I <:^ 22..£,,^(Ule^_<,vl<^^ '^^^y^ G^ COMPOSITION. ^£) i By G. E. LIGHTHALL. SAN JOSE, CAL. \. Waldtehfel, Music Hall, 287 Fikst Stkf.et. 1S74. r- THE ROBERT E. COWAN COLLECTION PRKSRNTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF CHLIFORNIA HY C. p. HUNTINGTON dUNE, 18Q7. Hccessiori no 6 9 f 6 3 Class Wo^^U^ ^ — -^ iLixtf Digitized by tine Internet Arcinive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/analysisparsingcOOIighricli ANALYSIS, PARSING, COMPOSITION. DESIGNED FOR BEGINNERS. G. E. LIGHTHALL. SAN JOSE, CAL. A. Waldteufel, Music Hall, 278 First Street. 1874. Cff (^i Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, By G. E. LlGHTHALL, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. Bacon & Company, riiiNTEiis. PREFACE. This little work has been prepared especially for the purpose of overcoming the difficulty experienced by teachers, in their efforts to inspire in the minds of their pupils a desire for the study of language. The attention of educators is therefore directed to the methods by means of which the author seeks to make this study a source of pleasure, as well as of profit, to children. The instructions are given in conversational form ; and the accom- panying exercises are so arranged, that a lesson once learned, cannot be forgotten. As a guide to the analysis of sentences, a series of ques- tions, the answers to which clearly indicate the office of each word ; and a system of delineation, that will enable the student to dispose of each word as soon as its office has been determined, are introduced. In parsing, the delineations are also of great assistance ; but they should be discarded so soon as it is discovered that their use is no longer a necessity. The praxes for analyzing and parsing are kept entirely sepa- rate ; the paradigms are materially shortened ; and the rules are made more general in their application, thus reducing their number. Numer- ous exercises in composition and false syntax are also inserted through- out the work, in order to give pupils a practical training, and to impress on their minds the importance of this study. This treatise has been submitted to actual test in the class-room, and found to answer all expectations. The pupils never become wearied, and acquire in a short time a fair knowledge of the structure of the English language. In the hope that it may prove to be the introductory work so urgently demanded, it is now submitted to teachers by the author. G. E. LIGHT HALL. INDEX, Chap. I. Sentence. — Subject. — Predicate. II. Object. ^ III. Modifiers. IV. Modifiers of Modifiers. V. Prepositional Phrases. — Connective. — Subsequent. VI. Parts of Speech. VII. Compound Elements. — Conjunctions. VIII. Compound Forms. — Questions. IX. Propositions. — Clauses. X. Noun. — Pronoun. XI. Person. XII. Number. XIII. Gender. XIV. Case. XV. Kules I, II, III and IV.— Caution. XVI. Copula. — Attribute. — Apposition. — Rule V. XVII. Comparison of Adjectives. XVIII. Relative Clauses. XIX. Verbs.—Rule VI. XX. Participles. — Passive and Progressive Forms of Conjugation. ' XXI. Infinitive Phrases. -^ XXII. Participial Phrases. XXIII. Sentences Classed According to Structure. XXIV. Sentences Classed According to Use. XXV. General Review. ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. CHAPTER I. Introduction. — Sentence. — Subject. — Predicate. You are now about to commence the study oi Language. The science that teaches us how to use language correctly, is called grammar. You sometimes think. Your thoughts, when expressed in words, form sentences. ^ In order to think, two things are necessary. You must have so7?ie thing to think about. This, in the sentence, is called the subject. You must think some beings actio7i^ or state^ of the subject. This, in the sentence, is called the predicate. Every complete sentence must, therefore, contain a subject and 2^ predicate. To assist you in learning and remembering this, I will make a delineation of a thought, on the blackboard. The first line represents the subject, the second, the predicate. The words may be written above the delineation : Thus — Subject Predicate Now, I have a thought in my mind. Do any of you know what that thought is ? You can tell, as soon as I express it in words. I will write it on the board. Dogs bark. What is the thought ? Dogs bark. What did I think about ? Dogs. What did I think of dogs ? Bark. You may now deHneate the following sentences, and write the words over the lines. Do not deviate from the form of question and answer given in the model. Model. — Dogs bark. A sentence. What is this sentence written about ? Dogs. Dogs is the subject. Dogs. What is asserted of dogs .^ Bark. Bark is the predicate. Dogs bark 6 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. Exercise. — Birds fly. Lions roar. Children play. Owls hoot. Horses run. Ships sail. Stars twinkle. Boys whistle. Girls sing. Fire burns. Comolete the sentences over the followijio: delineations. Men Eagles Cows Doves Trees hum. talk. grow. walk. CHAPTER II. Object. Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate; but it may have more than these. The assertion, made by the predi- cate, may be that of an action terminating upon something. The word, that denotes the thing upon which the action ter- minates, is called the object. The following delineation represents a sentence having an object. Subject Predicate Object To ascertain if the sentence has an object, say the subject') the predicate, and the word, anything, in the form of a question ; and the object^ if there is one, will be the answer. Model. — Boys eat apples. A sentence. What is this sentence written about? Boys. Boys is the subject. Boys. What is asserted of boys ? Eat, Eat is the predicate. Boys eat , Boys eat anything 1 Apples. Apples is the object. Boys eat apples. Exercise. — John struck James. Dogs bite men. Horses eat hay. Carpenters build houses. Generals command armies. Boys fly kites. Cats catch mice. Trees bear fruit. Content- ment brings happiness. Adversity tries friends. Vice pro- duces misery. Columbus discovered America. MODIFIERS. Complete the sentences over the following delineations : Hawks catch Horses drink eat fruit. read ^ books. draw make Dogs squirrels. CHAPTER III. Modifiers. The subject, the predicate, and the object, are sometimes called the principal parts, or elements, of a sentence. Any or all of the principal elements, may be modified by one or more subordinate elements, called modifikrs. Delineation of a sentence containing modifiers. Subject. Predicate. Object. Modifier. Modifier. Modifier. Model. — Cross dogs bite bad men severely. A sentence. What is this sentence written about ? Dogs. Dogs is the subject. What is asserted of dogs ? Bite. Bite is the predicate. Dogs bite anything ? Men, Men is the object. Do *all dogs bite men ? No, only cross dogs. Cross modifies dogs. Dogs bite how ? Severely. Severely modifies bite. Dogs bite all men 1 No, only ^^^men. Bad modifies men. Dogs bite men severely bad. Exercise. — Young children study grammar. Good boys learn long lessons. Little girls sing pretty songs. Soldiers per- form bold exploits. The army fought battles. Sour apples make good cider. This man obeys wise laws. That bear chased a man. A baker makes bread. Masons build high walls. *The words all or any may be used to find the modifiers of the subject, the object, or the subsequent. 8 ANALYSTS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. Complete the sentences over the following delineations. Pupils learn lessons. Hunters birds. Carpenters build eat grass. tender. Bears cHmb Birds sing songs. Horses fly kites. loads. CHAPTER IV. Modifiers of Modifiers. Modifiers may be modified by other modifiers. Thus : Subject Predicate ' Object. Modifier Modifier Modifier Modifier Modifier Modifier To find the modifiers of the predicate, you may make use of the words how, why, where, and when, in the form of a question as given in the model. Model. — All uncommonly studious children learn their lessons very well. A sentence. What is this sentence written about ? Children, Children is the subject What is asserted of children 1 Learn. Learn is the predicate. Children learn anything ? Lessons. Lessons is the object. Do all children learn lessons ? No, only all sttidiotis chil- dren. All and studious modify children. How studious ? Uncommonly. Uncommonly modifies studious. Children learn how ? Well. Well modifies learn. How well ? Very. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. Very modifies well. Children learn why ? No answer. Children learn where ? No answer. Children learn when ? No answer. Children learn all lessons ? No, only their lessons. Their modifies lessons. Children learn lessons. all studious well their uncommonly very Exercise. — ^^Very old hunters shoot birds skillfully. Black bears climb large trees easily. The soldiers fought the enemy boldly. Exceedingly bright pupils learn long lessons quickly. The pigeon flies very swiftly. ^Little Mary gathered some extremely fragrant flowers. You may compose sentences similar to those in the foregoing exercise. N. B. — Commence each sentence with a capital letter, and end it with a period. Note.— Let the pupils write their sentences either on slate or paper, exchange, and criticise with reference to writing, spelling, and all directions given for their guidance. Do not expect them to note all the errors at first : in time they will improve. CHAPTER V. Prepositional Phrases. — Connective. — Subsequent. There is a class of modifiers, called prepositional phrases. These phrases consist of several words ; and may modify either the principal parts, or the modifiers. The first word is called the connective. The object of the connective, is called the subsequent. - The subsequent may be modified, or not. Subject Predicate Object Connective | Subsequent. Mod. of Sub. 1# 10 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. Subject Predicate Object Connective | Subsequent Connective | Subsequent Mod. of Sub. Model. — John struck James on the head. A sentence. What is this sentence written about ? John. John is the subject. What is asserted of John } Struck. Struck is the predicate. John struck anything ? James. James is the object. Any John ? John is unmodified. John struck how ? No answer. John struck why ? No answer. John struck where ? On the head. On the head, modifies struck. O71 is the connective. On what 1 Head. » Head is the subsequent. Any head .^ No the head. The modifies head. John struck when ? No answer. Any James ? James is unmodified. John struck James on I head the John struck James on the side of the head. The prepositional phrase, on the side of the head, modifies the predicate, struck. On is the connective, side is the subsequent. The subsequent, side, is modified by the, and by the preposi- tional phrase, of the head. Of is the connective, head is the subsequent, and the is the modifier of the subsequent John struck James side the of I head the Exercise. — ^The end of the stick broke. ^Horses eat grass in the fields. ^Birds fly high in the air. Large herds of cattle roam over the hills. Swallows build their nests under the PARTS OF SPEECH. 11 eaves of houses. Hawks catch little birds for food. Henry broke the handle of his knife. *Mary went to town in a wag- on. Wise men say nothing in dangerous times. Compose sentences similar to those in the foregoing exercise, introducing the following prepositional phrases. N. B. The words I and O, are always written in capitals. Into the water. Up the street. Over the house. By the side of the barn. Under the end of the log. With a gun. On the water. Through the gate. From the road. NoTK,— In this and all similar exercises, let the pupils exchange and criticise. CHAPTER VI. Parts of Speech. Words are divided into classes, according to their use in sen- tences. These classes are called parts of speech. In the following delineation, you will find all the parts of speech yet used. Subject Predicate Modifier Modifier Modifier Modifier Object Connective | Subsequent Modifier Substantive Verb Substantive Adjective Adverb Preposition | Substantive Adverb Adverb Adjective The subject, the object, and the subsequent, are substan- tives. The predicate is a verb. 12 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. The modifiers of substantives are adjectives. The modifiers of verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, are adverbs. The connective of a prepositional phrase is a preposition. In the foregoing delineation, as the prepositional phrase mod- ifies a substantive, it is, taken as a whole, an adjective. If it modified a verb, it would be an adverb. Telling the parts into which a sentence is divided, is called ANALYZING. Telling the parts of speech, and giving the rules for agreement and government, is called parsing. After dehneating the following sentences, by the method of question and answer, given in previous models, analyze and parse them orally. Model. — He twisted a piece of twine. He twisted piece a of I twine Analysis. — He twisted a piece of twine. A sentence. Sub- ject, ^^. Predicate, /w/j/^*/. ObJQCtj piece. Subject, unmodi- fied. Predicate, unmodified. Object modified by a, and by the prepositional phrase, of twine. Connective of. Subsequent, twine. Parsing. — He^ substantive. Twisted^ verb. Piece, substan- tive. A, adjective. Of twine, *adjective phrase. Of prep- osition. Twine, substantive. Exercise. — Caesar conquered Gaul. Every truth has two sides. The king fears death. The river overflows its banks. The horse broke the tongue of the wagon. The apple grew on the end of a limb. He threw the paper into the stove. N. B. — All names applied to Deity commence with capitals. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give your reason for making each correction : he came for me. The boy wrote a leter John maid a whistle for me. May i go with you ? John can read, rite, and spel. My hat is to large. Now, o my god, let trouble cease. The lord reigneth. He spels his words rong. Do i right well ? Note. — Let the pupils criticise the reasons given, as well as the corrections. CHAPTER VII. Compound Elements. — Conjunctions. A sentence may have two or more subjects, predicates, or objects. *When a phrase modifies a verb, call it an adverbial phrase. COMPOUND ELEMENTS — CONJUNCTIONS. 13 Two subjects. — John and Henry make baskets. John (and make baskets. Henry Or John and Henry make baskets. Two predicates. — Ducks fly and swim. fly Ducks (and swim. Or Ducks fly and swim. Two objects. — William makes guns and pistols. suns William makes (and pistols. Or William makes guns and pistols In delineating sentences, compound elements may be con- nected either vertically or horizontally, as in the foregoing models. A word, used to connect the parts of compound elements, is called a conjunction, in parsing. When more than two elements are joined in the same con- struction, the conjunction is usually, only written once, thus : — " Horses, cows, and sheep, eat grass " ; that is, " Horses, and cows, and sheep, eat grass. Horses (and sheep eat grass. In delineating sentences of this description, place a dash in- stead of the word omitted, as in the foregoing model Exercise. — Boys and girls study long lessons cheerfully. He reads and writes. Temperance brings peace and happiness. Plants, shrubs, and trees shed their leaves in autumn. Henry shot ducks, quails, and rabbits with his new gun. The box con- tained ripe apples and large peaches. ^Indolence and extrava- gance produce want and suffering, ''The royal vices of our age demand A keener weapon, and a mightier hand. 14 ANALYSIS, PARSING AND COMPOSITION. I ( ( ( I N. B. — Sentences used to ask questions, end with a mark of interrogation (?). Combine the following sentences by the use of conjunctions, omitting all words in the combined sentence not necessary to the sense. List. — And. Or. But. Nor. If. As. Because. John can write. James can write. The man took it. The boy took it. He may go. He must not stay. The horse will run. The man whips him. He gave it to me. I asked him for it. CHAPTER VIII. Compound Forms. — Questions. Sometimes the verb is composed of two or more words. Write all of them above the line for the predicate in the delineation. Model.