EXCHANGE 
 
THE RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 
 
 BY 
 
 CLARENCE SCROLL 
 
 B. S. University of Illinois, 1913 
 M. S. University of Illinois, 1914 
 
 THESIS 
 
 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the 
 
 Degree of 
 
 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 IN CHEMISTRY 
 
 IN 
 
 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 - 
 IT? 
 
 1916 
 
THE RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 
 
 BY 
 
 CLARENCE SCROLL 
 
 B. S. University of Illinois, 1913 
 M. S. University of Illinois, 1914 
 
 .; 
 
 THESIS 
 
 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the 
 
 Degree of 
 
 DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 IN CHEMISTRY 
 
 IN 
 
 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 1916 
 
Gen 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT 
 
 This investigation was carried out at the suggestion and under 
 the direction of Professor Edward Bartow. I wish to take this 
 opportunity of thanking Professor Bartow for the assistance given 
 me during the investigation. I wish also to express my appreciation 
 and thanks to the members of the Physics Department for their sug- 
 gestions and help in the electrical measurements. 
 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Acknowledgement 2 
 
 Historical . . 5 
 
 Methods of detection and measurement 6 
 
 Radioactive standards 8 
 
 Plan of work 10 
 
 Apparatus 11 
 
 Electroscope for gases 11 
 
 Electroscope for solids 12 
 
 Standardization of electroscopes 12 
 
 Electroscope for gases 13 
 
 Electroscope for solids 14 
 
 Separation of emanation from water 14 
 
 Test for thorium 15 
 
 Radioactivity analyses 15 
 
 Classification of the waters examined 15 
 
 Discussion of results 17 
 
 Waters from wells in deep rock 17 
 
 Waters from wells in drift 18 
 
 Waters from wells in Lower Mississipian 18 
 
 Waters from springs 19 
 
 Springs north of Ozark uplift 19 
 
 Springs of the Ozark uplift 20 
 
 Comparison with other American and European waters 20 
 
 Conclusions 21 
 
 Bibliography 23 
 
 Vita . ..31 
 
TABLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1. Rutherford 's list of radioactive elements 6 
 
 2. Relative luminosity of various substances used in the luminous 
 
 screen method 7 
 
 3. Standardization of electroscopes for gases 13 
 
 4. Standardization of electroscope for solids 14 
 
 5. Radioactivity of waters in comparison with their contents of 
 
 calcium, magnesium and residue 1(5 
 
 6. Decay of activity of water from Dixon Springs 21 
 
 7. Radioactivity of American and European waters 22 
 
 FIGUEES 
 
 1. Simple electroscope for solids 26 
 
 2. Simple electroscope for gases 26 
 
 3. Simple electroscope for solutions 26 
 
 4. Electroscope for solids 26 
 
 5. Electroscope for gases, front view 27 
 
 6. Electroscope for gases, side view 27 
 
 7. Apparatus for separating emanation from uraninite 27 
 
 8. Apparatus for separating emanation from water 27 
 
 PLATES 
 
 1. Comparison of decay of activities of water from Dixon Springs 
 
 with radium emanations 28 
 
 2. Relation of activity to calcium and magnesium in waters from 
 
 deep-rock wells 28 
 
 3. Relation of activity to calcium and magnesium in water from 
 
 drift wells 29 
 
 4. Relation of activity to residues in water from drift wells 29 
 
 5. Relation of activity to calcium and residue in water from lower 
 
 Mississippian 30 
 
 6. Relation of activity to calcium and residue in water from 
 
 springs , 30 
 
RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS.* 
 By Clarence Scholl 
 
 During his visit to the United States in 1902, J. J. Thomson 120 
 reported that the research men of Cavendish laboratory of London 
 had separated a very active gas from a deep well water. At Professor 
 Thomson 's suggestion Bumstead and Wheeler 26 investigated the waters 
 of New Milford and New Haven, Connecticut, and found that these 
 two waters contained gases whose activity was six to eight times the 
 normal air leak of an electroscope. Similar research made by other 
 investigators, 1 - 3 ' 29 ' 36 ' 56 ' 72 ' 115 ' upon European waters, showed that the 
 active gases occurred universally but varied in quantity in different 
 localities. As there was no standard of activity at that time no quan- 
 titative measurements were made; the period of decay of the active 
 material was found to correspond in most cases to the decay period 
 of radium emanation. 
 
 Boltwood 17 in 1904, and Boltwood and Rutherford 19 in 1906, in- 
 vestigated the proportion of radium and uranium in radioactive min- 
 erals and found the ratio of radium to uranium to be constant, 3.4 x 
 10-7 grams of radium per gram of uranium. Lind and Whittemore 69 
 confirmed this ratio in 1915. As the amount of radium emanation in 
 equilibrium with radium is constant, the amount of radium emanation 
 is, therefore, proportional to the amount of uranium. Boltwood 15 
 suggested that the quantity of radium emanation set free when a 
 known weight of a natural uranium mineral is dissolved in a suitable 
 reagent, be taken as a standard of radioactivity. 
 
 In 1905 he used this standard in investigating the activity of 
 the very active thermal spring of Hot Springs, Arkansas. 18 Bolt- 
 wood's emanation standard was adopted by Moore and Schlundt in 
 their investigations of the waters of Missouri 82 (1905) , and the thermal 
 waters of the Yellowstone National Park 83 (1909) ; by Shrader 111 in 
 the investigation of waters near Williamstown, Massachusetts (1914) ; 
 by Moore and Whittemore 84 in the investigation of Saratoga Springs, 
 New York (1914) ; by Ramsey 91 in the investigation of the waters of 
 Indiana and Ohio (1915) ; and by Perkins 89 in the investigation of 
 the waters of Rhode Island (1915). 
 
 *A thesis prepared under the direction of Professor Edward Bartow and submitted in 
 partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in chemistry 
 in th University of Illinois, June, 1916. 
 
6 
 
 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS 
 
 Radium emanation, which causes the radioactivity of waters, is 
 formed by the decomposition of radium, which may or may not be 
 present in the water. The emanation is dissolved by the water in its 
 passage through the ground. 
 
 Eadium emanation is the sixth element in the list of active ele- 
 ments compiled by Rutherford, 97 given in Table 1. 
 
 TABLE 1. RUTHERFORD'S LIST OF RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS. 
 
 Element 
 
 Radiation 
 
 Half life period 
 
 Uranium 
 
 oc 
 
 6 x 10 9 years 
 
 Uranium X 
 
 +7 
 
 24. 6 days 
 
 Uranium Y 
 
 P 
 
 1.5 days 
 
 Ionium 
 
 a 
 
 Greater than 20,000 years 
 
 Radium 
 
 a -}- slow P 
 
 2,000 years 
 
 Emanation 
 
 <x 
 
 3.85 days 
 
 Radium A 
 
 a 
 
 3 min. 
 
 Radium B 
 
 0+7 
 
 26.8 min. 
 
 Radium C t 
 
 ++7 
 
 19.5 min. 
 
 Radium C z 
 
 j8 
 
 1.4 min. 
 
 Radium D 
 
 slowjS 
 
 16.5 years 
 
 Radium E 
 
 0+7 
 
 5 days 
 
 Radium F 
 
 a 
 
 136 days 
 
 Radium salts, although seldom found in natural waters have been 
 found in waters in the Tyrol 7 district of the Alps and in the Doughty 
 Springs 47 of Colorado. Their absence in most natural waters is ex- 
 plained by the chemical properties 113 of the element. It is in the 
 second group of Mendeljeff's periodic system as the highest member 
 of the barium series. Radium sulfate is, therefore, even more insolu- 
 ble than barium sulfate ; even radium chloride remains dissolved only 
 in a solution strongly acidified with hydrochloric acid. Since many 
 natural waters are alkaline and many contain large quantities of sul- 
 fate and chloride, radium salts can not be present in solution. Most 
 waters, therefore, contain only emanation. 
 
 METHODS OF DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT. 
 
 Three general methods have been employed for determining the 
 presence of radioactive material: (1) the photographic method, (2) 
 the luminous screen method, and (3) the electrical method. 
 
