EXCHANGE THE RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS BY CLARENCE SCROLL B. S. University of Illinois, 1913 M. S. University of Illinois, 1914 THESIS Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN CHEMISTRY IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS - IT? 1916 THE RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS BY CLARENCE SCROLL B. S. University of Illinois, 1913 M. S. University of Illinois, 1914 .; THESIS Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN CHEMISTRY IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY 1916 Gen ACKNOWLEDGMENT This investigation was carried out at the suggestion and under the direction of Professor Edward Bartow. I wish to take this opportunity of thanking Professor Bartow for the assistance given me during the investigation. I wish also to express my appreciation and thanks to the members of the Physics Department for their sug- gestions and help in the electrical measurements. CONTENTS PAGE Acknowledgement 2 Historical . . 5 Methods of detection and measurement 6 Radioactive standards 8 Plan of work 10 Apparatus 11 Electroscope for gases 11 Electroscope for solids 12 Standardization of electroscopes 12 Electroscope for gases 13 Electroscope for solids 14 Separation of emanation from water 14 Test for thorium 15 Radioactivity analyses 15 Classification of the waters examined 15 Discussion of results 17 Waters from wells in deep rock 17 Waters from wells in drift 18 Waters from wells in Lower Mississipian 18 Waters from springs 19 Springs north of Ozark uplift 19 Springs of the Ozark uplift 20 Comparison with other American and European waters 20 Conclusions 21 Bibliography 23 Vita . ..31 TABLES PAGE 1. Rutherford 's list of radioactive elements 6 2. Relative luminosity of various substances used in the luminous screen method 7 3. Standardization of electroscopes for gases 13 4. Standardization of electroscope for solids 14 5. Radioactivity of waters in comparison with their contents of calcium, magnesium and residue 1(5 6. Decay of activity of water from Dixon Springs 21 7. Radioactivity of American and European waters 22 FIGUEES 1. Simple electroscope for solids 26 2. Simple electroscope for gases 26 3. Simple electroscope for solutions 26 4. Electroscope for solids 26 5. Electroscope for gases, front view 27 6. Electroscope for gases, side view 27 7. Apparatus for separating emanation from uraninite 27 8. Apparatus for separating emanation from water 27 PLATES 1. Comparison of decay of activities of water from Dixon Springs with radium emanations 28 2. Relation of activity to calcium and magnesium in waters from deep-rock wells 28 3. Relation of activity to calcium and magnesium in water from drift wells 29 4. Relation of activity to residues in water from drift wells 29 5. Relation of activity to calcium and residue in water from lower Mississippian 30 6. Relation of activity to calcium and residue in water from springs , 30 RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS.* By Clarence Scholl During his visit to the United States in 1902, J. J. Thomson 120 reported that the research men of Cavendish laboratory of London had separated a very active gas from a deep well water. At Professor Thomson 's suggestion Bumstead and Wheeler 26 investigated the waters of New Milford and New Haven, Connecticut, and found that these two waters contained gases whose activity was six to eight times the normal air leak of an electroscope. Similar research made by other investigators, 1 - 3 ' 29 ' 36 ' 56 ' 72 ' 115 ' upon European waters, showed that the active gases occurred universally but varied in quantity in different localities. As there was no standard of activity at that time no quan- titative measurements were made; the period of decay of the active material was found to correspond in most cases to the decay period of radium emanation. Boltwood 17 in 1904, and Boltwood and Rutherford 19 in 1906, in- vestigated the proportion of radium and uranium in radioactive min- erals and found the ratio of radium to uranium to be constant, 3.4 x 10-7 grams of radium per gram of uranium. Lind and Whittemore 69 confirmed this ratio in 1915. As the amount of radium emanation in equilibrium with radium is constant, the amount of radium emanation is, therefore, proportional to the amount of uranium. Boltwood 15 suggested that the quantity of radium emanation set free when a known weight of a natural uranium mineral is dissolved in a suitable reagent, be taken as a standard of radioactivity. In 1905 he used this standard in investigating the activity of the very active thermal spring of Hot Springs, Arkansas. 18 Bolt- wood's emanation standard was adopted by Moore and Schlundt in their investigations of the waters of Missouri 82 (1905) , and the thermal waters of the Yellowstone National Park 83 (1909) ; by Shrader 111 in the investigation of waters near Williamstown, Massachusetts (1914) ; by Moore and Whittemore 84 in the investigation of Saratoga Springs, New York (1914) ; by Ramsey 91 in the investigation of the waters of Indiana and Ohio (1915) ; and by Perkins 89 in the investigation of the waters of Rhode Island (1915). *A thesis prepared under the direction of Professor Edward Bartow and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in chemistry in th University of Illinois, June, 1916. 6 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS Radium emanation, which causes the radioactivity of waters, is formed by the decomposition of radium, which may or may not be present in the water. The emanation is dissolved by the water in its passage through the ground. Eadium emanation is the sixth element in the list of active ele- ments compiled by Rutherford, 97 given in Table 1. TABLE 1. RUTHERFORD'S LIST OF RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS. Element Radiation Half life period Uranium oc 6 x 10 9 years Uranium X +7 24. 