Raw Products of the World AFRICA Raw Products of the World VOL. I Africa By RALPH DAVOL Author of "AMERICAN PAGEANTRY" "TWO MEN OF TAUNTON" DAVOL PUBLISHING COMPANY TATJNTON, MASSACHUSETTS COPYRIGHT 1922 MAIN LIBRARY-ATrr'M TURE DEPT. Camels * -* Almonds Esparto Cor, Camels Camel Gum Otfr/c Salt- Ostr/cf> Rubber Millet Ivory CastorOil Maite Gum rote Rubber Gum Maize Cotton fiorfo/K Pines oses. RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 187 Algeria in 1916 exported 24,905 metric tons of vegetable fibers, valued at $600,809. Considerable comes to America. Baobab (Adansonia digitata) is abundant in Lower Senegal, furnishing food, drink, medicine and shelter, as well as cloth- ing and rope. This so-called monkey bread tree, indigenous to Africa, grows 30 feet in diameter. Its use for cordage is reviving. The Pineapple (Ananassa sativa) is not yet profitable for fiber uses. TOBACCO Tobacco (Nfcotina Tobacum) consists of the leaves of several species of this "weed", all prepared as narcotic, for smoking, chewing or inhaling as snuff. Tobacco is the most extensively used of all narcotics. It is a contribution of the American Indian to civilization. Since 1600 its various uses have been learned by the entire world and it is now common- ly smoked not only by civilized people, but "even by the sav- age tribes in the interior of Africa." Thus it has passed from the red American Indian to the black African bushman and the yellow Chinese coolie through the agency of the civilized white man. One of the chief exports of the United States to every colony of Africa is leaf tobacco and cigars, but conditions in some of the African colonies are quite as favorable for grow- ing tobacco as they are in the United States. Tobacco may be grown on any agricultural soil and through a wide range of latitude, but the commercial value of the product is more influenced by the soil and climatic con- ditions than any other agricultural crop. The leaves of tobacco are rolled, twisted or pressed into hard "plugs" for chewing; cut into fine shreds or particles to be used in pipes; rolled into tight or semi-tight cylindrical forms known as cigars, for smoking. Cigars are made in va- rious ways from various kinds of tobacco, strong, mild, or medium, according to the quality of the leaf and mode of manufacture. The leaves are also dried and powdered into snuff, which was formerly popular taken up the nose. An- other use is packing it in woolen clothing of blankets, to keep out moths. 188 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA Nicotine, a very poisonous alkaloid, is the active principle of tobacco, and an essential ingredient in the manufacture of certain sheep dips. The high proportion of nicotine in much of the Outshoorn tobacco (due apparently to the lar^e per- centage of chlorine and nitrogen in the soil), seems to render the district particularly adapted for experiments in this di- rection. South African tobacco is especially adapted to the manufacture of this "dip", and oan become a valuable com- modity for local use and for export. Algeria uses American machinery and has no laws of re- straint or monopoly in production of tobacco. Cultivation be- gan in 1844. Algeria now leads African production. Half the product is made into cigarettes in France, whose govern- ment bought, in 1914, $811,372 worth. In 1917, from 25,254 acres was a yield of 36,155,000 pounds. One-half the crop in 1915 was manufactured near the cataracts. American seeds have been cultivated, with improvement of quality. No exports have yet been made, nor will be until plenty of skilled labor is obtained. In Algeria it is made into cigarettes for home use (35,- 000,000 packages) and 66,000,000 were exported, especially to Indo-China. Production has increased from 593 to 1,874 tons, between 1901 and 1916. Canary Islands' tobacco, under high tariff, does not mee*" home demands. The annual product, 50,000 to 80,000 pounds (mostly on La Palma), could be greatly increased. Madagascar in 1916 claimed tobacco as next to hides its chief product. Transvaal tobacco is unsuitable for cigars, but is held as the best pipe tobacco in the world. It grows best in Pretoria, Potchefstroom, Rustenberg and Zoutpansberg. Rhodesia exported, in 1915, $206,980 worth of tobacco, in 1916, $199,585. Cultivation of cotton instead of tobacco, during the war, reduced the output, but in 1918, the crop was estimated at 500,000 pounds. Congo has two kinds of tobacco plants, Nicotiana, grow- ing to 12 feet, and rustica, smaller, but producing a preferred, darker tobacco. Nyassaland harvested 7,484 acres ot tobacco (chief crop) in 1917. Yield per acre is small, 300 to 500 pounds. Export increased from 56,826 pounds in 1905 to 3,308,948 in 1915. RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 189 South Africa has large acreage but production of tobac- co is less than local demand. The Union had a yield of 9,000,000 pounds in 1915, 8,- 000,000 in 1916, nearly 7,000,000 in 1917, and over 8,000,- 000 in 1918, which was three-fifths of local requirement. Egypt is largely dependent upon Turkey and Greece and Macedonia for leaf tobacco, from which the famous Egyptian cigarettes are made. This is really the only manufacturing industry of the Protectorate. These cigarettes are largely made by American machinery. In addition to the immense home consumption, the average export of cigarettes from Egypt IB valued at $2,000,000. Egypt prohibited tobacco growing in 1890, but it has since been revived under government control and assistance. Along the Nile in lower Egypt are experimental tobacco farms, and the manufacture of cigarettes has become one of the principal industries of the country. A large part of the export of these cigarettes formerly went to Germany. The Italians follow the Turk's state control of the planta- tions in Tripoli. Nigeria, in the north, carefully cultivates, but unskil- fully cures the tobacco, which is unfit for export. German East Africa, Somaliland, Uganda and Angola grow tobacco on a "small scale." Mozambique, Abyssinia and the Islands are greatly in- creasing their output. VANILLA AND OTHER ESSENCES Vanilla (Vanilla aromatica and V. planifolia) is native of the tropical forests of Mexico and Central America, where it is cultivated in vast quantities. In 1819 living plants were taken to Java, and in 1836 to Keunion and then to Mauritius. It adapted itself to the soil of both islands, but was not successfully cultivated until 1850, when the process of pollinating the flowers was learned. Van- illa is now cultivated in nearly all tropical countries where there is plenty of moisture and a temperature that never falls below 65 degrees F. Commercial vanilla is almost wholly produced from cultivated plants. 190 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA The product vanilla is obtained from a long, running plant with flexible, succulent stems, which thrive running along the ground, but quickly climb any tree which lends its support. The stem is about as thick as a man's finger and very juicy. The plant bears at from two to four years, when its branches blossom and fruit, which they continue to do for about 10 years. The fruit grows in clusters of three to 12, which look something like diminutive bunches of very slender bananas. When almost mature, nearly four months after the blossoms fall off, they are quickly gathered to prevent open- ing and spilling of the seeds. If gathered too early the flavor is not good, so great skill is needed in knowing just the prop- er time. Straggling fruit missed in the picking, is afterward gathered as an inferior harvest. The original crop is sold to the "curers", who take the product in charge to mature it for commercial use. There are various methods of curing but the object in all is to "sweat" the fruit numerous times by steaming or in sweatboxes, in order to drive out the moisture, and still furth- er sweating is obtained under woolen covers, alternated by exposure to sunshine or drying ovens. When sufficiently dry the pods are tied in bundles for market They are assorted for packing, the first quality pods being oily, strongly per- fumed, black and without defects ; after this the pods are as- sorted according to length and then they are made up into bundles, each packet containing 50; the packets are packed into tin boxes containing 85 pounds of vanilla each- The tins are soldered up and put in wooden cases holding three boxes apiece and are ready for shipment. In order to obtain the perfume or essence of How Prepared, vanilla one pound of pods is cut up small and put into a gallon of pure alcohol known as 60 over-proof, and shaken daily for four weeks when the spirits may be strained off quite clear and bright. It is then suitable for flavoring or when blended with other scents, zakes> fragrant perfumery. Extracts are preparations obtained by evaporation of all material but the concentrated substances of the product ex- tracted. These preparations are usually prepared from pow- dered dry leaves, flowers or fruit, by exhaustion with solvents (water, alcohol or ether), by percolation. RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 191 Another method is to obtain juice from fresh plants by bruising them in a stone mortar with a hard-wood pestle until the mass is reduced to a smooth pulp, which is then expressed in canvas bags. Vanilla extracts, besides their familiar uses, serve in flavoring tobacco and dyspepsia tonics. The best and largest product is from the islands, Reunion, Mauritius and Mada- gascar. Seychelles has a poorer quality yet, The export was 66,000 pounds,' in 1906, and $54,000 worth in 1916. The synthetic vanillas and the tonka bean, for adulteration, have reduced production. Comoro Island produces vanilla at an altitude of 2,500 feet In 1902 Anjouan gathered 18 tons, from 1,200,000 plants. Mauritius in 1915 exported to London, vanilla valued at $9,265. Reunion's export of vanilla is second in quality and quan- tity to that of Mexico 165,000 pounds in 1905, and 154,000 in 1909. Madagascar, including its islands of Nossi-Be and Com- oro exported one-fourth of the world production in 1917 500 tons. In 1916 the price ran from $1.05 to $2.00 per pound. VEGETABLE PERFUMERIES Essential oils, used in perfumery, are extracted from flowers, fruit, stems and roots, which Africa grows luxur- iantly, Algeria formerly distilled from bigaradier (Acacia for- nesiana) and rose geranium (Geraniceae pelargonium) but the industry faltered during the war. Neroli, a volatile oil of Algeria, distilled from flowers of the bitter orange, is used both for perfume and flavoring. Bergamot (Citrus bergamia rossi) is a specimen of the citrus family partaking of the properties of both the orangp and the lemon. The fruit is lemon color and it has a bitter, acrid taste. It is not known in a wild state and its origin is obscure. Oil of bergamot is obtained from the rind by cold expression and an inferior quality is afterward made from the crushed rinds by the aid of steam. 