UC-NRLF $B n 12T 68Z.S0 D; mm HARVARD BULLETINS IN EDUCATION NUMBER VI This Bulletin, the third issued under the series-title " Harvard Bulletins in Education/' continues the series begim as " The Harvard-Newton Bulletins." It is therefore numbered VI. The volumes heretofore issued are: I. The School System as an Educational Lab- oratory. II. Scales for the Measurement of English Com- position. III. Bridging the Gap: The Transfer Class. IV. A Selected Critical Bibliography of Voca- tional Guidance. V. A Descriptive Bebliography of Measurement in Elementary Subjects. HARVARD BULLETINS IN EDUCATION BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS BY ROY DAVIS > . » , ■•« : » PUBLISHED BY HARVARD UNIVERSITY CAMBRIDGE, MASS. COPYRIGHT, 19 1 7 HARVARD UNIVERSITY • «•.•• • INTRODUCTION This study was conducted under the direction of Professor Henry W. Holmes of the Division of Education, Harvard University. Whatever merit the study has is in great measure due to his criti- cisms and suggestions. Mr. Edwin F. Field of the Mechanic Arts High School, Boston, gave many suggestions regarding the con- clusions that are drawn. The superintendents who so readily per- mitted the questions to be given in their cities and the teachers who conducted the examinations have shown by their cheerful cooperation a widely prevaiHng readiness to help in any study likely to add to our knowledge of education. Some teachers have regretted that the names of the cities and schools involved have not been given. It seems best, however, that such facts should not be published, as it would be unfair to give the ranking of these schools and cities without a statement of the causes accounting for their various standings. A statement of such causes, even if adequately known, would have fixed atten- tion on the schools rather than on the results of the investigation as a whole. Roy Davis. College of Business Administration OF Boston University Boston, Massachusetts L 4iG039 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/busipractieleschooOOdavirich BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ! '- -. BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS The Investigation Defined The purpose of this investigation was to discover what knowl- edge pupils in the eighth grade have of business terms which they meet in arithmetic, such terms as insurance, check, interest, stock, bank, commission, promissory note, money, broker, and the like. Throughout this report the arithmetic in which such terms are used will be called " business practice." The Origin of the Investigation The investigation, although dealing with the content of topics used in arithmetic, originated in an attempt to teach English in a commercial evening high school. The pupils of all ages, from forty years to fifteen, seemed almost desperately in earnest — more in earnest in a way than their instructor was. He felt the oppressive- ness of a certain vagueness of aim, which, at first at least, did not seem to be shared by his pupils. Whatever mental food he ladeled out, an essay from the Sketch Book or an exercise in gram- mar, they eagerly took. At no time did the instructor feel that his classes lacked willingness. At the same time, he gradually became aware that the point of view of the pupils was sharply contrasted with his. They were looking for better jobs; he was, or thought he was, giving them information which should broaden their general outlook. He had an uneasy feehng that his pupils reUed on his judgment much as most of us rely on the judgment of our physicians. We take their medicines, bitter and sweet, because we feel sure that they know best what we need. It must be confessed, however, to cite an actual experience, that when a teamster asserts that he is studying to get " office work," it takes considerable indirect reasoning to show that reading Rip Van Winkle is one of the surest and 4 ;!BukN5^SS;PRACtl^^ ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS readiest means of his landing the job. Not to pursue the matter further, it may be said that the instructor after considerable investigation, came to the following conclusion : As the business world at times invades any field in which buying and sell- ing are found, so business English may use almost any form of literary expres- sion. But just as business usually claims certain forms of activity as its peculiar field, so does it employ certain forms of expression which it has originated or adapted and which are now distinctly its own. Following along the line indicated in the preceding paragraph, the instructor began to choose business subjects upon which his pupils were to write and talk. But here a difficulty presented itself — his pupils did not know much about business matters. They might know about the machine in a particular mill, or about telegrams, or some specific topic which was associated with their particular jobs, but of business things in general they knew little or nothing. It was at this point that the problem switched over into arith- metic. An able teacher, who had classes in civil service work, both in evening high school and in a Young Men's Union, pointed out that in civil service classes, the pupils were definitely working for better jobs; their studies were about the things that touched their daily lives and consequently were such that they knew something about them and could readily get more knowledge of them when necessary. At the same time, a member of a textbook publishing house was confident that the modern arithmetics used in the grades were eminently practical. He said that anyone looking for subjects of practical interest to pupils need only make a list of the topics used in the seventh and eighth grade arithmetics published by his house. Naturally the question arose as to just how much grade pupils knew of the content of the practical subjects in their arith- metics. As has been said, the pupils in the evening school, although, as a rule, older than those in the eighth grade of the elementary school, did not appear to know much about business matters when called upon to use these subjects in written and oral English. It seemed improbable that eighth grade pupils would be any better informed. BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 5 The problem then became plain and was, as stated at first, to discover just what knowledge pupils in the eighth grade have of business terms used in arithmetic. The Emphasis on the Practical in Modern Arithmetic Modern arithmetics and educational authorities lay much stress on the selection of problems from business Ufe. It is true that everyone insists that the main thing is to make the pupil graduating from the eighth grade expert in the fundamentals, in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division and in the common manipulations that involve decimals, percentage, and the like. But in addition it is claimed that arithmetical problems should where possible be chosen from business, so that the pupils will be familiar with what they will actually use in later life. The following references indicate the modern point of view. In 1913, Professor Walter A. Jessup sent a questionnaire to the city superintendents in practically all the cities of four thousand inhabitants and over in the United States. The same question- naire was sent also to every sixth county superintendent in the country. The questions