DR. K.M. KHANTAMOUR ARMENIAN COLLECTION mm U- University of California Library/ Los Angeles .^'y ^ '^ EDITION D E LUXE The Works of George Rawlinson, M.A. A HISTOR Y OF ANCIENT EGYPT Volume One VOLUME IV. Maps, Diagrams and Illustrations THE NOTTINGHAM SOCIETY New York Philadelphia Chicago EDITION DE LUXE Limited to One Thousand Sets Printed for Subscribers Only 4>T PREFACE. V>\ The work here offered to the public, conceived and com- menced in the year 1876, was designed to supply what seemed a crying need of English literature — viz., an account of Ancient Egypt, combining its antiquities with its history, ad- dressed partly to the eye, and presenting to the reader, within a reasonable compass, the chief points of Egyptian life — man- ners, customs, art, science, literature, religion — together with a tolerably full statement of the general course of historical events, whereof Egypt was the scene, from the foundation of the monarchy to the loss of independence. Existing English histories of Ancient Egypt were either slight and scantly illus- trated, like those of Canon Trevor and Dr. Birch, or wanting in illustrations altogether, like Mr. Kenrick's, or not confined to the period which seemed to deserve special attention, like the ''Egypt" of Mr. Samuel Sharpe. Accordingly, the present writer, having become aware that no ** History of Eg3-pt " on a large scale was contemplated by Dr. Birch, de- signed in 1876 the work now published, regarding it in part as necessary to round off and complete his other principal labors in the historical field, in part as calculated to fill up a gap, which it was important to fill up, in the historical litera- ture of his country. Since his intention was announced, and the sheets of his first volume to some extent printed off, Eng- lisli literature has been enriched by two most important pub- lications on the subject of Egypt — Dr. Birch's excellent edition of Wilkinson's "Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyp- tians," and the translation of Dr. Brugsch's " Geschichte Aegyptens " made by the late ]Mr. Danby Seymour and Mr. Philip Smith. Had these works existed in the year 1876, or had he then known that they were forthcoming, the author iii fv PREFACE. feels that the present volumes would never have seen the light. But, as they were tolerably advanced when he first be- came aware to what rivalry his poor efforts would be sub- jected, it was scarcely possible for him to draw back and retract his announced intentions. Instead of so doing, he took refuge in the hope that neither of the two new works would altogether pre-occupy the ground which he had marked out for himself, and in the pleasing persuasion that the general public, when books are published on a subject in which it feels an interest, and are devoured with avidity, has its appe- tite rather whetted by the process than satisfied. He trusts therefore to find, in England and America, a sufficient body of readers to justify his present venture, and prevent his pub- lishers from suffering any loss through him. In preparing the volumes, the author has endeavored to utilize the enormous stores of antiquarian and historical ma- terial accumulated during the last eighty years, and laid up in works of vast size and enormous cost, quite inaccessible to the general public. Of these the most magnificent are the ** Description de I'Egypte," published by the French savants who accompanied the expedition of the great Napoleon; the " Monument! dell' Egitto e della Nubia " of Ippolito Rosel- lini; and the " Denkmaler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien " of Professor Lepsius. M. Mariette's " Monuments Divers recueillis en Egypte et en Nubie " have also furnished him with a considerable number of illustrations. Possessing only a rudimentary knowledge of the Egyptian language and writing, he has made it his aim to consult, as far as possible, the various translations of the Egyptian documents which have been put forth by advanced students, and to select the render- ing which seemed on the internal evidence most satisfactory. ' He has based his general narrative to a large extent on these translations; and, where they failed him, has endeavored to supply their place by a careful study, not only of finished " Histories of Egypt," like those of Lenormant, Birch, and Brugsch, but those of elaborate " monographs " upon special pointy \sx which French and German scholars subject to the PREFACE. V keenest scrutiny the entire evidence upon this or that subject or period. Such books as De Kouge's ** Kecherches sur les Monuments qu'on pent attribuer aux six premieres dynasties de Manethon," Chabas' "Pasteurs en Egypte," "Melanges Egyptologiques," and "Recherches pour servir a I'histoire de la XlXme Dynastie et specialement a celle des temps de FEx- ode/' Lepsins^s pamphlet " Ueber die XII. agyptische Konigs- dynastie, nebst einigen Bemerkungen zu der XXVI. und andern Dynastien des neuen Reichs," and his '* Konigsbuch der alten Aegypter," Diimichen's " Flotte einer agyptisclien Konigin " and " Historische Inschriften alt-agyptischer Denk- maler/' are specimens of the class of works to which allusion is here made, and have been the sources of the present nar- rative much more than any methodized ** Histories." The author, however, is far from wishing to ignore the obligations under which he lies to former historians of Egypt, such as Bunsen, Kenrick, Lenormant, Birch, and Brugsch, without whose works his could certainly not have been written. He is only anxious to claim for it a distinct basis in the monographs of the best Egyptologists and the great collections of illustra- tions above noticed, and to call attention to the fact that he has endeavored in all cases to go behind the statements of the historiographers, and to draw his own conclusions from the materials on which those statements were based. In conclusion he would express his obligations to his en- graver and artist, Mr. G. Pearson and Mr. P. Hundley, in respect of his illustrations; to the late Colonel Howard Vyse in respect of all that he has ventured to say concerning the Pyramids; to Mr. James Fergusson in respect of his remarks on the rest of Egyptian architecture; to his old friend and colleague, the late Sir Gardner Wilkinson, in respect of the entire subject of Egyptian customs andjmanners; to M. AViede- mann in respect of the history of the twenty-sixth dynasty; and to Mr. R. Stuart Poole, Dr. Eisenlohr, M. Deveria, and other writers on Egyptian subjects in the " Dictionary of the Bible," the '' Revue Archeologique," and the " Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archgeology." He has lived to feel, VI PREFACE. continually more and more, how small a part of each ** History '^ is due to the nominal author, and how large a share belongs to the earlier workers in the field. He trusts that in the past he has never failed conspicuously in the duty of acknowledging obligations; but, however that may be, he would at any rate wish, in the present and in the future, not to be liable to the charge of such failure. To all those whose works he has used he would hereby express himself greatly beholden; he would ask their pardon if he has involuntarily misrepresented them, and would crave at their hands a lenient judgment of the present volumes. Cantebbxjey, December 31, 1880. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. A THE LAND. PAQE. Geography of Egypt. Boundaries, Dimensions, and Character of the Country. Proportion of cultivable Territory. Depend- ence on the Nile. Course of the Nile — its Tributaries — Time and Causes of the Inundation. Chief Divisions of the Terri- tory: the Nile Valley; the Delta; the Fayoum; the Eastern Desert ; the Valley of the Natron Lakes. Character of the adjoining Countries. . . . . . . 1 CHAPTER n. CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS. Climate of Egypt — of the Nile Valley — of the Eastern Highland. Vegetable Productions — Indigenous Trees and Plants — Plants anciently cultivated. Indigenous Wild Animals — Domesticated Animals. Birds, Fish, Reptiles, and Insects. Mineral Products. . . . , , . 23 CHAPTER III. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR NEIGHBORS. The Egyptians of Asiatic Origin — Imraigrants from the East — Not a colony from Ethiopia — Proof of this — So far peculiar as to constitute a distinct Race — Their Complexion dark, but not black — their Hair not woolly. Description of their Features : of their Form. Their Subdivisions, original and later. Their Intellectual Characteristics. Their Artistic Pow^ers. Theirl^Iorality, theoretic and practical. Their Num- ber. Nations bordering upon Egypt : The Libu (Libyans), or Tahennu on the West ; the Nahsi (Negroes) and Cush (Ethi- opians) on the South ; the A7nu (Shemites) and Shasu (Arabs) on the East. Nascent Empu-es in this quarter. . 48 Tiu CONTENTS. PAGE. CHAPTER IV. LANGUAGE AND WRITING. Proposed Mode of Treatment. General Character of the Lan- guage. Connection of the Ancient Egyptian with the Coptic. Three Forms of Egyptian Writing. The Hieroglyphic Signs Pictorial. The Signs of four sorts, Representative, Figurative, Determinative, and Phonetic. Table of the most common Phonetics ; other Phonetics. Number of the Signs. Ar- rangement of the Writing. Signs for Numerals — for Gods — for Months. Egyptian Grammar. . . , .57 CHAPTER V. LITERATURE. General Character of the Egyptian Literature, mediocre — perhaps at present not fairly appreciated. Variety and Extent of the Literature. Works on Religious Subjects — "Ritual of the Dead." Shorter Works on Religion — Specimen. Historical Poems — Specimens. Lyrical Poems — Specimen from the " Song of the Harper." Travels. Romances. Autobiog- raphies — Sketch from the "Story of Saneha" — Specimen. Correspondence. Scientific Treatises. Works on Magic. . 68 CHAPTER VI. AGRICULTURE. Extraordinary Productiveness of Egypt in Ancient Times. Ten- ure of Land under the Pharaohs — Absence of Governmental Interference with the Cultivation. Farming Operations— Pre- paration of the Soil. Character of the Plough used. Mode of Ploughing. Use of the Hoe. Sowing. Kinds of Corn grown. Cultivation of Wheat — of Barley —of the Doora or Holcus Sor- ghum. Great Variety of other Crops. System of Irrigation employed. Use of the Shadoof. Hydraulic Works of the Fayoum. Cultivation of the Olive. Cultivation of the Vine. Care of Cattle 79 CHAPTER VII. ARCHITECTURE. Earliest Egyptian Architecture sepulchral. Most Ancient Tombs. Primitive stepped Pyramids — Pyramid of Meydoun— of Sac- carah. Great Pyramids of Ghizeh. Intention of the Pyra- CONTENTS. ix PAGE. mids — Their technic excellence. Their aesthetic merit. Pyramids of two elevations. Rock Tombs. Primitive Tem- ples. Later ones — Temple at Medinet-Abou — Rameseum — Great Temple of Karnak. Obelisks. Southern Karnak Tem- ple. Mammeisi. Beauties of the Architecture — Massiveness — Elegance of Columns and Capitals — Caryatide Piers — Em- ployment of Color. Egyptian Domestic Architecture. Pa- vilion of Rameses III. Houses of Private Persons. Chief PecuUarities of Egyptian Construction. Non-employment of the Arch — Symmetrophobia — Contrivances for increasing apparent Size of Buildings. . . . . .91 CHAPTER VIII. MIMETIC ART. Sculpture of Ancient Egypt — single Statues of full size— peculiari- ties. Groups. Principal Defects and Merits. Statuettes. Gen- eral Uniformity and its Causes. Works in high Relief, rare. Works in Bas-relief, and Intaglio. Defects. Superior- ity of the Animal over the Human Forms. Examples — Ga- zelle Hunt — Lion Hunt. Foreshortening. Want of Propor- tion. Absence of Perspective. Ugliness. Four Classes of Sub- jects: 1. Rehgious; 2. Processional: 8. Military; and 4. Do- mestic. Playful Humor in the Domestic Scenes. Egyptian Painting — its general Character. Mechanism employed — Colors. Paintings good as Wall Decorations. Stages of Egyptian Mimetic Art. ..... 123 CHAPTER IX. SCIENCE. Egyptian Science. Arithmetic. Geometry. Astronomy — Obser- vations of Eclipses — Planetary Occultations — Motions and Pe- riods of the Planets — Tables of the Stars — Acquaintance with true Solar Year — General Character of the Astronomy. Egyptian Astrology. Medicine. Engineering Science. 137 CHAPTER X. RELIGION. Large Share occupied by Religion in the Life of the Nation — Esoteric and Exoteric Systems. Nature of the Esoteric Reli- gion. Opinions concerning God, concerning Evil, and con- cerning the Soul. Exoteric Religion. Local Origin of the COTTTENTS. PAG& Polytheism. Egyptian Pantheon — Amnion — Kn^pli — Khem — Phthah — Maut — Sati — Neith — the Sun-Gods, Ra, Osiris, &c. Osirid Myths. Minor Deities — Atlior, Isis, Khons, Thoth, &c. Powers of Evil, Set, Nubi, Taouris, Bes, Apap. Genii, Anubis, Amset, Hapi, &c. Orders of Gods. Triads. Character of the Worship — Prayers, Hymns, Sacrifices. Animal Worship. Apis, Mnevis, and Bacis Bulls — Momemphite Cow. Origin of the Animal Worship. Outward Aspect of the Religion — Festivals, Processions, and Worship of Ancestors. The Mysteries. ....... 146 I CHAPTER XI. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. Question of the Peculiarity of Egyptian Customs — proposed mode of treating the Subject. Division of the People into Classes — Number of the Classes. Account of the Priests — The Sa- cred Women. The Soldiers — Number of these last — Training — Chief Divisions — The Infantry — The Cavalry — The Chariot Service — Weapons — Tactics — Mode of Conducting Sieges. Naval Warfare. Treatment of Prisoners and of the Slain. Camps — Marches — Signals — Triumphs. Condition of the Agricultural Laborers — of the Tradesmen and Artisans. Principal Trades — Building — Weaving — Furniture-Making — Glass-blowing — Pottery — Metallurgy, &c. Artistic Occupa- tions — Sculpture, Painting, Music and Dancing. Musical In- struments and Bands. Professions — the Scribe's — tlije Physi- cian's — the Architect's. Lower Grades of Population — Boat- men — Fowlers — Fishermen — Swineherds. Life of the Upper Classes. Sports — Entertainments — Games. Conclusion. 203 Notes. • • * • • • • . • 261 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. na. t>LATx. 1. Date and Dom Palms (from the "Description deTEgypte") 1 2. Ichneumon (from the '•Description de I'Egypte ") 1 3. Egyptian Hare (from the same) 2 4. Ibex, Oryx, and Gazelle (from the monuments) 2 4}^. Gazelles (from Rosellinis " Monumenti Civili ") Page 36 5. The Smaller Monitor (from the '" Description de I'Egypte") 2 61^. Egyptian Horses (from Rosellini's "Monumenti Storici") Page 37 6. The Great Monitor (from the same) 3 7. Fruit of the Nymjjhcea Nelumbo 3 8. Egyptian Ass (from Ro8<"llini's " Monumenti Civili ") 3 €J4. Egyptian Humped Ox (from the same) Page 38 9. Egyptian Dogs (from various sources) 3 10. Hyena caught in a trap ( from the monuments) 4 11. Head of an Egyptian Man (from the monuments) 4 12. The Glossy Ibis and Ibis religiosa (from the " Description de I'Egypte ") 4 13. The Oxyrhynchus or Mizdeh (from the " Description de I'Egypte ") 4 14. The Sic-sac or Trochilus (after Wilkinson) 5 15. Egyptian Child (from the monuments) 5 16. The Egyptian Asp (from the " Description de I'Egypte ") 5 17. Egyptian Plough (from Rosellini's " Monumenti Civili") 5 18. Egyptian Phonetic Alphabet 6 19. Mode of Ploughing (from Rosellini's " Monumenti Civili ") 7 20. Egyptian Hoe (from the same) 7 21. Egyptian Hoeing (from the same) 7 22. Egyptian Man and Woman (from the monuments) 8 23. Binding "VNTieat in Sheaves (from Rosellini's "Monumenti Civili") 8 24. Oxen treadmg out Corn (from the same) 8 25. Winnowing Grain (from the same) 8 26. Doora Harvest (after Wilkinson) 9 27. Yines grown in Bowers (from Lepsius's " Denkmaler ") 9 28. Vines trained on Posts (after Wilkinson) 9 29. Egyptian Vase and Amphoras (from Lepsius's "Denkmaler ") 10 30. Rescuing Cattle from the Inundation (from the same) 10 31. Medicine administered to Cattle (from Rosellini's " Monumenti Civili ") 10 32. Marking of Cattle (after Wilkinson) H 33. Egyptian Sheep (from Lepsius's "Denkmaler") U 34. Egyptian Pigs, Hog and Sow (after Wilkinson) U S5. Egyptian Goats (from Lepsius's "Denkmaler") 12 86. Doorway of Tomb near the Pyramids (from Lepsius's " DenkmSler ") 12 37. Section of Pyramid, showing modes of completion (by the Author) 12 38. Pyramid of Meydoun (from Vyse's " Pyramids of Ghizeh ") 13 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PLITB. 39. Great Pyramid of Saccarab, present appearance (from the same) 13 40. Section of ditto (from the same) 13 41. Generel View of Tomb-chamber in the Third Pyramid (from Vyse's '• Pyra- mids of Ghizeh ") 14 42. Arrangement of the Blocks forming the roof (from the same) 14 43. Section of Third Pyramid, showing passages (from the same) 15 44. Sarcophagus of Mycerinus (from the same) 15 45. General Plan of the Pyramids of Ghizeh (from the same) 16 46. Section of the Second Pyramid (from the same) 16 47. Section of the Great Pyramid (from the same) 17 48. Relieving Stones at the entrance of the Great Pyramid (from the same) 17 49. Section of Gallery in Great Pyramid (from the "Description de I'Egypte "). 18 50. Rock-tomb near Thebes (after Fergusson) 18 51. King's Chamber and Chambers of Construction (from Vyse's " Pyramids ") 19 * 52. Section of Brick Pyramid at Illahoun (from the same) 19 53. Southern Stone Pyramid of Dashoor (from the same) 20 54. Outer-Casing Stones of the Great Pyramid (from the same) 20 55. View of the Great and Second Pyramids (from the "Description de I'Egypte") 21 56. " Doric " Pillar and Section of Base (from Rosellini's " Monumenti Civili "). 22 57. Egyptian Pillar and Section of Base (from the same) 22 59. Plan of Temple (after Fergusson) 22 60. Ground-plan of Temple at Medinet-Abou (from " Description de T Egypte") 23 61. Section of Temple (from the same) , 24 62. Section of Hall, Rameseum, Thebes (from the same) 24 63. Stelae in front of Granite Cell, Great Temple, Kamak (from the same) 24 64. Ground-plan of the Rameseum(f rom the same) 25 65. Internal view of the Hall of Columns in the Great Temple of Karnak (from the •• Description de I'Egypte ") 26 66. Ground-plan of Great Temple at Karnak (from the same) 27o 67. Internal view of the Small Temple at Karnak (from the " Description de I'Egypte") 276 68. Section of smaller Pillared HaU (from the same) 28 69. Ground-plau of Southern Temple, Karnak (from the same) 28 70. Mammeisi, or "Temple of the Mother of Gods." Elevation and Ground-plan (from the same) • 28 71. Egyptian Columns (from the same) 29 72. Egyptian Bell-Capitals (from the same) 29 73. Egyptian Lotus-Capitals (from the same) 30 74. Complex Egyptian Capital (from the same) 30 75. Caryatide Figures (from the same), 30 76. Egyptian Arches (after Wilkinson) 30 77. Egyptian DwelUng-house, outside view (from Rosellini's " Monumenti Civili") 31 78. Egyptian DwelUng-house, viewed from Internal Court (from the same) 31 ;9. Ornament of Window Sills 32 80. Ornamentation of Pavilion (from the " Description de 1' Egypte ") 32 81. Egyptian House, partly in section (from Rosellini's " Monumenti Civili ") 32 82. Ordinary Sphinx and Crio-Sphinx (from the monuments) . ... 32 83. Ground-plan and View of the Pavilion of Rameses EH., (from the " Descrip- tion de 1" Egypte.") S3 84. Bust of an Egyptian King (after Birch) 34 85. Egyptian Sitting Statue 34 86. Group of Two Statues, Husband and Wife (from " Description de 1' Egypt©"). 34 87. Egyptian Walking Statue 34 88. Egyptian Figures of Phthah and Bes (from the monuments) 35 89. Modelled Figures of Animals (from the " Description de 1" Egypte ") 35 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii FIG. PI ATE. 90. Egyptian Statuettes (from tlie same) 36 91. Head of Female, in a good Style (from the " Description de 1' Egypte ") . 36 92. Colossal Figure of Ramese.s II. (from the "Description de 1' Egypte ") 36 93. Sphinx of the Pyramids (from the same) 37 94. Hunting the Gazelle and Hare (from Rosellini's " Monument! Civili ") 3? 95. An EgyiJtian King destroying his Enemies (from the " Description de I'Egypte") 3a 96. Female Tumbler in an impossible Attitude (from Rosellini's "Monumenti Civili") 39 97. Figure of an Egyptian Priest (from Lepsius's ' ' Denkmaler ") 3& 98. Animals foreshortened (from the " Description de 1' Egypte ") 39 99. Rameses III. hunting the Lion (from the " Description de I'Egypte ") 40 00. Forms of Neith 41 01. Ammon-Khemand Ammon-Kneph. 41 02. Formof Sati 4] 03. FormsofKneph 42 04. Ordinary forms of Phthah 4'i 05. Ammon, ordinary form 43a 06. Forms of Khem 43a 07. Form of Maut 43a 08. Egyptian representations of the Gods Taourt, Savak, and Osiris (from the monuments) 43& 09. Egyptian drawing Water from a Reservoir (from Rosellini's " Monumenti Civili") 44 10. Forms of Ra 44 11. Formsof Turn 45 12. Form of Nef er-Tum 45 13. Form of Mentu 46 14. Formsof Shu 46 15. Forms of Osiris 46 16. Horus destroying the Great Serpent, Apap (after Wilkinson) 47 17. Forms of Horus 47 18. Forms of Athor 48 19. Forms of Isis 49 20. Forms of Khons 49 21. Forms of Thoth 50 22. Forms of Seb 50 23. Forms of Merula 51 24. Form of Netpe 51 25. Form of Aemhetp . . 51 26. Formsof Pasht 51 27. Forms of Nephthys 52 28. Formof Anuka 52 29. Formsof Ma 52 30. Forms of Taourt 53 31. FormofBes 53 32. Apophis and Turn (after Wilkinson) 53 33. SepulchralJirs with Heads of the four Genii 63 34. FormofTafn6 54 35. Form of Merseker 54 36. Form of Heka 54 37. Forms of Set 54 38. An Egyptian Priest 54 39. Egyptian Helmets (from Rosellini's ' ' Monumenti Civili ") 55 40. Ordinary Egyptian Shields (after Wilkinson) 55 41. Egyptian Coat of Mail (from Rosellini's "Monumenti Civili") , 55 42. Warrior with Shield of unusual size (after Wilkinson) 55 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PLATt 43. Infantry drilled by a Sergeant (from Rosellinis " Monumenti Cirili ") 55 44. Light-armed Troops marching (from Rosellini's " Monumenti Storici ") 56 45. Egyptian Slinger (from Rosellini's '" Monumenti Civili ") 56 46. Spearmen and Archers (from Rosellini's " Monumenti Storici ") 56 47. Egyptian Spear, Straight Sword, and Falchion (from the same) 56 48. Chariots in Battle (from the same) 57 49. Egyptian War Chariot, Warrior, and Horses (from the same) 58 50. War Chariot, with Bow-case, Quivers, and Javelins (from the same) 59 51. Egyptian Battle-axes and Pole-axe (from Rosellini's " Monumenti Civili"). . 69 52. Egyptian Clubs and Mace (from the same) 60 53. Egyptian Daggers (from the same) 60 54. Egyptian Bows (from the same) 60 55. Archer taking aim (from the same) 60 56. Archers stringing their Bows (from the same) 61 57. Egyptian Quivers (from the same) 61 58. Egyptian Trumpeters (from the same) 61 59. Egyptian Standards (from RoselUni's " Monumenti Civili ") 62 60. Siege of a Fort (after Wilkinson) 62 61. A Syrian Fort (from Rosellini's " Monumenti Storici ") 63 62. Egyptian War-galley (from Rosellini's" Monumenti Storici") 63 63. Escalading a Fort (f rom Lepsius's " Denkmaler") 64 64. Attack on a Fort (from Lepsius's •' Denkmaler") 65 65. Interior of an Egyptian camp (from Rosellini's " Monumenti Storici) 66 66. Egyptian Javelins (from the same) 67 67. Head-rest (after Wilkinson) 67 68. Egyptian Military Drum (after Wilkinson) 67 69. Egyptian Captive (from Rosellini's" Monumenti Storici") 67 TO. Prisoners of War escorted by their Captor (from the same) 67 71 . Egyptian undergoing the Bastinado (from tlie " Description de 1' Egypte ") 67 72. Egyptian Saw (from Rosellini's "Monumenti Civili") 68 73. Egyptian Porcelain Vase (from the same) 68 74. Process of smoothing Stone (from the same) 68 75. Women weaving (from the same) . 68 76 . Furniture-maldng (from the same) 69 77. Chariot-making (from the same) 69 78. Glass-blowing (from the same) 69 79. Specimens of ordinary Egyptian Pottery (from Lepsius's ' Denkmaler") . . 70 80. Elegant Vases and Amphorae (from Rosellini's " Monumenti Civili ") 70 81 . Specimens of Egyptian Glass (from various sources) 71 82. Potters at Work (from RoseUini's "Monumenti Civili" ) 71 83- Goldsmith at Work (from the same) 71 84. Egyptian Gold Vases (from the same) 72 85. Hai-poon and Fish-hooks (the harpoon from Rosellini, the hooks drawn by the Author from originals in the British Museum) 72 86. Building a Boat (from Rosellini's " Monumenti CiviH"). .' 73 87 . An Egyptian Gentleman's Pleasure Boat (from the same) 78 88. Ordinary Nile Boat in full sail (from the same) 74 89. Nile Boat (from Lepsius's "Denkmaler") 74 90. Chiselling a Statue (from Rosellini's "Monumenti Civili") 75 91 . Egyptian Sistrum 75 92. Bandof six Musicians (from RoseUini's "Monumenti Civili") 75 93. Boatmen quarrelling (from the same) 75 94. Egyptian Drag-net and Clap-net (from the same) 76 95. Egyptian Noble carried in a Litter (from the same) 76 96. Egyptian Sandals (from the same) T7 97. Spearing Fish (from the same) 77 Spearing the Crocodile (from the same) 77 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. CHAPTER I. THE LAND. ifeography of Egypt. Boundaries, Dimensions, and Character of the Country. Proportion of cultivable Territory. Dependence on the Nile. Course of the Nile — its Tiibutaries— Time and Causes of the Inimdation. Chief Divisions of the Territory : the Nile Valley ; the Delta ; the Fayoum ; the Eastern Desert; the Valley of the Natron Lakes. Character of the ad- joining Countries. AiyvnTOf . . . eniKTriTog te y^ /cat dupov tov norafiov. — HEROD. ii,5. The broad stretch of desert which extends from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean across Africa and Western Asia, almost to the foot of the Zagros mountain range, is pierced in one ^lace only by a thin thread of verdure. A single stream, is- suing from the equatorial regions, has strength to penetrate the ''frightful desert of interminable scorching sand," * and to bring its waters safely through two thousand miles of arid, thirsty plain, in order to mingle them with the blue waves of the Mediterranean. It is this fact which has produced Egypt. The life-giving fluid on its way through the desert, spreads verdure and fertility along its course on either bank ; and a strip of most productive territory is thus created, suited to at- tract the attention of such a being as man, and to become the home of a powerful nation. Egypt proper is the land to which the river gave birth,* and from which it took name,' or, at any rate, that laud to a certain distance from the Mediterranean ; but, as the race settled in this home naturally and almost necessarily exercises dominion beyond the narrow bounds of the valley, it is usual * and it is right to include under the name of "Egypt" a certain quantity of the arid territory on either side of the Nile, and thus to give to the country an 2 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. expansion considerably beyond that which it would have if we confined the name strictly to the fluvial and alluvial region. The boundaries of Egypt are, by general consent, on the north the Mediterranean, on the east the Eed Sea, and a line drawn from the head of the Gulf of Suez to the Wady-el- Arish, or "River of Egypt" of the Hebrews ;* on the south the first cataract (lat. 24° 5'), and a line drawn thence to the lied Sea at tlie ruins of Berenice ; on the west the great Libyan Desert, The tract included within these limits is, in the main, an irregular parallelogram, lying obliquely from N.N. W. to S.S.E., and extending about 520 miles in this direction, with a width of about 160 miles. From the parallelogram thus formed lie out two considerable projections, both triangu- lar, one of them on the southeast, having its apex at Berenice, a little outside the tropic of Cancer ;* the other on the north- east, having its base along the line of the Suez Canal, and its apex at the mouth of the El-Arish river. The area of the entire tract, including the two projections, is probably not much short of 100,000 square miles. Egypt is thus almost twice the size of England, and rather larger than the penin- sula of Italy.' Within these limits the character of the territory presents some most extreme and violent contrasts. A narrow strip of the richest soil in the world is enclosed on either side by regions of remarkable sterility : on the west by wastes of trackless and wholly unproductive sand, on the east by a rocky region of limestone and sandstone, penetrated by deep gorges, and pre- senting occasionally a scant but welcome vegetation. Towards the north the sandy region, interrupted by the Nile deposit, is continued again eastward of the Suez Canal in the desert, which stretches thence to the borders of Palestine ; while towards the south the rocky tract is prolonged a distance of 160 miles from Assouan (Syene) to Berenice. It is difficult to calculate with exactness the proportion of the cultivable to the unproductive territory. The Nile Valley, if we take its curves into account, extends from Syene to the Mediterranean, a distance of nearly 700 miles. ^ From Cairo to the Mediterranean it is not so much a real valley as a vast plain, from seventy to a hundred miles wide," with a superficies of at least 7,000 square miles.'" Above Cairo the Nile is hemmed in for above 500 miles between two rocky barriers, and the width of the valley varies from two to twelve, or even in some places fifteen miles, the average being calculated at about seven miles." This would appear to give an additional cultivable territory of above 4,000 square miles. Further, the district of Vol. I. Plate I. Fig. 1.— DoM Mio Date Paujis (from tiic Vc^,crLijtion).Se& Papre 25. Fig. 2.— IcaNKOUON (from the D^ciipliQn).—^^ Page 35. Plate IL Vol. I. Fig. 3.— Egyptian Hare (from the Description).— See Page 35. Ifig. 4.— Ibex, Oryx, amd Gazelle (.from the Monuuiftjts).— See Page 36. Fig. 5.— The Smaller Monitor (from the Description).—Se)Pi Page 37. THE LAND. 8 the Fayoum is reckoned to have a superficies of 400 square miles. The entire result would thus seem to be that the cultivable area of Egypt is 11,400 square miles, or 7,296,000 acres.'* It was found, however, by the scientific men who accom- panied the great French expedition at the close of the last century that the land actually under cultivation amounted to no more than 1,907,757 hectares,'^ or 4,714,543 acres. But tliey saw and noted that, besides this cultivated territory, there were considerable tracts quite fit for crops, which remained untilled. These they estimated to amount to 465,873 hec- tares,'* which is equivalent to 1,151,390 acres; so that the total cultivable land at the time of their observations was 5,865,833 acres. Another estimate,'* somewhat less exact, re- duced the amount to 5,189,625 acres. The difference between the cultivable area, and the actual su- perficies of the Nile valley, which appears to exceed 1,430,000 acres, is due chiefly to the fact that a considerable portion of the low country is occupied by sands. The verdure spread by the Nile reaches in few places the foot of the hills which enclose its vale. Sands intervene on both sides, or at any rate on one ; and while the entire width of the valley is estimated to average seven miles, the width of the productive tract is thought scarcely to average more than five.'* Sands also occur within the actual limits of the cultivated region." Again, the space occupied by the Nile itself and its canals, as well as by the Lake Moeris and various ponds and reservoirs, has to be deducted from the gross superficies. As the Nile itself aver- ages probably a mile in width from the point where it enters Egypt to the commencement of the Delta, and after dividing occupies certainly no less a space, and as the Lake Moeris is calculated to have an area of 150 square miles,'* the entire water surface is manifestly considerable, being probably not far short of 850 square miles,'* or 542,000 acres. The sands caiuiot be reckoned at much less than 1,500 square miles, or 960,000 acres.'" It is argued by M. Jomard that the occupation of the Nile valley by sands is wholly and entirely an encroachment, due \o the neglect of man, and maintained that anciently, under the Pharaohs, the sands were successfully shut out, and the whole of the plain country between the Libyan and the Arabian ranges brought under cultivation. He believes that the ad- ditional quantity of cultivable soil thus enjoyed by the ancient Egyptians was not much less than one-half of the present onl- tivable iirea. This calculation is probably in excess; but we 4 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. shall scarcely transcend the limits of moderation if we add one- fourth in respect of this difference, and view the productive area of the Nile valley in ancient times as somewhat exceeding seven millions of acres. A certain addition might be made to this amount in respect of the fertile territory included within the limits of the East- ern desert ; but the quantity of such territory is so small, and its productiveness so slight, that it will perhaps be better to make no estimate at all in respect of it. If, then, we regard the entire area of Ancient Egypt as amounting to from 95,000 to 100,000 square miles, and the cultivable surface as only about seven millions of acres, we must come to the conclusion that considerably more than seven-eighths of the soil, perhaps not much short of eight- ninths, was infertile and almost worthless. In fact, Egypt depends for her fertility almost wholly upon the Nile. The Arabian desert, which fences her in upon the right, is little less unproductive than the *' frightful" Sahara upon the left ; and, had the Nile not existed, or had it taken a different course, the depressed tract through which it runs from Syene to the Mediterranean would have been no less barren and arid than the Wadys of Arabia Petraea or even than the Sahara itself. The land, if not "the gift of the river" in the sense which Herodotus intended,^' is at any rate, as a country, created by the river^'^ and sustained by it ; and hence the necessity, felt by all who have ever made Egypt the subject of their pens, of placing the Nile in the forefront of their works, '^ and describing as fully as they could its course and its phenomena. The duty thus incumbent on every historian of Ancient or Modern Egypt is, at the present day, happily beset with fewer difficulties than at any former time. The long untrodden interior of Africa has been penetrated by British enterprise, and the hitherto inscrutable Sphinx has been forced to reveal her secrets. Speke and Grant, Baker, Livingstone, Gordon, and Cameron have explored, till there is little left to learn, the water S3'stem of the African interior ; and the modern historian, thanks to their noble labors, can track the mighty stream of the Nile from its source to its embouchre, can tell the mystery of its origin, describe its course, explain its changes and account for them, declare the causes of that fertility which it spreads around and of that un- failing abundance whereof it boasts, paint the regions through which it flows, give, at least approximately, the limits of its basin, and enumerate — in some cases describe — its tributaries. Tbe profound ignorance of seventeen centuries was succeededi THE LAND. 5 About ten years since, by a time of half-knowledge, of bold hypothesis, of ingenious, unproved and conflicting theories. This twilight time of speculation ^'^ has gone by. The areas occupied by the basins of the Xile, the Congo and the Zambesi are tolerably nearly ascertained. The great reservoirs from which the Nile flows are known ; and if any problems still remain unsolved,^* they are of an insignificant character, and may properly be considered as mere details, interesting no doubt, but of comparatively slight importance. The Nile, then, rises in Equatorial Africa from the two great basins of the Albert and Victoria Nyanzas, which both lie under the Equator, the former in long. 29° to 31° 30', tbe latter in long. 32° to 36°, E. from Greenwich.''* The Victoria Nyanza is a pear-shaped lake, w'itli the "stalk" at Muanza, in long. 33° and south latitude 3° nearly. It swells out to its greatest width between south latitude 1° and the Equator, where it attains a breadth of above four degrees, or nearly three hundred miles. After this it contracts rapidly, and is rounded off towards the north at the distance of about ten or fifteen miles above the Equator. From the "stalk" at Muanza to the opposite coast, where the great issue of the water takes place (long. 33° nearly), is a distance of not quite four degrees, or about 2T0 miles. The entire area of the lake cannot be less than 40,000 square miles. Its surface is estimated to be about 3,500 feet above the level of the ocean. ^' The other great reservoir, the Albert Nyanza, is a long and, comparatively speaking, narrow lake, set obliquely from S.S.E. to N.N.W., and with coasts that undulate somewhat, alternately projecting and receding. Its shores are still incompletely explored; but it is believed to have a length of nearly six degrees, or above four luindred miles, and a width in places of about ninety miles. Its average width is probably not more than sixty miles, and its area may be reckoned at about 25,000 square miles. Its elevation above the ocean is about 3,000 feet.*" The Albert and Victoria Nyanzas are separated by a tract of mountain ground, the general altitude of which is estimated at from 4,200 to 5,000 feet. The Victoria Nyanza receives the waters which drain from the eastern side of this range, together with all those that flow from the highlands south and east of the lake, as far in the one direction as lat. 4° south, and in the other as long. 38° east. Its basin has thus a width of eight degrees. The Albert Nyanza receives the streams that flow westward from the tract between the reservoirs, together with all those from the southwest and west, to a distance which is not ascertained, but which can scarcely fall 6 , HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. short of the 27th or 26th meridian. *' Its basin is thus at the least from four to five degrees in width, and is considerably longer than that of its eastern sister. Moreover, the Albert Nyanza receives, towards its nothern extremity, the whole sur- plus water of the Victoria by the stream known as the Eiver Somerset or Victoria Nile, wliich flows northwards from that lake as far as the Karuma Falls (lat. 2° 15' north) and then westward by Murchison's Falls and Magungo into the Albert. The stream which thus joins the two lakes may be regarded t» in some sense the Nile, or not so regarded, according as we l^lease ; but the river which issues from the northeastern ex- tremity of the Albert Nyanza, and which runs thence, with a course only a very little east of north, by Gondokoro to Khar- toum, is undoubtedly the Nile^" — all other streams that join it from right or left are mere affluents — and a description of the course of the Nile commences, therefore, most properly at this point, where the head streams are for the first time joined together, and the whole waters of the Upper Nile basin flow in one channel. The Nile quits the Albert Nyanza ^' in about N. lat. 2° 45', and runs with a course that is very nearly northeast to the first cataract^" (lat. 3° 36', long. 32° 2'), receiving on its way a small tributary, the tln-y-Ame, from the S.E., which enters it a few miles above the cataract, in lat. 3° 32'. Below the junction the river has a width between the reeds that thickly fringe its banks of about 400 yards, ^^ which expands to 1,200 a little lower,** where its course is obstructed by numerous islands. A rocky defile is then entered, through which tlie stream chafes and roars, reduced to a width of 120 yards, and forming a series of falls and rapids.^* At the same time the direction is altered, the river turning to the west of north, and running N.W. by N. till it touches long. 31° 30', w'hen it once more resumes its northeastern course, and so flows to Gondokoro. On the way are at least three further rapids ; but the stream is said in this part not to be unnavigable,^* as the volume of water is increased by numerous tributaries flow- ing in from the eastern mountains, one of which, the Asua, or Ashua," is of some importance. From Gondokoro the Nile is without obstruction until it reaches Nubia. The river in this part of its course flows through an almost interminable region of long grass, swamps, and marshes, with endless windings and a current varying from one to three miles an hour.^* Its banks are fringed with reeds and with tangled masses of water-plants, which make it impossible to calculate the real width of the stream ; the clear space between the water-plants is sometimes THE LAKt). 7 as little as 100, and scarcely anywhere more than 500 yards. The general course is from south to north, but with a strong bend to the west between lat. 6° and 9° 30'; after which the direction is east, and even partly south of east, to the junction with the Sobat (lat. 9° 21'). This river, which has a long and circuitous course from the Kaffa country augments the main stream with a considerable body of water. It is 120 yards wide at its mouth in the dry season, and is sometimes from twenty-seven to twenty-eight feet deep, with a current of be- tween two and three miles an hour.