■nned below SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES LIBRARY IOWA APPLIED HISTOEY SERIES EDITED HY BENJAMIN F. SHAMBAUGH SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS IN IOWA BY HENRY J. PETERSON » 1 * • . I • > I • • PUBLISHED AT IOWA CITY IOWA IN 1914 BY THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF IOWA c t «. I t t (. t c t c \.44 EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION Organization and methods are now everywhere em- phasized in programs of political betterment. No one questions the fundamental ^proposition that pub- jv^ lie officials are agents of the sovereign people ; but *♦ there is still considerable difference of opinion as to ^ the best methods of selecting these agents. In the nineteenth century democracy declared in favor of popular election ; but at present the same influence is demanding the short ballot. i Benj. F. Shambaugh Office op the Superintendent and Editor The State Historical Society of Iowa Iowa City Iowa I . ^ < , ,, 1. « I « • 1 c' «^' •• • c > i* t * AUTHOR'S PREFACE The selection of public officials in order to secure efficient, harmonious, and responsible administration in govern- ment has come to be a matter of prime importance. The situation has long demanded reform : it is now receiving close attention. Voluntary associations such as the City Club of Chicago, the Municipal Association of Cleveland, Ohio, and the National Short Ballot Organization are in- vestigating the methods of selecting public officials to determine which officers ought to be elected and which appointed, and, if appointed, the proper agency by which appointment should be made. It is the purpose of this paper to state the methods of selecting public officials in Iowa; to point out some de- fects in these methods ; to present some changes that have been proposed or have been put into operation in other States ; and to indicate changes that would seem desirable in the methods used in Iowa. The writer bases this paper for the most part upon a more extensive study of the selection of public officials in Iowa which he has recently completed. At the same time these pages contain some new information not included in the larger study. To Mr. Jacob Van der Zee the writer is indebted for a thorough revision of the manuscript as originally sub- mitted and for the compilation of the table which appears 7 8 APPLIED HISTORY on pp. 39-48. Indeed, so important was the work of Mr. Van der Zee that the writer freely acknowledges that much of the value of the paper is due to his painstaking work — which amounts practically to joint authorship. Miss Anne Stuart Duncan, Librarian of the Iowa State Teachers College, was very helpful in looking up material. Valuable suggestions came from discussions with Dr. Frank E. Horack, Dr. Clarence R. Aurner, Mr. 0. K. Patton, Mr. E. H. Downey, and Deputy Auditor of State Mr. Joe Byrnes. Dr. Dan E. Clark was always ready with advice and suggestions ; and to Dr. Benj. F. Shambaugh special acknowledgment is due for untiring patience and counsel during the preparation of this paper. Henry J. Peterson Iowa State Teachers College Cedar Falls Iowa CONTENTS I. Introduction : The Problem of Selecting Public Officials . . . . . • • .11 II. Selection of Public Officials in Iowa . . .13 selection of state officials . . . .13 selection of county officials ... 28 selection of township officials . . .31 selection of school officials ... 32 selection of municipal officials ... 34 III. Criticism of the Methods of Selecting State Of- ficials IN Iowa ...... 49 IV. Proposed Changes in the Methods of Selecting Public Officials ...... 56 STATE officials ...... 56 county officials ...... 60 TOWNSHIP officials ..... 63 municipal officials ..... 63 V. Standards of Reform in the Selection of Public Officials ....... 65 THE short ballot ...... 66 civil service reform ..... 70 conclusion . . . . . . .71 Notes and References ..... 75 INTRODUCTION : THE PROBLEM OF SELECTING PUBLIC OFFICIALS In order to perform the numerous functions of present- day government a vast army of persons must be selected. In numerous ways and by various State agencies men are appointed to State boards, commissions, inspectorships, and other positions. But tlie people, to whom all offices belong and for whom all offices exist, still possess the right to select most officials. They choose legislators to enact certain policies into law; they make provision for officials to enforce the law when made, some of these executive officers being elected outright by the people, others being appointed; and they select still another group of State officials to declare wdiat a statute means and apply it to particular cases. But these do not consti- tute the whole public service: a still larger number of persons must be chosen to carry on the work of govern- ment in the local areas such as counties, townships, towns and cities, and school districts. Thus it has come about that the voter in Iowa faces the difficult task of attempting to decide too much on election day. He staggers under the load placed upon him by the primary and the general election laws of the State. Confronted by a long, cumbersome ballot at the primary elections in June and again at the regular elec- tions in November, he realizes how hopeless it is to vote intelligently either for the candidates who seek the nomi- 11 12 APPLIED HISTORY nation or for the nominees who seek election. Moreover, the voter's problem of selecting public servants is ren- dered still more complex by the survival of the Jack- sonian principle of rotation in office, which necessitates the frequent selection of officials, and by the impossibility of getting reliable information about all the candidates upon the many different tickets.^ It is no great wonder, then, that many voters are discouraged and take little interest in the nomination and the election of public officials. The character of the work performed by all the of- ficials in State and local government emphasizes as nothing else can the importance of care in their selection. It makes a great deal of difference whether or not a food inspector is honest and efficient ; corrupt building inspec- tors may be responsible for the fall of a building with resultant loss of life; a careless or inefficient mine in- spector may be responsible for a mine disaster ; dishonest medical or dental examiners may permit the unfit to practice; railroad commissioners controlled by the car- riers may refuse or neglect to enforce laws directed against the railroads; judges may, on insufficient grounds, nullify progressive legislation; and inefficient or dishonest legislators may enact laws difficult of inter- pretation, worded so as to favor special interests, or they may even refuse to act at all. Thus it seems of vital importance that provision be made for such methods of selection as will secure public officials who are most ef- ficient and most responsive to the popular will. This, indeed, is the problem involved in the selection of public officials. n SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS IN IOWA In general the piil)lic officials of Iowa are all those public servants who hold offices created by State statutes and the State Constitution. They are to be distinguished from public employees in that the latter hold subordinate appointive positions and work under the supervision of superior officers. Public officials may be classified into three groups according to the method by w^hich they are designated to fill the State and local offices: first, those who are elected by the people ; secondly, those who are ap- pointed to office; and thirdly, those who hold office by virtue of the fact that they occupy certain other offices. It is in this order that the w^riter proposes to consider the methods of selecting State and local officials in Iowa. SELECTION OF STATE OFFICIALS In Iowa two State-wide elections are now held every two years before the selection of State officials is com- plete. Instead of the unregulated and unsatisfactory nominating system of party caucuses and conventions, which designated candidates for office previous to 1907, there now exists for the same purpose a State-controlled primary. All candidates for the various legislative and executive offices to be voted on at the general election must comply with the requirements of the State law be- fore they may submit their claims to all the members of their political party at a primary or nominating election 13 14 APPLIED HISTORY held on the first Monday in June of the even-numbered years. The successful party candidate for an office is determined by a plurality vote — except when no candi- date receives thirty-five percent of the votes cast, in which event the statute legalizes nomination by the old- fashioned convention of party delegates. It should be noted, however, that judges are nominated at the same time and place, twice as many as there are vacancies on the bench to fill, by all the voters irrespective of party affiliations. - The members of the State legislature of Iowa have always been elected by the people. The qualifications, methods of selection, and terms of office of Senators and Representatives differ in ways still attributable to the old American belief in the check and balance system. The number of Senators is fixed at fifty to be elected by the people of as many senatorial districts. The number of Representatives is not to exceed one hundred and eight, the people of each of the ninety-nine counties elect- ing one, while the nine most populous counties are entitled to one additional member each.-^ The Organic Act of the Territory of Iowa provided that the President and the Senate of the United States should appoint the Governor, the Secretary, and the At- torney of the Territory. Department heads such as Auditor, Treasurer, and Superintendent of Public In- struction, for whom there was provision in Territorial legislation, were made appointive by the Governor and the Legislative Council, but when Iowa became a State in 1846 many of these offices were made elective. Although the State Constitution of 1846 did not provide for a Lieutenant-Governor the creation of such an office was favored at the constitutional convention of 1857: pro- SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 15 vision for tho direct election of this officer was made because he would be called upon to serve as Governor in case of emergency. At the same time there were created the offices of Secretary of State, Auditor of State, Treas- urer of State, and Attorney General — all to be elected by the people for two years."* With the development of railroads in the State of Iowa the proper control of these corporations became a serious problem, the solution of which the General As- sembly sought in the creation of a board of railroad com- missioners. The board was made appointive by the Governor and the Executive Council. The appointive board, however, did not meet with universal approval, and so Governor Larrabee suggested that the commis- sioners be made elective by the people or appointive by the Governor and the Senate. Thereupon the General Assembly made provision for an elective board of three members for a six-year term.^* Until the advent of Andrew Jackson it seems to have been taken for granted that State judges should be ap- pointed. Influenced by Jacksonian theories of govern- ment, however, the idea of the popular election of judges grew rapidly in favor. The proper method of choosing judges was one of the debated questions before the consti- tutional conventions of 1844 and 1846, and ex-Governor Lucas voiced the sentiment of the majority when he de- clared the best way to be the election of district judges by the people and the appointment of Supreme Court Justices by a joint ballot of the members of the legisla- ture.^ The selection of Supreme Court Justices by the Gen- eral Assembly did not give entire satisfaction. The sentiment for elective judges grew so rapidly that in the 16 APPLIED HISTORY constitutional convention of 1857 scarcely a voice was raised in favor of appointment. As a result the present Constitution provides for the popular election of Justices for a term of six years, and recent legislation provides for their nomination and election on a non-partisan ticket. District judges have remained elective since 1846 — they too are subject to the law passed in 1913 which aims to remove their selection from the field of politics."^ The number of public offices has increased very great- ly in recent years — a fact largely due to the growth of population and to the desire to let the government regu- late social and economic activities. It is for the purpose of enforcing specific State laws that many additional State offices have been created. A majority of these of- fices are appointive. They are organized in various ways, some being filled by single officials and others by boards or commissions made up of several members. Thus Iowa has been a rich field for experiment in the matter of de- ciding upon the proper appointing agencies. Indeed, it seems that the State has at one time or another experi- mented with every possible method of appointment. The drift, however, appears to be towards two methods — appointment by the Governor alone, or by the Governor and the Senate. The appointment of officials by the Governor and the Executive Council is made on the theory that this method gives the Governor the benefit of expert advice. Very few officials, however, have been selected in this way — at present only the commissioner of the bureau of labor statistics belongs to this class.^ Appointment by the General Assembly on the theory that it gives the most direct popular control has usually been restricted to members of investigating commissions SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 17 and commissions to locate public Ijuildings or public lands. The only two officers chosen by the General As- sembly at present are the State printer and the State binder.^ Appointments by the Supreme Court are restricted to those whose duties are directly or indirectly connected with the work of that body, the theory being that the court knows best what men are qualified for such work. The office of clerk of the Supreme Court was appointive from 1838 to 1866 when it became elective. In 1913 Gov- ernor Clarke raised the question as to the advisability of returning to the original method of selecting this official, and the General Assembly accordingly made the clerk and the reporter (elective since 1846) appointive by the court for four-year terms. ^" Under the terms of an act of 1884 to regulate the ad- mission of lawyers to practice in State courts, applicants were examined by the Supreme Court or by a committee of not less than three attorneys appointed by the Supreme Court. Since 1907 this duty has devolved upon a board of law examiners of five members to consist of the At- torney General and four members appointed by the Supreme Court.^^ The appointment of public officers by the Governor and the Senate is based upon the theory that such a meth- od combines responsibility to the Governor and popular control through the Senate's power to reject or confirm the Governor's nominations. Some recent statutes call- ing for the selection of officers by the Governor and the Senate provide that the president of the Senate shall name a committee, on which more than one party must be represented, to investigate the nominations of the Gov- ernor and to report to the Senate in executive session. 18 APPLIED HISTORY The Senate vote to ratify such nominations must not be taken on the same day on whicli the committee makes its report. By virtue of an act of the General Assembly creating the office of custodian of public buildings, this officer is appointed by the Governor and the Senate for a two-year term J- Until 1898 the charitable and correctional insti- tutions of Iowa were controlled by separate boards, one for each institution. Charges were made against these boards, alleging mismanagement, jealousy, and a system of competition for State funds. A committee appointed to investigate conditions found that the charges were well-founded and recommended a complete reorganiza- tion by abolishing the various boards of trustees and substituting a single board. Accordingly, the General Assembly in 1898 passed an act which created a board of control of three members to be appointed by the Governor and the Senate for six years, one being chosen at each legislative session. Nom- inations by the Governor may be considered by the Senate only after investigation by a committee of five Senators named by the president of the Senate without a motion. Of this committee not more than three may be members of the same party. A report is then made to the Senate in executive session where a two-thirds vote is necessary to ratify the Governor's nomination.^'^ In line with the modern theory that ''reformation is one of the objects of the administration of the criminal law", the General Assembly in 1907, after receiving va- rious recommendations from Governor Cummins, passed an indeterminate sentence law. To aid the Governor in the enforcement of this act the statute provides for a board of parole whose members are appointed by the Governor and the Senate.^^ SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 19 The State educational institutions existed under inde- pendent boards until 1909. The legislative committee which investigated all State institutions in 1897 found that the management of the educational institutions had been quite efficient, and so the recommendation was made that these be omitted from the scheme of centralization. Accordingly, when the board of control was created, only an investigation into the financial management of the higher educational institutions was placed under its juris- diction ; but in 1908 the board of control requested to be relieved of this duty, because criticism of the board in- volved criticism of the Governor and the Superintendent of Public Instruction. In 1909 the General Assembly created the State board of education to have charge of all three higher educational institutions of the State. The board consists of nine members appointed by the Gov- ernor and confirmed by a two-thirds vote of the Senate.'"' In his message to the General Assembly in 1911 Gov- ernor Carroll stated that there was considerable demand for a State fire marshal such as had been provided in a number of neighboring States and that he was inclined to favor the creation -of the office. The legislature took affirmative action and provided for the appointment of such an officer by the Governor and the Senate for a four- year term.^^ Supervision of insurance companies in Iowa was at first left to an examiner employed by the Auditor of State. The importance of the work, however, caused the General Assembly in 1913 to create the Insurance De- partment of Iowa and to provide for a commissioner of insurance. After February 1, 1915, this officer is to be appointed for a four-year term by the Governor with the approval of two-thirds of the Senate.^' To enforce the 20 APPLIED HISTORY workmen's compensation act of 1913 provision was made for the office of Iowa industrial commissioner to be ap- pointed by the Governor and the Senate for six years.^* The constitutional convention of 1857 provided for a board of education to take the place of the Superintend- ent of Public Instruction. In 1864, however, the General Assembly abolished the board and restored the office of an elective Superintendent. In response to Governor Clarke's recommendation of the short ballot principle the legislature in 1913 passed an act which requires (after 1914) the Governor Avith the consent of two-thirds of the Senators to name the Superintendent for a term of four years. ^'^ The number of officers appointed by the Governor alone has greatly increased in recent years. Selection by the chief executive is based on the theory that it makes the Governor responsible to the people and the appointee responsible to the Governor. Since Territorial days the Governor has been intrusted with power to appoint the adjutant general.-'^ Since 1851 notaries public have been commissioned for three-year periods by the Governor.^! The board of educational examiners, created in 1861, was reorganized in 1882 to consist of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the president of the State University, the principal of the State Normal School (now president of the State Teachers College), and two members ap- pointed by the Governor.^^ County inspectors of mines were employed from 1872' to 1880, iDut were found unsatisfactory by the miners.. The General Assembly created the office of State mine in- spector and provided for his appointment by the Gover- nor and the Senate. Politics soon played its part in the selection of inspectors — as is often the case with ap- SELECTION OP PUBLIC OFFICIALS 21 pointments by the Governor and the Senate. The statute of 1888, devised to place the office on a merit basis, pro- vides for the examination by a board of examiners of those who desire appointment as mine inspectors. Per- sons who, in the judgment of the board, possess the required qualifications are granted certificates of com- petency, and the Governor may appoint as inspectors any three persons who hold such certificates.^^ To protect the people from incompetent pharmacists the General Assembly in 1880 created three commission- ers of pharmacy to examine and issue certificates to qualified practitioners. The board, at first appointed by the Governor and the Executive Council, is now selected by the Governor alone.^* To provide for the better education of dentists the General Assembly in 1882 created a board of dental ex- aminers to examine those who wish to practice dentis- try in the State. These examiners are appointed by the Governor for a five-year term. According to an act of 1900 the Iowa State Dental Society is required to submit to the Governor a list of names of dentists of recognized ability from whom he may make his selection.-^ In 1884 the General Assembly created the office of State inspector of oils. The original law, providing for the appointment of an inspector by the Governor and the Senate, was later modified to give the Governor the sole power of appointment. The Governor may fix the number of inspectors not to exceed fourteen. The Gen- eral Assembly of 1884 also provided for the appointment of a State veterinary surgeon by the Governor for a three-year term.-" To secure greater safety for passen- gers on boats the General Assembly has since 1888 re- quired the Governor to appoint such competent and suit- 22 APPLIED HISTORY able persons as State inspectors of boats as he thinks necessary.-'^ It was at the suggestion of Governor Larrabee in 1890 that the General Assembly reorganized the office of the Iowa weather service as the weather and crop service and placed it under the supervision of the board of direc- tors of the State Agricultural Society. The central sta- tion is located at Des Moines and is placed in charge of a director of weather and crop service appointed for two years by the Governor upon recommendation of the board of directors of the State Agricultural Society.^'^ Legislation for the protection of fish dates back to 1874. In that year the General Assembly enacted a law requiring the Governor to appoint three competent per- sons as State fish commissioners. The office was abolished in 1897, and a fish and game warden is now appointed by the Governor for a three-year term.-'' The use of voting machines w^as authorized in 1900 by legislation which also requires the Governor to ap- point a board of voting machine commissioners. In the same year a State library commission was created to promote the establishment and efficiency of free public libraries as well as of public school libraries. The com- mission consists of the State librarian, the Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, the president of the State University, and four members appointed by the Gover- nor.^^ When the attention of the General Assembly was called to the desirability of legislation to prevent adulter- ations of dairy products, a law was enacted in 1886 requiring the Governor and the Executive Council to ap- point a State dairy commissioner for a two-year term. The law has since been amended to give the Governor SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 23 alone the power of appointment, and the officer's title has been changed to State dairy and food commissioner.-'^ The General Assembly in 1909 created the office of inspector of bees and authorized the Governor to appoint a competent incumbent. In the same year was estab- lished a board of optometry examiners, the Governor appointing as members of the board three optometrists and one physician member of the State board of health. These with the secretary of the State board of health make up the board.^^ In 1911 the General Assembly provided for a commis- sion of animal health consisting of the State veterinary surgeon as ex officio member and executive officer, two veterinarians, and two stock-raisers — all four to be ap- pointed by the Governor. The veterinarians are chosen for three, the others for two years.^^ The General Assembly of 1913 reorganized the State highway commission so that it now consists of the dean of engineering at the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts as ex officio member and two persons appointed by the Governor to serve for four years. •'^■* It w^as Governor Robert Lucas who first recommended that provision be made for a librarian for the Territory of Iowa. The act of 1840 provided for the appointment of a librarian by the Governor and the Legislative Coun- cil, but later various methods were resorted to for filling the office.^"' In 1900 the General Assembly gave the board of library trustees powder to appoint the State librarian for a six-year term.^*' The State Agricultural Society, which was recognized by law in 1855, was abolished in 1900 and the State De- partment of Agriculture created in its stead. This de- partment is under the supervision of the State board 24 APPLIED HISTORY of agriculture whose president and vice president and eleven appointive members are selected, one for each congressional district, by an agricultural convention. The ex officio members of the board are the Governor, the president of the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, the State dairy and food commissioner, the State veterinary surgeon, and finally, a secretary and treasurer appointed by the board for one year.^^ The office of State geologist created in 1855 was made appointive by the Governor with the approval of the Senate, but in 1892 a geological board was established and given the power to select the State geologist.^^ Mem- bers of the State Historical Society, which w^as organized in 1857, were at first permitted to select their own officers, but in 1872 the General Assembly brought the society under more direct State supervision by creating a board of curators nine of whom are appointed by the Governor, while nine are selected by the members of the society from among their own number at the annual meeting held in Iowa City.39 A State board of health was created in 1880 to consist of the Attorney General and eight members appointed by the Governor and the Executive Council. In 1911 Gov- ernor Carroll pointed out the necessity of reorganization, recommending that all boards of health be brought closer together under the supervision of one head. The legisla- ture accordingly passed a law providing that the Gov- ernor, the Secretary of State, and the Auditor of State should henceforth select the five members of the board of health and the secretary of the board.'*^ An act was passed in 1892 to promote an historical collection at the capital, providing for a curator to be appointed by the trustees of the State Library. The SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 25 statute of 1900 which created the board of library trus- tees to take charge of the affairs of the State Library and Historical Department, continued the office under the title of curator of the museum and art gallery and made the curator appointive by the board."*^ Politics and efficiency are not often team-mates. It was the realization of this fact which led the General Assembly in 1888 to modify the method of selecting mine inspectors. According to this act the Executive Council is required to appoint a board of examiners to examine applicants for the position of mine inspector. As amend- ed in 1902 and 1904 the examining board consists of two practical miners and two operators, all of whom are re- quired to hold certificates of competency as mine fore- men, and a fifth member who is to be a mining engineer."*- The General Assembly in 1907 provided for a com- mittee to examine embalmers. This committee is made up of the secretary of the State board of health and four members selected by the State board of health at its an- nual meeting. Of the appointive members two are physician members of the board and two must be licensed embalmers. Provision was also made for an examining committee for nurses. The State board of health at its annual meeting is required to select for this purpose two physicians from its own number and two graduate nurses actively engaged in the practice of nursing. These four with the secretary of the board of health make up the committee for the year.^-^ It was at the instance of the commercial bodies of the State that the office of commerce counsel was established bv the General Assemblv in 1911. The board of railroad commissioners with the approval of two-thirds of the Senate in executive session appoints this officer for a four-year term.^* 26 APPLIED HISTORY Governor Clarke in 1913 recommended the creation of the office of county manager. Although the Governor's recommendation was not followed, the General Assembly did create the office of State examiner for counties. The Auditor of State, according to the act, appoints not less than four nor more than eight examiners who must be ''suitable persons of recognized skill, familiar with the system of accounting used in county offices, and versed in the laws relating to county affairs."'*^ The last of the State officials to be considered are the ex officio officers. There are several reasons why one is assigned to an office merely because he holds some other office. The functions of the two offices may be of a sim- ilar nature; economy may be desired; or, what amounts to almost the same thing, a poorly paid officer may in this way be given extra remuneration. An officer may be made an ex officio member of a board or commission in order that deliberation of numbers or cooperation and counsel on the part of men whose duties are similar may be secured. Again, such designation is made at times to confer an honor upon the officer. In 1848 the General Assembly created a State board of canvassers to consist of the Governor, Secretary of State, Auditor of State, and Treasurer of State — the latter being omitted after 1851. The census board estab- lished in 1851, consisting of the Governor, Secretary of State, Auditor, and Treasurer, also acted as the State board of equalization of taxes. In 1873 the duties of these three boards were turned over to a body styled the Executive Council, its personnel remaining the same as that of the census board.'*'' The legislature in the extra session of 1862 required the Governor to appoint three medical examiners, one of SELECTION OP PUBLIC OFFICIALS 27 whom was to be the professor of surgery in the medical department of the State University of Iowa. Later the board of medical examiners was reorganized so that its members became the seven physicians and the secretary of the State board of health. A law of 1897, however, removed the secretary from the board."*"^ The General Assembly of 1870 took the management of the State Library out of the hands of the Governor and made the Judges of the Supreme Court the commission- ers of the State Library. In 1872 the legislature reorgan- ized the commission, called it the board of trustees of the State Library, and in 1892 made it also a board of trus- tees of the Historical Department. A law of 1900 abol- ished the two boards and established instead the board of library trustees, the members being the Judges of the Supreme Court, the Governor, the Secretary of State, and the Superintendent of Public Instruction."*^ The geological survey of Iowa was reorganized by legislative action in 1892 and a geological board was pro- vided to consist of the Governor, the State Auditor, and the presidents of the Agricultural College, the State University, and the Iowa Academy of Sciences. Six years later the General Assembly made the entomologist of the State experiment station ex officio State entomolo- gist.-'^ "For the complete and proper registration of births and deaths for legal, sanitary, and statistical purposes" a legislative act of 1904 created the office of State regis- trar of vital statistics. The State board of health became ex officio State registrar of vital statistics, but the secre- tary of the board has acted in this capacity since the law of i907.5« An act to encourage the planting of forest and fruit 28 APPLIED HISTORY trees in Iowa passed in 1906 made the secretary of the Iowa State Horticultural Society the State forestry com- missioner to promote the objects of the law. Finally, the General Assembly passed an act in 1909 requiring the civil engineer of the State board of health as ex officio inspector of hotels to supervise and protect the public health in hotels throughout the State.^^ SELECTION OF COUNTY OFFICIALS Counties were first organized in the Iowa country in 1834. On the 6th of September of that year Governor Stevens T. Mason of the Territory of Michigan approved an act to "lay off and organize counties west of the Mis- sissippi Eiver". The counties created by the law were Dubuque and Demoine. On the day when the statute was approved, the Governor with the consent of the Legis- lative Council also appointed certain officers for the county of Dubuque ; but it was not until December 26th of the same year that officers were selected for Demoine County.^^ In Territorial Iowa the administrative board of the county was a body of three commissioners elected at large. In 1851 the office of county judge was substituted ; but when the county judge failed to give satisfaction, especially in the newer counties, the General Assembly in 1860 dropped this highly centralized system of county administration in favor of the extremely decentralized system represented by a board of supervisors consisting of one member from each township with an additional member for every 4000 population. When the new plan also did not give the expected satisfaction, the General Assembly returned to the commissioner system, retaining the name of the board of supervisors. The act of 1870 SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 29 provided for a board of three members elected by the voters of the county, wliile later acts permit a five or seven member board if the people of a county so decide, the members being elected by districts or by the county at large. ^^ The method of selecting the local prosecuting officer has been experimental. The appointment of a district attorney in each judicial district by the Territorial Gov- ernor and the Legislative Council was followed by the appointment of a prosecuting attorney for each of twenty districts. Then the Constitution of 1846 made him an elective county officer. Dissatisfied with the prosecuting attorney as a county officer, the people, especially in the western counties, represented in the constitutional con- vention of 1857 secured his election as a district officer. This plan also proved a failure. Finally, in 1884 the Con- stitution was amended so as to provide once more for an elective county attorney.^^ The office of county auditor was created in 1868. Previous to that time the functions of the auditor as sec- retary to the board of supervisors had been performed by a clerk (at first appointed by the board and then elected by the people) and later by the clerk of the district court. In his report to the Twelfth General Assembly in 1867, however, the Auditor of State pointed out the need of creating the office of auditor for the more populous coun- ties, since the ex officio clerk found it impossible to attend to the duties of two offices. The legislature in 1868 pro- vided for an auditor to be elected for two years in each organized county. However, the county recorder or the clerk of the district court may also hold the office of county auditor.'^^ Other county officers have given rise to little discus- 30 APPLIED HISTORY sion in constitutional conventions or meetings of the legislature. The clerk of the district court appointed by the Supreme Court in Territorial Iowa became elective after 1846 and similar provision was made for the office of coroner.^*^ The offices of recorder and treasurer, be- ginning in Territorial days, are now elective also for a two-year term, and may be held by the same person when the population of a county does not exceed 10,000. The county sheriff, at first appointed by the Governor and the Council, has since 1840 been elective. In counties which vote to establish and maintain public hospitals, in ac- cordance with a statute of 1909, a board of seven trustees is elected for six years. ^^ Appointive officers are not numerous in counties at the present time. The oldest officers of this type are an inspector of lumber and shingles, appointed by the board of supervisors, if such an officer is considered necessary ; a county sealer of weights and measures, similarly ap- pointed if the board decides to secure standards of weights and measures from the State superintendent of weights and measures; and a county sheep inspector se- lected by the supervisors when notified in writing by five or more sheep owners that scab or other contagious dis- eases exist in the county. Commissions of insanity were provided for in 1870, two members being appointed by the district court, while the third member is the clerk of the district court. In counties where the district court is held in two places, two commissions are appointed and the district clerk's deputy may also act as a commis- sioner."® An official known as the county surveyor was elected by the people until recently. Although the act providing for his office seems not to have been distinctly repealed SELECTION OP PUBLIC OFFICIALS 31 by the General Assembly, his duties have since 1913 been performed by the county engineer, the appointment of whom is mandatory upon the board of supervisors. The county superintendent of schools also was elected by the people until 1913 when the Thirty-fifth General Assembly made the office appointive by a convention made up of the presidents of the school boards of the various school dis- tricts. If the president of a school board is unable to attend, some other member of the board may be selected by the board in his place, each representative having a vote. Bv a maioritv the convention may select a com- mittee of five to investigate the qualifications of candi- dates and report to the convention. By a three-fourths vote the convention may even delegate to the committee its power to appoint a superintendent. Besides fixing the term of the superintendent at three years, the law estab- lishes certain requirements as to experience and certifica- tion.^^ There are a few ex officio county officials in Iowa. The board of supervisors acts as a county board of canvassers and as a county board of review. To afford a means for the introduction of county uniformity in text-books, the General Assembly in 1890 created the county board of education, consisting of the county superintendent of schools, the county auditor, and the board of supervisors. Finally, a statute passed in 1897 designates the clerk of the district court and the county attorney as inspectors of jails.'"''^ SELECTION OF TOWNSHIP OFFICIALS Since the early years of the Territory of Iowa the chief governmental authority in the township has been the board of trustees of three members. During early statehood the countv sheriff was ex officio assessor, but 32 APPLIED HISTORY at present the assessor is a township officer. If the town- ship contains an incorporated town or city one assessor is chosen for the municipality and another for the rural section of the township. Other elective township officers are the township clerk, two constables, and two justices of the peace — all elected for two years.^^ There are also certain ex officio township officials. In townships undivided for election purposes, the trustees serve as election judges : otherwise each trustee serves in the election precinct in which he resides and additional judges are appointed by the board of supervisors. In undivided townships, the board of supervisors decides by ballot which two of the trustees are to serve as election judges when all three are members of the same party. The third judge is then selected by the supervisors from the unrepresented party which polls the largest or next largest vote at the preceding general election. Two election clerks are also considered as members of the board of elections, the township clerk being ex officio election clerk for the precinct in which he lives, while other election clerks are appointed by the board of super- visors. The judges of election constitute the towmship board of canvassers in townships which form a single election precinct; otherwise the trustees and the clerk serve as a board of canvassers.'^- By an act of 1845 the trustees serve as overseers of the poor for the township and as fence viewers ; by a law of 1866 they act as a town- ship board of health ; and by a law passed four years later they are designated a township board of equalization C3 SELECTION OF SCHOOL OFFICIALS From the time the Iowa country was attached to Mich- igan in 1834 down to 1858 the independent district of SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 33 uncertain area was the unit of school administration under a board of three or more members. Dissatisfied with tliis school system the Seventh General Assembly in 1858 established the civil township as the school dis- trict and continued the former independent districts as sub-districts of the school township, retaining, however, the town or city independent districts. By later legisla- tion, the independent district is permitted as an optional organization also in the rural districts."^ Despite frequent changes in the school laws of Iowa, the governing body of the school district has always been a board of several members. In accordance with the law of 1897, voters in each sub-district of the school township elect a sub-director to the township board of directors. A township which is not divided into sub-districts elects a board of three directors at large. The law of 1898 calls for the election of an additional director at large in town- ships with an even number of districts.*"'^ The organization and selection of the school board in independent districts has also been subjected to many changes. The law at present calls for the election by ballot of directors to hold office for three years. Munici- palities or unincorporated towns and villages have boards consisting of five or seven members, while rural districts elect boards of three or five members. In independent districts made up in whole or in part of cities or incor- porated towns, the treasurer is elected for a one-year term.*'^ By an act of 1858 authorizing the establishment of county high schools, provision was made for an elec- tive board of trustees of six members who with the county superintendent should control the high school. In the only county where such a school exists the trustees are chosen for four years.*^"^ 34 APPLIED HISTORY The only appointive school officers are the secretary and the treasurer; both are selected in school townships by the board of directors, but in independent districts the secretary alone is thus chosen ; while in independent dis- tricts made up in whole or in part of cities or incor- porated towns, the treasurer is elected.''^ The judges of school elections are the only local ex officio school officers. By the law of 1870 the president, secretary, and one of the directors act as election judges in independent districts, but by a later statute providing for the division of such districts into election precincts when they have a population of more than 5000, the board of directors designates as members of the election board one of its own members and two electors of the district, one of the latter to act as clerk/' ^ SELECTION OF MUNICIPAL OFFICIALS Since 1857 the General Assembly has classified cities and towns according to population so as to meet some- what the needs of the various communities. In incor- porated towns the council consists of five members elected at large. In cities a different rule obtains. That the needs of the various sections of a city may be better known to the council, that the feeling of responsibility and the idea of representation may be brought more di- rectly home to both councilmen and electors, and that the candidates may be better known to the voters, it is re- quired that cities of the first and second class be divided into wards and a councilman elected from each ward; and to secure councilmen who will consider the interests of the city as a whole rather than merely those of any particular ward, provision is also made for the election of two councilmen at large. Other elective officers are the SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 35 mayor, the assessor, and the treasurer. Cities of the first class also elect an auditor, a city engineer, a solicitor, and, if there is no Superior Court, a police judge. There are several offices and commissions which cer- tain cities may or must have. Cities with a population of 5000 or more may by popular vote provide for a Superior Court, and elect a superior judge for four years. Cities of the same population may also vote to build a city hos- pital, and thereafter elect three hospital trustees. Three park commissioners must be elected in municipalities with a population of 40,000 or more, and they may be elected in cities or towns with a smaller population. Fi- nally, cities of the first class and special charter cities with a population of less than 25,000 may elect a river front improvement commission."^** The tendency in towns and cities during recent years has been to make the mayor the appointing officer. A board of public works of two members must be appointed by the mayor in cities which have a population of 50,000 or more and may be so selected in cities of from 30,000 to 50,000. The mayor of a city of the first class which owns a water system is required to appoint a board of three trustees of water-works. The mayor also appoints a health physician, a street commissioner, and a marshal in cities and towns, but if such a city has a board of public works the board appoints the street commissioner. In cities of the first class he may appoint a wharf-master when he thinks it necessary. Moreover, a city or town council may by ordinance require that the mayor appoint ''such additional officers, including superintendent of markets, harbor-masters, and port wardens usual and proper for the regulation and control of navigation, trade or commerce, or needful and proper for the good 36 APPLIED HISTORY government of the city or town, or the due exercise of its corporate powers.""^ A number of appointments are also made by the may- or and the council as, for instance, a board of library trustees of nine members and in cities with a population of more than 20,000 a board of police and fire commis- sioners of three members. Municipalities may also de- cide to have a commission of public docks of three members appointed in the same way for three years. The council alone appoints the clerk in cities and towns and a solicitor in cities of the second class J- In cities with a population of 3,500 or more, exclusive of inmates of State institutions located there, the council is required to appoint a registry board from the two political parties which polled the largest vote, two registrars being select- ed for each election precinct. In unincorporated villages with a like population the board of supervisors appoints a board of registry.'^ -^ By the law of 1892 the councilmen of towns and cities serve as election judges. If more than two of the council- men belong to the same party and live in the same ward, the county supervisors designate who shall act as election officials. For the general election the board of super- visors completes the election boards; and for municipal elections the city council so acts. By the law of 1897 the mayor and the clerk of a town or city divided into election precincts act as a board of canvassers. In undivided towns or cities the election judges so serve. Mayor and councilmen constitute the local board of health, and the city clerk is ex officio clerk to the board. The law of 1897 also designates the council as a municipal board of re- view. The statute which provides for a Superior Court requires the superior judge to act as his own clerk, but if SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 37 necessary the city recorder or clerk may be directed to serve as clerk to the courts ^ It was at the instance of the city of Des Moines that the General Assembly in 1907 permitted cities of a certain population to discard their old form of government in favor of the commission plan. In the eight cities which have since organized under this plan the voters by means of a primary and an election select a commission consist- ing of a mayor and four councilmen (a mayor and two councilmen in cities with a population between 2000 and 25,000) to take charge of the city government. They are elected at large on a non-partisan ticket for a two-year term. The commission or council is required to appoint by majority vote a board of library trustees, city clerk, solic- itor, assessor, treasurer, auditor, civil engineer, city physician, marshal, market master, street master, street commissioner "and such other officers and assistants as shall be provided for by ordinance and necessary to the proper and efficient conduct of the affairs of the city." In cities of less than 25,000, however, the commission may •exercise its own judgment as to which of the above men- tioned officers are needed. In cities with a population of 15,000 or more the council must appoint a police judge if there be no Superior Court. In cities of 25,000 or more the council must appoint three civil service commission- ers, while in cities of less population tlie council may either serve as an examining board or appoint a civil service commission. The civil service commission, or the council when it acts in such capacity, conducts examinations to determine the qualifications of applicants for certain positions, and then certifies tlie names of the ten persons who stand OP 38 APPLIED HISTORY highest. Vacancies in the city service are then filled from these lists unless there are fewer than three names for a division or department to select from. In such instances, the superintendent of the department concerned may make a temporary appointment until the next civil service examination. Preference is given to honorably dis- charged soldiers, sailors, or marines of the regular or volunteer army or navj of the United States if otherwise qualified. Officers or employees of the city who come under the merit system are those not enumerated above as elective or appointive officers and also "commissioners of any kind (laborers whose occupations require no special skill or fitness), election officials, and mayor's secretary and assistant solicitor, where such officers are appointed". Certain exceptions are made, however, aside from the general rule. Officers or employees chosen before the act went into effect, those serving under a previous civil service law, or those exempted for long service are not to be subjected to examinations.'^^ SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 39 Table of Public Officials in Iowa [The following table contains data concerning the term of office, method of selection, and method of removal of the principal State officials and all of the county, township, scliool, and municipal officials in Iowa. It will be noticed that the table does not contain mention of all of the positions connected with the administration of State government. In fact, in the different State offices, boards, and commissions there may be found a number of subordinate positions which are of more aihninistrative importance than some oOices which are prac- tically independent; but of these subordinate positions only a few have been listed in the table. It should be observed that this table has a close connection not only with this paper on the Selection of Public Officials in Iowa, but also with the papers on the Reorganization of State Government in Iowa, the Merit System in Iowa, and the Bemoval of Public Officials in lotva — all of which appear in this series. The table was compiled by Mr. Jacob Van der Zee ; but much of the data on the removal of public officials was furnished by Mr. O. K. Patton. — Editoe.] STATE OFFICIALS Name of Official Governor Lieutenant Governor Senators Representatives Secretary of State Auditor of State Treasurer of State Attorney General Railroad Coiuniissioners Supreme Court Judges District Court Judges Term of Office Two Years Two Years Four Years Two Years Two Years Two Years Two Years Two Years Four Years Six Years Four Years Max NEB OF Selection Elected by people the Kleeted by people the Elected by people the Elected by people the Elected by people the Elected by people the Elected by people the Elected by people the Elected by the people Elected by the people Elected by the people Manner of Removal By impeachment By impeachment Ry a two-thirds vote of the Senate By a two-thirds vote of the House By impeachment By impeachment By impeachment By impeachment By impeachment By impeachment 40 APPLIED HISTORY Table of Public Officials in Iowa — Continued Name of Official Term of Office Manner of Selection 1 Manner of Removal Adjutant General At pleasure of Governor Appointed by the Governor By the Governor State Veterinary Surgeon Three Years Appointed by the Governor By the Executive Council for cause Fish and Game Warden Three Years Appointed by the Governor By the Executive Council for cause State Dairy and Food Commissioner Two Years Appointed by the Governor By the Executive Council for cause Director of Weather and Crop Service Two Years Appointed by the Governor on recom- mendation of State Board of Agriculture By the Executive Council for cause State Mine Inspectors Six Years Appointed by the Governor By the Governor for cause upon findings bv the Board of Examiners of Mine Inspectors State Inspectors of Oils Two Years Appointed by the Governor By the Executive Council for cause Inspector of Bees Two Years Appointed by the Governor State Inspectors of Boats Two Years Appointed by the Governor By the Executive Council for cause Commissioners for Iowa in Other States Three Years or at pleasure of Governor Appointed by the Governor By the Governor Notaries Public Three Years Appointed by the Governor By the Governor Commissioners of Pharmacy Three Years Appointed by the Governor By the Executive Council for cause State Highway Commission Four Years Two members ap- pointed by the Governor and one ex officio By the Executive Council for cause Commission of Animal Health Three Years for vet- erinarians : two years for stock-raisers One member ex officio, and four members appointed by the Governor By the Executive Council for cause(?)' Library Commission Five Years Four members appointed by the Governor and three ex officio members Appointed members removable by the Executive Council for cause SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 41 Table op Public Officlu^s in Iowa — Continued Namk ok Okficial Tkrm of Office Mann'eu of Sklection Mannkb of Removal. Board of E^duca- tional Examiners Four Years Three ex officio members and two members appointed by the Governor By the F^xecutive Council for cause Board of Dental Examiners Five Years Appointed by the Governor By the Executive Council for cause Board of Optometry Examiners One Year Three members ap- nointed by the Gov- ernor on recommen- dation of Iowa State Association of Opto- metrists, and two ex officio members Bv the Executive Council for cause Board of Voting Machine Commissioners Five Years Appointed by the Governor By the Governor State Printer Two Years Elected by the General Assembly State Binder Two Years Elected by the General Assembly Reporter of the Supreme Court Four Years Appointed by the Supreme Court Clerk of the Supreme Court Four Years Appointed by the Supreme Court Board of Law Examiners Two Years Four members ap- pointed by the Su- Dreme Court, and one ex officio member Superintendent of Public Instruction Four Years Appointed by the Governor with consent of Senate Commissioner of Insurance Four Years Appointed by the Governor with consent of Senate By the district court for cause- Iowa Industrial Commissioner Six Years Appointed by the Governor with con- sent of Senate By the Governor upon the order of the Executive Council for cause Custodian of Public Buildings Two Years Appointed by the Governor with con- sent of Senate By the Executive Council for cause 42 APPLIED HISTORY Table of Public Officl\ls in Iowa — Continued Name of Official Term of Offick Manner of Selection Manner of Removal State Fire Marshal Four Years Appointed by the Governor with con- sent of Senate By the Governor for cause Board of Control of State Institutions Six Years Appointed by the Governor with con- sent of Senate By the Governor with the consent of the Senate for cause Board of Education Six Years Appointed by the Governor with con- sent of Senate By the Governor with the consent of the Senate for cause Board of Parole Six Years Appointed by the Governor witli con- sent of Senate By the Executive Council for cause Commissioner of Bureau of Labor Statistics Two Years Appointed by the Governor and the Executive Council By the Governor with advice of Executive Council for cause State Librarian Six Years Elected by Board of Library Trustees Bv a two-thirds vote "of the Board of Library Trustees for cause Curator of the Museum and Art Gallery Six Years Elected by Board of Library Trustees By a two-thirds vote of the Board of Library Trustees for cause State Geologist At pleasure of Geological Board Appointed by Geological Board By the Geological Board Examiner of Municipal Accounts Appointed by Auditor of State Commerce Counsel Four Years Appointed by Board of Railroad Commis- sioners, confirmed by Senate By the Board of Railroad Commis- sioners by and with the consent of the Senate, for cause Secretary of State Board of Health Five Years Appointed by Gov- ernor, Secretary of State, and Auditor of State State Examiners for Counties Four Years Appointed by Auditor of State By the Auditor of State for cause Bank Examiners At pleasure of Auditor of State Appointed by Auditor of State By the Auditor of State SELECTION OP PUBLIC OFFICIALS 43 Table of Public Officials in Iowa — Continued Namb of Official Factory Inspectors Examining Commit- tee for Embalmers Examining Commit- tee for Nurses Term ok Okkick One Year One Year State Board of Agriculture Board of Curators of the State Historical Society State Board of Health Board of Examiners of Mine Inspectors, etc. Hotel Inspector State Entomologist State Register of Vital Statistics State Forestry Commissioner Executive Council Board of Medical Examiners Board of Library Trustees Geological Board One Year for officers and two years for district directors Two Years Manner of Selection By the Commission- er of Bureau of Labor Statistics Appointed by the State Board of Health Appointed by the State Board of Health Man NEB OF Removal Four ex officio mem' bers and thirteen members elected at an agricultural conven- tion provided by law Nine members ap- pointed by Governor and nine elected by members of Society Five Years Two Years Seven Years Appointed by Gov- ernor, Secretary of State, and Auditor of State Appointed by the Executive Council Ex officio Ex officio Ex officio Ex officio Ex officio Ex officio Ex officio Ex officio By the Executive Council for cause By the Governor for cause By the Executive Council for cause * The State Board of Veterinary Medical Examiners which this commission displaces was removable by the Executive Council. ^ Lawn of Iowa, 1909, p. 72; 1913, p. 152. 44 APPLIED HISTORY Table op Public Officlvls in Iowa — Continued COUNTY OFFICIALS Name of Official Term of Office Manner of Selection Manner of Removal Board of Supervisors Three Years Elected by the people By the district court or judge for cause:' by the district court for cause upon charges made in writ- ing and trial thereunder- Attorney Two Years Elected by the people By the district court or judge for cause;' by the district court for cause upon charges made in writ- ing and trial thereunder Auditor Two Years Elected by the people By the district court for cause upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder Treasurer Two Years Elected by the people By the district court or judge for cause:' by the district court for cause upon charges made in writ- ing and trial thereunder Clerk of the District Court Two Years Elected by the people By the district court for cause upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder Recorder Two Years Elected by the people Bv the district court for cause upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder Sheriff Two Years Elected by the people Bv the district court or judge for cause: by any magistrate for cause ; ^ by the district court for cause upon charges made in writ- ing and trial thereunder Coroner Two Years Elected by the people By the district court for cause upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder Engineer At pleasure of Board of Supervisors Appointed by Board of Supervisors By Board of Supervisors or State Highway Commission ; by the district court for cause upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder Superintendent of Schools Three Years Elected by conven- tion of presidents of school boards in county By the district court for cause upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS Table op Public Officials in Iowa — Continued 45 1 Name of Official Tkrm of Office Manner of Selection Manner of Removal Board of Trustees of County Hospitiil Six Years Elected by the people By the district court for cause upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder Board of Trustees of County High School* Four Years Elected by the people and one member fx officio By the district court for cause upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder Inspector of Lumber and Shingles During pleasure of Board of Supervisors .\ppointed by Board of Supervisors By the Board of Super- visors; by the district court for cause upon charges in writing and trial thereunder Sealer of Weights und Measures During pleasure of Board of Supervisors Appointed by Board of Supervisors By the Board of Super- visors' by the district court for cause upon charges in writing and trial thereunder Sheep Inspector Two Years Appointed by Board of Supervisors By the district court for cause upon charges in writing and trial thereunder Commission of Insanity Two Years Two member^ ap- pointed by District Court and one mem- ber ex officio Board of Canvassers Two Years Ex officio Board of Review Two Years Ex officio Board of Education Two Years Ex officio Inspectors of Jails Two Years Ex officio ^ Code of 1S97. Section 2446; Laws of Iowa, 1909, Chapter 78, 1911, p. 43. - All county officers, elected or appointed, may be removed for cause by the district court upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder. — Code of 1897, p. 443. 3 Code of 1S97. Section 2428. * In Guthrie County. TOWNSHIP OFFICIALS Name or Official Teem of Office Manner of Selection Manner of Removal Board of Trustees Two Years Elected by the peoph ' By the district court for cause upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder* 46 APPLIED HISTORY Table of Public Opficlvls in Iowa — Continued Name of Official Assessor Clerk Constables Justices of the Peace Judges of Election Term of Office Two Years Two Years Two Years Two Years Board of Canvassers Overseers of Poor Fence Viewers Board of Equalization 1 Code of 1897, p. 443. -Code of 1897, Section 2446. ^ Lawn of Iowa, 1909, Chapter 78. *Code of 1897, Section 2428. Manner of Selection Elected by the people Elected by the people Elected by the people Elected by the people Manner of Removal By the district court for cause upon charges made in writing and trial there- under; by the district court or any judge for cause- By the district court for cause upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder By the district court for cause upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder; by the district court or judge for cause;' also by any magistrate for cause'' Ex officio and ap- pointed by Board of Supervisors Ex officio Ex ofBcio Ex officio Ex officio By the district court for cause upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder SCHOOL OFFICIALS Name of Official Treasurer Term of Office One Year Manner of Selection Elected by the people in certain independent districts — otherwise appointed by board of directors Manner of Removal SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS Table op Public Officials in Iowa — Continued Naue or Official Secretary Board of Directors Judges of School Elections Term of Office One Year One Year Manner of Selection Appointed by board of directors Elected by the people Ex officio, and in some cases judges appointed by board of directors Makkeb or Removal municipal officials Namk of Official Mayor Councilmen Assessor Treasurer Auditor' Engineer' Solicitor Police Judge ' Judge of Superior Court' Hospital Trustees' Park Commissioners' River Front Improve raent Commission ' Board of Public Works ' Board of Water Works Trustees ' Physician Term of Office Two Years Two Years Two Years Two Years Two Years Two Years Two Years Two Years Four Years Six Years Six Years Six Years Three Years Six Years Two Years Manner of Selection Elected by the people Elected by the people Elected by the people - Elected by the people - Elected by the people' Selected by the people- Elected by the people^ Elected by the people - Elected by the people Elected by the people - Elected by the people Elected by the people - Appointed by mayor Appointed by mayor Manner of Removal All municipal officers, ap- pointed or elected, may be removed for cause by the district court upon charges made in writing and trial thereunder, or by the coun- cil for cause; while all ap- pointed officers may be re- moved by the appointing agency for cause. See Code nf 1S97, Sections 1251, 1258, 2428, 2446: Code Supijipmeiit of 1907, pp. 114, 217; Laws of Iowa, 1909, Chapter 78. Mayor and councilmen may he removed by the recall in commission-governed cities ; mayor, police officer, or mar- shal by the district court or judge: police officer or mar- shal also by a magistrate after trial: assessor by the district court or any judge after trial. Any officer or assistant elect- ed or appointed by the Council in commission-gov- erned cities may be removed at any time by a majority vote of the Council, except as otherwise provided. — Lawn of Iowa. 1909, p. 57. Appointed by mayor- 48 APPLIED HISTORY Table of Public Officials in Iowa — Continued Name of Official Term op Office Manner of Selection Manner of Removal Street Commissioner Two Years Appointed by mayor or board of public works ^ Marshal Two Years Appointed by mayor ^ Wharf-master^ Two Years Appointed by mayor Superintendent of Markets' Two Years Appointed by mayor ^ Harbor-master 1 Two Years Appointed by mayor ^ Port Wardens' Two Years Appointed by mayor ^ Board of Library Trustees Five Years' Six Years Appointed by mayor with consent of Council^ Board of Police and Fire Commissioners' Six Years Appointed by mayor with consent of CounciP By the mayor for cause with consent of majority of Council Commission of Public Docks' Three Years Appointed by mayor with consent of Council - Clerk Two Years Appointed by the Council Civil Service Commission' Six Years Appointed by the Council or ex officio By the Council for cause Registry Board Two Years Appointed by the Council Judges of Election Ex officio Board of Canvassers Ex officio Board of Health Ex officio Board of Reviev? Ex officio ' In cities specified by statute. 2 Appointed by the Council in commission-governed cities. 3 Appointed by the Council in cities of the second class and commissJon-governed cities. Ill CRITICISM OF THE METHODS OF SELECTING STATE OFFICIALS IN IOWA The popular election of public officers lias long been advocated as a cure for all political evils. If favoritism appears in the choice of postmasters, the cry is for elec- tive postmasters. If an appointed railroad commission does not respond to public opinion, again the demand is for popular election. Nevertheless, a method which ap- pears perfect in theory may break down in practice. The ultimate test of any principle or policy is that it works in actual practice, that it obtains results ; and this test must be applied to the elective principle. The election of all public officers by the people seems, theoretically, the best way of securing popular govern- ment ; but in practice it may become so burdensome and so complicated through the multiplicity of elective offices that popular government becomes "unpopular govern- ment". There may be so many offices to fill that the voters, lost in a maze, are obliged to content themselves with a sham democracy. The increase of elective offices, the creation of new parties, the selection of candidates at primary elections, and the frequency of elections have combined to render the voter helpless while the govern- ment has to a great extent drifted into the control of men whom a recent writer terms "politocrats"."^^ The situation in Iowa in this regard is not exceptional. At the last primary election it was reported that there A 49 50 APPLIED HISTORY were nearly 700 candidates for State offices (including State Senators, State Representatives, and District Judges), 3,700 for county offices, and 11,710 for township offices, making a total of 16,110 candidates. On the aver- age each voter was called upon to select nominees for about thirty offices from perhaps twice as many candi- dates. The helplessness of the ordinary voter confronted by such a task may well be imagined. While the small vote cast was perhaps largely due to indifference, lack of time, and failure to realize the importance of the primary, yet a great factor was doubtless the unfamiliarity of many with the candidates. Many of those who voted cast their ballots blindly or at the instruction of volunteer advisers, except perhaps for the most important offices. Moreover, there was also a surprising connection between the vote and candidates whose names headed the tickets." It is not only at the primary, however, that the voter can not exercise his judgment. At the general election for officers he is confronted by a ballot which contains from four to five tickets, and each ticket usually provides candidates for the same number of offices as did the pri- mary. With so many tickets and so many offices to fill it is impossible for the voter to become informed as to the qualifications of the candidates. The average man is too busy making a living to pay much attention to politics : his farm, or his position, or his business needs his atten- tion; and even if he has the time to spare, he can not obtain impartial information concerning any but the candidates for the leading offices. He is, therefore, forced to do one of three things : neglect to vote for the so-called minor officers, or follow the suggestions of "advisers", or vote blindly for the candidates on his party ticket who are often nominated through the efforts of a political machine and special interests allied with the machine."^ ^ SELECTION OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS 51 Since the voters, uninformed, confused, and stirred by prejudices, or misled by special or