were on the matter of giving less or more time to certain " material used in arithmetic." The thorough- ness of this investigation can leave no doubt that Professor Jessup 's deductions based on it are a fair indication of the general opinion throughout the United States as to what should and should not be taught in arithmetic. In his report Professor Jessup says: There was a very strong sentiment in favor of increasing the emphasis on the application of arithmetic to the social and economic conditions of the day; such as the saving and loaning of money, taxation, public expenditure, insurance, etc. For example 61 per cent would increase the time devoted to " saving and loaning money," 55 per cent to an increase in the time given to insurance. Adapted from N. E. A., 1914, pp. 209-222. There is also great pressure to modernize the course [in arithmetic]. This is being done by eliminating obsolete problem material, topics, and processes, and by substituting therefor modern problem material. There is pressure to make the subject possess informational as well as disciplinary value. Current Practices and Standards in Arithmetic, p. 117; Fourteenth Year Book, National Society for the Study of Education. 6 BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS An examination of the arithmetic texts used in the schools con- nected with this investigation reveals the same point of view. The books claim to be effective because their problems are con- nected with the practical problems of real business life. For example, in the preface to one arithmetic the authors say: These texts in arithmetic are devised to train children to meet the ordinary- demands of life. Practical efficiency rather than mental discipline or scholas- tic thoroughness has been the chief aim in their organization. Whatever the average man needs to know in mathematical terms because of its fre- quency of occurrence in his life or because of its urgency and importance, has been here included. Whatever has small social utility has been omitted. Emphasis has been laid upon practical power and practical thoroughness throughout. Another says : The scope of the work is restricted to the needs of the majority of persons in the common experiences of life. Traditional materials that make no con- tribution to the mastery of essentials of arithmetic have been carefully eliminated. The authors of a third arithmetic state that: The social and industrial factors in American communities enter largely into the pupil's life. This renders material drawn from industrial sources and from every day affairs of high pedagogical value for arithmetic. Finally the collaborators on a fourth series write as follows in their preface: The preceding books [of this seriesl have laid emphasis on home and school interests; this book reaches out into the world of business, industry, and civic affairs. Under the dominant aim of mental discipline, which fastened itself upon the teaching of arithmetic many years ago, our instruction in this subject has, until recently, lagged sadly behind that in other subjects. Although the doctrine of mental discipline has professedly been abandoned by all enlight- ened teachers, our textbooks have not yet loosened the shackles of this formalistic view of the subject. It would be elucidating the obvious to quote further. The tendency today is to select where practicable the arithmetic problems from the business world and the social life of the child. This selection is made in the main for three reasons : first, that the child may find in his arithmetic an interest additional to the purely mathematical one; second, that he may be able to do BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 7 special arithmetical problems which he is Ukely to meet in real business; and, third, that he may acquire some information about some of the facts and institutions of the business world. Of course, in addition, there is the further reason which recognizes that the solving of arithmetical problems of any kind gives expertness in the fundamentals. The Method of Investigation A set of questions was prepared based upon problems in arith- metic which were common to many widely used texts. These questions were worded so as to preclude any reasonable likeh- hood of misunderstanding their meaning. Nothing that might be called a catch question was admitted and all the questions were submitted for criticism and revision to various teachers, prin- cipals, and superintendents. The questions were: BUSINESS PRACTICE questions to be answered in writing by pupils of the last grade in elementary schools 1. Have you ever seen a life insurance policy ? When did you see it and where ? What did it look like ? 2. What is a life insurance policy about ? 3. How is a check used ? 4. What is the difference between signing and endorsing a check ? 5. What is the meaning in business of " interest " ? 6. Explain as fully as you can the meaning of railroad stock. 7. Explain as fully as you can the meaning of dividend. 8. Explain as fully as you can the meaning of par value. 9. Mr. Brown has 5/8 of his money invested in railway stock and the remainder deposited in a bank. What did Mr. Brown do to invest his money in railway stock ? How did he deposit his money in a bank ? 10. A dealer pays $9,737.50 for some wool, including the pur- chasing agent's commission of 2^ per cent. Show that you know the meaning of the word *' commission." 8 BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 11. Show how a promissory note may be used in business. 12. A firm fails with assets of $20,000 and liabilities of $67,000. Explain what is meant by "assets " and '^ liabilities." 13. What is a savings bank ? Why is it a good place to put your money ? 14. What is a post-office money order? How can you get one? What is it used for ? 15. What makes a dollar bill worth as much as a silver dollar ? 16. "A broker usually charges brokerage of 1/8 per cent for buying or selling stock." What is the meaning of " broker " and '' brokerage " ? 17. '^ Our firm has one method of treatment for all customers: a fixed price with a regular 5 per cent discount for cash." What is meant by " fixed price " and " 5 per cent discount for cash " ? 18. Explain what is meant by buying a piano " on the install- ment plan." 19. What is a mortgage ? 20. What kinds of taxes can you name ? 21. The tax rate in a certain town is $10 a thousand. What does that mean ? 