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ABIE, B.Sc., Lecturer in Chemistry of St. John's College, Cambridge ; and T. B. WOOD, M.A., Secretary and Lecturer on Agricultural Chemistry to the Cambridge and Counties Agricultural Education Scheme. Two volumes, crown 8vo, 3s. 6rf. net. each. Volumes in Preparation. Botany. By WH. FBIAM, LL.D. Physiology and Feeding. By T. B. WOOD ani R. H ADIK. Agriculture. By ROBERT MENZIES, M.A., Examiner in Agri- culture, Cambridge University. Horticulture. By E. PILLOW, Organizing Secretary to the Norfolk C/ounty Council ; and W. K. WOODCOCK, F.R.H.S. There will be further volume* on similar subjects. THE VILLAGE LIBRARY. Killboylan Bank; or, Every Man his own Banker. Being an Account of how Killboylan Characters concerned themselves about Co-operative Credit. By E. M. LYNCH. Crown 8vo, 3*. 6d. fig Keeping- for Profit. By W. J. MALDEK. Crown 8vo, 2.. 6er sion of Arable Land indication of a turf having been formed than that the white clover has re- established itself. Before the white clover comes back, the yellow trefoil is at work, doing what it can to add nourishment to the soil. The land is not rich enough to carry the white clover, but gradually the trefoil has to give way, and in course of time, if the pasture is well treated, it disappears, or makes but little growth. During the first few months coarse weeds should be kept down. If in a corn crop this must be restricted to pulling out weeds, such as docks. If sown alone on a fallow, the weeds may be brushed with a scythe. At whatever time sown, it is a mistake to let any plants seed, as they are weakened by so doing. Young cattle are excellent Permanent Pasture 7 9 feeders of young seeds, as they do not crop too closely. Sheep should be kept off until the pastures are at least three years old, and it is better to leave them longer under most circumstances. Nothing, however, does so much good to a pasture of four or five years or more as close folding with sheep fed on additional food to that grown on it. Grazing with cattle, by which the land becomes manured and the plants are induced to keep close to the ground, is the best method of treating young grasses during the first few years. Any feeding stuffs given during this time will be well repaid by the increase of grass and meat. If hay is taken off, manure in proportion should be returned ; manure of a mixed nature is best. Farmyard manure is especially good, as the decaying straw 80 The Conversion of Arable Land helps to make that fine vegetable mould that is so necessary about the roots, and induces worms to work, a most important feature in the making of a pasture. Lime is highly beneficial, as it induces the clovers to grow. Nitrate of soda has a marked effect on the grasses, though this is at the expense of the clover. Bone meal is a good all-round manure, influencing both the grasses and clovers. Kainit is beneficial in the same way as clover. Superphosphate, added to other manures, does much good where land requires phosphates. Sulphate of ammonia is beneficial to the grasses, and is less injurious to clovers than is nitrate of soda. CHAPTER V. TEMPORARY LEYS. IT is a significant fact that those districts in which temporary leys of some years' duration prevail are among the most prosperous at the present time, while those where the shortest are followed fare the worst generally in the eastern counties. This is almost tantamount to saying that those who went ahead most in matters agricultural are suffering the most. It is an un- pleasant reflection that the greatest skill and energy should meet with such a reward, but undoubtedly those who properly, whilst corn-growing was most remunerative kept their land at high 82 The Conversion of Arable Land pressure, are those who are worst placed now. The man who took things more easily, and * neither laid out so much money nor required so much skill and knowledge in his work, fares best. Climate undoubtedly had much to do with the matter. "Where it was wet, corn did not ripen so well, and less was risked in corn-growing. If corn is not grown frequently, the land must lie in grass longer, for there is no profitable rotation to follow. In the dry climate and lighter soils of the eastern counties, long leys do not answer so well as they do in the moister climates of the west and north. Soil and climate have not altered, so these will have some influence on the length of time a pasture can be profitably left down now. In Ireland, in districts where it cannot be said that Temporary Leys 83 the knowledge of agricultural matters is great, the low price of corn has not told so severely as it has in England, where there is a much greater knowledge. Contrary to the general impression, Irish agriculture, on the whole, is prosperous, and this is due to the length of time to which pastures are left down. In parts of Ireland where the knowledge of farm- ing is greater, and where more energy is devoted to the working of the farm, the long leys are also the main source of prosperity. Where grass seed is grown for exportation it is still greater. On these farms the outlay is exceedingly small, the labour bill and the expenditure on implements being phenomenally little. Carts, implements, and tools together are worth but a few shillings per acre ; and more are not really needed, as the work G 2 84 The Conversion of Arable Land is done satisfactorily with these. It may be taken generally that, where long leys prevail, agriculture is comparatively prosperous. The natural inference is that more should follow on these lines, and there is no better advice than that this should be done. But the whole thing cannot be under- taken at once. If land is to be set to grow grass, there must be something to eat it. Where are these animals to come from ? The grass is not wanted for hay, as the supply is sufficient already. What is to eat it ? Already there is more grass than can be consumed by the stock in the country. If, say, two million acres were turned to grass temporarily, one of the first effects would be to raise the prices of store cattle, for the mere fact of turning land to grass will not cause cattle to come Temporary Leys 85 to eat it. Simultaneously, or before the land is laid down, stock must be raised to eat it. Farmers must bear this in mind before launching out too far. There are only 25,000,000 sheep in the country now there were 30,000,000 in 1878, notwithstanding the effect of foot-and- mouth disease during several preceding years ; cattle have increased, but not to the extent which the extra pasture and the large importation of feeding stuffs warrant. Our advice, therefore, is to change, but to change gradually. The alterations in systems of farming must chiefly affect those who, up to the present, have not adopted long temporary leys. The rotations which provide for one grass crop in four or five years are those which require the greatest altera- tion. The four-course system admits 86 The Conversion of Arable Land but one grass or seed crop in one year ; the extension of the period that the seeds should hold the ground for two years at once makes it a five-course system, and this, under the name of the Berwick rotation, is common in Scotland. This rotation may be regarded as a sound one, as with four cultivations, two corn crops and three green crops are produced. It is one that is suitable for very general adoption. Except, however, where great care is exercised in selecting seeds, leys do not hold well in the dryer districts on thin soils for more than one year, and pro- vision should be made to meet them. In Scotland, where moisture is fairly constant, rye-grass is a more valuable crop than in the drought districts of the south of England. In Scotland it is Temporary Leys 87 regarded as a fairly good preparation for a crop ; in dry districts it is not. On soils where the rye-grasses do not hold well, more responsibility is thrown on the clovers, and to ensure better results a larger proportion of cow-grass and alsike should be sown, as they make a good show in the second year. It is probable that on these hot soils it would be found better to go in for more fre- quent seedings rather than attempt long leys. Instead of the rotation mentioned, it is certain that more would be grown if it were changed as follows: Wheat or barley-grass seeds (chiefly Italian and perennial rye-grass), barley or oats, clovers, roots. This necessitates two seedings, but the return more than counterbalances the extra cost; clover would come once in five years, and this 88 The Conversion of Arable Land would be^ too frequent to take red clover or cow-grass. So each five years it should be alternated with red clover, and either white clover or alsike. In this way the danger from clover sickness would be avoided. The same principle would be adopted under other existing rotations where experience shows that leys of more than one year cannot be relied upon : it merely means the in- sertion of another seed crop at any convenient period, and the working of the farm is upset only to a very small extent. Where the climate and soil permit longer leys they are, of course, more advantageous, the chief drawback being that the greater length of time they are down the fouler the land becomes, as small pieces of couch grow into larger patches, which, if very bad, Temporary Leys 89 require a great amount of work to destroy them. Long leys also encourage insect pests. Leys afford great harbour- age to insects, such as wireworms, and several kinds of moths ; the latter lay their eggs upon the foliage, and where they hatch the grub attacks the crop. These, however, do not seriously affect the value of leys. In moister climates longer leys become more appropriate, and for some years show a profitable return. In some parts of Ireland we have seen good leys at five years, although the mixtures sown have included nothing more than rye-grass and red and white clover. Such leys, however, have been on good limestone soils, where the white clover has established itself thoroughly, and has appeared to have become permanently 9O The Conversion of Arable Land fixed. So well have some of the leys done, that at the end of five years it looked almost a pity to break them up, for, owing to the great clover growth, they had become better established than many we have seen in less favourable circumstances at ten or twelve years. Conditions, however, are not so favour- able as a rule, and the difficulty of making the ley stand has to be met by seeding with grasses which are of a more perennial nature than those employed in one year's ley. Timothy and Cock's-foot are the most suitable, as they take a strong hold on the ground, and produce big crops. The seeding must also be thicker. In the case of a three years' ley, fox-tail and hard fescue may be added where the land is in good con- dition. Yellow trefoil helps to fill in Temporary Leys 9 1 the bottom in the first season, and answers well. In longer leys mixtures of strong growing grasses and clovers must be employed, but these will rarely do much good after the third year, unless they are treated liberally with manure. Where long leys are intended, the land must not be exhausted too much by cuttings, but they must be fed off by stock. Lucerne and sainfoin allow of special opportunities for making long leys, as where soil is favourable they possess the property of holding the land for a number of years. A proportion of these should be sown in all pastures intended for long leys. They prove of greatest value, however, when employed separately. Lucerne does not do par- ticularly well in mixtures intended for 92 The Conversion of Arable Land long leys, as it is liable to be crowded out by other grasses. Some little surface stirring also seems to be beneficial to it. It requires to be con- sidered as a crop for arable land, for then it does best. For this reason it should be drilled in rows a foot or more apart, and be kept free from weeds by hoeing, especially early in the year, for when once well up it is able, through its robust growth, to smother the weeds. One of the present features of the seed trade is the extension of the quantity of the lucerne seed grown. Even in counties where it has not hitherto been grown, except on a very small scale, it is being sown freely. A great point in its favour is the power it possesses of withstanding drought. This is due to its deep rooting, and its success is largely Temporary Leys 93 owing to the nature of the sub-soil in which, to a great extent, it feeds. The fen soils appear as unlikely as any for its prosperity, as it is little dependent on the organic matter in the soil, but if the peat overlies clay, or, better still, a rice loose sub-soil not far from the surface, it does well. Any open sub-soil containing a quantity of lime, whether in the form of chalk or limestone, is suitable, and the plant will establish itself. It be- comes a matter for manuring subse- quently, and this should not be spared, as the plant is able to give an enormous return, because it produces several crops in a favourable season. We know a field which has averaged three crops yearly for twenty years, and has received nothing but farmyard manure. On soils weak in lime or potash these should 94 The Conversion of Arable Land be applied. Hitherto it has been con- sidered as essentially a crop of the chalk soils, but it has been shown to be well adapted for a much greater variety, and it would be highly advantageous for it to be more frequently grown. A bushel of the seed shelled from its peculiar pod weighs 64 Ibs. Drilled in March or April at the rate of 10 Ibs., or sown broadcast up to 16 Ibs. per acre, it soon gets a strong hold, and will make good growth by autumn. It should be kept down from five to seven years, but if smothered out by weeds, or if the soil is unsuited to it, it will give out before. Sainfoin is especially suitable for chalky soils, and does fairly well in most others when the soil is not too wet or heavy. The amount of lime present largely influences its durability. In Temporary Leys 95 Hampshire and the adjoining Down districts it is reckoned that land which has not carried sainfoin for twenty years should remain profitable under sainfoin for seven years. Much of the land, however, has been cropped with it fre- quently, and the length of a ley is more often only four or five years. In the eastern counties it is rarely left more than two years, sometimes only one. As it does not come to its best before the second year, it seems injudicious to destroy it so young. Sainfoin grows well when sown broadcast, and differs from lucerne in that it does not suffer from the presence of other plants near it, and does not require hoeing; it can therefore be sown in a corn crop, as it usually is. It is, in fact, most often sown with grass seeds, especially rye- 96 The Conversion of Arable Land grass, so that in the first season, when the sainfoin will not give a full cut, a good sward is obtained. As the sainfoin gets more firmly established, the grasses gradually weaken. It is not an un- common practice to mix a little trefoil with the seed to help to make a full plant in the first year. Although there is not much feeding value in trefoil it does good by sheltering the soil from the sun. It is best to mow sainfoin the first season, after which grazing is more advantageous. However, it makes such excellent hay for sheep that in sheep districts it is sure to be mown fairly frequently. Manuring and top-dressing aid very much in keeping it in a grow- ing and healthy condition, and in this way its profitable duration may be much extended. It is, of course, necessary to Temporary Leys 97 sow a crop like this, which is to be down for a number of years, on clean soil. It is usual to SOAV four bushels of unmilled seed (in the pod) or 20 Ibs. of milled seed to the acre. Seeds, when composed entirely of clover, are usually left down only one year, having been sown in a corn crop in the spring of the year preceding. One important reason for not leaving clovers down longer is that it induces the land to clover-sickness, and the clover plant is more liable to fail on the next occasion when it is sown. Broad clover is most affected by clover-sickness, and white clover often grows well under conditions which, from the presence of the eel- worm, would be fatal to the red. Broad or red clover gives a splendid return, whether in the form of hay or as green H 98 The Conversion of Arable Land fodder. Its peculiar adaptability to grow among grass seeds is a point highly in its favour for mixing with seeds for temporary leys. As a rule, from 12 to 16 Ibs. are sown per acre, when no other seeds are sown with it. The amount of seed depends very much on the quality used. We had a good illustration of this in 1895. The seed bought in the case referred to weighed over 70 Ibs. per bushel, and only 8 Ibs. per acre were drilled ; the plants were as thick and strong as could be desired, although there were over 40 acres sown in three fields possessing very different types of soil. "White clover, though unsuited for hay, is very valuable sown alone or in mixtures ; it is rarely of much value when sown alone after the first year, Temporary Leys 99 Those who produce fat lambs find it unequalled for laying on meat.- It is, however, rather dangerous at times, as it has a tendency to " blow " the animals. To avoid this danger the sheep should not be turned into it when they are in a hungry condition, otherwise they eat ravenously, and it ferments instead of digesting. Clovers should not be fed when they are stale. Clovers become stale when fed by sheep, the manuring appearing to make them rank and un- healthy ; if, however, a crop is mown oiF, the injurious tendency is avoided, therefore as far as possible grazing should be alternated with mowing. H 2 CHAPTER VI. LAYING DOWN LAND TO TEMPORAEY PASTUEE. THE seeding of temporary leys is spring work. If there is any circumstance which makes it better to lay down per- manent pasture without a corn crop, it does not apply to short leys. Short leys are crops of the immediate future. Permanent leys relate to the more in- definite future. As the profit is to be looked for in the first years of the ley, it is important to get the young plant thoroughly established in the year it is sown, so that in the next year it may Laying down Land 101 give a full return. Seeds sown in the autumn rarely do this, and the earlier the seeds are established in the spring the better, as they come on earlier and stronger the next season. The corn crop must not be entirely sacrificed to the seeds. Wheat suffers little at harvest when the seeds are well grown, but a big growth of seeds in barley proves vexatious, as long after the barley has matured and is fit for the stack, the green stuff at the butts remains green, and often holds a considerable amount of water. On very weedy land, particu- larly on that much infested by annual weeds, it is often desirable to hoe the barley before the seeds are sown. In some districts the seeds are sown imme- diately before hoeing, and are hoed in during the operation of destroying the IO2 The Conversion of Arable Land weeds, and this is a good plan under the special circumstances. In a wet spring there is little trouble in getting the seeds to grow, but it is a far more difficult matter to get a plant in a dry spring. Seeds sown broadcast in such seasons lie dormant a long time, or perhaps germination is set up by the little moisture turned up by the harrows, but for want of continued moisture the young shoots die off, and the seed is worthless. The best method for securing plants in persistently dry seasons is to horse-hoe between the corn-rows, and immediately not in a few hours, but at once follow this with the seed drill set so that the seed falls in the moist track made by the hoe, and then roll it in. The seed thus lies in the moisture, and as the land is rolled, the moisture is Laying down Land 103 prevented from escaping freely, but keeps consistent through the supply brought up by the capillarity of the soil. The little track lies in a shallow furrow, so that in event of the light showers falling, the wet is conducted to it. Where possible, however, the seed is best sown broadcast, as the plants are then better distributed about the ground, and it is less expensive. The preparations for seeding a temporary ley are necessarily very simple, and as a rule amount to little more than procuring a fine surface ; in fact, it is generally sufficient to sow the seeds on the surface, merely harrowing them in. When sown in winter-wheat the seed can rarely be buried too deeply by ordinary seed harrows, but in spring- sown corn great care must be taken. If IO4 The Conversion of Arable Land the surface lies in large, loose clods, it is very easy for the seed to fall to a depth which will prevent it germinating. The surface must be brought down to a fine condition, and it may then be necessary to tighten it with a roller. The corn crop must not be sacrificed by the land being made to " cap " through injudicious harrowing, or rolling when it is in a wet condition. The harrowing or rolling, or, for that matter, the abstinence from both, if circumstances demand it, are subjects for determination in the field. The heavy soils which are among those where it is most important to stay the plough, are very liable to " cap," and the aim of the farmer must be to lightly cover the seed with soil, but not to do it in such a way as to render the land liable to be injured by drought subsequently. Laying down Land 105 There is no absolute rule as to harrowing or rolling, and it must always be a matter of discretion settled in the field. It is, however, important, to urge care- fulness, for often, even when there are no seeds sown, a well-worked and good com seed-bed is ruined at the time cf sowing the corn, by want of judgment in ordering the last operations. When the weather is fair anyone can sail a boat ; it is the catchy weather that proves the