6 days Uranium Y P 1.5 days Ionium a Greater than 20,000 years Radium a -}- slow P 2,000 years Emanation <x 3.85 days Radium A a 3 min. Radium B 0+7 26.8 min. Radium C t ++7 19.5 min. Radium C z j8 1.4 min. Radium D slowjS 16.5 years Radium E 0+7 5 days Radium F a 136 days Radium salts, although seldom found in natural waters have been found in waters in the Tyrol 7 district of the Alps and in the Doughty Springs 47 of Colorado. Their absence in most natural waters is ex- plained by the chemical properties 113 of the element. It is in the second group of Mendeljeff's periodic system as the highest member of the barium series. Radium sulfate is, therefore, even more insolu- ble than barium sulfate ; even radium chloride remains dissolved only in a solution strongly acidified with hydrochloric acid. Since many natural waters are alkaline and many contain large quantities of sul- fate and chloride, radium salts can not be present in solution. Most waters, therefore, contain only emanation. METHODS OF DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT. Three general methods have been employed for determining the presence of radioactive material: (1) the photographic method, (2) the luminous screen method, and (3) the electrical method. 1. The photographic method 27 was used very extensively in the early measurements of activity. It depends on the darkening of a photographic plate when exposed to the action of the active substance. The method may be used with distinct advantage in studying the curvature of the path of the rays when under the influence of a mag- netic or electric field. As a quantitative method, however, it is open to many objections. The active material must be in a solid state of aggregation, and usually a day 's exposure to a weak source of radiation RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 7 is required to produce an appreciable darkening of the photographic film. Since darkening of a photographic plate may be produced by many agents which do not give out radioactive rays, special precau- tions are necessary during long exposures. Another and more impor- tant difficulty, however, lies in the inaccuracy inhering in measure- ments of density in the photographic impression from which the intensity of the radiation must be calculated. 2. The luminous screen method 28 ' 35 depends upon the appear- ance of a brief illumination when an alpha ray from an active material strikes a screen of sensitive material such as barium platinocyanide, willemite, diamond, or zinc sulfide. The amount of active material present can be calculated from the number of illuminations in a given time. The method has been used extensively, but its application is limited by the low intensity of some of the illuminations. The lumi- nosities produced in barium platinocyanide, willemite, and diamond are of service only in qualitative work. Table 2 gives the relative luminosity of five substances. 100 TABLE 2. RELATIVE LUMINOSITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES USED IN THE LUMINOUS SCREEN METHOD. Substance Without Screen Through Black Paper Zinc blende. . . . 13 36 53 Barium platinocyanide. . 1.99 10 Diamond 1 14 01 Potassium uranium dout le sulfate 1 00 31 Calcium fluoride 0.30 0.01 The luminosity produced in zinc sulfide has proved invaluable in quantitative work, since it affords a direct method of counting the number of alpha particles emitted from an active solid substance, but it is not applicable to waters, whose activity is due to gases. 3. The electrical method 75,90,103,114,119 j s based on the ionization of gases by radioactive substances. The production of positively and negatively charged particles in a gas is directly proportional to the number of rays emitted, to the quantity of radioactive material, and to the current of electricity which can pass through the gas. The strength of this current of electricity is the quantity usually deter- mined: the maximum current produced when the gas is electrically saturated is always taken. The strength of the current can be measured with a sensitive elec- trometer. 2 ' 25 - 37 ' 71 But in most cases, since the material is but slightly active, it is more convenient to use an electroscope. 17 ' 63 ' 125 ' 126 Since the capacity of an electroscope is nearly constant, the average rate of 8 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS movement of the leaves is directly proportional to the rate of discharging the system, to the amount of electricity passing through the gas, to the ionization of the gas, to the number of rays emitted, and to the amount of active material present. If a solid substance is placed between two horizontal plates, the lower connected to the earth, the upper connected to the leaf system of a charged electroscope the activity can be determined directly by observing the rate of fall of the leaf with a telemicroscope provided with a uniform scale in the eyepiece. The observed fall must be corrected by subtracting the natural leak of the apparatus when no radioactive material is present. An electroscope of this kind is especially suited for the measurement of activity caused by alpha rays, (see Figure 1.) A modification of this electroscope can be used to determine extremely small currents of electricity with accuracy. This modi- fication first used by Wilson 125 in the study of the ionization of air, has the gold leaf attached to the vertical upper plate (see Figure 2). The whole system of plate and leaf is insulated within the containing vessel after charging by means of a movable wire passed through the walls of the vessel and touched to the upper plate whenever de- sired. RADIOACTIVE STANDARDS. A great many measurements of the activity of spring and well waters have been made, but there is no general comparison of the results of various investigators. Of the many standards suggested, but three are now in general use : the McCoy 79 - 80 urano-uranic oxide standard, the Boltwood 16 ' 19 - 22 equilibrium emanation standard (the curie) , and the C. G. S. absolute standard. McCoy, Ashman, and Boss 80 have recently studied the relation between the McCoy urano-uranic oxide standard and the C. G. S. unit by using uniform layers of specially prepared oxide. 