Raw Products 
 of the World 
 
 AFRICA 
 
Raw Products 
 of the World 
 
 VOL. I 
 
 Africa 
 
 By RALPH DAVOL 
 
 Author of "AMERICAN PAGEANTRY" 
 "TWO MEN OF TAUNTON" 
 
 DAVOL PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 TATJNTON, MASSACHUSETTS 
 
COPYRIGHT 1922 
 MAIN LIBRARY-ATrr'M TURE DEPT. 
 

 Camels * -* Almonds Esparto Cor, 
 Camels 
 
 Camel 
 Gum 
 Otfr/c 
 Salt- 
 Ostr/cf> 
 
 Rubber 
 Millet 
 Ivory 
 CastorOil 
 Maite Gum 
 
 rote 
 
 Rubber 
 Gum 
 Maize Cotton 
 
 fiorfo/K Pines 
 <? Fla* 
 ^Turtles 
 
 LOCATION OF AFRICAN PRODUCTS 
 
 \ I 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
 
 In compiling this work the writer has had valuable cleri- 
 cal assistance by Ada Mixon, Clara Kretzinger, Alice M. 
 James and Henry C. Crane. The writer has visited Africa and, 
 during the war, was employed at the War Trade Board in re- 
 search work dealing with Africa and Oriental countries. 
 
 In addition to the special reports on world resources sent 
 by American consuls during the war the sources from which 
 the material in this book is gathered include U. S. Commerce 
 Reports, publications of the Philadelphia Commercial Muse- 
 um, Reports of the Department of Agriculture and Geological 
 Survey, Statesman's Year Book, British and French Consular 
 reports, Bulletins of the Agricultural Institute of Rome, and 
 of the Imperial Institute of Great Britain, British Board of 
 Trade Journal, South African Year Book, publications of 
 Royal Geographical Society, pamphlets issued by the National 
 City Bank and Guaranty Trust Company of New York, the 
 following magazines and newspapers: Egyptian Gazette, 
 Capetown News, Nigeria Gazette, L'Afrique Franchise, Af- 
 rican World, South African Magazine, Gordian, and such pub- 
 lished volumes as the works of Sir Harry Johnson, of E. D. 
 Morel, Theodore Roosevelt, C. W. Furlong, H. L. Shantz, John 
 Hays Hammond, J. Ellis Barker and Oxford Survey of British 
 Empire. 
 
 Ralph Davol, 1922. 
 
ECONOMIC AFRICA 
 
 The area of Africa, including the islands adjacent to the 
 coast, is given as 1 1,498,000 square miles. The population is 
 approximately 150,000,000 natives and 3,000,000 European 
 colonists located mostly on the fringe of sea-coast and 
 around the inland rivers. Since the abolition of the slave 
 trade and reduction of tribal wars and of plagues and epi- 
 demics, largely through the agency of missionaries, the blacks 
 are multiplying faster than the Caucasians. 
 
 The prospect for economic development of Africa is es- 
 pecially good because this is the second largest continent and, 
 lying across the equator, has products of the tropical and tem- 
 perate zones at all times and the backward undeveloped races 
 offer valuable potentialities of immediate improvement, 
 though the continent will become agriculturalized rather than 
 industrialized during the next few years. 
 
 Of the world's commerce, Africa has but 4V 2 per cent., 
 though steadily expanding. For the year 1918 the total trade 
 amounted to $2,145,000,000 of which $1,163,000,000 was with 
 Great Britain. The United State?' imports from Africa for 
 1913 were valued at 2,107,812 for 1919, at $112,187,646. 
 The exports from the United States to Africa for 1913 were 
 valued at $2,790,377 for 1919, at $18,000,000. 
 
 Africa has twice the population of South America. By 
 educating the native to the requirements of modern civiliza- 
 tion, his purchasing power will soon place Africa ahead of 
 South America in world trade. 
 
 Africa is essentially a land of raw materials. At the 
 present time many of the world's requirements come from this 
 almost virgin territory. 
 
 The giant sea-turtle, weighing from 500 to 800 pounds, 
 visits the Asencion islands every spring to lay its eggs on the 
 sandy beach. 
 
 In the territory of Kenya the acreage devoted to maize 
 is rapidly increasing flax is well established livestock in 
 the highlands does well since the loss from rinderpest and 
 tick-borne diseases is kept down by scientific control natron 
 and diatomite are found in large amount. 
 
 Tanganyika has immense forest areas many large sisal 
 plantations started by the Germans millions of sheep and 
 goats owned by natives; garnets are found in abundance. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS o? AFRICA 
 
 Uganda is largely devoted to cotton-growing, profitably 
 carried on- by natives. 
 
 Zanzibar and Pemba islands supply the bulk of the 
 world's cloves, controlled chiefly by Arabs. 
 
 Mauritius raises sugar and hemp. Copra is an increasing 
 product of East Africa. 
 
 Cotton, tobacco and coffee predominate in Nyassaland. 
 On the island of St. Helena are found Norfolk Pines and 
 Eucalyptus. This is still a considerable whaling port. 
 
 The Seychelles produce cinnamon, sugar, vanilla and co- 
 coanuts. 
 
 SomaHIand exports hides and ghee; Basutoland wool, 
 mohair, wheat, mealies and kaffir corn. 
 
 Bechuanaland is a cattle-raising country. 
 The products of Northern Rhodesia are maize, cotton, to- 
 bacco, wheat and rubber. Southern Rhodesia has gold reefs 
 and cattle ranges; large fruit orchards have been planted; 
 tobacco is increasing in acreage. Irrigation projects are ad- 
 vancing. Chromium, asbestos and arsenic are mined. 
 
 In Swaziland alluvial tin is found, but this is chiefly a 
 grazing country for cattle and sheep. 
 
 Wheat, barley, oats, maize, potatoes and kaffir corn, are 
 increasing in the Union of South Africa. Wool, mohair, hides 
 ostrich feathers, have recovered from the slump of the war 
 period. Many manufacturing plants are starting up. Gold 
 and diamonds are main source of wealth. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope exports diamonds, wines and 
 feathers. 
 
 Bunker coal is abundant at Natal, though this is not of 
 the high Welsh standard. Tea plantations are numerous, sug- 
 ar and wattle bark are large items. Whale fishing continues 
 prosperous. 
 
 The Transvaal is famed for its gold mines on the Rand. 
 Copper, tin and coal are also mined. 
 
 Orange Free State is a stock raising country. Many dia- 
 monds are exported from this territory as well as from former 
 German Southwest Africa. 
 
 Palm oil and palm kernels are the principal crop of Ni- 
 geria. Other products are rubber, ground nuts, kola, cocoa, 
 shea butter, ivory, capsicum pepper, hides, mahogany, sheep 
 and goat skins. Much alluvial tin is taken out, also galena. 
 Extensive collieries are operated at Udi. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 3 
 
 Gambia supplies gold dust, hides, peanut and palm prod- 
 ucts. 
 
 Palm oil, cocoa, hides, ivory and kola nuts come from the 
 Camercons. 
 
 The Cold Co^st yields many valuable woods, gold dust, 
 cocoa, kola, manganese and palm oil. 
 
 Ashanti exports bananas, cocoa and mahogany. 
 
 From the Ivory Coast come pineapples, bananas, cocoa, 
 coccanuts, mahogany, palm products, coffee, rubber and lum- 
 ber. 
 
 Dahomey yields palm oil, yams and manioc. 
 
 Olive oil is a chief product of Tunis, which also exports 
 sponges, tunny, anchovies, citrus fruits, silk, dates, wheat, 
 barley and durra, wines, almonds, pistachio, alfa, henna, cork, 
 goat skins. Phosphates and lead are mined. 
 
 Eritrea, on the Red Sea, is noted for its pearl fisheries. 
 Other exports are meats, hides, butter and palm nuts. 
 
 Italian Somaliland produces ghee, hides, gums, nuts, cot- 
 ton and small amount of petroleum. 
 