^* Between Gondokoro and the Sobat the Nile receives on its left bank the Bahr Ghazal from the Darfur country, and sends off on its right bank a branch — the Bahr Zaraffe or Giraffe river, ^^ — which leaves the main stream in lat. 5° 20' and rejoins it in lat. 9°, about thirty-six miles above the entrance of the Sobat river.*' After receiving the Sobat, the Nile, which has now about 700 yards of clear water,** runs through a flat and marshy country, with a slow stream and a course that is a very little east of north to Khartoum,'" in lat. 15° 36' 6", where it receives its chief affluent, the Bahr el Azrek or Blue Nile, which, until the recent discoveries, was considered by most geographers to be the main river. The Blue Nile rises in the highlands of Abyssinia, in lat. 11°, long. 37° nearly,** at an elevation of above 6,000 feet.*' Its course is N.N.W. to Lake Tzana or Dembea, which it enters at its southwestern and leaves at its southeastern corner. From this point it flows S.E. and then S. to the tenth parallel of north latitude, when it turns suddenly to the west, and passing within seventy miles of its source, runs W. by N. and then almost due northwest to Khartoum.*'' It receives on its way the waters of numerous tributaries, whereof the chief are the Rahad, the Binder, and the Tumet. In the dry season the stream is small ; *' but during the great rains it brings with it a vast volume of water, charged heavily with earthy matter of a red color, and contributes largely to the swell of the Nile and the fertilizing deposit which gives its productiveness to Egypt.*^ The White (or true) Nile at its junction with the Blue is about two miles in width, when the water is at a medium lieight.*' From this point it flows at first nearly due north, but after a while inclines towards the east, and where it re- ceives its last tributary, the Atbara, has reached its extreme easterly limit, which is E. long. 34° nearly. The latitude of the junction is 17° 37', according to Sir Samuel Baker.'" Here — 1,100 miles from its mouth — the river has its greatest 8 fiiSl'ORY OP ANCIENT EGYPT. volume. Between tlie Atbara junction and the Mediterranean not a single stream is received from either side ; and the Nile runs on for 1,100 miles through dry regions of rock and sand, suffering a constant loss through absorption and evaporation/' yet still pouring into the Mediterranean a volume of water which has been estimated at 150,566 millions of cubic metres a day in the low, and at 705,514 millions of cubic metres a day in the high season.*^ In lat. 17° 37' the volume must be very much more considerable. After receiving the Atbara, the direction of the Nile is N.N.W. for about 150 miles to Abu Hamed, after which it proceeds to make the greatest and most remarkable bend in its entire course, flowing first southwest, then north, then northeast, and finally, for a short distance, southeast, to Kor- osko, in lat. 23° 44', Cataracts are frequent in this portion of the river, ''^ and, at once to avoid them and shorten the circuitous route, travellers are accustomed to journey by camels for 230 miles across the Nubian desert," leaving the Nile at Abu Hamed and reaching it again at Korosko in about seven or eight days." From Korosko the general course is northeast for about sixty or seventy miles, after which it is north and a little west of north, to Assouan (lat. 24° 5'). Here Egypt begins — the longest cataract is passed — the Nubian granite and syenite give place to sandstone " — and the river having taken its last plunge, flows placidly between precipitous cliffs, less than three miles apart, with narrow strips of cultivable soil between them and the water." The course is north, witli slight deflec- tions to east and west, past Ombos (Koum-Ombos) to Silsilis,^ where the sandstone rocks close in and skirt the river for a dis- tance of three-quarters of a mile.^' The valley then expands a little ; there is a broadish plain on the left, in which stand the ruins of important cities f the stream bends somewhat to the west, until a little below Esn6 (Latopolis), the hills again ap- proach, the defile called the Gibelein, or "the two mountains," is passed, the sandstone ends, and is succeeded by limestone ranges ; " and the Nile, turning to the northeast, flows through the plains of Hermonthisand of Thebes, the first really wide space on which it has entered since it issued from the Nubian desert. Below Thebes the northern course is again resumed and continued to Dendyra (Tentyris), when the stream turns and flows almost due west to Abydos (Arabat-el-Matfour), thence proceeding northwest across tlie 27th parallel to Cusjb (Qousyeh) in lat. 27° 27'. The valley between Abydos and Cukb is from six to ten miles wide,®* and the left bank is watered by canals derived from the main stream. Beyond Cusse the course of the THE LAIfD. 9 Nile is once more nearly due north to Cynopolis (Samallout), in lat. 28° 18', after which it is N.N.E. to the Convent of St. Antony (lat. 39° 14'). A little below Cusas^' the Great Canal of Egypt, known as the Bahr-Yousuf, or " liiver of Joseph," goes off from the Nile on its left bank, and is carried along the base of the Libyan range of hills a distance of 120 miles to Zaouy ^ or Zouyieh (lat. 29° 22'), where it rejoins the main river. The Nile itself skirts the base of the Arabian range ; and the flat tract left between it and the Bahr-Yousuf, which is from seven to twelve miles wide, forms the richest and most productive portion of Middle Egypt. ^^ From the convent of St. Antony to the ruins of Memphis (lat. 29° 50'), the course of the Nile is again nearly due north, but about lat. 29° 55' it becomes west of north, and so continues till the stream divides in lat. 30° 13', long. 31" 10' nearly. In ancient times thq point of separation was somewhat higher up the stream,^* and the water passed by three main channels : *' the Canopic branch, which corresponded closely with the present Rosetta one ; the Sebennytic, which followed at first the line of the Damietta stream, but left it about Semennoud, and turning west of north ran into the Mediterranean through Lake Bour- Jos, in long. 30° 55' ; and the Pelusiac, which skirting the Arabian hills, ran by Babastis and Daphne through Lake Menzaleh to Tineh or Pelusium. The courses of these streams were respectively about 130, 110, and 120 miles. Thus the entire course of the Nile, from the point where it quits tlie Albert Nyanza (lat. 2° 45') to that of its most north- ern issue into the Mediterranean (lat. 31° 35') was a distance of nearly twenty-nine degrees, which is about 2,000 English miles. Allowing the moderate addition of one-fourtb for main windings, we must assign to the river a further length of 500 miles, and make its entire course 2,500 miles. *^ This is a length more than double that of the Tigris, more than one-fourth longer than that of the Euphrates, and consid- erably beyond that of the Indus, Oxus, or Granges. The Nile, it will have been seen, has not many tributaries. The chief are the Atbara and Bahr-el-Azrek (or Blue Nile) from Abyssinia, the Sobat from the Kaffa country, and the Asua from the Madi and adjacent mountains. These all flow in from the east or right bank. From the other side the only tributaries received are the Bahr-el-Ghazal,'^* which is said to give "little or no water," the Ye, which is described as a third-class stream,™ and another unnamed river of the same character." The important affluents are thus only the Sobat, the Bahr-el-Azrek, and the Atbara. 10 HISTORY OF AKCIENT EGYPT. Of these, the Bahr-el-Azrek has been described already.'* The Sobat is known only in its lower course. It is "the most powerful affluent of the White Nile,"" and is said to be fed by numerous tributaries from the Galla countr\' about Kaffa, as well as by several from the Berri and Latooka countries. The course of the main stream " is believed to be at first south, between the 10th and the 15th parallels, after which it runs southwest and then northwest to its junction with the White Nile in lat. 9° 21' 14". It has a strong current, and in the rainy season (June to January) brings down a large body of water, being at its mouth sometimes 250 yards wide" and nearly thirty feet deep.'* The Atbara is not a permanent river. In the spring and early summer, from the beginning of March to June, it is for upwards of 150 miles from its junction with the Nile, perfectly dry, except in places." In the deeper hollows of its sandy channel, at intervals of a few miles, water remains during these months ; and the denizens of the stream, hippopota- muses, crocodiles, fish, and large turtle, are crowded together in discontinuous pools, where they have to remain until the rains set them at liberty.'* This change occurs about the middle of June, from which time until the middle of Septem- ber the storms are incessaiit, and the Atbara becomes a raging torrent, bringing down with it in wild confusion forest trees, masses of bamboo and driftwood, bodies of elepiiants and buf- faloes, and quantities of a red soil washed from the fertile lands along its course and the courses of its tributaries. These are the Settite, the Royan, the Salaam, and the Angrab — all of them large rivers in the wet season, and never without water even at the driest time." Increased by these streams, the At- bara is, from June to September, a great river, being 450 yards in average width and from tAventy-five to thirty feet deep *° for many miles above its junction with the Nile, in lat. 17° 37' nearly. The great inundation of the Nile, which causes the peculiar fertility of Egypt, commences ordinarily towards the end of June or beginning of July, and continues till November or December. The rise at Cairo is in average years between twenty-three and twenty-four feet;®' but it is sometimes as much as twenty-six, and sometimes as little as twenty-two feet.*' In Upper Egypt, where the valley is narrower, the rise of course is greater. At 'i'hebes the average increase is reckoned at thirty-six feet, while at Syene (Assouan) it is about forty feet.*' On the other hand, in the open plain of the Delta the height to which the water rises is very much THE INUNDATIOK OP THE KILE. 11 less, being about twenty feet near Heliopolis, eleven at Xois and Mendes, and no more than four at tlie Rosetta and Dam- ietta embouchures.'** The extent to which the inundation reaches depends upon the height attained by the river. If the rise is under the average, much of the higher ground is left uncovered, and has to be irrigated with great trouble by means of canals and shadoofs or hand-swipes. If, on the con- trary, the average is much exceeded, calamitous results ensue ;** the mounds which keep the water from the villages are over- flowed or broken down ; the cottages, built of mud, collapse and are washed away ; the cattle are drowned ; the corn in store is spoiled, and the inhabitants with difficulty save their lives by climbing trees or making their way to some neighbor- ing eminence. Providentially, these excessive inundations occur but seldom ; the uniformity which characterizes the operations of nature is nowhere more observable than in Egypt ; and a rise of even two feet above the average is a rare and unusual occurrence. It has sometimes been supposed that, although within the time since Egypt has been subjected to modern scientific observation the results presented are thus uniform, yet in the course of ages very great changes have happened, and that still greater may be expected if the world continues to exist for a few more thousand years. Herodotus declares"* that less than nine hundred years before his visit to Egypt, or in the fourteenth century B.C.,*' the Nile overflowed all the coun- try below Memphis as soon as it rose so little as eight cubits ; and as in his own day, for the inundation to be a full one, the rise required was sixteen cubits, he concludes that the land had risen eight cubits in nine centuries. At such a rate of growth, he observes,'*'* it would not be long before the fields would cease to be inundated, and the boasted fertility of Egypt would disappear altogether. Had the facts been as he supposed, his conclusion would not have been erroneous ; but all the evidence which we possess seems to show that the rise of the Nile during the flood time has never been either greater or less than it is at present ; *' and that, though the land is upraised, there is no need of any greater rise of the river to overflow it. The explanation is,*"* that the bed of |the river is elevated in an equal ratio with the land on either side of it ; and the real effect of the elevation is rather to extend the Nile irrigation than to contract it ; for as the centre of the valley rises the waters at the time of their overflow spread further and further over the base of the hills which bound it — the alluvium gradually extends itself and the cultivable surface 12 BISTOHY OP ANCIENT EQYW. becomes greater." If tlie soil actually under cultivation be less now than formerly, it is not nature that is in fault. Mo- hammedan misrule checks all energy and enterprise ; the oppressed fellahin, havirig no security that they will enjoy the fruits of their labors, are less industrious than the ancient Egyptians, and avail themselves more scantily of the advan- tages which are offered them by the peculiar circumstances of their country. In one part of Egypt only does it seem that there has been any considerable change since the time of the Pharaohs. A barrier of rock once crossed the river at Silsilis, and the water of the Nile south of that point stood at a much higher level.'* Broad tracks were overflowed at that period which the inunda- tion now never reaches.'^ But these tracts belonged to Ethiopia rather than to Egypt ; and within the latter country it was only the small portion of the Nile Valley between "the first cataract " and Silsilis that suffered any disadvantage. In that tract the river does not rise now within twenty-six feet of the height to which it attained anciently;^'* and though the nar- rowness of the valley there prevented the change from causing a very sensible loss, yet no doubt some diminution of the culti- vable territory was produced by the giving way of the barrier. It has long been known ''^ that the annual inundation of the Nile is caused, at any rate mainly,'"' by the rains which fall in Abyssinia between May and September ; " but it is only re- cently that the entire Nile system, and the part pla3'ed in its economy by the Abyssinian and Equatorial basins, have come to be clearly understood and appreciated. The White Nile is now found to be, not only the main, but the only true river. Fed by the great Equatorial lakes, and supported by a rainfall which continues for more than nine months of the year, from February to November,''* this mighty and unfailing stream carries down to the Mediterranean a vast and only slightly varying'*' body of water, the amount of which may be esti- mated by considering the volume poured into the sea, eveii when the Nile is lowest, which is said to be above 150,000 millions of cubic metres daily.'"" The contribution of the Blue Nile at this season is so small,'"' that it must be considered a barely sufficient set-off against the loss by absorption and evaporation which the stream must suffer in the 1,400 miles between Khartoum and the sea, and thus the whole of the 150,000 millions of metres may be put to the account of the White Nile. Were the AVhite Nile diverted from its course above Khartoum, the Blue Nile alone would fail in the dry season to reach the Mediterranean : it would shrink and diS' tHE KILE YALLEY — THE DELTA. 15 appear long before it had passed tlie Nubian desert,'"* and Egypt would then be absolutely without water and uninhabi- table. But the abundant reservoirs under the Equator forbid this result, and enable the river to hold its own and make head against the absorbing power of the desert and the evaporating power of the atmosphere while it traverses a space of above sixteen degrees with a course which, including only main bends, cannot be far short of 1,400 miles. On the other hand, without the Abyssinian streams, it is doubtful whether the Nile would ever rise above its banks or flood Egypt at all. If it did, it is certain that it would leave little deposit, and have but a slight fertilizing power. '"^ The Atbara and Blue Nile bring down the whole of that red argil- laceous mud,'"* which being spread annually over the land forms a dressing of such richness that no further manure is needed to maintain Egypt in perpetual fertility and enable it to produce an endless series of the most abundant harvests that can be conceived. The fat soil is washed year by year from the highlands of Abyssinia by the heavy summer rains, and spread from Syen^ to Alexandria over the Egyptian low- lands, tending to fill up the hollow which nature has placed between the Libyan and Arabian hills. There will be no diminution of Egyptian fertility until the day comes when the Abyssinian mountains have been washed bare, and the rivers which flow from them cease to bring down an earthy deposit in their flood-time, remaining equally pellucid during all sea- sons, whatever their rise or fall. That day must, however, be almost indefinitely distant ; and the inhabitants of Egypt will not need for long ages to be under any apprehension of its productiveness suffering serious diminution. It has been customary among writers on Egypt to divide the country either into two or into three portions ; "" but to the present author it seems more convenient to make a five- fold division of the Egyptian territory. The Nile Valley, the great plain of the Delta, the curious basin of the Fayoum, the Eastern Desert, and the valley of the Natron Lakes are regions which have a natural distinctness, and which seem to deserve separate treatment. It is proposed, therefore, to describe these five tracts severally before proceeding to an account of tiie countries by which Egypt was bordered. The Nile Valley from Syene to the apex of the Delta is a long and narrow strip of the most fertile land in the world, extending from lat. 24° 5' to 30° 10', a distance of above six degrees, or 360 geographical miles. The general direction of the valley is from south to north j but during the greater 14 HISTORY OP AKCIENT EGYPT. portion of the distance there is a tendency to incline towards the west ; this prevails as far as lat. 28" 18', where E. long. 30° 40' is touched ; after which the inclination is for above a degree to the east of north as far as Atfieh, whence the valley runs almost clue north to the old apex of the Delta near Heli- opolis. Through these deflections the length of the valley is increased from 360 to about 500 geographical miles, or oSO miles of the British statute measure. The valley is extremely narrow from Syene to near Thebes,""^ where it expands ; "" but it contracts again below the Theban plain, and continues narrow- ish until How or Diospolis Parva, whence it is, comparatively speaking, broad '"** to about Atfieh. It is then again narrow '"' till it expands into the Delta below Cairo. The greatest width of the valley is about fifteen, the least about two miles."" In many parts, on the western side especially, a sandy tract in- tervenes between the foot of the hills and the cultivated terri- tory,'" which is thus narrowed to a width that rarely exceeds ten miles. The great plain of the Delta is, speaking roughly, triangular; but its base towards the sea is the segment of a circle, and not a straight line. The deposit which the Nile has brought down during the long course of ages causes a projection of the coast line, which in E. long. 31° 10' is more than half a degree in advance of the shore at Pelusium and at Marea. Like the Nile valley, the Delta is bounded on either side by hills ; on the west by a range which runs N. W. from Memphis to Lake Marea, and then W. to the coast near Tlinthine (long. 29° nearly); on the east by one which has a general northeasterly direction from Cairo to Lake Serbonis and Mount Casius."' The distance along the coast-line from Plinthine to Mount Casius is about 300 miles ; "* that from the apex of the Delta to the sea about a hundred miles."" It is believed that the old apex was about six miles higher up the stream than the present point of separation,"' which is in lat. 30° 13', whereas the old point of separation was about lat. 30° 8'. The en- tire Delta is a vast alluvial plain without a natural elevation of any kind; it is intersected by numerous streams derived from the two great branches of the Nile, and has experienced in the course of time very great changes in respect of its water- courses."^ The general tendency has been for the water to run ofE more and more towards the west. The Pelusiac branch, which was originally a principal one,"' is now almost entirely dried up ; the Tanitic and Mendesian branches have similarly disappeared ; the present most easterly mouth of the J^iie is the Daraietta one, which was originally the fourth, as LAKES WITHIN THE DELTA. 15 one proceeded along the coast from east to west. Even this conveys but a small proportion of the Nile watei*, and tends to silt up. At Eosetta there is a bar across the mouth of the river ; and the Mahmoudiyeh canal, which connects Alexan- dria with the Nile at Foueh, forms the only permanently navigable channel between the coast and the capital. The cause of this gradual change seems to be the current in the Mediterranean, which runs constantly from Avest to east along the Egyptian coast, and carries the Nile mud eastward, de- positing it little by little as it goes. Port Said is continually threatened with destruction from this cause, and it is only by constant dredging that the mouth of the canal can be kept clear. About one-fourth of the natural area of the Delta is occu- pied by lakes, which are separated from the sea by thin lines of rock or sand-bank. Commencing on the west we find, first, Lake Marea or Mareotis, which extends from Plinthine for thirty-five miles in a northeast direction, and runs inland a distance of five-and-twenty miles towards the southeast. Adjoining it on the east, and separated from it by only a nar- row strip of alluvium,"^ is Lake Menelaites (now Ma'dyeh), a basin of no great size, its dimensions being about ten miles by seven or eight. Both these lakes are protected from the sea by a low limestone range,"* which terminates in the rock forming the western extremity of Aboukir Bay. From this point as far as Mount Casius, the rest of the coast consists en- tirely of sand and alluvium.'"" South of Aboukir Bay is Lake Metelites {Edkou), with a length of twenty miles and a width of about ten, reaching on the one side nearly to Lake Ma'dyeh, and on the other to the Bolbitine or Eosetta branch of the Nile. At a little distance beyond the Eosetta branch com- mences Lake Bourlos (Lacus Buticus), which has a breadth of twenty miles with a length of nearly forty,"" and is divided from the Mediterranean by a thin tongue of sand extending from the Eosetta mouth to the most northerly point of Egypt, opposite Beltym. A broad tract of land now intervenes be- tween Lake Bourlos and the Damietta branch of the Nile; but east of the Damietta branch occurs almost immediately another lake, the greatest of all, the Lake Menzaleh, which has a length of forty-five miles and a width in places of nearly thirty. The country south and southwest of this lake is a vast marsh, "''^ containing only occasional dry spots, but the resort in all times of a numerous and hardy population,'^' Still fur- ther to the east, beyond the Pelusiac mouth, and beyond the limits o| the Delta proper, is Lake Serbonis, which has a 16 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. length of fifty miles, but a width varying from one mile only to six or seven. A low and narrow sand-bank, '°* mid- way in which the Mons Casius rises, separates this lake from the sea. It has been much disputed whether the Delta projects in- creasingly into the Mediterranean, and whether consequently it is now larger than in ancient times. The French savants who examined the country at the time of Napoleon's great expedition were decidedly of opinion that the coast-line advanced constantly, '^'^ and regarded the general area of the Delta as thus considerably augmented. They thought, how- ever, that as much land had been lost internally by the neglect of the old dykes, and the enlargement of Lake Bourlos and Menzaleh '^® as had been gained from the sea, and believed that thus the cultivable area of the Delta was about the same in their own day as anciently. On the other hand. Sir Gardner Wilkinson declares that the "Mediterranean has encroached, and that the Delta has lost instead of gaining along the whole of its extent from Canopus to Pelusium." He maintains that "the land is always sinking along the north coast of Egypt," and appears to think that the Nile deposit is barely sufficient to compensate for this continued subsidence. According to him '" "the Nile now enters the sea at the same distance north of the Lake Moeris as it did in the age of early kings of Egypt," and "the sites of the oldest cities are as near the seashore as they ever were." He thus believes the coast-line to have made no advance at all in historical times, and appears even to regard the remarkable projection of the land between the Canopic and Pelusiac mouths as an original formation and not the result of deposit. It is difficult to decide between two such weighty author- ities ; but it may be observed that the English Egyptologist is scarcely consistent with himself, since, while stating that the sea "has encroached," he allows that the Nile enters it at the same distance below Lake Moeris as formerly, which implies that the sea has not encroached. It may further be remarked that he gives no proof of the subsidence of tlie coast along the north of Egypt, and that his statement on the subject is open to question. On the whole, we may perhaps with most reason conclude that there is an advance, especially towards the east, whither the mud is swept by the ciirrent, but that the prog- ress made is slow and the gain of territory inconsiderable. The curious basin of the Fayoum has from a remote an- tiquity attracted the attention of geographers,"'* and in modern tijiies has been carefully examined and described by M. FAYOUM BASIN — EASTERN DESERT. 17 Jomard'^ and M. Linant de Belief onds."" It is a natural depression in the Libyan chain of hills, having an area of about 400 square miles, '^' of which 150 are occupied by a long and narrow lake,'"'- the Birket-el-Keroun (or "Lake of the Horn "), whose waters cover the northwestern portion of the basin. The whole track lies at a much loAver level than that of the Nile valley, with which it is connected by a rocky ra- vine about eight miles in length, '^^ having a direction from N.W. to S.E., and lying in about lat. 29° 20'. Originally the basin was most })robably cup-shaped ; but at present the ground within it slopes from the opening of the gorge in all directions — to the north, the west, and the south — the upper ground consisting of deposits of Nile mud, which have accumulated in the course of ages. A branch from the Bahr-Yoiisuf — still in use — was cotulucted in ancient times through the gorge ; and an elaborate system of irrigation,'^ involving the con- struction of numerous dykes, canals, and sluices, brought almost the whole tract under cultivation, and rendered it one of the most productive portions of Egypt. The lake itself — which is a construction of nature and not of art — was of great value as a fishery, '^^ and the Arsenoite nome, as the Avhole tract was called, took rank among the chief wonders of a most wonderful country.'^* The Eastern Desert is by far the largest of all the divisions of Egypt. Its length may be estimated at above 500 miles, and its average width at 130 or 140 miles. '^' Its entire area is probably not less than 65,000 square miles, or considerably more than two-thirds of the area of Egypt. It is in the main a region of rock, gravel, and sand, arid, waterless, treeless.'^ On the side of the Nile, the ridge rises in terraces,'^' which are steep and precipitous, presenting towards the west ranges of cliffs like walls ; after this, mountains alternate with broad gravelly or sandy plains ; the land gradually rises ; the eleva- tion of the hills is sometimes as much as 6,000 feet,'*" and is greatest about half way between the Nile and the Red Sea. The geological formation is limestone towards the north, sand- stone about lat. 25°, and granite in lat. 24°; but occasionally masses of primitive rock are intruded into the secondary re- gions,"' extending as far northward as lat. 27° 10'. In a few places the desert is intersected by rocky gorges of a less arid character, which furnish lines of communication between the Nile valley and the ]\ed Sea ; '^^ of those the most remarkable are, one about lat. 30°, connecting Cairo with the Gulf of Suez ; '■'^ a second, in lat. 26°, uniting Coptos and Thebes with Cosseir j '^ and a tliird^ branching off from the Nile \n IS HISTORY OF ANCIEKT EGYPT. lat. 25°, and Joining Edfou (Apollinopolis Magna) with Bere- nice,"* in lat. 23° 50'. Other similar gorges or ravines pene- trate into the desert region for a longer or a shorter distance, and then suddenly terminate. For the most part these valleys are, to a certain extent, fertile. Trees grow in them ; '^' and they produce in abundance a thorny plant, called basillah,^*'' which affords a sufficient nourishment for camels, goats, and even sheep. In places the vegetation is richer. "Delightful ravines, ornamented with beautiful shrubs," and producing date-trees and wild wheat, are said to exist in the northern portion of the desert,'^ while near the Ked Sea, in lat. 28° 45', the monasteries of St. Antony and St. Paul are situated in "verdant spots," and "surrounded with thriving orchards of dates, olives, and apricots." '"'* The great want of the region is water, which exists only in wells, scattered at wide intervals over its surface, and is always of an unpleasant and sometimes of an unwholesome character.'*" The only really valuable portion of the Eastern desert is that of Mount Zabara,'*' the region of the emerald mines, in lat. 24° 25', long. 35° nearly. The valley of the Natron Lakes '" is a long and narrow de- pression in the Libyan desert, lying chiefly between lat. 30° and 31°. It may be viewed as branching off from the valley of the Nile about Abousyr, between the great pyramids of Gizeh and those of Sakkara. Its general direction is from S.E.E. to N.W.W. ; and it thus runs parallel with the west- ern skirt of the Delta, from which it is separated by an arid track of limestone rock and gravelly desert, from thirty to fifty miles in width. The length of the valley from the point where it quits the Nile to the place Avhere it is lost in the sands south of Marea a little exceeds ninety miles. Tlie lakes occupy the central portion of the depression, lying between lat. 30° 16' and lat. 33° 24'. They are six in number, and form a continuous line, which is reckoned at six French leagues,'*^ or about sixteen and a half English miles. Their ordinary width is from 100 to 150 yards. The water is sup- plied from springs which rise in the limestone range bounding the valley on the northeast and flow copiously from midsum- mer till December, after which they shrink and gradually fail till the ensuing June.'*'* During the time of their failure some of the lakes become dry. Though the water of the springs which supply the lakes is quite drinkable, yet it contains in solution several salts, as especially the muriate of soda or com- mon sea salt, the subcarbonate of soda,'" or natron, and the sulphate of soda ; and these salts, continually accumulating in the lakes, which have no outlet, crystallize on their surf3,gp Vol. I. Plate III. Fig. 6.— The Great Monitor.— See Page 37. Fig. 7. — Fruit of the Nymphaa nelumbo. —See Page 30. ¥ig. 8.— Egyptian Ass (from the Monuments),— See Page 38. Fig. 9.— Egyptian Dogs Cfroiii the- — ^-^uients).- See Page 39. Plate IV. Vol. L Fig. 10.— Hyena caught in a Trap (from the Monu- Fig. 11. — Head of Egyptian ments.— See Page 34. Man.— See Page 50. Fig. 12.— 1. The Glossy Ibis; 2. The Ibis Religiosa (from the Description).— Page 4a Fia. 13.— The OmtHY>cur8 on JIizdeh.— See Page 43. BORDER COUNTRIES — ETHIOPIA, LIBYA. 19 in large quantities, and become valuable objects of com- merce. '°'* Excepting immediately round the lakes, there is little vegetation ; ^" yet the valley is permanently inhabited at the present day by the monks of three convents, besides being visited from time to time by caravans of merchants, bent on conveying its treasures to Cairo or Alexandria. South of the Natron Valley, and separated from it by a low ridge, is a water- less ravine, containing a quantity of petrified wood, which has been regarded by some as an old branch of the Nile,'^* and supposed to have a connection with the Birket-el-Keroun ; '^' but this latter supposition is entirely erroneous,'*" and it may be doubted whether the presumed connection with the Nile is not equally without foundation. '" The countries whereby ancient Egypt was bordered were three only, Ethiopia, Libya, and Syria including Palestine. Ethiopia, which lay towards the south, was a tract considera- bly larger than Egypt, comprising, as it did, not only Nubia, but the Avhole of the modern Abyssinia, or the tract from which flow the Atbara and Blue Nile rivers. It was also, in part, a region of great fertility, capable of supporting a numer- ous population, which, inhabiting a mountain territory, would naturally be brave and hardy.'** Egypt could not but have something to fear from this quarter ; but a certain degree of security was afforded by the fact, that between her frontier and the fertile portion of Ethiopia lay a desert tract, extend- ing for above six degrees, or more than 400 miles, between the mouth of the Atbara and Syene. The dangers of the desert might indeed be avoided by following the course of the Nile; but the distance Avas under such circumstances very considerably increased, the march from Meroe to Syene being augmented from one of 450 to one of 850 miles. Hence the ordinary route followed was that across the Nubian desert,'*^ a distance of not less than ten days' march for an army ; and thus, practically, it may be said that a barrier difficult to surmount protected Egypt on the south, and rendered her, unless upon rare occasions, secure from attack on that side. The vast tract, known to the ancients vaguely as Libya, and inhabited by Libyans, extended from the Delta and the Nile valley westward across the entire continent,"^ compre- hending all North Africa west of Egypt, excepting the small Greek settlements of Cyrene and Barca, and the Phoenician ones of Carthage, Utica, and Hippo. The geographical area was enormous ; but the inhospitable nature of the region, which is for the most part an arid and unproductive desert, though dotted with palm-bearing oascs^,'" rendered it in th^ 20 HISTORY OF AXCIEXT EGYPT. main unfit for the habitation of man, and kept the scattered tribes that wandered over its surface from multiplying. The portion of North Africa which borders on Egypt is particu- larly sterile and unattractive ; a scant and sparse population can alone contrive to find subsistence amid its parched and barren wastes ; and this population, engaged in a perpetual struggle for existence, is naturally broken up into tribes which regard each other with animosity, and live in a state of con- stant war, rapine, and mutual injury. Combination is almost impossible under such circumstances ; and thus the great and powerful monarchy of Egypt could have little to fear from the tribes upon its western frontier, Avhich were individually weak,'** and were unapt to form leagues or alliances. Once alone in the history of Egypt does any great attack come from this quarter, some peculiar circumstances having favored a tempo- rary union between races ordinarily very much disinclined to act together. On the east Egypt was protected along the greater portion of her frontier by a water barrier, a broad and impassable '*' moat, the Eed Sea and its western prolongation, the Gulf of Suez. It Avas only at the extreme north, where Africa is joined on to Asia, that on this side she had neighbors. And here, again, she enjoyed to some extent the protection of a desert. Egypt is separated from Sp'ia by the sandy tract, known to the Arabs as El-Tij, the "Wilderness of the Wanderings." The width of the desert is, however, not great ; armaes have at all times traversed it without much difficult}^ ; '^^ and with the support of a fleet, it is easy to conduct a force along the coast route from Gaza to Pelusium. Accordingly, we shall find that it was especially in this quarter, on her northeastern border, that Egypt came into contact with other countries, made her own chief military expeditions, and lay open to attack from formidable enemies. The strip of fertile land — alternate mountain and rich plain — which intervenes between the eastern Mediterranean and the Palmyrene or Syrian desert, has at all times been a nursery of powerful and warlike nations — Emim, Kophaim, Philistines, Canaanites, Israelites, llittites, Jews, Saracens, Druses. Here in this desirable region, which she could not help coveting, Egypt was brought into collision with foemen "worthy of her steel" — here was the scene of her early military exploits — and hence came the assault of her first really dangerous enemy.'*' Moreover, it was through this country alone, along this fertile but somewhat narrow strip, that she could pass to broader and richer regions — to Meso- potamia, Assyria, Asia Minor — seats of a civilization almost SYTt£/t AND PALESTINE. 21 as ancient as her own — wealthy, populous, well-cultivated tracts — next to the Nile valley, the fairest portions of the earth's surface. Thus her chief efforts were always made on this side, and her history connects her not so much with Africa as with Asia. For twenty centuries the struggle for the first place among the nations of the earth was carried on in these regions — Egypt's rivals and enemies were Syria, As- syria, Babylonia, Persia — her armies and those of her adver- saries were perpetually traversing the Syrian and Palestinian plains and valleys — the country between the "river of Egypt" and the Euphrates at Carchemish was the battle-ground of the "Great Powers " — and the tract is consequently one with which Egyjatian history is vitally connected. Its main features are simple and easily intelligible. A spur from Taurus "° detaches itself in E. long. 37°, and, skirting the Gulf of Issus, runs south and a little west of south from the 37th parallel to be- yond the 33d, where we may regard it as terminating in Mount Carmel. Another parallel range "' rises in Northern Syria about Aleppo, and, running at a short distance from the first, culminates towards the south in Hermon. Between them lies the deep and fertile valley of Coelesp-ia, watered in its more northern parts by the Orontes, and in its more southern by the Litany. Extending for above 200 miles from north to south, almost in a direct line, and without further break than an occasional screen of low hills, Coelesyria furnishes the most convenient line of passage between Africa and Asia, alike for the journeys of merchants and the march of armies. '" Below Hermon the mountains cease, and are replaced by uplands of a moderate elevation. The country is everywhere traversable ; but the readiest route is that which, passing from the Bukaa ''* over the hills of Galilee, descends into the plain of Esdraelon, and then, after crossing the low range which joins Carmel to the Samaritan highland, proceeds along the coast through the plain of Sharon and the Shephelah to the Egj^ptian frontier at the Wady-el-Arisli. Such are the chief features of Syria con- sidered strategically. It presents one, and one only, regular line of march for the passage of armies. This line of march is from south to north by Philistia, Sharon, the Esdraelon plain, Galilee, and the Coelesyrian valley, to the latitude of Aleppo, whence are several routes to the Euphrates. There is also one secondary line, which passing out of Galilee, to the northeast, and leaving Hermon and Anti-libanus to the left, proceeds by way of Damascus along the eastern skirt of the mountains to Chalcis, Gabbula, and Hierapolis. But directly, from west to east, through the Syrian desert, there is no route 22 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. that an army can traverse. Caravans may pass from Damascus by Palmyra to Circesium, and possibly may cross the desert by other lines and in other directions ; but such routes must be left out of sight when the tract is viewed strategically. The line of communication between Africa and Asia, between Egypt and the Mesopotamian plain, so far as armies are concerned, lies north and south, by Palestine and Ccelesyria to the latitude of Antioch and Aleppo. Politically, Syria, though scarcely suitable for the seat of a great power, is a country that may well hold a high secondary rank. Well watered and well wooded, possessing numerous broad valleys and rich plains, she can nurture a population of many millions, and in her mountain fastnesses can breed races of a high physical development and excellent moral qualities. The classical idea of Syrian weakness and sensuality "* belongs to comparatively late times, and applies especially to the in- habitants of luxurious and over-civilized cities. In the moun- tain regions of Libanus and Anti-libanus, on the table-land of Moab and Ammon, and even in the hill-tracts of Galilee, Samaria, and Judaea, the natives are naturally hardy, warlike, even fierce. The land itself is favorable for defense, possess- ing many strong positions, capable of being held by a handful of brave men against almost any numbers. Syria was thus by far the most powerful of the countries bordering upon Egypt ; and it was natural that she should play an important part in Egyptian history. Libya was too weak for offence, too poor to tempt aggression ; Ethiopia was too remote and isolated ; Syria alone was near, rich, attractive ; too strong to be readily overpowered, too freedom-loving to be long held in subjection, of sufficient force to be occasionally aggressive ; sure therefore to come frequently into collision with her neighbor, and likely to maintain an equal struggle with her for centuries. Above all, she lay on the road which Egyptian effort was sure to take ; she was the link between Africa and Asia ; she at once separated and united the countries which Avere the earliest seats of em- pire. If Egpyt were ambitious, if she strove to measure her strength against that of other first-rate powers, she could only reach them through Syria ; if they retaliated it was on the side of Syria that she must expect their expeditions. We shall find in the sequel that, from the time of the twelfth to that of the twenty-sixth dynasty, connection between Egypt and Syria, generally hostile, was almost perpetual, and that consequently to all who understand Egyptian liistory, a knowl- edge of Syria, both geographically and politically, is indis- pensable. CLIMATE OF EGYPT. 