79 They found the ionization currents due to the alpha rays from a thick film of urano-uranic oxide to be 5.79 x 10' 13 amperes or 1.737' 3 C. G. S. elec- trostatic units per square centimeter. This value is constant and capable of being reproduced. The specific activity of uranium, 78 defined as the total ionization current from one gram of uranium when all the radiation is absorbed in the air, is 796 McCoy units. The total ionization currents from one gram of uranium free from its products is then 1.38 C.G.S. electrostatic units. Rutherford 99 has shown that one gram of uranium emits 2.37 x 10 4 alpha particles per second. Each particle has a range of 2.50 centimeters and produces a total of 1.26 x 10 5 ions. Each of these RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 9 ions 98 has an elementary charge of electricity of 4.65 x KV 10 C. G. S. electrostatic units. Thus one gram of uranium is equivalent to 2.37 x 10 4 x 1.26 x 10 5 x 4.65 x 10- 10 =1.38 C. G. S. electrostatic units. This agrees with the figure cited above. Boltwood 20 has shown that if the activity of uranium free from its product be taken as 1.00, the relative values of the activities due to alpha rays of the different elements in equilibrium in a uranium mineral are as follows: Uranium 1.00 Ionium 34 Radium 45 Radium emanation 54 Radium A 62 Radium B 04 Radium C 91 Radium F (Polonium) 46 Actinium and its products 28 Total activity 4.64 x Uranium In the determination of the activity of a sample of uraninite by means of the emanation method an activity is separated equivalent to that of radium emanation, or 0.54 of the activity of the uranium present. The decay of radium emanation into radium A, B, and C however, is so rapid that in the determination not only the effect of the radium emanation is measured but also the effect of radium A, B, and C. The effect of radium F (Polonium) is small and can be neg- lected. The sum of these activities will be 0.54 + 0.62 + 0.04 -f 0.91 = 2.11 times that of uranium free from its products, if all activity is absorbed in air. Hence 1.38 x 2.11 == 2.90 C. G. S. electrostatic units is the total equivalent of one gram of uranium in uraninite, if the emanation is calculated at its maximum activity. Duane and Laborde's 32 formula for the relation between a max- imum current and that obtained in any electroscope is (I is the electric current in electrostatic units in an electroscope with a surface S and a volume V. I is the true equivalent in electrostatic 10 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS units). Solving this equation for the current of the electroscope, we get Substituting the values of S and V for the gas electroscopes, we get 2777 I = 0.696 electrostatic units. The activity of one gram of uranium, therefore, equals 0.696 elect- rostatic units in the system. This factor was used in changing data from the uraninite standard to the electrostatic unit standard. PLAN OF WORK. The purpose of this investigation was to determine quantitatively the radioactivity of Illinois waters and to study the relations, if any, between the radioactivity, the dissolved mineral constituents, and the geographical and geological locations from which the waters were obtained. The electrical method of measuring radioactivity was adopted for use in the investigation. The first electroscope tried, made ac- cording to specifications of some European investigators, 39 was found unreliable for small quantitative measurements, when tested with ur- aninite. A modification of an electroscope designed by Wilson, 125 was tested and found satisfactory for the measurement of radioactivity of gases, and an electroscope with an ordinary leaf system was adopted for testing the activity of solids. Some of the waters were analyzed in the field; samples of the others were collected, sealed, and shipped to the laboratory where they were analyzed immediately. The results of the analyses made in the laboratory were corrected for the decay of activity by means of the formula I = It" rt in which I is the initial activity, I t is the observed activity at the time of making the analysis, t is the time after the water was collected, and r is the radioactive constant. 102 This has a value of .0075 when t is expressed in hours, or 0.1800 when t is expressed in days. Whenever the presence of radium salts was suspected, the water was evaporated to about 100 centimeters, acidified with hydrochloric acid sealed, and kept for thirty days in order to allow the emanation RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 11 to again reach a maximum. The activity if any, when again tested, was due to the radium present in the original sample. Samples of sediment in the waters were examined in a similar manner but none were found to be radioactive. The waters were analyzed for their mineral constituents by the methods advocated by the American Public Health Association 6 and the Illinois State Water Survey. 58 APPARATUS Electroscope for gases The electroscope, constructed by the Central Scientific Company, is an adaptation of Boltwood's modification 17 of Wilson's electros- cope. 125 (See Figures 5 and 6). It consists of a cylinder 8 centimeters long and 15 centimeters in diameter, fitted at each end with a piece of plate glass. The side of the cylinder is securely fastened to a wooden base by means of an iron stand four inches high. A short wide glass tube covers a hole in the top of the cylinder. A brass cap surmounts the glass tube. A short brass rod is screwed into the cap. A piece of amber, screwed on the lower end of rod, supports a gold or alu- minium leaf plate and insulates the leaf and plate within the cylinder. The device for charging is a special feature. An arm is fastened on the brass rod and supports a soft iron wire extending below but not touching the amber insulator. The leaf is charged to the same poten- tial as the brass cap above, by bringing a magnet near the glass and forcing the wire against the leaf plate. Two air-tight stopcocks, one at the top and one at the bottom, are for the admission of gases. All joints are made air-tight by sealing with wax and rosin. An alumi- nium leaf, 5 by 50 millimeters, was used rather than the gold leaf, which gave trouble continually. It was fastened to the plate by plac- ing a streak of glue across the upper part of the plate and then press- ing the leaf firmly against it. The original aluminium leaves have withstood transportation by rail to various parts of the State and are still in good condition. The electroscope was charged by the following method : The iron wire was forced with a magnet against the leaf plate. A charged vulcanite rod was brought near the cap until the desired potential was obtained. The iron wire was allowed to swing free by removing the magnet ; the vulcanite rod withdrawn ; the cap earthed for an instant, and the leaf, insulated within the cylinder, was thus charged at the de- sired potential. 12 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS A tele-microscope, the eye piece of which contained a scale twelve millimeters long with each millimeter divided into ten divisions, was used to determine the rate of fall of the leaf. A stop watch recording fifths of a second, was used to determine the time interval. Two U tubes, one containing phosphorus pentoxide (P 2 5 ), the other containing calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ), were always connected in series with the electroscope, when evacuating or when adding gases, the phosphorus pentoxide tube being between the electroscope and the calcium chloride tube. Electroscope for solids The electroscope for measuring the radioactivity of solids was obtained from E. H. Sargent of Chicago. It consisted of a cubical metal box, 4^y 2 inches, fitted on two opposite sides with glass plates which could be raised or lowered. (See Figure 4). An amber ring supported and insulated a leaf below and brass ball above the center of the top. These, with a leaf plate and rod connecting the brass ball, made up the electrical carrying portion of the electroscope. A small copper tray 4x4^ inches held the solid material when it was inserted in the box for the determination. No precautions were taken for dry- ing the material. STANDARDIZATION OF ELECTROSCOPES. The methods of measuring radioactivity give relative quantitative values. The activity of some substance is taken, as the fundamental unit and the activities of other substances are compared with it. Fundamental units are the Mache, the curie, and that from uranium. The amount of radium in one gram of uranium in uranium ores, as found by Boltwood 19 - 21 and Eutherford 101 , and later by Strutt 116 and by McCoy 77 , is always 3.4xlO' 7 gram. If the emanation from a weighed sample of uranium mineral, whose content of uranium is known from a chemical analysis, is used, we can calculate the radium equivalent of the activity. Thus if we use one gram of mineral containing 25 per cent of uranium the fall of the leaf of the electroscope corresponds to 3.4 x 10' 7 x .25 = 0.85 x 1O 7 gram of radium. Or if expressed in grams of radium per space per minute, we have 3.4 x 10- 7 x .25 r 7 FTS : = = x grams of radium in uranium number of spaces fallen in one mm. mineral per space fall per minute. A " curie" 20 is the amount of emanation in equilibrium with one gram of radium. Hence the activ- ity obtained from X grams of radium is X curies of emanation. RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 13 Electroscope for gases A small weighed quantity of the standard sample of uraninite con- taining 43.6 per cent uranium was placed in a flask, of about 100 cubic centimeters capacity. (See Figure 7). Ten milligrams were usually taken, as this quantity produced a convenient rate of fall of the leaf. The flask was closed with a two-hole rubber stopper ; a separatory funnel was fitted in one hole, and an upright condenser in the other. The condenser was connected by a glass tube and stopcock to another flask also fitted with a two-hole stopper. Through one was the con- nection to the condenser and through the other a glass tube with a stopcock. After the whole apparatus had been made air-tight, it was evacuated by a pump connected to the stopcock. A little dilute nitric acid was added to the uraninite in the flask, and the mixture was then boiled for fifteen minutes. The acid and water rising as vapor condensed in the condenser and returned to the flask. After boiling fifteen minutes, distilled water free from emanation was run into the apparatus through the separatory funnel until the mark was reached. The stopcock was then closed. The emanation with other gases, now in the flask under a fraction of an atmosphere pressure, were introduced into the partially exhausted electroscope and the rate of fall of the leaf determined after 3 to 3i/ 2 hours. The fall of the leaf was corrected by subtracting the normal air leak of the electroscope when the gas in the electroscope was free from eman- ation. The correction was always small and amounted to only 0.003 division per minute for the electroscope. The rate of fall was always TABLE 3. STANDARDIZATION OF ELECTROSCOPES FOR GASES. Date. Mineral used. (Grams.) Divisions fall per minute. Activity per division per minute. (UR. g.xlO- 4 ) | (Ra.g.xlO- 10 ) ELECTROSCOPE A Oct. 23, 1914 . . . Oct. 26, 1914 .0299 .0301 15.80 16.08 8.28 8.12 2.81 2.76 Dec. 4, 1914 0253 18 18 6 06 2 06 Dec. 5, 1914 0069 4 92 6 11 2 08 Feb. 24, 1915 .0078 5 50 6.50 2.21 Sept. 25, 1915 Dec. 13, 1915 .0078 0074 5.50 2 14 6.50 15 1* 2.21 5 13 Dec. 14, 1915 .0113 3 17 15 2 5.17 Jan. 7,1916 Jan. 8, 1916 .0159 .0082 10.0 5.14 6.93 b 6.95 2.36 2.36 ELECTROSCOPE B Oct 23, 1914 0342 18 28 8 16 2.77 Oct. 26, 1914 Dec. 4, 1914 .0340 .0204 18.28 9 92 8.14 8 86 2.77 3.01 Dec. 5, 1914 . . , Sept. 25, 1915 .0125 .0086 6.70 4.55 8.13 8.24 2.76 2.80 Dec. 13, 1915 .0105 6 00 7.68 2.61 Dec 14, 1915 0094 5 40 7 64 2.59 Jan 7, 1916 .0087 5.00 7.59 2.57 a The aluminium leaf was shortened to about one-half its original length. l 'A new leaf was placed in the electroscope. 14 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS taken when the leaf was at an angle of less than 30 with the plate. The electroscopes were standardized at frequent intervals. (See Table 3). Electroscope for solids One-tenth of a gram of the original uraninite was dissolved in a small quantity of nitric acid and evaporated to dryness in a porcelain dish. The residue was taken up with a small quantity of water, trans- ferred to a copper plate, and evaporated to dryness. This plate was then inserted into the electroscope and the rate of fall of the leaf determined. The rate of the normal leak, obtained by exactly the same procedure, but without the uraninite, was subtracted. Thus a fall of the leaf of one millimeter per minute represented 6.2 milligrams of uranium in uraninite. The electroscope was standardized for thorium by the same procedure used for uranium, except that thorium sulfate and nitrate were substituted for the uraninite. The standardization data are given in Table 4. TABLE 4. STANDARDIZATION OF ELECTROSCOPE FOR SOLIDS. Date. Mineral used. (Grams) Divisions fall per minute. Activity per division per minute. URANIUM DATA (URANIUM IN GRAMS). Nov. 19, 1914 | 0. 100 uraninite. . . 