FREE WILL AND DESTINY FOX- PITT Ex Libris C. K. OGDEN T. FREE WILL AND DESTINY FREE WILL AND DESTINY BY ST. GEORGE LANE-FOX PITT AUTHOR OF "THE PURPOSE OF EDUCATION" MEMBER OF THE PERMANENT EXECUTIVE COUNCIL OF THE INTERNATIONAL MORAL EDUCATION CONGRESS WITH OPEN LETTER ON THE INTERNATIONAL MORAL EDUCATION CONGRESS AND LEAGUE OF NATIONS BY RT. HON. SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK BART., P.C. (Chairman International Moral Education Congress Executive Council) AND APPENDIX BY FREDERICK J. GOULD, Hon. Sec. International Moral Education Congress LONDON CONSTABLE 6- COMPANY LTD. 1920 THE INTERNATIONAL MORAL EDUCATION CONGRESS OPEN LETTER BY THE RT. HON. SIR FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., P.O., CHAIRMAN or THE PER- MANENT EXECUTIVE COUNCIL DEAR Fox PITT, I fully agree with you as to the importance of the Moral Education Congress as an instrument for clearing away super- ficial prejudice and misunderstanding, finding or restoring a common ground of moral ideals, and agreeing in fundamentals on the training of character that must maintain them. Free and open conference may seem a long way to that end, but it is the only way. Indeed I had set down that opinion in terms not very different from yours before reading your paper. vi INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS Down to the end of the Middle Ages western Europe had a common tradition, sound in the main though leaving much to be desired in practical results. The Reformation fostered division and exaggerated differences. Catholic and Protestant, or at any rate Puritan, morality diverged in many ways, and both were the worse for it. A new unity has now to be built up. The League of Nations will be effective only if it is a moral as well as a political power. Wisely and actively handled, the Moral Education Congress is capable of no mean part in the work of reconstruction that lies before us. One of our main objects is to counteract the present tendency to regard education as merely co-extensive with instruction in the technical arts of life which are the instruments of material prosperity. There must be tolerable material conditions before we can produce or enjoy the immaterial goods that make life really worth living. But material prosperity is not the chief end of either individual or national life. A worthy national life is that which fosters knowledge^ imagination, art and speculation. Call these things the glory of God or the INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS vii highest achievement of man as you will : for me they are both. In any case the relief of man's estate is imperfect without them, and they are the works by which the value of civilized society stands to be judged. Not that our material expressions of spiritual values are worthless illusion, as the pessimist dogmas of the best known Brahman and Budd- hist schools would have it. 1 There is a noble and austere ideal of justice in the Indian belief that every action has its value fixed in an eternal scale of merit and demerit, a value to be rigorously accounted for in the same or some other life. But the assumption that all finite life is in itself a bad thing is neither acceptable in western lands nor in fact accepted by the greater part of Asiatics. It is answerable, to my mind, for the failure of India to produce anything like a true common- wealth ; it is incompatible with any endeavour for general progress. For us human fellowship is to be sought in the commonwealth and not 1 This view is not universal in India ; the great Mediae- val poet Kabir and Sir Rabindranath Tagore, who has much in common with him, are notable exceptions, not to speak of the non-Brahmanic southern races. viii INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS in the renunciation of temporal duties. Our moral education must be the education of citizens. You will see that in my opinion you underrate certain fundamental oppositions ; I should be the last to deny that they are and indeed must be largely compromised in practice. Yours sincerely, F. POLLOCK. October, 1919. NOTE BY THE AUTHOR In reply to Sir F. Pollock's letter In this very interesting and instructive letter Sir Frederick Pollock gives expression to some current misconceptions in regard to Buddhist teaching. It serves, however, a good purpose in calling attention to wide-spread errors on the subject. There is no assumption in Budd- hism that " all finite life is in itself a bad thing." That which is held to be a " bad thing," or to speak more correctly to be delusive, is the belief that all finite life is in itself a good thing. Indeed it is just this latter doctrine which has been so much reprobated of late as the obses- sion of the " pacifist " and " conscientious objector." The correct Buddhist teachings on this point are made quite clear in Rhys Davids' translations of the original Pali texts in the publications of the Pali Text Society and in the x NOTE BY THE AUTHOR " Sacred Books of the East." The Buddhist and Brahminical teachings in this respect closely correspond. (See Bhavagat Gita.) It is also a mistake to suggest that Buddhism was indifferent to the education of laymen, house- holders and citizens. There is, on the contrary, much excellent advice offered on this question. (See Rhys Davids' "Buddhism.") Referring to the " Commonwealth," the following dia- logue may be quoted as apposite. " Have you heard, Ananda, that the Vajjians hold full and frequent public assemblies ? " " Lord, so I have heard," replied he. " So long, Ananda," rejoined the Blessed One, " as the Vajjians hold these full and frequent public assemblies ; so long may they be expected not to decline, but to prosper." (Mahd Parinibbana Sutta, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xi, pp. 1 to 5.) It is also a common mistake to suppose that Buddhism denies " caste." The attitude of Buddha on caste may be compared to that of the modern eclectic in his view of rank and economic social status. These are held to be of no great importance except to the vulgar- minded ; what needs to be emphasized is true NOTE BY THE AUTHOR xi worth, rather than " birth," or outward cir- cumstance. 1 1 Not by birth does one become of low caste, Not by birth does one become a Brahman ; By his actions alone one becomes of low caste, By his actions alone one becomes a Brahman. (Vasala Sutta, 27.) In quoting the above, Rhys Davids adds that the same idea occurs in the Mahabhdrata, iii. 14075, 17393. PREFACE MUCH has been said lately as to the need of a "New World" and a "Change of Heart." This short treatise is intended to throw light, mainly from a psychological point of view, on the meaning of these familiar phrases. The method of approach adopted is dynamistic or kinetic, rather than static. That is to say stress is laid on the fact that all " Worlds," like thoughts, are necessarily changing ; though at different periods the rapidity of the rates of change varies. There are certain times when current views, opinions, customs and traditions are markedly unstable. The present is cer- tainly one of these times. Conditions of life are seen to be difficult, and many rush to the conclusion that they never were so before, or not to the same extent. Centuries before the Christian era the great xiv PREFACE Indian teacher, known as the Buddha, pro- pounded four supreme truths. The first of these truths is that life implies pain that it is in fact difficult. The Christian scriptures tell us that in this world we must have tribu- lation. This is the same truth. Now this truth is apt to be forgotten, even denied. It is called " pessimism " ; and it is often insisted that as a fact the " World " is quite easy, or that it should be made so at once. If this is not done then someone is to blame. It is true that the blame is never, or very seldom, one's own. In this persuasion many theories have developed. To give them a philosophic complexion they may be grouped as " prag- matic." One of the most popular just now is known as Christian Science. Its chief dogma is an affirmation that there can be no evil, or at least none to speak of. The plan of salvation is extraordinarily simple. When a difficulty occurs, all you have to do is to call it evil ; and forthwith to deny it. It at once disappears. If this system worked well, we should do well to accept it. But it does not always work well, and at times it works very badly. Yet in various guises PREFACE xv such systems have now a considerable vogue. Their popularity depends upon their being so manifestly easy. Sooner or later their fol- lowers meet with disappointment and find such systems are altogether too good to be true. Their attractiveness arises from a spurious glimpse of universality, or false generalisa- tions from concrete experience. The essential relativity of material experiences, and their proper spheres of reference, are ignored. Practitioners of such methods do not try to discover and apply correct references. In a word they are unscientific. In contrast with this we also hear much nonsense talked of the importance of " special brain concentration." These cults are often even more mischievous ; for they pander to an unwholesome appetite to get, by quick and facile means, at vulgar concrete results. This age is an impatient one, seeking ends by short cuts ; and as to that supreme panacea, " a change of heart," the efficacy of which is so much advocated, we are urged, most insis- tently, to "do it now." The considerations, here sketched in broad outline, are advanced as a corrective to xvi PREFACE impatience. Excessive zeal always leads to reaction, and often brings the zealot to the depths of despair. But in order to practise patience we must know what it means. It does not mean indifference or apathy. It means the capacity, the understanding and insight to wait for results, without false ex- pectations, until they properly fall due. True patience implies right effort, right under- standing and strength. The vague reader may protest that there is nothing new in all this, that he or she had heard it before. No doubt they have, but that does not necessarily make them patient. There is nothing wholly new except expression, and that is itself a new form of repetition. There are few things so old that we have no need to be reminded of them. This applies even to eating and drinking, to say nothing of arithmetical formulae. It is in the belief that some old truths half-forgotten will bear systematic restatement, that these few pages are written. There may be certain readers, wedded to old schools of thought, who might be inclined to interpret some passages in this treatise as an insidious attack on formal logic. This PREFACE xvii would be a mistake. The importance of logical methods and unambiguous terminology are, on the contrary, insisted upon, not dis- paraged. But logic should be a live instru- ment, sharpened not blunted by use. True logic can never be wholly divorced from experience. It is not a dead language. Thus stress is laid on meaning and emphasis, which are both liable to inversion. Readers should throughout try to keep this in view. The glossary at the end is intended as a guide to the special terminology employed, with the object of avoiding ambiguity. TRAVELLERS' CLUB, PALL MALL, LONDON, S.W. 1, January, 1920. CONTENTS CHAHTEH K4.0E I. FREEDOM 1 II. ECONOMIC FREEDOM III. KARMA AND CAUSATION - - - 16 IV. JUSTICE AND VERACITY 22 V. PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 28 VI. EMOTIONS - 34 VII. INVERSION ... - 41 VIII. RELATIVITY 46 IX. DESTINY - 52 APPENDIX : THE INTERNATIONAL MORAL EDUCATION CONGRESS, by Frederick J. Gould - 55 CORRELATED GLOSSARY ....' - 86 CHAPTER I FREEDOM WHAT is Freedom ? Few familiar words are quite so ambiguous. A sturdy manipulator, trying to unscrew a tight metal nut or a joint, has succeeded in moving it and proclaimed that it is free, or "practically" free. A less powerful on-looker then takes a turn and exclaims : " It's a lie, it's not free at all." Making due allowance for exaggeration, we know what is meant. Applied to human conduct, however, the meaning of freedom is much more obscure. The most obvious and at the same time the most popular conception of freedom is to be able to do just what we like in all circumstances and at all times. One might add perhaps " practically." Experienced people of the world will say that this means having plenty of 2 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [i money, so that there is no need to earn a living. The still more experienced would say that it means not only that, but depends also upon our having to deal with " nice people " ; that is to say those " who under- stand one," who can always appreciate the excellence of one's qualities and good inten- tions ; people in short who are always ready to help us to do what we want ; in other words, those who have no wants of their own except such as coincide with ours. It will be ad- mitted perhaps that this seldom happens, but the explanation glibly offered is that there is in this world a great admixture of stupidity, incapacity and selfishness, not to say wicked- ness. We come then to the conclusion that we are none of us free, or are so very rarely for any great length of time. Has then freedom no positive meaning ? Surely it must have some meaning, or we should not be thinking of it constantly as a state to be sought for and prized. There are times when we all experience it. It implies a release from bonds ; though the release may be of short duration. The more irksome the bondage the more delightful the experience i] FREEDOM 3 of release. It is an essentially personal matter. It is by not knowing this thoroughly, or rather by not understanding it, that the bonds must perforce recur. For in fact the bonds are nothing else than our desires, our wishes, our likes, opinions and beliefs. Or to put it more strictly it is the effect of these when they are felt, if not seen, to conflict with other wants or beliefs which are for the moment more urgent. As our moods change, our desires, likes and beliefs become our distastes, disbeliefs and aversions. Bondage then brings mental conflict and freedom is the absence of such conflict. Next comes a question, the answer to which is so persistently demanded. What is it exactly that experiences these conflicts and releases ? The answer to this question again flings us into a confusion of words, involving even more ambiguity than arises out of the word freedom itself. We use the word self. We speak of our " minds," our " wills," our " consciousness," the " ego " or " psyche." These words all have their use in certain con- texts, but they have no meaning at all, apart from those contexts, for they never can repre- sent " things in themselves." 4 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [i This is really the solution of all our per- plexity when we talk of " free will." " The Will " is often used as an expression covering the whole personality as a " separate entity," and is supposed to include comprehensively effort, mind, consciousness, brain and " ego." Get rid of the notion that " will " is a lump of something existing all alone by itself apart from experience, and the trouble disappears. This is easily said ; not so easily accom- plished. We may very well postulate some and various vehicles of volition and purpose when we seek to give a certain definiteness to the continuity and interdependence of experience, but we must remember that it is the continuity and interdependence of experience that is important, not " a something " apart from it. These " vehicles " are useful so long as they are helpful to clear and consecutive thinking ; when they "set up on their own," so to say, they become a positive nuisance. This represents a linguistic obstacle about which much more will be said further on. When we seek to express a wish, a thought, a belief, we conveniently say, / want, / think, 7 believe, but because the same pronoun or its i] FREEDOM 5 symbol is used in various connections, does it, therefore, follow that always some identical and unchanging entity is necessarily implied ? Clearly not. Our wants, thoughts and beliefs are constantly changing. We all, of course, experience some kind of recurrence in our egoistic feelings, nevertheless the very essence of life is in change. Wherein then can there be any identity ? None but a simpleton ever says he is perfect and most people would resent the suggestion that they never improve. Here then we have authoritative proof that loss of identity is not only admitted, but positively insisted on. The changes of life are never quite even and constant. In both growth and decay we are fettered. Everybody at one time or another is fettered by conventions, traditions and beliefs, the validity of which we feel impelled to call in question. It is not that conflict for its own sake is necessarily sought, but that our ambitions, emotions and interests, coupled with our lack of knowledge and ex- perience, seem inevitably to prescribe it. What is more, an unheroic avoidance of con- flict may have the effect of adding to the 6 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [i strength of our fetters by the postponement of conflict to a more inconvenient occasion. This is not to be taken as an advocacy of warfare ; it is a reasoned incitement to courage. Nothing is fixed. All human beings must be either improving, deteriorating, or persisting in some kind of vacillating mediocrity. The great majority, it is true, would prize a reputa- tion for integrity of character, some even come near to it, but all sincere persons recognise that this is an ideal they never quite reach. None, therefore, on reflection will seriously insist that in the continuity of individuality there ever has been, or ever can be, a perma- nent, unchangeable or identical ego. Freedom then is the outcome of enlightened experience by which we develop our strength of character. It cannot be given or taken away by an indiscriminating outside authority. Since in essence it springs from within, it will in a measure accrue to all and each accord- ing to their own well directed effort and perse- verance. Enduring freedom arises from a true harmony of motives and not as the action of a hypothetical " Ego-Entity," the emotional con- ception of which produces nothing but fetters. i] FREEDOM 7 As we approach true harmony in our lives so we approach true freedom. Experienced, in the best sense of the word, with acquired knowledge, wisdom, understanding, and above all, goodwill, we have gained a freedom of which we cannot be deprived by any one, or by any set of circumstances. Failing this our periods of freedom will be short and their recurrence rare, whatever may be our banking account. The great apparent differences between individuals in these respects will be dealt with in subsequent chapters, more particu- larly in that one exploring the operations of Karma. CHAPTER II ECONOMIC FKEEDOM IN order that we may arrive at a clear con- ception of Freedom in its economic aspect, it would be advisable, in the first instance, to examine somewhat that highly debatable field of thought and practice known as Economic Science. " Economics " is the " Science of Wealth " and deals with the production, application and distribution of " Wealth." What is " Wealth " ? Students of Mill need hardly be reminded that it should not be confounded with welfare. According to some authorities the concepts underlying these two rather like-sounding words might be almost contrasted. It might be said vaguely that wealth is a general term for that which satisfies our wants, but this, we shall see, is n] ECONOMIC FREEDOM 9 not sufficiently specific. We want air, water, food, clothing, housing, tools, power and comfort for our material needs, but we also want credit, reality, beauty, enjoyment, know- ledge, health and peace ; further, many, if not all, want distinction, reputation, profit, vengeance, personal safety, amusement, admir- ation, insight, righteousness, character and understanding. Some, but by no means all of the specific objects or means, by which our wants are gratified, can be expressed in terms of money, and properly called " Wealth." There are important exceptions. The first two, for example, the most essential of all our wants, air and water, are not " wealth " in primary and almost in ordinary circumstances, for the simple reason that they are so abun- dant and cannot, be monopolised. 1 If one could substitute manna for bread one could even add food ! In its strictly technical sense " wealth " is inextricably bound up with property. It follows, therefore, that economic laws are based upon and must 1 The mere quibbler would perhaps have to be reminded that a water-rate represents a payment for transport, cleaning and convenience rather than for the thing transported. 10 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [n necessarily change with the " laws " of property '. This is so obvious to all who will give them- selves the trouble to think about the matter discerningly, that it need not be insisted upon much further just now beyond pointing out that this being the case, economic aspects of life, important as they undoubtedly are and interesting though they may be sociologically, are subordinate in their importance to the considerations of welfare. With the considera- tions of welfare, the considerations of economics do not always coincide. They may even be in conflict, as we shall presently see. " Wealth " then is property, 1 exchangeable, marketable property, subject to conditions for privileged or exclusive use of individuals and groups. Property depends upon the laws of the Community or their equivalents in primi- tive customs and taboos. Various beliefs, traditions, customs and conventions have contributed from time immemorial in the 1 The word " property " is sometimes used in a much broader sense as implying the spiritual possessions of personality. This is not legal property. Wisdom, kind- ness, spiritual purpose and strength are not marketable. In a sense they can be possessed and conveyed, but they cannot be exchanged for a stipulated quid pro quo. n] ECONOMIC FREEDOM 11 establishment of these laws, but they can never be properly called fixed and unalter- able. These laws have their origin in the acquisitive instinct a primal instinct, laid very deep down in our animal natures. This instinct develops the sense of ownership and the rights of disposition, whether individual or collective, with which we all grow up. The laws of pro- perty recognise this sense and aim at regulating it for our common convenience and welfare. They are designed and developed for that purpose ; and when they fail in that purpose they are changed, always professedly with the aim of improving their adaptability to the common welfare. These changes are generally very slow, too slow sometimes to meet our altered requirements, then the changes often overshoot the mark and appear to be convul- sive and revolutionary. What is here stated is quite elementary, but as we are apt to forget it, it needs constant restatement. It is in fact an important branch of education which is too much neglected. Without proper guidance our acquisitive disposition becomes distorted in opposite direc- tions. It may become too pronounced on the 12 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [n one hand, or laxity on the other. Then there is confusion and forgetfulness. It is a matter of proportion and balance. The reason of this forgetfulness, over-emphasis and confusion will be made clear when we come to consider the psychological mechanism of the human mind. It is only by study and experience that the proper relation between wealth and welfare can be distinguished in its full significance, but in this, as in every other sphere, freedom depends on self-mastery. It is often stated as an obvious truth that " labour " is the primal factor in " wealth production," but this is by no means true. The most essential contributor to the produc- tion of " wealth," paradoxical as it sounds, is the " consumer," for the consumer creates the demands for " wealth," hence the market values, without which labour itself is un- meaning. Labour, capital, management and consumption combine together to satisfy or at least to gratify the acquisitive instinct. In a perfectly harmonious brotherhood there might well be tools, service, management, enterprise, industry, transport and freedom, but in its strictly technical sense there ii] ECONOMIC FREEDOM 18 would be no economic " wealth " what- ever. This would, of course, necessitate a thorough transformation of the dominant characteristics of human nature, for the acquisitive instinct would have wholly dis- appeared and higher incentives to effort would perforce have accrued. The main object aimed at in thus formulating such an hypotheti- cally ideal condition is to help towards the elucidation of the meaning of some carelessly applied and much abused terms. The conclusions here enunciated are these : that although wealth, welfare and economic freedom are conceptions which can and ought to be properly distinguished, they cannot be absolutely separated from one another and that all attempts to do so must lead to error and confusion. Queries and deductions drawn from these conclusions would, no doubt, appear hopelessly heterodox to all existing schools of economics, except perhaps to a school foreshadowed, if not actually established, by John Stuart Mill. It is generally admitted that the total " wealth " of the world is the sum of the market values of all stocks, shares, loans, 14 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [n debentures, goods and services (except where these overlap), establishments (with their "goodwill" and endowments), public and private institutions of every description, which are or can be properly recognised by law as marketable for a stipulated quid pro quo. There is also a good show of authority for insisting that this market value, measured in " sterling " currency, is greater to-day than it was prior to the war. 1 Thus we are, if this assumption be correct, on the whole, economi- cally " richer " now than we were, notwith- standing the probable default of certain countries, and the effect of an epidemic of strikes. Yet at the same time the position economically is, in appearance, more unstable, because all sorts of doubts have been raised. Now would this apparent state of instability be necessarily improved by greater " produc- tion " ? This depends surely upon what it is 1 As an indication of the confusion of commercial values at the present time (25th Oct., 1919), it may be pointed out that, whereas the 1 currency note has only depreciated about 10 to 15 per cent, as to its gold value, its purchasing power, measured in pre-war prices, is officially stated to have fallen about 120 per cent. In addition to this there has been an enormous increase in the total " value " of securities. ii] ECONOMIC FREEDOM 15 that is produced and by whom ? Stability depends essentially upon general enlightenment and contentment, which depends, in its turn, upon sound education, and not merely of the schools. The war has certainly been educa- tional in more senses than one. For good or for ill it has modified our outlook and our general relationships. The war itself was indeed the outcome of instability. Has insta- bility then been added to, or has it been decreased ? Possibly both, in different direc- tions, and it would be hard to say off-hand how, on the whole, the balance will lie ; but upon this, the question of welfare and freedom depends. The acquisitive disposition, which we all more or less share, must be regulated by suitable laws, otherwise we have chaos. That does not mean that the acquisitive disposition and its regulation need be over- emphasised. There is far greater danger of this being done than of (at least in England) the opposite tendency being induced. The true remedy for our present ills is the system- atic substitution of nobler motives, by means of education, for those of mere gain. CHAPTER III KARMA AND CAUSATION EVERYTHING, anywhere and at any time, which may happen to an individual, arises from adequate cause. For this cause the individual is responsible by reason of his actions (which include his thoughts) past and present. This is the Buddhist in contra- distinction to the Brahminical 1 doctrine of Karma. The individual is even responsible for his " instincts," the effects they have on his life and the use he makes of them. Nothing whatever is absolutely static, nor is anything absolutely isolated. Every indi- vidual is definitely and specifically distin- guishable from other individuals, owing to Karmic laws, but every individual is neverthe- less correlated with them. In varying degrees 1 See note at end of chapter. 16 in] KARMA AND CAUSATION 17 also, according to Karmic laws of time and occasion, different individuals are interde- pendent one with another. For everything definitely distinguishable in each individual life, though he be unaware of its true origin, or by false inference he wrongly interprets the origin, the individual is himself specifically responsible. He is responsible for all events in so far as they affect his happiness and the happiness of others, according to their Karmic inter-relationship. The effects of Karma are reciprocal. Nothing is absolutely fixed. All life is " becoming," that is to say it is interlinked continuously, though apparently spasmodically the present and future and each with the past. There is no independent " determinism " in the control of conduct ; the ordinary conception of " determinism " being that events occur apart not only from awareness, but apart also from volition, responsibility, or choice, in an unalterably " objective " manner. The objection usually raised to this doctrine of responsibility is that an ordinary individual, not being fully aware of his antecedents, can- not be responsible for them. It is considered 18 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [m that his responsibility begins and ends with his "consciousness." In practice, however, no one ever acts on this theory consistently. They cannot possibly do so. The extent and degree of our awareness of anything, being of necessity shifting and incomplete, never attains infallibility. Consequently, the acceptance of the criterion of full awareness would in effect do away with all responsibility whatever. (The function of awareness or consciousness, its intermittence and discontinuity, will be dealt with more fully in a subsequent chapter.) The concept of heredity is allied to, if not actually identical with, the doctrine of Karma. Whether we call heredity inborn capacity or inborn experience, it includes a potentiality for choice, selection and rejection in the deter- mination of the individual's welfare, which can not be clearly traced to his known ancestry. It includes, in short, a capacity which is essentially individual whatever its source. That which belongs properly to the individual and his antecedents, and that which belongs properly to the race, though they may be distinguished and classified in general terms, cannot be absolutely separated. Thus, for in] KARMA AND CAUSATION 19 example, the powers of selecting, acquiring and assimilating food may, in a general way, be called racial, yet the particular manner in which those powers are exercised is distinctly individual. The choice of the individual is no doubt confined to circumscribed and classifi- able fields or spheres of specific activity ; and for practical purposes they are so classified and defined ; but the limits of each sphere can never be absolutely fixed. That is to say all classification, at best, is but tentative, and should not be regarded as representing fixed categories which can never be changed. Were it otherwise we would be postulating unlimited powers of discernment and precision, together with a capacity for linguistic infallibility. The tentative nature of scientific classification can be shown by innumerable illustrations. One might give as an example the distinction between " organic " and " functional " in modern pathology, which is convenient but by no means final. All legislation and the systematic codification of custom and tradition might be regarded in the light of attempts to interpret, for everyday purposes, the effective action of Karma ; but the great majority of 20 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [in those engaged on this work of legal codification are so poorly inspired as to make the result of their efforts little more than a travesty. The fundamental basis of the Buddhist teaching of Karma is briefly this : Nothing is absolutely static, fixed or unchanging. All things are " becoming " ; they are, by invari- able law, conditioned, and, in an ultimate sense, interdependent. By " things " is meant objects, facts, organisms, circumstances and individuals. To use the psychological phrase- ology now current, they are " complexes " of different orders all the products of experience. " Complexes " are threefold, they are never simple dualities of subject and object merely. They are evolving trinities. In other words, a thing known and a knower implies also a knowledge, a thing thought of and a thinker implies a thought. A thing perceived and a perceiver implies a perception. A thing acted upon and an actor implies an action. Com- plexes revolve, evolve, interact, mingle and conflict. Their durability is indefinite accord- ing to their particular nature and relationships. They all persist by reason of the balance of their centripetal and centrifugal tendencies. in] KARMA AND CAUSATION 21 Incidentally it might be mentioned, that in a mental complex an over emphasis of the centripetal trend is at once the cause and outcome of " egoism," about which much will have to be said when we come to deal with " dissociation." In the same way the centrifugal trend may be identified with the spiritual. It is by the balance between these opposing forces with its resultant trend that the individuality is expressed and perpetuated. Karma then to an individual is the enemy of freedom. According to Buddhism the ultimate aim and supreme goal of humanity is emanci- pation from the thraldom of Karma. This goal, however, cannot be reached except by acknow- ledging its present sway and understanding its laws. 1 1 The Brahminical teachings on Karma are confused and contradictory. They are mixed up with an insistence upon the permanence of an unchangeable soul entity, or the " Atma doctrine " (egoism). Buddhists never speak of " reincarnation," but of the rebirth of Skandhas in accordance with an individual Karma. It should be mentioned that the Sanskrit terminology here used, as more familiar to Western exegesis, is slightly different from the Pali, the original Buddhist language. (See also the author's article on Theosophy, Oriental, in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.) CHAPTER IV JUSTICE AND VERACITY MOST of us have an instinctive belief in " Natural Justice " and when our " interests " do not blind us, we deplore the fact that it is so little observed. We all have, however, our personal interests, which are, generally speak- ing, mere euphemisms for our preconceptions and prejudices. These obscure and distort our vision, and just in so far as our interests con- flict so our notions of justice will vary. This instinctive belief in Natural Justice is an intuitive perception, obscured though it be, of the operations of Karmic laws. We sometimes speak of " poetic justice " as some- thing ideal which very rarely comes to pass. In the light of modern psychology this con- fusion of language and thought admits of a comparatively simple explanation. Beliefs and 22 iv] JUSTICE AND VERACITY 23 wishes are interdependent ; and, according to our variations of mood, arising out of our changes of relationship and circumstances, so our wishes, beliefs and interests will vary. Not only do these variations occur in ordered sequence, but at one and the same time we all experience certain hesitations and doubts as to what we virtually wish and believe. In short, we experience mental conflicts by which we are swayed backwards and forwards, even in crises, to the point of unconsciousness or temporary paralysis. Of course, people differ as to the extent to which such conflicts affect them, but we are none of us quite emanci- pated from their restrictions. Now, by com- bining a sufficiently large number of people and giving them important interests in common, we can arrive at a sort of average, which may be called a norm of conduct ; and we so gain for our mutual purposes and interests some sort of practical order. This order is for the most part subconscious, and often guides us without our being wholly aware of its influence. This subconscious order, the product of interests common to many, sometimes finds embodiment in the laws of the land, though a much more 24 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [iv ordinary form of its expression is to be found in custom, tradition and fashion. Karma obviously must include all such forms of its embodiment and expression and a great deal more besides much that is almost invariably hidden by reason of our superficial conscious- ness and mental blindness. According to the doctrine of Karma, everything pertaining to our individuality, however much hidden, however deep down in our natures, is still potentially valid, and must ultimately find due expression and solution in the continuity of our lives. Memory of a code may be helpful indeed, but this will not alone suffice to make a good judge. It is only when our vision is cleared by harmony of motive resulting from the subsidence of conflict, that we can see the true meaning of justice. Children are often enjoined to be just and truthful, as though nothing could be so easy. Yet there is nothing in the wide world more genuinely difficult. It is difficult because, not only as children but as full grown indi- viduals, we are for the most part physically, mentally and morally very imperfect creatures. iv] JUSTICE AND VERACITY 25 Were we perfect, such an enjoinment would be altogether superfluous. Nevertheless a " truth complex " can and should be developed. We may learn that to be just and truthful is in itself admirable, and that it is to ourselves and our fellows, in the best sense of the word, advantageous. It is a question of presentment. By suitable example and illustration children can be helped to see the real value of truthful- ness, so that they may grow up avoiding as far as possible the habit of associating injustice and falsehood with notions of personal gain. The ordinary forms of legal procedure are unfortunately not very helpful. We are made to swear not only that we have been and will be truthful, but that we will tell " the whole truth and nothing but the truth." We are warned, moreover, that failing such miraculous veracity the most dire consequences will follow. Here we have an appeal to our ego- istic lust for self-preservation and all who have much to do with the " law " are aware that in practice it leads to every kind of falsehood and prevarication. The trouble arises mainly from a psychological misconception. It is assumed that what we have known we know ; 26 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [iv and that we can command this knowledge at will. " Forgetfulness " is sometimes admitted as a possibility, but we ignore the most impor- tant truth, namely, that what is wished strongly is almost invariably believed to be " the truth." It is no doubt a fact that the art of cross-examination is based on a sort of confused recognition of the principle that we say, even if we do not believe, what we think is to our advantage, and the result is often confounding ; but as a test of veracity it offers a very poor criterion. 1 The un veracious nature of expert evidence has become almost a byword, for such evidence exemplifies in addition the dangers and difficulties of terminology, " Standardisation " and " inversion " play important parts in confusions of thought. We shall see presently how, by egoistic excess, a concept can hi the use become inverted ; so that the same word may be made to stand for two diametrically opposed meanings. 1 May be very good or very poor it depends partly on the cross-examiner's ability and partly on his materials partly also on the interests. Merely fishing cross- examination is seldom of any use. (Sir F. Pollock.) iv] JUSTICE AND VERACITY 27 The fruit of recent psychological research should be a great help to educationalists in so reframing their constructive methods as to develop in young persons an effective " truth complex," without at the same time making them either pedants or prigs. CHAPTER V PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS IN a recent work, entitled The Purpose of Education, the author has developed a system of psychology which is the outcome of re- search into regions of subconscious mental activity. Readers of this chapter are referred to that work, as they will there find an exposi- tion of the system somewhat fuller than that attempted here. The main outline of the system is as follows : Human Personality, though it should, as far as "possible, be viewed as a co-ordinated whole, is analysable into an immense number and variety of seemingly independent spheres or fields of psycho-physical activity and potenti- ality called ' ' complexes . " It may be mentioned at once that in the " psycho-analytic " schools of Sigmund Freud, and, in a somewhat modified 28 v] PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 29 form, in that of Jung, the term " complex " is used only as an indicaton of hysterical or morbid mental conditions ; consequently the student of comparative psychology should be on his guard to avoid confusion. The present system is the outcome of long- standing researches, begun before Freud's time, and still energetically prosecuted by many whose aim is psychological knowledge rather than the mere development of a par- ticular method of clinical treatment. The fundamental basis of this research is what has become known as " automatism," that is to say, purposeful and apparently intelligent acts or phenomena, operating in various ways without full awareness or reasoned volition on the part of those engaged in the observations and experiments. The phenomena of " automatism " are very similar in some respect to those usually called " instinctive." It is unfortunate, however, that much of this research is mixed up with what is foolishly called " proof of spirit identity," which has arisen out of vulgar preconceptions of egoism 30 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [v and animism. These preconceptions are indeed anything but spiritual, for they purport to interpret and determine that which transcends sensation in terms of sense data. They are in fact grossly materialistic, in that they would fix spirit in concrete form for ever. The word " survival," now much used in relation to certain psychic manifestations, has a quite different connotation from that of " identity." Its sense is Karmic. It implies continuity, which is a very valuable concept. In this connection it may be mentioned that many writers on these matters are prone to make much too free a use of the definite article. Thus we read of the unconscious, the subliminal, the normal, the supernormal, the conscious, the subjective, the body, the spirit and so on, when unconscious, subconscious, conscious, etc., simply should be written. The result is very confusing to uninitiated students, because it suggests a specific definiteness in such concepts, which is in no wise warranted. It suggests that there are in such matters quite clear lines of demarcation which have in fact no existence. It is perhaps no more than a grammatical error, arising sometimes from v] PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 31 mere carelessness, or it may be from defective education, but in view of the tentative nature of all classification, it would be well, as far as possible, to avoid it. In scientific research definiteness is quite essential, where clearer thought warrants it, but with unmethodical thinking, devoid of clear concepts, definiteness is only a hindrance. Certain conclusions may be recorded with confidence : (1) In an individual's ordinary waking life only an insignificant and it may be a distorted aspect of true personality emerges above the surface of consciousness. In other words, personality, as a co-ordinated whole, is very rarely awake . ( 2 ) The whole personality , though hidden from view, is yet living and active. (5) Between those portions of person- ality which are awake and those portions which are latent or subconscious, there is constant, though apparently intermittent, interaction. There is even a modified and generally much slower interaction at work between various subconscious activities. (4) The process of " knowing one's self " is a gathering together as a synthesis into the focus of awareness, of personality co-ordinated as a relevant whole. 32 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [v These psycho-physical activities, whether they be subconscious, merged into conscious- ness, or so remote from consciousness that we never become aware of them, organise them- selves by their inherent natural potencies into quasi-entities, which may be called complexes ; just as material forces organize themselves into waves, vortices, crystals, atoms and molecules ; or as in the organic world into cells, structures and organs. Mental complexes arise out of experience, or a succession of definitely correlated experiences. " Habits " are complexes in certain aspects, opinions are complexes, interests are com- plexes, while obsessions, phobias and manias are complexes in specific conditions called dissociated. For convenience of expression complexes may be divided into, " egoistic " and " indi- vidual." All complexes, however, have both egoistic and individualistic trends. The ego- istic trend is pseudo-self-sufficing, resisting change, grasping, tending towards disruption and dissociation. The individualistic trend is adaptability in sequence and continuity. The preponderance one way or the other of these v] PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS 38 two trends in a complex determines its value, its helpfulness or hindrance to the personality. Complexes co-operate with one another and combine to form phases of our personality. They also conflict to form morbid conditions. They emerge into consciousness, according to a suitable stimulus, except in so far as their affinities and relations are dislocated by the forces of dissociation. While still submerged subconsciously they often function as automa- tisms, so that it very rarely happens that our behaviour can be properly described as wholly conscious and volitional, or wholly automatic. Yet by a systematic study of dreams, habits and automatic writing, much may be learnt as to the true nature of complexes and their origins. This is a mere outline of a system of psycho- logy which it is to be hoped may develop and fructify in accordance with sound scientific methods of research. CHAPTER VI EMOTIONS THAT vicious tendency towards unwarranted classification, already referred to more than once, finds no more mischievous expression than in the various categories of " the emotions" which we occasionally come across. These categories are all mixed up with egoistic delusions. There is but one fundamental emotion, .namely egoistic craving, or that well-nigh universal impulse towards self-preservation and advancement. This impulse has certainly some negative aspects, which arise out of mental conflicts. In its positive sense emotion is associated with a multitudinous terminology. Our likes, wishes, interests, tastes, beliefs, notions and preferences, all manifesting with different degrees of intensity, are various 34 vi] EMOTIONS 35 terms for positive emotion. In the negative sense we have our dislikes, aversions, fears, disbeliefs and choice of evils. It is clear that the negative can have no separate existence apart from the positive. For the moment let us confine our attention to the latter. Ego- istic craving, as we have seen, is an essential element in the formation and maintenance of complexes. It is true, however, that in various associations and combinations of complexes, the emotional element can be so modified and transformed as to be hardly recognisable in its primitive condition ; and it is out of these transformations that the categories of the emotions have grown. Emotion may be called the selective energy of a complex. This energy may be more or less latent when the complex is subconscious, but as it emerges convulsively into conscious life we get manifestations of " emotional states." According to the constitution of a complex, according to the ideas, memories and physical attributes with which it is associated and the reactions to which it responds, according, that is to say, to the experiences out of which it 36 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [vi has grown, so is the selective power of its emotional energies directed. The emotional quality of a complex, in short, is determined by its composition and affinities. When this dominant energy of a complex is strongly ego-centric it thereby lacks the harmonising mobility, which is necessary for healthy individual development ; and the complex itself tends towards isolated or dis- sociative activity. Persistence in such activity will ultimately result in stubborn inversions. This phase of complexes is dealt with more particularly in the following chapter. When, however, the directive energies, in a correlated group of complexes, are harmonious and well balanced, such complexes become mobile, they interact and co-operate with comparative freedom, conflicts are avoided, supplemental co-ordinated groups form them- selves, which react purposefully with the external world, or rather with those comple- mentary aspects of life constituting their proper " environments " ; and progress, inven- tion or creation results. Now inasmuch as emotional energies have their vehicles or counterparts in the physical vi] EMOTIONS 37 organism, it would be well here to examine this relationship a little more closely. Physio- logical research has shown that the nervous systems and various bodily organs, particu- larly the ductless glands, such as the adrenal, thyroid, and interstitial respond reactively to emotional changes. Recent researches into the functions of the adrenal glands are of especial interest. These minute glands, weigh- ing no more (in their vital portions) than one seventy-thousandth of the whole human body, have very important functions in regulating the action of the circulatory and respiratory organs. It has been demonstrated experi- mentally x that under emotional stress these glands secrete into the blood extra quantities of an extremely potent agent called adrenine or adrenaline. An almost infinitesimal portion of this agent injected into the circulatory system produces very striking effects. The voluntary muscles are greatly energised, while at the same time the sympathetic nervous system is partially paralysed. Heart action 1 See Bodily Changes in Pain, etc., by Prof. Cannon of Harvard. Also Prof. Sherrington's works on the nervous system. 38 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [vi and the action of the respiratory organs are much heightened. These effects are both restorative and protective. If by accident, disease or over-use the adrenal glands should become injured or atrophied, the whole organism languishes and dies. The adrenal glands are, therefore, essential to continued physical existence, and it is significant that they should function as a kind of reservoir for the action of emotional energy. Experi- mental physiological and psychological re- search thus show how rash is the attempt to separate, in an arbitrary manner, our physical from our psychical nature. Fatigue, both mental and bodily, is closely allied with emotion. This too is a branch of experimental research, which has made con- siderable progress of late years. We all know how interest, with its power of focalising con- sciousness and directing attention, is a means of neutralising, or at least of masking, fatigue. This is clearly attributable to adrenal secre- tions ; f or adrenine has a double-edged function. It acts as an anti-toxin, counteracting the poisons generated by exertion ; and it acts as a stimulant, liberating some of those great vi] EMOTIONS 39 stores of crude energy potential in our organisms. Since, however, neither the source of adrenine, nor our reserves of crude energy are quite inexhaustible, the power of emotion in over- coming fatigue has its limits and should not be over-taxed. There is good reason to believe that even subconscious emotional activities have the effect of stimulating adrenal secre- tion, though it must be admitted that scientific research on this point is still far from complete. Love or true charity is sometimes called an emotion. Whether it should be so called or not, is a matter of difficulty. Perfect love is a sublimation through which egoistic craving is dissolved. It implies true self -surrender in the direction of some lofty ideal of unity as to motive and purpose. Certain dissociations may generate a false, transient and delusive harmony, while true love dissolves and settles egoistic disputes, so that in their specific phases they never recur. True love untainted with self-interest is so rare that it can be barely imagined. The acceptance of love as the sole agent in life is the true change of heart ; emancipation complete. Perfect love does not move us egoistically. It implies an 40 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [vi all-embracing acceptance, an awakening, free- giving without qualification or doubt. As Professor Sherrington says truly, " emotion moves us." When love comes then self dis- appears, and " we " are no longer there to be moved. Thus love is not " an emotion," except in a new sense. CHAPTER VII INVEESION ONE of the most troublesome effects of pro- nounced egoism is inversion. The phenomena of inversion are manifest throughout life and they are especially in evidence in a " highly developed " form of civilization. They are indications of degeneracy and decay. Roughly they may be described as the subordination of substance to form, of spirit to matter. One of the most obvious illustrations of an inversion is to be found in the inordinate importance, one might almost say reverence, attaching to money in the every day life of a modern community. Or to express it somewhat less invidiously, the supreme domination of the economic sphere. Money, as we know, is a practical and convenient instrument for the commercial exchange of property and services, and for the measure of their market values. 41 42 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [vn Within the economic sphere, and maintained for its proper purpose as an exchange medium and as a measure of that with which it is com- mensurable, there need be nothing invidious in the use of money. Money is not, however, confined to its proper function or sphere. To many, even in the economic world itself, money is not a means but an end. With others, who are better able to understand the true function of money in its proper use, the economic side of life has so extended its influence and scope that, although the crudest form of the inversion is avoided, it has evolved and transformed itself into an inversion more subtle and dangerous. Commercialism has crept into the spiritual aspect of life. Good- will, 1 in its true meaning a spontaneous recognition of mutual thought and interest, becomes a marketable commodity, and an attempt is constantly being made to measure with money that with which it is altogether in- commensurable. Spiritual insight and under- standing are not purchasable by money, which is more often than not a positive hind- rance to their growth ; and when they are 1 See Glossary. vn] INVERSION 43 developed they are in no wise for sale. Pro- perty, a mere instrument of welfare in a material sense, has come to be regarded as the very essence of welfare itself. Obvious as such inversions must be to the thoughtful, it is by no means an easy matter to get wide recog- nition and understanding of the process. To a great majority, who in this sphere are strongly emotional, any effort to get an instrument subordinated to its right purpose is taken as an attempt to deny the value of the instrument altogether, and to suggest that forthwith we can do without it. Hence we are confronted to-day with a striking anomaly an anomaly which gives rise to strange contradictions in behaviour and outlook. Egoism suggests to us all, more or less, the importance of personal dignity. The craving for dignity is often so strong that there are times when, if it does not supple- ment, it actually supersedes the craving for physical pleasure. Its demands for satis- faction give rise to mental artifices in the shape of social inversions. We demand economic independence on the one hand and we insist upon the dignity of earning a living on the 44 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [vn other. Both kinds of inversion involve a denial of our essential interdependence. When we have acquired or inherited a " competence " we have become "independent " and are no longer beholden to any one. While by " earn- ing " we contract to sell our services so that they are paid for and are satisfied by a stipu- lated quid pro quo to be reckoned ad hoc. Both inversions reject " charity " as degrading. This once blessed word has undergone an inversion so thorough that its original meaning is almost forgotten. It has become almost synonymous with bribery. Now while inver- sion of this sort is rampant, kindness of heart or true charity is practically unthinkable. Coincidence of interest, thought and feeling have vanished from view, and each is bent on his separate gain. We all experience changes of mood. That is to say we are all to some extent inconsistent ; and this is of course a serious factor in life's perplexities. It sometimes happens that indi- viduals, who are ordinarily pronounced egoists, whose inverted complexes are apt to emerge dissociatively into consciousness, will at times show exactly opposite tendencies. vn] INVERSION 45 Though these occur in everyday life, the War has furnished us with some very striking examples of true charity where one would least have expected to see them. Non- inverted complexes emerge. Spontaneous re- cognition of our mutual interdependence seems almost complete. Our actions are no longer a calculated surmise of egoistic advantage, but a recognition of our mutual interests as a living spiritual reality. Dignity and earning seem to be wholly forgotten. This should be an additional proof to the sceptical that egoism offers no permanently satisfactory solution to any of life's problems. Neverthe- less egoism persists, and through its persist- ence there is hardly a section of our existence that escapes altogether from inversion. Tradition itself, which in some form is so necessary an ideal and guide, is certainly very far from escaping ; while in Religion it has become so notorious that it barely needs mentioning. Denominations and sects strive after monopoly. Forms and ceremonies usurp the prerogative functions of self-sacrifice. Worship becomes a mere matter of obser- vance and conformity. CHAPTER VIII EELATIVITY " THE Principle of Relativity is the hypothesis that it is impossible by means of physical experiment to determine the absolute velocity of a body through space." This is E. Cunning- ham's definition in his short treatise on " Re- lativity and the Electron Theory." As first propounded by Albert Einstein in 1905, the " Principle of Relativity" did not profess to embody any new philosophical or psychological proposition ; and indeed the concepts involved in the " principle " are among the most ancient. Shortly stated the doctrine amounts to this : Nothing in the material universe, in the strict sence, is absolute. That is to say, in all considerations of measure- ment, the term " absolute " is simply unmean- ing. All measurements, whether of distances, 46 vin] RELATIVITY 47 velocities, volumes, masses, momentums, gravities, energies, or movements are relative ; and they exist only in dependence on, and in relation to, specific " frames " or schemes of reference. It should not be forgotten, how- ever, that such " frames " imply concepts, which can be, and in the end must be, treated psychologically. In other words, although for specific purposes the direction of a body moving relatively to an etherial medium, presumed fixed, may be treated in certain practice as being distinct from that body's velocity through space, and from its mass, yet the concepts involved in these terms, having a common origin in the imaginative logic of synthetic experience or mind, are fundamentally cor- related, and they cannot be separated abso- lutely. The particular concepts thus involved have grown out of definite, definable and long protracted experience a body of experience persisting consciously, sub-consci- ously and unconsciously in accordance with the laws of mind. These frames or schemes are in short complexes, treated " objectively." They belong to the intermediate order l and 1 See " complex " in glossary. 48 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [vm they are by nature so durable as to lead the unwary to imagine that he is confronted with something absolutely fixed and eternal. Space and time have no separate existence per se, but arise, as a general inference, from the positions of innumerable objects perceived in the visible universe and from their innumer- able perceivers (acting collectively) in mutual relationship. They are, therefore, concepts deduced (or more strictly sub-consciously induced) from sensible phenomena or " sense- data." Space and time, then, are not abso- lutely independent entities ; and although, as concepts, they have been so treated for practical purposes without appreciable incon- venience, all our attempts so to treat them in order to establish universal conclusions must perforce be quite futile. Thus even within our own solar system "absolutist" systems have been proved by observation to be erroneous. Quite recently Einstein made definite predictions as to the observable position of certain stars ; and during the eclipse of May 1919 his predictions (for the most part) were verified. This fact does not, of course, prove the universal truth of Einstein's vm] RELATIVITY 49 particular system of relativity, but it does, by almost general assent, overthrow the theories hitherto held as irrefutable by the great majority of astronomers. Now although Ein- stein has neither discovered nor established relativity (and it is admitted that some of his predictions have been falsified) it is acknow- ledged by the greatest scientific authorities that he has worked out and formulated a general hypothesis of very high theoretical value. The previously current astronomical theories, though they may be all said to be tinged with a relativity colour, were nevertheless based for the most part on absolutist doctrines ; more especially is this the case when they were concerned with the presumed characteristics of ether. It is true that many years ago Maxwell wrote, in answer to superficial objectors who cavilled at the results of physical science being "merely relative and not absolute," that he would ask these objectors to picture to themselves the absolute position of a point in space and then hold their peace. It is to be regretted that he carried the argument no further. Relativity then can be said to have almost reached the position in general 50 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [vm acceptance when it has not only dethroned a wrong doctrine even within the proud region of physical science, but has itself supplied a work- able method for astronomical calculations, as well as for other branches of physics. In the spheres of Religion, Philosophy, Psychology, Biology and Economics, relativity should now find a more ready admission. That such an admission should be made easier, is to-day of especial importance, for in the rehabilitation of civilised life and its recon- structive processes, the dogmatic views of absolutists and other extremists are far too much in evidence. The virtues of the middle path, avoiding extremes, is the main burden of these pages. There is no absolute right and wrong, nothing is absolutely true and absolutely false, any more than there can be an absolutely great and an absolutely small. Nothing is unalter- ably fixed. The craving for fixity and separate- ness is exceedingly strong to-day, but so also is the craving for change. Hence these extravagant turmoils. The cravings for fixity and peace may be partially gratified, but until we reach true harmony they can never be vin] RELATIVITY 51 satisfied. The middle path avoids needless conflict. It leads to peace of mind, to true understanding, towards the goal of human perfection. There are always doubters who urge that this goal would be " dull." The answer is obvious : the goal represents an ideal towards which all may strive, though of its speedy realisation, for the doubters at any rate, there is not the least danger. CHAPTER IX DESTINY THERE are times in the life of every man when questions as to the meaning of all existence are sought for or cogitated. Answers to the " whence, why and whither of life " are despair- ingly looked for. If the views set forth in the preceding pages are accepted the answer does not appear at all hopeless. The answer to " whither ? " is, conquest of egoism. Whence and why ? answer themselves when victory is complete. To the pronounced egoist this solution must indeed seem extremely unsatisfactory. He would no doubt ask promptly : " Inasmuch as conquest implies strife and as there is no ego, what is it that strives ? " To this the reply is quite simple. In every individual there is not merely " an ego," but " egos " innumer- 52 ix] DESTINY 53 able ; and that they all strive. Some of these " egos " conflict, but when peace and harmony is established between them, the " egos " themselves with the conflict must vanish. How then is this harmony to be established ? No question could be more profitably asked. It is one upon which much has been spoken and written ; and it is one upon which the greatest teachers and thinkers, of all ages, agree, in essence, if not always in form. The process, they say, is painful and difficult. The sorrows of life must be patiently endured ; and the inward light burning dimly will grow brighter. It is easy enough to inculcate endurance, but there is no more unacceptable advice. It is just on this point of the induce- ments and compensations that the great teachers, in their methods, have varied. As to their disciples and followers, the quarrelling and disagreements are proverbial. Nevertheless there arises from time to time a demand for the discovery of the common ground of all denominations, sects and creeds for the discovery. of a way or path of life, which will conciliate and unite rather than antagonise and divide. 54 FREE WILL AND DESTINY [ix In the autumn of 1908 there was held in London the inaugural gathering of the first International Moral Education Congress, under the presidency of Sir Michael Sadler. The meeting was attended by distinguished repre- sentatives of various denominations throughout the world, as well as by the most prominent and illustrious advocates of undenominationalism. The Congress held numerous sessions, at all of which the proceedings were harmonious ; and important steps were taken towards the discovery of common principles and ideals. The Second Congress, held at the Hague, in 1912, was equally successful. The third meeting projected for 1916 in Paris, did not, of course, take place owing to the war. Pre- parations for this meeting was already in progress in 1914 and these preparations have recently been resumed. Let us hope that the third Congress, when ' it does take place, will have a crowning success. APPENDIX THE INTERNATIONAL MORAL EDUCA- TION CONGRESS By FREDERICK J. GOULD Author of Youth's Noble Path and Children's Book of Moral Lessons A GREAT concourse, representing some twenty nationalities, crowded the assembly hall of the University of London, in September, 1908. They had come to discuss the moral education of children and adolescents. Not only had they travelled from many countries. They belonged to many schools of thought and faith. The energetic secretary, Mr. Gustav Spiller, was a lecturer and writer on behalf of the Ethical Movement. Some were Roman Catholics, some Anglican Catholics, some Free Churchmen, some Unitarians, and others were Jews, Moslems, Hindus, Rationalists, and the 55 56 FREE WILL AND DESTINY rest. There were two kinds of significance in the Congress. The occasion proved that numerous lines of interest, activity and research were readily, and almost spontaneously, con- verging ; and it marked an important new stage in world-education. And, as we may now infer more easily than then, all who pondered the moral and spiritual situation felt (though few said) that we were approach- ing a crisis which would summon up all the forces of character and idealism, as to a day of judgment. The Committee, facing the difficulties which threatened to arise from so great a variety of creeds and philosophies, stated that : " The Congress will limit itself to matters which equally interest all who value the ethical aspect in school education, without assuming that religious and philosophi- cal questions are not of importance in Moral Education, and without excluding references to religious and philosophical points of view." The value of these marching orders was tested both remarkably and happily, in several ways, of which I may here name two, No acri- monious controversy occurred at any one of the eight sessions, not even (to speak of but one APPENDIX 57 memorable incident) when the Bishop of South- wark earnestly pleaded for the Divine sanction and was confronted by Mr. John Russell, who asserted his faith in man's original good- ness, and in "purely human means." The other test was witnessed when, stepping out of the chamber of theory and debate, I talked with children from the East End of London, in the presence of teachers British and foreign, on the much-embracing theme of " Family, Country, Humanity." My blackboard, the children, the polyglot audience and I made (so I venture to believe) a harmonious complex, neither then nor afterwards marred by dissent or suspicion. Of the aims of the movement thus inau- gurated, Dr. Felix Adler, of New York, observed that : Interest in ethical education is keen, and likely in all civilized countries to increase. The reasons for this are obvious. Humanity to-day is intent on nothing so much as on the task of changing the habits inherited from the past. The fierce, ingrained habits of war are to give way to the manners of peace. The habit of subserviency to social superiors is to be changed into the frankness that marks the relations of equals. Slavery and 58 FREE WILL AND DESTINY exploitation are to cease ; and the terms on which the sexes meet are likewise to be different in essential ways from what they have been. Those were excellent general terms. The President of the Congress, Dr. (now Sir) Michael Sadler, enumerated details for immediate con- sideration, the corporate school-life, direct and indirect moral instruction, the influences of home, clubs, continuation classes, the work of Teachers' Training Colleges, and the study of adolescence. Dr. F. H. Hayward 1 affirmed that "the task of education must be to endow moral ideas with such weight and significance that they will overbear all rivals and pass into action." For this purpose examples from literature and history should be provided for earlier years, and without more than casual didactic comment ; and similar material might, for the age of about twelve upwards, be used as a basis for direct and systematic interpreta- tion. Mr. Spiller contended that " every lesson should be primarily an ethical lesson," even in mathematics, and, of course, history, for 1 Whose work on The Spiritual Foundations of Recon- struction (1919) merits the close study of educationalists. APPENDIX 59 " moral progress is the keynote of history." The latter thought was emphasized by the well-known historian, Mr. G. P. Gooch, who remarked that history was " a judge, juster and wiser than any one man, without passion, fear or hope, neither moved by race, religion or party, nor over-awed by worldly greatness, success, or flattery." Dr. Stanton Coit, a leader in the Ethical Movement, and speaking from the standpoint of modern criticism and the Encyclopaedia Biblica, said that Bible study constituted " the finest conceivable discipline in concrete reasoning, in using the moral judgment, in cultivating a sense of literary proportion, in realising the sublime human purpose in history, in respecting and loving high types of character, and in fostering a spirit of self-sacrifice in the cause of social justice." In another field Miss C. von Wyss found inspiration, namely, nature-study, in the pursuit of which " half unconsciously new and high values are put upon health, and strength, and beauty," and important clues to sex morality might be discovered. The Catholic view was lucidly set out by Father Michael Maher. Maintaining that " the Christian 60 religion has been the greatest moralizing agency known to us in the history of the human race," he believed the most potent method of moral education lay in religious instruction on " the Fatherhood of God, his authority over us, his claim on our love and service, the exposition of the Commandments, the story of the life, work, and character of Christ, and even the nature and purpose of his sacraments as helps to sanctification." It is proper, for a reason which will appear presently, to lay stress on the enthusiasm with which French delegates took part in the Congress. M. Ferdinand Buisson recounted the steps by which, in the State-schools of France, and since the date of the Jules Ferry laws (1879 to 1883), a separation had been effected between moral teaching and religious, the result being a universal system of moral and civic instruction, which respected all consciences while it excluded creeds, though the teacher had liberty to speak to the children, with reverent tone, of the being and attributes of God. M. Gabriel Seailles (University of Paris) dwelt on the intimate links between moral training and intellectual. The reason APPENDIX 61 should be appealed to in the elucidation of ethical issues, and then the rational instruction becomes " an education, for it is an art of exercising and developing the powers of the mind ; of forming clear intelligences and valiant hearts ; of preparing men who, in diversity of functions, will be capable of thinking well and acting well." M. Gache, of the Lycee at Montpellier, accented the value of family influence, and pleaded that colleges (for ages ten to seventeen) should be kept in living connection with the family by associating parents with the administration and public activities of these institutions, " above all, mothers and sisters," added M. Gache. While noting the assistance rendered to the Congress by French educationists, special mention should be made of the zeal with which Baron d'Estournelles de Constant appealed for the discovery of a universal moral sentiment which would provide a force in promoting international concord. It will be seen that minds were much exercised as to the relation between moral instruction and religious. Some delegates insisted upon the indispensable connection. 62 FREE WILL AND DESTINY Dr. J. S. Mackenzie, on the other hand, urged that : However true it may be that morality and religion have then 1 common root hi the idealism of human nature, yet it is possible to admire heroism, straightforwardness and generosity, and abhor selfishness and meanness, without committing oneself to any view on those ultimate problems of the universe and human life on which thinking men are so sadly divided. It is also possible to give attention to those important questions of civic life which are, I believe, always included in any scheme of moral instruction, questions of health, cleanliness, social order, purity and beauty without distinction of creed or form of worship. The examples just given typify the general spirit of the Congress. The public interest was considerable. It was evident that the movement had the quality of permanence. It both illustrated and re-inforced the practical steps taken by educational authorities in various countries. Programmes of moral and civic teaching held official place in France, Italy, Portugal and Japan. A number of Education Committees in England and Wales had moved in the same direction. I may be permitted to state here that, in visiting forty cities in the United States (1911 and 1913-14), APPENDIX 63 on Demonstration Lesson tours, I had ample evidence of increasing attention to the question ; and my short tour, for a similar purpose, among the Hindu schools in the Bombay Presidency, was followed by the establishment of a government syllabus. It is, of course, understood that a syllabus is but a humble instrument wielded by a force of far greater importance, namely, the intelligent devotion of teachers (and parents) to the moulding of a noble temper in the young learners. The Secojad Congress took place at the Hague, in August, 1912, under the patronage of the Queen of the Netherlands ; the prepara- tions having been made by an International Executive, meeting in London (under the presidency of Prof. J. W. Adamson, of King's College), and a Dutch Committee, of which the president was Mr. R. A. van Sandick, and Miss Attie G. Dyserinck the secretary. In the large hall of the Zoological Society assembled delegates from nearly all the nations, including Argentine, Australia, Chili, China, Egypt, Hayti, India, Dutch Indies, Japan, Peru, and Tunis. In allusion to the Eastern visitors, Dr. J. Th. Mouton (on whose lamented death 64 FREE WILL AND DESTINY Mr. van Sandick had succeeded to the pre- sidential chair) had observed that " these Congresses have come at a happy moment, on the eve of the advance of Oriental minds, which, confined for ages in the crystal vessel described in the Thousand and One Nights, were about to enter the open road, international, inter-credal, and social." It may be well to record here the exact terms of the Basis and Object : BASIS. The Congress does not advocate the views of any society or party, but affords to all who are interested in moral education, whatever their religious or ethical conviction, nationality and point of view, an equal opportunity of expres- sing their opinions, and comparing them with those of others. OBJECT. To promote and ensure the active co-operation of all, irrespective of race, nation and creed, in the work of moral education on a common basis. The subjects discussed were very perhaps too miscellaneous, a huge thousand-page volume of papers presented being a monument of this diversity. American enthusiasm dis- played itself in a separately-printed book of United States papers by Dr. Felix Adler, APPENDIX 65 Prof. F. C. Sharp, 1 Dr. Henry Neumann, and other educationists. Dr. Neumann rightly uttered the warning : Moral instruction which does not touch the deeper springs of conduct becomes a fruitless and often harmful intellectual exercise. Moral emotion which finds no opportunity to express itself in the concrete experiences of the daily life, loses itself in sentimental vapour. Moral training, indispensable as it is, has no vital meaning to the children unless it calls to its aid the enlightenment of the judgment and the stirring of its proper disposition. Speaking for the Mohammedan community, Mr. Yusuf Ali stated that moral training had always formed part of Muslim educational ideals ; and he emphasized his conviction that " Muslim education will not reach its fulness until devoted women enter the educa- tional field and adopt education as their vocation." On the Hindu side, Dr. Deva Prasad Sarvadhikary (whose popularity at the Congress all of us who love India so rejoiced to see) declared that, while texts are many, and commentators many, the law of love is 1 Author of a valuable work for high-school use, Education for Character (1917). E 66 FREE WILL AND DESTINY one. Our Hindu friend not only said that in the combat with evil powers, " woman is the better man," but gained the cheers of the audience when he pointed to the Congress secretary (Miss Dyserinck) as an example. Judge Loslever, of Liege, earnestly pro- claimed the idea of God as the base of moral education, and Canon von Langendonck main- tained that no school should be " neutral " to religious issues and creeds. Miss Constance Fox depicted the gracious results of Roman Catholic teaching in the souls of the young, and said that France, in her secular schools, had tried in vain for thirty years to find a substitute for Catholic inspiration. It will readily be imagined that French delegates did not fail to testify their faith. M. Ferdinand Buisson, the veteran apostle of the non- theological method (La Morale Laique) paced the platform, regardless of the chairman's bell, and fervently preached the impelling values of the conceptions of the True, the Beautiful and the Good. Another French delegate, the Positivist M. fimile Corra, found the ideal end in the Religion of Humanity, which teaches how to know, love and serve APPENDIX 67 the Family, the Country, and Humanity. A Rationalist note was sounded by Prof. Bruno Meyer, of Berlin, when he referred to the ambiguous position of a teacher who under- took both to instruct in science and to narrate, as true, the Genesis story of creation. A far more strident critic was the anarchist, M. F. Domela Nieuwenhuis, who felt disdain for conventional morality, for he saw the world of actualities poverty, prostitution, crimes ; in such a world it was a mockery to speak of love towards one's neighbour. Professor F. W. Foerster, of Zurich (a brave German who, in 1914, opposed the Hohenzollern war-spirit), contributed his poetic support to the doctrine of God as essential to education. When the holy Child was born in the stable, he said, the angels sang ; and so the heavenly powers associate themselves with the unfolding of the moral soul. Even Heine saw that a cathedral was built by religious conviction, not mere opinions ; and the cathedral of moral character could only be fashioned by that truth which comes from above. Amid these marked divergences of view, M. fimile Bou- troux reminded the Congress that no human 68 FREE WILL AND DESTINY institution had a monopoly of wisdom, that groups of thinkers might appreciate one another's ideals, and that they might consult one another precisely because they differed, and might thus render themselves mutually complete. And surely Mr. Fox Pitt stood outside controversies when he observed that " the formation of high character is to be regarded as not merely incidental ; that it is not, so to speak, to be a mere by-product of the educational process, but that it should be recognised as the supreme aim, that to which all other purposes are subordinated." The preceding notes might give the impres- sion that debating made a disproportionate factor in the Congress. Practical topics were by no means neglected, and consideration was devoted to games, Scout-movement, eugenics, military training, family-life, kinema, agri- cultural schools, deaf-mutes, delinquents, etc. And I suppose it may be said that I added a slight element of the practical when, once again, in the presence of hundreds of delegates, I had the pleasure of giving an ethical lesson to a class of English children whose families resided in the city. APPENDIX 69 Not far from the Congress hall the Palace of Peace was rising to completion. We separated in friendship and went our ways, hoping to meet next in 1916, none of us sus- pecting that that year would see us fatally divided by the World-war. The Hague Congress approved a plan for establishing an International Bureau of Moral Education, and an International Journal of Moral Education ; and appointed an Execu- tive Committee to prepare for the third Con- gress. This Committee, meeting under the presidency of Sir Frederick Pollock, zealously pursued its task. It could scarcely fail to be impressed with the interest shown by French representatives. In May, 1914 three months before the disastrous days of August the Committee held a joint council with a group of eminent French educationists, and it was unanimously agreed to hold the Third Congress in Paris in September, 1916. M. Deschanel, President of the Chamber of Deputies, consented to preside. The leading theme of congress discussions was to be the Moral Discipline (La Formation Morale) of Adolescence. Such were the schemes of 70 FREE WILL AND DESTINY educationists for the future of the world's youth. The war was to prove, in the sublime courage and endurance of multitudes of young soldiers, sailors, and airmen, and of young nurses, that youth, in turn, has its message to the pedagogues and philosophers. This brief record of the two Congresses is written at the close of the memorable year which witnessed the signing of the peace. It is the fine dream of my friend, Mr. Fox Pitt, who helped to initiate the Congress of 1908, that the good enterprise may be revived, and plans laid afresh for a Third Congress. One recent event has touched the hearts and imaginations of all educationalists, namely, the institution, under President Woodrow Wilson's splendid inspiration, of the League of Nations. Numerous objections, many of them not without point and force, are made to the details of the League Covenant, or to its unworkable idealism. Even the most ardent pioneers and supporters of the League admit indeed, they hasten to urge that the Covenant will fail of its noble purpose unless it is backed by the resolution, energy and faith of the citizenhood of the world. What greater gift APPENDIX 71 could our Congress make to a suffering and perplexed civilization than a whole-hearted assurance that the assembled teachers and thinkers of many nations would consecrate themselves to the creation or encouragement of this resolution, this energy and this faith ? FREDERICK J. GOULD. November, 1919. INTERNATIONAL MORAL EDUCATION CONGRESS OBJECT : To enlist the active co-operation of all, irrespective of race, nation, and creed, in promoting the work of Moral Education. BASIS : The Congress does not advocate the views of any society or party, but affords to all who are interested in Moral Education, whatever their religious or ethical conviction, nationality, and point of view, an equal opportunity of expressing their opinions and comparing them with those of others. FIRST CONGRESS : LONDON, 1908. SECOND CONGRESS : THE HAGUE, 1912. 72 FREE WILL AND DESTINY EXECUTIVE COUNCIL Chairman ; THE RT. HON. SIB, FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., ENGLAND. Vice-Chairman : DR. SOPHIE BRYANT, ENGLAND. PROFESSOR FELIX ADLER, U.S.A. COUNT ALBERT APPONYI, HUNGARY. PROFESSOR HENRI BERGSON, FRANCE. M. LEON BOURGEOIS, FRANCE. PROFESSOR EMILE BOUTROUX, FRANCE. MR. CLOUDESLEY BRERETON, ENGLAND. M. FERDINAND BUISSON, FRANCE. PRESIDENT MURRAY BUTLER, U.S.A. M. J. J. GORMAN, BELGIUM. MEJ. ATTIE G. DYSERINCK, HOLLAND. PROFESSOR RUDOLF EUCKEN, GERMANY. PROFESSOR WILHELM FOERSTER, GERMANY. PROFESSOR HOFFDING, DENMARK. BARON FRIEDRICH VON HUEGEL, ENGLAND. DR. GEORG KERSCHENSTEINER, GERMANY. PROFESSOR E. KOVALEVSKI, RUSSIA. REV. HARROLD JOHNSON, ENGLAND. PROFESSOR FRANCESCO ORESTANO, ITALY. MR. ST. GEORGE LANE FOX PITT, ENGLAND. SIR MICHAEL SADLER, ENGLAND. MR. R. A. VAN SANDICK, HOLLAND. THE HON. DR. D. P. SARVADHIKARY, INDIA. MR. GUSTAV SPILLER, ENGLAND. 2lst November, 1919. A MEETING of the above Council will be held at 13 Old Square, Lincoln's Inn, at 4.50 p.m. on Tuesday, Dec. 16, when your presence is requested. Members who cannot attend are invited to send their views on the Council's future work. FREDERICK POLLOCK, Chairman. 13 OLD SQUARE. ';,,. APPENDIX 73 AGENDA 1. Minutes of Meeting held on Thursday, October 15, 1914. 2. Resignations of Hon Sec., Mr. A. Farquhar- son, and Baron von Hiigel. 5. Election of Sir Francis Younghusband, K.C.S.I., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., etc., as Member of the Council. 4. A Report by Mr. Fox Pitt on his recent steps to revive the Council's work. 3. Memorandum reviewing events since the Hague Conference, 1912, and the present outlook. 6. Funds. 7. Circular from Berne on " International Education." 8. Any other business. MINUTES of Meeting held at Sir Frederick Pollock's chambers, 13 Old Square, Lincoln's Inn, London, W.C., on Thursday, October 15th, 1914, at 5 p.m. 74 FREE WILL AND DESTINY There were present, Sir Frederick Pollock (in the Chair), Mrs. Bryant, Mr. Brereton, Mr. Fox Pitt, Mr. Spiller, and the Hon. Secre- tary. MINUTES. The Minutes of the Meeting of July 2nd, 1914, were read and confirmed. CORRESPONDENCE. Letters from Paris were read, agreeing that no action could be taken with regard to the Third Congress until the end of the war. The Chairman then moved that, having regard to the uncertainty as to pending busi- ness caused by the general state of war in Europe, this Meeting be adjourned till such time, not later than a year from this date, as shall be notified by the Chairman and Secretary. This was unanimously agreed to. FINANCE. Cheques were authorized as follows : ' * Printer's Bill - 2 19 6 Typing - 110 There being no further business, the Meeting then terminated. Note. A quorum was not present at a meeting sum- moned for October 24th, 1915. APPENDIX 75 INTERNATIONAL MORAL EDUCATION CONGRESS OBJECT : To enlist the active co-operation of all, irrespective of race, nation, and creed, in promoting the work of Moral Education. BASIS : The Congress does not advocate the views of any society or party, but affords to all who are interested in Moral Education, whatever their religious or ethical convic- tion, nationality, and point of view, an equal opportunity of expressing their opinions and comparing them with those of others. FIRST CONGRESS : LONDON, 1908. SECOND CONGRESS : THE HAGUE, 1912. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL Chairman : THE RT. HON. SIB, FREDERICK POLLOCK, BART., ENGLAND. Vice- Chairman : DR. SOPHIE BRYANT, ENGLAND. PROFESSOR FELIX ADLER, U.S.A. COUNT ALBERT APPONYI, HUNGARY. PROFESSOR HENRI BERGSON, FRANCE. M. LEON BOURGEOIS, FRANCE. PROFESSOR EMILE BOUTROUX, FRANCE. MR. CLOUDESLEY BRERETON, ENGLAND. M. FERDINAND BUISSON, FRANCE. PRESIDENT MURRAY BUTLER, U.S.A. MR. J. J. CORMAN, BELGIUM. MBJ. ATTIE G. DYSERINCK, HOLLAND. 76 FREE WILL AND DESTINY PROFESSOR RUDOLF EUCKEN, GERMANY. PROFESSOR WILHELM FOEESTEE, GERMANY. PROFESSOR HOFFDING, DENMARK. DR. GEOEG KEESCHENSTEINEE, GERMANY. PROFESSOR E. KOVALEVSKI, EUSSIA. EEV. HAEEOLD JOHNSON, ENGLAND. PROFESSOR FEANCESCO OEESTANO, ITALY. MR. ST. GEOEGE LANE FOX PITT, ENGLAND. SIR MICHAEL SADLEE, ENGLAND. MR. E. A. VAN'SANDICK, HOLLAND. THE HON. DR. D. P. SAEVADHIKAEY, INDIA. MR. GUSTAV SPILLEE, ENGLAND. SIR FEANCIS YOUNGHUSBAND, ENGLAND. MEMORANDUM submitted to the Executive Council of the International Moral Educa- tion Congress, 16th December, 1919, at Sir Frederick Pollock's chambers, 13 Old Square, Lincoln's Inn, London. The purpose of this Memorandum is to summarize briefly the Council's proceedings since the Hague Congress, August, 1912, to note incidents since the last Council meeting, 15th October, 1914 (the War preventing further action), and to indicate the present outlook. The Hague Congress directed the Executive Council to meet regularly in London (the Council to consist of a maximum of eight members drawn from the country where the Council meets, and sixteen residing in at least five other countries ; and these, having been APPENDIX 77 elected by Congress, have power to co-opt two from the country of meeting, and eight from elsewhere, and to fill vacancies), and its programme was to include preparation for the next Congress, and, if possible, the institution of an International Moral Education Bureau, with a Journal of Moral Education associated. From 26th November, 1912, to 15th October, 1914, the Council met with consider- able frequency, with the Right Hon. Sir Frederick Pollock, Bart., as Chairman and Treasurer, Mrs. Bryant, Vice-Chairman, Mr. (now Rev.) Harrold Johnson as Secretary (Mr. Alexander Farquharson succeeding him in October, 1913) ; Mr. Farquharson resigned in November, 1919. With regard to the next Congress, it was decided (January, 1914) to hold it in Paris ; and in May, 1914, the French Committee for organising the Third Congress (Chairman of Reception Committee. M. Paul Deschanel, President of the Chamber of Deputies) met in Paris, Sir F. Pollock, M. fi. Boutroux, and Messrs. R. A. Van Sandick, G. Spiller and A. Farquharson. Arrangements were made for the Congress to be held in 78 FREE WILL AND DESTINY September, 1916, the main subject to be the Moral Discipline (La Formation Morale) of Adolescence. With regard to the Bureau, the Council decided in March, 1913, to initiate a few activities, such as collection of lists of inter- national and national organizations, Codes of all nations, International Journals, a biblio- graphy, etc., and Miss Felkin assisted in this direction. Our Dutch colleagues pressed for the establishment of the Bureau at the Hague, in which case aid might be granted by the Netherlands government. At the Paris meet- ing (May, 1914), the Council agreed to the Chairman's proposal " That the International Council approves the efforts of the Nether- lands Executive Committee for the establish- ment of an International Bureau, preferably in connection with a general International Bureau of Education." In November, 1918, Miss Dyserinck and Mr. R. A. van Sandick wrote to ask, on behalf of the Netherlands Executive Committee, if the Congress work could now go forward. Though the Council held no meeting, the opinions of some members were ascertained to the APPENDIX 79 general effect that action must still be post- poned (May, 1919). Additions to the Council since 1912 have been Count Apponyi, Baron von Hugel (re- signed September, 1919), Prof. Hoffding of Copenhagen, Prof. Henri Bergson and Dr. Eucken. The Chairman (Sir F. Pollock) raised the question, in a letter to the Secretary (August, 1914), of Dr. Eucken's membership. It is obvious that the list of members of the Executive, as printed, needs revision. After the signature of the Peace Treaty, Mr. Fox Pitt took steps to revive the work of the Council. Should it be deemed advisable now to go forward, three points call for attention : (1) The first act must be to establish com- munication with the French Committee, whose General Secretary is M. Dominique Parodi, Prof, de Philosophic au Lycee Condorcet, and Assistant Sec. M. Georges Guy-Grand, Prof, a 1'ficole Jean-Baptiste Say. (2) The Dutch Committee should be at once notified. (5) Considerations must be given to the changed situation resulting from the war. It 80 FREE WILL AND DESTINY would seem proper to retain on the Congress agenda the subject of Adolescence and, to some extent, a miscellany of topics suggested at the Hague, 1912. But events appear to point to the need for concentration on the thought that Moral Education should every- where bring its support to the League of Nations. AGENDA. 1. Minutes of Meeting held on Tuesday, December 16, 1919. 2. Correspondence. 3. Proposals for election as Members of the Council : Mr. K. Natarajan, of Poona, India (proposed by Sir M. Sadler) ; also Mr. F. J. Gould and Professor J. S. Mac- kenzie (proposed by Mr. Fox Pitt). 4. Third Congress. Communications from the French Committee, and others. 5. Finance. 6. Any other business. APPENDIX 81 MINUTES of Meeting held at Sir Frederick Pollock's chambers, 13 Old Square, Lincoln's Inn, London, W.C.2, on Tuesday, December 16, 1919, at 4.30 p.m. Present : Sir F. Pollock (in the Chair), Mr. Cloudesley Brereton, Mr. Fox Pitt, Mr. G. Spiller, and Sir Francis Younghusband. Mr. F. J. Gould attended by desire of the Chairman and Mr. Fox Pitt. Apologies for absence were read from M. Emile Boutroux, Miss Dyserinck and M. R. A. van Sandick, Rev. Harrold John- son, and Sir Michael Sadler. The Minutes of the meeting of October 15, 1914, were read and confirmed. The resignation of Mr. Alexander Farquhar- son, Hon. Sec., was accepted with regret, and cordial thanks for his services were expressed. Mr. F. J. Gould was appointed Hon. Sec. pro tern. Baron von Hiigel's resignation from the Council on account of ill-health was regretfully accepted. Sir Francis Younghusband, K.C.S.I.,K.C.I.E., 82 FREE WILL AND DESTINY D.Sc., etc., President of the Royal Geogra- phical Society, was elected a member of the Council. Three nominations for election at the next Council meeting were received viz., Mr. K. Natarajan, of Poona, editor of the Indian Social Reformer, proposed by Sir M. Sadler ; also Mr. F. J. Gould and Professor J. S. Mackenzie, proposed by Mr. Fox Pitt. Mr. Fox Pitt reported the steps he had recently taken to revive the Council's work. The Dutch Committee having referred to possible proposals for the exclusion of certain nationalities from the third Congress, it was agreed to point out to them that no such proposal had come before the Council, and that absent members would have the right to send in their opinions and votes, if such proposals came up. Prof. Rudolf Eucken having questioned the advisability of his attending the Congress, it was agreed to reply that, as to the difficulties hinted at, the Council could take no action except in consultation with colleagues in France and elsewhere. APPENDIX 83 Mr. Fox Pitt presented a memorandum (copies of which had been previously sent to all members of the Council) on events since the Hague Conference, 1912, and the present outlook. The Secretary was directed to inquire of M. Dominique Parodi whether the French Committee could suggest a date for the Paris Congress. The Chairman and Mr. Fox Pitt reported the publication, in the Times Educational Supplement, December 4, of their joint letter disclaiming connection with a recently-formed bureau at Berne for " International Education." Next meeting fixed for Thursday, February 5, 1920, at 4.30 p.m. F. J. GOULD, Hon. Sec , pro tern. During his recent visit to Paris Sir Frederick Pollock met M. Parodi, and it has since been agreed that the next meeting of the Congress is to take place in Paris in 1921. F'2 84 FREE WILL AND DESTINY MINUTES of Meeting held at SIT. Frederick Pollock's chambers, 13 Old Square, Lincoln's Inn, London, W.C.2, on Thursday, February 5, 1920, at 4.30 p.m. Present : Sir F. Pollock (in the chair), Mr. Fox Pitt, Mr. F. J. Gould, Mr. G. Spiller, and Sir Francis Younghusband. Apologies for absence were read from M. Emile Boutroux, Rev. Harrold Johnson, and Sir Michael Sadler. The Minutes of the Meeting of December 16, 1919, were read and confirmed. Mr. F. J. Gould, Professor J. S. Mackenzie, and Mr. K. Natarajan (India) were elected members of the Council. Mr. Fox Pitt gave notice to propose, as an Indian representative, So* Mr. A. Yusuf Ali, formerly of the Indian Civil Service, Bombay. The Chairman reported his interview in Paris with M. Dominique Parodi, and also read a letter from M. Parodi to the effect that the French Committee was prepared to organize r the Paris Congress in 1921. APPENDIX 85 Mr. Gould gave notice of a motion for next Council Meeting : " That a circular be printed and sent out to as many persons interested in education in all parts of the world as funds permit, with the double purpose of establishing correspondence on important issues during the interval before the Paris Congress, 1921, and of enlisting interest, as widely as possible, in the Congress itself ; copies of the draft having been sent to all members of the Council." The Bank Balance was reported to be 42 9s. lid. Cheques to be signed in future by two of the three following Sir F. Pollock, Sir F. Younghusband, Mr. Gould. Next meeting fixed for Wednesday, March 17, 1920, at 4.30 p.m. F. J. GOULD, Hon. Sec., pro tern. CORRELATED GLOSSARY Abnormal : Unusual, generally in a pathological sense. (See supernormal.) Absolute : Unconditioned and unrelated. The word is often used incorrectly, where incommensurable is meant. Adrenal : See Supra-renal. Anger : Egoistically emotional reaction on the emergence of anything unpleasant. Anger generally implies a conflict of complexes. Animism : The belief in the existence of separate " spirits " animating or directing phenomena. Antinomy : Legal conflict, or rather the supersession of one law by another ; e.g. the laws of justice by those of mercy, physical by psychical, etc. (See Laws.) Apathy : Lack of interest, not to be confounded with patience. (See attention, also Patience.) Arrogance : Egoistic belief in one's importance, superiority, or self -sufficiency. (See Egoism.) Association : Specific alliance or relationship, generally speaking without strong affinity. Attention : Awareness focalised with interest. (See Chapter IV.) Automatism : Spontaneous and intelligent activity due to the functioning of subconscious complexes. (See In- stinct, also see Chapter V.) 86 CORRELATED GLOSSARY 87 Awareness : Specific consciousness, with or without special interest. Generally synonymous with knowing, acquaint- ance and cognition. Beauty : That which excites general admiration. Ideal beauty may be said to be that which excites universal admiration. It is a potentiality like the perfectability of the human race. (See Chapter VIII.) " Beholden " : An unpleasant feeling that one is not self- sufficient ; hence a shock to personal vanity. (See Chapter VII.) Bribery : The use of monetary or commercial consider- ations as an inducement to such actions, or as an induce- ment to the assent to such actions as are outside the legitimate sphere of commerce. The word bribery is often used loosely, but the line of demarkation, by which it is differentiated from proper commerce, is defined by law, though this definition is in constant need of revision in accordance with the dictates of conscience and convenience. Capital : Such wealth, property, " goodwill," or credit as, by reason of its being adapted for ready " liquidation " or " realization," is available for use as an instrument in further wealth production. " Fixed capital " is wealth employed in specific wealth production, but which is, by reason of its condition, not readily convertible. All forms of wealth, capital, property and credit are dependent for their use and convertibility on custom, statute and the mechanism of exchange. (See Chapter II. ) Causation : Interdependent continuity with specifically changing or altering manifestation, not necessarily in chronological sequence. The reason why manifesta- tions vary, in other words, the reason why " causes " differ so often from their " effects," is that conflictt 88 FREE WILL AND DESTINY give rise to disruptions in combinations and groups of complexes, resulting in new combinations and in dis- sociations. Conflicts are the inevitable outcome of egoistic discords. (See wholeness, antinomy, laws.) Chance : The negation of causation. Often used when causation is hidden from view, or is difficult to discover and express. Change : Variation in the manifestations of Continuity. Change of Heart : The subsidence of a correlated group of complexes and the emergence from subconsciousness of another group. This form of change of heart is often sudden and sometimes evanescent. The more permanent kind of " change of heart " is the gradual unification of all personal complexes, with the sublimation of their egoistic trends. (See conversion.) Charity : Kindness of heart. Enlightened goodwill. (For its inversions see Chapter VII.) Co-consciousness : The simultaneous emergence into con- sciousness of two or more complexes or groups of com- plexes. Competition : Rivalry : The effort and purpose of gain at others' expense (See emulation.) Complex : A psycho -physical system or vortex of ideas, feelings, interests, habits, dispositions and propensities (latent or active), which have grown out of specific experience, either "acquired" or "instinctive." Complexes emerge from subconsciousness into some field of con- sciousness either singly or co-ordinated in groups, seeking expression, development and satisfaction, until their active energies are exhausted, when they relapse again into subconsciousness. According to the way in which complexes rise and fall, so our " moods " change. In " The Purpose of Education " the author has ela- borated the different forms of complexes. Briefly, they CORRELATED GLOSSARY 89 may be grouped as: 1. "Minor" (comparatively trivial incidents of our lives) ; 2. " Intermediate " (acquired or " inherited " concepts) ; 3. The " Great complex " (the personality or individuality as a synthetic or co- ordinated whole). Concept : A general notion arising out of specific experiences. It is erroneous to suppose that concepts have an inde- pendent existence of their own, wholly apart from all experience. Concepts are practically coincident with "intermediate complexes." (See above.) Conflict : See Egoism, Causation, Antinomy, Emotion, Dis- sociation, Complex. Conscience : An emergence of the Great Complex (see above) in relation to specific personal experiences. (See Purpose of Education, p. 8 of new edition.) The value and validity of conscience depends on the completeness of the emergence and the thoroughness of the co-ordinating power of the Great Complex in assimilation with the specific experience through which it is evoked. Consciousness : See Awareness, also " The Purpose of Educa- tion," page 5, note 2, of new edition. Consistency : Harmony of complex manifestations. Conversion : Transposition in the field of consciousness of one group of complexes with another group. This is generally a sudden form of conversion. The assimila- tion or union of complexes is a slower and more stable form of " conversion." (See Change of Heart.) Co-operation : Working together with a common voluntary purpose. Co-operation necessarily implies the existence of co-operating elements or items, and a synthesis can- not be brought about by ignoring any of the elements of the combination. These elements may be impermanent fundamentally, but they exist ad hoc. (See Interdepend- ence.) 90 FREE WILL AND DESTINY Determinism : The theory that all events, motives and actions are determined strictly and unalterably by one invariable law of " objective " causation. Antinomies (see above) are not generally admitted by exponents of " determinism." (See Chapter HI.) Dignity : True dignity obviously depends upon worth ; but the word is more often used to express an egoistic striving to keep up the appearances upon which " dignity " is supposed to depend. Discontent : A condition of emotional conflict, partly sub- conscious. Dissociation : A rudimentary or morbid mental condition arising out of egoistic beliefs or emotional excess. A dissociated complex is one not properly assimilated with normal mental functioning and it emerges with apparent independence or isolation (which see). Dreams : The emergence of complexes into a field of con- sciousness from which the ordinary avenues of sense- awareness are cut off or temporarily suspended. Dreams generally exhibit dissociative tendencies. Duration : The persistence of complexes through an ap- proximate balance of their centripetal and centrifugal tendencies. Economics : The science of " wealth." (See Chap. II.) Ecstasy : Concentration (generally dissociative) in higher complexes. Effort : Energy or emotion consciously directed towards the accomplishment of a purpose, noble or otherwise. Egoism : Egoism is the French word for selfishness. It implies that clinging and grasping disposition in a com- plex, which arises out of a narrow, circumscribed and inelastic trend of thought or outlook. It is due to the dominance of the centripetal form of activity. It is a CORRELATED GLOSSARY 91 mode of thought whereby feelings, beliefs and perceptions become dissociated and inverted. Hence an attitude of self-sufficiency and the apprehension of that attitude being endangered. Various opprobrious terms are used to indicate manifestations of egoism ; such as impatience, petulance, anger, obstinacy, intolerance, intemperance, jealousy, greed, lust and vanity. (See Dissociation, also Causation.) The distinction between egoism and individuality is dealt with throughout, especially in Chapters III., V., VII., and VIII. Emergence : The coming through the threshold of con- sciousness or " awareness " of a complex or group of complexes from subconsciousness. When an emergence is sudden it is often spoken of as " uprush," or flash of genius. Such uprushes correspond to " presence of mind." (See Mind, also complex.) Emotion : The selective energy of complexes. Hence likes and dislikes, aversions, interests, prejudices and preferences. By emotional " states " or " conditions," we usually mean such convulsive manifestations of emotion as may arise out of emotional excess or con- flicts. (See Complex, also Mind.) Emulation : Friendly rivalry ; admiring co-operation in contradistinction to competition which is exclusive. Endowment : Legally established financial power or privi- lege. Energy : The tendency towards movement against resistance or towards change of any kind involving obstacles. Psychologically as well as physically, energy may be potential or kinetic, according to the synchronism or otherwise of complex relations. In other words it is power in relation to time. 92 FREE WILL AND DESTINY Evil : Colloquially, evil means anything appearing at the moment unpleasant, distasteful, disappointing, incon- venient, or wounding one's vanity and prejudices. Philosophically evil means ignorance, egoism, discord, dissociation, or anything, in thought, belief, volition, conduct, or circumstance which conduces towards these conditions. (See Good.) Experience : The fundamental basis of all existence. Specific experiences are the origins and foundations of complexes. Widely shared experience, which has become the main- spring of species, races or groups, is called " instinct." It is inborn, but should not be arbitrarily differentiated from individual experience. Expression : Systematic emergence (which see). Fanaticism : A pronounced form of dissociation, caused by over - concentration in certain complexes, mainly " religious." Fear : Uncertainty as to egoistic security. Feeling : Emotional emergence, or partial emergence. (See Complex, also Mind.) Foresight : Apposite emergences, projecting vision into future events. Freedom : Harmony of motives. Hence release from bonds. (See Chapter I.) Good : Colloquially, good means anything at the moment appearing pleasant, agreeable, or gratifying to one's expectations, prejudices and vanity. Philosophically, good implies true knowledge, harmony, unity, versatility, understanding, insight, or anything in thought, belief, volition, conduct and circumstance, which conduces towards these conditions and makes them appear delight- ful. The Colloquial and Philosophical meanings are apt to get mixed. (See Evil.) CORRELATED GLOSSARY 93 Goodwill : Kind, generous, friendly, brotherly disposition and intention. Goodwill has a special technical significa- tion in the sphere of economics ; thus quite recently a successful artist offered for sale the " goodwill " of his portrait-painting business. The proposition was not altogether approved of by fellow artists. Grace : The more or less complete emergence of higher co-ordinating complexes. Habits : Complexes which are prone to ready emergence. They are partly sub-conscious manifestations correspond- ing to certain forms of " automatism " (which see). Happiness : See Optimism. Harmony : Sympathetic interaction or relationship, i.e., without " dissociation " (which see). Heart, change of : See change of Heart. Hedonism : Short-sighted pleasure seeking. One of the moods of egoism. Hedonism, sublimated and refined, merges into eudaemonism = seeking the happiness in which all smaller pleasures (with their "egos") are sunk. Heredity : Inborn experience and its outcome from the aspect of physical ancestry. (See Instinct). Ideals : Aims or aspirations embodied in specific complexes of a high order with pronounced though elastic emotional tone. These complexes seek expression through co- ordination. Ideas : Ideas may be regarded as the psychic analogue of electrons in their relation to atoms or molecules, i.e., Physical complexes. Idolatry : See Inversion. Impersonal : Complete dispersion or resolution of all " dis- sociation " (which see). 94 FREE WILL AND DESTINY Incentives : Wants, interests, ambitions, fears, prejudices, delusions, etc., which prompt effort. They vary from the basest to the noblest. They may be alternating or mixed, they may also be persistent, harmonious, clear and refined. " Incentives " correspond closely to what are commonly called " motives." (See Emotion.) Independence : Isolated functioning : " Independence " is necessarily relative, never " absolute " (which see). Individuality : Co-ordinated continuity of existence, irrespec- tive of awareness or consciousness. " Individuality " is used throughout in contradistinction to " egoism," which implies an arrest or interruption of continuity. Egoistic persistence is intermittent and mainly exclusive, while Individuality is both inclusive and expansive in continuity. Insight : Seeing through things into their cause and outcome. Instinct : Purposeful acts, thoughts and feelings arising out of inborn experience, stimulated by the circumstances of immediate experience. Instincts, having deep-seated organic or physiological settings, are more stable and dependable than stray automatisms, but they are not infallible and they develop, modify and regress. (See Automatism.) Interest : A dominant complex (which see). Interdependence : The affinities and relationships pertaining to the concept of wholeness (which see). Intuitions : Spontaneous emergencies, bringing apposite knowledge and guidance. Inversion : See Chapter VII. Isolation : See interdependence and separation. Judgments : The correlation of " minor " complexes with the " intermediate " or concepts. Justice : See Chapter IV. CORRELATED GLOSSARY 95 Know : See Awareness. Knowledge : The indispensable link between Knower and Thing Known. (See Chapter III.) Laws : The ambiguity of the term law is a very fruitful cause of mental confusion. Law may mean a rule, a code, a custom, an established habit, a statute. In the sense of " Natural Laws " it is the formulation of recognised causal relations. (See Antinomy, also see Boutroux on the " Contingency of Natural Laws.") Liberty, legal : The formal aspect of personal freedom in relation to the State. In Feudal times " liberty '' meant the power to coerce serfs. Limitations, Psychic : Restrictions to change arising out of emotional tenacity. (See Chapter I.) Love : See Charity ; also Chapters VI. and VII. Lust : Excessive desire for pleasure and possession. (See Egoism and Hedonism.) Luck : Accidental good or evil fortune. (See Chance.) Mammon : The symbolic embodiment, or the deification of commercial power, more especially financial. (See Inversion.) Manifestation : The emergence into consciousness of what was previously submerged. (See Complex.) Measurement : Comparison by " standards " (which see). Memory : The power of recalling and faithfully reproducing, in thought or feeling, of past experiences. (See Emer- gence.) Mercy : The supersession of the laws of justice by those of kindness and sympathy. (See Antinomy.) Middle Path : The avoidance of extremes and over-emphasis, e.g., Lust and Hate, Hedonism and self-torture, Rigid formal-observance and Laxity, Pessimism and Optimism. Hence, moderation, temperance, patience, balance. 96 FREE WILL AND DESTINY Mind : The psychological with corresponding physiological aspects of living processes, whether conscious, subcon- scious or unconscious. It is only of recent years that Western Philosophy and Psychology have recognised that there are impor- tant fields of mental activity, as well as potentiality operating behind the threshold of consciousness. This threshold or limen of consciousness, as it has been called by modern psychologists, is shifting, elastic and perme- able ; hence arise the phenomena classed by some investi- gators (notably F. W. H. Myers) as subliminal. (See Chapter V.) Money : An instrument of marketable exchange, and a measure of commercial values. (See Chapters II. and VII.) Nature, natural : Familiar though highly ambiguous terms, which are responsible for much legal and moral con- fusion. (See Norm, and J. S. Mill's " Essay on Nature.") Necessity : Inevitable sequence, strictly consequent. The common use of the word " necessity " is very misleading. It often implies no more than great, though indeter- minate, urgency. Thus we hear of economic necessity in the place of convenience or cm rectitude. (See Deter- minism.) Norm : Some commonly accepted averages or " standards " (which see). Objective : See Subjective. Obstinacy : The prevalence in personality of inelastic com- plexes : a mild form of dissociation (which see). Optimism: " All is for the best in the best of all possible worlds." This is a comprehensive formula for the doctrine of ease, dealt with in the Preface. It is a mood generally alternating with Pessimism (which see). Either mood may predominate in different individuals. (See Middle Path.) CORRELATED GLOSSARY 97 Patience : Enlightened and cheerful acceptance of what is seen to be true or inevitable. The absence of false expectations of the premature arrival of desired results. (See Preface. ) Pain : Internal conflicts, physical, psychical, or both together. Permanence : See Duration. Personality : Used indiscriminately for both Egoism and Individuality. Pessimism : " All is for the worst in the worst of all possible worlds." This formulates the mood of a disappointed egoistic hedonist. Pessimism is a common form of reaction from premature optimism (which see). Race experience : See Instinct. Real, Reality : Absolute, permanent, unlimited, uncon- ditional, objective, subjective, true, genuine, valuable, original, uniform, independent, grand, etc., etc., accord- ing to the context in which the word " real " occurs. Philosophically speaking the term is worse than useless as a noun. Religion : See Purpose of Education, Chapter VII. Separation and Separateness : Physical or Psychical dis- sociation. (See Wholeness, also Dissociation and Isolation. ) Service, free : Service rendered through the spontaneous recognition of mutual interdependence or Wholeness ; f . e. from good will or love. Shame : Partial recognition of individual responsibility for past thoughts, feelings and acts, coupled with a con- fused belief in the identity of our manifold " egos." Standards ; Standardisation : Systems or objects of reference, combined with notions of fixity. Standards are of course useful expedients for specific practical purposes, but over-emphasis as to their value leads to an artificial and unstable uniformity, which is often a serious hin- drance to healthy developments. 98 FREE WILL AND DESTINY Subconscious : See Mind. Subject, Subjective : One of the two elements of Philosophical and Psychological Dualism. Experience is " polarised " by long established mental habit, into subject and object. Though held to be related, these two supposed elements are each believed to exist independently and wholly separated from one another. Hence a subject is equiva- lent to an ego ; and concentration on such polarised modes of thought leads to dissociation. (See The Purpose of Education, Chapter VI. ) In the system set forth in these pages, experience is always a trinity, despite the polarisation habit and its nomenclature. That is to say a knower and a thing known cannot exist apart from a knowledge. They are aspects of a complex The three aspects, emerging into consciousness, may and generally do alternate, but nevertheless they are always united and have no true existence apart. It is only by consciousness that they can be made to appear distinct. (See Mind.) Subliminal : See Mind. Suggestion : The conveyance or transference of impressions in words, thoughts, feelings, visions, or understandings, by means of physical indications, through the recognised channels of sense ; or by means of more direct psychical processes. The latter would be classed as supernormal (which see). Supernormal : Unusual, generally in the sense of psychical laws operating so as to supersede the operations of ordinary physical laws. (See Antinomy.) Suprarenal : The Suprarenal capsule, or " adrenal gland " as it has recently come to be known, is a minute ductless gland attached to each kidney. This gland has been known for sixty years, through the researches of Dr. Thomas Addison of Guy's, to be of vital importance ; but only within the last few years has it been discovered CORRELATED GLOSSARY 99 that this gland's functions are closely related to emotional conditions. (See Chapter VI.) Sympathy : True sympathy is necessarily supernormal (which see). The response in feeling to suggestions conveyed by means of physical indications, is, however, often called " sympathetic." It is important . to remember that normal and supernormal, physical and psychical, are not mutually exclusive, yet at different times either may predominate. We are so much accustomed to regard the well recognised physical means of interaction as the sole channels of communication, that psychical processes are neglected or ignored. Nevertheless they are always in operation, although generally quite un- noticed. Thrift . Abstinence with a purpose. That purpose may amount to hoarding, with a view to securing future indul- gence, comfort, ease, dignity and " production " for one's self or one's belongings. In this sense it is apt to become morbid and inverted. The purpose may, in contra- distinction, be the acquirement of good habits of simple living, or emancipation from superfluous wants. These motives are often confused. The Israelites might have been charged with " thrift " when they took to the storage of Manna. Truth : Ideal correctitude with perfect harmony. It is properly speaking a universal abstraction, but the term is often used colloquially in the place of true. (See Chapter VIII.) Value : The appraised estimate of the use, quality, or quantity of anything, in relation to specific standards, systems or spheres of reference. The phrase " absolute value " is sometimes heard. It is simply unmeaning, unless there is a vague suggestion of Incommensurable values in contrasting things or ideas. (See Mind, Antinomy, Standards. ) 100 FREE WILL AND DESTINY Vision : Clarity of vision is the outcome of harmony. It implies a union of complexes. Volition : Wish or choice with executive purpose. (See Emotion.) Wholeness : A concept of great importance and value. It is the opposite of separateness, dissociation, isolation and " atomism " (in an absolute sense). It implies unity not uniformity. It is a living not a static ideal. Wholeness involves the conceptions of co-operation and interdependence operating in conformity and in congruity with causation (which see). Will : See Volition and Chapter I. Work : In physical science, wmk is the measurable amount of energy transformed from one mode of motion to another. The standard of measurement in physics is generally expressed in the foot-pound or its equivalents. In Psychology, Biology (and more vaguely in Litera- ture, Politics, Sociology and Religion), work is the energy expended, and measured according to results by various standards, in altering opinions or mental and physical habits. In Economics work is energy expended in the transfer- ence of property or any form of marketable commodity and service from one proprietor to another. Such work is generally supposed to involve something distasteful to the performer, though at the same time involving a prospect of relief or gratification. The standard for the measurement of economic work is a quid pro quo in money or credit. Economic work is therefore essentially egoistic. Worry : An over-emotional and confused condition of con- flicting complex emergence, which gives rise to wasteful adrenal secretions. (See Chapter VI.) Glasgow: Printed at the University Press by Robert MacLehoae and Co. Ltd.