22. What does an assessor do ? The questions were printed and then sent to various cities of various sizes and in many instances widely separated. Some replies are from large cities, some from those of medium size, and others from those of only a few thousand inhabitants. Where more than one school was selected in the same system, care was taken to have those schools represent somewhat different methods of instruction. In several instances a set of papers was obtained from pupils in the first year in high school. By this means a gen- eral average was obtained for a whole system ; an average, it may be noted, likely to be more favorable to the system than if taken from an eighth grade elementary class, as a first year class in high school is, as a rule, a selected group. BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 9 Marking the Papers The answers were graded into three classes. Those that were considered " good " were marked " G," those considered of no value were marked " P," and all others were marked " F." Opinions were widely sought regarding just what should be a good answer by an eighth grade pupil. Every effort was made always to give the pupil the benefit of the doubt and to consider favor- ably what in some instances plainly was intended to be said rather than what was said. No deduction was made for grammatical errors, incorrect spelling, or other mistakes usually considered in marking the language of a paper. On the whole, it may be said that the answers marked '' F '^ are of little value. They exhibit, as a rule, only the most rudi- mentary knowledge. Those marked " P " are entirely inadequate or do not answer the question at all. It should be said, however, that consideration was given to the difficulty of a question. For example, as " par value " is a sub- ject essentially more dif&cult to understand than " payment on the installment plan," therefore more was expected in an answer to the latter. Specimen Answers Below are given specimen answers. Question i. Have you ever seen a life insurance policy ? When did you see it and where ? What did it look like ? Answer G. Yes. A man from Oakland came to our house a long time ago. It is a large paper that you sign that tells your age, your name, for how much you are insured, and the name of the company where you are insured. F. I have seen a life insurance policy at home. P. I do not know what it looks Uke. 2. What is a life insurance policy about ? G. A life insurance policy is a policy gotten out by an insur- ance company that certifies that you will get a certain amount of money at death or the expiration of a stated number of years. To get a life insurance policy you must be examined by a physi- lO BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS cian and proved well and free from disease. At death or the expiration of a stated number of years the money may be paid to the person it is made out to. F. It tells of the different kinds of insurance with the amount for young and old also the person's name and the amount paid. P. About the persons that are insured. 3. How is a check used ? G. A check is an order on a bank to pay a named person a specified amount of money. You must have money in the bank. F. A check is used as money. P. When you pay your rent the landlord gives you a check. 4. What is the difference between signing and endorsing a check ? G. When a man gives a check and signs it that means that he has given his word that the money is in the bank so that the receiver can draw it. Endorsing a check is signing your name on the back which means if the giver fails you are to make it good. F. To sign means to put your name on the check to endorse means to have another person sign but you must approve of it. P. Endorsing a check is to sign your signature. 5. What is the meaning in business of " interest " ? G. Interest is money paid by the banks or people for the use of an amount of money. F. Interest means so many dollars a year. P. Interest means that you get so much interest on the money you pay for furniture or goods. 6. Explain as fully as you can the meaning of *' railroad stock. '' G. Railroad stock is the shares of the railroad. The company believes the railroad to be worth so much. This is the company's value. Then the value is divided into different shares of a certain per cent. This is the railroad stock. F. Stock is a term used in any speculation and is divided into shares. P. For any railroad the passengers must know how it should be farcing and how it is valued. BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS II 7. Explain as fully as you can the meaning of '* dividend." G. Dividend means that when a company is prosperous it pays its stockholders a certain per cent of its earnings. F. Dividend is something given to induce trade. P. When stock is not dividend it is sold for more than it is worth which is really $100. 8. Explain as fully as you can the meaning of " par value." G. Par value means the value set on shares by the company when it sells the shares. This value is 100 per cent. F. Par value is $100. P. Par value is what you make. 9. Mr. Brown has 5/8 of his money invested in railway stock and the remainder deposited in a bank. What did Mr. Brown do to invest his money in railway stock ? How did he deposit his money in a bank ? G. Mr. Brown would probably buy through a broker. The broker probably went to the stock exchange and bought the stock for Mr. Brown. Mr. Brown goes to the bank and makes out a deposit slip, telling whether he has gold, silver, or checks, and gives the slip to the receiving teller who writes it down in Mr. Brown^s bank book. F. To invest means to buy stock. To deposit means to take out a bank account. P. I don't know. (A typical answer marked " P.") 10. A dealer pays $9,737.50 for some wool, including the pur- chasing agent's commission of 2 J per cent. Show that you know the meaning of the word " commission." G. Commission is an amount of money taken out of the selling price at a certain per cent for the work done by the agent. F. The commission is 237.23. (Correct answer.) P. The commission is ... . (Incorrect answer and method of solution.) 11. Show how a promissory note may be used in business. G. A promissory note is used (as a check) for convenience. If A owes B $200 and he does not have the ready money he may write out a promissory note, promising to pay on a certain date. 12 BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS F. A written form of a promissory note without comment. P. Promissory note, what you do to contain a promise. It can be used in business by interest. 12. A firm fails with assets of $20,000 and liabilities of $67,000. Explain what is meant by " assets " and " liabilities." G. Assets are the capital of a company. Liabilities are the debts of a company. F. A firm's liabilities are what they can pay and assets are what they can't pay. (Terms are confused.) P. Assets means goods discharged for debt. 13. What is a savings bank ? Why is it a good place to put your money ? G. A savings bank is a bank where you put your money re- ceiving a rather low rate of interest. It is a good kind of bank because you have good security. F. A savings bank is a good place to put your money because it can't be stolen and you get interest. P. A savings bank is where you keep your money. 14. What is a post-office money order ? How can you get one ? What is it used for ? G. A post-office money order is an order given by one office on another. You can get one by filling out a blank and paying a certain amount of money. It is used for sending in the mail. F. A post-office money order is a paper stating you have sent money through the mail. P. A post-office money order is where you send money some place. You go to a bank and give them the amount. 15. What makes a dollar bill worth as much as a silver dollar ? G. A dollar bill is worth as much as a silver dollar because the government is behind it and because there is a silver dollar in the treasury of the United States for every dollar bill in circulation. F. Because it is put out by the government and they said they would redeem them for gold or silver. P. A dollar bill is a silver dollar just the same as a silver dollar. BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 1 3 16. "A broker usually charges brokerage of 1/8 per cent for buying or selling stock." What is the meaning of " broker " and " brokerage " ? G. A broker is one who acts as an agent for another in buying and selling. Brokerage is the commission which the broker charges on the goods. F. A man who buys or sells stocks for a firm. P. Most of those receiving " P " do not answer this question. 