sailor's skill ; so it is in farming ; there are plenty of fair-weather farmers, but the foul-weather farmers are not so common. In genial weather nothing is more simple than the process of sowing grass seeds. Except in market-garden districts there are few men who can sow small seeds with any degree of evenness, but 106 The Conversion of Arable Land seed distributors, which sow with all needful accuracy, are not difficult to get. The ordinary seed-barrow answers most purposes, although where there is great variation in the size of the seed it is necessary to sow it in more than one operation, otherwise the small seeds are run out as soon as the box is filled, and the large ones left to be sown subse- quently. This, of course, prevents any- thing like even distribution, and must be guarded against by going over the ground twice, or more, if necessary, according to the varying size of the seeds. When this is done it is advisable to cross the drafts, so that, if there has been any irregularity in the steering of the barrow, the gaps will be filled in. "Windy days should not be chosen to sow small light seeds. The machine for which Messrs. Cotton Laying down Land 107 recently obtained the Royal Agricultural Society's silver medal, combining a roller and a seeding machine, is a useful addition to the machinery of the farm. As a rule, mixtures for temporary leys need not be very complex. The great aim should be to grow as many leguminous plants as the land will carry, without making it clover-sick, and therefore unable to produce clovers in the next rotation. Long leys of clover tend to make the land clover-sick, because the lime and potash in an available form as food for clovers become exhausted, and on many soils it takes a long time for them to accumulate in sufficient quantity to support another crop. When the supply is short the young clover plant loses vigour, and is attacked by the stem eel-worm, which soon destroys it. The io8 The Conversion of Arable Land advantage of growing clovers and other leguminous plants is that they possess the power of taking from the atmosphere nitro- gen, which grass is unable to assimilate therefrom. The nitrogen thus acquired is as valuable as that for which a high price is paid when purchasing nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and other nitro- genous manures. The plant is enriched by it, and some portion goes into the hay, while the other is stored in the roots, which, when they decay, give it up to the soil. The value of a good clover stump or root is recognized everywhere on account of its manurial effects ; conse- quently, it is easy to understand how important it is to grow clovers and to do all that is reasonable to encourage them. The varieties of clover which are to be sown should be regulated to some Laying down Land 109 extent by the purpose to which the leys are to be put. If grazing is the chief object in view, more clover should be sown, as that affords excellent sheep pasturage. Where hay is required, a greater quan- tity of broad clover and cow-grass are wanted. These should always be in good quantity, except when there is reason to believe that the land is specially liable to clover-sickness. When this is the case, white clover and alsike should be sown more freely. Of the other important legu- minous plants, lucerne and sainfoin, an account of the circumstances under which they thrive, and may be used profitably, has already been given. Although the inferior clovers and leguminous plants, such as trefoil, bird's-foot trefoil, and yellow suckling, do not give a good return, there are circumstances in which 1 10 The Conversion of Arable Land they may be profitably sown in small quantities, and, as a rule, a sprinkling of each in mixtures for leys on light, poor land, where the better clovers do not grow freely, is not out of place. The cost of the seed is small, and they help to make a sole to the turf, and do not injure the hay. Where clover is grown in considerable quantity, it is important to see that it is free from dodder, as that parasitic pest spreads with great rapidity, destroying all that comes in its way, and, if left to seed, renders the soil unsafe to carry clover for some years, as the seeds lie dormant for a long time. Careful sifting is the only safe way of insuring against it. If it appears, the patches should be carefully and thoroughly destroyed by burning. The most simple seeding for short leys Laying down Land \ 1 1 is a mixture of rye-grass and clover. A bushel of rye-grass and 8 Ibs. of red clover is a common seeding where clovers thrive better than rye-grass. Where rye-grass thrives better than clovers, two bushels of rye-grass and from 4 to 6 Ibs. of red and white clover is found a good mixture. This is a full seeding of its kind. Rather less of either may be sown ; in fact, it is found that in the place of a 50-lbs. mixture 40 Ibs. is usually enough. Where a more general mixture is sown, including some of the smaller seeded strong-growing plants, like timothy, the quantity may be reduced very materially, and from 30 to 35 Ibs. of seeds are sufficient. It is, of course, important to use grasses of high germinating powers and of good stock. By dint of careful selection our great H2 The Conversion of Arable Land seed firms have done much to improve the quality and yielding powers of the important grasses, and the improvement in these grasses is, perhaps, more advan- tageously felt when they are used for temporary leys than when used for permanent pastures. This is only natural, as the grasses undergo little change in the short time they are down. If they are not of good type, the soil has a poor chance of influencing them. Grasses grown in particular climates, or on particular soils, have more or less distinctive features, though, perhaps, this is not so noticeable as in the case of clovers. American red clover seed is not nearly so large as well-grown ^nglish, nor will it produce anything like the same growth. It is, in fact, a dwarf variety of English clover. On Laying down Land 1 1 3 occasions when the quantity of home- grown seeds has run out, we have bought small lots of American to finish the field, and then the difference has been most marked, for it has never at any cutting given so great a yield. Low-priced clover seed is rarely cheap, because it is priced low for one of the following reasons: Inferior stock, presence of weeds, weakness of germinating power. The best means of guarding against a weak stock, particularly in the case of red clover, is to buy bold, well-coloured seed. The presence of the seeds of dock, plantain, and other plants materially affects the value of a sample of red clover ; small seeds of dock and plantain also are found in white clover and alsike, and in addition to these are those of sorrel, forget-me-not, and others, which, i 1 14 The Conversion of Arable Land from their size and weight, are very difficult to take from the sample. The most frequent weed-seed found in white clover, however, is that of the wild geranium. We have seen samples con- taining fifty per cent of this adulterant. It is somewhat difficult to detect when only casually looked for, as it is about the same size, colour, and shape ; more closely observed it is seen to be of rather darker colour, approaching chestnut, and to be more rounded and plumper instead of heart-shaped. Under a magnifying glass it is easy to detect. So careless, however, are some buyers, that I know of markets where large quantities are sold where not one buyer in twenty could tell what it is, or has even noticed its presence, although in those same markets scarcely a sample is Laying down Land 115 sold with less than ten per cent, present, and far larger quantities are common. Red clover should be bold and well tinged with purple; brown seeds are dead ; yellow are often of weak germinating power. White clover should be a pale golden yellow; when brown and withered they are useless. Alsike should be a dark green ; when light green the germination is weak ; brown are dead. When buying grass seeds from firms of good repute there is little fear on the point of adulteration. Low-priced articles have a fascination for many people ; the consequence is they buy in the lowest and dearest market, and sow what they have no wish to reap. It is impossible in a short space to speak of the adulteration of all grasses, and so i 2 n6 The Conversion of Arable Land describe them, especially without the aid of illustrations, in a way that would make them recognizable. Our best advice is for those about to buy grasses to obtain a sample of each one, and under the magnifying glass (one at a shilling is quite powerful enough) learn to know what its features are. If there are two different seeds, it is obvious that one must be a stranger and has no right there. The trouble of learning to distinguish the seeds of the ordinary grasses sown is so very little that there is no excuse for a man not taking so simple a precaution against adulteration. If a man has not this knowledge, he should buy on guarantee and let some- one else analyze for him. It is so very simple, however, that any one may soon become expert in detecting the presence Laying down Land 1 1 7 of foreign seeds or other matter. Seen under magnifying power, the several seeds are as easy to distinguish as oats from barley. The germination is a simple matter, but there is some little art in taking a fair sample ; this should be taken from the main heap, not from the sides where the lighter seeds naturally fall, but by inserting the hand well into the heap. Farmers rarely possess machinery suitable for cleaning grass seeds as thoroughly as they should be cleaned. The modern winnowing-machine with wire-wove sieves is not equal to the old-fashioned Cooch winnower with perforated sieves. Small grass and clover seeds require a wind separation combined with sifting power. When first going over a famous seed-store we n8 The Conversion of Arable Land were much struck to see so many of the Cooch winnowers at work among the special machinery. For ordinary pur- poses machines of this type, fitted with sieves of suitable size, will clean clover and most of the ordinary grasses. CHAPTER VII. MANAGEMENT OF TEMPORARY PASTURES. PERMANENT pastures depend for their success in no small degree on the treat- ment to which they are subjected during the time they are acquiring their per- manent characteristics. The aim in this case is to establish a plant which will stand for an indefinite period. Tem- porary pastures, of course, are of shorter duration, and there is, naturally, less chance of treating them improperly. At the same time there are right and wrong methods of treatment, which influence their value. When grasses are sown I2O The Conversion of Arable Land down in a corn crop there is little to be done until autumn ; docks and thistles may be drawn or cut up, but beyond this they must be left until the corn crop is harvested. The hoe or spud should not be used for cutting up weeds, as the young