192 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA Tunis exported in 1913, 600,000 pounds of volatile oils and extracts. South Africa in 1917 exported 9,876 pounds ($2,400) of dried blossoms. Madagascar exports dried flowers, especially ylang- ylang, a native of the Philippines. Zanzibar produces nutmeg oil. Civet (vcera csvetta) secreted by the civet cat, is ex- ported from Abyssinia and Soudan. RUBBER Although rubber has been known for 400 years it has been used only for a century. The early explorers of Amer- ica found the Indians of Haiti making balls of rubber for games. The first use of rubber in Africa appears to have been for drum-stick heads. In the United States rubber was manufactured for erasing pencil marks, then for boots (Goodyear) for marines, then for coats (Mackintosh) to keep off the rain, then came a multitude of uses in the arts and industries, and finally automobiles appeared to start a re- markable boom. ^' Brazil M has been the chief source of commercial rubber. There is large production in Central America, Vene- zuela, Columbia, the Philippines, British Antilles and Dutch Indies. Africa now stands third. African rubber first became prominent in the market in 1885. About 1890 the wild rub- ber trees of the Congo began to be exploited. Wild rubber from Africa comes from the funtumia and landolphia, the former a tree, the latter more like a vine which climbs on other trees. Landolphia produces most of the wild rubber. A rubber tree begins to yield latex at the age of six years. Plantation rubber trees are set out 550 to the acre, with cocoa, cotton or coffee trees between the rows. Only since 1907 has the cultivated crop of rubber been on the market, but now throughout Africa it is rapidly super- seding the wild. Of the world's crop of 200,000 tons, one- fourth is the wild product. It is usually of inferior quality, due to neglect in the removal of sticks, dirt, resin, etc. The latex, or caoutchouc, is obtained in different ways. Sometimes pieces of trees or vines are macerated. Ordinar- ily incisions in the trunk permit the ooze to fill the attached *At present the leading source of plantation rubber is the Malay Peainsula nnd East Indies. RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 193 cups. Clots are sometimes formed by allowing the trickle to coagulate on the trunk. Sprinkling or brushing the incision with acid (lemon, sorrel or salt), quickly forms a lump, which is ready at once for packing for shipment. Rubber is obtained by a physical process of pounding and separating the latex; and a chemical process of coagulation by the use of alum, salt, sulphuric acid, citric and acetic juices. The following is an analysis made at the Imperial In- stitute of a fair sample of rubber produced by Landolphia Kirkii in the Mozambique Company's Territories, East Af- rica, i. e., moisture, 5 per cent, caoutchouc, 85. 6 per cent.; resin, 5.5 per cent. ; proteids. 1.3 per cent. ; insoluble, 2.7 per cent.; ash, .46 per cent. Protective laws have been made in most districts for- bidding cutting down of plants, over-tapping or cutting out of season. Bush fires, locusts, tornadoes and droughts are common. The laws in the great forests are not easily execut- ed. Schools to educate the natives in economical methods of harvesting rubber are popular. The careful inspection by the customs service prevents export of impure (10 per cent-) and over-moist (15 per cent, water) rubber. In the Congo the law requires replacement by 150 new plants to every ton of rubber produced. The natives have destroyed almost entirely the wild rub- ber trees in Madagascar, Mozambique, Zanzibar, and there is a shrinkage in the production of wild trees, indicating that the zenith has been reached, and that wild rubber is on the decline. British East Africa has several rubber plantations. Ceara (which flourishes on poor, dry soil) and the Para plants are most successful. Nyassaland and German East Africa cultivate Ceara. The first exported in 1915-'16, 46,002 pounds. The latter had 19,000,000 trees in 1913, 6,000,000 of which were the manihot glaziorii variety. There are other wild rubber plants clitanria, ficus, castilloa, hevea, kickxia, etc. The best wild rubber is from near Tanganyika, Donde and Kilva. Kamerun, in 1912, received $2,730,389 for rubber (near- ly one-half of total exports, rubber passing ivory). Uganda had in 1916, 3,335 acres under native cultiva- tion, to 5,706 acres (1917) under European. 194 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA Portuguese Africa mainly raises wild rubber. The Val- our separator is coming into use in the M'punga forest. Mozambique rubber is listed as "black" or "red" Afri- cans. It is impure and cheap. Undeveloped good plants exist in quantity. Madagascar forests are full of rubber plants, but the mixing of poor latex with good has lowered values. Re-for- esting and cultivation can develop the great possibilities of the wild and plantation rubber. Gambia has an indigenous vine, Landolphia Hendelotii, and many other plants, native or exotic. Sierra Leone has the Landolphia and Clitandra vines, also the West African tree, Funtumia elasiici. "Manoh twist" is made by stamping the coagulated latex with the feet, into cakes, which, cut in strips, are wound into balls. The Gold Coast has trees and vines in extensive forests. Funtumia Elastlca is tapped as high as 50 feet, by the double herring system. The drip, unstrained, coagulates in a pit plastered with clay, producing an inferior rubber. New methods tend toward improvement. Nigeria has done good work in educating the natives in rubber production. In the south there are nurseries for rubber seedlings. The northern product is inferior. French West Africa made its first export from Guinea in 1888. All the other colonies are producing under strict laws. Most of the Senegal rubber comes from Casamance. From 1896 to 1899 inclusive the average production of rubber in Casamance amounted to 252,936 kilograms annually, valued at 940,222 francs. For the whole colony the average produc- tion in the period 1896-1899 was 278,005 kilograms, worth 1,084,219 francs. The rubber is derived from two species of landolphia, the most common known as toll, the vines of which grow in bushes on the plains and clearings. The latex is extracted from the roots. Although rubber has been cultivated in Casamance since 1883 there is no system of protection or propagation, and unless precautions are taken there is danger that the plant will disappear. The next most important variety is dob, which is less elastic, but which is in demand. Attempts to introduce Ceara rubber have been tried without success. RAW PRO DUCTS OF AFRICA 195 Congo rubber finds a ready market. It was formerly the chief producer of wealth. In 1907 there were 12,000,000 trees (estimated). United States and Liverpool buy the bulk of the production. Rubber comes in balls, slabs, strips, rolls, cakes, twists and bags. The best of the African rubber comes from the Congo under such trade names as Wamba, thimbles, Equa- teur, kasai, Assiwimi, Nelle strips, Mongalla. In 1907 the Belgian Congo exported 1,600 tons of rub- ber. In 1914, the Belgian Congo exported rubber to the value of $2,200,000. In 1915, the Belgian Congo exported rubber to the value of $2,300,000. In 1915, Belgian Congo exported 1,929,199 pounds root rubber (876,909 kg.). In 1915, Belgian Congo exported 2,864,270 pounds vine rubber (1,301,942 kg.). Belgian Congo exported, 1920, rubber to the value of 5,396,397 francs (1,121,679 kilos). French Congo, 1920, exported 2,122 tons of wild rubber. In 1918 (first 6 mos.), Belgian Congo exported 12 tons of rubber goods. In the forests of Liberia are to be found rubber-bearing vines and trees of 22 species. Liberia exported in 1910, 115,- 785 pounds of rubber; 1911, 103,032 pounds of rubber; 1912, 93,822 pounds of rubber; 1913, 116,712 pounds of rubber; 1914, 8,003 pounds of rubber; 1915, 10,081 pounds of rubber. In 1913, the value of the crop was $30,000; in 1917. it was $17,000. In the southern part of Abyssinia are to be found many rubber plants but as yet of little value commercially. SPICES African countries do not rank in the foreground of trade in spices and herbs, like the East Indies, although there is not a spice known that can not be raised, and profitably so, in Africa. The negroes have long used herbs and have many superstitions concerning their curative, as well as their witch- like powers. 196 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA The ability of West Africa to keep the world supplied with pungent spices was the first inducement for the English to settle there, says Sir Henry Johnstone. Islands, like Maur- itius and Reunion, are famous for their spices. Mustard (Sinapss nigra and S. alba, from the natural or- der Cruciferse) produces a small seed (proverbial in Scrip- ture). It is beginning to be a paying commodity, especially in the south. Powdered mustard is used as a condiment on the table, for pickles, and medicinally. Pepper has been used in India and other Asiatic countries for thousands of years. Peppers are of various kinds, as black old white pepper (Piper mgrum) ; long pepper (Piper long- urn), native of Malabar and Bengal; cayenne pepper (Capsi- cum annum). Black pepper is the dried fruit of the plant which bears it, and white pepper is made from the same ber- ries- Peppers of all kinds flourish in Africa, and form an article of export. Melegueta Pepper or Grains of Paradise are the aromatic seeds of one or more species of the genus amomum, of the order Scitamineae, both natives of West Africa. The seeds of both species appear to be used and sold commercially un- der the name of grains of Paradise. Pepper is widely dis- tributed in Sierra Leone and Lower Guinea as far as Angola. It has never been cultivated in any quantity anywhere even in West Africa. In early days the spice was conveyed over- land to Tripoli and shipped from Monti di Barca on the Medi- terranean ; as the Italians did not know whence it came they called it grains of Paradise. In the 16th century English voyagers traded to the Gold Coast for gold, ivory, pepper and grains of Paradise. Now grains of Paradise are shipped chiefly from the settlements on the Gold Coast, the most important being Cape Castle and Accra. Residents of hot climates crave highly-seasoned food. The natives of Senegal are very fond of pepper and it has been exported from Senegal. E. AW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 197 CHILIES, RED PEPPERS Red or cayenne peppers, under the name of chilies, are largely grown in the dry and rocky part of Zanzibar and Pemba. In 1906 chilies to the value of 19,000 were export- ed but the next export in 1908 was of the value of 485 only. Sierra Leone pepper is yellowish red when dried, that of Zanzibar being dull dark red. Natal red pepper until recent- ly supplied most of the bright red cayenne pepper in com- merce. Zanzibar chilies are considered the hottest in the world- This island exports annually nearly $50,000 worth. New York controls the market for the exports. Chilies grow wild in East and Central Africa and are also cultivated in many sections. In 1917 there were 650 acres under chilie cultiva- tion in Nyassaland. The pepper market of Sierra Leone has again been very good. Cayenne pepper is the finely ground powder of chilies or capsicum. Japan and Zanzibar pepper is made from "bird's- eye chili". The ripe fruits are dried in the sun, then in an oven. When dry they are ground to a fine powder and mixed with wheat flour packed in jars in a compressed state for ex- portation. The chief use of capsicums is as a spice. Cayenne Uses, pepper is used for feeding birds and poultry also. In medicnie it is chiefly used in the form of a gargle, oc- casionally as a liniment and internally to promote digestion. Chilies and capsicums are cultivated all over the warmer regions of the world. The cultivation might well be taken up as a subsidiary or catch-crop, but should be rotated with other crops- CLOVES The cloves of commerce are the unopened flower buds of the aromatic clove tree (Jambosa caryophyllus). The clove tree appears to be indigenous only to the Mo- lucca islands. It was introduced into Zanzibar and Mauri- tius in the 18th century, and has there become the source of the largest part of the supply of cloves in the world. Penang cloves bring a higher price than those of Zanzibar. 