7.06 0.0062 THORIUM DATA (THORIUM IN GRAMS) . Dec. 8, 1914 0.274 as sulfate 3.47 0.078 Jan. 17, 1916 0.1 124 as nitrate + 05 NaCl. 1.46 0.077 Jan. 27, 1916 0.0196 as nitrate 4-02 NaCl 0.23 085 Jan. 20, 1916 0.196aantrate 0.97 0.0202 SEPARATION OF THE EMANATION FROM WATER The sample of water to be examined for radioactivity was col- lected in a round-bottom flask holding about 1200 cubic centimeters. A liter was taken except for waters of very high activity in which case half quantities were taken. Great care was exercised to obtain a rep- resentative sample of the water. The flask was immediately closed with a two-hole stopper fitted with two glass tubes. Each of these was fitted with a piece of rubber tubing with a pinch cock attached. The flask was then connected to an upright condenser and flask. (See Figure 8). The condenser and flask were evacuated with the pinch- cock closed. The pinch cock was then opened and the water in flask was boiled vigorously for about 20 minutes, after w r hich water free RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 15 from emanation was then run in through the stopcock as in the process of standardization. The emanation with other gases was then trans- ferred to an electroscope and the activity determined. TEST TOR THORIUM After the expulsion of radium emanation in the determination of radioactivity the samples of water were evaporated to dryness. The residues were taken up in a small quantity of hydrochloride acid, transferred to small plates, 4 inches in diameter and one-fourth inch in depth, again evaporated to dryness, and the activities of the resi- dues on these plates were determined in the electroscope for solids. In none of the waters tested was any thorium found. Portions of the deposits found at some of the springs were tested for activity in the same manner. There was no evidence of thorium. RADIOACTIVITY ANALYSES Gas was found escaping from only one water (Alton mineral spring). It was evolved at a rate of about 3 cubic centimeters per minute. No radium or thorium emanation was found in the gas. Deposits were found only at the Dixon springs of the Ozark uplift. No radium or thorium was found in the deposits. One hundred and thirty determinations of radioactivity of natural waters were made, and thirty-seven determinations of the radioactivity of residues sealed for thirty days. Twenty-two specimens of the mineral residues were tested for thorium. No thorium was detected in either the residues or waters. Excluding negative and doubt- ful results, the analyses of sixty-eight waters, whose activity and whose mineral constituents are known, are compared in Table 5. CLASSIFICATION OF THE WATERS EXAMINED Natural waters may be classified according to their physical and chemical properties, 49 or according to the geological strata from which they come. Classification by physical and chemical properties, as for example Peale's 50 classification modified by Hay wood, 51 have been tried, but have not been found advantageous, since no direct relation has been found between the radioactivity and the classes of water indicated. Classified according to source, Illinois waters fall in four large groups. (1) Waters from deep rock in the northern part of the state, including waters from the Potsdani ?pd St. Peter sandstones, from the Trenton Galena formation, and from the lower magnesium limestone. 16 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS TABLE 5. RADIOACTIVITY OF SIXTY-EIGHT ILLINOIS WATERS IN COM- PARISON WITH THEIR CONTENTS OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM AND RES- IDUE ON EVAPORATION. No. Date. Location Depth Feet Cal- cium Magne- sium Resi- due Radioactivity Uranium 10-* g. Radi'irn 1 E.S.U. 10-' G.| 10- 3 [Paris per million.] WATERS FROM DEEP-ROCK WELLS. 1 3-13-16 Alton 1450 358.4 186.8 16293.5 2 8 0.95 19.6 2 3 4 10-29-15 10-29-15 2-17-15 Carbondale . . . Carbondale . . . Elgin 600 610 1850 50.0 21.4 93.6 21.9 7.9 48.9 3367.5 2188.5 600 1 2.1 1.8 5.2 0.71 0.61 1.76 14.7 12.6 35.4 5 2-18-15 Elgin 1300 80.1 24.0 375 4 4 1 49 30 8 6 2-15-15 Harvey 1668 173.5 48.5 1204.2 3.3 1.12 23.1 7 2-25-16 Ottawa . . 400 70.4 84.0 364 2 7 92 18 9 8 2-25-16 Ottawa 1800 102 42 2 3623 2 1 71 14 7 9 2-25-16 Ottawa 319. 105. 3276 7 2 3 0.78 16.1 10 11 2-27-16 2-25-16 Ottawa Peru 310 1263 58.4 51.5 26. 10.5 353. 746.2 3.6 3.1 1.23 1.05 25.2 21.7 12 2-25-16 Peru 1400 52.3 21.7 1570 4 2 7 91 18 9 13 2-25-16 Peru 1390 48.8 22. 811. 2.5 0.85 17.5 14 12- 2-15 Stonefort. . . . 189.3 134.7 2123 6 2 5 0.85 17.5 15 2-24-16 Streator 640 48 9 11 9 770 6 2 9 99 20 3 16 2-24-16 Streator 540 61.8 6.8 1070.7 2.4 0.82 16.8 17 18 19 20 2-24-16 2-24-16 2-19-15 2-1Q-15 Streator Streator Waukegan.. . . '660 1500 46.6 56.0 123.9 7 7 24.6 23.9 23.1 9 1 880.5 1099.1 532.7 2189 1.4 2.2 2.9 2 0.48 0.75 1.00 68 9.8 15.4 20.3 14 21 2-19-15 Waukfcgan.. . . 95.0 49.9 477.5 3.5 1.19 24.6 WATERS FROM DRIFT WELLS. 22 23 24 25 2-17-15 2-26-16 2-26-16 12- 3-15 Aurora Bloomington. . Bloomington.. 94 170 155 150 72.4 53.2 51.0 38 9 29.5 28.3 32.4 21 8 326.9 486.8 421.4 4.0 3.3 5.3 4 5 1.36 1.12 1.80 1 53 28.0 23.1 37.1 31 5 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 9-28-15 9-28-15 9-27-15 2-18-15 12- 3-15 10- 6-15 10- 6-15 Champaign . . . Champaign. . . Champaign . . . Elgin Harrisburg Homer Homer 32 165 165 42 106 120 200 112.1 62.4 56.0 74.4 56.8 74.7 67.2 40.6 96.0 26.0 28.8 33.8 34.8 34.8 466.9 350.0 328.7 388. 538. 482.3 1466.1 2.9 2.5 1.6 6.2 4.1 4.9 8.4 0.99 0.85 0.54 2.10 1.40 1.66 2.86 20.3 17.5 11.2 43.4 28.7 34.3 58.8 33 10- 6-15 72 78. 5 36.1 512.0 6 7 2 27 46 9 34 10- 6-15 Homer 86 106.4 20.4 522. 3.2 1.09 22.4 35 2-16-15 Joliet 155 165.4 107.8 1033.2 8.4 2.86 58.8 36 2-16-15 Joliet 500 206.4 78.0 1212.5 11.4 3.88 79.8 37 2-16-15 Joliet 225 394.4 281.5 2647.4 18.7 6.36 130.9 38 39 40 41 10-11-15 12- 4-15 12- 2-15 9-24-15 Rossville Shawneetown . Stonefort Urbana 130 148 25 30 57.5 113.9 130.2 70.9 42.9 50.9 97.0 32.6 356.6 552.1 1283.9 345.4 1.6 4.9 4.2 3.3 0.54 1.66 1.43 1.12 11.2 32.2 29.4 23.1 42 43 44 45 46 47 6- 1-15 12- 7-14 9-29-15 1-15-15 10-10-15 10- 8-15 Urbana Urbana Urbana Urbana Watseka Watseka 60 '26 160 150 160 105.1 51.6 68.5 73.5 41.8 47.9 55.3 26.0 47.0 33.3 14.2 15.9 557.0 332.3 709.2 394.8 342.6 379.9 3.3 2.4 2.1 2.4 3.6 4.3 1.12 0.82 0.7 0.82 1.22 1.46 23.1 16.8 14.7 16.8 25.2 30.1 WATER FROM LOWER MISSISSIPPIAN. 48 10-26-15 Cairo 824 45.1 12.9 337.7 3.3 1.12 23.1 49 10-26-15 Cairo 824 45.4 12.8 336.4 2.0 0.68 14.0 50 10-26-15 Cairo 1040 46.1 13.0 348.8 1.4 0.49 9.8 51 10-26-15 Cairo 675 63.0 17.9 643.1 4.1 1.39 28.7 52 10-26-15 Cairo 826 52.9 13.8 435.6 13.0 4.42 91.0 53 10-26-15 Cairo 800 66.6 21.0 571.3 1.4 0.49 9.8 54 10-26-15 Mound City. . 630 45.2 12.5 265.5 2.5 0.85 17.5 55 12- 2-15 Creal Springs. 711. 24.6 8.36 172.2 56 10-27-15 Dixon Spring. 4i!2 is!2 305.7 18.2 6.19 127.4 57 10-27-15 Dixon Spring. 26.4 14.1 232.9 86.1 29.30 602.7 58 10-27-15 Dixon Spring.. ! '. '. 29.1 13.3 247.0 4.9 1.67 34.3 59 10-27-15 Dixon Spring. 28.9 14.2 261.4 4.0 1.36 28.0 60 12-16-15 Dixon Spring . '. '. ! 5.1 1.4 62.3 67.0 22.80 469.0 61 12-16-15 Dixon Spring.. 2.9 0.5 98.1 13.0 4.42 91.0 SPRING WATER NORTH OF OZARK UPLIFT. 62 63 64 10-28-15 10-28-15 2-25-16 Mt. Vernon. . . Mt. Vernon. . . Ottawa 319.1 103.8 102 203.0 50.9 42 2 2610.1 1202.6 3623. 5.2 2.2 2.1 1.76 0.92 0.71 36.4 15.4 14.7 65 2-25-16 Ottawa 319.0 105.0 3276.7 2.3 0.78 16.1 66 2-25-16 Peru 52 3 21.7 1570. 2.7 0.91 18.9 67 68 2-19-15 2-19-15 Waukegan. . . . Waukegan.. . . 95.0 123.9 49.9 23.1 477.5 532.7 3.5 2.9 1.19 1.00 24.5 20.3 RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 17 (2) "Waters from the drift, including those occurring in glacial drift, alluvial drift and in loess. (3) Waters from the lower Mississippian, including the deep- well waters south of the Ozark uplift. (4) Waters from the Ozark uplift, mainly springs, occurring among the Ozark foot hills of southern Illinois. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS The activity of the sixty-eight waters, expressed in terms of the uranium, radium, and electrostatic-unit standards, are exhibited with calcium, magnesium, and residue according to the four geological groups in which the waters are classified in Table 5. No apparent relation exists between the activity and other mineral constituents, so that data concerning them are omitted. Waters from deep-rock wells have a uniform activity but varying amounts of mineral constituents. Waters from drift wells vary both in activity and mineral constituents. Waters from the lower Mis- sissippian vary in activity but have a uniform amount of mineral matter. Spring waters can be divided in two smaller groups: one with constant activity and varying mineral matter; the other with constant mineral matter and varying activity. Waters from wells in deep rock The activities of twenty-one waters from deep-rock wells vary between 0.5 and 1.5 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter. The largest number, however, have an activity of approximately 1.0 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter. These waters of uniform activity vary widely in mineral constituents, for calcium varies between 8 and 360 parts per million; magnesium between 7 and 187 parts per million, and residue, between 364 and 16,300 parts per million. A water (No. 11 from Peru) with a calcium content of 51.5 parts per million, a mag- nesium content of 10.5 parts per million, and a residue of 746 parts per million has an activity of 1.05 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, and a much more highly mineralized water (No. 1 from Alton), with a calcium content of 358.4 parts per million, a magnesium content of 186.8 parts per million, and a residue of 16293.5 parts per million, has an activity of 0.95 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, which is practically the same as that of the first water. There appears to be no relation between the activity and the mineral constituents of these waters (See Plate 2). 18 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS Waters from wells in drift The activities of twenty-six waters from drift wells vary between 0.5 and 5.7 x 10' 10 grain radium per liter. These waters of varying activity vary also in mineral constituents : calcium, between 42 and 395 parts per million; magnesium, between 14 and 282 parts per million, and residue between 327 and 2647 parts per million. The activity of the waters in this group increases with an increase in mineral constituents. (Plate 3 and 4). A water (No. 38 from Rossville) of the lowest mineral content, having 57.5 parts per million of calcium, 42.9 parts per million of magnesium, and a residue of 356.6 parts per million, has an activity of but 0.54 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, and another water, (No. 37 from Joliet) of the highest mineral content, with 394.4 parts per million of calcium, 281.5 parts per million of magnesium, and a resi- due of 2647.4 parts per million, has the highest activity, 6.36 x 10" 10 gram radium per liter. The activities of the two waters are in the same ratio as the like mineral constituents. In many waters the relation appears to be quantitative. The relation between the activity and calcium in the majority of the waters examined is 56 parts per million of calcium for every 1.0 x 10' 10 grama of radium. The relation between the activity and magnesium in the majority of the waters examined is 44 parts per million magnesium for each 1.0 x 10' 10 gram of radium. By adding the calcium and magnesium we get in the majority of waters examined 100 parts per million of calcium and magnesium for each 1.0 x 10' 10 gram of radium. The relation between activity and residue in most of the waters examined is 400 parts per million of residue for each 1.0 x 10' 10 gram of radium. No other relation between the activity and mineral constituents were found, nor was a relation found between the activity and the depth of the well. Waters from wells in lower Mississippian The activities of seven waters from the Lower Mississippian vary between 0.5 and 4.5 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, a variation of 1 to 9. These waters have very uniform mineralization, calcium, from 45 to 67 parts per million (a variation of only 1 to 1.5) ; magnesium, from 13 to 21 parts per million, (1 to 1.7), and residue, from 266 to 643 parts per million, (1 to 2.4). The variation of the residues is even less if the sodium chloride is subtracted. (See plate 5). RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 19 A water (No. 50 from Cairo) with a content of calcium of 46.1 parts per million, of magnesium of 13.0 parts per million, and a residue of 349 parts per million (residue minus sodium chloride equals 200 parts per million) has the lowest activity of 0.49 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter; and another water (No. 52 from Cairo) with pract- ically the same mineral content, having 52.9 parts per million of calcium, 13.8 parts per million of magnesium, and a residue of 435.6 parts per million (residue minus sodium chloride equals 224 parts per million), has the highest activity, 4.42 x 10- 10 gram of radium per liter, which is nine times that of the first water. There