seeds are destroyed in the operation. A docking-iron for the docks, if they will not draw by hand, and a weed-hook for thistles, are all that are permissible. Where seeded without any other crop an opportunity is afforded to keep in check, by means of the scythe, other weeds which would prove in- jurious ; however, it is the annual weeds which make most show, and so far as the temporary leys are concerned, they do not often do serious injury; when, however, they are allowed to seed, they prove troublesome in succeeding corn Ma nagement of Pastures 1 2 1 crops, and this should be prevented. Cutting with a scythe, or a slight brush with a mowing machine, set high so as to miss most of the grass, is usually sufficient. Charlock is the worst weed in most districts, and it is very im- portant that it be not allowed to seed. In early-sown seeds it comes to maturity, but in autumn-sown grass it rarely pro- duces seed, and is killed down by winter. Seeds afford a good opportunity for keep- ing this pest in check, and it should not be lost, even if the charlock has to be pulled. Young seeds, according to the season at which they are sown and the amount of growth they make during the summer months, may, or may not, be fit to graze in the autumn. Except when the land is heavy and wet, good, rather than 122 The Conversion of Arable Land harm, is done by grazing. The earth is trodden firmly up to the roots, causing the plants to become better established and less likely to be injured by frost. Many people object to autumn feeding, but so long as the animals do not tread the land so to leave saucer-like de- pressions, which hold the water during winter, the treading does good. It is advisable not to stock young grasses too hard, but light stocking does good rather than harm. Treading by sheep does far more good than is effected by rolling, as the roller works more unevenly, and a proportion of the plants are not affected ; Avhereas sheep pinch in the earth about the roots of all plants. Where there is much clover in the ley it is necessary to be careful, when the plant is fresh and growing, that the Management of Pastures 123 sheep feeding it do not become hoven or blown. Injury from this cause is more prevalent in spring than in autumn, but occasionally it occurs in the latter season. If sheep become blown, which is indi- cated by their distended sides, particularly the left side, they should be at once re- moved ; and it is advisable to keep them moving for some little time, so that the gases which have generated may work off. If an animal has become very bad, and there is fear of its bursting, its stomach should be punctured by a trocar, but as this is not often available, a long knife may be used. Frothing at the mouth is a preliminary symptom of hoven. Where the leys consist mainly of grasses there is little to fear from hoven. Little can be done in the way of 124 The Conversion of Arable Land keeping the land clean after the first year beyond destroying docks and thistles, unless patches of couch are dug out in the autumn. A few years ago the autumn forking of the leys to take out the couch patches and docks was a common practice on almost all well- managed farms. Where land is care- fully worked and kept clean by skilful tillage and hoeing, the digging out of small patches of couch which may have eluded other implements, is a profitable operation, as it renders unnecessary extra cleaning after the ley is broken up. Where the forking out can be done for a shilling or two an acre, it is well worth doing, but of course where a field is smothered by innumerable patches, the expense of digging is so great that it is better to leave the cleaning to be done Management of Pastures 125 during the fallowing operations connected with the root crop. It is, of course, useless in those instances where quan- tities of couch seed is sown among the seeds purchased. As before stated, carelessly-purchased seeds contain more impurities, such as seeds of couch, which may often pass notice because the buyer does not know one seed from another. In the first year the young patches of couch are not bigger than can be dug out with a fork at one dig ; but in the follow- ing year, if left untouched, they are two or three feet in diameter, and increase proportionately in subsequent years until the field becomes so foul that, if for no other reason, it is necessary to break it up. This should impress buyers with the necessity for care in purchasing. It is strange that with couch going to seed 126 The Conversion of Arable Land in every hedge-row and ditch side, a vast number of people who have farmed for half a lifetime cannot recognize it. It is scarcely to be wondered at that they buy inferior seeds, and in doing so make foal land. It is sad to think that many farmers who possess great skill in man- aging and cleaning land, undo the work of years by sowing grass seeds containing so much couch-seed, that by the time the ley-land is broken up, it is as foul again as ever. Temporary pastures possess a remark- able property, namely, that both the grasses and clovers of which they are composed are able to add materially to the fertility of the land. As a rule, grass seeds are looked upon as being somewhat exhausting to the land, unless they are fed very frequently. They can, however, be Management of Pastures 1 2 7 made to add greatly to its permanent fertility. Grasses are particularly par- tial to nitrogenous manures, especially to nitrate of soda. If nitrate of soda is applied, practically the whole of it is utilized by the crop, as it is not easily washed out of the land even by winter rains. The nitrate thus utilized becomes organic nitrogen, and when the crop is fed the farm is enriched by it. Clovers, as has long been recognized, add to the fertility of the farm and to the land on which they grow. The crop taken off the land enriches some other portion of the farm ; and the root or stump contains so much nitrogen that the land is richer after the crop than before it was grown. This was recognized, but it was not known why it produced this result until within recent years. Now, however, it 128 The Conversion of Arable Land is known that nitrogen is taken from the atmosphere, and as it is proved that the amount of nitrogen acquired is largely dependent on the amount of potash and lime available, the value of applying these manures is understood. Perhaps one of the most remarkable features in the changes which have come over farming within the past few years is the altered views which farmers, as a rule, hold as to the value of artificial manures. It was considered a sign of astuteness, even among otherwise smart farmers, to decry their use, and the man who had the best collection of terms, such as jumping powders, stimulants, &c., was considered the smartest. By understanding the properties, uses, and methods of applying them, their real value has been discovered, and now Management of Pastures 129 comparatively few farmers fail to recognize their value as bond fide aids to fertility. As aids to grass and clover- growing they have proved highly valuable ; for, though they lack the mechanical properties of farmyard manure, they supply what worn-out, or less used-up, soils require to make them grow remunerative crops. No single manure is so beneficial to pastures as farmyard manure, and there is no part of the farm where we like to see it applied better than to the pastures ; but it is expensive to make when the best stall-fed beasts fetch only 4s. per stone ; and a good coating of it runs into a large sum per acre. A dressing of one hundred-weight of nitrate of soda, three hundred-weights of superphosphate of lime, and three hundred-weights of 130 The Conversion of Arable Land kainit, which can be applied for 16s. an acre, is a good full dressing to apply to a temporary pasture in the second year of its ley, when the first fertility set free by the tillage has been, to a great extent, exhausted ; and it is at any time a liberal dressing for old pasture. Three loads of farmyard manure cost as much, and will not give nearly so good a return. As already stated, the produce raised by the artificial manure when consumed takes the form of organic manure, and, if fed on the farm, adds to its lasting fertility. Unless the crop is made into hay and sent off the farm, instead of the land becoming exhausted, the fertility is increased by the use of artificial manures. The constant use of nitrate of soda with no other help tends to exhaust the land of the constituents Management of Pastures 131 supplied by mineral manures, and, if persisted in for a long period, fails to realize as good a return as it should ; it is most marked if the grass is mown and taken away. It acts less injuriously if the grass is constantly fed ; in fact, if the land is rich in the mineral constituents, it may be used with great advantage for a practically unlimited time, provided the land is grazed. In temporary pastures kept down for two or three years only, exhaustion is not so notice- able, especially if a root crop is grown during the rotation, and it is fed on the land where it grew. On short leys quickly-acting manures give the best results; on permanent pastures slower acting manures, such as bones, farmyard manure, and any decay- ing vegetable matter, have a good effect, K 2 132 The Conversion of Arable Land but pasture-making without grazing is not a satisfactory process. If the crop is taken off every time it grows, a large return in the way of manure must be made. The beneficial effects of grazing and treading are also most marked, and tend to produce a close soil or sod which cannot be got when land is always under the scythe. The close sod, and general mixing of herbage, is not so essential in temporary leys, and greater latitude in the use of the scythe is permissible, provided the fertility exhausted in taking away the crop is made good by returning the equivalent in the form of manure. "Where clovers preponderate in a mixture, mineral manures should be used to increase their growth, and so as to increase the growth of the grasses Management of Pastu res 1 3 3 with as little hindrance to the clovers as possible, it is better to substitute sulphate of ammonia for nitrate of soda, it being found that clovers thrive on sulphate of ammonia. In fact, almost all sulphates appear to act beneficially on clover, and sulphate of lime is sometimes found to give exceptionally good results. On moory and sour land basic -cinder proves of great value, and on heavy land generally does well. On light gravel soils it is uncertain, and in some ex- periments we carried out for several years on light gravel land, dressing varying from 500 to 2000 Ibs. per acre made practically no difference to the yield. Where mixed with other manures it did better, but never more than moderately. Malt culms, soot, almost any manure, in fact, do good to grasses. 134 The Conversion of Arable Land Mineral manures should be applied in autumn or winter ; the beneficial effect of these manures is often lost for nearly a year, through their being sown late in the spring. They require to be washed into the soil early, otherwise they begin to work too late to do good in the year in which they are sown. If sown in March, and the weather remains dry through April and May, they do not become incorporated with soil sufficiently early. Farmyard manure should be applied at different times according to circum- stances. As a rule, long dung should be applied in autumn and early winter, and short dung in the spring ; however, it is less important on grass land than on arable, as the roots prevent much loss which would occur were it applied Management of Pastures 135 where no crop was growing. It may be taken as a broad principle that long dung protects the plant through winter, sets the worms working, wastes little from soluble portions being washed into the drains, and becomes fit to be taken up by the crop early in spring. Short dung may lose a portion of its soluble matter if applied in autumn, but is quickly available if applied at the end of winter ; it works into the soil readily. As stated before, however, the loss of manurial constituents is not serious, and any convenient season may be availed of. In some districts it is the practice to dung immediately after the first crop of hay is off; on burning soils this is done with advantage, as the manure acts as a mulching, and the prejudicial effects of drought are averted. Leys and 136 The Conversion of Arable Land pastures are so benefited by manuring that it is commonly said that any kind of manure does good, no matter when applied. This is more correct than many sayings. CHAPTER VIII. UTILIZATION OF THE CROP. PASTURES or leys afford food all the year round, for though there are times when little can be grazed, hay and ensilage may be made to supply the animals during such periods. As rotations are increased in length by the addition of longer leys, the root crop becomes curtailed, and this alone makes an alteration in the system of farming. Stock, especially sheep, are diverted from the turnip fold to the pastures, and where it has been the custom to rely on roots for food for sheep in autumn they have to be kept longer on grass. There is nothing to object to in this, as it is 138 The Conversion of Arable Land cheaper to feed off pastures than to cut turnips. One naturally looks to sheep as the best means of feeding short leys, because fields which have been turned from arable to grass are rarely well enough fenced to hold bullocks, and sheep are better distributers of manure than cattle. On permanent pastures the heavy droppings of cattle affect the whole field in course of time, but on short leys they are patchy, and conse- quently the manuring is not so effective. At the same time temporary leys produce a large amount of excellent food, and are well adapted to carry young stock. It is necessary, where leys are required to be fed while green, that they should not be allowed to become stale or soured by too constant manuring. When sheep feed off leys too frequently Utilization of the Crop 139 the growth is strong and apparently healthy, but the animals are liable to scour, while lambs and young sheep are apt to "go wrong." Every sheep- keeper knows what this means, and how difficult it is to get them round unless there is a plentiful supply of fresh food to turn them on, so too much care cannot be exercised. For some years, whilst conducting the experiments at Wobura for the Royal Agricultural Society, I had to weigh the sheep fre- quently, and it was a significant fact that they always did far better the first time over than in subsequent feedings, though, to all appearances, the food was as good at one time as at another. In the case of the white clover leys the sheep always did as well without any extra food in the first feeding as they did with it. The 140 The Conversion of Arable Land clover apparently supplied all that they required in order to lay on as much flesh as they were able. In the second feeding, however, there was always a wide gap between those which received cake and those which received nothing but clover. There is no reason to sup- pose that the clover possessed less feed- ing matter, but it was not so palatable or digestible, consequently the cake was required to correct the deficiency. As this occurred every year for several seasons, it could hardly have been accident. It may safely be taken that where clovers predominate in a ley there is great risk of souring, but there is less danger of it if the quantity of grass increases. On old pastures, probably owing to the greater amount of grass and the effect of the large accumulation Utilization of the Crop 141 of humus, the danger of injury from souring is very greatly lessened. Where sheep-farming is largely carried out it is particularly necessary to avoid souring. This is always effectively done where mowing is made to intervene between the grazings. If it is not desired to make hay, there are two alternatives ; the crop may be cut green, and so used for soiling cattle and horses in the yards, or it may be made into ensilage. In soiling, the cost of mowing and carting to the animals have to be set against the increased amount of food obtained by preventing loss by treading into the ground. This is very consider- able in wet weather, and through the better thriving of the animals (parti- cularly in veiy hot weather, when, through the discomfort of heat and the 142 The Conversion of Arable Land annoyance of flies, they rest badly) it may be taken that the cost of getting the stuff to the animals is met by the increased amount of meat laid on. Beyond this, valuable manure is made, and may be used with full advantage. When grazing in hot weather cattle make bad distributers of dung, as they collect under trees and in other sheltered spots where their dung does little good. Ensilage is particularly valuable when the root crop is lessened on account of diminished acreage. We do not recom- mend expensive systems of silage, as the drawn-up heap is effective and calls for no outlay beyond labour. As food for ewes we know nothing better, and nothing which ensures a better flow of milk. Sheep take to it readily, parti- cularly to that which is most heavily Utilization of the Crop 143 compressed and most acid. The lambs do well on the milk which is produced by their mothers when fed on ensilage. In winter, when roots are cold, especially when they are frozen and indigestible and often difficult to get, ensilage is especially valuable, as it is warmer. Cold roots lower the temperature of the animals eating them, and a large propor- tion of the food contained in them has to be devoted to sustaining the animal heat. Ensilage cut fresh from the heap is comparatively warm. VV^ith hay, ensilage, and the pastures themselves, sheep can be kept at small expense, and there is no need to go to the root heap. Hay-making should be commenced when the grasses are still young. The quality of the hay is greatly improved, and, though there is not the bulk of hay, 144 The Conversion of Arable Land it is well counterbalanced by the greater growth of aftermath. Hay made from leys requires more careful handling than that from permanent pastures, as, owing to the larger quantity of clovers in it, the leaf is likely to be lost if knocked about. The tedding practised in grass hay-making is not permissible ; it must be turned lightly by a rake or fork, without shaking or tossing. Instead of putting into windrows and running up into heaps for pitchings, it requires to be cocked in the same manner as corn. Cattle are better adapted for grazing longer leys than shorter ones, because, if the fields are not already fenced, it is worth while to put down a temporary fence. The mixing of cattle and sheep when grazing is also advantageous. Cattle-grazing does not render the crop Utilization of the Crop 145 sour to sheep. Sheep after sheep without an intervening mowing is bad, but sheep graze safely after cattle. The alternation is therefore beneficial. Where cattle are grazed and corn or cake is given them, the corn troughs should be moved frequently so as to attract the animals to different parts of the field in order that the manuring may be evenly effected. Sheep troughs should also be moved daily. It is very un-English to graze pigs on clover, but it is one of the cheapest ways of keeping them. Pigs like grass, but have a special preference for clover. They will eat it either when cut and soiled to them, or they are perfectly happy when they do their own cutting. With shade and water they thrive well, and there is no better method of keeping L 146 The Conversion of Arable Land in-pig sows. The danger of slipping their young prematurely, which is experienced when sows are fed almost entirely on turnips, does not exist ; and the exercise they get in moving, even in a comparatively small fold, keeps them healthy ; in fact, there is no better way of insuring safe farrowing. Americans, who are skilled pig keepers, rely very much upon the clover patch for rearing and fattening their pigs. A few corn cobs and a supply of water are all they get in addition. No pork is made on cheaper lines. Corn-growing England has not gone in for grass seed-growing to the extent it might. It has not accorded with the rotations in vogue, and the terms under which land has been rented precluded it. The greater freedom of cropping now Utilization of the Crop 147 allowed has opened a wider field, which those favourably placed should not be slow to utilize. The climate in many parts of England is not suitable for the production of all kinds of grass seeds, but most varieties can be grown profit- ably in one or another district. The arable land of England, so long subjected to the influence of the hoe and good cultivation, is in a better condition to carry clean seeds than is much of that producing grass seeds. Rye-grass grow- ing is carried out in Ireland on land which has never known a hoe, and the crops are often infested with alien plants. Yorkshire fog, couch, onion couch, and brome grasses form no small portion of the grass crop which is to produce seed in the districts in Ireland where rye-grass seed-growing is an important and pros- L 2 148 The Conversion of Arable Land perous business ; yet the Irish seed is put on the market cleaner than is that grown in France. On clean soils, in the fairly moist districts of England, the finest and cleanest rye-grass seed might be grown. The harvesting is very simple. The crop is cut, tied into sheaves, and left in the stock until fit to thresh. It may be threshed in the field, or be stacked and threshed at leisure. The seed falls out readily under the flail, and often little more is done beyond knocking the sheaf against a bar. The seed is hit with a stick held in one hand, while the sheaf is held in the other. The feeding matter of the hay left behind is not quite equal to what it is when the grass is cut young ; but, if chaffed, it is a valuable fodder for horses, cattle, and sheep. When in Ulster, a farmer showed me a Utilization of the Crop 149 field, then in its second year, which looked like growing four or five cwt. of seed per acre, and twenty-five to thirty cwt. of hay. In the previous year he grew on this same land eight cwt. of seed, which he sold for 17s. per cwt., and thirty-five cwt. of hay, which he sold locally at 4s. per cwt., making in all 131. 