23 CHAPTER II. CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS. Climate of Egypt— of the Nile Valley— of tlie Eastern Highland. Vegetable Productions— Indigenous Trees and Plants— Plants anciently cultivated. Indigenous Wild Animals— Domesticated Animals. Birds, Tish, Reptilea, and Insects. Mineral Products. " Provincia . . vmni graiujrum ac leouwnum genere ferf i?is." Leo Afkic. viil, 1. In considering the climate of Egypt, Ave must begin by making a distinction between Egypt proper or the valley of the Nile, including the Delta, and that desert and (comparatively speak- ing) mountainous tract which intervenes between the Nile valley and the Red Sea, and which we have reckoned to Egypt in the preceding chapter." Tlie difference between the chmates of the two regions is considerable ; and no description Avhich should extend to both could be at once minute and accurate. The leading characteristics of the climate of the Nile valley are, combined warmth and dryness. In Southern Egypt, which lies but a very little outside of the tropic of Cancel*, the heat during the summer time is excessive, being scarcely sur- passed even by tjjat of Central Bengal, which lies under the same parallel. iThe range of the thermometer throughout this portion of the year is from 100° to 112° in the shade during the daytime.* At night, of course, the heat is less, but still it is very great. In Northern Egypt several causes combine to keep the summer temperature at a lower level. The difference in latitude, which is seven degrees, by substituting oblique for vertical rays, causes a certain diminution in the solar power. The spread of the inundation over the low lands, happening at this time,^ produces a general absorption, instead of a re- flection of the sun's rays ; while the prevalence of northerly and northwesterly Avinids, noted by Herodotus * as Avell as by modern observers,^ brings into the valley a continual current of air, coming from a cool quarter, and still further cooled by its passage over tlie Mediterranean. The summer may be considered to commence in April, and to terminate at the end of October. The heats at this time subside, and a mild pleas- ant temperature succeeds, which continues Avith little change throughout the remainder of the year, until summer comes round again. Hence, Egypt has been said to have but two 24 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. seasons, spring and summer.* Snow and frost are wholly un- known, and the temperature rarely falls below 40° of Fahren- heit.' The dryness of the Nile valley is very remarkable. In ancient times it was even believed that rain scarcely ever fell in any part of it. Mela* calls Egypt "a land devoid of show- ers;" and Herodotus regards even a slight drizzle Mn the Thebaid as a prodigy. These views are exaggerated, but rest upon a basis of truth. There is less rain in Egypt than in almost any other known country. In the upper portion of the valley, showers ordinarily occur oidy on about five or six days in the year,'" while heavy rain is a rare phenomenon, not witnessed more than once in every fifteen or twenty years. A continuance of heavy rain for two or three days is almost un- lieard of," and would cause the fall of many buildings, no provision being made against it. In Lower Egypt the case is somewhat different. At Alexandria and other places upon the coast, rain is as common in winter as it is in the south of Europe. But during the rest of the year, as little falls as in the upper country ; and at fifty or sixty miles from the coast the winter rains cease, the climate of Cairo being no less dry than that of the Thebaid. At the same time it must be noted that, notwithstanding the rarity of rain, the air is moderately moist, evaporation from the broad surface of the Nile keeping ^* supplied with a fair degree of humidity. in the desert tract between the Nile valley and the Eed Sea the air is considerably drier than in the valley itself, and the alternations of heat and cold are greater. In summer the air is suffocating, while in winter the days are cool and the nights positively cold. Heavy rain and violent thunder-storms are frequent at this season ; the torrent beds become full of w\ater, and pour their contents into the Nile on the one hand and the Red Sea on the other, A month or two later these beds are perfectly dry, and are covered with a drapery of green herbage, interspersed with numerous small flowers, until about May, when the heat of the sun and the oppressive wind from the Desert, known as the Khamseen, whithers them up, and nothing remains except a few acacia trees and some sapless shrubs from which only a camel can derive any sustenance." The Khamseen wind is one of the chief drawbacks upon the delights of the Egyptian climate. It arises for the most part suddenly, and without warning, from the south or south- west. "The sky instantly becomes black and heavy; the sun loses its splendor and appears of a dim violet hue ; a light varm breeze is felt, which gradually increases in heat till it VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 25 almost equals that of an oven. Though no vapor darkens the ftir, it becomes so gray and thick with the floating clouds of impalpable sand that it is sometimes necessary to use candles at noonday. Every green leaf is instantly shrivelled, and everything formed of wood is warped and cracked."'* The animal creation suffers. The pores of the skin are closed, and fever commences ; the hot sand entering the lungs, irritates them, and the breathing grows difficult and quick. Intense thirst is felt, which no drinking will assuage, and an intoler- able sense of discomfort and oppression spreads over the whole frame. In towns and villages the inhabitants remain secluded in their houses, striving, but in vain, to prevent the sand from entering through their doors and windows. In the open fields and deserts, where shelter is unattainable, they wrap their cloaks or shawls around their heads while the storm lasts, and pray that it may cease. If it continues for more than a day, their danger is great. Whole caravans and even armies are said in such cases to have been destroyed by its effects ; " and the solitary traveller who is caught in one can scarcely hope to escape. Fortunately, however, prolonged storms of the kind are rare ; their duration very seldom exceeds a day ; '* and thus upon the whole the Khamseen winds must be regarded rather as an annoyance and discomfort than as an actual peril to life.'* The vegetable productions of Egypt may be enumerated under the six heads of trees, shrubs, esculent plants, wild and cultivated, grain, artificial grasses, and plants valuable for medicinal or manufacturing purposes. The trees are few in number, comprising only the dom and date palms, the syca- more, the tamarisk, the mokkai/t or myxa, the su?it or acan- thus, and three or four other kinds of acacias. The dom palm {cucifera Thebaica) (Fig. 1), is among the most important of the vegetable products. It first appears a little north of Manfaloot" (lat. 27° 10') and is abundant throughout the whole of Upper Egypt. The wood is more solid and compact than that of the ordinary date tree. It is snitable for beams and rafters, as well as for boats, rafts, and other purposes which necessitate contact Avith water. The fruit is a large rounded nut, with a fibrous, exterior envelope ; it has a sweet flavor, very similar to our gingerbread. The na- tives eat it both unripe and ripe : in the former case its texture is like that of cartilage or horn ; in the latter it is very much harder, and has been compared with the edible part of the cocoanut.'* The wood of the dom palm was used by the ancient Egyptians for the handles of their tools," and for all 26 HISTORY OP ANCIENT EGYPT. other purposes for which a hard material was requisite ; from the shell of the nut they made beads, which took a high polish ; ^ the leaves served them for baskets, sacks, mats, cushions, and other textile fabrics, for fans, fly-flaps, brushes, and even for certain parts of their sandals.^' The do7)i palm is a picturesque tree, very different in its growth from the ordinary palm. Instead of the single long slender stem of its date-bearing sister, with a single tuft of leaves at the top, the do?n palm, by a system of bifurcation, spreads itself out on every side into numerous limbs or branches, each of which is crowned by a mass of leaves and fruit. '■''^ The bifurcation begins generally about five feet from the ground, ^^ and is repeated at intervals of nearly the same length, till an elevation is reached of about thirty feet. The blossoms are of two kinds, male and female,^'' from the latter of which the fruit is developed. This grows in large clusters, and attains the size of a goose's egg externally, but the nut within is not much bigger than a large almond.-* The date palm is too well known to require description here. In Egypt the trees are of two kinds, cultivated and wild. The wild tree, which springs from seed, bears often an extraordi- nary number of dates ; "^ but being of small size and bad qual- ity, they are rarely gathered. The cultivated kind is grown from offsets, which are selected with care, planted out at regular intervals,^' and abundantly irrigated. They begin to bear in about five or six years, and continue to be productive for sixty or seventy. In Roman times it was said that the dates grown in Lower Egypt were bad, while those of the Thebaid Avere of first-rate quality ; '^^ but under the Pharaohs we may be tolerably sure that a good system of cultivation produced fruit of fair quality everywhere. The wild tree fur- nishes, and has probably always furnished, the principal tim- ber used in Egypt for building purposes. It is employed for beams and rafters either entire or split in half,*^ and though not a hard wood, is a sufficiently good material, being tough and elastic. Tlie leaves, branches, and indeed every part of the tree, serve some useful purpose or other ; ^" the dates have always constituted a main element in the food of the people ; from the siip is derived an exhilarating drink ; from the fruit may be made, without much difficulty, wine, brand}'', and vinegar. The Egyptian sycamore (Ficus s//camorus) is another tree of considerable value. The fruit, indeed, which ripens in the beginning of June, is not greatly esteemed, being insipid, though juicy ; ^' but the shade is welcome, and the wood is of Vol. I. Plate V. Fig. 14.— The sic-sac or Troohilus.— See Page 41. Fig. l."!.— Egyptiax Child.— Page 50. Fig. 16.— The Egyptian Asp {Coluber }iaje).—See Page 44. Fig. 17.— Egyptian Plough.— See Page 81. Plate VI. Vol. I. Signs in common use. Signs employed more rarely. Equivalent in English. a-- — A. (as in father). M^^ ± (sounded as ee in see). S* — U (sounded as oo in food) J ^* B ■ "^K*^ P . - F G « (jr (deep guttural). u K • • 'K'TT (sounded like the ■*»--"- Hebrew .-j). — — D ^ ^ , 1 T %.- -^T M i N L S ]£ 1 SH |B H •^l 3i- J Fig. 18.-SeoPi\goG2. Vol. I. Plate VIL Fig. 19.— Mode of Plodghikg.— See Page 81. Fig. 20.— Egyptian Hoe.— See Page 82. Fig. 21.— Eg\ttiak8 Hoeing.— See Page 82. Plate VIII. Vol.1 Fig. £2.— Egyptian Man and 'Woman (from the MonumentSj.— Page 50. Fig. :i3.— BiNDLNG Wheat.— See Page 83. Fig. 34.— Oxen treading out Corn.- See Page 83. FJg. 35.— WiUNOwiNo —bee Page 5o. FIG SYCAMORE — MOKHAYT — ACANTHA. 27 excellent quality. It is hard and close-grained, well fitted for all kinds of furniture. The ancient Egyptians used it for head-rests/'* for figures or images/^ for coffins,*' and probably for many other purposes. Its superiority to most woods is shown in the fact, that the existing mummy-cases, which are in most instances made of it, have resisted the powers of decomposition for twenty, thirty, or even forty centuries. The tree grows to an extraordinary size in Egypt, some speci- mens, which have been measured, exceeding fifty feet in circumference. The moJchayt {Cardia myxa) grows to the height of about thirty feet, and has a diameter of three feet at the base.^' The stem is straight, and rises without brandies to a height of ten or twelve feet, when it separates into a number of boughs which form a large rounded head, rather taller than it is broad. The wood, which is hard and white, is employed in the manufacture of saddles."* The tree blossoms in May, and exhales at that time a delicious odor. Its fruit ripens about June, and is of a pale yellow color, Avith two external skins, and a nut or stone in the centre. The texture of the fruit is viscous, and the flavor not very agreeable ; but it is eaten by the natives, and the Arabs employ it as a medicine. In ancient times the Egyptians, we are told, obtained from it a fermented liquor, which was regarded as a species of wine.^' The sont or acantha {Mimosa Nilotica) is a tree of no great size, groves of which are found in many parts of Egypt. At present it is valued chiefly on account of its producing the gum arable ; ^^ but anciently it would appear to have been largely used in the construction of the boats engaged in the navigation of the Nile.^^ This is a purpose to winch it is still applied to some extent ;'"' but the wood of the dom palm, being found to answer better, is now employed more commonly. Herodotus says that the Nile boats were not only built of the acantha, but had also a mast of the same mate- rial. This, however, seems to be unlikely, as the wood is quite unsuited for that purpose. The other acacias which grow in Egypt are the lebbekh (Mimosa Lehheck of Linnaeus), the tiiM {Acacia gummifera), the fitneh {Acacia Farnesiana), the harras {Acacia alhida), and the scyal {Acacia Sei/al). Of these the last is the most important, since it furnishes the great bulk of the gum arable of commerce,'" while at the same time its wood is valuable, being both by color and textu i-e well adapted for cabinet work. The jenovaJ huu ii oiange with a daiker lieaft • the graiu i.^ 28 HISTOtlY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. close, and the material hard. It is generally believed to be the "shittim wood" of Scripture, which was employed for the Ark of the Covenant, and all the other furniture of the Tab- ernacle.*^ The seyal is "a gnarled and thorny tree, somewhat like a solitary hawthorn in its habit and manner of growth, but much larger." "* Its height, when full grown, is from fif- teen to twenty feet.** It flourishes in the driest situations, and is common in the Suez desert, in the tract between the Nile and Ked Sea, in the plain of Medinet-Habou, and in the environs of Syene. Among the shrubs and fruit-trees of Egypt the most im- portant are the fig, the pomegranate, the mulberry, the vine, the olive, the apricot, the peach, the pear, the plum, the apple, the orange, the lemon, the banana, the carob or locust tree {Ceratonia siliqua), the persea, the pal ma Christi or castor-oil plant {Ricinus commwiis), the nehk {Rhamnus nabeca), and the prickly pear or shoJc {Cactus opuntia). Of these, the orange, lemon, apricot, and banana are probably importations of comparatively recent times ; but the remainder may be as- signed, either positively or with a high degree of probability, to the Egypt of the Pharaohs. It is unnecessary to describe the greater number of these products ; but there are some with which the ordinary reader is not likely to be familiar, and of these some account must be given. The persea {Balanites ^gyptiaca), which is now rare in the Nile valley,** but is met with in the Ababdeh desert, and grows in great profusion on the road from Coptos to Berenice,*® is a bushy tree or shrub, which attains the height of eighteen or twenty feet under favorable circumstances.*' The bark is whitish, the branches gracefully curved, the foliage of an ashy gray, more especially on its under surface. The lower branches are thickly garnished with long thorns, but the upper ones are thornless. The fruit, which grows chiefly on the upper boughs, and which the Arabs call lalob,'^ is about the size of a small date, and resembles the date in general character.*' Its exterior is "a pulpy substance of a subacid flavor ;"*° the stone inside is large in proportion to the size of the fruit, and contains a kernel of a yellowish-white color, oily and bitter." Both the external envelope and the kernel are eaten by the natives. The sillicyprium, or castor-oil tree {Ricinus communis), grows abundantly in Egypt." It is a plant of a considerable size, with leaves like those of the vine,** and bears a berry from which the oil is extracted. This has medicinal qualities, and was used anciently for medical purposes ; ** but its main em- ESCULENT PLANTS — THE PAPYETJS. 29 ployment has always been as a lamp-oil of a coarse kind. According to Strabo, the common people in Egypt apphed it also to the anointment of their persons.^* The Jiebk or sidr {Rliamnus nabeca) is a fruit-tree common in Egypt, and in the interior of Africa/"' but not found in many other places. The fruit, whicli ri[)tMis very early in the year, usually in March or April/' is a lleshy substance of a texture not unlike tbat of the date, with a hard stone in the centre. It is eaten both raw and dried in the sun, the fleshy part being in the latter case detached from the stone. Its flavor is agree- able, and it is recommended as well suited for sustenance during a journey. ^^ One species of fig, called liamdt in Arabic, is indigenous in Egypt, and may often be found in desert situations, growing wild from clefts in the rocks.'' The fruit, called by the Romans "cottana,"*" and by the modern Arabs "qottayn," is small in size, but remarkably sweet. The esculent plants of Egypt may be divided into the wild and the uncultivated ; among those which grew wild, the most important were the byblus, or papyrus, the KymphcB lotus, the Lotus ccendea and the Nymphwa nelumbo. The byblus, or papyrus {Cyper-us impijrus), anciently so common in Egypt, is not now found within the limits of the country. It is a tall smooth flag or reed, with a large triangular stalk," inside of whicli is contained the pith from which the Egyptians made their paper. The paper was manufactured by cutting the pith into strips, arranging them horizontally, and then placing across them another layer of strips, uniting the two layers by a paste, and subjecting the whole to a heavy pressure.*'^ The upper and middle portions of the reed were employed for this purpose ; the lower portion, together with the root, was esteemed a delicacy, and was eaten after it had been baked in a close vessel.*^ The papyrus needed a moist soil, and was carefully cultivated in the shallow lakes and marshes, more especially those of the Sebennytic nome in the central part of the Delta. There was a second coarser kind — probably the Cypents dives of botanists ^ — which was employed in the construction of boats," of sails, "^^ of mats, baskets, sandals, and the like." The Nymphcea lotus, which nearly resembles our white water- lily,^ grows freely in the lowlands of tlie Delta during the time of the inundations, being found at that period in ponds and channels which are ordinarily dry.** In ancient times the peasants collected and dried the seed-vessels of this plant, which they crushed and made into cakes that served them for bread,™ 30 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. They also ate the rest of the phmt, which was considered to have " a pleasant sweet taste," " and was eaten either raw, baked, or boiled. A recent writer compares the flavor to that of " a bad truffle," and complains that the taste is " exceed- ingly insipid ;" " but it seems to have commended itself to the Egyptian palate, which was probably less fastidious than that of modern Europeans. The Lotus ccendea is scarcely more than a variety of the Nymphffia." Its blossoms, which are of a pale bine color, have fewer petals than those of the ordinary plant ; its leaves have a somewhat more oval shape, and are darker on their under surface. The seed-vessels and roots are almost exactly similar, though the Arabs pretend to make a distinction and to prefer the blue variety, which they call beshnin a'rahy, "the lotus of Arabs," while they term the white beshnin el-khanzi/r, "the lotus of pigs." '* Both the ordinary lotus and the ccsrulea were valued on account of their flowers, which were employed at banquets and woven into garlands for the guests." The Nelumbium, or Nymphcea nelumbo (Fig. 7), though not now found in Egypt, nor indeed in Africa,'* was beyond all doubt a denizen of the country in ancient times, though it may not have been indigenous." The Greeks and Romans knew it as "the Egyptian bean ;"''^ and the latter people re- garded it as so characteristic of Egypt that they used it con- stantly where they wanted an Egyptian emblem." It has the general features of the lotus tribe, growing in water, with round leaves which float on the top, and having a large conical bud, from which bursts a corolla of petals, that curve inwards, and form a sort of cup.*" The peculiarities of the nslumbo are the large size of its leaves, and the size and lovely color of its blossoms. The diameter of the leaf varies from a foot to a foot and a half ; the petals are six inches in length, and of a beautiful crimson or rose-purple hue. Tliey are arranged in two rows, one inner and one outer, while within them, at their base, is a dense fringe of stamens, surrounding and protecting the ovary. Here the fruit forms itself. It consists of a fleshy substance, shaped like the rose of a watering-pot ; *' and studded thickly with seeds, which project from the upper surface of the fruit, a circle about three inches in diam- eter. The number of the seeds is from twenty to thirty.^" They ara about the size of a small acorn, and contain inside their shell a white sweet-flavored nut or ahnond, divided into two lobes, between which is a green leaf or "corculum," which is bitter, and should be removed before the nut is eaten. This nut, and CULTIVATED VEGETABLES AND GRAIN". 31 also the root of the plant, were employed as food by the poorer classes among the ancient Egyptians.*** The cultivated vegetables of Egypt resemble in most respects those of the same class in other countries. They comprise peas, beans, lentils of two kinds, the loobieh (a sort of French bean), the endive, leeks, garlic, onions, melons, cucumbers, radishes, lettuce, capers, cumin, mustard, coriander, aniseed, and various others.*** There is a perpetual succession of these different esculents, some of which are constantly in season, while others have a longer or a shorter term. The melon and cucumber class flourishes especially, the varieties being nu- merous,*^ and the fruit growing to a great size. The lentils, which form the chief food of the lower classes,** are of good quality. The mustard, aniseed, and coriander seed were an- ciently in especial repute.*' The caper plant (Capparls spi- nosaj bears a fruit called lussuf by the Arabs, which is shaped like a small cucumber, and is two and a half inches long.** Only three kinds of grain seem to have been cultivated by the ancient Egyptians. These were wheat, barley, and the Holcus sorghum, or modern doora.^^ Of wheat, there are now produced in Egypt six varieties ; '° and it is supposed that the same sorts existed in ancient as in modern times.'' All of them but one are bearded, the others differing chiefly in color, and in the size of the ear. The common Egyptian wheat is white ; it is sown in November, and reaped early in April, after an interval of about five months.*' The barley cultivated is of two kinds, one red, and the other white. The two kinds are grown in about equal quantities, and are in equal repute.** The time of sowing, as with the wheat, is the month of No- vember ; but the grain is reaped much earlier, some coming to maturity in the latter half of February, while the remainder is harvested during the month of March.*'* There are five varieties of the door a ;'^^ but their differences are not impor- tant. Some is sown in November, and this ripens early in May ; some in April, which ripens in July ; and some in August, which comes to maturity in December. The doora is probably the "o/_?/ra" or "2;ea" of Herodotus, which (ac- cording to him) was the grain whereon the Egyptians mainly subsisted.'* Of artificial grasses, or plants cultivated as fodder for cattle, there were produced in ancient Egypt these four " — clover, vetches, lupins, and a plant called gxlhdn by the Arabs, and known to Pliny as the Lathyrus satwusJ^ The clover is thought to have been either the Trifolium Alexandrinum or the Trigo7iella fmnumgrcBcum, both of which are now common 32 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. in Egypt.'' The vetch was the Cicer arietinum of Linnseua and Pliny ; '°° the lupin was the Lupinus tennis, which is still known as termes to the Arabs.'"' These plants were, all ol them, of rapid growth, and some were capable of yielding three and even four crops in a year.'"* They were eaten green, and also made into hay, and stored up for the uso of the cattle during the time of the inundation.'"^ Among plants valuable for manufacturing and medicinal purposes may be mentioned, in the first place, those from which the Egyptians obtained oil for lamps and for anointing themselves. For the former purpose oil was obtained chiefly from three plants — the "kiki," or castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis), the seemga (Raphaiius oleifer-), and the simsi7n or sesame. The castor-oil plant has been already described : "^ it gives out an oil with an unpleasant smell, but one which is well suited for burning."'* The Egyptians obtained it either by pressing the berries, or by boiling them down and then skim- ming the oil from the surface.""^ The seemga, which now grows only in Nubia and the adjoining parts of Upper Egypt,"" was largely cultivated in ancient Egypt ; and, in Eoman times at any rate, its seeds furnished the great bulk of the oil con- sumed.'"* The sesame plant was also largely cultivated,^"' as it is at the present day, the oil extracted from its seeds being now reckoned the best lamp-oil in the country."" For anointing the body a greater number of oils were used. The poorer classes applied to the purpose even the unpleasant smelling "kiki;"'" and the sesame oil was used largely for adulterating the oils and unguents regarded as appropriate to the person."* But the richer classes employed either olive o\\ or unguents of a more expensive kind, such as were the "metopiom" or bitter-almond oil (amygdalinum),"^ the"cypri- num," "■* which was derived from the cypros, "a tree rcsem. bling the ziziphus in its foliage, with seeds like the corian. der," '" the "oenanthinum," "^ the "amaracum " or " samp- suchum," "^ the "cnidinum," yielded by a kind of urtica, oi nettle,"' and an oil derived from a species of grass called "chorticon."'" Altogether, Egypt was considered to be better adapted for the manufacture of unguents than any other coun- try,'*" and by a mixture of various ingredients recondite oint- ments were produced, which were regarded as of very superior quality.'*' For manufacturing purposes the plants chiefly cultivated by the Egyptians were flax, which was very largely grown, cotton, indigo, and the safflower or Carthamus tinctorins. Linen was the ordinary material of the undergarment with all classes in MEDICINAL PLANTS — WILD ANIMALS. 33' Egypt ; ''■''^ the priests could wear nothing else when officiat- ing ; ''^ all dead bodies were wrapped in it previous to inter- ment ; ^'^* and it was employed also for ropes,'" corselets,'*® and various other purposes. The representation of the flax harvest is frequent upon the monuments.'^' The kind chiefly culti- vated is believed to have been the Liiium usitatissimum,^'^ Avhich is now the only sort that is thought worth growing ; ''^^ but anciently cultivation extended, we are told, to four varie- ties, which were known respectively as the Butic flax, the Tanitic, the Tentyric, and the Pelusiac.'^" Cotton {Gossy- jnum lierbaceum) was a product of the more southern parts of Egypt ; '^' it was in almost equal repute with linen as a material for dress,''^'^ being preferred on account of its softness, though not regarded as possessing the highest degree of purity. Indigo and safflower were grown for the sake of the dyes which they furnished. Mummy-cloths were frequently stained with the safflower ; '^'^ while indigo was used to color textile fabrics of all kinds, '^^ and also for the ornamental painting of walls. '2» The number of medicinal plants and herbs produced in Egypt was matter of comment as early as the time of Homer. '^ Some of these grew naturally, while others were carefully cultivated. Among the former may be mentioned the colo- cinth,'" the cassia senna, '^ the Origanum ^■Egyptiacum,^^^ the myrobalanus '■*" or Moringa aptera,^^^ the Clematis JEgyptia ( Dajjhnoeides or Polygonoeides) ''** and two arums, '^^ probably the Arum arisarum and the Arum colocasia.^^ Among the latter, the most important were the anise '■** ( Pimjnnella aniswnj, an endive called "seris"'*"^ ( CicJioriu7n endiviaf), the coriander-plant '*' ( Coi'iandrujii sativum), the Corcho- rum '^ f 6'orcAor?i!5 olitorius), and the"cnecum" or "atrac- tilis," '■'^ which is thought to be the Carthamus Creticus.^^" Besides these, we find mentioned as medicinal plants produced in Egypt, the ''*' Apsinthius marinus,'''' ^^^ the balsam,'" the "acacalis," '^^ the " Cyprus," '" the " helenium,** '" the "myo- sotis," '°* and the "stratiotes,"'" There was also a medicinal use of the tamarisk,'^* the papyrus,'^' the Mimosa Nilotica,^^ the dom and date palm,'*' the pomegranate, '^'^ the myrtle,'" the locust-tree,'*^ the "persea," '*^ and many other plants. Among the Avild animals indigenous in Egypt the principal were the hippopotamus, the crocodile, the lion, the hyena, the wolf, the jackal, the fox, the ichneumon, the hare, the jerboa, the rat, the mouse, the shrew-mouse, the porcupine, the hedge- hog, and perhaps the bear, the wild boar, the ibex, the ga- zelle, three kinds of antelopes, the stag, the wild sheep, the 34 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. Monitor Nlloticus, and the wild-cat or Felis Cliaiis. The hip- popotamus seems in ancient times to have been common, even in the more nortliern parts of Egypt,''* and to chase it was a favorite amusement. By degrees it was driven southwards, and it is now uncommon even in Nubia,'" although occasion- ally it has been known to descend the river beyond the First Cataract, and to pass Syene or Assouan.'*^* The crocodile is still very common in Upper Egypt, but at present seldom descends below Manfaloot (lat. 27° 10').'*' Anciently, however, it was found along the whole lower course of the Nile, even to the close vicinity of the sea,'™ as well as in the Fayoum or Arsinoite canton.'" Notwithstanding its great size and strength, it is a timid animal, "flying on the approach of man, and, generally speaking, only venturing to attack its prey on a sudden." '" It will, however, seize and destroy men, if it take them at a disadvantage ; and instances of its sweeping incautious persons from the bank of the river into the water by the force of its tail, catching them as they fall into its huge jaws, and carrying them instantaneously to the bottom, are of no rare occurrence.'" Still, for the most part, it lives on fish, which abound in the Nile, and only oc- casionally indulges itself in the luxury of devouring warm- blooded animals. It is very unwieldy upon land, and never goes far from the water's edge, but still it passes a good deal of its time in the air, more especially during the summer months, when it delights in frequenting the sand-banks, where it sleeps with its mouth wide open and turned to the prevail- ing wind.""* Lions are not now found in any part of Egypt, nor anywhere in the Nile valley lower down than the junction with the Atbara.'" It is believed, however, that anciently they inhab- ited the Egyptian deserts on either side of the river ; "'^ and the monuments show us that they were tamed and used by the upper classes in the chase of gazelles and ibexes.'" Hyenas, wolves, jackals, and foxes are among the most com- mon of Egyptian wild animals.'"* The hyena of the country is the ordinary or striped hyena {IJy(Bna vulgaris) (Fig. 10). It is both carnivorous and graminivorous, feeding in part upon wheat and cloora, and doing great mischief to the stand- ing crops,'" while it will also attack cattle, and, on occasions, even man. In these cases, "it is a rude and dangerous an- tagonist." '^" It attacks by rushing furiously forward and throwing its adversary down by a blow of its large bony liead, after whicli it uses its fangs and claws. In a sandy place it will even (we are told) "" begin by throwing up a cloud of Vol. I. Plat»iX Fig. 26.— DooRA Harvest.— See Page 83. Fig. 27.— Vines Grown in Bowers.— See Page 8G. Fig. 28.— Vines Trained on Posts.— See Page 86. Plate X. Vol. I. Fig. 30.— Rescuing Cattle from the Inundation.— See Page 87. Fig. 31.— Medicine Administered to Cattle.— See Page 88. HYENAS AND ICHNEUMONS." 35 dust with its hind legs, and, after thus disconcerting its op- ponent, make its charge and bring him to the ground. The hyena was much dreaded by the Egj'ptian peasants, who lost no opportunity of checking its ravages, by hunting it or catch- ing it in traps.'** There is nothing that is remarkable in the jackals or foxes of Egypt ; but the wolves are peculiar. They are small in size,'*^ inactive in their habits,'*^ and never gre- garious. Usually they are met with prowling about singly ; and it scarcely ever happens that more than two of them are seen together.'** The ichneumon ( Viverra ichneumon) (Fig. 2) is a species of mangoust.'**^ It lives principally in Lower Egypt and the Fayoum,'*' and haunts the borders of the Nile and the culti- vated fields, where it conceals itself in the shallow ditches con- Etructed for the irrigation of the crops.'** It is excessively timid, and in the wild state is rarely seen. In length a full- grown specimen measures about two feet and a half, the body being fifteen inches long, and the tail of the same (or a little greater) length with the body.'*^ In a state of nature, it sub- sists chiefly upon eggs, and is said '^° to discover and devour great numbers of the eggs which the crocodile lays and leaves to hatch in the sand. It will also eat young birds and field- mice, if it finds the opportunity. The ichneumon has a sin- gular antipathy to snakes. No sooner does it see one, than it advances to the attack. On the snake raising its head from the ground, the ichneumon springs upon it, seizes it at the back of the neck, and with a single bite lays it dead at its feet."' Ichneumons are frequently tamed, and, when made inmates of houses, answer the purpose of cats, clearing the residence of rats and mice with great rapidity."* It is diffi- cult, however, to prevent them from appropriating such things as eggs, poultry, pigeons, and the like, on which account their services are for the most part dispensed with. "^ Many extraor- dinary tales were told of the ichneumon by the ancient nat- uralists,"'* who, like the early historians,'" aimed at amusing rather than instructing their readers. The Egyptian hare (Fig. 3) is in no respects peculiar, ex- cepting that it is smaller than that of Europe, and has longer ears.'^® The Jerboa {Dipus jaculus), which is common both in the upper and the lower country, presents (it is said "') two varieties, and can scarcely have been absent from ancient Egypt, though it is not represented on the monuments. The rat, mouse, and hedgehog, all of which are represented, require no description. The porcupine, which appears on the monu- ments frequently,"* is also too well known to need any comment. 38 HISTORY OF AKCIENT EGYPT. It is a disputed point wliether bears were ever indigenous in Egypt. On the one hand, we have the positive statement of Herodotus, '''^ that in his time they were not unknown there, although uncommon ; on the other, we have the facts, that they appear on the monuments only among the curiosities brought by foreigners,^"" that they are not now found there, and that no other author besides Herodotus assigns them to the locality. On the whole, it is perhaps best to suppose that Herodotus was, for once, mistaken. It seems very improbable that Egypt could have been in ancient times without the wild boar. Egypt is of all countries the one which pre-eminently suits the habits of the animal ; and it now abounds in the marshy regions of the Delta, and also in the Fayoum.^"' Yet representations of it are entirely absent from the monuments.^"' We may perhaps conjecture that the impurity, which attached to the domestic animal,'"* extended also to his wild congener ; and that though the wild boar existed in the country, he was not hunted, and so escaped representation in the only sculptures in which he was likely to have appeared, namely, those representing hunting scenes. The ibex, gazelle, oryx (Fig. 4), antelope, stag, and wild sheep were certainly hunted by the Egyptians/*** and were therefore, it is probable, denizens of some part or other of their country. The habits of these animals unfit them for such a region as Egypt Proper — the valley of the Nile and the Delta — but if we use the term "Egypt" in a looser sense, including under it the tract between the Nile Valley and the Eed Sea, together with a strip of the Western or Libyan desert, we shall find within such limits a very suitable habitat for these wild ruminants. The ga- zelle, the ibex, and the wild sheep are fetill to be met with in the Eas- tern Desert, especial- ly in the more south- ern part of it,*^"'' and the stag, according to some accounts, is occasionally to be seen in the vicin- •""' ity of the Natron GazeUes (from the monnmonts). Lakes. ^"^ The oryX, the antelope heisa, and the antelope addax inhabit Abyssinia ; *"' while the antelope dcfasm, which seems to be one of those most frequently hunted by the Egyptians, is found in the Western Desert.""