- — The stars may be seen at night. Stars may be seen the at I night. In delineating sentences, care must be taken to have the posi- tion of modifiers indicate the word, or words, that they modify. Model. — Little John and his brother go to school. John little ,,„. go -(and brother to I school. his Little modifies John only. His modifies brother only. PROPOSITIONS — CLAUSES. 15 Model. — Young lambs skip and play in the field. skip young play in I field. the A line is drawn beneath the compound predicate, to denote that both portions of it are modified by the prepositional phrase, in the field. Change all questions to direct assertions, before analyzing them ; thus, '' May he have an apple ? " to " He may have an apple." "Will he come ? " to "He will come." Exercise. — His brother has seen us. The man might have shot the crane. The horse can jump over the fence. Pride shall have a fall. The best advice may come too late. The industrious boys have recited their lessons well. Can the boy read well? Will he go to town ? Did he obtain the prize 1 Should boys fly kites ? Four faces had the dome. Brightly beamed the set- ting sun. Note. — Inverted sentences like the last two, should be made direct, before being analyzed. N. B. — A prepositional phrase, if it commences the sentence, ends with a comma. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give your reasons for making the corrections. After a storm comes a calm ? he would not leave If i find anything, i will tell you. They will not start before i get there. In the beginning god created the heavens and the earth. When did you see my uncle, John gave the book to me did i say a word about it CHAPTER IX. Propositions. — Clauses. An assertion containing a subject, and a predicate, is called a proposition. A modifying proposition is called a clause. All propositions must be analyzed separately. 16 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. Model. — John and James recite their lessons well, for they study them diligently. A sentence containing a principal proposition and a clause. The principal proposition is, ^John and Ja7iies recite their lessons weU? The clause is, Hhey study them diligently,^ The connective is ybr.' What is the principal proposition written about ? Joh7i and James. John and James constitute the subject. What is asserted of John and James ? Recite, Recite is the predicate. John and James recite anything ? Lessons. Lessons is the object. Any John and James ? John and James are unmodified. John and James recite how ? Well, Well modifies recite. John and James recite why ? They study the7n diligently. The clause, ^ they study them diligently,' modifies recite. What is this clause written about ? They, They is the subject. What is asserted of they ? Study, Study is the predicate. They study anything ? Them, Them is the object. Any they ? They is unmodified. They study how } Diligently, Diligently modifies study. They study why ? No answer. They study where ? No answer. They study when ? No answer. Any them 1 Them is unmodified. The connective \s>for, John and James recite where ? No answer. John and James recite when ? No answer. All lessons } No, only their lessons. Their modifies lessons. John (and recite lessons James well their they (for study them diligently Analysis. — John and James recite their lessons well, for they study them diligently. A sentence containing a principal prop- osition and a clause. The principal proposition is 'John and James recite their lessons well,'' The clause is 'they study them diligently.^ The connective is yi7r.' The subject of the princi- pal proposition is y^/^ ^«(^7^/;/^j-. Compound subject. Con- nective, and. Predicate, recite. Object, lessons. Subject, NOUN — PRONOUN. 17 unmodified. Predicate, modified by well^ and by the clause, they study them diligently. Object, modified by their. The subject of the clause is they. Predicate, study. Object, the7n. Subject, unmodified. Predicate modified by diligently. Object, unmodified. Parsing. — John^ substantive. James^ substantive. And^ conjunction. Recite., verb. Lessons., substantive. Well., adverb. 77/^/r, adjective, /^^r, conjunction. They study them dilige7itly^ adverbial clause. They^ substantive. Study., verb. Them, substantive. Diligently, adverb. Note. — The connective, joining propositions, may be placed between their predi- cates. Exercise. — ^William saws the wood, and Thomas piles it up. ^The wagon tipped over, because the wheel broke. When you have recited your lessons, you may retire. While prosperity gilds your days, you may reckon many fi-iends. ^Red battle stamps his foot, and nations feel the shock. *Skill and patience will succeed, where force fails. The body may be enslaved ; but no human power can control the mind. Compose sentences to correspond with the following deline- ations. N. B. Clauses are separated from independent propositions by commas (,). 4 ( CHAPTER X. .Noun. — Pronoun. A substantive may be a word, a phrase, or a clause. If a word, it may be the naijie of something. This is called a NOUN. Or, it may be a word used instead of a noun. This is called a PRONOUN. What is this which I hold in my hand ? A book. What is this which I write on the board ? Book. 18 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. Which is the book ? That which I hold in my hand, or that which is written on the board ? That which you hold in your hand. Which is the name? That which is in my hand, or that which is on the board ? That which is on the board. Which is the noun then ? That which is on the board. Remember, a noun is not a thing, but the name of a thing. When I say, Willie is a good boy, for he does not whisper ; whom do I mean by he ? Who is it that does not whisper } Willie. Willie is the name of something, of a little boy ; it is there- fore a noun. The word he, used instead of a noun, is then 2l prono7i7i. You must now look closely at the substantives in parsing, to tell whether they are nouns, or pronouns. If the names of things, they are nouns ; if used instead of the names of things, pronouns. Exercise. — He lost a marble. You may learn this lesson. I can fmd the marble. May we pluck the flowers ? They may work in the fields. ^The boy threw a stick at a bird, but he did not* kill it. The horse must have hurt the dog, for he kicked . him. The girl has lost her hoop. -The man shot at the geese, and killed them. He spoke to me about it. N. B. Particular names of objects, such as, John, Mary, Sacramento, San Francisco, Sierra Nevada, San Joaquin, are called Proper Nouns, and always commence with a capital letter. General names of objects, such as, chair, table, horse, are called Common Nouns, and do not commence with a capital letter, unless placed at the beginning of a sentence. Compose sentences similar to those in the exercise. CHAPTER XL Person. You can speak yourself, or to another person, or about some other person. *The word, not, is called an adverb of negation, because it generally denies the assertion made by the predicate. See Note, Chap. XXI II. PERSON. 19 If you speak yourself, you are, as the speaker, the most prom- inent, ox first person. If you speak to another person, he or she is, as the hearer, the next in prominence, ox second person. If you speak about some Other person, he or she is, being ab- sent, the least prominent, or third person. Note. — Objects, other than persons, being usually spoken of, are considered to be- long to the third rank or third person, unless represented as speaking, or being spoken to. The pronoun nearly always shows whether it is the speaker, the hearer, or the person, or thing spoken of, that it represents. If it represents the speaker, it is in the first person. If it represents the hearer, it is in the second person. If it represents the person, or thing spoken of, it is in the third person. Model for Parsing. — I broke a stick. I broke stick / is a pronoun, in the first person. Stick is a noun, in the third person. Model. — You may go with me. You may go with You is a pronoun, in the second person. Me is a pronoun, in the first person. Model. — We will leave them. We will leave them. , We is a pronoun, in the first person. Them is a pronoun, in the third person. Note. — Nouns are generally in the third person; pronouns, in any of the three. Exercise. — John struck me. We caught a rabbit. They may go to town. Henry took it from us. You may ride with them. He reads good books. She goes to school with Susan. When the string broke, the kite fell. He may cry for release, but it comes not. N. B. — Adjectives derived from proper nouns ; such as, American, English, French, Spanish, always commence with a capital letter. 20 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give your reasons for making the corrections. Can henry read. ? May i go to san francisco ? In the morn- ing the sun rises ? Peter wears a Spanish cloak. In the fields in spring you can gather flowers. Judas betrayed christ. William is going to new york ? Mary lives in paris. CHAPTER XII. Number. If I should write on the board, "Henry's apple," how many apples would you think Henry had ? One. If I should write, " Henry's apples," how many would you think he had ? More than one. What makes you think that there are more than one ? The change made in spelling the word " appleP Can you tell by the way the word apples is spelled, exactly how many there are ? No. Can the word, apples^ be so spelled as to tell exactly how many there are, if more than one 1 No. Substantives, then, may denote by their spelling, whether they represent ofie^ or 7nore than one, object. If a substantive represents one object only, it is said to be in the singular number. If it represents more than one object, it is said to be in the plural number. Example. — John shot three ducks. John shot ducks. three The subject, John, denotes one only, it is therefore in the singular number. The object, ducks, denotes more than one ; in this case we know how many, as the word, three, tells us ; it is therefore in the plural number. They went to town. They went to I town The subject, they, denotes more than one ; we do not know how many; but it is more than one ; it is therefore in the plural number. GENDER. 21 The subsequent, town^ denotes one only, it is therefore in the singular number. Parsing. — They^ is a pronoun, in the third person, plural number. IVent, is a verb. To, is a preposition. Town, is a noun, in the third person, singular number. Exercise. — Mary may go with me. They sent him to school in the morning. Some kinds of birds fly very high in the air. He may bring a pail of water from the well. Henry may go and get some wood for the fire. Some birds can fly in the air and swim in the water. I called John, but he would not Hsten to me. N. B. Independent propositions, if short and connected, are separated from each other by commas (,) if lengthy or discon- nected, by semicolons (;). No definite rule can be given as a guide. Write three sentences, each containing a pronoun in the first person, and singular number, and three others, each containing a pronoun in the third person, and plural number. Write three sentences containing Proper Nouns. CHAPTER XIII. Gender. I will write a substantive on the board. Boy. Does the word, boy, denote a male or a female ? A male. I will write another one. Girl. Does the word, girl, denote a male, or a female ? A female. I will write another one. Stick. Does the word, stick, denote a male or a female ? Neither. I will write another one. Cousin. Does the word, cousin, denote a male or a female ? Either a male or a female. A substantive may thus denote the sex ; that is, whether it is a male ; as, man, boy, brother : or a female ; as, woman, girl, sister, that it represents. If the substantive denotes a male, it is said to be in the mas- culine GENDER. If it denotes a female, it is said to be in the feminine gen- der. If the substantive is the name of an object ; as, house, fence, tree, that has no sex, it has no gender. It is therefore said to 22 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. be in the neuter gender ; that is, neither the one nor the other. When the substantive refers to a collection of objects of both sexes, as, parents, relations ; or when the sex cannot be determ- ined, as, cousin, friend ; it is said to be in the common gen- der. Observation. The word, common, is not a very good one, as it does not fully ex- press the intention; but there is no better, and custom has sanctioned its use. Those wishing to be very precise, may say both genders, or doubtful gender, as the case may be. Model. — Mary sings songs. Mary sings songs Mary, is a noun, in the third person, singular number, and feminine gender. Sings, is a verb. Songs, is a noun, in the third person, plural number, and neuter gender. Exercise: — Locomotives draw long trains of cars, on rail- roads. John has a nice new top. ^Mary and Susan can sing charming songs, and they can play on the piano. '^AU the neighbors came to the party, and remained during four hours. I will go with them. We must not stafy too long on the road. She reads and writes well. I ( N. B. The plural of figures, letters, and other characters, is formed by means of an apostrophe (') and s. Thus : — 4's, 8's, a's, b's, +'5, — 's. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give your reasons for making the corrections. Henry has taken my Slate. Mary bought an english watch. Do you like my new book. George has gone to europe. May i ride with you on the Horse ? he does not make his bs cor- rectly. You must not take my pen ? samuel makes his -fs incorrectlv. CHAPTER XIV. Case. A substantive may be used as the subject of a proposition, as the object after a verb or a preposition, or like an adjective, to CASE. 23 modify another substantive ; that is, substantives may bear differ- ent relations to other words in sentences. A substantive, used as the subject of a proposition, is said to be in the nominative case. A substantive, used as the object after a verb or a preposition, is said to be in the objective case. A substantive, used Hke an adjective, to modify another sub- stantive, is said to be in the possessive case. Nouns are not changed to denote the case, except when used like adjectives, while most pronouns are. To illustrate, we will place the pronoun, /, in three different sentences, to observe the change in form it undergoes. I St. — I struck John. I struck John In this sentence, it is the subject, and remains unaltered. 2d. — ^John struck me. John- struck me In this sentence, it is the object, and becomes me, 3rd. — John took my book. John took book my In this sentence, it is used like an adjective, and becomes /^tk. Observation,— As will be noticed hereafter, substantives may bear other relations to words in sentences. ^ You will be able to tell the cases at a glance, by the posi- tions of the substantives in the delineation. If the line for the substantive is not immediately preceded by any other line, the substantive is generally in the 7tominativ6 case. If preceded by another line, in the objective case. If placed beneath another line like an adjective, in \\\^ posses sive case. Model.— John took my book. John took book my ^ John is a noun, in the third person, singular number, mascu- line gender, and nominative case. Book is a noun, in the third person, singular numbg gender, and objective case. UNIVERSITY 24 ANALYSIS, PARSING AND COMPOSITION. My is a pronoun, in the first person, singular number, common gender, and possessive case. Exercise. — The man spoke to him. Some birds have richly tinted plumage. You may ride with them in the wagon, if they will let you. He must not stay in the house. The fence was blown down by the wind. The trees shed their leaves in autumn. N. B. Nouns, used like adjectives, end with an apostrophe (') and s; as, bird's? except nouns in the plural number end- ing in s, which have only the apostrophe ; as, birds'. Paradigm of the forms of pronouns, in their diiferent relations. Subject Modifier Object I. Thou. He. She. It. We. You. Your. . You. They. Their. Them. Many pronouns are used in a double sense ; that is, as a noun and its modifier. Thus : — 'This book is tnine? Mine is equivalent to 7ny book. All such words may with propriety be called ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. Write three sentences containing pronouns in the nominative case; three, containing pronouns in the possessive case ; and three, containing pronouns in the objective case. Write a sentence containing a pronoun in the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and objective case. My. Me. Thy. Thee. Nearly obsolete. His. Him. Her. Her. Its. It. Our. Us. CHAPTER XV. Rules. — Caution. You may now commit to memory the following rules. Rule I. The subject of a proposition, must be in the nomina- tive case. Rule II. The object of a verb, or a preposition, must be in the objective case. Rule III. A substantive, used like an adjective, must be in the possessive case. COPULA. — ATTRIBUTE. — APPOSITION. 25 Rule IV. Pronouns must agree in person, number, and gen- der, with the nouns they stand for. Caution. — You will notice many substantives, used like adjec- tives. Do not make a mistake and call them adjectives ; they are still substantives, and as such, may be modified by adjec- tives. Example. — That old man's cane is broken. Cane is broken that old The word 7nan^s, though used to modify a substantive, is it- self a substantive ; and the words, that and old modifying it, are adjectives. Note. When a substantive is actually converted into an adjective, it has neither person, number, gender, nor case. The word, gold, in the sentence, ' this is a gold RING,' is simply an adjective. Exercise.— The little boy's hat fell into the water. He took the old man's ax. You may take Henry's book. I will go with you to your house. We must not meddle with other people's affairs. They cannot* take our property by force. Does the lazy man's garden produce weeds ? You must not rob a bird's nest. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give your reasons for making the corrections. Him went to Boston yesterday. The boys arm was hurt. The man stole they horse. Henry gave some marbles to I. Us chmbed up the mountain. Williams farm is sold. John and me will bring the wood. The dog tore katies dress. Can him fly his kite. The stranger wore a peruvian hat .'' John does not study their lesson. Mary went to the store and bought himself a new dress. CHAPTER XVI. Copula.— Attribute. — Apposition. In some predicates there is an adjective, or a substantive, that in a measure modifies the subject. In such cases, the predicate is supposed to be divided into two parts. The verbal portion is called the copula. The adjective, or the substantive, is called the attribute. *The adverb, not, is sometimes joined to a part of the verb, as in the foregoing ex- ample. 26 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. Example. — Susan is good. Susan is | good The adjective, good^ is asserted of the subject, Susan^ and therefore modifies it. Note. In the delineation, the copula and the attribute are separated by a short vertical line. Parsing. — /y, is a verb. Good^ is an adjective, attribute of Susan. Model. — William is a carpenter. William is | carpenter The substantive, ^^r/^;^/^r, modifies the subject in a measure, by asserting a qualification or attainment pertaining ^o it. As carpenter and William are both names applied to the same object, and as they are used in the construction ofthe sentence, conjointly^ to denote one and the same thing, they are said to be in the same case. William^ as the subject of a proposition, must be in the nominative case according to Rule I. Then, car- penter must be in the nominative case. Rule V. Substantives, used conjointly to denote the same thing, agree in case. ' Analysis. — William is a carpenter. William is | carpenter William is a carpenter. A sentence. Subject, William. Predicate, is a carpe^iter. Copula, is. Attribute, carpenter. Attribute, modified by a. Sometimes two or more names are given to the same object in a sentence, solely for the purpose of identifying it more defi- nitely. In such cases the substantives are said to be in appo- sition^ and as they conjointly represent the same object in the construction, they must be in the same case, according to Rule V. Example. — My sister Mary has arrived. Mary sister has arrived my COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 27 The word, Mary, is used solely lo identify sister more def- initely. It is therefore in apposition. Parsing. — Mary, is a noun, in the third person, singular number, feminine gender, and nominative case, according to Rule V. Note. — In delineating sentences, words in apposition, with their modifiers, may ba placed above the words they identify. In analyzing, call Mary an element in apposition with sister. Caution. — Pupils are apt to mistake a transitive verb in the passive form, for an attribute ; but as transitive verbs always represent action as passing from one thing to another, they can easily determine by asking a question ; thus. " The tree was killed." Did anything kill the tree ? Something must have kill- ed it. Was killed is then a verb. " The tree was dead." Did anything die the tree ? No. Dead is then an attribute. The progressive form of the verb also troubles pupils, but, as in this case the verb always ends in ingj thus, " The tree was dying," they can easily distinguish it from the attribute. Exercise. — "Mary's new doll is beautiful. Henry is very happy. ^The old man is a good blacksmith. That boy's father was a talented actor. He is an accompHshed singer. ^Wash- ington was great and good. Knowledge is power. Priceless are the rewards of virtue. No person is perfect in this world. Is Samuel's brother contented with his lot ? 'Is Dennis the gar- dener sick ? Washington was | great an d good ^^ ^^^^^ (and Washington was i good N. B. An object addressed is independent in case. Compose "three sentences containing an adjective as the at- tribute, ^three, containing a substantive as the attribute, and ''three, containing a substantive in apposition. Compose a sentence containing a pronoun, in the first person, plural number, common gender, and nominative case. CHAPTER XVII. Comparison of Adjectives. Observe this book, which is in my hand. I have a thought with regard to its size, and will write it on the board. This is a small book. 28 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. Here is another not so large as the first. Compare it in size with the first one ; and make use of the words on the board, as nearly as possible, to express your opinion. This is a smaller book. Here is another book, not so large as either of the others. Compare it in size with them, and express your opinion as be- fore. This is the smallest book. Had I picked up the smallest one first, and written on the board : This is a large book ; To compare the next one with it, you would say. This is a larger book ; And to compare the first one used with them, you would say, This is the largest book. If you will notice carefully the examples written on the board ; you will observe, that adjectives expressing quality^ are changed in form to denote a greater or less degree of that quahty, and that they undergo still another change in form, to denote the greatest or least degree of that quality. When an adjective is used to denote a simple quality, 2iS good, in the expression, — *'John is a good boy," it is said to be in the POSITIVE DEGREE of Comparison. When used to compare objects with each other, and at the same time to denote a greater or a less degree of quality, as better, in the expression, — ''John is a better boy than James," they are said to be in the comparative degree of comparison. When used to compare one of a class of objects, with several others, and at the same time to denote the greatest or least de- gree of quality, as best, in the expression, — "John is the best boy in the school," they are said to be in the superlative de- gree of comparison. Adjectives denoting quality are called qualifying adjectives. Adjectives not denoting quality, but used to limit or to point out substantives, are called limiting adjectives. Note.— In general, you can determine whether an adjective is limiting or qualifying by trying to compare it. Some adjectives, like good, bad, are compared irregularly. Pos. good. Com. better. Sup. best. Pos. bad. Com. worse. Sup. worst. Others like sweet, are compared regularly, by adding er and est. Thus : Pos. sweet. Com. sweeter. Sup. sweetest. Others, like beautiful, are compared regularly by prefixing some other word. Thus : Pos. beautiful, Com. more beautiful, Sup. most beautiful, Pos. beautiful, Com. less beautiful, Sup. least beautiful. RELATIVE CLAUSES. 29 Parsing. — This is the sweetest rose. This is I rose the sweetest Sweetest^ a qualifying adjective, in the superlative degree. The^ a limiting adjective. Henry's garden is the most beautiful one. * Garden is | one Henry's the beautiful most Beautiful^ a qualifying adjective, in the superlative degree. Most, an adverb. Note. — Some adverbs may be compared in the same manner as adjectives. Exercise. — *John is a good boy. He has a big apple. ^My kite is prettier than Henry's kite is. Is it a very bad road ? This rose is handsomer than yours is. A good boy will not tell a lie, "This is the sweetest apple in the orchard. He lost his new top in the road. ^John's is the best ball. ^That is a dull knife. Note. — In each of the last two sentences there is a word understood. In the first of the two, the word, ball, is understood after John's ; in the second, the word KNIFE, after that. The common rule in analyzing is this : " If the word is omitted after a noun in the possessive case, supply it ; but if it is omitted after an adjective pronoun, do not supply it." Thus : ball John's the best That is I knife dull N. B. A is used before a word commencing with a conso- nant sound ; an, before a word commencing with a vowel sound. Compose "three sentences containing adjectives in the posi- tive degree, **three, containing adjectives in the comparative de- gree, and ''three, containing adjectives in the superlative degree. Compose three sentences containing adjective pronouns, and three with a word omitted after a nonn in the possessive case. CHAPTER XVIII. Relative Clauses. Substantives are sometimes modified by clauses, the hrst word of which, is a word, used instead of the word modified by the clause. 30 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. These clauses are called relative clauses, and the first word or connective, a relative pronoun. Who, which, and that, are the words most frequently used in this way. Subject. Modifier. Object. Who Whose Whom. Note. — Wn^pH, and that, are not inflected, though whose is sometimes used as the possessive of which. Example. — The boy, who was lost, is found. Boy is found the -( who was lost In dehneating these sentences, place the relative clause be- neath the word it modifies, and connect them by the usual con- nective sign. The whole clause, as it modifies a substantive, is an adjective clause. The trees, which he saw, were dead. Trees were | dead the ( he saw which In the foregoing sentence, the relative is the object of a verb. The man, whose horse ran away, is hurt. Man is hurt the / horse ran whose away In the foregoing sentence, the relative is used like an adjec- tive. Analysis. — ' The boy, who was lost, is found,' a sentence con- taining a principal proposition and a clause. The principal prop-- osition is, ^ the boy is found.'' The clause is, ' who was lost.'' The connective is, ' who.' The subject of the principal proposi- tion is boy. Predicate, is found. The subject is modified by the, and by the relative clause, who was lost. Predicate, un- modified. The subject of the relative clause is who. Predicate, was lost. Subject, unmodified. Predicate, unmodified. RELATIVE CLAUSES. 31 The word, what^ is peculiar. It is like a conjunction, because it connects two propositions. It is like a relative, because it is either the first word in its clause, or the second after a govern- ing preposition. It is like an adjective, because it modifies a noun, either expressed or understood. It is like a substantive, because it is used alone, either as the subject or the object in a proposition. The easiest way to dispose of it, is to class it among the adjective pronouns. Example. — He found what you lost. He found you lost what In this sentence, the word, what^ introduces an object clause, and is itself the object of the clause introduced. The doctor discovered what ailed the man. what ailed man Doctor discovered the the In this sentence, it is the subject of the clause it introduces. When used in asking questions, who^ which^ and what^ are called interrogative pronouns. Exercise. — The dog, which barks, seldom bites. ^People, who live in glass houses, should not throw stones. ^The man and the woman, whom I saw, were foreigners. ^People, whose means are limited, should live within them. ''The eagle, that he shot, was sitting in a tall tree. What you do not know, you can- not tell. What cannot be cured, must be endured. ^Our hap- piness depends on what we desire. Compose sentences to place over the following delineations. N. B. Relative clauses are generally marked off from the rest of the sentence by commas; and, to prevent ambiguity, the relative is placed either next the modified word, or as near it as possible. — ( 32 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. CHAPTER XIX. * Verbs. Verbs not only assert being, action, or state, but the time of existence of the being, action, or state. To ilkistrate, I will now draw on the board a horizontal line to represent time; and from the center of this, a short vertical line to represent that portion of time now in existence, or pres- ent time. All that portion to the left of the vertical line, will represent time gone by, or past time, and that On the right, time to come, or future time. Present. Past I Future. Time. We will take the verb, see^ and place it in each of the three divisions of time. In the present, now, I see. In the past, yes- terday, I saw. In the future, to-morrow, I will see. See. Saw. I Will see. Time. Besides these three principal divisions of time, there are three subordinate divisions, called perfect, because they represent the being, action, or state, as completed at or during one of the three principal divisions. To illustrate, in past time I will draw a short vertical line, to represent the time at which some past action occurred, and a similar one in future time, to represent the time at which some future action will occur. Then that portion to the left of the line in past time, will represent past time completed at or before some definite past time, or past perfect time ; the portion be- tween that line, and the one standing for present time, past time completed at or before the present, or present perfect time ; and the portion between the line standing for present time, and the line in future time, future time that will be completed at or before some definite future time, or future perfect time. Present. Past. I Future. Past Perfect. | Present Perf. | Future Perfect. | Time. We will place the verb, see^ in each of these kinds of time. Past time completed at or before some definite past time. I had seen him before you came.. Past time completed at or before the present. I have seen him to-day. VERBS. 33 Future time that will be completed at or before some definite future time. I shall have seen him before the cars arrive. See. Saw. I Will see. Had seen. | Have seen. I Shall have seen. | Time. N. B. Time in grammar is called tense. Besides asserting the time, verbs have also a manner of as- serting called MODE. There are five modes ; the indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, the imperative, and the infinitive. The tenses of the different modes, may be known by the words prefixed, called signs. By learning to make the following synopsis, you will know the tense signs. The indicative mode has six tenses : — Present * No sign. Past. *Nosign. Future. Shall. Will. Pres. Pert. Have. Hast. Has. Hath. Past Pert. Had. Hadst. Fut. Pert. Shall have. Will have. The f potential mode has four tenses : — Pres. Pert. May have. Can have. Past Pert. Might have. &c. [&c. ] Pres. May. Can. Must. Past. Might. Could. [Would. Should. The subjunctive mode has two tenses : — "resent. \ Note. — This mode is known by its characteristic significance of Past. { doubt. It has no peculiar signs. The infinitive mode has two tenses : — Present. To. ^ i Present. Ends in ing. V Participles. \ Past. No sign. Perfect. To have. ) ( Perfect. Having. The imperative mode has one tense : — r The sign of this tense consists in its expressing Present. \ a command. It is commonly used with a subject in ( the second person. If we discard a form of the verb, now nearly obsolete, the form agreeing with the pronoun thou, we will find but few chang- es in any verb, on account of agreement with its subject. * To express strong emphasis, and also to ask questions, do is frequently used a$ a sign in the present, and did in the past indicative. t The names of the tenses in this mode do not always denote the time. 2^ 34 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. The following is a paradigm of the verb see^ in the simple form. INDICATIVE MODE. Present. See. Subj. in 3rd per. sing. num. Sees. Past. Saw. Future. Shall, or will see. Present Perfect. Have seen. Subj. in 3rd per. sing. num. Hasseen- Past Perfect. Had seen. Future Perfect. Shall, or will have seen. POTENTIAL MODE. Present. May, can, or must see. Past. Might, could, would, or should see. Present Perfect. May, can, or must have seen. Past Perfect. Might, could, would, or should have seen. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present. See. Past. Saw. INFINITIVE MODE. Present. To see. Perfect. To have seen. IMPERATIVE MODE. Present. See. See *you. Do *you see. *Position of Subject. PARTICIPLES. Present. Past. Perfect. Seeing. Seen. Having seen. VERBS. 35 Paradigm of the irregular, mixed verb be. INDICATIVE MODE. Present. Are. Sub. in ist per. sing. num. Am. Sub. in 3rd per. sing. num. Is. Past. Sub. in sing. num. Was. Sub. in plu. num. Were. Future. Shall, or will be. Present Perfect. Have been. Sub. in 3rd. per. sing num. Has been. Past Perfect. Had been. Future Perfect. Shall, or will have been. POTENTIAL MODE. Present. Present Perfect. May, can or must be. May, can, or must have been. Past. Past Perfect. it, could, would, or should Might, could, would, or should be. have been. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present. Past. Be. Were. INFINITIVE MODE. Present. Perfect. To be. To have been. IMPERATIVE MODE. Present. Be. Be you. Do you be. PARTICIPLES. Present. Past. Perfect. Being. Been. Having been. 36 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. The paradigm of the verb, be^ should be commitled to memo- ry, as it is used in the compound forms of conjugation, to be ex- plained hereafter. Parsing. — The boy can eat an apple. Boy can eat apple the an The^ a limiting adjective. Boy^ a noun, in the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case. Rule I. Can eat, a verb, in the potential mode, present tense, correct form to be used with a subject in the third person, singularnum- ber. *Rule VI. A verb must agree with the person and number of its subject. An, a limiting adjective. Apple, a noun, in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. Rule II. Exercise. — He has learned his lesson. John had finished his work. Mary will go with you. They will have entered col- lege. We may improve our minds. He could perform the work. William might have gone to Europe. He may have done it, but I do not believe it. Rewrite the following sentences in all the tenses of the indic- ative and the potential modes. The pigeon flies very swiftly. The rain fell in torrents. We will write a letter. I have learned my lesson. He may leave it with us. State in what particular the following sentences are incorrect. Correct them, and give your reasons for making the corrections. John and me will go with you. He struck I on my arm. You may ride with they in their wagon. Henry is a good boy, for she studies her lessons. They asked william for his knife. the old mans horse ran away. This is not the book, that i wanted. Will you lend he your new slate. He went to sacramento on the cars ? Is the coyote a very large river, The storekeeper gave mary and i some candy. I are writing my exercise. She have not been attentive ? *NoTE. — It was thought best to retain this rule, in order to call the attention of pu- pils to the changes sometimes made in the verb. PARTICIPLES — FORMS OF CONJUGATION. 37 CHAPTER XX. Participles. — Passive and Progressive Forms of Con- jugation. You will notice in the synopsis, and also in the paradigms given, a part of verbs called participles. They are so called because they are partly verbs, and partly adjectives or substantives. There are three participles : the present, which always ends in iiig ; the past, which has no sign ; and the perfect, which has the word, havi7ig^ prefixed. You will also notice in the synopsis, that the present tense, indicative mode, the past tense, indicative mode, and the past participle, have no signs. The way in which the past tense, indicative mode, and the past participle, are varied in spelling from the present tense, indicative mode, determines whether the verb is regular or IRREGULAR. If they are formed by adding ^ or ed^ to the present tense, the verb is said to be regular ; if not, it is said to be irregular. By making use of the following form, you will be enabled to determine whether a verb is regular or irregular. Present Indicative. ( Now I Past Indicative. J Yesterday I Past Participle. ( I having Fill in the verb in place of the dash. To illustrate, we will use the verb see. Present Indicative. TNow I see. Past Indicative. X Yesterday I saw. Past Participle. ( I having seen. As the past indicative and the past participle are not formed by adding d^ or ed^ to the present, the verb is irregular. The present indicative, past indicative, present participle, and past participle, are called the principal parts of a verb, because all the other parts are formed from them. Note. — The verb be, being a mixed verb, is an exception to this statement. The foregoing form determines all of these except the present participle, which always ends in ing. When a verb asserts action, and represents this action as passing from one thing to another, it is called transitive. If the action is not represented as passing from one thing to another, or if the verb merely asserts being or state, it is called INTRANSITIVE. If the action, asserted by a transitive verb, passes from the 38 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. subject of a sentence to the object, the verb is said to be in the *ACTiVE form ; if the action passes from something else to the subject, the verb is said to be in the ^passive form. The active form of conjugation is the same as the simple form already given. The following is the passive form. INDICATIVE MODE. Present. Are seen. Sub. in ist person, sing. num. Am seen Sub. in 3d person, sing. num. Is seen. Past. Subject in singular number. Was Seen. Subject in plural number. Were seen. Future. Shall, or will be seen. Present Perfect. Have been seen. Sub. in 3d person, sing. num. Has been seen. Past Perfect. Had been seen. Future Perfect. Shall, or will have been seen. POTENTIAL MODE. Present. May, can, or must be seen. Past. Might, could, would, or should be seen. Present Perfect. May, can, or must have been seen. Past Perfect. Might, could, would, or should have been seen. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present. Be seen. Past. Were seen. INFINITIVE MODE. Present. To be seen. Perfect. To have been seen. *That is ; the form of conjugation to be used when the subject is active, or the sub- ject is passive. PARTICIPLES — FORMS OF CONJUGATION. 39 IMPERATIVE MODE. Present. Be seen. Be you seen. Do you be seen. PARTICIPLES. Present. Past. Perfect. Being seen. Been seen. Having been seen. As will be seen by an inspection of the paradigm, the passive form of conjugation is formed by means of the verb, be : the verb be^ being regularly conjugated through all the modes and tenses, and the past participle only, of the verb under conjuga- tion, placed after it. There is another form of conjugation in common use, that represents the subject as continuing in action. This is called the progressive form. This form of conjugation is formed by means of the verb, he^ in the same manner as the passive form, with the exception, that in this case tho. present participle of the verb under conju- gation is used. Example. INDICATIVE MODE. Present. Are seeing, Am seeing. Is seeing. Past. Was seeing, Were seeing. Future. Will be seeing, Shall be seeing. Etc. Etc. Parsing. — The fish will be caught. Fish will be caught. the Will be caught is an irregular, transitive verb, in the passive form, indicative mode, future tense, correct form to be used with a subject in the third person, singular number. Rule VI. — A verb must agree with the person and number of its subject. ExFiRCiSE. — Henry will be hurt by the horse. The men were riding in buggies. Rome was built on seven hills. Carthage was destroyed by the Romans. The children are playing in the garden. John is learning his lesson. The city may be destroyed by an earthquake. The house was burned by lightning. Mary is making a dress. Rewrite the following sentences, transposing the verb from one form to another. N. B. — The direct object of a transitive verb in the simple form, becomes the subject of the proposition, when the verb is transposed to the passive form. 40 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. The boy will shoot the dove. The men are chopping wood. The laborers may bind the grain. . Have you seen the sun this morning ? The sun gives light and heat to us. He has torn a leaf from his book. John can solve the problem. The gardener planted the seeds in the garden. The tree was blown down by the wind. In speaking, many persons commit errors by substituting the past participle for the past tense, and vice versa. N. B. — As the predicate of a proposition, the form for the past tense is never used with an auxiliary, or sign, while the form for the past participle is never used without one. The following is a list of the verbs most frequently used in- correctly. Present. Past. Past Participle. Bind. Bound. • Bound. Climb. Climbed. CHmbed. Do. Did. Done. Drag. Dragged. Dragged. Drive. Drove. Driven. Fall. Fell. Fallen. Fly. Flew. Flown. Go. Went. Gone. Grow. Grew. Grown. Know. Knew. Known. Rise. Rose. Risen. See. Saw. Seen. Steal. Stole. Stolen. Take. Took. Taken. Tear. Tore. Torn. Wear. Wore. Worn. Write. Wrote. Written. following verbs are frequently confounded in use. To recline. (Lie. JLay. Lay. Lain. To put or place. Laid. Laid. To take a seat. j Sit. " Set. Sat. Sat. To put or place. Set. Set. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and state your reasons for making the corrections. The boy dumb up the tree. I done it myself He has drove a Jong distance. The horse drug the man all over the yard. My bird INFINITIVE PHRASES. 41 has flew away. He might have fell down and hurt himself. Mary- has went to the city. The tree had grew up crooked. I knowed it. He had rose up from the ground before the dog seen him. Somebody has stole Peter's knife. Henry has tore the leaves of his book. The coat was wore out. Susan has wrote her exer- cise. The boy laid down on the ground. James set down on a log. I have saw strange things. Who has took my slate ? The apples have laid there long enough. Will you set there all day ? CHAPTER XXI. . , Infinitive Phrases. The infinitive mode is used in phrases. • These phrases may be used as substantives, as adjectives, as adverbs, or independently. The infinitive mode do.es not admit of a subject, but it may have an pbject ; the action in this case is represented as com- ing from some previous subject. In delineating these sentences, place words or phrases, used independently, above the rest of the sentence. Model. — To tell the truth, I did break it. I to tell truth the I did break The infinitive, to tell^ has an object, truth ; the action coming from /, the subject of the sentence. In the following sentence, an infinitive phrase is used as the object of a verb. Model. — Boys love to play. Boys love | to play Boys love I to play In the following sentence, an infinitive phrase is used like an adjective. Model. — The right to carry arms is allowed. Right is allowed the I to carry arms Analysis. — The right to carry arms is allowed. A sentence. Subject, right. Predicate, is allowed. The subject is modified 42 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. by the, and by the infinitive phrase, to carry arms. Infinitive, to carry. Object, ar7ns. Predicate, unmodified. Parsing. — The^ a limiting adjective. Rights is a noun, in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. Rule I. To carry ar7ns^ an adjective phrase. To carry, a regular, transitive verb, in the active form, infinitive mode, present tense. Anns, a noun, in the third person, plural num- ber, neuter gender, and objective case. Rule II. Is allowed, a regular, transitive verb, passive form, indicative mode, present tense, correct form to be used with a subject in the third person, singular number. Rule VI. Exercise. — He wanted to get my pencil. You may be com- pelled to go. To acquire riches is not easy. Tell him to come here. I wish to see him. Try to act honestly. To learn les- sons requires study.* William ought to have received the prize. To persist in evil does not excuse it. The best throw of the dice is to throw them away. Note. — The sign of the infinitive is sometimes omitted. Bid him come here. He made the enemy fly before him. I felt it move. John saw the deer run over the hill. Did you hear' them recite their parts ? Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give your reasons for making the corrections. The books is on the desk. He asked Susan and I to go with him. Any one of my pupils is allowed to go to the board when- ever they please. Horses runs wild in many countries. Let you and i the battle try. Give me samuels book. You should not set down in the damp grass. He done his part faithfully. CHAPTER XXII. Participial Phrases. Participles are also used in phrases, and these phrases may be substantive, adjective, or independent in use. Participles have no subjects, but they may have objects. Note. As participles are very much like infinitives in use, and unlike them in form, there is no necessity for any change in the delineations. Model. — Perched on a crag he viewed the scene. He viewed scene. I perched the on I crag PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. 43 Model. — Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow. I saw eagle I scaling peak yonder Model. — The art .of reading well is acquired by imitating a good teacher. Art is acquired the - of 1 reading well by limitating teacher a good Model. — Hoping for the best yet fearing the worst, Congress, though surrounded by difficulties, took measures to increase the army. Cono:ress took measures I hoping yet | fearing worst | to increase army. ^ for I best ^ lh^(though "^ I surrounded by I difficulties In this sentence, the subject is modified by two participial phrases. The first, '^hoping for the best yet fearing the worst,'^^ is compound. The second, " surrounded by difficulties^''^ is sim- ple, and joined to Congress, the word it modifies, by the con- junction, though. Participles, used simply as the names of actions, are not to be considered participles, but nouns. Thus : His singing was not appreciated. Singing was appreciated, his not Singing is here a noun. In the same manner, if they are used simply to denote some quality of a noun, without action or state being implied, they are to be considered adjectives. Thus : A singing bird. Singing is here an adjective. 44 ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. Analysis. — And gathering loiterers on the land discern Her boat descending from the latticed stern. (and Loiterers discern boat I gathering on | land her | descending the from I stern the latticed A sentence. Introductory conjunction, ^;/^. Subject, /^//