16s. per acre. This was not bad as things go nowadays. Those farmers who possess clean land, and a climate suitable for growing rye-grass seed, might do well by turning their attention to rye- grass seed-growing. It is an advantage that, when growing the seed, clover need not be entirely precluded from the mixture. The hay is improved by it, and if sown in moderate quantity does not materially affect the yield of rye- grass. Cocksfoot, timothy, and other 150 The Conversion of Arable Land similar grasses may also be grown with good success. With the prospect of more land going to temporary pasture, the demand for seed is likely to increase rather than decrease. Even for home growth on the farm a small patch of carefully-selected seed is well worth growing. Clean seed can thus be insured, for by pulling out weeds and grasses other than those desired, there can be nothing to render it unclean. It is, of course, important to sow good seed in the first instance, and in small patches. For growing stocks artificial manures are preferable to farmyard manure, as the latter often contains hay seeds, which, on growing, at once make the stock untrue. Clover-growing for seed purposes is rightly considered in conjunction with the disposal of the crop. In speaking of Utilization of tJie Crop 151 clover seed it is usual to allude to it as maiden, or second-cut seed. The maiden is that which is produced from the spring growth ; the crop being allowed to grow and ripen before being cut or fed off. This ripens in summer. Where a crop of hay or a grazing is taken and the second crop allowed to go to seed, it is called second-cut seed. This ripens in autumn, and as the weather is not reliable at that season it is often difficult to harvest. It frequently occurs that there is a very large acreage ploughed in as manure after lying wet so long as to be worthless for other purposes. As a rule, maiden seed is the best coloured and the finest, but is also most liable to contain seeds of weeds, as weeds such as plantain and dock ripen under ordinary conditions at the same time as clover. In the second 152 The Conversion of Arable Land cut this is to a great extent avoided. Clover requires a sunny climate, as without it the growth of foliage is made at the expense of flowering. Crops of moderate size are better suited to pro- duce a good yield of seed than are very heavy ones, because they flower more evenly, and the crop is less liable to be laid or storm-broken. Clover seed never ripens simultaneously throughout the crop, but usually at three periods. The top seed is generally light, the middle seed often is the best, and the last to ripen is too late to wait for. A considerable amount of discretion is required to decide when the crop shall be cut, as there is no definite rule as to which ripening is the best. The aim is naturally to catch all three ripenings, and this is most easy on a moderate crop in sunny weather, as Utilization of the Crop 153 they then come nearly together. Clover requires very careful handling, as when dry the seeds fall out with the least blow. White clover is most difficult to get, as the best crops are grown on short stems, and unless the land is level it is some- times impossible to cut off all the heads ; and when the heads are cut it is difficult to gather them together. It is often necessary to collect them with a daisy- rake early in the morning whilst the dew is on the ground. To attempt it when the seed is dry would be useless, as it would all thresh out. When cut, the sward of any kind of clover should be made into small " horse-head " cocks, and these should be turned occasionally, increasing them as the material dries by putting one to another. Large cocks should not be made at any time, 154 The Conversion of Arable Land for the pressure of sticking a fork into them would knock out a large quantity of seed. They should not be bigger than a long-tined fork will gather without pressure. The loads should be built so that no portion of the material is outside the body of the cart or waggon, as there would be considerable loss, particularly in the case of white clover. The crop must be absolutely dry at the time of stacking, so that heat is not generated, as heated seed is spoiled in colour, and, if badly heated, germina- tion is destroyed. Fine weather should be chosen to thresh the seed, and it is generally advisable to wait until frost comes. The cob, or seed heads, which come down an ordinary threshing- machine where the chaff of corn falls, is the part to secure. If a clover-rubbing Utilization of the Crop 155 machine is not working simultaneously with the threshing, the cob must be stored in a dry place, care being taken that it is not trodden upon or con- solidated more than is absolutely necessary. A considerable amount of winnowing is required to clean the seed, though, from its lightness, it is necessary to winnow lightly. By saving one's own clover seed the risk of getting inferior foreign seed is avoided. As a rule, the districts best fitted for grass seed-growing are too moist for clover seed-growing, and vice versa. This is, of course, not a hard and fast rule, and the two sometimes may be grown alongside, but wet districts cannot be relied upon for clover seed-growing, and dry districts are not favourable for the fullest crops of grass seed. CHAPTER IX. GENERAL PRINCIPLES ASSOCIATED WITH PERMANENT PASTURE-MAKING : IN- FERIOR GRASSES AND WEEDS. IT is more easy to realize the conditions under which permanent pastures thrive when the circumstances under which they were formed are borne in mind. No such thing as a permanent pasture existed at one period of the earth's history, for there was no vegetation of any kind ; yet by the process of evolution, from low forms of plant life they have gradually come into existence without the aid of man. At the present Permanent Pasture-making 157 time we have in England exemplifications of pastures which have been formed with little outlay of labour on the part of man. Take the thin chalk downs which are covered with a permanent pasture, poor, it is true, still permanent. The same on heaths. Many of our richest pastures are undoubtedly self- made, except that the land was probably cleared of its forests. "We see around us to-day pastures in course of development. Land which was cultivated a quarter of a century ago fell out of cultivation and was allowed to take its own course. Couch grass and other weeds held the ground, but where the land had a reserve of fertility these are gradually, in most cases slowly, giving way to more nutritive grasses and other herbage, accumulating plant food year by year, 158 The Conversion of Arable Land and thus forming the early stages of permanent pasture. The rapidity with which these become capable of carrying sufficient stock to show an appreciable return depends on the nature of the soil with regard to its texture and the amount of food contained in it, its freedom from stagnant water, and the assistance rendered by manuring, or the feeding of extra food upon the ground. A good example of the change from barrenness to a higher state of fertility is shown in the case of a tiled roof. New tiles present a perfectly clean surface free from vegetation, yet in course of many years we find them grass- grown. In the first instance some minute plant of low order, it may be of a fungus type, begins to grow, and this goes on almost imperceptibly for Permanent Pasture-making 159 years, but gradually it thickens. Why ? Because generations of the tiny growth have died down and left their remains to supply food for successive generations. In course of time the roof becomes covered with a deep covering of moss, and after this grasses of poor quality are found intermixed with it, and if left long enough the decay of the plants produces a thin soil, capable of produc- ing grasses of better quality. This roughly indicates what has taken place in nature, and illustrates how, as the soil is formed or improved, higher forms of vegetation are carried. The capability of soils in a particular condition to carry certain grasses is well exemplified in the experiments on old pastures at Rothamsted. A few acres of such were set apart for experiments, and 160 The Conversion of Arable Land each plot has been manured with a dressing containing more or less of the several constituents of plant food. Although the pasture through the whole of the plots experimented upon was nearly as similar as possible at the time the experiments commenced, they differ now in a marvellous degree both in appearance and in the varieties of grasses which compose them. Some are luxuriant and carry herbage of highest feeding values, others appear poverty- stricken and none but inferior grasses can be found, while others produce heavy crops of coarse and profitless grasses. Permanent pasture of the best feeding value is not, however, entirely composed of grasses ; leguminous plants and other miscellaneous herbage, in fact, often form its most important feature. Permanent Pasture-making 161 They, moreover, perform an important part in the formation of new pastures. This brings us to a question which may naturally arise. Why is one pasture field better than another ? It is richer in fertility, the soil is healthier in the matter of drainage, the pasture is older and therefore more self-supporting. To lay down a field which is what is known as worn out with regard to fertility, and not to supply manure to it, is to invite failure. This is most marked on heavy soils where the mechanical conditions are also unfavourable. The land is -not in a condition to supply food for a heavy crop of nutritious plants, and it is impossible for it to carry them. It can only produce a light crop of grass, or under some conditions a larger crop of grasses of poor quality. Land in poor M 1 62 The Conversion of Arable Land condition will sometimes produce a heavy growth of poor grasses such as Yorkshire fog, the feeding value of which is small, as nearly the whole of such a plant is indigestible woody fibre, which has about as much feeding matter as saw-dust. The mechanical condition of a heavy soil is altered when it is covered with a thick pasture, and this accounts for good rich pastures such as are found on heavy land. The thick mass of fibre prevents the land from cracking in time of drought, and the sur- face water drains through it more easily. In the case of a previously almost purely inorganic soil there is a considerable accumulation of vegetable matter to supply the pasture with food it cannot find on land newly laid down, Inferior Grasses and Weeds 163 INFERIOR GRASSES AND WEEDS. Although it has been .pointed out that in course of time the varieties of grasses found in a pasture are those which find the conditions of soil and climate most suitable to their growth, it is obviously absurd to sow seeds of worthless or inferior grasses, as they produce little that is of value, and take the place of more valuable varieties. Some years would be occupied while the better varieties were obtaining mastery over the inferior ones. The sowing of inferior varieties is therefore as unwise as unpro- fitable. Among the inferior grasses may be included the whole family of Bromes. The soft brome (Bromus mollis) is most commonly found in pastures. It is also M 2 164 The Conversion of Arable Land frequently found in fields of rye-grass and other grasses from which seed is taken. The seed is thus mixed with the better kinds, and, unless carefully screened, is sown with it. Those who are acquainted with rye-grass seed need have little diffi- culty in detecting its presence. All brome-grass seeds are coarse. Soft brome is larger than rye-grass, being longer and much wider. The hard, flat kernel seems to lie deep in the sheath of husk. The seed is narrow at both ends, but bulges widely at about two-thirds its length, and contracts somewhat suddenly at the top. The kernel, as seen when slightly magni- fied, is covered by a thin husk, which has serrated edges. The edges of the large sheath-like portion of the husk are ser- rated also. The piece of stem attaching to the base is short, somewhat thick, and Inferior Grasses and Weeds 165 slightly hairy. A definite keel runs down the back, and is continued so as to form a stout awn ; when viewed from the back the seed is suggestive in shape of a small boat, as ribs run from end to end. The whole of the back is hairy, but the hairs are stronger at the top than at the bottom. Other brome-grasses are coarse, and the seeds are easily distin- guishable from those of the grasses the farmer is likely to want to grow. Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus) is one of the commonest grasses in permanent pastures. It is found very commonly in hay-lofts, and those who prefer to sow seeds from this ^ source to buying them should be careful to examine closely for these. The seed is small, and might be taken for that of one of the finer grasses. Bronie-grass seeds are also common in 1 66 The Conversion of Arable Land the sweeping of hay lofts, but they are more readily noticeable. Both germi- nate freely and strongly, so that if sown they are sure to establish themselves, whether the finer seeds do or not. Apparently a good plant of seeds is secured, but it is the sort of plant which should not be there ; and a heavy growth is obtained, but it has practically no feed- ing value. As a rule, the seed of York- shire fog is found with the outside husk attaching, and when magnified it looks like a small beech-mast of very light colour, as the shape is somewhat similar and the exterior has the same roughness. This roughness is not so apparent to the naked eye. The seed appears closely like beech- mast when cut in an unripe condition, and is more open, as it is riper. No portion of the attached stem is visible. Inferior Grasses and Weeds 167 The kernel is covered with a fine smooth husk and is comparatively small. Another seed found in badly- dressed samples of seed is that of the Onion Couch (Arrlienatherum avenaceum bulbo- sum). This is due to the fact that in many districts where rye-grass seed is grown the onion couch, as it is often called, is very commonly met with. It is very closely allied to, and is the only variety of the ordinary tall oat-grass, is a free-growing plant of fairly food feeding value, though this variety is poor in feeding properties. The seed is suffi- ciently distinct for it to be easily dis- tinguished from rye-grass seed. It is very similar to the seed of the wild oat, but much smaller. The seed is attached to the stem at its base, consequently the broken piece of stem seen in many 1 68 The Conversion of Arable Land grasses is not present. In colour it is usually rather brown at the back, and from the back, near to the base, springs a long stout awn, about twice the length of the seed. This awn is straight and spiral about half its length, after which it generally curves slightly. At the base of the seed there are numerous fine hairs, as in the wild oat. The seed appears shrivelled towards the top, where it comes to a somewhat sharp point. The seed of couch-grass, scutch, twitch, and innumerable other local names (Triticum repens) is frequently met with in mixtures of rye-grass ; in fact, it is found so frequently that a not uncommon idea prevails that rye-grass turns to twitch. The seed is larger than that of Perennial Rye-grass, and is Inferior Grasses and Weeds 169 proportionately longer and narrower. It conies to a more acute point at the top, and the piece of stem adhering to the seed is nearly cylindrical. The inside edges of the husk are seen, when magnified, to be slightly hairy. The back is keel-shaped and comparatively smooth. It is usually, but not always, awnless. Hassock-grass or tussock-grass (Aira cxspitosa) is prevalent in wet pastures. The seed does not appear very frequently in samples or mixtures, because it rarely grows on land where grass seed is cultivated but that of aira flexura is. It is most frequently found as an adulterant in samples of Rough- stalked Meadow Grass. It should be eradicated when it does appear; its presence is a sign of excessive moisture ; consequently, superabundant moisture 170 The Conversion of Arable Land should be got rid of by drainage. The tufts should be cut off by an adze to allow the better grasses to fill in. Some years ago I ploughed over about an acre of pasture which was largely composed of hassock-grass, and which would have cost a considerable sum to get rid of by ordinary methods ; this cut the top root, and leaving it exposed for a few weeks weakened it so that when the turf was turned back into its original position, the better grasses gained possession of the land and the hassocks entirely disappeared. I rather frightened the authorities by ploughing up an acre in the middle of a grass field, but a little reflection would have shown them that good, rather than harm, must result. It was quite sufficient for them, however, that it Avas against custom. A piece of Inferior Grasses and Weeds 1 7 1 worthless ground was made as good as the rest of the field for the outlay of a few shillings spent in labour. There are several varieties of Bent Grass (Agrostis), but only one Fiorin (Agrostis alba, var. stolonifera) is of value. The seeds of agrostis are very small, and in ordering norm the purchaser should be careful as to the honesty of the firm he is buying from, or a worthless weed will be sown instead of a more useful one. It is not much use to sow fiorin on any but moist soils ; it does little good on dry soils. The risk of paying for poor seeds and getting a crop of weed is so great that it is hardly worth the risk. Docks, both land and water, are objectionable in meadow land, as beyond being unsightly and useless as food, the 172 The Conversion of Arable Land seeds are conveyed to other parts of the farm, thereby causing trouble. They should be got out by means of a docking iron a fork with a ball on the underside at the top of the prong to lever them out of the ground. Sorrel is a sign of want of lime in the soil. It indicates acidity, which is neutralized by the use of lime. Daisies, moss, and other weeds common in poor pastures are present because of want of better manuring ; except perhaps for a short time occasion- ally during winter, moss is not seen where the clovers are growing plenti- fully and the better grasses thrive. Daisies are met with on lawns where the grass has been cut and taken away for many years, and no manurial return made ; or on poor pastures generally. They disappear to a great extent as the Inferior Grasses and Weeds 1 73 soil becomes richer. Bone meal, super- phosphate, kainit, and sulphate of ammonia as manures are the best means of getting rid of them, as the better herbage which they induce ousts them. Harrowing is useful in destroying moss, as it kills a portion which thus becomes converted into manure ; but harrowing alone is not sufficient to permanently get rid of it. The cause of its existence remains until the soil is made more fertile. Harrowing and rolling act beneficially on grass by giving it the only cultivation possible without really disturbing the turf. CHAPTER X. THEORIES, EXPERIMENTS, AND PRACTICES RELATING TO PASTURES. THE discussion of features which have been brought into notice on various occasions may now be profitably dealt with. One of the theories which attracted most attention was that known as the De Laune theory, in which it was urged that the want of success which so frequently attended the laying away of land to pasture was due to the fact that seeds of indifferent varieties of grass were sown, and a special crusade was made against Perennial Rye-grass, which was described Theories Relating to Pastures 1 75 as being comparatively worthless. It was stated that " the grasses most pernicious to newly-formed pastures are first and prin- cipally rye-grass in all its varieties, and Yorkshire fog or soft, woolly grass (Holcus lanatus)" As a matter of fact, Perennial Rye-grass is one of the most nutritious grasses we have, and, moreover, it forms by far the greater portion of the grasses found in our richest pastures ; it is hardly beside the mark to say that it is the most prominent grass in all good pastures. It must not, however, be confounded with Italian rye-grass, which is of great value for temporary pastures, but useless to those which are to become permanent. In the thorough and careful tests which Dr. Fream carried out in connection with the herbage of old pastures, reported upon in vol. xxiv., part 2 of the Journal 176 The Conversion of Arable Land of the Royal Agricultural Society, some striking facts were shown. Twenty-five sods were taken from the richest pastures of the United Kingdom and transplanted into garden soil. Care was taken that several inches of soil were left attached to each sod, so that there could be no admixture of soil or species of grass which would affect the results. As I saw these sods planted, and they were under my eyes up to the final exami- nation, I am able to testify to the careful- ness in every detail connected with the experiment, and the thorough reliability of the results obtained. In twenty-four out of twenty-five of these pastures rye- grass formed an important feature ; but in the one from the county of Derby it did not appear at all. This, however, was admittedly one of the weakest Theories Relating to Pastures 177 pastures tested, for it was previously described as being "not sufficiently strong to graze steers or oxen." Not- withstanding this, Perennial Rye-grass constituted 36 per cent, by weight of the grasses in twenty-five turfs, Agrostis vulgaris being next with 17 per cent. ; and no other grass was found to the extent of 1 per cent. In fifteen of the pastures rye-grass was found to the extent of over 75 per cent, of the total weight of grass ; and in only three was it less than the average of the next prominent grass in the series. This makes the case a strong one for Perennial Rye-grass, and indicates that it must be generally regarded as necessary. It was urged very strongly by the supporters of the De Laune theory that Meadow Fescue (Festucapratensis) should 1 78 The Conversion of Arable Land form a large portion of the seed sown to form a permanent pasture, but in only three instances out of twenty-five was it represented, and then barely to the extent of 1 per cent, in weight on the whole. This was apparently a case of mistaken identity, the blades of rye-grass having been regarded as those of meadow fescue, to which there is some resem- blance, though closer examination shows that the mid rib of the former is strongly marked, while it is scarcely discernible in the latter. The young blades striking up from the heart of the Perennial Rye- grass plant are folded flat, while in the case of the meadow fescue they are twisted round, appearing in a cylindrical form somewhat similar to those of Italian rye-grass. The objection to Perennial Rye-grass Theories Relating to Pastures 1 79 was formed because it grew too freely at first, but subsequently diminished in size. The fact is, rye-grass is highly nutritious and requires plenty of rich food to thrive upon. When land is first sown it eagerly takes up the food at its disposal and produces heavy crops during the first two or three years. By this time the available food becomes exhausted, and unless additional food in the form of manure is supplied, it cannot produce the growth it does under more favourable conditions. It does not waste its time, but turns to profitable account the food at its disposal, and this is what a grass ought to do. The first cuttings are very valuable, and because Perennial Rye-grass effects in two or three years what other grasses take several years to accomplish, this should not be regarded as a failing, 180 The Conversion of Arable Land but as a point strongly in its favour. Rye-grass does not die out ; it only be- comes stunted in growth ; apply suitable manure, and it will grow again as strongly as ever. However, many who sow rye-grass mow it, and take off the crop, returning little to the soil, and then find fault because it does not continue to grow as freely as at first. How can it ? You cannot produce bricks without straw. It has been stated in a previous chapter that land carries the varieties of grasses which thrive under special con- ditions. When land is poor good grasses wane, and others of inferior feeding value, such as Yorkshire fog, thrive. This is well illustrated in a field sown with rye-grass. As the food supply becomes deficient, rye-grass gives way to inferior varieties. Theories Relating to Pastures 1 8 1 The worst period in the life of a pasture is from the third to the tenth year, or a little longer, in accordance with the fertility of the soil. If liberally manured, the grass will grow freely every year, and produce good crops ; if not, as is usually the case, it progresses slowly. Every year, however, adds something to the fertility stored up in the soil. The rootlets gradually die, and thus act as manure to succeeding generations of plants. The soil thus becomes altered in its consistency and texture. Such conditions are more favourable to the growth of Perennial Rye-grass ; the stunted plants gradually gain vigour and increased fertility, as was shown in Dr. Fream's experiments. This may be confirmed by examining any rich old pasture ; they take the most prominent 1 82 The Conversion of Arable Land position among the grasses of the pasture. In examining a pasture to estimate its value the frequency with which the fresh green blades of rye-grass appear, and the vigour which they show, must be regarded as the most valuable guide. This is most important when white clover is found growing freely among it, for it is absolutely certain that when this combination is found, the pasture is one of exceptionally high feeding properties. It has been shown that rye-grass is a profitable grass only when there is a fair amount of fertility in the soil, and other grasses are profitable only when the same conditions prevail. At the same time it is advisable to sow a small quantity of seeds of other good grasses, so that they may be present to take Theories Relating to Pastures 183 advantage of conditions which may be specially favourable for them. Even in the best pastures other good grasses beyond Perennial Rye-grass are met with, and it is advisable to give all a chance. In the making of a pasture it is particularly important to encourage the development of clovers. Clovers natur- ally enrich the soil, and add to its fertility by taking nitrogen from the atmosphere. Grasses take their nitrogen from the soil. The difference is significant. It has for a long time been recognized that the clovers "come" in an old pasture, and that they do this gradually. At first when sown they grow freely for a year or two, and then, like rye-grass, they grow less freely. The reason is the same the food they most require becomes exhausted. The manure most 184 The Conversion of Arable Land essential to the growth of clovers is of a very different nature to that of grasses. A large quantity of nitrogen is required for the development of grasses, while it has little effect on clover. Lime and potash are of first importance, because without the clovers they cannot abstract from the atmosphere the requisite nitrogen. Clovers and all leguminous plants are provided with small nodular growths on the roots, and these are small laboratories inhabited by minute bacteria which have the power of extracting nitrogen from the air ; but these little workers require lime and potash to cany on their work. Without them they starve, and as they supply no nitrogen to the plant it cannot make growth ; on the work of the bacteria depends the existence of the clover plant. It is Theories Relating to Pastures 185 therefore essential that these manures shall be supplied if the land does not contain sufficient within reach of the plants. As nitrogen is the most expen- sive element in manures, the advantage of getting the clover plant to work on behalf of the farmer is easily understood. The amount of nitrogen thus absorbed enters the plant, and if that plant is consumed by animals, a large portion of it is returned to the soil as food for the grasses; but a considerable portion of the nitrogen is stored in the clover roots, and as these die, that stored in them also becomes available. It is found that it is much more easy to get a permanent pasture on good soils where lime and potash are available than on other soils, and it is the presence of these which greatly regulates the power of land to 1 86 The Conversion of Arable Land " take to grass." Loams in which there is a liberal supply of lime take readily. Sandy land with little lime is slow, and the pasture is with difficulty made to produce food for strong cattle. Thin chalk soils with an ample supply of lime, but with little potash, produce weak pastures, as shown on Down land. Heavy clays which possess lime and potash in abundance, if well drained, can be made to carry good pastures, though the mechanical condition is not so favourable as where the soil is somewhat lighter, as on heavy loams. Want of drainage, however, destroys the chance of good pastures. As soils rich in nitrogen carry grasses of higher feeding value than do those which contain but little, so soils rich in potash and lime carry more valuable Theories Relating to Pastures 1 8 7 clovers than those deficient in them. Thus on a rich pasture white clover is met with in considerable quantity, while on poor soils, and on new pastures from their third to the twelfth years, the small trefoils are most commonly found. These lowly trefoils must not be despised, as they are doing the work of storing up nitrogen from the atmosphere, and when the soils become richer they will give way to the white clover. It is of course better that the soil should be well stocked with plant food suitable for both grasses and clovers, as then both will produce heavy growth, and the root formation will be proportionately greater. The reason why feeding off pastures, instead of mowing the crop and taking it away, is obvious. The advantage of 1 88 The Conversion of Arable Land feeding cake on it is equally readily seen, especially in the case of rich food such as cotton cake, which contains a large percentage of nitrogen and potash. Pastures are economizers of nitrogen in yet another way. A considerable quantity of nitrogen in combination is brought to the ground every year, being carried down by rain, dew, and snow. This varies according to the situation with regard to the presence or absence of large towns, whose chimneys vomit out huge quantites of smoke containing nitrogen in different forms. An average of analyses made in nine places in different parts of Europe showed that as much as 10*23 Ibs. of nitrogen were brought down on to every acre. As little as 1*86 Ib. per acre was measured at one station, and over 20 Ibs. at another. At Rothamsted Theories Relating to Pastures 189 it is about 4 and 5 Ibs. As there are 15J per cent, of nitrogen in nitrate of soda, the equivalent of about 70 Ibs. of nitrate of soda falls where 10 Ibs. of nitrogen are thus brought down. This, of course, falls on arable land also, but arable land is more wasteful of its ni- trogen, no inconsiderable portion "being washed out in drainage. Pastures waste but little in this way ; the roots ramify the soil in every direction, and the humus has an effect in retaining the nitrogen. It is for these reasons that such full results are obtained when manure is applied to grass land. A serviceable work was done by the supporters of the De Laune theory in calling attention to the fact that some of the larger growing grasses are possessed of considerable feeding properties. An 190 The Conversion of Arable Land idea prevailed among many that only the finer varieties were highly nutritious. So many of the coarse grasses, such as Yorkshire fog, the brome-grasses, &c., possess* but little feeding value, and all tall or coarse growing grasses were entered in the category. Three of those specially advocated, Meadow Fox-tail, Cat's-tail, Cock's-foot, are well worth encouraging in situations where they are likely to thrive. The prejudice against coarse grasses, however, affects them when it is desired to sell the hay, which deteriorates from their value for mowing. THE END. LONDON : GILBERT & EIVINGTON, LTD., ST. JOHN'S HOUSE, CLEBKENWELL, i.e. THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY This book is DUE on the last date stamped below JR! MAR 1 19 UNIVERSITY of CAUFORAfct AT 0* SB 199 M29c