^ This last is a large animal, standing about MONITORS — EGYPTTAIf H0RSE2. S"? four feet high at the shoulder, of a reddish sandy color, with a black tuft at the end of its tail. It is not improbable that anciently these several varieties of the antelope tribe had, one and all, a wider habitat than at present, and one which brought them within the limits of Egypt, in the more extended sense of the term. The wild-cat, or Felis cliaiis of Linnagus, is now common in the vicinity of the Pyramids and of Heliopolis,*^ but is neither depicted on the monuments*'" nor mentioned by any of the ancient writers on Egypt. It is, therefore, doubtful whether it inhabited the Egypt of the Pharaohs or not, though, as its introduction at any later period is highly improbable, it seems best, on the whole, to regard it as belonging to the class of indigenous animals. The monitor of the Nile {Lacerta Nilotica) (Fig. 5) is another animal, which, though not represented upon the sculptures, and not even distinctly alluded to by any ancient writer,*" must almost necessarily be regarded as an indigenous animal, an inhabitant of the Nile from remote antiquity. It is a species of lizard, about three feet long,*'* which passes its time mainly in the water, and is therefore called wurran-el- hahr, "the wurran of the river," by the Arabs. There is also another and even larger *'Mizard (the Lacerta scincus) (Fig. 6), which is a native of Egypt, a land animal, frequenting dry places, and called by the Arabs imirran-e'-gebd, "wurran of the mountains," or ?aren."— Niebuhk, " Vortrage uber alte Geschiclite, vol. i, p. 57. It is generally allowed by modern ethnologists that the ancient Eg3rptians, although located in Africa, were not an African people.^ Neither the formation of their skulls, nor their physi- ognomy, nor their complexion, nor the quality of their hair, nor the general proportions of their frames connect them in any way with the indigenous African races — the Berbers and the negroes. Nor, again, is their language in the least like those of the African tribes.^ The skull and facial outline, both of the ancient Egyptian and of the modern Copt, his existing representative, are Caucasian ; ^ and the Egyptian language, while of a peculiar type, has analogies which connect it both with the Semitic and with the Indo-European forms of speech, more especially with the former.'* We must regard the Egyp- tians, therefore, as an Asiatic people, immigrants into their own territory, which they entered from the east, and nearly allied to several important races of Southwestern Asia, as the Canaanites, the Accadians or primitive Babylonians, and the Southern or Himyaritic Arabs. It has been maintained by some ^ that the immigration was from the south, the Egyptians having been a colony from Ethiopia which gradually descended the Nile, and established itself in the middle and lower portions of the valley ; and this theory can plead in its favor, both a positive statement of Di- odorus,® and the fact, which is quite certain, of an ethnic con- nection between the Egyptians and some of the tribes who now occupy Abyssinia (the ancient Ethiopia). But modern research has shown quite unmistakably that the movement of the Egyptians was in the opposite direction. "The study of the monuments," says the latest historian of Egypt/ "furnishes PHYSICAL CHARACTEKISTICS. 49 incontrovertible evidence that the historical series of Egyptian temples, tombs, and cities, constructed on either bank of the Nile, follow one upon the other in chronological order in such sort that the monuments of the greatest antiquity, the Pyra- mids for instance, are situated furthest to the North ; while the nearer one approaches the Ethiopian cataracts, the more do the monuments lose the stamp of antiquit}^ and the more plainly do they show the decline of art, of beauty, and of good taste. Moreover, in Ethiopia itself the existing remains pre- sent us with a style of art that is absolutely devoid of origi- nality. At the first glance one can easily see that it represents Egyptian art in its degeneracy, and that art ill understood and ill executed. The utmost height to which Ethiopian civiliza- tion ever reached was a mere rude imitation, alike in science and in art, of Egyptian models." We must look then rather to Syria or Arabia than to Ethi- opia as the cradle of the Egyptian nation. At the same time we must admit that they were not mere Syrians or Arabs ;** but had from the remotest time whereto we can go back, distinct characteristics, whereby they have a good claim to be consid- ered a separate race. What was the origin of these special characteristics cannot indeed be determined until the nature of differences of race is better understood than it is at present. Perhaps in ancient times the physical traits of an ancestor were, as a general rule, more completely reproduced in his descendants than they now are ; perhaps climate and mode of life had originally greater effect. Some of the Egyptian characteristics may be ascribed to these influences ; some may, on the other hand, be confidently attributed to intermixture with African races, from Avhich they were far from holding altogether aloof. Their complexion was probably rendered darker in this way ; their lips were coarsened ; and the char- acter of their eye was perhaps modified.^ The Egyptians appear to have been among the darkest races with which the Greeks of the early times came into direct contact. Herodotus calls them "blacks;"'" but this is an extreme exaggeration, akin to that by which all the native inhabitants of Hindustan have been termed "niggers." The monuments show that the real complexion of the ordinary Egyptian man was brown, witli a tinge of red — a hue not very different from tliat of the Copt at the present day. The women were lighter, no doubt because they were less exposed to the sun : the monuments depict them as yellow ; but there can scarcely have been as much difference between the men's color and the women's as existing paintings represent. 50 HISTORY OF ANCIEXT EGYPT. The hair was usually black and straight. lu no case was it "woolly,"" though sometimes it grew in sliort crisp curls. Men commonly shaved both the hair and the beard, and went about with their heads perfectly bare, or else wore wigs or a close-fitting cap.'- Women always wore their own hair, and plaited it in long tresses sometimes reaching to the waist. '^ The hair of the wigs, as also that which is found sometimes growing on the heads of the mummies, is coarse to the eye of a European, but has no resemblance to that of the negro. The Egyptians (Eig. 11) had features not altogether unlike those of their neighbors, the Syrians, but with distinguisliing peculiarities. The forehead was straight, but somewhat low ; the nose generally long and straight, but sometimes slightly aquiline. The lips were over-full ; but the upper lip was short, and the mouth was seldom too wide. The chin was good, being well-rounded, and neither retreating nor project- ing too far. The most marked and peculiar feature was the eye, which was a long narrow slit, like that of the Chinese, but placed horizontally and not obliquely. An eyebrow, also long and thin, but very distinctly pencilled, shaded it. The coloring was always dark, the hair, eyebrows, eyelashes, and beard (if any) being black, or nearly so, and the eyes black or dark brown. In form the Egyptian resembled the modern Arab. He was tall ; his limbs were long and supple ; his head Avas well placed upon his shoulders ; his movements were graceful ; liis carriage dignified. In general, however, his frame was too spare ; and his hands and feet were unduly large. 1'he women were as thin as the men, and had forms nearly similar. Chil- dren (Fig. 15), however, appear to have been sufficiently plump ; but they are not often represented. The most ancient document which has come down to us bearing on the history of Egypt represents the Egyptian peo- ple as divided into a number of distinct races. We read of Ludim, Anamim, Lebahim, Naphtuhim, Pathrusim, Caslu- ' him and Caphtorim " as distinct "sons of Mizruim," v'.e., as separate tribes of the powerful people which inhabited the "two Egypts."'* It is suggested '^ that the Ludim were the "dominant race, or Egyptians proper, who were called in Egyp- tian hit or rut, i.e., men par excellence ;^'' that the Anamim were the Ann of the monuments, who were dispersed widely over the Nile valley, and gave name to On (Heliopolis) and other cities ; that the Naphtuhim {Xa-Phtah) were "the do- main of Phtah," or peo])le of ilomphis ; Pathrusim {P-tO' res) '' the people of the Souths" or inhabitants of the Thebaid, Vol. I. Plate XI Fig. 33.— Marking of Cattle.— See Page 8S. Fig. 33.— Egyptian-Sheep.— See Page 88. Fig. 34.— Egyptian Pigs, Hog, and Sow.— See Page I Plate XII. VoLt Fig. 35.— EayPTiAN Goats.— See Page 88. Fig. 37.— Section of Pyramid, showing MODES OF COMPLETION.— See Page 94. Fig. 36.— Doorway of Tomb, near thb Pyramids.— See Page 93.— Mote 6. IlTTELLECTtrAL CHARACTEEISTlCS. 51 etc. But these identifications are, all of them, more or less uncertain ; and it would seem that, whatever tribal differences may have existed at the first, they had disappeared, or all but disappeared, by the time that the history of Egypt becomes known to us. The only real distinction that remained was one between the people of the south country and those of the north, who had their respective peculiarities, and even spoke dialects that were somewhat different." Otherwise the vari- ous Egyptian tribes had been fused together and moulded into one compact aud homogeneous people before the time when history first takes cognizance of them. Intellectually, the Egyptians must take rank among the oremost nations of remote antiquity, but cannot compare with the great European i-aces, whose rise was later, the Greeks and Komans. Their minds possessed much subtlety and acuteness ; they were fond of composition, and made consid- erable advances in many of the sciences ; they were intelligent, ingenious, speculative. It is astonishing what an extensive literature they possessed at a very early date '* — books on re- ligion, on morals, law, rhetoric, arithmetic, mensuration, geometry, medicine, books of travels, and, above all, novels ! But the merit of the works is slight. The novels are vapid, the medical treatises interlarded with charms and exorcisms, the travels devoid of interest, the general style of all the books forced and stilted. Egypt may in some particulars have stim- ulated Greek thought,'' directing it into new lines, and giving it a basis to work upon ; but otherwise it cannot be said that the world owes much of its intellectual progress to this people, about whose literary productions there is always something that is weak and childish. In art the power which the Egyptians exhibited was doubt- less greater. Their architecture "was on the grandest scale, and dwarfs the Greek in comparison." '"" But even here it is to be noted that the higher qualities of art were wanting. The architecture produces its effect by mere mass. There is no beauty of proportion. On the contrary, the gigantic columns are clumsy from their undue massiveness, and are far too thickly crowded together. They are rather rounded piers than pillars, and their capitals are coarse and heavy. The colored ornamentation used was over-glaring. The forms of the ornamentation was almost always stiff, and sometimes ab- solutely hideous.^' In mimetic art the Egyptians might per- haps have done better, had they been at liberty to allow their Tiatural powers free scope. But they worked in shackles ; a dull dead conventionalism bore sway over the laud; and 52 HISTORY OF AliCIENT EGYPT. though some exceptions occur/* Egyptian mimetic art is in the main a reproduction of the same unvarying forms, without freedom of design or vigor of treatment. In morals, the Egyptians combined an extraordinary degree of theoretic perfection with an exceedingly lax and imperfect practice. It has been said ^^ that " the forty-two laws of the Egyptian religion contained in the 135th chapter of the Book of the Dead fall short in nothing of the teachings of Chris- tianity," and conjectured that Moses, in compiling his code of laws, did but " translate into Hebrew the religious precepts which he found in the sacred books " of the people among whom he had been brought up. Such expressions are no doubt exaggerated ; but they convey what must be allowed to be a fact, viz., that there is a very close agreement between the moral law of the Egyptians and the precepts of the Deca- logue. But with this profound knowledge of what was right, so much beyond that of most heathen nations, the practice of the people was rather below than above the common level. The Egyptian women were notoriously of loose character, and, whether as we meet with them in history, or as they are de- picted in Egyptian romance, appear as immodest and licen- tious.^* The men practised impurity openly, and boasted of it in their writings ; "^^ they were industrious, cheerful, nay, even gay, under hardships,^'* and not wanting in family affection ; but they were cruel, vindictive, treacherous, avaricious, prone to superstition, and profoundly servile. The use of tlie stick was universal. Not only was the bas- tinado the ordinary legal punishment for minor offences,*' but superiors of all kinds freely beat their inferiors ; the poor peasantry were compelled by blows to satisfy the rapacity of the tax-gatherers ; ^^ and slaves everywhere performed their work under fear of the rod, which was applied to the backs of laggards by the taskmaster.''^ The passions of the Egyp- tians were excessive, and often led on to insurrection, riot, and even murder ; they were fanatical in the extreme, ever ready to suspect strangers of insulting their religion, and bent on washing out such insults by bloodshed. Wheii conquered, no people were more difficult to govern ; and even under their native kings they needed a strong hand to keep them in sub- jection. But though thus impetuous and difficult to restrain when their passions were roused, they were at other times timid, cringing, submissive, prone to fawn and flatter. The lower classes prostrated themselves before their superiors ; blows were quietly accepted and tamely submitted to. The great nobles exhibitad equal servility towards the monarch, whom MOBAL CHARACTER — POPULATION OF EGYPT. 53 they addressed as if he were a god/" and to whose kind favor they attributed it that they were allowed to continue to live.^' Atogether the Egyptians were wanting in manliness and spirit. They at no time made good soldiers ; and though they had some considerable successes in their early wars, when they attacked undisciplined hordes with large bodies of well-disci- plined troops, yet whenever they encountered an enemy ac- quainted witli the art of war, they suffered defeat. As allies, they were not to be depended on. Always ready to contract engagements, they had no hesitation in breaking them where their fulfilment would have been dangerous or inconvenient ; and hence their neighbors spoke of Egypt as a " bruised reed, whereon if a man lean, it will go into his hand and pierce it."^^ Another defect in the Egyptian character Avas softness and inclination to luxurious living. Drunkenness was a common vice among the young ; ^' and among the upper class generally sensual pleasure and amusement were made, ordinarily, the ends of existence. False hair was worn ; dyes and cosmetics used to produce an artificial beauty ; ** great banquets were frequent ; games and sports of a thousand different kinds were in vogue ; ^* dress was magnificent ; equipages were splendid ; life was passed in feasting, sport, and a constant succession of enjoyments. It is true that some seem not to have been spoiled by their self-indulgence, or at any rate to have retained in old age a theoretic knowledge of what was right ; ^* but the general effect of such a life cannot but have been hurtful to the character ; and the result is seen in the gradual decline of the Egyptian power, and the successive subjections of the country by hardier and stronger races, Ethiopians, Assyrians, Persians, and Macedonian Greeks. There is considerable difficulty in determining the amount of the population of ancient Egypt. Josephus gave the number at 7,800,000 in his day," when the ]oopulation was probably less numerous than under the native knigs. Diodorus prefers the round number of 7,000,000, and says that in his time the population was not less than it had been under the Pharaohs.^ An English scholar of repute ^^ regards 6,000,000 as the max- imum of the census of ancient Egypt, while another'*" is con- vinced that the real amount was not above 5,000,000. If the class of professional soldiers really numbered above 400,000 men, as Herodotus declares,*' that class being only one out of seven, distinct altogether from the priests, the herdsmen, the shopkeepers, the boatmen, the swineherds, and the interpret- ers,*' it is difficult to resist the conviction that the native 54 HISTORY OF AKCIENT EGYPT. E^ptians alone must have amounted at the least to five mil- lions. To this a considerable addition, an addition of probably not less than one-third, must be made for slaves *^ and casual visitors, which would raise the sum total of the population nearly to the estimate of Diodorus. As such an estimate, even if confined to the Nile valley, the Delta, and the Fayoum alone, would not imply a density of more than about 600 to the square mile, — a rate less than that of East Flanders and of many English counties which are not particularly thickly peopled, ""• — -it may well be accepted as probably not in excess of the truth. We have now to pass from the consideration of the Egyp- tians themselves to that of the peoples, or nations, who inhab- ited the neighboring countries. The nations which bounded Egypt on the east, the Avest, and the south, belonged to three distinct races, and bore in the Egyptian language three distinct appellations. To the west were the Ribu or Libit, who may safely be identified with the Libyans of the Greek historians and geographers, the in- habitants of the entire north coast from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean,'** after whom the Greeks called the whole continent "Libya." The monuments represent this people as a white race, with blue eyes and fair hair : it has been conjectured that they came originally from Northern Europe,'** and crossed into Africa by way of Spain and Italy. Probably they found in the countries which they overran a darker people, with whom they intermingled, and into which they were ultimately absorbed ; but in the earlier Egyptian period this change had not taken place, and the Egyptians represented them as de- scribed above, emphasizing (it may be) and exaggerating the tints which were to them strange and unaccustomed. The Kibu, or Lib3^ans, called sometimes Tahennu,'" were numerous and warlike ; but under ordinary circumstances they were greatly divided, and the occasions Avere "few and far between" on which union was so far established that they became formi- dable to any of their neighbors. Once only in Egyptian his- tory was the kingdom of the Pharaohs seriously threatened from this quarter, when in the reign of Menephtah, the son of Rameses IL (about B.C. 1250), a great invasion of Western Egypt took place under the conduct of the "chief of the Ribu,'"** and a doubtful cont(>Rt was waged for some time between this prince and the Egyptian monarch. Towards the south, Egypt had for her immediate neighbors the JVahsi or Nahasu,*'^ wlio were blacks and (it is thought) true negroes, with out-turned lips and woolly hair, and who were NATIONS BORDERING ON EGYPT. 55 found in the Nile valley beyond the First Cataract, and in the country on either side of it, or in all the more northern por- tion of the tract which is now known as Nubia. The tribes of the Nahsi were numerous; their temper was "turbulent and impatient of subjection ;"''^ they rejected civilization, wore scarcely any clothes/' and made frequent inroads on the more southern of the Egyptian provinces with a view to plunder and rapine. The Egyptian kings were forced to lead expeditions against them continually, in order to keep them in check and punish their depredations ; but no serious danger could ever menace the monarchy from enemies who, though numerous, were ill-armed, scattered, and quite incapable of coalescing. Beyond the Nahsi, however, further to the south, and in- clining to the east of south, was a formidable power — a nation known to the Egyptians as the Kish or Kush, and to the Greeks and Romans as the Ethiopians, Avho occupied the broad tract lying between the Nile and Bahr-el-Azrek on the one hand, and the Atbara on the other, '^'- extending perhaps also across the Atbara, and at times holding the Nile valley along its entire course from Khartoum to the borders of Egy])t." This people Avas not of negro blood, but is to be regarded as Caucasian.^ It was ethnically connected with the Canaanites, the southern Arabians, the primitive Babylonians or Accadians, and with the Egyptians themselves. Its best modern repre- sentatives are probably the G-allas, Agau, Wolaitsa, etc., of modern Abyssinia. This people formed, at any rate in the later Egyptian times, a single settled monarchy, with a capital at Napata {Gebel Berkel) or at Meroe (Dankalah).^^ They were to a considerable extent civilized, though their civiliza- tion does not appear to have been self-originated, but was due to Egyptian influence. They were numerous, warlike, of great strength,"^ and more than common height ;" they possessed a fair amount of discipline, and were by far the most important of the enemies against whom the Egyptians had to contend in Africa. On their eastern border, where it was not washed by the Red Sea, the Egyptians came into contact with tribes which they called by the generic name of Afmi, "people," or perhaps "herdsmen," '*' whom they seem to have regarded with a special contempt and dislike.^' They had from a remote period been subject to aggression in this quarter ; and a portion of the Amu had actually effected a lodgement within the territory naturally belonging to Egypt,*" and held all the northeastern portion of the Delta about the Lake Menzaleh and the cities known as Zoan (Zan, Tanis) and Rameses.*^' These Amu were. 56 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. of course, Egyptian subjects ; but there were likewise Amu beyond tlie Egyptian borders, in Syria and Palestine, who were almost perpetually at war with Egypt in the earlier times. Of these Amu the most important tribes were those of the Khita or Kheta ("Children of Heth," "Hittites"), the Kharu (Chere- tliites?), and the Kutennu, who seem to represent the Syrians. Another enemy of the Egyptians in this quarter was the people called SJiatiu, perhaps identical with the Hyk-sos,*'^ and seem- ingly Arabs. Ordinarily the Shasu were not regarded as a formidable foe ; *^ but once in the course of Egyptian history, owing to circumstances that are unexplained, they made a great invasion, conquered all the lower country, and for many years held it in subjection. Otherwise one would have said that Egypt had little to fear from her immediate neighbors upon the east, who were at once numerically weak, and powerless through their multitudinous divisions.*^ There was, however, a danger in this quarter, at which it is necessary to glance. Beyond the line of Egypt's immediate neighbors, beyond the Amu and the Shasu, Syria and Arabia, further to the east and the northeast, in the great Mesopota- mian plain, and the highland by which it is overlooked, were to be seen, hazily and dimly through the intervening space, the forms of giant empires, already springing into being when monarchy in Egypt was still young, from whose rivalry the foresight of the wise may have discerned that peril would ulti- mately ensue, though the day of contact, and so of trial, might be far distant. A civilized State rose in the alluvial plain upon the Lower Tigris and Euphrates not very long after the birth of civilization in Egypt. ^* As time went on, a second great monarchy and a third were formed in the countries above the alluvium. These empires were, like Egypt, aggres- sive, aiming at a wide, if not a universal, dominion. Col- lision between them and Egypt was inevitable ; and the only question was when it would occur. Its occurrence was the great danger with which Egypt was threatened from the first. When the collision came, it would be seen whether Asia or Africa was the stronger, whether Egyptian discipline and skill and long experience were a match for the spirit, the dash, the impetuous valor of the Asiatics. Until such time, the great African kingdom was, comparatively speaking, secure, and might calmly address itself to the maintenance and devel- opment of its arts, its industries, and its material prosperity generally. EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE. 57 CHAPTEE IV. LANGUAGE AND WRITING. Proposed Mode of Treatment. Geneial Character of the Language. Connec- tion of the Ancient Kgyptian with the Coptic. Three Foi-ms of Egyptian Writing. The Hicroglypliic Signs Pictorial. The Signs of four sorts, Re- presentative, Figurative, Determinative, and Phonetic. Table of the most common Phonetics: otlier Phonetics. Number of the Signs. Arrangement of the Writing. Signs for Numerals— for Gods— for Months. Egyptian Grammar. AiyuiTTiot . . . SLavTai. — HeROD. 11, 36. It is not proposed in tlie present chapter to attempt anything more than a popular, and so a superficial, account of the sub- jects put forward in the heading. To discuss thoroughly the Egyptian language and writing would require a work of the full dimensions of that which is here offered to the public, and would besides demand an amount of linguistic knowledge to which the present writer makes no pretension. It may be added that such a discussion would scarcely be suited to the general reader, who cannot be expected to interest himself deeply in a matter which is confessedly of a recondite char- acter, not to be mastered without prolonged study, and, when mastered, only of value to persons who intend to devote them- selves to the sciences of Egyptology or comparative philology. Such persons may be referred, though the reference is scarcely necessary, to the excellent works of Champollion, Lepsius, Brugsch, Birch, and De Kouge, on the writing, the grammar, and the vocabulary of the ancient Egyptians ' — works whicli treat the difficult subject in a most masterly way, and which leave no branch of it untouched or even incompletely exam- ined. Speaking generally, the Egyptian language may be de- scribed as "an agglutinate monosyllabic form of speech,"* presenting analogies, on the one hand, with Turanian, on the other with Semitic tongues. The grammar is predominantly Semitic : the pronouns, prepositions, and other particles, are traceable for the most part to Semitic roots ; the Semitic sys- tem of pronominal suffi.\-es is used, at any rate partially. On the other hand, the vocabulary is Semitic in comparatively few instances, its main analogies being with the Accadian, Mongolian, and other I'nranian tongues. As is generally the 58 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. case with Turanian languages,^ the bulk of the roots are pecul- iar, standing separate and unconnected with any other form of speech. The modern representative of the ancient Egyptian is the Coptic, which, though corrupted by an Arabic infusion, is its legitimate descendant, and which continued to be spoken in the lower part of the Nile valley until the seventeenth century. At present a dead language, it is known to us chiefly from the translations into it of the Old and New Testament,'* which are still in use in Egypt, being read in the Coptic churches, though not "understanded of the people." It is mainly through the Coptic that the ancient Egyptian language has received its, interpretation. Egyptian writing is of three distinct kinds, which are known respectively by the names of Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and De- motic or Enchorial.^ The hieroglyphic is that of almost all monuments, and is also found occasionally in manuscripts. The hieratic and demotic occur with extreme rarity upon monuments, but are employed far more commonly than the hieroglyphic in the papyrus rolls or "books" of the Egyptians. Both of them are cursive forms of the hieroglyphic writing, invented to save time, and suited for rapid wi'iting with the pen, but in no way suited for carving upon stone and mani- festly not intended for it. They have been called "abbreviated forms ;"^ but this is scarcely correct, for they occupy more space than the corresponding liieroglyphics ; but they could be written in (probably) one-tenth of the time. There is not much difference between the hieratic and the demotic. The '- former was the earlier of the two, having been employed as far back as the time of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, or perhaps even earlier ; ' it preserved the hieroglyphic forms to a certain extent. These are nearly lost in the demotic, Avhich appears to have been introduced about the seventh cen- tury B.C.,* and which rapidly superseded the hieratic, being simpler and consequently easier to write. Both the hieratic and the demotic were written from right to left, Vol. I. Plate XIII. Fig. oS. — PYHAiUD OF Meydoun.— See Page 93. ^^ Fig. 39.— Great Pyramid of Saccarah.— See Page 192, miuHiiii X .\\V ^ — \\ v.\ .v,\ 1.1 ..,. .. .V,.r>: Fig. 40.— Section of same, soowing Original Construction.— See Page 93, I'late XIV. Vol. I. Fig. 41.— General View of the Tomb-Chamber of the Third Pyramid.— Page 94. TiV~ -^o _ A DTj * x!mr\nrKT nv th k I {locks FORMINfi THE KOOF . — See Page 95. Vol. t Plate XV. Fig. 43.— Section or the Third Pyramid, Showing Passages.— See Page ! Fig. «.— Sarcophagus oj: Bi>;wwa.u's.-See Page 95. Mate Xf t. Vol. I Fig. 45.~Genbral Plan of the Pyramids of GHiZEH.~See Page 96. /r .#¥' Fig. 46.-SECTION OF THE SECOND PYRAMID .-bee Pug« %. VARIOUS USES OP THE HIEROGLYPHICS. 59 It is the essential characteristic of the hieroglyphic. writing, that all the forms used, if we except those expi-essive of num- ber, are pictures of objects. At the tirst glance, we see in a hieroglyphic inscription a multitude of forms, those of men, women, children, beasts, birds, reptiles, insects, human hands, legs, eyes, and the like, with Avhich w^e are familiar ; but these shapes are mixed up with others, not so readily recognized, which seem to us at first sight not imitative, but conventional, as circles, squares, half-circles, ovals, triangles, curved lines, wavy lines, small segments of circles, circles crossed diagonally, and the like. Investigation, however, shows that this apparent difference is not a real one. All the forms used are pictures, more or less successful, of objects which they were intended to represent. The circle e represents the sun ; the curved line, placed either way, ( or ^'~^, the moon ; the oval C^, an egg ,' the square, with an opening, n a house ; the pointed oval, CI> a mouth, etc. Originally, it would seem, Egyptian writ- ing was entirely picture writing, nothing being capable of being represented by it but objects and actions that the eye could Bee. Ultimately, however, the system became much more com- plicated ; and the hieroglyphics, as employed in the historical times, must be divided into at least four clases. First, there were some which continued to be used m the old way, to desig- nate the object represented, which have been called "ikono- graphic, representational, or imitative hieroglyphics." ' These were such as the circle for the sun, the curved line or crescent for the moon ; a figure of a man, a woman or a child for an actual man, woman, or child ; a picture of a soldier armed with bow and quiver for a soldier ; etc. These direct repre- sentations were used in two ways : either they stood alone to represent the object intended, or they followed the name of the object written phonetically. "Thus the word i?«, 'sun,' might be written in letters only, or be also followed by the ikonograph of the solar disk (which, if alone, would still have the same meaning) ; and as we might write the word ' horse,' and place after it a figure of that animal, so did they after their word Mr or htor, ' horse ' J ^^^' ^^ *^® *^^^ ^^^^ ^^'^ or Joh, * moon,' was followed by the crescent !'«+-' ^•v^ and rot, ' mankind,' by a figure of a man and woman ^ J." "* In these cases it is evident that the ikonograph was mere sur- 60 HISTOftY OF ANCIENT EQYKT. pliisage ; but perhaps it facilitated the rapid reading of the word preceding it. Secondly, the characters were used figuratively, or symbol- ically. Thus a circle Q represented not only "the sun," but als "a day," and a curved line or crescent ,**—>» not only "the moon," but also "a month." Similarly, the representation of a pen and inkstand na stood for "writing," "to write," "a scribe ; " a man pouring out a libation from a vase/^, or a vase with liquid pouring from it /^, or even a simple vase in- verted j[ , signified "a priest;" an egg q meant "a child," "a son;" a seated figure with a curved beard, "a god" •^ ; and, with a remote connection, but still with a connection that can be easily traced, a bee Vj/ stood for "king,"" a vul- ture '*1k for "mother," ^"^ a serpent for "god " /[) > a palm- branch \ for "year," a "goose" "^^ for "son," two water- plants of different kinds for "the Upper and the Lower Egypt." Again, the fore-part of a lion «2» meant "the begin- ning " of anything, and the hind-quarters ^ " the end ; " a leg within a trap jC meant "deceit ;" the head and neck of a lion erect 6^ meant " vigilance ; " and, with a symbolism that was obscurer and more recondite, a beetle (scarabaeus) ^i^ meant the "world," an ostrich feather ^ "justice," and a man killing himself ii "wickedness" or "atrocity."" A third use of the hieroglyphics was as "determinatives." These were most commonly added after proper names, and showed the class to which they belonged. Thus a word fol- lowed by the sitting figure with a curved beard ^ is known to be the proper name of a god ;'■* one followed by the figure of a man VK is the designation of a man ; one accompanied by a PHONE*ncs. 61 circle with a cross inside it © is the name of a place in Egypt ; one followed by a sign intended to represent mountains ^ ^ ^ is the name of a foreign country ; and so on. Names more- over which are not, strictly speaking, proper names, but desig- nate classes, have determinatives attached to them marking their genus. The name of any particular kind of animal, as ana, ibex," mau, "cat," etc., has a determinative after it resembling a short mallet W , which is supposed to represent the skin and tail of an animal,'^ and shows that the word whereto it is attached designates some species of beast. So the names of classes of birds are followed by the figure of a bird'Sk,, of reptiles by a snake "^"^j of plants by a water-plant , of flowers by three blossoms «S3«, of buildings by the sign for house n.'* Finally, the great bulk of the hieroglyphics in all inscrip- tions are phonetic, standing either for letters or for syllables," most commonly the former.'* The Egyptians, like the Phoe- nicians, resolved speech into its elements, and expressed these elements by signs, which had the exact force of our letters. In choosing their sign, they looked out for some common ob- ject, with a name of which the initial element was identical with the sound they wanted to express. Thus, alclidm being the name of an eagle in Egyptian, the eagle was made the sign of its initial sound, A ; the name of an owl in Egyptian being moulag, the figure of an owl was made to express M.'* But, unfortunately, the Egyptians did not stop here. Not content with fixing on one such sign in each case to express each elementary sound, they for the most part adopted several. An eagle, the leaf of a water-plant, and a hand and arm to the elbow were alike employed to represent the sound A. The sound B was expressed by a human leg and foot, and also by a bird like a crane, and by an object resembling a flower-pot. '"^ For M there were four principal signs, an owl, two parallel straight lines joined at one end by a diagonal, a form some- thing like a sickle, and a sort of double-headed baton. There were four forms for T, three for N, for K, for S, for J,*' for KH, and for H, while there were two for L or R (which the Egyptians regarded as the same), two for SH, two for I, for U, and for P. The letters F and D were about the only ones that were represented uniformly by a single hieroglyphic, the former by the cerastes or horned snake, the latter by a hand with the palm upwards," 62 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. Besides the ordinary phonetics (see Table), the Egyptians had a multitude of signs whith could be used phonetically in certain groups, more especially at the beginning of words, but which were of comparatively rare occurrence. Lepsius gave, in 1837, a list of 54 such signs ;-■' but the subsequent course of research has added largely to them. There are probably not less than lOU signs of this kind, some of which represent let- ters, some syllables, their special characteristic being that they can only be used in certain groups. Many of them occur only in single Avords, as the crux ansata 9, in anhh, "life," "living," "flower," •■* — the outstretched arms with palms downwards, *-n— , in nen, the negative particle. ^^ — the croco- dile's tail, ■:3Hii , \\\ Kem, Kemi, "Egyj^t" or " black ;" *^ and the like. The subjoined table (Fig. 18), will give the general phonetic alphabet of the Egyptians according to the best recent author- ities. Altogether the number of signs used is not less than from nine hundred to a thousand ; '" and hence the difficulty of read- ing the inscriptions, even now that — thanks to the Rosetta stone — the veil has been lifted. The student has to bear in mind the force of (say) a thousand characters, and not only so, but the various forces that many of them have, as representa- tive, as symbolic, as determinative, and as phonetic. He has to settle to his own satisfaction, first, the class to which they belong in each instance, and secondly, the value which they have. He has also to determine whether any are purely super- fluous, the Egyptians having had a fancy both for repeating characters unnecessarily, and also for expressing the same sound twice over by variant signs. The hieroglyphics are sometimes written in column, one over another ; but this is, comparatively speaking, a rare arrangement. In general, as in most other forms of writing, the characters are in line, with only an occasional superinscrip- tion of one sign over that which in pronunciation follows it. Tijey are read, when written in line, from left to right, or from right to left, according to the direction in which the characters face.^* This direction is most clearly seen in the human and animal forms ; but it is not confined to these, most characters fronting one way or the other. The direction is from left to right, if the characters face to the left, and vice versa. In hieroglyph ical writing the numerals from one to nine are expressed by vertical strokes, which, between three and ten, are collected in two groups, thus : — 4 5 6 7 8 9 II II til II III III lill III MM III! riMi nil HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS— EGYPTIAN- GRAMMAR. 63 12 3 I II III Ten is expressed by a sort of arch or doorway n ; twenty by two such arches n n ; thirty by three n fl fi ; and so on. For the hundreds the sign is the same as one of those employed to express ?/, ® ; for the thousands, it is the same as one of those employed to express kJi, j ; and for ten of thousands, it is a form used also to express 7i, \. Thenumber 21,553 would be expressed in a hieroglyphical inscription thus: — | ] T ^5 ^^^ It may be added that most of the Egyptian gods have special signs significative of them, which are either human or animal figures, or the two intermixed. Their names, however, are also expressed phonetically, as Amun (Ammon) by I z"-*^, Phthah or Ptah by ' f, and the like. Signs which cannot be regarded as phonetic designate the several months, as ""T^ I|I^, which designates Thoth, the first month, corre- sponding to our September: V' iitm, which designates Paopi, thesecond month ; '~—^ ^ .which designates Phamenoph, the seventh month ; ' ' i i g^ , which is the sign for Mesore, the twelfth month. ^* In conclusion, a few remarks will be added on the subject of Egyptian grammar. The Egyptian language admitted all the nine parts of speech, but was very deficient in conjunctions and interjections. It had a single article only, which was the defi- nite one, corresponding to the English "the." The article was declined, being jo^jl^'W^ in the masculine singular,^" td ^ Jfcsiii the feminine singular,^' and nd 1^^ in the plural of both genders.'