17. " Our firm has one method of treatment for all customers: a fixed price with a regular 5 per cent discount for cash." What is meant by fixed price and 5 per cent discount for cash ? G. Fixed price is the price all customers pay for one kind of article whether they buy much or little. " Five per cent discount for cash " means that when a person pays cash he is given a dis- count that if he was carrying an account he would not get. F. A fixed price is the selling price and 5 per cent discount means (one) can buy things with 5 per cent off. P. A fixed price never changes but 5 per cent discount means that the price will be reduced immediately instead of later. 18. Explain what is meant by buying a piano on the " install- ment plan." G. "On the installment plan " means a certain amount down and so much a month. F. When you buy a piano on the installment plan you pay so much a month. P. Most of those who received " P *' did not answer the question. 19. What is a mortgage ? G. A mortgage is taken when some one loans money and holds as security the property of the man who borrows the money. The mortgage is the document taken, showing that the property is held in security. F. A mortgage is what you get on your house and you get about half its worth and pay about 6 per cent interest. P. A mortgage on a house or any other thing is supposing that a man has a mortgage on a house he pays a certain sum of 14 BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS money until they pay it off, and if they stop paying the house is the property of the city. 20. What kind of taxes can you name ? G. Water tax, county tax, school tax, import tax. F. Water tax, real estate, and house tax. P. Personal tax. 21. The tax rate in a certain town is $10 a thousand. What does that mean ? G. On every thousand dollars you have in property you must pay ten dollars taxes. F. When you pay ten dollars on a thousand you mean that you pay ten dollars on every thousand. P. On every thousand persons. 22. What does an assessor do ? G. An assessor goes around and finds out what your property is worth and you have to pay your tax accordingly. F. An assessor goes to houses to see how much they should be assessed for. P. An assessor is one who collects the money. Tabulating the Replies Of the replies received 30 sets were selected for tabulation. As has been explained on page 8, these sets do not represent thirty cities but rather thirty different groups. Several of the sets are from the same city. In all there have been tabulated 1541 papers. These were divided into two groups: first, 22 sets from which the whole 22 answers were tabulated and 8 sets from which only the first 1 5 answers were tabulated. Only the first 15 answers were con- sidered in the 8 sets because in these schools the questions toward the end were either omitted entirely or answered too hastily owing to lack of time. The omission of the answers to questions 16-22 in these eight schools makes it fairly certain that wrong answers due to lack of time are not included in the tabulations. In no instance is there BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 1 5 evidence that failure to answer any of the first 15 questions was due to lack of time. It should also be noted that the first 15 answers in the 22 sets answering 22 questions are tabulated twice: first they appear as part of the tabulation of the 22 sets and second they are tabu- lated along with the 8 sets which answered only 15 questions. That is there are 22 sets which answered 22 questions and 30 sets which answered 15 questions. Number of Answers There were 1073 papers tabulated for 22 answers, making a total of 23,606 answers; and 468 papers tabulated for 15 answers making a total of 7020 answers. The grand total of answers is 30,626. But as the first 15 answers of those answering 22 ques- tions are tabulated twice, the total answers appear thus: for 22 sets answering 22 questions, 23,606 answers; for 30 sets answering 15 questions, 23,125 answers. Table I on page 15 gives the number of papers and the number of answers received from each school. Each school has been designated by a Roman number given in the left hand column. TABLE I School No. of papers No. of answers School No. of papers No. of answers I 77 57 39 67 45 66 35 40 48 43 36 49 74 37 32 1694 1254 858 1474 990 1452 770 600 720 645 792 1078 1628 814 704 XVI 74 72 69 89 60 71 48 40 30 61 53 32 27 33 1628 II XVII 1584 814 1035 1335 900 1065 720 880 Ill XVIII IV .... XIX 1 . V XXI VI XXI 1 VII XXII 1 . . VIII » XXIIIi IX» XXIV XI XXV 660 XI XXVI 1342 1166 XII XXVII XIII XXVIII 704 594 726 XIV XXIX XV XXX * Answered only fifteen questions. 1 6 BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS Reliability of Deductions As a total of only 1541 papers were tabulated, the facts deduced from these tabulations cannot be considered final. It is recognized that the investigation has been limited. It will, however, be found that certain comparisons and deductions made later do justify the behef that the investigation shows accurately certain tendencies or conditions and furnishes a rehable answer to the original question proposed on page i. In Table II (page 16) the questions from i to 15, which are con- sidered in both groups of schools, are ranked according to per- centage of answers marked G, beginning with the one having the highest rank. TABLE II 22 Schools. Questions 1-15 30 Schools. Questions 1-15 Rank Question Percentage Rank Question Percentage I 5 lO.O I 5 lO.O 2 4 9.8 2 10 9.4 3 10 9.6 3 4 9-3 4 3 9-5 4 3 9.2 5 I 8.3 5 I 8.3 6 15 I'l 6 2 7-7 7 2 7.4 7 15 7-3 8 II 7.2 8 II 7.1 9 12 5-4 9 12 5.3 10 7 5.4 10 7 5-1 II 6 S-i II 6 5-0 12 14 4.4 12 14 4.9 13 13 3-9 13 13 4.8 14 9 3.0 14 9 3-2 IS 8 2.8 15 8 2.9 From Table II it appears that, in both school groups, questions I to 15, which were answered by both, maintain about the same rank in the two groups. Question 5 has the highest and Question 8 the lowest rank in both groups. The other questions either have corresponding rank in both groups or are not more than one place removed from corresponding rank. In fact this table goes far to BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 1 7 prove that the general results of the investigation are likely to be true of the average school, even though they may not apply in particular instances. (See Table VIII.) The deductions from the investigations do not rest upon minute differences in percentages but on broad comparisons which indi- cate unmistakable tendencies or facts. In any event, the ques- tions and methods of grading the answers have been given and teachers who are interested in the conclusions of the investigation may try them out in their own schools. General Results In Table III the answers are divided into three groups, G, F, P. The results are given both in number of answers and in percent- ages. TABLE III 22 Schools Answering 22 Questions 30 Schools Answering 15 Questions Grade of answer No. of answers Per cents Grade of answer No. of answers Per cents G 8,641 6,585 8,380 36 27 37 G 7,915 6,119 9,091 35 26 F F P P 39 Total 23,606 100 Total 23,125 100 If all the answers from all, that is from thirty schools, are considered, there are 30,626 answers. Of these about 37 per cent are G; 37 per cent P; and 26 per cent F. Considering all these figures together y it becomes evident that con- siderably more than one-third of the answers are good, about an equal number are hopelessly poor, and about one-quarter show very hazy knowledge. Results by Schools The schools display considerable variation as is shown in Table IV. In this table the schools are ranked according to the per cent of answers marked G, beginning with the one having the highest rank. 1 8 BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS TABLE IV Per cent of answers marked Per cent of answers marked School XI II XXI XV XX XXIX XII XXVIII... XXX XXVII.... XIV VI XXV XXVI VII G F P 69 20 II 55 26 19 49 25 26 48 31 21 48 23 29 43 26 31 42 27 31 42 25 33 41 26 33 40 29 31 38 25 37 38 25 37 31 34- 29 37 25 38 37 19 44 School XVI.., XXIV. vrii. . XVIII . III. ... XXII. X IX ... . XIX.. XIII . . XVII . . I XXIII. V IV.... G F 36 29 35 37 35 21 35 14 32 30 32 26 31 20 31 17 31 14 30 28 29 35 28 39 28 23 27 21 20 25 35 28 44 SI 38 42 49 52 55 42 36 33 49 52 55 The median of the group is 36 per cent and the mode is 31 per cent. As has been shown on page 17 the average is about 37 per cent. That is, it appears that in the average school about one-third of the answers will be correct. Difficulty of the Questions The questions show great variation when compared as to difl&culty in the light of the answers. In Table V the questions are ranked according to the per- centage which each question received of the total number of answers marked G. There is also given, in the last column, for each question the per cent marked G of all the answers to that question. In Tables VI and VII the questions are ranked according to the per cent which each question received of the total number of answers marked F and P respectively. There are also given (in the last column of each table) for each question the per cent marked F and P respectively of all answers to that question. BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 1 9 TABLE V G G 22 Schools Answering 22 Questions 30 Schools Answering 15 Questions Rank Question Per cent of all answers marked G Per cent of answers to question marked G Rank Question Per cent of all answers marked G Per cent of answers to question marked G I 18 7.8 63 I S lO.O 52 2 21 6.6 S3 2 10 9-4 48 3 5 6.3 SI 3 4 9-3 47 4 4 6.1 49 4 3 9.2 47 5 20 6.0 48 S I 8.3 43 6 16 5-9 47 6 2 7.7 39 7 10 5-9 47 7 IS 7-3 38 8 3 5-9 47 8 II 7.1 36 9 I 5-1 41 9 12 5-3 27 10 15 4.7 38 10 7 5-1 26 II 22 4.6 37 II 6 5.0 26 12 2 4-5 36 12 14 4.9 25 13 II 4.4 35 13 13 4.8 25 14 19 3-7 30 14 9 3-2 16 15 17 3-5 28 IS 8 2.9 15 16 12 3.4 27 17 7 3-4 27 18 6 3-2 26 19 14 2.7 21 20 13 2.4 19 21 9 1.8 IS 22 8 1-5 13 From Table V it appears that questions 18, 21, 5, and 10 have over 50 per cent of their answers marked G. Questions 14, 13, 9, and 8 have less than 25 per cent of their answers marked G. That is some questions, as would be expected, are much better answered than others. It further appears that question 13, which is third from the lowest in Table V, is the first in Table VI, where the ranking is on the basis of F. Questions 17, 14, and 9, which are well toward the bottom of the Ust in Table V, are correspondingly near the top in Table VI. That is, of some qtiestions many pupils had a hazy knowledge but only a few pupils had a definite knowledge. Question 8 is at the top of the list in Table V, near the bottom 20 BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS TABLE VI (FOR F) TABLE VII (FOR P) 22 Schools answer- ing 22 Questions 30 Schools ans^vier- iNG 15 Questions 22 Schools answer- ing 22 Questions 30 Schools answer- ing 15 Questions Sank Ques- tion Per cent of all answers marked F Rank Ques- tion Per cent of all answers marked F Rank Ques- tion Per cent of all answers marked P Rank Ques- tion Per cent of aU answers marked P I 13 9.2 I 13 12.7 I 8 9.4 I 8 II-3 2 17 7.8 2 3 9.8 2 7 7.6 2 7 10.3 3 14 7.2 3 14 9-7 3 12 6.5 3 12 9.0 4 2 6.7 4 2 9.6 4 15 6.4 4 6 8.8 5 9 6.4 5 9 9.0 5 6 6.3 5 IS 8.6 6 3 6.4 6 10 7-3 6 I S-9 6 9 8.0 7 19 5.6 7 5 6.9 7 9 S.8 7 I 7.S 8 10 5-3 8 II 6.2 8 22 S-o 8 II 6.5 9 20 4.9 9 4 5-9 9 19 4.6 9 14 6.2 10 5 4.8 10 6 5.6 10 II 4-S 10 4 S-i II II 4-7 II 12 5-0 II 21 4.S II 13 4.1 12 6 4.0 12 I 3.2 12 14 4.3 12 10 3-9 13 4 3.8 13 7 3-2 13 16 4.1 13 2 3.8 14 22 3-7 14 8 2.9 14 4 3.6 14 S 3-5 IS 12 3.5 15 15 2.8 IS 13 3.1 IS 3 2.3 16 16 3-2 16 17 3.0 17 18 2.6 17 2 2.8 18 7 2.2 18 20 2.7 19 8 2.1 19 10 2.6 20 I 2.0 20 5 2.S 21 21 1.9 21 18 2.5 22 15 1.8 22 3 1-7 in Table VI, and at the top in Table VII. That is this question was the most difficult. The other questions which received few good answers deal with stocks, depositing money in a bank, and par value. Stocks and par value are likely to be subjects for school study only, although it is probable that the nation-wide interest in the war loan has made these matters more of common knowledge than they were when this investigation was carried out. The conclusion from the investigation is that, as school subjects, stocks, depositing money and par value are not well taught. There may well be some doubt as to whether stocks and par value should be taught BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 21 in the elementary school, but there seems no good reason why pupils cannot learn how to deposit money in a bank. One might suppose that the widespread use of school banks would have made this subject well known to most children. The fact is, however, it is not well known. It would seem possible, even where there is not a school bank, for the teacher to have an interesting lesson in which the class was required to fill out a blank deposit slip. Such a form could easily be placed on the board and the teacher could act as receiving teller. The writer of this report is decidedly averse to any general criticism of the efficiency of grade teachers. He knows the com- plexity of the elementary program, the unwieldly size of the aver- age class, and the rapidity with which a period rushes away. Yet it seems evident that if we grant the universal opinion of educa- tional authority that the subjects of business practice must be taught, it is decidedly wrong to let some of these subjects slip by almost unnoticed when apparently they can be taught by very simple methods. That some of these methods involve the idea of play should be no criticism. On the contrary when a subject can be taught effectively as play there is sound educational reason why such a method should be used. The preceding paragraphs show that questions dealing with taxes, installments, interest, and commission (questions i8, 25, 5, and 10) have over 50 per cent of their answers marked good. The first two questions involve matters that are probably com- mon knowledge, that is, pupils become familiar with them in the every-day life of the home and the outside world. Interest and commission are also likely to be commonly talked about. Interest is certainly a subject of common knowledge. In addition, interest and commission are also largely used in arithmetic drill in school. On the whole, it would seem that these four questions deal with ideas that are a sort of '* pick-up " with most children. That the children are familiar with them is not due primarily to school instruction. Questions 14, 13, and 8 deal with the savings bank, post-office money order, and par value. The first two, at first sight, might be considered also matters of common knowledge. But one 22 BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS reading the answers quickly becomes aware that the pupils rarely know the significance of a savings bank as distinct from any other kind of bank. It may be that the question was not well phrased, but in any event, the answers showed that the pupils, as a rule, looked on a savings bank simply as a place " where you get TABLE VIII 1 2 3 4 3 6 7 8 9 10 it 12 13 14 15 16 17 Id 19 SO 21 22 I 17 26 39 42 34 26 27 10 10 36 26 18 26 15 22 46 26 35 20 56 31 29 n 28 51 62 93 66 61 65 54 18 24 49 67 21 za 13 70 31 86 56 82 81 30 m 15 43 54 43 51 28 25 3 8 18 28 ZO 5 Z3 \6 15 33 67 28 64 46 33 ET 47 22 S5 Zi> 28 6 7 6 34 15 16 \Z 13 25 12 10 34 9 25 22 15 Y 20 17 33 ZZ 35 29 29 4 15 51 13 17 4 6 4Z 26 H 69 13 42 55 29 m 56 30 51 31 34 22 27 4 10 51 27 25 6 15 53 30 24 54 42 71 74 57 m J4 42 71 65 62 48 34 5 25 60 40 25 20 II BO 28 5 48 22 25 25 1/ YL 94 72 47 68 86 70 78 70 55 86 60 63 66 36 88 97 27 60 30 44 86 72 m 59 40 44 44 44 18 20 4 10 57 A5 38 34 20 57 69 40 63 26 46 72 40 xzzr 36 43 44 29 35 12 9 4 2 43 33 IB 9 6 26 45 18 75 28 41 62 35 XET 70 27 27 45 46 29 43 43 10 54 40 45 35 35 43 56 45 48 13 18 45 27 m 90 62 31 71 71 50 43 3 12 59 46 e 3 9 90 76 15 78 53 75 78 57 XSI 47 31 36 63 62 3» 31 13 12 e3 37 25 17 14 13 47 31 51 29 21 59 47 -gss 48 30 13 ze zo II II 6 9 SI 31 45 23 33 34 16 45 61 8 66 13 30 im 46 se 70 43 56 13 13 8 13 67 3Z 16 27 29 32 40 10 64 24 37 24 29 jm 32 32 32 52 40 15 10 10 7 42 42 12 20 47 35' 47 45 55 25 67 47 3S xxy 16 40 36 se 3 3 6 20 50 43 43 23 30 43 7 50 83 30 73 40 43 mi 19 29 50 67 77 8 31 24 11 45 29 19 1 14 34 73 31 83 37 42 41 32 jm 26 32 77 39 37 33 28 4 20 26 sz 17 5 22. 51 67 28 75 41 45 03 54 XXVIH 16 56 SO 62 56 46 34 9 21 40 26 15 3 23 43 50 26 80 40 63 80 68 IBZ 37 40 70 4© 65 3 O 22 €3 33 63 51 70 37 SI 40 55 25 40 48 44 xxz 37 36 46 42 69 45 39 21 54 AZ 33 24 45 18 30 51 27 72 57 30 BO 21 sm 37 47 5Z 42 52 42 22 20 75 Z2 32 r2 10 52 JZ 31 37 37 33 56 16 10 6 \G 47 39 14 62 Z5 23 I 51 41 S\ 18 48 41 46 25 16 32 9 28 7 39 m 72 56 46 43 43 \0 5 3 8 37 29 8 37 30 21 TL 64 SO 51 60 65 34 43 34 29 BO SS 33 34 45 SZ m 63 53 51 50 53 30 36 38 43 SB 60 41 46 63 45 m 31 25 39 40 53 19 19 12 14 SZ 38 26 46 33 36 nn 10 47 39 43 SB 10 2 6 6 33 43 37 37 20 Id interest." They did not seem to be aware of the peculiar safe- guards that the state has placed around such institutions or of the comparatively high rate of interest that small investors can get in such a bank. The reason for the common failure on the ques- tion of obtaining a post-office money order is probably due to a simple fact. Few children ever actually buy such an order although they have often seen it done. We might suppose, there- fore, that the child is likely to have a vague idea of the correct answer. This is seen to be the case, for in Table VI question 14 is found to have a large number of its answers marked fair. BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 23 In Table VIII the number of answers, in per cents, marked G is given for all the questions from the thirty schools. Table IX is a rearrangement of Table VIII, the answers for each question being ranked in order beginning with the highest. The black line indicates the median. TABLE IX 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 d 9 \0 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 10 19 20 21 22 1 94 72 62 93 86 TO 78 70 55 66 60 67 66 70 90 97 50 87 57 62 86 72 2 90 62 77 88 86 61 65 54 J4 60 60 63 62 63 68 78 AS 86 56 7S 83 66 3 72 56 71 71 83 SO 46 43 A3 75 SS 63 51 47 60 73 AS 63 S3 73 81 57 4 70 56 70 67 77 46 43 38 29 67 SZ 45 48 45 5T 70 45 63 42 7/ 80 54 5 64 56 70 65 71 46 43 34 25 63 49 45 46 36 S3 69 40 83 Al 66 78 47 , 6 63 63 55 63 69 45* 43 25 2Z 63 46 43 45 3S SZ 67 40 80 40 67 74 44 7 59 51 54 62 65 42 39 24 21 60 AS 4) 37 33 SZ 56 33 60 37 68 72 43 8 57 56 50 47 ^-2 60 62 41 36 21 20 57 A3 38 37 33 SI Si 31 78 30 64 62 40 9 Jl 5Z 62 34 34 13 zo 56 A3 37 35 30 A5 51 31 73 30 46 60 37 10 54 47 51 50 56 33 34 12 20 54 42 33 34 30 A3 50 31 75- 23 45 59 35- II 51 43 St 48 56 31 31 10 18 S3 40 32 34 29 A3 47 26 72 26 44 S5 3S IZ 40 43 51 45 56 30 31 10 18 SZ 40 28 27 25 A3 47 26 69 26 42 48 33 13 4S 42 50 44 56 29 29 9 16 SI 39 26 26 23 AZ 46 27 64 26 42 47 32 14 47 41 50 43 56 29 26 S 15 SI 36 25 23 23 39 45 27 61 zs 41 46 30 15 47 40 46 43 <53 28 27 8 14 SI 37 25 23 22 37 40 26 SS 2S 40 45 30 16 37 40 47 43 x55 26 27 8 13 SI 33 2S 21 2Z 36 30 24 S3 24 37 41 29 17 37 37 46 43 52 22 25 6 12 SO 33 24 20 20 35 26 18 SA 22 36 40 29 id 36 36 41 42 5/ 19 22 6 12 47 33 20 20 ZO 34 26 15 SI 20 30 31 29 19 32 32 44 42 48 18 20 5 II 45 32 19 17 10 34 16 II A8 13 26 25 27 20 31 32 40 42 48 16 19 4 10 43 31 id (2 15 32 15 10 46 13 25 24 21 21 31 31 39 40 44 15 13 4 10 42 29 17 12 15 30 12 \0 35 9 21 22 IS 22 2& 30 39 39 A3 13 II 4 10 A2 29 If 14 26 7 5 3A 6 16 \3 II 23 26 30 39 36 40 12 10 4 10 40 28 16 14 25 24 20 29 37 33 37 n 10 4 9 37 26 16 \3 23 25 19 27 36 31 35 10 9 3 6 36 26 13 W 22 26 16 26 S3 29 35 10 7 3 34 27 14 \0 21 27 17 25 32 28 34. e 5 3 8 33 22 12 9 18 26 15 22 31 26 34 6 3 7 32 15 12 a 18 29 10 17 21 22 26 5 2 6 26 13 8 6 13 CO 16 W IS 20 3 2 24 9 6 I 13 Table X shows by schools the highest, the second highest, and the lowest number (in per cents) of answers marked G for each question. Table VIII shows great variation in each school in the niunber of correct answers for the various questions. In School XXV (a typical school according to Table IV), 83 per cent of the answers to question 18 are correct, but no answers are correct for ques- tion I, and only 3 per cent are correct for questions 6 or 7. In School XI (the one ranking highest according to Table IV) there 24 BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS is also great variation. Here 97 per cent of the answers to ques- tion 16 are correct but only 27 per cent of those for question 17. In School IV (the one ranking the lowest) 47 per cent of the answers to question i are correct but there are no correct answers for question 8. Table IX shows great variation by schools in the number of correct answers for any question. The correct answers to ques- tion I range from 94 per cent in one school to o per cent in another. (Table X.) For question 2 the variation ranges from 72 per cent to 16 per cent. (Table X.) By running down the columns in Table IX, one can see that the variation is great for all the questions. TABLE X Question School Highest number School Second highest number School Lowest number I 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 XI XI II II II XI XI XI XI XI XI XI II XI XXIX XV XI XXV III XXX II XI XI 94 72 82 93 86 70 78 70 55 88 80 67 66 70 90 97 50 87 57 82 86 72 XV XV XXVII XI XXIX II II II XXX VII XXI XI IX XXI XI XXVI XIV \ XVII XXIV i II II XV XXVII XXVIII 90 62 77 88 86 61 65 54 54 80 60 63 62 63 88 78 45 86 56 75 83 68 XXV XXV XVII X XVII XXV XIXX XXIX XIII II X XV XXVI X XVI XXV VII IV XVI . XIV XVII VII 3 o o 2 24 9 6 I o 13 7 34 8 18 13 BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 25 At the same time this table (IX) shows that ahnost every question has been answered fairly well by some school. In the first rank the per cent of correct answers by schools runs from 97 per cent for question 16 to 50 per cent for question 17. Then Table X shows that the highest ranking (first or second place) is not confined to one or two schools; for sixteen different schools are first or second in the number of correct answers for some one of the 22 questions. Thirteen schools occupy the lowest place for one or more of the questions but eight of these thirteen schools also occupy the highest or second highest ranking on other questions. Recapitulation From the facts of the preceding tables it is found that: 1. Something over 1/3 of all the answers are correct. (Table III.) 2. Only two schools have more than 50 per cent of their answers correct. (Table IV.) 3. Eleven schools have less than 1/3 of their answers correct. (Table IV^.) 4. The average school has about 36 per cent of the answers correct. (Table IV.) 5. Four questions (4, 18, 21, 5) have more than 50 per cent of their answers correct. (Table V.) 6. Four questions (8, 9, 13, 14) have less than 25 per cent of their answers correct. (Table V.) 7. On the basis of correct answers, the questions vary greatly in difficulty (Tables V, VI, VII, VIII, IX) though every ques- tion receives at least 50 per cent of answers correct in some school. (Table IX.) 8. By considering first and second rank by schools for any one question, sixteen out of thirty schools rank first or second highest on some one question. There is a further important deduction from the papers which, however, does not appear in the tables. The examiner noted that while, of course, many pupils answered all the questions well, 26 BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS there was a striking tendency on the part of very many pupils to answer some questions conspicuously well and others very poorly or not at all. Conclusions In the Hght of the preceding recapitulation one general con- clusion is evident: Business practice (as indicated by the questions) is^ as a rule, not well known to pupils of the eighth grade j although it is possible for them to know it. A further conclusion, stated previously, is that from one-half to two-thirds of a class is likely to have either a very inadequate knowledge or no knowledge at all of a subject of business practice. That is to say: these pupils when dealing with arithmetical questions involving business practice are engaged in abstract arithmetic only. The examples given to these pupils cannot at present be of any more interest to them than the old-fashioned problems based on troy weight or aliquot parts. The modern problems are probably more skilfully prepared to meet their comprehension, but the pupils who are in F and P groups are for all intents and purposes being taught formal arithmetic and nothing else. Their interest in the problems can be nothing more than that purely mental one found in solving abstract problems. In fact such pupils are some- what similarly situated to those evening school students men- tioned on page 4. The topics appear just the thing to furnish them arithmetical problems, but, as a matter of fact, the pupils don't know much about the topics. Recommendations The limits of the investigation and the nature of the returns make decided recommendations doubtful. It is true that the investigation shows that the average pupil's knowledge of busi- ness practice is inadequate while it also seems to show that he can be given a fairly adequate knowledge. At the same time it does not tell where he obtained the knowledge that he has. It seems evident, however, to the investigator, who read the papers with this in mind, that much, perhaps most, of the pupil's BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 27 knowledge was obtained outside of schooL But much of the information is as plainly obtained in school. The problem is whether or not it is advisable where necessary to give it all in school by direct teaching. Now it has been stated earlier (p. 5) that the weight of educa- tional opinion is unreservedly in favor of the employment of business practice. It has also been stated (p. 6) that there seem to be three reasons which are supposed specially to justify the subject. If the soundness of these three reasons is examined, it will help to show the exact place of the study in the elementary school. In the first of these three reasons for the teaching of business practice it was said that the subject gives the child added interest in arithmetic. It may be seriously doubted, however, if business practice does really give much added interest to arithmetic. No doubt a pupil in a commercial course, who believes he will be a bookkeeper, may derive a kind of far-lying interest from thinking that exercises involving ** liabilities " and " assets " are about matters which he really needs and wishes to know. As a matter of fact what he really does find when he is actually " on the job " is that he has to learn the methods of keeping accounts peculiar to one particular firm. What he has brought to his task is his general preparation. Still, it must be admitted that it seems natural for the prospective bookkeeper to busy himself with sums in " liabilities " and " assets " and similar things. But comparatively few pupils are to become bookkeepers. Comparatively few pupils are to find jobs in any particular line. The truth is that it is exceedingly hard to find in arithmetic the problem for which the pupil has a warm personal interest either because he meets it every day or expects to find it confronting him in his job. Take for example the following exercises selected at random from a popular arithmetic : " Mrs. Ames ordered the following groceries: a 5 pound fowl at 23 cents, 2 loaves of bread at 5 cents, 2 pecks of potatoes at 25 cents. What was the total amount charged on the salesman's sUp." 28 BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS " Mr. James Ryan contracted to work for Marcus Corners for two years at a salary of $900 a year. How much did he receive a month ? " " Mr. White purchased a lot and built a double house upon it at a total cost of $7000 and then rented it for $37.50 per month a side. He paid $84 annually for taxes and $46 for repairs. What per cent did his investment yield ? '' These exercises are not quoted as horrible examples. Questions in arithmetic must be stated in some way and the problems above are clear and adapted to the child's understanding. But the pupil is not much interested in Mrs. Ames's groceries, Mr. Ryan's con- tract, or Mr. White's house. He knows that they are not real people — not even characters in a story. The problem's the thing, the pupil knows that and proceeds to solve it as quickly as he can without much if any thought about the social or practical bearing of the exercise. Of course there are exceptions. A few problems can be found of considerable personal interest to each individual, but they are very, very few. In real life the average person either does practically no arithmetic at all or is limited by his profession to problems of a very special class. This is no condemnation of '' practical " problems in the aver- age arithmetic. Similar statements could be made with equal truth about the general run of exercises in books on English com- position or of any subject involving exercises. The fallacy lies in calling " practical " problems what they are not. They are prac- tical in the sense that the pupil is more familiar with their language than he would be with ones involving parasangs or obols. They help him to acquire facility in his fundamentals, but that the pupil really cares much whether " Three men dig a trench, etc.," or whether they dig a well is unlikely. Therefore it seems that the interest added to arithmetic by business practice is doubtful. Turning to the second reason for teaching business practice, the hkelihood that the pupil will be able to do the special arith- metical problems of his job, this seems to be even more doubtful. As has been pointed out in speaking of added interest, the aver- age person does not meet any arithmetical problems which he BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 29 must solve. Most persons rarely exercise their arithmetical train- ing further than to make change. The average practical mechanic if he must find the solution of a problem, as for example the steam pressure on a pipe, looks in a book of tables. And then few pupils will ever need to find the pressure on steam pipes. In fact business practice is in part being justified by the old fallacy about " storing up useful information to be drawn upon at some indefinite future time." The mere complexity of modern life ought, it would seem, to be sufficient to explode this fallacy. No one today can hope to " take all knowledge for his province." If by business practice is meant a method through which a pupil is to become acquainted with the arithmetic problems of actual business, a mere statement of the vastness of the undertaking makes the task a gigantic h)^erbole. But the third reason for teaching business practice, namely giving the pupil some acquaintance with the big facts of com- mercial life, seems to be entirely sound. Under present social conditions the preservation of economic independence may almost be called the first law of nature. Now it has been well said that what is needed most in education is not so much the dis- covery of new knowledge as the dissemination of what is already known. If a few plain facts about insurance, savings banks, " cash or credit," " fixed price," and similar things were crystal- lized as matters of common knowledge, pauper families, insolvent trust companies, credit stores and similar facts almost all due to popular ignorance might be less prevalent. It is a fact that our whole government postal saving system is based on popular ignorance. No doubt under present conditions the post-ofl&ce bank is a blessing, but if the thousands of workers putting their money in the government hands really knew just one or two facts about banks they would consider themselves cheated every day they received 2 per cent instead of 4. The school bank has done much to introduce to this country the frugaUty of the French peasant upon which rests in the main the economic strength of France. It is in such matters that business practice has its significance. 30 BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS But if what has been said be admitted, it appears that business practice from its most important side is not arithmetic at alL It is rather the inculcation of a kind of general information or civilized common sense necessary in our present social condition. The subject is in reaUty too broad and vague to be only the appendage of any one other subject. Money and banks, for instance, can well be discussed in history. Taxes can fall under so-called community civics, as can the post office and its functions. The truth seems to be that to modern inteUigence a number of things are necessary which appear in the business world. Chil- dren pick these up in all kinds of ways in school and out. Business practice is not and probably cannot be a finished study in the sense that arithmetic or American history is. The most that can be expected is that the teacher will give information or make definite what the pupil already knows about a few of the big facts of business. Here lies one of the great possibilities of the subject. It furnishes means for valuable correlation between studies. It may be one of the means of giving more unity to curricula now often lacking in coordination. A Textbook What seems to be needed is a textbook on business practice which will contain the minimum that the teacher ought to know in teachable form. Such a book would give the instructor definite ideas as to what ought to be taught and the topics could be taken up as occasion arose, due consideration being given to the scattered information already existing in the class. The following subjects are suggested as appropriate to such a text: money, commercial paper, interest and investment, banks, corporations and firms, stocks and bonds, credit and securities, real estate, insurance, taxes, transportation companies, the post office. It seems certain that the subjects of Business Practice are not likely to be adequately taught simply by definitions. To tell a class that " Interest is a premium paid for the use of money " may or may not be giving them information. Definitions, how- ever, may have value, if pupils are encouraged to struggle for definitions of their own. BUSINESS PRACTICE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 3 I As a matter of fact, I have found that many of the topics lend themselves readily to class discussion. In an average eighth grade there is likely to be a number of pupils who will have children's knowledge of the matter in hand. It is just such knowl- edge that is valuable, if the teacher knows how to use it. A class discussion of money, for instance, is almost sure to disclose a good many scattered, but no less valuable, bits of information, which can be written and arranged on the blackboard. The teacher can supplement such facts by additional matter, taken if necessary from some desk book. She should have clearly in her own mind just what she thinks the pupil ought to know about the topic under discussion. She should find out first just what he does know, and the additional information that she gives him should, where possible, be linked up with the life that he sees, or can be taught to see, about him. Suggestions On page 21, it has been suggested that the teacher might have the pupils play at depositing money in a bank. The significance of a check or a post-office money order might be shown in a similar manner. Now, no one supposes that such a method of teaching is a brand new idea. It has long been the basis of much of our instruction in commercial courses in high school, but it may be that its very simplicity has made us doubtful of its effective- ness. But merely handling or seeing a thing often gives a peculiar reahty to the idea of it; a reahty that has a sound psychological basis. Common sense would seem to place beyond argmnent the advisability of letting children see the things that they are to learn about, especially when these things can be shown with so little effort. It may seem trivial to talk at length on so simple a matter as holding up before a class a stock certificate or passing around the room a check. The teacher who reads this must him- self be the judge. But before he gives his final opinion, he might ask himself this question: " Have I ever taught insurance to a class without making sure when I was through that there was no pupil in the room who did not even know just what an insurance policy looks like ? 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