 1. The photographic method 27 was used very extensively in the 
 early measurements of activity. It depends on the darkening of a 
 photographic plate when exposed to the action of the active substance. 
 The method may be used with distinct advantage in studying the 
 curvature of the path of the rays when under the influence of a mag- 
 netic or electric field. As a quantitative method, however, it is open 
 to many objections. The active material must be in a solid state of 
 aggregation, and usually a day 's exposure to a weak source of radiation 
 
RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 7 
 
 is required to produce an appreciable darkening of the photographic 
 film. Since darkening of a photographic plate may be produced by 
 many agents which do not give out radioactive rays, special precau- 
 tions are necessary during long exposures. Another and more impor- 
 tant difficulty, however, lies in the inaccuracy inhering in measure- 
 ments of density in the photographic impression from which the 
 intensity of the radiation must be calculated. 
 
 2. The luminous screen method 28 ' 35 depends upon the appear- 
 ance of a brief illumination when an alpha ray from an active material 
 strikes a screen of sensitive material such as barium platinocyanide, 
 willemite, diamond, or zinc sulfide. The amount of active material 
 present can be calculated from the number of illuminations in a given 
 time. The method has been used extensively, but its application is 
 limited by the low intensity of some of the illuminations. The lumi- 
 nosities produced in barium platinocyanide, willemite, and diamond 
 are of service only in qualitative work. Table 2 gives the relative 
 luminosity of five substances. 100 
 
 TABLE 2. RELATIVE LUMINOSITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES USED IN 
 THE LUMINOUS SCREEN METHOD. 
 
 
 Substance 
 
 Without Screen 
 
 Through Black Paper 
 
 Zinc blende. . . . 
 
 
 13 36 
 
 53 
 
 Barium platinocyanide. . 
 
 
 1.99 
 
 10 
 
 Diamond 
 
 
 1 14 
 
 01 
 
 Potassium uranium dout 
 
 le sulfate 
 
 1 00 
 
 31 
 
 Calcium fluoride 
 
 
 0.30 
 
 0.01 
 
 The luminosity produced in zinc sulfide has proved invaluable in 
 quantitative work, since it affords a direct method of counting the 
 number of alpha particles emitted from an active solid substance, but 
 it is not applicable to waters, whose activity is due to gases. 
 
 3. The electrical method 75,90,103,114,119 j s based on the ionization 
 of gases by radioactive substances. The production of positively and 
 negatively charged particles in a gas is directly proportional to the 
 number of rays emitted, to the quantity of radioactive material, and 
 to the current of electricity which can pass through the gas. The 
 strength of this current of electricity is the quantity usually deter- 
 mined: the maximum current produced when the gas is electrically 
 saturated is always taken. 
 
 The strength of the current can be measured with a sensitive elec- 
 trometer. 2 ' 25 - 37 ' 71 But in most cases, since the material is but slightly 
 active, it is more convenient to use an electroscope. 17 ' 63 ' 125 ' 126 Since 
 the capacity of an electroscope is nearly constant, the average rate of 
 
8 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS 
 
 movement of the leaves is directly proportional to the rate of 
 discharging the system, to the amount of electricity passing through 
 the gas, to the ionization of the gas, to the number of rays emitted, 
 and to the amount of active material present. If a solid substance is 
 placed between two horizontal plates, the lower connected to the earth, 
 the upper connected to the leaf system of a charged electroscope the 
 activity can be determined directly by observing the rate of fall of 
 the leaf with a telemicroscope provided with a uniform scale in the 
 eyepiece. The observed fall must be corrected by subtracting the 
 natural leak of the apparatus when no radioactive material is present. 
 An electroscope of this kind is especially suited for the measurement 
 of activity caused by alpha rays, (see Figure 1.) 
 
 A modification of this electroscope can be used to determine 
 extremely small currents of electricity with accuracy. This modi- 
 fication first used by Wilson 125 in the study of the ionization of air, 
 has the gold leaf attached to the vertical upper plate (see Figure 2). 
 The whole system of plate and leaf is insulated within the containing 
 vessel after charging by means of a movable wire passed through 
 the walls of the vessel and touched to the upper plate whenever de- 
 sired. 
 
 RADIOACTIVE STANDARDS. 
 
 A great many measurements of the activity of spring and well 
 waters have been made, but there is no general comparison of the 
 results of various investigators. Of the many standards suggested, 
 but three are now in general use : the McCoy 79 - 80 urano-uranic oxide 
 standard, the Boltwood 16 ' 19 - 22 equilibrium emanation standard (the 
 curie) , and the C. G. S. absolute standard. 
 
 McCoy, Ashman, and Boss 80 have recently studied the relation 
 between the McCoy urano-uranic oxide standard and the C. G. S. unit 
 by using uniform layers of specially prepared oxide. 79 They found 
 the ionization currents due to the alpha rays from a thick film of 
 urano-uranic oxide to be 5.79 x 10' 13 amperes or 1.737' 3 C. G. S. elec- 
 trostatic units per square centimeter. This value is constant and 
 capable of being reproduced. The specific activity of uranium, 78 
 defined as the total ionization current from one gram of uranium 
 when all the radiation is absorbed in the air, is 796 McCoy units. The 
 total ionization currents from one gram of uranium free from its 
 products is then 1.38 C.G.S. electrostatic units. 
 
 Rutherford 99 has shown that one gram of uranium emits 2.37 
 x 10 4 alpha particles per second. Each particle has a range of 2.50 
 centimeters and produces a total of 1.26 x 10 5 ions. Each of these 
 
RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 9 
 
 ions 98 has an elementary charge of electricity of 4.65 x KV 10 C. G. S. 
 electrostatic units. Thus one gram of uranium is equivalent to 2.37 
 x 10 4 x 1.26 x 10 5 x 4.65 x 10- 10 =1.38 C. G. S. electrostatic units. 
 This agrees with the figure cited above. 
 
 Boltwood 20 has shown that if the activity of uranium free from 
 its product be taken as 1.00, the relative values of the activities due to 
 alpha rays of the different elements in equilibrium in a uranium 
 mineral are as follows: 
 
 Uranium 1.00 
 
 Ionium 34 
 
 Radium 45 
 
 Radium emanation 54 
 
 Radium A 62 
 
 Radium B 04 
 
 Radium C 91 
 
 Radium F (Polonium) 46 
 
 Actinium and its products 28 
 
 Total activity 4.64 x Uranium 
 
 In the determination of the activity of a sample of uraninite 
 by means of the emanation method an activity is separated equivalent 
 to that of radium emanation, or 0.54 of the activity of the uranium 
 present. The decay of radium emanation into radium A, B, and C 
 however, is so rapid that in the determination not only the effect of 
 the radium emanation is measured but also the effect of radium A, B, 
 and C. The effect of radium F (Polonium) is small and can be neg- 
 lected. The sum of these activities will be 0.54 + 0.62 + 0.04 -f 
 0.91 = 2.11 times that of uranium free from its products, if all activity 
 is absorbed in air. 
 
 Hence 1.38 x 2.11 == 2.90 C. G. S. electrostatic units is the total 
 equivalent of one gram of uranium in uraninite, if the emanation 
 is calculated at its maximum activity. 
 
 Duane and Laborde's 32 formula for the relation between a max- 
 imum current and that obtained in any electroscope is 
 
 (I is the electric current in electrostatic units in an electroscope with 
 a surface S and a volume V. I is the true equivalent in electrostatic 
 
10 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS 
 
 units). Solving this equation for the current of the electroscope, 
 we get 
 
 Substituting the values of S and V for the gas electroscopes, we 
 get 
 
 2777 
 
 I = 0.696 electrostatic units. 
 
 The activity of one gram of uranium, therefore, equals 0.696 elect- 
 rostatic units in the system. 
 
 This factor was used in changing data from the uraninite 
 standard to the electrostatic unit standard. 
 
 PLAN OF WORK. 
 
 The purpose of this investigation was to determine quantitatively 
 the radioactivity of Illinois waters and to study the relations, if any, 
 between the radioactivity, the dissolved mineral constituents, and the 
 geographical and geological locations from which the waters were 
 obtained. 
 
 The electrical method of measuring radioactivity was adopted 
 for use in the investigation. The first electroscope tried, made ac- 
 cording to specifications of some European investigators, 39 was found 
 unreliable for small quantitative measurements, when tested with ur- 
 aninite. A modification of an electroscope designed by Wilson, 125 
 was tested and found satisfactory for the measurement of radioactivity 
 of gases, and an electroscope with an ordinary leaf system was adopted 
 for testing the activity of solids. 
 
 Some of the waters were analyzed in the field; samples of the 
 others were collected, sealed, and shipped to the laboratory where they 
 were analyzed immediately. The results of the analyses made in the 
 laboratory were corrected for the decay of activity by means of the 
 formula I = It" rt in which I is the initial activity, I t is the 
 observed activity at the time of making the analysis, t is the time after 
 the water was collected, and r is the radioactive constant. 102 This 
 has a value of .0075 when t is expressed in hours, or 0.1800 when t is 
 expressed in days. 
 
 Whenever the presence of radium salts was suspected, the water 
 was evaporated to about 100 centimeters, acidified with hydrochloric 
 acid sealed, and kept for thirty days in order to allow the emanation 
 
RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 11 
 
 to again reach a maximum. The activity if any, when again tested, 
 was due to the radium present in the original sample. 
 
 Samples of sediment in the waters were examined in a similar 
 manner but none were found to be radioactive. 
 
 The waters were analyzed for their mineral constituents by the 
 methods advocated by the American Public Health Association 6 and 
 the Illinois State Water Survey. 58 
 
 APPARATUS 
 Electroscope for gases 
 
 The electroscope, constructed by the Central Scientific Company, 
 is an adaptation of Boltwood's modification 17 of Wilson's electros- 
 cope. 125 (See Figures 5 and 6). It consists of a cylinder 8 centimeters 
 long and 15 centimeters in diameter, fitted at each end with a piece 
 of plate glass. The side of the cylinder is securely fastened to a wooden 
 base by means of an iron stand four inches high. A short wide glass 
 tube covers a hole in the top of the cylinder. A brass cap surmounts 
 the glass tube. A short brass rod is screwed into the cap. A piece of 
 amber, screwed on the lower end of rod, supports a gold or alu- 
 minium leaf plate and insulates the leaf and plate within the cylinder. 
 
 The device for charging is a special feature. An arm is fastened 
 on the brass rod and supports a soft iron wire extending below but not 
 touching the amber insulator. The leaf is charged to the same poten- 
 tial as the brass cap above, by bringing a magnet near the glass and 
 forcing the wire against the leaf plate. Two air-tight stopcocks, one 
 at the top and one at the bottom, are for the admission of gases. All 
 joints are made air-tight by sealing with wax and rosin. An alumi- 
 nium leaf, 5 by 50 millimeters, was used rather than the gold leaf, 
 which gave trouble continually. It was fastened to the plate by plac- 
 ing a streak of glue across the upper part of the plate and then press- 
 ing the leaf firmly against it. The original aluminium leaves have 
 withstood transportation by rail to various parts of the State and are 
 still in good condition. 
 
 The electroscope was charged by the following method : The iron 
 wire was forced with a magnet against the leaf plate. A charged 
 vulcanite rod was brought near the cap until the desired potential was 
 obtained. The iron wire was allowed to swing free by removing the 
 magnet ; the vulcanite rod withdrawn ; the cap earthed for an instant, 
 and the leaf, insulated within the cylinder, was thus charged at the de- 
 sired potential. 
 
12 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS 
 
 A tele-microscope, the eye piece of which contained a scale twelve 
 millimeters long with each millimeter divided into ten divisions, was 
 used to determine the rate of fall of the leaf. A stop watch recording 
 fifths of a second, was used to determine the time interval. 
 
 Two U tubes, one containing phosphorus pentoxide (P 2 5 ), the 
 other containing calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ), were always connected in 
 series with the electroscope, when evacuating or when adding gases, 
 the phosphorus pentoxide tube being between the electroscope and the 
 calcium chloride tube. 
 
 Electroscope for solids 
 
 The electroscope for measuring the radioactivity of solids was 
 obtained from E. H. Sargent of Chicago. It consisted of a cubical 
 metal box, 4^y 2 inches, fitted on two opposite sides with glass plates 
 which could be raised or lowered. (See Figure 4). An amber ring 
 supported and insulated a leaf below and brass ball above the center 
 of the top. These, with a leaf plate and rod connecting the brass ball, 
 made up the electrical carrying portion of the electroscope. A small 
 copper tray 4x4^ inches held the solid material when it was inserted 
 in the box for the determination. No precautions were taken for dry- 
 ing the material. 
 
 STANDARDIZATION OF ELECTROSCOPES. 
 
 The methods of measuring radioactivity give relative quantitative 
 values. The activity of some substance is taken, as the fundamental 
 unit and the activities of other substances are compared with it. 
 Fundamental units are the Mache, the curie, and that from uranium. 
 The amount of radium in one gram of uranium in uranium ores, as 
 found by Boltwood 19 - 21 and Eutherford 101 , and later by Strutt 116 and 
 by McCoy 77 , is always 3.4xlO' 7 gram. If the emanation from a weighed 
 sample of uranium mineral, whose content of uranium is known from a 
 chemical analysis, is used, we can calculate the radium equivalent of 
 the activity. Thus if we use one gram of mineral containing 25 per cent 
 of uranium the fall of the leaf of the electroscope corresponds to 
 3.4 x 10' 7 x .25 = 0.85 x 1O 7 gram of radium. Or if expressed in 
 grams of radium per space per minute, we have 
 
 3.4 x 10- 7 x .25 
 
 r 7 FTS : = = x grams of radium in uranium 
 
 number of spaces fallen in one mm. 
 
 mineral per space fall per minute. A " curie" 20 is the amount of 
 emanation in equilibrium with one gram of radium. Hence the activ- 
 ity obtained from X grams of radium is X curies of emanation. 
 
RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 
 
 13 
 
 Electroscope for gases 
 
 A small weighed quantity of the standard sample of uraninite con- 
 taining 43.6 per cent uranium was placed in a flask, of about 100 cubic 
 centimeters capacity. (See Figure 7). Ten milligrams were usually 
 taken, as this quantity produced a convenient rate of fall of the 
 leaf. The flask was closed with a two-hole rubber stopper ; a separatory 
 funnel was fitted in one hole, and an upright condenser in the other. 
 The condenser was connected by a glass tube and stopcock to another 
 flask also fitted with a two-hole stopper. Through one was the con- 
 nection to the condenser and through the other a glass tube with a 
 stopcock. After the whole apparatus had been made air-tight, it 
 was evacuated by a pump connected to the stopcock. A little dilute 
 nitric acid was added to the uraninite in the flask, and the mixture 
 was then boiled for fifteen minutes. The acid and water rising as 
 vapor condensed in the condenser and returned to the flask. After 
 boiling fifteen minutes, distilled water free from emanation was run 
 into the apparatus through the separatory funnel until the mark 
 was reached. The stopcock was then closed. The emanation with 
 other gases, now in the flask under a fraction of an atmosphere 
 pressure, were introduced into the partially exhausted electroscope 
 and the rate of fall of the leaf determined after 3 to 3i/ 2 hours. The 
 fall of the leaf was corrected by subtracting the normal air leak of 
 the electroscope when the gas in the electroscope was free from eman- 
 ation. The correction was always small and amounted to only 0.003 
 division per minute for the electroscope. The rate of fall was always 
 
 TABLE 3. STANDARDIZATION OF ELECTROSCOPES FOR GASES. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Mineral 
 used. 
 (Grams.) 
 
 Divisions 
 fall per 
 minute. 
 
 Activity per division 
 per minute. 
 
 (UR. g.xlO- 4 ) | (Ra.g.xlO- 10 ) 
 
 ELECTROSCOPE A 
 
 Oct. 23, 1914 . . . 
 Oct. 26, 1914 
 
 .0299 
 .0301 
 
 15.80 
 16.08 
 
 8.28 
 8.12 
 
 2.81 
 2.76 
 
 Dec. 4, 1914 
 
 0253 
 
 18 18 
 
 6 06 
 
 2 06 
 
 Dec. 5, 1914 
 
 0069 
 
 4 92 
 
 6 11 
 
 2 08 
 
 Feb. 24, 1915 
 
 .0078 
 
 5 50 
 
 6.50 
 
 2.21 
 
 Sept. 25, 1915 
 Dec. 13, 1915 
 
 .0078 
 0074 
 
 5.50 
 2 14 
 
 6.50 
 15 1* 
 
 2.21 
 5 13 
 
 Dec. 14, 1915 
 
 .0113 
 
 3 17 
 
 15 2 
 
 5.17 
 
 Jan. 7,1916 
 Jan. 8, 1916 
 
 .0159 
 .0082 
 
 10.0 
 5.14 
 
 6.93 b 
 6.95 
 
 2.36 
 2.36 
 
 ELECTROSCOPE B 
 
 Oct 23, 1914 
 
 0342 
 
 18 28 
 
 8 16 
 
 2.77 
 
 Oct. 26, 1914 
 Dec. 4, 1914 
 
 .0340 
 .0204 
 
 18.28 
 9 92 
 
 8.14 
 8 86 
 
 2.77 
 3.01 
 
 Dec. 5, 1914 . . , 
 Sept. 25, 1915 
 
 .0125 
 .0086 
 
 6.70 
 4.55 
 
 8.13 
 8.24 
 
 2.76 
 2.80 
 
 Dec. 13, 1915 
 
 .0105 
 
 6 00 
 
 7.68 
 
 2.61 
 
 Dec 14, 1915 
 
 0094 
 
 5 40 
 
 7 64 
 
 2.59 
 
 Jan 7, 1916 
 
 .0087 
 
 5.00 
 
 7.59 
 
 2.57 
 
 a The aluminium leaf was shortened to about one-half its original length. 
 l 'A new leaf was placed in the electroscope. 
 
14 
 
 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS 
 
 taken when the leaf was at an angle of less than 30 with the plate. 
 The electroscopes were standardized at frequent intervals. (See 
 Table 3). 
 
 Electroscope for solids 
 
 One-tenth of a gram of the original uraninite was dissolved in a 
 small quantity of nitric acid and evaporated to dryness in a porcelain 
 dish. The residue was taken up with a small quantity of water, trans- 
 ferred to a copper plate, and evaporated to dryness. This plate was 
 then inserted into the electroscope and the rate of fall of the leaf 
 determined. The rate of the normal leak, obtained by exactly the same 
 procedure, but without the uraninite, was subtracted. Thus a fall of 
 the leaf of one millimeter per minute represented 6.2 milligrams of 
 uranium in uraninite. The electroscope was standardized for thorium 
 by the same procedure used for uranium, except that thorium sulfate 
 and nitrate were substituted for the uraninite. The standardization 
 data are given in Table 4. 
 
 TABLE 4. STANDARDIZATION OF ELECTROSCOPE FOR SOLIDS. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Mineral used. 
 (Grams) 
 
 Divisions fall 
 per minute. 
 
 Activity per division 
 per minute. 
 
 URANIUM DATA 
 
 (URANIUM IN 
 GRAMS). 
 
 Nov. 19, 1914 | 0. 100 uraninite. . . 
 
 7.06 
 
 0.0062 
 
 THORIUM DATA 
 
 (THORIUM IN 
 GRAMS) . 
 
 Dec. 8, 1914 
 
 0.274 as sulfate 
 
 3.47 
 
 0.078 
 
 Jan. 17, 1916 
 
 0.1 124 as nitrate 
 + 05 NaCl. 
 
 1.46 
 
 0.077 
 
 Jan. 27, 1916 
 
 0.0196 as nitrate 
 4-02 NaCl 
 
 0.23 
 
 085 
 
 Jan. 20, 1916 
 
 0.196aantrate 
 
 0.97 
 
 0.0202 
 
 SEPARATION OF THE EMANATION FROM WATER 
 
 The sample of water to be examined for radioactivity was col- 
 lected in a round-bottom flask holding about 1200 cubic centimeters. 
 A liter was taken except for waters of very high activity in which case 
 half quantities were taken. Great care was exercised to obtain a rep- 
 resentative sample of the water. The flask was immediately closed 
 with a two-hole stopper fitted with two glass tubes. Each of these 
 was fitted with a piece of rubber tubing with a pinch cock attached. 
 The flask was then connected to an upright condenser and flask. (See 
 Figure 8). The condenser and flask were evacuated with the pinch- 
 cock closed. The pinch cock was then opened and the water in flask 
 was boiled vigorously for about 20 minutes, after w r hich water free 
 
RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 15 
 
 from emanation was then run in through the stopcock as in the process 
 of standardization. The emanation with other gases was then trans- 
 ferred to an electroscope and the activity determined. 
 
 TEST TOR THORIUM 
 
 After the expulsion of radium emanation in the determination 
 of radioactivity the samples of water were evaporated to dryness. 
 The residues were taken up in a small quantity of hydrochloride acid, 
 transferred to small plates, 4 inches in diameter and one-fourth inch 
 in depth, again evaporated to dryness, and the activities of the resi- 
 dues on these plates were determined in the electroscope for solids. 
 In none of the waters tested was any thorium found. 
 
 Portions of the deposits found at some of the springs were tested 
 for activity in the same manner. There was no evidence of thorium. 
 
 RADIOACTIVITY ANALYSES 
 
 Gas was found escaping from only one water (Alton mineral 
 spring). It was evolved at a rate of about 3 cubic centimeters per 
 minute. No radium or thorium emanation was found in the gas. 
 
 Deposits were found only at the Dixon springs of the Ozark uplift. 
 No radium or thorium was found in the deposits. 
 
 One hundred and thirty determinations of radioactivity of natural 
 waters were made, and thirty-seven determinations of the radioactivity 
 of residues sealed for thirty days. Twenty-two specimens of the 
 mineral residues were tested for thorium. No thorium was detected 
 in either the residues or waters. Excluding negative and doubt- 
 ful results, the analyses of sixty-eight waters, whose activity and 
 whose mineral constituents are known, are compared in Table 5. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE WATERS EXAMINED 
 
 Natural waters may be classified according to their physical and 
 chemical properties, 49 or according to the geological strata from which 
 they come. Classification by physical and chemical properties, as 
 for example Peale's 50 classification modified by Hay wood, 51 have been 
 tried, but have not been found advantageous, since no direct relation 
 has been found between the radioactivity and the classes of water 
 indicated. 
 
 Classified according to source, Illinois waters fall in four large 
 groups. (1) Waters from deep rock in the northern part of the 
 state, including waters from the Potsdani ?pd St. Peter sandstones, 
 from the Trenton Galena formation, and from the lower magnesium 
 limestone. 
 
16 
 
 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS 
 
 TABLE 5. RADIOACTIVITY OF SIXTY-EIGHT ILLINOIS WATERS IN COM- 
 PARISON WITH THEIR CONTENTS OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM AND RES- 
 IDUE ON EVAPORATION. 
 
 No. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Location 
 
 Depth 
 Feet 
 
 Cal- 
 cium 
 
 Magne- 
 sium 
 
 Resi- 
 due 
 
 Radioactivity 
 
 Uranium 
 10-* g. 
 
 Radi'irn 1 E.S.U. 
 10-' G.| 10- 3 
 
 [Paris per million.] 
 
 WATERS FROM DEEP-ROCK WELLS. 
 
 1 
 
 3-13-16 
 
 Alton 
 
 1450 
 
 358.4 
 
 186.8 
 
 16293.5 
 
 2 8 
 
 0.95 
 
 19.6 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 10-29-15 
 10-29-15 
 2-17-15 
 
 Carbondale . . . 
 Carbondale . . . 
 Elgin 
 
 600 
 610 
 1850 
 
 50.0 
 21.4 
 93.6 
 
 21.9 
 7.9 
 48.9 
 
 3367.5 
 2188.5 
 600 1 
 
 2.1 
 
 1.8 
 5.2 
 
 0.71 
 0.61 
 1.76 
 
 14.7 
 12.6 
 35.4 
 
 5 
 
 2-18-15 
 
 Elgin 
 
 1300 
 
 80.1 
 
 24.0 
 
 375 
 
 4 4 
 
 1 49 
 
 30 8 
 
 6 
 
 2-15-15 
 
 Harvey 
 
 1668 
 
 173.5 
 
 48.5 
 
 1204.2 
 
 3.3 
 
 1.12 
 
 23.1 
 
 7 
 
 2-25-16 
 
 Ottawa . . 
 
 400 
 
 70.4 
 
 84.0 
 
 364 
 
 2 7 
 
 92 
 
 18 9 
 
 8 
 
 2-25-16 
 
 Ottawa 
 
 1800 
 
 102 
 
 42 2 
 
 3623 
 
 2 1 
 
 71 
 
 14 7 
 
 9 
 
 2-25-16 
 
 Ottawa 
 
 
 319. 
 
 105. 
 
 3276 7 
 
 2 3 
 
 0.78 
 
 16.1 
 
 10 
 11 
 
 2-27-16 
 2-25-16 
 
 Ottawa 
 Peru 
 
 310 
 1263 
 
 58.4 
 51.5 
 
 26. 
 10.5 
 
 353. 
 746.2 
 
 3.6 
 3.1 
 
 1.23 
 1.05 
 
 25.2 
 21.7 
 
 12 
 
 2-25-16 
 
 Peru 
 
 1400 
 
 52.3 
 
 21.7 
 
 1570 4 
 
 2 7 
 
 91 
 
 18 9 
 
 13 
 
 2-25-16 
 
 Peru 
 
 1390 
 
 48.8 
 
 22. 
 
 811. 
 
 2.5 
 
 0.85 
 
 17.5 
 
 14 
 
 12- 2-15 
 
 Stonefort. . . . 
 
 
 189.3 
 
 134.7 
 
 2123 6 
 
 2 5 
 
 0.85 
 
 17.5 
 
 15 
 
 2-24-16 
 
 Streator 
 
 640 
 
 48 9 
 
 11 9 
 
 770 6 
 
 2 9 
 
 99 
 
 20 3 
 
 16 
 
 2-24-16 
 
 Streator 
 
 540 
 
 61.8 
 
 6.8 
 
 1070.7 
 
 2.4 
 
 0.82 
 
 16.8 
 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 
 2-24-16 
 2-24-16 
 2-19-15 
 2-1Q-15 
 
 Streator 
 Streator 
 Waukegan.. . . 
 
 '660 
 1500 
 
 46.6 
 56.0 
 123.9 
 7 7 
 
 24.6 
 23.9 
 23.1 
 9 1 
 
 880.5 
 1099.1 
 532.7 
 2189 
 
 1.4 
 2.2 
 2.9 
 2 
 
 0.48 
 0.75 
 1.00 
 68 
 
 9.8 
 15.4 
 20.3 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 2-19-15 
 
 Waukfcgan.. . . 
 
 
 95.0 
 
 49.9 
 
 477.5 
 
 3.5 
 
 1.19 
 
 24.6 
 
 WATERS FROM DRIFT WELLS. 
 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 
 2-17-15 
 2-26-16 
 2-26-16 
 12- 3-15 
 
 Aurora 
 Bloomington. . 
 Bloomington.. 
 
 94 
 170 
 155 
 150 
 
 72.4 
 53.2 
 51.0 
 38 9 
 
 29.5 
 28.3 
 32.4 
 21 8 
 
 326.9 
 486.8 
 421.4 
 
 4.0 
 3.3 
 5.3 
 4 5 
 
 1.36 
 1.12 
 1.80 
 1 53 
 
 28.0 
 23.1 
 37.1 
 31 5 
 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 
 9-28-15 
 9-28-15 
 9-27-15 
 2-18-15 
 12- 3-15 
 10- 6-15 
 10- 6-15 
 
 Champaign . . . 
 Champaign. . . 
 Champaign . . . 
 Elgin 
 Harrisburg 
 Homer 
 Homer 
 
 32 
 165 
 165 
 42 
 106 
 120 
 200 
 
 112.1 
 62.4 
 56.0 
 74.4 
 56.8 
 74.7 
 67.2 
 
 40.6 
 96.0 
 26.0 
 28.8 
 33.8 
 34.8 
 34.8 
 
 466.9 
 350.0 
 328.7 
 388. 
 538. 
 482.3 
 1466.1 
 
 2.9 
 2.5 
 1.6 
 6.2 
 4.1 
 4.9 
 8.4 
 
 0.99 
 0.85 
 0.54 
 2.10 
 1.40 
 1.66 
 2.86 
 
 20.3 
 17.5 
 11.2 
 43.4 
 28.7 
 34.3 
 58.8 
 
 33 
 
 10- 6-15 
 
 
 72 
 
 78. 5 
 
 36.1 
 
 512.0 
 
 6 7 
 
 2 27 
 
 46 9 
 
 34 
 
 10- 6-15 
 
 Homer 
 
 86 
 
 106.4 
 
 20.4 
 
 522. 
 
 3.2 
 
 1.09 
 
 22.4 
 
 35 
 
 2-16-15 
 
 Joliet 
 
 155 
 
 165.4 
 
 107.8 
 
 1033.2 
 
 8.4 
 
 2.86 
 
 58.8 
 
 36 
 
 2-16-15 
 
 Joliet 
 
 500 
 
 206.4 
 
 78.0 
 
 1212.5 
 
 11.4 
 
 3.88 
 
 79.8 
 
 37 
 
 2-16-15 
 
 Joliet 
 
 225 
 
 394.4 
 
 281.5 
 
 2647.4 
 
 18.7 
 
 6.36 
 
 130.9 
 
 38 
 39 
 40 
 41 
 
 10-11-15 
 12- 4-15 
 12- 2-15 
 9-24-15 
 
 Rossville 
 Shawneetown . 
 Stonefort 
 Urbana 
 
 130 
 148 
 25 
 30 
 
 57.5 
 113.9 
 130.2 
 70.9 
 
 42.9 
 50.9 
 97.0 
 32.6 
 
 356.6 
 552.1 
 1283.9 
 345.4 
 
 1.6 
 4.9 
 4.2 
 3.3 
 
 0.54 
 
 1.66 
 1.43 
 1.12 
 
 11.2 
 32.2 
 29.4 
 23.1 
 
 42 
 43 
 
 44 
 45 
 46 
 47 
 
 6- 1-15 
 12- 7-14 
 9-29-15 
 1-15-15 
 10-10-15 
 10- 8-15 
 
 Urbana 
 Urbana 
 Urbana 
 Urbana 
 Watseka 
 Watseka 
 
 60 
 
 '26 
 160 
 150 
 160 
 
 105.1 
 51.6 
 68.5 
 73.5 
 41.8 
 47.9 
 
 55.3 
 26.0 
 47.0 
 33.3 
 14.2 
 15.9 
 
 557.0 
 332.3 
 709.2 
 394.8 
 342.6 
 379.9 
 
 3.3 
 2.4 
 2.1 
 2.4 
 3.6 
 4.3 
 
 1.12 
 0.82 
 0.7 
 0.82 
 1.22 
 1.46 
 
 23.1 
 16.8 
 14.7 
 16.8 
 25.2 
 30.1 
 
 WATER FROM LOWER MISSISSIPPIAN. 
 
 48 
 
 10-26-15 
 
 Cairo 
 
 824 
 
 45.1 
 
 12.9 
 
 337.7 
 
 3.3 
 
 1.12 
 
 23.1 
 
 49 
 
 10-26-15 
 
 Cairo 
 
 824 
 
 45.4 
 
 12.8 
 
 336.4 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.68 
 
 14.0 
 
 50 
 
 10-26-15 
 
 Cairo 
 
 1040 
 
 46.1 
 
 13.0 
 
 348.8 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.49 
 
 9.8 
 
 51 
 
 10-26-15 
 
 Cairo 
 
 675 
 
 63.0 
 
 17.9 
 
 643.1 
 
 4.1 
 
 1.39 
 
 28.7 
 
 52 
 
 10-26-15 
 
 Cairo 
 
 826 
 
 52.9 
 
 13.8 
 
 435.6 
 
 13.0 
 
 4.42 
 
 91.0 
 
 53 
 
 10-26-15 
 
 Cairo 
 
 800 
 
 66.6 
 
 21.0 
 
 571.3 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.49 
 
 9.8 
 
 54 
 
 10-26-15 
 
 Mound City. . 
 
 630 
 
 45.2 
 
 12.5 
 
 265.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 0.85 
 
 17.5 
 
 55 
 
 12- 2-15 
 
 Creal Springs. 
 
 
 
 
 711. 
 
 24.6 
 
 8.36 
 
 172.2 
 
 56 
 
 10-27-15 
 
 Dixon Spring. 
 
 
 4i!2 
 
 is!2 
 
 305.7 
 
 18.2 
 
 6.19 
 
 127.4 
 
 57 
 
 10-27-15 
 
 Dixon Spring. 
 
 
 26.4 
 
 14.1 
 
 232.9 
 
 86.1 
 
 29.30 
 
 602.7 
 
 58 
 
 10-27-15 
 
 Dixon Spring.. 
 
 ! '. '. 
 
 29.1 
 
 13.3 
 
 247.0 
 
 4.9 
 
 1.67 
 
 34.3 
 
 59 
 
 10-27-15 
 
 Dixon Spring. 
 
 
 28.9 
 
 14.2 
 
 261.4 
 
 4.0 
 
 1.36 
 
 28.0 
 
 60 
 
 12-16-15 
 
 Dixon Spring . 
 
 '. '. ! 
 
 5.1 
 
 1.4 
 
 62.3 
 
 67.0 
 
 22.80 
 
 469.0 
 
 61 
 
 12-16-15 
 
 Dixon Spring.. 
 
 
 2.9 
 
 0.5 
 
 98.1 
 
 13.0 
 
 4.42 
 
 91.0 
 
 SPRING WATER NORTH OF OZARK UPLIFT. 
 
 62 
 63 
 64 
 
 10-28-15 
 10-28-15 
 2-25-16 
 
 Mt. Vernon. . . 
 Mt. Vernon. . . 
 Ottawa 
 
 
 319.1 
 103.8 
 102 
 
 203.0 
 50.9 
 42 2 
 
 2610.1 
 1202.6 
 3623. 
 
 5.2 
 2.2 
 2.1 
 
 1.76 
 0.92 
 0.71 
 
 36.4 
 15.4 
 14.7 
 
 65 
 
 2-25-16 
 
 Ottawa 
 
 
 319.0 
 
 105.0 
 
 3276.7 
 
 2.3 
 
 0.78 
 
 16.1 
 
 66 
 
 2-25-16 
 
 Peru 
 
 
 52 3 
 
 21.7 
 
 1570. 
 
 2.7 
 
 0.91 
 
 18.9 
 
 67 
 68 
 
 2-19-15 
 2-19-15 
 
 Waukegan. . . . 
 Waukegan.. . . 
 
 
 95.0 
 123.9 
 
 49.9 
 23.1 
 
 477.5 
 532.7 
 
 3.5 
 2.9 
 
 1.19 
 1.00 
 
 24.5 
 20.3 
 
RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 17 
 
 (2) "Waters from the drift, including those occurring in glacial 
 drift, alluvial drift and in loess. 
 
 (3) Waters from the lower Mississippian, including the deep- 
 well waters south of the Ozark uplift. 
 
 (4) Waters from the Ozark uplift, mainly springs, occurring 
 among the Ozark foot hills of southern Illinois. 
 
 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 
 
 The activity of the sixty-eight waters, expressed in terms of the 
 uranium, radium, and electrostatic-unit standards, are exhibited with 
 calcium, magnesium, and residue according to the four geological 
 groups in which the waters are classified in Table 5. No apparent 
 relation exists between the activity and other mineral constituents, 
 so that data concerning them are omitted. 
 
 Waters from deep-rock wells have a uniform activity but varying 
 amounts of mineral constituents. Waters from drift wells vary both 
 in activity and mineral constituents. Waters from the lower Mis- 
 sissippian vary in activity but have a uniform amount of mineral 
 matter. Spring waters can be divided in two smaller groups: one 
 with constant activity and varying mineral matter; the other with 
 constant mineral matter and varying activity. 
 
 Waters from wells in deep rock 
 
 The activities of twenty-one waters from deep-rock wells vary 
 between 0.5 and 1.5 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter. The largest 
 number, however, have an activity of approximately 1.0 x 10' 10 gram 
 of radium per liter. These waters of uniform activity vary widely 
 in mineral constituents, for calcium varies between 8 and 360 parts 
 per million; magnesium between 7 and 187 parts per million, and 
 residue, between 364 and 16,300 parts per million. A water (No. 
 11 from Peru) with a calcium content of 51.5 parts per million, a mag- 
 nesium content of 10.5 parts per million, and a residue of 746 parts 
 per million has an activity of 1.05 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, 
 and a much more highly mineralized water (No. 1 from Alton), with 
 a calcium content of 358.4 parts per million, a magnesium content of 
 186.8 parts per million, and a residue of 16293.5 parts per million, 
 has an activity of 0.95 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, which is 
 practically the same as that of the first water. There appears to be 
 no relation between the activity and the mineral constituents of these 
 waters (See Plate 2). 
 
18 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS 
 
 Waters from wells in drift 
 
 The activities of twenty-six waters from drift wells vary between 
 0.5 and 5.7 x 10' 10 grain radium per liter. These waters of varying 
 activity vary also in mineral constituents : calcium, between 42 and 
 395 parts per million; magnesium, between 14 and 282 parts per 
 million, and residue between 327 and 2647 parts per million. The 
 activity of the waters in this group increases with an increase in 
 mineral constituents. (Plate 3 and 4). 
 
 A water (No. 38 from Rossville) of the lowest mineral content, 
 having 57.5 parts per million of calcium, 42.9 parts per million of 
 magnesium, and a residue of 356.6 parts per million, has an activity of 
 but 0.54 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, and another water, (No. 
 37 from Joliet) of the highest mineral content, with 394.4 parts per 
 million of calcium, 281.5 parts per million of magnesium, and a resi- 
 due of 2647.4 parts per million, has the highest activity, 6.36 x 10" 10 
 gram radium per liter. The activities of the two waters are in the 
 same ratio as the like mineral constituents. 
 
 In many waters the relation appears to be quantitative. The 
 relation between the activity and calcium in the majority of the waters 
 examined is 56 parts per million of calcium for every 1.0 x 10' 10 
 grama of radium. 
 
 The relation between the activity and magnesium in the majority 
 of the waters examined is 44 parts per million magnesium for each 
 1.0 x 10' 10 gram of radium. 
 
 By adding the calcium and magnesium we get in the majority 
 of waters examined 100 parts per million of calcium and magnesium 
 for each 1.0 x 10' 10 gram of radium. 
 
 The relation between activity and residue in most of the waters 
 examined is 400 parts per million of residue for each 1.0 x 10' 10 
 gram of radium. 
 
 No other relation between the activity and mineral constituents 
 were found, nor was a relation found between the activity and the 
 depth of the well. 
 
 Waters from wells in lower Mississippian 
 
 The activities of seven waters from the Lower Mississippian vary 
 between 0.5 and 4.5 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, a variation of 
 1 to 9. These waters have very uniform mineralization, calcium, from 
 45 to 67 parts per million (a variation of only 1 to 1.5) ; magnesium, 
 from 13 to 21 parts per million, (1 to 1.7), and residue, from 266 
 to 643 parts per million, (1 to 2.4). The variation of the residues 
 is even less if the sodium chloride is subtracted. (See plate 5). 
 
RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 19 
 
 A water (No. 50 from Cairo) with a content of calcium of 46.1 
 parts per million, of magnesium of 13.0 parts per million, and a residue 
 of 349 parts per million (residue minus sodium chloride equals 200 
 parts per million) has the lowest activity of 0.49 x 10' 10 gram of 
 radium per liter; and another water (No. 52 from Cairo) with pract- 
 ically the same mineral content, having 52.9 parts per million of 
 calcium, 13.8 parts per million of magnesium, and a residue of 435.6 
 parts per million (residue minus sodium chloride equals 224 parts per 
 million), has the highest activity, 4.42 x 10- 10 gram of radium per 
 liter, which is nine times that of the first water. There appears to 
 be no relation between the activity of these waters and the mineral 
 constituents. 
 
 Waters from springs 
 
 The activities of fourteen spring waters vary between 0.8 and 
 29.3 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter. These waters of varying activity 
 have varying mineral constituents; calcium from 3 to 319 parts per 
 million; magnesium, 0.5 to 203 parts per million, and residue from 
 98 to 2610 parts per million. However, the waters can be divided 
 into two groups, one group, including the springs north of the 
 Ozark uplift, resembles the waters from deep rock wells having con- 
 stant activity and variable mineral content, while the other includes 
 the springs in the Ozark uplift of variable activity and variable 
 mineral content. (Plate 6). 
 
 Springs north of Ozark uplift 
 
 The activities of seven springs north of the Ozark uplift vary 
 between 0.7 and 1.7 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, a variation of 
 1 to 2.4. These waters of rather uniform activity differ widely in 
 mineral constituents; calcium from 95 to 319 parts per million, a 
 variation of 1 to 3.3 ; the magnesium from 23 to 203 parts per million, 
 a variation of 1 to 9, and residue from 533 to 3623 parts per million, 
 a variation of 1 to 7. 
 
 A water (No. 66 from Peru) with 52.3 parts of calcium, 21.7 
 parts of magnesium and a residue of 1570 parts per million, has an 
 activity of 0.91 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, and another water 
 (No. 65 from Ottawa) of much higher mineral content, with 319.0 
 parts per million of calcium, 105.0 parts per million of magnesium, 
 and a residue of 3277 parts per million, has an activity of 0.78 x 10' 10 
 gram of radium per liter, which is slightly lower than that of the 
 former water. There appears to be no specific relation between the 
 activity of these waters and the mineral constituents. (Plate 6). 
 
20 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS 
 
 Springs of the Ozark uplift 
 
 The activities of seven springs in the Ozark uplift vary between 
 1.4 and 29.3 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, a variation of 1 to 21. 
 These waters of widely varying activity differ in mineral constituents, 
 calcium, from 3 to 41 parts per million, a variation of 1 to 13.7; 
 magnesium, from 0.5 to 18 parts per million, a variation of 1 to 36, 
 residue, from 63 to 711 parts per million, a variation of 1 to 11.3. 
 No uniform relation exists, however, between the activity and mineral 
 constituents, for the water highest in activity (29.3 x 10' 10 gram of 
 radium per liter for No. 57 from Dixon Spring) is but slightly min- 
 eralized, having 26.4 parts per million of calcium, 14.1 parts per 
 million of magnesium, and 232.9 parts per million of residue; the 
 water highest in mineral matter, with 41.2 parts per million of cal- 
 cium, 18.2 parts per million of magnesium, and 306 parts per million 
 of residue, has a medium activity of 6.19 x 10' 10 gram of radium per 
 liter (No. 56 from Dixon Spring) ; the water lowest in activity (1.36 
 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter for No. 59 from Dixon Spring) has 
 a rather low mineral matter, containing 28.9 parts per million of 
 calcium, 14.2 parts per million of magnesium and 261 parts per mil- 
 lion of residue; and the water lowest in mineral matter, with 2.9 
 parts per million of calcium, 0.5 part per million of magnesium, and 
 98.1 parts per million of residue, has a medium activity of 4.42 x 10' 10 
 gram of radium per liter (No. 61 from Dixon Spring). As both the 
 mineral content and the activity is variable there appears to be no 
 relation between the activity of these waters and the mineral consti- 
 tuents. (See Plate 6). 
 
 Some of the springs of the Ozark region have the highest activi- 
 ties of any waters in the State, (29.3 x 10' 10 grain of radium per liter 
 in No. 57 from Dixon spring, 22.8 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter 
 in No. 60 from Dixon Spring) . Careful search was made for thorium 
 and uranium but none were found. The decay of the activity from 
 four springs was determined during a period of nineteen days and 
 found to be the same as that of radium emanation amounting to 3.85 
 days per half period. (See Table 6 and Plate 1) . 
 
 COMPARISON WITH OTHER AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN WATERS 
 
 The activities of typical waters from several localities in America 
 and Europe lie between 100 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter and zero. 
 (See Table 7). The most active waters are found in Colorado, Tyrol, 
 Bohemia, and in other localities where uranium deposits occur. No 
 traces of uranium deposits have been found in Illinois. Next to the 
 
RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 
 
 21 
 
 waters from Uranium regions the Imperial spring at Hot Springs, 
 Arkansas, is the most active in the United States having a radioactivity 
 of 90.5 x 1O 10 gram of radium per liter (266 x 10' 4 gram of uranium). 
 Two springs at Arlington, Rhode Island, are next with activities of 
 58 and 47 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter. Dixon Spring No. 2 in 
 this State is next with an activity of 29.3 x 10' 10 gram of radium per 
 liter. Several waters of high activity have been found in Germany 
 and Switzerland. They are comparable with the highest waters in 
 the United States. Other waters of Illinois vary in activity between 
 that of Dixon Spring No. 2 and zero. 
 
 Several of the waters of Illinois have an activity as high as that of 
 some waters for which medicinal value is claimed. 
 
 TABLE 6. DECAY OF ACTIVITY OF WATER FROM DIXON SPRINGS, 
 Nos. 2, 3, 4, & 7. 
 
 Time. 
 
 Activity (10- 4 gram of Uranium). 
 
 No. 2 
 
 No. 3 
 
 No. 4 
 
 No. 7 
 
 Ihr. 
 
 2.'58 
 
 2.80 
 
 2.05 
 
 
 2 hrs. 
 
 2.58 
 
 3.51 
 
 2.65 
 
 
 3hrs. 
 
 2.68 
 
 
 2.73 
 
 3QA 
 
 5hre. 
 
 2.58 
 
 
 2.81 
 
 
 6 hrs. 
 
 
 3!25 
 
 2.81 
 
 
 18 hrs. 
 
 
 
 2.46 
 
 24!6 
 
 24 hrs. 
 
 2!27 
 
 2!s6 
 
 2.05 
 
 23.0 
 
 2 days 
 
 1.79 
 
 
 
 17.6 
 
 3 days 
 
 
 i!55 
 
 i'.si 
 
 
 4 days 
 
 i!26 
 
 
 
 ii!4 
 
 6 days 
 
 0.82 
 
 l!24 
 
 "82 
 
 
 12 days 
 
 0.18 
 
 .43 
 
 .33 
 
 
 14 days 
 
 0.12 
 
 
 
 
 19 davs 
 
 0.10 
 
 ".33 
 
 '!30 
 
 6! 60 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 The activity of waters from deep-rock wells is low and constant. 
 
 The activity of waters from the drift is low, but varies with the 
 calcium, magnesium, and residue. 
 
 The activity of waters from the lower Mississippian is low and 
 there is no relation to the mineral content. 
 
 The activity of spring waters of the Ozark uplift is the highest in 
 the State, and bears no relation to the mineral content. Spring waters 
 north of the Ozark uplift have a low and constant activity and closely 
 resemble the waters of the deep-rock wells. 
 
 The activity of waters of Illinois bears no relation to the depth 
 of the well. 
 
 The activity is due to radium emanation. In no case was uranium 
 or thorium found. 
 
 The activity of Illinois waters is comparable with the activity 
 of other waters of the United States and Europe. 
 
22 
 
 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS 
 
 The maximum activity observed in the waters of the State is 
 exceeded within this country, but equals that of some waters for which 
 medicinal value is claimed. 
 
 TABLE 7. RADIOACTIVITY OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN WATERS. 
 
 Electrostatic units x 10- 3 
 
 Austria, Tyrols, Froy Magnesium Springs. . 
 
 Austria, Tyrols, Froy Iron Springs 
 
 Austria, Tyrols, Froy Sulphu r Springs 
 
 Italy, Naples, Near Hassler Hotel 
 
 Italy, Naples, Appolo Water 
 
 France , Vpges, Bain les Bains 
 
 France, Vichy, Chomel Spring 
 
 France, Bagnoles de 1'Orne 
 
 France, Luxeuil, Grand Bain 
 
 Germany, Gastein 
 
 Germany, Baden Baden Buttquells 
 
 Germany, Baden Baden Freidrichsquelle. . . 
 
 Germany, Karlsbad Eisenquells 
 
 Germany, Karlsbad Felsenquelle 
 
 Germany, Wildbad 
 
 Germany, Wiesbaden Koch Brunnen 
 
 Germany, Karlsbad Muhl Brunnen 
 
 Russia, Caucausus, Essentuky No. 6 
 
 Russia, Caucausus, Batalinsky 
 
 Sweden, Uppsala Slottskallan 
 
 Sweden, Uppsala Bourbrum 
 
 Sweden, Stockholm Birjerjarlsg No. 120 . . . 
 
 Sweden, Medevi Hoghum 
 
 Switzerland, St, Joachimstahl 
 
 Switzerland, Rothenbrunnen 
 
 Switzerland, Disentis 
 
 Switzerland, Andeer 
 
 51.0 
 
 11.0 
 4.5 
 2.7 
 1.5 
 
 16.0 
 
 4.6 
 
 3.3 
 
 2.3 
 
 149.0 
 
 126.0 
 
 6.7 
 
 47.0 
 5.3 
 1.8 
 2.3 
 
 31.5 
 8.6 
 1.5 
 4.29 
 3.77 
 
 35.68 
 6.38 
 185.0 
 0.81 
 
 46.7 
 3.26 
 
 (7) 
 
 (39) 
 (29) 
 
 (39) 
 
 (117) 
 (48) 
 (74) 
 (81) 
 
 (112) 
 
 (74) 
 (109) 
 
 Uranium 
 10- 4 gram. 
 
 Curries 
 10- 10 
 
 Arkansas, Hot Springs, Imperial Springs 
 
 Arkansas, Hot Springs, Twin springs 
 
 Arkansas, Hot Springs, Arsenic spring 
 
 Indiana, Bloomington, city water 
 
 Indiana, Bloomington, University water 
 
 Massachusetts, Williamstown, Sand spring 
 Massachusetts, Williamstown, Wampanoag. . . . 
 
 Massachusetts, Williamstown, Rich spring 
 
 Massachusetts, Williamstown, Sherman spring. 
 
 Massachusetts, Williamstown, Cold spring 
 
 Missouri, Columbia, University well 
 
 Missouri, Sweet Springs, Sweet springs 
 
 Missouri, Fayette, Boonlick springs 
 
 Missouri, Kansas City, Lake spring 
 
 New York, Saratoga, Emperor , 
 
 New York, Saratoga, Crystal rock , 
 
 Ohio, Oxford 
 
 266.0 
 65.4 
 23.9 
 
 1.68 
 23.7 
 
 4.6 
 48.2 
 
 0.27 
 
 0.45 
 
 1.21 
 
 2.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.70 
 8.80 
 0.70 
 
 (18) 
 
 (91) 
 (111) 
 
 (82) 
 
 (84) 
 (91) 
 
 Uranium 
 10- 4 gram 
 
 Radium 
 10-iu gram 
 
 Electro- 
 static 
 units 10-* 
 
 Rhode Island, Arlington, Spring. 
 Rhode Island, Arlington, Spring. 
 
 Rhode Island, Providence 
 
 Rhode Island, East Providence. . 
 
 Yellowstone National Park 
 
 Mammouth Hot Springs 
 
 Devil's Ink Pot 
 
 Realgar Springs 
 
 Nymph Springs 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Cairo 
 
 Creal Springs, No. 3 . 
 Dixon Springs, No. 2. 
 Dixon Springs, No. 7. 
 
 Homer Park 
 
 Joliet, Well 
 
 Mt. Vernon, Spring. . 
 
 ?ea Water. . . 
 
 37.9 
 
 0.6 
 
 10.6 
 
 13.0 
 24.6 
 86.1 
 67.0 
 
 8.4 
 11.4 
 
 5.2 
 
 57.93 
 
 46.71 
 
 10.33 
 
 1.18 
 
 14.4 
 0.23 
 4.0 
 2.6 
 
 4.42 
 
 8.36 
 29.27 
 22.78 
 
 2.86 
 
 3.88 
 
 1.76 
 
 0.0003 
 
 26.3 
 0.4 
 7.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 9.1 
 
 17.2 
 
 60.2 
 
 46.6 
 
 5.8 
 
 8.0 
 
 (89) 
 
 (83 
 
 (64) 
 
RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 23 
 
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24 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS 
 
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RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 25 
 
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26 
 
 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS 
 
 Simple Electroscope 
 For Solids 
 
 Simple Electroscope 
 For Gases 
 
 Fiq.3. 
 
 Simple Electroscope 
 For Solutions 
 
 Electroacope 
 For Solids 
 
RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 
 
 27 
 
 . 6. 
 
 Front View 5ide View 
 
 Electroscope -for Gases 
 
 Fig- 8. 
 
 Jt- 
 
 Apparatus for separatirtq 
 Emanation -from Uiramni-ir 
 
 Apparatus f>r eeparatinq 
 Emanation -from Water 
 
28 
 
 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS 
 
 RADIUM EMANATION 
 
 ACTIVITY OF WATER FROM SPRIMG NO. 
 
 ACTIVITY OF WATR FROM SPRlWfr NO. 3 
 
 ACTIVITY OF wxTEf? FROM SPRING NO 
 
 e ACTIVITY OF W/tTER F*0tt 5 PRI NG NO. 7 
 
 Time 
 
 Plate 1. Comparison of decay of activities of waters from Dixon Springs 
 
 with radium emanation. 
 
 o CALCIUM 
 e MA6NE5IUM 
 
 o g- 
 
 e o 
 
 40 80 /20 _ e .. |o 200 
 
 Calcium o.nd rw^nesium r-r-n> 
 
 Plate 2. Eelation of activity to calcium and magnesium in waters from deep 
 
 rock wells. 
 
RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 
 
 29 
 
 Calcium a./ Magnesium P.RM- 
 Plate 3. Eelation of activity to calcium and magnesium in water from drift wells. 
 
 6.0 
 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 7* 
 
 2 
 
 oo 
 
 600 
 
 1*00 1800 
 
 Residues PPM. 
 
 2400 
 
 9000 
 
 Plate 4. Eelation of activity to residue in water from drift wells. 
 
30 
 
 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS 
 
 
 
 
 <D 
 
 e 
 
 
 o CALCIUM 
 e RESIDUE 
 ' RESIPUE-NaCi 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 e 
 e 
 
 ?0 
 
 e 
 
 i 
 
 w Ca/c/</7n 120 pp^j. 
 
 Plate 5. Eelation of activity to calcium and residue in water from lower 
 
 Mississippian. 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Ozark Springs 
 Other Springs 
 
 Residues 
 
 Or ark Spring* 
 a> Other Springs 
 
 o o 
 
 <D O 
 
 Plate 6. Belation of activity to calcium and residue in water from springs. 
 
VITA 
 
 The writer received his early education in the public schools of 
 Kissimmee, Florida, and Watseka, Illinois. He was graduated with 
 the degree of Bachelor of Science from the University of Illinois in 
 1913. In 1914, he received the degree of Master of Science at the 
 same institution. 
 
 From 1911 to 1913 he was student assistant in Sanitary Chem- 
 istry at the University of Illinois. From 1913 to 1914 he was a gradu- 
 ate assistant in Electro- Chemistry (one semester) and Qualitative 
 Analysis (one semester). During the summers of 1911, 1912, 1913, 
 and 1914 he was assistant chemist in the State Water Survey. From 
 1914 to 1916 he was a fellow in Sanitary Chemistry at the University 
 of Illinois. 
 His publications are : 
 
 The Perchloric Method of Determining Potassium as Applied 
 to Water Analysis. 
 
 Am. Chem. Soc., 36, 2085 (1914). 
 
 Univ. of 111. Bull., State Water Survey Series No. 11, 150 (1914). 
 
 Chem. News, 111, 62 (1915). 
 With Edward Bartow, 
 
 The Comparative Value of a Calcium Lime and a Magnesium- 
 Calcium Lime for Water Softening. 
 
 J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6, 189 (1914). 
 
 Univ. of 111. Bull., State Water Survey Series No. 11, 142 (1914). 
 
AN INITIAL PINE OP 25 CENTS 
 
 RETURN 
 Wli *,*. DUE ' E PENALTY 
 
 DAY AND * CENTS N E FOUR 
 
 MAR 4 1936 
 
Syracuse, N. Y. 
 PAT. JAN. 21, 1908 
 
 385520 
 
 
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