* Substantives form the plural by adding u, as neter, "a god," we^em,^^"gods," ta, "a land," tau, "lands," uar, "a prince," uarUy "princes," etc. Adjectives, participles, and possessive pronouns do the same. The feminine is made by adding t 64 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGTPT- (^\ as sa or se, "a son," set, "a daughter ;" j9a neter aa, "the great god ;" td asbutu aat, "the great throne ; " sa neb, "every man;" hat nebt, "every building;" and the like. There is said to be no dual ; ^^ but we find the form ta ( J^ ), "land;" doubled for two lands, ^;s=-, and tripled for more than two, thus, "tt^ . Tripling a sign is a common mode of expressing the plural, which is otherwise signified by the addi- tion of three vertical lines Neither 1 1 1 or IV Pronouns were either used independently or suffixed. Tlie independent form for "I" was anak or anuk, which is plainly identical with the Hebrew '33X, the Assyrian anaku, and the Moabite anak. The form for " thou " was ntek (fern, net) ; for "he," ntef, or su ; for "she," 7ites ; for "we," nenanen ; for "ye," fituten ; for "they," ntesen {jiatsen), or sen. The forms su and sen may compare with the Hebrew ^^Ti and jn ; but otherwise the resemblance to the Semitic is not close. The suffixed pronoun of the first person singular was -a, which might be expressed either phonetically by I, or by the figure of the speaker ; that of the second person singular was, in the masculine - ^ (expressed by "^^^ F ^^ rP)^ ^^ *^® ^^^' inine -^ (expressed by either s=> or •) ; the ordinary suffix of the third person masculine was ■/ (expressed by * — )j of the third person feminine -s (expressed by either -— or I' ) ', but there was also a masculine form -su ( 1^ or 1 © ) to express "him," and a feminine form -st ("^ or U^ or n c=3) to express "slae," "her," etc. In the plural the suffix of the first person was -n (a«««^) or -nu (TTT ^^ Si *^' ^^ ^^^^ second -ten (^^) or -tenu (^^ or "^ or ^ •); of the III ^ third -w(\ i)-««^(TT7)' or (most commonly) -senu (ex- pressed variously).^ The form -stu (p jT.) is likewise found. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 65 Tliere were also in Egyptian a set of independent possessive pronouns, produced by combining the article in its three forms {pa, ta, and no) with the above suffixes, the form of the article being determined by the object possessed, that of the suffix by the possessor. Thus "my father " is expressed by pa-i-a (itef, "thy father" by pa-i-k atef, "his father" by pa- i-f atef, "our father" by pa-i-nu atef, "your father" hy pa-i- te nil atef, and "their i-^tliev'''' hy pa-i-u ox 2)(i-i-senu atef. If "mother" be substituted for "father," the pronouns become ta-i-a, ta-i-k, ta-if, ta-i-nu, ta-i-tenu, and ta-i-u or ta-i-senu. If the noun which follows the pronoun be in tlie plural num- ber, the initial syllable becomes ?ia. Thus for "my enemies" we must say, na-i-a klieftu, for "thy enemies" na-i-k kheftii, "his enemies" naif klieftu, "her enemies" nais klieftu, "our enemies" naimt klieftu, "your enemies" naitenu klieftu, and "their enemies" 7iaisenu klieftu. The conjugation of the tenses of verbs was by means of the suffixed pronouns. To mark the first person, the verb was followed by a figure of the speaker, which is supposed to have been pronounced a; to mark the second person, k was suffixed, or t if the agent was a female ; to mark the third, f, or s in case of a female ; in the plural, the ordinary terminations ^* were nenu, term, and senu, for "we," "you," "they ; " as will be best seen by an example. ^^ Singular. jTT. Plural. yj^ jet-a, "I say." ;;;;;:;;^ jet-nenu, "we say." % III "^ "^^ 3^^-^y J^^-iy "thou ^ jet-tenu, "ye say." .^i wa^ say est." ,JZ^ ^— ^ -^ . ^^ "^ .A. ^ J^i-f' .l^{'f' ^^ . -"^ jet-senu, "they say.** •.^. ..»*- says," "she says." ZTZ. Ill The perfect tense was marked by interposing n between the Verb and the pronoun, thus : f^^ , arf, "he makes," , arnf, "he made " or "has made." The future was formed by prefixing the auxiliary verb I V, au, "to be," together with the pronoun, and then placing r before the verb,^* as ^ , ara, " I make," I ^ ^^^ > auarar, " I am for making " or " I will make." 66 HISTORi: OF ANCIENT EGYPT. To form the passive, tu was added to the root of the verb, the pronominal suffix following. Thus from |U fl, mes, "born," we have jk p ^ j^, viestu-f, "he was born/* etc. A remarkable peculiarity of Egyptian grammar is the de- clension of prepositions. It has been generally recognized by modern comparative grammarians that prepositions are in reality abraded forms of nouns or pronouns. Declension may, therefore, be said to belong to them naturally; though in very few languages does any vestige of their inflection remain. In Egyptian, however, "all prepositions admit of a plural ;" " and feminine forms are also not uncommon. Eor instance, the preposition <»»**^, en, "of," becomes frequently ""''**, ent, after feminine nouns ; and ^ or !^ , 7ia or nu, after plural ©nes. Am, "in," "into," has the plural form ^^ ^jk \k. ■> a7nu; er or art, "to," "on," has a plural arii (I "fff"); and so on. Egyptian prepositions are very numerous ; but their sense is somewhat indeterminate : her (<^), for example, has the nine meanings of "above," "up," "upon," "for," "by," "from," "out of," "in," and "about" or "in the act of." Ur commonly means "to," or "for ;" but it is found also in the senses "with," "by," "than," "as," "as far as," "in," and "at," Fin also is said ^ to have the senses of "as," "in," "for," "throughout," "towards," "by means of," "to," "from," and "with." The rarity of conjunctions in Egyptian has been already mentioned.^' The original language possessed no word corre- sponding to the ordinary copulative "and ;" nor was it until the Ptolemaic age that a real "and " (hM, ha) was invented.*" Previously the usual practice was to let the connective be sup- plied by inference, as — ■ { *«* ^-^ W ^ ytiK: \i Ameji ar pet, ta, mau, tuu. " Ammon has made heaven, earth, waters, (and) hills." But sometimes the preposition h'na (j '!^] ), "with," was em- ployed as a conjunction. Thus we find Har h'na Set== Vol. I. Plate XVIJ. Fig, 47,— Section of the Great Pyramid.— See Page 97 Plate XVni. Voi. i. -^^^■^^^^s^^m^i^i^^^r*&-^^s.- PECULIARITIES OF SYNTAX. 67 "Horus with Set" for "Horusand Set;" j9e^ h'na amus, "heaven with its inhabitants," for "heaven and its inhab- itants." There were conjunctions, however, expressive of "or," "nor," "for" or "because," "when," "after" or "while," "how," and a few others.*' The place of conjunctions in the construction of sentences was taken generally by prepositions, which were used, though not very freely, to bind the different clauses of a sentence together. The only interjections which have been recognized in the inscriptions are: A! (I jB)? equivalent to our "Ah!" or "Oh !" Mi! ) m W^ I | ^)j a stronger form of the same, and ask ! or ast / (1 U c==> or i m j*), which has the force of "Lo ! " or "Behold!" The following are the chief points remarkable in Egyptian syntax or construction : — 1. The sentences are short, rarely exceeding in length ten words. The construction is simple, and the order uniform.*^ 2. The adjective always follows the noun, and the nominative case almost always follows the verb. 3. The adverb generally follows the adjective or verb which it qualifies. 4. Neither nouns nor adjectives, nor even pronouns, have cases. The want is supplied by a free use of prepositions. 5. Prepositions are always prefixed to the words which they gov- ern. 6. A conjunction used to join two words together is some- times placed after the second word.*^ 7. When two nouns come together, and are not in apposition, the latter is in regimen, as neb ta, "lord of earth ;" sa Ra, "son of Ra ;"and the like. 8. There are several forms of the substantive verb, two of which («w, I ^, and (7;?,-^^) are used as auxiliaries. 9. The negative is commonly placed at the beginning of a sentence. 68 HISTOEY OF AlfCIENT EGYPT. CHAPTER V. LITERATURE. General Character of the Egyptian Literature, mediocre — perhaps at present not fairly appreciated. Variety and Extent of the Literature. Works on Keligions Siibiects— " Ritual of the Dead." Shorter Works on Religion — Specimen. Historical Poems— Specimens. Lyrical Poems— Specimen from the" Song of the Harper." Travels. Romances. Autobiographies— Sketch of the "Story of Saneha "—Specimen. Correspondence. Scientiflc Trea- tises. Works on Magic. [" La Ittterature egyptienne etait nombreuse et eilehre." — Lenokmant, " d'Histoire Ancienne de TOrient," vol. i, p. 306. Manuel The literature of the Egyptians, altbougli it is remarkable for the extent and variety of the subjects comprised within its range, is, beyond a doubt, far inferior to the literatures of Greece, of l\ome, and of the more eminent among modern countries. Its general character must be pronounced medio- cre. History, whether as recorded on monuments, or as en- shrined in books, was either written in a forced and stilted, or in a dry and wholly uninteresting st3^1e.' Poetry was in a more advanced condition. Like the Hebrew poetry, it delighted in parallelisms and antitheses ; while it transcended Hebrew poetry in its rhythmic arrangement, in the balance of the lines, the close correspondence of clause to clause, and the strict observance of rhythmic law in most cases.* Other branches of literature, as romance, travels, letters, are chiefly remarkable for an extreme and almost childish simplicity ; Avhile the characteristic of some classes of composition is ob- scurity and confusion.* A general feature of Egyptian writing, in its more ambitious flights, is. a frequent and abrupt change from the first or second to the third person, with as sudden a return from the third to the first or second, and an equally abrupt change of tense.* It is supposed tliat these startling transitions, for which there is no discernible reason and no discoverable, or at any rate no discovered, law, were viewed as elegances of style, under the Egyptian standard of taste, and were thus especially affected by those who aspired to be con- sidered "fine writers."* No doubt it may be urged, with a good deal of reason, that different ages and different nations have each their own peculiar styles, and that we modern Europeans are scarcely fair critics of a literature so remote in EXTENT AND VAKIETY OF LITERATUEE. 69 date as the Egyptian, and one so different in character from, our own ; but as, on the other hand, their remoteness and peculiarity do not prevent ns from appreciating the master- pieces of Greece and Rome, the Vedic hymns, the Norse sagas, or even the Davidical psalms, so it is probable that whenever there is real merit in a literature, however peculiar it may be, the merit will reveal itself to the candid critic, and will extort his admiration. A better argument for our, at present, sus- pending our Judgment, and passing no sentence of unqualified condemnation on any branch of Egyptian writing, is furnished by the consideration that the Egyptian language is still imper- fectly understood, and that the true force of numerous expres- sions, which it is easy enough to translate literally, is probably missed even by the advanced scholar. Much patient study, not only of linguistic forms, but of Egyptian ideas and modes of thought, is still requisite before a final judgment can be confidently given as to tlie position which Egyptian literature is entitled to hold in the literature of the world. Whatever the opinion entertained of its degree of excellence, concerning the extent and variety of Egyptian literature there can be no dispute. A recent writer, of great authority in his day, did indeed venture to lay it down in so many words, that "the Egyptians had no literature or history ;"* but he would be a bold man who at the present date should venture to maintain this paradox. Besides the testimony of the classical writers,* which, even if it stood alone, legitimate criticism could not safely set aside,' we have now, in the discovered and de- ciphered inscriptions and papyri, a mass of literary matter, which those best entitled to pronounce an opinion declare to rival in extent the existing remains of any other known ancient literature.® Four volumes of Egyptian texts have been already published in English;' whil? in France and Germany tlie number of the translations made is far greater.'" All that has hitherto been done is, we are told, but as a drop in the bucket, compared with that which remains to be done. We are prom- ised a long succession of volumes similar to those that have already appeared in English ; and even this extensive series will only contain "the most important portions of this ancient literature." " If the extent of the literature is thus great and surprising, still more remarkable is the variety of subjects which it em- braces. Besides history, which is largely represented on the monuments, and is occasionally illustrated by the papyri, Egyp- tologers enumerate works on religion and theology ; poems, his- torical and lyrical ; travels ; epistolary correspoudence ; reports. 70 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. military and statistical ; romances, or rather short tales ; ora- tions ; treatises on morals and rhetoric ; mathematical and medical works ; books on geography, astronomy, astrology, and magic ; collections of proverbs ; calendars ; books of receipts ; accounts; catalogues of libraries, and various others.'^ The first place in the literature is occupied undoubtedly by the re- ligious books, '^ which are longer, more elaborate, and more carefully composed than the rest, and which held a position in the thoughts of the people analogous to that of the Vedas in India, and of the Bible and ecclesiastical literature in Europe during the middle ages. Of all the religious works the most important was the one which is commonly called "The Funereal Ritual,"'* or "The Ritual of the Dead," '* but of which the Egyptian title was "U'lie Manifestation to Light," or, in other words, the Book revealing light to the soul. This book claimed to be a revela- tion from Thoth, or Hermes, who through it declared the will of the gods, and the mysterious nature of divine things, to man.'* Portions of it are expressly stated to have been written by the very finger of Thoth himself, and others to have been the composition of a "great god." " It was in such high es- teem, that from the time of the eleventh dynasty some ex- tracts from it were regularly placed in the coffins of the dead, either on the inner sides of the rectangular chests which held the mummies, or on the linen bandages in which the corpse was wrapped, or on the inner walls of the tomb, or sometimes on all three. Besides this, copies on papyrus, more or less complete, were frequently buried with the deceased,'* more especially in the later Pharaonic times, Avhen the book had taken its definitive form through an authoritative revision made under the twenty-sixth dynasty. The "Ritual " has been divided into three," and again into twenty-three ^" portions. According to the former division, the first part consists of the first sixteen chapters, and contains forms of invocation and of prayer to be used over the dead from the moment of his decease to the commencement of the process of embalming. '•^' The second part opens with a long chapter which has been considered to contain "the Egyptian faith." *** It is mystical in the highest degree, and quite unin- telligible to a modern, after all the explanations which it has received.'^ This creed is followed by a series of prayers, con- tained in three chapters, which refer to the justification of the deceased, and seem intended for use during the enrolment of the mummy in its bandages.''' I'hen come prayers or spells in six chapters, for the reconstruction of the deceased in Hades ; MTUAL OP THE DEAD. 71 others, in thirty-seven chapters, for his preservation from all the dangers of Hades, from Typhonian animals, from the Eater of the Ass, and from the awful block of the execu- tioner ; finally, others, in sixty chapters, which are best de- scribed as "forms for various occasions." ^* The third part of the "Ritual" opens with the famous chapter (ch. cxxv.) known as the "Hall of the Two Truths."** Here the deceased is represented as brought before the judg- ment seat of Osiris, in order tliat after a searching investiga- tion it may be decided whether he shall be admitted into heaven or excluded from it. Osiris sits on a lofty throne surrounded by forty-two assessors. An interrogatory com- • mences. The dead person must give proof that he is worthy of the life to come, that his spiritual knowledge is sufficient, and that his life on earth has been pure. Each of the forty- two assessors in turn questions him, bids him tell his mystic name and its meaning. In reply, he addresses each in turn by name, and to each declares his innocence of some class of sin or other. " I have not blasphemed," he says ; *' "I have not deceived ; I have not stolen ; I have not slain any one treacherously ; I have not been cruel to any one ; I have not caused disturbance ; I have not been idle ; I have not been drunken ; I have not issued unjust orders ; I have not been indiscreetly curious ; I have not multiplied words in speaking ; I have struck no one ; I have caused fear to no one ; I have slandered no one ; I have not eaten my heart through envy ; I have not reviled the face of the king, nor the face of my father ; I have not made false accusations ; I have not kept milk from the mouth of sucklings ; I have not caused abortion ; I have not ill-used my slaves ; I have not killed sacred beasts ; I have not defiled the river ; I have not polluted myself ; I have not taken the clothes of the dead." Nor is he content with this negative vindication ; he goes on, and, addressing the great conclave of the gods, exclaims: "Let me go; ye know that I am without fault, without evil, without sin, with- out crime. Do not torture me ; do not aught against me. I have lived on truth ; I have been fed on truth ; I have made it my delight to do what men command and the gods approve. I have offered to the deities all the sacrifices that were their due ; I have given bread to the hungry and drink to him that was athirst ; I have clothed the naked with garments . . . My mouth and my hands are pure." ^* The justification of the deceased is allowed, and he passes from the Hall of Truth into Elyeium. The remainder of the " Ritual " consists of about forty chapters,''' and is still more mystical and obscure than 72 HISTORY OF AKCIENT EGYPT. the earlier portions. The deceased appears to be identified with the sun, and to go forth with the sun through the various regions of the heavens, seated in the solar boat. Finally he rises to such a pitch of perfection as to become identical with the utmost that the Egyptians could imagine of divine, and to be represented by a symbolical figure which unites the attri- butes of all the divinities contained within the Egyptian Pantheon.'*" Among other religious books are "The Tears of Isis,*' of which a translation will be found in the "Eecords of the Past;"^' the "Book of the Respirations" (>S'rt/"-a,n-/S'msm) or "of the Breaths of Life," which appears in an English dress in the same work ; ^^ the legend of the "Destruction of Mankind by Ra ;"^^ numerous Solar Litanies, collections of hymns, and the like. A general harmony pervades the various treatises upon religion ; and if differences are to be traced, they will be found chiefly within the "Ritual" itself, which contains signs of having been composed at several distinct epochs. The com- positions are always rhythmical, though not (so far as appears) tied down by very strict laws. We subjoin an extract from the "Book of the Respirations," which will show the general character of the shorter religious works. ^'* Hail to the Osiris, ...!«> Ammon is with thee each day, To render thee life : Apheru openeth to thee the right way. Thou seest with thine eyes ; Thou hearest with tbine ears ; Thou speakest with thy mouth ; Thou walkest with thy legs ; Thy soul is made divine in heaven, And can effect the transformations it desiretb. Thou formest the joy of the sacred persea-tree* in On." Thou awakest each day ; Thou seest the rays of the sun ; Ammon comeith to thee with the breath of life ; He granteth thee to breathe in thy cofl&n. Thou comest on earth each day ; Thine eyes behold the rays of the disk ; Truth is spoken to thee before Osiris ; The formulae of justification are on thy body. HoRUS, the defender of his father, protecteth thee; He maketh thy soul like the souls of the gods. The soul of Ra giveth life to tliy soul ; The soul of Sho fiUeth thy lungs with soft breath. The Egyptian poems hitherto discovered are of no great length. The historical pieces, which have been dignified with the name of "Epic Poems "^^ do not fill, at the utmost, more tliau ten or a dozen pages, or extend to much above a hundred EPIC POEMS — LYEICS. 73 and twenty lines. Their style will be sufficiently indicated by a couple of extracts. The first shall be from tlje composition of Penta-our on an exploit of Rameses II. in one of his cam- paigns against the Hittites.^** *' Glorious is thy deed of valor ! Firm in heart, thou hast saved thine army ; Saved thy bowmen and thy horsemen ; son of TuM, sure none is like thee, Spoiler of the land of Khita, with thy [keen] victorious falchion. King that tightest for thy soldiers [stoutly] in the day of battle. Great of heart, in fray the foremost, all the world cannot resist thee, Mighty conqueror, victorious in the sight of all tliy soldiers. No gainsayer [doubts thy glories]. Thou art Egj^pt's [strength and] guardian; All thy foes thou crushest, bowest down the Hittites' backs for ever." Then the King addressed his footmen, and his horsemen, and his chief- tains — All who in the fight were backward — " Well it was not done of any. That ye Itft me [unsupported] singly with the fue to combat. Not a chieftain, not a captain, not a sergeant came to aid me— All alone I had to battle with a host that none could number. Nechtu-em-djom, Nehr-ahruta, they, my horses, [and tliey only] Gave me succor in my danger, when I singly fouglit the foenien. Therefore do I grant them henceforth, when I rest within my palace, Peacefully to champ their barley in the sight of Ra for ever. As for Menna, who was with me, [doughty] squire and armor-bearer, Him I give the suit of armor clad in which I fought and conquered, When with sword of might I battled, and ten thousand fell before me." Our remaining example is from a tablet of Thothmes II., one of the greatest monarclis of the eighteenth dynasty. It has been described as a "kind of hymn or song, recounting the victories of Thothmes," with allusions to his principal conquests and exploits in an antithetical strain.'*" In length it only extends to twenty-five hieroglyph ical lines ; but each line forms a sort of stanza, and the whole could scarcely be expressed in less than a hundred lines of our heroic measure. The entire poem is put into the mouth of Ammon-Ra,'*' the special God of Thebes, where the inscription was found, and whom Thothmes regarded as his father. Come, Ra-men-Kheper, come to me, my son, My best supporter, come and glad thyself In my perfections. Everlastingly I shine but as thou wishest. My full heart Dilates whene'er thou comest to my temple. Thy limbs I fondle and inspire with life Delicious, till thou hast more power than I. Set up in my great hall I give thee wealth, I give thee strength and victory o'er all lands. The terror and the dread of thee 1 have spread Through every country to the furthest poles Of heaven — I make all hearts to quake at thee — 74 HISTOKY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. Yea, e'eu the migbty nation of Nine Bows I have made to fear the echoes of thy voice. The chiefs of lauds are clutched witliiu thy fist. Extending mine own hands, I tie for thee In buudles the fierce Auiu — thousauds, ay, And tens of thousands — with the Northern hordes, In myriads upon myriads — that tliey yield To be thy captives; underneath thy shoes I have thrown down thy foenien; prostrate crowds Of the perverse lie in the dust before thee. For thee the Earth, throughout its length and breadth, I have ordered; for thy seat, both East and West; There is no land whereto thou hast not reached; There is no nation that resists thy will. The poems called "lyrical" are such as the "Song of the Harper," a composition of the period of the eighteenth dy- nasty, which has been translated by M. Dumichen and others.'** This song belongs to the class of poems which "delight in parallelisms and antitheses, and in the ornament of a bur- den."** It is divided into short verses of about equal length, and may be sufficiently represented by the following version of its opening : — The Great One has gone to his rest, Ended his task and his race : Thus men are aye passing away. And youths are aye taking their place. As Ra rises up every morn, And TuM** every eveuing doth set, So women conceive and bring forth, And men without ceasing beget. Each soul in its turn draweth breath- Each man born of woman sees Death. Take thy pleasure to-day. Father ! Holy One ! See, Spices and fragrant oils, Father, we bring to thee. On thy sister's bosom and arms Wreaths of lotus we place ; On thy sister, dear to thy heart, Aye sitting before thy face. Sound the song ; let music be played j And let cares behind thee be laid. Take thy pleasure to-day : Mind thee of joy and delight 1 Soon life's pilgrimage ends, And we pass to Silence and Night. Patriarch, perfect and pure, Neferhotep, blessed one ! Thou Didst finish thy course upon earth, And art witli the blessed ones now. Men pass to the silent shore, Aad their place doth know them uo more. TRAVELS — ROMANCES. 115 They are as they never had been, Since the Sun went forth upon high ; They sit on the banks of the stream That floweth in stillness by. Thy soul is among them ; thou Dost drink of the sacred tide, Having the wish of thy heart — At peace ever since thou hast died. Give bread to the man who is poor. And thy name shall be blest evermore. One work only has been discovered, which can be regarded as a book of "Travels." It seems intended to give an account of a "Tour in Palestine/' accomplished by a Mohar, or engineei officer, ''Mn about the fourteenth century B.C.; but its exact purpose is somewhat uncertain, from the rhetorical style in which it is written. The subjoined extract will give a sufficient idea of it : — " Thou yokest thy horses, swift as jackals, to the chariot ; their eyes flash ; they are like a gust of wind, when it bursts forth. Thou takest the reins ; thou seizest thy bow ; we be- hold the deeds of thy hand. (Here I send thee back the Mo- har's portrait, and make thee to know his actions.) Didst thou not go then to the land of the Khita (Hittites) ? Didst thou not behold the land of Aup? Khatuma,''* dost thou not know it? Ikatai, likewise, how great it is? The Tsor^' of Kameses, the city of Khaleb (Aleppo) in its neighborhood — how goes it with its ford ? Hast thou not journeyed to Qodesh *' and Tu- bakhi ? Hast thou not gone with bowmen to the Shasu ? *" Hast thou not trodden the road to the Mountain of Heaven,^" where flourish the cjrpresses, the oaks, and the cedars which pierce the sky? There ai-e the numerous lions, the wolves, and the hyenas, which the Shasu track on every side. Didst thou not ascend the mountain of Shaoua ? Oh ! come to ... . barta. Thou hastenest to get there ; thou crossest its ford ; thou hast experience of a Mohar's trials ; thy car is a weight on thy hand ; thy strength fails. It is night when thou ar- rivest ; all thy limbs are wearied ; thy bones ache ; thou fall- est asleep from excess of somnolence — thou wakest up suddenly. It is the hour when sad night begins, and thou art all alone. Comes there not a thief to steal what lies about ? See ! he enters the stable — the horses are disquieted — he goes back in the dark, carrying off thy clothes. Thy groom wakes, and sees the thief retreating. What does he do ? he carries off the rest. Joining himself to the evil-doers, he seeks refuge among the Shasu ; he transforms himself into an Asiatic." The Egyptian novels, or romances, have attracted more at- tention than any other portion of their literature. The " Tale 76 filSTOHY OP AKCIENT EGYPT. of the Two Brothers," the "Possessed Princess,*' and "The Doomed Prince" are well-known in nvdny quarters," and need not be reproduced here. Their character is that of short tales, like the "Novelle " of Bocccacio, or the stories in the collection of the "Thousand and One Nights." They are full of most improbable adventure, and deal largely in the supernatural. The doctrine of metempsychosis is a common feature in them ; and the death of the hero, or heroine, or both, causes no in- terruption of the narrative. Animals address men in speech, and are readily understood by them. Even trees have the same power. The dead constantly come to life again ; and not only so, but mummies converse together in their cata- combs, and occasionally leave their coffins, return to the society of the living, and then, after a brief sojourn, once more re-enter the tomb. The state of morals which the novels describe is one of great laxity — not to say, dissoluteness. The profligacy of the men is equalled or exceeded by that of the women, who not unfrequently make the advances, and wield all the arts of the seducer. The moral intention of the writers seems, however, to be in general good, since dissolute courses lead in almost every case to some misfortune or disaster. With the romantic character of the Egyptian tales contrasts very remarkably the prosaic tone of one or two autobiographies. Saneha, an officer belonging to the court of Osirtasen I. and his co-regent, Amenemha, having fallen into disgrace with his employers, quits Egypt and takes refuge with Anmiu-anshi, King of the Tennu, by whom he is kindly treated, given his daughter in mariiage, and employed in the military service. The favor shown him provokes the jealousy of a native officer, formerly the chief confidant of the king ; and this jealousy leads to a challenge, a duel, the defeat of the envious rival, and the establishment of Saneha in his office. After this Saneha accumulates wealth, has many children, and lives to a good old age in his adopted country. But at length, as he ap- {)roaches his end, the "home-sickness" comes upon him; he is possessed with an intense desire of revisiting Egypt, and of being "buried in the land where he was born ; " *^ he therefore addresses a humble petition to Osirtasen, beseeching his per- mission to return. ^^ The King of Egypt grants his request, accords liim an amnesty, and promises him a restoration to favor when he reaches his court. The arrival of the good news makes Saneha, according to his own account, almost beside himself with joy ; " but he arranges his affairs in the land of Tennu with a great deal of good sense, divides his pos- sessions among his children, establishes his eldest son as a sort REMAINDER OF THE LITERATURE. 77 of general supervisor, .and makes provision for having from time to time a statement of accounts sent to him in Egypt. He then bids his family adieu, sets oft' on his journey, and, having ac- complished it, is well received by the monarch, notwithstand- ing the opposition of the royal children. The promises made to him are performed, and he remains in favor with Osirtasen "until the day of his death." *^ Such are the meagre mate- rials, out of which a work is composed which extends to above five hundred lines — an unusual length for an Egyptian com- position. The opening of this story will show the mode in which so poor a theme was expanded and made to serve as the subject of a volume. "When I was on the point of setting out [from Egypt],'® my heart was troubled ; my liands shook ; numbness fell on all my limbs. I staggered ; yea, I was greatly perplexed to find myself a place of repose. In order to account for my travels, I pretended to be a herbalist ; twice I started forth on my journey, and twice I returned back. I desired to approach the palace no more. I longed to become free ; I said there is no life like that. Then [at last] I quitted the House of the Sycamore ; I lay down at the station of Snefru ; I passed the night in a corner of the garden ; I rose up when it was day and found one preparing for a journey. When he perceived me he was afraid. But when the hour of supper was come, I arrived at the town of ... ; I embarked in a barge without a rudder ; I came to Abu . . . ; I made the jour- ney on foot, until I reached the fortress which the king [of Egypt] had made in order to keep off the Sakti." An aged man, a herbalist, received me. I was in alarm when I saw the watchers upon the wall, watching day after day in rotation. But when the hours of darkness had passed, and the dawn had broken, I proceeded on from place to place, and reached the station of Kamur.** Thirst overtook me on my journey ; my throat was parched : I said, 'This is a foretaste "of death.' Then I lifted up my heart ; I braced my limbs. ] heard the pleasant sound of cattle — I beheld a Sakti. He demanded to know whither I journeyed, and addressed me thus : ' thou art from Egypt ! ' Then he gave me water, he poured out milk for me ; I went with him to his people, and was conducted by them from place to place. I reached . . . ; I arrived at Atima." It is impossible within the limits of the present work, to trace in detail the Egyptian literature any further. The epis- tolary correspondence and despatches present much that is interesting," since they have every appearance of being what •/8 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. they profess to be — real letters and real despatches — though they have reached our time in "Collections," where they were placed to serve as patterns, the collections in question corre- sponding to modern "Complete Letter- AVriters." Some of the letters were perhaps written with a view to publication, and are therefore to a certain extent forced and artificial ; but the majority seem to be the spontaneous production of writers only intent upon amusing or instructing their correspondents. The scientific treatises, on the other hand, are disappointing. The medical works which have been examined give a poor idea of the point reached by the physicians of Pharaonic times. They imply indeed a certain knowledge of anatomy, and con- tain some fairly good observations upon the symptoms of dif- ferent maladies ; but the physiology which they embody is fantastic, and they consist in the main of a number of prescrip- tions for difl'erent complaints, which are commonly of the most a])surd character.^" The geometry is said to be respectable," but has perhaps not been as yet sufficiently studied. The astronomy is tainted by the predominance of astrological ideas. But the lowest intellectual depth seems to be reached in the "Magical Texts," where the happiness and misery of mankind appear to be regarded as dependent upon spells and amulets, and receipts are given to protect men against all the accidents of life, against loss of fortune, against fire, against death by violence, and even (it would seem) against suffering in the world to come.'''' It is to be feared that the belief in magic was widely spread among the ancient Egyptians, and that the elevating tendency of their religious ideas was practically neutralized by this debasing and most immoral superstition. FEKTILITY OF EGYPT. 79 CHAPTER VI. AGRICULTURE. Extraordinary Productiveness of Egypt in Ancient Times. Tenui-e of Land under the Pharaolis— Absence of Governmental Interference with the Cul- tivation. Farming Operations— Preparation of the Soil. Character of the Plough used. Mode of Ploughing. Use of the Hoe. Sowing. Kinds of Corn Grown. Cultivation ot Wheat — of Barley — of the Doura or Uolcus Sorghum. Great Variety of other Crops. System of Irrigation employed. Use of the Shadoof. Hydraulic Works of the Fayoum. Cultivation of the Olive. Cultivation of the Vine. Care of Cattle. 'ATTOKTiTOTaTa Kapirhv Kofxifoi'Tat tK yyi<:. — HeROD. ii, 14. The extraordinary fertility of Egypt, consequent upon the abundance of water, the good qualities of the alluvial soil, and the rich dressing of mud which it receives every year by means of the annual inundation, has been noted in a former chapter ; ' where some notion has been also given of the great abundance and variety of its vegetable prodvictions — natural and artificial — during the period with which we are here especially con- cerned^ — that of the independent monarchy. Egypt was reckoned in ancient times the principal granary of the civil- ized world. In any famine or scarcity elsewhere it was to this quarter that the nations looked for the supplies which were necessary to enable them to tide over the existing distress, and save them from actual starvation.* Under the Persians, the country, besides feeding itself, supplied corn regularly for its garrison of 120,000 Persian troops, and also paid to the treas- ury at Susa an annual tribute of money, amounting to nearly 170,000?. sterling.'* In Roman times its cereal exports were of such importance to Italy that the trade enjoyed the peculiar protection of the State,^ and the general imperial system of provincial government received special modifications in its adaptation to Egypt in consequence of the almost absolute dependence of the Roman people on the produce of the Egyp- tian cornfields.* This vast superabundance of the food pro- duced in the country beyond the needs of the inhabitants arose, no doubt, in great part from the natural advantages of the position ; but it was due also, to a considerable extent, to the industrious habits of the people and to their employment of good methods of husbandry. Their natural intelligence, which was remarkable, having been applied for many centu- 80 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. ries to making the most of the capabilities of tlieir exception- ally favored region, led them by degrees to the general adop- tion of a system and of methods which were in the highest degree successful,' and which are rightly regarded as among the main causes of that extraordinary wealth, prosperity, and eminence whereto Egypt attained under the Pharaohs. It cannot be said with truth that there was anything in the tenure of land in ancient Egypt which much favored produc- tion, or which accounts for its agricultural pre-eminence. Peasant proprietors seem not to have existed. The owners of the soil were* the kings, the priestly communities attached to the different temples, and the "territorial aristocracy"^ or wealthy upper class, which was numerous and had considera- ble political influence. These last cultivated their estates chiefly by means of slave-labor,'" which is naturally a wasteful and extravagant mode, thougli doubtless strict and severe su- perintendence may, where the work required is of a simple kind, obtain from those emplo^'ed a large amount of toil, and so of produce. The kings and the communities of priests were in the habit of letting their lands in small allotments to fellahin, or peasants ; " and the nobles may likewise have done this in some cases, or may have employed free instead of slave labor on the farms which they kept in their own hands.'* It is un- fortunate that we do not know what proportion the ordinary rent bore to the annual produce or profit.'* Diodorus seems to have thought that the rate established in his time was low ; but, if it be true that price is determined by the proportion of demand to supply, and if the demand for land must always have been great in Egypt owing to the numerous population, and the supply limited owing to the small amount of cultiva- ble territory, it is reasonable to conclude that rents were at least as high there as in other countries. The only advantage — and it was certainly no inconsiderable advantage — which the ancient Egyptian peasantry enjoyed over their modern repre- sentatives in the same country, or in the East generally, would seem to have been, that they were not vexatiously interfered with by the government, which (unless in extraordinary cases) neither required of them forced labor, nor limited their freedom of choice with respect to crops, nor in any way cramped them in any of their farming operations.'^ It is governmental inter- ference which is the curse of the laboring class in the East — the liability to be impressed for military service or for employ- ment upon the public works — roads, canals, bridges, palaces, temples — the liability to be forbidden to grow one kind of pro- duce and commanded to grow another — and the crowning vex- EGYPTIAN PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. 81 ation " of having to adjust one's harvest operations to the con- venience or caprice of the tax-gatherer, who prevents the crops from being gathered in until he lias taken his share. If the Egyptian peasant under the Pharaohs was reallf free from this entire class of restrictions and interferences, it must be allowed that, so far, his condition contrasted favorably with that of Oriental field-laborers generally. But this difference does not appear sufficient to account for the enormous produce which the land was made to yield. We return-, therefore, to our pre- vious statement — that the patient and untiring industry of the laborer, and the excellence of the methods wliich lie employed, were main causes in bringing about the wonderful result. Though there was no season of the year in which agricul- tural labors were suspended in Egypt, yet the special time for the activity of. the husbandman, which may consequently be regarded as the commencement of the agricultural year, was upon the subsidence of the waters. As the most elevated lands, which were those nearest the river,^- began to reappear, which was generally early in October, preparations were at once made for the sowing of the grain upon the alluvium just deposited. According to Herodotus," there were parts of Egypt where it was unnecessary to use either plough or hoe ; the seed was scattered upon the rich Nile deposit, and was trodden in by beasts — sheep, goPots, or pigs,'** — after which the husbandman liad nothing to do but simply to await the harvest. This state of things must, however, in every age have been exceptional. For the most part, upon ordinary lands it was necessary, or at any rate desirable, to make some preparation of the gi'ound ; and the plough, or the hoe, or both, were put into active em- ployment over the greater part of the territory. The plough (Fig. 17) used was of a simple character. It consisted of the indispensable ploughshare, a double handle, and a pole or beam, whereto the animals that drew the imple- ment were attached. The beam and stilt were fastened to- gether by thongs or by a twisted rope, which kept the share and the beam at a proper distance, and helped to prevent the former from penetrating too deeply into the earth. It is un- certain Avhether the share was ever shod with metal.'' Ap- parently it was simply of wood, which may have been sufficient with a soil so light and friable as the Egyptian.^" There were, of course, no wheels and no colter. In general character the implement did not much differ from that of the modern Turks and Arabs." Its chief peculiarity was the rounded sweep of the stilt and handles, which (to judge by the monuments) wag nearly, thohgli not quite, universal.** 82 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. The plough was commonly drawn by two oxen or two cows " (Fig. 19), which were either yoked to it by the shoulders, or else attached by the horns. In the former case a somewhat elaborate arrangement of shoulder-pieces and pads was em- ployed ; ^ in the latter, the cross-bar in which the pole termi- nated was simply lashed with four thongs to the base of the horns. Sometimes a single ploughman guided the plough by one of the handles with his left hand, while in his right he carried a whip or a goad. More often the implement gave employment to two laborers, one of whom held the two han- dles in his two hands, while the other drove the animals with whip or goad, and no doubt turned them when the end of the furrow was reached. In soils whose quality was very light and loose, the hoe (Fig. 20) took the place of the plough. Three or four peas- ants provided with hoes (Fig. 21) went over the ground about to be sown,*** and sufficiently prepared the surface by a slight "scarification."" The hoe, like the plough, was of wood." It consisted of three parts — a handle, a pick or blade, and a twisted thong connecting them. It was sometimes rounded, sometimes sharpened to a point, but never (so far as appears) sheathed with metal at the end. The shape was curious, and has been compared to our letter A.''* It required the laborer to stoop considerably to his work, and cannot be regarded as a very convenient implement. As soon as the ground was prepared sufficiently, the sowing took place. Drill-soAving, though practised by the Assyrians from a very early date,^^ seems to have been unknown in Egypt ; and the sower, carrying Avith him the seed in a large basket, which he held in his left hand, or else suspended on his left arm (sometimes supporting it also with a strap passed round his neck), spread the seed broadcast over the furrows.'* No harrow or rake was employed to cover it in. It lay as it fell, and, rapidly germinating, soon covered the bare soil with verdure. The grain most largely cultivated by the Egyptians was probably the modern doora, which Herodotus called zea or oli/ra,*^ and which is a kind of spelt. This grain takes from three to four months to ripen, and, if sown in October, migh-t be reaped in February. It is now, however, not often sown till April, and we may perhaps conclude that the primary at- tention of the husbandman was directed, in ancient as in modern times, to the more valuable cereals, wheat and barley, which were required by the rich ; and that the doora, which was needed only by the poor, was raised chiefly as an after- Vol. 1. Plate XIX. v^*^ Fig. 51.— King's Chamber and Chambers of Construction, Great Pyramid. — Page 98. Fig. 63.— Section of Brick Pyramid at Illahoun.— See Page 102.— Note 97. Plate XX. Vol.1. Fig. 53.— Southern Stone Ptramid of DASHooR.-See Page 104. fig. 54.— Outer Casino Stones of the Qb^at Pyramid.— See Page 101, CULTIVATION OF WHEAT. 88 crop. "Wheat and barley would be put into the ground in November, and would then be left to the genial influences of sun and air/^ which, under ordinary circumstances, would ripen the barley in four and the wheat in five months. No hoeing of Aveeds, no frightening of birds, ^^ no calling upon heaven for rain,** seems to have been required. The husband- man might safely trust to nature for an ample return. Boun- teous Motlier Earth gave from her teeming breast "the staff of life" in prodigal abundance, and corn was gathered "as the sand of the sea — very much " — till men "left numbering."^* The wheat grown was always bearded,^*' and comprised nu- merous varieties, one of which bore several ears upon a single stalk." It was cut with a toothed sickle, a little below the ear, and was either put mto baskets, like hops in England, or sometimes bound up in sheaves (Fig. 23), arranged so that the ears appeared at both ends of the sheaf. When the baskets were full they were conveyed, either by men or donkeys, to the threshing-floor, and their contents emptied into a heap. An ass carried two baskets, which were placed across his back like panniers ; but a single basket was regarded as a load for two men, and was slung upon a pole which they bore upon their right shoulders. Sometimes, instead of being carried straight to the threshing-floor, the corn was borne from the harvest-field to a storehouse or granary, and retained there as much as a month. ^* Threshing was effected by the tread of cattle^' (Fig. 24), which were driven round and round the threshing-floor, while a laborer with a pitchfork threw the unthreshed ears into their path. The threshed corn was im- mediately winnowed (Fig. 25) by being tossed into the air with shovels in a draughty place,"" so that, while the corn fell, the chaff was blown off. When this operation was over, the cleansed grain was collected into sacks, and carried to the granary, where it was stored until required for use. 'J'he cultivation of barley was similar to that of wheat, and commenced at the same time ; but the harvest took place a month earlier. A large quantity must have been grown ; for barley bread was in much request, and the grain was also malted, and beer brewed from it.'" Horses were no doubt fed largely on it, as they are universally throughout the East ; and it may have been employed also to fatten cattle.*' The doo)'a harvest (Fig. 26) is represented on the monu- ments as taking place at the same time as the wheat harvest ;** but this is perhaps not intended as the assertion of a fact. In modern Egypt the chief crop is sown in April and reaped in July ;■" and the ancient practice may have been similar. The 84 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. doora was not cut with the sickle, but pulled up by the roots, which were then freed from earth by means of the hand.** It was bound in sheaves and carried to a storehouse, where it probably remained till it was dry. It was then unbound, and drawn by the hand through an instrument armed at one end with a set of metal spikes, which detached the heads from the straw.** These were then, it is probable, threshed and win- nowed in the usual way. When tlie wheat and barley had been put into the ground, the laborer proceeded to make preparations for other crops. Several kinds of pulse were largely cultivated, as beans,*' peas, and lentils of two distinct varieties.** Artificial grasses, as clover, lupins, and vetches, were grown to furnish provender for the cattle during the time of the inundation.*' Flax was raised in large quantities for the linen garments which were so indispensable ; cotton was cultivated to some extent, as were safflower, indigo, the castor-oil plant, sesame, and various me- dicinal herbs. Again, there was a most extensive cultivation of esculent vegetables, as garlic, leeks, onions, endive, radishes, melons, cucu-mbers, lettuces, etc., which formed a most im- portant element in the food of the people. The raising of these various crops, of which each farmer cultivated such as took his fancy or suited his soil, gave constant employment to the agricultural class throughout the entire year, and rendered every season an almost equally busy time. This constant cultivation resulted, in part, from the mild climate, which favored vegetation and rapid growth at all sea- sons, in part from the system of irrigation, which had been established at a very ancient date, and which was maintained with the greatest care by the government. The Egyptians were not content with the mere natural advantages of the Nile inundation. By an elaborate system of canals, with embank- ments, sluices, and flood-gates, they retained the overflow in Avhat were in fact vast reservoirs, from which, after the Nile had retired, the greater part of the cultivable territory could obtain a sufficient supply of the life-giving fluid during the remainder of the year. By embankments they also kept out the Nile water from gardens and other lands where its admis-. sion would have been injurious, watering these in some other way, as from wells or tanks. ^" The government had a general control over the main cuttings, opening and closing them ac- cording to certain fixed rules, which had for their object the fair and equitable distribution of the water supply over the whole territory. ICach farm received in turn sufficient to fill its own main reservoir, and from this by a network of water- CULTIVATION OF THE OLIVE. 85 courses continually diniinisliing in size the fluid was conveyed wherever needed, and at last brought to the very roots of the plants. The removal or replacing of a little mud, with the hand or with the foot," turned the water hither or thither, at the pleasure of the husbandman, who distributed it as his crops required. On the banks of the Nile, which (as already observed ^'^) were more elevated than the rest of the land, and in gardens, and other places occasionally, the shadoof, or hand-swipe, was used,*^ and water raised from the river or from wells to the height of the soil, over which it was then spread m the usual way. Ground thus cultivated was commonly portioned out into square beds, "like salt-pans," ^ each enclosed by its own raised border of earth, so that the water could be kept in or kept out of each bed without difficulty. In one part of Egypt a large district, naturally barren, was rendered richly productive by hydraulic works of an extraor- dinarily grand and elaborate character.^* This was the tract called now the Fayoum, which is a natural depression in the Libyan desert, lying at the distance of eight or ten miles from the Nile valley, and occupied in part by the natural lake known as Birket-el-Keroun, the "Lake of the Horn." A canal derived from the Nile, 30 feet deep and 160 feet wide, was carried westward through a gorge in the Libyan hills a distance of at least eight miles to the entrance of this basin, the southeastern portion of which was separated from the rest by a vast dam or dyke,^^ within which the water introduced by the canal accumulated, and which formed the artificial "Lake Moeris" of Herodotus." From this vast reservoir ca- nals were carried in all directions over the rest of the basin, which sloped gently towards the Keroun ; and the Nile water, with its fertilizing deposit and prolific qualities, was thus spread over the entire region,** which was as large as many an English county. The land of this tract, which was irrigated but not over- flowed by the Nile water, admitted the growth of at least one valuable product for which the rest of Egypt was unsuitable. The olive was cultivated, according to Strabo,*^ only in the Arsinoite nome (the Fayoum), and in some of the gardens of Alexandria. It produced a fruit which was remarkably fleshy,*" but which did not yield much oil," nor that of a very good quality. ^^ Still the cultivation was pursued, and the oil ex- tracted was doubtless superior to the kinds, which were more largely produced, from the sesame and from the castor-oil plant." §6 HISTORY OF ANCIEKT EGYPf. A more important and far more widely-spread cultivation was that of the vine.*^ The edge of the Nile valley towards the desert, the Hdger, as it is now called, being a light soil, consisting of clay mixed with sand or gravel, *^° was suitable for the growth of the vine, which is found to have been largely cultivated along the whole tract from Thebes to Memphis, particularly in the vicinity of the great towns. It was also grown in the Fayoum,^' and towards the w^estern skirt of tlie Delta, at Anthylla," in the Mareotis/® and at Plinthine,"' still further to the westward. The alluvial soil, which constituted jiine-tenths of cultivable Egypt, was ill suited for it; but still there were places within the aUuvium where vines were grown, as about Sebennytus, the produce of which tract is celebrated by Pliny. '• Vines were sometimes kept low (as now in France and Ger- many), and grew in short bushes, which, apparently, did not need even the support of a vine-stake ; " but more commonly they were allowed to spread themselves, and were trained either in bowers (Fig. 27) or on a framework of posts (Fig. 28) and poles — as now in Italy — which formed shady allej's raised about seven feet from the ground. Sometimes, espe- cially where the vineyard was attached to a garden, the posts were replaced by rows of ornamental columns, yjainted in bright colors, and supporting rafters, and perhaps a trellis-work, from which the grapes hung down. This mode of growth shaded the roots of the plants, and facilitated the retention of moist- ure, which would have evaporated if the culture had been more open, owing to the intense heat of the sun. There was generally a tank of water near the vines, from which they could be supplied if needful ; '" but great caution was required when recourse was had to this method, since too much moist- ure was very hurtful to the vine. As the fruit approached maturity, it M'as apt to invite the attack of birds ; and boys were constantly employed in the vineyards at this period to alarm the depredators with shouts, and sometimes to thin their numbers with slings." Finally, the bunches were carefully gathered by the hand, and, if in- tended to be eaten, were arranged in flat open baskets, or, if destined for the winepress, were closely packed in deep baskets or hampers, which men carried on their heads, or by means of a yoke upon their shoulders, to the storehouse or shed, where the pressing was accomplished either by treading or by squeez- ing in a bag. The juice seems sometimes to liave been drunk unfermented ; " but more commonly fermentation was awaited, after which the wine was stored away in vases or amphorae REARIKQ OF CATTLE. 87 (Fig. 29) of an elegant shape, which were closed with a stop- per, and then hermetically sealed with moist clay, pitch, gyi)- sum, or other suitable substance." The wines in best repute were those made at Anthylla,"^ and in the Mareotis," or tract about Lake Marea, now Mariont ; the Sebennytic wine was also highly esteemed,'* while that made in the Thebaid, and especially about Coptos, Avas regarded as peculiarly light and wholesome." Though Egypt was in the main an agricultural rather than a pastoral country, yet the breeding and rearing of cattle and other animals was everywhere a part of the farmer's business, and in some districts occupied him almost exclusively. Large tracts in the Delta were too wet for the growth of corn, and on these cattle were grazed in vast quantities by "the marshmen," as they were called,*" a hardy but rude and lawless race *' who inhabited the more northern parts of Egypt, in the vicinity of the great lakes. Elsewhere, too, cattle were reared, partly for agricultural work, as ploughing, treading in, and again tread- ing out the grain ; *'■' partly for draught ; and partly also for the table, beef and veal being common articles of food.*^ Three distinct varieties of cattle were affected, the long-horned, the short-horned, and the hornless.*^ During the greater part of the year they were pastured in open fields on the natural growth of the rich soil, or on artificial grasses, which were cultivated for the purpose ; but at the time of the inundation it was necessary to bring them in from the fields to the farm- yards, or the villages, where they were kept in sheds or pens on ground artificially raised, so as to be beyond the reach of the river.*' At times, when there \vas a sudden rise of the water, much diflficulty was experienced in the removal of the cattle from their summer to their autumn quarters ; and the monuments give fi'equent representations of the scenes which occurred on such occasions — scenes of a most exciting character.*^ As the waters overflow the fields and pastures, the peasants appear, hurrying to the spot on foot or in boats, intent on rescuing the animals (Fig. 30). "Some, tying their clothes upon their heads, drag the sheep and goats from the water, and put them into boats ; others swim the oxen to the nearest high ground ; "*' here men drive the cattle towards the vessels which have come to save them ; their nooses are thrown over their horns or heads, by which they are drawn towards their rescuers. For some months from this time, the whole of the cattle in Egypt were fed in stalls,** partly on wheaten straw, partly upon artificial grasses, cut previously ftud dried for the purpose. They passed the night iu sheds, 8S HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. and were tethered during the day in straw-yards, where their wants were carefully attended to.*** Sick cattle received med- ical treatment (Fig. 31), drugs being administered to them in balls, which were forced down their throats in the exact style of modern veterinary art.'° In some parts of Egypt herds were fed upon common pas- tures, or, at any rate, were liable to become intermixed, and owners had to secure themselves against losses by putting a mark upon their beasts. This was etfected by tying their legs together, throwing them down, and then branding them with a red-hot iron upon their shoulders (Fig. 32). The paintings in the tombs at Thebes exhibit to us this process in detail, showing the heating of the iron at a fire, its application to the prostrate cows, and the distress of the calves at the struggles and moans of their mothers. Besides cattle, the Egyptian farmers bred considerable num- bers of sheep (Fig. 33), goats (Fig. 35), and pigs (Fig. 34). A single individual in one instance records upon his tomb that he was the owner of 834 oxen, 220 cows, 2,234 goats, 760 don- keys, and 974 sheep. ^' Mutton was not held in much esteem,'* and sheep were consequently but seldom killed for food. The Egyptians kept them mainly for the sake of their wool, which was required for the manufacture of the cloak or ordinary outer garment of the people,"^ for carpets and rugs,^'* and per- haps for the coverings of couches and chairs. Egyptian sheep are said to have yielded two fleeces each year, and also to have produced lambs twice, ''^ which would cause the increase of the nock to be rapid. It is uncertain for what purpose goats were kept. They were occasionally sacrificed,'* and therefore, no doubt, employed as food ; but this practice does not seem to have been frequent, and will not account for the large num- bers which were bred and reared. Possibly their milk was an article of Egyptian diet," or their hair may have been used, as it was by the Israelites when they quitted Egypt,'* in the manufacture of certain fabrics, as tent-coverings and the like. The Egyptian goats are not, however, represented as long- haired. It is certain that swine were largely kept in Egypt, since the swineherds were sufficiently numerous to form one of the recognized classes into which the population was divided." According to Herodotus,'"" there Avere occasions upon which the Egyptians were bound to sacrifice them, and once a year each Egyptian partook of the flesh ; but otherwise this was regarded as utterly unclean ; the swineherds were despised »ad disliked ; and pork was a forbidden food. Still swino DOMESTIC A^fD WILD ANIMALS. 89 "frequently formed part of the stock of the farmyard,"' either on account of their usefulness in treading in the grain after it was sown,'"* or perhaps because they cleared land rapidly of roots and weeds, whose growth was greatly favored by the inundation."** Pork may also, though forbidden by the ordinances of the religion, have been eaten by many of the lower orders, who had not much to lose in social rank, were free from religious prejudice, and found the meat palatable and savory. The pig of Egjrpt, if we may trust the monuments,'** was a hideous-looking animal, long-legged and long-necked, cov- ered with rough hair, and with a crest of bristles along the whole neck and back. The hog was especially ugly ; in the sow the worst features were somewhat modified, while in the sucking-pig there was nothing particular or fitted to attract remark. Egyptian cultivators, while depending for their profits mainly upon the growth of grain and vegetables and the increase of their flocks and herds, did not neglect those smaller matters of the dovecote and the poultry-yard, which often eke out a modern farmer's income and are sometimes not unimportant to him. The domestic fowl was perhaps not known under the Pharaohs ; '"^ but the absence of this main support of the poultry-yard was compensated for by the great abundance of the ducks and geese, more especially the latter, which consti- tuted one of the main articles of food in the country,'"® were offei-ed to the gods,"" and were reckoned among the most val- uable of farming products. The very eggs of the geese were counted in the inventories wherewith land-stewards furnished their masters.'"'' The geese, themselves, in flocks of fifty or more, were brought under the steward's eye to be inspected and reckoned. Goslings for the service of the table were delivered to him in baskets.'"" Ducks, though less common than geese, were likewise among the produce of the farm- yard;"" and pigeons, which were a favorite article of food,'" must also have engaged the attention of the producing class. It is among the most remarkable features of Egyptian farm- ing, that not domestic animals only, but wild ones also, were bred and reared on the great estates. Wild goats, gazelles, and oryxes appear among the possessions of the larger land- owners,"'^ no less than oxen, sheep, and goats; and similarly, in the poultry-yard, the stork, the vulpanser, and other wild fowl share the farmer's attention with ordinary ducks and geese."* Probably no sharp line of distinction had been as yet drawn between domestic and wild animals ; it was not knowa 90 HISTORY OP ANCIENT EGYPT. liow far domestication might be successfully carried ; experi- ments,, in fact, were in progress wliicli ultimately proved fail- ures, the birds and beasts either not being capable of being thoroughly tamed, or not flourishing under human control sufficiently to make it worth the breeder's while to keep on with them. Another curious feature of Egyptian husbandry was the entire absence of wagons "'' and the very rare use of carts."* Agricultural produce was transported from the field to the barn or farm-yard mainly by human labor, "^ the peasants car- rying it in bags or baskets on their shoulders, or slung between two men on a pole, or sometimes by means of a yoke. Where this simple method was insufficient, asses were commonly em- ployed to remove the produce, which they carried in panniers or else piled upon their backs.'" In conveying grain, or pro- vender, or cattle even, to a distant market, it is probable that boats were largely used,"* water communication between all parts of Egypt being easy by means of the Nile and the exten- sive canal systems, while roads did not exist, and the country, being everywhere intersected by water channels, was ill adapted for wheeled vehicles."^ The beasts of burden used in Egypt were asses, cows, and oxen. Horses, which were carefully bred from the time of their introduction, probably under the eighteenth dynasty,"'" were regarded as too noble, and perliaps too valuable, for such a purpose. They were commonly either ridden '"' or employed to draw curricles and chariots, ''^'^ chiefly by men of the upper classes. Farmers are said to have made use of tliem occasion- ally to draw the plough; '-^ but this cannot have been a common practice. Great numbers were required for the war-chariots, which formed so important an element in the Egyptian mili- tary force ; the cavalry employed almost as many ; '•'* a brisk trade in them was also ciirried on with Syria and Palestine, where they were in great request, and fetched high prices.'" Tiiey seem not to have been allowed to graze in the fields, but to have been kept constantly in stables and fed on straw and barley. '^^ On the whole, it is clear that their connection with agriculture was but slight ; and this brief notice of tliem will therefore suffice for the purposes of the present chapter. Vol. I. Plate XXI. Plate XXIT. Vol.1 Fig. 5G.— Doric Pillar and Sectios OP Base.— See Page 103. Fig. 57.— Egyptian Pillar and Sec TioN OF Base.— See Page 103. Fig. 58.-See Page 103. Fig. 59.— Plan of Temple.— Page 101 Vol. I. Plate XXlli. y^T;" " ^"'^ '■W.liWVlkWS'MilJ!!'"*!' 3 «£, pi!= c::^^^ 1^ o a Q o ■•I ]? a goo a n L_§[Z Fig. 60.— Ground-Flan of Temple at Medinet-Abou.— See Page 106« Plate XXIV. Vol. I. hs^. U.— bECXiu.N vF Temi'le at 31ejji>et-Abul'.— Ste I'age 105. Fig. G2.— Section of HAii, Rameseum, Thebes.— See Page 106. r" Ah 4 h > kw^W mtl,,,,,,,,,,,,,,Ji.A^V ^^\^ ^*\ :ll Fig. 63. -Stbl^ in front of Guanitk Cell, Great Temple, Karnak.— See Page 109. BGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 91 CHAPTER VII. ARCHITECTURE. Earlieet Egyptian Architecture, sepulchral. Most ancient Tombs. Primitive steppea Pyramids— Pyraniici of Meydoun— of Saccarah. Great Pyramids of Ghizeh. Intention of tlie Pyramids. Their technic excellence. Their festhetic merit. Pyramid.s of two elevations. Kock Tombs. Primitive Temples. Later ones— Temple atMedinet Abou—Kameseiim— Great Tem- ple of Karnak. Obelisks. Southern Karnak Temple. Manimcisi. Beau- ties of the Architecture— Massivenes.s—Klegance of Columns and Capitals — Caryatide Piers— Kmployment of Color. Egyptian domestic Archi- tecture. Pavilion of Kameses III. Houses of Private Persons. Chief Peculiarities of Egyptian Construction. Non-employment of the Arch— Symmetrophobia— Contrivances for increasing apparent Size of Buildings. ♦atrii' [AtyvTTTtoi] Bflv 0avfia^ii.v fxaWov Tou? apxiTeicToi'as tuh' epXiav fi Toiis PaaAeis. — DioD. Sic. i, 64. The origin of Architecture in the proper sense of the term,' is different in different countries. In most it springs from the need which man has of shelter, and the desire whicli he enter- tains of making his dwelling-place not merely comfortable, but handsome. In some this desire seems not to have been early developed ; but in lieu of it, the religious sentiment brought architecture into life,*^ the desire which worked being that of giving to the buildings wherein God was worshipped a grandeur, a dignity, and a permanency worthy of Him, According to Herodotus,* the first Egyptian edifice of any pretension was a temple ; and, could we depend on this statement, it would follow that Egypt was one of the countries in which archi- tecture sprang from religion. The investigations, however, conducted on Egyptian soil by modern inquirers, have led most of them to a different conclusion, and have seemed to them to justify Diodorus in the important place which he assigns, in speaking of Egyptian architecture, to the Tomb, "The inhab- itants of this region," says the learned Siceliot, "consider th term of man's present life to be utterly insignificant, and d( vote by far the largest part of their attention to the life after death. They call the habitations of the living ' places of sojourn,' since we occupy them but for a short time ; but to the sepulchres of the dead they give the name of ' eternal abodes,' since men will live in the other world for an infinite period. For these reasons they pay little heed to the construc- tion of their houses, while in what concerns burial they place no limit to the extravagance of their efforts,"* 92 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. The early Egyptian remains are in entire harmony with this statement. They consist almost exclusively of sepulchral edi- fices. While scarcely a vestige is to be found of the ancient capital, Memphis, its necropolis on the adjacent range of hills contains many hundreds of remarkable tombs, and among them the "Three Pyramids" which, ever since the time of Herodotus, have attracted the attention of the traveller beyond all the other marvels of the country. The art of pyramid building, which culminated in these mighty efforts, must have been practised for a considerable period before it reached the degree of perfection which they exhibit ; and it is an interesting ques- tion, whether we cannot to a certain extent trace the progress of the art in the numerous edifices which cluster around the three giants, and stretch from them in two directions, north- ward to Abu-Roash, and southward as far as the Fayoum.' The latest historian of architecture has indeed conjectured that one, at any rate, of the most interesting of these subordi- nate buildings is of later date than the Three ; * but the best Egyptologists are of a different opinion, and regard it as among the most ancient of existing edifices.' It is not improbable that some of the smaller unpretentious tombs are earlier, as they are simpler, than any of the pyramidal ones, and it is therefore with these that we shall commence the present ac- count of Egyptian sepulchral architecture. Around the pyramids of Ghizeh, and in other localities also, wherever pyramids exist, are found numerous comparatively insignificant tombs which have as yet been only very partially explored and still more imperfectly described. "Their general form is that of a truncated pyramid, low, and looking exter- nally like a house with sloping walls, with only one door lead- ing to the interior, though they may contain several apart- ments ; and no attempt is made to conceal the entrance. The body seems to have been preserved from profanation by being hid in a well of considerable depth, the opening into which was concealed in the thickness of the walls."* The ground-plan of these tombs is usually an oblong square, the walls are of great thickness, and the roofs of the chambers are in some instances supported by massive square stone piers. There is little external ornamentation ; ' but the interior is in almost every instance elaborately decorated with colored bas-reliefs, representing either scenes of daily life or religious and mystic ceremonies. It was no great advance on these truncated pyramids to conceive the idea of adding to their height and solidity by the superimposition of some further stories, constructed on a siHi' GEEAT PYRAMID OF SACCARAH. 93 ilar principle, but without internal chambers. An example of this stage of construction seems to remain in the curious mon- ument at Meydoun, called by some a "pyramid," by others a "tower," '" of which Fig. 38 is a representation. Tliis monument, wliich is emplaced upon a rocky knoll, has a square base, about 200 feet each way, and rises at an angle of 74° 10', in three distinct stages, to an elevation of nearly 125 feet. The first stage is by far the loftiest of the three, being little short of seventy feet ; the second somewhat exceeds thirty-two feet, while the third (which, however, may origi- nally have been higher) is at present no more than twenty-two feet six inches." The material is a compact limestone, and must iiave been brought from a considerable distance. The blocks, which vary in length, have a thickness of about two feet, and "have been worked and put together with great skill." " No interior passages or chambers have as yet been discovered in this edifice, which has, however, up to the pres- ent date, been examined very insufficiently. After the idea of obtaining elevation, and so grandeur, by means of stages had been once conceived, it was easy to carry out the notion to a much greater extent than that which had approved itself to tlie architect of the Pyramid of Meydoun (Fig. 38). Accordingly we find at Saccarah an edifice similar in general cliaracter to the Meydoun pile, but built in six in- stead of three stages.'^ The proportions are also enlarged considerably, the circumference measuring 1,490 feet instead of 800, and the height extending to 200 feet instead of 125. The stages still diminish in height as they rise ; but the dim- inution is only slight, the topmost stage of all falling short of the basement one by no more than eight feet and a half.'" 'J'he sides of the several stages have a uniform slope (Fig. 40), which is nearly at the same angle with that of the Meydoun building— viz. 7'i'' 30' instead' of 74° 10'. The core of the Saccarah pyramid (Fig. 39) is of rubble ; '^ but this poor nu- cleus is covei'ed and protected on all sides with a thick casing of limestone, somewhat roughly hewn and apparently quarried on the spot. In the rock beneath the pyramid, and almost under its apex,'" is a sepulchral chamber paved with granite l)locks, which, when discovered, contained a sarcophagus," and was connected with the external world by passages care- fully concealed. A doorway leading into another smaller chamber, a low and narrow opening, was ornamented at the sides by green cubes of baked clay, enamelled on the surface, alternating with small limestone blocks ; and the limestone 94 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. lintel, which covered in the doorway at the top, was adorned with hieroglyphics.'* Among other peculiarities of this pyramid are its departure from correct orientation, and its oblong-squave shape. It is said to be "the only pyramid in Egypt the sides of which do not exactly face the cardinal points." " The departure is as much as 4° 35', and can therefore scarcely have been unin- tentional. To intention must also be ascribed the other pecu- liarity (which is not unexampled),^ since the length by which the eastern and western sides exceeded the northern and south- ern was certainly as much as 43 feet. According to a conjec- ture of the principal explorer, the original difference was even greater, amounting to 63 feet, or more than one-fifth of thf length of the shorter sides." AVhen multiplication of the stages had once been conceived of as possible, it became a mere question of taste for the de- signer or the orderer of a monument how numerous the stages should be. It was as easy to make them sixty as six, or two hundred as two. Evidence is wanting as to intermediate ex- periments ; but it seems soon to have suggested itself to the Egyptian builders that the natural limit was that furnished by the thickness of the stones with which they built, each layer of stones conveniently forming a distinct and separate stage (Fig. 37). Finally, when a ^/wasi-pyramid was in this way produced, it Avould naturally occur to an artistic mind to give a perfect finish to the whole by smoothing the exterior, which could be done in two ways — either by planing down the projecting angles of the several stages to a uniform level, ^ or by filling up the triangular spaces between the top of each step and the side of the succeeding one. There are from sixty to seventy pyramids remaining in Egypt'' which appear to have been constructed on these principles. Agreeing in form and in general method of construction, they differ greatly in size, and so in dignity and grandeur. As it would be wearisome to the reader if we were to describe more than a few of these works, and as it has been usual from tlie most ancient times to distinguish three above all the rest,** we shall be content to follow the example of most previous histo- rians of Egypt, and to conclude our account of this branch of Egyptian architecture with a brief description of the Three Great Pyramids of Ghizeh. The smallest of these constructions (Fig. 41), which is usually regarded as being the latest, was nearly of the same general dimensions as the stepped pyramid of Saccarah recently de- scribed. It a little exceeded the Saccarah building in height. THIRD PYRAMID. 95 while it a little fell short of it in circumference. The base was a square, exact or nearly so, each side measuring 354 feet and a few inches. -^ The perpendicular height was 218 feet, and the angle of the slope tifty-one degrees. The pyramid covered an area of two acres three roods and twenty-one poles, and contained above nine millions of cubic feet of solid ma- sonry, calculated to have weighed 702,460 tons.'-'' Originally it was built in steps or stages,*^ like the Saccarah monument ; the stages, however, were perpendicular, and not sloping ; they seem to have been five in number, and were not intended to be seen, the angles formed by the steps being at once filled in with masonry. Externally the lower half of the pyramid was- covered with several layers of a beautiful red granite,-^ bev- elled at the joints,^' while the casing of the upper half as well as the main bulk of the interior was of limestone. Nearly below the apex, sunk deep in the native rock on which the pyramid stands, is a sepulchral chamber, or rather series of chambers, in one of which was found the sarcophagus of the monarch whom tradition had long pointed out as the builder of the monument.^" The chamber in question, which measures twenty-one feet eight inches in length, eight feet seven inches in breadth, and eleven feet three inches in its greatest height,*' runs in a direction which is exactly north and south, and is composed entirely of granite. The floor was originally formed of large masses well put together, but had been disturbed be- fore any modern explorer entered the room ; the sides and ends were lined with slabs two and a half feet thick ; Avhile the roof was composed of huge blocks set obliquely, and ex- tending from the side walls, on which they rested, to the cen- tre, where they met at an obtuse angle (Fig. 42). Internally these blocks had been caved out after being put in place, and the roof of the chamber was thus a pointed arch of a de- pressed character. The slabs covering the sides had been fastened to the rock and to each other by means of iron cramps, two of which were found in situ.'^'' The sarcophagus (Fig. 44) which the chamber contained was extremely remarkable. Formed, with the exception of the lid, of a single mass of blue-black basalt, and exhibiting in places marks of the saw which had been used in quarrying it, it had been carved and polished with great care, and was a beautiful object.'* The ends almost exactly reproduced those doorways of ancient tombs which have been already mentioned as imitations of woodwork,** while the sides showed a continu- Ation of the same carving, and are thought to represent the iai;ade of a palace.** Externally the sarcophagus was eight 96 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. feet long, three feet liigli, and tliree broad ; internally the dimensions were six feet by two.^^ The weight was nearly three tons.^' In the close neighborhood of the sepulchral chamber, and connected with it by a short passage (Fig. 43), was another larger one, which is thought to have also once held a sarcoph- agus ; ^ but this cannot be regarded as certain. Two pas- sages lead out of the larger apartment, a lower and a higher one. The lower one is 1?5 feet long, and conducts from the great chamber to the external air, at first along a level, but afterwards by an incline, which rises gently at an angle of 26° 2'. The other passage is much shorter. It leads out of the upper part of the great chamber, at first horizontally, but afterwards at a slope of 27° 34', terminating where it reaches the surface of the rock and comes in contact with the masonry of the pyramid,^' It is conjectured that this was the original entrance, and that the monument, as first designed, was to have had a base of only 180 feet and an elevation of 145 ; but that afterwards, either the original designer or a later sovereign conceived the idea of enlarging the work, and, having built over the upper passage, constructed a new one.^" The Second Pyramid of Ghizeh (Fig. 45), situated N.N.E. of the Third, at the distance of about two hundred and seventy yards, had an area which was about four times as large, and attained an elevation exceeding that of the Third by a little more than a hundred feet. The base w^as a square, each side of which measured 707 feet ; the sides rose at an angle of 52*^ 20' ; and the perpendicular height was, consequently, 454 feet.'" The area covered amounted to almost eleven acres and a half ;^* the cubic contents are estimated at 71,670,000 feet ; and the weight of the entire mass is calculated at 5,309,000 tons.'*' Like most other pyramids, it contained a sepulchral chamber almost under the apex ; this was carved out of the solid rock, but covered in by the basement stones of the edi- fice (Fig. 46), which were here sloped at an angle.'" The length of the chamber from east to west was forty-six feet, its breadth from north to south a little more than sixteen feet, its greatest height twenty-two feet.'** It contained a plain granite sarcophagus, without inscription of any kind, which was sunk into the floor,** and measured in length eight feet seven inches, in breadth three feet six inches, and in depth three feet.'*' The chamber was connected with the world without by two pas- sages, one of which, commencing in the north side of the pyramid, at the height of fifty feet above the base, descended to the level of the base at an angle of 25° 55', after which it SfiCOKt) AND GREAT PYRAMIDS. 97 became horizontal ; while the other, beginning outside the pyramid in the pavement at its foot, descended at an angle of 21° 40' for a hundred feet, was horizontal for sixty feet, and then, ascending for ninety-six feet, joined the upper passage halfway between the outer air and the central chamber.** Connected with the horizontal part of the lower passage were two other smaller chambers, which did not appear to have been sepulchral. These measured respectively eleven feet by six and tliirty-four feet by ten.'** They were entirely hewn out of the solid rock, and had no lining of any kind. The pas- sages were in part lined with granite ; ^" and granite seems to have been used for the outer casing of the two lower tiers of the pyramid,*' thus extending to a height of between seven and eight feet ; but otherwise the material employed was either the limestone of the vicinity, or the better quality of the same sub- stance which is furnished by the Mokattam range. The con- struction is inferior to that of either the First or the Third Pyramid ; it is loose and irregular, in places "a sort of gigantic rubble-work," composed of large blocks of stone intermixed with mortar, *'^ and seems scarcely worthy of builders who were acquainted with such far superior methods. The First Pyramid of Ghizeh— the "Great Pyramid'* (Fig. 47), as it is commonly called — the largest and loftiest build- ing which the world contains, is situated almost due northeast of the Second Pyramid," at the distance of about 200 yards. It was placed on a lower level than that occupied by the Second Pyramid, and did not reach to as great an elevation above the plain." In height from the base, however, it exceeded that pyramid by twenty-six feet six inches, in the length of the base line by fifty-six feet, and in the extent of the area by one acre three roods and twenty-four poles. Its original perpen- dicular height is variously estimated, at 480, 484, and 485 feet." The length of its side was 764 feet,** and its area thir- teen acres one rood and twenty-two poles. It has been famil- iarly described as a building "more elevated than the Cathe- dral of St. Paul's, on an area about that of Lincoln's Inn Fields."" The solid masonry which it contained is estimated at more than 89,000,000 cubic feet, and the weight of the mass at 6,848,000 tons.** The basement stones are many of them thirty feet in length *' and nearly five feet high. Alto- gether, the edifice is the largest and most massive building in the world,*" and not only so, but hy far the largest and most massive — the building which approaches it the nearest being the Second Pyramid, which contains 17,000,000 cubic feet less, and is very much inferior in the method of its construction. 98 HISTORY OF AKCIEKT EGYPT. The internal arrangement of chambers and passages in the Great Pyramid is peculiar and complicated. A single entrance in the middle of the northern front, opening from the thir- teenth step or stage from the base, conducts by a gradual in- cline, at an angle of 26'' 41', to a subterranean chamber, deep in the rock, and nearly under the apex of the building, which measures forty-six feet by twenty -seven, and is eleven feet high."' The passage itself is low and narrow, varying from four to three feet only in height, and in width from three feet six inches to two feet nine. It is necessary to creep along the whole of it in a stooping posture. The sides, which are perpendicular, are formed of blocks of Mokattam limestone, and the passage is roofed in by flat masses of the same. Above two such masses are seen, at the entrance (Fig. 48), two stones, and then two more placed at an angle, and meeting so that they support each other, and act as an arch, taking otf the pressure of the superincumbent masonry. It is sup- posed that the same construction has been employed along the whole passage until it enters the rock.*^* This it does at the distance of about forty yards from the outer air, after which it is carried tlirough the rock in the same line for about seventy yards, nearly to the subterranean chamber, Avithwdiich it is joined by a horizontal passage nine yards in length. No sarcophagus was found in this chamber, which must, however, it is thought, have originally contained one."^ At the distance of tw^enty-one yards from the entrance to the pyramid an ascending passage goes oif from the descend- ing one, at an angle which is nearly similar," and this passage js carried through the heart of the pyramid, with the same height and width as the other, for the distance of 124 feet. At this point it divides. "^^ A low horizontal gallery, 110 feet long, conducts to a chamber, which has been called "the Queen's," *^ a room about nineteen feet long by seventeen feet broad, roofed in with sloping blocks, and having a height of twenty feet in the centre." Another longer and much loftier gallery or corridor continues on in the line of the ascending passage for 150 feet, and is then joined by a short passage to the central or main chamber — that in which was found the sarcophagus of Cheops, or Klinfu.^ The great gallery is of very curious construction (Fig. 49). It is five feet two inches wide at the base, and is formed of seven layers of stones, each layer projecting a little beyond the one below 'it, so that the gallery contracts as it ascends ; and the ceiling, which measures only about four feet, is formed of flat stones laid across this space, and resting on the two uppermost layers or tiers. The Vol. I. Plate XXV OO oo oo oo oo oor oo oo ooooo OQOOO ooooo oooo© 0©©©O ooooo ooooo Ooooo ooooo ooooo g_oooo ooooo viy. 64. — Gkocnd-plan of the Kamksedm.— bee Page 106. Plate XXVI. Vo' L Fig. G5.— Hall of Columns in the UxuiAX TiiiU'LE of Kaunak.— See Page 108. OBJECT OF THE PYRAMIDS. 99 central chamber (Fig, 51), into which this gallery leads, has a length (from east to west) of thirty-four feet, a width of seventeen feet, and a height of nineteen.^* It is composed wholly of granite, beautifully polished,'" and is roofed in a manner which shows great ingenuity and extreme care. lu the first place, nine enormous granite blocks, each of them measuring nearly nineteen feet long," are laid across the room to form the ceiling ; then above these there is a low chamber, roofed in similarly ; this is followed by a second chamber, a third, and a fourth ; finally, above the fourth, is a triangular opening, roofed in by blocks that slope at an angle and sup- port each other, like those over the entrance. Further, from the great chamber are carried, northwards and southwards, two ventilators or air passages, which open on the outer sur- face of the pyramid, and are respectively 233 and 174 feet long." These passages are square, or nearly so, and have a diameter varying between six and nine inches. Finally, it must be noted that from the subterranean chamber a pass- age is continued towards the south, which is horizoutul, and extends a distance of fifty-three feet, where it abruptly termi- nates without leading to anything." Many speculations have been indulged in, and various most ingenious theories have been framed, as to the object or objects for which the pyramids were constructed, and as to their per- fect adaptation to their ends. It has been supposed that the Great Pyramid embodies revelations as to the earth's diameter and circumference, the true length of an arc of the meridian, and the proper universal unit of measure.'* It has been con- jectured that it was an observatory, and that its sides and its various passages had their inclinations determined by the posi- tion of certain stars at certain seasons." But the fact seems to be, as remarked by the first of living English Egyptologers,'* that "these ideas do not appear to have entered into the minds of the constructors of the pyramids," who employed the meas- ures known to them for their symmetrical construction," but had no theories as to measure itself, and sloped their passages at such angles as were most convenient, without any thought of the part of the heavens whereto they would happen to point. The most sound and sober view seems to be, that the pyramids were intended simply to be tombs.'* The Egyptians had a profound belief in the reality of the life beyond the grave, and a conviction that that life was, somehow or other, connected with the continuance of the body. They embalmed the bodies of the dead in a most scientific way ; and having thus, so far as was possible, secured them against the results of natural 100 HISTORY OF AKCIENT EGYPT. decay, they desired to secure tliein also against accidents and against the malice of enemies. Witli this view they placed them in chambers, rock-cut, or constructed of huge blocks of stone, and then piled over these chambers a mass that would, they thought, make it almost impossible that they should be violated. The leading idea whicli governed the forms of their constructions was that of durability ; " and the pyramid ap- pearing to them to be, as it is, the most durable of architect- ural forms, they accordingly adopted it. The passages with which the pyramids are penetrated were required by the cir- cumstance that kings built their sepulchres for themselves, instead of trusting to the piety of a successor, and thus it was necessary to leave a way of access to the sepulchral chamber. No sooner was the body deposited than the passage or passages were blocked. Huge portcullises, great masses of granite or other hard stone, were placed across them,**" and these so ef- fectually obstructed the ways that moderns have in several instances had to leave them whore they were put by the build- ers, and to quarry a path round them.*' The entrances to the passages were undoubtedly "intended to be concealed,"^* and were, we may be sure, concealed in every case, excepting the rare one of the accession, before the tomb was finislied, of a new and hostile dynasty.*^ As for the angles of the passages, whereof so much has been said, they were determined by the engineering consideration, at what slope a heavy body like a sarcophagus could be lowered or raised to most advantage, resting without slipping when required to rest, and moving readily when required to move.*'' The ventilating passages of the Great Pyramid were simply intended to run in the line of shortest distance between the central chamber and the ex- ternal air. This line they did not exactly attain, the northern passage reaching the surface of the pyramid about fifteen feet lower, and the southern one about the same distance liigher than it ought, results arising probably from slight errors in the calculations of the builders. In considering the architectural merit of the pyramids, two points require to be kept distinct — first their technic, and jecondly their artistic or aesthetic value. Technically speaking, a simple pyramid is not a work of much difficulty. To place masses of stone in layers one upon anotiier, each layer receding from the last, and the whole rising in steps until a single stone crowns the summit ; then to proceed downwards and smooth the faces, either by cutting away the projections or by filling up the angles of the ste}«, is a process requiring little constructive art and no very re- ARCHITECTURAL AKD ESTHETIC MERIT. lOl markable engineering skill. If the stones are massive, then, of course, a certain amount of engineering proficiency will be implied in their quarrying, their transport, and their eleva- tion into place; but this last will be much facilitated by the steps, since they afford a resting-place for the block which is being raised, at each interval of two or three feet." Had the Egyptian pyramids been nothing more than this — had they been merely solid masses of stone — the technic art displayed in them would not have been great. We should have had to notice for approval only the proper arrangement of the steps in a gradually diminishing series,** the prudent employment of the largest blocks for the basement and of smaller and still smaller ones above, and the neat cutting and exact fitting of the stones (Fig. 54) that form the outer casing." As it is, however, the pyramid-builders are deserving of very much higher praise. Their constructions were not solid, but had to contain passages and chambers — chambers which it was essential should remain intact, and passages which must not be allowed to cause any settlement or subsidence of the build- ing. It is in the formation of these passages and chambers that the architects of the pyramids exhibited their technic powers. "No one can possibly examine the interior of the Great Pyramid" (Fig. 55), says Mr. Fergusson, "without being struck with astonishment at the wonderful mechanical skill displayed in its construction. The immense blocks of granite brought from Syene — a distance of 500 miles — polished like glass, and so fitted that the joints can scarcely be detected. Nothing can be more wonderful than the extraordinary amount of knowledge displayed in the construction of the discharging chambers over the roof of the principal apartment, in the alignment of the sloping galleries, in the provision of venti- lating shafts, and in all the wonderful contrivances of the structure. All these, too, are carried out with such precision that, notwithstanding the immense superincumbent weight, no settlement in any part can be detected to the extent of an appreciable fraction of an inch. Nothing more perfect mechan-.'' ically has ever been erected since that time." ** \ . ^sthetically, the pyramids have undoubtedly far less merit. "In itself," as the writer above quoted well observes, "there can be nothing less artistic than a pyramid." *' It has no ele- ment of architectural excellence but greatness, and this it con- ceals as much as possible. "A pyramid never looks as large as it is ; and it is not till you almost touch it that you can realize its vast dimensions. This is owing principally to all its parts sloping away from the eye instead of boldly challeng- 102 HISTORY OF ANCIEXT EGYPT. ing observation."*" Still, the great pyramids of Egypt, hav. ing this disadvantage to struggle against, must be said to have overcome it. By the vastness of their mass, by the impression of solidity and durability which they produce, partly also per- haps by the symmetry and harmony of their lines and their perfect simplicity and freedom from ornament, they do convey to the beholder a sense of grandeur and majesty, they do pro- duce within him a feeling of astonishment and awe, such as is scarcely caused by any other of the erections of man. In all ages travellers liave felt and expressed the warmest and strong- est admiration for them.*" They impressed Herodotus as no Avorks that he had seen elsewhere, except perhaps the Baby- lonian.*'' They astonished Germanicus, familiar as he was with the great constructions of Eome.'^ 'J'bey stirred the spirit of Napoleon, and furnished him with one of his most telling phrases.'"' Greece and Eome reckoned them among the Seven Wonders of the world. *^ Moderns have doubted whether they could really be the work of human liands,^" If they possess one only of the elements of architectural excellence, they pos- sess that element to so great an extent that in respect of it they are unsurpassed, and probably unsui-passable. Before quitting altogether the subject of the p^Tamids it should perhaps be noted — first, that the Egyptians not imfre- quently built brick pyramids,*' and prided themselves upon constructing durable monuments with so poor a material;'* and secondly, that they occasionally built pyramids witli two distinct inclinations. The soutliern stone pyramid of Dashoor (Fig. 53), which has a base of nearly 617 feet, is commenced at an angle of 54° 15', and, if this slope had been continued, must have risen to an elevation of nearly 400 feet. When, however, the work had been carried up to the height of about 150 feet, the angle was suddenly changed to one of 42° only, and tlie monument being finished at this low slope, lost sixty feet of its proper elevation, falling short of 340 feet by a few inches."* The effect of a pyramid of this kind is pronounced to be unpleasant ; '"*' and there can be little doubt "*' that the change of construction, when made, was an afterthought re- sulting from a desire to complete the work more rapidly than had been at first intended. Besides the brick and stone tombs thus elaborately con- structed, the Egyptians were also in the habit of forming rock-sepulchres by excavations in the mountains whereby the Nile Valley was bordered. These excavated tombs belong to a period somewhat later than that of the pj'ramids, and have but few architectural features, being for the most part a mere ROCK-SEPrLCHRES. 103 succession of chambers and passages,'"^ with walls and ceilings ornamented by painting and sculpture, but devoid of any architectural decoration. Still, there are certain exceptions to the general rule. Occasionally the entrances, and again the larger chambers, are supported by columns ; and these, though for the most part plain, have in some instances an ornamentation which is interesting, showing as it does the germ of features which ultimately came to be employed widely and recognized as possessing great merit. In the earliest of the rock-tombs the pillar is a mere pier,'"^ at first square or, at any rate, rectangular ; then the projecting angles are cut away, and the shape becomes octagonal ; finally, the octagon is rounded off into a circle (Fig. 58). This form being too simple, an ornamentation of it is projected, and that sort of shallow fluting appears which characterizes the Doric order of the Greeks (Fig. 56). Several tombs at Beni Hassan, in Middle Egypt, exhibit pillars so like the Grecian that they have obtained the name of "Pi'oto-Doric." '°* Sixteen shallow curved indentations, carried in straight lines from top to bot- tom of the columns, streak them with delicate varieties of shade and light, adding greatly to their richness and effect. The sides slope a little, so that the column tapers gently ; but there is no perceptible entasis or hyperbolic curve of the sides. The base is large, and there is a square plinth between the column and the architrave, which latter is wholly unorna- mented. The entire effect is simple and pleasing."* Another still more elegant and thoroughly Egyptian column (Fig. 57), which is found occasionally in the early tombs, seems to deserve description. This appears to imitate four reeds or lotus stalks, clustered together and bound round with a liga- ture near the top, above which they swell out and form a cap- ital. This pillar stands — like the other — on its own base, and is rather more tapering. It was sometimes delicately col- ored with streaks and bars of blue, pink, yellow, green, and white, which gave it a very agreeable appearance.'"* The spaces between the pillars are sometimes occupied by curvilinear roofs, '"^ which, though not exhibiting any engineer- ing skill, since they are merely cut in the rock, imply, at any rate, an appreciation of the beauty of coved ceilings, and suggest, if they do not prove, an acquaintance with the arch. Such a knowledge was certainly possessed by the later Egyp- tians, and may not improbably have been acquired even at the very remote date to which the tombs in question belong. Although their early architecture is almost entirely of a sepulchral character, yet we have a certain amount of evidence 10-4 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. that, even from the first, the Temple had a place in the regards of the Egyptians, though a place very much inferior to that occupied by the Tomb. Not only is the building of temples ascribed by the ancient writers to more than one of the early kings, '^^ but remains have been actually found which the best authorities view as edifices of this class, "^^ belonging certainly to a very ancient period. One such edifice has been discovered, and at least partially explored, in the immediate vicinity of the Second Pyramid — that of Chephren — and may be con- fidently regarded as of his erection. It consists mainly of a single apartment, built in the form of the letter T (Fig. 59), and measuring about 100 feet each way. The entrance was in the middle of the crossbar of the T, which was a sort of gallery 100 feet long by twenty-two wide, divided down the middle by a single range of oblong-square piers, built of the best Syenite granite. From this gallery opened out at right angles the other limb of the apartment, Avhich had a length of nearly eighty feet with a breadth of thirty-three, and was divided by a double range of similiar piers into three portions, just as our churches commonly are into a nave and two aisles. The tem- ple has no roof, but is believed to have been covered with granite blocks, laid across from the walls to the piers, or from one pier to another. The walls were lined with slabs of ala- baster, arragonite, or other rare stones, skilfully cut and deftly fitted together ; and the temple was further adorned with statues of the founder, having considerable artistic merit, and executed in green basalt,'"* a close-grained and hard material. A certain number of narrow passages, leading to small cham- bers, were connected with it, but these must be regarded as mere adjuncts, not interfering with the main building. There is no beauty of ornamentation and but little construc- tive skill in the temple which we have been considering. It has been described as "the simplest and least adorned in the world." '" Still, we are told that the effect is pleasing. "All the parts of the building are plain — straight and square, with- out a single moulding of any sort, but they are perfectly pro- portioned to the work they have to do. They are pleasingly and effectively arranged, and they have all that lithic grandeur which is inherent in large masses of precious materials." "* The means do not exist for tracing with any completeness the gradual advance which the Egyptians made in their tem- ple-building, from edifices of this extreme and archaic sim- plicity to the complicated and elaborate constructions in which their architecture mltimatoly culminated. The dates of many temples are uncertain ; others, of which portions are ancient. EARLIEST TEMPLES. 105 liave been so altered and improved by later builders that their original features are overlaid, and cannot now be recovered. We can only say, that as early as the time of the twelfth dyn- asty the obelisk was invented and became an adjunct and orna- ment of the temple,"^ its ordinary position being at either side of a doorway of moderate height, which it overtopped ; and that soon after the accession of the eighteenth dynasty — if not even earlier — round pillars were introduced "^ as a sub- stitute for square piers, which they gradually superseded, re- taining however to the last, in their massive form, a pier-like character. About the same time the idea arose (which after- Avards prevailed universally) of forming a temple by means of a succession of courts, colonnaded or otherwise, opening one into another, and generally increasing in richness as they re- ceded from the entrance, but terminating in a mass of small chambers, which were probably apartments for the priests. The progress of the Egyptian builders in temples of this kind will perhaps be sufficiently shown if we take three speci- mens, one from Mediiiet-Abou, belonging to the early part of the eighteenth dynasty ; another, that of the Rameseum, be- longing to the very best Egyptian period — the reign of Raraeses II., of the nineteenth dynasty ; and the third, that magnificent temple at Karnak, the work of at least seven distinct mon- archs, Avhose reigns cover a space of about five hundred yeai's, which has been well compared to the greatest mediffival cathe- drals,'"^ gradually built up by the piety of successive ages, each giving to God the best that its art could produce, and all uniting to create an edifice richer and more various than the work of any single age could ever be, yet still not inharmoni- ous, but from first to last repeating with modifications the same forms and dominated by the same ideas. The temple at Medinet-iVbou (Fig. 61) faces to the south- east."* It is entered by a doorway of no great height, on either side of which are towers or "pylons" of moderate ele- vation,"' built (as usual) Avith slightly sloping sides, and crowned by a projecting cornice. The gateway is ornamented Avith hieroglyphics and figures of gods ; "* but the pylons, ex- cept on their internal faces, are plain. Having passed through this portal, the traveller finds himself in a rectangular court, rather more than sixty feet long by thirty broad, bounded on either side by a high wall, and leading to a colonnaded build- ing. This, which is the temple proper (Fig. 60), consists of an oblong cell, intended, probably, to be lighted from the roof, and of a gallery or coloniuide running entirely round the cell, and supported in front and at the sides by square 106 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. piers. The side colonnades have a length of about fifty feet, while the front colonnade or porch has a length of thirty-five or forty. The space between the cell and the piers is a dis- tance of about nine feet, and this has been roofed in with blocks of stone extending horizontally across it ; but the roof, thus formed, having, apparently, shown signs of weakness in places, and further support having been needed, four octago- nal pillars have been introduced at the weak points. "* The position of three of these is fairly regular ; but one stands quite abnormally, as will be seen by reference to the plan (Fig. 59). At either end of the front gallery or porch are apartments — one nearly square, about fifteen feet by twelve ; the other oblong, about twenty-seven feet by fifteen. In this latter are two round pillars with bell or lotus capitals,'^ in- tended to support the roof. In the rear of the temple, and in the same line Avith the side piers, are a group of six apart- ments, opening one into another, and accessible only from the gallery immediately behind the cell. The whole interior of the temple is profusely ornamented with hieroglyphics and sculptures, chiefly of a religious character. Extei'nally this building can have had but little grandeur or beauty ; inter- nally it can scarcely have been very satisfactory; but the sculp- tures, whose effect was heightened by painting, may have given it a certain character of richness and splendor. A great advance upon this edifice had been made by the time when Rameses II. constructed the building, known for- merly as the Memnonium,'*' and now commonly called the Kameseum,''^'' at Thebes (Fig. 63). Still, the general plan of the two buildings is not very dissimilar (Fig. 64). The en- trance-gateway stood, similarly, between two tall pylons, or "pyramidal masses of masonry, which, like the two western towers of a Gothic cathedral, are the appropriate and most imposing part of the structure externally." ''^* It led, like the other, into a rectangular courtyard, bounded on either side by high walls, which, however, were in this instance screened by a double colonnade, supported on two rows of round pillars, ten in each row.'** From this courtyard a short flight of steps, and then a broad passage, conducted into an inner peristyle court,'-* a little smaller,''^* but very much more splendid than the outer. On the side of entrance, and on that opposite, were eight square piers, with colossi in front, each thirty feet high ; while on the right and left were double ranges of cir- cular columns, eight in each range, the inner one being con- tinued on behind the square piers which faced the spectator on his entrance. Passing on from this court in a straight TEMPLE OF KERNAK. 107 line, and mounting another short staircase, the traveller found himself in a pillared hall of great beauty, formed by forty- eight columns in eight rows of six each,'" most of which are still standing. The pillars of the two central rows exceed the others both in height and diameter.''* They are of a different order from the side pillars, liaving the bell-shaped or lotus capital which curves so gracefully at the top ; while the side capitals are contracted as they ascend, and are decidedly lees pleasing. The whole of the hall was roofed over with large blocks of stone, light being admitted into it mainly by means of a clerestory in the way shown by the section above. All the columns, together with the walls enclosing them, were beautifully ornamented with patteriis, hieroglyphics, and bas- reliefs cut in the stone and then brilliantly colored.'^' Behind the hall were chambers, probably nine in number,'^" perhaps more, the two main ones supported by eight pillars each, and lighted, most likely, by a clerestory ; the others either dark or perhaps receiving light through windows pierced in the outer walls. A magnificent ornament of this temple, and probably its greatest glory, was a sitting colossus of enormous size, formed of a single mass of red Syenite granite, and polished with the greatest care, which now lies in fragments upon the soil of the great courtyard and provokes the astonishment of all behold- ers.'^' Its original height is estimated at eighteen yards, and its cubic contents at nearly 13,000 feet,'^* which would give it a weight of almost 900 tons ! It was the largest of all the colossal statues of Egypt, exceeding in height the two seated colossi in its vicinity, one of which is known as "the vocal Memnon," by nearly seven feet.'^^ Tiie Great Temple of Karnak (Fig. 66) is termed by the latest historian of architecture " the noblest effort of architect- ural magnificence ever produced by the hand of man." '^ It commences with a long avenue of crio-sphinxes '^' facing to- wards each other, and leading to a portal, placed (as usual) between two pylons, one of which is still nearly complete and rises to the height of 135 feet.'^* The portal gives access to a ' vast open court, with a covered corridor on either side resting upon round pillars, and a double line of columns down the centre. The court and corridors are 275 feet long, while the distance from the outer Avail of the right to that of the left corridor is 329 feet.'^' The area of the court should thus be nearly 100,000 square feet. A portion of it, however, on the right is occupied by a building which seems to have been a shrine or sanctuary distinct from the main temple. This edi- 108 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. fice, placed at right angles to the walls of the court, interrupts the colonnade upon the right after it has reached about half its natural length, and, projecting in front of it, contracts the court in this quarter, while at the same time it penetrates beyond the line of the walls to a distance of about 120 feet. It is constructed in the usual manner, with two pylons in front, an entrance court colonnaded on three sides, an inner pillared chamber lighted from the roof, and some apartments behind, one of which is thought to have been the sanctuar}'. '^ Small in proportion to the remainder of the vast pile whereof it forms a part, this temple has yet a length of 160 feet and a breadth of nearly eighty,'^* thus covering an area of 12,500 square feet (Fig. 67). It is ornamented throughout with sculptures and inscriptions, which have been finished with great care. On the side of the court facing the great entrance two vast pylons once more raised themselves aloft, to a greater height, probably, than the entrance ones,'*" though now they are mere heaps of ruins. In front of them projected two masses like the atitce of a portico, between which a flight of seven steps '*' led up to a vestibule or antechamber, fifty feet by twenty, from which a broad and lofty passage conducted into the won- derful pillared hall (Fig. 65) which is the great glory of the Karnak edifice. In length nearly 330 feet,'"* in widtli 170,'-" this magnificent apartment was supported by 164 massive stone columns, divided into three groups — twelve central ones, each sixty-six feet high and thirty-three in circumference, forming the main avenue down its midst ; while on either side sixty-one, of slightly inferior dimensions,'" supported the huge wings of the chamber, arranged in seven rows of seven each, and two rows of six (Fig. 68). The internal area of the chamber was above 56,000 square feet, and that of the entire building, with its walls and pylons, more than 88,000 square feet, a larger area than that covered by the Dom of Cologne, the greatest of all the cathedrals of the North.'" The slight irregularity in the arrangement of the pillars above noticed was caused by the projection into the apartment at its further end of a sort of vestibule (enclosed by thick walls and flanked at the angles by square piers) which stood out from the pylons, wherewith the hall terminated towards the southeast. These seem to have been of somewhat smaller dimensions than these which gave entrance to the hall from the courtyard ; '"* but their height can scarcely have been less than a hundred or a hundred and twenty feet. Passing through these inner propylaea, the visitor found himself in a long corridor open to the sky, and iav before THE INKER SANCTUARY. 109 him on either hand a tall tapering obelisk of rose-colored granite covered with hieroglyphics,'^' and beyond them fresh propyla^a — of inferior size to any of the others, and absolutely without ornament — which guarded the entrance into a clois- tered court,'** 240 feet long by sixty-two broad, running at right angbs to the general axis of the edifice. The roof of the cloister was supported by square piers with colossi in front, the number of such piers being thirty-six. In the open court, on either hand of the doorway which gave entrance into it, stood an obelisk of the largest dimensions known to the Egyptians,'''^ a huge monolith, 100 feet high and above eight feet square at the base, which is calculated to have contained 1 38 cubic metres of granite, and to have weighed nearly 360 tons.'*" Leaving these behind him, and ascending a second short flight of steps, the visitor passed through a portal opposite to that by which he had entered the cloistered court, and found himself in a small vestibule, about forty feet by twenty, pierced by a doorway in the middle of each of its four sides, and conduct- ing to a building which seems properly regarded as the adytum or inmost sanctuary of the entire temple.'" This was an edi- fice about 120 feet square, composed of a central cell of pol- ished granite (Fig. 63), fifty-two feet long by fourteen broad, surrounded by a covered corridor, and flanked on either side by a set of small apartments, accessible by twenty small door- ways from the court in which the building stood. The style here was one of primitive simplicity. No obelisks, no colossi, no pillars even, if we except three introduced to sustain a failing roof,'" broke the flat uniformity of the straight walls. Nothing was to be seen in the way of ornament excepting the painted sculptures and hieroglyphical legends wherewith the walls were everywhere adorned, and two short stelas or prisms of pink granite, w^hich stood on either side of the entrance to the granite cell. This cell itself was broken into three parts. Passing between the stelae, one entered a porch or ante-room, six- teen feet broad and about six feet deep, from which a doorway about eight feet wide led into a first chamber, or "Holy Place,'* twenty feet long by fourteen. Hence, another doorway, of the same width as the first, conducted into the "Holy of Holies," an oblong square, twenty-seven feet by fourteen, richly deco- rated both on walls and ceiling with paintings. The general resemblance in plan of this sacred cell, with its inner and outer apartments, its porch, and its two stelne before the porch, to the Temj)le of the Jews — similiarly divided into three parts, and with " Jachin and Boaz" in front '" — must strike every student of architecturct 110 > HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. Tlie entire square building here described, whereof the granite cell was the nucleus or central part, stood at one end of a vast open court '" which surrounded it on three sides. The court itself was enclosed by high walls, behind which were long corridors, thought to have been divided formerly into numerous rooms for priests or guards,'" and running the whole length of the o&urt, from the southeastern pylons of the cloister to an edifice at the further extremity of the court, which must now engage our attention. This was a pillared hall, 140 feet long by fifty-five feet wide,''* containing two rows of massive square columns or piers, and two rows of round pillars with bell-shaped capitals reversed. The round pillars supported a lofty roof, with a clerestory admitting the light of day, while the square piers, rising to a less height, formed, comparatively speaking, low aisles on either side of the grand avenue. The axis of the hall was at right angles to the gen- eral axis of the temple. It was entered by three doors, two placed symmetrically in the centre of the northwestern and southeastern walls, the other, strangely and abnormally, at its southern corner. Around this hall were grouped a number of smaller chambers, some supported by pillars, some by square piers, while others were so narrow that they could be roofed over by blocks of stone resting only on the side walls. The number of these small apartments seems to have been not less than forty."' It is time now to turn from the details of this vast edifice, or rather mass of edifices, to its broad features and general dimensions. It is in shape a rectangular oblong, nearly four times as long as it is wide, extending from N.W. to S.E. a dis- tance of 1,200 feet, and in the opposite direction a distance of about 340 feet.'^ One projection only breaks the uniformity of the oblong, that of the dependent sanctuary, which interrupts the right hand corridor of the entrance court. The entire area, including that of this dependent sanctuary, is about 396,000 square feet, or naore than half as much again as that covered by St. Peter's at Rome.'"' The structure comprised two extensive courts — one colonnaded, the other plain ; an oblong cloister, supported on piers ornamented with colossi ; four splendid obelisks ; two sanctuaries, one central, one sub- ordinate ; and two vast pillared halls, one of them exceeding in dimensions any other in Egypt, and covering with its walls and pylons more space than that occupied by the cathedral of Cologne. The P rench engineers observe that the cathedral of Notre Dame would liave stood entirely within it ; '^'^ and this is perfectly true so far as area is concerned, though not, of MAGKITUDE OF THE BtlLDDfG — AESTHETIC MERIT. lU course, in respect of elevation. The greatest height of the Karnark pylons was not more than about 140 feet, and the height from the floor to the roof of the Great Hall did not exceed seventy-six feet. Still, the dimensions of the hall, the mass of material which it contained, and the massive character of its construction, are truly wonderful and admirable ; and it is well said, that "when we consider that this is only a part of a great whole, we may fairly assert that the entire structure is among the largest, as it undoubtedly is one of the most beauti- ful, buildings in the world." '" Moreover, it is to be remem- bered, that besides the buildings here described "there are other temples to the north, to the east, and, more especially, to the south ; and pylons connecting these, and avenues of sphinxes extending for miles, and enclosing walls and tanks and embankments," so that the conclusion seems to be just, that the whole constitutes "such a group as no other city ever possessed either before ?r since," and that "Saint Peter's with its colonnades and the iTatican, make up a mass insignificant in extent . . . compared with this glory of Thebes with its sur- rounding temples." '*" With respect to the [esthetic merit of the building different estimates may be formed. There are some to whom Egyptian architecture is altogether distasteful, and it must be granted to have faults which place it considerably below the best and greatest styles ; but few can visit the remains themselves and gaze upon the "long vista of courts and gateways and halls and colonnades," with " here and there an obelisk shooting up out of the ruins and interrupting the opening view of the forest of columns," '^^ without being moved to wonder and admiration at the sight. The multiplicity and variety of the parts, the grandeur of all, the beauty of some, the air of strangeness and of remote antiquity which hangs over the scene, the thousand associations — historical and other — which it calls up, evoke an interest and a delight which overpower criticism, and dispose the spectator to exclaim that never has he beheld anything so glorious. More especially is admiration excited by the ruins of the Great Hall. "No language," says a writer not given to strong displays of feeling, "no language can convey an idea of its beauty, and no artist has yet been able to reproduce its form so as to convey to those who have not seen it an idea of its grandeur. The mass of its central piers, illumined by a flood of light from the clerestory, and the smaller pillars of the wings gradually fading into obscurity, are so arrangea and lighted as to convey an idea of infinite space ; at the saoie time the beauty and massiveness of the forms, and the IXt HTSTORY OF ANCIENT EOYPT. "brilliancy of their colored decorations, all combine to stamp this as tlie greatest of man's arcliitectural works, but such a one as it would be impossible to reproduce, except in such a climate, and in that individual style, in which and for which it was erected.** '" Among the ornaments of the Great Temple of Karnak the obelisk has been mentioned. It is a creation purely Egyp- tian, which has scarcely ever elsewhere been even imitated with success.'^' Such specimenis as exist — in Kome, Paris, Constantinople, London — are the spoil which Egypt has yield- ed to her conquerors or the tribute which she has paid to her protectors, not the production of the countries which they adorn. It is very remarkable that the Romans, fond as they were of the gigantic in architecture, and special admirers as they ehowed themselves to be of the obelisk, never themselves pro- duced one. Though in possession for about six centuries of the granite quarries of Syene, whence the Egyptians obtained the greater number of their huge monoliths, they preferred lowering and carrying off the creations of Egyptian art to exerting their own skill and genius in the production of rival monuments. Eome boasted in the time of her full splendor twelve obelisks, but every one of them had been transported from Egypt to Italy."' Architects commonly divide the obelisk into three parts,'" the base, the shaft or obelisk proper, and the pyramidian which crowns the summit ; but, materially, the parts are two only, since the pyramidian is ordinarily in one piece with the shaft which it terminates. The base is always separate, and may consist of a single block or of two placed stepwise, which is the arrangement in the case of the obelisk before the church of St. John Lateran at Rome. This is the grandest monument of the kind that exists anywhere, or is known to have existed. Exclusively of the base, it has a height of 105 feet,'^ with a width diminishing from nine feet six inches to eight feet -even inches. '^^ It is estimated to have contained 4,945 cubic '^et (French), and to have weighed above 450 tons."" An ordinary height '" for an obelisk was from fifty to seventy feet, «<,nd an ordinary weight from 200 to 300 tons.'" Obelisks as erected by the Egyptians commonly stood in pairs. Their position was in front of a temple, on either side of its gateway. Some have conjectured that they represented solar rays,'" and were specially dedicated to the sun;'" but both these views have been combated, and must be regarded as uncertain. Architecturally they served the purpose of the Boman column, the Gothic spire, and the Oriental minaret ; OBELISKS — TEMPLES. 113 they broke the too frequent horizontal lines with their quasi- vertical ones, and carried the eye upwards from the flat eartk to the dome of heaven. They were especially valuable in Egyptian architecture from the comparative lightness and slimness of their forms, where all otherwise was over-massive and heavy. "* The proportions of the obelisk differed within certain limits ; but the most satisfactory had an elevation about eleven times their diameter at the base. "* Before quitting the subject of temples, it seems desirable to note that the Egyptian buildings to which this term is com» monly applied are of two classes. Some, and especially the more magnificent, such as that at Karnak (above described), and again that at Luxor, seem to deserve the name which has been given them,'" of "Palace Temples," being places which were at once the residences of the kings and structures in which the people assembled for worship. Others are entirely free from this double character. The southern temple at Karnak is (Fig. 69) "strictly a temple, without anything about it that could justify the supposition of its being a palace." ''^ It is a perfectly regular building, consisting of two pylons, approached through an avenue of sphinxes, of a hypaethral court, surrounded on three sides by a double colonnade, of a pillared hall lighted from the roof in the usual way, a cell surrounded by a corridor or passage, and a small hall beyond supported by four columns.'" This temple is pronounced to have considerable "intrinsic beauty," '*" and is interesting as having furnished a model which continued to be followed in Greek and Roman times. Another description of Egyptian temple, intended for re- ligious purposes only, is that which is known under the title of mammeisi, an edifice dedicated to the Mother of the Gods (Fig. 70). Temples of this kind are cells, containing either one or two chambers, and surrounded by a colonnade in front, flank, and rear. They are of oblong form, and are sometimes approached by a flight of steps in front, which conducts to the doorway.'^' The size is always small ; and they would be un- important were it not for the fact that they appear to have been selected by the Greeks as the models after which they should construct their own religious edifices, which were in most instances peristylar, and which changed but little from the Egyptian type beyond rounding the square piers and sur- mounting the flat architrave with a pediment. It will have been seen that Egyptian architecture depended for its effect, first, upon its size and massiveness ; secondly, on t,he beauty of certain forms, which were constantly repeated. 114 HISTORY OF ANCIEITT EaYPT. as the pillar, the caryatide pier, and the obelisk ; thirdly and lastly, on the richness and brilliancy of its sculptured and colored ornamentation. The massiveness appears most remarkably in the pyramids, and in the pylons or great flank- ing towers at the entrances of palaces and temples ; ^^^ but it is not shown only in these structures — it pervades the entire style, and meets us everywhere, in pillars, in lintels, in colossi, iu monolithic chambers, in roofs, in walls, in obelisks. How- ever great the diameter of a column, it has usually in each of its layers no more than four stones,'*^ while all the layers are of enormous thickness. Lintels of doorways sometimes exceed forty feet in length ; "*■* colossi weigh above 800 tons ; '^* mono- lithic chambers not much less ; '^"^ roofing stones have a length of thirty feet, and a weight of above sixty tons ; "*' obelisks, as we have seen,'®^ range from 170 to 450 tons. In mere ordi- nary walls the stones are usually of vast size, and the thickness of such walls is surprising. It is not as in Assyria and Baby- lonia, where the material used was crude brick, and the wall which had to sustain a serious weight was necessarily of great breadth ; the Egyptians used the best possible materials — sandstone, close-grained limestone, or granite — yet still made their walls almost as broad as the Mesopotamians themselves. This could only be from a pure love of massiveness. The column is undoubtedly among the most effective of architectural forms. In Egypt its special characteristic is its solidity, or the very large proportion borne by the diameter to the height. Whereas in the perfected architecture of the Greeks, the column where it is thickest must have a height at least equalling six diameters,"** in Egypt the height rarely much exceeds four diameters, and is '*" sometimes not above three. In many cases it about equals the extreme circumference of the pillar. This extreme circumference is not always at the base. Columns are found which swell gradually as they ascend, and do not attain their full width till they have reached a fourth or fifth of their height. They then contract gently, and are narrowest just below the capital, where they commonly present the appearance of being bound round by cords (Fig. 71). Other columns are, like the Greek, largest at the base, and taper gradually from bottom to top ; but in no case have they the Greek swell or entasis. The shafts of Egyptian columns are sometimes plain, but more commonly have an ornamentation. This is effected by sculpture or painting, or both. Some, as already noticed,'" are merely fluted like the Greek ; others have a perfectly smooth surface, but are adorned with painting. '*' In general, Vol. 1. Plate XXVlL-ti. Fig. 66— Ground Plan of Qrkat Tbmplb at Kabnak.— See Page 107. Vol. I. Plate XXVII.— ii eqyptiak^ capitals. 115 however, the surface is more or less scul ptured, and at the same time is painted — often with much taste and delicacy. For the most part vetegable forms have been imitated. The column bulges out from its base like a water-plant, andi s then sculpt- ured so as to resemble a number of stalks tied together at the top or at intervals, and finally swelling above the last com- pression into a calix.'" Or it has the leaves and flowers of water-plants delicately traced upon it and colored naturally."* Or, finally, it retains the mere general form derived from pil- lars thus moulded, and substitutes hieroglyphics and human or divine figures for the simple decoration of earlier times."* Capitals are of four principal forms. One, which has been called the "lotus blossom" or "bell" (Fig. 72) capital,"' begins with a slight swell above the top of the shaft — is then nearly cylindrical for a while ; after which it curves outwards very considerably, and terminates in a lip, which is rounded off into a flat surface. Water-plants of various kinds are represented on these " bell-capitals," which are among the most beautiful of the architectural forms invented by the Egyptians. Another kind of capital is that which is thought to imitate a lotus bud, or a group of such buds, with the upper portion removed,"' It swells out considerably from the top of the shaft, after which it contracts, and is terminated abruptly by a plain square stone, placed on it to receive the architrave. Capitals of this type are frequent at Thebes, but rare elsewhere. "* The prin- cipal varieties are the following (Fig. 73). A third form, which is very unusual, consists of the boll-capi- tal reversed, a freak of the architect which is said not to add either to the beauty or the strength of the building."^ There is also a compound capital which is decidedly unpleasing,-"" consisting of four human heads placed at the summit of the ordinary bell-capital, between it and the architrave (Fig. The proportion of the capital to the shaft was considerably I beyond that approved by the Greeks,^*" though less than the proportion which prevailed in Judtea '^'' and in Persia.*'^ In- stances are found in which the height of the capital is as much as one-third of the shaft,'^ though it is more commonly one- fourth, and sometimes even as little as one-fifth,''"* The ap- pearance of " heaviness " produced by the thickness of the pillars is increased by the defect here noticed, which makes each column seem to be overloaded at the top and to be sink- ing under its own weight. Another peculiarity in the Egyptian use of columns is the ^larrowness of the intercolumniation. Main avenues of pillars 116 HISTORY OF AXCIENT EGYPT. are, indeed, sometimes of a fair width, extending to nearly two diameters in some eases,''"* But the spaces left between the pillars at the sides, instead of being, as in Grecian art, the game or nearly the same, frequently do not equal a single di- ameter,'''" and are scarcely ever as much as a diameter and a half. Thus the (columns are unduly crowded together, and in the great pillared halls the forest of stems stands so thick that, except in front and on either flank, the view is everywhere interrupted, and the immensity of the space enclosed cannot be seen from any point. The intention, seemingly, is to make sure that the roof shall have an ample support, and to this desire is sacrificed every other consideration. The caryatide piers (Fig. 75) of the Egyptians were even more massive than their columns. Square in plan, slightly pyramidical in outline, narrowing (that is to say) as they rose, and spaced at short distances one from another, with a heavy cornice above them, they had no ornament to take oif from their solid strength beyond a few hieroglyphics and the figure from which they take their name. This was a colossus, gen- erally from twenty-five to thirty-five feet high,-''^ which wa? placed directly before the pier on a pedestal of one or two- steps. Solemn and stately stand the figures, clothed, appar- ently, in tight-fitting vests,'"* with miters upon their heads, and arms crossed upon their breasts, each exactly like all the others, with expressionless countenances, emblems of complete repose. Unlike the similarly named statues of the Greeks, they do not afflict the beholder with the spectacle of human forms oppressed by the burden of a crushing weight whereof they can never be rid. The caryatides of Egypt bear no bur- ben at all. They stand i)i front of the piers, entirely distinct from them, though touching them, and for the most part do not even quite reach to the architriive which the piers sup- port'" They are not slaves condemned to an ignominious punishment,"" but emblems of a divine presence, impressing the spectator with a sense that the place wherein they stand is holy ground. Obelisks, as already observed,*'' were among the lightest of the forms used by the Egyptians. Architecturally they must have been intended to relieve the eye, wearied by the too great massiveness of pillars, piers, and pylons, with the con- trast of a slim delicate spire, rising gracefully among them and cutting the horizontal lines at right angles. They were generally placed at the entrances to temples, one on either side of the main doorway ; but sometimes they are found in the interior of buildings. The ^reat Palace-Temple at Kar- USE OF COLORED DECORATIOIf. 117 nak was adorned^, as we have seen, with four ; but in general a temple had no more than two, and most temples were alto- gether without them. The conventional necessity of setting them up in pairs '•^'^ gave rise to occasional awkwardness. When obelisks of the largest size were ordered, it was difficult to find in the quarries two masses of granite ninety or a hundred feet long without break or flaw in them. Flaws might even be discovered when the work had proceeded to a certain point, and an obelisk intended to have reached a certain length might in consequence have to be shortened. The result was that in some instances the pair of obelisks supplied were not of equal height ; and this want of symmetry had to be met by artifice. The shorter obelisk was given a higher pedestal than the taller one, and was sometimes even advanced a little towards the spectator that it might appear as large as the other.*'* Obelisks seem most usually to have been votive offerings set up by monarchs before temples, partly to propitiate the gods, but mainly for their own glory. The inscriptions upon them set forth in every case the greatness and the victories of their erector. It is difficult for one who has not visited Egypt to pro- nounce positively on the merit or demerit of the Egyptian colored decoration. If we could feel sure that the effect pro- duced was really such as is represented by the French artists who made the drawings for the "Description," we should have to assign it high praise, as at once tasteful, rich, and harmo- nious. Nothing in decorative color can well be more admira- ble than the representation given in that magnificent work of the interior of a temple at Philae, restored to what is sup- posed to have been its ancient condition. "^'^ The design is excellent ; the tints are pleasing ; and the arrangement by which thin lines of white separate between colors that would otherwise offer too strong a contrast, leaves nothing to be de- sired. The pale gray of the stucco also, predominating throughout, subdues the whole, and prevents any appearance of glare or gaudiness. But it is difficult to decide how much this admirable drawing owes to the accurate observation of facts, how much it is indebted for its beauties to the imagina- tion and the good taste of the designers. Egyptian coloring in its primitive aspect is to be seen only in the rock-tombs, where, we are told, the paintings have all the freshness of works executed but yesterday. ^'^ Much admiration is expressed for these paintings by many who have visited the tombs and described them ; '^" but nothing can well be more disappoint- ing than to turn from the glowing descriptions that have been 118 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. given by these writers to the representations made by artists in the magnificently illustrated works of Rosellini and Lep- sius, on which no expense has been spared. Of crude, coarse, and inharmonious coloring we behold in these works abun- dant specimens ; of what is really harmonious and artistic in color we observe scarcely anything. A few vases and some of the patterns upon ceilings are fairly good ; *'^ but these are exceptions, and in general the coloring is about as bad as col- oring can be. A coarse and violent red, a dull blue, and a staring yellow predominate ; white, the great chastener and subduer of color, is introduced but scantily. Strong tints prevail ; half tones are scarcely to be seen. Shading is of course unknown : and the whole style cannot but be pro- nounced crude, harsh, and unpleasing. Still, it is to be borne in mind that these illustrated works are not the originals, and that what they present to us are fragments detached from their surroundings ; and it would evidently be unsafe to conclude upon such data that the general effect actually produced upon the beholder by an Egyptian temple, seen as a whole, was not heightened and improved by the painted decoration,^'' which was certainly rich and brilliant, though we may suspect that it wanted delicacy and would have seemed to moderns over- glaring. Before this chapter is brought to a close a few words must be said, first, with regai'd to the domestic architecture of the Egyptians, and, secondly, concerning some peculiarities of their construction. The specimens which exist of the domestic architecture are few and fragmentary. Excluding the great buildings above described, which seem to have been at once temples and royal residences, there is but one example remaining of a mere dwelling-house, and that example is believed to be at the pres- ent time incomplete.^'"* It stands in the near vicinity of the temple at Medinet-Abou, which has already engaged our at- tention,"''' and is commonly called a "pavilion" ^'^^ (Fig. 83), having been built for himself as a sort of private residence by one of the kings. ^" It consists at present of a court in the form of a cross, surrounded on three sides by buildings three stories high, which attain an elevation of thirty-seven feet above the actual level of the soil, and must have had originally an elevation of about fifty feet.'** The buildings consist of three rectangular blocks, with three rooms in each, one above the other, and two narrow erections enclosing passages that connect the three sets of rooms together. All the rooms are small, the largest not exceeding seventeen feet by thirteen. HOUSES OF PRIVATE PEESONS. 119 and the smallest being about nineteen feet by nine. All were lighted by windows except the ground-flour room of the main block at the end of the court, which obtained light only from its doorways. The walls are of great strength and solidity ; the roof and the ceilings of the chambers, except perhaps in one instance, were of stone. A wooden ceiling is thought to have separated the ground-floor room of the main block from the apartment above it ; ^'" but this has been destroyed, and the two rooms form now only one. The buildings are ornamented, both externally and internally, with hieroglyphics and sculpt- ures of the usual type ; '^'^'^ but the ornamentation is on the whole somewhat scanty. The entire edifice was of the same height, and was crowned with a sort of battlement, of which the annexed is a representation (Fig. 80). Its plan was re- markably varied in outline, and the numerous projections and recesses must have rendered the play of light and shade upon the building curious and striking. In the pictorial representations which ornament the rock- tombs we sometimes meet with buildings which appear to be private residences. In one case ^" we have what seems to rep- resent the exterior facade of a house, on the side on which it was ordinarily approaclied. The building divides itself into three portions, a centre and two wiugs (Fig. 77). The central part, which is higher than the rest, is crowned by a steep i"oof,'^'"^ shaped like a truncated pyramid ; below this is a pro- jecting cornice, and below the cornice a plain wall, broken only by a door at the right-hand corner. Adjoining the door is the right wing, which consists of two stories — a basement one, ornamented with four pillars unequally spaced, and a first floor, likewise with four pillars, which are equally spaced, and thus not directly supei'-imposed over those below them. Be- tween the pillars ax"e represented stands with vases and eat- ables, from which we gather that the pillars are detached from the mansions, and form in the one case a colonnade, in the other a gallery. The character of the left wing is similar, but it does not extend so far as the other, and is ornamented with only four pillars, two to each story. The wings have an archi- trave above the pillars, and are then crowned with a sort of double cornice. The character of the pillars is thoroughly Egyptian. Another tomb exhibits to us the internal courtyard (Fig. 78) of a three-storied mansion of much elegance, apparently deco- rated for a festival.'"""^ A central doorway, supported on either side by thin pillars representing a lotus plant, gives entrance to a staircase, which rises directly from it, and conducts prob- 120 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. ably to the upper apartments."^" The staircase seems to be carpeted and to have a mat at the foot of the first step. To tlie left we see on the ground-floor a doorway and three small windows protected by perpendicular bars. Above this rises a story, built, seemingly, of wood or crude brick, and broken by two windows with the blinds ^^' drawn down nearly to the bottom. At the top is an open gallery, supported on four pillars, which sustain a painted cornice. On the right of the main entrance the ground-floor is perfectly plain, except that it is pierced about its centre by a low doorway. '^^'^ Above it the first-floor presents to the eye nothing but a drapery or awning, which hangs in front of it and leaves its character a mystery. The second floor exhibits pillars at either end, and between them what is perhaps another awning, though this is Hot quite clear. Above this there is a long range of very short pillars, which seem to support an upper gallery, constituting on this side a sort of fourth story,^^^ though one too low to have been inhabited. Finally, the entire house is crowned by a cornice painted in stripes of red, blue, and white, and rest- ing at either end on a lotus pillar of the same character with those at the main entrance. A third representation of an Egyptian house is given by Rosellini in his great work,''^ which has clearly four stories, but it is drawn in so conventional a manner that but little can be concluded from it as to the actual Egyptian arrangements. The doors by Avhich the house was entered being, as it would seem, at the side, are introduced sideways into the front wall above and below one of the windows. The three upper jtories are represented in section (Fig. 81), and exhibit the contents of the apartments. No staircase by which they could be reached is visible, and their inhabitants must apparently have flown up into them. The cornice of the house, which is painted in the usual way, supports three large masses of the papyrus plant. On the whole, we may perhaps conclude, with Mr. Fergus- son,*^' that though the Egyptian houses "exhibited nothing of the solidity and monumental character which distinguished their temples and palaces, they seem in their own way to have been scarcely less beautiful. They were, of course, on a smaller scale, and built of more perishable materials ; *"* but they appear to have been as carefully finished and decorated with equal taste to that displayed in the greater works.** The peculiarities of P]gyptian construction, whereto, in con- clusion, it is desired to draw attention, are three in number, viz. : I. Their aou-employment of the arch as a constructive EGYPTIAN USE OF THE ARCH. 121 expedient and preference of perpendicular supports and hori- zontal imposts; 2. Their "symmetrophobia," or dislike of exactness and regularity either in the general arrangements or in the details of their buildings ; and 3. Their skilful use of certain contrivances for increasing the apparent size, espe- cially the apparent length, of their more important and more imposing edifices. This last has been entirely left out of sight by recent writers on Egyptian architecture,*'^' though it is a peculiarity well worthy of study and imitation. That the Egyptians were acquainted with the principle of the arch (Fig. 76), and made occasional use of it in their minor edifices, is now generally admitted.-^* Not only do coved roofs appear in some of the rock-tombs,'^' which might lead one to suspect such an acquaintance, but actual arches have been found, both in brick and stone, in connection with hieroglyphical legends and in purely Egyptian buildings. The latest historian of architecture goes so far as to maintain ^*^ that the Egyptians had all the knowledge needed for the em- ployment of the arch to any extent in their constructions, and that they purposely abstained from its use from a dislike of the complexity which it would have introduced, and a convic- tion of its architectural weakness, as a form wanting in dura- bility. "The Arabs," he observes, "have a proverb that the arch never sleeps ; " and it really exerts unceasingly a thrust- ing force laterally upon the walls at its side and centrically upon the keystone, which tends to destroy the building where- of it is a part. Its employment would not have accorded with the governing ideas of Egyptian architecture, which were durability, repose, and strength ; and therefore they did not employ it. The position here laid down may be true ; but it can never be more than a hypothesis, since it is quite impossi- ble to prove that a people knew how to do that which they never attempted to do. The Egyptians never made any ap- plication of the arch on a grand scale or to large edifices. They were acquainted with the form as one that would bear a weight ; but it would seem to have had no charms for them. This is not surprising, since arches would not have given the same impression of stability, firmness, and strength which is produced by the solid masses of flat stone that compose their roofs. Instead of maintaining that they deliberately pre- ferred these roofs to vaulted ones, it would probably be nearer the truth to say, that, being entirely content with flat roofs, the idea of constructing vaulted ones never occurred to them. The "symmetrophobia" of the Egyptians '^' ii a peculiarity 122 HISTORY OF AKCIEITT EGYPT. which developed itself gradually, and is strongest in the latest times. It appears most strikingly in such buildings as the great temples of Luxor and Philae, where, on proceeding from one court to another, we find the axis of the building vio- lently changed,**'^ and the lines running in entirely new direc- tions. But, apart from these extreme cases, it appears that the Egyptians had a general dislike to exact correspondency and uniformity, preferring variation within limits. The dif- ference in the elevation of the four corners of the Great Pyra- mid, noticed by Fergusson,*" is very remarkable, as also is the striking irregularity in the first or entrance court at Kar- nak, where the temple of Eameses II. breaks the line of the right-hand colonnade, while the left-hand one is continuous and complete.*** Other lesser irregularities are such as the following.'-^' Detached pylons have frequently their axis at an angle with that of the building whereon they depend ; the columns in a colonnade are often unequally spaced ; doorways that correspond in position are of different sizes; caryatids piers and rounded columns are united in the same colonnaded court, occupying different sides ; columns contained within the same pillared hall have completely different capitals, and are of different heights ; the wings of houses do not match ; courts are seldom square ; their angles and the angles of rooms are frequently not right angles. It is manifest that the Egyp- tians "purposely avoided regularity," and the conjecture is probable that they did this "with a view of not fatiguing the eye." '"* The principle would seem to be sound within certain limits. Absolute uniformity is wearisome, and to be es- chewed ; but violent irregularities are displeasing. The Egyp- tians, even in the best times, somewhat overstepped the true mean ; their mingling of different sorts of columns, and of columns with caryatide or other piers, cannot be defended ; but it was not until their art had greatly declined under the depressing influence of foreign conquest that they reached their extreme practices, the complete change in the axis of a building and the employment of twenty different capitals for the columns of a single apartment. ^^ The contrivance for augmenting the apparent size of build- ings, of which we have to speak in conclusion, is the following. Egyptian buildings of large extent for the most part rise as we penetrate into them. When we pass from one limb to another, we generally ascend a few steps. Sometimes, however, the ascent is more gradual. At the Rameseum,*** and again at Edfou,*** the level of the ground rises from column to column, each columu being placed on a low step a little above the pre- Plate XXVni. Vol. I. Fig. 68.— Section of Smaller Pillared Hall, Great Temple, Karnak..— Page 10& II III III I IH^BKHH^ — ■::::Hrj^ II III IllliPl"'"^"™™*^"^"" Fig. 69.— Grou.vdPlax of Southern Temple, Karnak.— See Page 113. Fig. 70,— Mammeisi, or Temple of the " Mothis^ of tre Gods."— Bee Page U^. V'oL I. Plate XXIX. 2. 3. 4. Fig. 71.— Egyptian Columns.— See Page 114. Fig. 78.— Egtptiwt Bell-Capitais.- See Page 115. Plate XXX. Vol. T. > lo 73 —Egyptian Loti s Capitals.— See Pa^e 115. t^^i^^J^sMl^SM^i Fig. 74— See Page 115. Fig. 76.— Egyptian Arches.— See Page 121. Tol. I. Plate XXXI. Fig. 77.— An Egyptian Dwelling-house, viewed in Front.— See Page 119. Fig. 78,— An Egyptian Dwelling-house, viewed from Internal Court.— Page 119. STATUES. 123 ceding one. The effect is similar to that produced in a moil- ern theatre by the slope of the floor from the foot-lights to the back of the stage. It is aided by the general arrangements of doors and pylons, which diminish in size as we advance. An illusory perspective is in this way produced ; the vistas of pil- lars seem twice the length that they really are, and the entire building appears to be of an extent almost interminable. If it be one of the worst faults that an architect can commit, to make his edifice appear smaller than it is, and if the construc- tors of the pyramids are to be considered blamable in this re- spect, the later Egyptian builders must be regarded as deserv- ing of no small commendation for an arrangement which, without introducing any unworthy artifice, makes the size of their constructions even greater in appearance than it is in reality. CHAPTER VIII. MIMETIC ART. Sculptureof Ancient Egypt— Single Stotues of fuU size— pecnliarities. Groups. Frincipal Defects and Merits. Statuettes. General Uniformity and its Causes. Works in high Relief, rare. Works in Bas-relief and Intaglio. Defects. Superiority of the Animal over the Human Forms. Examples — Gazelle Hunt— Lion Hunt. Foreshortening. Want of proportion. Ab- sence of Perspective. Ugliness. Four classes of Subjects: 1. Religious; t. Processional; 3. Military; audi. Domestic. Playful Humor in the Do- mestic Scenes. Egyptian Painting— its general Character. Mechanism employed— Colors. Paintings good as Wall Decorations. Stages of Egyp- tian Mimetic Art. " Les Eyyptiens ont ete, avant les Orecs, celui de tmis les peuples de Vantiquite qui a porte les arts plastiques au plus hmit degre de perfection et de grandeur." — Lknokmant, "Manuel d'Histoire Ancienne de I'Orient," vol. i. p. 537. The sculpture of ancient Egypt falls under the three heads of statuary, or sculpture in the round; relief, or representation of forms on a flat surface by means of a certain projection; and intaglio, or representation by the opposite process of cut- ting the forms into the stone or marble, and thus sinking them below the surface. This last includes a process, almost pecu- liar to Egypt, which has been called cavo-relievo, or intaglio- relievato,^ whereby the figures are first incised, and then given a slight relief, which raises them aJmost, but not quite, to the level of the stone outside them. Completely detached statues of full size were, comparatively speaking, rare in Egypt ; and when they occur, their merit is but slight. Only about six or seven attitudes seem to have 124 HISTORY OF ANCIENT EGYPT. been allowed ; and these are repeated witli a monotony that is absolutely wearisome through the twenty centuries, or more, during which Egyptian civilization lasts. Single figures usually stand upright with their arms dependent at their sides, or crossed upon their breast, and their feet equally advanced ; or they are in a walking attitude, with the left foot (invariably) set before the right,^ and the arms pendent ; or they sit on thrones, with their arms laid along their thighs, and the hands extended with palms downward ; or they kneel upon the ground with both knees similarly placed, and hold in their two hands a shrine containing an image of some god ; or finally they are seated on the ground, with both knees drawn up nearly to the chin, and the arms resting upon them, the lower part of the person being enveloped in a robe or pet- ticoat. No movement is exhibited, no energy, scarcely any action even. The faces are for the most part expressionless, though sometimes they are evidently intended for portraits, and great pains have been taken to render them close imita- tions of nature.^ The mechanical finish is high, a perfectly smooth surface being produced, however stubborn the mate- rial.* But the artistic finish is the lowest conceivable. There is no rendering of veins or muscles, no indication of any ana- tomical study, no appearance even of acquaintance with the human skeleton." The limbs are smooth and rounded — the general proportions not bad — though altogether the forms are too slim to accord with Western notions of beauty : but all the higher qualities of art, as understood in the West, are wanting — there is composure and calm dignity, but there is no expres- sion, no vigor, no life, no attempt to grapple with difficulties, no idealism. The sculpture seems altogether incipient, unde- veloped. It is not, as has been justly observed, "modelled grossly, but summarily," * — that is to say, it does not fail of its aims through inability to give effect to them, but its aims are low. It seeks to indicate the human form, rather than to ex- press it, to give the general contour rather than a representa- tion of details, to embody repose and not action ; there is nothing rude, gross, or coarse about it ; on the contrary, the forms have delicacy and elegance, but they are incompletely rendered ; they are good, as far as they go, but they do not go far ; the artist has stopped short of the nature which he had before his eyes, and has preferred not to imitate too closely. In the walking statues (Fig. 85), the want of completeness is strikingly shown by the fact, that the legs, though repre- sented as separate, are not disengaged from the stone, the space between them not having been hollowed out. This DEFECTS OF STATUES. 125 peculiarity does not extend, however, except occasionally, to figures in bronze or wood, which, so far, are superior to the stone figures. Another curious peculiarity of Egyptian stone statues is the support which is given to them at the back. Except in the case of sitting figures (Fig. 87), which have the support of their chairs or thrones, Egyptian stone statues have almost invariably at their back an upright slab or plinth, sometimes resembling an obelisk, against which the figures lean, and with which they are in a manner blended. This is probably ex- plained rightly, as the reminiscence of a time wlien all statues were attached to walls, and constituted mere architectural adornments.' The Egyptian statuaries did not stop at single figures, but sometimes proceeded to the composition of groups. Two figures, a husband and a wife (Fig. 8(i), not unfrequently oc- cupy a single seat. Generally they sit separate; but some- times they hold hands, or the husband has his arm placed around his wife's waist.* Occasionally, the man is seated on a chair, accompanied by standing figures of his wife and children, sculptured on a smaller scale, and evidently intended as acces- sories.' The composition is in every case rude and inartificial, no attempt being made at "grouping," in the technical sense, or at producing an effective whole. Besides the negative defects, which have been here noticed, there are some positive ones, which must not be glossed over, whereby a great part of the statuary is rendered repulsive, rather than atti'active — at any rate, to the modern European. The figures are, for the most part, too elongated; and the limbs especially are too long for the body. The ears are mis- placed, the hole of the ear being made parallel with the pupil of the eye,'" instead of with the nostrils (Fig 84). The inlay- ing of the eye in a different material from the rest of the statue, which is common, offends a correct taste ; " and the prolongation of the eyebrows and eyelids nearly to the ears is unnatural and unpleasing. The great masses of hair hang- ing down on either side of the face in heavy blocks, concealing the neck and resting upon the shoulders, the broad and de- pressed nose verging upon a negro type, the prominent cheek- bones, the large mouth, and full, half out-turned lips, are even more disagreeable, and produce an enf