198 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA Zanzibar cloves are very dry, larger and redder than Pemba cloves, hence are known as "Zanzibar redheads". Ex- ports from Zanzibar in 1890 were 4,372,515 Ibs. ; from Pem- ba, 13,509,335 Ibs. Zanzibar cloves lose about eight per cent, in weight on the passage to Europe. Besides the cloves, clove-stalks are shipped in immense quantities. Cultivation in the Seychelles has been abandoned; also in Reunion. In 1904, 25,304 Ibs. were exported from Re- union to France. In Madagascar clove trees grow abundantly in wet sec- tions and bring good returns, but as the tree is of very slow growth no great amount of capital has yet been put into them. In 1906 Madagascar exported over 100,000 pounds to France; in 1917, about 150,000 pounds- The primary use of cloves is as a spice. Zanzibar Uses, cloves produce 15 to 17.5 per cent, of oil. The oil of Madagascar cloves is specially favored by French per- fumers as having a particularly agreeable perfume. Essence of cloves for flavoring purposes is made by dis- solving four ounces clove oil in one gallon of spirit. Cloves are aromatic, carminative and stimulating. Moth- er cloves are the dried fruits of the clove; they contain less oil than the buds but are exported for their oil. GINGER (linger (Zingiber officinale) is an herbaceous prennial plant having a white, pungent, aromatic root covered with scale leaves which emits at intervals leafy stems usually about two feet tall and rather slender. It was one of the earliest spices known to Europeans. It is cultivated successfully in India, Malay Peninsula, China, Fiji and North Australia, in West Africa and as far south as Natal, in the West Indies and Central America. Dried ginger is prepared for the market by scalding the roots in hot water, then spreading them in the sun to dry. Cured ginger is prepared by drying the roots in the sun each day for a week. In Africa attempts have been made to cultivate the plant comercially in Sierra Leone. In 1906, 618 tons of dried ginger valued at 11,578 were exported. The cultivation here seems to be increasing. RAW P K D U C T S OF AFRICA 199 The average price of ginger in the year 1916 was 36 a cwt., which is nearly double the average price during the pre- ceding four years. As a result, the quantity exported from Sierra Leone rose from 567 tons, valued at 8,091 in 1915 to 971 tons, valued at 25,814. Of the quantity exported, 669 tons went to the United States and 289 tons to the United Kingdom. In 1912, Sierra Leone exported ginger to the value .of $218,308; in 1913, to the value of $172,587; in 1914, to the value of $76,099. Sierra Leone exported, 1920, ginger valued at 60,292 (1,432 tons). Ginger is one of the most popular flavoring agents Uses, known, entering into confectionery, ginger beer, gin- ger champagne and other .beverages. Oil of ginger serves as a basis for tinctures or essences of ginger. Ginger contains three valuable constituents, starch, oil and resin. Ginger is known as "coated" and "uncoated" or "peeled". The varieties of commerce are Jamaica, Barbadoes, Malabar, African and East Indian. Jamaica ginger is considered the best, but African is of good quality, some of it excellent. The nutmeg (Myristica fragrans, or M. aromatica) is a small 'trees that furnishes two valuable spices nutmeg and mace- When the fruit is nearly ripe the husk opens and shows a bright red network lining which covers a hard thin shell. The red covering is mace, the spice of commerce, and the shell under it covers the kernels or nutmeg, the other popular spice. Mace possesses most of the qualities of nutmegs, though not in so marked a degree, and is used much in the same way. In countries where it is grown the entire fruit is boiled and used for food. There are yearly exports of both nutmegs and mace from Zanzibar. The industry has been tried from time to time in West Africa with more or less success and possibilities in all that region are good. Mauritius and other islands have exports. The Congo has small exports but the industry in this country is capable of rich reward. Cinnamon is the inner bark of an evergreen tree (Cinna- momum zeylanicum), a native of Ceylon, where it has been cultivated for thousands of years. 200 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA Cinnamon is produced in considerable quantities in Zan- zibar, Mauritius, Reunion and in the Seychelles, "a wanderer from the French gardens of the 18th century." Allspice or Pimento (Pimenta omcinalis) is the dried un- ripe fruit of a tree native to West India islands, whence it has spread. Calabash (Monedora myristica) seeds are used as spice and are called calabash nutmegs; also used in medicine. In 1915, Gambia exported calabashes to the value of $2,300. The dried calabash gourd is used for pipes, cups and many utensils. HERBS Cumin (Cuminum cyminum), native of Egypt and Syria, is a dwarf apiaceous plant long cultivated for its seeds, which have a bitter bug-like taste and aromatic flavor, good for sea- soning. Cumin seed was well known to the ancients and is mentioned by Isaiah. It has been largely replaced in medi- cinal use by caraway seed, which has a more agreeable flav- or. Cumin is exported to Europe from Morocco ($46,000 worth in 1913), Sicily, Bombay and Calcutta. Morocco exported, 1920, cumin valued at 2,370,317 francs. Anise (Pimpinetta anisum) is a small plant indigenous to Egypt and cultivated in Spain, Malta, and many other countries. Turmeric (Curcuma longa), is an East Indian plant of the ginger family, raised chiefly for its aromatic root; it is found in northern African countries. Caraway (Carum carvi) seeds are used for flavoring bread, cakes and other foods ,and as a carminative. The plant is indigenous to the Himalayas and the Caucasus. It is also found throughout Siberia and Europe, and is extensively cul- tivated in Holland, England, the United States and Morocco. Canary Grass (Phalaris "Canariensis) seeds, used chiefly for caged birds, are raised in greatest quantities in Turkey, but also in less degree in California, Portugal and Morocco, which, in 1913, exported canary seeds to the value of $107,- 000. RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 201 Chicory is dried fruit of Chichorium intybus. It is native to Europe and Asia, but grows in the waste places of Africa and North America. Chicory is similar to the dandelion ; its chief use is as a substitute for coffee. Chicory is being cultivated in South Africa near Port Elizabeth. Modern machinery has been set up for prepar- ing the root. Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is native of Asia. The aromatic seeds and dried fruit of this plant are used in medi- cine and for pastry, and other culinary purposes- Russia pro- duces the greatest crop but Morocco furnishes the earliest crop, which is marketed in London in July and August, two months before the Russian importation. In 1913, Morocco exported coriander to the value of $110,000. Fenugreek (Trigonella Fcenum-Graecum) is the dried ripe seeds of a small herb which is native to southwestern Asia and extensively cultivated in Asia, Africa, and southern Europe. This aromatic product is chiefly used in medicines, but also by some cooks in certain food mixtures. In 1913 Morocco exported fenugreek to the value of $50,000. DYES Dyes are extracts from vegetation in which color is concentated or from animals, but chiefly from coal tar. These substances are used for coloring cloth, paper, leather, wood, hair, pictures. In order to make color perma- nent in the materials in which it is used, a "mordant", is used usually chemicals, as alum; soda, Turkey red oil, tin, iron, tannin. The dyes of Africa include indigo, Turkey red, henna, acacia, camwood, barwood, madder, galls, tumeric, safflowejr, saffron, rocou, archil, cochineal, sepia, mineral dyes. Indigo (Indigofera tinctoria) is one of Production of Dyes the best known colors. The extract of by Countries. indigo is obtained from the plants by cutting them just after blooming, laying them in strata in a tank or vat, covering them with water, when they are left to ferment for from 10 to 18 hours. When ready in this state the mass is drawn into another receptacle 202 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA where it is constantly agitated until the blue color is thor- oughly uniform. The water is then drawn off and the indigo is boiled to prevent fermentation, then dried and shaped into molds to be packed for the market. Indigo requires no mor- dant. It is sometimes adulterated with earth, ashes or pow- dered slate. Pure indigo is very dark almost black and it leaves no sediment in the water. Indigo is chiefly produced in Bengal, Java, Philippines, Egypt, Abyssinia, West Indies and Central America. Indigo has been known in Egypt and the East from very early times. Ribbons found on Egyptian mummies 5,000 years old preserve the blue color of the indigo with which they were dyed. The natural product is still used locally, blue being a favorite color of the Egyptians. In 1911 the exports of in- digo amounted to $125,900 in value. In the Congo indigo has long been raised, but has fallen off in production and exportation. It grows well in all tropi- cal countries of Africa and is raised chiefly by native labor. Much of the coarse cotton cloth made by the natives is dyed a deep blue with indigo. In Senegal indigo was raised many years ago for dyeing cotton cloth, but the first cotton experiments in this country failing to produce paying results, indigo cultivation also fell off. As a local product of consumption, indigo is especially cultivated in the river regions- A European, Mr. Mohler, a farmer at Kouma (1888), declared that 40 meters cultivated in indigo yielded him 92 breads which sold for fr. 25 per bread at Dagana. Indigo bread from Senegal finds favor in Europe, though *aid to contain many impurities. In Nigeria indigo grows wild and is cultivated in small patches by the natives. In West Africa indigo is grown in several sections and in Gambia is commercially important. The Cape Verde Islands produce indigo in less quanti- ties than formerly. RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 203 Madder (Rubia tinctorum) is a perennial herb, native to the Levant, and cultivated in many countries. The roots are long and slender and bright blood red. The fresh roots contain a yellow coloring matter. Alizarin, which constitutes its most important property, crystallises into orange-red nee- dles soluble in boiling water, alcohol and ether. Coal tar has greatly displaced the vegetable product. Several other dyes are prepared from other species of the madder family, namely morinda (M. citrifolia). This dye is said to be useful in guarding against insects. It is also used as medicine. Besides yellow, every shade of red, purple and lilac can be obtained from the madder family. Madder roots are obtained throughout Central Africa. Henna (Lawsonia inermis) is a fragrant white flowering shrub of Southern Asia and adjacent regions, which produces from its leaves a reddish-orange dye. Henna is used by the Buddhists and Mohammedans in their religious ceremonies. It is the ancient gopher-wood of Scripture. Both Orientals and some African natives stain their teeth and finger-nails an orange brown with it. Henna is used com- mercially for dyeing wool, horse hair, leather and by modern coiffeurs for coloring hair several shades of yellow, orange and golden-brown. In Egypt, henna is grown extensively and has been cul- tivated for centuries. It is also grown in Abyssinia, Soudan and Somaliland. In 1914, 1,000,000 pounds of henna were exported from Tripoli. Acacia (A. arabica), or babul tree, belongs to a very large family of trees (Leguminosae), 450 species of which are found in the tropics of the earth, mostly in Australia and Africa. The bark of this tree is used for tannin and for dye and the leaves afford a yellow dye. This dye is produced in Senegal. Black dye from the bark is used to make a kind of ink also, and the natives use it in both tanning and dyeing hides. Camwood (Baphia nitida) produces a rich red dye, used slightly in commerce, but more particularly by the negroes. Th*e powder is sprinkled over their bodies or, mixed with oil, is smeared on them. 204 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA When camwood is scarce henna is used in its place but is not nearly so favored as the red of the camwood. This tree is indigenous to Nigeria, Angola and West Africa. An inferior dye from the same tree, not so rich a red, but much used, is barwood. The red of this dye borders on orange. Another dye, ranging from pink to rose color, is obtained from rosewood. Tumeric (Curcuma longa), a plant belonging to the gin- ger family, native to East India, but introduced into several African localities, produces a yellow dye. Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) is a thistle, with a large orange-colored flower, native to India, Persia and Egypt, where it has been cultivated for a red dye obtained from its blossoms. Saffron (Crocus sativus), a crocus having purple flowers, is widely cultivated in Mediterranean countries. The stigma of this flower yields an orange color which is chiefly used in confections and varnishes. Galls are excrescences formed on several trees by insects blonging to the order Hymenoptera, and allied to the wasps. These galls are found abundantly in African countries, as Morocco and Algeria, and are much used for making dyes and ink- Argols, or lees, which are deposited as a crystalline coat- ing in casks of new wine, make the commercial source of tar- taric acid and tartrates, which are used as mordants in dyes. In 1915, Algeria exported tartar, crude and wine lees, 5,218 tons, valued at $945,507; and in 1916, 4,409 tons, val- ued at $1,018,654. Rocou or Arnotta (Bixa Orellana) is a shrub or small tree, native of tropical America and extensively cultivated there as well as in tropical African countries, for the red dye produced from its ^<^ds. Rocou has diminished in com- mercial importance but is considerably used in countries where it is grown and extracted, for dyeing silks, feathers, leather (russet) bone and i^ory, and also as coloring matter for cheese and butter. Archil or orchil, is a lustrous violet dye obtained from Roscella tinctora, R. fuciformis, and Lecanora tartarea. Archil is used as a coloring agent in pharmaceutical preparations and various pigments. These dyes are obtained particularly in Angola, Mozambique and Madagascar. RAW PROPUCTS OF AFRICA 205 Of animal dyes two are of especial importance, cochineal and sepia. Cochineal (Coccus cacti) is a tiny insect belonging to the plant lice, which furnishes a widely-used red dye. The cochi- neal is a native of Mexico and Central America, but has been introduced into the East Indies, Algeria and the Canary Isl- ands. In 1913, the Canaries exported cochineal to the value of $75,124, but war greatly reduced the export. Sepia, which has been described in the chapter on Fish, is a valuable black or very dark brown secretion of the cuttle- fish. Coal tar has thousands of compounds to its credit, the col- ors alone numbering several hundred. These dyes are known as anilines, anthracenes, alizarines, cosines, and produce all colors and shades- White lead makes the best white paint yet produced. Lead also furnishes an orange pigment and chrome yellow. Zinc produces a sulphate which is an important pigment, although it has less value than that of lead. From Copper is obtained blue vitriol. DRUGS Originally drugs meant only dry herbs, but now they in- clude many substances of the vegetable, animal and mineral kingdoms used in medicine. Plants afford the greatest amount of medicines, which come from the roots, sap, bark, twigs, leaves, fruit, seeds and blossoms. In 1915, Algeria exported 242 metric tons of medical herbs, flowers and leaves, valued at $123,906; in 1916, 391 metric tons, valued at $210,000. Some of the plants from which drugs are obtained in Africa are as follows: The madder family, which furnishes a great variety of drugs, comprises about 350 genera and 5,000 species. Im- portant specimens are Mitchella repens, Gal him, Cephalan- thus, Pseudocinchona Africana, indigenous to Africa, used in the treatment of fever; Krausia coriacea, a poisonous 206 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA species, but used medicinally in small quantities. Sarcocepha- lus esculentus, of West Africa, is used as a refrigerant, and as a tonic. This bark is chewed by the natives. Nauclea ineraiis, is used in the Soudan as an anti-emetic and to allay rheumatism. Henbane (Hyoscyamus meticus) grows wild in Egypt and the Soudan, and eastwards to India. In 1902 the attention of British alkaloid manufacturers was drawn to Egyptian hen- bane for its excellent quality. In 1915 dried henbane brought in London markets about $74 per ton- In 1916, there were considerable exports from both Egypt and Soudan, high in quality, and that of Egypt pronounced even superior to Indian henbane which has long ranked first. Aloe (Aloe barbadensis and A. capensis) is a liliaceous plant resembling the century plant, from which a much used drug is obtained. The plant yielding Socotrine aloes is nativ^ to East Africa, and this is the chief source of supply of the United States. That yielding Barbadoes aloes is native of Northwest Africa. Aloes are used in "bitters" and as a bowel medicine, often given in pill form. In 14)16, South Africa exported 986,939 pounds aloes, valued at $45,283; in 1917, 752,638 pounds, valued at $33,- 749. Cinchona (Cinchona succirubra) produces the most im- portant bark used medicinally. The cinchona is native to the Andes of Peru and Bolivia, but eultivated now in India, Java, Japan, Abyssinia, German East Africa and the West Coast of Africa. This bark is valued for three alkaloids quinine, quinidine and cinchonine the three properties considered most effective in counteracting malarial affections and inter- mittent fevers. The Cape Verde and Canary Islands produce quantities of cinchona bark, and sell to Equatorial Africa, where white residents take from one to 10 grains of quinine every morn- ing. The price before the war was Id. per pound in Africa. It is now 2y%d. per pound, and 8%d. per pound in London. RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 207 The "hard pear" tree (Strychnos henningsii), a tree found in South Africa, furnishes a bark which, extracted with alcohol, is used in the preparation of an "appetizer bit- ter." The natives use it medicinally and in veterinary prac- tice. The bark of "Knysna boxwood" (Gonioma kamassi), al- so of South Africa, has a small amount of alkaloid, used to a small extent in tonics. Rhizones ( Kaempf eria ethelae), known locally in South Africa as "sherimgulu," possesses fragrant tubers, used by natives of the Rand as medicine. Datura (D. stramonium), a species commonly known be- ing the jimson weed, is another source of hyoscyaniine. This is successfully produced in Egypt, Soudan and South Africa. The jatropha (Jatropha curcas), or Indian physic-nut, is one of the plants which the Administration attempted to de- velop in the colony of Senegal. This plant and its products make an important commercial output of the Cape Verde islands. The Calabar bean (Physostigma renenosum), a native of West Africa, produces a poisonous bean used by ophthal- mologists to contract the eye pupil. Nux Vomica (Strychnos nux vomica), is a medicine much used and recognized in all pharmacopoeias. It is obtained from the seeds of a small, straggly tree of India, Ceylon, Co- chin China, North Africa and Australia. The oils of several plants are used as medicine, notably that of the castor (Ricinus communis). The castor plant is indigenous to or naturalized in all tropical and semi-tropical countries. It is extensively grown in many African countries for the oil which is used medicinally, but more especially for industrial purposes, and especially for airplane lubrication. Opium, the dried juice of the poppy (Papaver somnifer- um), is grown in Asia Minor, Turkey, Egypt, Persia and India. Laudanum is made from this plant. Egypt once had a large opium trade but it has become greatly lessened, although considerable opium is still pre- pared for the market. Cocaine is an alkaloid obtained from leaves of the coca shrub more common in South America than Africa, and is 208 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA used largely as an anesthetic. Taken in large quantities co- caine is an intoxicant and very injurious to the human sys- tem. Several animal oils are used as medicines, notably that of certain fishes, but this industry is negligible in Africa. From African minerals, are produced salts of several kinds: arsenic; tincture of iron, used largely in tonics with vegetable bitters ; mercury, used in medicine as calomel ; and various preparations made from coal-tar. SUGAR Sugar is chiefly derived from two sources, the sugar cane (Saccharum ofncinarum), and the root of the beet (Beta vul- garis). The sugar cane is a native product of India, but by cultivation has spread to all tropical and semi-tropical re- gions of the earth. Beet sugar was not produced in Africa (Algeria) until the war. The moisture required for sugar-cane growing runs from 50 to 65 inches annually and -thus limits the localities in Af- rica suitable for its production. The chief centers of cane sugar industry are Natal, Mo- zambique, Madagascar, the lower Nile valley, the Coast of Nigeria, French Guinea, the Congo and Angola- Sugar is extensively cultivated in the islands off Africa. The French introduced it into Mauritius and Reunion in the 18th century, and it is now one of the chief productions of both the islands. In 1913 Mauritius produced 3,699,749 hun- dredweight of sugar, and in 1915, 4,440,467 hundredweight, valued at $17,551,882. In 1916 Mauritius exported sugar to the value of $22,500,000. In Reunion the yield of sugar is 64 per cent, of the cane. There are 62,000 acres of sugar in Reunion. Madagascar has many thousand acres in sugar-cane. The Egyptian delta is a great sugar-cane raising country and has for many years had a large annual output. During the years 1909-1913, the annual average export of sugar was 16,171,000 pounds. In 1916, Egypt exported 63,533,000 pounds of cane sugar valued at $3,000,000, approximately, and in 1917, 57,296,000 pounds, valued at $4,462,024. Sugar cane is found extensively in the moist regions of the upper Congo, where it grows wild and is used by the na- tives for chewing and for making wine. From the molasses RAW PRODUCTS c F A r r. i c 1 A 209 rum is produced. But although easily raised here sugar doe not seem to have much promise of future development in the Congo. In the first half of the year 1918, Belgian Congo ex- ported 130 tons of sugar. Senegal, in 1914, exported 262,968 pounds of cane sugar valued at $13,000- Sugar, introduced into this country from France, is so commonly grown that it is very cheap and con- sumed in large quantities. Mozambique has a sugar factory in Duenu. In 1915 Mozambique exporced sugar to the value of $614,754. Angola, in 1914, exported 4,554 tons of sugar, valued at $410,111, and in 1914, 2,960 tons, valued at $213,913. The confectionery business in the Union of South Africa is rapidly increasing and extending in all directions. Fine chocolates and other candies are now made and boxed at- tractively. In 1913, the Union of South Africa produced 1,730,000 hundredweight of sugar; in 1915, 2,000,000 hundredweight. In 1916, the Union of South Africa exported 3,550,673 pounds valued at $209,912, and 8,597,165 pounds sugar products, valued at $140,817. In 1917, 4,145,025 pounds sugar, valued at $301,801; and 433,193 pounds sugar products, valued at $13,743. The output of sugar for 1920 from Union of South Africa was 189,183 tons. Natal has by far the greatest sugar output in the Union of South Africa; in 1918, 130,000 tons. The first crop of sug- ar was raised in Natal in 1861. The yield has steadily in- creased. Abyssinia has not until recent years cultivated sugar- cane to any extent; now the annual output of sugar is in- creasing rapidly. The world production of sugar in 1915 is given as 16,- 806,000 long tons, which is divided about half and half be- tween beet and cane sugar. Cuba and India rank first as cane-sugar producers; Java third; Hawaiian Islands fourth Porto Rico fifth/ The cane is generally ripe for harvest at from twelve to sixteen months' growth. It is cut close to the ground jus* before its flowering time, being then heaviest in juice. The stubble develops new cane, the plants thus continuing for sev- eral years. 210 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA The tops are sliced off the cane immediately after cut- ting and the leaves are stripped off, only the denuded stalks being transported to the mills. An average analysis of high grade stalks in this condition shows about 72 per cent, water, 18 per cent, sugar and 10 per cent, woody and vegetable matter. Two different processes are in use for extracting cane juice "milling" and ''diffusion". By the "Milling Process' 5 , the stalks are unloaded from wagons in huge bundles, often weighing five tons or more, into a "hopper", or onto a "car- rier" which transports them to a "shredding" machine or a "crusher". They go next to the roller mills. The first mill ex- tracts probably 60 per cent, of the juice. The "bagasse", as the crushed stalks are called, is then sprayed with water and put through a second, and again, a third mill, after which the stalks are consumed as fuel in furnaces. For the diffusion process, the cane-stalks are sliced thin by cutting machines- The "chips" or pulp go to a series of large tanks called "diffusers" or "cells," where steam or wat- er saturation extracts the sucrose. The juice obtained by either process is of a sweetish taste and the appearance of sweet cider. It is pumped into tanks called "defecators," to remove impurities. It then com- monly undergoes two or three other purifying processes, by evaporation, or through filters, before it is ready for the mul- tiple vacuum boilers, where it is condensed to syrup. Next comes the separation of whatever proportion of un- crystallizable syrup is mixed with the crystals now generally accomplished by centrifugal machines a wide-sided, cylin- der-shaped basket of fine mesh is revolved at high speed in- side an iron casing, and the syrup ejected into the casing, whence it drains into a receiver. The "cured" sugar left is known as Centrifugal, or "Raw" sugar, or locally as "Brown Sugar". BEANS All pulses, including peas, beans and lentils, belong to the pea family (Leguminosae), and the seeds of all the various species form very important articles of diet the world over. Beans form the most important commercial pulse product. RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 211 Leguminous seeds are essentially nitrogenous and con- tain more proteins than other vegetables, the proportion in the dried seeds ranging from about 20 to 28 per cent., and carbohydrates from 45 to 60 per cent. Amount of oil is low in the different kinds. Beans (Fabaceae) are the seeds of certain leguminous plants, the species most commonly known being the broad bean (Vicia faba), including lima, kidney, sieva, string beans. The broad or horse bean, known also as the field bean (Faba vulgaris) is a hardy annual belonging to the shores of the Caspian sea, but has been introduced into many coun- tries south of that region. The soya bean (Glycine hispida) grows on a dwarf bush covered with fine brownish hairs. This bean is a native of China and Japan, whence it was introduced into India and northern Africa, and has now become popular all over the world. It constitutes the most important pulse of the Far East, where little meat is eaten. These beans contain more oil than other beans. The cultivation of soya beans has been encouraged in South Africa by irrigation schemes. The haricot, kidney or French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is probably of Asiatic origin. It is now grown in all temper- ate climates ; many varieties have been produced, all of which are red or reddish color. This bean is very nutritious, easily raised and is becoming one/ of the most important food prod- ucts of Africa, particularly in Madagascar. In 1913 imports of haricot beans into the United Kingdom from Madagascar were 71,820 hundredweight; in 1916, 138,570 hundred- weight. The carob bean (Ceratonio siliqua) or "St. John's Bread", was introduced into Africa from countries across the Mediterranean. The carob is a tree and bears long pods, which contain a very nutritious bean, used more particularly for horses and other animals, but also largely as a human food. This bean is extensively raised in Algeria and Mor- occo. The world's supply of beans comes chiefly from Countries. China, India, Turkey, Russia and Egypt. In 1915 more than half the total imports of Great Britain were from British India and Egypt. 212 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA Egypt grows many varieties and was the chief source of extension of the industry throughout Africa- In 1915, Egypt exported to England 377,660 hundred- weight of beans, valued at $1,583,597; in 1916, to England 333,460 hundredweight, valued at $572,428 (a war emer- gency crop). Morocco produces great quantities of beans, largely for local use, but for export also. In 1913, Morocco exported beans to the value of $61,000; in 1914, 900 hundredweight; in 1915, 53,640 hundredweight, valued at $207,000. Morocco exported, 1920, beans valued at 31,140, 780 francs. Tunis has many acres in beans, where most varieties grow luxuriantly. They are used much in the country for food, and exports sometimes amount to sizable quantities. In 1915, Tunis exported 10,192,393 pounds of beans, valued at $232,- 000. In Congo, beans are raised everywhere by the natives. In Portuguese Africa the bean industry goes far toward feeding the population and domestic animals; beans and bean products are among the exports. In 1913, Angola exported 551 tons of beans, and in 1914, 833 tons. In Mozambique beans grow abundantly and thousands of acres are under cultivation. In 1914, Mozambique export- ed Kaffir beans to the value of $100,000; in 1916, 4,500,000 pounds of Kaffir beans. In British East Africa many kinds of beans are grown. They are largely cultivated by the natives but receive much attention from white farmers also, both for local food and trade. In 1917 there were 105,612 acres in beans in Uganda- Besides furnishing human food in enormous quantities, Uses, beans are used in feed for horses, cattle, sheep and hogs, while the leaves and stalks are used as fodder. Bean stalks make an excellent fertilizer and are often plowed in to fertilize the ground for a wheat crop to follow their harvesting. The stalks are also used for making paper. The Lima or Duffin bean (Phaseolus lunatus) is native to South America, as the name implies, and is now distributed throughout warmer portions of the world. Under cultivation the seed has become much larger and fuller and the color has been changed from purplish red to white. HAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 213 Beans have flourished in Madagascar almost since they were introduced in 1864. The lima bean was the first bean introduced and became so abundant and such a good article of trade, as to take the name of Madagascar. In 1912, Madagascar exported 6,073 metric tons of lima beans, valued at $561,200; in 1913, 141 metric tons, valued at $689,000; in 1914, 8,561 metric tons, valued at $702,000; in 1916, 11,571 metric tons, valued at $1,228,377. In 1917, 15,000 tons of beans. The average yield of beans in Mada- gascar in 1917 was 426 pounds to the acre. Algeria, in 1915, had 136,000 acres in beans. In this country the locust bean makes a very valuable fodder, for home use as well as for exporting. In the year 1900, 140,- 000 hundredweight was produced and the government is try- ing td promote the planting of these trees by offering prizes. Beans are grown on the smaller islands, a bean especially favored in Mauritius being the small Indian rice bean, which supplies home demands and leaves a good many tons for ex- port. The African Calabar bean is described under the chap- ter on drugs. The moth green gram or mung (Phaseolus mungo) beans grow wild all over India, their native home, and have been cultivated over 3,000 years. These beans have been intro- duced into all African tropical and sub-tropical countries. The rice bean (Phaseolus calcaratus) is another small bean found wild and cultivated in India, which has been in- troduced into Africa and adjacent islands. The vetch (Vecia sativa) is a small wild species of bean which is used principally for feed for horses and cattle, but is used for human food also. It is grown in northern African countries. PEAS Of the great family of peas two varieties are most im- portant. Piscum sativum, the garden or common pea which grows wild in India and the Far East, is called the parent of all garden peas. This pea has been cultivated from very remote times for food, both green and dried. The other chief species is Piscum arvense, the gray or field pea, which is a 2H RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA dwarf plant having purple or pink blossoms, and possessing leafy, persistent stipules. They grow wild in Greece and the Levant. These peas are more hardy than the garden species and require less care. The gram or chic pea (Cicer arietinum) is an annual herb, cultivated from remote times in warm countries. This pea was known to the ancient Egyptians, Hebrews and Greeks. They are now extensively cultivated in many Afri- can countries, particularly in the Mediterranean littoral. The pigeon pea (Cajanus indicus) is a sub-shrubby plant, often six feet in height. It was introduced into Africa from India. These peas are yellow and veined purple. England im- ports great quantities from her colonies for cattle food. Closely allied to the bean is the cow pea (Vigna catiaing) which is popular in tropical countries, furnishing much or the food in those regions. The pods grow from one to two feet in length. In all of the tropical and sub-tropical countries Countries, of Africa both peas and beans luxuriate. Light humid soils suits them best. In British East Africa peas are widely cultivated and grow in abundance; particularly well in Uganda, whence they are exported largely to England. Other East and West African countries have many acres in peas. The Mediterranean countries all raise great quantities of peas. In 1913 Morocco exported chick peas to the value of $151,000. In Madagascar peas thrive but are not so extensively raised in the islands as their cousins, the beans. It is claimed that peas have made the fortune of Southwest Madagascar in the last few years. In 1912 Madagascar exported peas to the value of $538,000. LENTILS The other important member of the pulse family is the lentil (Lens esculenta). These seeds are also called vetches in some localities. Lentils have whitish or pale blue flowers. The pods are short and broad containing two flattened seeds. There are two kinds of lentils, French and Egyptian. RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 215 Lentils were introduced into Egypt from Western Asia at a very early period, and from this country they have spread to other African countries and beyond to the islands. Egyp- tian lentils are small and brown, with orange-colored interiors. They are usually sold in the "split" form. COFFEE The coffee-bean of commerce from which is decocted the popular beverage, is the product of Coffea arabica, a rubiace- ous plant indigenous to Kaffa, a province of Abyssinia, from which the name is derived. In the eleventh century Arabs took wild seeds which at Mocha developed a finer grade. Four hundred years later the Arabs returned the improved seed to Abyssinia, which now produces the finest (Harrari) coffee in the world. Wildberries, "Abyssinian coffee", are exported, but the cultivated Harrari or "long-berry Mocha" is distinguished. High land (6,000 feet) produces the best coffee. The world's coffee production amounts to nearly 3,000,- 000,000 pounds per annum. Brazil is acredited with 73 per cent, of the whole output; other countries producing from 3 per cent, to 4 per cent, are Dutch East Indies, Guatamala, Co- lombia, Venezuela, Mexico, Salvador, Porto Rico. The to- tal product from Africa, including wild and cultivated, is not more than 2 per cent. The countries of Africa producing this berry in the order of importance are Abyssinia, Angola, Brit- ish East Africa, Liberia, Somaliland, Belgian Congo, Mozam- bique, Madagascar, German East Africa and colonies on the West Coast. Coffee is indigenous to Angola and has long been an arti- cle of commerce of this colony. In 1890, coffee was exported to the value of $760,000. In 1913, there were 5,001 tons ex- ported, valued at. $899,779, while in 1914, the output had diminished to 4,33$.. tons, valued at $487,443. Senegal grows coffee, but this country pays more atten- tion to a coffee substitute, bentamare, a product which has long been known in the commercial world as a coffee sub- stitute. It is also used as a therapeutic by the natives. Uganda exported coffee in the year 1917 valued at $500,- 000. 216 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA In British East Africa, the price of virgin soil suitable for coffee plantations is now $60 per acre. The coffee yield when in full bearing is about half a ton per acre, and it is worth about $300 per ton. In 1915, Mombassa exported coffee to the value of $341,- 804. British East Africa (Kenya) exported, 1920, coffee to value of 574,884. Coffee is native to the Congo in Ubangi, the forests of Lusambo, Lomami and certain of the river islands. Many va- rieties of this wild coffee have been observed and two of them have an aroma and taste quite remarkable. Coffee may be considered as one of the farming indus- tries with the greatest future in the Congo. In 1897, coffee cultivation began to take on importance. A million and a half plants were distributed in the dis- tricts of the Equator and Bangala and at Stanley Falls. At present the great centers of coffee culture are foun so that no more than 5 per cent, of the crude cork is finally lost. Cork is an odorless, tasteless, resilient, buoyant sub- stance, impregnable to gases and liquids, of low specific grav- ity (0.215), and a non-conductor of heat, sound and electric- ity. Balsa wood, grown principally in Central and South Am- erica, is largely used as a substitute for cork. Military requirements for the United States for cork in 1918, were: Navy, 2,100,000 pounds; Shipping Board, 8,100,- 000 pounds. Besides cork, Tunis, in 1915, exported 10,000 tons of lumber, valued at $95,000. In 1916, Tunis exported 6,016,384 pounds' of cork, valued at $192,000; in 1917, 2,244,644 pounds valued at $72,000. In 1913, Algeria exported corkwood, valued at $2,218,- 535; in 1914, valued at $1,670,608; in 1915, 12,191 metric tons of crude cork, valued at $828,356. In 1915, Algeria exported 216 metric tons of worked cork, valued at $135,679; in 1916, 16,226 metric tons cork, valued at $1,085,046; in 1916, 785 metric tons of worked cork valued at $492,536; in 1913, 5,707,900 pounds of exotic wood to France, valued at $219,200. It is estimated that Algeria has 1,112,000 acres in cork- oak, with an annual average output of 50,000,000 pounds of cork and an annual average export of 34,000,000 pounds; while Tunis has 850,000 acres, according to later report, with 246 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA an average annual output of 7,000,000 pounds of cork and an export of 5,000,000 pounds. Morocco also produces consider- able cork. The United States is the largest importer of cork nearly 132,000,000 pounds in 1914 and 168,241,829 pounds in 1917. In the time of the Komans Tunis had great olive forests. These forests were used principally for their fruit, but olive wood from them, also, was much prized. In the eleventh cen- tury the Arabs destroyed nearly all of the trees. Much of this land has now been reclaimed. French Equatorial Africa exported: Okoume wood, 62,- 395 tons valued at 2,998,000 francs, against 43,183 tons val- ued at 2,103,842 francs in 1912; mahogany, 4,552 tons val- ued at 601,260 francs, instead of 646 tons valued at 109,820 francs in 1912; ebony, 90 tons valued at 18,000 francs; moabi- analogous hard woods, 53 tons, valued at 3,975 francs; coral, 32 tons, valued at 3,720 francs; niandji, 30 tons, valued at 2,100 francs; fine woods, 12 tons, valued at 1,200 francs; walnut, 9 tons, valued at 675 francs. French Equatorial Africa exports okoume wood into Spain, 500 tons in 1892. Likewise to the United States in 1913, 3,329 tons of okoume valued at 16,800 francs against 27,720 francs in 1912. Before the opening of hostilities this trade which rank- ed second in the export movement of the colony and which represented alone a fourth of the general exports, found its most important market in Germany. Eleven thousand tons of mahogany are annually shipped from French Equatorial Af- rica. Of all the woods of the French Congo, the most import- ant species is the okoume which may be estimated at present at from 60,000 to 70,000 tons annually. Okoume serves for making cigar boxes, in German trade. The wood used thus is estimated at 50,000 tons. The okoume is used also for making furniture whose inside is made of ordinary okoume upon which is placed valuable wood (walnut or mahogany) . Besides okoume wood, the Hamburg trade deals also in the silk cotton tree (fromager) which is used for making packing cases and which appears to have given good results in the making of interiors for furniture. RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 247 Imports of fromager have notably increased; from 25 tons in 1909, statistics give 525 tons in 1910 and 2,656 tons in 1911; total imports into Germany decreased in 1913 to 44 tons. Exports from Gaboon to England in 1912 : Okoume wood, 26,923 tons, valued at 1,431,140 fr.; mahogany, 4,552 tons, valued at 601,260 fr. ; oak, 90 tons; moabi and analogous woods, 53 tons; coral, 32 tons; mandji, 30 tons; fine woods, 12 tons; walnut, 9 tons; miscellaneous woods, 70 tons. Ebony slightly decreased in 1912; coral slightly In- creased; mandji sensibly decreased; fromager which figured slightly in the exports of 1912, has completely disappeared from the market. The baobab or monkey bread tree (Adansonia digitata) is an enormous tree of tropical Africa and the East Indies, of- ten growing to a diameter of thirty feet. It bears a gourd- like fruit known as monkey-bread. The baobad abounds in certain parts of the Congo. In the lower part of the Senegal the baobab tree is found every- where. The pulp of the fruit is used for food, drink and medicine. Baobab was formerly exported from Senegal. From 1890 to 1892 154,699 pounds were exported. In Egypt and the Egyptian Soudan, trees are Production by not numerous, as there is so much desert Countries. land, but there are a good many date palms. On the plains of the Nile are to be found sy- camore and acacia. Farther south, in Soudan, are acacias of several species, and in the southern part of the Soudan are the baobab, borassus palm, and on the higher land toward the Abyssinian tableland, as well as in the foothills of the equatorial plateau, are mixed forests where very good tinv, ber is found. Throughout Equatorial Africa, from the Atlantic to the Indian oceans, are to be found many of the most valuable woods. In French Equatorial Africa are many species of wood. Everyone of them has utility as foodstuffs, condiments, fat. drinks, perfumes, aphrodisiacs, pharmacopoeia, arm and ex- perimental poisons, dye, cordage, textile, mats, pirogues, car- penter work, tools, pestles, mortars, various utensils, furni- ture. 248 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA The principal forest riches of the French West African colonies are cabinet woods, gum, palm oils and almonds, co- pra, textile fibers, karite, colas and rubber. Only the expensive woods have so far been exported, principally mahogany. In Sanwi the native traders of Assinia serve as agents to the merchants of Liverpool, but the natives refuse to work for the traders. They group themselves into villages and share the forests in common, each chief having his zone of exploitation. When a fine tree is found the road to it is marked and the tree is identified with a charm. Then with the help of his family and friends the finder cuts down the tree and takes it away. It is officially reported that on one occasion the whole population of a village harnessed them- selves. The chief paid each man five francs and each woman and child two francs 50, for dragging the log to the river: he employed 100 men and 50 women--575 francs. Trans- portation had cost about 350 francs. The log brought 210 pounds in Liverpool; net gain, therefore, was 4,325 franca which was shared between the chief and the happy finder. The Ivory Coast is the only one of these colonies which does not need reforestation. In 1912, French West Africa exported 67,217,776 pounds mahogany, valued at 559,030. In 1913, 94,030,222 pounds mahogany, valued at $967,474. In both the French and Belgian Congo the palm is the principal tree, but there are also mahogany, rosewood and caja. Numerous forest materials of the Belgian Congo are furnished from the elongo, a yellowish wood ; eluku, kabum- ba, kambaki, nombinxo, a good building wood of yellowish white; makutu, of excellent quality; tjuija. Nigeria has extensive forests, so dense that the only open spaces are where farms or towns have been cleared. Beyond the mangroves grow lofty forests, including palms of many kinds, hardwoods of various species, mahogany, ebony, teak, redwood, African cedar, plane, silk-cotton, etc. The kuka or baobab stretches over great areas, and giant bamboos, growing 60 and 80 feet high along flood plains of the rivers, resemble forests. Mahogany logs weighing 20 tons were, be- fore the war, hauled to the river beds and floated to ocean steamers. RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 249 Nigerian export of mahogany declined from $512,970 in 1913, to $240,191 in 1916. In Southern Nigeria there is probaby an area of 40,000 square miles of heavy forest including the mangrove and oth- er swamp forests areas; in addition probably 25,000 square miles of dry zone of orchard forest. Vast areas of mangrove awamp forest are on the banks of the various mouths of the Niger. About ten miles from the bank of this river is the Iwoye forest where mahogany is the most prevalent tree. Near the coast of Sierra Leone there is the Peninsular forest, about 5,000 acres in extent. Eighty per cent, of the whole "stand" consists of red ironwood. Besides this, there is an African violet wood, scented mahogany, cedar, iroko, real African oak, pearwood, red oak. Again, further north in this Protectorate, there are large tracts covered with the fan-palm, which bears large fruits. These contain large nuts which are used for making buttons. The wood of the stem has proved most durable. The colony of the Gold Coast includes also the Protec- torate of Ashanti, and the northern territories, comprising in all 120,000 square miles in extent. Thus far, most of the tim- ber extraction has been done nearest the mines, such as Ta- quah and the Ashanti Gold Fields Corporation, both near the railway which runs up from the port of Seccondee. In fact, the railway has been the chief means of exploiting some of the forests. Further west the Ankobra river has been the chief means of transport. Up to the present about 5,000 square miles have been set apart for plantation or timber work. There are, however, between 10,000 and 15,000 square miles of forest not yet placed under systematic working. Senegal is the ante-chamber of the desert, and every tree, every bush cut brings it nearer to that desert. Yet the Euro- pans have denuded the region without giving thought to the future. From 1825 to 1837 inclusive, approximately 258 cubic meters of wood were exported from Senegal. In 1840 exportation included cabinet woods: Sandal- Wood, 8,477 kilograms; ebony, 8,002 kilograms; cailcedra, 165 cubic meters. From 1865 to 1877 inclusive, 3,674 steres of wood were exported from Saint Louis for fire wood, and 13,956 steres of charcoal, besides some building wood. 250 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA From 1897 to 1899 inclusive, only two steres of fire wood were exported from the whole colony. St. Louis has no forests anywhere near it all this wood comes from the river; it is brought either by barges or by pirogues and comes from very far since the woods may be considered as denuded from 300 kilometers all around. If one considers the climatic conditions of Senegal, one may un- derstand how fatal to such a region is a denudation carried out without thought and without care for reproduction. The neighborhood of Dakar is denuded, and the neighborhood of Rufisque may be considered so. In the Gold Coast are to be found mahogany, teak, ebony, camwood, so popular for inlay in furniture, and valued at $150 per ton, and bombax or silk-cotton, a magnificent tree and one of the most common timber trees of this region. Its soft wood is much used by the natives for their dug-outs. In 1913, the Gold Coast exported 37,392,100 sup. feet of lumber. In 1917, 1,003 tons of native timber, valued at $5,000; in 1917, 11,649 tons of fire wood, valued at $14,000. Angola has a variety of timber, one of its most conspic- uous varieties being the tacula, which grows to immense size and has blood-red wood, valued for manufacture. Mahogany also grows well. In 1898 Angola exported wood to the value of $11,000. In East Africa acacias and giant euphorbias are found. There are also forests of cotton-trees, sycamores, the spread- ing banyan, the conspicuously characteristic doum palm and grotesque baobab. Acacias are found everywhere below the altitude of 6,000 feet; and in the upper highlands are found the jumper, cypress, cocoanut, tamarinds and yews, while all along the coastal marshes mangroves grow. Both Eng- lish and German East Africa, before the war, were wise enough to realize the value of the forests for future use and had laws for protecting and extending them. The use of wood has been chiefly local so far, but the commercial outlook in timber is promising. In 1911, German East Africa exported 13,569,470 pounds wood and timber, valued at $122,494; in 1912, 8,464,923 pounds, valued at $56,099. RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 251 Somaliland has vast stretches of jungles or low scrub, with woodland on the crests, containing box, cedar and Som- ali pine (Junipems procera). In Mozambique the exploitation of timber is an industry which has a great future. Its forests contain numerous hard woods excellent for making furniture, as well as softer tim- bers valued in house and other construction, and mangrove swamps are numerous all along the coast. In 1914, Mozambique exported, through Lourenco Mar- ques, mangrove wood to the value of 185; in 1914, through Chinde, firewood to the value of $4,320; in 1914, through Mozambique, ebony to the value of $2,265; in 1914, through Chinde, timber to the value of $981 ; in 1916, through Lour- enco Marques, 234,997 pounds of timber, valued at $523 ; in 1916, through Chinde, 1,180,250 kg. of firewood, valued at 6,480 escudos; in 1916, through Chinde, 172,669 kg. timber, valued at 1,860 escudos. Madagascar has an enormous forest covering 25,000,000 acres, and much of the wood found in the large areas is hard and suitable for cabinet and carriage making. In 1917, the island exported 6,424,000 pounds of common timber, and 173,800 pounds of ebony for cabinet making. The Canary Islands are rich in timber. Walnut trees, osiers, heather trees, laurel, bracken, scrub pine, broom, ma- hogany, hard white wood, cork, elm, oak, eucalyptus, plane, beech, Cyprus, coral tree, stone or umbrella pine, camphor, india rubber tree, wattle, pepper tree, acacia, araucaria and rose apple ; also the fir, the mango and the blackberry. A large part of the forests have been burned or destroyed. Woods excellent for making furniture, as well as softer timbers valued in house and other construction, and man- grove swamps are numerous all along the coast. In 1914, Mozambique exported, through Lourenco Marques, $185 worth of mangrove wood; $2,265 of ebony; through Chinde, firewood, $4,320; timber, $981. In 1916 the export through Lourenco Marques was 234,- 997 pounds of timber valued at $523; through Chinde, 1,180,- 250 kg. of firewood, valued at 6,480 escudos, and 172,669 kg. timber, valued at 1,860 escudos. 252 RAW PRODUCTS OF A F B i c A Mozambique produced in 1913, $78,840 worth of man- grove bark, of which the United States took $30,281 worth, and would yearly import the entire produce with ready trans- portation, as the demands exceed the supply. In South Africa there are 474,000 square miles, of which 450,000 acres are native woods. About 61,000 acres have been planted with exotic trees, along coasts and mountain sides. Stinkwood used in cabinet and wagon making, is the most valuable native wood. Yellowwood, used for sleepers, has the tallest trees (630 feet). Sneezewood is durable. Wattle, valuable for its bark, is of growing importance, as mine props, posts, fuel and for distilling. Black iron wood is common, strong and hard. The local boxwood is equal to the turkish for turning, screwing or engraving. The amount of wood cut during the year 1910-11 wag about 14,000,000 cubic feet, and while the export of South African timber does not on the average exceed 5,000 in value each year, the imports of unmanufactured timber dur- ing the years 1913 to 1915 averaged about 520,000, repre- senting about 8,500,000 cubic feet, of which the greater pro- portion was pine, much of it from the United States. In 1913 the Union Forest Act was passed to conserve and increase the forestry production. On the Cape Peninsula con- ifers and eucalypti have been planted. The furniture business has grown rapidly in the Union of South Africa, and excellent work is turned out, although the industry has been handicapped by scarcity of competent labor. Timber seasons slowly in this country; most of the wood used in furniture making is imported. The calabash tree, from which a gourd serves as a com- mon drinking cup, is abundant in Southern Africa. In Madagascar the forests contain nearly every variety of wood, and suitable for nearly all the industrial purposes. Madagascar has an enormous forest covering 25,000,000 acres. In 1917, the island exported 6,424,000 pounds of common timber, and 173,800 pounds of ebony for cabinet making. RAW PRODUCTS or AFRICA 253 Much of Africa is in need of re-foresting in order Outlook, to conserve the valuable native woods. The blight- ing sands of the Sahara are encroaching upon forest areas. Reclamation of savannahs by drainage, harnessing of the many rivers for driving saw mills reforesting, are much in need. There is great waste in cutting wood by crude native methods. Everywhere in French Equatorial Africa except on the Ivory Coast there is need of reforestation. WATTLE AND OTHER TANNING BARKS Chief among the tanning barks of Africa is wattle, with mangrove a fair second, followed by oak, hemlock, willow. Galls of the oak and sumac, formations on the barks of these trees, are also used in this way. Procuring, raising and preparing wattle, the bark of va- rious acacia trees (Acacia longifolia) is a large African in- dustry. Wattle bark is a tanning material for producing heavy leathers, to which it gives a reddish tinge. The acacia from which wattle is procured is native of Australia and was introduced into South and West Africa within recent years, but a larger amount is now produced in South Africa than in Australia. Black wattle (Acacia decurrens) is best known and best quality. The seed is planted in plowed land, and in Production and seven to nine years the trees are ready for By-Products, cutting, when they have reached a diame- ter of six or eight inches. Each tree should yield 100 pounds of green bark, and average yield to the acre is three to three and one-half tons of dried bark, while thin- ning out of trees in the fourth year gives a further yield of three-fourths ton. Five hundred dollars gross return per acre is considered good. The crude bark is crushed between moist bronze rollers, boiled, purified, hardened and shipped in 100 pound bags. After the tannin (32 per cent, is the average) is secured, the pulp remaining is made into a coarse paper. Railway ties and mining props, methyl alcohol and 20 kinds of dyes come from wattle- A ton of the wood yields 139 pounds of acetate of lime; 3.7 gallons of wood spirits; 134 pounds tar, 605 pounds charcoal. 254 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA The bark contains cellulose up to 60 per cent, Iiy 2 per cent, moisture, and 8.7 per cent. ash. London is the chief buyer, paying 9 per ton in 1906; 8 during the next five years; 7 in 1912, 1913 and 1914. The war increased the price in 1915 to 13; 1916 and 1917 to 17. Natal is chief producer, having in 1918, 160,000 acres; Transvaal 20,000, and all South Africa 250,000 acres. South Africa shipped in 1911, 111,205,265 pounds of wattle bark, valued at $1,440,000; in 1913, 145,717,738 pounds, valued at $1,535,000; in 1915, 89,661,464 pounds, valued at $976,000; in 1917, 100,000,000 pounds, valued at $1,367,000; in 1917, 2,784,188 pounds wattle bark extract, valued at $247,200. This was practically all shipped from Durban, but a small quantity went from Delagoa Bay. Natal now has a large plant for extracting tannin, is es- tablishing others, and ships it chiefly in that form. In 1913, Mozambique produced $78,840 worth of man- grove bark. Of this total, $30,281 worth went direct to the United States, the total American imports from Portuguese East Africa during the year. The demand for mangrove bark in the United States is constantly increasing and far exceeds the supply. British East Africa has 12,000,000 acres in wattle and other tanning bark trees, but as yet many of the plantations are young. In 1914 there were 11,000 acres in wattle. The industry is protected by the government. The prospects are very promising. German East Africa exported tanning barks in 1911, 4,188,998 pounds, valued at $22,816; 1912, 5,500,403 pounds, valued at $23,734. Wattle bark to the value of 986,484 was exported, 1920, from Union of South Africa. Procuring and preparing wattle is also important in An- gola, Mozambique and Madagascar, although none of these countries have yet had shipments of great commercial im- portance. MANGROVE Mangrove (Rhizophora) grows on the swampy coasts of all tropical countries and it is especially used in African coun- tries for its bark which is rich in tannin, good bark having RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 255 over 30 per cent, of tannin. It is also shipped to tanneries abroad, though not so extensively as wattle. The wood of the mangrove is used for building material and posts. Portuguese Africa had a very important export trade in mangrove bark in the early part of this century, but about 1908 this fell off because of the reckless destruction of trees. The industry is reviving, however, and conservation will pro- vide for a constant yield. In Mozambique the industry is of comparatively recent introduction. In 1913 this province collected 4,000 tons of mangrove bark. In 1914, Mozambique exported through Quelimane, mangrove bark to the value of $6,922 ; through Mozambique, $22,080. The one product which has been exported regularly to the United States from Mozambique is mangrove bark. There were 15,580 tons, valued at $931,483 invoiced at the American consulate at Lorenco Marques, Portuguese East Africa, for the United States during 1916, against 10,836 tons valued at $489,162, for 1915. British East Africa has vast mangrove swamps and pro- duces considerable amounts of tanning bark and lumber from them. In 1915-1916, besides quantities of bark, 500,000 bor- ities were exported, chiefly to Arabia. In Nigeria, Gambia and Sierra Leone, mangrove is of commercial importance in all the swampy regions, the bark for tanning purposes being utilized. Along the whole coast of Rhodesia are mangrove and other trees furnishing tanning bark. They rank in import- ance, rhizophora, racemosa, brugiera gymnorrhiza, and ceri- ops candelleanna. Only the first mangrove species has been exploited. In 1907 this output amounted to 111,735 kilograms of bark, valued at 870,000 reis. In Angola, the bark of the musuemba is found in large quantities and used for tanning leather. The only tanning material produced in Tanning Materials considerable quantity in Madagascar Is of Madagascar. red mangrove bark. During the past three or four years production has been 256 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA declining, due to the scarcity of mangrove trees and, more re- cently, to transportation difficulties. The two French naviga- tion companies now serving Madagascar always find suffi- cient freight of a higher class than bark, and consequently it is difficult to obtain shipping space for the latter. GUMS AND RESINS The gums and resins of commerce are formed by the thickening of saps of trees or plants, and are obtained from the excision of plants or are artificially extracted. True gums are soluble in water, in which they form a mucilage. They are used in thickening fabrics, in mucilage, ink, medicines, cordials, confections, stiffening hats, baskets. Of African gums Copal and Gum Arabic stand foremost. These products, owing to the ruthless, wasteful methods of obtaining the wild supplies, are rapidly diminishing. Resins are harder than gums and are insoluble in water, They are used chiefly in medicines, varnishes and incense. Belgian Congo exported, 1920, copal to the value of 40,- 305,021 francs (13,249,514 kilos). Gum copal (Trachylobium) is a resinous substance that exudes from many tropical trees. There is also a fossil copal of the best quality dug from the ground where great forests once existed. When first dug, fossil copal is covered with a sandy crust, usually of a reddish tint, and in order to remove this it must be scraped or dissolved by a solution of soda or potash. It is usually exported in the rough state and cleaned in the for- eign markets. To become soluble in alcohol or turpentine, copal must be melted or distilled. Gum copal is found in almost unlimited quantities in many parts of Equatorial Africa. In 1912 it could be bought from natives for 2d. per pound, bringing Is a pound in Brit- ish markets. Pitman's "Common Commodities and Industries" states: The principal sources of the copal of commerce are East Af- rica, West Africa, the Dutch East Indies, certain islands in Polynesia, New Zealand, New Caledonia and the north- eastern portions of South America. KAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 257 The East African product is collected in British, Portu- guese and (the late) German East Africa, and is usually sent thence to Zanzibar, where it is sorted, cleaned and packed for export. It is known as Zanzibar animi or copal, and va- ries greatly in price, in normal times dust fetching about 30 per ton and fine grades over 300. The value of the exports from Zanzibar reaches about 15,000 per annum. The East African copals are fossil resins. They are probably the pro- duct of species of Trachylobium. The West African copals are obtained along the coastal regions of West Africa, from Sierra Leone to the Portuguese Congo. The finer varieties are fossil or semi-fossil. The best varieties are obtained from the Congo, Angola and Ben guela ; the medium qualities from Sierra Leone and Accra, and the low grades from the Niger Districts. The trees which yield or have yielded these types are probably Copaifera guibour- tiana, Cyanaothryrsus ogea and Daniella oblonga. They are of far less value than East African copal, the best qualities, in normal times, being worth about 75 per ton. Throughout the Congo forests copal trees Production by abound. The gum is used principally for varn- Countries. ish and is of various qualities and varieties. Before the war practically all of the Congo's large output of gum copal was marketed through brokers in Antwerp. England has become the only market for this article, which is one of the chief products entering into the export trade of the Belgian colony. In 1906 Belgian Congo ex- ported 1,911,217 pounds of gum copal, valued at $220,000- In 1911 Belgian Congo exported 4,800,000 pounds of co- pal; in 1914, 8,910,000 pounds; in 1915, 14,630,000 pounds; in 1916, 15,000,000 pounds. In Southern Nigeria a good quality of gum copal is col- lected under the name of ogea gum. In Senegal copal trees grow in certain sections, but the gathering of the gum is not a very important industry of the country. In 1915 Senegal exported gums to the value of $296,- 317, a large proportion of which was gum copal. A considerable amount of gum copal goes to foreign mar- kets through Morocco ports. In 1913, $118,000 worth wat brought in by desert caravans. 258 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA In 1913, Angola exported 248 tons of copal, valued at $29,377. In Sierra Leone the export of gum copal was prohibited for five years, by local order of the Council passed Septem- ber 30, 1913. The gum produced in this country is so hard that it is called "flint copal". On the Massewe Hills Reserve an area of about 350 acres was cleared of undergrowth and planted with copal producing trees. In 1912, Sierra Leone exported gum copal to value of $7,820; in 1913, $13,050; in 1914, $14,963. In the Soudan copal is gathered by the natives. Women of fantastic tastes produce wonderful coiffures with the aid Df this gum. The copal gum tree is found in Guinea and the Ivory Coast especially. From 1890-1899 average exportation of gum copal was 3,945,376 kilograms; largest figure was 5,909,- 542 kg. in 1898. In British East Africa the commercial output of this gum or resin has been greatly decreased since the war. There is prospect, however, of the gum trade becoming very extensive in this country. German East Africa abounds in copal forests. In .X911, German East Africa exported 210,021 pounds of gum copal, valued at 25,567 marks; in 1912, 237,795 pounds, valued at 28,493 marks. Zanzibar once abounded in copal-producing trees, but extension of cultivation of other productions has almost anni- hilated them. There is much fossil copal in Zanzibar. In Madagascar copal gum is exported to France, where it has brought as high as $80 for 220 pounds. About 300 tons are exported per annum. In 1916 Mozambique exported 6,395 pounds of gum co- pal. Myrrh (Myrrha commiphora and M. balsamea) is ob- tained from a shrub of Abyssinia and Arabia, and was a char- acteristic plant in the time of Herodotus. The substance so named in Bible times is supposed to have been a mixture of myrrh and labdanum. RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 259 Myrrh is used in perfume, incense, as a tonic internally, and as a cleansing agent externally. Myrrh gum makes ex- cellent mucilage as it keeps unusually well ; and myrrh resin is usod in varnishes. In Somaliland the collecting of myrrh is done under of- ficial sanction, by the Somali natives, who obtain the gum partly from natural fissures and partly from artificial incis- ions made by themselves. The crops are sent to the capital of Somaliland, Berbera, and to Aden in Arabia. Somaliland produces numerous other gums and resins, which are classed under the name of bdelliums. Frankincense or Olibanum (Pinus abies, P. balsamea and Larix) is another fragrant gum obtained from small trees or shrubs. Frankincense is obtained in the same localities as myrrh and is similarly produced. Its uses are chiefly in me- dical plasters, in perfumes, and as incense. Camphor (Cinnamomum camphora), is a large, beauti- ful evergreen tree, native of China and Eastern Asia. As a conservative measure, trees are not allowed to be cut in coun- tries where they are^ raised commercially until they are about fifty years old. Camphor is used in medicines, as a disinfectant, as a Uses, protection against insects, in the manufacture of smokeless powder, and in the manufacture of celluloid. In 1915, the world's supply of camphor was estimated at 10,- 000,000 pounds, 70 per cent of which was used in making celluloid. Camphor is not of commercial importance in any part of Africa, but several experiments have given promise of large outcome, especially those in Mauritius. Sandarack is the gummy product of several small trees or large shrubs (Thuja articulata), that grow in northwestern Africa. There are similar species of this resin in other parts of the world, but the African product is by far the best. Its chief use is as a dryer in varnishes. In 1913, Algeria exported to France, vegetable wax, gums, resins, 5218 tons, valued at $945,507. Gum Arabic (Mimosa nilotica) occurs as an exudation on the stems and branches of several species of Acacia found in Africa. It is soluble in both cold and hot water. It occurs in commerce as rounded lumps of a nearly white appearance. 260 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA The ash on calcination is about three per cent., consisting of carbonates of calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Indian gum arabic is of a dark color, and insoluble in water. Gum Senegal is closely allied to gum arabic, being also obtained from a species of Acacia (Mimosa senega!) growing in Northern Africa. It is much darker in color than gum arabic. In the Soudan the best gum is collected from the gray backed acacia tree, acacia Senegal, known locally as hashab, A certain amount of gum is collected in the Blue Nile district, and there is a fair gum trade between the Blue Nile and Abys- sinia; but Kordofan is the principal seat of the gum collect- ing industry. In this province the gum is transported either direct to Khartoum by camels or to Goz Abu Guma and El Dulime, towns on the White Nile. The method of collecting this gum is as follows: The gum exudes from the stem and branches spontaneously, and the flow is usually stimulated by making incisions in the bark. The exuded gum hardens on exposure to the air and is then collected, dried and exported. Exports of Soudan Gum from Egypt Kilos Value 1885 1,146,879 97,671 1890 7,052 469 1895 149,955 5,856 1900 1,863,072 93,847 1905 8,838,483 217,132 Egyptian export of gum in 1915 was $94,441 ; 1916, $118-, 712. Morocco exports annually about 100 tons. The gum industry of Senegal is of comparatively recent origin. In 1914 Senegal exported 3,936,347 pounds of gum arabic valued at $226,000. A fair amount of gum now reaches this market from Northern Nigeria, the average annual value being about 8,- 000, and possibilities exist in this direction in the Gold Coast Colony, Orange River Colony and various other parts of Af- rica. Gum Senegrl is also produced in Guinea. Before the war German West Africa's most important export was gum ara- bic, which amounted to about $4,000,000 per annum. RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 261 In 1912 French West Africa exported 7,255,526 pounds of gum arable, valued at $554,162; and in 1913, 7,882,627 pounds, valued at $481,091. Gum arable is a special product of countries bordering the desert, hot dry winds favoring the exudation of gums and resins. Gum tragacanth (Astragalus gummifer), native to Per- sia and Greece, but introduced into many other countries, is largely used as a substitute for gum arabic. As gum and resin gathering is such an important Outlook, industry in Africa and the natives are so largely depended upon for obtaining it, they should be trained in economical methods and taught the future want that will result from present waste. They should also be taught to grade the gums, in order to bring about the best fi- nancial returns. There is an abundance of gum in Africa although the sources of petrified copal must gradualy dim- inish. Wheat Additional In 1918, Algeria had 3,186,000 acres in wheat, which produced 49,199,000 bushels. During the war Algeria was one of the large sources of wheat for the Allied armies. Some 70 or 80 modern flour mills are scattered through- out Algeria, Constantine, and Oran, with a total of 6,000 horsepower, with 1,300 workmen . During the war Morocco increased the acreage of her wheat fields until wheat became 11 per cent, of the total ex- ports in value, exporting in 1915 wheat to the value of $1, 143,048; in 1916 to the value of $1,400,000. Wheat growing is encouraged in the southern and east- ern parts of Belgian Congo and in other West African coun- tries. Until recent years nearly all the flour used has been imported. In 1914, German East Africa exported wheat flour through Lorenco Marques to the value of $1,314. In 1915, Mozambique exported wheat to the value of $219,646. The wheat output of Rhodesia for 1916 was valued at $4,500,000; the flour output of Rhodesia for 1916 was valued at $2,500,000. 262 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA INDEX Page Animal Products 17 Wool 18 Mohair 22 Hides and Skins 25 Outlook for Hides and Skins 5 Meats 34 Horses and Mules , 40 Dairy Products 42 Poultry and Eggs 45 Beeswax and Honey 48 Silk 51 Ostrich Feathers 53 Ivory , 56 Sponges 61 Coral and Shells 63 Fish , 69 Big Game 75 Mineral Products 83 Gold 84 Diamonds 89 Copper 96 Tin 101 Iron 106 Manganese 109 Chromium Ill Silver 112 Zinc 113 Lead 115 Coal 116 Mica 120 Asbestos 122 Graphite 124 Petroleum 126 Phosphates 129 Potash 131 Salt 131 Soda 133 Natron 133 Limestone 134 Marble 135 Gypsum , , 135 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 263 Talc 136 Chalk 136 Other Precious Stones 136 Minerals of Minor Production 137 Antimony 138 Vegetable Products 141 Vegetable Oils 142 Outlook for Palm Products 6 Olive Oil 147 Cocoanut Oil Copra 150 Castor Oil 152 Sesame 153 Other Oils 153 Shea Nuts 155 Manioc, Cassava 156 Barley 158 Millet 159 Durra 161 Oats 161 Wheat 162-261 Wheat Additional 261 Rye 165 Maize or Mealies 165 Rice 170 Cotton 174 Outlook for Cotton 6 Sisal 180 Esparto 182 Tobacco 187 Vanilla and other Essences 189 Vegetable Perfumes 191 Rubber 192 Outlook for Rubber 5 Spices 195 Cloves 197 Ginger 198 Herbs 200 Dyes 201 Drugs 205 Sugar 208 Beans 210 Peas 213 Coffee . . 215 264 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA Tea 217 Cocoa 218 Outlook for Cocoa 6 Kola 223 Peanuts Arachides 225 Ground Nuts 226 Nuts 227 Fruits 229 Dates 235 Wines and Liquors 236 Garden Vegetables 239 Woods of Africa 242 Wattle and other Tanning Barks 253 Gums and Resins ., .256 TC 3V284 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY