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EDUCATION 
 
 OF 
 
 GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 IN GREAT BRITAIN 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 OF 
 
 GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 IN GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 BY 
 
 C, S. BREMNER 
 With a Preface by Miss E. P. Hughes. 
 
 LONDON 
 
 SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO., LiM. 
 
 1897 
 
K 
 
 ^ 
 
 V^ 
 
 ^0 
 
PREFACE 
 
 In tracing the history of any movement, the rate of 
 development at different periods varies strikingly. There 
 may be no growth for a long time ; occasionally the tide 
 of progress may appear even to flow back ; the spirit of 
 a great reform dies out, and the customs and traditions 
 which have grown up around that reform become a dead 
 weight to hamper progress. Then faint signs of life 
 are to be seen by those who are on the watch, half- 
 hearted protests against traditions, here and there 
 revolts quickly quelled, and some discontent. These 
 are promises of future life and vigour. Suddenly the 
 scene is changed, or rather, it appears to be sudden to 
 the casual observer; it is but the ending of a series of 
 events to those \vho have watched carefully. We have 
 an outburst of Utopian schemes, many brave beginnings, 
 and many failures. All seems chaos for the time being ; 
 currents cross and re-cross ; the eternal struggle between 
 the conservative element and the progressive element 
 in humanity is intensified. Gradually out of disorder 
 comes order and rest. But the world is not as it 
 was : the trend of progress is altered ; new forces have 
 probably come into operation. 
 
 What is true of other aspects of history, is true also 
 of the educational aspect. The latter half of this 
 
 ^■61816 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 century has seen great changes, some of them revolu- 
 tionary, in the education of the British people. It has 
 also seen the beginning of still greater changes. Fifty 
 years ago there was much stagnation. To-day there is 
 much life, some bewilderment, and what appears to 
 many to be an ever-increasing chaos. A large number 
 of educational problems are being formulated, and many 
 of them must, from the necessity of the case, be solved 
 quickly, either badly, indifferently, or well. Time will 
 possibly provide a solution for some of them without our 
 actual interference; but the majority require careful 
 thought and conscious effort, if they are to be solved 
 satisfactorily. A wide knowledge of the educational 
 state of the country, together with some knowledge of 
 that which preceded the present state of affairs, will be 
 of great use in such a momentous period as the present. 
 Miss Bremner has given us a valuable contribution 
 towards such knowledge, for which she deserves the 
 gratitude of all those whose responsible duty it will be 
 to mould the future of our educational development. 
 Only those who have for some special purpose attempted 
 to collect information on the state of education in Great 
 Britain can appreciate the time, care, and patience which 
 the writing of such a book as this entails. 
 
 Change has been visible in every sphere of education ; 
 it has been most strongly marked in the Secondary 
 Education of girls and women. In Elementary Educa- 
 tion, both in the immediate past and in the present, 
 there has been no considerable difference between the 
 education of girls and that of boys, nor between the 
 education of men and women teachers. In Secondary 
 Education, the difference in both spheres has been very 
 
PREFACE vu 
 
 marked in the past, and is still considerable ; as a result, 
 there is probably less contact between the men and 
 women teachers engaged in Secondary Education than 
 between those engaged in Elementary Education. 
 Partly as a result of this isolation, the development of 
 Secondary Education for girls in England has been of a 
 somewhat special kind, and has special interest for those 
 who are studying the subject. Lately an increasing 
 number of foreigners have visited England for the 
 purpose of seeing our educational establishments. The 
 foreigner who comes to study English education de- 
 serves our pity. Many are the difficulties which lie 
 before him. In Elementary Education he has to com- 
 prehend two different schemes working concurrently all 
 over the kingdom. Voluntary and Board schools. 
 When he has surmounted this difficulty, and enters 
 the field of Secondary Education, despair may well 
 seize both his instructor and himself. Many secondary 
 teachers in England know little of the educational life 
 outside their own special sphere. What does a High 
 School mistress usually know of the education given 
 at this present moment at Winchester? How far can 
 an assistant master from one of our great public schools 
 describe accurately how life goes on in one of our 
 private commercial schools? It is very difficult for 
 the intelligent foreigner to get information, and even 
 difficult to see the real connection between the facts 
 which he collects. Thanks to this book, a foreigner 
 can for the future obtain easily some insight into the 
 education of girls and women in Britain. 
 
 It has been said, with much truth, that the members 
 of a civilized community are so closely linked to one 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 another that no section can progress safely far beyond 
 the rest of the community. In other words, it seems to 
 be true that safe and permanent progress is only possible 
 when the rear guard and the advance guard are con- 
 nected by intermediate sections, all in touch one with 
 the other. If this be true, the education of the less 
 educated half of the nation, girls and women, must 
 have a special interest. If the pace of the rear guard 
 affects the pace of the advance guard, it is everybody's 
 interest to see that the pace of the rear guard be 
 quickened. To attain this end, it might be well worth 
 while to divide the ancient educational endowments, at 
 one time enjoyed by boys only, between boys and girls. 
 If we are believers in that greatest of educators, the life 
 of the home, it is better to spend a little less money on 
 boys' education, and help the girls, rather than doom 
 the boys to live in homes governed by badly educated 
 mothers and wives. The education of girls is not 
 merely a woman's question — thoughtful men have never 
 so regarded it. It is a human question, one that con- 
 cerns every one. This book, although it deals only 
 with the education of girls and women, should therefore 
 be studied by all those who are interested in education. 
 Just at the present moment Secondary Education in 
 England requires more consideration than Elementary 
 Education : the latter is organized, the former is not. 
 It is a truism that organization gives enormous power. 
 A constant, wide, ever-deepening stream of state-aid and 
 rate-aid is passing to the latter; only a tiny streamlet 
 to the former. Already it is not an uncommon sight to 
 come across an elementary school in better buildings, 
 and better equipped, than a secondary school in the 
 
PREFACE ix 
 
 same town. We are so accustomed to the fact that 
 our Education Department only concerns itself with 
 Elementary Education, that we may fail to realize how 
 Secondary Education is affected by it. To many of 
 us it is a fact of the profoundest significance that 
 political enfranchisement has come to the working-man 
 in England before educational enfranchisement, and the 
 educational results for the time being may be serious. 
 Can we expect the average man who has never enjoyed 
 the benefits of Secondary Education, to realize its 
 enormous value to the nation ? It is difficult at present 
 to show its value, because our Secondary Education has 
 been largely a class education, and as such, its national 
 value cannot easily be demonstrated to a democracy. 
 When Secondary Education is given in England to 
 those clever boys and girls from our elementary schools, 
 who can really utilise it, it will then be comparatively 
 easy to show its national importance; but until that 
 time it is placed at a serious disadvantage. Yet it is 
 obviously of the greatest importance to protect most 
 carefully our secondary schools and universities. They 
 are the depositories of the traditions, the culture, and 
 the learning of the past, and are therefore of unique 
 importance. But in order to protect wisely we must 
 understand, and know something about, Secondary 
 Education. This work on the education of girls and 
 women is of considerable value, in that it gives us a 
 fairly complete picture of a part of the Secondary 
 Education of the British Isles. 
 
 Every country has, no doubt, its special contribution 
 to make to the education of the world. The British 
 Empire, with its enormous colonies and dependencies 
 
X PREFACE 
 
 in every continent and in every climate, with their 
 widely-different forms of government, has probably for 
 its special educational mission to keep awake a healthy 
 dread of over-centralization in matters educational ; a 
 strong belief in home rule in education; a firm faith 
 in liberty — liberty of conscience, freedom of method, 
 room for individuality, development, and self-govern- 
 ment. If this is the British educational gospel, it is 
 one worth preaching. During the last half-century a 
 large number of secondary schools for girls have sprung 
 up in England. It is interesting to note that on the 
 whole they have been true to English traditions. Our 
 girls' High Schools are not mere copies of the boys' 
 Grammar Schools ; there is differentiation among them, 
 and considerable individuality. Women secondary 
 teachers, considering their disadvantages, have taken 
 their full share in developing education in England. 
 
 That educational progress, which has been so marked 
 in England, has also been taking place in other civilized 
 countries; but in the higher education of girls and 
 women England at the present moment probably stands 
 fiirst. Our progress in this department has been ex- 
 ceptionally rapid, and is probably due largely to the 
 unusual wisdom of the pioneers of the movement. 
 Time has already robbed us of many of that little 
 band of earnest men and women who initiated the 
 movement in England; but some are, fortunately, still 
 with us. When the time comes to write a history of 
 English education in the nineteenth century, it will be 
 a very bright page that will record the first steps taken 
 in obtaining a higher education for girls and women. 
 Our pioneers toiled unceasingly ; they did more, they 
 
PREFACE xi 
 
 waited patiently till times were ripe. They aroused no 
 unnecessary friction ; slowly and surely they won a 
 victory, with results so great that we can at present only 
 dimly guess at them. Now that a younger generation 
 of women are coming to the front to face the new 
 problems of the day, it is exceedingly appropriate that 
 we should look back to those early days. In this book 
 some insight is given us into these first stages of 
 progress, which must have an intense interest for those 
 who are at present beginning to reap the harvest which 
 that pioneer band sowed in great faith and in much 
 anxiety. 
 
 There are probably at least four classes of persons 
 who will find an interest in this book : — 
 
 (i) British teachers of all kinds, who will be enabled 
 by its means to get a fair survey of the education of the 
 British Isles. That such information is necessary can 
 be doubted by no one who takes the trouble to find out 
 how far the ordinary teacher realizes the differences 
 existing between the various systems of education in 
 England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. 
 
 (2) Our fellow-teachers in other parts of the British 
 Empire. It is a great loss to the Empire, politically 
 and educationally, that its teachers know so little of 
 the state of education in the different countries which 
 make up that Empire. An EngUshwoman has now 
 made it easy for our fellow-teachers to understand a 
 good deal about the present state of Secondary Educa- 
 tion for girls in the home country. It is much to be 
 desired that Colonial teachers would issue companion 
 volumes, giving us information about Colonial education. 
 Blue Books are not generally considered to be very 
 
xii PREFACE 
 
 interesting by the average teacher ; but the facts to be 
 found in them, enlivened and made graphic by personal 
 experience, are often of the very greatest interest. 
 
 (3) Foreigners who desire to understand the present 
 state of English education. 
 
 (4) And finally, all those interested in educational 
 progress — parents, teachers, politicians, and social re- 
 formers. 
 
 Behind us lie the gallant efforts of our pioneer 
 women ; around us, the surging chaos of to-day's pro- 
 blems ; before us, difficulties many and great. It is of 
 the utmost importance at the present moment for us to 
 clearly realize that the future is largely in our hands ; 
 and, in order to build for that future a satisfactory 
 structure, we must know the present, and understand 
 something of the past. Miss Bremner's survey has 
 come at a most opportune moment, and is hkely to 
 stimulate considerably the ever-growing interest in 
 education, which is one of the most marked features 
 of our time. 
 
 E. P. HUGHES. 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 This little book is a rather late outcome of the 
 International Congress of Education held at Chicago 
 in 1893. Some of our American sisters (the National 
 Council of Women, U.S.A.) conceived the brilliant idea 
 of publishing a whole set of reports dealing with the 
 education of girls and women in all civilized countries. 
 Lady Henry Somerset and Miss Frances Willard, whose 
 interest in what affects the well-being of their sex is 
 well known, asked me to undertake education in Great 
 Britain; and it is to this circumstance that this book 
 owes its existence. I sought diligently for such a book 
 as this, failed to find it, was assured by the publishers 
 whom I consulted that such books do not pay, and are 
 therefore not written, and finally sat down to the lengthy 
 undertaking of collecting the facts myself. When it 
 was finished, the American sisters had no funds where- 
 with to publish it. I sought the advice of Miss E. P. 
 Hughes, of Cambridge, and of an English publisher, 
 rewrote my work since it was now for the English 
 market and required enlargement. I mention these 
 circumstances because they have laid me under heavy 
 obligations to the many persons who have supplied me 
 with information. I had to appeal to them twice for 
 facts, figures, dates. 
 
 In especial I have to thank for their ready help and 
 courtesy, officials of the Education Department, of the 
 
xiv AUTHORS PREFACE 
 
 Science and Art Department, and Charity Commission ; 
 the heads of colleges, schools, boards, and institutions 
 named in this book, who almost all helped me in 
 every possible way; especially Mr. G. W. Alexander, 
 Clerk to the School Board for Glasgow, and Miss Jane 
 Galloway, of Queen Margaret College, Glasgow, who 
 have furnished the Second Part, dealing with Scottish 
 education; Miss Hughes for the Preface and much 
 excellent advice. My helpers are of course in no way 
 responsible for my opinions, inferences, and deductions. 
 
 Unfortunately we have been unable to obtain an 
 account of education in Ireland on the same conditions 
 as the Scottish section is supplied : mere devotion to 
 education. If another edition of this book were called 
 for, the omission might be rectified. 
 
 It is too much to expect that a book of this kind 
 should be free of error. I shall esteem it a favour if all 
 errors are pointed out to me by readers, so that I may 
 be able to correct them, if the opportunity present 
 itself. 
 
 During my visits to colleges and schools I was over 
 and over again struck by the isolation in which women 
 teachers work. Many able and accomplished women 
 know little of the world of education outside the corner 
 of the vineyard which engrosses their attention. Should 
 this book help to bridge that isolation, I shall be well 
 satisfied. 
 
 C. S. BREMNER. 
 
 March, 1897. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGI£ 
 
 Introductory . . . . . . i 
 
 EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND WALES 
 
 13 
 
 70 
 122 
 164 
 220 
 
 I. Elementary or Primary Education 
 II. Secondary Education 
 
 III. Higher Education 
 
 IV. Technico-Professional Education . 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 ^art M 
 
 EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND 
 
 SECTION 
 
 I. Primary Education . ... 229 
 
 II. Secondary Education . ... 249 
 
 III. Higher Education ... 264 
 
 IV. Technical and Professional Education . . 274 
 
 Index . . . ... 287 
 
Education of Girls and Women 
 
 IN GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 INTRODUCTOiiY^^t%{ :y,^ 
 
 The education of girls and women remained entirely 
 in the hands of the Church up to the time of the 
 Reformation. For a long period the Church controlled 
 the education of boys, although gradually a lay element 
 was introduced. Thus the Chantry schools, which 
 existed in cathedral towns, were partly managed by 
 the laity. Towns were rising apart from monasteries, 
 whose wealth, influence, and ever-widening liberties 
 had to be reckoned with ; Franciscans and Dominicans 
 visited them and helped on the education of the young. 
 Grammar schools were multiplying. When Eton was 
 founded in 1441 there already existed eight; by the 
 beginning of the sixteenth century their number was 
 very considerable, and at the end of James I.'s reign 
 there were probably more than 300. 
 
 Moreover, the universities were another power rising 
 to a position of great importance. Excluding hostels, 
 Oxford has now 23 colleges; 15 of these were in ex- 
 istence in 1539, the date of the final dissolution of the 
 
2 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 monasteries. The quarrel between regulars and seculars 
 is well known ; occasionally a new college was founded 
 by a bishop as a practical protest against the narrowness 
 of monastic learning. Cambridge, of more recent date 
 than Oxford, has seventeen colleges; thirteen were in 
 existence in 1539. 
 
 The consideration of the above facts, and the know- 
 ledge that for girls there existed absolutely no 
 organised education outside the nunnery schools, show 
 us that the destruction of the inonasteries affected the 
 sexes differently. The Dissolution found women quite 
 unprepared, and dealt their education such a severe 
 blow, that it is no exaggeration to say it passed under 
 a cloud for 300 years. Boys lost something by the 
 destruction of the monasteries; girls lost everything. 
 The latter were not prepared to go to the new seats 
 of learning, even had these been prepared to receive 
 them. 
 
 It is true that monastic life was decaying, becoming 
 more and more divorced from the solid interests of 
 life. The nuns especially were immersed in religious 
 routine ; they were landing themselves in one of life's 
 backwaters. Important boarding-schools were attached 
 to some of the nunneries, where the daughters of gentle 
 people received what then passed for a good education. 
 Day schools would also seem to have been conducted 
 at some nunneries, notably the Convent of St. Helen, 
 in Bishopsgate, and that of St. Mary, Kilburn. 
 
 According to the Benedictine rule children were 
 taught between prime and tierce, probably 5 to 8 a.m. 
 
INTRODUCTORY 3 
 
 Nunneries received people of different social condi- 
 tions, and it may well have been that wealthy convents 
 conducted boarding-schools, attended by the daughters 
 of the nobility, whilst the poorer ones had merely day 
 schools attached. 
 
 The Church gave great honour to the professed ; they 
 and their pupils were addressed as " madame " or 
 "ladye." Chaucer's miller's wife had been "i-fostyrd in 
 a nonnerye, and whom no one durst call but madame." 
 The nuns enjoyed the esteem and affection of their 
 contemporaries. The Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536 had 
 amongst its objects the restoration of the nunneries. 
 In the eighth century the Bishop of Sherbourne wrote 
 the "Praise of Virgins," telling them that even in 
 outward appearance they surpass their married sisters. 
 "Virginity is of gold, chastity is of silver, marriage 
 is of brass." In one place he addresses the nuns 
 as "Flowers of the Church, sisters of monastic life, 
 scholarly pupils, pearls of Christ, jewels of Paradise, 
 and sharers of the Eternal Home." * 
 
 Nor was Ealdhelm the only one impressed with the 
 beauty of the nun's life. Boniface so admired' the 
 character and' ability of English nuns as rulers that 
 he took many of them abroad to help in the work of 
 organizing Germany for the Church of Rome. In a 
 word, the Church found an outlet for women's 
 abilities, and stamped their labour with its high 
 approval. 
 
 * See Miss Eckenstein's able work, Woman under Mon- 
 asHcism. 
 
EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 It would be wrong to suppose that no education was 
 possible for women, save such as the nunneries afforded. 
 In his thirty-fourth letter Osbert de Clare writes of a 
 lady who was a governess in Stephen's reign, and 
 who seems to have been treated as one of the family. 
 Home education dates from a very early period. 
 In Women in English Life^ Miss G. Hill tells us that 
 in mediaeval times the demoiselle could often read 
 with fair fluency, while the damoiseau, under the 
 same roof, was unable to sign his name and to spell 
 out the words of his breviary. This would partly 
 arise from a division between the work of man and 
 woman : fighting and the world of sport for him, 
 home and its occupations for her; and partly from 
 the fact that many manor houses boarded a clerk, or 
 chaplain, who acted as tutor to the young people. 
 Doubtless, in many cases, the girls would be found 
 more docile than the boys. Sir Thomas More, as is 
 well known, taught his daughters to be proficient 
 Greek and Latin scholars. 
 
 The honour rendered by the Church to single 
 women was ridiculous in the eyes of Reformers. In 
 the thirteenth century the author of Holy Maidenhood 
 had called the nun the free woman ; the wife, the slave. 
 Erasmus styled the nun the slave ; the wife, and indeed 
 all those outside the convent, free. Miss Eckenstein 
 points out how, under Wolsey and Cromwell, the 
 grossest charges against monastic life were, in certain 
 quarters, at once accepted as clearly proved. Sir 
 Thomas More's refutation of these charges, and his 
 
INTRODUCTORY 5 
 
 severe criticism of Luther, passed unnoticed at the 
 time. Even Wolsey received censure from the King 
 for indecent haste in grasping monastic property. The 
 stupid falsehood that nunneries were commonly the 
 refuge of the profligate must be dismissed as baseless. 
 The Church had herself often held visitations to correct 
 monastic abuses, usually proceeding, as far as nunneries 
 were concerned, from inability of the prioress to ad- 
 minister. The Commissioners who wrote to Cromwell 
 touching Catesby, could only say they found the house 
 in perfect order.* The same was true of the White 
 Ladies at Gracedieu; in Cumberland, rebels restored 
 the nunnery at Seton ; in Yorkshire, the people favoured 
 nunneries because " our daughters are there brought up 
 in virtue," as Roger Aske phrased it. 
 
 Gasquet, the historian of Henry VIIL's reign, 
 declares that " in the convents the female portion of 
 the population found their only teachers, the rich as 
 well as the poor; and the destruction of these re- 
 ligious houses by Henry was the absolute extinction 
 of any systematic education for women during a long 
 period." 
 
 The divine. Fuller, who died in 1661, lived to 
 recognize that the loss women suffered at the Reforma- 
 tion was heavy. Speaking of the convents, he writes, 
 "They were good she schools, wherein the girls and 
 maids of the neighbourhood were taught to read and 
 work; and sometimes a little Latin was taught them 
 
 * See Miss Eckenstein's chapter on the Dissolution in England, 
 in Woman under Monasticism. 
 
6 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 therein. Yea, give me leave to say, if such feminine 
 foundations had still continued, provided no vow were 
 obtruded upon them (virginity is least kept where it 
 is most constrained), haply the weaker sex, besides the 
 avoiding modern inconveniences, might be heightened 
 to a higher perfection than hitherto has been attained." 
 
 It cannot for a moment be denied that with the 
 Reformation lay the path of progress; and yet women 
 may regret that the Reformers laid such stress upon the 
 theory that there is no career for them outside wifehood 
 and motherhood. Single women have often been in 
 the van in movements affecting their sex ; wives and 
 mothers profit by their devotion and enthusiasm. Is 
 it too much to attribute a large part of England's 
 depressed position in the educational world, which has 
 lasted far into the nineteenth century, and from which 
 she is only now emerging, as in some measure due to 
 the failure of Reformers to use and dignify in social 
 work the unmarried woman ? 
 
 With the theory just stated, grew up that other 
 belittling idea, that education is unnecessary for women ; 
 that since they are destined for home life, it would be 
 useless, and even injurious, to cultivate their intelligence. 
 John Lyon, the founder of Harrow Grammar School, 
 in 157 1, expressly excludes girls from the benefits of 
 his foundation. They seem to have had only a small 
 share in the many grammar schools founded in the 
 reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Elizabeth, 
 when the power of the Church of Rome was crippled, 
 and her vast wealth confiscated. 
 
INTRODUCTORY 7 
 
 On this point, Richard Mulcaster, master of the 
 Merchant Taylors' School founded in 1561, says: "I 
 set not young maidens to public Grammar Scholes, a 
 thing not used in my countrie, I send them not to the 
 universities, having no president thereof," and goes on 
 to explain that, all the same, young maidens must be 
 taught to read and write, and that these branches, as 
 well as music and languages, have a right to be expected 
 of them. " I dare be bould therefore to admit young 
 maidens to learne, seeing my country gives me leave 
 and her custome standes for me. Their natural toward- 
 nesse (aptitude) should make us see them well brought 
 up." (See Miss Hill's chapter on the Scholars of the 
 Sixteenth Century, Women in English Life.) 
 
 The whole subject of women's education up to recent 
 times is still unexplored territory. It probably varied 
 very much at different epochs and in different families. 
 Though excluded from the grammar schools, and bereft 
 of the education nunneries at one time afforded, it may 
 well have been that girls received in their own homes a 
 very fair education of the kind we now term technical. 
 Those who worked at home had not only to under- 
 take ordinary housework and cooking, but spinning and 
 weaving in early times, and until comparatively recently 
 baked the bread, made jams, pickles, wines, pickled and 
 salted meats, brewed, culled simples, made essences 
 and decoctions, knew a little about surgery and 
 medicine in its easier forms, washed and dressed the 
 linen, made candles as well as all sorts of garments. 
 Most of these occupations are now swept right out of 
 
8 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 the home ; but as long as they were home duties, women 
 must have found plenty of scope for their activity. 
 
 Probably few but the gifted could derive real benefit 
 from the sort of schooling that too often prevailed in 
 grammar schools. It may have been that home 
 education under a clever housewife was more truly 
 educative than much that was labelled education. We 
 know, because the Schools Enquiry Commission of 
 1865-67 tells us so, that boys in grammar schools 
 sometimes studied Latin five years, and left school 
 unable to read the language. No doubt girls picked 
 up a little English reading and writing at their 
 mother's knee ; their spelling was curious, and evidently 
 original. 
 
 Women of rank had a better opportunity. We are 
 told of the learning of the Lady Mary, of Elizabeth, 
 and Lady Jane Grey, which, since they were exalted 
 personages, may easily have been exaggerated. But, 
 speaking of women generally, the Renascence failed 
 to touch them. Both the men and women of the 
 time were agreed that learning was not for women. 
 The great Revival only reaches them in the nine- 
 teenth century, the natural and necessary complement 
 of the Renascence movement. It grew narrower and 
 narrower without them : first narrowed to one sex, 
 then to a class. We may take the 189 signatures to 
 a memorial presented to the Schools Enquiry Com- 
 mission in 1867, the majority of which belonged to 
 the educated men of the country, in favour of the 
 "foundation of a place of education for adult female 
 
INTRODUCTORY 9 
 
 Students," as a definite acknowledgment that education 
 for one sex had spelt failure — that in future it must 
 be for all. By a singular coincidence, that very year 
 the working classes were enfranchised. From that 
 date onwards the summarized story of women's educa- 
 tion is the removal of barriers. 
 
 To the seventeenth century, after the failure of 
 Puritanism to impress itself on the nation as a whole, 
 we may trace the rise of the idea that women must 
 be accomplished, render themselves socially attractive, 
 play, sing, speak foreign tongues, dance; such accom- 
 plishments were called *' virtues." Even these some 
 people blamed : Sir Matthew Hale, for instance. They 
 thought that a woman needed to know nothing save 
 what pertained to housewifery; to read Sir Philip 
 Sidney's Arcadia was going beyond the bounds. 
 
 Protest was often made against the ignorance of 
 women both by their own sex and by men. Mary 
 Astell, in 1694, bitterly complains that men denied 
 education to women. In the eighteenth century, surely 
 the nadir of women's education, Lady Mary Wortley 
 Montagu utters the same plaint, bewailing the neglect 
 of women's minds, and the universal ridicule poured 
 on a learned woman. " It is criminal," she writes, 
 "to try to improve a woman's reason," and complains 
 of the indulgence extended to women's defects, thereby 
 preventing improvement. Writing to her daughter 
 about the education of a grand-daughter, she says, 
 with some bitterness, that "if there was a common- 
 wealth of rational horses, it would be an established 
 
10 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 maxim among them that a mare could not be taught to 
 pace." Earlier in the century no wit but sneered at 
 the educated woman. Swift, Congreve, Smollett, even 
 the much gentler Addison and Steele, had shafts for 
 so outrageous a being. The enlightened Dr. More 
 was alarmed at the capacity of his daughter Hannah, 
 and caused her to discontinue Latin and mathematics. 
 Mrs. Somerville (born 1780) tells us that when she 
 showed signs of rapid advance in mathematics her 
 father. Admiral Fairfax, observed to her mother : " We 
 must put a stop to this, or we shall have Mary in a 
 strait-jacket one of these days." 
 
 Still, the numbers of thoughtful and educated women 
 grew. Butts for cheap wit, they performed the in- 
 valuable service of accustoming the world to their 
 existence. Foreign writers commented upon the great 
 amount of Uberty enjoyed by Englishwomen. "They 
 govern everything despotically in their houses, making 
 themselves feared by the men," writes one. On the 
 other hand. Dr. Sdgur, in 1803, sees little difference 
 between the Enghsh and the Turkish woman; the 
 former have neither walls nor keepers, yet suffer equal 
 constraint. 
 
 Though De Segur wrote at a later date, such contra- 
 dictory observations point to a recognised national 
 characteristic, variety in type and standard, to the 
 fact that room is always made in this country for 
 character and capacity, even to the extent of largely 
 disregarding sex distinctions and prejudices. 
 
 In what has been written, only the briefest allusion 
 
INTRODUCTORY ii 
 
 has been made to the education of men and boys. For 
 a survey to be truly valuable, a comparison would need 
 to be instituted between the sexes. 
 
 Generally speaking, the education of women and girls 
 has lagged, and still lags, behind that of the opposite 
 sex. In all probability the difference in the seventeenth, 
 eighteenth, and more especially the early half of the 
 nineteenth century, was greater than now. 
 
 Le Blanc observed, that in the last century the sexes 
 did not talk together ; though probably, if he examined 
 the manners, morals, and capacity of the macaroni, 
 dandy, mohawk, he would not entirely blame woman- 
 kind for the loss of one of the most refined of 
 pleasures.* 
 
 To sum up this imperfect survey : The convents were 
 the great " she schools," as the divine Fuller phrased it. 
 The Dissolution found women less prepared for the 
 blow than men. The convent schools disappeared and 
 nothing replaced them. The Reformers, some of them 
 actuated by genuine dislike and dread of monastic vows ; 
 others, profiting by the general grasping at monastic 
 property, and fearing that they might be called on to 
 restore it, preached that there was no career for women 
 save wifehood and motherhood. A marked depression 
 followed in women's position, no satisfactory outlet 
 
 * See the extraordinary Act passed in 1770 against women 
 seducing and betraying men into matrimony by means of scents, 
 paints, cosmetic washes, artificial teeth, false hair, hoops, stays, &c. 
 By such conduct they were to incur the penalty of witchcraft, and 
 the marriage to be declared null and void. 
 
12 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 being found for their talents and energies. During 
 that period they played a less important part in the 
 history of the nation than ever before. Probably they 
 touched the lowest point in 1832, when Lord John 
 Russell's Reform Bill explicitly declared that in all 
 existing Acts concerning enfranchisement, the word 
 person must be taken to mean male person, and the 
 Bill formally disfranchised women. During that time 
 there were always refined and highly-educated women ; 
 but the proportion was very small, and their perform- 
 ances almost invariably excited ridicule. Education 
 was indifferent for both sexes, but especially for women 
 and girls. The inferiority in that period was greater 
 than it is to-day. 
 
PART I. 
 ENGLAND AND WALES 
 
 Section I. 
 lElementat^ or iprimari? jEbucatton 
 
 Elementary or Primary Education must be taken to 
 
 mean that which is obtained in the Elementary 
 
 ^ ^ . . schools of the country, both Board 
 
 Definition. , ,r , ^^ i , , 
 
 and Voluntary. Such schools receive 
 
 State aid, in the shape of a Government grant, and 
 must, in return, submit to inspection by officials 
 appointed by the Lords of the Committee of the 
 Privy Council on Education (usually called the 
 Education Department), and accept a body of regula- 
 tions known as the Code. 
 
 Elementary Education does not now simply embrace 
 the three Rs; it includes subjects that some educa- 
 tionists call Secondary— such as Mathematics, French. 
 Yet since education usually terminates at thirteen, or 
 less, in the State schools, little more than the elements 
 can be mastered in such subjects ; the bulk of the 
 education given is elementary. A fair number of 
 schools used by the middle classes do not carry educa- 
 tion on beyond the elementary stage, and, to be quite 
 
 »3 
 
14 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 correct, should not be styled Secondary. Preparatory 
 schools are not properly elementary, because their 
 curriculum supposes that education will be carried on, 
 perhaps, to the age of eighteen. The great dividing 
 line must at present be marked by State aid and State 
 control, although it will be shown later that some 
 Secondary schools have naturally developed from the 
 Elementary school system. 
 
 The recognition of the principle that every child 
 should be educated belongs to the present century, 
 and was clearly formulated by the 
 everv child National Education League, founded 
 
 at Birmingham in 1869, whose chief 
 object was to secure the education of every child 
 in England and Wales. We find traces of the 
 idea early in the century, in the labours of Bell 
 and Lancaster, and even in the preceding century; 
 but it cannot be said to have grafted itself on the 
 national mind before the present century. The whole 
 story of national education is a working towards the 
 idea of education for all : the tightening of the cord, 
 that none shall escape. We may watch its development 
 in the regulations for children on barges, in travelling 
 caravans, the blind, deaf mutes, and the mentally 
 defective. The development of the idea that educa- 
 tion is for each, according to his capacity, is not 
 unconnected in England with the extension of the 
 franchise; step by step they have broadened together. 
 
 The mediaeval idea was distinctly that education was 
 for those who had good brains, and who wanted it. 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 15 
 
 In former times The right of the poor and clever 
 Education was boy was fully recognized, and, in 
 for the clever. ^^^^^ ^.^^^^ carefully safeguarded. 
 
 That these rights fell into such desuetude as to be 
 practically abrogated was not the result of malice, or 
 refusal to cultivate brains wherever they were to be 
 found, but simply the working out of a well-known 
 social law : that everything, unless precautions are 
 taken, tends to work into the hands of the wealthy 
 and well-to-do. Wealth is the mighty centripetal force \ 
 the counteracting centrifugal force would demand educa- 
 tion and vigilance on the part of poverty. 
 
 The beginnings of education are found in the 
 
 monasteries. Monks and nuns desired to educate 
 
 young people who should be their 
 
 Monastery colleagues and successors. Hence 
 
 Schools. 
 
 their internal schools. But, in 
 
 addition, the monasteries were great social institutions 
 
 with important duties, amongst which was included 
 
 the teaching of the young. Little is known of these 
 
 early schools, especially at the time when monasteries 
 
 were very important, the seventh and eighth centuries. 
 
 We know that Hilda, of Whitby, summoned Caedmon, 
 
 the shepherd boy, to the monastery, and there had him 
 
 taught, with the result that he produced a metrical 
 
 version of the scriptures in Anglo-Saxon, of priceless 
 
 value to philologers. Probably something like class 
 
 division appeared very early, though the cleavage 
 
 between classes was not so strictly defined as, say, at 
 
 the beginning of the present century. We read of 
 
i6 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 youths of gentle birth being sent to abbots' houses. 
 The Abbot of Hyde used to educate eight boys, 
 probably heirs to estates, and the Abbot of Glaston- 
 bury had some 300 youths pass through his hands at 
 different times. Yet we recognize fully the democratic 
 principle in the Church of Rome. Langland tells us, 
 in his Vision of Piers Plowman^ how the cobbler's son 
 and beggar's brat turn writer and then bishop. We 
 know that the villein's son could become a priest, 
 because the Constitutions of Clarendon forbad his 
 consecration without his lord's consent. 
 
 Later in the Church's history we find not only schools 
 in the monasteries, but connected with cathedrals, in 
 
 the parishes, and chapter schools, 
 Cathedral and ^j^-^j^ ^^^.^ ^.^j managed by the 
 Parish Schools r / o y 
 
 laity. The parish school would seem 
 
 to be the place where one would naturally expect 
 to find the children of the poor. But probably the 
 difficulties of travelling caused the children of the 
 yeoman and the labourer to learn together, when they 
 learned at all. In cases of exceptional ability — and 
 we must remember that in thinly populated districts 
 it is everybody's business to know all there is to know — 
 the clever child was doubtless known, and probably 
 welcomed. 
 
 The Labour Act of 1405 supplies us with a fact amid 
 all this conjecture. It was intended to counteract the 
 
 scarcity of farm labour, and requires 
 Education of ^^^ none is to apprentice son or 
 
 the Poor. ^ . ^ .^. 
 
 daughter to a craft m a town, save 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 17 
 
 those whose rent is at least 205., i.e.^ a small peasant 
 proprietor, or cotter. It runs on, regardless of grammar, 
 "provided always that every man and woman of what 
 estate or condition that he be shall be free to set their 
 son or daughter to take learning at any manner of school 
 that pleaseth them within the realm." 
 
 The Church was then very powerful, though a few 
 years later the Knights of the Shire did propose to 
 confiscate her property for military purposes. The law 
 can only be construed to mean that she declined to 
 have her supplies of clever children cut off. 
 
 In the early days the Church was probably able to 
 undertake such education as was wanted ; but it is 
 more than probable that her capability ceased com- 
 paratively early. In 11 79, by a decree 
 A Prayer for ^ , ^ ^ ., t , , 
 
 efficient Masters. ^^ ^^^ Lateran Council, the head 
 teacher of every cathedral was directed 
 to assume authority over all other schoolmasters in the 
 diocese; he was to possess the right of granting a 
 licence, without which none was to presume to teach. 
 This marks an important assumption of authority on 
 the part of the Church. The petition of 1447 shows 
 us that she was not fulfilling her heavy task to the 
 satisfaction of all. In that year four clergymen of 
 London presented a petition to Parliament, complaining 
 of the want of grammar schools, of the scarcity of 
 good teachers, and of the large number of uneducated 
 masters who took up the profession of teaching. The 
 clergymen craved permission to found schools and 
 appoint efficient masters in their respective parishes 
 
 C 
 
i8 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 in order to satisfy the great demand for instruction. 
 The prayer was granted. We know that at this time 
 the monasteries were decaying, and the towns and 
 universities making progress. Shortly afterwards a law 
 was passed making it illegal to send children to 
 unauthorized teachers. This foreshadowing of the 
 Teachers' Registration Bill of a later age was aimed 
 at those who favoured Wycliffe's teaching, and points 
 to the fact that schools were arising independently of 
 the Church. 
 
 Meantime, it would be very wrong to suppose that 
 the middle classes or nobility had a passion for educa- 
 tion. In a prefatory letter to his De Frudu^ addressed 
 to Dean Colet, founder of St. Paul's School, and the 
 great educational reformer of his day {d. 15 19), Pace 
 tells us of the frank opinion of a British parent heard 
 
 by him at some tavern feast. " I 
 Opinion of a 
 British parent. ^wear by God's body I 'd rather that 
 
 my son should hang than study letters. 
 The study of letters should be left to rustics." 
 
 This idea was modified as time went on, surviving 
 well into the i8th century, under the form that learning 
 was not quite the thing for gentlemen ; and exists to-day 
 in some quarters, with a further modification that it is 
 not the thing for workers. 
 
 An idea prevails, indeed some writers (for example, 
 Mr. G. C. T. Bartley and Dr. J. H. Rigg) state quite 
 definitely that schools for the people were begun at 
 the Reformation. We know that some 300 grammar 
 schools were founded between the reigns of Henry VII. 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 19 
 
 and James I. ; but it is clear that the share of the poor 
 in these schools was the share of the clever boy. The 
 Share of the Poor Schools Inquiry Commission 1865- 
 in the Grammar 67 was quite definite on this point : 
 Schools. ^j^g purpose of the grammar school 
 
 was to give an education higher than the rudiments, 
 conducted under religious influences, put within the 
 reach of all classes, with special preference for the 
 poor boy apt to learn. The Reformers were too busy 
 about dogma and the division of the spoils to care 
 much about education, excepting Warham, Cranmer, 
 and one or two others. Moreover, the Reformation 
 inaugurated the individualistic era; with all her faults, 
 the Church of Rome upheld a socialist ideal, and the 
 poor boy was safer under her wing than at any time 
 between the Reformation and the uprise of philan- 
 thropic aims in the eighteenth century. 
 
 It is true that Erasmus had noble ideas on education : 
 it was to be for rich and poor, for girl and boy alike. 
 
 But More, who shared his ideas, and 
 Erasmus and ^ ^ , t. /. 
 
 jyjQj.g Erasmus, were not of the Reforma- 
 
 tion, which the one opposed, and 
 the other gazed on very coldly. They were in the 
 midst of a great movement, and helped in some of 
 its manifestations. They hoped and believed that men 
 would now open their eyes and see, and that a great 
 era was beginning for mankind. So far as England 
 was concerned, More died on the scaffold, and Erasmus 
 only lived to see the great Renascence movement penned 
 up in the channels of the Reformation. Luther em- 
 
20 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 phatically favoured instruction for the whole juvenile 
 population, girls as well as boys, with characteristic 
 energy proving the obligation from the Bible. The 
 acceptance of his view belongs to German rather than 
 English history. 
 
 In a speech in the House of Lords in 1869, the 
 Duke of Argyll mildly told his hearers he was "not 
 
 aware that any English Reformer laid 
 The Reformation , , . ^ . , 
 
 and Education. ^^'^^^^ "P^'^ ^^ subject of national 
 
 education," and was moreover of 
 opinion that the grammar schools were not meant 
 for the instruction of the people. It is certain that 
 only the middle classes derived much benefit from 
 them. 
 
 If proof is wanted that the Reformation in England 
 was indifferent to popular education, it can be found 
 
 in the complaint of 1562, when 
 
 , \ Speaker Williams was in the chair, 
 and not replaced. ^ 
 
 It was definitely stated in Parlia- 
 ment that a hundred schools were now altogether 
 lacking where, before the Reformation, they had 
 existed. 
 
 The complaint was general that the poor could get 
 no education : they were being " scrooged out " of the 
 grammar schools, and no provision at all was made 
 for them. So noticeable was this that in 1589 a law 
 was passed which aimed at preventing grammar schools 
 and universities being used solely by the wealthy. It 
 is worth noting that in Scotland the Reformation 
 shewed a very different face to education. This Dr. 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 21 
 
 Schaible explains by the fact that in Scotland the 
 
 , ^ „ , Reformation came from below : the 
 
 John Knox s 
 
 scheme for people wanted it, therefore their 
 
 National needs were considered. In England 
 
 Education. ^^^^ ^.^ ^^^ ^^^^ it— they rebelled 
 
 to have the old Church and monasteries reinstated : 
 
 the Reformation was from above. Not only was there 
 
 no improvement in education ; it sank to a lower level 
 
 than in pre-Reformation times. John Knox proceeded 
 
 to promulgate a national scheme of education for 
 
 Scotland, wonderfully complete; indeed, in the light 
 
 of his limitations it is truly astonishing. The rich 
 
 ^, . , , were to be compelled to educate 
 
 The rich to pay 
 
 for the poor. ^^^i'' ^^"^ children, and to pay for 
 
 the children of the poor. There was 
 to be a school in every town and populous parish; 
 thinly populated districts had special arrangements; in 
 the principal towns there were to be secondary schools ; 
 the universities were to be re-modelled, leaving the 
 path to them open. Within fifteen years there was 
 hardly a town or parish in Scotland that had not its 
 school and schoolmaster. 
 
 In England the serious lack of schools was greatly 
 felt and deplored at the close of Elizabeth's reign. 
 The Church ■'•" ^^°4 ^^ Church obtained the 
 
 obtains control control of education by means of 
 of Education, certain canons ; and during the 
 
 century about 700 parish schools 
 were founded, a number which cannot nearly have 
 covered the country. Indeed, as Mr. Craik points 
 
22 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 out,* for the next two hundred years the educational 
 wants of the country were entirely met by private 
 and voluntary agency. 
 
 The end of the sixteenth century saw the beginning 
 of the great religious struggle between the Church of 
 England and the Puritans : a struggle that seemed to 
 end in the defeat of the latter, but which really secured 
 constitutional freedom for England, and for all those 
 nations which have turned to her as a model. One 
 cannot but wonder whether a longer tenure of power 
 by the Puritan party than Cromwell's brief rule, would 
 not have tended to give England more in due season 
 her national scheme of education. The Puritans were 
 the serious party of the Reformation ; they had a grasp 
 of principles, they were largely the stuff of which John 
 Knoxes are made, and moreover, a very large proportion 
 of them were ministers and schoolmasters. From the 
 Restoration until Anne's reign closed, omitting that 
 The Church of William III., the policy of the 
 
 silences Dissent- Government was to silence and 
 ing Teachers. j^^j.j.y ^y^^^ ^^^ ^f the land. In 
 
 1709 the Schism Act was passed, forbidding any one 
 to keep a public or private school unless he were a 
 member of the Church of England. The Church was 
 left in possession ; and about the same time the Society 
 for Promoting Christian Knowledge began its work. 
 Practically they found no provision at all for the 
 education of the poor, and with praiseworthy energy 
 
 * In his excellent work, The State in its relation to Education. 
 Macmillan and Co. 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 23 
 
 they undertook the task. The educational programme 
 was very modest. Children were to be taught in the 
 principles of the Church of England, i.e. the catechism, 
 The S P C K ^^ ^^^^ (especially the scriptures), 
 begins a National and to write. Modest as it was, 
 system. the beginning of a national system 
 
 would appear to be here. The Society began its work 
 in London in 1699: it opened its first school in 1702. 
 Mr. George C. T. Bartley, in his Schools for the People^ 
 gives the following figures. It is probable that girls 
 were attending parish schools in the seventeenth 
 century; but Mr. Bartley's are the first definite figures 
 obtainable. 
 
 No. of Schools. Boys. Girls. 
 
 1704 ... 54 ... -i-Z^^i ... 745 
 
 1709 ... 88 ... 2181 ... 1221 
 
 1714 ... "7 ... 3077 ... 1741 
 
 The clergy examined the schools, and indeed scrip- 
 ture was regarded as the great subject. Miss Jourdan 
 states in a pamphlet — Improvements in Education — 
 that writing and arithmetic were non-essential for the 
 schoolmistress — her subjects being reading, needlework, 
 and scripture. The reading would seem to have been 
 only necessary for the sake of the scripture, and there 
 was much parrot-like repetition of the Bible, hymns and 
 catechism. To this period belong such extraordinary 
 versions of the catechism as the following : 
 
 " My duty toads God is to bleed in 
 
 Ed ti ^^"^ ^^ fering and to loaf withold your 
 
 arts withold my mine withold my sold 
 
 and with my semth to whirchp and to give thinks 
 
24 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 to put my old trast in him to call upon him to 
 onner his old name and his world and to save 
 him truly all the days of my lifes end." 
 
 *My dooty tords my Nabers to love him as 
 thyself and to do to all men as I wed thou do and 
 to me to love onner and suke my fazher and 
 mother to onner and to bay the queen and all that 
 are pet in a forty under her to smit myself to all 
 my gooness teaches sportial pastures and marsters 
 to oughten myself lordly and every to all my 
 betters to hut nobody by would nor deed to be 
 trew in jest in all my deelins to beer no malis nor 
 ated in your arts to kep my ands from pecken and 
 steel my turn from evil speak and lawing and 
 slanders not to civet nor desar other mans good 
 but to lern laber trewly to git my own leaving and 
 to do my dooty in that state if life and to each it 
 his please God to call men." 
 
 "They did promis and voal three things in my 
 name first that I should pernounce of the devel 
 and all his walks pumps and valities of this wicked 
 wold and all the sinful larsts of the flesh." 
 
 These extraordinary versions of the catechism were 
 presented to one of H.M.'s Inspectors, the Rev. W. H. 
 Brookfield, and appear in his general report on schools 
 inspected in Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, 1855 ; ^^^7 
 could equally well belong to the period under con- 
 sideration. 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 25 
 
 Miss Jourdan is of opinion that Sunday schools were 
 in existence in England before Mr. Robert Raikes 
 
 began the work at Gloucester in 
 
 1780, and cites the work of the 
 Rev. Theophilus Lindsey at Catherick in Yorkshire, 
 who on alternate Sunday afternoons taught the children 
 of his parish ; though she admits that from the time 
 Mr. Raikes took up the work, it was better organized 
 and developed rapidly. The Sunday schools really 
 taught the children to read, and sometimes to write. In 
 some places the schools assembled three times on 
 Sunday, this being the only day when for some children 
 any education or civilizing influence was possible. It 
 was indeed a period of national glory and degradation. 
 England's empire was growing by leaps and bounds, 
 whilst at the same time the London gin palaces invited 
 the passer-by to get drunk for a penny, or dead drunk, 
 twopence. 
 
 Hannah More and her friend Miss Harrison were 
 teaching the poor in back kitchens and barns. They 
 were openly ridiculed, the young women who could 
 have helped standing aloof. These ladies were told 
 
 that they would ruin agriculture ; 
 Objections to ^j^^^ j^ servants learned to read, 
 
 Education. 
 
 they would read their mistresses' 
 
 letters; that if they learned to write, they would 
 forge. Some did not object to religious instruction, 
 as they thought it might prevent the robbing of their 
 orchards. The Sunday school movement grew, the 
 Church of England and Nonconformist bodies alike 
 
26 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 developing it. The Ragged School movement dates 
 
 a little later. 
 
 In the beginning of the century two educational 
 
 reformers come to the front, Dr. Andrew Bell and 
 
 Joseph Lancaster, both claiming to 
 
 Bell and y^^ ^^ inventors of what the Edin- 
 
 Lancaster. 
 
 burgh Review styled that "beautiful 
 
 and inestimable discovery," the monitorial system. 
 Bell was a Scotch episcopalian, and, unlike the gener- 
 aUty of his countrymen, fearful of elevating the poor 
 above their station. Certain persons he regarded as 
 doomed to the drudgery of daily toil; certain others 
 were predestined to rank, wealth, privilege. Bell was 
 cold, shrewd, self-seeking; unable to conceive a national 
 scheme of education, even if he had had the necessary 
 qualities to help to carry it out. Nevertheless, he 
 filled his contemporaries with admiration. R. C. 
 Dallas, in his New Conspiracy against the Jesuits^ says 
 of Dr. Bell's system : " It is impossible to contemplate 
 the advantages arising to our fellow-creatures and to 
 society from Dr. Bell's system of education for the 
 poor, without grateful feelings to the author. . . . 
 Thousands upon thousands will bless him, while he 
 yet lives, and a perpetual series of millions will revere 
 his memory after he shall have joined the myriads 
 of spirits from whom he shall himself learn the 
 celestial allelujahs." In 1797 he published a pamphlet 
 — An Experiment in Education — after he left Madras. 
 He expounds the monitorial system which, briefly 
 stated, is simply using the older children to teach 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 27 
 
 the younger. He had a living at Swanage, and in 1806 
 caused his method to be introduced to a day school 
 there. Later, the Archbishop of Canterbury intro- 
 duced it into a Lambeth school established by him ; 
 the National Society, founded in 181 1, took up the 
 work. Its great feature is distinctive religious teaching. 
 Besides establishing schools, the Society has worked to 
 secure suitable teachers, and at different periods has 
 established five institutions'^ for the purpose of training 
 them. Joseph Lancaster (i 778-1838) was an educa- 
 tional enthusiast, of a different temperament from Bell. 
 At the age of fourteen he walked to Bristol, with the idea 
 of taking ship to Jamaica, to teach the negroes. The 
 scheme was prevented by his parents. Later he became 
 a member of the Society of Friends, and usher in a 
 school. His skill and zeal brought crowds of children 
 to his school in the Borough Road : to-day, a Board 
 School stands on its site. Lancaster held that all 
 religious tenets should be excluded from a school meant 
 for the use of all. Friends came to his aid, the 
 numbers of his scholars outgrew his premises ; even 
 George IH. subscribed liberally to extend his work. As 
 he was very poor, Lancaster also hit upon the plan of 
 using elder scholars to teach the younger ones; 
 gradually this extended into their being trained as 
 masters. Lancaster, though most zealous for the 
 advancement of his pupils, was vain, thriftless, and 
 guiltless of business capacity. When he was arrested 
 
 * There are other Church Training Colleges, but they are not 
 under the Society's direction. 
 
MDOCATWlf OF GIRLS AMD WOMiBN 
 
 ^ ^^ finr ddbt in 1807, Cacton and Fax 
 
 foiwd to fcond tbe RijIkIi 
 
 aoDd Fore^ School Society "widi a 
 awiglft cy<e to tbe ^kxy of 
 God^ and widi a ivev to hc.ntfil tbe BiiliA 
 Tbe Society spread quiddy, paid Tanrasiei^s debt:^ and 
 
 Iter be and diey lad 
 
 to part O M ui Myny- Tbe vbole mopvemem vas for an- 
 
 [^ no calBcbBni or 
 tobetane^ Amrmentthe 
 of tbe Society were die stnonlaban iJL locad effort and 
 tbe tninii^ of teacben. The year 1870 saw dK 
 in the Kdwratinn Bill of die pdncqife for 
 
 die S ociety bad stn^gj^fed 
 
 Jns l iiMlwaL The Society bas sol fe 
 coilegEs for tcai litis.. 
 
 BodiBdl and Lancaster deKnepnuKte the 
 they made to iiupiofe fwtfi^ilar edocationL The 
 lattiiies of Kngjbnd bad iwienlly been 
 by tbe ap p liration of steam as a motor popwo^and by 
 mnnesQns in i f ^ " «i< M Wf in ib^ arts fJi 
 iioncastiii^ and so fbidi. WeaUi ai 
 witb incnsdible lapidiiy ^ 
 an diose ii t iliiiug Cones to 
 ive naBKS as art and 
 and the 
 
 «FkaeR9B-«r 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 29 
 
 these terms referred to the people at large instead of 
 to exports, imports, output, turnover, and the general 
 field of business energy. 
 
 To Bell, Lancaster, and to Dr. George Birkbeck, 
 the founder of mechanics* institutes, we are indebted 
 for their practical protest against the idea that mere 
 *' progress " is enough for a nation : that the people exist 
 for toil alone. 
 
 The Churches had sunk to a low ebb of vigour and 
 vitality ; Bell and Lancaster succeeded in enlisting their 
 aid on behalf of education. Their monitorial system 
 has since been condemned ; we must judge the value of 
 their work whilst recollecting that the strictest economy 
 was necessary. Very few approved the education of the 
 people, still less were they prepared to spend much of 
 that greatly increasing wealth on so absiu-d an aim. Of 
 the two Societies with which they 
 The National ^^^ connected, the National Society, 
 the organized educational agency of 
 the Church of England, was far the larger; but the 
 struggle between the two was partly equalized by the 
 immense vigour and energy of the British and Foreign 
 Society, the Dissenters' agency. It is said that the 
 numerical proportion of the two bodies was as nine 
 to one, and the National Society had the wealth and 
 influence of the Establishment in addition. 
 
 From the end of the eighteenth 
 
 The State and century it was admitted that the State 
 Education. , . ^ ^ . 
 
 ought to do something for education, 
 
 and this duty became even more imperative when 
 
30 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 the passing of the First Factory Act in 1802 gave 
 the children of the workers more leisure. The point 
 was whether education should be organised from the 
 centre, or whether the State should cast upon local 
 authorities the duty of establishing parochial schools, 
 and using compulsory rates for their mamtenance. 
 Lord Brougham's opinion was that building grants 
 only would be necessary on the part of the State, 
 and that each locality should control its educational 
 machinery. Much more overwhelming was the religious 
 difficulty, which instead of lessening, rose steadily, in- 
 ducing both parties to repeatedly oppose State inter- 
 Growth of the vention out of religious jealousy. Lord 
 Religious Brougham's important Bill in 1820 
 
 Difficulty. ^^g rejected by the Nonconformists 
 
 because, in their opinion, it strengthened the hands of 
 the Church; the Church defeated Lord Melbourne's 
 Bill in 1839 because Churchmen considered that it 
 placed Dissenters almost on an equal footing with them- 
 selves; in 1842 the Nonconformists opposed Sir Robert 
 Peel's Bill. The most enlightened legislation took for 
 granted that a teacher must be a member of the Church 
 of England, and a certificate from the clergyman of the 
 parish was essential to a teacher's appointment. Even 
 in 1840, when the Government had established inspec- 
 tion of schools, it was necessary to concede that the 
 Primate should sanction the appointment of inspectors. 
 Nonconformists, suspicious and alarmed, compelled a 
 power of veto to be granted to the British and Foreign 
 Society. 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 31 
 
 While the sects wrangled the children were not 
 taught. Far less than half their numbers were to be 
 
 found in schools of any kind, and 
 Inadequacy of ^^^^ ^^^^ wretchedly inadequate. In 
 the Schools. 
 
 the Abstract of Returns, presented to 
 
 the House of Commons in 1839, it was shewn that 
 there were parishes in many English counties absolutely 
 without schools. On a single page of the returns there 
 are often as many as four parishes so marked. Of 
 course their population is usually small, but they run 
 up to 300, 400, 500. In one parish, Earsham, there 
 was only one school, attended by 20 boys and 5 girls, 
 though the population was 759. 
 
 Instruction, if one may use the word, was often given 
 
 in a single room used for sitting, sleeping, and cooking. 
 
 Complaint is made of the languor 
 
 A Liverpool ^^ ^j^^ children, their real inability 
 
 School. 
 
 to do mental work of any kind. 
 
 Such fetid little dens amply account for it. In Liver- 
 pool a school was found in 1840 in a garret, up three 
 pairs of broken stairs. There were forty children in 
 a room ten feet by nine; on a perch in a corner 
 were two hens and a cock, and beneath a stump 
 bed was a dog-kennel with three terriers. The master 
 sat in a position to obscure three-fourths of the 
 light from the one small window. In another Liverpool 
 school no seats were provided, and the children 
 simply squatted on the floor. "In a third school, 
 also in a garret very much dilapidated, and only nine 
 feet by twelve feet, were thirty-eight scholars; not 
 
32 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 more than six of them had any book ; a desk, at which 
 only five boys could be accommodated at the same 
 time, was all the provision for writing and arithmetic. 
 The room below was in the occupation of a cobbler, 
 whose wife lay ill in bed with a fever, himself pursuing 
 his avocation near to the bedside." 
 
 " Religious instruction," says the editor of the papers 
 of the Central Society (1837), "is seldom attended to 
 beyond the rehearsal of a catechism, and moral educa- 
 tion, real cultivation of the mind, and improvement of 
 character, are totally neglected." "Morals," said one 
 master, in answer to an inquiry whether he taught 
 them, " morals ! how am I to teach them to the like 
 of these?" To the same question another master 
 replied, "That question doesn't belong to my school, 
 it belongs to girls' schools." The same authority states 
 that the girls' schools had "a more favourable appear- 
 ance than the boys' schools ; better order and discipline 
 prevailed, and some mistresses appeared to have solid 
 qualifications for their office." Those who collected 
 these facts complained of the conceit and self- 
 sufficiency of the teachers. When the lack of the 
 most necessary equipment was pointed out to them, 
 they retorted that there was no royal road to learning. 
 Much later than this, in 1870, when one of England's 
 twelve largest towns was conducting an enquiry previous 
 to the establishment of some Board Schools, a "school" 
 was found kept by a poor widow in a room 10 feet 
 A "School" in by 8 J. It contained three low 
 1870. forms and a few articles of ordi- 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 33 
 
 nary household furniture; there were no desks, reading 
 
 books, nor slates. The widow only professed to teach 
 
 reading, and this with some difficulty, as she had lost 
 
 the roof of her mouth. Since there were no books, 
 
 she taught her subject by means of posters on the 
 
 wall announcing sales by auction, and especially the 
 
 performances at the local music-hall. 
 
 Such educationists and equipment were by no means 
 
 unique. In the earlier part of the century hardly any 
 
 means existed for the training of 
 Unfitness of , , . , 
 
 Teachers teachers, and in many cases the 
 
 mere failures at other trades and 
 crafts took to teaching the young as the last possible 
 resource. It illustrates the ordinary attitude in England 
 towards education, that when it was proposed to dis- 
 place these ineffectual persons, popular sympathy was 
 largely on their side, since meddlesome people sought 
 to deprive them of their means of earning an honest 
 livelihood. Great complaint was made of the sour 
 temper of the dame schoolmistresses, and its bad effect 
 upon the children. Teachers very largely followed 
 some other occupation. One blind teacher is men- 
 tioned who, in the intervals of hearing lessons, turned 
 his wife's mangle. On the occasions when dames had 
 a washing, a neighbour, or neighbour's child, would 
 mind the school.* On being asked the number of her 
 
 * See the evidence given before the Select Committee on the 
 Education of the Poorer Classes, 1838. Mr. Gladstone sat on 
 it, and was very wishful the poor children should be taught singing 
 to rouse them out of the languor and lassitude of which everyone 
 complained. 
 
 P 
 
3\ EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 scholars, one good lady said she had never counted 
 them, it was unlucky : " Look at the mess David got 
 into by counting the children of Israel." But even 
 whilst education was at this low ebb, it was not 
 Educational everywhere the same. Manchester 
 
 supremacy of does not seem to have been as bad 
 irming am. ^^ Liverpool, and it was universally 
 
 admitted by the witnesses who appeared before the 
 Select Committee of 1838, that Birmingham stood 
 on a different plane altogether. Manchester is said 
 to have had about two-thirds of its children, between 
 five and fifteen, in school for some period of their lives ; 
 in Liverpool this was the case with less than half of the 
 children. At the same time, 1833, out of sixty-five 
 schools at Salford, containing 12,000 children, only 
 five were found to be fairly well provided with books. 
 As an illustration of the short period during which 
 children stayed at school, we may take the case of the 
 model school of the British and Foreign School Society, 
 mentioned by Mr. B. F. Duppa in one of the pamphlets 
 issued in 1837 by the Central Society of Education. 
 There were between 500 and 600 children in one 
 room, taught by one master, Mr. Crossley, and monitors. 
 For one year there were 697 entries. Glancing over 
 a large number of figures brought before the Com- 
 mittee, it is evident that the proportion of girls who 
 went to school was very much smaller than that of 
 boys. One example among a hundred is that of the 
 Bethnal Green National Schools, where, in February, 
 1838, there were 457 boys and 214 girls, and some- 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 35 
 
 times the girls* schools are marked as closed, or dis- 
 continued. 
 
 It need hardly be said that illiteracy during this 
 period was rampant. Of 1459 adult paupers in the 
 
 Norfolk and Suffolk Unions, in 1838, 
 Illiteracy in « « , , , , 
 
 England. ^^^ could not read or write, and 
 
 200 did so very imperfectly. From 
 
 1845 to 1850 inclusive, 45 to 49 per cent, of the 
 
 women who signed the marriage register did so by a 
 
 X; 31 to 33 per cent, of the men did the same. 
 
 About i860 57 per cent, of the British Army were 
 
 illiterate. The hands of the Government were tied 
 
 by sectarian bigotry. Churchmen and Dissenters were 
 
 terrified lest one party should get an advantage over 
 
 the other. 
 
 Nothing can more deserve admiration than the 
 
 indomitable energy with which private individuals, 
 
 ^ . . societies, and boards, attacked a task 
 
 Soaeties at , ' ^ , , , 
 
 ^Qj.jj^ so herculean and apparently hopeless 
 
 as the education of the people. The 
 
 State was not ready, but they were. In a few years we 
 
 find the Home and Colonial Society at work (1836), the 
 
 Central Society, London Diocesan Board, Congregational 
 
 Board, Church of England Sunday-school Institute, 
 
 Ragged School Union, College of Preceptors, Church of 
 
 England Education Society, besides the Society for 
 
 Promoting Christian Knowledge, the British and Foreign 
 
 School Society, and the National Society. These are 
 
 central institutions, but almost every locality had a 
 
 society of its own, independent, connected with these 
 
36 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 or with some of them. In London alone 60 societies 
 arose in 30 years. 
 
 Students of English history are well aware that 
 English rights or liberties, charters, and privileges have 
 How the State been obtained because Parliament 
 began to control retained the command of the purse. 
 Education. ^j^^ Constitution is built upon the 
 
 sound principle of "no supplies without redress of 
 grievances." It was not because the French and 
 Spanish peoples loved despotism that their States- 
 General and Cortes mildly seconded royal commands; 
 the intensely practical English mind lighted on the 
 means of control, and rarely let it slip. It is charac- 
 teristic of the national attitude on this question that 
 the State control of Primary Education was inaugurated 
 in 1832 by means of a money grant of ;£'2o,ooo, merely 
 placed in the Estimates without any legislation, and 
 used for educational purposes through the agency of 
 the National Society and the British and Foreign School 
 Society. The summarized history of State control of 
 education in Britain is simply the increase of that sum, 
 and the increase in efficiency of the schools accepting 
 State aid. " Do you want money to help you in your 
 work?" says the Department in effect. "Then you 
 must accept our terms and regulations." 
 
 From this first money grant in 1832 originated the 
 
 creation of the Committee of Council in 1839 to 
 
 supervise the work. The same 
 
 The Committee ^^^ ^j^^ appointment of the 
 
 of Council, 1839. ' ^f^ 
 
 first mspectors, who were to judge 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 37 
 
 if schools deserved the help they claimed, and whose 
 tact and ability have contributed not a little to evolve 
 a system and coherency out of vast numbers of various 
 schools. Two conditions were imposed on all schools 
 receiving the grant. No school was to receive aid 
 unless the Bible were, at least, read in it j there must 
 besides be a conscience clause, permitting parents to 
 withdraw their children from religious instruction. 
 Church schools were exempted from the operation of 
 this clause, being open only to those who accepted her 
 religious teaching. 
 
 Mr. Henry Craik points out in T?ie State in its 
 Relation to Education how the Government most of 
 all desired to begin a Normal Training 
 Teachers College for Teachers, since teachers 
 
 were the greatest and most pressing 
 need. It was proposed that Nonconformists, availing 
 themselves of such training, should have secular instruc- 
 tion in common with Churchmen, but have religious 
 instruction of their own. The Church bitterly opposed 
 the scheme; it had to be abandoned; and to this day 
 there is no State Training College, the Government 
 simply subsidizing the institutions erected by the sects. 
 
 The Government Grant rapidly increased, as shown 
 in these figures : 
 
 1832 20,000 
 
 1839 30,000 
 
 1870 840,000 
 
 1882 2,393,000 
 
 1894 6,500,000 
 
 1896-97 . . (estimated expenditure) 7,122,000 
 
38 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 The standard of education remained deplorably 
 low. In a careful report on the Midland District in 
 Lowness of the 1^45 it was found that only about 
 Standard of one child in six could read the Scrip- 
 
 Education. Kyxx^s with any ease, and many of 
 
 these could read no secular book. About one-half the 
 children left school without being able to read; only 
 one in four could write in the most mechanical fashion ; 
 not two per cent could work a small sum in the rule 
 of proportion. This was due to the deplorable ignor- 
 ance of teachers and to the lamentable monitorial 
 system, which might work well under a zealot like 
 Lancaster, but was an instrument for evil in the hands 
 of the dull and apathetic. Totally ignorant boys and 
 girls were placed in command of classes which could 
 in no way profit by their instruction; the teaching 
 simply meant to keep the children quiet. 
 
 An improvement was affected in 1846, when the 
 
 Government borrowed the pupil teacher system from 
 
 ^, „ .. Holland. Young people were ap- 
 
 The Pupil . , , , , , r 
 
 Teacher System, prenticed to the head-teacher from 
 
 the thirteenth to the eighteenth 
 
 year, receiving both payment and instruction for their 
 
 services. Grants were ultimately given to sectarian 
 
 training colleges, as already stated, in order to secure 
 
 better training for intending teachers, largely pupil 
 
 teachers who had served their apprenticeship and 
 
 been drafted into the colleges by means of Queen's 
 
 scholarships. After a two years' course they had to sit 
 
 for the final examination for the teacher's certificate. 
 
ELEMElSTTARY OR PRIMARY 39 
 
 The teacher's parchment is only bestowed after she 
 has successfully taught two years in the schools of 
 the Department. A large but fortunately decreasing 
 proportion of teachers are still not fully certificated, 
 especially in Voluntary Schools. The percentage of 
 untrained are: men, 29*21; women, 5077. It is of 
 course obvious that to be untrained does not neces- 
 sarily mean to be incapable. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to dwell upon the operation 
 
 of Original or Revised Codes, of capitation grants, 
 
 payment by results, augmentation 
 
 e e^sed grants, and other means devised 
 
 Code, 1861. ?,„,._ 
 
 by the Education Department m 
 
 its attempts to organise national education by gradual 
 rather than sweeping measures. Capable teachers have 
 always grumbled at the cast-iron mould into which the 
 Department has poured them, and doubtless their 
 objections to the system have been well founded. 
 Original and conscientious teachers have certainly 
 suffered; they could have done better with a freer 
 hand. But laws are mostly made for the wicked, and 
 the Department has had to deal with an army of 
 teachers, a large proportion of whom may have meant 
 well, but some of whom were neither capable, efficient, 
 nor well-educated. Payment by results may have 
 harassed the efficient; it has caused the inefficient and 
 the doubtful to keep the pace. 
 
 If we survey the field about 1870, we shall find a 
 Before 1870 considerable improvement on the mid- 
 
 century state of affairs. Accommoda- 
 
40 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 tion had improved, but it was and remains insufficient; 
 there existed no means of bringing the children into the 
 schools; the teachers were not of the same status as 
 they are to-day ; pupil teachers were far too largely used, 
 they and a head-teacher often staffing a whole school ; 
 the infant schools were little better than nurseries; the 
 standard required of the children was absurdly low. In 
 some manufacturing districts quite young children spent 
 half the day at school and half at the factory. (Half- 
 timers are disappearing. When this paragraph was first 
 written in 1894 they numbered 164,000, chiefly in 
 Lancashire and Yorkshire; in 1896 there were still 
 127,000 too many.) The main faults of the schools 
 were the dull, soulless monotony, parrot-like repetition, 
 mechanical grinding. 
 
 Up to 1870 all that had been done had been 
 achieved by minutes of the Education Department, 
 
 _ , . . without legislation. In 1870, after a 
 
 Education Act, ^ ' ' 
 
 jg^Q^ long struggle, embittered by religious 
 
 prejudice and jealousy, Mr. Forster's 
 famous Education Bill became law, under Mr. Glad- 
 stone's First Ministry. The Nonconformists greatly 
 opposed it. Since its passing into law, the Noncon- 
 formists have upheld and the Church opposed it. 
 Briefly summarized, the great measure divided the 
 country into school districts, adopting the boundaries 
 of boroughs for towns, of civil parishes for the country. 
 If school accommodation were deficient, or if the 
 The School inhabitants desired it, a School Board 
 
 Board. was to be elected by the ratepayers, 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY \\ 
 
 empowered to demand from the rating authority the 
 amount required for school provision and maintenance ; 
 it was to possess the power of erecting and managing 
 schools. All schools receiving Government aid were to 
 be worked by means of a conscience clause \ catechisms 
 and formularies distinctive of particular religious sects 
 were to be excluded from rate - supported schools. 
 School Boards had optional powers to make attendance 
 compulsory between the ages of five and thirteen ; they 
 could fix the standard at which a child might leave 
 school, and often they fixed it pretty low. 
 
 Genuine educationists were abashed at what the Act 
 left undone ; others at what the Government had dared 
 to do. The former noted that education was not com- 
 pulsory, not free: School Boards failed to cover the 
 country. Yet a great step in advance dates from 1870 ; 
 all State-aided Church schools had for the first time 
 to submit to a conscience clause. At this time nine 
 schools out of every ten were Church schools. The 
 
 A i. r o^ic J Acts of 1876 and 1880 added to the 
 Acts of 1876 and ' 
 
 1880. power of the State arm in education. 
 
 The former, known as Lord Sandon's 
 Act, set up a new authority, called the School Attend- 
 ance Committee, for the purpose of enforcing attendance 
 where no School Boards existed. The Act of 1870 did 
 not affect such districts. They were now empowered to 
 form a School Attendance Committee, which, strange 
 to say, was not compelled to make bye-laws com- 
 Compulsory pelling children to attend school. 
 
 Attendance. Mr. Mundella's Act in 1880 supplied 
 
42 EDUCATION OP GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 the necessary compulsion. The Acts forbad the em 
 ployment of children below the age of ten. Exemp- 
 tions from school attendance between the ages of ten 
 (now eleven) and fourteen are legal if a child has 
 passed a certain standard, usually the fourth, to be 
 settled by each Board. Parents neglecting to educate 
 their children were subjected to penalties ; officers, 
 known as school attendance officers, were appointed 
 to visit children absenting themselves from school. 
 The last great link in the chain of State Education 
 
 _ ^, .. was the Act of 1891, by which edu- 
 
 Free Education, ^ > / 
 
 1891. cation was declared free. Parents 
 
 are now authorized to demand free 
 places in elementary schools for their children. In 
 1895, 16,493 schools were absolutely free; 3132 con- 
 tinued to charge fees, though admitting free scholars ; 
 only 114 refused what is technically called the fee-grant 
 of the Department, los. per annum for each child, to 
 replace the payment of fees. 
 
 The following statistics of the Education Depart- 
 ment, including England and Wales, may be found 
 useful : 
 
 England has, unlike France, a very large child popu- 
 
 T- 1 .. ^LM^ lation in comparison with her adult 
 
 England's Child ^ 
 
 Population. population. Thus, out of 29,731,000, 
 
 the number of children was 7,536,000. 
 
 (The figures refer to 1891.) The estimated population 
 
 for 1895 was 30,394,000; but probably there is no 
 
 alteration in the proportion. 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 43 
 
 1895. Boys and Girls. 
 
 Number on the school registers receiving 
 
 elementary education . . . . 5>325>ooo 
 
 Present at inspection . . . . 4,868,000 
 
 In average attendance . . . . 4,325,000 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Number receiving elementary education . (Not known ; 
 
 no departmental returns). 
 Present at inspection . . . . 2,380,000 
 
 In average attendance . . . . 2,079,000 
 
 Note that ciphers have been substittUed for last three figures. 
 
 The Education Act of 1891, which came into force 
 in 1892, providing free education wherever parents chose 
 to claim it, has swept a large number of infants between 
 three and five into the schools. The Department 
 inclines to the opinion that it has also increased the 
 attendance of the older scholars. The schools which 
 are not free are chiefly voluntary, and therefore Church 
 schools. In 1895 free scholars numbered 4,519,000, 
 compared with 780,000 paying scholars. 
 
 The Department has a great army of teachers work- 
 ing under it : 
 
 Number of Certificated teachers {trained and 
 
 Teachers. untrained) . . , . 53,000 
 
 Assistant . . . . 28,000 
 
 Additional . , . . 11,600 
 
 Pupil Teachers . . . . 30,000 
 
 Studying in Training Colleges and 
 
 Day Training Departments , . 4,380 
 
44 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Teachers are very variously paid, according to sex, 
 and whether their school is Board or Voluntary : 
 
 Payment of 1870. Average pay of Certificated 
 
 Teachers. Head-master . . . ;^94 
 
 1895 £m 
 
 1870 . . . Mistress ;^57 
 1895 ;^87 
 
 AVERAGE PAY DISTINGUISHING BOARD FROM 
 VOLUNTARY TEACHERS. 
 
 Church of England 
 
 Wesleyan . 
 
 Roman Catholic . 
 
 British, Undenominational, &c. £l^Z 
 
 School Board 
 
 The pay of teachers is steadily rising; indeed the 
 whole profession stands in a different position from what 
 it occupied in 1870. It is safe to prophesy a further 
 rise in pay, social standing, and popular estimation. 
 
 The difference between the pay of masters and 
 mistresses for performing much the same work is 
 'H 1 ^ question specially interesting to 
 than Men. women. The authorities at White- 
 
 hall have no explanation to offer on 
 the subject. It is worth noting that the percentage of 
 difference between the salaries of a Board schoolmaster 
 and mistress is less than in the Voluntary school. 
 
 An increasing proportion of women teachers are 
 being employed in the elementary schools of the 
 
 
 Mistresses' 
 
 Head- 
 
 Head- percentage of 
 mistress. Masters' salary. 
 
 master. 
 
 £\2\ 
 
 .. £n ... ^62 
 
 £110 
 
 .. ;^86 ... ;^50 
 
 £117 
 
 .. ;^66 ... ;^56 
 
 £H3 
 
 .. ;^8i ... £16 
 
 £\^2 
 
 .. ;^II4 ... £70 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 45 
 
 Proportion of country. In 1869, for every 100 
 Women teachers of each class, 48 certifi- 
 
 Teachers. cated, 60 assistant teachers, and 57 
 
 pupil teachers were women and girls. In 1894 the 
 proportions had increased to 60 certificated teachers, 
 82 assistant teachers, and 79 pupil teachers. The 
 teachers in the Infants' Department are all women. 
 (For the figures see page 166). 
 
 How the cost of '^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Elementary Education 
 Elementary in England and Wales is met in two 
 
 Education is met. principal ways : 
 
 {a) A grant from the Imperial Treasury, estimated 
 to be, for 1896-97, ;£'7, 12 2,000. The Education De- 
 partment distributes this sum to School Boards and 
 Boards of Managers of Voluntary schools. The 
 efficiency of a school, as judged by the report of 
 the inspector, or result of an examination, the 
 adequacy of the staff, the state of the buildings, the 
 previous record, are all taken into consideration in 
 allocating the grant. 
 
 {b) Local moneys raised thus : — (i) Local rates paid 
 to the local School Board by the rating authority. 
 Board schools are the only rate-supported schools. 
 The rates collected for this purpose in 1895 amounted 
 to ;^i,942,ooo. (2) Voluntary contributions, usually 
 raised through religious agencies for the support of 
 Denominational schools which receive no aid from the 
 rates. The chief of these are the Church of England 
 and Roman Catholic schools. The sum raised in 1895 
 in voluntary contributions was ;£^836,ooo, of which less 
 
46 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 than ;£'2,ooo was devoted to Board schools. Volun- 
 tary contributions show a tendency to fall off, though 
 they have slightly risen for the last year or two. 
 
 The cost per child in Voluntary schools in 1895 was 
 £^1 i8j. i\\d.', in Board schools, £^2 \os. \\d. The 
 first sum is chiefly made up by grant 
 CIjjIjj^ (from all sources), voluntary contribu- 
 
 tions, endowment, school-pence. The 
 second by grant (from all sources), rates, school-pence. 
 The earning of Government grant is commonly re- 
 garded as a test of efficiency : Voluntary schools earn 
 \Zs. ^\d. per head; Board, 19J. 5^. 
 
 The numbers of children in Voluntary schools are 
 2,445,000 ; in Board, 1,879,000. The latter have shewn 
 
 ^, , - ^^ a tendency to gain upon the former. 
 Numbers of the y o r 
 
 Children. ^"^' ^" ^^^ mam, possess better build- 
 
 ings and equipments, more highly 
 certificated and better paid teachers, the result of having 
 more funds at their disposal.* It is only fair to state 
 that many village schools are Voluntary, having always 
 been under the wing of the Church of England. Many 
 Churchmen claim that such schools need aid from the 
 rates; those who are opposed to sectarian education 
 sometimes admit this claim, but advance a counter 
 claim for control by the ratepayers. 
 
 * Sir John Gorst freely admits the inferiority of the Voluntary 
 schools. Comparing them with the Board schools, he states : 
 " They have worse buildings, worse apparatus, worse paid teachers, 
 assistants with inferior qualifications, and larger classes for these 
 teachers to instruct." (See his article in the November number of 
 the Nineteenth Century, 1896.) 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 47 
 
 The standard of education in the Elementary schools 
 cannot be termed high, though of recent years a marked 
 A Typical improvement has been visible. The 
 
 Elementary following is a typical curriculum in 
 
 Curriculum. ^ gjj.lg> school: — reading, writing, 
 
 arithmetic, two class subjects (English, geography, 
 history, sewing, singing) ; one specific subject (algebra, 
 chemistry, domestic economy, French, cookery). Drill 
 is now commonly taught to both sexes; without it, 
 the higher grant cannot be earned. 
 
 The difference in the curriculum for boys and girls 
 is that drawing is compulsory for boys, sewing for girls. 
 How Girls ^ Treasury rule lays down that a girls' 
 
 specialize too school cannot earn the drawing grant 
 
 **^ y* unless cookery is taken ; and practically 
 
 this is prohibition. In order to proceed further in 
 sewing, the teacher may also take it as a class subject 
 instead of history or geography; inspectors are in- 
 structed to accept a lower standard of arithmetic from 
 girls than from boys, because of the encroachment on 
 their time by cooking and sewing. In many cases four 
 or five hours weekly are spent upon sewing. Thus 
 girls lose the cultivation of their powers of observation 
 by drawing ; neglect history and geography, by which 
 the mental horizon is widened; have the training in 
 precision and accuracy, which arithmetic can give, 
 relaxed. All this to gain skill in a handicraft for which 
 they have seldom shewn much liking,* and which is 
 
 * The keeping of girls to the needle was a great business in 
 olden times. The elder ladies seem to have found that it depressed 
 
48 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 largely rendered useless by the sewing machine, and 
 
 by the growing custom among all classes of buying 
 
 ready-made garments, especially woven garments, which 
 
 are rapidly superseding all others. Those who are not 
 
 convinced that there is a great expenditure of time 
 
 upon so uneducational a subject as sewing, should 
 
 attend the admirable exhibition of the work of 
 
 children under the London School Board, in the Hugh 
 
 Myddelton Schools, Clerkenwell, held annually in July. 
 
 The most elaborate garments, such as small dresses, 
 
 petticoats and pinafores with lace insertion, were 
 
 ticketed, in 1896, as having been worked by children 
 
 of six or seven, with hardly any assistance from the 
 
 teachers. On the other hand, the importance of 
 
 drawing can scarcely be over-estimated. "The chief 
 
 object of the craftsman," observes one of H.M. 
 
 Inspectors, "as of everyone else engaged in education, 
 
 is the training of the eye. ... It is the schoolmaster's 
 
 duty to train faculties, and not to develop facilities ; it is 
 
 waste of time to teach at school what can be as well or 
 
 better taught in the business of life." 
 
 It has been laid down as a rule by the authorities 
 
 on Technical Education, that no trade or employment 
 
 . ,. shall be directly taught in elementary 
 Early specializa- , , rr., .^ , 
 tion bad for boys, schools. Thus, if a boy means to be 
 
 a carpenter, he cannot learn carpentry 
 as part of the school curriculum until he has passed 
 Standard IV. 
 
 the spirits of the younger ones, making them more amenable to 
 control. Consequently the needle was greatly praised. 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 49 
 
 It is remarkable how sound educational axioms seem 
 to be flung to the winds in the case of girls f for them, 
 sewing begins in the infant school. School Boards 
 and Education Departments alike seem to conspire to 
 deprive girls of that broader general training which is 
 necessary even to technical skill. And now we see 
 small children of eleven learning cookery, housewifery, 
 laundry work, as if little girls could not be too early 
 pressed into a narrow mould. Authorities on the em- 
 ployment of women can shew that inability to draw 
 even moderately well, the lack of preciseness which 
 arithmetic is supposed to inculcate, is injurious to them 
 when they enter the labour market, as they do by 
 millions. Of course there could be no objection to 
 spending an hour a week upon sewing, since the hand 
 requires to be trained ; nor to older girls learning 
 cookery, laundry work, and so forth, in Technical or 
 Evening Continuation schools, at the age of 16, or 
 thereabouts. Some authorities hold that no difference 
 should be made between the education of the sexes 
 before the twelfth year ; if sewing is good for girls up 
 to that age, for the same reasons it would be good 
 for boys. 
 
 A grievance of women until quite recently was that 
 
 no woman filled the post of inspector, except a directress 
 
 of needlework. In the spring of 1896 
 
 Women as ^j^^ Education Department appointed 
 
 Inspectors. ,.^ , , ,. 1 . 
 
 two qualified ladies as sub-inspectors, 
 
 • See Mrs. Stanton Blatch on this subject in the Journal oj 
 Education, Oct. 1894. 
 
 £ 
 
50 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 and, moreover, placed them on the same footing as 
 men with regard to pay and other conditions. These 
 appointments gave great satisfaction. It is worth noting 
 that India has had women as inspectors of schools ever 
 since 1880. 
 
 It is evident from what has been written that the 
 present century has seen momentous changes in the 
 Weak ooints in educational world. Much has been 
 the Elementary done, and much more remains to do. 
 System. Speaking generally, the teaching in the 
 
 infant department and upper standards is relatively 
 better than in the lower standards, from the second to 
 the fourth inclusive. It is noteworthy that the 
 numbers are very large in these, especially as compared 
 with the upper standards. The following are weak 
 points in the English Elementary System : 
 
 (i.) The attendance in elementary schools is poor. 
 
 Not only are some districts backward in enforcing 
 
 .,, , attendance, but the children attend 
 
 Attendance. 
 
 irregularly when on the registers. The 
 
 average attendance for every 100 is 81 -61. Allowance 
 
 must be made for the fact that very young children, 
 
 from 3 years of age, now go to school and bring down 
 
 the percentage by irregular attendance. But even the 
 
 older children's attendance is 86*91. England is far 
 
 behind Germany in regular attendance ; the most 
 
 trumpery excuse is too often urged and accepted for 
 
 absence from school. 
 
 (ii.) The size of the classes is sometimes enormous; 
 
 70, 80, 90, and even 100 have been found in one class. 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 51 
 
 This of course almost prohibits per- 
 Size of Classes 
 
 sonal relationship between teacher 
 
 and pupils, it lessens and even nullifies the teacher's 
 
 great weapon of influence. The Department recognizes 
 
 the importance of smaller classes, and is taking 
 
 measures to secure them. 
 
 (iii.) Children are permitted to leave the schools at 
 
 a very early age. Provided she has passed the sixth 
 
 standard at eleven, a child may leave 
 Leaving too ^ 
 
 young. ^^ ^^^^ ^g^j wholly exempt from school 
 
 attendance. The time has surely now 
 
 come when no child shall be permitted to leave before 
 
 the age of fourteen. The half-time system needs to be 
 
 abolished. The child who has passed the third standard 
 
 in the country, the fourth in a town, may usually become 
 
 a half-timer. 
 
 (iv.) Pupil teachers are far too much left in control 
 
 _ .. _ . of classes numbering 30 children, and 
 
 Pupil Teachers. ^ ^ 
 
 sometimes more. 
 
 These are the chief defects of the internal regulation 
 
 of the schools. External influences hamper them not a 
 
 _ ^ _ ^ , little, notably the bad conditions of 
 Bad External 
 
 Conditions. ^^^ ^^ certain quarters of London 
 
 and other great cities. Exorbitant 
 rent acts almost as a prohibitive of personal cleanliness 
 and decency. Many children are ill fed and ill clad, 
 ill kept, and even dirty. The Board schools in large 
 cities, especially London, have a large proportion of 
 such children to deal with. Few schools fail to attach 
 importance to manners and personal cleanliness; but 
 
52 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 bad social conditions make the teacher's task one of 
 grave difficulty. 
 
 One might have imagined that in a country where the 
 extremes of wealth and poverty strike the intelligent 
 visitor more than any other feature of our social 
 system, all classes alike would have combined to 
 secure the easy development of the elementary schools, 
 their increased efficiency and attractiveness. Speaking 
 generally, the schools are popular and appreciated, 
 the children are bright and happy.* Yet a section 
 of the nation, largely though by no means entirely 
 
 ^. . the wealthy and comfortable, from 
 
 Education , ^ . \^. . 
 
 begrudged. ^"^ Prime Mmister downwards, per- 
 
 sistently oppose the levelling up of 
 the schools, especially the Board schools, and every 
 now and then make bitter attacks upon them, 
 proposing to cut down the expenditure. Notably 
 is this the case with the London School Board, which 
 has on the whole performed satisfactorily a task of 
 unparalleled magnitude and difficulty. It pays its 
 teachers well, and as a result has men and women 
 of character and capacity — many of them the real 
 missionaries of London — in its service. Within ten 
 years the London School Board has received 109 
 complaints from Vestries, District Boards of Works, 
 and other bodies. Numerous other complaints and 
 
 * Dr. Buddensieg, Principal of the Government Training 
 College at Dresden, visited three London Board schools in 
 September, 1896. He observed afterwards how much he was 
 struck by the happy and interested expression of the children. 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 53 
 
 votes of censure on the growing expenditure of the 
 Board have been prepared, but failed of acceptance by 
 the majority. Such facts are an instructive comment 
 upon the much lauded English public spirit. The 
 School Boards, in particular, have to deal with the 
 lower and poorer classes, and even those on the 
 borderland of vice. The mere diminishing the num- 
 bers in the classes, a highly necessary reform, will 
 add to the expenditure of the schools ; and those who 
 realize its importance, hope for it at the earliest possible 
 date. The greater wealth of the Board schools has 
 undoubtedly led to the levelling up of the Voluntary 
 schools : they have led the movement. 
 
 Mention must be made of the higher grade or 
 upper standard schools, in which education is continued 
 
 „. . _ . to the age of about sixteen. It 
 
 Higher Grade ° 
 
 Schools. ^s stated that the education of girls 
 
 is more commonly carried on to such 
 an age than that of boys, who go to work earlier. 
 Lower standards are of course also part of such 
 schools, the work of the upper standards being addi- 
 tional to the rest, and apt to result from the energy 
 of capable teachers and Boards which avoid the cheese- 
 paring policy. 
 
 School Boards have also devised what is known as 
 Pupil Teachers' Centres. In the past, head teachers 
 p .. -, . , trained the pupil teachers before and 
 Centres. ^^^r regular school hours ; a plan both 
 
 wasteful and unsatisfactory. Pupil 
 teachers are now grouped at centres, of which the 
 
54 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 London School Board alone has twelve, where 2400 
 students of both sexes are taught together. An 
 arrangement is made by which the time of the pupil 
 teacher is divided between the school to which she 
 is attached and the centre, and, so far, the results 
 have been excellent. Many Boards permit Voluntary 
 pupil teachers to avail themselves of the privileges of 
 instruction at the centre upon easy conditions. 
 Similar arrangements are made with regard to instruc- 
 tion for children at cookery, laundry, and housewifery 
 centres. As time goes on, the Kindergarten system 
 is adopted more and more for young children. At 
 three years of age the Education Department recog- 
 nizes the youthful scholar; she begins the onerous 
 work of earning a grant for the school. A few are sent 
 below this age, so that it is necessary to adopt Kinder- 
 garten methods in teaching children of such tender 
 age. The infant schools up to 1870 were mere 
 nurseries; but in the best of the Kindergartens 
 attention is paid to Froebel's principles, now gaining 
 ground more and more. In the great three- block 
 schools it is common to find nearly three-sevenths 
 of the total number of children in the infant school. 
 In the upper divisions reading and writing are usually 
 well advanced when the child is ready for Standard I. 
 
 The early age at which English children may leave 
 
 school has led to a further development of the 
 
 Elementary system by means of 
 
 Evening Continu- Evening Continuation schools, which 
 ation Schools. ° 
 
 were organized under the Code of 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 55 
 
 1892. At first they were indifferently attended, and 
 hasty persons styled them failures, at least as far as 
 London was concerned. The judgment was premature, 
 for in 1895 these schools were attended by 270,000 
 scholars, the majority of whom pay for their instruc- 
 tion. The list of subjects is lengthy, and though the 
 three Rs are still the most widely taught, the report 
 of the Committee of Council states that the curriculum 
 will probably be technical in character. The schools 
 largely replace the night schools of former days, and 
 are partly taught by day-school teachers. There is great 
 need for them in country districts, where educational 
 opportunities are few. Unhappily scholars also are few, 
 so that there is a need for voluntary teachers, who, it is 
 said, were more easy to find when the old night schools 
 were at work than nowadays. 
 
 The Education Department has gradually extended 
 its authority over eighty schools for blind and deaf 
 The Blind Deaf- children. 1460 are in schools for 
 mutes, and Men- the blind ; the deaf number almost 
 tally defective. 3000. Besides these, there are 
 schools for mentally defective children, not yet paid 
 for on a higher scale than the ordinary elementary 
 school. The London Board maintains 26 such centres 
 for special instruction, under Mrs. Burgwin's superin- 
 tendence; there are about 900 afflicted children in 
 average attendance. 
 
 Strange to say the Department has not yet oversight 
 of the Poor Law schools, in which pauper children 
 are boarded and educated. These schools are under 
 
56 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 the supervision of the Local Government Board. 
 Complaint was at one time rife as 
 
 oor aw ^Q ^^ indifferent treatment these 
 
 Schools. 
 
 children received, and the large 
 
 number who turned out social failures. To-day better 
 
 theories and conditions prevail. The children are 
 
 not to blame for the misfortunes, folly, or even 
 
 wickedness, of their parents ; in any case, the aim 
 
 must be to produce the best possible citizen out of 
 
 the material. This is now clearly recognized, and 
 
 has worked a revolution in the environment of the 
 
 children. The best testimony to the value of better 
 
 treatment is their improved appearance, health, and 
 
 the positions they take on leaving the schools. A 
 
 difference of opinion exists as to the value of the 
 
 "barrack school," i.e. children massed together by 
 
 hundreds, or the "cottage home" system, where they 
 
 live together a score in one building. At the first blush, 
 
 the latter seems to have more in its favour. But there 
 
 are two objections to be urged against it. The first is 
 
 the loss of influence by separation from them when the 
 
 master and matron are both thoroughly capable and 
 
 kind. The second is the difficulty of finding entirely 
 
 suitable persons for the cottages, which, with twenty 
 
 children in them, can never bear a strong resemblance 
 
 to either cottages or homes. 
 
 Elementary '^^^ history of Elementary Education 
 
 Education in in the Principality of Wales is not 
 
 Wales. devoid of interest. Wales is a poor 
 
 country; except at Cardiff and Swansea, its interests 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 57 
 
 are mainly bound up in mining, fishing, and agriculture. 
 Until the Government began to pay grants in aid, 
 education was chiefly conspicuous by its absence. And 
 at first the grants were looked upon with distrust, for 
 the Welsh are emphatic in their dissent from the 
 Episcopalian Church ; it has been said that some 
 thought grants must be a device to gain their adhesion 
 to it. 
 
 The British and Foreign and National Societies were 
 never very active in Wales; and for this reason, as 
 well as the poverty of the country, education in the 
 mid-century is said to have been at an even lower ebb 
 than in England. 
 
 The Committee of Council in 1846 directed that 
 an inquiry should be made into the state of Welsh 
 . Education, especially into the means 
 
 of 1846. afforded the labouring classes of 
 
 acquiring a knowledge of the English 
 language. As the Commissioners did not know Welsh, 
 they used interpreters \ they drew up what reads like a 
 very frank account of what they saw and heard, so much 
 so that they evoked an outburst of fury on the part of 
 the Welsh.* Mention is made by one Commissioner 
 of the "widespread disregard of temperance, ... of 
 chastity, of veracity, and fair dealing" in Wales; a second 
 alludes to "drunkenness, blasphemy, indecency, sexual 
 vices, and lawlessness " ; a third tells us of social and 
 moral depravity. Many large districts had no schools 
 
 * See the account of Welsh Education in Messrs. Swan Sonnen- 
 schein's Cyclopadia. 
 
58 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 at all ; seventy-two parishes in Brecknock, Cardigan, 
 
 and Radnor were so situated. 
 
 The schoolroom, where it existed, was the teacher's 
 
 living room, the loft over a chapel stables, or churches 
 
 « . r .,. a^^d chapels themselves. A roof or 
 
 Poverty of the . 
 
 Welsh Schools, ^^or without holes, a fireplace, a 
 
 window capable of admitting sufficient 
 light or any air were uncommon. A few trained and 
 able teachers were to be found ; but many of them 
 carried on their teaching with such honest callings as 
 broom and clog-making, cow-keeping, etc. The teacher 
 might be porter, barber, sexton, publican, matron to a 
 lying-in hospital, drover; and some received parish relief. 
 Not a few were devoid of the rudiments of education; 
 and so ignorant of English, the language in which they 
 professed to teach, that the Commissioners could only 
 speak to them through interpreters. School registers 
 were unknown ; even the model school at Newport had 
 none. State aid began a better era, the Welsh people 
 being truly appreciative of education. After the Revised 
 Code of 1 86 1, 600 schools were found in the country. 
 H.M. Inspector reported that "the prospects of educa- 
 tion were sufficiently hopeful and encouraging." 
 
 After the Act of 1870, School Boards multiplied 
 rapidly, because Church schools are displeasing to the 
 
 ,„ , , ^ ^ , majority of the people. Welsh School 
 
 Welsh School ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 •Qq2s6.. Boards now number 328, as against 
 
 2159 in England, the former being 
 
 relatively more numerous. From 1870 onwards Welsh 
 
 educational development has been more assimilated to 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 59 
 
 that of England. Special instructions are issued by 
 the Education Department that Welsh may be used 
 side by side with English in the schools of Welsh- 
 speaking districts, in order to facilitate intelligent 
 comprehension. Inspectors make use of Welsh to 
 test the children. It is perhaps worth noting that 
 the Welsh earn a proportionately larger grant than 
 the English schools. Omitting the capital charges in 
 1894-95— 
 
 England spent Wales spent 
 
 Rates . ... 56.7 ... 49-4 
 
 Grants, fees, &c. . , .43*3 ••• 5o*6 
 
 (N.B. — Only Board schools may use the rates.) 
 
 Education is cheaper in Wales than in England : 
 Each Board school child cost the State and municipality 
 in 1895 £^2 4s. 42d., whereas in England the cost 
 was £^2 I OS. 7jd. The total number of elementary 
 schools in Wales is 1467, of which 725 are Board 
 schools. 
 
 In closing this brief survey of the Elementary Educa- 
 tion of England and Wales, it may perhaps be well 
 to call express attention to the great 
 
 Great changes changes which have taken place It 
 in Elementary 
 
 Education. ^^ "°^ uncommon to hear fairly 
 
 intelligent secondary teachers allude 
 to the work of the Education Department as if the 
 Revised Code of 1861 and the system of payment 
 by results were still in full force. This would appear 
 to shew the isolation in which teachers — especially, it is 
 to be feared, women-teachers —are often content to work. 
 
6o EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Payment by results has almost disappeared. It first 
 took the form of payment on individual passes; then 
 a percentage of passes, modified by means of a merit 
 grant, so that the conscientious and intelligent teacher 
 might not be too hard pressed. When payment for 
 individual passes was abolished, the Government grant 
 still depended upon the annual examination ; Her 
 Majesty's Inspector examined classes chosen by him 
 from the standards, to which the teacher had the right 
 of adding a certain number. Under the Code of 1896 
 the grant was made to depend, in all 
 Grant now -^^^ ^ ^^^ cases, upon two or more 
 
 depends on , . . . , tt ,r • , 
 
 inspection. annual surprise visits by Her Majesty's 
 
 Inspector. This important change 
 was largely due to representations made by the National 
 Union of Teachers, a powerful professional organization. 
 Elsewhere it has been pointed out that the success'of this 
 revolution depends upon the thorough conscientiousness 
 of the teachers. The following concise resumS may 
 show more clearly the steps by which the Department 
 has reached its present method of allocating the grant : 
 
 1. Individual passes + fixed grant. 
 
 2. Percentage of passes + merit grant + fixed grant. 
 
 3. Variable grants in accordance with general 
 efficiency, tested by the annual visit of H.M. 
 Inspector with notice. 
 
 4. Same as No. 3, but tested by two or more annual 
 visits without notice. 
 
 The Department thus scarcely deserves the oft-urged 
 accusation of rigidity, if we look at its operations over 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 6l 
 
 a sufficiently lengthy period. The curriculum has been 
 greatly expanded; the Code is so often altered, that 
 the N.U.T. issues yearly an edition of 20,000 copies, 
 annotated and simplified, so that its members may 
 readily comprehend the frequent changes. The inward 
 meaning of the changes simply testifies to the fact that 
 the Department can now trust the teachers, as it was 
 unable to do in the earlier years of its existence. 
 
 A recent addition to the staff of the Education 
 Department testifies to its readiness to ascertain what 
 is being done in the world of education, and its desire 
 to profit by the experience of other nations. In 1895, 
 during the Vice-Presidency of the Right Hon. A. H. D. 
 Acland, the section known as Special Inquiries and 
 Reports was instituted, the directorship of which was 
 accepted by Mr. M. E. Sadler. The Report of the 
 Committee of the Council on Education, 1894-95, 
 states that "the increasing importance and complexity 
 of the questions which are now constantly arising for our 
 decision have rendered it necessary for us to have the 
 assistance of an officer charged with the special duty of 
 keeping, so far as may be found practicable or expedient, 
 a systematic record of educational work and experiments, 
 both in this country and abroad." The Director also 
 supplies the Department with information upon any 
 special question connected with educational matters, 
 and to this end sometimes spends weeks, or it may be 
 months, abroad. Part of the educational library of the 
 S. Kensington Museum, viz., books on pedagogy and 
 educational administration, have recently been removed 
 
62 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 to 43, Parliament Street, the close neighbourhood of the 
 offices of the Education Department, where it will be 
 more useful for purposes of reference than in its late 
 location. The Hbrary will be opened to the public at 
 convenient hours, and is to be placed under the charge 
 of the Director of Special Inquiries and Reports. Both 
 these and other changes testify to the increasing scope 
 and activity of the Education Department. 
 
 It may here be noted that there is less differentiation 
 in the elementary education of the sexes than in any 
 other section. The exceptions, the too early specializa- 
 tion of girls in sewing and its results, as well as the 
 tendency for girls to stay later at school than do boys, 
 have been commented on in their place. 
 
 VISIT TO A BOARD AND A VOLUNTARY SCHOOL 
 
 It was suggested to the writer that it might be well 
 to visit typical Board and Voluntary schools, and to 
 record the most noteworthy features visible on a brief 
 visit. The two schools were recommended by a com- 
 petent judge as excellent of their kind, and were not 
 selected by the writer. Both lie within the four-mile 
 radius of St. Paul's, and a whole morning was devoted 
 to each. 
 
 The Voluntary school was the first visited. It forms 
 one of the usual three-block type : girls, boys, infants ; 
 each department separate under its own head. The 
 girls' school is in good buildings, rather picturesque 
 to view, but not properly adapted for the purpose, since 
 they are used for a Sunday school and, probably, for 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 63 
 
 parish or Church meetings likewise. They consist of 
 one large main hall, one large and one fair-sized class- 
 room. Since the classes number five, this means that 
 three classes must be held in the large hall. These the 
 mistress had carefully partitioned from each other by 
 means of curtains ; but curtains have a way of gaping, 
 and the noise made by each class was more than 
 audible to the -other. Moreover, the small class-room 
 was reached through this hall, an additional disad- 
 vantage. 
 
 The mistress had held her certificate prior to the 
 days of Board schools ; she appeared a woman of wide 
 experience, kindly, capable, ready to move with the 
 times, to profit by the changes now taking place. It 
 was evident that, given these buildings and conditions, 
 the best possible was being done for the children. 
 
 An evident disadvantage was the small playground; 
 of this, the boys had half, the remaining half being for 
 girls and infants. Girls and boys would each number 
 about 350 ; infants, 400. Of course, girls and infants 
 use the playground at different times. Another dis- 
 advantage was the under-staffing of the school, a result 
 of its poverty. Two assistants, on leaving, had their 
 classes and salaries divided among the remaining five 
 teachers. The classes are no larger than Board schools 
 often have, the largest appearing to be 70 on the books, 
 which usually means 60 present. Excellent lessons 
 were being given in geography, arithmetic, and so forth ; 
 one class of a dozen little girls, backward in arithmetic, 
 was being taught by a senior scholar, who had concrete 
 
64 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 examples of tens and hundreds in small bundles of 
 sticks. In another class, the girls were being measured 
 in inches for their height, each total being reduced to 
 feet. On inquiry, the salaries of the teachers were 
 ascertained to be: head-mistress, £1.^0 and a house; 
 the five assistants earn from £^0 to £()o, only the last 
 being a trained mistress. Four assistant teachers are 
 therefore ex-pupil teachers, without even the moderate 
 equipment that a Training College course affords. The 
 mistress of the infants has jQiio and a house. She has 
 five ex-pupil teacher assistants, with salaries varying from 
 ;£"45 up to £to. The infant mistress herself has to 
 give lessons to her pupil teachers between 8.30 and 
 9.30 a.m.; a pleasant preparation for dealing with 
 large classes of small children in the heat of July. 
 
 Talking to the head-mistress of the girls' department 
 over the difficulty of retaining her capable teachers, 
 she observed that, although personally they were loyal 
 to herself, they were constantly drafted into Board 
 schools, where better pay and conditions obtain, 
 leaving with many regrets. 
 
 Amongst the advantages of this school the mistress 
 named the supervision and kindly help and advice of 
 the vicar under whom she worked. The children here 
 pay 3d. weekly as school-pence, and this fact, as well 
 as a rather superior neighbourhood, tends to bring 
 better-class children to the school. They are particu- 
 larly neat, clean, and well-mannered. The mistress 
 explained that a widow's children are taken free, and 
 the pence are also remitted when the bread-winner is 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY ^t, 
 
 out of work. Although the school furniture is not 
 up to date — far too big girls sitting at small desks — yet 
 the rooms are clean, bright, nicely ornamented with 
 flowers. Another advantage in dealing with better-class 
 children is that they can do a little home-work — not 
 much more than a quarter of an hour, but enough to 
 prove that they can take a few steps alone. Some of 
 the girls of the first class — a composite class made up 
 of sixth, seventh, and ex-standard girls — attend cookery 
 and laundry classes at the nearest centre; domestic 
 hygiene is taught in the school itself. 
 
 The Board school visited is in a neighbourhood not 
 nearly equal to that of the Voluntary school. It is a 
 free school, and the class of children poorer and not 
 well kept. The girls' dress contrasted disadvantageously 
 with that of the boys in the same school : the boys' close- 
 cropped hair and closely fitting garments must be more 
 convenient in one or two-roomed tenements than a mop 
 of unkempt hair ; the girls* washable dresses and pina- 
 fores did not manifest any recent acquaintance with the 
 wash-tub. Every class has its separate room, both for 
 boys and girls ; every one of these was entered. They 
 are well kept ; the extremely plain walls, of rough brick, 
 painted or coloured, are hung with school pictures and 
 illustrations. Much is said against Board school 
 manners, but, doubtless, coarse, careless parents must 
 bear almost all the blame. In every class the children 
 rose as the visitor entered or left the room, the master 
 observing that outside he could hardly expect them to 
 behave differently from the ordinary gamins. Both the 
 
 F 
 
66 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 master and mistress are suitable people for the work 
 they have undertaken, entering it much in the spirit 
 of missionaries, and with considerable zeal. 
 
 Salaries are higher than in Voluntary schools. The 
 income of the head-mistress is ;^i92, rising £^^ yearly 
 (no house); that of her assistants, £,^^ to ;£"i25, the 
 latter being a maximum. Each of these is a trained 
 teacher, equal to the head in all but experience. The 
 latter was asked if the London School Board objects to 
 untrained mistresses : " I am not sure ; but I do," was 
 the emphatic reply. The size of the classes is much 
 the same as in the Voluntary school, about 60; the 
 mistress readily admitted that in such classes there can 
 be hardly any study of individuality in mind or character. 
 The young scholar must be drilled into a certain groove, 
 and out of it can hardly step. No homework can be 
 attempted at this school, home conditions not permit- 
 ting of it. The mistress stated, as a result of previous 
 inquiry, that most of her girls go to bed at 10, 11, 
 and even midnight, just when their parents do, since 
 ordinarily the living room is used at night as a bed- 
 room. Boys play in the basement of the school, girls on 
 the roof, and, strange to say, the girls have the largest 
 playground. However, atonement is made by the boys 
 using it for drill p;irposes. The Board school girls 
 were found to be very young : whereas in the Voluntary 
 school, in the upper class, a fair sprinkling of the girls 
 were fifteen or sixteen, the Board girls of Standard 
 VI. had only a few as old as thirteen, most being 
 twelve. The great thing in certain districts is to join 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 67 
 
 the ranks of wage-earners at the earliest possible time. 
 In the Board school is a lending library of suitable 
 books, a small museum, and in several class-rooms 
 were such natural history illustrations as tadpoles 
 developing into frogs. The boys' school has only one 
 pupil teacher, the girls' two. One of these was busy 
 teaching foreign children, of whom the neighbourhood 
 has a large number, to read English, many of them 
 coming to school scarcely knowing a word. 
 
 Just as the Voluntary school can be greatly benefited 
 by the constant interest of a vicar, who is also an 
 educationist, so the London Board school has outside 
 visitors, called managers, one of whom entered the 
 mistress's room on the occasion of the writer's visit Of 
 the three managers, one takes oversight of the drains and 
 lavatories, one has charge of a country holiday fund, 
 the third accompanies scholars to galleries and museums. 
 Through the kindness of some outsider, a nurse 
 occasionally visits this school, attending to cuts, bruises, 
 sore eyes, deafness, and such like ailments. Much is 
 said touching the extravagance of the London School 
 Board. The mistress stated that on the school premises 
 are some capital spray baths, out of repair, and which 
 the Board declines to put in order for the use of the 
 girls. It seems a pity that where baths are so greatly 
 needed, and where home circumstances make personal 
 cleanUness almost impossible, the intolerable strain of 
 dirt could not be relieved. 
 
 Both the Voluntary and Board school mistresses are 
 relieved of responsibility for any special class, and use 
 
68 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 their time in supervision and the teaching of special 
 subjects in the different classes. Both are Church- 
 women, and greatly impressed with the importance of 
 religious instruction. In the Church school, every 
 day a Scripture lesson, either Bible or Catechism, is 
 given, lasting 40 minutes ; in the Board school the Bible 
 lesson lasts 30 minutes. It is hardly necessary to 
 refute the careless statement that there is no religious 
 teaching in Board schools. In the boys' rooms, there 
 was hanging a carefully arranged Scripture time table, 
 covering several months. Both mistresses and master 
 were emphatic in their declaration that no religious 
 difficulty exists in the schools. The Voluntary mistress 
 has had a few scholars withdrawn from the Catechism 
 lesson; the Board mistress has Roman CathoHcs and 
 young Jewesses withdrawn from her Scripture instruc- 
 tion. The latter had been mistress of a Voluntary 
 school in Leicester, commonly supposed to be a 
 freethinking community; but even there no practical 
 difficulty had ever arisen. 
 
 Both ladies commented on the readiness of the 
 Education Department to alter codes and regulations, 
 to make room for the teacher's individuality, to consult 
 the needs of a neighbourhood. They found excellent 
 advice and help in the inspectors, from whom they had 
 received valuable suggestions. History and geography 
 were scarcely taught in one of the schools, an occasional 
 reading lesson or so summed up the instruction in these 
 subjects ; they were very little taught in the other. The 
 time of the girls is encroached upon by domestic 
 
ELEMENTARY OR PRIMARY 69 
 
 economy, and especially by sewing and knitting. In 
 one school, the time devoted to sewing and knitting 
 is four and a half hours weekly. Neither lady seemed 
 to recognize the danger incurred and loss suffered by 
 too early specialization : and it is probable that such 
 recognition will not proceed from women. The Board 
 school teacher stated that the majority of women 
 teachers working under the London Board are Church- 
 women. 
 
Section II. 
 Seconbat^ lEbucation 
 
 Speaking broadly, Secondary Education embraces 
 all that lies between Elementary Education and the 
 universities or colleges of university 
 rank. As has been already shown, 
 Elementary Education is distinctly on the up-grade. 
 It is both widening and deepening; the better class 
 of elementary schools have already taken, or are pre- 
 paring to take the position of what the Schools Inquiry 
 Commission of 1865-67 called the Third Grade of 
 Secondary Education. Especially is this the case with 
 the Higher Grade schools, many of which must be 
 regarded as doing secondary work. These schools 
 supply a real need ; and as they obtain grants from 
 the Education Department on the ordinary conditions 
 set forth in the Code, it is easy to see that a hard and 
 fast line between Elementary and Secondary Education 
 is not possible. Such Higher Grade schools are not 
 confined to Board schools, but may be found also 
 working as Voluntary schools. 
 
 It may perhaps illustrate the confusion and even 
 chaos that exists in Secondary Education, and especially 
 Chaos of English on the border-line dividing it from 
 Secondary Elementary Education, if two quo- 
 
 tations are made from speakers at 
 the Oxford Conference on Secondary Education,* held 
 
 * Report of a Conference on Secondary Education. 
 70 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION ^\ 
 
 in 1893. Alluding to the Higher Grade schools, Dr. 
 (now Sir Joshua) Fitch said "They are not Secondary 
 schools"; the Secretary of the Association of Head- 
 masters of Higher Grade and Organized Science 
 schools, describing his own school as typical of the 
 rest, declared " It is not at any rate anything like a 
 Secondary school." The wisdom of the Royal Com- 
 mission of 1894-95 decided otherwise: "The Higher 
 Grade Elementary schools are really secondary in their 
 character." Such conflicting statements by the autho- 
 rities illustrate the difficulty of classification. At this 
 Conference the Rev. E. F. M. MacCarthy, Head-master 
 of one of King Edward VI. 's Schools at Birmingham, 
 stated that "Despite the reforming operations of the 
 Charity Commissioners, the chaos of Secondary Edu- 
 cation has increased since 1867, owing to the effect 
 of the Education Act of 1870, and the subsidies 
 granted for the purposes of Technical Education." 
 
 The share that was given to girls in the old endowed 
 Share of Girls in grammar schools, which provided 
 the Grammar the Secondary Education of the 
 
 Schools. country for a lengthy period, is 
 
 problematical. Miss Emily Davies tried to convince 
 the Royal Commissioners of 1865-67 that where girls 
 were not expressly excluded from the endowment, as 
 at Harrow, they were included ; but though favourable 
 to the education of girls, the Commissioners could not 
 agree with her. We have already seen how Richard 
 Mulcaster, favourable to girls' education, and deeply im- 
 pressed with their abilities and achievements, writes in 
 
72 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 1 58 1 that it is "not the custome of my countrie to set 
 young maidens to public grammar scholes," though by 
 this expression he may simply have meant his part of the 
 country. A writer in the Quarterly Review^ vol. 146, 
 says it is evident that boys and girls were put on a 
 level in the old grammar schools, since quaint little 
 figures of each still stand over venerable portals in old 
 market places. He quotes Crewkerne, in Somerset, 
 where, he says, the boys simply took possession of 
 what was meant for both sexes. 
 
 In the well-known case of Christ's Hospital we stand 
 on certain ground. The famous hospital was certainly 
 
 meant for the poor and for both sexes ; 
 H ^^^ -tll^^"^**^ for many years it was largely used 
 
 as a foundlings' home. Bishop Ridley 
 speaks of the " thousands of poore silly (weak) members 
 of Christ, who were holpen and brought up in it." 
 In the great hall to-day hangs Verrio's picture shewing 
 fifteen girls and as many boys, kneeling, received at an 
 audience granted by James II. But the hospital was 
 governed by men, and, moreover, by wealthy men. 
 The Schools Inquiry Commission of 1865-67 found 
 the usual results of such government: 11 24 boys, 
 chiefly of the well-to-do classes, were then being 
 educated in it, and 22 girls. Undoubtedly in the 
 case of a foundling hospital there existed no reason 
 whatever for special advantages for boys. The whole 
 question as to the share of girls in the grammar schools 
 is of interest, and more than a mere archaeological 
 interest. England has always carefully avoided a 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 73 
 
 uniform policy, and it may well have been that in certain 
 towns and districts where girls' education had flourished 
 under the wing of the monastery, provision was made 
 for its continuance, even though these cases may have 
 been a small minority. A very general result of the Re- 
 formation was that girls were shut out of the secondary 
 schools, and that during the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centuries they betook themselves to the cultivation of 
 the noxious brood of "accomplishments." Knowledge 
 for itself was an insufficient aim; it might be sought 
 for what it would bring. The boarding-school system 
 grew up, especially during the eighteenth century, as 
 the great forcing- houses of accomplishments, where 
 education was "finished" in the most complete sense 
 of the term. Mrs. Makins' prospectus shows us what 
 was regarded as a good educational programme at that 
 time. This excellent lady opened a "ladies' school" 
 in 1693, i^^r Tottenham High Cross, "where .... 
 gentlewomen may be instructed in the principles of 
 religion, and .... in all things taught in other 
 schools. As, work of all sorts, dancing, musick, 
 singing, writing, keeping accompts; half the time 
 to be spent in these things, the other half to be 
 employed in gaining the Latin and French tongues; 
 and those that please may learn Greek and Hebrew, 
 the Italian and Spanish, in all which this gentlewoman 
 hath a competent knowledge." If time allowed, the 
 curriculum was also to embrace the whole circle of the 
 sciences, including, no doubt, orthography, etymology, 
 and prosody, and such trifles as arithmetic and history. 
 
74 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Shortly after the arrival of Miss Frances Willard in 
 England in 1892, she was discussing with a friend some 
 of the phases of English life. "This is a country," 
 said she, "where man is king; woman, courtier." 
 Another American, Mr. R. G. White, came to a similar 
 conclusion when he wrote, in 1881, "England is a 
 Paradise for men."* 
 
 The lack of consideration shewn to women and their 
 interests has seldom received a more convincing illus- 
 Women's Interests Oration than when the Schools Inquiry 
 not considered— Commission in 1865 prepared to 
 an illustration. j^quire into the condition of boys' 
 secondary schools only. It reminds one of the French 
 peasant's observation : " Je n'ai pas d'enfants ; je n'ai 
 que des filles." Happily the Commissioners them- 
 selves were open to conviction; among the Assistant- 
 Commissioners were Messrs. Bryce, Fearon, and Fitch, 
 whose consistent advocacy of girls' education has done 
 yeoman service. Miss Emily Davies and Miss Bostock, 
 backed by such names as Dean Stanley, Rev. F. D. 
 Maurice, Dean Alford, Dr. James Martineau, Lord 
 Houghton, and Lord Lingen, petitioned that girls 
 should not be passed over, and the Commissioners 
 granted their prayer. 
 
 The inquiry elicited that girls' schools lagged far 
 
 Results of Inquiry ^^^^"^ ^^^^'^ P°^' ^^ ^^^'^ °^^^" ^^'^' 
 into Girls' that they were too small, ill-distributed. 
 
 Secondary expensive and wasteful of energy to 
 
 Education, 186S-67. ^^^^^ ^j^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ produce results 
 
 * England Without and Within. Boston. 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 75 
 
 co-extensive even with the efforts put forth. Mr. (now 
 Sir J.) Fitch reported that schoolmistresses were in the 
 habit of speaking slightingly of mental cultivation before 
 their pupils, setting before them as the great aim of life to 
 be attractive and to make conquests ; he alludes to the 
 convenient assumption by some women teachers''^ that 
 the foundation of the moral character is somehow an 
 alternative to the improvement of the understanding; 
 they themselves preferring the former. Mr. James 
 Bryce deprecates in his report the use of lamentable 
 catechisms ; and states that the great need is to make 
 parents believe that it is "not to refinement and 
 modesty that a cultivated intelligence is opposed, but to 
 vapidity and languor, and vulgarity of mind, to the love 
 of gossip and love of dress." Mr. Fearon dwells 
 on the shortcomigs of schoolmistresses; their want 
 of breadth and accuracy of scholarship; their want 
 of knowledge of the art of instructing a class. 
 He also alludes to the multiplicity of subjects, and 
 the want of systematic physical education. Other 
 Commissioners had a similar story to tell, so that 
 there was ample justification for the general report 
 issued upon girls' schools. They were 
 The General characterized by " want of thorough- 
 
 ness and foundation ; want of system ; 
 slovenliness and showy superficiality; inattention to 
 rudiments ; undue time given to accomplishments, and 
 these not taught intelligently, or in any scientific 
 
 * Such assumptions were not monopolized by women, men 
 commonly made them also. 
 
Id EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 manner; want of organization." The report added 
 that these defects, needless to observe, applied to a 
 great extent to boys' education. 
 
 At this time, few schools were doing anything like 
 efficient work; what the Commissioners describe was 
 
 very general. A few honourable ex- 
 Several Efficient ceptions were two girls' colleges in 
 Scnools< 
 
 London, Queen's and Bedford. They 
 
 had been founded for the higher education of women, 
 
 but were themselves obliged to undertake secondary 
 
 work, to lay the foundations on which they desired to 
 
 build. Bedford College had for fifteen years a 
 
 secondary school attached to it; Queen's College 
 
 retained the position of a secondary school. Besides 
 
 these were the North London Collegiate School under 
 
 Miss F. M. Buss, and the Ladies' College, Cheltenham, 
 
 of which Miss Beale had been principal since 1858. 
 
 Miss Buss and Miss Emily Davies gave valuable 
 
 evidence before the Schools Inquiry Commission in 
 
 1865; Miss Beale followed in 1866. 
 
 The Commission distinguished three grades of schools 
 
 in its report : third, second, first, in which education 
 
 ^ , terminated at about fourteen, sixteen, 
 
 Grades , . , ^ ' . ' 
 
 distinguished ^nd eighteen years of age respectively, 
 
 by the Schools the last taking its pupils up to the 
 
 Inquiry g^|.g ^f ^^ universities. The great 
 
 Commission. „ . . . , . 
 
 Commission marks an epoch in 
 
 Secondary Education. It is true the State has done 
 little to evoke order, yet it has been compelled to do 
 something, and other forces have been at work to 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 77 
 
 raise the standard. The Oxford Conference of 1893 
 and the Royal Commission of 1894-95 both agree 
 that the recommendation of the Schools Inquiry Com- 
 missioners to create Third Grade schools has become 
 obsolete. The Higher Grade elementary schools are 
 taking the place these might have occupied, and are 
 slowly wiping out a certain class of inefficient secondary 
 schools. Two grades only of Secondary Education are 
 necessary: First Grade preparing students for the 
 universities, and ending at eighteen or nineteen ; 
 Second Grade schools, where education does not 
 proceed so far, ending at about sixteen. 
 
 In the paper she read at the Oxford Conference, 
 Mrs. Bryant only distinguished High schools and 
 High Schools Middle schools for girls. The terms 
 and Middle suffer from vagueness, largely because 
 
 Schools. a goodly number of girls' schools 
 
 assume the more pretentious title without any right. 
 The best test for a High school would be the ability 
 of its upper students to pass at once to a College of 
 University rank, and prepare for an Honour degree. 
 A fair proportion of High school students are usually 
 able to take the Cambridge and Oxford Senior 
 Examinations at the honours limit of age. A Middle 
 school, on the other hand, may be expected not to 
 carry its pupils of sixteen or thereabouts much beyond 
 the standard of the Oxford and Cambridge Junior 
 Examinations; and these they may take when beyond 
 the honours Hmit of age (below sixteen for a junior). 
 
 It has been already stated that we owe Free Trade 
 
78 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 in education to the Reformation. It introduced the 
 era of exaggerated individualism. As 
 p, . early as 1179, Dr. Schaible reminds 
 
 us, a Lateran Council directed that 
 the head teacher of every cathedral was to have 
 authority over all other schoolmasters in his district, 
 to have the right of license to teach, and without that 
 license none was to presume to teach. The Church 
 of Rome, therefore, enunciated the principle with great 
 clearness ; the Church of England did her best to 
 prevent all teaching save that by her own members; 
 the State, the legitimate heir of the Church in all 
 matters educational, has never taken up the position 
 she indicated. This has led to serious disorganization, 
 to confusion worse confounded in Secondary Education. 
 It is not too much to say that the absence of regis- 
 tration for the profession is a humiliation to all properly- 
 qualified teachers. The drug-seller and the horse-doctor 
 have for years required diplomas ; any charlatan may 
 open a secondary school by means of a specious 
 prospectus, and even a bogus degree, and impose on 
 the credulity of the British parent. Possessed of no 
 standards by which to test education, " Live and let 
 live " seems to him a suitable motto even for so serious 
 a matter as his child's education. At the moment of 
 writing (January, 1897), the fault that there exists no 
 teachers' register lies partly with the teachers them- 
 A Double selves, a section of those engaged in 
 
 Register or a secondary teaching objecting to a 
 Single. single register for all the teachers of 
 
SECOND A R Y ED UCA TION 79 
 
 the country, including those of public elementary 
 schools ; and partly with the present Government, who 
 in 1896 introduced an Education Bill. It provided 
 for the registration of teachers, but contained con- 
 tentious matter which led to the withdrawal of the Bill 
 in July, 1896. The registration difficulty, so far as 
 the fault lies with teachers, is an outcome of the low 
 status of English elementary teachers previous to 1870. 
 In Scotland the teacher has, from time immemorial, 
 been held in honour, ranking only after the minister 
 of the parish ; and sometimes teaching whilst awaiting 
 an appointment in the Church of Scotland. It is 
 more of a principle with the Scottish people to sacri- 
 fice the quality of food and clothing than to sacrifice 
 education. In England, other traditions and standards 
 
 „ . . , , have prevailed. Allusion is made 
 
 Position of the 
 
 Teacher in elsewhere to the fact that the failures 
 
 England and of trades and handicrafts took to 
 
 Scotland teaching in the elementary schools 
 
 compared. 
 
 as the last resource. A marked 
 
 improvement in the status of the elementary teacher 
 
 has taken place of recent years. A certain style of 
 
 man and woman still needs weeding out if teachers are 
 
 to be, as they ought to be, a great missionary force 
 
 for the next quarter of a century. On the other hand, 
 
 it is equally true that too large a proportion of secondary 
 
 teachers are not properly qualified. Although some of 
 
 the best men teachers are opposed to a single register, 
 
 all the cream of the profession do not favour a double 
 
 one. The education and status of the elementary 
 
8o EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 teacher are better than ever before. The London 
 School Board has in its employ more than a hundred 
 men holding degrees, and four women, besides seventeen 
 holding the L.L.A. of St. Andrews. 
 
 Forces that have raised the character of Girls' 
 Secondary Education. 
 
 First in point of time, credit must be given to the 
 
 local examinations, whose influence has been very great. 
 
 Of late years it has become the fashion 
 
 (fl) The Local -^^ certain quarters to speak slightingly 
 Examinations. 
 
 of the effect of exammations upon 
 
 education; in the opinion of some good authorities 
 they exercise a cramping and confining influence after 
 a certain stage is reached. Probably this opinion took 
 root at a time when syndicates and boards of examiners 
 shewed a tendency to disregard and even resent the 
 advice of practical teachers. University dons, having 
 little connection with the education of the young, 
 adopted rigid rules and methods, seldom associating 
 with themselves active, vigorous teachers, whose more 
 recent experience should have proved valuable. Happily 
 this tendency is quite of the past ; there is probably no 
 board of examiners working to-day that would not hear 
 and weigh a suggestion of any value. The College of 
 Preceptors makes part of its modem languages examina- 
 tion oral; and though the innovation is not without 
 attendant disadvantage, the balance of advantage un- 
 doubtedly lies on the side of greater care as regards 
 accent and pronunciation. 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 8i 
 
 The College of Preceptors was first in the examina- 
 tion field as far as schools are concerned; in 1850 
 its council sanctioned a scheme which 
 
 College of ^^g completed and adopted in 1854. 
 
 Preceptors, 1854. 
 
 Mr. C. R. Hodgson states that in 
 
 185 1 the first girls' school was examined, consisting of 
 thirty-five pupils, of whom two gained higher and five 
 lower certificates. In 1870 only 15 17 candidates sat 
 for the College Certificates. From that year onwards 
 progress was very marked, and in 1895 the candidates 
 numbered 16,549, besides 350 teachers seeking diplomas. 
 Of the former number, 7039 were girls, and of the 
 latter, 136 women. The College of Preceptors divides 
 its candidates into four classes : first, second, third, and 
 junior forms. In the first class successful candidates 
 are arranged as "honours" and "pass"; second and 
 third class have each three divisions. 
 
 The University of Oxford established its local exam- 
 ination for boys in 1857, Cambridge following in 1858. 
 Q - , , In 1862 Miss Emily Davies was 
 
 Cambridge Local secretary to a committee which had 
 Examinations, been formed to obtain for women 
 io57> loSo- admission to the university examina- 
 
 tions ; the ladies first turned their attention to the local 
 examinations as a convenient point of attack, and by a 
 narrow majority — fifty-five to fifty-one — the Cambridge 
 examinations were formally opened to girls in 1865.* 
 
 * The Secretary of the Local Examinations Syndicate cautiously 
 consented that extra copies of the examination papers should be 
 printed for the use of girl candidates on December 14th, 1863. 
 
 G 
 
82 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 The examinations now cover three classes : pre- 
 liminary, junior, senior, with an age limit of fourteen, 
 sixteen, nineteen for passing in honours. Candidates 
 may pass, but not in honours, at ages above those 
 named. The Cambridge Local Examination has an 
 Extraordinarily extraordinarily minute classification of 
 Minute the candidates, almost equal to a 
 
 Classification. hierarchy. Thus a junior may pass 
 in Ia., Ib., II., III. classes of honours ; pass (ordinary) ; 
 pass in English and obligatory subjects only (below i6 
 years) ; pass beyond this age (equivalent to a lower form 
 of pass, commonly known as senior-junior); besides 
 gaining marks of distinction in specific subjects. Pre- 
 liminary and senior candidates are similarly classified, 
 except that class I. has no sub-divisions. The intelligence 
 of parents must surely be taxed to grasp these minute 
 Cambridge sub-divisions. In 1868 the University 
 
 Higher Local, instituted a special examination, known 
 ^8^' as the Cambridge Higher Local, for 
 
 women over eighteen. The yearly number of candidates 
 averages about 900. 
 
 When the question of opening the Cambridge Exami- 
 nations to girls was first mooted, some authorities were 
 
 The Syndicate could not order examiners to examine girls' papers, 
 but the Ladies' Committee were empowered to make their own 
 terms with them. The result was a pretty heavy list of failures, 
 but, neither dismayed nor discouraged, the Committee pressed on. 
 In 1864 the Senate of the University of Cambridge received a 
 memorial praying that the examinations be opened to girls, signed 
 by 999 influential names. As the results of the 1863 examination 
 did not appear to have unsexed the candidates, the Senate discussed 
 the memorial. 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 83 
 
 of opinion that the standard should be lowered for girls. 
 Happily this was overborne ; few things could have had 
 a worse effect upon women's education than the adop- 
 tion of a double standard, in itself a brand of inferiority. 
 The results have fully justified the course adopted. To 
 mention one subject only, arithmetic. In Mr. Fearon's 
 report in the Commission on Secondary Education, 
 in 1865, he mentions that when the Cambridge Exami- 
 nations were tentatively opened in 1863, of 13 girls 
 presented by a good private school, 8 failed in arith- 
 metic; out of 25 presented by Miss Buss, 10 failed 
 in the same subject. Indeed, out of a total of forty 
 senior candidates, thirty-four failed in the preliminary 
 arithmetic. A double standard would have un- 
 doubtedly meant the lowering of arithmetic. Failures 
 in arithmetic, where the subject is well taught, are 
 rather more common among girls than boys, but not 
 to such an extent as to justify a different standard. 
 The smaller number of girls studying mathematics 
 sufficiently explains this difference between the sexes, 
 and it is only fair to add that there are subjects, such 
 as composition and history, where girls frequently do 
 better than boys, probably because English is more 
 seriously and thoroughly studied in girls' schools. 
 
 In this connection it may be well to make an excerpt 
 from the Report of the Oxford and Cambridge Joint 
 Board of Examiners to the Council of the Girls' Public 
 Day School Company in 1887. An examiner writes : 
 "I may say that I was very much astonished at the 
 enormous improvement in the arithmetic of the girls 
 
84 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 which has taken place in the last ten years. Their 
 arithmetic is now as far in advance of the boys' in style 
 and accuracy as it was then behind." 
 
 In 1895 ^^ Universities of Oxford and Cambridge 
 instituted a new examination, the Preliminary, for 
 Preliminary students below 14, and this has led 
 
 Examinations, to a considerable accession in the 
 ^^95- number of candidates, which, in 
 
 December of that year, rose, in the case of Cambridge, 
 to 13,587 ; of this number 5642 were girls. A glance 
 at the Cambridge tables will show that a higher per- 
 centage of girls pass than of boys ; on the other hand, 
 a higher percentage of boys take honours. 
 
 Oxford opened its examinations to girls in 1870. 
 The regulations resemble those of Cambridge, including 
 the division into three honours classes, 
 Oxford Local -yyith a double pass list distinguishing 
 Examinations u .. ^u 1 ^ • 
 
 opened to Girls, ^^^"^.^^^ ^^°'^ ^^'^ P^'' ^^ ^ ^'^^^ 
 1870, age-limit, and those who are beyond 
 
 it. The numbers of Oxford candi- 
 dates have greatly increased of recent years. In July, 
 1896, there were 7314; 2141 of these were preliminary, 
 3626 juniors, 1547 seniors. Of the total number 5312 
 passed. Oxford has also three examinations for women. 
 Many schools use the matriculation examination 
 of London University to test the work of the higher 
 
 forms. The examinations of Durham 
 London ^^.^ ^^^^ -^^ theNorth, and now the 
 
 Matriculation. 
 
 recently chartered Universities of 
 
 Victoria and Wales are beginning examination schemes 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 8$ 
 
 of their own. Oxford reports that 1896 marked a 
 great increase in the number of candidates from 
 elementary schools, especially Higher Grade Board 
 schools. It is probable that since the Education 
 Department is now mainly assessing the Government 
 grant to elementary schools by means of inspection, and 
 discontinuing examination for this purpose, able teachers 
 will more and more have recourse to the testing of their 
 work by some external examination authority, and that 
 such authority will affect the curricula of elementary 
 schools just as it has affected secondary schools. 
 
 In at least one substantial particular the great ex- 
 amining bodies for schools (the College of Preceptors, 
 Syndicate ^^ Cambridge Syndicate, and Oxford 
 
 Buildings, Delegacy) may congratulate themselves 
 
 Cambridge. ^^ ^^ adoption of so reasonable a 
 
 policy as the admission of girls to examination. The 
 handsome buildings of the College of Preceptors, in 
 Bloomsbury Square, are largely due to profits on 
 examination; the Syndicate Buildings, as the present 
 Bishop of Stepney (Canon G. F. Browne) observed, 
 owe existence to the candidates' threepences, wisely 
 husbanded; and even now a building is being 
 erected for the Oxford Delegacy, whose bill will be 
 similarly met. 
 
 Of late years, the Universities have provided able 
 examiners, who examine and report upon the whole of 
 a school ; and this system is preferred by many teachers 
 to local examinations, since the entire work is thus 
 reviewed. 
 
86 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 The examinations of the Oxford and Cambridge 
 Schools Examination Board, usually styled the Joint 
 Joint Board Board, founded in 1873, have grown 
 
 Examinations, considerably in popularity. The 
 ^^73« examinations and certificates are of 
 
 two classes — higher and lower — adapted for different 
 ages; the papers can be worked as part of the ex- 
 amination of a school; it is possible for a candidate 
 so to arrange his subjects that if one year he passes in 
 English, together with subjects selected from two other 
 groups, he may in the following year enter for examina- 
 tion without again taking English. In 1896, the Joint 
 Board examined 96 boys' schools and 69 girls' schools, 
 thirty-two of these belonging to the Girls' Public Day 
 Schools Co. Of the 2 121 candidates for the higher 
 certificate 1431 were boys, 690 girls. For the lower 
 certificate there were 891 candidates, 750 boys, 141 
 girls. Of the 2 1 2 1 candidates for the higher certificate, 
 449 had already gained certificates in a previous ex- 
 amination of the Joint Board, and of this number 178 
 gained a certificate, with distinction, in 1896. Of the 
 girls, 441 were candidates for partial certificates (letters) 
 only ; letters were given to 290 girls. 
 
 It may be objected that there is too much "pre- 
 paration" for examinations in certain schools; but, on 
 the other hand, it must be admitted that examinations 
 have put an end to superficiality in girls' schools. 
 Further, they have stimulated the girls, and admitted of 
 a useful comparison between their work and that of 
 boys. 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 87 
 
 Forces tending to raise the character of Secondary 
 Education, 
 
 Second in order of time, though first in point of 
 value, must be placed the work of the Endowed Schools 
 
 Commission. The Commissioners have 
 {b) The Charity y^^^^ ^j^^ consistent friends of girls' 
 Commission. ... • • , 
 
 education, mamtammg their right to 
 
 consideration even when refractory corporations would 
 have passed them over. English legislation is almost 
 invariably a result of public opinion \ it scarcely ever 
 leads. For this reason the Commission have not aimed 
 at anything like equality of consideration for the sexes, 
 since public opinion lags behind the natural division 
 of educational benefits. 
 
 The Endowed Schools Acts are the one practical result 
 of the Schools Inquiry Commission which sat from 
 1 865-1 867. The recent Royal Commission upon 
 Secondary Education styles the report of that Com- 
 mission epoch-making, luminous, and exhaustive. 
 Though its important recommendations as regards a 
 Central Authority, a Local or Provincial Authority, a 
 Central Council of Education — recommendations, be it 
 observed, which, after the lapse of 30 years, the Com- 
 mission of 1894 could do little more than endorse — 
 were not carried out, women have special cause for 
 gratitude that the outcome was beneficial to their 
 interests. Parliament passed the first Endowed Schools 
 Act, introduced by Mr. W. E. Forster, in 1869, and 
 
8S EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 as a result the Endowed Schools Commission was 
 created. At first the Commission was nominated for 
 a limited period; since 1874 it has been a department 
 of the Charity Commission. 
 
 During these years, out of nearly 2000 educational 
 endowments known to be within the jurisdiction of the 
 Girls admitted to Endowed Schools Acts, the Com- 
 the benefits of missioners have framed schemes for 
 Endowments. ^^g endowments, besides constantly 
 amending those which grew obsolete or proved unwork- 
 able. About 80 of these schemes refer to girls. Large 
 numbers of schools reformed of themselves, and the 
 presence of a good endowed school in a neighbour- 
 hood caused the private schools to adopt the pace set 
 by the Commission. Public interest in education, 
 languid as it too often is, was aroused by the intro- 
 duction to governing bodies of a large and increasing 
 representative element, which has been helpful in form- 
 ing local opinion. Besides which, the Commissioners 
 established an organic relation between schools and 
 local government authorities. Their policy will doubt- 
 less pave the way for a local educational authority, 
 which is greatly needed, but for which some parts of 
 the country are not ready. 
 
 The numbers attending endowed schools have greatly 
 increased, as a result of wise administration. In 1865 
 Harpur's Foundation at Bedford maintained 799 boys ; 
 in 1893 there were 1445 boys and 666 girls. The 
 quality of the education, needless to say, is very 
 dififerent. 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 89 
 
 There were four ways open to the Commissioners to 
 benefit girls: — 
 
 {a) The establishment of girls* schools. 
 {b) Exhibitions for girls. 
 
 (c) Power to benefit girls when the endowment 
 
 suffices for the purpose. 
 
 (d) The admission of girls to boys' schools. 
 
 All these ways were adopted, but d is the most 
 rare. The term " endowed school " is somewhat loose ; 
 any school is endowed that has had so little as its 
 site given. It is chiefly used for schools where certain 
 moneys have been set apart for maintenance. The 
 Charity Commission have no funds at their disposal 
 for the endowment of education; their function is to 
 regulate and supervise public trusts. The Commissioners 
 City Companies ^^^e on several occasions recom- 
 and the claims mended wealthy city companies to 
 of Girls. spend accumulated funds on the 
 
 education of girls. The Skinners, Brewers, Clothworkers, 
 Haberdashers, Merchant Taylors, Drapers, Leather- 
 sellers, and Goldsmiths have devoted large sums to 
 this object. The main idea actuating Commissioners 
 has been to obtain for girls a sound, broad, general 
 education, differentiating little from that given to boys, 
 save in one or two technical subjects like sewing. 
 Amongst the best known schools for which they have 
 provided schemes are the North London Collegiate, 
 Manchester High School for Girls, Birmingham Grammar 
 Schools, Stamford (Lines.), and the Bradford Grammar 
 
90 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 School. The proportion in which the funds of an 
 endowment are divided between girls and boys is 
 determined mainly by the locality and by public 
 opinion. The commonest division is a third to girls, 
 two-thirds to boys. 
 
 Those who have looked into the history of endow- 
 ments soon perceive two main tendencies : the rich 
 acquire what was meant for the poor ; 
 
 Endowments ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ children. One 
 
 explanation suffices : the poor and 
 women were not represented on Boards of Governors. 
 The Charity Commissioners, on the grounds that all 
 resources must be used, and that it would be hard to 
 maintain that many women are not admirably qualified, 
 have, in their schemes for girls, required that a certain 
 number of women shall act as Governors. 
 
 In a country like England, much that affects the 
 public weal is subject to constant criticism. The 
 
 statement has been made that the 
 Endowments are r • r j u j- ^ 
 
 ;«,.^^oo;««. race of pious founders would die out 
 
 increasmg. ^ 
 
 when it was seen that benefactions 
 were overhauled and rearranged at the mercy of Com- 
 missioners. In their 42nd report a crushing retort to 
 this criticism will be found. Charitable trusts are 
 increasing to the extent of 500 yearly. From 1875 
 to 1894, reckoning only gifts of ;^iooo and upwards, 
 ;£"8,ooo,ooo was bequeathed to seven principal objects, 
 education and medical relief obtaining the largest 
 amounts. Paragraph 10 concludes thus : — " Indeed, 
 there is reason to think that the latter half of the 19th 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 91 
 
 century will stand second, in respect of the greatness 
 and variety of the charities created within its duration, 
 to no other half-century since the Reformation. And, 
 as to one particular branch of educational endowments, 
 namely, that for the advancement of the secondary 
 and superior education of girls and women, it may be 
 anticipated that future generations will look back to 
 the period immediately following upon the Schools 
 Inquiry Commission, and the consequent passing of the 
 Endowed Schools Acts, as marking an epoch in the 
 creation and application of endowments for that branch 
 of education, similar to that which is marked for the 
 education of boys and men by the Reformation." 
 
 Forces tending to raise the character of Secondary 
 Education. 
 The passing of the great Education Acts, marking 
 a new era in the annals of this country, indirectly 
 {c) Elementary affected private schools by wiping out 
 Education Act, many of the inferior sort, used by 
 ^^70* the lower middle classes, A better 
 
 education could be obtained in a good Board school, 
 under certificated teachers, than from some private 
 schoolmistresses, whose sole qualification was often the 
 "selectness" of their establishments, which seemed, 
 according to the door-plate, to be universally attended 
 by "young ladies." It has already been shown how, 
 during recent years, necessity has compelled public 
 elementary schools to enlarge their curricula for sixth, 
 seventh, and extra-standard classes, and sometimes to 
 
92 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 build separate schools, under the name of Higher 
 Grade schools. Another kind of school has also 
 arisen, partly as a result of improved Elementary 
 Education and the stimulus that has recently been 
 given to Technical Education. These are the Or- 
 ganized Science schools, working mainly under the 
 Science and Art Department to secure its grants. 
 Their numbers increased from 132 in 1895, ^o ^S^ 
 in 1896, and they educate almost 19,000 students, of 
 whom 4000 are girls. 
 
 In the sixties and seventies may be observed a large 
 number of educational associations rising over the 
 {d) Girls' Public country, of which a goodly proportion 
 Day School concerned themselves with women's 
 
 Company. education. The North of England 
 
 Council for promoting the Higher Education of Women 
 is fairly well known, since by its invitation in 1867 to 
 Prof. James Stuart, to give a course of lectures to ladies 
 at Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, and Sheffield, it 
 assisted to lay the foundation of the University Exten- 
 sion movement. The Yorkshire Ladies' Council of 
 Education dates from 1865, when ladies began to 
 superintend the Cambridge Local Examinations in the 
 West Riding, newly opened to girls. Its branches 
 undertook educational work in various towns. In 1871 
 was formed a National Union for Improving the Educa- 
 tion of Women, amongst whose founders were Mrs. Wm. 
 Grey, and her sister Miss Shirreff, with Princess Louise 
 as president. The Union meant business; an arch- 
 Conservative was so impressed by the fact that he 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 93 
 
 alluded to it as a " widely-ramifying conspiracy." The 
 first thing it did was to publish a monthly paper : The 
 Wo7nerCs Educational Journal In January, 1873, the 
 Girls' Public Day School Company, incorporated in June, 
 1872, another outcome of this union for improving 
 women's education, opened its first school at Chelsea. 
 The National Union also undertook to provide means 
 for the training of teachers ; and for this purpose the 
 Maria Grey Training College for Secondary Teachers 
 was founded in 1878, although by that time this special 
 work had passed into the hands of the Teachers' 
 Training and Registration Society. 
 
 The Girls' Public Day School Company has, from the 
 first, been a paying concern : its shareholders have 
 religiously touched a yearly dividend of five per cent. 
 Profits over and above this amount are devoted 
 to the improvement of the schools. As far as 
 numbers are concerned, success can hardly be regarded 
 as phenomenal, for in 1896 the schools only numbered 
 36, with about 7200 pupils. Yet their effect has been 
 far-reaching, so that we may not refuse to call the result 
 The Schools have admirable. The schools have shewn 
 created a how high a standard we may reason- 
 
 Standard, ^^ly g^pg^.^ Qf gij.lg Qf ^j^g mxM\Q 
 
 class ; how useful is discipline ; how girls can disregard 
 the class distinctions which were once thought to be so 
 peculiarly beneficial to the feminine mind and morals. 
 In the mistresses of these High Schools, both head and 
 assistant, we have seen a new type of woman evolved, 
 highly educated, exerting great moral force, ruling with 
 
94 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 justice and kindness. Women are sometimes told that 
 they cannot co-operate : a well-managed High School 
 shews whether the statement is borne out by facts. The 
 Church Schools Company followed in 1883, with 
 definite Church teaching as a main article of its con- 
 stitution. Its schools number 24 ; pupils about 2000. 
 The effect of the Girls' Public Day Schools upon private 
 schools can hardly be exaggerated ; on all hands it is 
 admitted to be very great. The fees are usually, with 
 extras, from J^^ 9s. to £^\^ 15s. per annum, according 
 to age, the lack of endowment prohibiting low fees. It 
 is therefore evident that the schools are for persons in 
 comfortable circumstances. They cannot be used by 
 those who have large British families numbering half a 
 score, if of the lower middle class. For them, in the 
 main, no adequate provision exists, or ever has existed. 
 The low standard of culture, or to speak plainly, the 
 absence of culture which marks the English lower 
 middle classes, is thus sufficiently explained. As a rule, 
 little is expected of girls of this class of life, and less 
 than little is obtained. 
 
 Forces tending to raise the character of 
 Secondary Education, 
 A fifth great force which has tended to improve the 
 character of Secondary Education is the education and 
 {e) Improved Edu- training of the teachers themselves, 
 cation of Women by no means the least of the forces 
 Teachers. enumerated. The great lack of the 
 
 Government, when it first made money grants for 
 
SECOXDARY EDUCATION 95 
 
 Elementary Education, was that of suitable teachers; 
 it knew not where to turn to find them. The same 
 lack existed in Secondary Education. To-day the 
 women's colleges are turning out hundreds of well- 
 educated women; the training colleges send forth 
 scores of both educated and trained teachers. Un- 
 happily their very numbers prevent them getting their 
 due reward; there is too much reason to state that 
 improved and even excellent education has not favour- 
 ably affected the woman teacher in the labour market. 
 A graduate of London University would seem to have 
 almost as much difficulty in securing the very modest 
 reward of ;£^ioo per annum as her slenderly educated 
 sister of a previous generation. 
 
 The Royal Commission of 1894-95 marks the second 
 great epoch in Secondary Education, just as the Schools 
 
 o«„«ir-««,«,.v,.:^« Inquiry Commission marked the first. 
 Koyal Commission ^ •' 
 
 on Secondary It is too early to speak of its effects ; 
 Education of its important recommendations still 
 
 ^* require legislation. We may note that 
 
 of its seventeen members, three were women : Dr. Sophie 
 Bryant, Lady F. Cavendish, and Mrs. Henry Sidgwick. 
 Moreover, of the fourteen Assistant Commissioners, five 
 were women. For this reason, amongst others, the 
 interests of their sex were carefully considered; so 
 much so that no complaint on the subject has yet 
 been heard. The Commission commented upon the 
 great improvement in girls' education by means of 
 endowed and proprietary schools ; regretted that, owing 
 to the backward state of public opinion, the Charity 
 
96 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Commission had not been able to make a more equal 
 division of the funds at its disposal ; alluded to the fact 
 that girls get an unequal share of technical instruction 
 — in some cases being even excluded — and also to the 
 constant, one might say the growing need of scholar- 
 ships and exhibitions to pass girls on to the universities. 
 The report, with its repeated cry for organization, is too 
 recent to allow of lengthy extracts from its valuable 
 recommendations. Never before have purely educa- 
 tional matters aroused so much public interest ; the 
 Act of 1870 inflamed the passions of religious bigotry, 
 which has happily never been an element in Secondary 
 Education. The press, after the publication of the 
 Report in October, 1895, commented largely, and on 
 the whole intelligently, on the problems which had been 
 dealt with. A large number of conferences quickly 
 followed. It was not uncommon for ladies in the 
 audience to bring their blue-book with them and 
 anxiously scan its pages for the special point which 
 the speaker was discussing. 
 
 Since the passing of the Education Act of 1870, 
 the Welsh have made extraordinary progress in edu- 
 Welsh Inter- cation, both elementary, secondary, 
 
 mediate Education and higher. In the organization of 
 Act, 1889. Secondary Education, they have really 
 
 led the way, owing, doubtless, to the fact that in Wales 
 the ground was less covered than in England. The 
 Principality, with which is grouped Monmouth, is 
 distinguished by a great love of knowledge. There 
 are miners acquainted with the higher mathematics, 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 97 
 
 servants and labourers who compose essays and poems 
 for the Eisteddfod. Aberystwyth College, opened in 
 1862, was largely subscribed for in small sums by 
 persons of humble means. The Welsh people tried to 
 interest the Government in their educational difficulties, 
 especially the almost entire lack of good Secondary 
 Education, and succeeded in obtaining the appointment 
 of a Departmental Committee of Inquiry in 1880, con- 
 sisting of half a dozen men well qualified for the task. 
 The Committee began to sit in 1881, and held meet- 
 ings in London and Wales. They rapidly produced a 
 valuable report, shewing the existing state of Secondary 
 Education, drawing special attention to the absence of 
 educational opportunities for girls, and making recom- 
 mendations. As a result. Parliament passed the Welsh 
 Intermediate Education Act in 1889, since which time 
 70 secondary schools have been opened in Wales and 
 Monmouth. Men of acknowledged ability assisted to 
 Ea h W 1 h carry out the scheme ; the scheme for 
 
 County or each county is the joint work of an 
 
 County- Borough Education Committee and of the 
 has a Scheme. charity Commissioners, who through- 
 out lent valuable assistance. The county, or a borough 
 of 50,000, was taken as the unit, each county having its 
 own committee, composed of three members appointed 
 by the County Council and two by the Lord President 
 of the Council. Each committee was entitled to draw 
 up its own scheme; but as a series of conferences 
 were arranged between all the different committees, 
 differences are fewer than might have been expected, 
 
 H 
 
98 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 and may be said simply to mark varying local needs. 
 The committees had the services of an officer of the 
 Charity Commissioners, whose wide experience in 
 educational matters was valuable, and tended to 
 minimise unnecessary variety. 
 
 If we turn to the consideration of how these schools 
 are financed, we find that finance is the cause of their 
 
 greatest difficulty and anxiety, tending 
 d"ffi ultv ^^ hamper their development and 
 
 efficiency. It will be remembered 
 that in 1890 a considerable sum of money had been 
 raised for the compensation of publicans on the ex- 
 tinction of their licences. Popular opinion was strongly 
 opposed to such a use of the public funds, and happily 
 the sum has been devoted to educational purposes. The 
 Welsh secured the right of applying their share of this 
 money to the purposes of the Intermediate Education 
 Act, the sum amounting to about ;£^3o,ooo annually. 
 In addition, Wales rated herself to the extent of Jd. in 
 the pound for the same object, producing in this way 
 ^^15,500. The Imperial Treasury makes a yearly grant 
 of like amount, conditional on efficiency maintained; 
 and this, with about ;£" 20,000 representing the annual 
 value of Welsh scholastic endowments dealt with by 
 schemes under the Acts, gives a total of about ;£'8o,ooo 
 per annum. The sum is too small when we consider 
 the number of schools that must share in it. It does 
 not admit of the teachers being sufficiently well paid, 
 and in some cases prevents a sufficient number of 
 teachers being employed. To increase the number 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 99 
 
 of their scholars many schools have reduced their fees. 
 The result has been large additions to numbers, 
 without a corresponding addition to the financial 
 prosperity of the school. The scholars in many 
 Practical proof schools only pay for one half the 
 of interest in education they receive, the Governors 
 
 Education. providing the other half. The Welsh 
 
 people have shewn generosity towards these schools. 
 Probably ;£ 100,000, including the value of the sites 
 presented, has been subscribed towards the buildings. 
 A small and poor district, on the borders of Caermarthen 
 and Cardigan, with a population of 15,000, collected 
 ;£'2ooo for its intermediate school. Many others have 
 subscribed between ;£"iooo and ;^2ooo, so great is their 
 energy and enthusiasm, their belief in education. " The 
 English," said an educationist, observing these things, 
 "would think you lunatic to ask for what the Welsh 
 have done." 
 
 The Welsh schemes find places for about 5000 boys 
 and 3000 girls, or for 6 per 1000 of the population. 
 The smaller number of the girls must be taken to mean 
 a smaller demand on the part of parents for the educa- 
 tion of their daughters. Had the demand been equal 
 for both sexes, probably the supply of places would have 
 been so also. It is satisfactory to note that the demand 
 on the part of the girls is increasing. The Cardiff Girls' 
 School now numbers 184 pupils; Swansea, 226.* 
 
 * The Swansea School has now begun technical evening classes 
 for outsiders in such subjects as cookery, dressmaking, laundry, 
 nursing, gymnastics. 
 
100 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 The effect of the organization of Welsh Intermediate 
 
 Education has been the disappearance of many small 
 
 and inefficient private schools. In 
 
 r. . .. some cases the Committee took over 
 
 Organization. 
 
 schools they found in existence, and 
 sometimes teachers, and used them in their scheme. 
 
 In the governing bodies of the schools the scheme 
 has arranged that a minimum number of governors 
 shall be women ; in several cases the minimum has been 
 exceeded. A difficulty has been met occasionally in 
 dual schools, that of the mistress in charge of the girls* 
 department having to work under the head-master. 
 Probably the dual system will only be temporary: as 
 time goes on, the schools will either become separate 
 or mixed. The dual system was adopted because of 
 poverty, small schools being always proportionately 
 expensive. 
 
 The Welsh experiment is highly interesting to educa- 
 tionists. There can be no doubt that when England 
 proceeds to the development of a scheme of Secondary 
 Education, the experience of Wales will be valuable and 
 suggestive 
 
 It was in 1832 that a modest grant of ;£"2o,ooo 
 was first voted in Parliament to be applied to educa- 
 Science and Art tional purposes. Three years later we 
 Department, find a Select Committee of the House 
 
 ^^37' of Commons, on the motion of Mr. 
 
 William Ewart, M.P. for Liverpool, appointed "to 
 inquire into the best means of extending a knowledge 
 of the arts and of the principles of design among 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION lOl 
 
 the people (especially the manufacturing population) of 
 the country." In 1836 the sum of ;^i5oo was set 
 aside for a Normal School of Design with a museum 
 and lectures; and, in 1837, the School of Design was 
 constituted. It was the beginning of the magnificent 
 collection of art treasures at South Kensington, and 
 of that department whose reMoKs to the- Education 
 Department remain to the mere lay mind a bewildering 
 and intricate tangle. Itw'ts",supj>osedt?1at the Edu- 
 cation Bill, introduced by Sir John Gorst in the House 
 of Commons, was intended to unravel some of the 
 complex mysteries that have arisen in course of time, 
 but the withdrawal of the Bill in July, 1896, has 
 deferred a rearrangement which the course of time, 
 growth, and fresh developments in both departments 
 have rendered an absolute necessity. In 1852 a Depart- 
 ment of Practical Art was created to supersede the 
 Schools of Design, which were not satisfactory; in 1853 
 the Science division was added; in 1856 the Education 
 Department was constituted, and both it and the Science 
 Education ^^^ ^^^ Department, were placed under 
 
 Department the control of the Lord President of 
 
 constituted, 1856. ^j^e Council and the Vice-President 
 of the Committee of Council on Education. The 
 extension and reconstitution of the Science and Art 
 Department were largely owing to the chagrin of the 
 English on perceiving that their exhibits in the Great 
 International Exhibition of 1851 were inferior in taste 
 and originality to those of Continental nations, 
 especially the French. Like the Education Depart- 
 
I02 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 ment, South Kensington, as it is popularly called, has 
 seen many changes. These include its location — for it 
 began at Somerset House — its constitution, aims, and 
 methods; it has grown to its present dimensions in 
 true English fashion, and, on the whole, may lay 
 claim to a fair amount of adaptability. 
 Its 'A?ork may be hummed up as follows : — 
 
 1. Its ijiain and original work, the holding of science 
 aad 'Art evening classes all over the country, the 
 Functions of the initiative depending chiefly upon local 
 Science and Art effort. Art classes naturally came to 
 Department. ^e held by day as well as in the 
 evening. 
 
 2. The Royal College of Art in London, the centre 
 for all art schools over the country, and in which, to 
 a large extent, art teachers are trained. 
 
 3. The Royal College of Science, holding a similar 
 position to science classes of the Department held in 
 the country. 
 
 4. The School of Mines in Jermyn Street. 
 
 5. Organized Science schools, a sort of Higher 
 Grade school in their relation to Elementary Education. 
 These are growing very rapidly. They numbered 132 
 in 1895 \ 152 in 1896. At present the students number 
 almost 19,000, of whom about 4000 are girls. School 
 Boards and other bodies earning the grants of the 
 Department usually conduct an experiment in co- 
 education in these Science schools. 
 
 The Estimates for 1896-97 granted ;£"72 7,ooo for 
 the expenditure at South Kensington. Until recently 
 
SECOND AR V EDUCA TION 103 
 
 it took little share in organizing and directing educa- 
 tional work, but paid out a money grant by means of 
 examinations held yearly in April and May. The 
 Department first adopted the system known as "pay- 
 ment by results," which most authorities consider to 
 
 have a depressing effect upon the 
 Payment by , , . , 
 
 J, ., teachmg power, and a crampmg one 
 
 upon the scholar. It may reasonably 
 
 be doubted whether any better system has ever been 
 
 invented, for most other systems seem only able to 
 
 work well on the assumption that all teachers are 
 
 able, conscientious, and energetic. Unhappily, this 
 
 is assuming too much. Already teachers can tell of 
 
 subordinates relaxing vigour since payment by results 
 
 has been superseded, and some head-masters and 
 
 mistresses begin to perceive that grant now falleth on 
 
 the just and the unjust alike. 
 
 The elasticity of the Department is commendable. 
 
 There is much freedom in subjects ; work in the 
 
 remotest village may be recognized and paid by the 
 
 Department. Save on the art side, classes have not 
 
 been largely used by girls, with the exception of subjects 
 
 like botany and physiology. Local initiative, or the 
 
 lack of it, must be blamed for this, for the Department 
 
 itself is generally guiltless of the stupidity of making 
 
 unnecessary sex distinctions. Classes in connection 
 
 with South Kensington, to the number of 7000 or 
 
 8000, are held all over the country, from Thurso to 
 
 Penzance. The teaching depends on what is available ; 
 
 what the man on the spot can give to his neighbour- 
 
i04 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMRN 
 
 hood. With few exceptions, chiefly the post of assistant- 
 teacher in Schools of Art, or mistress in an organized 
 Science school, the work of teaching under South 
 Kensington does not seem to commend itself to 
 women, either because they are unenterprising, un- 
 suited for it, or fail to commend themselves to local 
 committees. Perhaps if more women sat on such 
 committees, the case would be different. 
 
 For 1896 the Department has set on foot consider- 
 able changes. Payment by results is to recede still 
 Recent Changes, ^^^ther; and now a somewhat com- 
 plicated system, partly depending on 
 fixed payment by attendance, so much for each 
 attendance, and partly depending on efficiency, to be 
 tested by inspection and the result of examinations, has 
 been instituted. The Department has aimed by this 
 means at the saving of rural and semi-rural schools. 
 The work done in great centres of population like Leeds 
 and Birmingham is sometimes of university standard; 
 in country places it is usually elementary. For the 
 latter to compete with the former, simply spelt 
 destruction of rural effort. For this reason the new 
 system has been adopted; and whether success ensues 
 or failure, praise is due to the Department for its 
 attempt to nurse rural districts. In many country 
 places where the squire and parson are supreme, educa- 
 tion is at a very low ebb. In a quiet way, they back 
 up local apathy; and the absence of a middle class 
 contributes to maintain things as they are. 
 
 Another change worth chronicling is the hour at 
 
^SECONDARY EDUCATION lOS 
 
 which the spring examinations are held. Usually these 
 have been held between 7 and 10 p.m. ; but in 1897 
 alternative examinations will be held in the afternoon. 
 In Organized Science schools, the amount of time 
 devoted to science has been reduced from fifteen to 
 thirteen hours per week; a certain proficiency in 
 literature has been required of students in advanced or 
 higher courses j the number of inspectors has been 
 increased, and in a small proportion of cases the money 
 grant has been given on the result of inspection of the 
 whole school, rather than on individual achievement. 
 The changes in the schools were not made compulsory 
 for the first year, but afterwards the fixed grant will 
 depend partly upon attendance, as in the evening classes 
 of the Department. These changes really mark a 
 revolution in the methods of South Kensington. Up 
 to the present time, the aim may be said to have been 
 the strengthening of the strong ; henceforth the weak 
 will receive more attention. 
 
 Besides its system of examinations, by which the 
 value of the work is appraised, numbers of drawings. 
 National paintings, models, studies, designs, are 
 
 Competition at sent up yearly to South Kensington 
 South Kensington, from Schools of Art and Art Classes 
 all over the country. More than 88,000 of these were 
 sent up in 1896; of this number, 4398 were selected 
 for national competition. These selected works of art 
 form an interesting exhibition in a suite of South 
 Kensington rooms, where they are every year on view 
 to the public during the month of August. In the 
 
io6 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 opinion of the officials, girls and women hold their 
 own. 
 
 Out of eleven students to whom a gold medal 
 was awarded in 1896, three were girls. In the section 
 devoted to the National Training at South Kensington, 
 the only gold medallist (honorary) was a woman. Mr. 
 Walter Crane observed of this competition, far too little 
 visited by the British parent : " The Department may 
 fairly ask whether any other country could make so 
 creditable and interesting a show in so many branches 
 of design." 
 
 In Great Britain there are now altogether 225 Schools 
 of Art, with 67 branches, and 1448 art classes, with the 
 Local Schools handsome total of 136,000 students. 
 of Art. It has been already shewn how draw- 
 
 ing is compulsory for boys in public elementary schools ; 
 in 1894 South Kensington had 2,100,000 pupils in 
 the State schools, for whose instruction it made grants. 
 The Department very properly lays great stress upon 
 local effort; probably foreigners visiting our country 
 and commenting upon our institutions, are apt to over- 
 estimate local zeal. The Department presupposes and 
 requires it, in order to work well ; where it has failed 
 most, such zeal has not existed. Three large towns in 
 Norfolk and Suffolk together earned in 1892-93, 
 ;^269o; the rest of the counties, with a population 
 four times greater, earned £,^2^. 
 
 It is worth while noting that in October, 1896, a 
 committee was appointed to inquire into the distribution 
 of the grants of the Science and Art Department ; of 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 107 
 
 its six members, one is Mrs. Henry Sidgwick, Principal 
 of Newnham College. 
 
 Beside the educational work of the Polytechnics, the 
 classes under County Councils, and the University 
 
 Extension movement, dealt with in 
 Education ^^^ "^^^ section, there is in England 
 
 a notable development in the popular 
 education of adults, which can only be conveniently 
 classified here. It is partly educational, but largely 
 social and recreative in addition. France is about to 
 reorganize secondary instruction for adults, a result of 
 two important social congresses held at Le Havre and 
 Bordeaux. M. F. Buisson came to London to see what 
 was being done on this side of the Channel, and has 
 published a book on his observations, including mono- 
 graphs by the men and women at work in the move- 
 ment.* The beginnings of adult education for the 
 working classes are traced to Anderson, Black, and to 
 Dr. George Birkbeck, the founders of Mechanics' 
 Institutes, now numbering about 2000 in Britain. The 
 earliest courses of evening lectures for artizans seem 
 to have been started at Glasgow. We have seen how 
 this movement slipped back for want of elementary 
 education ; but the idea it embodies is too characteristic 
 of the Saxon race not to reappear in many ways. "The 
 first impulse of a Huxley, a Tyndall," says M. Emil 
 Boutmy, " is to popularize their work." This altruistic 
 spirit calls itself religious, or philanthropic, or educational, 
 
 ♦ Viducation populaire des adultes en Angleterre; de M. F. 
 BuissoN. Hachette, 1896. 
 
io8 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 or social \ but it is one and the same, and causes those 
 who know us to admit that we are the most essentially 
 democratic and social of all the great nations, despite, 
 and to some extent because of, our terrible extremes 
 of wealth and poverty. It shows itself in another form 
 in the University Settlements now to be found in 
 London and other great cities. Of these, there are 
 now ten in the capital. They mark the growth of the 
 idea that culture, refinement, education are not for the 
 few, but for all. Toynbee is one of the oldest and most 
 Toynbee Hall typical of the settlements. Canon 
 a typical Barnett strongly objects to Toynbee 
 
 Settlement. being styled a mission or an edu- 
 
 cational centre, ; he prefers to call it a club. We 
 shall find there from looo to 1500 students or members 
 attracted to the club for one reason or another. Canon 
 Barnett is of opinion that about one-third of these are 
 women. Related to the settlements are the Social 
 Institutes, now numbering four in London, and a host 
 of clubs whose aims are social, moral, and educative. 
 Gymnastics, music, the aesthetic sense, hygiene are 
 more or less cultivated in most of them, besides the 
 encouragement of thrift, and fostering of friendly 
 relations between members of the aristocracy, of privi- 
 lege, wealth, and culture, and Society's workers. No 
 city in the world can show such degradation — physical, 
 mental, and moral — as London; the curse of the poor 
 is indeed his poverty. But neither can any city show 
 such eiforts to bridge the great gulf between the privi- 
 leged and unprivileged classes. The whole movement 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 109 
 
 has well been styled the secondary education of the 
 working classes. 
 
 The offices of the National Home Reading Union 
 are situated in Surrey House, Victoria Embankment. 
 The Union has a membership of more than 8000 — too 
 The National small, considering the excellence of 
 Home-reading its work. Its object is to stimulate, 
 Union. encourage, and direct home reading 
 
 in such a way as to make it educational in the truest 
 sense of the word. It seeks to give home reading 
 definiteness, continuity, and system, adapting itself 
 to suit the wants of all ages, classes, and degrees of 
 culture and development. The work is done by means 
 of local branches, or circles, as well as by larger 
 organizations, such as literary or scientific institutes, 
 co-operative societies, and labour unions. Naturally 
 the success of the Union depends largely on the zeal 
 and enthusiasm of the local circle leaders or secretaries ; 
 unhappily these must largely be sought among teachers 
 and other busy persons, whose hands are already full. 
 
 The circles are usually formed among three chief 
 classes : boys and girls who have left the elementary 
 schools, and whose reading needs direction ; artizans 
 whose tastes incline to a certain measure of culture; 
 and a third class, of the omnibus kind, embracing all 
 sorts and conditions of men and women. Culture, 
 not class, is the standard of the Union. Men and 
 women who have been to the university accept its 
 guidance in their special studies. Pupil teachers look 
 to it for direction as to the best and cheapest books 
 
no EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 bearing upon their work. Board school managers 
 accept its hints as to methods of awakening interest 
 in intellectual life after leaving school. 
 
 The Union has special courses in English History, 
 Literature (including Shakspere and Browning courses), 
 Architecture, Greek and Roman History and Literature, 
 French, German, Geography, Ethics, Economic and 
 Social Science, Travel, Natural Science, and other 
 subjects. It is instrumental in inducing publishers 
 to undertake cheap editions of works suitable for its 
 purpose, many thousands of which it causes to be 
 distributed every year. The reading courses are drawn 
 up by eminent educationists, and clearly show that 
 the needs of different classes and ages are understood. 
 The Union, under its capable secretary, Miss Mondy, 
 is adaptable. An instance of this is afforded by its 
 readiness to work in with the recently constituted 
 Evening Continuation schools : a reading circle of 
 the N.H.R.U. may be connected with the schools, 
 and a grant earned on attendance. 
 
 Another feature is its summer assembly. In addition 
 to the advantage of companionship in systematic 
 reading, personal help, and stimulus at circle meetings, 
 the N.H.R.U. organizes enjoyable educational summer 
 holidays, when field lectures, excursions, conferences, 
 and social gatherings are arranged. These summer 
 assemblies are held, when possible, in such places as 
 best illustrate the year's work, owing to their possession 
 of historic monuments, or to their offering peculiar 
 facilities for the study of geology, botany, and natural 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION in 
 
 history generally. The purpose of the assembly is to 
 give a vivid and realistic interest in the reading of 
 the year. 
 
 Since 1889 assemblies have been held at Blackpool, 
 Weston-super-Mare, Bowness, Ilkley, Salisbury, Buxton, 
 Leamington, and, in 1896, at Chester. 
 
 In all that has been written upon Secondary Educa- 
 tion up to this point, only the explored portions of the 
 territory, the oases of the desert, have 
 Land ^^^^ briefly examined. It is a sound 
 
 axiom to proceed from the known to 
 the unknown, but here it necessarily leads to vagueness. 
 Figures scarcely exist with regard to Secondary Education 
 in general ; no inquiry has ever been instituted to cover 
 the whole of England. The Royal Commissioners of 
 1894-95 instituted a comparison between three great 
 endowed schools, as they were in 1864 and 1893. The 
 selected schools were Harpur's Foundation at Bedford, 
 the Manchester Grammar School, and King Edward 
 VI.'s Schools at Birmingham. All three had greatly 
 improved, especially if we consider the share given 
 to girls in the endowments. At Birmingham 590 boys 
 were being educated in 1864; the numbers had in- 
 creased to 1366 boys and 1068 girls in 1893. But 
 this is, of course, explored territory. No doubt the 
 majority of English girls now receiving secondary 
 education obtain it at home, or more commonly, in 
 the private schools. Of these, no accurate survey 
 covering the whole of the country has ever been made. 
 The most important conclusions of the Schools Inquiry 
 
112 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Commissioners, based upon eight selected districts, have 
 
 already been detailed. 
 
 The Commission of 1894-95 allotted seven districts 
 
 to their Assistant Commissioners ; and there is no reason 
 
 to suppose that what is true of these 
 Private Schools ,. , . ^ , , 1 . .u u 1 
 
 ;«,«^«„:««. districts does not apply to the whole 
 
 improving;^. trv j 
 
 of England. The number of private 
 schools, both day and boarding, is variously estimated 
 at from 10,000 to 15,000. These are of almost every 
 variety of excellence and miserable inefficiency. " The 
 worst type of private school is rarer than it was 30 
 years ago," says the Report; "yet the general result 
 of our inquiries has been to show that a large proportion 
 of these schools are unsatisfactory." Some inefficient 
 schools continue to exist because of such reasons as 
 "lower fees, adaptation of the curriculum to the ideas 
 of parents, laxity in enforcing attendance, or supposed 
 social selectness." The Commissioners are of opinion 
 that the private schools have improved since 1869; there 
 are more of the better ones, fewer of the bad ones than 
 formerly. Yet there still are "private schools which, 
 carried on in ill-ventilated rooms by ignorant persons 
 with no qualifications as teachers, represent the lowest 
 depth of educational stagnation from which we have, 
 during the past thirty years, been emerging." 
 
 A few years ago some educationists frankly talked 
 Private Schools ^^ sweeping private schools out of 
 and initiation of existence. It has been said that some 
 Educational of the Commissioners began their work 
 
 Reforms. ^j^j^ ^ strong prejudice against the 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 113 
 
 private schools, and ended it with the conviction 
 that there was much to be said in their favour. 
 It was brought home to their minds that several 
 great educational reforms had been initiated in private 
 schools, and that able and enthusiastic teachers some- 
 times leave public schools and take to private ones 
 because of the gain in freedom and elasticity. Germany, 
 France, and the United States are now calling out for 
 private schools. " It is possible," says the Report, " so 
 to order the conditions of educational life as to secure 
 at once the freedom of the teacher and the protection 
 of the public." 
 
 The Commissioners made recommendations which 
 it is believed will attain this end. Despite the extra- 
 ordinary proposals that some witnesses made to the 
 Commission, such as that public authorities should 
 be prevented giving any pecuniary support what- 
 ever to public secondary schools, which they did not 
 give to efficient private ones, lest the latter should be 
 handicapped, private teachers as a whole will welcome 
 reasonable control by the State ; hardly any assume the 
 attitude of certain German and French educational 
 reformers, who demand the abolition of all State inter- 
 ference. There is a growing agreement with Dr. 
 Schaible's view, published as early as 1870, that the 
 best machinery for the thorough and general instruction 
 of the nation is the equilibrium of three forces : a 
 system of State schools, endowed schools, and private 
 schools. 
 
114 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Visit to Four Secondary Schools for Girls, 
 
 The North London Collegiate School, the pioneer 
 public school for girls in England, requires more than 
 The North xsi&^Q mention. It was originally 
 
 London begun in 1850 by Frances Mary 
 
 Collegiate School, gugs and her mother, as a private 
 school, in Camden Town. Two years before, Miss 
 Buss had attended evening classes at the newly founded 
 Queen's College, in Harley-street. When the London 
 Centre for the Cambridge Local Examinations was 
 tentatively opened to girls, in 1863, Miss Davies being 
 the secretary. Miss Buss was represented by twenty-five 
 candidates out of a total of 84. Official recognition 
 of the importance and high promise of the new school 
 was not withheld, for in November, 1865, Miss Davies 
 and Miss Buss were called to give evidence before 
 the Royal Commission on Secondary Education. In 
 her book, Frances Mary Buss^* Miss Ridley shows how 
 from this time forward the idea grew in Miss Buss's 
 mind of making her school into a public school for girls. 
 In 1870 the trust deed was signed by several old friends 
 and other influential persons, amongst them four women. 
 Then followed the hard struggle to find the money to 
 build and endow the new public school. Few stories 
 are so moving in the history of women's education as 
 the grave difficulties Miss Buss encountered. No one 
 realizing that struggle could ever again look with 
 indifferent eye upon the handsome buildings of the 
 * Published by Longmans, Green, and Co., 1896. 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 115 
 
 North London Collegiate School. Miss Ridley tells 
 us "There were rare tears in Miss Buss's voice and 
 eyes " when Miss Ewart gave ;^iooo, afterwards 
 supplementing the gift by a timely loan. Success 
 came at last, for in 1872 two great city companies 
 came to the rescue. The Brewers gave ;£4o,ooo to 
 build and endow the school ; the Clothworkers followed 
 with an offer to build the great hall and an annual 
 grant of ;^io5 for scholarships. Miss Buss herself 
 gave ;£'iooo, the profits she gained by supervising a 
 preparatory school, about ;£"i5oo to build the gymna- 
 sium, as well as sacrificing additional income from the 
 Board of Governors, which should have been hers by 
 right. 
 
 This first Public School for Girls was opened by 
 the Prince and Princess of Wales, in 1879, and for 
 First Public Day fifteen years Miss Buss remained its 
 School for Girls, head-mistress, a period long enough 
 opened 1879. ^^ ^^^ j^^j. ^^ j-g^p ^ j^jgj^ reward, 
 
 and to show the educational world that a great step 
 forward had been taken. The North London Collegiate 
 School served as a model for the Girls' Public Day 
 School Company. It is worked under a scheme drawn 
 up by the Charity Commissioners in 1875, which 
 scheme also covers the Camden School for Girls. 
 
 Together the two schools educate about a thousand 
 pupils. The North London Collegiate School, of 
 which Dr. Sophie Bryant is now head-mistress, is a first 
 grade school; the leaving age is about 19, and its 
 students may pass directly into a university college 
 
Ii6 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 without further preparation. The Camden School is 
 
 second grade, the leaving age being 
 The Camden 
 School. 10 or 17, students generally remaining 
 
 until they pass the Cambridge Junior, 
 
 or some equivalent examination. 
 
 The buildings of the North London Collegiate School 
 are excellent, including a handsome hall with stained 
 glass windows, well furnished class-rooms, laboratories, 
 a large gymnasium, dining-room, and excellent cloak- 
 rooms. Convenience and suitability are the distinguishing 
 features. 
 
 In 1879 such buildings were unique; happily, all 
 over the country, and especially in London, buildings 
 quite as good are becoming common, the very result 
 at which Miss Buss aimed. Morning school only 
 obtains, save when pupils choose to remain or return 
 for music and preparation. The Princess of Wales is 
 President of the Board of Governors, on which there 
 are five ladies. 
 
 The position of the Cheltenham Ladies' College is 
 unique, if for no other reason than that it covers all 
 The Ladies' ^^ ^""^^^ sections into which this work 
 
 College, is divided. In the main, it is a large 
 
 Cheltenham. secondary school for girls, with some 
 
 650 pupils. Its growth has led to important develop- 
 ments in every other field, the scheme now covering 
 secondary, higher, and technico-professional education. 
 
 The College began its career in 1854: its principal 
 was a Miss Proctor, succeeded by Miss Beale in 1858. 
 It was then at work in Cambray House, now an over- 
 
SECOND AR Y EDUCA TION 117 
 
 flow school of the College. The present College does 
 not resemble the Royal HoUoway College in being the 
 "result of one act of conception, the successive stages 
 of a single intellectual effort." It is quite the reverse 
 of this; building has been added to building, enlarge- 
 ment here, addition there, so that the stranger is 
 usually bewildered by the variety and number of halls, 
 rooms, and corridors. 
 
 Miss Beale has herself written the history of 
 Cheltenham College, a story of great interest. Up 
 to 1873, the year in which the new college buildings 
 were entered, it was a school of about 150 girls, its 
 principal having to live down a good deal of local 
 opposition to a girls' school daiing to style itself a 
 college, and to the heterodox idea that girls need 
 trouble to make the acquaintance of fractions or 
 Shakespeare. "It is all very well," Miss Beale re- 
 lates of a mother who withdrew her daughter at the 
 end of a quarter of new-fangled tuition, "for my 
 daughter to read Shakespeare, but don't you think it 
 is more important for her to sit down at the piano and 
 amuse her friends?" The great hall of assembly can 
 contain 600 pupils. A new and larger one is being 
 built, capable of holding 1500 persons, at a cost of 
 about ;£2o,ooo. A handsome museum and library, 
 laboratories, studios, pictures, statues, statuettes, stained 
 glass windows, a fine organ, all go to show education 
 held in high honour. 
 
 The staff numbers more than 100 ; of students, 
 including those who attend classes as by-students, there 
 
Ii8 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Staff and Pupils. ^'^ ^oo. About 500 pupils live in 
 seventeen boarding - houses licensed 
 by the Council. A point is made that all students 
 shall be daughters of professional men, or those who 
 hold a certain social position. 
 
 The College has a kindergarten of about 50 children 
 under trained mistresses, affording practising ground 
 for a Kindergarten Training Department. The remain- 
 ing 600 students are classed in three great divisions, 
 subdivided into thirty-two classes. The leaving age 
 is seventeen or eighteen, and students are encouraged 
 to take a leaving examination, usually the Oxford 
 Senior; about 70 take this examination in July. 
 
 In addition, the College affords preparation for the 
 Cambridge Higher Local, and for the examinations of 
 London University, including those for the degrees of 
 M.A., B.A., B.Sc. This section of its work entitles 
 Cheltenham to a place among the colleges devoted to 
 higher or university education. 
 
 The third school visited was one of the Girls' Public 
 Day Schools Company at Netting Hill, under Miss 
 Jones. This was the second school 
 Dav School opened by the Company in September, 
 
 1873, the first having been at Chelsea, 
 in January. Notting Hill began with ten pupils; for 
 many years it has had its complement, 400. The 
 school was rebuilt in 1883, and has now a hall and 
 series of pleasant class-rooms. It is, however, by no 
 means the best or newest building the Company has 
 erected. Among the compulsory subjects are mathe- 
 
SECOND AR Y EDUCA TION 1 1^ 
 
 matics, French, German, Latin. Each language is begun 
 in a different year ; moreover, Greek is frequently taken 
 in the upper forms, since it is compulsory for certain 
 examinations. All classes take a science subject, such 
 as botany, physiology, chemistry; there is a special 
 science teacher directing this work. Drawing is com- 
 pulsory as far as the upper fifth form. Sewing and 
 physical exercises have each a weekly lesson. The 
 proportion of pupils is twenty-two to each teacher. A 
 fair proportion of the students pass on to college life ; 
 others enter the Post Office, Savings Banks, and 
 employments open to women. Work is tested by the 
 examination of the Joint Board, and the whole school 
 examined annually by an examiner of the Oxford and 
 Cambridge Schools Examination Board. 
 
 The two schools first described are unique, the life- 
 work of two pioneers in women's education. The 
 
 Skinners' School, at Stamford Hill, is 
 The Skinners' .1 r .• c . c 
 
 Co.'s Middle ^" another footmg, one of a type of 
 
 School for Girls, schools happily becoming more com- 
 
 Stamford Hill, mon. The Skinners' Company had 
 
 London, . already built three schools for boys, 
 
 when it was suggested to them, presumably, that there 
 
 exist such beings as girls. Having funds at their 
 
 disposal, they fell in with the idea that their next school 
 
 should be for them. The foundations were laid, and 
 
 the school opened in 1890. The Charity Commissioners 
 
 provided a scheme, and the whole work was so 
 
 welcomed by the neighbourhood and proved so highly 
 
 successful, that in 1893 the original building, intended 
 
120 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 to accommodate 200, had to be enlarged to hold 350. 
 The Company had gained the services of an able 
 head-mistress, Miss Page, who had up till then been 
 head of a school under the Girls' Public Day School 
 Company. The Skinners' School is second grade, girls 
 remaining up to sixteen or seventeen years of age, and 
 working to the standard of the lower and, when possible, 
 the higher examinations of the Joint Board of Oxford 
 and Cambridge. The curriculum of this school having 
 been made liberal by the scheme of the Charity Com- 
 missioners, the standard of work is the same as in the 
 middle and lower parts of those high schools where 
 girls remain up to nineteen years of age. The Great 
 Hall is an admirable room, light and beautiful, with a 
 raised platform, capable of adaptation to many purposes. 
 Behind it is a memorial window, with memorials of 
 Thomas Hunt and Lawrence Atwell, at which one gazes 
 reverently. Light and airy class-rooms, beautifully 
 furnished, open off the sides of the hall. The play- 
 ground is good, judged by the London standard. 
 Nothing could be better than the arrangement of the 
 cloak-rooms : the seat underneath the girl's peg ; the 
 wires below the seat on which to place boots ; the shelf 
 above the peg for books whilst their owner is dressing, 
 all convince the visitor that some one who has studied 
 girls' needs had planned them. A gymnasium, a studio, 
 laboratory, and dining-room deserve to be mentioned. 
 The fees are low, from ;^4 to ;£io, and this is perhaps 
 the reason why the classes average thirty or forty in 
 number. Indeed, the classes in all the girls' public 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 121 
 
 schools visited by the writer are far too large, even 
 when the fees are much higher than at the Skinners' 
 School. The curriculum embraces the usual subjects, 
 with a good deal of option and consideration for 
 individual ability. Drawing is compulsory up to the 
 sixth form; sewing up to the fifth. A fair amount of 
 science teaching is carried on in this school, and the 
 science mistress commented upon the interest shewn in 
 it. The girls seemed to be of much the same class as 
 in a school of the G.P.D.S. Company ; but with a larger 
 percentage of those whose parents are not wealthy. 
 Similar schools are the Aske's School, at Hatcham ; the 
 Haberdashers' School, at Hoxton ; Dame AUce Owen's 
 School, Islington; and the James Allen School, at 
 Dulwich. 
 
 It would be well if some of our provincial teachers, 
 working in comparatively dismal surroundings, could see 
 the admirable new buildings that are now springing up, 
 especially when the children are at work in them. 
 Light, airy, and often charmingly decorated, they 
 favourably affect the character of the teaching, and 
 the temperament of the taught. 
 
Section III. 
 
 Ibtgbet lEDucatton 
 
 [I.] 
 
 Higher education is here assumed to mean education 
 in colleges connected with the universities, or in 
 
 colleges of university rank, carried on 
 
 after the age of eighteen or there- 
 abouts. It must be noted that in Britain there are a 
 number of excellent secondary schools where an upper 
 class or classes receive a considerable part of a 
 collegiate education. 
 
 It is necessary to guard against the error that higher 
 education for women is peculiar to the nineteenth 
 
 century. This proceeds from a survey 
 nof a^Novekv ^°° confined to the seventeenth, eighteenth, 
 
 and early nineteenth centuries; if we 
 turn to the work of women in the monasteries, we 
 recognize that woman's share in education varies at 
 different epochs. Miss Eckenstein shows, in Woman 
 U7tder Monasticism^ how women shared the culture 
 of their day, especially during the early days of 
 monasticism, the sixth to the eighth centuries, and in its 
 golden age, the twelfth. In the first period we find 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 123 
 
 abbesses taking part in politics, affixing their signature 
 to documents in token of dignity and assurance of royal 
 good faith ; Hilda of Whitby ruled over a monastery 
 of men and women ; five of the men who studied under 
 her were raised to the episcopate. 
 
 As poets, letter-writers, translators, transcribers, artists, 
 nuns took a respectable place. In the tenth century, 
 Literary and Hrotswith wrote dramatic plays in 
 
 Artistic activity Latin at Gandersheim ; Ebert tells of 
 of Nuns. j^gj. fruitful poetic talent, and how in 
 
 Latin drama she stands alone; in the twelfth century, 
 Herrad produces at Hohenburg, in Alsace, her Garden 
 of Delights^ an account of the history of the world 
 illustrated with pictures probably drawn by herself and 
 coloured by the nuns. Two of these pictures caused 
 Gerard to classify Herrad as among the most imagina- 
 tive painters the world has known. Gradually the nuns 
 gave up such work for devotion; their whole time 
 became absorbed in ritual; their life divorced from 
 practical affairs. Reformers industriously preached that 
 there was no career for woman apart from wifehood 
 and motherhood. Henry VHI. permitted Cromwell, 
 Layton, and Legh to annex or destroy the nunneries, 
 driving forth all those — the great majority — who were 
 unwilling to go, and giving their buildings, lands, 
 revenues to others, sometimes for the endowment of 
 men's colleges.* It should be recollected that the 
 
 * The nunnery of St. Radegund was transformed into Jesus 
 College, Cambridge, by the good offices of the Bishop of Ely ; 
 Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, used his interest to hand over 
 
124 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 women who were founding colleges and professorships 
 for men, as did Margaret Beaufort, shared the view that 
 women's education was of no importance, and swelled 
 Growing indiffer- the growing indifference to the in- 
 ence to Women's tellectual attainments of their sex. 
 intellectual life. Practically the Reformation reclaimed 
 even the unmarried woman for the home, but remained 
 indifferent to the culture and intelligence with which she 
 is now expected to dignify it. This curious belittling of 
 the home ideal still secures the practical adhesion of 
 considerable numbers, and affords a striking instance of 
 misplaced humility. 
 
 Enough has been written to prove that the higher 
 education of women is not entirely a new movement, 
 but rather a revival. 
 
 There have been always those who directed sneers 
 and satires against women's ignorance : especially was 
 Ridicule poured ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^e in the eighteenth century. 
 on learned During the early years of the eighteenth 
 
 Women. century, we find Mary Astell, in Chelsea, 
 
 urging better education for women. She was followed 
 by Mary WoUstonecraft, in her Rights of Woman. In 
 
 Bromhall Nunnery and Lillchurch to St. John's College, Cam- 
 bridge ; Wolsey gave St. Frideswith's to Cardinal College, Oxford, 
 now known as Christ Church, and possessing the largest income 
 from endowment of all the Oxford colleges. Some of the 
 prioresses opposed this wholesale confiscation ; but it was no easy 
 task to withstand Henry VIII. and his minions. If the prioress 
 would not yield, and sign papers transferring the nunnery to the 
 King, she was deposed for a more pliant head. See Miss 
 Eckenstein's chapter on "The Dissolution in England." 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 125 
 
 the beginning of the present century Sydney Smith 
 rebuked the accomplishment craze which would seek 
 to embellish a few years of woman's Hfe, "years which 
 are in themselves so full of grace and happiness, that 
 they hardly want it, and then leaves the rest of existence 
 a prey to idle insignificance." Jean Paul Richter, whose 
 father and grandfather before him were teachers, rebuked 
 parents who sin against their daughters by "shewing 
 or recommending, even indirectly, any excellence they 
 may possess — be it art, science, or the sanctuary of 
 the heart — as a lure to men, or a bait for catching a 
 husband." In our own day, Mr. James Bryce alludes 
 to the fact " that women have minds as cultivable, and 
 as well worth cultivating, as men's minds, is still regarded 
 by the ordinary British parent as an offensive, not to say 
 a revolutionary paradox." Whatever respect social 
 conventions have accorded to the ignorant woman in 
 society, occasionally she has been told the plain truth. 
 
 We should naturally expect to find that the movement 
 for the higher education of women during the present 
 o . . - century has its origin in more causes 
 
 the Modern than one. About 1833 the Birkbeck 
 
 Movement in Literary and Scientific Institution 
 
 uca 10a opened its classes to women, acknow- 
 
 ledging their claims before they had begun to urge 
 them. On inquiry, the Principal, Mr. G. Armitage- 
 Smith, reports that women were first admitted to single 
 lectures delivered twice a week in the theatre on 
 educational and scientific subjects. Later these lectures 
 developed into full courses given in class-rooms. At a 
 
126 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 date subsequent to 1833, a formal resolution was passed 
 admitting women to the full advantages of the Institution. 
 The present Secrerary reports that the date of this 
 resolution was long before that of his appointment 
 (185 1). As far as can now be learned, there was no 
 agitation, nor even special applications by women. 
 A storm of ridicule from a certain section of the 
 press is said to have greeted this action of the Council, 
 but the Institution has never turned back on this policy. 
 In her able article upon "University Education for 
 Women in England,"* Mrs. Henry Fawcett shews how 
 women's first, formal, organized claim to the rights of 
 citizenship dates from 1840, when two American ladies, 
 Mrs. Mott and Mrs. Stanton, were excluded, on the 
 ground of sex, from an anti-slavery convention held in 
 London, to which they had been sent as delegates. 
 The two movements for education and citizenship are 
 of course closely united. 
 
 In 1 84 1 we find the Governesses' Benevolent Institu- 
 tion beginning to move. It was formally organized in 
 Governesses' ^^43 ^ ^^ aimed at the assistance of 
 
 Benevolent governesses in temporary difficulties. 
 
 Institution. annuities for them, a home for the 
 
 aged, and free registration. Soon we find the Com- 
 mittee (presumably men) and the Ladies' Committee 
 face to face with want of qualification and competency. 
 There must be a diploma ; the governesses must them- 
 selves be taught. The Report of 1846 expressly tells 
 
 * Addresses and Proceedings of International Congress of 
 Education, Chicago, 1893. 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION" 127 
 
 US that " the Committee were not prepared to find the 
 higher authorities of the country unawakened to the 
 importance of female education, in its bearing upon 
 national character, and thus upon national prosperity," 
 and there are seditious allusions to the monopoly of 
 endowments and universities by the privileged sex. 
 This report was the work of the Rev. David Laing, 
 then honorary secretary, a consistent advocate of 
 women's education. The Report for 1847 tells of 
 arrangements being made to commence classes in all 
 departments of education, and of the gentlemen who 
 formed the Education Committee of the Governesses' 
 Benevolent Institution busy examining the governesses, 
 and giving them certificates. 
 
 Next year Queen's College opened in Harley Street, 
 for "an improved system of female education with 
 Opening of ^^^ prospects and such success as 
 
 Queen's College, its most sanguine friends dared not 
 ^^ anticipate." The first term there were 
 
 200 entries, and 45 lectures given per week by such men 
 as the Rev. F. D. Maurice, Dean Plumptre, R. C. 
 Trench (afterwards Archbishop of DubHn), Dr. Brewer, 
 and others. The college was really a branch of the 
 Institution ; governesses who were members had the 
 right of attending certain lectures free.* In 1853 it 
 
 * They sent this letter of thanks to the Committee in 1849 : 
 "The ladies who have enjoyed the privilege of attending the 
 Evening Classes, are anxious to express their gratitude to those 
 gentlemen who have so kindly contributed to their improvement, 
 and who have devoted so much time to that purpose. 
 
 "They are deeply sensible of the great benefit which they have 
 
128 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 separated from its parent, and began an independent 
 career with a Royal Charter of Incorporation; ladies 
 of rank and title became visitors to the college, among 
 them Lady Stanley of Alderley. As the instruction 
 at Queen's College was given in accordance with the 
 principles of the Church of England, that large body 
 of educated opinion which has always objected to 
 religious tests helped to found another college for 
 women in Bedford Square, on an undenominational 
 basis, in 1849. To this end Mrs. John Reid lent 
 solid help. 
 
 Amongst the early scholars of Queen's College we 
 find Miss Buss and Miss Beale; at Bedford College 
 were George Eliot, Mrs. Craik, Anna Swanwick, Mme. 
 Bodichon, while Miss Clough and Miss Emily Davies 
 sat on the Committee. 
 
 The movement for the higher education of women 
 received help also from the College of Preceptors, 
 The College of ^0^"^^^^ i" ^^46. It is true that at 
 Preceptors— first the College was intended for 
 
 Women admitted, men only, but soon a Ladies' Depart- 
 '°49« ment arises, under the auspices of 
 
 Miss Edgeworth, Miss M. A. Strickland, and other 
 able women. Happily this was allowed to drop, and 
 in 1849 women were admitted to the College, profiting 
 by much of its educational programme. By 1850 we 
 
 derived from the various Lectures ; and unanimously feel that they 
 cannot suffer the Term to close without offering their sincere thanks 
 to all the Professors for their valuable instructions." 
 About forty signatures were attached. 
 
I 
 
 HIGHER EDUCATION 129 
 
 may say that the higher education movement was safely 
 launched. 
 
 The position of Bedford is unique among the women's 
 
 colleges. Its history covers the whole period of the 
 
 Revival of Learning among women. 
 
 1^0°*^ ^^ ^^ "°^ ^^^y ^ ^^^^ ^^ residence 
 
 for about 40 out of 200 students, 
 it supplies all the teaching necessary for the examina- 
 tions of London University. Moreover, it must shortly 
 be recognized as a constituent college of London 
 University, and is now subsidized by Parliament; it 
 also receives a handsome donation from the London 
 County Council for technical instruction. 
 
 The state of Secondary Education was so poor during 
 the early life of Bedford College, that for 15 years the 
 Council managed a secondary school, only giving it up 
 in 1868 to devote itself entirely to higher education. 
 In 1874 the College removed to Baker Street, where it 
 has extended itself backward to East Street. It now 
 possesses six excellent laboratories, erected at a cost of 
 more than ;^6ooo. 
 
 Bedford does not aim at the exact assimilation of a 
 curriculum for women to one for men. Provision was 
 made in 1895 for instruction in art, and music is duly 
 recognized. Bedford College is much indebted to its 
 able and vigorous Council. When the ParHamentary 
 Share in the Grant of ;f 15,000 per annum was first 
 
 Parliamentary divided among university colleges, 
 Grant Bedford was passed over. Some of 
 
 the Council worked hard to obtain a share of this 
 
130 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 money, and gained it in 1894, when the grants were 
 revised. The Council are sometimes accused of appoint- 
 ing men to vacant professorships ; but their defence is 
 that they always choose the ablest teacher, regardless of 
 sex distinction. A large proportion of Bedford students 
 work for the examinations of London University. 
 
 The fate of Queen's College has been different. The 
 Schools Inquiry Commission observed, in 1868, in its 
 report, that it has almost entirely taken up secondary 
 education. It now has a middle school for girls up 
 to the age of fourteen, and courses in the College 
 proper for students between about fourteen and eighteen, 
 the course covering four years. 
 
 About the sixties, educational associations of women 
 arose in different parts of the country. At Liverpool 
 Educational we find a Ladies' Educational Society 
 
 Associations of in 1866, which led to the University 
 Women. Extension movement ; at Leeds, the 
 
 Yorkshire Ladies' Council of Education ; in London, 
 187 1, the National Union for Improving the Education 
 of Women. 
 
 Whilst the Schools Inquiry Commission was sitting 
 in 1865-67, Miss Emily Davies presented a memorial 
 to the members, signed by twelve 
 Memorial notable women, chiefly teachers, draw- 
 
 ing attention to the great need that 
 existed of a place of education for adult female 
 students, and alluding to such a foundation as amongst 
 the most urgent educational wants of the time. The 
 memorial was endorsed by the signatures of nearly 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 131 
 
 200 persons, amongst them Kay-Shuttleworth, Huxley, 
 Ruskin, Canon Norris, Lyell, Paget, Tennyson, Brown- 
 ing, Grote, Tyndall, Grant Duff, Stansfeld, Bain, R. 
 C. Jebb, Lyulph Stanley, J. E. Gorst. About 25 of 
 the signatures are women's, the remainder belonging 
 to professors, scientists, men distinguished in literature, 
 art, and politics. Of course nothing, not even the 
 signatures of this memorial, can convince minds of a 
 certain order that the movement for the higher educa- 
 tion of women is anything but a blow aimed at the 
 supremacy of one sex. 
 
 This bold idea of a college for women, connected 
 with one of the ancient universities, owes its inception 
 to Miss Emily Davies, first presenting itself to her mind 
 as a practical project in October, 1866. It commended 
 itself to the London Schoolmistresses' Association, who 
 throughout lent cordial assistance. The memorial 
 already alluded to was presented on July 9th, 1867, 
 and for the next two years we find Miss Davies and 
 her friends busy collecting ;£3ooo to found the new 
 college. A house was taken at Hitchin, in 1869, and 
 
 work began with six students ; this was 
 jg^ ' the modest beginning of Girton College. 
 
 It excited a fair amount of ridicule, 
 disapproval,* and more or less good-humoured banter. 
 
 * "There is no doubt that this sort of woman," says a 
 Quarterly Reviewer in 1869, "will not be popular with men." 
 Probably he had not seen the memorial just alluded to. He 
 goes on to say that this new college might have his approval if 
 the students were taught to sew, teach, keep house, read aloud, 
 make their own dresses, and be helpful at mission working parties. 
 
132 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 In 1873 the young college removed to Girton, two 
 miles from Cambridge, where, by a series of extensions, 
 accommodation now exists for 104 students, exclusive 
 of the teaching staff and officials. The buildings are 
 excellent ; every year the grounds become more beauti- 
 ful, but the distance from Cambridge is, in some 
 respects, disadvantageous. It is an open secret that 
 the executive deferred to public opinion in planting the 
 women students so far from the town; they could not 
 possibly foresee that public opinion would rapidly veer 
 round to their side, and leave them in the position 
 of having over-estimated their opponents' sense of 
 propriety. 
 
 The women's colleges are so carefully managed and 
 financed that the average of comfort, of a pleasant, and 
 even enjoyable, existence, is high. Women co-operate 
 more than is the case in men's colleges, almost all meals 
 being taken in hall. One result is that the cost of 
 their maintenance is usually smaller. 
 
 By its memorandum of association Girton College 
 must provide for the students' instruction and for 
 religious services in accordance with the principles 
 of the Church of England; a conscience clause 
 prevents friction. Since the foundation, 575 students 
 have been in residence, and of these the large number 
 of 370 have obtained honours according to the Cam- 
 bridge University standard, and hold the "equivalent 
 of a degree." The College has rigorously maintained 
 that the students' work must be judged by the standards 
 recognized by the university. Few will doubt that this 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 133 
 
 was a wise policy to begin with. Up to 1881, when 
 
 formal permission was given to women to sit for the 
 
 - , . degree examination, students who did 
 
 Formal permis- ° ' 
 
 sion for Women 'f^ot read for honours at Girton used 
 to sit for the to read for the ordinary degree ; 
 Degree Examina- ^^^ ^j^jg ^^^ ^^^^^ -^^ ^^^^^ 
 
 tion, 1881. ^ ^ . 
 
 1882. Formal permission to sit for 
 
 the University Honours Examinations marks a great 
 step in advance. It was partly due to the success of 
 Miss Charlotte Scott, who in 1880 took the mathe- 
 matical tripos, and was bracketed with the eighth 
 wrangler. This aroused extraordinary enthusiasm both 
 among men and women. In 1887 the only person 
 at Cambridge who attained the first division of the 
 first class in the classical tripos was Miss A. F. Ramsay. 
 In one year Girton had seven first classes : the college 
 is small, and it was pointed out at the time that if a 
 large men's college had obtained as many, it would 
 have done admirably. But, indeed, successes at the 
 women's colleges are now far too common to excite 
 much attention save in academic circles and in the 
 women's papers. 
 
 Newnham was founded in consequence of a demand 
 by women at a distance to share the advantages of 
 
 certain lectures given specially to 
 Newnham r j 
 
 College, 1871. women by Cambridge University men. 
 
 In 1871 Miss A. J. Clough took a 
 house in Cambridge for five students. Year by year 
 the college has steadily developed until it now includes 
 three halls— Clough, Sidgwick, and Old Hall, and 
 
134 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Stands on a site of more than eight acres. It 
 accommodates 158 students, besides the teaching staff 
 and other officials. Past and present students now 
 number 1050; of these, 433 have passed in the various 
 triposes, mathematics, classics, moral sciences, natural 
 sciences, history, mediaeval and modern languages, law. 
 Tripos examinations are, of course, those through which 
 men obtain honour degrees. Newnham is entirely 
 unsectarian, no religious test having ever been imposed. 
 Fees payable to the college amount to 75 guineas per 
 annum. Students have mainly bed-sitting-rooms at 
 Newnham, whereas at Girton they enjoy the luxury of 
 two rooms, and pay fees amounting to 100 guineas. 
 
 Newnham, too, has her notable successes : in 1890 
 Miss Philippa Fawcett was placed above the Senior 
 Wrangler. In 1891 she was also in the first division 
 of the first class in part II. of the mathematical tripos. 
 In 1893 Miss A. M. Johnson was placed between the 
 fifth and sixth wranglers. Next year she was the only 
 person in the first division of the first class in part II. 
 of the tripos. In 1895, out of 49 students who entered 
 for tripos examinations from Newnham, 12 took first 
 classes, 24 second classes, 12 third classes, and one 
 an aegrotat. 
 
 The position of women at Cambridge is peculiar. 
 They are students; Girton and Newnham are recog- 
 Position of nized as hostels, residence at which 
 
 Women at for a certain length of time, together 
 
 Cambridge. ^j^jj ^^ passing of preliminary ex- 
 
 aminations prescribed by the University, confers the 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 135 
 
 right of entering for examination for honour degrees. 
 A man is legally a member of the University even 
 during his undergraduateship. Neither as under- 
 graduate, nor as holder of the equivalent of a degree, 
 is a woman a member of the University. She may not 
 enter for the ordinary degree examination, only for 
 honour degrees. In 1880 a great attempt was made 
 to open Cambridge degrees to women. It was un- 
 successful ; but resulted in formal permission for women 
 to enter for the honour examinations. In 1887 the 
 agitation was renewed with no result whatever, the 
 University refusing even to consider the question. It 
 was opened up again in 1896. The Council of the 
 Senate then appointed a syndicate to consider what 
 further privileges (if any) should be granted to women 
 in Cambridge, and whether they should be admitted to 
 degrees. The Syndicate has been instructed to report 
 before the end of Michaelmas term, 1896, and the 
 agitators are not without hope that some concession 
 may be made, though it is doubtful whether they will 
 obtain the just treatment which London has afforded 
 to women. 
 
 The women's colleges — and this remark applies to 
 them all — have greatly helped to raise the status of the 
 The Colleges teaching profession, which a large 
 and the Teaching proportion of their students enter. 
 Profession. Wi^'s> Kennedy, when collecting infor- 
 
 mation in 1894 about the occupations of former 
 Newnham students, found that out of a total of 720, 
 374 entered women's great profession. Other students 
 
136 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 become doctors, journalists, bookbinders, gardeners, 
 clerks to the Labour Commission, secretaries, mis- 
 sionaries; 230 returned to live at home, and of these 
 108 married. Miss Constance Jones is of opinion 
 that about two-thirds of the Girton students become 
 teachers ; but no precise calculation has yet been 
 made. 
 
 At Oxford the position of women is not so satisfactory 
 as at Cambridge, inasmuch as the University does not 
 
 grant certificates to women who pass 
 Women at , . . . , 
 
 Oxford honour exammations, m the same way 
 
 as Cambridge grants them to those 
 
 who have passed triposes. (These certificates are given 
 
 to women only, never to men.) At Oxford, women's 
 
 colleges are smaller and more numerous than at 
 
 Cambridge. There are now four, since St. Hilda's, a 
 
 house established as a branch for students connected 
 
 with the Ladies' College at Cheltenham, has quite 
 
 recently taken rank as a hall. It may here be noted 
 
 that the examinations at Oxford were formally opened 
 
 to women in 1884. 
 
 Somerville Hall and Lady Margaret Hall both started 
 
 in 1879, each with nine students. The stated objects 
 
 of the founders of Somerville are " to 
 Somerville Hall, „ , .. j 4. 
 
 g afford young women, at moderate 
 
 expense, such facilities for their higher 
 education as will enable them better to fulfil the duties 
 of life, and, if need be, to earn an honourable and 
 independent livelihood, and to help forward the edu- 
 cation of women throughout the country." Somerville 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 137 
 
 has twice been enlarged, and now affords accommodation 
 
 for seventy students. Up to June, 1896, 225 students 
 
 had been in residence, of whom 120 had passed an 
 
 honour examination similar to that taken by men as 
 
 the degree course. Somerville is named after Mary 
 
 Somerville ; it is the largest of the three halls, and is 
 
 the only undenominational hall for women at Oxford. 
 
 Miss Maitland is the Principal. 
 
 Lady Margaret Hall is named after Lady Margaret 
 
 Tudor, mother of Henry VIL It has added house to 
 
 house during its existence, and can 
 Lady Margaret -, r 
 
 Hall 1870. "^^ accommodate forty-eight students. 
 
 In October, 1896, it removed to new 
 
 buildings close to the old hall. Since opening, 210 
 
 students have passed through Lady Margaret, many 
 
 of whom are now teachers. The Secretary reports 
 
 that all but a very few lectures are now open to women 
 
 students at Oxford. 
 
 St. Hugh's was begun by Miss Wordsworth, the 
 
 Principal of Lady Margaret, for the education of twenty- 
 
 „ „ . . five students who could not afford the 
 
 St Hugh's 
 
 Hall 1886. ^^^^ ^^ ^^y Margaret Hall. This 
 
 college is named after St. Hugh of 
 Lincoln. There are also home students residing in 
 Oxford, not members of any hall. Altogether, the 
 women's colleges at Oxford accommodate about 150 
 students. The conditions and regulations that obtain 
 there are not readily comprehended, and require a 
 word of explanation. 
 
 Women are not required to reside in a "hostel"; 
 
138 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 they may live in their own houses at Oxford, or not 
 
 Association for ^^ ^^^°'^ ^^ ^^^- ^^^" f°' ^^"' 
 the Education residence is only required for the 
 of Women at degree. Women have also been per- 
 ^ °^ * mitted to enter for final examinations 
 
 without taking the whole course required for the degree, 
 though, as a matter of fact, the class obtained in an 
 honour examination of the University is clearly indi- 
 cated on the certificate received, and such certificate 
 is of more importance than minor examinations that 
 may or may not have been omitted. Hence there 
 has arisen a good deal of uncertainty as to the value 
 and significance of the Oxford certificates. To remedy 
 this uncertainty, an Association for the Education of 
 Women at Oxford has been founded. It provides 
 lectures, arranges private tuition, and, above all, issues 
 two diplomas, one granted only to students who have 
 taken the full degree course with honours, and resided 
 the requisite three years, and another granted to those 
 who have taken an alternative course of three exam- 
 inations approved by the Council, and who have resided 
 the same length of time. The value of the Oxford 
 student's course will thus be apparent to anyone who 
 understands the University curriculum. A certificate 
 will be given to resident students who have taken an 
 honour examination but have not qualified for the 
 diploma. 
 
 The proposal to admit women to the B.A. degree at 
 Oxford was brought before the Congregation of the 
 University in March, 1896, by means of the Association 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 139 
 
 for the Education of Women at Oxford, and rejected 
 
 by 215 votes to 140. Great efforts were made on both 
 
 sides, and it will hardly be possible to agitate again for 
 
 some years. 
 
 Perhaps few things are more conspicuous, in making 
 
 a tour of the women's colleges, than the devotion of 
 
 ^. ^ , the students, and indeed of all con- 
 
 Pious Founders. 
 
 cerned m the management, to the 
 
 pious founder. They have no monopoly of this attitude 
 of mind : but whereas William of Wyckham, Margaret 
 Beaufort, Wolsey, and the rest of the noble army of 
 founders, are somewhat remote from modern life, the 
 movement for women's education is still so young that 
 the pious woman founder has been personally known, 
 her life felt as a living influence. As an illustration, 
 Newnham set up, in 1894, beautiful bronze gates as a 
 memorial to Miss Clough. "She would have cared 
 little that her name should be lost, if her work went 
 on," observed one of the speakers at the opening 
 ceremony. The students, and above all the older 
 women who sit on college councils, and who were often 
 deprived in youth of the opportunities of a fuller and 
 freer life which women now enjoy, are determined that 
 names like hers shall not be lost. When new wings, 
 halls, laboratories, libraries are opened, or scholar- 
 ships founded, the names of Reid, Clough, Pfeiffer, 
 Kennedy, Bodichon, Sidgwick, Stanley of Alderley, are 
 commemorated with great enthusiasm. The business 
 energy of these pioneers, the courage with which they 
 faced ridicule, the tact with which they disarmed 
 
140 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 opposition and rallied to their side waverers as well 
 as conscientious adherents of both sexes, the devotion 
 shewn in giving or collecting money to extend or free 
 from debt women's institutions, could not indeed well 
 be forgotten. 
 
 The University of London was the first academic 
 body in the United Kingdom to throw open its degrees, 
 Women honours, prizes to students of both 
 
 in London sexes, on terms of perfect equality. 
 
 University. jhis it did in 1878, by means of a 
 
 supplemental charter. Previously the University had 
 attempted to meet the demand for the improved 
 education of women by instituting special examinations 
 for them. But those for whom they were intended 
 thought little of the privilege conferred, shewed no wish 
 for exclusive instruction, and it soon became evident that 
 women must have the same tests or qualifications as men. 
 Doubtless it was in the women's favour that London 
 is not a teaching university, and that its charter dates 
 from 1836. No conditions of residence having been 
 laid down, and no accretions of past centuries having 
 to be broken through, the opening of the said degrees, 
 honours, and prizes has been a far easier task than 
 that which Oxford and Cambridge must presently face. 
 The women's charter of 1878 was itself a result of the 
 wide educational movement which has been faintly 
 traced \ but it has also become the cause of further 
 developments, and, despite a growing feeling among 
 educationists that examination has a cramping as well 
 as a hurrying effect upon development, and that too 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 
 
 141 
 
 large a proportion regard examination as an end in 
 itself, has encouraged and inspired a movement growing 
 in depth and volume. 
 
 Successes '^^^ following is a list of women's 
 
 at London successes in the examinations of 
 
 University. London University, completed to Dec. 
 
 1895. Where a degree is conferred by such success, 
 the letters follow : — 
 
 ARTS. 
 
 Matriculation 
 
 . 3762 
 
 
 Intermediate Arts . 
 
 . 991 
 
 
 Bachelor of Arts 
 
 . 603 
 
 B.A. 
 
 Master of Arts 
 
 49 
 
 M.A. 
 
 Doctor of Literature 
 
 I 
 
 D.Lit 
 
 Intermediate Science 
 
 . 181 
 
 
 Bachelor of Science 
 
 . 106 
 
 B.Sc. 
 
 Doctor of Science . 
 
 5 
 
 D.Sc. 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 
 
 Preliminary Scientific 
 
 . 167 
 
 
 Intermediate Medicine 
 
 73 
 
 
 Bachelor of Medicine 
 
 . 53 
 
 M.B. 
 
 Doctor of Medicine 
 
 15 
 
 M.D. 
 
 Bachelor of Surgery 
 
 10 
 
 B.S. 
 
 Master of Surgery 
 
 I 
 
 M.S. 
 
 During the sixty years that London University has 
 
 been an examining body only, much of its teaching 
 
 „ . . has been obtainable at University 
 
 University 
 
 College, London. College, and King's College, Strand. 
 
 The classes at the former are con- 
 
142 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 ducted by able professors, and with one notable 
 exception — that of medicine — are alike open to men 
 and women. There is no separate department for 
 women ; they attend the professors' classes along with 
 men, "sitting cheek by jowl," as opponents of 
 co-education phrase it. A lady superintendent (Miss 
 Morison) has a certain oversight of all women students ; 
 and for those for whom residence is desired, it can be 
 found at College Hall, Byng Place, under the care of 
 Miss Grove. As an experiment in co-education, there 
 can be little doubt that the system used at University 
 College has been perfectly successful. If the size of 
 a class compels a professor to divide it, surely few 
 practical teachers will deny that ability rather than sex 
 should usually form the line of division. In all, about 
 400 women attend the classes at University College. 
 Of these, a majority are working for degrees; but a 
 certain number follow classes in fine art, Egyptology, 
 archaeology, and similar subjects. Thirty-four students 
 find residence at College Hall. With regard to the 
 position of women as members of London University, 
 it is satisfactory to note that, as graduates, women are 
 duly quaUfied members. The Charter of 1878 enacted 
 that no woman should be a member of Convocation 
 until a resolution should be passed to that effect. This 
 was done on January 17th, 1882, practically as soon as 
 women were qualified; and now they vote, and take 
 part in all the proceedings of Convocation, shewing great 
 interest. 
 
 The ladies' classes connected with King's College 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 143 
 
 seem to partake largely of the nature of the University 
 Extension movement, and adapt themselves a good 
 King's College, deal to the requirements of a wealthy 
 Ladies' London suburb. The Ladies' Depart- 
 
 Department. ^^^^ -^ situated in Kensington Square. 
 
 Lectures are given by the professors of King's College, 
 or other lecturers appointed from time to time to 
 lecture on a subject for which a special desire has 
 been expressed, e.g, Wagner, Browning. There is 
 no residence attached; and though a certain number 
 of students prepare for university examinations, the 
 majority are ladies living at home, desirous of 
 working up certain subjects in which they feel an 
 interest. Such students number between 300 and 400, 
 and if they pass in a sufficient number of subjects, and 
 remain two years at the College, receive a diploma. 
 Weekly paper work and a terminal examination are 
 features of the work. The subjects taken are very 
 various, embracing ancient and modern history, 
 Uterature, languages, ethics, art, music, mathematics, 
 domestic economy, recitation, wood -carving, and so 
 forth. It is proposed to begin a class of students 
 who shall work for the arts examinations of London 
 University. 
 
 Two colleges specially for women remain to be 
 mentioned. Westfield College is an outcome of the 
 
 resolution taken by the University of 
 Westfield . , • o o / '.A 
 
 College, 1882. London, m 1878, to open its degrees, 
 
 honours, and prizes to women on the 
 same footing as they are open to men. Places of study 
 
144 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 to obtain the degrees of a non-resident university 
 became necessary ; they therefore arose. Westfield was 
 founded in 1882 with the avowed object of preparing 
 women for London degrees, and affording them 
 residence. The trust deeds declare that there shall 
 be in the College religious teaching of a strictly 
 Protestant character, "in conformity with the prin- 
 ciples of the Reformation and in harmony with the 
 doctrines of the Church of England," though students 
 need not necessarily be members of that Church. The 
 mistress, Miss E. L. Maynard, one of the earliest 
 students at Girton, is under the control of a Council. 
 At first the College carried on its work in private houses 
 at Hampstead; it was so successful that in 1891 a large 
 wing was built facing the south-east. There is room 
 for 45 students, whose zeal, and the ability of the 
 teachers, cause no small share of the degrees, honours, 
 and prizes of London University to fall to the College. 
 As is usual with women's colleges, Westfield is 
 hampered by want of funds and scholarships; it pos- 
 sesses several laboratories, but for physics is obliged 
 to send its students to work at Bedford College, whose 
 laboratories are probably the best for women in the 
 kingdom. Westfield, whose existence is largely due 
 to the munificence of Miss Dudin Browne, stands in 
 three acres of its own grounds, and provides each 
 student comfortably with sitting and bed-room. The 
 fees are ;£^io5 per annum, with no extras; the college 
 even pays examination fees. 
 
 People who have never taken the short journey from 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 145 
 
 Waterloo to Egham, some twenty-one miles, will pro- 
 bably be as surprised as the writer to 
 Coufge"°i887*^ find the College built upon a scale 
 of unparalleled magnificence, and with 
 an extraordinary completeness of service arrangement. 
 What strikes one at the first glance is the unity of 
 design ; the College is what architects term the result 
 of one act of conception, the successive stages of a 
 single intellectual effort. The style is French Renais- 
 sance. Those who are acquainted with the Chateau de 
 Chambord tell us that though it is built of white stone, 
 whereas the College is of red brick faced with Portland 
 stone, the general effect of the two structures is not 
 dissimilar. HoUoway College covers more ground 
 than any other women's college in the world; it forms 
 a double quadrangle, measuring 550 feet by 375 feet. 
 The two long blocks are each five stories high, and 
 are mainly used for the housing of students, each having 
 her own sitting and bed-room. The buildings which 
 connect these two great blocks, the corridors of which 
 are a tenth of a mile long, embrace a chapel to the left 
 of the vestibule on entering, highly ornate, and with 
 barrel roof; on the right, a picture gallery containing 
 an excellent collection of modern paintings ; the central 
 connecting block contains on one side the handsome 
 dining hall, on the other the kitchens; the last connecting 
 block contains a library and museum, both beautifully 
 fitted, though the furnishing of the latter is scarcely 
 begun. The library is subsidized to the extent of 
 ;^2oo per annum, of which £^1^0 purchases new books, 
 
146 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 There are besides a sanatorium in the grounds, chemical 
 and biological laboratories, an excellent swimming bath, 
 a gymnasium fitted up with every possible requisite, a 
 clock tower, water tower, an installation of electric light, 
 twelve music -rooms with deadened walls, a racquet 
 court. The whole building stands in ninety-six acres 
 of ground, including, of course, cricket pitch and 
 tennis courts. It is said that the College was built 
 to accommodate 250 students, with ample room for 
 the staff and servants; the total number of rooms is 
 about eight hundred. The founder, Mr. Thomas 
 Holloway, who died in 1883, built the College by the 
 advice and counsel of his wife, and spent upon it the 
 princely sum of ;^8oo,ooo ; the building alone cost 
 ;^257,ooo. 
 
 It was in the founder's mind that this great and 
 imposing building should form the nucleus of a women's 
 university, in course of time conferring its own degrees 
 on students. The dead hand of the past was not to 
 rest heavily upon it, Mr. Holloway holding the belief 
 that women's education should not be exclusively 
 regulated by the traditions and methods of former ages. 
 No doubt he showed wisdom in giving prominence to 
 drawing and painting in the curriculum as well as music; 
 certain service rooms could easily be used for practical 
 instruction in cookery what time women choose to 
 release themselves from the bondage of examination 
 curricula laid down by men for men. Already courses 
 of instruction have been given in cookery, ambulance 
 work, sick nursing, wood carving, dressmaking. Mean- 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 147 
 
 time Holloway has only some ninety students, who 
 mostly prepare for the examinations of London 
 University and of Oxford. At the time of writing (July, 
 1896), some sixty students of Holloway have graduated 
 in the University of London in arts and science. The 
 laboratories of the College include some thirteen or 
 fourteen rooms, fitted up with everything that a student 
 in natural science could possibly need. Candidates 
 for admission must be over seventeen ; the fees are 
 ;£'9o per annum, with very few extras. 
 
 The College was opened in October, 1887, and has 
 already gained very considerable university distinctions. 
 Perhaps one of its least admirable features is the small- 
 ness and insignificance of the lecture theatre, quite a 
 low room in the basement. Doubtless, should the 
 numbers grow, the handsome hall now known as the 
 museum could be utilized for lecturing purposes. The 
 friends of women's education will probably closely watch 
 the development of Holloway College for one reason, 
 if for no other. By the will of the founder, men only 
 are its trustees and governors. It is a trite observation 
 that where women's colleges and educational institutions 
 have taken firm root, where their progress has been 
 rapid, and at the same time solid, both initiation and 
 management have been largely in the hands of women 
 themselves. Men have helped ungrudgingly, but only 
 helped. A comparison between England and Germany 
 is here worth making. The direction of women's 
 education in England lies mainly in the hands of 
 women; in Germany this is not the case, and it is 
 
148 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 but too well known that a vivifying influence makes 
 its lack plentifully felt. The German system seems 
 something laid on women instead of springing from 
 their own initiative, warmed by their own energy. Of 
 course, this question has no relation to the need and 
 desirability of mixed staffs, which are used in all the 
 university colleges, or colleges of university rank, for 
 women, both in England and Wales. In somes cases 
 the staff itself is not mixed; but the fact that students 
 attend the classes of famous lecturers causes the differ- 
 ence to be mainly one of words. 
 
 Share of Women in University Colleges 
 
 The Victoria University has three constituent col- 
 leges : Owens, Manchester, founded in 1851; Yorkshire 
 College, Leeds, 1874; and Liverpool 
 
 Un^^ersity, 1880. ^^^^^g^' ^^^^- ^^^ University grants 
 degrees; each college makes it own 
 regulations and teaching arrangements. There are now 
 674 men and 89 women graduates of Victoria University; 
 81 are graduates in arts, 6 in science, 2 in music. The 
 women attend convocation on exactly the same condi- 
 tions as men. They are practically excluded from the 
 medical faculty, which adversely affects their numbers. 
 No woman has yet attempted to take a degree in 
 law. 
 
 The attitude of Owens to women students in the past 
 can hardly be styled cordial. It was expressly founded 
 to instruct and improve "young persons of the male 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 149 
 
 sex." Even in 187 1, when it obtained 
 T * the power to open the College classes 
 
 to women, it carefully protected the 
 young male person by its famous clause : " conditionally 
 upon adequate provision having been made for the 
 instruction of male applicants." It has never opened 
 its medical department to women, though law and 
 engineering are permitted to receive them. Numbers 
 of the Owens scholarships are for men only. The 
 numbers of men students are 11 96, as compared with 
 108 women. Nowhere else can be remarked so striking 
 a disparity in the proportions of the sexes, and it 
 is difficult to account for, unless the attitude of 
 Owens towards women in past days is a sufficient 
 explanation. 
 
 The Registrar of Victoria University states that at one 
 time Manchester women went to Liverpool College 
 for science teaching. Another authority observes that 
 only one did so ; but even if this be so, a single unit 
 cannot represent the amount of repression and dis- 
 couragement which women must have suffered. 
 
 A women's department has, however, grown up, and 
 in course of time even Owens has gone back on its 
 exclusive policy. All but the medical classes are now 
 open. Owens has shewn readiness to adopt the 
 University Extension system, and arranges for courses 
 of lectures, to both sexes in the neighbourhood of 
 Manchester. 
 
 The Yorkshire College, Leeds, in its memorandum of 
 association undertakes to promote the education of both 
 
ISO EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Yorkshire sexes. It is partly an outcome of the 
 
 College, Leeds, University Extension movement, and 
 
 *^^ of the need for technical instruction 
 
 at an important manufacturing centre. It amalgamated 
 with the Leeds School of Medicine in 1884. Women 
 are admitted to this school, but not allowed to attend 
 the Leeds Infirmary for clinical instruction, an essential 
 part of the course for qualification, so that practically 
 the medical faculty is closed to women. There is no 
 separate department for women; both sexes attend the 
 same classes. The total number of students, 1896, is, 
 men, 840 ; women, 143. 
 
 Liverpool College co-operates in the University Exten- 
 sion movement. The College was opened in 1882 for 
 Liverpool ^^ instruction of the "residents of 
 
 College, Liverpool," amongst whom the women 
 
 incorporated 1881. ^j.^ included. They enjoy equally with 
 men the privileges of the College, attending the same 
 lectures and classes, with the exception that the School 
 of Medicine is closed to them. The average attendance 
 for each of the three terms is 332, of whom 73 are 
 women. Liverpool College is unfortunately burdened 
 with a rather heavy debt, despite its Government grant 
 of ;£i533 per annum. The Council are averse from 
 effecting economies which would impair efficiency. 
 
 The University of Wales is composed of three con- 
 stituent colleges, formed into the University of Wales 
 in 1893. The colleges are Aberyst- 
 Universityof j^ founded in 1872; Cardiff, in 
 
 Wales 1803. 
 
 ' 1883; and Bangor, in 1884. Each 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 151 
 
 college receives a Government subvention of jQ\ooo 
 per annum. Before the University of Wales received 
 power to confer its own degrees, the students in Welsh 
 colleges worked successfully for the degrees of London 
 and other universities. The colleges possess equal rights 
 and privileges ; but as Aberystwyth is a dozen years 
 older than the others, it may fairly be regarded as both 
 pioneer and premier college. Men and women are 
 on an absolute equality as regards degrees, entrance to 
 classes, and, what is equally important, social life. The 
 governing body have, moreover, tried the experiment 
 of mixed education ; men and women, staff and students 
 alike, meet in class-rooms, share in debates, entertain- 
 ments, concerts, with excellent results. The fees have 
 been made as low as possible, and it is probably owing 
 to this fact that the numbers of the sexes tend to 
 approximate. In October, 1896, there were 222 men 
 and 153 women students. A hall of residence, 
 Alexandra Hall, capable of accommodating 150 women, 
 was opened by the Princess of Wales in July, 1896; 
 and a wing to accommodate another fifty students is in 
 contemplation. Residence in hall is practically com- 
 pulsory for the women students. The College has a 
 strong technical side : classes are conducted in scientific 
 agriculture, dairy farming, cookery, and so forth. The 
 Council have thus recognized the needs of the country, 
 and adapted the College to them. The thorough 
 education afforded, the equality on which the sexes are 
 placed, the excellence of the management under Miss 
 E. A. Carpenter, the low fees, are attracting considerable 
 
152 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 numbers of Englishwomen. In the Lent term of 1884 
 there was one woman student at Aberystwyth; now 
 there are 153. 
 
 At Cardiff, an important engineering department, 
 women reside at Aberdare Hall, and are admitted to 
 the Medical School. Bangor, which has an agricultural 
 department, has also a hostel for women. The course 
 for the degrees of the University of Wales covers three 
 years; the first matriculation examination was held in 
 1895. 
 
 Durham University was founded in 1831, and consists 
 of {a) a theological school at Durham, {B) a college of 
 medicine, founded in 1851 and in- 
 Universitv corporated with the University 1852, 
 
 and if) a college of science at New- 
 castle, 187 1. 
 
 In 1883 arose the question of granting degrees to 
 women, when Convocation unanimously resolved to 
 confer them. The growth of the Newcastle colleges 
 in the new buildings erected in 1887 and 1888, the 
 applications for the admission of women to the College 
 of Medicine, made the matter one of considerable im- 
 portance. In June, 1893, Miss Ella Bryant, who had 
 passed all the examinations for the B.Sc. degree of the 
 University, tendered her fee for the degree. It was 
 refused until a supplementary charter could be obtained. 
 The new charter was applied for almost immediately 
 afterwards, and granted in 1895. The opening of 
 another university to women excited hardly any atten- 
 tion either at the time or afterwards, and marks the 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 153 
 
 growth of the sentiment that if anything is closed to 
 women, it is natural that it should be opened. The 
 opening of the degrees does not extend to theology, as, 
 for some occult reason, the British people regard divinity 
 as a purely masculine pursuit. In 1892 a vicar of the 
 Church of England at Folkestone proposed to with- 
 draw from various committees of the Church Congress 
 because a lady was announced to address it. Only the 
 fatherly guidance of the Bishop of Dover prevented him 
 carrying out this threat. 
 
 It may fairly be said that the opening of these 
 degrees is due to the growth and flourishing condition 
 of the Newcastle colleges. The numbers, July 1896, 
 are as follows : — 
 
 Men. Women. 
 
 College of Medicine ... 220 ... 2 
 
 College of Science ... 306 ... 198 
 (exclusive of evening students). 
 
 As usual, a majority of women take the arts classes in 
 the College of Science. Several women students are 
 now working to obtain degrees. The Principal of the 
 College of Science writes : " We have reason to believe 
 that we have solved the problem of woman's education 
 in a satisfactory manner. We have opened everything 
 to women, without a single exception." This includes 
 the B.Mus. and D.Mus. 
 
 Mason College was founded by Sir Josiah Mason in 
 1875, and formally opened in 1880. It is one of eleven 
 Mason College, university colleges which share in the 
 Birmingham, Government grant of ;^ 15,000 per 
 
 '^^5- annum. The deed of foundation 
 
154 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 only provided for scientific instruction, but the scheme 
 was extended to embrace medicine and the arts. This 
 wide curriculum is one that best suits women's interests, 
 and accordingly we find their numbers very large. Out 
 of a total of 690 students for 1895-96, 323 are women. 
 Birmingham is one of the most advanced educational 
 centres in England j the Royal Education Commissioners 
 {1894-95) drew attention to the fact that the demand 
 for Secondary Education for girls was practically the 
 same as for boys in this city. There are day training 
 departments for elementary teachers of both sexes 
 attached to Mason College, and the Council are now 
 erecting buildings to accommodate 90 women teachers. 
 Women are prepared for the Preliminary Scientific 
 Examinations (M.B.) of London University, but the 
 Medical Faculty is closed to them. On inquiry as to 
 the reason, the Secretary replies that exclusion is due 
 to custom and want of accommodation. 
 
 Nottingham University College is largely a result of 
 the University Extension movement, and, as might be 
 Nottingham expected, makes no distinction of 
 
 University religion, as many colleges proudly 
 
 College, 1880. boasts ^j. ^f gg^. There are 1580 
 
 individual students, the sexes tending to approximate in 
 numbers. The College has been extended to meet the 
 needs of this great army of students. Its governing body 
 is largely composed of town councillors, the Corporation 
 having, indeed, built the College, the condition on 
 which it received an endowment of ;£"i 0,000. Much 
 of its work is of a technical character, and it receives 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 155 
 
 a grant for this purpose from the Local Taxation 
 Surplus (Customs and Excise Duties Act), 1890. 
 
 Firth College was founded in 1879 by Mr. Mark 
 Firth, and was originally intended as a hall and lecture- 
 rooms for the work of the University 
 Sheffield ' Extension movement. It required to 
 be extended in 1892, and arrange- 
 ments are now completed for extending it once more 
 by means of an art department. It has besides recently 
 taken over a medical school, an old-standing institution 
 of the town ; this is closed to women, although the 
 objects of the College state that "its doors are open 
 to all, without distinction of sex or class." Like 
 Nottingham, Firth College provides higher education 
 by university methods, and by a system of technical 
 instruction makes special provision for local wants. It is 
 partly rate-supported under the Technical Instruction 
 Act of 1889, and receives funds from the Local Taxation 
 Act, as well as a Government grant. The total number 
 of individual students is 325, of whom 88 are women. 
 Both Nottingham and Firth Colleges have day training 
 colleges for men and women teachers, and earn the 
 grants of the Education Department. 
 
 Bristol College was founded to promote the education 
 of both sexes; it closes its medical school to women. 
 
 Besides 78 medical students it has 
 Bristol College, ^ / . , . 
 
 jgyg^ 464 students m arts and science, of 
 
 whom 238 are men, 166 women, and 
 
 60 women in a day training department. It shares in 
 
 the Government grant, and has an annual sum from 
 
156 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 the Town Council for free studentships, under the 
 Customs and Excise Act, 1890. 
 
 The condition of the universities during the first 
 half of the century illustrates the tendency of wealthy 
 University corporations to grow narrow, exclu- 
 
 Extension sive, inert. In ancient records we 
 
 movement. ^^g struck by the tacit assumption that 
 
 a university student is necessarily poor; in the more 
 modern records of Oxford and Cambridge the assump- 
 tion has been that a student ought to be wealthy, and 
 that the universities existed for the wealthy. The 
 foundation of two modern universities — London in 
 1826 (charter bestowed in 1836), and Durham in 1832 
 — formed a strong protest against the exclusiveness of 
 the ancient universities. Happily, the latter perceived 
 the danger that threatened them. In 1845 Oxford 
 received an address begging the Hebdomadal Board 
 to adopt measures for the admission of a poorer 
 class to the University; the petitioners even offered 
 assistance in money.* The Oxford University Com- 
 mission of 1850 discussed four out of seven schemes of 
 University Extension laid before it. Arthur Clough 
 and Mark Pattison argued that there must be a gradual, 
 sure, and large extension of the benefits of university 
 teaching. " I look for the extension of the university 
 to the poor," said one advocate. " Though it may be 
 impossible to bring the masses requiring education to 
 the university," wrote Mr. Sewell to the Vice-Chancellor 
 
 * See University Extension : Fast, Fresent, and Future. By 
 H. J. Mackinder and M. E. Sadler. 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 157 
 
 of Oxford in 1850, "may it not be possible to carry 
 the university to them?" And then, on paper, he 
 worked out details of an extension scheme. The 
 universities ruminated on the idea for 17 years. 
 Possibly, the period would have been longer, but a 
 convinced believer in the democratization of the uni- 
 versities, Professor James Stuart, received an invitation 
 to lecture to audiences of women from the North of 
 England Council for Promoting the Higher Education 
 of Women. Mrs. Josephine Butler was the President 
 of the Association ; Miss A. J. Clough, the Secretary. 
 In 1867 Professor Stuart gave courses of eight lectures 
 in four great Northern towns; he made a great point 
 that they should form a course, as he had been " vexed 
 with the insufficiency of the single lecture system." 
 Professor Stuart also introduced the syllabus and weekly 
 papers, which are still features of the University Ex- 
 tension scheme. In the same year he invented the 
 " class " at Rochdale, an adjunct to the lecture intended 
 for further explanation of the subject to an audience of 
 working-men. This was the origin of the University 
 Extension movement as we now know it. In 1871 
 Professor Stuart addressed an important letter on the 
 subject to resident members of Cambridge University; 
 the following year a syndicate was appointed to consider 
 the matter. Professor Stuart had a ready answer for 
 every conceivable objection, so that, in 1873, the new 
 Scheme adopted scheme was formally adopted. Mean- 
 by Cambridge, time, lectures had been given in several 
 ^^73- towns to both sexes. In 1876 the 
 
158 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 London University Extension was formed to meet the 
 special needs of the metropolis. In 1878 Oxford began 
 to organize her share in the movement, a share which 
 has grown to be very large. During the session 1894-95 
 Cambridge University local lectures have been attended 
 by 10,300 students; Oxford by about 30,000; London 
 by 14,200 (students may be counted more than once 
 in these figures, according to the number of courses 
 taken by them). The number has rather decreased 
 of recent years, partly because other universities, 
 Durham and Victoria, have taken up the work; partly 
 because Oxford and Cambridge, subsequent to 1890, 
 had a considerable share of the work now done by 
 County and Borough Councils in technical instruction ; 
 and partly because of the astonishing growth of pro- 
 vincial colleges in large towns, of polytechnics, and 
 similar institutions. Natural development has thus 
 somewhat limited the field of University Extension in 
 towns where education is appreciated. The field is 
 still very large; but a movement of this kind depends 
 greatly upon local initiative. Many fair- sized towns 
 care nothing about higher, and little 
 
 . ... ,. about any other sort of education, 
 
 initiative. ^ 
 
 Officials connected with the move- 
 ment are never weary of declaring how much it owes 
 to local secretaries and committees ; many of the 
 secretaries are women, who throw themselves into the 
 work with characteristic energy and enthusiasm. 
 Authorities variously estimate the proportions of women 
 to men attending the lectures at from three-fifths to 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 159 
 
 two-thirds. It is worth noting that the sexes are 
 scarcely drawn from the same class : there is a tendency 
 for the women to be sisters of university men, and for 
 the men to belong to a non-university class. Oxford and 
 London have both shown readiness to employ women as 
 lecturers, which has been done to a small extent. In 
 this the Extension Societies are really in advance of 
 public opinion. Mr. M. E. Sadler, late Secretary to the 
 University Extension Delegacy, Oxford, writes apropos 
 of this : " There is no part of our work in which many 
 of us take a greater satisfaction than these efforts to 
 pioneer and to influence opinion as regards the employ- 
 ment of women." The subjects of the lectures cover a 
 wide range, including natural science, history, literature, 
 economics, architecture; at some centres arrangements 
 are made for studying languages and mathematics. 
 Oxford inclines to courses of six lectures ; London, ten ; 
 Cambridge, twelve. Speaking of the six-lecture course 
 at the University Extension Congress, in 1894, Professor 
 Jebb wittily remarked, "Cambridge keeps the article, but 
 does not recommend it." The advocates of the smaller 
 course may be said to have popularity, of the larger, 
 higher educational value, on their side. 
 
 Further developments of the movement are travelling 
 libraries, composed of books recommended by the 
 lecturer; students' associations, affording help and a 
 degree of continuity; important summer meetings at 
 both the universities, where hundreds of students, 
 including many teachers, assemble for brief summer 
 courses; and lastly, a scheme of affiliation to the 
 
i6o EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 universities themselves. The Cambridge summer 
 meeting of 1896 was attended by about 500; in 
 1896 Oxford had as summer guests some 653 persons, 
 about four-fifths of whom were women. 
 
 The affiliation scheme is an attempt to secure 
 sequence in the work, since some of the critics of 
 Students ^^ University Extension movement 
 
 affiliated to the dwell upon the lack of system and 
 University. continuity. Centres that affiliate to 
 
 the university take three years' {i.e. six terms') courses 
 in, say, history, or some group of allied subjects, 
 besides two terms' work in, say, natural science. But 
 the sequences, though their educational value is high, 
 tend to alienate many students; and the finance of 
 a centre suffers by them. Students in sequence courses 
 may style themselves students affiliated to the university, 
 and have their three years' residence at a university 
 remitted to two years. Cambridge has quite recently 
 remodelled its examination system. For the future the 
 sessional certificate will cover the work of two terms, the 
 system previously adopted by the London University 
 Extension Society. 
 
 A further development of the University Extension 
 movement is the rise of three colleges, at Reading and 
 Exeter, in close connection, the former with the Oxford 
 the latter with the Cambridge movement. A third has 
 just been founded at Colchester. 
 
 The University Extension College at Reading was 
 founded in 1892, and incorporated in 1896. It was 
 formed by an amalgamation of the Local University 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION i6i 
 
 University Extension Association with the schools 
 
 Extension of science and art, and is therefore 
 
 College, Reading, ^^ganized in four departments : (i) 
 Natural Science, (2) Literary and Normal, (3) 
 Agricultural, (4) Fine and Applied Art. The College 
 is recognized by the Education Department and Science 
 and Art Department. It is an interesting attempt to 
 co-ordinate and manage, from one central governing 
 body, with committees, a wide scheme of education. 
 The College has about 600 students attending its 
 various courses, and is under the wing of the Oxford 
 Delegacy. Every class in the College, and every society, 
 is open to men and women without distinction ; women 
 also sit on the governing body. 
 
 A similar and equally successful college is at work at 
 Exeter, with a technical department, art department, 
 E t T h 'cal ^^^ *^^ usual work of the University 
 and University Extension movement. The College is 
 Extension a municipalized institution, with a 
 
 College. Council representing the chief educa- 
 
 tional bodies of the town, besides 9 members of the City 
 Council. It is noteworthy that the University Extension 
 movement has so far received no State aid, which is a 
 source of disappointment. It is, of course, a well-known 
 fact that university chests exist in a state of depletion. 
 Yet some of the colleges are very wealthy, especially 
 Christ Church,* Magdalen, Trinity, St. John's.* With 
 the exception of Christ Church and Baliol, which 
 
 * See note pp. 123-4 for one source whence the endowment of 
 these colleges was obtained. 
 
 M 
 
i62 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 presented the services of a fellow to the Reading College, 
 they seem to have done very little for the movement. 
 Reasonably they might be expected to assist it, for, so 
 far from the numbers of undergraduates suffering by 
 the movement, as was feared when Professor James 
 Stuart addressed his famous letter to the members of 
 Cambridge University, they have doubled. Whereas 
 Increase in ^^^ undergraduates of both universities 
 
 numbers of numbered only some 3000 in the early 
 
 Undergraduates, p^rt of the century, they now number 
 6153, or 6557 if we venture to count the women in 
 residence. Miss Montgomery, to whose organizing 
 ability much of the success of Exeter College is due, 
 published a very interesting article * upon " The Oppor- 
 tunity of the Universities," in which she points out that 
 their real interests coincide with Extension, and that en- 
 couragement might assume the form of a few fellowships. 
 The movement is largely of a missionary nature, 
 and where it is most successful, it appears to end in 
 a college at important centres of population. From 
 this one might argue that University Extension, as we 
 now think of it, is not meant to live long. But this 
 is taking too optimistic a view of the average state of 
 education throughout the country. One may safely 
 affirm that the harvest truly is great, and much of 
 it has still to be garnered. 
 
 The lack of colleges in out-of-the-way places, and the 
 necessity for a certain amount of individual attention, 
 are amongst the causes which have led to the establish- 
 * In the Oxford University Extension Gazette^ December, 1894. 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 163 
 
 University ment of University correspondence 
 
 Examination classes. They are chiefly used for 
 
 Posta Insti ution. preparation for certain examinations. 
 They were founded in 1882 by an association of tutors, 
 to educate students on University lines by means of 
 correspondence. Another set of correspondence classes 
 arose in 1891, under the name of the University 
 Examination Postal Institution; in 1894 it amalga- 
 mated with the original correspondence classes, under 
 the newer name. Tuition by correspondence does not 
 allow of the personal contact of teacher and pupil, nor 
 does it readily admit of the latter at once seeking aid 
 in the difficulties he meets ; yet it has considerable 
 advantages of its own, especially from the point of 
 examination successes. The pupil learns to express 
 herself, and has the benefit of an able tutor's 
 hektographed notes. The Postal Institution for 1895- 
 96 had 300 students, of whom three-fourths were 
 women, chiefly working for the Cambridge Higher 
 Local, the examinations of London University, and 
 teachers' certificates. 
 
 The leviathan correspondence institution is the 
 University Correspondence College founded in 1887, 
 University which prepares specially, but not en- 
 
 Correspondence tirely, for the examinations of London 
 College. University. Every year the college 
 
 has hundreds of successful candidates at these examina- 
 tions; in 1894-95, they numbered 777, of whom about 
 a fourth were women. There are also excellent 
 correspondence classes at Edinburgh and Glasgow. 
 
Section IV. 
 TLccMico^pvotcsBioml iBMcation 
 
 I. The Training of Teachers 
 
 We are indebted to the primary system of the 
 
 country for the idea that the teacher must be trained. 
 
 , „. The first trace of training is found 
 
 (a) Elementary. . , , , . , , 
 
 m the systems advocated m the end 
 
 of the last century by Dr. Andrew Bell, when teaching 
 
 the boys of a military orphan asylum near Madras, 
 
 and by Joseph Lancaster, who, about the same time, 
 
 was teaching very successfully crowds of poor children 
 
 in the Borough Road, London. Both men were 
 
 educational reformers of their day, and both claimed 
 
 to be the inventors of the monitorial system, which 
 
 was simply setting the elder scholars 
 The Monitorial , , , ^ 
 
 System ^° teach the rest. Lancaster seems 
 
 to have been genuinely enthusiastic, 
 and success attended his efforts. Powerful patrons, 
 amongst them George IIL and the Duke of Bedford, 
 came to his aid, so that in 1804 he was able to open 
 a new building, consisting of a large house and school- 
 room in Belvedere Place, Borough Road. Lancaster 
 issued pamphlets on how to teach 10,000 children to 
 read in three months. 
 
 164 
 
TECHNICO -PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 165 
 
 The weak spot of his system, in vogue for almost 
 half a century, was its constant change. In 1846 the 
 Committee of Council remedied this defect by intro- 
 ducing the pupil teacher system, as a development and 
 improvement on the monitorial system. The idea 
 was borrowed from Holland. At the age of thirteen or 
 
 fourteen, children were apprenticed to 
 jg^ ' the head teacher, usually for five years, 
 
 and were paid for the first year's service 
 ;^io, rising to ;^2o for the last year. Head teachers 
 were responsible for the training of the pupil teachers 
 out of school hours, and received a jQt, or ^4 bonus 
 for each one who passed her yearly examination 
 satisfactorily. For years large numbers of schools were 
 staffed merely by a head teacher, her pupil teachers, 
 and perhaps an assistant; quite a young child would 
 be given 40 children to teach. Usually she learned 
 the lesson of keeping her regiment in order, having, 
 indeed, little else to teach her charges. Shortly 
 before the introduction of the pupil teacher system, 
 in 1839-40, the first training college had been 
 founded at Battersea in connection with the Church 
 of England. In its early days the Committee of 
 Council used to make building grants for the erection 
 of schools, a policy it completely abandoned later on ; 
 in 1843 we find it affording aid for the erection of 
 training colleges, and soon the movement was in full 
 swing, especially after the Council began to make 
 quite a handsome payment of ;^2o or £2^ for each 
 pupil teacher who passed an examination known as 
 
i66 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 the Queen's Scholarship Examination, requiring her, if 
 successful, to enter a training college for a two years' 
 course. The sects vied with each other in emulation 
 of the custom of intending teachers, and by 1887 
 there were in England 44 residential training colleges, 
 of which 30 were connected with the Church of 
 England. To this day the Education Department 
 does not possess a single Government training college ; 
 it merely subsidizes sectarian institutions, which are for 
 the most part connected with religious bodies, maintain- 
 ing a hold over them by means of money grants and 
 inspection. Amongst the best of the colleges for 
 women subsidized by the Education Department are 
 those of Oxford, Stockwell, Tottenham, and Edgehill. 
 
 An immense army of elementary teachers is working 
 Proportion of the under the Education Dept. Certificated, 
 Sexes engaged provisionally certificated, assistant and 
 in Teaching. additional teachers number : 
 
 Women 
 Men . 
 
 pypiL 
 
 1896 
 . 66,310 ... 
 . 26,270 
 
 1876 
 14,901 
 11,616 
 
 Total 
 
 Girls . 
 Boys 
 
 . 92,580 
 
 TEACHERS.* 
 
 1896 
 . 26,757 
 . 7,245 
 
 26,517 
 
 1876 
 19,436 
 11,102 
 
 Total . . 34,002 ... 30,538 
 
 * An official announcement was made on January 12th, 1897, 
 that the Lord President of the Council, the Duke of Devonshire, 
 has appointed a committee to inquire into the working of the 
 pupil-teacher system in England and Wales. Of its ten members, 
 three are women. 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 167 
 
 The difference in the numbers of pupil teachers is 
 not so great as in the case of adult teachers, but the 
 altered proportion of the sexes is most striking. 
 
 The following tables show that a higher percentage 
 of trained teachers is to be found among men than 
 among women. The report refers to 14,275 schools 
 examined in a year previous to 1895 : 
 
 
 MEN 
 
 WOMEN. 
 
 
 per cent. 
 
 per cent. 
 
 Trained for two years 
 
 . 67-26 
 
 47-04 
 
 Trained for less than two years 
 
 . 3' 53 
 
 2-19 
 
 Untrained . 
 
 . 29-21 
 
 5077 
 
 Studying in the 44 different residential training 
 colleges we find 3,492 individuals, of whom 2,269 are 
 Numbers of ^" colleges connected with the Church 
 
 Students in of England; 888 are to be found in 
 
 Training Colleges, the 14 day training colleges, which 
 have recently sprung up in various towns. These 
 colleges are strictly unsectarian, and their comparatively 
 rapid increase is significant. They are connected with 
 the Welsh colleges, the colleges of Victoria University, 
 Firth College, London University, King's College, the 
 Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, Mason College, 
 Nottingham University College, Bristol and other 
 colleges. The supply of trained teachers is not equal 
 to the demand, and everything seems to point to the 
 necessity of the Department taking up the work itself, 
 at least to some extent. 
 
 It is admitted on all hands that what the student of 
 an elementary training college knows, that she can 
 
i68 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 usually teach. On the other hand, it is urged that 
 the culture of the students is very narrow; even one 
 foreign language is not obligatory upon students in 
 training colleges, though a majority of the women 
 take French. 
 
 The Education Department draws a most singular 
 distinction between the cost of a man's education in a 
 training college and a woman's. It pays for the educa- 
 tion of a man J[^^q> per annum to his college; for a 
 woman, £^i%. This is as if the Department assessed 
 the value of the sexes thus : 
 
 MAN. WOMAN. 
 
 I 7 
 
 If this is really their respective values, it is certainly 
 incompatible with a high and generous educational 
 Question of the policy to use the services of women 
 Teachers' pay; so largely as the Department does. 
 Men and Women xhis rate of pay would seem to be 
 maintained throughout, for if we turn 
 to the average salaries of a master and mistress, we shall 
 find that of the former to be ;£i2 2 6s. 7d. ; the latter, 
 ;£8i 3s. 3d. It is sometimes stated that women need 
 to retire earlier from the teaching profession than men 
 do. The "waste" in women teachers is undoubtedly 
 greater than in men ; the Department loses of its trained 
 teachers 4 per cent, men, 6|- women. Women could 
 hardly therefore reasonably expect exactly the same pay 
 as men; if they must retire earlier, they would need 
 to take a less reward. But it is doubtful whether School 
 Boards, managers, and all those who pay teachers. 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 169 
 
 accepting the assessment of the Department for the 
 training colleges, have hit upon the right proportion 
 in giving a third less pay to women, especially as women 
 often prepare sewing in their leisure, instead of enjoying 
 reasonable recreation. School Boards and other em- 
 ployers of teachers in this respect treat women as if 
 they were stronger than men. Men's better physique 
 allows them to work in a far greater proportion in the 
 evening continuation schools, for which of course they 
 are paid extra. We are certainly in great need of 
 comparative health tables, shewing what the difference 
 between the sexes actually amounts to. Women have 
 suffered far too much in the past by guesses at their 
 inefficiency in one field and another, on which are based 
 regulations affecting their well-being. 
 
 Yet poor as we may think women's payment to-day, 
 there is little doubt that it is steadily improving. The 
 Select Committee of the House of Commons, which 
 sat upon the education of the poorer classes in 1838, 
 elicited some curious information under this head. The 
 Rev. James Cotton Wigram stated in his evidence that 
 the National Society had men and women, between 
 twenty-two and thirty years of age, training for teachers 
 in the Society's schools. It paid the men los. 6d. 
 weekly for giving instruction after they had proved their 
 competence, whereas the women got nothing at all but a 
 small gratuity on leaving. They had to pay for their 
 own board whilst teaching. 
 
 As is shewn later, the Science and Art Department 
 undertakes the inspection of the drawing of students 
 
I70 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 The Science in training colleges. They receive 
 
 and Art credit for passing in the Department's 
 
 epar men . examinations in science, women chiefly 
 
 affecting such subjects as physiology, botany, physio- 
 graphy, and hygiene. Their total number of science 
 passes obtained in the previous May, for which they 
 received credit at the Christmas examination, 1895, was 
 1498, as compared with 855 men. Colleges are begin- 
 ning to attach more importance to physical training 
 than ever before, but are still largely indifferent to 
 recreation for women, even although the means of 
 recreation is provided. There is probably a good deal 
 of truth in the accusation, that women in training 
 colleges, both in England and abroad, are overworked j 
 they have too often that appearance. The importance 
 to their future career of a good place in their final 
 examinations, the fact that women who are in training 
 are at a delicate age, that almost immediately after 
 they leave college they take up responsible work 
 where they must shew their value, all go to prove 
 the desirability of slackening competition, of giving, 
 in colleges subsidized by Government, the highest grant 
 only where physique is good. 
 
 {U) Training for Secondary Teachers 
 
 Training for secondary teachers directly resulted from 
 primary training. Women are leading in this branch of 
 The Home and education, and it is credibly stated 
 Colonial School that this is the only branch in which 
 Society, 1836. t^ey do lead. The Home and 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 171 
 
 Colonial School Society, which was founded to give 
 effect to the views of Pestalozzi, especially as regards 
 the teaching of infants, first began to train infant 
 teachers for elementary schools in 1836, and then 
 extended the training to nursery governesses and 
 teachers of secondary schools. For more than thirty 
 years this Society was the only body offering secondary 
 teachers any sort of training. These latter students, 
 numbering about forty, used to practise in elementary 
 day schools. In particular, a considerable number of 
 teachers for mission schools were at one time trained in 
 the college in Gray's Inn Road. In 1895, the non- 
 Government department removed to Highbury Hill 
 House, as a secondary and kindergarten training college 
 for women teachers, where students have now a 
 secondary school in which to practise. It still remains 
 a branch of the Home and Colonial School Society. 
 
 The Maria Grey was really the first training college 
 in the field, an outcome of the energy of the Teachers' 
 Maria Grey Training and Registration Society. 
 
 Training College, The Society was formed in 1877, 
 ^^78. largely as a result of the efforts of 
 
 Mrs. Wm. Grey, and her sister. Miss Shirreff. Next 
 year the training college was opened at Bishopsgate in 
 connection with a middle-class girls' school, which the 
 Rev. Wm. Rogers placed at its disposal. It removed to 
 Fitzroy Street in 1885, and to-day the training college 
 and a high school have admirable premises in the same 
 building at Brondesbury, with Miss Woods as principal. 
 The college is non-residential; its work divides into 
 
172 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 three parts, lower, higher, and kindergarten. The 
 Council of the Teachers' Training and Registration, 
 recognizing how much women's education suffers by 
 lack of endowment, have often rendered assistance in 
 money to earnest students in need of it; the members 
 are justly proud that, although under no obligation to 
 do so, women who have benefited by it have in some 
 cases refunded the money, unasked, in order that 
 others might reap the same advantage. 
 
 The establishment of the Cambridge Teachers' 
 Certificate Examination in 1878 has given an un- 
 The Cambridge doubted stimulus to the training of 
 Teachers' Train- teachers, at least among women ; most 
 ing Syndicate, training colleges, or training depart- 
 ments in connection with colleges, aim 
 at this diploma for their students. The certificates of 
 the Teachers' Training Syndicate are now held by 50 
 men and 941 women. The Secretary of the Syndicate 
 reports a gradual increase of numbers both among men 
 and women. The examination instituted by the 
 Syndicate covers the history, theory, and practice of 
 education, and is intended for persons who have pre- 
 viously shewn intellectual qualifications in passing one 
 of several specified University examinations. 
 
 It was reserved for a younger and sister College of the 
 Maria Grey to boldly plant itself in a University town. 
 Cambridge Train- I^^ ^iss Ridley's Frances Mary Buss 
 ing College for she tells us how Miss Buss was wishful 
 Women, 1885. ^^ j^^^g ^j^^ j^^j.j^ Qj^ey associated with 
 
 the North London Collegiate School, when it became a 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 173 
 
 question of removing the College from Bishopsgate. 
 This fell through; but seeing how the students of 
 Girton and Newnham entered the teaching profession 
 by the hundred without training, Miss Buss, Mrs. 
 Bryant, and a number of educationists, both men and 
 women, determined that there should be a training 
 college at the very gates of the University. The 
 College began its work in some cottages near Newnham, 
 and finally removed to a commodious and suitable 
 building in 1895. It trains sixty students for one year; 
 they obtain their practice in some fourteen elementary 
 and secondary schools, with about 1700 pupils. Miss 
 E. P. Hughes, herself a distinguished student of 
 Newnham, is the principal. The Council rightly attach 
 great importance to the year's residence at Cambridge ; 
 for though the Universities can hardly be called 
 effusive or eager when a new development arises, yet 
 Cambridge has rendered excellent service to the cause 
 of training teachers, and there are substantial advan- 
 tages to be reaped by residence in the town. 
 
 Miss Beale, of Cheltenham, early recognized the 
 necessity for training women as secondary teachers. 
 Training Since 1885 the Ladies' College has 
 
 Department at the had a definite training department, 
 Ladies' College, the students boarding at a hostel, 
 
 Cheltenham. c tt-u » j • • n .u • 
 
 bt. Hildas, and receivmg all their 
 
 instruction at the College. There are two divisions in 
 
 the training department: (a) Some fifteen secondary 
 
 teachers, under Miss Louch, almost all working for 
 
 the Cambridge Teachers' Certificate; {b) A kinder- 
 
174 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 garten department, under Miss Welldon, in which 
 
 fifty students prepare for the Higher Froebel Certificate. 
 
 Practice is obtained in the College, and in neighbouring 
 
 schools, especially the Kindergarten at St. Stephen's, 
 
 managed entirely by Miss Welldon. At St. Hilda's, 
 
 twenty foundationers are accepted for training on lower 
 
 terms, with the proviso that they devote themselves to 
 
 teaching. These are, practically, scholarships given to 
 
 those who require them most, or will use them to the 
 
 best advantage. 
 
 The Datchelor Training College is in connection 
 
 with the Mary Datchelor School for Girls, Camberwell, 
 
 of which it is an outgrowth. The 
 
 Datchelor College is non-residential, and by its 
 
 Training ? . , 
 
 College 1888. constitution the numbers may not 
 
 exceed 26. Besides obtaining practice 
 
 in the Mary Datchelor School, the students give lessons 
 
 in a large London Board school near the College. Miss 
 
 C. Rigg is principal both of the Datchelor School and 
 
 College. 
 
 Men have so far shewn themselves very chary of 
 
 patronising training in the teacher's art. A training 
 
 college once existed for them in Cowper Street, but died 
 
 of inanition. The College of Preceptors is making a 
 
 praiseworthy effort, at great expense, to revive such a 
 
 college. It was opened in October, 1895, but so far the 
 
 College has experienced the truth of Professor Sully's 
 
 observation in \h.& Journal of Educatmi (June, 1894), 
 
 that the head-masters of English secondary schools, when 
 
 engaging an assistant, think more of a good bat or a 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 17S 
 
 good degree than of necessary training. In this con- 
 nection it is worth observing that the College of 
 Preceptors has for many years given teachers' courses 
 of useful lectures, on the art of teaching and kindred 
 subjects, by eminent educationists, which have been 
 largely used by those whose work would not allow of 
 training within the walls of a college. The Council 
 have besides offered four scholarships at training 
 colleges, both to men and women. 
 
 But though men fight shy of training colleges, they 
 avail themselves, to some extent, of the opportunities 
 Training °^ ^^^ training now afforded in many 
 
 encouraged at large towns and educational centres, 
 University in the local university colleges at 
 
 Co eges. Aberystwyth, Cardiff, and other places. 
 
 Girton and Newnham seem rather to have adopted the 
 masculine attitude towards training: the degree or 
 equivalent of a degree is enough — the teacher is heaven- 
 sent. So much nonsense continues to be talked on the 
 subject, usually by men and women who pass straight 
 from the university colleges to the class-room, that it may 
 be pardonable to point out that those who dispense 
 with training are not even in as good a position as 
 men and women who have passed medical examinations 
 and have omitted to walk the hospitals under trained 
 guidance. The medical student never quite loses sight 
 of the hospital ; the undergraduate need never cross the 
 threshold of a school. Occasionally a comparison is 
 instituted between the untrained graduate and some 
 trained, insufficiently educated person. This is scarcely 
 
176 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 ingenuous; the only fair comparison must be drawn 
 between the trained graduate and the untrained. It 
 is said that there is a tendency for those who lack 
 degrees to atone by training. Even if this were so, 
 it could not remain as a permanent condition, when 
 thorough equipment and specialization are so much to 
 the front. 
 
 A House of Education at Ambleside was opened 
 in 1892 for the training of thirty primary {i.e. for young 
 Training for children) and secondary governesses, 
 
 Private under Miss Charlotte M. Mason. The 
 
 Governesses. course has recently been extended to 
 
 two years, and is such as to enable young women to 
 discharge the duties of such posts thoroughly well. 
 The House is an outcome of the Parents' National 
 Educational Union, which, with its twenty-two active 
 branches in London and the country, makes a suc- 
 cessful effort to place ideals and schemes of education 
 before that individual whom other educational societies 
 find so unreachable, the British parent. Miss Mason 
 has made a praiseworthy effort to induce mothers to 
 take up a three years' educational course ; already 62 
 mothers have become members. The significance of 
 the movement can scarcely be over-estimated ; the idea 
 it embodies is bound to spread. 
 
 The National Froebel Union is formed by the union 
 of three societies, the Froebel Society (1874), Kinder- 
 garten Company, and Home and 
 Sm" a^ ^"^"^ Colonial School Society, for certifi- 
 cate purposes. Certificates are not now 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 177 
 
 issued by these separate societies, but by the Joint 
 Examination Board of the Froebel Union ; the Educa- 
 tion Department recognizes them. There are no 
 statistics as to the number of kindergarten teachers; 
 but it is worth noting that the Froebel Society issued 
 72 certificates down to 1887 ; the Froebel Union, from 
 1887-1895, issued 884 (sometimes an individual holds 
 two certificates). In 1896 almost 600 candidates sat 
 for the examinations. The Kindergarten Company 
 and Home and Colonial School Society have training 
 colleges for students. Of recent years there has been 
 a great and growing demand for kindergarten teachers, 
 especially among high schools and private schools. The 
 elementary infant schools of the country, especially the 
 Voluntary schools, are said to have, very rarely, true 
 and properly equipped kindergartens. The work of the 
 Froebel Society is intended to promote co-operation 
 amongst those engaged in kindergarten work, and to 
 spread the knowledge of Froebel's methods of education. 
 
 //. London School of Medicine for Women. 
 If we wish to know the reason why the London 
 School of Medicine, modestly housed in a private 
 dwelling in Handel Street, Brunswick Square, was 
 founded, we mrust seek it in the Northern capital. In 
 1869 Miss Jex-Blake and some other women students 
 matriculated in medicine at Edinburgh University, one 
 Attempt to obtain ^^ ^^ vno^X important medical schools 
 Teaching at in the kingdom. The governing body 
 
 Edinburgh. ^gj.^ q^j^-g fining that women should 
 
 N 
 
178 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 take medical degrees; but, unhappily, the professors 
 held different views on woman's sphere. The ladies 
 were insulted in the streets of Edinburgh by under- 
 graduates whose prejudices outran their knowledge and 
 discretion ; students even went the length of throwing 
 missiles at those who offended their sense of propriety. 
 Miss Jex-Blake was unsuccessful in her attempts in the 
 Scottish Law Courts to compel the professors to carry 
 out the instructions of the governing body of Edinburgh 
 University. Edinburgh was abandoned, and the attack 
 concentrated upon London. 
 
 Mrs. Garrett Anderson, M.D., already in practice with 
 a Paris degree, Dr. Anstie, Dr. King Chambers, Mrs. 
 Thorne, and many others were willing and able to help. 
 Anstie was most enthusiastic, and in a few weeks the 
 Henrietta Street School was organized, with a large and 
 important staff of lecturers, and twenty-three students. 
 As an illustration of the poverty against which women 
 have so often to contend, it is noteworthy that the new 
 medical school began operations with little more than 
 ;^iooo. It is a long story how hospital committees were 
 ready to welcome women students, but the medical staff, 
 bent on the protection of their interests, invariably 
 refused admission to the wards. Dr. T. Chambers, 
 of Chelsea, gave the Women's Medical School permis- 
 sion to enter some wards of Chelsea Hospital, and a 
 little more practice was obtained at the New Hospital 
 for Women. Thanks to the tact and energy of Mr. 
 Jas. Stansfeld, and Mr. Hopgood, Chairman of the 
 Committee of the Royal Free Hospital, Gray's Inn 
 
TECHNICO'PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 179 
 
 Road, women were ultimately admitted to the wards 
 
 of that hospital, on condition that they paid a yearly 
 
 subsidy of £,11^ to the funds of the hospital. This 
 
 was remitted at the end of five years, the school 
 
 guaranteeing ;£^4oo per ' annum to the medical staff 
 
 for the first five years, and ;£"46o for the next five 
 
 years. Though the premises of the London School 
 
 of Medicine leave much to be desired, the teaching 
 
 given is second to none, the professors being of high 
 
 standing. At present, there are 150 women studying 
 
 medicine in the school, about half of whom are working 
 
 for the degrees of London University. Women may 
 
 obtain teaching at University College for the preliminary 
 
 scientific M.B. examination; members of such classes 
 
 are counted as science students. Other medical training 
 
 at University College is closed to them, as it is at 
 
 Owens College, Liverpool College, Yorkshire College, 
 
 Mason College of Science, Nottingham University 
 
 College, Firth College, Sheffield, and Bristol College. 
 
 In some cases, only clinical instruction is not obtainable 
 
 for women students. 
 
 Examinations of London University are open to them, 
 
 and they already hold these degrees : 
 
 Bachelor of Medicine . . • • • 53 
 
 Doctor of Medicine . . ... 15 
 
 Bachelor of Surgery . . ... 10 
 
 Master of Surgery . . . . , i 
 
 Students work not only for the degrees of London 
 University, but for those of the Royal University of 
 Ireland, the Irish and Scotch Colleges of Physicians 
 and Surgeons, for Durham, Glasgow, and Edinburgh. 
 
l8o EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Some 212 women on the medical register have 
 obtained the whole or part of their training at the 
 London School; about 77 others are on the register 
 who did not obtain their training here. 
 
 It is advisable to allude here to a movement now on 
 foot for definite training of medical nurses. At present, 
 "trained and certificated nurse" means a great many 
 different things, for lack of a uniform standard. Each 
 hospital seems to have its own standard, a system that 
 gives rise to considerable trouble. Mrs. Bedford 
 Fenwick advocates a definite collegiate curriculum for 
 the education of nurses. 
 
 III. Science and Art Department, South 
 Kensington. 
 
 Allusion has already been made to the work of the 
 Science and Art Department in elementary schools and 
 Science and Art ^^ secondary education generally, the 
 Department, latter part of its work being very 
 
 S. Kensington. various. The Department has long 
 recognized the necessity for training teachers to take 
 up its work both in science and art, and this training 
 is extended to others who pay its fees, or win their way 
 to the centre by means of a system of exhibitions and 
 scholarships. It was found to be one thing to be able 
 to pass the examinations of the Department, and another 
 to be an able and successful teacher. 
 
 The Normal School of Science was established in 
 1859 ; in 1 88 1 it was entirely reorganized, and the Royal 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION i8i 
 
 School of Mines incorporated with it : 
 {d) Royal College . _ . . . "^ . a . .J 
 
 of Science ^^ ^9° ^^^ changed to the 
 
 Royal College of Science. Its sessional 
 courses were attended during the first part of the session 
 1896-97 by 300 men and 6 women. The course at the 
 Royal College of Science lasts three years, and those 
 who pass through it in a prescribed order receive the 
 title of Associate. Besides these regular students, who 
 are very largely the successful candidates of the spring 
 examinations, teachers of scientific subjects in elementary 
 and other schools have ever since 1868 been encouraged 
 to come to London for a short scientific summer course 
 in a branch of science they teach or wish to teach. 
 Their third-class return railway fare is paid to South 
 Kensington, and each receives a bonus of ;^3 towards 
 incidental expenses. Of course, great stress is laid 
 upon practical work in the laboratories ; 202 men and 
 10 women availed themselves of the help thus afforded 
 by the Department in 1894-95. 
 
 The subjects most popular with women are botany, 
 physiology, and hygiene; but, as the figures shew, 
 women scarcely avail themselves of the admirable 
 opportunities placed within their reach. 
 
 It is quite otherwise with the Art Department, for 
 in the training school women are in a slight majority. 
 The college is a development of the 
 College of Art. School of Design and Central School 
 of Art at Somerset House, created in 
 1837, and at that time under the control of the Board 
 of Trade. An important feature of the work has 
 
i82 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 always been the training of teachers. The title of 
 School of Design was altered in 1852 to Department 
 of Science and Art, and the location changed to Marl- 
 borough House. When the Education Department was 
 constituted in 1856, the Science and Art Department 
 to a certain extent amalgamated with it, and both were 
 placed under the Lord President and Vice-President of 
 Council. In 1857 the Science and Art Department 
 removed to South Kensington. The fate of the Royal 
 Female School of Art is treated later. 
 
 There is no special difference in the treatment of 
 the sexes as regards privileges. The cost of their art 
 Women not Head education is reckoned to be the same ; 
 Teachers in Local but, as far as scholarships are con- 
 Schools of Art. cerned, the number of women is much 
 smaller. The students in training for the post of head 
 of a local art school are men. Such appointments rest 
 with local committees, and no woman seems yet to 
 have convinced a locality that she could assume such 
 a position. There seems no reason whatever why a 
 woman should not be a head teacher in the schools 
 of the Department, since she occasionally now works 
 as an assistant, and it is for women to note how 
 they suffer when excluded, and they practically are 
 excluded, by local opinion, from some of the most 
 highly considered posts of the profession. It has been 
 pointed out that in the immense lists of teachers' names 
 in the calendar of the Science and Art Department, 
 1896, pp. 2-412, there might be a woman's name. But 
 even if this were so, the contention would not be 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 183 
 
 affected. Men reasonably claim the highest creative 
 power in art, but such power is frequently incompatible 
 with the work of a teacher. Mr. Walter Crane, on 
 resigning his post of Director of the Manchester 
 Municipal School of Art, in July 1896, shewed how 
 difficult it is to dovetail work and teaching. It would 
 seem to be wisdom on the part of women to obtain 
 seats on local committees, so that their sex may not 
 be passed over by default. The Department is not 
 always well served by its men teachers, and it would 
 be difficult to maintain that, in teaching, efficiency is 
 limited to one sex. 
 
 It is only fair to add that the Department has 
 recently employed women as examiners in the National 
 Art Competition with success. There are twenty-three 
 art subjects in which instruction may be obtained at 
 an art school. The training at the Central School of 
 Art, which contains a large proportion of the picked 
 scholars of local art schools, lasts about two years for 
 women, four for men. There is good reason to suppose 
 that as far as design is concerned, women show more 
 invention, fancy, and adaptability than men, but less 
 power to endure sustained effort. The sexes work 
 together in the different departments. Holders of 
 scholarships work for about 40 weeks in the year, and 
 receive a weekly sum of 25J. from the Department for 
 maintenance. In the art section, the Department is 
 more and more using inspection as a means of assessing 
 its grants to local art schools. It also superintends 
 the work of 4484 persons in training colleges for 
 
i84 . EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 elementary teachers subsidized by the Education De- 
 partment. 
 
 Number of Students in the National Art Training School, 
 
 South Kensington, 1896. 
 
 Total, 479. 
 
 Men. Women. 
 
 Total . . . . 238 ... 241 
 
 National Scholars . . . 72 ... 14 
 
 Free Students . . • 34 ... 43 
 
 Local Scholars . . . 8 ... 4 
 
 The Royal Female School of Art stands on a different 
 footing from other metropolitan schools of art : it is 
 Royal Female really an offshoot of the School of 
 School of Art, Design which preceded the Science 
 Queen Square, and Art Department. The School 
 
 * '' of Design was originally located at 
 
 Somerset House, in 1842-43, under the Board of 
 Trade ; the women's section was managed besides by 
 a committee of artists. In 1853 the School of Design 
 removed to Marlborough House, with the exception 
 of the women students, who found a home in Gower 
 Street, and afterwards in Queen Square, under the 
 control of the Science and Art Department. Though 
 not architecturally beautiful, as one would prefer art 
 schools to be, the premises are commodious, and an 
 excellent training is obtained by more than a hundred 
 students, under Miss Louisa Gann, who has been 
 connected with the school since the day it was founded. 
 The school enjoys royal patronage, and many beautiful 
 designs have been produced for the members of the 
 royal family at different times. The course of training 
 
TECHNICO -PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 185 
 
 usually lasts from three to five years, and embraces 
 painting in oil and water-colour, drawing from the life 
 and from the antique, design, illustration, modelling 
 in clay and wax. 
 
 Many valuable scholarships exist in connection with 
 the school, and are annually competed for. In the 
 lithographic studio women receive technical instruction 
 in the new art printing processes, one of the greatest 
 art developments of the day. The work of the studio 
 is admirable, and is said to be equal to the best 
 German processes. 
 
 IV. Music. 
 
 It was Liszt who, critically observing the indiscrimi- 
 nating appreciation of a London concert hall, remarked : 
 " The Enghsh would applaud me if I sat on the piano." 
 Yet though musicians have still to complain of lack of 
 musical culture, much has been done in recent years 
 to raise the standard. Indeed, it is a question deserving 
 the attention of those interested whether the national 
 taste did not sink very low because of the low condition 
 of women's education. Music was not loved and 
 studied for itself, but as a mere accomplishment, an 
 added string to the bow of attractiveness. 
 
 Various bodies have helped to raise the standard. 
 First, in point of time, is the Royal Academy of Music. 
 
 , - , The Academy began its work in 1823 
 
 Royal Academy . , , , . , 
 
 of Music 1823. "^^^^ twenty students ; to-day it has 
 500; in all, some 6000 persons have 
 received a part, or the whole, of their training by its 
 means. Ensemble practice, sight-reading, orchestral 
 
1 86 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 and operatic work, languages, and instruction in a large 
 
 number of instruments, form part of the curriculum. 
 
 The Academy has done good work by means of its 
 
 system of examinations, which used to be held all 
 
 over the country in the spring, and which have largely 
 
 helped to wipe out the ineffectual pretence at teaching 
 
 music which was common a generation ago. It has 
 
 helped to substitute a very fair standard in theory and 
 
 performance. In 1889 the Academy united with the 
 
 Royal College of Music, under the title of the Associated 
 
 Board, for the purpose of maintaining these provincial 
 
 examinations. It still carries on in 
 The Associated _. , . 
 Board 1880 London its metropolitan examination 
 
 for teachers and performers, who hold 
 the title of Fellow or Associate. It is worthy of note 
 that the Associated Board publishes a register of schools 
 and individual teachers whose standard is satisfactory. 
 Less satisfactory, unless there is some reasonable ex- 
 planation for it, is the list of the professional staff, 
 where, out of 94 teachers, only four are women, and 
 of these three for singing : not one out of 24 pianoforte 
 teachers is a woman. Beneath is a list of "sub- 
 professors," in which women are plentiful enough. This 
 is the more remarkable, as among the Academy's list of 
 famous scholars women's names are by no means scarce. 
 The Guildhall School of Music was founded in 1880 
 by the Corporation of the City of London, and has its 
 The Guildhall home in a convenient building on 
 School of Music, Victoria Embankment. The fees are 
 1880. more moderate than in some schools 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 187 
 
 of music, with the result that the numbers have rushed 
 up from 65 in 1880 to 3700 in 1896. Of these, three- 
 fourths are women, both amateurs and professionals. 
 There are 46 scholarships, open to both sexes, offered 
 to those who have studied at least three terms in the 
 school. Besides which, certificates, medals, prizes 
 stimulate the students to work. About forty instru- 
 ments and subjects are taught by a very large mixed 
 staff, and there are an orchestra, a choir, and an operatic 
 class. 
 
 Another body which is doing good work to advance 
 the cultivation of music is the Royal College. It was 
 founded by the exertions of the Prince 
 IvSc, 1883.^^ ° ^^ Wales, incorporated in 1883, and 
 removed to handsome buildings near 
 the Albert Hall in 1894. In 1896 the Royal College 
 had 324 pupils. Of these, 263 were paying students, 
 205 being women; of 61 holding scholarships, 16 were 
 women. Scholarships are gained by competition, open 
 to all classes and both sexes, unless the donor stipulates 
 otherwise. At Easter, the College holds an examination 
 for its Associateship (A.R.C.M.), also open to both sexes, 
 an honour which women often obtain. 
 
 Good authorities, in answer to a query addressed to 
 them touching improvement in musical culture, have 
 replied that this improvement is very marked, especially 
 during the last decade. One enthusiastic amateur 
 attributes it to facilities for foreign travel, enabling 
 people to judge of Continental standards; to the 
 Saturday and Monday Popular Concerts, and those 
 
l88 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 of the Crystal Palace; and to the well-known work 
 of the late Sir Charles Hall^ in the North. Allusion 
 has already been made to the work of the Royal 
 College, associated with the Royal Academy, in its 
 system of examinations; the effect of these has been 
 very notable. 
 
 In some schools, notably the Cheltenham Ladies' 
 College, great attention is paid to music, and the 
 results are distinctly good. In the elementary training 
 colleges attention is given to vocal music, the inspectors 
 of the Education Department attaching importance to 
 its cultivation. 
 
 Trinity College was founded in 1872 as a voluntary 
 musical society; in 1881 it received a new and amended 
 constitution, whereby its sphere of 
 jggj ' usefulness was largely extended. Its 
 
 scholarships are offered on the ground 
 of absolute equality between the sexes. Quite recently 
 women have been appointed on the professorial staff. 
 
 Trinity College has its own scheme of examinations, 
 including Matriculation, Associate in Music, Licentiate 
 in Music, and Fellowship. 
 
 V. Three Technical Colleges for Women. 
 
 It has been said that as an influence which makes 
 for moraUty, good cookery has never yet been sufficiently 
 The National reckoned with. However this may 
 School of be, it is certain that the National 
 
 Cookery, 1873. School of Cookery is doing a great 
 and a needed work. The school is an outcome of 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 189 
 
 a series of lectures delivered at the International 
 Exhibition of 1872 by Mr. J. C. Buckmaster, of the 
 Science and Art Department. It was computed that 
 250,000 persons attended these lectures, illustrated by 
 four women cooks, and this fact seemed to show the 
 need for methodical and scientific instruction. 
 
 The following year the School of Cookery was called 
 into existence ; ever since the Duke of Westminster 
 has remained President of the School; the Hon. E. F. 
 Leveson-Gower, the Chairman of Committee ; and, with 
 the exception of the first year, Mrs. Charles Clarke has 
 been the superintendent. The School very courageously 
 worked for its capital to build new premises, those it 
 occupied at South Kensington up to 1889 being far 
 from suitable. It had the management of the cheap 
 dinners at a series of Exhibitions, the Fisheries, Health, 
 Inventions, Colonial, and Indian; by this means, and 
 as a result of the able management providing good food 
 at cheap rates, the School of Cookery saved ;^5ooo. 
 With this it built its handsome premises in Buckingham 
 Palace Road. They consist of an excellent series of 
 kitchens for giving lessons to children from elementary 
 schools ; cooks studying artizan, middle-class, and high- 
 class cooking ; rooms for laundry work, dressmaking, 
 and millinery. Since its foundation the School has 
 granted 1305 diplomas; this by no means covers its 
 field of usefulness. Large numbers of ladies attend 
 classes, especially ladies on the eve of their marriage ; 
 when the London season opens, girls come for parts 
 of the course that attract them, and cooks also work 
 
I90 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 up certain departments. The diploma really means 
 that the holder is qualified to teach cookery; and, as 
 a result of the efforts of the original institution, large 
 numbers of towns have cookery schools of their own, 
 with properly qualified instructors. It is well known 
 that to-day a good elementary school cannot earn the 
 higher grant without domestic economy as a subject. 
 The London School Board was, in its early days, 
 approached by the Committee of the School of Cookery, 
 and the development of its course of instruction was 
 influenced and assisted by the School of Cookery. An 
 arrangement was made with the Education Department, 
 by which the School granted local diplomas to students 
 in training colleges and pupil teachers in elementary 
 schools. The Government grant of 4s. per head was 
 earned by 7000 children in 1883, by 90,000 in 1892. 
 Circumstances compelled the Cookery School to widen 
 its curriculum. Under its roof can now be obtained 
 a course of instruction in laundry work, as well as in 
 home dressmaking and millinery, so that the real title 
 of this useful institution should be School of Domestic 
 Economy. The School has had the honour of advising 
 the War Office authorities how to improve sick cookery 
 in military hospitals, messing in the army; it has 
 sent instructors to the Army School of Cookery, has 
 helped in Volunteer cookery instruction, and in the 
 movement set on foot by the Admiralty to train navy 
 cooks. It assisted to organize classes to train the 
 nurses of the London Hospitals in cookery for the 
 sick. 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 191 
 
 A diploma of plain cookery costs about ;£^2o ; high- 
 class cookery, £^21, It should be distinctly understood 
 that the holder of a diploma is not only a practical 
 cook, but able to undertake class teaching and teaching 
 by demonstration. The County Councils of London, 
 Kent, and Surrey grant about a dozen scholarships of 
 the value of £\o los. each. Unhappily these have 
 rather a way of working themselves into the hands of 
 those for whom they were scarcely intended, the vicar's 
 relatives, for instance. The upper rooms of the School 
 are used for boarding ladies; rooms in the basement 
 for cooks and holders of artizan scholarships. 
 
 The School suffers from a difficulty in disposing of 
 its cooked food ; recently it has made an effort to make 
 known that dishes are for sale. It has and requires 
 a large and expensive staff of teachers for its numerous 
 activities. It desires aid from the Technical Education 
 Board, which hitherto it has not obtained. It has also 
 to bear a very heavy ground rental of £,2\o per annum. 
 No doubt its able management can reflect upon rent 
 as that " delicate alchemy by which the perfumed 
 seigneur can extract every fourth nettle from the widow's 
 pot." The ground rent of the School, its rates, coal, 
 and gas, amount to more than ;£'7oo per annum. It 
 subsists solely on its fees and subscriptions of a few 
 friends, who give one vote for every £^1 subscribed 
 towards training a student, instead of her paying the 
 fees. 
 
 The Physical Training College at Dartford Heath 
 owes its inception to a Swedish lady, Mme. Bergman 
 
192 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Physical Oesterberg, who came to London in 
 
 Training 1881, and received the appointment 
 
 o ege, I 5. ^^ physical trainer under the London 
 School Board. For some years Mme. Oesterberg 
 worked at the training of the Board's teachers, some 
 thousand of whom passed through her hands. It is not 
 always known that the yearly demonstration of school 
 children, which takes place in the Albert Hall in July, is 
 managed by those whose training was received under 
 Mme. Oesterberg. But the results at which Ling's 
 Swedish system aims, the careful graduation of exercises 
 to suit the student's strength and the development of 
 the muscles with due regard to symmetry, can hardly be 
 obtained by a weekly exercise of an hour's duration, 
 often performed in an unsuitable, and even injurious 
 costume, at a time when the pupil may be fatigued. 
 Personal health and hygienic surroundings, diet, 
 clothing, regulation of the hours of rest and work, 
 all require consideration. To this end the Hampstead 
 Physical Training College was founded in 1885 to 
 prepare students of Ling's system to undertake work 
 in schools and colleges as gymnastic teachers. The 
 course, which lasts two years, embraces gymnastics 
 according to Ling's system, physiology, hygiene, 
 anatomy, medical massage, elementary pathology, 
 ambulance. In addition, students thoroughly learn 
 such games as lawn tennis, cricket, hockey, basket 
 ball, as well as cycling and dancing, with the aim 
 of introducing games and recreation into girls' schools 
 and colleges as a regular part of the curriculum. The 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 193 
 
 College has proved highly successful, removing in 1895 
 to larger premises and beautiful grounds of some 
 fourteen acres. Every year more schools make 
 arrangements for the physical education of their 
 pupils; indeed, the chief reason why greater progress 
 has not been made, is that teachers adopt poor systems 
 because of their inability to distinguish between them 
 and Ling's. 
 
 To many who hold the opinion, or at least fear, 
 that without some greatly needed reform in dress, and 
 an improvement in physique and muscular development, 
 the mental activities and social usefulness of women are 
 hampered and depressed, the movement here briefly 
 indicated is of special interest and significance. It is 
 useless to deny that women's higher education has 
 still its inveterate foes, who are only too ready to 
 proclaim that deterioration of physique follows upon the 
 mental application required by a college course. So 
 recently as 1887 Mrs. Henry Sidgwick, the well-known 
 principal of Newnham College, prepared an elaborate 
 series of health statistics of past and present women 
 students at Cambridge and Oxford, and of their sisters, 
 from which she concluded that "there is nothing in a 
 university education at all specially injurious to the 
 constitution of women or involving any greater strain 
 than they can ordinarily bear without injury," and that 
 " women generally pass through it without its affecting 
 their health one way or the other." Mrs. Sidgwick in 
 comparing the health of college students and their 
 sisters nearest in age who had not been to college, 
 
 
 
194 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 found that "during college life 5 per cent, more 
 students had excellent or good health, and 5 per cent, 
 fewer had poor or bad health than sisters between 18 
 and 21." Other tables (in all there are 41 elaborate 
 statistical tables) go on to show that the children of 
 married students are healthier, and have a lower death- 
 rate, than those of sisters; so that although it must 
 be set down as a fact unfavourable to the university 
 education of women that there is a temporary falling 
 off during college life of about 5 per cent, in good 
 health, as compared with either health at entering or 
 at the time statistics were taken, depending to some 
 extent on the relaxing climate of the universities, alarm 
 on the score of health is groundless. The publication 
 of this pamphlet,* able and impartial as it undoubtedly 
 is, gave satisfaction to the women engaged in education. 
 Yet most women, one might say all who have reflected 
 upon the subject, are convinced that improvement in the 
 health of their sex is a consideration second to none. 
 Such improvement can never follow as a result of either 
 physical or mental indolence, but must proceed on the 
 lines of rational and regulated exercise, coupled with 
 healthy and enjoyable games, and an improved dress. 
 Some devotees of this faith do not hesitate to say that 
 if only one of the sexes should enjoy this exercise, and 
 aim at higher physical development, that sex should 
 be the weaker one. The consideration of so important 
 
 * Health Statistics of Women Students of Cambridge and 
 Oxford, and of their Sisters. By Mrs. Henry Sidgwick. Cam. 
 bridge University Press, 1890. \s, 6d, 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 195 
 
 a matter is, perhaps, not out of place in a work on 
 women's education ; and since one outcome of reflection 
 and of anxiety on the subject has been the foundation 
 and the hearty support of a college of physical educa- 
 tion, to chronicle it has been a duty. Mme. Bergman 
 Oesterberg's Physical Training College shares with the 
 Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm 
 the distinction of being the only college in Europe 
 in which a full course of instruction is given in the 
 theory and practice of the Swedish system, differing 
 from the Institute in the importance ascribed to games, 
 and the position given them in the curriculum. 
 
 Swanley Horticultural College was founded in 1888 
 for men, the question of a women's department never 
 Swanley Horticul- appearing to occur to the founders. 
 tural College— The idea of extending its benefits to 
 Women's women is due to Miss Cons, who, not 
 
 Department, 1891. ^^^^ ^ft^j. j^er election to the London 
 County Council, when it conferred upon her the dignity 
 of Alderman, had occasion to visit some homes for little 
 boys at Swanley, under the direction of the L.C.C. 
 Miss Cons on that occasion also saw over the Swanley 
 Horticultural College, which was at that time somewhat 
 of the nature of a private enterprise. The possibility of 
 its further development, both for men and women, 
 struck Miss Cons as great. She and a friend entered 
 the College as students, satisfied themselves that the 
 occupation was in all respects suitable for women, and 
 forthwith took steps to begin a women's branch, which 
 ever since has been increasingly successful. A large 
 
196 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 council of influential persons was formed ; a committee 
 of thirteen chosen, of whom twelve are ladies, and in 
 1 89 1 a house secured, about five minutes' walk from the 
 College. The committee were fortunate in their choice 
 of a Lady Superintendent ; for not a little of the success 
 of the new branch is due to Mrs. Watson's care and 
 organizing ability. In the autumn of 1896, there were 
 twenty-eight women students working at the College, a 
 number slightly in excess of the men. But for this 
 development on the women's side, as well as for aid 
 afforded by County Councils, it is not certain that the 
 work of the College could have continued at all. Its 
 expenses are very heavy, it was at that time not very 
 well known, and the smallness of its numbers greatly 
 minimised its usefulness in every way. The twenty-eight 
 students are composed of ladies who adopt gardening as 
 a means of making a livelihood j others who train them- 
 selves in order to manage their own gardens, or assume 
 oversight in their homes; and, thirdly, by County 
 Council scholars who find their way to the College by 
 the arrangements of Technical Instruction Committees. 
 The three County Councils of London, Kent, and 
 Essex offer scholarships both to men and women. In 
 addition, the Ladies' Committee of Swanley College 
 have hitherto provided funds for two dififerent scholar- 
 ships to be held at the College. The fees for women 
 are from £,10 to ;£"86. 
 
 The college course divides itself into practical and 
 theoretical work. The forty-three acres of ground on 
 which students practise, contain fruit orchards, vegetable 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 197 
 
 and flower gardens, and immense glass houses. 
 Scientific horticulture includes the selection, manage- 
 ment, pruning, and grafting of fruit trees ; how different 
 bush fruits should be combined in an orchard ; culture 
 under glass; gathering, packing, marketing, preserving 
 of fruits either in water or by sugar or evaporation; 
 production of early vegetables, hybridization and pro- 
 pagation, seeds and sowing, preparation of soils, digging, 
 ploughing, draining, trenching, paring, etc. ; manures, 
 their composition and modes of application. 
 
 The theoretical work comprises a knowledge of 
 botany, chemistry, geology, physics, building construc- 
 tion, measuring, levelling, and so forth. Students are 
 besides given lessons in bee-keeping, poultry-farming, 
 dairying, table decoration, bouquet making. Besides a 
 lecture theatre and class-rooms, students share in 
 common a small physical laboratory and library. 
 
 VI. Technical Instruction. 
 
 In England there have seldom been lacking cultured 
 individuals who have steadfastly maintained that educa- 
 tion is neither for one sex, nor for a leisured and cultured 
 class, but for all. Sunday schools and ragged schools 
 attest the practical outcome of this view, before the 
 State proclaimed it. Educationists might cry out for 
 the need of culture for its own sake and for that of the 
 individual. The workers of the country disregarded 
 such a theory; employers of labour pooh-poohed the 
 idea of education for all as worse than ridiculous, and 
 
198 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 loudly proclaimed that to use his tools should be the 
 sum total of the workman's education. 
 
 But when nations compete with each other to supply 
 the world's markets, they have to learn a great lesson : 
 they must keep the pace. Twice in our century England, 
 always distrustful of educational theories and theorists, 
 has pulled up sharply, much as a driver who has mis- 
 taken the road in the dark. The first occasion was the 
 
 International Exhibition of 185 1, when 
 International . -j . .1 . • .• .• r 
 
 Exhibition i8«;i ^^ ^^^ evident that m artistic manufac- 
 ture England had been receding for 
 some years, whilst Continental nations had pushed 
 forward, and in certain cases left England behind. 
 This was followed by the Exhibition of 1862, a 
 revelation so shocking that it was the last of its kind 
 in England. It is from the mid-century that the 
 Technical Education movement more properly dates. 
 To these Exhibitions we also partially owe our belated 
 national system of education, rendered compulsory in 
 1876 and 1880. But the ten years of "book learning," 
 between 1870 and 1880, did not produce the desired 
 result. It would be perfectly safe to disregard the 
 teaching of a Pestalozzi or a Froebel, who would educate 
 the senses, for were they not theorists and therefore 
 dispensable? But when Britain ploughed through a 
 cycle of bad trade in the late seventies, when her 
 markets were dull and closing, above all, when the 
 great cry of "made in Germany" arose, even theories 
 were able to obtain some attention. "We have 
 too much education," sighed the Philistine; an idea 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 199 
 
 Still quite common in England. "We have too little," 
 
 rejoined those who well know that we may look strong 
 
 on paper, and yet lack the essential. However it 
 
 may be with the manufacturer, the schoolmaster is 
 
 infinitely indebted to Germany for the inestimable 
 
 service her growing exports have rendered his profession. 
 
 His honour, dignity, even his pay have increased 
 
 since it has been recognized that he has a great part 
 
 to play in the production of national wealth. The 
 
 need for better technical instruction has raked the 
 
 educational ship from stem to stern. It begins with 
 
 the worst kindergarten of the least favoured elementary 
 
 school ; it ends with the university. 
 
 It must not, however, be supposed that nothing had 
 
 been done in the way of technical instruction until the 
 
 _ . , . State interfered. Almost invariably 
 
 Private Initiative. , . . . , , 
 
 this IS one of the later stages to be 
 
 reached in Britain; private initiative and local effort 
 
 precede State intervention. In former days the ancient 
 
 guilds and the system of apprenticeship undertook the 
 
 instruction of those who would belong to an art or a 
 
 craft 
 
 A rapidly increasing population, the revolution 
 
 effected in manufactures by steam as a motor power, 
 
 and consequent massing of the workers in factories and 
 
 works, required a different system of technical education. 
 
 Through the great differentiation of labour in the more 
 
 important industries, it was becoming, in some branches, 
 
 increasingly difficult for a youth to pick up necessary 
 
 knowledge by mere observation, and by rubbing 
 
20O EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 shoulders with the older workers. Specialized instruc- 
 tion was fast becoming a necessity. 
 
 Naturally, it first made itself felt in the great centres 
 of population. A Professor of Glasgow University, 
 Dr. Geo. Birkbeck, filled with zeal for the education 
 of the working classes, gave courses of lectures in that 
 city on popular science .subjects, following in the foot- 
 steps of Anderson and Black. The movement spread. 
 Mechanics' Institutes arose all over Great Britain, and 
 even reached the Colonies. Amongst the best-known 
 of these is the Birkbeck Institution, founded in 1823, 
 now carrying on its work in Chancery Lane, London, 
 as actively to-day as when it was started, though now 
 little used by the working classes. But the great 
 ignorance of the workers in the early part of the 
 century prevented such institutes reaping all the success 
 which should have been theirs; those who wished to 
 profit had frequently received no elementary education. 
 Count Rumford, the first man who ever attempted to 
 organize technical education, made the acquaintance 
 of another serious difficulty : the professors were not 
 sufficiently practical. Birmingham, always to the front 
 in education and municipal activity, had a technical 
 school in Bridge Street, and an excellent institute, long 
 before Mason College was founded in 1875. Manchester 
 and Bradford were not oblivious to the need of proper 
 instruction. But, as M. Max Leclerc points out,* the 
 first need was primary education. The Mechanics' 
 Institutes dwindled into clubs; at least one could be 
 * U Education en Angleterre, ch. 14. 
 
TECHNICO'PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 201 
 
 named that became a music hall. The organization 
 of elementary education, in 1870, led to a certain 
 measure of technical instruction being given under the 
 more progressive School Boards ; the decks were finally 
 cleared for action by the appointment of a Royal 
 Commission, in 1 881, to inquire into the matter. 
 
 The Report of 1884 shewed clearly that Britain, 
 compared with other nations, was losing ground. In 
 Royal Commis- particular, attention was drawn to the 
 sion on Technical excellent technical schools existing in 
 Education, 1881. Germany, to the thorough equipment 
 of German leaders of industry. It was recognized that 
 local needs must be considered, and that technical 
 education, to be really fruitful, must follow a good 
 general education. An Association for the Promotion 
 of Technical Education, amongst its members Sir Hy. 
 Roscoe, Mr. Arthur H. D. Acland (Vice-President of 
 the Committee of Council, 1892-95), and the Secretary, 
 Mr. Llewellyn Smith, worked to introduce a Bill to 
 Parliament; and, finally, the Technical Instruction Act 
 was passed in 1889, empowering local authorities to 
 rate themselves to the extent of a penny in the £, 
 (rateable value) for the advancement of technical in- 
 struction in elementary and secondary schools, and in 
 local colleges and classes. In the year that followed, save 
 in one or two of the better educated towns, the permission 
 does not seem to have excited any enthusiasm : in 
 Britain, education rates do not enjoy high popularity. 
 
 The following year, Mr. Goschen's budget shewed 
 a considerable surplus, due to the increased beer and 
 
202 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Increased Beer spirit duties levied for the purpose 
 
 and Spirit of compensating publicans whose 
 
 Duties, 1890. ,. 11. . , , 
 
 licences were about to be extinguished. 
 
 The temperance party made a great outcry that the 
 Conservative Government wanted to use the nation's 
 money for the purpose of rewarding their poUtical allies, 
 the publicans. Part of the sum, ;£"3oo,ooo, was 
 assigned to the Police Superannuation Fund, and the 
 remainder, ;^743,ooo, was, on the motion of Mr. 
 Arthur Acland, made applicable to technical educa- 
 tion. Ever since, the sum has been continued, though 
 it is sometimes rather smaller; an indication that 
 British drinking habits are slightly decreasing. 
 
 The money thus wrested from the publican was 
 divided amongst local authorities. County and Borough 
 County Councils Councils, and this gives us one more 
 and Technical authority in education. Permission 
 Instruction. ^^^ granted either to use the money 
 
 for the improvement of technical instruction or the 
 diminution of the rates. Although the whole sum was 
 not always used for educational purposes, yet Preston 
 was the only borough which, up to the publication of the 
 Report of the Royal Commission on Secondary Educa- 
 tion (October, 1895), had used none at all. It had, 
 however, granted a site for a technical school, and has 
 since then consented to contribute ;£^5oo out of the 
 extra Customs and Excise Duties. London* spent 
 
 * London does not always lead in matters educational. When 
 the Act of 1870 was passed, it was enacted that School Boards 
 should be elected, at the option of boroughs or districts. London 
 was forthwith required to elect such Board. 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 203 
 
 nothing for the first two years, save a few hundred 
 pounds on inquiries, out of an appropriation of ;^3o,ooo. 
 During the next three years ;£"! 95,000 was expended 
 altogether: for 1896-97 the Technical Education Board 
 is estimating to spend ;^i 20,000; its entire appropria- 
 tion is about ;£ 1 70,000. 
 
 The London Technical Education Board was formed 
 in 1893. It consists of 35 members, representing the 
 London Technical L-CC, the School Board, Trades' 
 Education Board, Council, and other bodies. Mr. Sidney 
 '^3- Webb, L.C.C., is the chairman, and 
 
 the Board secured the services of Dr. Wm. Garnett, the 
 principal of the Durham College of Science, Newcastle- 
 upon-Tyne, as secretary. It was decided to avoid all 
 injurious competition with existing institutions, and to 
 give the word "technical" as comprehensive a mean- 
 ing as possible. Therefore the Board has aimed at 
 assisting institutions of proved efficiency, or likely 
 to become efficient with wise help. This is done by 
 means of grants to build and furnish laboratories, 
 science lecture halls, arts and crafts rooms ; and by 
 means of an admirable system of scholarships to 
 enable children of elementary schools to pass into 
 secondary schools, or continue their education in 
 higher grade schools. Of the Junior Scholarships^ 
 
 600 were offered in 1895-6, in the 
 sSo!2ships. proportion of one girl to two boys. 
 
 On inquiring the reason of this ap- 
 portionment, the Secretary states that the demand on 
 the part of the girls was very much smaller; but for 
 
204 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 this the Board itself would have favoured an equal 
 division. The numbers for one half-yearly examination 
 in May, 1895, boys and girls respectively, were : — 
 
 Entries, 1231 ... 853 ; passes, 651 ... 299 ; scholars, 225 ... 109 
 
 About 50 of these Junior Scholarships are open to 
 children coming from secondary schools. A child's 
 education is thus carried on for two years longer, from 
 about 13 to 15 years of age. 
 
 Interfnediate County Scholarships number 70, and give 
 free education up to 18 or 19. 
 
 Senior County Scholarships are exhibitions at colleges 
 of university rank. They are worth ^60 per annum, 
 and afford free education for three years 
 
 Besides these, the Board offers many scholarships for 
 art, artistic handicrafts, technology, domestic economy ; 
 these scholarships cover all kinds of technical work, and 
 are for persons beyond school age desirous of self- 
 improvement. It has close connection with the work 
 of Polytechnics, Institutes, and other bodies, and has 
 65 different subjects, from plumbing to infant hygiene, 
 taught or assisted by it in more than 700 separate 
 classes and courses. 
 
 The Board comes into pretty close relationship with 
 a large number of secondary schools, which it uses 
 Technical Board ^^"^ ^^^ scholarships. Practically such 
 and Secondary schools are inspected by the Board, 
 Schools. which judges if they are efificient in 
 
 subjects within its scope, and helps them to become 
 more so by grants. Though not exactly State inter- 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 205 
 
 vention, such a work is allied to it, and, be it observed, 
 it is sought by secondary schools which have in the past 
 often loudly declaimed against outside interference. It 
 hardly requires to be pointed out that the Technical 
 Education Board uses the very means employed by the 
 State itself to assume control of the elementary schools, 
 means appealing to most practical teachers and govern- 
 ing bodies : a money grant depending on efficiency. 
 Some of the old institutions, at work for many years 
 in the technical field, e.g» the Birkbeck Institution, 
 have been assisted to come into line with newer insti- 
 tutions, in order not to lose their pre-eminence by lack of 
 proper equipment or teaching. Chemical students have 
 been taught to correlate theoretical and laboratory work, 
 which have too often been dissociated in the past. The 
 Board lays great stress on practical work done in labora- 
 tories and workshops, thus implicitly condemning the 
 knowledge of a science or craft derived merely from a 
 text-book, divorced from practice and experiment. The 
 Science and Art Department has ruled that no private 
 or proprietary school which works for a profit to share- 
 holders may be used by the Board for its scholarships 
 and exhibitions. This ruling has not been strictly 
 adhered to in the case of some girls' schools, and so 
 far no case has been referred to the Local Government 
 Board to test the legality of such payments. 
 
 Dr. Garnett reports that when the Board began its 
 system of scholarships, in order to give any to girls at 
 all, a lower standard had to be adopted than that of the 
 boys ; at the very next examination, when the girls saw 
 
2o6 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 what was requisite, they pulled up, and answered to a 
 similar standard. 
 
 The extension and development of the great Poly- 
 technic Institutes deserves more than passing mention. 
 
 _ . , . Eleven of these people's colleges are 
 
 Polytechnics. / i • t^ 
 
 now domg good work m London. 
 
 Many of them, such as the Birkbeck Institution, the 
 Regent Street Polytechnic, the People's Palace, the 
 Borough Polytechnic, were at work long before the 
 London Technical Education Board was created. Still, 
 the ** whiskey money" has enabled them to do more 
 than ever before; in several cases, they have been 
 entirely reorganized. Others, such as the Battersea, 
 the South - Western (Chelsea), the Northern, and the 
 Northampton Institute in Clerkenwell, are quite new, 
 and have adopted the idea that they must study local 
 needs. The class of persons using the Polytechnics 
 depends very much on the neighbourhood. Woolwich, 
 recently reformed on modern Unes, and the Borough 
 Polytechnic are almost entirely working class ; Chelsea 
 is supposed to be middle class; Battersea is lower 
 middle and working class. Several of them have been 
 founded and endowed by the Charity Commission, and 
 work under its schemes. 
 
 A visit was paid to Battersea Polytechnic, because it 
 
 happened to be close at hand, and because it has an 
 
 important development in Domestic 
 
 techn[c^i8^°^^ Economy. The building is imposing 
 
 (red brick with stone dressings), with a 
 
 respectable space in front, which too many London 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 207 
 
 buildings lack. It still needs a great Assembly Hall to 
 complete the original plan; yet, as it stands, it is a 
 striking monument to the great revival in education 
 amidst which we live. It would be difficult to ex^ 
 aggerate the impression conveyed to the mind by the 
 great suites of workshops for carpenters, joiners, 
 plumbers, bricklayers, masons, electrical engineers, 
 blacksmiths, and other trades, all well attended in the 
 evenings. There are admirable laboratories, lecture 
 theatres, dark rooms for photographic processes ; the 
 Domestic Economy Department has space for laundry 
 work, cooking, dressmaking; there are two admirable 
 gymnasia for men and women, as well as a whole series 
 of art class-rooms. The governing body had intended 
 to dispense with the women's gymnasium as, though the 
 Polytechnic cost about ;£45,ooo, funds were not too 
 plentiful for so extensive a work. Fortunately the 
 Charity Commissioners stepped in and provided the 
 funds. Battersea Polytechnic is, moreover, conducting 
 an experiment in co-education — a secondary day school 
 for boys and girls; out of 116 pupils, 25 are girls. 
 The course is much the same for both; but when 
 the boys are at manual work, the girls take domestic 
 economy. The principal, Mr. Sidney Wells, to whose 
 organizing ability much of the success of the Poly- 
 technic is due, states that up to July, 1896, there were 
 6500 class entries representing 2700 individuals, of 
 whom 1042 (about two-fifths) were women. All classes 
 are open to them, but naturally they do not attend 
 certain trade classes. 
 
2o8 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 The School of Domestic Economy, at Battersea, 
 under Miss Corbold, is important, because not only are 
 Training School students taught, but a certain number 
 of Domestic are trained to become teachers of the 
 
 Economy. different subjects. The training ex- 
 
 tends over two years, embracing cookery, laundry work, 
 dress cutting, hygiene, and housewifery. The London 
 Technical Education Board offers valuable training 
 scholarships in Domestic Economy, to be held at 
 Battersea. The Technical Board estimated to spend 
 ;£'42oo on the teaching of Domestic Economy in 
 1896-97 in London. Very considerable grants are 
 also given towards the provision of teaching in Science, 
 Art, and Domestic Economy in girls' secondary schools, 
 which, mutatis mutandis^ are treated in precisely the 
 same manner as the secondary schools for boys. 
 
 It scarcely needs to be said that the work of the 
 London Technical Education Board is only a section 
 of the technical instruction now being given throughout 
 the country. Much of this work is new ; according to 
 its critics, some of it is crude; and it is more than 
 probable that certain experiments will be abandoned 
 or greatly modified. Yet it has seemed wiser, on the 
 whole, to enter into a little fuller detail as to the 
 work of one Board, in order to indicate its methods, 
 and the possibilities that suggest themselves, rather than 
 attempt to trace the work done all over the country, 
 which, to be useful, would require, at the least, a volume 
 to itself. 
 
 As already shewn, the Birkbeck literary and Scientific 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 209 
 
 Institution has special claims to the gratitude of women, 
 The Birkbeck since it was the first educational 
 Literary and institution to open its doors to them 
 
 Scientific jn the field of higher education. It 
 
 Institution. u v • o u t^ 
 
 began its career m 1823, when Dr. 
 
 George Birkbeck, of Glasgow, founded it in Southampton 
 Buildings. Its remarkable energy has permitted it to 
 survive, and even to increase greatly in numbers and 
 efficiency, although a host of similar institutions have 
 arisen in or near London. At first the Birkbeck was a 
 Mechanics' Institute, and so remained for many years ; 
 but to-day it would seem to be more used by the middle 
 classes, although it is open to all. Though here classed 
 under the heading of Technical Education, being 
 assisted by the London Technical Education Board, 
 and having a strong science side, the Birkbeck Institu- 
 tion is quite as strong in arts, having, out of a total of 
 4400 class entries, almost 1000 for the study of 
 languages, besides many students in law, mental 
 science, music, and a complete course of English 
 subjects. A notable feature is the excellent preparation 
 for London University Examinations. The Science 
 and Technology subjects number twenty-eight, and are 
 open to all without distinction of sex. The buildings, 
 situated in Bream's Buildings, Chancery Lane, since 
 1885, are rather spacious and convenient than elegant. 
 There is an important School of Art in the Institution, 
 chemical and physical laboratories, reading-rooms used 
 by both sexes, with an excellent lecture theatre. The 
 principal is Mr. G. Armitage-Smith, M.A. 
 
210 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 No description of technical instruction in England 
 would be complete without some allusion to the work 
 City and Guilds undertaken by the City and Guilds 
 of London of London Institute, although the 
 
 Institute. share of women in the Institute is 
 
 very small. It is significant that a small town like 
 Ziirich founded its Ecole Polytechnique Federale in 
 1855; America its Massachusetts Institute of Technology 
 in 1861 ; whereas London only began to think of its 
 Technical College in 1876. The City and Guilds of 
 London Institute is an association of the Livery 
 Companies of London, founded in 1878; the offices 
 of the Institute are at Gresham College, and its several 
 branches of work are as follows : 
 
 {a) The Central Technical College^ an imposing red 
 brick building in Exhibition Road, Kensington, opened 
 in 1884, provides education for those who already 
 possess a sufficient knowledge of science or the arts to 
 enable them to profit by instruction in the industrial 
 applications of these. The college exists largely for 
 the training of engineers, managers of works, responsible 
 foremen, and technical chemists. The course lasts 
 about three years. In December, 1896, there were 
 over 200 students, of whom three were women. 
 
 {b) The Technical College^ Finsbury, opened in 1883, 
 is of a lower grade than the Central Technical College, 
 and has an evening department for apprentices and 
 others engaged during the day. There are almost 11 00 
 day and evening students, about a dozen of whom are 
 women attending the art department in the evening. 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 211 
 
 {c) In 1879 The South London Technical Art School 
 was established by the Institute in Kennington Park 
 Road. As its title implies, it is more concerned with 
 decorative art than the other colleges of the trio. 
 
 The technological examinations, mostly held at 353 
 centres in the United Kingdom, form an important part 
 of the work of the Institute. In 1895 there were about 
 25,000 students in attendance, in 739 classes throughout 
 the kingdom; at the examinations, candidates worked 
 more than 10,000 papers. The Institute attaches im- 
 portance to manual training, and holds examinations in 
 this subject also. The subjects of examination number 
 more than sixty, and embrace soap manufacture, 
 bread-making, electric lighting, goldsmiths' work, slate 
 quarrying, dressmaking. 
 
 The Swedish system of manual training, known as 
 Sloyd, in use at Herr Otto Salomon's seminary at Naas, 
 g. . Sweden, is only indirectly related to 
 
 technical instruction, its aims being 
 much wider. Sloyd is derived from a Swedish word 
 meaning dexterous, and is related to the English sleight, 
 in sleight of hand. But those who advocate Sloyd 
 claim for it far more than the attainment of mere 
 manual dexterity. The pupil gradually obtains higher 
 mental powers by a series of steps in which hand, eye, 
 brain, and judgment are equally exercised. Sloyd 
 advocates claim that it is an important factor in the 
 physical development of a child, over and above manual 
 dexterity; it supplements gymnastics. Its mental and 
 moral advantages are the cultivation of attention and 
 
212 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 interest,* the development of the powers of observation, 
 of accuracy, practical common sense, perseverance, and 
 patience. It is clear therefore that the Sloyd system is 
 not merely preparation for a trade, but a system 
 graduated and developed on truly educational lines. 
 It is specially suitable for boys and girls from about 
 the age of eleven onwards. Miss Chapman claimed 
 a few years ago that a thousand Swedish national 
 schools had adopted Sloyd. In England it has not 
 obtained so warm a reception, though many educationists 
 are firm believers in its excellence. A Sloyd Association 
 of about 300 members works to spread the system. 
 Classes may now be found in training colleges for 
 teachers, as well as in schools of all grades. In 1893 
 the Science and Art Department recognized Sloyd as a 
 grant-earning subject, and it is expected to spread more 
 rapidly in the future than has yet been the case. Mr. 
 T. G. Rooper, H.M. Inspector of Schools, alludes to 
 Sloyd in these terms in the Blue Book of 1893: "I 
 hope that this valuable form of mental, moral, and 
 manual discipline is taking firm root. Of all the 
 schools of manual training with which I am acquainted, 
 I find Sloyd to be the most effective for developing 
 delicacy of manipulation, thoroughness of workmanship, 
 and truth in the senses of touch and sight." At Naas 
 four courses of training for teachers, lasting six weeks 
 each, are given every year ; advantage is taken of them 
 by a considerable number of British students. 
 
 * See the paper read by Miss E. P. Hughes, of Cambridge, at 
 the College of Preceptors. (W. Sotheran & Co., Petergate, York.) 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 213 
 
 Under the same roof as the Central Technical 
 College, but not otherwise connected with it, is a 
 
 School of Art Wood Carving, under 
 School of Art _ _. _, r\ ^ c 
 
 Wood Carving. ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ manager. Out of a 
 
 total of 316 students in 1895, 256 
 were women, the remaining 60 being men. The latter 
 are about equally divided as professional and amateur 
 carvers, whereas about two-thirds of the women are 
 amateurs. The remaining third, some eighty in all, 
 are training as professional carvers, or as teachers of 
 carving. Women have no great opening as carvers; 
 they are not admitted to the trade workshops. Even 
 if these were open, it is doubtful whether women's 
 strength could stand the wear and tear the work 
 necessitates. A man can work for nine or ten hours, 
 whereas few women seem to be able to put in more 
 than six, and of course this results in carving not being 
 sufficiently remunerative to women. A few women 
 have opened studios of their own; but here again the 
 difficulty of getting good pay for good work besets 
 them. Women, as one would expect, make excellent 
 teachers of the subject, having sympathy with the 
 difficulties of a learner, and a fair number obtain their 
 training in this school. One of its main objects is to 
 raise the old art of wood carving into the position it 
 enjoyed in olden times, if possible. A yearly examina- 
 tion is held in which the student has to submit a certain 
 number of carved examples ; to carve a panel from a 
 drawing or a photo in a given time ; to be examined in 
 scale drawing, i.e. drawing a chest or cupboard to scale ; 
 
214 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 to sketch a suitable carved decoration, and to answer a 
 paper of technical questions. 
 
 The work of the Home Arts and Industries Association 
 deserves brief mention, since out of about 4000 members 
 Home Arts and ^^ some 400 classes held all over the 
 Industries country, nearly a half are women; 
 
 Association. besides which, women are largely class- 
 
 holders and teachers. The Association was founded 
 in 1 884, and aims at the revival or teaching of the minor 
 arts to the working classes, thus spreading a knowledge 
 of artistic handiwork among the people. Such arts are 
 carpentry of various kinds, including inlay, repousse work 
 in brass and copper, bent iron, hand spinning and 
 weaving, embroidery, sewing, pottery, leather work, 
 wood carving, mosaic setting, basket making. Teachers 
 of these arts are voluntary or paid ; in the latter case 
 usually the class-holder is responsible for payment, 
 either paying the teacher herself, or obtaining funds 
 for the purpose, or charging a fee to members of the 
 class. Teachers are sometimes paid by grants from the 
 County Council. The work is very valuable for young 
 persons who have left school and have spare time, 
 especially for those in rural districts where amusements 
 and educational facilities are scarce. The Association 
 may be said to work most successfully in small places, 
 where the class-holder is enthusiastic and competent. 
 A great improvement has been visible of recent years in 
 the work produced, which may be seen at the annual 
 exhibition of Home Arts and Industries held in June 
 in the Royal Albert Hall. Women do not solely take 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 215 
 
 up the feminine industries named, such as weaving; 
 they have been very successful in wood carving, basket- 
 work, bookbinding, and other work. 
 
 Excellent technical instruction is given in the Man- 
 chester Technical Schools; at Sheffield, in Firth College; 
 at Newcastle; and, indeed, fairly good provision is 
 found in most of the large towns, especially in 
 Birmingham. But, of course, results are not equal 
 all over the country. A considerable number of local 
 (borough) authorities levy a rate for the purposes of the 
 Technical Instruction Act; the borough of Preston at 
 one time enjoyed the distinction of having the only 
 Council which does not use the "whiskey money" for 
 educational purposes. 
 
 On the other hand, it does not follow, because 
 large sums are being spent upon technical instruction, 
 Share of Women ^^^^ women are greatly benefiting 
 in Technical by such expenditure. Economically, 
 
 Instruction. women are the poor sex, and they 
 
 are poor for two reasons. Custom sanctions a lower 
 wage for them than men, even when they are doing 
 the same work equally well. But women who are 
 properly qualified for their work suffer because other 
 women are not competent, and because their sex is 
 in a growing majority. So far as relief of the women's 
 labour market is concerned, few things would produce 
 a better result than recognition of the need of training 
 and of specialization, of excellence in one department. 
 On the other hand, there is no doubt that if a woman 
 marries, a wider general knowledge, training in a course 
 
2i6 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 of domestic economy, is more valuable to her. Apart 
 from considerations of culture, men find " multum, non 
 multa" most advantageous; and so would women, if they 
 had not to choose between the labour market and the 
 prospect of marriage. For women who marry, " multa, 
 non multum " is a far more suitable educational maxim. 
 
 Under these circumstances, it may be justifiable to ask 
 whether women in the labour market will be materially 
 Domestic benefited by the extension of domestic 
 
 Economy and economy training to every girl. It 
 Bread-winning. ^^^ ^^ advisable, and even praise- 
 worthy, for all to cook, sew, do laundry work and 
 dressmaking ; but, unless there is a rise in the popularity 
 of domestic service, one scarcely sees how a girl's place 
 in the labour market will be affected. She has nothing 
 to offer but what everyone else is offering. 
 
 The Women's Local Government Society has been 
 at some trouble to conduct an inquiry as to how far 
 County Councils women and girls share in the technical 
 and Women's education provided by County and 
 Education. Borough Councils. In a leaflet 
 
 published by the Society in 1895, it appears that com- 
 paratively few Councils place women on their Technical 
 Instruction Committees. In forty -nine cases, such 
 Committees added persons other than Councillors to 
 their numbers, but no women. Out of 124 County 
 and Borough Councils, it is stated that only eighteen 
 give equal educational advantages to the sexes. A few 
 give nothing or next to nothing to girls; the large 
 majority give something, mostly domestic economy, 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 217 
 
 nursing, dairy work. The inference of the Women's 
 Local Government Society is that women should claim 
 to sit on the local authorities, as the best method of 
 safeguarding the interests of their sex. It is noteworthy 
 that the technical education movement theoretically 
 professes to embrace history, languages, literature ; 
 but practically few Councils or Committees spare funds 
 for the arts, even though they interpret the word 
 " technical " as widely as possible. Now these subjects 
 are usually more affected by women than men. Yet 
 even if a greater expenditure were incurred for them 
 in such subjects, it may be doubted whether their 
 position in the labour market would be affected, or 
 fresh employment be opened up to them. It would, 
 however, contribute to a better general education of 
 the sex. On the whole, even though Borough Councils 
 remain closed to women, it must be admitted that they 
 have scarcely succeeded in making their weight felt in 
 this recent allocation of public money for educational 
 purposes, or in expressing their wishes, supposing them 
 to have any. 
 
 The Report of the Royal Commission on Secondary 
 Education, 1894-95, lays great stress not only on the 
 Variety of ^^P^ ^"^ °^^ educational system, but 
 
 Technical on the overlapping, the unnecessary 
 
 Instruction competition it engenders, and on the 
 
 utnori es. noit^ of organization. A survey of 
 
 the field of Technical Education shows this clearly. 
 The Science and Art Department is the central authority 
 for Technical Education; it is its raison d^etre. The 
 
2x8 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Education Department finds it necessary to have tech- 
 nical subjects in its newly-organized evening continuation 
 schools; it sanctions and pays for quite a scheme of 
 technical instruction for small girls in elementary day 
 schools. There is scarcely a large town that has not 
 some scheme of technical instruction to suit its local 
 needs ; for example, the Firth College at Sheffield, 
 Mason College at Birmingham, Yorkshire College, 
 Leeds, are successfully carried on by private or 
 municipal enterprise, or both combined. It would be 
 wrong to omit mention of School Boards, and their 
 share in Technical Education; for though the Depart- 
 ment is their central authority, not infrequently they 
 assume the initiative, and only require its sanction for 
 their work in higher grade schools. The University 
 Extension movement, as is well known, must needs 
 embrace technical subjects in its curriculum, else its 
 usefulness would be greatly hindered. When during 
 its career it throws off colleges like the University 
 College at Nottingham, the Firth at Sheffield, or when 
 it works them successfully as at Reading and Exeter, 
 such subjects have to be well to the front. Nor does 
 the Charity Commission disdain to meddle with 
 technical instruction in its schemes for Secondary 
 Education, since it is bound to consider a neighbour- 
 hood's needs. Frequently it has aided polytechnics, 
 institutes, and schools by appropriating trust money 
 to Technical Education. Lastly, we find the County 
 Councils with a fresh power in their hands, the em- 
 ployment of funds for Technical Education. 
 
TECHNICO-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 219 
 
 The need for organizing and co-ordinating the work 
 of so many and such various authorities scarcely 
 
 requires mention. It is now recog- 
 Necessity for 
 Organization. "^^^^ ^^^^ h^ioxQ long every locality, 
 
 borough, county, or district must 
 
 needs have its own local educational authority; and a 
 
 central authority must also be organized to co-ordinate 
 
 the work of the Education Department, the Science and 
 
 Art Department, and the Charity Commission, as well as 
 
 to assume fresh powers over Secondary Education. 
 
 One of the most recent developments necessary to chronicle here 
 
 is the opening of the London School of Economics and Political 
 
 , J c 1- 1 r Science in October, 1895. As is usual in 
 London School of , , , , , , . j .1 
 
 P . , educational matters, we lagged behmd other 
 
 p .... . ^ . countries in offering organized instruction in 
 
 these subjects ; on the other hand, notable 
 progress has been made in a very short time. The Director, Mr. 
 W. A. S. Hewins, reports that during the first year 300 students 
 enrolled themselves in the School, of whom 100 took whole or part 
 of the three years' course ; seventy- five students were women. The 
 School is already the largest centre of systematic training in its 
 special subjects in the United Kingdom. The work is of University 
 standard, and many of the students are graduates of British or 
 foreign Universities. The lecture-list is large; for the Lent term 
 of 1897 it covered such subjects as Geographical Conditions of the 
 Seven Great Powers, Machinery of Administration in England, 
 Problems of Trade Unionism, History of English Political Ideas 
 during the Great Rebellion, Banking and Currency, Railway 
 Economics and Statistics, Principles of Local Government, Local 
 Taxation, Palseography and Diplomatics, and so forth. 
 
 An excellent Library of Political Science exists in connection 
 with the London School of Economics, in Adelphi Terrace, Strand, 
 which will eventually become very extensive. It is generously 
 intended for the free use of persons engaged in public administra- 
 tion, national or municipal, and of all students of Economic or 
 Political Science. 
 
CONCLUSION 
 
 "'TpHERE is now no such thing as a 'Woman's 
 X Education Question' apart from that of 
 education generally," wrote Mrs. William Grey to 
 Miss Buss in 1881. Her prophetic eye, cheered by 
 the sight of many doors opening to her sex, foresaw 
 the day when useless distinction shall no longer be 
 drawn. An attempt has been made to shew briefly 
 that though the day has dawned, it is not yet noon. 
 
 In Primary Education we see the great educational 
 principle which forbids too early specialization, flung 
 to the winds in the case of girls ; we see a failure to 
 attempt the cultivation of the powers of observation, 
 in that drawing is not compulsory for them. In 
 Secondary Education it is difficult to generalize, for 
 the variety of schools is very great, and usually those 
 who know about boys' schools do not know about 
 girls'. 
 
 It is probably true that the best girls' schools are 
 equal to the best boys' schools ; indeed, some authori- 
 ties are heard to declare that the former are superior. 
 Yet here it must be remembered that girls' first-class 
 schools are fewer in number than good boys' schools. 
 In Technical Education, which the Royal Commission 
 220 
 
CONCLUSION 221 
 
 of 1894-95 declared to be a branch of Secondary 
 Education, women have not obtained a fair share of 
 the opportunities afforded, probably because they have 
 not clearly indicated their wants. 
 
 Turning to Higher Education, we find a wide 
 discrepancy between the numbers of men and women 
 students. The sexes are represented at Oxford and 
 Cambridge as 6000 to 400 in round numbers. The 
 opening of more employments to women, and higher 
 rewards for their labour, are of prime necessity as 
 direct incentives to women's education. A woman 
 can no more, indeed rather less, afford to throw away 
 an expensive training than can a man. Some substan- 
 tial advantage must lie at the end of it. A fair 
 number of women have now received an excellent 
 training in natural science, holding the B.Sc. of 
 Cambridge or London. Hardly any employment is 
 open to such women save that of science mistress, 
 with the modest salary of ;£ioo. Attention has been 
 drawn to the fact that occasionally, as in the appoint- 
 ment of head teachers of art schools, the best posts 
 are still closed to women in certain branches. This 
 is not entirely due to mascuHne selfishness ; public 
 opinion and custom are also factors. Women are 
 largely shut out of administration, which, according 
 to many high authorities, Ruskin amongst them, is 
 their great talent. Scarcely anything is given to them 
 in the Education Department, including South Ken- 
 sington. The exceptions have been noted in their 
 place. Women are shut out of almost all the medical 
 
222 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 schools in the provinces. Great as is the progress that 
 has been made, many things yet remain to be done. 
 
 I have endeavoured to avoid the implication or 
 suggestion that the education of women is, at bottom, 
 a sex question. So far is it from being a blow aimed 
 by women at the supremacy of the privileged sex, that 
 the movement has really been begun by men. From 
 Comenius and Erasmus downwards, a section of edu- 
 cated men have struggled for the acknowledgment of 
 women's claim to education as many of them have 
 never dreamt of doing. Without the loyal and generous 
 aid that men have given, nothing could have been done. 
 In many cases it was not help that was rendered : it was 
 even the initiation of a reform. To those who have 
 followed the movement for women's education, mention 
 of how the matter really stands is about as necessary 
 as to allude to the fact that Queen Anne is dead. 
 
 Yet whilst sex is not the true dividing line on this, 
 or indeed on most other matters, it is useless to shut 
 our eyes to the fact that men of a certain stamp, not 
 usually themselves intellectual, are jealous of women's 
 attainments, and assume a discouraging attitude. 
 Similarly, a large number of women find that igno- 
 rance, real or pretended, is a recommendation. It is 
 difficult to think of any wider cause of the low level 
 of general culture than this, though it has obviously 
 lessened with the march of the century. 
 
 So far as I have been able to discover, women's 
 education makes the most sure advance where women 
 officer largely or entirely the educational institutions 
 
CONCLUSION 223 
 
 which have been called into existence, where they sit 
 upon the committee of management, and take a large 
 share of the teaching. The reason of this appears to 
 be that girls are more encouraged by what women can 
 do than by what men have done. It would be invidious 
 to point to institutions which have failed to keep pace 
 with the times because the necessity of giving women 
 a large share of the work has not been grasped; but 
 it would be possible to do so. So great is the hope- 
 fulness of the women engaged in the education of their 
 sex, so powerful is their example to stimulate those 
 under their care, so able are they to deal with the 
 various difficulties that arise, that the success of the 
 movement seems only assured when it remains largely 
 in women's own hands. It is sometimes said, and with 
 a certain amount of truth, that the great advance in 
 education has called forth a new type of woman, strong, 
 just, capable. Probably the type was never lost; it 
 existed far back in our history. But for the last two 
 or three hundred years, opportunities for exercising 
 women's abilities have been lacking. Where the home 
 did not absorb them, energy and capacity must have 
 been largely wasted. 
 
 In speaking with men and women of other nations, 
 and comparing some of the points of difference in 
 educational methods, more than one educationist has 
 observed to me : "Our system looks well on paper." Now 
 this is what the English system, if the expression may 
 be permitted, does not do. No attempt has here been 
 made to conceal its anomalies, insufficiency, inefficiency. 
 
224 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 its weakness, the narrowness of the area marked by 
 real excellence. Yet to those who can interpret the 
 signs, it is certain that something great will work itself 
 out, and is even now in the casting. It was said of 
 Louis XIV. by a judge of character : " II se mettra tard 
 en route, mais il y arrivera " \ and this forecast will be 
 true of English education. For we shall profit by the 
 mistakes that other nations have committed, making 
 haste slowly ; above all, we shall aim at conserving the 
 genius of the Anglo-Saxon race, its individuality, self- 
 reliance, power to assume the initiative. 
 
 It is characteristic of the EngUsh people to be highly 
 critical of themselves and their performances. We laud 
 the educational systems of France and Germany, largely 
 because we do not know them. And yet France, who 
 is far from being blind to our national peculiarities, 
 sends over M. Max Leclerc to inquire how men are 
 made in England. His mission is thus summed up 
 by M. Emil Boutmy, in the preface of the book he 
 has written :* "Where on the other side of the Channel 
 are the upper and middle classes educated and formed 
 from which political life draws its parliamentary repre- 
 sentatives and diplomats, the administration its officials, 
 the army and navy their officers, industry its leaders, 
 commerce its merchants, philosophy such profound 
 thinkers, literature, history, science, such original talent ? 
 What means of preparation have been at the disposal 
 of this elite^ whom we meet in all the quarters of the 
 
 * V Education en Angleterre. By Max Leclerc ; preface by 
 Emil Boutmy. Armand Colin et Cie., Paris. 
 
CONCLUSION 225 
 
 globe, ever ready, never lacking, adapted to every variety 
 of the work awaiting them, indefatigable builders of the 
 national greatness? What do these men owe to the 
 family, to public spirit, to the school and their masters ? 
 What have the State and legislation done for them ?" 
 
 M. Max Leclerc has a good deal to say about the 
 insufficiency, incoherence, and lack of adaptation in 
 English education ; but he has also somewhat to say 
 touching our physical energy, moral force, individuality 
 left uncramped by a uniform artificial type, our saving 
 idea that education does not end with school life. We 
 shall do well to note not only the faults, but the 
 excellencies of English education, in order that the 
 wheat may not be pulled up with the tares. 
 
 If this attempt to report progress in women's educa- 
 tion had been written fifty years ago, the task would 
 have been a very brief one. The Birkbeck Institution 
 had opened its doors to women. The Governesses' 
 Benevolent Institution had begun to think that poverty 
 and incompetence were not unconnected. In fifty 
 more years will women have travelled as fast and as 
 far ? The answer is doubtful ; but it is safe to prophesy 
 that before then the barriers will have been all thrown 
 down. The tools will be for him, and even for her, 
 who can use them. 
 
PART II. 
 
 EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND 
 
 Part II. has been kindly contributed to this little 
 volume — 
 
 Primary and Secondary Education 
 
 By Mr. G. W. Alexander, Clerk to the School 
 Board of Glasgow. 
 
 Higher and Technico-Professional Education 
 By Miss Jane Galloway, Hon. Sec. to Queen 
 Margaret College, Glasgow. 
 
PART II. 
 EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND 
 
 Section I. 
 ptimati^ ]£t)ucatton 
 
 In Scotland, as in England, education in its beginnings 
 is associated with the monasteries. Their schools were 
 intended primarily for the training of those who meant 
 to devote themselves to the service of the Church, but 
 in time they came to be taken advantage of by the 
 upper classes. As the demand for education increased, 
 the monks instituted schools in the towns adjoining 
 the monasteries, and in these the Burgh or High 
 schools of Scotland appear to have had their origin. 
 Frequently also schools seem to have been carried on 
 in connection with the country churches, and many 
 of these were gifted to the monasteries, and so came 
 under their supervision. In this way it became true 
 that " before the Reformation it was the monk, and 
 not the parish priest, who held the ecclesiastical power, 
 and played the chief part in the history of education."* 
 
 * History of Early Scottish Education. By J. Edgar, m.a. 
 229 
 
230 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 It is generally supposed that education in Scotland 
 prior to the Reformation is scarcely worthy of notice; 
 
 but Mr. Grant, in his History of 
 Schools. Burgh Schools, and Mr. Edgar show 
 
 that the early records prove the 
 existence long before the Reformation of four kinds 
 of schools : (i) Parish schools, under the instruction 
 or supervision of the parish priest; (2) Cathedral 
 schools ; (3) Collegiate schools, connected with 
 churches having a college or chapter; and (4) Sang 
 schools, of which the primary function was music. 
 There can be little doubt that John Knox, instead of 
 requiring to break fresh ground, had already a sub- 
 stantial basis for the system he sought to establish. 
 Indeed, as early as 1494, when James IV. was king, 
 we have provision made for the compulsory attendance 
 of certain classes, a statute being passed which required 
 all barons and freeholders of substance to send their 
 eldest sons to school from the age of six or nine until 
 " they be competentlie founded and have perfite Latine." 
 The penalty for disobedience was twenty pounds. No 
 special provision appears to have been made for girls, 
 but there is evidence that at all events the daughters 
 of the wealthier classes shared in such education as was 
 considered essential at the time. 
 
 The Reformation, while it appears to have robbed 
 education of the endowments it enjoyed through its 
 
 connection with the Church, gave a 
 
 Landowners and , . , , ., 4. ur u- r 
 
 g, . great impetus to the establishmg ot a 
 
 national system. The First Book of 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION 231 
 
 Discipline^ published by the Reformed Church in 1560, 
 provided for a school in every parish and town, as well 
 as "colleges" in the "notable" towns. The General 
 Assembly of the Church did what it could to carry out 
 this scheme, but it had no power to levy assessments ; 
 and although in 1616 the Privy Council passed a decree 
 obliging each parish to maintain a school and school- 
 master, the decree was not confirmed by Parliament 
 till 1633. The subsequent political turmoil stood in 
 the way of educational advancement ; it was not till 
 after the Revolution that the State succeeded in 
 making general provision for the instruction of the 
 people, and placed education in a position to secure 
 its regular development. In 1696 an Act was passed 
 which laid upon the heritors or landowners of every 
 parish the duty of providing a school and appointing 
 a schoolmaster. The salary was not to be less than 
 100 merks (;^5 iis. i^d.), nor more than 200 merks 
 (;^ii 2S. 2|d.). The Presbyteries had power to compel 
 the heritors to carry out the Act, and they were also 
 entrusted with the superintendence of the schools so 
 established. This right of superintendence of the 
 parish schools remained with the Presbyteries until 
 1872, though it was slightly modified in 1861. 
 
 For more than one hundred years after 1696, the 
 State did nothing further for education in Scotland. 
 At the beginning of the present century the progress 
 of the nation made fresh provision absolutely necessary. 
 In 1803 an Act was passed by which a school-house 
 was to be provided in every parish where none already 
 
232 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 existed; and in large or populous parishes additional 
 schools, generally known as side schools, were to be 
 supplied. The salary of the schoolmaster was raised 
 to not less than 300 nor more than 400 merks, and 
 was to be fixed by the heritors and minister. To 
 this were added a free house and garden and school 
 fees. The latter were also fixed by the heritors and 
 minister, and the schoolmaster was obliged to teach 
 such poor children as they recommended. "The 
 schoolmaster's house and plot of garden ground was a 
 feature of each Scotch parish, along with the minister's 
 manse and glebe ; and, like the minister, the teacher 
 was a freeholder. The parish school was, in short, 
 an adjunct of the parish church. The teacher was 
 examined and approved by the Presbytery. The 
 minister was an elector along with the heritors. To 
 him the general superintendence of the school was 
 assigned. And, lastly, the teacher was required to 
 subscribe the Confession of Faith and the formula 
 of the Church of Scotland." "**■ This description, with 
 modifications as to salaries and religious tests to be 
 noted later, held true till 1872. 
 
 One part of the country — the Highlands and Islands 
 — had, however, lagged behind; and in 1838 it was 
 Special Provision found necessary to authorize the 
 for the Commissioners of the Treasury to 
 
 Highlands. provide and endow schools in High- 
 
 land parishes, and these came to be known as "Par- 
 
 * The State in its Relation to Education. By Henry Craik, c.b. 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION 233 
 
 liamentary " schools, to distinguish them from " Parish " 
 and "Side" schools. Five years later, however, in 
 1843, occurred the ecclesiastical crisis which resulted 
 in what is known as the Disruption of the Established 
 Church of Scotland and the foundation of the Free 
 Church, and this had an important effect on education. 
 So far as they could, the Free Church opened schools 
 in connection with their churches, and the accommo- 
 dation and facilities for education were thereby largely 
 increased. The effect was seen in the Act of 1861, 
 which, after raising salaries to a minimum of £,2>^ 
 and a maximum of ;^7o, transferred the examination 
 of parochial schoolmasters from the Presbyteries to 
 the Universities, abolished the religious test in the 
 case of burgh schoolmasters, and modified it for 
 parochial schoolmasters to a declaration that they 
 would not teach opinions opposed to the Bible or 
 Shorter Catechism, or exercise the functions of their 
 ofifice to the prejudice of the Established Church. 
 
 But this Act of 1 86 1 is particularly interesting, as 
 
 it appears to contain the first ofificial recognition of the 
 
 education of girls. Hitherto boys 
 
 W^err^chers. ^"<^ P^' '^^^ .l'^^" '^"g^' ''<*« ''>' 
 side in the parish schools, and, as a 
 
 rule, the curriculum for both was the same. This 
 
 Act, however, gave the heritors and minister power to 
 
 appoint a "female teacher ... to give instruction in 
 
 such branches of female industry and household 
 
 training, as well as of elementary education, as they 
 
 shall then or from time to time prescribe, and to 
 
234 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 provide ... a yearly sum not exceeding thirty pounds 
 as a salary for such female teacher." 
 
 A report obtained in 1838 had shown that out of 
 4000 teachers included in the returns only 700 were 
 women, and these were all either conducting schools 
 of their own, or employed in privately endowed schools. 
 How little things had changed in 1861 is seen from 
 the Blue-book for that year, which, referring to the 
 small number of women teachers in Scotland, says, 
 "It is urged, by way of explanation, that the employ- 
 ment of female teachers in separate departments of 
 schools for the poor is comparatively new in Scotland, 
 and cannot be expected to make rapid way. This 
 argument concedes that the establishment of training 
 schools for females in Scotland has been at least in 
 some degree excessive or premature." To appreciate 
 this last remark fully, it must be remembered that 
 Government had already been paying grants for training 
 schoolmistresses in Scotland for twelve years. At this 
 time only twenty - five per cent, of all the teachers 
 employed (other than pupil teachers) were women, 
 and of the pupil teachers 30*4 per cent. In 1872, 
 the last year of the old regime^ the percentages were 
 33-5 and 41*8 respectively; in 1896 they were 61*6 
 and 8o*6. 
 
 As in England, pupil teachers had come to be 
 freely employed ; in 1861 they formed 62 per cent, 
 of the total teaching staff. This resulted from the 
 special inducements offered by the Government in the 
 shape of grants. In the matter of training teachers, 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION 235 
 
 Scotland was well in advance, for already, in 1826, 
 David Stow had instituted his Normal system ; the 
 first special building had been opened in 1837, to be 
 followed by three others before 1846, when grants 
 began to be regularly given. 
 
 Scotland shared with England the grants assigned 
 to education from 1833 onwards, and, generally speak- 
 ing, on the same terms, though by 
 overnmen ^g^^ special stress was being laid on 
 
 instruction in sewing and cutting out 
 in schools where girls were taught, and it was made a 
 condition of the grant. Inspection, however, was 
 optional, and only schools which desired a grant were 
 subject to it. Many of the parochial schools preferred 
 to dispense with the grant, and were satisfied with the 
 annual visitation of the Presbytery. In most cases this 
 w^as a useful function ; in others, the visitors simply sat 
 by while the schoolmaster examined his classes on 
 lessons which had been specially prepared for at least a 
 week previously. By this method the report seldom 
 failed to be satisfactory. 
 
 The want of inspection, however, did not necessarily 
 
 imply any want of efficiency in the instruction. The 
 
 teacher was, in most cases, under the supervision 
 
 of the minister of the church with which his school 
 
 was connected; and, as a public 
 
 ciency o functionary, he was also under the 
 
 Scottish . . ' 
 
 Teachers. supervision of the community, espe- 
 
 cially in country districts. Further, 
 the multiplication of schools due to ecclesiastical 
 
236 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 differences secured even for the village schoolmaster 
 the stimulus of competition, for the school fees formed, 
 as a rule, the largest part of his income ; and most 
 parents chose a school for their children irrespective 
 of their denominational views. It is to be remembered 
 too that the parish schoolmaster had had, as a rule, 
 a more or less complete university education, and in 
 many instances held a licence as a clergyman. Even 
 in the country parishes his scholarship was not 
 allowed to rust. All classes sent their children to the 
 parish school, and usually there were one or two lads 
 looking forward to the University. It has been alleged, 
 and in many cases no doubt with truth, that the school- 
 master devoted too much of his attention to the most 
 advanced pupils, and neglected the rest of the school ; 
 but at least it deserves mention that in not a few cases 
 preparation for the University was given before and 
 after the ordinary school hours without extra fee or 
 reward. Perhaps no better testimony to the quality 
 of schools in Scotland at this time can be found than 
 the fact that not a little of the famous Revised Code 
 had to be abandoned so far as Scotch schools were 
 concerned. It is not to be supposed, however, that 
 the parish schools, valuable as they were, possessed 
 any monopoly of education. Just as they contributed 
 to secondary education in the country, so the grammar 
 schools in the town contributed to elementary education. 
 Not only were scholars admitted to these at an early 
 age, but it sometimes occurred that one school served 
 as burgh and parish school combined. Generally 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION 237 
 
 speaking, however, the burgh schools had more of a 
 secondary character. They will be more conveniently 
 dealt with under the heading of Secondary Education. 
 
 In addition to the parish and burgh schools, there 
 were spread over the country a large number of 
 private and endowed schools. In 
 Endowerschools. '^37 there would appear to have 
 been 3354 non-parochial, as against 
 1053 parochial schools. In 2329 of the former 
 which sent in returns, there were 73,867 boys and 
 54,451 girls, as compared with 39,604 boys and 
 22,317 girls in 924 parochial schools. Of the non- 
 parochial schools 753 had some form of endowment, 
 while 13 18 were supported entirely by the school fees. 
 The endowments were divided pretty fairly between 
 boys and girls. The Endowed Schools Commissioners 
 of a later date were of opinion that in respect of 
 endowments girls had not been neglected. Even of 
 the private schools the majority were mixed. Some 
 were, however, for girls only; and as needlework came 
 to be taught, a few so-called Female Industrial schools 
 were established, which, however, had nothing in 
 common with Industrial schools as we now know 
 them. 
 
 The fees seemed to have varied in the parish schools 
 from id. to dd. a week, with extra charges of from 2d. 
 to 6d. for higher branches. In the other schools 
 there was no uniformity, and schools might be found 
 with any scale of charges. 
 
 The Act of 1 86 1 must have given a considerable 
 
238 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 impetus to education, for we find in 1867 that out 
 Impetus afforded of 500,000 children some 400,000 
 by the Act of were at school ; though only about 
 ^^^* the half of this number were at 
 
 schools under inspection. 
 
 Such numbers, at a time when education was neither 
 free nor compulsory, prove how general was the 
 appreciation of education, and how real what has 
 so often been called the spirit of education in 
 Scotland. 
 
 The consequence was that when further legislation 
 became necessary, it was possible to make that legisla- 
 tion at once more complete and less complicated than 
 in England. The people were in favour of increased 
 educational facilities. The landowners had been taxed 
 for the support of schools for nearly two hundred years, 
 and consequently the principle of assessment did not 
 require to be introduced, but only extended. Class 
 distinctions had not been strongly marked in educa- 
 tional arrangements, and generally the question was 
 less one of establishing a new system than of bringing 
 the existing system into line with modern opinion. 
 
 The distinction between the Acts for England and 
 Scotland appears in the very titles. The former is 
 "The Elementary Education Act, 1870 — an Act to 
 provide for Public Elementary Education in England 
 and Wales"; while the latter is "The Education 
 (Scotland) Act, 1872 — an Act to amend and extend 
 the Provisions of the Law of Scotland on the subject 
 of Education." 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION 239 
 
 Differences '^^^ English Act has been so well 
 
 between the summarized in the part of this work 
 
 Scottish and dealing with England that the Scotch 
 
 English Systems. u .. u ^ -u a • 
 
 system may best be described m 
 
 contrast with it. 
 
 1. While the English Act left it to the towns and 
 parishes to decide whether there should be a School 
 Board or not, so long at all events as the necessary 
 accommodation was voluntarily supplied, the Scotch 
 Election of ^^^ made the election of a School 
 School Boards Board obligatory on every burgh 
 obligatory. ^^^ parish within twelve months 
 after the passing of the KoX. The number of 
 members varies from five to fifteen, according to 
 population, and women are eligible for membership. 
 The method of voting is cumulative, and elections 
 take place every three years. In Scotland the elections 
 of all School Boards take place about the same time, 
 while in England the different dates of forming School 
 Boards make anything like uniformity in time of 
 election utterly impossible. 
 
 2. While in England localities were at first left free 
 to decide whether school attendance should be com- 
 pulsory or not, and a compulsory 
 
 Compulsory , , . . ^r. 
 
 Attendance, 1872. system only became general m 1880; 
 
 in Scotland attendance became uni- 
 versally compulsory in 1872. The EngUsh system of 
 bye-laws by which each locality can, subject to the 
 Education Department, fix its own standard of exemp- 
 tion, was not adopted in Scotland. The Scotch 
 
240 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Education Department, under the powers given them 
 by the Act, fixed the fifth standard as the exemption 
 standard for the whole country. This may appear 
 lower than in some parts of England; but it is to be 
 remembered that the half-time system, with its still 
 lower exemption standard, has never prevailed in 
 Scotland to the same extent, even in proportion to 
 the population, as in England. 
 
 It might have been supposed that from the important 
 position education had so long held in Scotland, a less 
 stringent compulsory system would have sufficed. It 
 is, however, a curious fact that the penalties for non- 
 attendance at school in Scotland are much heavier 
 than in England, the maximum penalty being in the 
 latter country 5s. including expenses, and in the 
 former 20s. in addition to expenses up to a second 
 sum of 20s., with imprisonment in default of payment. 
 
 From time to time the raising of the exemption 
 standard from the fifth to the sixth has been suggested. 
 The Department, however, have not been convinced of 
 the advantages of such a step, and preferring to work 
 by attraction rather than by further compulsion, they 
 some years ago instituted a "Merit Certificate" for 
 scholars over thirteen years of age. The certificate 
 requires thorough efficiency in the three elementary 
 subjects, two class subjects, and all the stages of one 
 specific subject or two stages of two specific subjects 
 other than domestic economy. The teacher must 
 certify to the character and conduct of each pupil 
 admitted to the examination which forms part of the 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION 241 
 
 annual inspection of each school presenting candidates. 
 During the last four years 8603 of these certificates have 
 been issued. 
 
 3. A School Board in England might find the super- 
 vision of school attendance its principal work, and 
 
 might not have a single school under 
 Fuller Powers of . 4. o-u 4. r 
 
 Scottish Boards. ^^^ management. The transference 
 of schools is entirely optional. In 
 Scotland, on the contrary, the burgh and parish schools 
 and all other schools established under previous Acts 
 of Parliament were at once transferred to the Boards, 
 which received the powers and obligations of the heritors 
 and minister, the authority of the Presbyteries being like- 
 wise abolished so far as concerned public schools. 
 
 Only seven Boards in Scotland have no schools, and 
 this is owing to their districts being supplied by the 
 schools of an adjoining Board, generally a burgh Board 
 in the same parish. 
 
 The School Boards were authorised to accept trans- 
 ference of other schools, and within a few years 
 practically all the State-aided schools in Scotland, with 
 the exception of those connected with the Roman 
 Catholic and Episcopalian Churches and the Practising 
 Schools of the Training Colleges, were under the 
 Boards. Even private schools have been absorbed in 
 considerable numbers. 
 
 4. While in England the grants were confined mainly 
 to elementary education, and are not paid beyond the 
 seventh standard, the limit in Scotland is one of age, 
 namely 18; and this, combined with the management 
 
 R 
 
242 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 of burgh or grammar schools, gives the Scotch Boards 
 School Boards ^^^^ powers in providing secondary as 
 and Secondary well as elementary instruction. The 
 Education. ^ct of 1872 specially provided that 
 
 "the standard of education which now exists in the 
 public schools shall not be lowered." 
 
 5. In Scotland School Boards are left free to make 
 any provision they choose for religious instruction before 
 
 or after the hours set apart for secular 
 C techism instruction, subject only to the ordinary 
 
 conscience clause. There is no prohi- 
 bition of religious Catechisms or formularies distinctive 
 of particular denominations, as in England. The Bible 
 and the Shorter Catechism are commonly taught 
 according to what had been "use and wont" before 
 the passing of the Act, although some Boards have 
 now discontinued the Catechism. 
 
 6. The Scotch Education Department, like the English, 
 
 have at their disposal a Hmited number of pensions 
 
 for teachers ; but in addition, power 
 Teachers' 
 p . is given to School Boards to grant 
 
 teachers such retiring allowances as 
 they think fit. This also was not a new principle in the 
 Scotch education system, for the parochial teachers who 
 held office ad vitavi aut culpam were legally entitled to 
 a pension, and their rights were specially reserved by 
 the Act of 1872. 
 
 Education in Scotland began to be 
 Free Education, ^^^^ ^^^^ j^^ ^gg ^^^^ Parliament 
 1880. ,. - - . , 
 
 voted a sum m relief of fees to be 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION 243 
 
 distributed under conditions framed by the Scotch 
 Education Department. Subsequent Acts readjusted 
 and increased the amounts available, but they did not 
 interfere with the Department's power to make condi- 
 tions. No fees can be charged now to scholars 
 between the ages of three and fifteen; but in the 
 larger towns where there is sufficient accommodation 
 for all children who desire free education, the School 
 Boards have been allowed to carry on a small number 
 of fee-paying schools. 
 
 Numbers of '^^^ following statistics, taken from 
 
 Scholars in the the latest Blue - book, show the 
 Schools. number of children on the rolls, &c., 
 
 and the number enjoying free education : — 
 Estimated total number of children of school age (five 
 
 to fourteen) . . .... 867,062 
 
 Number on rolls of schools on annual grant list . . 708,551 
 Number on rolls of schools actually inspected last year 692,202* 
 * Of these 661,971 were of school age (5-14), 12,820 were between 
 three and five years of age, and 17,410 were beyond fourteen. 
 Number present at inspection — 
 
 Boys 331,235 
 
 Girls 313,775 
 
 
 
 645,010 
 
 umber in average attendance 
 
 in schools i 
 
 nspected : 
 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Public Schools 
 
 258,065 
 
 -. 234,875 
 
 Established Church Schools 
 
 2,934 
 
 ... 3,089 
 
 Free Church Schools 
 
 1,986 
 
 ... 2,180 
 
 Episcopal Schools 
 
 5,756 
 
 5,749 
 
 Roman Catholic Schools 
 
 24,353 
 
 ... 23,008 
 
 Undenominational and othe 
 
 r 
 
 
 Schools 
 
 6,446 
 
 ... 6,864 
 
 299,540 ... 275,765 575,305 
 
 Number of scholars in free schools . . 672,093, or 97 "09 % 
 Number of scholars in fee-paying schools . 20,109, or 2"9i % 
 
244 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 Accommodation is now provided for 789,126 scholars, 
 as compared with 281,688 in 1872. 
 
 Scotland has not so far followed England in the 
 matter of inspection of the day schools. The annual 
 inspection stills holds its place, but it is of a general 
 character, except in the fifth or exemption standard, 
 which is examined individually, as are also pupils 
 presented in specific subjects. 
 
 Perhaps nothing in the history of Scottish education 
 
 is more noteworthy than the increased recognition of 
 
 the special requirements of girls. It 
 
 Special Subjects .^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ schools, excepting 
 
 for Girls. ^ ^ 
 
 some of the High schools and 
 
 Voluntary schools, continue to be "mixed" and to 
 include children of all ages, from infants upwards. It 
 is true also that, generally speaking, the curriculum for 
 boys and girls is the same as far as the ordinary 
 branches are concerned, and on this account there 
 is much greater difficulty in arranging for special 
 subjects than when girls are taught by themselves in 
 separate departments. Needlework, however, has been 
 made obligatory, and special inducements in the way 
 of grants are held out for teaching cookery, laundry 
 work, and dairy work, as well as general domestic 
 economy and hygiene. Such instruction is always of 
 a practical nature; and though laundries are still, as 
 a rule, confined to schools in larger towns, well 
 equipped cookery rooms are now fairly general. Draw- 
 ing, which is not compulsory even for boys in Scotland, 
 is now being taught in an increasing number of schools 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION 245 
 
 to both sexes. Until quite recently the physical training 
 of girls was an optional matter, and probably received 
 little attention beyond the calisthenics of the infant 
 room. Now, however, some form of drill or physical 
 exercise must be taught to all scholars if the higher 
 grant for organization and discipline would be earned. 
 In some of the larger towns swimming is taught to 
 the older girls who desire it. 
 
 It is obvious that with even one or two special 
 subjects the girls are overweighted as compared with 
 the boys; but the Code now offers inducements to 
 teachers to give instruction in elementary science to 
 boys while the girls are at needlework, and the latter 
 are understood to be judged more leniently in arith- 
 metic. It is a question, however, whether girls would 
 not derive greater benefit from a shorter course of 
 arithmetic thoroughly mastered than from the longer 
 course imperfectly understood. 
 
 As already shown, the greater part of the teaching in 
 Scotland in now done by women. As the mixed 
 schools, except small country schools, are usually 
 under head -masters, and separate departments for 
 The Training of S^^^^ ^^^ infants are rare in Scotland 
 Elementary as compared with England, the 
 
 Teachers. opportunities for women becoming 
 
 head-mistresses are few. They may have obtained their 
 certificates in the ordinary way through a training 
 college, or they may have served as pupil teachers 
 and then qualified themselves by teaching and examina- 
 tion, without attending a training college, or they may 
 
246 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 have obtained one of the university titles or certificates; 
 the woman over eighteen years of age approved by 
 the Inspector is almost unknown in Scotland, and ranks 
 only as a pupil teacher. 
 
 While the number of men seeking admission to the 
 training colleges is at present decreasing, the number of 
 women not only willing, but by examination eligible to 
 be trained is largely in excess of the number the colleges 
 are authorized to admit. 
 
 Since the lectures and degrees of the Scottish 
 Universities were opened to women, the privilege of 
 attending university classes, hitherto confined to the 
 men, has been extended to the most distinguished 
 women students of the training colleges. It is to be 
 noted that the Scotch training colleges are all nominally 
 denominational, though in practice students of all 
 churches are found in them. 
 
 The Code for 1895 contained provisions for the train- 
 ing of teachers in connection with the universities, but 
 the conditions attached will probably prevent any great 
 accession to the ranks of teachers by this avenue. 
 
 The latest returns show that the schools are staffed by 
 
 8907 certificated teachers, of whom 4871 are women; 
 
 2027 assistant teachers, of whom 1866 are women ; 
 
 4268 pupil teachers, of whom 3297 are girls and 
 179 "women over 18." 
 
 The average salary is — 
 
 Principals 
 Masters . . . £\(i^ 5 4 • 
 
 Assistants 
 
 .. ;^I00 16 II 
 
 Mistresses . . , ;^76 i 8 . 
 
 .. £^A 2 8 
 
PRIMARY EDUCATION 24^ 
 
 Certificated teachers count for 70 pupils, assistant 
 teachers for 50, except those who have passed third 
 class in the Queen's Scholarship examination, who 
 count for 40, and pupil teachers for 25. 
 
 The Department have abolished the annual exam- 
 ination of pupil teachers, and now hold one examination 
 at the end of the second year of apprenticeship. Those 
 who fail in this examination, unless from illness or other 
 sufficient cause, do not continue the work. Certain 
 leaving certificates, however, exempt candidates from 
 this examination. 
 
 Evening schools have made rapid progress in Scotland 
 during the last twenty-four years, but more particularly 
 Evening since 1893, when the special Code for 
 
 Continuation Evening Continuation Schools was 
 
 Schools. ^j.g|. issued. Formerly the classifica- 
 
 tion was by standards, as in the day schools, and 
 individual examination prevailed. Now, however, the 
 grants are paid on the average attendance of all pupils 
 over twelve years of age, and on the quality of the 
 instruction as tested by visits without notice. In 1872 
 the average attendance at inspected evening schools in 
 Scotland was 3653, of whom 1236 were girls. In 
 1892-93, the last session under the old regulations, 
 the average attendance was 19,575, of whom 4894 
 were girls. In the last session (1895-96) the average 
 attendance had increased to 45,487, of whom scarcely 
 a third were girls. 
 
 As, except in one or two details, the Codes for 
 England and Scotland are alike, the evening schools 
 
248 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 are worked on much the same lines as in England, 
 and full advantage has been taken of the opportunity 
 to institute classes in subjects specially suited for 
 women and girls, such as domestic economy, health 
 and hygiene, cookery, laundry work, and dressmaking. 
 An increasing number of girls is also to be found 
 taking such subjects as book-keeping, shorthand, and 
 typewriting. As a rule the instruction in the evening 
 schools is given by the day school teachers. 
 
 The cost of education is met in the same way as 
 in England, partly from the Imperial Treasury, partly 
 
 from local sources. In 1 804-0 q the 
 Cost of ^t :^J 
 
 Education amount of Parliamentary grant paid 
 
 to day schools was ;^6i4,ooo, or 
 ^\ \s. a\d. for each scholar in average attendance; 
 the amount paid in relief of fees at 1 2s. per head was 
 ;£'349,ooo, of which ^^302,000 was paid to School 
 Boards and ;£"47,ooo to managers of Voluntary schools. 
 Local sources contributed in the shape of rates 
 ;£"704,ooo, an average rate of 8* 18 pence. Voluntary 
 subscriptions ;^3 1,000, and school fees ;£^25,ooo.* 
 
 The cost of "maintenance" per child in average 
 attendance was, in public schools £^2 gs. 2^d., and 
 in Voluntary schools ^£2 31. 4^d., of which last 
 amount js. ^\d. was met by subscriptions and 2s. 8^d. 
 by fees. 
 
 * Ciphers have been substituted for the three last figures. 
 
Section II. 
 Secon^avs B&ucation 
 
 In Scotland education has so long been generally 
 regarded as a whole that it is somewhat difficult to 
 draw a clear line of distinction between primary and 
 secondary education. Certainly there have always been 
 two kinds of public schools — the parish and the burgh 
 schools — but it is open to doubt whether the difference 
 between them did not lie less in the education given 
 than in the social status of the scholars, for the higher 
 fees of the burgh schools naturally confined them to 
 children of a wealthier class than attended the parish 
 schools. 
 
 So far as public education of a higher character had 
 a visible existence it was in the burgh schools, and 
 
 it may be well briefly to trace their 
 Scho l" history. As already stated, these 
 
 schools had their origin in schools 
 founded by the monks in the towns surrounding the 
 monasteries. In course of time the Town Councils 
 came to have an interest in the management, seemingly 
 by contributions to their support. Even before the 
 Reformation we find some Town Councils asserting their 
 249 
 
250 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 right to appoint masters independently of the Church 
 authorities. "The master of the schools was in some 
 instances endowed from Church lands; but in the 
 great majority of cases he was paid from the common 
 good of the burgh or by voluntary assessments imposed 
 by the burgesses for his behoof, and by the fees and 
 other perquisites payable by scholars."* The buildings 
 appear to have been erected and repaired at the expense 
 of the burghs. 
 
 At the time of the Reformation John Knox's scheme 
 included a full provision of higher schools, intermediate 
 
 between the primary schools and the 
 g . universities, and he and his colleagues 
 
 made great efforts to retain part of 
 the Church endowments for education. In this, how- 
 ever, they met with but little success; and, except in 
 the larger towns, the gap between the primary schools 
 and the universities had to be bridged over by the 
 parish schools extending their curricula beyond primary 
 limits, while the universities met these schools by junior 
 classes, which would have been unnecessary had the 
 original plan of the Reformers been carried out. 
 Though, however, the Church failed so far, it did not 
 cease to take an active interest in the grammar schools 
 that were established, and the jurisdiction of Presby- 
 teries over the burgh schools was only occasionally 
 questioned until in 1861 it was at once indisputably 
 confirmed by a decision of the Court of Session, 
 and then finally abolished by the Schoolmasters' Act 
 * History of the Burgh Schools of Scotlatid. By James GRANT, M.A. 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 251 
 
 of that year. As a rule the Town Councils were the 
 managers; but in cases where one school served both 
 as a burgh and parish school the Town Councils and 
 heritors acted jointly. 
 
 The curriculum in the earliest days was, as may be 
 
 supposed, entirely classical, Latin receiving special 
 
 attention, and Hebrew being not un- 
 
 urricu urn o a j^j^q^^j^ jj. ^^g assumed that scholars 
 
 entering the grammar schools had 
 already learned to read and write; but as time went 
 on it was found advisable to add English and writing 
 to the curriculum. Arithmetic and mathematics do not 
 find a regular place till towards the close of the 
 seventeenth century. The only modern language taught 
 before recent days was French, which no doubt owed 
 its place in the curriculum to the close association 
 between Scotland and France in former times. As 
 might be expected, both from the origin of the schools 
 and the interest taken in them by the Reformers and 
 their successors, religious instruction formed a very 
 important part of the teaching, but parents were 
 entitled to withdraw their children from it if they 
 chose. In the Sang schools music was second only 
 to Latin ; but for some reason, after the Reformation, 
 it gradually decayed in spite of special legislation, and 
 in certain cases, special endowments. 
 
 The schools were maintained after the Reformation 
 How the Burgh ^Y ^ payment from the common good 
 Schools were or common property of the burgh, by 
 maintained. ^^ school fees, and in some cases 
 
252 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 by endowments. The principal part of the masters' 
 salaries was the fees, which were separate for each 
 subject, and generally each master received the fees 
 for his own classes. Naturally each endeavoured to 
 secure as many pupils as possible for his own subject, 
 and the result was frequently keen rivalry between the 
 masters of the same school. As a rule, each was head 
 of his own department, so that a grammar school was 
 rather a collection of schools for separate subjects. 
 The rector was nominally head, but he had limited 
 powers beyond his own department, which was usually 
 that of classics. In 1868 the annual average fee per 
 scholar seems to have ranged from ds. 2d. to £,10 35'.; 
 but few fell below jQ\. At one time the masters also 
 received certain perquisites, not the least curious of 
 which were dues for an annual bout of cockfighting, 
 to which the school was given up on Shrove Tuesday 
 or Fasterns' E'en. 
 
 About the middle of the last century a demand appears 
 to have arisen for a curriculum in which commercial 
 and science subjects, and not classics, 
 •♦ A^ d • " should hold the principal place. The 
 result was the establishment of a 
 number of "Academies," erected mainly by public 
 subscription. According to Mr. Grant, " though at 
 first the academies were intended merely to supplement 
 the grammar schools, in a short time they superseded 
 or absorbed them; and in a few instances, instead of 
 amalgamating with them, became their rivals." In some 
 cases the Town Councils alone managed these schools ; 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 253 
 
 but generally the governing body was composed of 
 representatives of the subscribers and Town Councils, 
 and certain persons ex officiis. 
 
 In addition to the burgh schools and academies, 
 there w^as also a considerable number of endowed 
 schools which contributed to the 
 Pritarsrotls. ^^Sher education of the country. 
 Many of these were carried on as 
 what used to be known as " Hospitals," that is to say, 
 the pupils were not only educated but also boarded 
 and clothed. The last Endowments Commission 
 abolished this system, and converted the former 
 hospitals into day schools, with a large number of 
 bursaries attached to them. 
 
 There was also, of course, a large number of private 
 and proprietary schools in which advanced instruction 
 was given, and which were attended mainly by the 
 children of the wealthier classes. 
 
 Secondary Education in Scotland has owed something 
 also to endowments which were not confined to a 
 particular school, but were of a more general character. 
 The Commission of 1872 found that besides an annual 
 sum of ;£79,245 devoted to "Hospital" endowments, 
 and ;£59,529 devoted to schools, there was a sum of 
 ;£^35)758 which might be considered as general endow- 
 ments. Of these, the best known are the Dick and 
 Milne Bequests, connected with the counties of 
 Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray. They have been used 
 to secure teachers qualified to give higher instruction, 
 and have gained a high reputation for the schools in 
 
254 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 these counties. By the action of the Endowments 
 Commission of 1882 the various endowments through- 
 out the country had their conditions revised, and in 
 many cases all the educational endowments in a town 
 or district were amalgamated under the management 
 of representative trusts. The funds are now mainly 
 utilized in providing bursaries or scholarships for 
 higher education for the children of parents of limited 
 income. 
 
 As regards girls, until the end of last century any 
 references to their education as apart from boys seem 
 to show that the only subjects taught to them, other 
 than the usual elementary branches, were sewing, 
 cookery, lace-work, and, in a few cases, music. After 
 the beginning of the present century we find French 
 and drawing referred to ; but greatly as some Town 
 Councils interested themselves in the education of girls, 
 their ideas were limited to elementary and industrial 
 training, and it is only within very recent times that 
 higher instruction has been recognized as suitable, not 
 to say desirable, for girls. 
 
 Since 1872 Secondary Education, except that which 
 is provided in a number of endowed and private or 
 Burgh Schools proprietary schools, has been adminis- 
 transferred to tered by the School Boards, to whom 
 School Boards, ^^e Act of that year transferred the 
 burgh schools from the Town Councils or other govern- 
 ing bodies. The transferring clause may be considered 
 to describe Secondary Education as that which "does 
 not consist chiefly of elementary instruction in reading. 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 255 
 
 writing, and arithmetic, but of instruction in Latin, 
 Greek, modern languages, mathematics, natural science, 
 and generally in the higher branches of knowledge." 
 The burgh schools giving such instruction were to 
 be deemed higher class public schools, and to be 
 managed by the School Boards with a view "to pro- 
 mote the higher education of the country," and, "so 
 far as practicable and expedient," they were to be 
 relieved "of the necessity of giving elementary in- 
 struction in reading, writing, and arithmetic to young 
 children" by sufficient accommodation for elementary 
 instruction being provided otherwise. Any endowments 
 were transferred to the Boards, and the Town Councils 
 were ordered to pay to the Boards from the common 
 good the amount it had formerly been their custom 
 to contribute to the schools. Otherwise higher 
 education was to pay its own way. The full amount 
 of fees was to be distributed among the masters. In 
 other words, the schools might keep what they had, 
 but they were to get nothing more. In six years, 
 however, opinion had advanced far enough to allow 
 a charge on the rates for the expense of alterations 
 and repairs to the buildings, and, subject to the 
 approval of the Department, such other expenses for 
 the promotion of higher education as were not other- 
 wise provided for. This was taken to mean that 
 everything except salaries could now be put on the 
 rates, and consequently the masters still depended 
 entirely on the fees, which, with the approval of the 
 Board, they could, by the Act of 1872, fix for them- 
 
256 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 selves. The natural results were an increase in the 
 fees charged, and the consequent exclusion of poorer 
 children, except such as could obtain bursaries from 
 other sources. 
 
 This state of matters continued till 1892, a year 
 which marks an epoch in the history of secondary 
 education in Scotland. 
 
 In the previous year the Act for assisting public 
 elementary education in England and Wales had been 
 passed, and in consequence Scotland became entitled 
 to a sum equivalent to that being expended in England. 
 As education in Scotland had already been made free 
 from other sources, the money was available for such 
 objects as required it. 
 
 The greater part went in relief of rates, but ^£'30,000 
 was given to the universities and ;^6 0,000 was assigned 
 p J. to the Scotch Education Department 
 
 Grant for for the purposes of secondary educa- 
 
 Secondary tion. This is the first special grant 
 
 Education. ^^ secondary education, and it is 
 
 curious that Scotland should be indebted for it in a 
 sense to the freeing of elementary education in 
 England. 
 
 Committees, composed of representatives of Town 
 or County Councils, School Boards, and other educa- 
 tional bodies, were formed in all the counties and 
 larger burghs for .the purpose of distributing the grant, 
 which was allocated to them in proportion to the 
 population and valuation of their districts. The 
 Department are represented on every committee by 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 257 
 
 one of Her Majesty's inspectors. The Committees, 
 like the School Boards, hold office for three years. 
 Their main function is to prepare annually a scheme 
 for the distribution of the amount entrusted to them 
 among the secondary schools in their district. This 
 scheme is then submitted to the Department. As 
 soon as it is approved, the amount allotted to a com- 
 mittee is paid over, and it is then the duty of the 
 committee to distribute it to the schools in accordance 
 with their scheme, subject to the Department having 
 certified that the schools are in every way efficient. 
 
 In framing their schemes the committees are to have 
 " due regard both to educational efficiency and to the 
 
 -^. ^ ., ^. - extension of the benefits of secondary 
 Distribution of . ^ 
 
 Secondary education to the largest possible 
 
 Education number of scholars"; the money is 
 
 *'^ * not to go in relief of rates. The 
 
 system has now been three years in operation, and 
 the report for the third year shows that, speaking 
 generally, ;£"48,ooo is being distributed amongst higher 
 class schools and State-aided schools giving higher 
 instruction in separate secondary departments or other- 
 wise. The money is given in the shape of direct 
 subsidies or of capitation grants on scholars beyond 
 the sixth standard, depending on the passes in specific 
 subjects or the number of merit and leaving certificates 
 gained. In most cases the grant is conditional on a 
 number of free places being provided, and also on 
 the reduction of fees to a moderate amount in cases 
 where these were high. In addition to these free 
 
 s 
 
258 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 places some £1600 is devoted to bursaries, or 
 scholarships, and the payment of travelling expenses 
 of scholars requiring to go to a centre. £^S^ ^^s 
 been assigned for higher education in evening schools, 
 and the balance has gone towards building or equip- 
 ment. To this last purpose was mainly devoted a year's 
 grant which had accumulated before the method of 
 distribution was decided. 
 
 Opinions may differ as to the system of distribution, 
 but there can be no doubt the grant, limited though 
 
 The Grant an ^^ ^^' ^^^ ^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^ impetus to 
 Impetus to secondary education, and is helping 
 
 Secondary towards better organization. The 
 
 uca ion. burgh schools have been placed on 
 
 a securer footing; their buildings, equipment, and 
 staffing have been greatly improved; and they have 
 been thrown open to a much larger number than 
 before. New district schools have been provided; 
 endowed and Voluntary State-aided schools have 
 received valuable assistance; and in country districts, 
 where no central school was possible, the schoolmasters 
 have been encouraged to take up higher instruction, 
 as in the old days of parish schools. 
 
 One or two of the larger School Boards have been 
 enabled to institute special high schools for girls; but, 
 generally speaking, the traditional "mixed" school is 
 being continued, though greater attention is being 
 given to subjects considered suitable for girls, and 
 to such branches as music, painting, and drawing. 
 
 The inspection of the secondary schools in Scotland 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 259 
 
 is in the hands of the Department. In some cases 
 Inspection of ^^ inspection is conducted by the 
 Secondary ordinary inspectors; but it is more 
 
 Schools. usual for special examiners, such as 
 
 Professors in the Scottish Universities, to be appointed. 
 The examiners submit a report, based on a general 
 inspection of the school, to the Department, who then 
 forward it to the managers. In 1886 38 secondary 
 schools were examined in this way, 22 being higher 
 class public schools, 10 endowed, and 6 under Voluntary 
 managers, who invited the inspection of the Depart- 
 ment. In 1896 the numbers were 30, 24, and 20 
 respectively ; a total of 74 schools. 
 
 But what has come to be regarded as the real test of 
 
 schools giving higher instruction is the leaving certificate 
 
 examination, which is held annually 
 
 eavmg .^ June. This examination arose out 
 
 Certificate. ■' 
 
 of a suggestion that some certificate 
 
 should be associated with the inspection of higher class 
 schools, and, after inviting the opinion of managers 
 of secondary schools and the University authorities, 
 it was decided that a uniform examination should be 
 conducted for all secondary schools desiring it. The 
 subjects of examination were English, Latin, Greek, 
 French, German, mathematics (including arithmetic), 
 arithmetic only, geometrical conies, analytical geometry, 
 dynamics, and differential calculus. To these book- 
 keeping and commercial arithmetic have since been 
 added. Three grades of certificates are given — lower, 
 higher, and honours. The higher is intended to 
 
26o EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 correspond with the preliminary examination of the 
 Scottish Universities, and the honours to the Indian 
 Civil Service examination or others of the same 
 standard. At first the examination was confined to 
 purely secondary schools; but since 1892, when the 
 Secondary Education grant was assigned to the Depart- 
 ment, the higher departments of State-aided schools 
 have been admitted, and more recently, pupil teachers. 
 In 1888 29 secondary schools presented 972 candidates, 
 who took 4300 papers, and gained 2334 certificates. 
 In 1896 70 higher class schools and 259 State-aided 
 schools presented 15,700 candidates, who took 48,000 
 papers, and gained nearly 20,000 certificates. Every 
 successful candidate obtains a separate certificate for 
 each subject in which he has passed, and these are 
 accepted in lieu of preliminary examinations by the 
 English and Scottish Universities, and by the medical, 
 legal, and other professional examining bodies. At 
 first a fee of 2s. 6d. per paper was charged to meet 
 expenses; but except in the case of private schools, 
 the cost is now mainly borne by the Secondary 
 Education grant. 
 
 One noteworthy feature is that the examination is 
 not set on prescribed work, and in this way it is hoped 
 . . . , to prevent "cramming" for it. Also 
 
 Minimise the Department do not allow one 
 
 Cramming and school to be compared with another. 
 Competition. ^^^ beyond sending the results of 
 
 the examination of candidates from a particular 
 school to the managers of that school, they do 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 261 
 
 not issue any information except of a general 
 character. Apart from this, comparison is rendered 
 difficult by the fact that while in some schools classes 
 are presented as a whole, in others only selected 
 pupils are sent forward. 
 
 A general report on the way in which the papers 
 in each subject have been worked is issued by the 
 Secretary of the Scotch Education Department in his 
 capacity of Director of Secondary Education. The 
 examination is open to all schools giving higher 
 instruction, whether public or private; and girls are 
 admitted to it equally with boys. Its success has been 
 such that it has almost superseded the University Local 
 Examinations, so long the goal of secondary schools. 
 
 One other examination of recent institution deserves 
 mention, though it will be dealt with in its proper 
 place — the Preliminary Examination of the Scottish 
 Universities. Such an examination existed prior to 
 1889; but only students desirous of taking their course 
 in three instead of four years were required to 
 pass it. For the last few years, however, it has been 
 obligatory on all who wish to graduate. The absence 
 of such an examination previously was probably due 
 to the want of a complete system of secondary 
 education. Since its institution it has proved of 
 considerable service in maintaining the ideal of the 
 schools which prepare for the universities. 
 
 The Science and Art Department has also con- 
 tributed something to higher education in Scotland. 
 Its grants have encouraged classes for science and art 
 
262 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 not only in evening schools but in many day schools. 
 The arrangements for organized science schools have, 
 Work of the however, not been largely taken ad- 
 
 Science and Art vantage of. Probably the difference 
 Department between England and Scotland in this 
 
 respect is due to the fact that in England the grant 
 for such schools was the only grant available for higher 
 grade schools, whereas in Scotland the payment of the 
 ordinary Parliamentary grant on scholars up to eighteen 
 years of age, instead of simply to the seventh standard, 
 has given managers greater freedom, and put it in their 
 power to provide secondary instruction even in ordinary 
 State-aided schools. 
 
 For the same reason, probably, Scotland has few 
 
 schools which can be considered strictly technical 
 
 beyond a small number of endowed 
 
 - , ,. institutes. The Technical Schools 
 
 Instruction. 
 
 Act of 1887 has been almost a dead 
 letter, and there is understood to be only one School 
 Board which has taken advantage of it to erect a 
 technical school. The money which fell to Town and 
 County Councils in Scotland under the Local Taxation 
 (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890, has not been so 
 generally applied to education in Scotland as in 
 England. In a number of cases the amount was too 
 small to be of much use, and in others a fatal delay 
 was caused by a doubt as to whether the money could 
 be handed over except to School Boards. This doubt 
 was finally removed only in 1892 by an amending 
 Act. 
 
SECONDARY EDUCATION 263 
 
 But although nominally technical instruction makes 
 itself little conspicuous in Scotland, in reality a great 
 many subjects that rank elsewhere as technical are 
 efficiently taught in day or evening schools. The 
 Education Department are probably right in assuming, 
 as they have done in recent Blue Books, that the 
 Boards consider technical instruction "not so much 
 as a separate question, but rather as one belonging to 
 the higher sphere of education generally." 
 
 At present the Department are seeking to induce 
 Town and County Councils to transfer the administra- 
 tion of funds available for education to the Secondary 
 Education Committees described already. These funds 
 are the residue grant of 1890, which may be applied 
 to technical education, and a sum of ;£■! 00,000 allotted 
 by the Act of 1892, which provided the grant for 
 secondary education. This latter sum may be used 
 for relief of rates or for schemes of "public utility" — 
 a term which was understood to cover education. The 
 money, however, has already been assigned for other 
 purposes, and it is scarcely to be hoped that much 
 of it will be withdrawn from its present uses. 
 
Section III. 
 Dibber i6t)ucatton. 
 
 (a) University Education. 
 
 The first, and for some time the only formal recog- 
 nition by the Scottish Universities of the educational 
 
 needs of girls and women was the 
 University Local -^^^-^^^^^^^ ^f ^^e University Local 
 Examinations. ^ 
 
 Examinations, which may be said to 
 
 have in some sort formed a connecting link between 
 Secondary and Higher Education. This movement 
 began by the admission of women to the local exam- 
 inations of the University of Edinburgh, in 1865. 
 In St. Andrews in 1864, in Glasgow in 1877, and in 
 Aberdeen in 1880, similar examinations were organized, 
 which from their beginning were open to girls. All 
 these examinations were attended by greater numbers 
 of girls than of boys. 
 
 In all the four Universities there were three grades 
 of examination : the preliminary or common subjects, 
 the junior certificate, and the senior certificate. In 
 addition to these, the University of St. Andrews 
 instituted, in 1876, a more advanced examination 
 
 (for women only) for the Diploma of L.L.A. (Lady 
 264 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 265 
 
 Literate in Arts); and the University of Glasgow 
 granted, in 1879, in response to a request from the 
 Glasgow Association for the Higher Education of 
 Women, the Higher Local Examination for Women. 
 All grades of the examinations were taken advantage 
 of by girls educated in public and private schools and 
 by home study. Special oral classes were organized 
 in St. George's Hall, Edinburgh, classes for instruction 
 by correspondence in Edinburgh and Glasgow, to 
 prepare women students for them, and bursaries were 
 offered to successful candidates. These examinations 
 were continued in the four Universities until 1893, 
 when they were superseded by the University Preliminary 
 Examinations, and the leaving certificate of the Educa- 
 tion Department (previously mentioned). The junior 
 and senior examinations, however, are still carried on 
 by the University of Edinburgh, and the examinations 
 for the diploma of L.L.A. by St. Andrews. 
 
 The wish which had for some time existed in Scotland 
 that facilities might be given to women for obtaining 
 Associations for education higher and better than that 
 the Higher which could be acquired in their 
 
 Education of school days, and for participating to 
 
 some extent in the advantages offered 
 to men by the Universities, found voice almost simul- 
 taneously in the four University towns. St. Andrews 
 was the first to form an Association for the Promotion 
 of the Higher Education of Women, in 1868. This 
 association organized courses of lectures, to be given 
 to women by the University professors, which after a 
 
266 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 few years were discontinued on account of the small 
 number of students attending them. The University 
 classes were opened to women in 1892. 
 
 In Edinburgh a Ladies' Educational Association was 
 formed in 1869, which was changed a few years later 
 into the Association for the University Education of 
 Women. Classes were conducted for this association 
 by professors and lecturers, in rooms rented by its 
 committee; and in 1874 the University of Edinburgh 
 granted a certificate in arts to students of the association 
 who had attended classes held by professors or lecturers 
 whose teaching qualified for graduation, and had passed, 
 in any three or more science or arts subjects, special 
 examinations up to the standard of the M.A. degree. 
 These classes were carried on until 1892, when the 
 University arts classes were opened to women. 
 
 In Glasgow, courses of lectures to women were given 
 by several professors of the University from 1868 
 onwards, but it was not until 1877 that the Glasgow 
 Association for the Higher Education of Women was 
 founded. Under its auspices, systematic courses were 
 organized in University subjects (with the addition of 
 modern languages and literatures and history), some 
 of which were given in the University class-rooms, and 
 others in a hall rented by the association for the 
 purpose. These went on for six years, until, in 1883, 
 the association was formed into a college (under the 
 Companies' Act), to which the name of Queen Margaret 
 College was given — in honour of Margaret, Queen of 
 Malcolm Canmore, the first patroness of literature and 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 267 
 
 art in Scotland. Two members of the Executive 
 Council of this college were appointed by the Senate 
 of the University, two by the School Board, and one 
 by the Merchants' House. A year later a handsome 
 building with extensive grounds, near the University, 
 was provided for its work by the liberality of Mrs. 
 John Elder. The classes were removed into this 
 building, and from 1884 until 1892 the college course 
 was gradually more and more assimilated to the full 
 University curriculum for the degree of M.A. In 1889 
 new laboratories were built, with the result that the 
 science classes were increased in number and complete- 
 ness. In 1890 a medical school was begun with the 
 assistance and under the direction of some of the 
 University professors. By 1892, when the Universities 
 were opened to women, Queen Margaret College was 
 working on a full University curriculum in arts and 
 medicine, besides giving some courses of lectures and 
 practical work in science — the courses in all the faculties 
 being, in substance and in number of lectures, the same 
 as those given to the men students of the University. 
 
 In Aberdeen, a Ladies' Educational Association was 
 begun in 1877. The classes instituted by it were 
 carried on for a few years, but were not continued up 
 till 1892, for the same reason as in St. Andrews — the 
 difficulty in the smaller towns of obtaining a sufficient 
 attendance of students. 
 
 In the course of the twenty years, from 1868 to 
 1888, repeated requests for the admission of women to 
 degrees had been made to the Scottish Universities by 
 
268 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 the various associations for the Higher Education of 
 Women and other bodies, but in vain, the university 
 
 laws then in force rendering their 
 Deerees ^ admission impossible. Petitions were 
 
 therefore sent up to Parliament asking 
 that such change might be made in the laws as would 
 legalize University education and graduation for women. 
 In 1889 the Universities (Scotland) Act was passed, which 
 appointed a Commission to review and, where expedient, 
 to alter the constitution of the Scottish Universities 
 on this and other points in which changes might be 
 considered advisable. After other University legislation, 
 the Commission issued an Ordinance in 1892 empower- 
 ing the Universities to admit women to graduation, 
 and to make provision within the Universities for the 
 instruction of women in any of the subjects taught 
 within the Universities, "either by admitting them to 
 the ordinary" {i.e. hitherto attended by male students) 
 " classes, or by instituting separate classes for their 
 instruction as might in each case be decided by the 
 University Court after consultation with the Senatus." 
 
 On the publication of this Ordinance, the Universities 
 of St. Andrews, Edinburgh, and Aberdeen opened their 
 
 ordinary classes in science and arts 
 Ed^^^?^ ^ ^^ women, the teaching being entirely 
 
 given in mixed classes. In Glasgow 
 the alternative of separate classes was adopted; and 
 Queen Margaret College, with its buildings erected 
 at a cost of about ^^24,000 and endowments of over 
 ;^25,ooo, was transferred by its Executive Council 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 269 
 
 and Mrs. Elder to the University, and became thence- 
 forward the Women's Department of the University, 
 to be governed by the University Court and Senate. 
 Its professors and lecturers who are, in most cases, 
 the same who teach the men students, were appointed 
 by the Court ; and the women students were admitted 
 to graduation in arts, medicine, and science, and to 
 all the rights and privileges of the male students, 
 including the use of the library, museums, etc. Most 
 of the classes for the ordinary degrees of M.A. and 
 B.Sc, and those for the degrees of M.B., Ch.B., are 
 held in Queen Margaret College, and for the honours 
 degree the women students join the honours classes 
 held in the University Lecture Rooms. A large 
 addition was made in 1895 to the College buildings 
 for laboratories and other rooms in connection with the 
 medical classes, the funds for which were provided by 
 a donation of ;£"5ooo from the Bellahouston Trust. 
 
 Thus in all the Scottish Universities graduation is 
 now open to women on the same conditions as to men ; 
 and it is being taken full advantage of. The number 
 of women who had graduated by September, 1896, is 
 as follows : 
 
 
 Arts. 
 
 Medicine 
 
 Science. 
 
 Edinburgh . 
 
 . 27* 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 . 3 
 
 ... lot .. 
 
 
 
 St. Andrews 
 
 • 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aberdeen has as yet no women graduates, but on 
 
 * Four of these with honours. 
 
 t Of these, one took honours, and one passed with "high 
 commendation." 
 
270 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 one lady the honorary degree of LL.D. has been 
 conferred. The difference between the number of 
 graduates in arts in Edinburgh and Glasgow arises 
 from the fact that in Edinburgh the M.A. degree 
 was made so far retrospective as to allow of its 
 being conferred on students who had taken the 
 pass certificates in arts instituted by that University 
 in 1874* in seven subjects, and to permit classes, 
 taken by others who had been examined in at least 
 three subjects, to count pro tanto towards the degree. 
 In Glasgow the classes counted for the degree date 
 from 1892 ; and most of the students preparing for the 
 M.A. are working for honours, and taking a four or 
 five years' course. On the other hand, in Glasgow the 
 classes of the School of Medicine for Women, having 
 been from the first organized for the purpose of 
 preparation for the University degree, were at once 
 recognized (in 1892) by the University Court as classes 
 qualifying for the degree, whereas the recognition of 
 the Edinburgh classes took place two years later. 
 
 The number of women students attending the classes 
 in the Scottish Universities in session 1895-6 was as 
 follows : 
 
 Arts. Medicine. Science. Masic 
 
 Aberdeen . . 34 ... i ... — ... — 
 
 St. Andrews . . 37 ... — ... — ... — 
 
 Edinburgh . . 160 ... — ... 2 ... 5 
 
 Glasgow . . 167 ... 72 ... 3 ... — 
 
 In Edinburgh there were also 39 studying medicine 
 
 * See page 266. 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 271 
 
 in extra-mural classes, with a view to graduation, and 
 35 non-matriculated women studying music only. 
 
 The Ordinances of the Universities Commissioners, 
 which came into force in 1892, introduced considerable 
 Regulations for changes into the regulations for the 
 University degrees. In accordance with the new 
 
 Examinations. regulations all students entering for a 
 degree in arts have to take a preliminary examination 
 in {a) English, {b) Latin or Greek, {c) mathematics, {d) 
 one of the following : Latin or Greek (if not already 
 taken), French, German, Italian, dynamics. After this 
 has been passed, attendance on University classes for 
 at least three winters, or two winters and three summers, 
 is required (longer time may be taken if wished) ; and 
 the student must take classes in, and be examined in, 
 seven subjects for the ordinary degree, or five for 
 the honours degree, at least two of these being on 
 a considerably higher standard than for the ordinary 
 degree. Science students have the same preliminary 
 examination as that required for arts, except that 
 French or German may be substituted for Latin or 
 Greek, and that mathematics must be passed on the 
 higher standard. For the B.Sc. degree not less 
 than three years' study in the University is requisite, 
 including four full courses of higher instruction 
 and practical or laboratory work, besides three 
 subjects taken on the same standard as that of the 
 ordinary degree of M.A. The degree of D.Sc. can 
 be taken five years after that of B.Sc, and each 
 candidate has to present a thesis or published 
 
272 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 memoir of work, to be approved by the Senate of 
 the University. For medical students the preliminary 
 examination includes {a) English, {b) Latin, {c) elemen- 
 tary mathematics, and {d) Greek or French or German ; 
 and the papers are on a somewhat lower standard than 
 those of the preliminary examination for the arts and 
 science degrees. A candidate must, after passing the 
 preliminary examination, be engaged in medical study 
 for at least five years before the degree of M.B., Ch.B. 
 can be conferred, and two years more, and additional 
 examinations, are required for the degrees of M.D. 
 and M.S. 
 
 All matriculated women students have votes in the 
 election of the Lord Rector of the University they 
 attend; and women graduates become, by the fact 
 of their graduation, members of the General Council 
 of their University. 
 
 During their years of study, women students may 
 Halls of ^^^^ advantage of the accommodation 
 
 Residence for offered by the halls of residence 
 Women Students, ^j^ich have been opened for their 
 benefit in Glasgow, Edinburgh, and St. Andrews, but 
 they are free to live at home or in lodgings if they 
 prefer it. 
 
 University Extension lectures are given in various 
 parts of Scotland in connection with the Universities of 
 University Edinburgh and Glasgow. The volun- 
 
 Extension tary examinations which may be held 
 
 Lectures. ^y ^j^e lecturers do not count in any 
 
 way towards University graduation. These classes were 
 
HIGHER EDUCATION 273 
 
 organized chiefly with a view to "meeting the wants 
 of (i) ladies, (2) clerks and other persons engaged in 
 business, and (3) artisans of all classes." 
 
 Classes for instruction by correspondence were begun 
 in Edinburgh in 1876, and in Glasgow in 1878, to 
 
 prepare candidates for the local 
 orrespon ence examinations of the Universities, and 
 
 to assist in general private study 
 persons who are unable to attend oral classes. The 
 Edinburgh correspondence classes now prepare for 
 the Edinburgh local examinations, the preliminary 
 examinations of the Scottish Universities, and the 
 LL.A. examinations of St. Andrews; those of 
 Glasgow prepare for the preliminary examinations of 
 the Scottish Universities, the matriculation examina- 
 tion of London University, and the Cambridge junior, 
 senior, and higher local examinations. Additional 
 classes in literature, languages, science, and art are 
 formed for students who do not propose to take any 
 University examination. 
 
Section IV. 
 Uecbnfcal an^ ptotesaional jEMtcation 
 
 Provision is made for the scientific education of 
 
 women, as has been seen above, by their admission 
 
 to the science classes and laboratory 
 Science. , . , ^^ . . . ^, 
 
 work m the Universities. They are 
 
 also admitted to the science classes in the Glasgow 
 
 and West of Scotland Technical College, and to the 
 
 Heriot-Watt College in Edinburgh. They thus prepare 
 
 themselves for teaching science subjects, or for posts 
 
 in laboratories, business, or works where a knowledge 
 
 of natural science is required. 
 
 Towards the education of women for the profession 
 
 of medicine the first steps were taken in 1869, when 
 
 Miss Jex-Blake, Mrs. Thorne, Miss 
 
 Pechey, Mrs. Evans, and Miss 
 
 Chaplin came to Edinburgh and applied for admission 
 
 to medical classes in the University. They were allowed 
 
 to matriculate, and to register as medical students ; but 
 
 with regard to their medical course of instruction many 
 
 difficulties were made. Permission was given at first 
 
 that they should be taught in classes separate from 
 
 those of the men, with the proviso that although the 
 
 274 
 
TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 275 
 
 medical professors should be allowed to give such 
 classes, no professor should be compelled to do so. 
 For the first two years they obtained the necessary 
 instruction, partly within the University and partly in 
 extra-mural classes; but the difficulty of procuring 
 the teaching and clinical work required for the last 
 two years of the curriculum was so great that the 
 ladies had recourse to an action in the Scottish Law 
 Courts to oblige the University to give them such 
 facilities as would enable them to complete their 
 medical education and proceed to take the degree. 
 The legal decision was against them in 1873, though 
 by a very small majority of the judges. The ladies 
 then went to London, and, with the co-operation of 
 others, founded the London School of Medicine for 
 Women, in 1874. Twelve years later, when, in 1886, 
 the conjoint Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons of 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow agreed to admit women to 
 their diplomas (sometimes called the "triple qualifica- 
 tion"). Dr. Jex-Blake, who had meantime taken the 
 degree of M.D., Berne, and a diploma from the Irish 
 College of Surgeons, returned to Edinburgh, and 
 founded there the Edinburgh School of Medicine 
 for Women, in Surgeon Square. At first this school 
 prepared most of its students for the diploma of the 
 conjoint Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons of 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow, as did also the Medical 
 College for Women, Chambers Street, Edinburgh, a 
 second school of medicine, founded in 1889. In 
 1894 the University of Edinburgh recognized the 
 
276 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 classes of both these institutions, which belong to the 
 Extra-Mural School of Medicine in Edinburgh, but are 
 not part of the University, nor directly under its govern- 
 ment, as qualifying for its examinations and degrees. 
 Women are not, however, admitted in Edinburgh to 
 the classes of the University professors in the Medical 
 Faculty, as they are in those of the Arts Faculty. The 
 students of both the above schools have facilities for 
 clinical work in the Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh. 
 
 In Glasgow the Medical School for Women, 
 which was, as previously mentioned, added to Queen 
 Margaret College in 1890, passed with the College 
 into the University of Glasgow in 1892, and from 
 that date formed the medical department for women 
 of that University preparing students for the University 
 examinations and degrees. The foundation of this 
 school was made easy by the generosity of Mrs. John 
 Elder, donor of the college buildings, who met the 
 initial expenses of the first two years of its existence; 
 and by the most kind and ready help of the professors 
 of the University, some of whom, notably Professor 
 Young, devoted much time and trouble to its organiza- 
 tion and improvement. Several of the professors 
 lecture in the school, the rest of the staff being 
 appointed by the University Court. The students 
 have the advantage of frequently seeing experiments 
 and illustrations of the teaching given by means of 
 the University apparatus and collections in several 
 departments, e.g, in Professor McKendrick's physiology 
 classes and in natural history. Clinical and dispensary 
 
TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 277 
 
 instruction is given in the Glasgow Royal Infirmary, 
 where wards are reserved for the instruction of women, 
 the Royal Hospital for Sick Children, the Glasgow 
 Maternity and other hospitals for special diseases, 
 including the treatment of the eye, insanity, fevers, etc. 
 
 In Aberdeen and St. Andrews women are admitted 
 to the University medical classes for men ; also to the 
 men's classes in Dundee University College, which is 
 affiliated to St. Andrews. But as St. Andrews and 
 Dundee give only part of the medical curriculum, no 
 provision being made by them for the two last years 
 of the course, both men and women students have 
 to take the last part of their work elsewhere, in any 
 University or medical school they may select. 
 
 For the profession of nursing, women can be fully 
 
 trained in the Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh, and in 
 
 the Royal and Western Infirmaries, 
 Nursing. ^, ... 
 
 Glasgow, in two trammg homes for 
 
 nurses in Glasgow, and in various other hospitals in 
 
 Scotland. Special training is given for maternity 
 
 nursing in the Maternity Hospitals in Edinburgh and 
 
 Glasgow, and for missionary nursing, in a training home 
 
 for the purpose, at Westercraigs, Glasgow. Special 
 
 preparation is given for mission work, independent of 
 
 nursing, in the Training Institution for Mission Workers, 
 
 Burnbank Terrace, Glasgow, and other institutions. 
 
 Training for teaching in schools is provided in the 
 
 normal colleges in connection with the Established 
 
 Training of and Free Churches of Scotland in 
 
 Teachers. Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen; 
 
278 EDUCATION OF GIRLS AND WOMEN 
 
 in the Episcopal Training College in Edinburgh, and 
 the Roman Catholic Training College in Glasgow. 
 Through the Government Education Department a 
 certain number of "Queen's scholarships" are offered, 
 which are open to men and women who are entering 
 the normal colleges. An opening has recently been 
 given by the Department for some "Queen's student- 
 ships," which will provide University education for 
 women teachers who have been educated in public 
 schools, but have not taken the Normal College 
 course of instruction. The scheme for these, however, 
 has not yet been fully completed. The Universities 
 give courses of lectures on education. In Edinburgh, 
 St. George's Training College prepares secondary 
 teachers for their work in schools or families, and for 
 the examination for the teachers' certificates of London 
 and Cambridge. 
 
 In Art, women have the same opportunities for study 
 as men, all the Schools of Art being open to them, 
 including the Government Schools in 
 Edinburgh, Glasgow, and nine other 
 towns, besides several Schools of Art conducted under 
 other auspices. Government examinations in Art are 
 held yearly, and the scholarships and prizes are open 
 to women as to men. 
 
 Edinburgh is the only one of the Scottish Universities 
 
 which has a Chair of Music; the classes and degree 
 
 given in connection with it are open 
 
 to women. Examinations in Music 
 
 are held yearly in the large towns by the Associated 
 
TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 279 
 
 Board of the Royal Academy and Royal College of 
 Music; also by Trinity College, London. 
 
 In cookery, training is given by the Schools of 
 Cookery in Edinburgh and Glasgow; also instruction 
 in laundry work, needlework, dress- 
 P making, millinery, and other subjects 
 
 of Domestic Economy; teachers are 
 prepared for giving lessons in these branches, and for 
 taking the examinations for the diplomas and certificates 
 of the National Union for the Technical Education of 
 Women in Domestic Sciences. 
 
 Instruction is also available in typewriting, shorthand, 
 
 book-keeping, etc., for women who 
 For Business. . , ^ ^ 1 • .^ 
 
 wish to enter on work m offices or 
 
 houses of business. 
 
 It will be seen from the facts given above that the 
 days of inferior educational advantages and facilities 
 for study given to women in comparison with those 
 offered to men are in Scotland a thing of the past. 
 From the Infant School up to the Honours Classes 
 and Degrees of the Universities, all possibilities of 
 education are open to them, in most cases by means 
 of mixed classes, and in others by special classes. 
 Women have thus as good opportunities now for 
 preparing themselves for professional or other work as 
 those which are available for men. 
 
Appendix I. 
 
 THE PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS OF 
 TEACHERS 
 
 Teachers have been the latest of the professions to organize 
 themselves into trade or professional unions. The work has 
 proceeded rapidly, so that before many years are over we 
 may expect an unattached teacher to be quite rare. The 
 College of Preceptors has the honour of being the oldest 
 body which recognized the need of raising the teachers' 
 status by means of combination. In the matter of teachers' 
 registration, the College has always advocated a separate 
 register for secondary teachers, a policy which has tended 
 to defer the passing of a Teachers Registration Bill. The 
 Teachers' Guild, on the other hand, advocates a single 
 register, including both Elementary and Secondary School 
 Teachers. The teaching profession cannot now be strictly 
 termed unorganized. The initiative has proceeded from the 
 members themselves, a fact of great significance, which 
 cannot fail to secure greater play for the individuality of the 
 teacher when the time, now rapidly approaching, will allow 
 of the State organization of Secondary Education. The 
 uniforming influence of the Code and allocation of Govern- 
 ment Grant have assisted the remarkable development of 
 the National Union of Teachers, founded in 1870. The 
 accompanying tables may help to show how organization is 
 the order of the day in every branch of the teaching pro- 
 fession. In the organizations of Elementary School Teachers 
 women lag behind men in numbers. This is not the case 
 with secondary teachers ; organized women outnumber the 
 men. 
 
 280 
 
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Appendix II. 
 
 "FREE" EDUCATION 
 
 It has been suggested that an analysis of the cost of 
 Elementary Education might prove useful to those who do 
 not quite grasp the rather complicated figures whose totality 
 equals the annual cost of a child's education in the Board 
 and Voluntary Schools. "Free" education is the result of 
 an additional subsidy paid by the State out of the imperial 
 taxation. Every man, woman, and child contributes to 
 imperial taxation, so that now the greater share of a child's 
 education is paid by the community at large. In the 
 case of a child in a Board School, the next largest con- 
 tribution is made by the locality in which such child resides. 
 It is evident that the ratepayers are a larger class than the 
 parents. A "free" library is usually maintained by the 
 ratepayers. Their share in the payment of a child's 
 education is two-fifths of the whole— ^i out of £2 los., 
 in round numbers. With insignificant exceptions, Elementary 
 Schools have been free since the Free Education Act of 
 1 89 1 came into operation, i.e. September, 1892. The 
 additional contribution by the State, which replaces school 
 fees, equals los. per child, and is technically known as the 
 fee-grant. 
 
 In the text of this book stress has been laid on the 
 fact that Voluntary Schools receive no aid from the rates ; 
 their managers usually object to control by the ratepayers. 
 Voluntary Schools have also accepted the fee-grant ; as a 
 matter of fact, only 114 schools, out of a total of nearly 
 20,000, have refused it, though many Voluntary Schools 
 charge fees for the majority of their scholars, and only 
 accept the fee-grant for a certain number. Voluntary 
 284 
 
FREE'' EDUCATION 285 
 
 Schools must therefore find the ;^i per scholar which Board 
 Schools obtain from the rates, or part of the £\^ from some 
 other source. This they do by subscriptions from those 
 who sufficiently desire denominational religious teaching to 
 pay for it, by endowment, and in some schools by fees. The 
 rates are a far more steady and certain source of revenue 
 than subscriptions, which do not increase at the same rate 
 as the children. Thus, although subscriptions had slightly 
 increased in 1895, P^"^ head they worked out to 6s. 8|d., as 
 against 6s. lod. in 1891. The following tables have been 
 simplified to make the analysis of cost more easy to com- 
 prehend : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 A. Cost of child's education in Board School . . 2 10 8 
 
 B. ,, ,, Voluntary School . i 19 o 
 
 A. Analysis of Cost of Board School Child's Education. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 From the Government Grant * . 018 ^) Paid by 
 
 ,, Fee-grant . . o 10 o ( the State. 
 
 ,, Rates . . . I o o 
 
 Various sources (about) . . o i 11^ 
 
 £2 10 8 
 
 B. Analysis of Cost of Voluntary School Child^s Education. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 Government Grant 
 Fee-grant 
 Subscriptions 
 School fees 
 Endowment and various 
 
 o 18 o) Paid by 
 o 10 o 1 the State. 
 
 o 6 8f 
 
 020 
 
 023^ 
 
 £^ 19 o 
 
 Before the introduction of free education the analysis of the cost 
 of education worked out as follows : — 
 
 ■«9'- I s. d. 
 
 A. Cost of child's education in Board School . .278 
 
 B. ,, „ Voluntary School . i 17 9 
 
 * The figure given in the Report for the Committee of Council, 1895-96, 
 19s. sd., may be called an estimate. The increased attendance of that year 
 caused the grant to work out to i8s. Bjd. The figures are here very slightly 
 manipulated. 
 
2S 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 
 
 Analysis of A. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Government Grant 
 
 . o i8 
 
 9h 
 
 Rates . 
 
 . o 19 
 
 3i 
 
 Board School fees . 
 
 . 9 
 
 If 
 
 Various . . . 
 
 . 
 
 5i 
 
 
 £^ 7 
 
 8 
 
 Analysis of B. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Government Grant 
 
 . 18 
 
 
 
 Subscriptions 
 
 . 6 
 
 10 
 
 Voluntary School fees 
 
 . II 
 
 4l 
 
 Endowment and various . 
 
 . I 
 
 6i 
 
 £1 17 9 
 
 It must be understood that these figures refer to "main- 
 tenance" only. A further difference exists between Board 
 and Voluntary Schools, in that the former are built out of 
 the ratepayers' money, save in cases where managers have 
 transferred Voluntary Schools to School Boards ; whereas 
 Voluntary Schools have usually been erected at the cost of 
 the different religious denominations. For the most part, 
 Voluntary School buildings are older, less convenient, and 
 less adapted for teaching purposes than Board Schools. 
 
 On the whole it is probable that there exists less desire on 
 the part of the general public to maintain Voluntary Schools 
 than used to be the case. The fact that subscriptions are 
 diminishing per head (of the children), and that in many 
 cases the Voluntary Schools have suffered by accepting the 
 I OS. fee-grant in lieu of fees, adds to the financial difficulties 
 of managers. Whether the fee-grant is profit or loss to 
 School Boards and managers is largely a question of North 
 versus South, town against country. North and town have 
 lost, South and country gained by accepting the additional 
 fixed contribution of the State. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Aberdare Hall: 152 
 
 Aberystwyth College: 97, 150-1 
 
 Academies, Rise of, in Scot- 
 land: 252-3 
 
 Acland, Rt. Hon. A. H. D.: 
 61, 201 ; Motion of, 202 
 
 Acts, Education : Difference be- 
 tween English and Scottish, 
 238-9 
 
 — Schism : Passing of, 22 
 
 — Technical Instruction : Pass- 
 ing of, 201 
 
 Addison, Joseph : 10 
 Adult Education,Secondary: 107 
 Affiliation Scheme: 160 
 Alexandra Hall : Opening of, 
 
 151 
 
 Alford, Dean: 74 
 
 Ambleside, House of Educa- 
 tion: 176 
 
 Anderson, Mrs. Garrett: 107,178 
 
 Anstie, Dr.: 178 
 
 Argyll, Duke of : Speech of, 20 
 
 Armitage-Smith, Mr. G. : 209 ; 
 Report of, 125-6 
 
 Art, Schools of: Number of, 
 106; Scottish, 278 
 
 Assistant Masters' Association: 
 284; Mistresses' Association, 
 284 
 
 Association for Education of 
 Women, Oxford : 138 
 
 — for Home Arts and Indus- 
 tries: 214-5 
 
 — Incorporated, of Head- 
 Masters: 283 
 
 Association of Assistant Masters : 
 284 ; Mistresses, 284 
 
 — of Head-Masters of Higher 
 Grade and Organized Science 
 Schools : 282 ; Preparatory 
 Schools, 284 
 
 — of Head-Mistresses : 283 
 
 — Metropolitan Board Teachers': 
 
 282 
 — Voluntary Teachers, National : 
 
 282 
 
 — Private Schools' : 284 
 
 — University, of Women 
 Teachers: 283 
 
 Associations, Educational, of 
 Women : Rise of, 130 
 
 — for Higher Education of 
 Women (Scottish) : 265-6, 
 267-8 
 
 Astell, Mary: Complaint of, 9; 
 
 Efforts for better Education, 
 
 124 
 Attendance, Compulsory, in 
 
 England: 44; Scotland, 239 
 
 Bangor College: 150 
 Bartley, Mr. G. C. T.: 23 
 Beale, Miss: 76, 116, 117, 173 
 Bedford College : 76 ; Unique 
 
 Position of, 129-30 
 Bell, Dr. Andrew: 14, 26, 28, 
 
 29, 164 
 Bellahouston Trust, The : 269 
 Bethnal Green National Schools : 
 
 34 
 Bills, Educational : 30 
 
 287 
 
INDEX 
 
 Birkbeck, Dr. Geo., and Me- 
 chanics' Institutes: 29, 107 
 
 — Literary and Scientific Insti- 
 tute: 125, 208-9 
 
 Birmingham, its supremacy: 34 
 
 Black, Mr.: 107 
 
 Blind, Schools for : 55 
 
 Board Schools : Visit to, 62-9 ; 
 Salaries in, 66 
 
 Boniface, Bishop : Views on 
 Women, 3 
 
 Book-keeping for Women (Scot- 
 land): 279 
 
 Bostock, Miss, 74 
 
 Boutmy, M. Emil : 107, 224-5. 
 
 Brewer, Dr.: 127 
 
 Brewers' Company: Gift of, 115 
 
 Bristol College : Founding of, 
 1 1 5-6 
 
 British and Foreign School 
 Society: 28, 34, 35 
 
 Brougham, Lord : Bill of, 30 
 
 Browne, Miss Dudin : Aid of, 144 
 
 Bryant, Dr. Sophie: 77, 95, 115 
 
 Bryce, Mr. Jas. : 74, 75 ; on 
 Women's Minds, 125 
 
 Buckmaster, Mr. J. C: 189 
 
 Buisson, M. F. : 107 
 
 Burgh Schools : 249-52 ; Cur- 
 riculum, 251 ; How Main- 
 tained, 252 ; Transferred to 
 School Board, 254-6 
 
 Burgwin, Mrs.: 55 
 
 Buss, Miss: 76; Work of, 114-S 
 
 Butler, Mrs. Josephine: 157 
 
 Caedmon: 15 
 Cambridge University: 2 
 
 — Local Examinations : 81-4, 
 92, 114; Classification of, 82 
 
 — Position of Women at : 134-5 
 
 — Teachers' Training Syndi- 
 cate : 172 
 
 — Training College for Women : 
 172 
 
 Camden School for Girls: 1 1 5-6 
 Cardiff: University College, 150, 
 152 
 
 Catechism : Shorter, 242 
 
 — Church, Versions of : 23-4 
 Cathedral Schools: 16-7 
 Cavendish, Lady F. : 95 
 Central Society: Founding of, 
 
 35 
 
 — Technical College: 216 
 Certificate, Leaving (Scottish): 
 
 259-60 
 Cost of Education in Scotland : 
 
 248 
 Chambers, Dr. King: 178 
 Chantry Schools : i 
 Chaplin, Miss : 274 
 Charity Commission : 87-91 
 Cheltenham, Ladies' College : 
 
 1 16-8; Training Department 
 
 at, 173 
 Christ's Hospital : Girls at, 72 
 Church: Control of Education 
 
 obtained by, 2i 
 
 — of England Education Society : 
 
 35 
 
 — of England Sunday - school 
 Institute : 35 
 
 — of Rome: Authority of, 17 ; 
 Democratic principle of, 16, 
 
 17, 19 
 
 — Schools Company 
 
 City and Guilds of London 
 Institute: 210 
 
 — Companies and Education of 
 Girls: 89 
 
 Clare, Osbert de : 4 
 Clarke, Mrs. Charles: 189 
 Classes: Size of, in Elementary 
 
 Schools, 50-1, 66 
 Cloth workers' Company: 115 
 Clough, Miss A. J.: 133, 157 
 
 — Mr. A. H.: 156 
 Codes : Operation of, 39 
 College of Art, Royal, London : 
 
 102 
 
 — of Preceptors: 35, 283; 
 Exams, of, 81 ; Women ad- 
 mitted to, 128 
 
 — of Science, Royal, London, 
 
 I02 
 
INDEX 
 
 289 
 
 Comenius: his Views on Women's 
 
 Education, 222 
 Colet, Dean: 18 
 Commission, Charity: 87-91 
 
 — Royal, on Secondary Educa- 
 tion: 87, 95-6, 112; on Tech- 
 nical Education, 201 
 
 — Schools Inquiry : 19, 91 ; 
 Report of, 74-7 
 
 Committee of Council : 36 
 
 Competition, National, S. Ken- 
 sington: 105 
 
 Compulsory Attendance: 41 
 
 Congregational Board : Found- 
 ing of, 35 
 
 Congreve, William: 10 
 
 Cons, Miss: 195 
 
 Conscience Clause, The: 41 
 
 Continuation Schools, Evening: 
 54-5 (Scottish), 247 
 
 Convent of St. Helen's : 2 ; of 
 St. Mary's, 2 
 
 Cookery, National School of: 
 188-91 ; Schools of (Scottish), 
 279 
 
 Correspondence Classes, Univer- 
 sity: 163; Scottish, 273 
 
 — College, University: 163 
 Cost of Elementary Education : 45 
 County Councils : and Education 
 
 of Women, 216-7; and Tech- 
 nical Education, 202 
 
 Craik, Mr.: 21 
 
 Crane, Mr. Walter: 106 
 
 Cranmer, Archbp. : his Attitude 
 towards Education, 19 
 
 Curriculum, Elementary: 47-9 
 
 Datchelor Training College : 1 74 
 Davies, Miss Emily : 1 14 ; Views 
 of, 71, 74, 76 ; Idea of College 
 for Women, 131 
 Deaf, Schools for : 55 
 Dick Bequest, The : 253 
 Dissenting Teachers silenced : 22 
 Domestic Economy : 216 ; Train- 
 ing School of, 208 ; Scotland, 
 279 
 
 Duppa, Mr. : Report of, 34 
 Durham University: Founding 
 of, 152-3 
 
 Ealdhelm, Bp. of Sherbourne: 3 
 
 Eckenstein, Miss: 3, 4 
 
 Education Acts : Difference be- 
 tween English and Scottish, 
 238-9 . 
 
 — Bill, Mr. Forster's : Passmg 
 of, 40 
 
 — Board, London Technical : 
 203-8 ; Scholarships given 
 by, 203 
 
 — declared free : 42 
 
 — Department : Constituted, 
 loi ; Scottish, 242 
 
 — Elementary: 13; Act, 91; 
 Definition of, 13 ; Changes 
 in, 59 
 
 — Free Trade in : 78 
 
 — Home, for Women : 4, 7-9 
 
 — Higher: 122-163 
 
 — National League : 14 
 
 — of the Poor: 16-7 
 
 — Views on, a Parent's: 18 
 
 — of Girls : What has raised 
 Standard of, 80 seq. 
 
 — of Women : National Union 
 for Improving, 130 
 
 — Secondary: 70-121 ; and 
 Technical Board, 204 
 
 — Technical : 197-2 1 9 ; Royal 
 Commission on, 201 
 
 — Yorkshire Ladies' Council of: 
 92 
 
 — in Scotland : 229-79 ; Cost 
 of, 248; Higher, 264-73; 
 and Landowners, 230-1 ; 
 Primary, 229-48 ; Second- 
 ary, 249-63 ; Technical, 
 262-3 
 
 Educational Associations of 
 
 Women : Rise of, 130 
 Elder, Mrs. John: 267, 269 
 Elementary Education Act: 91 
 
 — Schools : Weak Points in, 
 50-1 
 
290 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Elementary Schools inWales : 56 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen: 8 
 
 Endowed Schools Acts: 87-8, 
 91 ; Benefit to Girls under, 
 88-91 ; in Scotland, 237, 
 
 253-4 
 Endowments, tendencies of : 91 
 Erasmus: 4, 19, 222 
 Eton : Founding of, i 
 Evans, Mrs. : 274 
 Evening Continuation Schools: 
 
 54-5 ; Scotland, 247 
 Ewart, Miss: Gift of, 115 
 
 „ Mr. Wm. : 100 
 Examinations : Local, 80 ; of 
 
 Joint Board, 86; Preliminary, 
 
 84 
 Examiners, Female: in Art, 183 
 Experiment in Education^An: 26 
 
 Factory Act : Passing of the First, 
 
 Fairfax, Admiral : 10 
 Fawcett, Mrs. Henry: 126 
 Fearon, Mr.: 74, 75 
 Finsbury Technical College: 210 
 Firth College, Sheffield: 155 
 Fitch, Sir Joshua: 71, 74, 75 
 Free Education : 42, 284 
 Free Trade in Education : 78 
 Froebel Society: 176-7 
 Fuller, Thos. : 5 
 
 Garnett, Dr. Wm. : 203 ; Report 
 of, 205-6 
 
 Gasquet, A.: 5 
 
 Girls' Public Day School Co. : 
 92 ; First School of, 93 ; 
 Effect on Private Schools, 94 
 
 — Public Day School, Notting 
 Hill: 118 
 
 Girls, Special Subjects for: 47; 
 Scotland, 244-5 
 
 Girton College : Admission to 
 Degree Exam., 133; Founda- 
 tion of, 131 ; Memorandum 
 of Association, 132 
 
 Glastonbury, Abbot of : 16 
 
 Government Grant : 36, 235 
 Governesses' Benevolent Institu- 
 tion: 126-7 
 
 — Private: Training of, 176 
 Gorst, Sir John : Bill of, loi 
 "Gracedieu," Nunnery at: 5 
 Grammar Schools : i, 18-9 ; 
 
 Exclusion of Poor from, 19, 
 20; Share of Girls in, 71, 72; 
 Want of, 17 
 Grant, Government : 235 ; First, 
 36 ; Table of, 37 
 
 — for Secondary Schools (Scot- 
 tish) : 256-8 
 
 Gresham College: 210 
 Grey, Lady Jane : 8 
 
 — Mrs. Wm.: 92, 220 
 Guild, The Teachers' : 283 
 Guildhall School of Music : 
 
 [186-7 
 
 Hale, Sir Matthew : 9 
 
 Half-timers : Decrease of, 40 
 
 Halls of Residence for Women 
 Students, Oxford: 136; Scot- 
 land, 272 
 
 Harrison, Miss: 25 
 
 Harrow School : Foundation 
 of, 6 
 
 Head-Masters' Conference: 283 
 
 Health Statistics, University 
 women : 193 
 
 Herrad's Garden of Delights: 
 123 
 
 High Schools: 77 
 
 Higher Education: 122-63; in 
 Scotland, 264-73 
 
 Higher Grade Schools : 53>7o-') 
 92 
 
 Highlands : Special Provision 
 for : 232-3 
 
 Hilda, St., of Whitby: 15, 123 
 
 Hill, Miss G.: 4 
 
 Holloway College v. Royal 
 Hollo way College. 
 
 Home and Colonial School So- 
 ciety: 35, 1 70- 1 
 
 — Arts and Industries Associa- 
 tion: 214-5 
 
INDEX 
 
 291 
 
 Home Reading Union, National : 
 
 109-11 
 Hopgood, Mr.: 178 
 Horticultural College, Swanley : 
 
 195-7 
 *• Hospitals" (Scotland): 253 
 Houghton, Lord: 74 
 House of Education, Ambleside : 
 
 176 
 Hughes, Miss E. P.: 173 
 Hyde, Abbot of: 16 
 
 Illiteracy in England : 35 
 Incorporated Association of 
 
 Head- Masters : 284 
 Inspection, Grant dependent on : 
 
 60 
 Inspectors : First Appointment 
 
 of, 36-7; Women as, 49-50 
 Institutes, Mechanics' : 29, 107 ; 
 
 — City and Guilds of London : 2 1 o 
 Institution, Postal: 163 
 Intermediate Education Act, 
 
 Wales : 96 
 
 — Effects of Organisation: 100 
 
 — Finance : 98 
 International Exhibition: 198 
 
 Jebb, Prof.: on Short Courses, 
 
 159 
 Jex-Blake, Miss: 177-8, 274, 
 
 275 
 Jourdan, Miss: Report by, 25 
 
 Kennedy, Miss, on Occupations 
 of Newnham Students : 135 
 
 Kensington, Science and Art 
 Department : 261-2 
 
 Kindergarten System : Adoption 
 of, 54 
 
 — Training Colleges: 171, 177 
 King's College, Strand : 141-3 
 Knox, John : his Scheme of 
 
 National Education: 21, 230, 
 250 
 
 Ladies' Education Society, 
 Liverpool : 130 
 
 Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford : 
 
 336-7 
 Laing, Rev. David : Report by, 
 
 127 
 Lancaster, Joseph : Advent of, 
 
 26; Methods, 14, 27-8, 29, 
 
 164-5 
 Landowners and Education in 
 
 Scotland: 230- 1 
 Langland: 16 
 
 Le Blanc : Observations of, 1 1 
 Leclerc, M. Max: Mission of, 
 
 224-5 
 Lindsey, Rev. Theophilus : 
 
 Work of, 25 
 Lingen, Lord: 74 
 Liverpool College: 150 
 
 — Schools: Condition of, 3 1-2 
 Local Examinations: Effects on 
 
 Education, 80 
 
 — Cambridge Higher Local : 82 
 
 — Coll. of Preceptors: 81 
 
 — Joint Board : 86 
 
 — London Matriculation : 84 
 
 — Oxford and Cambridge : 81 
 
 — Preliminary Exams. : 84 
 London Diocesan Board: Found- 
 ing of, 35 
 
 — Matriculation : 84 
 
 — School Board : 52-3 
 
 — School of Economics and 
 Political Science: 219 
 
 — School of Medicine for 
 Women: 177; Degrees, 179 
 
 — Technical Education Board : 
 203, 208 ; Scholarships given 
 by, 203 
 
 — University : and Women, 140; 
 Successes won, 141 
 
 Louch, Miss: 173 
 Louise, Princess: 92 
 Luther, Martin : Views on Edu- 
 cation, 19-20 
 Lyon, John (founder of Harrow) :6 
 
 MacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M.: 71 
 Makins, Mrs. : Prospectus of, 
 73 
 
292 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Manchester, Proportion of Child- 
 ren at School : 34 
 Maria Grey Training College: 
 
 93. 171 
 Martineau, Dr. James: 74 
 Mary, The Lady : 8 
 Mason College, Birmingham : 
 
 153-4 
 
 — Miss Charlotte: 176 
 Matriculation, London : 84 
 Maurice, Rev. F. D.: 74, 127 
 Mechanics' Institutes: 29, 107 
 Medical Education of Women : 
 
 177, seq, 
 
 — Scotland, 274-7; Glasgow, 
 276 
 
 Melbourne, Lord, Bill of: 30 
 Memorial to Schools Inquiry 
 
 Commission : 1 30- 1 
 Mentally Defective, Schools for : 
 
 Metropolitan Board Teachers' 
 Association: 282 
 
 Middle Schools: 77 
 
 Milne Bequest : 253 
 
 Mines, School of: 102 
 
 Monasteries: Charges against, 
 5 ; Effect of their Dissolution 
 on Education of Women, 2, 
 11-12 
 
 Monastery Schools : 1 5 
 
 Money Grant, First Govern- 
 ment: 36 
 
 Monitorial System : 26-7, 164 ; 
 Failure of, 38 
 
 Montague, Lady Mary W. : 
 9-10 
 
 Montgomery, Miss: 162 
 
 More, Dr.: 10 
 
 — Hannah : 10 ; Work of, 25 
 
 — Sir Thos.: 4, 19 
 Mulcaster, Richard: 7, 71-2 
 Mundella, Mr. : Act of, 41-2 
 Music : Guildhall School of, 
 
 186-7 ; Royal Academy of, 
 185-6 ; Royal College of, 187 
 
 — Schools: 186-8; (Scotland), 
 278-9 
 
 National Association of Volun- 
 tary Teachers: 281 
 
 — Federation of Assistant 
 Teachers : 281 
 
 — Froebel Union: 176-7 
 
 — Home Reading Union: 109- 
 II 
 
 — Education League : 14 
 
 — School of Cookery: 188-91 
 
 — Society: Foundation of, 27 
 
 — Union for Improvement o 
 Education of Women: 130 
 
 of Teachers, 282 
 
 Newcastle Colleges : Flourishing 
 
 Condition of, 153 
 Newnham College : Founding 
 
 of, 133 
 Normal School of Design : loi 
 
 — School of Science: 180-I 
 
 — Training College : 37 
 North London Collegiate School 
 
 for Girls: 76, II 4-6 
 Nottingham, University College : 
 
 1 54-5 
 Notting Hill Public Day School : 
 
 118-9 
 Nunneries : Conversion into 
 
 Men's Colleges, 123-4 
 Nunnery of Seton : 5 
 
 — of " The White Ladies " : 5 
 Nunnery Schools : 2, 3, 5-6 : 
 
 Defence of, 3 ; Restoration 
 of, 3 
 Nurses, Training of: 180; for 
 Scotland, 277 
 
 Oesterberg, Mme. Bergman : 
 191-2, 195 
 
 Organized Science Schools: 102 
 
 Owens College : 148-9 
 
 Oxford : i ; Association for 
 Education of Women at, 138; 
 and Cambridge Local Exams., 
 81-4; Conference, 70-1 ; Ex- 
 aminations opened to Women, 
 84 ; Position of Women at, 
 136; Regulations for Exami- 
 nations, 137-8 
 
INDEX 
 
 293 
 
 Pace: 18 
 
 Page, Miss: 120 
 
 Parish Schools: 16-7 
 
 Parliamentary Grant v. Govern- 
 ment Grant for Secondary 
 Schools (Scotland) : 256-8 
 
 Pattison, Mark: 156 
 
 Payment by Results : Disappear- 
 ance of, 60; Effects of, 103, 104 
 
 Pechey, Miss, 274 
 
 Peel, Sir Robert : Bill of, 30 
 
 Physical Training College : Dart- 
 ford Heath, 191 
 
 of Women: 191-5 
 
 Piers Plowman: 16 
 
 Plumptre, Dean: 127 
 
 Polytechnics: 107, 206; Batter- 
 sea, 206-7 
 
 Poor, Education of: 16-7, 19, 20 
 
 Poor Law Schools : 56 
 
 Population, Child : 42 
 
 Postal Institution : University 
 Examination, 163 
 
 Praise of Virgins: 3 
 
 Pre-Reformation Schools in 
 Scotland : 230 
 
 Preceptors, College of: 35, 283 ; 
 Examinations of, 81 
 
 Primary Education in Scotland : 
 229-48 
 
 Private Schools' Association : 
 284; in Scotland, 237, 253-4 
 
 Private Schools, Improving: 112 
 
 Proctor, Miss: 116 
 
 Professional and Technical 
 Education (Scotland) : 274-9 
 
 — Organizations of Teachers, 281 
 
 Pupil Teachers : 165-6 ; Em- 
 ployment of (Scotland), 
 234-5 ; Inauguration of, 38-9 ; 
 Size of Classes, 51 
 
 Centres : 53-4 
 
 Queen Margaret College, Glas- 
 gow: 266-7, 268-9 
 
 Queen's College, London : 76 ; 
 Opening, 127 ; Progress, 
 128-9, 130; Pupils, 128 
 
 Ragged School Movement: 26 
 
 Union : Founding of, 35 
 
 Raikes, Mr. Robert, and Sun- 
 day Schools : 25 
 Reading, University Extension 
 
 College : 160-1 
 Reformation and Education : 
 
 18-9, 20; in Scotland, 20-1 
 Reform Bill of 1832: 12 
 Register, Numbers of Children 
 on: 43 
 
 — Teachers', Absence of: 78-9 
 Reid, Mrs. John: 128 
 Revised Code : 39 
 
 Richter, Jean Paul: 125 
 
 Ridley, Bp. : on Christ's Hos- 
 pital, 72 
 
 Ridley, Miss, Author of Frances 
 Mary Buss : 114 
 
 Rigg, Miss C. : 174 
 
 Rogers, Rev. Wm.: 171 
 
 Rome, Church of: Authority of, 
 1 7 ; Democratic Principle of, 
 16, 17, 19 
 
 Rooper, Mr. T. G.: 212 
 
 Roscoe, Sir Hy. : 201 
 
 Royal Academy of Music: 185 
 
 — College of Art : 18 1-2 
 
 — College of Music: 187 
 
 — College of Science: 181 
 
 — Commission on Secondary 
 Education : Report of, 217 
 
 — Female School of Art : 
 184-5 
 
 — Holloway College: 145-8 
 
 — School of Mines : 102 
 Russell, Lord John : Reform 
 
 Bill of, 12 
 
 Sadler, Mr. M. E. : 61 ; on 
 
 University Extension, 157 
 St. Helen's Convent : 2 
 
 — Hilda's: 136, 174 
 
 — Hughes': 137 
 
 — Mary's Convent : 2 
 Salaries : 44-5 ; Elementary 
 
 Teachers' (Scotland), 246 
 Sandon, Lord: Act of, 41 
 
294 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Schaible, Dr.: 21, 78; Views 
 of, 113 
 
 Schism Act : Passing of, 22 
 Scholarships, Junior: 203; Inter- 
 mediate County, 204 ; Senior, 
 204 
 School Attendance Committee: 
 
 41 
 
 — Boards: created, 40; election 
 of, 239; Scottish, Fuller Powers 
 of, 241; Secondary Education, 
 242 ; Number of Pupils in, 
 
 243-4 
 
 Salaries in : 68 
 
 Share in Technical Edu- 
 cation : 218 
 
 — Board, Visit to: 62-9 
 
 — Boarding : 2 ; Accomplish- 
 ments at, 73 
 
 Schools in Elizabeth's Reign: 
 Lack of, 21 ; General Con- 
 dition of, 31-5 
 
 — Art, Female, 184-5 '■> Number, 
 106 ; Scotland, 278 
 
 — of Wood Carving; 213-4 
 
 — Blind : 55 
 
 — Burgh : 249-52 ; Curriculum 
 of, 251 ; How Maintained, 
 251-2 ; Transferred to School 
 Board, 254-6 
 
 Schools : Camden, for Girls, 115- 
 
 6 ; Chantry, i ; Cathedral, 16- 
 
 7 ; Scottish, 230 ; Collegiate, 
 230 ; Convent, 1 1 ; Cookery, 
 National, 188-91 ; Scottish, 
 279; Day, 2; Deaf, 55; 
 Domestic Economy, 208 ; 
 Elementary, 50-1 ; Endowed, 
 87-8; Scottish, 237, 253-4; 
 Evening Continuation, 54-5 ; 
 Scottish, 247 ; Girls' Public 
 Day School Co., 92, 93, 94; 
 Grammar, i ; Share of Girls 
 in, 71, 72; Guildhall School 
 of Music, 186-7 ; High, ^^ ; 
 Higher Grade, 53, 70-1, 92 ; 
 Liverpool, 31-2; Medicine, 
 London, 177, 179; Scottish, 
 
 274-7 ; Middle, 77 ; of Mines, 
 Royal, 102; Monastery, 15; 
 Music, 186 -8 ; Scotland, 278- 
 9; National, at Bethnal 
 Green, 34; Normal, of De- 
 sign, loi ; of Science, 180-1 ; 
 North London Collegiate, 76, 
 1 14-6; Notting Hill, 118-9; 
 Nunnery, 2, 3, 5-6; Organ- 
 ized Science, 102 ; Parish, 
 16-7, 21-2; Scottish, 230, 
 233 ; Parliamentary, 232-3 ; 
 Poor Law, 55-6; Pre-Refor- 
 mation, 230; Private, 112-3; 
 Scottish, 237, 253-4; Ragged, 
 26, 35 ; St. Paul's, 18 ; Science, 
 92, 180-1 ; Secondary, 259 ; 
 Side, 233 ; Skinners', 1 19-21 ; 
 Sang, 230; Sunday, 25-6; 
 Voluntary, 62-9. 
 Schools InquiryCommission : 19, 
 91 ; Report of, 74-7 
 
 — Society, Home and Colonial : 
 170-1 
 
 Science and Art Department, 
 Kensington : icx)-7 ; Recent 
 Changes, 105 ; Elasticity 
 of, 103 ; Examinations, 105 ; 
 Functions, 102 ; Inspection, 
 169-70; National Competi- 
 tion in connection with, 105- 
 6 ; Scottish, 261-2 
 
 — Royal College of: 18 1 
 
 — Schools : 92 
 
 Scotland : Education in, 229-79 
 Scott, Miss Charlotte : 133 
 Secondary Education: 70-121 ; 
 Adult, 107 ; Report of Royal 
 Commission on, 217 ; Schools 
 for Girls, 114-6; Scottish, 
 249-63 ; Inspection of, 259 
 Segur,De: on Englishwomen, ID 
 Seton : Nunnery at, 5 
 Settlements, University: 108 
 Sewell, Mr.: 156-7 
 Sexes: Proportion of, engaged 
 
 in Teaching, 166-7 
 Sherbourne, Ealdhelm, Bp. of: 3 
 
INDEX 
 
 395 
 
 Shirreff, Miss: 92, 171 
 Shorter Catechism : 242 
 Sidgwick, Mrs. Henry: 95, 107; 
 
 Report on Health, 193 4 
 Skinners' School: 1 19-21 
 Sloyd System: 211- 12 
 Smith, Mr. Llewellyn : 201 
 
 — Rev. Sydney: 125 
 Smollett, Tobias: 10 
 
 Society for Promoting Christian 
 
 Knowledge : 22, 23, 35 
 Somerville Hall, Oxford: 136-7 
 
 — Mrs. Mary: lo 
 
 South Kensington, Science and 
 Art Department: 180-4 
 
 — London Technical Art School: 
 211 
 
 Specialization, Early: 47 
 Stanley, Dean: 74 
 Stansfeld, Mr. Jas.: 178 
 State Control of Education : 36 
 Statistics, Table of: 43-4 
 Steele, Rich.: 10 
 Stuart, Prof. Jas.: 92, 157 
 Sunday Schools : 25-6 
 Swift, Dean: 10 
 
 Teachers, Cambridge, Training 
 Syndicate: 172 
 
 — Dissenting, Measures against: 
 22 
 
 — Efficiency of Scottish : 235-7 
 
 — Elementary, Scottish : Sala- 
 ries, 246 ; Training of, 245-6 
 
 — Guild : 283 
 
 — Inefficiency of: 33 
 
 — Maria Grey Training College 
 for Secondary : 93 
 
 — Metropolitan Board Teachers' 
 Association: 282 
 
 — National Association ofVolun- 
 tary : 282 
 
 — National Federation of Assist- 
 ant : 282 
 
 — National Union of: 282 
 
 — Professional Organizations of: 
 281 
 
 — Position of: 79-80 
 
 Teachers, Pupil, Employment 
 of, in Scotland : 234-5 
 
 — Register, Absence of: 78-9 
 
 — Registration Bill: 18 
 
 — Salaries : 168-9 '■> Scottish, 246 
 
 — Scarcity of qualified: 17, 18 
 
 — Training of: 27-8, 37, 164- 
 77 ; Scottish, 245-6, 277-8 
 
 — Training and Registration 
 Society: 93 
 
 — University Training Associa- 
 tion of Women : 283 
 
 — Women, Appointment of, in 
 Scotland : 233-5 
 
 — Women: Improved Education 
 of, 94 
 
 Technical Art School, South 
 London: 21 1 
 
 — College, Central: 210 
 
 — College, Finsbury: 210 
 
 — Colleges for Women : 188-97 
 
 — Education: 197-219 
 
 — Education Board : 204 
 
 — Education and County Coun- 
 cils : 202 ; Royal Commission 
 on, 201 ; Share of School 
 Boards in, 218 ; Share of 
 Women in, 215-6; Scottish, 
 262-3, 274-9 
 
 — Instruction Act : 201 
 Thome, Mrs : 178, 274 
 Toynbee Hall: 108-9 
 TrainingCollegefor Women : 172 
 
 — Colleges for Men: 174-5 
 
 — Colleges : Number of Students 
 in, 167 
 
 — Colleges: Cheltenham, 173; 
 Datchelor, 174; Maria Grey, 
 171-2 
 
 — College, Physical, Dartford 
 Heath : 191 
 
 — for Kindergarten Teachers : 
 171 
 
 — of Nurses : 180; Scottish, 277 
 
 — Physical, of Women: 191-5 
 
 — of Private Governesses: 176 
 
 — School of Domestic Econ- 
 omy : 208 
 
296 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Training for SecondaryTeachers: 
 
 270-7 
 Trench, Archbishop: 127 
 Trinity College, Music: 188 
 
 Understaffing, in Elementary 
 
 Schools : 63 
 Universities: 1,2; Progress of, 18 
 University Association of Women 
 
 Teachers: 283 
 
 — College, Bangor, 150; Bristol, 
 155-6; Cardiff, 150, 152; 
 Durham, 152-3; Liverpool, 
 150; London, 141-2 ; Mason 
 College, Birmingham, 153-4; 
 Newcastle, 153; Nottingham, 
 154-5 ; Owens College, Man- 
 chester, 148-9 
 
 — Colleges : Women's Share in, 
 148-56 
 
 — Correspondence College : 163 
 
 — Degrees for Women, Attempt 
 to open, Cambridge : 135 ; 
 Scottish, 264-5, 268-9 
 
 — Examination, Postal Institu- 
 tion: 163 
 
 — Examinations for Women : 
 Regulations for, 271-2 
 
 — Extension College, Colches- 
 ter, 160 ; Exeter, 16 1-2 ; 
 Reading, 160-1 
 
 — Extension: 107, 130, 156- 
 63 ; Scotland, 272-3 
 
 — Local Examinations : 80 ; 
 Scottish, 264 
 
 — Settlements: 108 
 
 — Victoria: 148 
 
 — of Wales: 150-2 
 
 Victoria University: 148 
 
 "Virtues": 9 
 
 Voluntary School : Visit to, 62- 
 9 ; Salaries in, 64 
 
 Wales : Education in. History of, 
 56-9 ; Intermediate Education 
 in, 96-100; University of, 
 150-2 
 
 Warham: his Position towards 
 Education, 19 
 
 Watson, Mrs.: 196 
 
 Webb, Mrs. Sidney: 203 
 
 Welldon, Miss: 174 
 
 Wells, Mr. Sidney: 207 
 
 Westfield College: Foundation 
 of, 144 
 
 " White Ladies, The": 5 
 
 White, Mr. R. G.: 74 
 
 Wigram, Rev. J. Cotton : 169 
 
 Willard, Miss Frances : 74 
 
 Wollstonecraft, Mary: 124 
 
 Women : Career for, 1 1 
 
 — Education of: General Sur- 
 vey, 1-12; Higher, 6, 7, 8-10; 
 in 1 2th Century, 122-3; Con- 
 trasted with Men's, 11, 12 
 
 — as Inspectors: 49-50 
 
 — Neglect of their Interests : 74 
 
 — Position of: 2, 3, 4, 11-12 
 
 — Students : Hall of Residence 
 for, 272 
 
 Women's Educational Journal : 
 
 93 
 
 Woods, Miss: 171 
 Wycliffe : Teaching of, 18 
 
 Yorkshire College, Leeds : 
 149-50 
 
 — Ladies' Council of Education : 
 92 
 
 PLYMOUTH 
 WILLIAM BRKNDON AND SON, PRINTBRS. 
 
 364 
 
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