appears to be no relation between the activity of these waters and the mineral constituents. Waters from springs The activities of fourteen spring waters vary between 0.8 and 29.3 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter. These waters of varying activity have varying mineral constituents; calcium from 3 to 319 parts per million; magnesium, 0.5 to 203 parts per million, and residue from 98 to 2610 parts per million. However, the waters can be divided into two groups, one group, including the springs north of the Ozark uplift, resembles the waters from deep rock wells having con- stant activity and variable mineral content, while the other includes the springs in the Ozark uplift of variable activity and variable mineral content. (Plate 6). Springs north of Ozark uplift The activities of seven springs north of the Ozark uplift vary between 0.7 and 1.7 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, a variation of 1 to 2.4. These waters of rather uniform activity differ widely in mineral constituents; calcium from 95 to 319 parts per million, a variation of 1 to 3.3 ; the magnesium from 23 to 203 parts per million, a variation of 1 to 9, and residue from 533 to 3623 parts per million, a variation of 1 to 7. A water (No. 66 from Peru) with 52.3 parts of calcium, 21.7 parts of magnesium and a residue of 1570 parts per million, has an activity of 0.91 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, and another water (No. 65 from Ottawa) of much higher mineral content, with 319.0 parts per million of calcium, 105.0 parts per million of magnesium, and a residue of 3277 parts per million, has an activity of 0.78 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, which is slightly lower than that of the former water. There appears to be no specific relation between the activity of these waters and the mineral constituents. (Plate 6). 20 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS Springs of the Ozark uplift The activities of seven springs in the Ozark uplift vary between 1.4 and 29.3 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter, a variation of 1 to 21. These waters of widely varying activity differ in mineral constituents, calcium, from 3 to 41 parts per million, a variation of 1 to 13.7; magnesium, from 0.5 to 18 parts per million, a variation of 1 to 36, residue, from 63 to 711 parts per million, a variation of 1 to 11.3. No uniform relation exists, however, between the activity and mineral constituents, for the water highest in activity (29.3 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter for No. 57 from Dixon Spring) is but slightly min- eralized, having 26.4 parts per million of calcium, 14.1 parts per million of magnesium, and 232.9 parts per million of residue; the water highest in mineral matter, with 41.2 parts per million of cal- cium, 18.2 parts per million of magnesium, and 306 parts per million of residue, has a medium activity of 6.19 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter (No. 56 from Dixon Spring) ; the water lowest in activity (1.36 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter for No. 59 from Dixon Spring) has a rather low mineral matter, containing 28.9 parts per million of calcium, 14.2 parts per million of magnesium and 261 parts per mil- lion of residue; and the water lowest in mineral matter, with 2.9 parts per million of calcium, 0.5 part per million of magnesium, and 98.1 parts per million of residue, has a medium activity of 4.42 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter (No. 61 from Dixon Spring). As both the mineral content and the activity is variable there appears to be no relation between the activity of these waters and the mineral consti- tuents. (See Plate 6). Some of the springs of the Ozark region have the highest activi- ties of any waters in the State, (29.3 x 10' 10 grain of radium per liter in No. 57 from Dixon spring, 22.8 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter in No. 60 from Dixon Spring) . Careful search was made for thorium and uranium but none were found. The decay of the activity from four springs was determined during a period of nineteen days and found to be the same as that of radium emanation amounting to 3.85 days per half period. (See Table 6 and Plate 1) . COMPARISON WITH OTHER AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN WATERS The activities of typical waters from several localities in America and Europe lie between 100 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter and zero. (See Table 7). The most active waters are found in Colorado, Tyrol, Bohemia, and in other localities where uranium deposits occur. No traces of uranium deposits have been found in Illinois. Next to the RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 21 waters from Uranium regions the Imperial spring at Hot Springs, Arkansas, is the most active in the United States having a radioactivity of 90.5 x 1O 10 gram of radium per liter (266 x 10' 4 gram of uranium). Two springs at Arlington, Rhode Island, are next with activities of 58 and 47 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter. Dixon Spring No. 2 in this State is next with an activity of 29.3 x 10' 10 gram of radium per liter. Several waters of high activity have been found in Germany and Switzerland. They are comparable with the highest waters in the United States. Other waters of Illinois vary in activity between that of Dixon Spring No. 2 and zero. Several of the waters of Illinois have an activity as high as that of some waters for which medicinal value is claimed. TABLE 6. DECAY OF ACTIVITY OF WATER FROM DIXON SPRINGS, Nos. 2, 3, 4, & 7. Time. Activity (10- 4 gram of Uranium). No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 7 Ihr. 2.'58 2.80 2.05 2 hrs. 2.58 3.51 2.65 3hrs. 2.68 2.73 3QA 5hre. 2.58 2.81 6 hrs. 3!25 2.81 18 hrs. 2.46 24!6 24 hrs. 2!27 2!s6 2.05 23.0 2 days 1.79 17.6 3 days i!55 i'.si 4 days i!26 ii!4 6 days 0.82 l!24 "82 12 days 0.18 .43 .33 14 days 0.12 19 davs 0.10 ".33 '!30 6! 60 CONCLUSIONS The activity of waters from deep-rock wells is low and constant. The activity of waters from the drift is low, but varies with the calcium, magnesium, and residue. The activity of waters from the lower Mississippian is low and there is no relation to the mineral content. The activity of spring waters of the Ozark uplift is the highest in the State, and bears no relation to the mineral content. Spring waters north of the Ozark uplift have a low and constant activity and closely resemble the waters of the deep-rock wells. The activity of waters of Illinois bears no relation to the depth of the well. The activity is due to radium emanation. In no case was uranium or thorium found. The activity of Illinois waters is comparable with the activity of other waters of the United States and Europe. 22 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS The maximum activity observed in the waters of the State is exceeded within this country, but equals that of some waters for which medicinal value is claimed. TABLE 7. RADIOACTIVITY OF AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN WATERS. Electrostatic units x 10- 3 Austria, Tyrols, Froy Magnesium Springs. . Austria, Tyrols, Froy Iron Springs Austria, Tyrols, Froy Sulphu r Springs Italy, Naples, Near Hassler Hotel Italy, Naples, Appolo Water France , Vpges, Bain les Bains France, Vichy, Chomel Spring France, Bagnoles de 1'Orne France, Luxeuil, Grand Bain Germany, Gastein Germany, Baden Baden Buttquells Germany, Baden Baden Freidrichsquelle. . . Germany, Karlsbad Eisenquells Germany, Karlsbad Felsenquelle Germany, Wildbad Germany, Wiesbaden Koch Brunnen Germany, Karlsbad Muhl Brunnen Russia, Caucausus, Essentuky No. 6 Russia, Caucausus, Batalinsky Sweden, Uppsala Slottskallan Sweden, Uppsala Bourbrum Sweden, Stockholm Birjerjarlsg No. 120 . . . Sweden, Medevi Hoghum Switzerland, St, Joachimstahl Switzerland, Rothenbrunnen Switzerland, Disentis Switzerland, Andeer 51.0 11.0 4.5 2.7 1.5 16.0 4.6 3.3 2.3 149.0 126.0 6.7 47.0 5.3 1.8 2.3 31.5 8.6 1.5 4.29 3.77 35.68 6.38 185.0 0.81 46.7 3.26 (7) (39) (29) (39) (117) (48) (74) (81) (112) (74) (109) Uranium 10- 4 gram. Curries 10- 10 Arkansas, Hot Springs, Imperial Springs Arkansas, Hot Springs, Twin springs Arkansas, Hot Springs, Arsenic spring Indiana, Bloomington, city water Indiana, Bloomington, University water Massachusetts, Williamstown, Sand spring Massachusetts, Williamstown, Wampanoag. . . . Massachusetts, Williamstown, Rich spring Massachusetts, Williamstown, Sherman spring. Massachusetts, Williamstown, Cold spring Missouri, Columbia, University well Missouri, Sweet Springs, Sweet springs Missouri, Fayette, Boonlick springs Missouri, Kansas City, Lake spring New York, Saratoga, Emperor , New York, Saratoga, Crystal rock , Ohio, Oxford 266.0 65.4 23.9 1.68 23.7 4.6 48.2 0.27 0.45 1.21 2.1 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.70 8.80 0.70 (18) (91) (111) (82) (84) (91) Uranium 10- 4 gram Radium 10-iu gram Electro- static units 10-* Rhode Island, Arlington, Spring. Rhode Island, Arlington, Spring. Rhode Island, Providence Rhode Island, East Providence. . Yellowstone National Park Mammouth Hot Springs Devil's Ink Pot Realgar Springs Nymph Springs Illinois Cairo Creal Springs, No. 3 . Dixon Springs, No. 2. Dixon Springs, No. 7. Homer Park Joliet, Well Mt. 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Roy. Soc., 73, 191 (1904). 116. Strutt, Nature, March 17, July 17, (1904). 117. Stuttgart, Phy. Zeit., 7, 806 (1906). 118. Szilard, Comp. Rend., 154, 982 (1912). 119. Thomson, Phil. Mag., 47, 253 (1899). 120. Thomson, Proc. Cambo. Phil. Soc., 12, 172 (1903). Nature, 67, 609 (1903). 121. Van Hofer, Int. Z. Wass. Vorsorg., 1, 52 (1914). 122. Van Sury, Chem. Zent., 1, 1283 (1907). 123. Wellik, Monatsch, 30, 89 (1909). Mitt. Nat. Steirmark, 45, 257 (1910). 124. Weszelsky, Ion. 2, 388 (1911). 125. Wilson, Proc. Roy. Soc., 68, 152 (1901). 126. Wulf, Phys. Zeit., 9, 1090 (1910). 127. Zeleny, Phy. Rev., 32, 581 (1912). 26 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS Simple Electroscope For Solids Simple Electroscope For Gases Fiq.3. Simple Electroscope For Solutions Electroacope For Solids RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 27 . 6. Front View 5ide View Electroscope -for Gases Fig- 8. Jt- Apparatus for separatirtq Emanation -from Uiramni-ir Apparatus f>r eeparatinq Emanation -from Water 28 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS RADIUM EMANATION ACTIVITY OF WATER FROM SPRIMG NO. ACTIVITY OF WATR FROM SPRlWfr NO. 3 ACTIVITY OF wxTEf? FROM SPRING NO e ACTIVITY OF W/tTER F*0tt 5 PRI NG NO. 7 Time Plate 1. Comparison of decay of activities of waters from Dixon Springs with radium emanation. o CALCIUM e MA6NE5IUM o g- e o 40 80 /20 _ e .. |o 200 Calcium o.nd rw^nesium r-r-n> Plate 2. Eelation of activity to calcium and magnesium in waters from deep rock wells. RADIOACTIVITY OF ILLINOIS WATERS 29 Calcium a./ Magnesium P.RM- Plate 3. Eelation of activity to calcium and magnesium in water from drift wells. 6.0 <^ 7* 2 oo 600 1*00 1800 Residues PPM. 2400 9000 Plate 4. Eelation of activity to residue in water from drift wells. 30 THE WATERS OF ILLINOIS <D e o CALCIUM e RESIDUE ' RESIPUE-NaCi O e e ?0 e i w Ca/c/</7n 120 pp^j. Plate 5. Eelation of activity to calcium and residue in water from lower Mississippian. Calcium Ozark Springs Other Springs Residues Or ark Spring* a> Other Springs o o <D O Plate 6. Belation of activity to calcium and residue in water from springs. VITA The writer received his early education in the public schools of Kissimmee, Florida, and Watseka, Illinois. He was graduated with the degree of Bachelor of Science from the University of Illinois in 1913. In 1914, he received the degree of Master of Science at the same institution. From 1911 to 1913 he was student assistant in Sanitary Chem- istry at the University of Illinois. From 1913 to 1914 he was a gradu- ate assistant in Electro- Chemistry (one semester) and Qualitative Analysis (one semester). During the summers of 1911, 1912, 1913, and 1914 he was assistant chemist in the State Water Survey. From 1914 to 1916 he was a fellow in Sanitary Chemistry at the University of Illinois. His publications are : The Perchloric Method of Determining Potassium as Applied to Water Analysis. Am. Chem. Soc., 36, 2085 (1914). Univ. of 111. Bull., State Water Survey Series No. 11, 150 (1914). Chem. News, 111, 62 (1915). With Edward Bartow, The Comparative Value of a Calcium Lime and a Magnesium- Calcium Lime for Water Softening. J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6, 189 (1914). Univ. of 111. Bull., State Water Survey Series No. 11, 142 (1914). AN INITIAL PINE OP 25 CENTS RETURN Wli *,*. DUE ' E PENALTY DAY AND * CENTS N E FOUR MAR 4 1936 Syracuse, N. Y. PAT. JAN. 21, 1908 385520 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY