numbers, geometric Center patterns, and other examples for free ornament. A star or dia- Enrichment mond is not ai)|)ropriate enrichment for a scjuare area uidess properly related to the contour by connecting areas. Inceptive Axes: Vertical or horizontal diameters or (liagonals. Points of Concentration: Center of (Miibellislimciil . 1 tin si rat ions: Figure 285. [lo4] • SURFACE ehkichmemt of clay- HIGH CYLlhDE\CAl. FORMS • VASES ■ PITCH EI?S ETC • KEY TO zones OF EHl^lCHnEtiT LETTE1?5 OM PL/^TEAI -TO PROCESSES OFEnK'ICHMEriT PLATE 4-2. • liffiii ^•ii R illip L FIG 319A- I FI&-32.0 A-4-- S FIG3Z1A-5 3 Fie 322 D- 8 Flt wHErt IT li DROP PED TO THIS PQIHT FIG- 326 D •I • T- FIG b^o ? FIG 33» ■ 5-' • A- FIG 2>-».2A- 5-- Plate 50 [155] (C) Zone of Enrichment: full surface enrichment in a horizontal position. Type of Design: A symmetrical pattern generally radiating from the geometric center of the surface and covering at least two-thirds of the surface. . Horizontal Inceptive Axes: Diameters or diagonals of the area. Surface Points of Concentration: At the corners or the center of the outer Enrichment margin; at geometric center, as in a rosette. Illustrations: Figures "^SS, '-289, and 291. {D) Zone of Enrichment: full surface enrichment in a vertical position. "TT^ 1 1 Type of Design: A symmetrical pattern with a strong upward . ^ Vcrtic3.1 movement and covering more than one-half of the surface. o r . . ^ . . Surface Inceptive Axis: The vertical center line. Enrichment Point of Concentration: Upper section of the surface. Illustrations: Figjures '290 and '■292. '&" {E) Zone of Enrichment: free ])alance over full surface. Type of Design: Semi-decorative motive preferably covering the entire surface. Free Inceptive Axis: ^Masses freely balanced over the geometric center Balance of the area. Point of Concentration: Near, l)ut not in the exact center. Illustrations: Figures 293, 294, 295, 29(), 297, 29S. Note: The points of concentration should be accented by slight contrast of value and hue. See chapters on color. Problems: Plates, saucers, ash trays, card receivers, almond Shallow and candv bowls. Circular t. Forms, {A) Zone of Enrichmetif: margin of iiilei-ioi- surface; margin of exle- Plate 48 rior surface. Type of Design: l^ands or borders thoroughly i-cI;iI(mI Io the struc- tural contours. JJaiids for exterior (Mirichnu'iil may \)v ])lac(Ml directlv on tlic conhdir. P'ii>ures 299 and .'}()!, lliiis t'oiiiiiiiu an [ 150 ] • Appuve-d /\isd Comstr.uct»ve. DE-<5\G.M • • f^ULE. 9 : eriRlCHMEMT OFTHE PRIMARY MA55 Bt A BORDER. • •Pt^Oe)LEn. EMRICHMEMT OF CL/\SS 2 ( POTTERY) • BORDERS AREWE.l_U i^O/VPTED TO THIS CLA55 Ar-l O MUST ECHO OR RA.RA>l_LE.L. /K DOMIMAMT PROPORTIOM • THE BOR.DE.R. r^OST CAUSE THE E-YE TOTRA.VE.U >t^l THE. D»RE.CTIOri CJFTHIS PROPORXlOr-l HEMCE .ALL OF ITS COMPONEMT PART^ MOST POSSESS eOHCERTED ACTION IM THVC) DIRECTlOrt OR RHYTHrr RHYTHM < 5 THE COH515TEMT CO- ORDIMATIOM OF PARTS THAT ASSISTS THE EXE TO FIHD \TS WA^ THROUC->H ALL OET>!^ILo OF THE OESIGM- FORMAL Bl riYMnCTRICAL R"EPET»TIOM FREE CHPETITIOM •nIt ->lr •^\r ->i\r •\\r ^^l/^ -\l/- -Ar -^r -\l/- ->!/- ->\r ■ pfj^-^ p^Jii^' ^ rj,_ aiCELETOH ©ORDERS FOR WALL 5(.)>?FAeES WITH MO:5lC AU /MSAUO&l e.5 v//gK:\,d^.6^ - ' •"> ;■":;>'!> ..DRANA/ TWO DESIGHS ILLU5TRATIMG THl^ FORM OFENRICHnEMT Plate 51. — Instruction Sheet [157] accented contour (F) or slightly removed from it, as in Figure 300, Marginal Inceptive Axes: For interior surfaces, the radii of the contour Enrichment circle generally supply the axes of symmetry. Points of Concentration: For interior surfaces, the points of con- centration may be placed in or near the radii of the area. Illustrations: Figures SO'2, 303, 304, 305, 300. Problems: Cups, pitchers, steins, nut and rose bowls, low vase forms. Low Cylindrical (A) Zone of Enrichment: upper margin of exterior. Forms, Type of Design: Borders of units joining each other or connected Plate 49 by bands or spots acting as connecting links. Rule 9c. Inceptive Axes: Vertical elements of the exterior surface. Ele- ments are imaginary lines dividing the exterior surface into any given number of vertical sections. Elements used as center lines Marginal form the axes of symmetry about which the butterfly of Figure Enrichment 308 and similar designs are constructed. Points of Concentration: On each vertical element. Illustrations: Figures 308, 309, 310, 311, 31'-2, 316. {D) Zone of Enrichment: full vertical surface. Type of Design: Extended borders with strongly developed vertical lines or forms. Less than one-half of the surface may be p ,, covered. Vertical Inceptive Axes: Vertical elements. Surface Points of Concentration: In upper portion of vertical elements, Enrichment hence in upper porlioii ot* ;ii"ea. Illustrations: Figures 307, 314, 317, 318. (E) Zone of Enrichment: free balance of full surface. (See D, above). Illustration: Figure 315. High Cylindrical Problems: Vases, jars, pitchers, tall flower holders, covered jars Forms, for lea, crackers, or tobacco, Plate 50 Marginal Enrichment [ 158 ] (.4) Zone of Enrichment: margin of exterior. Type of Design: Borders of geometric units, freely balanced floral units, and other natural motives placed in upper margin of mass. Inceptive Axes: Vertical elements of cylinder. Points of Concentration: In upper portion of vertical elements. Illustrations: Figures 319, S-^O, 3*21, 327, 331, 332. FuU Surface Enrichment (D) Zone of Enrichment: full surface of exterior. Type of Design: Free of formal conventionalized unit repeated on each vertical element. The units may be juxtaposed or may be connected by bands or similar links. Inceptive Axes: Vertical elements of cylinder. Point of concentration: In upper portion of vertical elements. Illustrations: Figures 322, 323, 324, 326, 328, 329. Types of Commercial Pottery The reader should carefully consider the postulate and various divisions of Rule 7 and try to applj' them to the material now under consideration. Acknowledgment is made for material supplied by the Rookwood Potteries for Figures 288, 289, 292, 293, 294, 297, 298, 315; 327 and 332; Newcomb Potteries, Figures 314, 316, 317, 318, 326; Teco Potteries, 329; Keramic Studio Publishing Company, 302, 307, 308, 310, 312. INSTRUCTION SHEET Plate 51 illustrates the marginal surface enrichment of low cylindrical forms, with part surface enrichment of two higher forms. SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS (a) Draw primary mass: For square or rectangular areas draw square rectangle, etc. For shallow circular forms draw a circle. For low cylindrical forms draw a rectangle; subdivide this if desired by a unit of measurement into two horizontal divisions. For high cylindrical forms draw a rectangle; subdivide this if desired by a unit of measurement into two or three horizontal divisions. Rule 5e. (b) Design simple contour enrichment based upon these units of measurement. (c) Locate zone of enrichment. id) Draw inceptive axes: For square or rectangular areas draw diameters, diagonals, or both. [159] For shallow circular forms draw radii of the primary circle; concentric circles for bands. For low cylindrical forms draw the elements of the underlying cylindrical form for extended borders or lines paralleling the top or bottom of the primary mass for bands. For high cylindrical forms draw inceptive axes similar to low cylindrical forms, (e) Locate points of concentration in these inceptive axes. (/) Determine manner and amount of surface enrichment. ig) Add leading lines and develop these into surface enrichment. (h) Make potter's working drawing, full size (See Plate 26). Add the necessary amount for shrinkage and otherwise prepare the drawing for potter's use. (i) Make a paper tracing of the surface enrichment for transfer to clay body and cut a zinc or tin template as a contour guide in building the form. SUGGESTED PROBLEMS Design a cider or chocolate set with appropriate surface enrichment. Design an architectural tile 6 in. by 9 in. for accenting a brick fireplace in the home. SUMMARY OF RULES Rule 9a. Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to he able to with- stand the action of heat to which (ill ware must be submitted. Rule \)h. Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of the material. Rule 9c. A border should not be located at the point of greatest curvature in the contour of a cylindrical form. The contour curve is of sufficient interest in itself at that point. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Compare the surface enrichment of clay with that of wood. 2. State a major requircincnt of a good pottery design. 3. Give the broad divisions into wliich it is possible to divide the decorative pro- cesses of clay surface enrichment. 4. Name and briefly describe eight methods of etiricliiii^' tlir surface of claN'. 5. What precautions should be exercised witli regard to tin- u>e of incised, pierced, and modeled decoration.^ 6. Slidiild a border be placed at the jjoint of greatest cur\alure of the cniitdui? Give reasons. 7. Name method of classifying structural forms in clay into four groups. 8. State prol)lerns and jjossible zones of enrieiinient in each group. Give reasons for choice. 9. State type of design unit, conventionalized, natural or artificial forms, location of incej)ti\'e axis, points of conceiitratioii. ami i)roeess for each zone of enrich men I . in, \\'liat is an (■IciiHiil of a (•viiuilrical surface.' Chapter XIII SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF PRECIOUS METALS Small Flat Planes Base and Precious Metals Divisions ' for Enrichment Chapter XII referred to clay as a free and plastic material adapted to a wide range of surface enrichment processes. Metal as a more refractory material offers greater resistance to the craftsman and is relatively more limited in its capacity for surface enrichment. As was the case in the consideration of contour enrichment for designing purposes, it is necessary in the consideration of surface enrichment to divide metal into two groups: precious and base metals. As the field of design in both base and precious metals is large, we shall con- sider the surface enrichment of precious metals only in this chapter. Following an order similar in character to that used in clay designing, problems in both base and precious metals may be divided into four classified groups as follows: flat, square, rectangular, or irregular planes; shallow^ circular forms; low cylindrical forms; high cylindrical forms. Designs included in the first group, flat planes, comprise such problems as are typically represented by tie pins, fobs, rings, and pendants. The design problems presented by these examples are so important that it is wise to restrict this chapter to flat planes. Rule lOg. The inceptive axis should pass through and coincide with one axis of a stone, and at the same time be sympathetically related to the structure. Rule lOh. The position of the inceptive axis should be determined by: (1) use of the project as ring, pendant, or bar pin, ("i) character of the primary ma.ss as either vertical or horizontal in proportion. The semi-precious or precious stone is commonly found to be the point of concentration of these designs. The inceptive axes of tie pins, pendants, and fobs are generally vertical center lines because of the vertical positions of the objects when worn. The inceptive axes, [160] [161] moreover, should pass through the point of concentration and, at the same time, be sympathetically related to the structure. Rings and bar pins are frequently designed with horizontal inceptive axes, so determined by their horizontal characteristics and positions. The point of concentration for tie pins, pendants, and fobs in formal balance, in addition to coinciding with the inceptive axis, is generally located above or below the geometric center of the primary mass. The point of concentration for rings and bar pins is placed in the horizontal inceptive axis and centrally located from left to right. As a step preliminary to designing, and in order that the enrich- ment may be conventionalized or adapted to conform to the require- ments of tools, processes, and materials, it is now imperative to become familiar with a number of common forms of surface enrichment in metal. There are eight processes frequent h^ encountered in the decoration of silver and gold : piercing, etching, chasing or repousseing, enameling, inlaying, stone setting, l)uilding, carving. To these may be added planishing, frosting or matting, and oxidizing as methods employed to enrich the entire surface. p]conomy of material is of prime importance in the designing of precious metal and, particu- larly in gold projects, conservation of the metals should be an urgent consideration in all designs. Rule 10a. J)c'.s{g)i.s in precious mefals should call for the iniiiiifmm amount of metal necessarij to express the idea of the designer for two reasons: (1) good taste; ('-2) econoun/ of material. A non-technical and l)rief des('ri])tion of each ])r()cess follows. All designs in this chapter may be ideiitilied by rel'erriiig to the ])rocess numbers after the figun^ description as 1, 3, .5; '■2, 4, 0, corresponding to the key numbers on Plate .5'2. A design to Ix^ subnu'tted to the craftsman should be a graphic record of teelinieal facts in addition to good design, which requires tliat we should liaxc an ex])ressive technical means of rendering eaeJi process. The last ('oJuiiin, on Plate 52, indicates this rendering. In addition lo I his rendering each one of the eight technical processes has been canied Ihrongh lhre(^ design steps. 1. (first cohnnn, Rlate o'-Z) l^lanning the original |)riniary mass, witli its ine('pli\'(' axis suggested by the strnclnre and intended use. Il j)asses Ihrongh the j)oiiil of conccnl i-a I ion. 2. (second Inceptive Axes and Points of Concentra- tion Typical Processes of Enrichment Economy of Material Evolution and Technical Rendering of Processes [ 162 ] ^URFACE-EMRlCHnELhT OF SMALL PRIMARV M/\55E5 in METAL WITH EVOLUTION AhD leEHDE^SlHG OF E.1GHT FT^0CE.5C)E5 OF Etit^lCHKEnT • THL PRI M ARY n ASS coMTOi!^t?EMRK: H M EMT ^ UR.FACE Ett^lC HHETIT 1- PlERCinG F1&-3M- 2 E.TCH1HG FIG-33T- 3CHA5>1MG F1C-. 340 4EHAME.LUrie- F|6-34-b I i ^ -^ ii-i-T-^ FIG- 335- \^ rLL I *-?- i ;^ Fie-33 — c'/jj" "^ m FIG 353 FIG 35<3 FJCS- 354- m a FIG 357- CO LOt^ Plate 52 [ 163 column, Plate 52). The division of the primary mass into zones of service and enrichment with the suggestion of the leading lines which, at some points, are parallel to the contours and lead up to the point of concentration. The contours in this column have, in several instances, been changed to add lightness and variety to the problem. 3. The last step (column three, Plate 52) shows the design with graphic rendering suggestive of the completed process. Technical Processes and Methods of Illustrating Same IN A Design 1. Removal of design unit or background by means of the jew^eler's saw\ Bridges of metal should be left to support firmly Piercing all portions of the design. Test this by careful study of the design. Rendering — shade all pierced portions of the design in solid black. Slightly tint portions of the design passing under other parts. Illus- tration, Figure 33G. Rule lOj. All surface enrichment should have an appearance of compactness or unity. Pierced spots or areas should be so used as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the surface without thought to their coherence. 2. Coating either design or background with an acid resistant, to be followed by immersion of the article in an acid bath. Allow the unprotected portion to be attacked and eaten by the acid to a slight depth. Rendering — slightly tint all depressed or etched parts of the design. Illustration, Figure 339. 3. The embossing and fine embeUisliment of a metal surface by the application of the hanmier ;iii nil i);irts of the background not raised by llie process. Chasing should schmu an integral part of the background and not appear sluek upt)n it. Illus- tration, Figure 342. Rule lOk. 4. A process of enameling over niclal iu which the ground is eul away into a series of shallow troughs into which I he enamel is melted. Exercise reserve^ in IIk' use ot" eiiauicl. Ox'er-decoral ion tiMids lo cheai)en this valuable form of decoraliou. I^eudering shade ihe lower and righl-hand sides of all (l areas lo suggest relief. Illuslraliou, Figur<> .'M-.>. If i)ossil)le rciidci- in lenipera color. Etching Chasing or Repouss6ing Enameling (Champleve) [164] - 5Ui?FACL ENRlCHriEMT OF 5nALL PRIMARY riAv'b^E-^ IH PRECIOUS METAL COrlTOUR. AMD 50KFACE. EM5^lCHME.riT OF Fl_AT PLAMECd PiriCb AMD &KOOCHES VERTICAL. INCEPTIVE. AXE^ FIG-556-S- FIO 3)59-6 P16-560-6 ncsiGMED »•< The STUnEMTS OF Mil- WAUKtE-DOWMEK CQLLECe.- ^*s^^^ ^«<^^^> riG-361-6 n6-362-6'T- Fl6!)53-67- FlCT364-bT- FlC-'-365-6-l ■ FlC-.' 366-5- 6 CRT n6 35T-6-l ne- 36© - 61-7- FlC-,-369-61-8- FIG- 3"tO - €>• \ ■ S HOJ^IZQMTAL IMCEPTIVF AXE6 F1&-311-6- 1- 6 FIG -372 -e>- 3 • 6 ■ DESIGnE.D &Y nibS EDMA> HOWAKD um- OF W16- Plate 53 [165] Rule lOi. Caution should be exercised with regard to the use of enamel. Over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen both process and design. Rule 101. The lanes or margins between enameled spots should be narroiver than the lane or margin between the enamel and the contour of the primary mass. 5. The process of applying wire, etc., to an incision on metal either by burnishing or fusing the metal into the cavities. Rendering Inlaying — tint the darker metal or, if possible, render in color. Illustration, Figure 348. 6. An enrichment of the surface by the addition of semi-precious or precious stones. Other enrichment is generally subordinated to Stone the stone which then becomes the point of concentration. AH Cutting enrichment should lead toward the stone. Small stones may, how- ever, be used to accentuate other points of concentration in surface enrichment. Rendering — shade the lower and right-side of the stone to suggest relief. Pierced subordinate enrichment should be shaded in solid black. A concentric line should be (h"a\vn outside of the contour of the stone to designate the thin liolcHng I)and, or bezel, enclosing the stone on all sides. Illustration, Figure 3,51. Rule 10(1. Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the contours of both primary mass and poitd of concentration, especially ivhenever the latter is a stone or enamel. Rule lOe. In the presence of either stone or ludiitcl as a point of concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an unobtrusive setting, or background. Rule lOf. Stone or enamel used as a point of couccntrnfioii slioidd form contrast wifJi the metal, either in color. hriUiaiicy. or nduc. or idl three combined. 7. The process of applying leaves, wir(\ grains, and oIIkm* foi-ms of surface enriclim(Mi! lo llie ])laiie of lh<> iikMjiI. These may after- Building wards be cafxcd of clmscd. RciidiM-iiig sliade tlic lower and righl-hand lines; sliglilly liiil I lie lowci- ])l;iii<\s of lli(> niclal. Illus- tration, Figure 3.54. S. The |)r()cess of depressing or r.-iisliig cci-l.-ii!! |)orlloiis of the mcl.'il surface bv means of chisels .-iiid ur;i\crs. \\\ I he ii^c of i\\csv loots the surface is modehMl iiilo pl.-iiics of liulil ;iii(l >li;i(l('. lo which [166] Figure 372a. — Tie Pins Courtesy nf llic Eh'crhoj Coloiuj T wimmm Figure 372b.— Tie Pins Courtesy of the Elverlioj Colony [ 167 interest is added if the unaggressive tool marks are permitted to remain on the surface. Rendering — shade the raised and depressed portions to express the modehng j)lanes. As this is a difficult technical pro- cess the designer is advised to model the design in plastelene or jewelers' wax first. Illustration, Figure 357. Rule 10k. Built, carved, and chased enrichment should have the higher planes near the point of concentration. It is icell to have the stone as the highest point above the primary mass. When using this form of enrichment, the stone should never appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass, but should be approached by a series of rising planes. 9. The process of smoothing and, at the same time, hardening the surface of the metal with a steel planishing hammer. The ham- mer strokes give an interesting texture to the surface which may be varied, from the heavily indented to the smooth surface, at the will of the craftsman. The more obvious hammer strokes are not to be desired as they bring a tool process into too nuich prominence for good taste. Rendering — print desired finish on the drawing. 10. A process of sand blasting or scratch brushing a metal surface to produce an oi:)a(iue or "satin" finish. Rendering — sim- ilar to planishing. 11. A process of darkening the surface of metal by the application of chemicals. Potassium sulphite will supply a deep, rich black to silver and copper. Rendering — see Planishing. The eleven processes mentioned above are among those which, })y recent common practice, have become familiar to the craftsman in precious metals, AVliile they do not cover I lie entire field, they at least give the beginner an opportunity to design inlelhgently in terms of the material. Plate 53 is mainlv the enrieliment of I lie Hal i)Iaiie bv I he addition of semi-precious stones (process six). Whalever surface (Mirichnient is added lo this design })ecomes dependent (Miriehment and (|nite analogous to dependent contour enrichment, IMale '29, inasmuch as it has to ])(* dcsig'TKMl with special reference to the sha])e and chai-actcr of the slonc. l^'ignres 358 lo 3().'> arc examples of dcpcndciif confour enrichment; r'igurcs 3(11- to 371 are e\anij)les of dependent .s/irface enrichmenl. I'igiires 35S to ')(!7 are based iij)()n rcrlical inceptive axes as ai)|)ropi-iate lo I heir inlcmlcd sei-\ice. The |)oi!il of con- Carving Planishing Frosting Oxidizing Design of Pins and Brooches Dependent Surface Enrichment for Pins [168] 5URFACE EMKlCHriEMT OF SMALL PRIMARY MA55ES IM PRECIOUS METALS • COhTOUR AMD SURFACE EtiRlCHMEHT APPUED TO FOBS • MAIML^ FULL- SO i^ FACE ElMRlCHMEMT BASED UPOM VCI^Tl CAL. 1MCE.PTIVE AXE£> ^) iPt if>^ 4 .1 FIC-.374--l-0-e F1Ct313- I -e e> F1C-1-57S- 1-6-7- EMi^lCHnEnT OF FLATPLATIES IN VEETTIO^U F03\TlOri5 • FIG. BT6- I- 3-6' r '<"-/eMm,aiixi^i FIG -311- I- FIG -373- 1-&-7- OESlGhlED P)Vm^t)E HOWARD FIG 37Q- I • 4-- DESIGMED BY niSS EDMA HONrVARD- — UHl OF Wii' FIG 360 - I • 6- BX MR HAA:!)- FIG. 3ai-6-3-7 YiC^ 3SZ - 3 • <5 Plate 54 [169] centration may be located at practically any point on this inceptive axis, provided the major axis of the stone coincides with the inceptive axis. The best results are obtained by placing the stone a little above or below the exact geometrical center of the primary mass. Figures 368 to 372 show articles based upon a horizontal inceptive axis. The stone, in accordance with formal balance, is in the geo- inceDtive metric center from left to right. One notices the important fact that Axes the surface enrichment must bring the stone and contour together for Pins in sympathetic relation and, at the same time, be related to both stone and contour. This again brings out the meaning of dependent surface enrichment. The contour enrichment is to be kept as simple as possible and the interest concentrated upon the surface enrichment. The accentuation of both surface and contour enrichment in a single design marks the height of bad taste in design. Rule 10b. Contour and surface enrichment should never appear to compete for attention in the same design. Plate 54 shows flat planes, the service of which suggests vertical inceptive axes. Figure 380 is noted as an exception to this vertical Fobs inceptive axis as it possesses a vertical primary mass Init with radial inceptive axes. The interesting manner l)y which the dynamic leaves of the outer border transmit their mo\'ement to the inner border, which in turn leads toward the point of concentration, is worthy of attention. The points of concentration in other designs on this plate are all contained in the vertical inceptive axes. Plate DO, at first thought, would seem to fall under the classi- fication of low cylindrical forms but when reference is made lo 1^'igure Rings 38.) it is readily seen that the ring has to be first developed as a flat j)lane, to be afterwards bent inio the refiuircd form. Care should be taken to ke(>]) tlie design u.-ircow (Mioiii^li lo be \isil)l(> wIhmi tlie ring is in j)osition on the finger. The long horizontal b.-md of the ring sn])])lies the motive^ for the horizontal inceptive axis as a common basis or sl;irting })()inl for a large mimber of designs. If the dcvsigner so desires, the vertical axis of the fingei- is authority for an elliptical stone lo be j)laced with its major axis as a \'erlieal line in harmony with I he finger axis. In any instance the (hvsigner seeks lo le;i • I Ario 6 • 7 -.^—. FIG 384 -e-4- -a nG-385-THLEVOLUTIOM OF A Rin6DE61C-.n--l PRI- MARY riAS5 • 2 • CQMTQUK EH- RKt-- 5 SURFACE ErtRHT- FIG 566 - e • 8 FIG 3»7-e-7 iriTKODUCtO TO iHovVTri MEED OFfv VERTICAL -f FiC-.-3&&-6- 6- FiC-. ci&3 -6 1 AI10 6 ■ a FIG 390-mmLt-6T 8 riOTE: THE DESIGM^ AKE. nAlML-f BASED UPOrl HqRIZOMTAU IHCEPTIVE AX.E5 • SEE F\G " 3e.7 • FIGURES 304--6-8S WERE OESi&HED 6Y f1lS!> EDMA HOWARD ^J^J. 1- OF W13 • Plate 55 [171] Courtesy of the Elt'crhaj Colony Figure 390a. — Rings tion (the stone), by means of surfaee enriehnienl. A long sloping contour curve helps, as a transition line in the l)oun(lary, to carry the attention from the stone to the finger band. A great number of devices are used to complete a similar transition in the surface enrichment. Figure 39()a. Too nuich piercing weakens the struc- ture, and it is therefore to be avoided. Plate 56 suggests some verlicnl flat j)lanes for jx'iidants. AVhile no definite rule can be staled for llie location of the stone, from past experience, it is easier for beginners to place the stone on the \'erlical inceptive axis slightly al)ov(^ the geometric center of tlu^ ])rimary mass. Figures 31)1 to 39,3. A design thus formed is l(>ss likely to appear heavy, although there is nothing arl)itrary about the suggestion. Rule lOc. I\irls of (i dcfiif/n (lijj'cn'ur/ i)i finirfion should differ in, appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire desujn. In pendant design the snrface ein'ieliment generally carries the attention from tlie eontoni- of tlie ixMid.iiil lo llie stone, thns insnring [172] 'SUI^PACE LMRICHMENT OF SKALL PRlir^ARY MASSES iM PKLC10U5 METAL' EMRllCHMEHT OF FLAT PLAriE.S OF PEMDAMTO- CHAINS • LOCK:e.TC5 • ■ty — r Q FI&-391-0-2. FO& .! ^«gr- '1 /i' r F\G-394-61 Fie 395 -6- 1 DE51C.MtD 6Y fliSS EKOSEMCRAMZ FlC-.-39e-2-5- UHVJFVM.- FIG 39a - 6-6 OESI&tiEO ft^mSS E HOWAED UMi or Y- FlG-400-6-fi flOTE FICt 367 • FIG 399 - e.-3 S • DES16tHED 9f MliJ E- HOWAeo FIG • 401 - e>-i -T • OESlOrlED 6i STUDEMT5 OF MILWAUKEE.- DOWNEK Coa.EC-.E Plate 5G [ 173 ] unity at this point, while the contour Hues often lead the attention Pendants from the pendant to the chain. The eye should move in unbroken and Chains d\'namic movement from pendant to chain. Tlie chain may have points of accent designed to vary the even distribution of the links. These accents are frequently composed of small stones with surface enrichment sympathetically designed in unity with pendant, chain, and stone. Figure 401 shows examples of this arrangement and similarly the need of a horizontal inceptive axis to harmonize with the length of the chain. These small accents are quite similar in design to bar pin motives. Rule 10m. Transpareni and opaque stones or enamel should not be used in the same design. For the designer's purposes we may consider two kinds of stones, the transparent and the opaque. These should not be mixed in one Relation design. The most favorable stones are those forming contrasts of Stones of value or l)rilliancy with the metal as, for example, the amethyst, to Metal lapis lazuli, or New Zealand jade, with silver; or the dark topaz, or New Zealand jade, with gold. Lack of these contrasts gives dull, monotonous effects that fail to nuike the stone the j)oint of concen- tration. Figure 407. These effects may be partially overcome by frosting, j^lating, or oxidizing the metal, thus forming stronger con- trasts of value IXSTRI( TIOX SHKKT Plates m and 57 arc ri-prfsontative of tlio steps, processes, and problems for school use. SUMMAin' OF DESIGN STKPS (a) Draw tlic primary mass. (6) Locate the inceptive axis in this primary mass with its direction (h-termined })y the ultimate use or position of the primary mass and its general shai)e. (c) Locate zone of enrichment, (rf) Locale I mint nf concent r.it inn in t lie zone of ciiriciimcnt and in t he iiircpl ive axis. {e) Dcsif^n simple cnnlour cnriciinii'iit . (/) Desifjn leading lines in syinpalliy with lln' i-onlcmr and leading toward I lie piiin I of conrcnl r:i t ion. {g) Klaliorale the leading lines in symi)a(Iiy with the material, tlir type of enrichment . the contours, and t hi- incepti\'e axis. {h) Render in the ti( hnieai ni;inner suggested l>\ I'late .">'-2, dimension the pii ni;ir\ mass, a in I ot In ■r\\ i^e pri|i.in' the dr.iw ing for sho|) use. [174] Courtesy of the Elverhoj Colony Figure 401a. — Pendants [175] Hi tgtttmmaim Figure 40'2. — Pendants Lvurtcsy of Ihe Elverhnj Colony SUGGESTED PROBLEM Design a huilt-tij) ring using an elliptical calniciion ciil .stone as the point of concentration. The inceptive axis is vertical. . SUMMARY OF RULES Small Flat Planes Rule 10a. Designs in precious metals should call for the niiniwum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the designer for two reasons: {1) good taste; (£) economy of material. Rule lOl). Contour and surface enrichment should nercr appear to compete for attention in the same design. Rule KIc. I'arts of a design differing in function should differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design. Rule lOd. Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the contours of both primary mass and point of concentration, especially ichenerer the latter is a stone or enamel. Rule lOe. In the presence of either stone or enamel as a point of concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an unobtrusive setting, or bach-ground. Rule lOf. Stone or enamel used as a point of concentration should form contrast irith the nielal. either in c>i a rliaiii fidui llial nf a pendant.' Why and how? i;5. (live illustration and retiuirements of a good design in clianiplexc enamel. 14. What precautions should be exercised in designing pierced (MiricliUKMil : ( 1 ) w ill lighten or soften necessarily heavy cons! ruci ion as in I-'igun^ M),3; ('-2) support or a))j)areutly sli-cugtiien good struclur(\ Figure H. '5; (,'}) add iiilcrcst to large unbroken or otherwise unintei-est ing surfae(\s ;is ilhisl r.i led in I^'igure K).>. 'i'o aid in i)r()ducing the desired i-esnlts, we li;i\-e the technical processes mentioned in Chai)ter XI 11 as follows: (1) I'iereing; [17!)] Enrichment for Small Areas Enrichment for Large Areas Essentials of Good Surface Enrichment [180] Figure 406a. INIainly Objects Designed to be Seen from i\.bove (2) Etching; (3) Chasing; (4) Enamehng; (5) Inlaying; (G) Stone- setting; (7) Building; (8) Carving; (9) Planishing; (10) Frosting; (11) Oxidizing. On the plates for this chapter, the figure generally following the cut number refers to the process, as: Figure 446, 3. Surface Design Evolution Rule 11a. The preliminary steps toward surface enrichvient should he thought out before they are drawn. A designer will be materially helped if he devotes a few moments of thought to his design problem before he applies the pencil to the paper. In the end the time given to thinking out his problem will gain for him both increased excellence of design and rapidity of execution, provided his thinking is systematic. A sequential order of points to be observed is given below. The object of systematic thought is to form a mental picture of the enrichment to be in full accord with the materials and construction and to be sympathetically related to the structural axes and to the contours. The unenriched mass has been designed and we are now ready for the consideration of surface enrichment in the following order. [ 181 ] (a) Placing the Zone of Service. , ^^n • ii i> • Summary of 1. Vvnere is the zone oi servicer ox Steps m Surface (6) Classification of Form. Enrichment 1. Is the object flat, shallow and circular, low and cylindrical, liisih and cylindrical? (c) Placing the Zone of Enrichment . 1 . Is the enrichment to be seen from above or from the side ? See Figure 406a. 2. What point of the structure suggested by the form needs surface enrichment? Is it the primary mass, appendages, terminals, links, or details? Let the area selected become the zone of enrichment. (f/) Amount of Enrichment. 1. Will the enrichment cover the full surface, i)art surface (^center or margin), or accented outline? (e) Location of Inceptive Axis. 1. Is the zone of enrichment associated willi a square, rectangle, hexagon, or irregularly shaped flat plane, circular or cylindricjd surface? Figure 470. 2. How should the ince})tive axis be placed in the zone of enrichment to harmonize with the structural forms suggested by 1 (e) and the point from which it is viewed 1 (c)? See the violation of this latter point in Figure 439. Presumably this inceptive axis will be a vertical center line, horizontal center line, diagonal, diameter, radius, the element of a cylinder, or a dynamic curve for a free bolder. (/) Point of Concentration. 1. Where should the point of concenlralion l)e located upon Surface the inceptive axis? Enrichment ig) Unison of Enrichmcnl and Materials. 1. What decoralixc |)rocess will be a(l;i])Liltl(' to service, the malerial, and the coiileniplaled design? [182] SURFACE EMRICHnEnT Of LAeCiE PeiHATiT HASSES Ih , BASE nC-JALS • TEEATMEHT OF FLAT AhD SEni-fLAT SURFACES • couexes-r op schoou aets MA,&A2.mE ri lia\(' llu^ zone of (Mnicliincnl in I lie n|)per j)orlion of llic a|>i)<'n(lag(' i handles), an placing of cniichmcnl in I'iunrc 40 1-. Initial letters, through lack of considci'at ion of design princij)l(>s, ai-(^ ivc- Large [ 184 ] SUEFACt EneiCHnEhT OF LA^GE Pi^lMAR-T HASSES Itl BASE ntTAL • TK.EATM&nT OF FLAT PLAhES IM CAST BEONZie • LACK OF eCLATIOm BfTWEEn STKUCTUIJAU AXIS AMD OENAMCriT PIG •4^3- ACCfMTCD COMTOUe F|Ct4I8' F\Ct419- EriRlCH^ ntriT YIOLATIMu EOLf OF SeKYICE- Fl 6-42,4 • ACCfHTED GOnTOUE ( FIG-42L0- ivivmf!^ FlG-4^l-YIOLATI0h FI6-4Z2- APPEOP- OP APPRDPRlATEneSS 1^1 ATE OErtAMEMT pijp( FIG •42.5- C-rEFflC P16 •426- BTzy^riTine ri&-4ZT- F1&-4Z8- GOTHIC ,-tA m ri6-429- TEEnCH RENA1S5AMCE :^ FICt430 L0O15 ?^1Y 1^1 FlCv431- EMPlT^e f|Cn»43Z« FLtMlSH Plate 60 Door Plates, Courtcfy of P. and F. Corbin [185] qiiently misplaced on masses with little or no consideration given to their mass relations with the structural contours. As a contrast to this, notice the carefully considered relations between the letter W on the tea strainer in Figure 404 and its adaptation to the con- tours of the appendage. The stone enrichment on the handle of the paper cutter in Figure 404 in no way interferes with its use as a cutter and is therefore appropriate as surface enrichment. The pierced enrichment of the silver box in Figure 405 contains vertical and horizontal lines which bring the decorative human figures into harmonious relation with the structural contours. Figure 406 shows both formal and free balance with center and full surface zones of enrichment. C and D could have been improved by a more strongly marked point of concentration which would have added more character to the designs. In Chapter VIIT, the contour terminal enrichment problem was described at some length. Many illustrations on Plates 58, 59, and 60 are, in a way, similar in their type of surface decoration, wliich is termed surface terminal enrichment. The "ha])py en(hng" men- tioned in Chapter A III as a suitable means of terminating the contour of a long primary mass or appendage may be similarly treated by suitable surface enrichment, particularly shown in Figures 4(),'J, 404, 407, 408, 409, and 410. The terminal is (juile conunon as a zone of enrichment. It is readily seen that wIkmi surface enrichment is the ])revailing decorative theme il becomes necessary to subordinate contour enrichment to it, liule 10b, otherwise llu^ strife for dominance arising between these two forms of enrichment will lead (<> poor aud ornate design. Figure 417. AXliatcNcr contour enrichment is used must \)v chosen to accoi'd willi llie surface eiiricliuieiil . Kule lOd. as noted in the })i-eceding figures and in I^'ignic til. Here we lind the closest connection, as the chased foi'nis of lli(> surface at many j)()inls merge into the conloui'. Thus surface and conloin" ai'c bound lo- gether in unil\- willi the surface enrichuieul, wliich uiaintaius its dominance I liroughoul . The siui])le and dignifie(I Irealnieiil of Mie (ire >el in l-'i^ui-e M.'> is synonymous v.illi the fine>l type of em-iehmeni foi- ser\ ice and beauty, Iiule Mb. The ])eacock niolives of j'igni'cs 111- and 41.") Large Flat and Semi- flat Surfaces in Precious Metal, Plate 58 Flat and Semi-flat Surfaces in Base Metal, Plate 59 Contour I ' crsits Surface Enrichment [ 186 Surface Enrichment of Hardware, Plate 60 Historic Ornament Applied to Period Hard- ware Design Door Plates are applied to the desk set. The motives as used in this case are generally well adapted to their respective areas and inceptive axes. Rule llf. Repulsive forms should uot he introduced into surface enrichment. Figure 417 is a typical example of over-ornamentation with the surface and contour enrichment struggling in deadly conflict for prominence. In the combat, the natural structural axis has been totally neglected for irrelevant and disconnected ornament. Figure 418 illustrates correctly related surface ornament, with a dominance of the latter form. Rule 10b. Figure 419 represents a type of dec- oration presumably roughened to meet the needs of service. It proves, however, to be unpleasant to the touch and unnecessary as the plain knob is preferable in every way. The naturalistic snake motive of Figure 4'-21 is repulsive to many people; this and similar decorative motives should be avoided in preference to the more conventionalized pattern of Figure 4'-22, Rule llf. Rule lie. Tico periods of historic ornament should not be introduced into the same design. It is impossible to close these chapters without reference to the influence of the great schools of architectural history upon contem- porary design. There is a growing tendency for manufacturers to use period patterns in house decorations which correspond to the design of the building. A Colonial building frequently calls for Colonial hardware, a Gothic church for corresponding surface enrich- ment of that period. As introductory illustrations. Figure 4*23 stands as a simple example of accented (beveled) contour while Figure 424 has been accented with reminiscent moulding appropriate to Colonial archi- tecture. They might, however, be used with many simply designed articles of furniture. From this slight indication or portion of a style, we have a more pronounced beginning in Figure 425 with its clearly marked Greek egg and dart ornamental border. The acan- thus leaf of the Byzantine school, Figure 426, changes to the geometric arabesques of the Moorish school in Figure 427. The Gothic arch, cusps, and quatrefoil of Figure 428 are changed to the classic acanthus foliage of the French Renaissance period. Figure 429. Figures 430 and 431 are later developments of the Renaissance. The heavily [187] enriched Flemish pattern completes our illustrations of the use of past forms of ornamentation applied to modern designs. Only a small number from a rapidly enlarging field of period design are shown. With circular plates and trays, the enrichment normally takes the form of a border (marginal enrichment), with the inceptive axes or center lines of the repeated units radiating from the center of the circle. Figures 433, 435, 43(), 437, 438, and 439. An elliptical form frequently calls for handles and terminal enrichment as shown by Figure 434. Both Figures 437 and 438 have divided points of concentration and would be materially improved by the omission of the center unit A. The small tree used as a connecting link in the border of Figure 437 should be reversed, as it now possesses a motion or growth con- trary to the larger tree units. The contour enrichment in Figure 438 could well be omitted or moved around to support the surface enrich- ment. The pierced enrichment A, Figure 430, is incorrectly used as it is not designed to be seen from above, the normal \iewpoint of the tray. The design should have l)een based upon the horizontal axis of the project similar to Figure 439 at B. Differing from the shallow i)lnte, with the increased heiglit of the low cylindrical forms of Plate ()^2, there now develops the possi- bility of enricliing the sides of this class of i)roject : a zone of enrich- ment not readily accessil)le in the shallow })late form. In addition to the sides there remain the ai)j)endages, (|uite capable of carrying enrichment to advantage. One should control the zone of enricliment in such a manner that tlie attention w ih not be cMiually ch'aw n to bot h appendage and j)rimary mass. "^Fwo j)oints of enrichnuMit . both calling for e(|nal attention. (Hn ide the interest in the problem, and cause a lack of unity oi' oneness. Rule 11(1. The cijc shoJiUi he (iffrarfcd to one princ/pdl zone of enriclnnviiL ir/icfhcr Inrafrd upon llic prnimrii iikiss, a ppcmhujc, frrminals, liiil:.\\ or dcUiils. ^lll ol/tcr zonca ^huuld be subordinate to this (ir((i. j^nriciiincnt ni)on the a|)i)('n(Iag('s may be found in kiguics t K), 441, 44'-2, 44.3, and on the n|)j) units coni- Shallow Circular Forms, Plate 61 Low Cylindrical Forms, Plate 62 [188] suerACE EheicHncnT op laegc peimer hasscs in base ahd pekious metal ■ • TEEAinenT OF 5ttALL0W CieCULAE FORHS • Fl6 •'q33- 3 FICt434- PeOCE55 -l FICt435-5' hOTE THE COMTKAET moTion BOTH RCSlGnS WOUL'D HAYfc BEEM iriPeOY r oniTTiHG 'A' DisccMnecTeo COMTOUe AMD SUEFACf EMKICHMEMT FIG • 435- 3-4-- FIG • 437 '^^ FlC-t • 438 • 3 • FIG •439- nAiriLT SHftLLOW ClECULAe Foer-is Plate 61 [189] SURFACE EiieicHneriT op LAR.6e PEtriAeT nAsses in ba5& AMD Precious ntTAL ' Te-EATMEhT OF LOV/ CIECULAI2. T=0I2.nS I figt44<)- EhEicHriE-nT or APPENOAGe-e FIG •4-41 • e PIG •44-^- I • erueiCHNC-riT of APPEhDACiE FIG • 4-4-3 • I • FIG •444- 3- NAeGIMAL EneiCHnEHT PIG • 4-45 • 3 1*1. \Ti: (;>^2 190] suerACE ErieiCMMcnT of laijgc peiMAer masses in basc amd peccious . nCTAL5 • TEEATnEhT OF HIGti CYLiriDElCAL FOEHS • PICt44^-5- F1&-441-7- FIG ■448- YCeTlCAL CHA5FD ChEICHnrriT -a- FICt •449-3- FIG -4-50 • hOTe THE- FACT THAT THE EHRICH nenT om base- i5 SUBOKDIMATED TO TliAT Of=^ The 5MADE • ai FICt • 4-51 • nAIMLT COriTOUlS. EneicHnEHT FIG •452,- ILLUSTEATiriG THE "ECHOIhG" OF A MOTIVE" THe 5YnBOU"X" SHOULT) BE IM TttC UPPEI?. PORTlOri OF THE P-H- FICt -453- e Plate 63 [191] posing the border on these straight sides are designed upon the vertical element of the underlying cylindrical form as the inceptive axis. The enrichment for the appendage is well related to the contour of that member and is commonly based upon the center line of the appendage. The principles of enriching these higher cylindrical forms in many ways closely parallel those which govern the lower cylindrical forms. The inceptive axes of the decoration on the two vases of Figures High Cylindrical 446 and 447 may be readily analyzed as vertical elements of the Forms cylinder. Figures 448 and 449 are quite rare exceptions of the accen- Plate 63 t nation of the vertical lines of the cvlinder. Horizontal bands similar to Figures 444 and 447 are more connnon interpretations of cylinder enrichment. Figure 450 marks a successful coml)iuation of two dissimilar materials with the shade (appendage) as the dom- inating enriched member. Rule 10c. The small chased bosses used as enrichment in Figure 4,5'-2 are re-echoed on the several pieces of the set which binds them into collective unity. The top portion of the i^rimary mass seems to need some form of enrichment, as the contour adds lit lie to the bcautv of that part. The symbol X could have been better located l)y l)eing moved to that place. The point of concentration should be })laced in the upper portion of a large mass whenever Uial arrangement is possible. It is in every way desirable that all designs shoultl be executed full size and in full accord with the re(iuirements of a shoj) working drawing. In addition the lechuical rendering suggested in Cluipter XIII should be carefully used in each drawing. ixsTurcTinx sukkt Plates 08 and 72 show problems suitable for class presentation. Tlio nictluxl of (lcvcl(ii)incnt is similar In lliat i)rcs('iit<'(l on Plate o2. SUMMAin" OF DKSIC.X STEPS (a) Draw a primary' mass \\illi rdirc ikc to it> i)ropcr f,'roiipini; as follows: For flat ari-as draw xpiarc, rcclanj^ic, clc. For shallow circular forms draw a circle. For low eylinrlrical forms draw a rectangle witii liori/oulai jnoporlions. F(rr lii^li cylindrical forms draw a rectangle with vertical projxirl ions. (b) Locate zone of service. (c) Locate zone of enrichment: api)cn(lages, terminals, margins, full sur- face, etc. (d) Determine amount of enrichment. (e) Locate inceptive axes. (/) Place point of concentration in the inceptive a.xis where it traverses the zone of enrichment. (g) Select the decorative process suited to the material and contemplated motive. (/() Draw leading lines toward the point of concentration. (/) Draw conventionalized design motives based upon the leading lines, con- verging towaril the point of concentration. Vary the contours to be sympathetically related to these design motives, provided such variation of the original primary mass is necessary to complete unity. (j) Add additional views, dimension, and otherwise prepare the drawing for shop use. SUGGESTED PROBLEM Design a copper nut howl and spoon. Enrich with a chased border appro- priate to the subject. Enrich spoon, using fitting method of enrichment. The bowl and spoon should have a harmonious relation. SUMMARY OF RULES Surface Exrichmext of Large Primary Masses Rule 11a. The preliminary steps touard surface enrichment should be thought out before they are draien. Rule lib. Conservative application should mark the use of surface enrichment of large masses. Its use should: (1) lighten or soften necessarily heavy construction; {^) support or apparently strengthen good structure; (J) add iuferest to large unbroken and uuiutcresting surfaces. Rule lie. The type of design unit for large masses should be bolder than similar designs for small primary tuasses. Rule lid. The eye should be attracted to one principal zone of enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, terminal, links, or details. All other zones should be subordinate to this area. Rule lie. Two periods of historic ornament should not be introduced into the same design. Rule llf. Repulsive forms should not be introduced into surface enrichment. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Contrast the method of enriching large and small areas of base and precious metals. Illustrate. What is the character of surface enrichment for large areas? 2. Name three es.sentials to good surface design for base and precious metals. Illustrate each. [193] 3. Give nine steps necessary for tlie eoniplete evolution of surface enricliincnt. 4. Name metliod of classifying the structural forms of metal into four groups. How does this compare with the classification of clay forms? 5. Between which two groups does the transition from a horizontal to a vertical primary mass occur? 6. Is there a perceptible change in the surface enrichment paralleling this change in proportions (jf the primary mass? 7. In which group or groups is the relation between surface and contour enrichment closest? 8. Give the characteristics of surface enrichment designed for Hat or semi-flat planes. 9. State the value of the terminal as an enrichment zone. 10. Discuss common errors in the surface enrichment of hardware and tiicir correction. 11. In wliat manner does historic ornament influence industrial design? AVhy? \i. Give characteristics of surface enrichment designed for, («) large, shallow circular forms; (6) large, low cylindrical forms; (c) large, high cylindrical forms. 13. How does the point from which the article is to be seen affect the character of the design? Chapter XV COLOR: HUE, VALUE, AND CHROMA; STAINS Need of Harmonious Color Use of Color Systems Color Pig- ments for Design Rendering Application of Pigment In the previous chapters we have developed problems dealing with proportions, contours, and surface enrichment. The use of color, particularly in surface enrichment, is equally important inasmuch as its use is often necessary to bring the project, as for example a piece of furniture, into harmony with the surroundings which furnish its final color environment. The incorrect use of color may seriously mar a project otherwise correctly designed in line and form, and may also weaken its influence in a particular setting. While there are a number of excellent svstems of color notation, it is well to bear in mind that a color system, however excellent, is a good servant but a poor master. It is nevertheless considered as essential to have a definite knowledge of some systematically devel- oped color system in order that we may methodically apply color to the structural form with some degree of certainty. For rendering drawings of problems involving the use of color it is suggested that the beginner use the tempera, or opaque colors now^ on the market. These colors readily adapt themselves to the average prol)lem, while their rich hues are more successful than those produced from the ordinary water colors. Tubes of cobalt blue, ultramarine, light chrome yellow, vermilion, emerald green, crimson madder, black, and white will serve to solve the problems demanded by this chapter. White is used to lighten and black to darken the pigments, which should be mixed with water to the consistency of cream, and applied to cover well the surface of the paper. One should guard against a thin, transparent wash, as the desired ett'ect is a velvety oi)aque and evenly tinted surface only possible with the thick application of color. The pigment will dry out about one-quarter lighter than when first applied. The usual school color box of three pigments is useful for rendering wood stains. These pigments may be used in 11)4 [195] thin flat washes and will exhil)it a transparent effect analogous to the effect of a wood stain. The natural color of wood may be first represented and, when dry, followed by a second thin wash of the hue of the wood stain. Lacking as we are in a definite color nomenclature or standards, it now becomes necessary to describe the processes and define the terms necessary to the designer. Hue is the technical name for color; a change of color means a change of hue. For the designer's purposes we will select twelve equally graded colors or hues from the spectrum and term them standard hues. Each hue will have twenty-seven modifications or gradations, vrliich is a sufficient numl)er for our jiurpose. These gradations are to be graphically recorded l)y and contained in a diagram to be known as a hue rectangle. There are twelve of these rectangles, one for each of the selected hues, aiul they are fouud arranged in sequence in Figure 454. B}^ referring to Figure 455, it is seen that the twelve selected standard hues are represented at what is termed full chromaiic intensity, which, to the designer, means hues of the full strength of his color pigment. This is far short of the true color intensity of the spectrum, but for industrial arts purposes these hues are strong enough to serve as standards for comparison and classification. The hues should be evenly graded from red at the left to red violet at the right without noticeable unevenness in the gradations. Red violet is the link which connects the right end with tlie l(>ft, tlius completing the circuit of the twelve^ hues. The following j)ignient table gives name and symbol of various hues. HUES pigmp:xts V A LIES SYMBOLS Red Orange red Orange Orange yellow Yellow Pure crimson madder High dark Middle Low light Light High light Light Low light IJ-HI) Crim.son madder and vermilion N'ermilion and light ilirome yellow. . . . Verinilioii and light chrome yellow. . . . Pure light chrome vellow OR-M O-l.L OV-L V-IIL Yellow green Green CrPeen l)liie Light chrome yellow and emerald green Y(;-L (.-LL Emerahl green and cohnlt l)lMe Pure cohalt l>luc ritramarine anil iriiriNoii iiiaijijcr lit ra ma riiir and i-n iiisoii niaildcr ritramarine and crimson madder >ri.i.ii<' CBM Blue Blue violet \i,,|ct High dark Dark Low dark H-lil) lU-D V-LI) Red violet Dark RV-D Rendering of Wood Stains Hue and Hue Rectangles Standard Hues Full Chromatic Intensity Approximate Related Standard Hues [ 196 Locating Standard Hues Values and Horizontal Value Lines Relation of the Standard Hue to the Hue Rec- tangle Tints It now becomes imperative to locate each standard hue at its definite phice in each rectangle. This invariably occurs at a pre- determined point in the left vertical boundary of the rectangle of that hue. From inspection of Figure 4.5o, it is quickly seen that violet seems to be the darkest hue; yellow the lightest, with the others between these hues. This variation of what is termed their value gives us a guide to their proper placing in the hue rectangle. Value is that quality by which we nia}^ distinguish a dark hue from a light one. For design purposes w^e will imagine the hue rectangle to grade from white at the top to black at the bottom. We will draw horizontal lines or steps across the rectangle, marking nine even value steps from white to black; the top one to be termed White (W), followed by High Light (IIL); Light (L); Low Light (LL) ; Middle (M) ; High Dark (HD) ; Dark (D)^; Low Dark (LD) ; and Black (B). These value steps may be thought of as a scale of gray or neutral values descending the right boundary of the hue rect- angle. They have been roughly indicated in the hue rectangle at the left of Figure 4.54. Each standard hue may now be located in the left boundary of its hue rectangle and opposite its neutral gray equivalent in the right boundary. If the standard hue is accurately determined by the designer, it will be of exactly the same value as its gray equivalent given in the "value" column of the pigment table. The small arrows leading from Figure 455 to 454 show where four standard hues are located; the remaining hues are located in the left circle of each suc- cessive row in the remaining rectangles, and upon their respective value lines. Standard hues are expressed by the symbols in the right column of the pigment table. Each standard pigment or hue may be thinned with opaque white to lighten it, forming what is known as a tint of that hue. Red, in Figure 454, reaching its full chromatic intensity at the value High Dark, may be lightened four times before it ultimately arrives at white. Each step is to be considered as occurring in the left hand boundary of the rectangle above the standard hue, and is to be recorded by the symbols, R-M: R-LL : R-L : R-HL. Orange yellow has only one possible tint. Strawberry, light lavender, rose, etc., are merely nicknames for various tints. ^5 " a =^ r -X > => o rn C (-nm > ?>) |HH|| i"2 ^^^^^^^^^1 -ntA ^^^^^^^^^^^H ^-^ ^^^H^^H H^^H CO A ^^^^^^^^^^^H ■ LA ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 -i ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H > ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H 5 B^BHH^^^^M j^o r <> r^ / ?^ ; / z ».'i / K^Vi D) -W^ r\ U ' \ i ^\ r 'rtr^l XzU- 1 O -< 1 o 1 / ft 1 / (rn) ; / / k / 'S -4 3 'is frT^ u ^ •X ( • CO / \ ,' "H ( (^vi-; 1 ; 6^ / -i — 1 1 ( -i^ / 0> 1 hIZ pi o • ♦ ' ' *' — -J^ ' ' ' ' 1 ^1 ^1 ^1 — -Q ^p ^> » 1 1 1 1 1 1 Q ' I 't I 1 ( I < I Q 1 ■ 1 ' I 1 ^1 i S i " ? © «^5 n 7^ ■ H r n ' — 1— «- ' ■ - ^ < [197] Each standard hue may be darkened by the appHcation of black, thus forming shades of that hue. Red is capable of producing Shades two shades, R-D and R-LD, which are placed in the left boundary of the hue rectangle below the standard hue. Browns, russets, and dark tans are shades of different hues. These modifications of the standard hues into tints and shades give to the designer sim])le variations of his too brilliant standards. But even these modifications are not sufficiently grayed for staining or painting large wood or wall surfaces. There is a ])rilliancy and glare about certain tints which require modification. The shades are safer for use on large areas. The remaining space in the interior of the hue rectangle is to be devoted to the last gradation of the standard hue. Chroma is the strength of a color. It is the quality l)y which we distinguish a strong color from a weak one. The standard hue is Chroma approximately full chromatic intensity. Likewise each tint and shade is considered to be of its full chromatic intensity, making the left-hand boundary of the rectangle the area of full chroma. From this boundary, each tint, standard, and shade /(/(/r.v o/// or loscfi chroma until the right boundary of the rectangh^ is reached. In this boundary each tint, standard, and shade has faded out of its gray equivalent, but without changing its original value; in other words it has traveled along its horizontal valu(^ line to a complete grayness. The right-hand boundary of the rectangle may then be represented by a gray value scale of nine steps, including white and black. It becom(\s necessary to record at r(\gular intervals, this hxss of chroma. For this purpose, we have cut tli(> hue r(>clangle by three Vertical vertical lines. The first vcM'tical lin(^ from I lie left boundary of the Chroma rectangle marks the position where (lie stniulard with its lints and Lines shades have Ixhmi grayed to the j)oiiit where only I hi-ce-l'ouiihs of the original of hue remains. Similarly, the center and right \-ertical lines mark the points where one-half and one-fourth, resjx'ct i\-ely, of the color ha\-e l)e<'n retained. These losses of chroma ai'e recorded bv similar fractions. With possible modifications of value and chroma each hue now has t w (Mity-se\-en possible changes. The full hue title oi" syiubol may now be written as follows: (1) hue name, ('-2) auiouut of eln'oui;i. i .'5 ) \;ilue. l'-\amj)les: i\W [ 198 Full Hue Symbols Fechnical Practice ^arm and 3old Colors scales of Holor ^ood Stains Basic Primary lues |D-V|HL. We are now In a position to write whatever color we may have in mind and another person will understand it, provided the other person adopts our standard. Through the teachings of Dr. D. W. Ross, Mr. A. H. Munsell, and others, the symbols and standards are now quite generally understood and have, in a slightly modified form been accepted in several standard color industries. To familiarize oneself with the mixing of the various hues, it is excellent practice to form a vertical gray scale of the three- quarter-inch squares. There should be nine steps from white to black; an enlarged duplication of the right boundary of the hue rectangle. The warm standard hues at their full standard inten- sities; R^'-R-OR-0-OY-Y, may be formed and placed opposite their gray equivalents on the left side of the gray scale, while the remaining or cold colors may be similarly placed with relation to the gray scale but upon the right of it. A vertical scale of tints and shades of one of the hues, duplicating the left side of the rectangle gives the character of the tints and shades. One shade and one tint should then be carried along a horizontal value line through three steps of loss of chroma to complete grayness, but without change of the original value. Yellow, by the addition of black becomes a false greenish shade which may be corrected by the addition of a small amount of vermilion. A large percentage of natural wood hues are to be found between the hue rectangles, Red-Orange, Yellow and Green, or in the warm portion of the spectrum. As a wood stain must blend harmoniousl}^ with the natural wood color, it is reasonable to expect the best results from stains with a predominance of warm hues or warm grays in their composition. It is possible to duplicate nearhj all the twelve standard hues of Figure 455 with mixtures of the three so-called primary hues of red, yellow, and blue. It makes a fairly approximate scale which is, however, not sufficiently accurate for standardizing purposes. The scale is formed by mixing red and yellow in varying proportions for the intermediate hues of orange, yellow, and blue for the greens, and blue and red for the violets. This practice of mixing three pri- mary colors together serves as an important step, governing wood stain mixing for beginners. [199] Developing this idea further, we may select aniline brilliant scarlet as approximating red; metanil yellow, approximating yellow; and acid green as a substitute for blue. These stains are shown in the top portion of Figure 45G. By comparison with Figure 455, scarlet is found to be orange red; metanil yellow, orange, and acid green to be true standard green. These basic stains have been located in their proper positions with regard to their hue, value, and chroma. Their positions are located by the large circles in the hue diagrams of Figure 450. These stains are modified and reduced in chroma and value by mixing them with iiigrosene l)lack, an aniline dye of l)lue black appearance, which fills all the needs of an ivory ])lack in water or oil color pigment. With these four stains, almost any commercial stain may be duplicated. Aniline dye for water stains readily dissolves in water while a special aniline for oil staining is first cut with nai)hlha. Dark mahogany stain in Figure 456 is orange red, fHD, and is indicated by the circle .1 in the same figure. To duplicate this stain we have as the nearest base stain, brilliant scarlet, which corresponds to orange red. This is placed at its full inhMisity in tlie circle OR on the middle horizontal value line. To dui)hcale dark mahogany stain it will be necessary to reduce in value a strong solution of brilliant scarlet, slightly more than one horizontal valu(^ step, by the addition of nigrosene. We shall then add a small amount of some thinning medium, oil or water, to reduce slightly the slain in cliroma. Flemish oak stain is orange fD. This calls for a mixlun^ of metanil vellow and brilliant scarlet aniline to form llic orange line. We must th(Mi add nigrosene to reduce the valu(> to 1), and add a small amount of lliiinier to produce th(^ necessary i-educlion in clii-oma. This is commonly j)rodu('ed by fuming the wood willi ammonia. The hue mav however be closcK- diinlicalcd 1)\- a mixhirc of brilliani scarlet, melam'l yellow, and nigrosene. !l is prjici ically lli(> same as Flemish oak, bill i)ossesses one-(|iiarl('i- more coloi- as can be s(>en on lh(^ orange hue rectangle. The circle I) shows I his slain lo be sliglill\- below yellow green, fiVI, ill x'ahie and chroma. 'I'lie liiK' reclaiigle con! ;i iniiiu il is iiearei- the green Ihaii the orange yelh.w rechnigh- hence in mixing llie stain we should keet) (he urceii hue (loniinanl by ;i(l(liim inor(> of il Three Basic Aniline Wood Dyes Wood Stain Mixing Dark Maliogany Stain Flemish Oak Stain Fumed Oak Stain Olive Green Stain [200 Light Weathered Oak Stain Color Changes of the Stain than of nietanil yellow. As in other stains, nigrosene is added to reduce the full ehroniatic intensities of the aniline to the proper value and chroma of olive "reen stain. This stain is practically blue, ^M, and is formed by thinning nigrosene to the proper value. Aniline dyes are apt to fade if exposed to full sunlight. There are, however, certain preventives that are beyond the scope of this book to treat in detail. The natural color of the wood is inclined to make a stain warmer than when originallv mixed. This should be allowed for. Wood filler, the wood grain, porosity, cjualities, and hue of tlie wood, all influence the final value of the stain. It fre- quently becomes darker in value as may be seen by comparing Fig- ure 456 and Figures 4,58 to 4(51. It is good policy to test the stain upon different woods to observe the final effect. The tests may be kept for future reference. It is readily seen from the few examples in Figure 456 that, with the three basic stains, almost any other stains may be produced, thus affording a broad field for harmonious selection and adaptation to the environment. The next chapters will take up the question of color harmony and its application to wood, wall surfaces, clay, and metal. SUGGESTED PROBLEMS See paragraph upon "Technical Practice" in this chapter, page 198. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1 What How What pigments are best adapted to rendering design problems? pigments are particularly adapted to the rendering of wood stains? should each be api)lied? 2. What are standard hues? Why do we need standards of hue? 3. Define the term values. 4. What are tints and shades? 5. Define fully the term chroma. C. Bound the hue rectangle and trace the value and chroma changes occurring on its vertical and horizontal lines. 7. Locate in its proper hue rectangle (Eigure ^55) the following hues: OY |HD; YG ILL; RV f M; YL. 8. Name the three primary hues. How may an approximate scale of twelve hues be prepared from them? 9. Name the three basic aniline wood dyes and give their relation to the three primary hues. What is the practical use of nigrosene in stain mixing? 10. Give the symbol and explain the method of mixing Flemish oak wood stain. Name and explain the method of mixing two others. 11. How does its ai>plication to wood effect the color and value of aniline stain? Chapter XVI COLOR AND ITS RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL ARTS DESIGN Large Surfaces of Wood; Wall and Ceiling Areas In the preceding chapter, the classification and standardization of color were emphasized as preliminary to the study of color harmony. Color harmony is obtained by the proper balancing of value, hue, and chroma upon a surface or surfaces to give a pleasing reaction to the eve, and through the eve to the intellect. We are now ready to familiarize ourselves with the specific appli- cations of these factors to practical design prol^lems. Too many pieces of furniture are stained with no thought as to the final adap- tation in the school or home. This is not wise, either from the stand- point of a complete educative process or of good taste. Figures 458, 459, 4G0, 461, show stains of Plate ()4 applied to wood. Two new stains have been added, sage green and silver gray. These six stains are representative ones and act as a tyi)ical tlata for study of color harmonv. Color Harmony Furniture — Trim — Side Walus — ^Ceili\(js The side walls of a room form llic iKickgrouiid foi' I'lii'iiilui-e; trim, wall brackets, and similarly relaled objects; I lici-ctoic the closest relation and hannoiuj should be maintained between I hem. The wood stains 3, (5, !), T^, b5, and IS, Plate ()5, as tli(>y aj)i)ear on various kinds of wood are, in pari, dnj)lieates of I lie unappli(Ml stains of Plate 04, Figure 450. 'J'iie elb-el ol' the wood lias changed their values and in some instanc(^s Iheir color as can be s(>en by eoni- })aring the two ])lales. Their itcir rrlalions ha\-e b(>(Mi i)i(»tte(l on tlu^ hue rectangles of P'igure 457. Plate (>5, and the results joined by a dotted line. '^Fhe cii'cles in the diagrams contain ci-oss refeicnee figures in order that the stains may 1h> ti-aeed withoni dillienlty. I 401 1 Backgrounds Value Range of Wood Stains [ W2 ] Value Range of Side Walls Value Range of Ceilings Value Range of Side Walls and Wood Work The highest vakie is near middle (18), and the lowest is low dark (6), showing a value range of four steps. The side walls, taken from well-known wall tint catalogs have been similarly plotted in Figure 457, and the results joined together by a heavy black line. The lightest value is light (11), and the dark- est is middle value (14), an average range of three steps slightly above middle value. Ceilings are the lightest of the surfaces considered. Their range is from slightly l)elow white (10), to light (16), a range of two values. From the results, as plotted in Figure 457, it is seen that there is a tendency to keep the ceilings within a close range of values. The results have been joined together b}' means of a double black line. There are exceptions to these results, but it is quite safe to keep well within the suggested range for harmonious results. We may now draw the following rules as a result of an empirical method of deduction. Rule l^a. An average ivood stain is to be retained between the values middle and low dark. Rule 12b. An average wall hue is to be retained between the values light and middle. Rule 12c. An average ceiling hue is to be retained between the values white (minus) and light. Averaging the value range between the wood work which includes the furniture, trim, and the side walls of Figures 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, and 463, we find that the range varies from five values in Figures 459 to slightly more than one in Figure 463. As the side w^alls and furniture are to be regarded as unobtrusive settings for pictures and people it is well to be very conservative with the use of values. A wide range of values will cause a lack of unity. In this respect Figure 459 may be regarded as approaching the extreme limit of contrasts of value compatible with good taste. Let us, therefore, limit the value range to four values, as, for example: low light for side walls and dark for stain. Rule 12d. The relation between the side walls and furniture, trim, etc., shoidd be retained within the range of four values or less, as low light and dark. [ ^203 ] The ceiling and side walls in Figure 459 are four values apart Value Range and in Figure 463 this has been reduced to a one-value step. There ^^ gj^g seems to be a common average of three values as an acceptable and Walls and agreeable contrast. For dark rooms this would well be increased. Ceilings For rooms with light side walls the contrast would be considerably lessened. Rule l'-2e. The relation between side icalls and eeiling sJionld be within the range of three values or less, as high light and low light. Hue Groupings A wood stain should be closely related to the natural color of the wood. As this is usuallv a warm color we naturallv find most of the wood stains included between the red and the vellow hue rectangles, inclusive of red and vellow green. Walnut then mav be stained a deep shade of orange or red, but would not be adapted to a })lue green stain. This arbitrary but wide range of hues of stained wood nat- urally affects the hue of the side walls. Tlie plotting of the hues for the side walls, Figure 4o7, shows a close relation lo the hues of the stain to the wall. In no instance do we find the hue rectangle of the wood work more than three hues awav from that of the waits. In four instances thev are within two hue rectangles of each other and in one instance they are both within the same rectangle. This develops the fact that analogous or neighl)()ring gr()ui)ings of hues prevail in relating the hues of wood work and side walls. An analogous group of hues is an arrangement based upon a selection of tints and shades within three rectangles of each other, as orange and yellow. These h.iiiiioiiize Ixn-ause yellow is mixed with and becomes a hue connuoii to both. ANliih^ I lie jiii.ilogoiis aiTaiige- menl of hues seems to he most coniiiionly used. ;iii(l wilii.-i result that seems lo justify its a ;i conl ruslcd grouping or arr;ingeinent of lines. It (■on>i>ls ol I lie linl> or shiides of one or moi-e hues and gr;iy. It is the h.tsis df color h.irinony between sih'er and senii-i)i"eeions stones. II I wo hnes ni'e nsed, one of Iheni should be i"e(lnee<| m elironi;i to ne.iiK ur.iw Hue Range for Wood Work and Walls Analogous Hues Contrasted Hues [204] Dominant Hue Special Arrangements Hue Range for Side Walls and Ceilings Range of Chroma for Stains Figure 463 is typical of still another form of positive hue group- ing. By consulting the yellow hue rectangle of Figure 457 it is noted that the wood work, side walls, and ceiling of Figure 463 arc all con- tained in one 7'ectanglc. This classes this color scheme as an example of dominant arrangement which may be simply defined as the tints and shades of one hue. The arrangement does not have the variety supplied by analogous grouping, introducing as it does, two hues from different rectangles, but for large surfaces dominant grouping is a conservative and safe arrangement. Its tendencv toward monotonv should be guarded against by the introduction of some object high in chroma in the room decorative scheme. A bright colored vase will accomplish this successfully. Rule I'^o, Chapter X\ TI. Rule I'^f. Color schemes for ivood ivork and side ivalls should preferably be selected from one of the following groupings: analogous, contrasted, or dominant arrangements of hues. Analogous grouping is preferable ivhere variety of hue is desirable. The above rule is not to be taken as arbitrarv. of competent designers attractive color schemes that differ materially from the above suggestions usual home setting, the above arrangement may In the hands are developed But, for the be regarded as satisfactory, and is given with the idea of bringing the school shop work and the home environment into closer color harmony. A specimen of special arrangement is given by the Circle 3A. This is delft blue, which harmonizes with dark mahogany in a satisfactory manner. In adjusting the hues for side walls and ceilings, the relations should be of the closest. The plotting of ceiling hues in Figure 457 shows a strong tendency for the ceiling to be colored with a tint of the side walls (dominant arrangement), or by a tint selected from the next rectangle (analogous arrangement). Yellow or yellow-green, very light and much reduced in chroma, seems to be the almost universal custom. This is due to the strongly light reflecting qualities of yellow. Rule 12g. Ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the side walls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue. Stains, as they occupy a comparatively limited area in the room color scheme, are of their full chroma value or reduced to three- LP LA H >> o < I o pir. ;^ ^^ -7 > ~ r r ^d Ooo ■ /^ D > Pl D O 3. ? ■< r I -, r I < u c^ CO CO e ± > ;^ 12 o o r- > i IL pi 2? H 3 ?^ 2 (?v C> U) o rn > r r- t/i -n C pq V H c ?a ri :§ o o o , . r; 1 ri t I 1 J 1 1 Al 3 tn -J m X \ V \ J r \ >X^jS ^ \ H/^^j F^s:i55®e: r=^ ]»J — Vo;/- ^ 1 J ^ (Ti ^ O m A] t— O n O -1 X rn A) rn (tTv . K^ 1 > IZ I <5 rz H -/ X < • [ 205 ] fourths chroma. In only one instance (18), Figure 463, do we find a reduction to one-fourth chroma, demanded b}' the nearly gray color scheme of the walls. We find it to be an established fact that small areas are capable of enrichment by colors of greater purity and higher chroma than larger surfaces. A silver pin may be designed to contain a stone of high brilliancy, but a wall surface has to be ma- terially reduced in chroma to possess color harmony. Rule 12h. Stains arc usually not reduced to below three-fourths chromatic intensity. Nearly gray side ivalls, however, call for a reduc- tion to one-fourth intensity. As the walls occupy a large proportionate area of the color scheme of the room we find it necessary to reduce them in chroma in order to soften the glare of too brilliant colors. Figure 457 shows only one instance (14) of a hue unreduced in chroma. It is retained at the full chroma for that yalue on account of the brightness of the sage green wood stain. The other hues represented in the diagram are grayed or reduced in chroma from three-fourths to less than one- fourth, or to nearly neutral gray. Rule l'-2i. Wall colors are usually reduced to three-fourths chroma to a minimum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth chroma. The same tendency toward chromatic reduction is to be seen in ceil- ings, although we have two examples in Figure 457 (10 and 13) of nearly white and high light ceilings that have not been reduced. To avoid crudity a reduction in chroma bv the addition of gray is to be desired. Rule l*2j. Ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to three- fourths intensity with slightly less than one-fourth chroma as a mini in ion reduction. Willi a single e\cej)li()n (3A), the stains and wiill lints have been selected between and including the red and gr(>(Mi rectangles. This is customary and gives safe lnu> rang(> as it insnres [\\c retention of wall and ceiling hues in unified conformity w ilh llie warm tints of the natural wood and its e(|ually dark Inicd st;iins. Tlie following is a list of dry colors wliich may be jtnrclia.-rd a! a j)ainl or hardware store for a few ccnls a |)()iin(i. ll is suggested for the designer or craftsman who desires to (in! his own wall or C(Mling. While oil \yd'\nl is to be j)refeiTe(L these colors are readily and (juiekly aj)plieotli of the primary hues not represented by this daylight. (c) Select a value and cliroina for this hue in accordance w itli I{uhs l'2li and 1^21. (d) Select a hue, value, and chroina for the ceiling in accordance with I{nles 12g, 12e, and 12j. (e) Select the correct hue, value, and chroma foi paint or stain for the wood work in accordance with Rules Hi, lin, and I'-Zh. SUGGESTED PROHLEMS Develop the color scheme for the wails, ceiling, and wood wdrk of a room with a northern exposure; southern exposure. Mix the >t;iit\ for .i piece of oak to harmonize with the wood work and walls of the Ii\iiig room of your liome. Determine the wall tints to harmonize willi dark weal lured oak. Mix them from dry colors. SUMMAin' OF RII.ES Rule l'2a. .(// (irrrd/jc irotxl .itaiii is to he rvtuimd hrlirrrn flu ruliiis middle (ukI loir durlc. Rule \-l\). An avtrage uiill line is to he rtliiiiK') analogous, (4) complementary relations. This hue sJiould malrc sliij/itly stronger value and chroma contrast than the remaining hues. Rule 12m. An extreme range of fire ralues is generally sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its value unity. Ixcstrainf in the use of values is essential. Rule I'Sn. The amount of cfiroma may be increased in proportion to the decrease in tlu- decorated area. K.vceptions may be made to this tinder Rule 12o. In the vase, Figure 4()4A, I he (kvsigner selected luies from iicigli- ])orin<>" or analogous rectangles green and blue-green. 'r> Tl \c valne range is restricted lo four steps and the areas of concentration are placed at the top of I he vase by the stronger value and hue contrasts of the foliage of the trees and dark blue rim. In both j-'igures, 4(I4A and 4()5, the designer has used analogous luie arrangements. This is suggested lo the l)eginner as serviceal)l(' for objects exceeding the dimensions of jewelry and includes such j)robl(Mns as vase I'ornis, book stalls, and brackets. Contrasted and I lie \ar- iety of color to small objects all'ordcd by analogous grouping. At a later j)oinl in this cliai)!*'!- the subjcci of (•oni|)lcni('nlary coloring will suggest a new arrangi'nieiiL lo llie reader, ImiI tins selienie is to Examples of Proportionate Distribution Value and Hue and Chroma Range for Small Areas [ 21^2 Over Reduction in Chroma Color Applied to the Surface Enrichment of Metal Enamels Transparent Enamels be left until he has sufficient I3' mastered the possibilities of the arrangements just indicated. Five values form a safe value range for small objects. It is good practice to keep the larger areas, including the background, within three steps of each other and to allow the point of concentration to form the strongest value contrast. The chroma may range from full to three-quarters intensity. Reduction to one-half or one-fourth intensity is inclined to make a small object appear washed out or chalky. Shades, at their full intensity, are good colors to use for small surfaces in wood. Small enameled objects may be developed in full chroma, while pottery forms range from full chroma to one-half chroma in forms of slip and underglaze painting. It is interesting to note the gradually increasing chroma per- centage of the different coloring media in direct proportion to the reduction of the area of the surface to be enriched. By comparing the diagrams of Figures 464 and 4.57 it will be seen that there is a steady movement toward the left sides of the hue rectangles or toward stronger intensity. The wall areas are shown to be lowest in chroma, followed by the increasing intensity of wood stains, glazes, and enamels. Enamels, connnonly used to enrich metal surfaces, are highest in chroma of the decorative materials under discussion and are to be treated with nearly as much restraint as one would use in enriching a surface with semi-precious stones, for strong hues are cheapened by excessive use. The plate in Figure 436 has small circles filled with enamel and a large field of chased or uncolored design. Transparent enamels are comparable to clear glazes and the coloring medium is the same. Their preparation is difficult and therefore trade names have been given in the table of Figure 464. As will be seen by consulting the diagram of Figure 464, Tl, T'2, T3, etc., they are all at their full value intensity. Enamels, as supplied by the trade, are nmch too intense for use in enrichment and conse- quently are applied over a coating of colorless clear enamel, tech- nically named flux or fondant. As the thickness of coating of enamel may vary, the hue classification is to be regarded as approximate. Opaque enamels may be compared with matt glazes, for, while the texture of the surface has a distinct gloss, the enamels themselves ^(^^Vy?S\^ -^^^ — /2w©^ ^r ^cpv r V J (^ Q s ? 3 71 * IJOS ' -wia>9n7.s -9HiaV2VUI9nlZ - H5U3aJ o-n7.y ^NM0^9ii^}nZz jiowyiio n2oi 301X0 n iivQo:) 19 °/5i 3Qr/0 n2t3d 3 m r 3mQ iM9n 35lOnD3lU _^[T^ Al I < '^^Y~ ^xz o 0- 3f)UV2iO ki uoinv % [213] are not so strong in hue as the transparent enamels. By referring to the diagram of Figure 464, it may be seen that many of the opaque enamels are reduced in chroma, thus accounting for their softened hue. Metals are capable of considerable change of color by the appli- cation of chemicals to the surface. Potassium sulphuret will lower the surface value of silver or copper to a rich velvety black associated with antiques. This may be removed in places naturally subjected to wear, thus varying the dead black appearance. Copper and brass may be coated with salt and vinegar or verdigris to give the surface a corroded and greenish appearance. Heating is a fugitive method of coloring and is, therefore, not considered. These surface changes may be utilized to harmonize metal and its environment, as, for example, copper trinnnings and a shade for a pottery lamp; or it may be used to reduce the brightness of the natural copper surface. The surfaces of metals may be changed with actual manipulation of the surface by frosting or sanding and plating. Gold may be readily plated with gold to bring it into closer harmony with the stone. Plating, api)lied to base metals, merely to give the impres- sion of a more expensive metal, is to be discouraged. One has to consider metal as a background in nuich the same manner as we considered wall surfaces as a background for stained furniture. Whatever color is applied to the surface must harmonize in proportionate distribution as well as hue, value, and chroma. We have a small amount of leeway for varying the background by the different processes of oxidation and plating. As one of the more common processes, lei us consider the ap])li- cation of enamel to cop^xM- in I lie form of (•liam])leve enrichment. Our first thought would be the analysis of the natural ('opi)er color. It is found to be a shade of orange-red and will, therefore, readily harmonize with the anulinjou.s oranges and reds, as they both have the common hue of red. '^PluM-e should be a slight contrast of value between these enamels and the background. If this contrast is not present, it is well to oxidize slightly the eoj)per to lower its value and thus produce the contrast. The fourth harnionions hue combination, that of complementary arrangenuMil or gi'ouping, has b(>en left to lli<> last as its use is more Opaque Enamels Oxidation Harmony through Oxidation Metal Backgrounds Enamel on a Copper Background [ ^214 J Complemen- tary Arrange- ment The Relation of Colored Glazes to Interior Decoration of a Room closely associated with small multi-colored projects and small areas. A hue approximately complementary to the initial hue is found by counting seven rectangles to the right or left of that hue; this will give the hue complementary^ to the initial hue. Thus, starting w^ith red and moving through seven rectangles toward the right, we find the complement to be green. Any two hues so selected will be found to enhance the l)rilliancy of each other. The best results are secured when one hue dominates the color scheme by its increased area. Pottery may be adapted to a complementary color scheme by Rule l'-2i. Rule I'^o. Small one or iwo-hucd projects in day, designed to be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room should bear a contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary relation to the side walls of the room. The project may be 7nuch higher in chroma than the side ivalls. To find a glaze that will harmonize with the side walls of a room by complementary arrangement of hues, select the desired wall tint from the diagram in Figure 457. Find the similar hue rectangle in the diagram of Figure 464 and, starting with this rectangle as one, count seven hues from the side wall rectangle in either direction. In the seventh rectangle or in a neighboring one will usually be found a number of glazes answering the requirements and bearing a com- plementary relation to the side walls. Select a glaze from these that w^ill make a contrast of chroma or value w ith the side wall. Example : background or side wall. Figure 457, No. 8, is in the orange yellow^ rectangle. Counting seven from this in Figure 464 we find the com- plement to be blue violet. As there is no glaze in this rectangle we will move to its neighbor on the left. This gives us clear glaze, Cl, containing one and one-half per cent black oxide of cobalt, or a matt glaze containing seven per cent mazarine blue. Glazes that will harmonize with side wall 8 through dominant arrangements are found in the same rectangle, O Y, and are num- bered M5, M6, C7, C8. Glazes that will harmonize by analogy are C9 and M7, and are found in the left and right neighboring rectangles. In Figure 466, the copper fob, R O, is combined with its comple- mentary blue-green. Let us look at Figure 464. Counting seven intervals or hue rectangles to the right of the orange red rectangle we [^21o find T4 which is transparent blue green enamel. We may associate with this an analogous enamel from the green rectangle; this proves to be To medium green transparent enamel. The point of concentration may now be emphasized by an enamel complementary to the blue green hue. Counting seven rectangles to the left we again encounter the red orange rectangle. Here there are no enamels but in the red hue rectangle we find T7 which is slightly orange-red. A small portion of this, Rule 1:2k, is applied and is found to center the design at the point of concentration in a satis- factory manner. Slight oxidation brings out the colors of the enamels. Upon attempting to develo]) the same figure in opaque enamels it is soon seen that there are no pleasing complementary enamels of this type, but many analogous coni])inations. Autumn ])rown with the point of concentration developed in orange (03) would be an excellent compromise. Rule V2\). Correct color for surface etirichmenf should neither apparently rise above nor drop below the surface to wJiich it is applied, but should stay upon the plane of that surface. Correct value and chroma range icill accomplish this. The gray-blue color of silver lends itself to a great number of gem stones, forming examples of contrasted arrangements. Care should l)e taken to form contrasts of value. Figure 407 is an example of a weak and insipid combination, lacking in value and hue contrast. The amethvst of Figure 408 corrects this error, while the oxidation of Figure 4()9 has i)artially corrected the lack of contrast shown in Figure 407. These illustrations tend lo show that even stronger contrasts may be allemi)le(l with small gems and senii-j)r(H'i()us stones than with enamels. This again i)r()ves the rule that the smaller areas are capable of sustaining stronger contrasts of hue, value, and clironia than are large ones. Development of Design for Enamel on Metal Color for Silver Enrichment SUMMAin' OF DKSIC.N STEPS Tlic outliiu' of Uk' snrl':irc niiiili ini'lit i> ciin^Klcrcd :is 0()ini)l('l('. (a) Mktal ok Wood. Aii;iI,\ /c t lir iiackf^'idiiiKl in In il s hue, \;ilur. and cliroma. Ci-AY. S<'lc(l a li.iik^'riiiind thai will liariiii mi/A- willi tlu' cont rolliiif; line or hues of 1 III- proposi'd tolor scliriiic. Kiile lio. If tins is a one Inird [ ^216 ] color scheme without gradation or surface enrichment the design steps may terminate at this point. (b) Metal, Woou, and Clay. Select the extreme value range of the color scheme, considering, if possible, the background as a balancing or pivotal value point upon which the values may bala-nce above and below. As the side walls formed a balancing point for the ceiling and furniture or wood work, so may the background of metal, wood, or colored clay become a similar balancing factor for small surfaces. Rule l'-2m. (c) Metal, Wood, and Clay. Select a hue or hues which will harmonize with the background through dominant, contrasting, or analogous re- lations. Rule 121. In selecting the hues consider the final placing of the object. {d) Metal, Wood, and Clay. Select a chroma range. Allow the point or area of concentration to have a slightly higher chromatic relation than the other hues. The point of concentration may be one of the hues already selected or it may bear a complementary relation to them. The hues may be averaged and a complementary to the average selected. Rule Un. ' -.^ . ' ■■ : : . ' {e) Metal, Wood, and Clay. Apply the rule of proportionate distribution. Rule Uk. (J) Metal and Wood. Using the pigments suggested in Chapter XV, design the problem. Test the result by applying Rule l'2p. (g) Clay. If the design has been developed in slip or underglaze painting, select a glaze for an overglaze coating that will harmonize with the prevailing hues by dominance or analogy. Other arrangements may destroy the hues of the original color scheme. (/;) Develop the problem in its material. SUGGESTED PROBLEMS Design a bowl for nasturtiums; make the color arrangement harmonize through analogy with the hues of the flowers. Design a vase for chrysanthemums; make the surface enrichment and the color arrangement harmonize through dominance with the hues of the flowers. Design a hat pin for a blue hat; materials, copper, and transparent enamels. Design a brooch to be worn with a gray dress. Design a pottery and copper lamp with amber art glass in the shade. Through oxidation and glazing, bring the lamp into color unity. SUMMARY OF RULES Rule 12k. Proportionate distribution of line, value, and chroma in surface enrichment calls for a small area high in chroma and contrasting in value to the rest of the surface, but harmonizing tvith it. This is usually located in the area of concentration. The larger areas are to be sufficiently reduced in chroma and value to form a slight contrast with the background. Hues for Small Objects Hiilc 121. One hue, or a group of analogous hues should dominate all color schemes. The point of concentration may be emphasized by one hue related to the [^217] other hues by (1) contrasted, (2) dominant, (-3) analogous, or H) complementary relations. This hue should mahe slightly stronger value and chroma contrast than the remaining hues. Values for Small Objects Rule I'Sm. An extreme range of five values is generally sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its value unity. Restraint in the use of values is essential. Chroma for Small Objects Rule ll2n. The amount of chroma may be increased in proportion to the de- crease in the decorated area. Exceptions may be made to this under Rule 12o. Rule 12o. Small one or two-hued projects in clay, designed to be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room should bear a contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary relation to the side walls of the room. The project may be much higher in chroma than the side walls. Rule 12p. Correct color for surface enrichment should neither apparently rise above nor drop beloiv the surface to ivhich it is applied, but should stay upon the plane of that surface. Correct value and chroma range will accomplish this. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. State the value of mono-hued pottery in the decorative scheme of a room. 2. What are generally used as stains for clear glazes; matt glazes? 3. What is highest in chroma — matt, or clear glaze? 4. Make a table of metallic oxides and the hues produced by them. 5. Why will iron and copper oxides produce a yellow green stain? What stains will be produced by cobalt and copper oxides; cobalt and manganese oxides; cobalt and nickel oxides? 6. Describe the type of room which you regard as best fitted for clear glazed j)ottery forms; matt glazed pottery forms. 7. Define harmony of color. 8. What is meant by proportionate distribution? Describe proportionate distribution. 9. Give the value, hue, and chroma range for small areas. See Rules 121, 12m, and 12n. 10. How does the size of the area to be enriched b\- color afi'ect the color medium, i.e., stains, glazes, enamels, etc.? 11. Dcscrilx' enamels, their types, characteristics, and range of hues. Consult catalogs for fuller possiljilitics. 12. What is the effect of oxidation; what is its \ ahic? i;j. Describe fully (■<)iiii)li'iiHntary arrangements and give illustrations for enamel on silver or co|)|)er. 14. State the color scheme for a fob to i)c worn with a blue-green dress; with a gray suit for a man. 15. Select a stone for a >il\cr broodi lliat wdiild li.irmouize with a light blue dress; for a dress of orange dark Iiim' and \aliii-. See catalogs of dealers in semi-[)rcci()us stones for colnr of slone^. l(i. \\liat |)r of line. \aliie, and iliroina wnnld ari^e in (^ue^lion l.>? SUMMARY OF THE GENERAL AND SPECIAL RULES IN THE PRECEEDING CHAPTERS Horizontal and Vertical Primary Masses Rule la. A primary mass tinisf be either vcrtieal or horizontal according to the intended service, unless prohibited by technical requirements. Proportions of the Primary Mass Rule lb. The primary mass should have the ratio of one to three, three to four, three to five, five to eight, seven to ten, or some similar proportion difficult for the eye to detect readily and analyze. Horizontal Space Divisions Rule 2a. If the primary tnass is divided into two horizontal divisions, the dominance should be either in the upper or the lower section. Rule 2b. If the primary mass is divided into three horizontal divisions or sections, the dominance should be placed in the center section with varying widths in the upper and lower thirds. Sequential Progression of Minor Horizontal Space Divisions Rule 2c. A primary mass may be divided into three or more smaller hori- zontal masses or sections by placing the larger mass or masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the height measure of each mass toward the smaller division or divisions to be located at the top of the mass. Vertical Space Divisions Rule 3a. If the primary mass is divided into two vertical divisions, the divisions should be equal in area and similar inform. Rule 3b. If the primary mass is divided into three vertical divisions, the center division should be the larger, with the remaining divisions of equal size. Rule 3c. In elementary problems, if more than three vertical divisions are required, they should be so grouped as to analyze into Rules Ja, and 3b, or be exactly similar. Appendages Rule -la. The appendage should be designed in unity with, and proportionately related to, the vertical or horizontal character of the primary muss, but subordinated to it. Rule 4b. The appendage should have the appearance of Howing smoothly and, if possible, tangentially from the primary mass. Rule 4c. The appendage should, if possible, echo or repeat some lines similar in character and direction to those of the primary mass. [218] [ ^219 ] Outline or Contour Enrichment Rule 5a. Outline enrichment should be subordinated to and support the structure. Rule 5b. Outline enrichment should add grace, lightness, and variety to the design. Rule 5c. Outline enrichment, by its similarity, should give a sense of oneness or unity to the design, binding divergent members together. Rule 5d. Parts of one design differing in function should differ in appearance hut be co-ordinated with the entire design. Rule 5e. In cylindrical forms outline curves iciih a vertical tendency should have their turning points or units of measurement in accordance with the horizontal divisions of Rules 2a and 2b. Rule 5f. Dependent outline enrichment should be related to essential parts of a design and influenced by their forms and functions; it must be consistent with the idea of the subject. Rule 5g. A curve should join a straight line with either a tangential or right angle junction. Surface Enrichment Postulate. The design should conform to the limitations and requirements of tools, processes, and materials, and should be durable and suitable for service. Rule 6a. Surfaces to be enriched must adtnit of enrichment. Rule 6b. Surface enrichment must be related to the structural contours but must nor obscure the actual structure. Rule 6c. The treatment must be appropriate to the material. Continuous Bands and Borders for Partly Enriched Surfaces Rule 6d. Bands and borders .s-hould have a consistent lateral, that is, onward movement. Rule 6e. Bands and borders should never have a prominent contrary motion, opposed to the main forward movement. Rule 6f. All component parts of a border should move in unison with the main movement of the border. Rule 6g. Each component part of a border should be strongly dynamic and. if possible, partake of the main movements of the border. Rule 6h. Borders intended for vertical surfaces may have a strongly upward movement in addition to the lateral movement, provided the lateral movement dom- inates. Rule Gi. Inlayed enrichment should never form strong or glaring con1ra.')ts with the parent surface. Rule ()j. Carved surface enrich nuut .■should hare the appearance of belonging to the parent mass. Enclosed Enrichment — Pahtlv Enkk hi;d Panels H)H SURF.\CE EnHK IIMENT Rule 7a. Marginal panel enrichment should parallel or be related to the outlines of the primary mass and to the panel it is to enrich. Rule 7b. Marginal points of concentration in panels should be placed (1) pref- erably at the corners or (2) in the center of each margin. ]{u\r 7c. To insure unity of design in panels, the elements composing the point of concentration and linlcs connecting them must be related to the panel contour and to each other. [ 220 ] Enclosed Enrichment — Fully Enriched Panels FOR Surface Enrichment Rule 7d. The contours of fully enriched panels should parallel the outlines of the primary mass and repeat its proportions. Rule 7e. The points of concentration for a fully enriched square panel may be in its center or in its outer margin. Rule Tf. The points of concentration for a fully enriched vertical panel should be in the upper portion of the panel. Rule 7g. The fully enriched panel and its contents should be designed in unified relation to the structural outlines, with the center line of the panel coinciding with the inceptive axis of the structure. Free Ornament for Partly Enriched Surfaces Rule 8a. Free ornament for partly or fully enriched surfaces should be based and centered upon an inceptive axis of the structure. Rule 8b. Free ornament should be related and subordinated to the structural surfaces. Rule 8c. Points of concentration in free enrichment of vertically placed masses are usually located in and around the inceptive axis and above or below the geometric center of the design. Surface Enrichment of Clay Rule 9a. Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to be able to tvith- stand the action of heat to which all ware must be submitted. Rule 9b. Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay should be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of the material. Rule 9c. A border should not be located at the point of greatest curvature in the contour of a cylindrical form. The contour curve is of sufficient interest in itself at that point. Surface Enrichment of Base and Precious Metals For Small Masses Rule 10a. Designs in precious metals should call for the minimum amount of metal necessary to express the idea of the designer for two reasons: (1) good taste; {2) economy of material. Rule 10b. Contour and surface enrichment should never appear to compete for attention in the same design. Rule 10c. Parts of a design differing in function should differ in appearance but be co-ordinated with the entire design. Rule lOd. Surface enrichment should at some point parallel the contours of both primary mass and point of concentration especially whenever the latter is a stone or enamel. Rule lOe. In the presence of either sto7ie or enamel as a point of concentration, surface enrichment should be regarded as an unobtrusive setting, or background. Rule lOf. Stone or enamel used as a point of concentration should form contrast with the metal, either in color, brilliancy, or value, or all three combined. Rule lOg. The inceptive axis should pass through and coincide with one axis of a stone and at the same time be sympathetically related to the structure. [ ^^21 ] Rule lOh. The position of the inceptive axis should be determined by: (i) use of the project as ring, pendant, or bar pin, (2) character of the primary mass as either vertical or horizontal in proportion. Rule lOi. Caution should be exercised with regard to the use of enamel. Over-decoration by this material tends to cheapen both process and design. Rule lOj. All surface enrichment should have an appearance of compactness or unity. Pierced spots or areas should be so used as to avoid the appearance of having been scattered on the surface without thought to their coherence. Rule 10k. Built, carved, and chased enrichment should have the higher planes near the point of concentration. It is well to have the stone as the highest point above the primary inass. When vsing this form of enrichment, the stone should never appear to rise abruptly from the primary mass, but should be approached by a series of rising planes. Rule 101. The lanes or margins betiveen enameled spots should be narroiver than the lane or margin between the enamel and the contour of the primary mass. Rule 10m. Transparent and opaque stones or enamel should not be used in the same design. Surface Enrichment of Base and Precious Metals For Large Primary Masses Rule Ua. The preliminary steps toward surface enrichment should be thought out before they are drawn. Rule lib. Conservative application should mark the use of surface enrichment of large masses. Its use should: (1) lighten or soften necessarily heavy construction; (2) support or apparently strengthen good structure; (J) add interest to large unbroken and uninteresting surfaces. Rule lie. The type of design unit for large masses should be bolder than similar designs for small primary masses. Rule lid. The eye should he attracted to one principal zone nf enrichment, whether located upon the primary mass, appendage, termin(d, links, or details. All other zones should be subordinate to this area. Rule lie. Two periods of historic ornament should not be introduced into the same design. Rule Uf. Repulsive forms should not be introduced into surface enrichment. Application of Color to Large Areas values Rule 12a. An average wood staifi is to be retained betucen the values middle and low dark. Rule I'ilj. An average ivall hue is to be retained between the values light and middle. Rule 12c. An average ceiling hue is to be retained between the values irhite {minus) and light. RuU- 1"2(1. The relation betiveen the side walls and furniture, trim, etc., should be retained rrithin the range of four values or less, as low light and dark. Rule 12e. The relation between the side trails and ceiling should be within the range of three rahies or less, as high light and lou' light. [ 22^2 ] HUES Rule 1^2f. Color schemes for wood work and side trails should preferably be selected from one of the following groupings: analogous, contrasted, or dominant arrangements of hues. Analogous grouping is preferable lehere variety of hue is desirable. Rule l'-2g. Ceilings should be colored by a lighter tint of the side tcalls or by a lighter tint of an analogous hue. CHROMA Rule l^h. Stains are usually not reduced to below three-fourths chromatic intensity. Nearly gray side walls, hotvever, call for a reduction to one-fourth intensity. Rule Vl\. J]'all colors are usually reduced to three-fourths chroma to a mini- mum reduction of slightly less than one-fourth chroma. Rule 12j. Ceilings should usually be reduced in chroma to three-fourths intensity, icith slightly less than one-fourth chroma as a minimum reduction. DISTRIBUTION Rule 12k. Proportionate distribution of hue, value, and chroma in surface enrichment calls for a small area, high in chroma, and contrasting in value to the rest of the surface, but harmonizing with it. This is usually located in the area of concentration. The larger areas are to be sufficiently reduced in chroma and value to form slight contrast with the background. HUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS Rule 121. One hue, or a group of analogous hues should dominate all color schemes. The point of concentration may be emphasized by one hue related to the other hues by (1) contrasted, {2) dominant, {S) analogous, (4) complementary relations. This hue should make slightly stronger value and chroma contrast than the remaining hues. VALUES FOR SMALL OBJECTS Rule 12m. An extreme range of fire values is generally sufficient to supply contrast to a design but still retain its value unity. Restraint in the use of values is essential. CHROMA FOR SMALL OBJECTS Rule 12n. The amount of chroma may be increased in proportion to the de- crease in the decorated area. Exceptions may be made to this under Rule l"2o. Rule 12o. Small one or tiro-hued projects in clay, designed to be used as a part of the decorative color scheme for a room should bear a contrasted, dominant, analogous, or complementary relation to the side walls of the room. The project may be much higher in chroma than the side walls. Rule 12p. Correct color for surface enrichment should neither apparently rise above nor drop beUnc the surface to irhich it is applied, but should stay upon the plane of that surface. Correct value and chroma range trill accomplish this. [ 223 ] APPENDIX The following plates comprise complete courses for applied art problems in thin metal (copper and silver), and clay. The problems are based upon what is known as the "group system." The process forms the basis for each group in each course. The stated problem in each group is merely one of many that might be selected which involves the process of the group. The design rule that should be applied to each problem has been indicated by its proper figure and letter on each plate, as 10a, etc. The plates are sequentially arranged in order of the difficulty of the process and may be sunnnarized as follows. Thin Metal Plate 67: Bending. Sawing. Riveting. Plate 08 : Bending. Soft Soldering. Plate 69: Raising. Piercing. Etching. Plate 70 : Raising and Planishing. Plate 71 : Bending. Piercing. Etching. Hard Soldering. Plate I'i: Hinge Construction. Plate 73: Raising. Planishing. Hard Soldering. Plate 74: Raising. Planishing. Plate 75: Champleve Enamelling. Plate 76: Precious Stone Mounting; Pins. Plate 77: Precious Stone Mounting; Rings. Plate 78: Precious Stone Mounting; Pendants. Pottery Plate 70: Hand Built Tile. Plate 80: Hand Built Bowl, Coil and Strip Method. Plate 81: Same witli Appendage Added. Plate 8*2: Hand Building; Spouts, Lids, Handles. Plate 83: Poured Forms and Mould Making. Plate 84: Shp Painting. Plate 8.5: (daze Testini^'. [ 224 ] ■Applied Arts: TniNriETAi- • Process I . BENOiNiG , SAwirsiCi , Ris/'E.Tir^© r • F>ROBLEA\: PAPER. KNIFE . MATERIAL. COPPER OR. BR. A5S • 5I2.E. iVq" XYPE I 5f 5\> S^'''^~r\^li.rm\na\^ MATERIAL . 16 G. COPPER. EMRICHMENT. PLANISHIKG vARIAriOri,3 - 5^ e- -e- TYPt Z -^ lOoL l\3. lOX. r-lATERlAvL.- le><5> BR.A32> OR OOPPBR EMRICHr«-\eiM-r . PlBROir>i».R.lATlOI>Ca 10 i. r /^ 7c- '03 ISI lOL PlERCINC» Piercing tMAnELLING I'J.ATK G8 [226] • Applied Arts Thim Hetal- •PROCE563: Raisimg • Piercing- EItchimg- Proble-m: Pe.m Tray - Material ^G Copper or Bra55 • Size: i P n^'^a J • l"b TYPE I Ice r' y lOoL- loj llbt ■"> r mi s^ ^t^'- &ot- 6< EnRicHHEnT : Piercimg 2>oLoppUcel ^ &0 VARIATI0M5 '6 GO 66 ErtRlCHriEMT : PlERCirtG REPOU5SEIN6 . ETCHJMG Type 2 Plate 69 [ 227 ] • APPLIED ART5 : THIM METAL • PROCESS 3 : RAisinG. Plamishing : TR AV5 • prosue:/^ :cRur\E> tray 5et -matelrial. i0>< 2|x2.|'x l^" \^\ 3'x5- " - 13L TYPE.- I SOL.OERS SOFT 50LDE.R : N/ARYIMG PARTS OF L.E.AD AMD TIM FOR PEWTER • THE SAME. WITH &1SMUTH BRAZIMG SOLDER : EQUAL PARTS COPPE-R AMD Z.IMC " " :(SOFTER) LARCE-R AMOUHTOF2H WITH 5e>AtSO SK HARD OR. 5>iL^E-R solder: Seven partCS of silver - iofBRAS2> 3 SOLDER, for. EHAntLLED PARTS". lOZ.. SILVER - 5dwT COPPER ALLO-f Plate 72 [230] Problem • Applied Art5 : Thim Mltal- •process 6 ra/5ihg planishing , solderimg j SPOON Talmomd) : mater(/«».l 18 g Copper • TYPE I P H "Terminal Cnrichmanl" Reinforcing "Relpoussl Id / T" E.NRICHMENT 4.'b cL -SoL ETCHING Type 2 80 oa Of-IOK ' lOJ-iol- 10 m — 6< m-'- ^ ^- lOcL -60 HAT PIM5» ,^_ fobs: ConMCRClAA- fixtures $ FOR 1 4: AMD r t^l&BOM >OL Paper. Cutter^ U I LT UP RA\5EDOR PlERceo -^'J ^ .5b :^^SQ 8cc /ob cp^sc: B^^E SOl ^^=a > 6j DuiuT L»P VARIATIONS OF "TV Pt I BROOCHES ^^"^O Ofc TVPE 2 >-0^^0-J coDv \5 to I aG» sterling- bezels 2sgfine- chain ^TERUMQi K 5\MPLE PLAM SHOWlh4Ci MEED OF EMRICHMENT 5cL 5^ PlERCE-D EHRlCHriErtT □X) S-Sc- / ^ LlMK FLATTCMEX) O 4€» 1^^ b(L- ^ r L h.= / 7 i IV J I D ^ L a 1 ?■ M ^Q ^-5"e \ ^ 5"e y^'s^^ > 5^ :^ 1 FROM' tCEKAvMlC STUDIO' BA5E. Glaze: 106 ALUMfrSA =^ .^ -h-5c /Acid PbO .77 h^ O .11 Ba O . I Z Al^03.|4 •5, Op .8 1.00 sua-siLiciou3 Matt glaze, maturing at l070''C(iq58*'F) OR CONE .04 R O 1:1 Plate 80 [239] Aa. •Applied Arts : Pottery* ♦ Process 3 : hand Building , spout, handle , lid . Problems : Pourer (Creamer) comtainelr CSugar) ENRICHMELNT : INCISE-D BORDER * R.ULE.5 9oL-llc typ^ I Type 2 4^ 9c 9b 64-o ALUMINA ACfO Pb O .5Z Co O .2 2n o .la ^^a o .16 1 l.oo AL,03 -3^ 5 I O^ I. 68 3E^Qui siLicious Clear glaze maturing at io7o<»c (isss'F) GOMEL ,04- TIN ENAMEL GLAZE SQL- BASE PBO ;^6 CAO .Z9 ZnO .09 ) oo ALUMINA AL2_03 ise ACJD SI 0-, 169 •'-' » 2 1 7 BisiLiClOUS OP/\QUE. GLAZLE MATURING AT lOTO'C (I055*F^ Tlatk si [ 240 ] •Applie-D Art5 : Clay Potteiry - • PROCC5-5 3 : Hamd Buildimg; Spout, Handle:, Lid CLELAR Glaze: • Subject ; Pourer : Tea Pot : Rattan or Re.e.d 4-lArsoLE. /^ RULE 9cx AaC type: 3 GLAZE-51 • STAIN 640 • Ba5E ALUMiriA Acid PbO .52 CaO .2. Zn O . I a Ka O .16 MONOSILICJOUS CLCAR GLAZE AXATURIMG AT I070»C (iq5"8"FJ OR CONE .04 R o I : i Al^O^ .3S Sto^ nz Plate 82 [ 241 ] r •Applied Arts: Pottery. - PROCE^J 4- ■ Poured Form5 ■ Two and three. Piece Mouuds CLEAR GLAZ-E: • •subject: containelr • cup cchinese) Einrichmeist- Imitial • TYPE. I matrix drawing one -eighth added for 'i- 1 POTTER"5 Drawing e»OTTOn AOOED e)\ HMD * o o GLAZE 51 ALUMINA Alg Oj .36 BASE Pb O .52 Co O Z Zn O .12. H^O .16 SESQU I 5II-ICIOU.5 CLEAR &LA:?E. MyATURING AT I070°C C I956*f; or CONE .04- R O 2:3 ACID 51 O^ l^Z Plate 83 [ 24'-2 •Applied Arts : Pottery- • Process 3" : Slip Paimting (.umder glaze decoration) • Problem : Tile or other flat or round form* • Material: clay, U.G. Colors, Clear glaze • TYPE I. GLAZE 51 CCi-EARj Palette FOR WHITE glaze: | COUORS IQ 1 Q +-■ e- O O c 1 S3 a 1 c o O 1 c o § 'J _5j "a. o >- Wkifp Slip 96 <70 -onrn (0 Golden bro'Kn lO Oronif^ 10 YcUOw to Cyimaon JO 9 Lilac lO PoorlGrO'f lO NOTE. : THICKNESS OF ALL TlLES x" FOOT^W/DE opprox:imatelv| ^' deep. GLAZE 5-/ STAIM 603 PALETTE FOR GREEN GLAZE Colors o 3 o Si o «> o- C o V O i 5 ^ c \ VD 5 c \ 1 o ^2 Whire S\fp 90 90 94 90 90 90 90 90 <75 94 ?5- ^eacot-H Blue 6 J 2 4 ClarerBrotun 4 1 Mart &\ue S ^ Z Orxjnqe fo YcMow 10 French Green (0 J ? Ori [2U Figure 471. — Results of the Pottery Course Figure 471 shows the actual results produced by the preceding course. The process to which the individual pieces belong is indicated by the small figure placed on the table and in front of the ware. The preceding sheets should be regarded in the light of suggestions for original thinking on the part of the student. Tliey merely suggest technical guidance, in order that his progress may be sequential and fitted to his increasing skill. The glazes are stated in the terms of the ceramist with the proportions of })ase, alumina, and acid content of each glaze clearly stated. By referring to the textbooks mentioned in the preface, these glazes may be developed into the potter's formulae. In both metal and pottery courses, two or more types are frequently represented upon one plate. These types will allow the teacher to assign a more difficult problem to the student with some previous experience. INDEX PAGE Accenting bands in wood 105 Chroma Accentuation of functional parts... 79 Chromatic intensity, full.... Adapting data to material 1^27 Clay, coloring for underglaze. Clay, decorative processes Clay, incising Clay, inlay Clay, introduction of pigments. Clay, modeling Clay, piercing Clay, slij) painting Analogous hues '203 Analysis, intelligent 7 Andiron design 53 Aniline wood dyes 199 Ajjpendage design 43-49 Ai)pendage, u.se of 43 A])pendages 43 Ai:)pendages and primary mass 45 Clay, surface enrichment for. Api)endages, contour enrichment of 88 Ai)pendages, design violations 43 Ai)pendages in clay 47 A])])endages, industrial applications 47 Ajipendages, influence of tools and materials 53 Appendages in metal 51 Api)endages in wood 45 Artificial objects 129 Architectural, horizontal divisions for 21 Bands, wood inlay 105 Backgrounds 113, 201 Base metals, enrichment of 87 Base and precious metals, surface enrichment of 160, 1(53, 1(55, 107 Borders for wood 107 Biiildiim' 1G5 PAGE . 197 . 195 . 151 . 145 . 147 . 149 . 149 . 147 . 147 . 149 . 145 Candlesticks 81 Carving 103 ('arviug and piercing 141 Carving, design steps for 105 Ceilings 202 205 Center zone enrichment 121 ( 'liiising 103 Chip carving 115 Clay, surface enrichment, structural classification for Clay, underglaze |)ainting Color for clay enrichment Color for small areas Color harmony Color ])igments Color pigments, application of Color symbols Color systems Commercial pottery Comi)lementary hues Conservative use of ornament Contrasted hues Containers Continuity and contrast Contour enriciiment, influence of materials Contour enrichment, methods of varying Contour enrichment of clay, need of Contour eiuichment, evolution of. . Contour enrichment, j)urpo.se of. . . . Contour enrichment, requirements of Contour enrichment, .systematic de- \'elopment of 151 151 209 210 201 194 194 198 194 158 214 101 203 HI 63 65 70 77 65 59 59 81 245 [ ^246 PAGE Contour versus surface enricliment . 185 Corners, contour enrichment of 88 Correlation, ideal 11 Covers, design for 49 Criticism, clear 7 Criticism, non-technical 7 Curve of beauty 91 Curve of force 61 Curve of force, approximate 61 Curves for contour enrichment 59 Curves, grouping of 63 Curves of extravagance 73 Dependent surface enrichment 167 Details, contour enrichment of 93 Design evolution, major divisions. . . 9 Design evolution, steps in 11 Design, preliminary thought 17 Dominant hue 204 Dynamic curves and areas Ill Edges, contour enrichment of 87 Elements 157 Enameling 163, 212, 213, 215 Enrichment for small metal areas. . 179 Enrichment, need and value of 57 Enrichment of large metal areas. 179, 183 Enrichment, types of 57 Essentials of good surface enrich- ment 179 Exposures 206, 207 Flat surfaces in base and precious metal 185 Fobs, design of 169 Four vertical minor divisions 139 Free balance 129 Free enrichment 121 Free minor division treatment 141 Free ornament 117 Freehand curves 30, 51, 63 Full size drawing, value of 23 Functional parts, enrichment of . . . . 88 PAGE Glazes for pottery 149 Glazes related to interior decoration 214 Glazes, stains for 209 Greek scroll 93 Handles, design for 49 Harmonious color, need of 194 Harmony of color 210 High cylindrical forms in clay 157 High cylindrical forms in metal .... 191 Historic ornament in hardware 186 Horizontal and vertical minor divi- sions 137 Horizontal divisions, architectural precedent 25 Horizontal divisions, nature and need of 19 Horizontal divisions, steps in de- signing 21 Horizontal minor divisions 139 Hue and hue rectangles 195 Hue groupings 203 Industrial problems, requirements of 9 Inceptive axes 107, 121, 161 Inceptive axes for marginal enrich- ment 119 Inlaying 101-103 Intermediate points, contour en- richment of 89 Ionic volute 91 Leading lines, curved 108 Links 45 Links, contour enrichment of 93 Low cylindrical forms in clay 157 Low cylindrical forms in metal 187 Major design division, first 9 Major design division, second 9 Major design division, third 11 Marginal zone enrichment 118 Material, adapting data to 127 Material, economy of 161 [ 247 ] PAGE Material, relation to surface enrich- ment 101 Metallic oxides '-210 Methods, architectural design 13 Methods, industrial design 13 Minor details 141 Minor subdivisions in wood 133 Moorish ornament 107 Mouldings 61 One vertical division 35 Outlines, free and dependent 87, 91 (See Contours.) Oxidation 213 Panels 117, 123, 125, 127, 129 Panel design, steps in 125 Parts differing in function 77 Pendants and chains, design of . . . . 173 Pierced enrichment 123 Pigment table 195 Pigments, wall and ceiling 205 Pins and brooches, design of 167 Point of concentration 115, 161 Point of concentration for marginal enrichment 119 Porcelain painting 151 Pourers 81 Precious metals, processes of en- richment 161, 163, 165, 169 Primary hues 198 Primary masses 13 Primary mass, drawing of 15 Primary mass, divisions of 19 Primary masses, vertical and hori- zontal 15 Primary masses, jjroportions of 15 Proportionate distribution 210 Ratios, unsatisfactory 17 Rectangular panels 127 Rings, design of 169 PAGE Sequential progression 135 Service, influence of 9, 13, 15 Sets, designing of 83 Shades 197 Shallow circular forms in clay 155 Shallow circular forms in metal 187 Side walls 202-205 Silver, color for 215 Silver, contour enrichment of 93 Silver, free outline enrichment 97 Silver, motives for contour enrich- ment 97 Spouts, design of 49 Square and rectangular areas in clay 153 Square panels 125 Standard hues 195 Standard hues, locating 196 Stones, cutting 95 Stones, relation to contour 95 Stones, relation to metal 173 Structural forms, classification 160 Structural forms, classification for clay surface enrichment 151 Structural reinforcement 118 Surface design evolution 180 Surface enrichment, nature and need of 99 Surfaces, when and where to enrich 99 Tangential junctions 51, 93 Technical processes for metal 163 Technical rendering 161 Terminals, contour enrichment of. 89-91 Three horizontal divisions 29 Three horizontal divisions in clay... 30 Three horizontal divisions in metal. 30 Three horizontal divisions in wood. 29 Three vertical (li\isions 37 Three vertical divisions in clay 39 Three vertical (li\isions in metal.... 41 Three vertical divisions in wood. ... 39 [ ^2-48 ] PAGE Tints 196 Transitional types in fnrniture 139 Two horizontal divisions 25 Two horizontal divisions in clay.. . . 27 Two horizontal divisions in metal. . 27 Two horizontal divisions in wood. . . 25 Two vertical divisions 35 Two vertical divisions in clay 37 Two vertical divisions in metal 37 Two vertical divisions in wood 35 Unit of measurement for vertical curves 79 Unity 29 Unity in clay design curves 77 Value lines 196 Varied panels 129 Vertical divisions, architectural pre- cedent 33 Vertical divisions, more than three. 41 PAGE Vertical divisions, nature and need. 33 Vertical and horizontal division evolution 40 Vertical sections and their minor divisions 133-135 Vocabulary, designer's 105 Walls and ceilings 203-204 Walls and wood work 202-203 Warm and cold colors 198 Wood finishes, opaque 206 Wood, methods of surface enrich- ment 101 Wood stains 198 Wood stains, chroma range 205 Wood stain mixing 199, 200 Wood stain rendering 195 Wood stains, value range 201 Wrought iron enrichment 91 Zones of enrichment. . , 118 o' ■SOI J( xnr yj\ ERS •0/? 1-^S ^ MEUNIVERS//, c^ 'J- UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. r: § TO';?; Wij^ DEC 21 1977 riff Form L9-Series 4939 ff' ^ -s^v ^ ^>^VlOSANCflfj> '^/Sd]/\INll3'v\V ^v" ^l-LfBRARY6>/C, ^^t-llBRARYQc ^ so llll vr ^(^Aav^jaiRV^ ^\WEUNIVERS"//j •:i 1158 00022 6869 /^Aavaaiiix^' •'JiU'JNYSOV Mof>:WSANCElfj^^ ^N^lllBRARY^ llllllili,nrr.fif?.'i,^.E.Gi9.'^,AL .UBRARy facility '"^ A A 000 287 955 <'Jai/\in K > ^^OFfALIF0%, ,>;,OFCALIF0% 5? •< CO ■^MEUMIVERy/^, ^lOSANCELfXy. o ^ ^ 1 nr 5^ "^AJiaAINfl-JUV id r \y 'l^Av •:^ / ^ ^WEUS'IVEF^ ^ :- fv I C^ ,^\^EUNIV ^ CO 5-3 -0 xt: -TPI i^ S J - - ^;^ ^' . -jaiAINHJWV ^(iO.MVj "U ^^clOSANCElfj;^ ^^.OFCALI ■^^ i 55 ^ . ; , 1 iJ ^N^^IIBRARYQ^, m '1 • , fel ^y iJO'^^ '^•J?l] > r\F r.M irriDj, -c-.^r ,^E!'W!' 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