 The main staples of Tripoli are olives, lemons, dates, figs, 
 cereals, esparto, almonds, saffron, durra and barley. Sponges 
 to the value of 16,424,250 lira were gathered in 1920. 
 
 Tripoli is the gateway to the Sahara, from which cara- 
 vans of camels annually bring large amounts of gums, ostrich 
 feathers, gold dust and ivory. 
 
 From the Portuguese islands of San Thome and Principe 
 corne cocoa, coffee, rubber arid chincona. 
 
 From Togoland come cotton, cocoa, kapok, cassava, co- 
 pra and palm products. 
 
 Sierra Leone supplies ginger, snails, palm kernels and 
 kola nuts. 
 
 The long-staple cotton of Egypt is famous. The Nile val- 
 ley also produces wheat, maize, rice, onions, beans and eggs. 
 Petroleum, phosphate, manganese, talc, gypsum, salt, tur- 
 quoise and alabaster are mined. 
 
 Gum arabic is the great product of Soudan, which also 
 yields cotton, ivory, sesame, senna, dates, durra, ebony, bam- 
 boo, castor oil, karite nuts and much cattle. 
 
 In Algeria the cork tree grows abundantly, also esparto, 
 grapes, tobacco, dates, citrus fruit, figs, olives, wheat, barley, 
 oats and flax. Silk is manufactured. Many vegetables for 
 
EAW PRODUCTS OF AFEICA 
 
 French markets are raised. Sardines, tunny and sprats are 
 exported. Sheep are raised in large flocks. Phosphates, iron, 
 lead, zinc and sulphur are mined. 
 
 Large virgin forests are found in French Congo where 
 wild rubber abounds. Palm oil, coffee and much live stock are 
 found in the vicinity of Lake Chad. Salt is an important com- 
 modity. 
 
 The products of Madagascar include rice, sugar, coffee, 
 beans, vanilla, manioc, cloves, wild rubber, wool, berry trees, 
 raffia, silk, graphite, gold and nickel. Breeding of hump- 
 backed Indian cattle is an important industry. 
 
 The islands of Mayotte and Commorro produce sugar 
 cane, vanilla and rum. 
 
 Reunion yields rum, maize, coffee and manioc. 
 
 Somaliland exports salt, coffee, ivory and hides. Pearl 
 fisheries are important. 
 
 Liberia exports coffee, piassava, chilli peppers, palm oils, 
 kola and gold dust. 
 
 Senegal and Sahara produce ground nuts, salt, millet, rice 
 castor beans, gums, rubber and water melons. 
 
 Hides come from Mauritania. 
 
 Kubber, wax, ground nuts, hides, wool, palm kernels, 
 bananas come from French Guinea. 
 
 The Cape Verde islands produce medicinal herbs, cochi- 
 neal, bananas, and goat skins. 
 
 Much fish for Portugal comes from Angola. Other prod- 
 ucts are wax, coffee, ivory, cocoanuts, sugar. Wild rubber is 
 being exhausted. Petroleum and asphalt are found, also mala- 
 chite and salt. 
 
 Mozambique yields salt, wax, wattle bark, hides, ivory, 
 gold ores, sugar and cocoanuts. 
 
 Cattle and coffee are standard products of Abyssinia. 
 Other items are wax, ghee, goat skins, durra, ivory and big 
 game. 
 
 FUTURE OF LEADING PRODUCTS 
 
 The reefs and banquettes of Africa seem likely to supply 
 between 40 and 50 per cent, of the world's supply of gold for 
 years to come. 
 
 The De Beers Diamond Company has been called the 
 most successful trust in the world and will probably control 
 the market for many years in spite of the activities in the dia- 
 mond fields of South America and India. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Tin mining was stimulated by the war. The large output 
 of Nigeria and lesser amounts from South Africa, Congo and 
 Algeria may not keep up to the war level. 
 
 Phosphates of Algeria and Tunis show no signs of giving 
 out and will hold the lead for some time to come. 
 
 The vast Katanga copper mines are reported to have a 
 sufficient amount of ore assaying 15 per cent, and lying on 
 the surface of the ground to supply the entire world demand 
 for 20 years. 
 
 Soundings for petroleum throughout the continent have 
 not been very successful. Egypt has a steady and considerable 
 flow. Seepages of promise are found in Algeria, Angola and 
 Mozambique. Oil distilled from shale has a commercial value 
 in South Africa. 
 
 The lack of fuel on this continent where labor is so plen- 
 tiful and the soil so productive has prompted indefatigable 
 efforts to discover oil in commercial quantities for operating 
 engines. 
 
 Ivory from elephant tusks must of necessity decrease with 
 the steady reduction of the herds. The supply of fossil ivory 
 will naturally decrease more rapidly than ivory from slaugh- 
 tered animals. 
 
 Big Game Diminishing 
 
 Notwithstanding many restrictive and protective game 
 laws big game is diminishing. In certain localities lions and 
 elephants have been condemned for depredations on farms 
 and ranches. 
 
 Hides, skins and meat products are steadily increasing as 
 the grazing lands become more generally utilized and pre- 
 ventives of animal diseases are more widely used. Native 
 tribes are enlarging their flocks of sheep and cattle. 
 
 Ostrich feathers are recovering from the slump of the war 
 but South Africa is not likely to recover its monopoly as birds 
 are being raised successfully in Australia and Southwestern 
 United States. 
 
 The fisheries and sponge industry of Northern Africa 
 show little change, but whale fishing from South Africa is de- 
 clining. 
 
 Outlook for Rubber 
 
 Africa was once the chief source of wild rubber. The 
 rapid advance in the use of plantation rubber has put the Ma- 
 lay States and East Indies ahead of Brazil. The deadly cli- 
 
6 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 mate of the rubber-growing regions works against Africa's as- 
 cendency in this product. 
 
 The cotton industry is greatly expanding in many parts 
 of Africa. Fine Egyptian Sakellaridis is grown successfully 
 in several colonies. 
 
 Sisal is a coming crop of importance. It has only been tried 
 out on the East Coast within a few years, but with remarkable 
 success. 
 
 Tobacco is advancing as an African crop, particularly in 
 the inland uplands. 
 
 Coffee growing is spreading in several colonies in the 
 central portion of the continent. 
 
 Cocoa has been coming to the front rapidly during the 
 past 20 years. The West Coast will presumably hold the lead- 
 ing place as a producer of cacao beans. 
 
 Kola nuts are also growing as an export. 
 
 The cereals, maize, wheat, barley, millet, durra, are in- 
 creasing in quantity and have a great future at both ends of 
 the continent. 
 
 The Soudan and Central Africa will continue to produce 
 the bulk of the world's gum arabic. 
 
 Vegetable Oils Important 
 
 The palm oil tree of West and Central Africa becomes 
 more important as the demand for its product increases in the 
 tin plate industry, for soap manufacture, as a butter substitute 
 and as a lubricant on many kinds of machinery. Regulations 
 for conserving and replacing this valuable tree are being en- 
 forced so that Africa may continue to command the market 
 in this commodity. 
 
 Climate and Soil 
 
 The principal drawback to the economic development of 
 Africa is the climate. Much of the continent is practically un- 
 inhabitable for white men on account of tropical fevers and 
 malaria. The inland plateaux are salubrious and are steadily 
 attracting homesteaders. Nearly one-third of the continent is 
 desert land and a large portion has light soil. Irrigation will 
 work wonders in many sections. Where the richest soil is 
 found the tse-tse fly and sleeping sickness exclude the white 
 man. There are immense forests and jungles never penetrat- 
 er by man or the rays of the sun. A fertile strip of land border- 
 ing the Mediterranean Sea, remarkable for its fine vineyards, 
 is known as the Tell. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 Rainfall varies from one-half inch on the Kalahari des- 
 ert to 140 inches per year in the marshes of Calabar. Snow 
 occasionally falls in Johannesburg and in Morocco. South 
 Africa is mostly a tableland from 3,000 to 6,000 feet above 
 sea-level a land of sunshine much like California. Egypt has 
 a dry and healthful climate but suffers from occasional siroc- 
 cos blowing across the Sahara sand fields. Monsoons of the In- 
 dian Ocean are a disturbing factor on the East Coast. 
 
 Land Proprietorship 
 
 Many territorial changes have occurred since the open- 
 ing of the World War. In 1912, eight European countries 
 England, France, Italy, Germany, Turkey, Portugal, Belgium 
 and Spain held dominion over Africa with but two inde- 
 pendent states, Liberia, set up as a republic early in the past 
 century under the patronage of United States, and Abyssinia, 
 an unconquered upland, mountainous country. Egypt is now 
 a sovereign state having passed from the control of Turkey 
 to England in 1914, and in 1922 recognized by Great Britain 
 as an independent nation. Morocco has become a de facto 
 colony of France by virtue of purchase and conquest. 
 
 The former German colonies have been divided as war 
 prizes in the following manner: German East Africa goes 
 to the British under the name of Tanganyika Colony, except a 
 small portion on the western edge bordering Belgian Congo, 
 which falls to Belgium. German Southwest Africa is an- 
 nexed to the Union of South Africa under British control. 
 Togoland, on the west coast, is divided equally between 
 France and Great Britain. The Cameroons were almost 
 wholly assigned to France, the remainder to England. 
 
 Aside from the above territories acquired by war France 
 has a larger territorial domain than Great Britain, though the 
 land is not so well located, so productive or so thickly popu- 
 lated. The colonies of France are: Algeria, Tunis, Morocco, 
 Senegal, Sahara, Senegambia, French Guinea, Ivory Coast, 
 French Somaliland, Dahomey, French Congo, Madagascar 
 and lesser islands. 
 
 Great Britain, besides her portion of the former Ger- 
 man Colonies, holds possession of Gambia, Sierra Leone, 
 Ashanti, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Union of South Africa, Rho- 
 desia, Kenya, Soudan, British Somaliland, Zanzibar, Suez 
 Canal and numerous small islands. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 Belgium holds the extensive territory of the Congo, 
 seized by King Leopold I in 1884 and opened up to interna- 
 tional trade. 
 
 Italy obtained Tripoli as a result of the Turko-Italian 
 war of 1912, and also possesses Eritrea on the Red Sea and 
 Somaliland on the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Portugual, the pioneer explorer of Africa, retains Moz- 
 ambique, Angola, Portuguese Guinea, the fertile islands of 
 San Thome and Principe and Cape Verde and Madeira Isl- 
 ands. 
 
 Spain clings to Rio de Oro, Muni, the Canary Islands, 
 and a small part of Morocco. 
 
 Native Tribes 
 
 The tribal distribution of native races is somewhat as 
 follows: The main race of Africans belongs to the Bantu 
 tribe. These Bantu negroids are found mostly in the lower 
 half of Africa, whither they were driven by the pressure of 
 the invading Arabs and Moors from the north. They include 
 such subordinate tribes as the Benga, Aduma, Umbete, 
 Ashira, Bamone, on the Western Coast; in the Congo Basin 
 the Luba-Lunba, the Ba-Kumu, the Ma-Supia, and the Wa- 
 Buma tribes; on the Eastern shore, the Lacustrians, includ- 
 ing Wa-Duruma, Ba-Toro, Wa-Sumbwa, Wa-Nyoka, and 
 Wa-Nguru tribes; near the southern extremity of the conti- 
 nent are the Be-Chuna and Hamito-Bantu bushmen, Zulus, 
 Matabeles, Numaqua, Ova-Herero, and Hottentots. 
 
 In the Nile valley are found the blackest negro tribes, 
 including the Hausas, Dagos, Tumalis, Somalis, Korungas. 
 
 In Central Africa are found the pygmy tribes, said to be 
 the earliest natives, whose stature averages about four feet. 
 They are divided into the Dualas, Ashangos, Ba-Kundus. 
 
 In the northern regions are found the Berber tribes 
 known as Lybians. In the Western Soudan are found the 
 Fula tribes, the most advanced in civilization of the abor- 
 igines, and in the central Soudan are the Tibbus. The Ham- 
 ites (descendants of Ham) are found in the eastern Soudan 
 and throughout the Horn of Africa. The ferocious Somalis 
 belong to this tribe. Abyssinia has a mixture of Hamites and 
 Semites, who are closely related to the half breed Fellahin of 
 Egypt. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 In Madagascar the Hova and Malagasy tribes suggest 
 that this island may have been peopled from the Malay pen- 
 insula as well as from the continent of Africa. These Hovas 
 have embraced Christianity and have made a notable ascent 
 in their civilization as compared with many of the continent- 
 al tribes. 
 
 Labor Situation 
 
 The 150,000,000 natives of Africa are a potentiality rath- 
 er than an immediately available reality in the problem of la- 
 bor. Productive efficiency is at a low percentage. The negro 
 is a child of nature and obtains his food supply with little ex- 
 ertion. Livingstone said that for any man merely to live and 
 survive in Africa was a great achievement and very little 
 should be expected in the way of moral, intellectual or physi- 
 cal energy. 
 
 Africa was principal field of supply for slave labor for 
 the more highly civilized nations from the days of ancient 
 Greece to the present century. 
 
 Slavery was supposed to have been completely abolished 
 in 1906, though a system of forced labor continued in various 
 regions. 
 
 The range in capacity for useful productiveness runs 
 from the intelligent Fulani and Basuto tribes to the benighted 
 pygmies and hottentots. As the black man evolves he becomes 
 pastoral in habit, tending large herds of sheep and cattle 
 the next step is to take up cotton or rice cultivation there is a 
 long road to travel before he acquires proficiency as a skilled 
 workman in a factory. 
 
 The native workman is always referred to as a "boy" 
 regardless of age. The price paid to these "boys" is as low as 
 ten rupees per month on the East Coast and fifteen francs on 
 the Congo. Many thousands of Chinese and Hindoos were 
 formerly indentured by the year to operate mines and planta- 
 tions in South Africa. One of the chief occupations of the na- 
 tive is that of porter, averaging sixty pounds per man (or wo- 
 man). Long caravans of porters bring small quantities of 
 merchandise down to the seaboard. 
 
 The walking delegate has arrived in Africa labor unions 
 are organized among the miners outbreaks of I. W. W. have 
 been suppressed at Johannesburg. The importation of alco- 
 holic liquors has been prohibited in the more backward col- 
 onies. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 Under guidance of technical schools and missions the na- 
 tive will gradually acquire new ideas and learn to barter his 
 time and energy to satisfy new desires. When the white 
 "bosses" have made the black man both a producer and con- 
 sumer of white man's goods, Africa will have a tremendous 
 purchasing power. 
 
 FINANCIAL SYSTEMS 
 
 Africa is a cluster of colonies much like South America 
 100 years ago. Before the world war the money standards in 
 these colonies were for the most part the same as in the eight 
 different mother countries of Europe. Throughout the length 
 of the East Coast the Indian rupee has been a current coin for 
 centuries. In Northern Africa the Turkish piaster still circu- 
 lates. The Egyptian pound is based upon 100 piasters and 
 has a value somewhat above the English pound. 
 
 Most of the business of Northern Africa is conducted 
 through houses in Marseilles or Paris and the franc is the 
 standard of value. Great Britain has minted a special African 
 West Coast currency of shillings and pence. Among the na- 
 tive tribes of the interior cowrie shells are yet used as a me- 
 dium of exchange, and also salt bars. 
 
 The British Bank of South Africa has more than 300 small 
 branches throughout the lower part of the continent. The 
 National City Bank of New York is establishing agencies in 
 several coastal cities of South Africa for the convenience oi 
 American shippers. 
 
 In most of the colonies there is a native hut tax which 
 brings in a considerable revenue and gives the native the pro- 
 tection of law by becoming a part of the government. In South 
 Africa this tax is one pound for the head of the family and one 
 pound for each extra wife. 
 
 Customs Tariff 
 
 On the West Coast and the Congo the import tariff is 10 
 per cent, ad valorem. Certain specific duties run higher than 
 the average 10 per cent, for instance, 12 per cent, on rice in 
 Liberia, 20 per cent, on distilled spirits in Nigeria. In Mor- 
 occo the tariff is 12% per cent.; in Egypt 8 per cent. Algeria 
 is considered a part of France and has the same rates as the 
 mother country; 3 francs per pair on dressed leather shoes 
 in Algeria. British East Africa is 10 per cent., Mozam- 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 11 
 
 bique has a schedule of specific rates and allows 50 per cent, 
 discount to Portugal. The Union of South Africa is partly 
 on the ad valorem, partly on the specific tariff basis. Most 
 imports are taxed 20 per cent, of the value. Exports from 
 America like petroleum and illuminating oils pay from 2 to 
 3 pence per gallon. There is a rebate of 3 per cent, to Great 
 Britain and reciprocating colonies. To take advantage of 
 the discount to English Colonies, Henry Ford ships his cars 
 from the Canadian factories. Not many of the colonies have 
 a differential tariff discriminating against the United States. 
 Until War prohibition went into effect a high tariff on import- 
 ed spirits and liquors was a great source of revenue. 
 
 Export duties imposed on many colonies during the War 
 have now been repealed. 
 
 Transportation Facilities 
 
 Railways are being laid so rapidly that new maps can- 
 not keep pace with the changes. When the World War 
 broke out the Cape-to-Cairo railway was lacking 1500 miles 
 between El Obeid in the Soudan and Bukama in the Congo. 
 Stanley's prediction that this line would be completed by 1925 
 may possibly be fulfilled now that Great Britain has full con- 
 trol of Central Africa. Short railway lines are leading in- 
 land from the coast at many points, several of them built to 
 transport troops to conquer the country. These lateral lines 
 will ultimately tap the main transcontinental route and open 
 up rich regions which will provision Europe with vegetable 
 oils, cereals, sugar, coffee, cocoa, hides, meats, cotton and 
 timber. 
 
 The French have a program of laying down 18,000 miles 
 of track during the next 15 years at a cost of $800,000,000. 
 These lines will extend from Tangier to Alexandria along the 
 Mediterranean shore across the Sahara desert to Lake 
 Chad and El Obeid and, most important of all, from Al- 
 geria to Dakar at Cape Verde from which point travelers 
 may continue a trip to South America by a sea voyage of only 
 four days. 
 
 Instances are cited where the cost of transporting mer- 
 chandise to the seaboard by gangs of porters has been re- 
 duced from $200 per ton to $10 per ton by rail. 
 
 The automobile, as a cargo carrier, is coming to the 
 fore. The six-ox wagon of South Africa, the camel caravan 
 of the north and the strings of human porters trekking across 
 
12 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 the veldt carrying the freight upon their heads, are in many 
 places giving way to the Ford truck. Metalled roads have 
 been laid out in the French and British colonies. The sharp 
 rise in grade from the seacoast to the tableland, makes a dif- 
 ficult problem for railroad engineers to overcome. The auto- 
 mobile can negotiate these grades more easily than the loco- 
 motive. 
 
 Marine Transportation 
 
 Keen competition for overseas trade since the War has 
 resulted in much better shipping facilities for Africa than 
 formerly. Several new steamship lines have more than re- 
 placed the defunct German companies. Japan has added 
 lines to South and East Africa the United States to North, 
 West and South Africa. Modern refrigerator ships have 
 been specially built for African trade by the Elder-Dempster 
 Company. Four thousand ships annually pass through the 
 Suez canal, the bulk of which are British, with only a hand- 
 ful of American register. 
 
 There are very few bays and arms of the sea indenting 
 the continent to promote maritime trade. Usually there is a 
 sand bar at the mouths of the rivers to prevent entry of any 
 sizeable craft. In sections the larger rivers are navigable to 
 shallow draft, stern-wheel steamers. Waterfalls, rapids and 
 seasonal variations in volume of water preclude regular travel 
 except by the much-used pirogue made of a hollowed-out 
 tree. 
 
 Off the coastal ports vessels are usually obliged to an- 
 chor in roadsteads and embark freight by lighters. At Lagos 
 a 30-foot channel has been dredged to the wharves at Casa 
 Blanca vessels of 35-foot draft may now come alongside the 
 modern docks. At Durban and Port Elizabeth $50,000,000 is 
 being expended to install the most up-to-date appliances for 
 loading bunker coal in the many vessels which call at these 
 ports. At Dar-es-Salaam, Mombasa and Beira on the In- 
 dian Ocean port facilities have been greatly improved. Al- 
 geria and Alexandria harbors are literally "forests of masts' ' 
 so many tramp vessels visit these shores. 
 
 Across such large inland lakes as Nyanza and Tangan- 
 yika there are steamers of 300 tons plying regularly. 
 
 The opportunities for developing hydro-electric power 
 are unlimited. The falls of the Zambesi river are higher than 
 Niagara and could supply tremendous power if South Africa 
 should become an industrial center of factories. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 13 
 
 The following steamship lines from America to Africa 
 were operating in 1919: To South Africa, American and Afri- 
 can, Funch-Edye, Houston, Prince and Union Clan lines; to 
 West Africa, Elder-Dempster lines from New York. Trans- 
 shipment routes from Liverpool, Southampton and Marseil- 
 les. To East Africa, all lines plying to South Africa occasion- 
 ly extend service to East Africa. Trans-shipment to lines from 
 Liverpool, Marseilles and Cape Town. 
 
 To Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, best reached by trans- 
 shipment from Gibraltar, Marseilles, Genoa, Barcelona. 
 
 To Egypt and Red Sea ports, Castriotis line, American 
 and India line, Ellerman's Wilson line. Transshipment at 
 Marseilles, Naples, Suez, Port Said and Aden. 
 
 Manufactures 
 
 The early civilization of the Nile valley had mastered 
 the art of smelting ores and fashioning them into objects of 
 great value, and also acquired high proficiency in hand- 
 wrought articles as well as weaving. These handicrafts have 
 been preserved by most of the black tribes. 
 
 Manufacturing by modern machinery has only recently 
 been introduced into Africa. Algeria has mills for making 
 flour and meal. Egypt manufactures cigarettes, Nigeria re- 
 fines oil, Rhodesia has mills for rolling iron, South Africa is 
 introducing plants for the manufacture of such articles as 
 furniture, cement, boots and shoes, bottles, pottery and rough 
 hardware. 
 
 But Africa looks to the outside world for most of its fin- 
 ished goods and several raw products. Before the War, 
 England supplied gray sheetings, cotton piece goods and cal- 
 icoes; France, automobiles and shoes; Germany, electrical 
 goods, firearms and hardware; Austria, hats and fezzes; Hol- 
 land, Schnapps and trade gin distilled from potatoes; Japan, 
 rice and silks; Greece, tobacco; Scandinavia, casks and 
 matches; Chile, nitrates, brought by vessels carry exchange 
 cargo of coal from South Africa; United States, iron and 
 steel products, windmills, well-boring machines, petroleum 
 and furniture. 
 
 Four Trade Regions 
 
 By reason of geographical position, sovereign control, 
 medium of exchange, and dominating commercial power, 
 Africa divides into four trade regions. The Mediterranean 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 region, in which business is mostly carried on with French 
 houses, although the Italians dominate Tripoli and a divers- 
 ity of merchants do business in Egypt, includes Egypt, Trip- 
 oli, Tunis, Algeria, Morocco, Tangier and other Spanish pos- 
 sessions. Most of the commerce has been with trans-Medi- 
 terranean ports of Europe. But England, of course, takes 
 the bulk of the Egyptian cotton crop and considerable barley, 
 wheat and esparto grass from the French possessions. The 
 United States has had very little steamship communication 
 with this region since the days when the Barbary pirates 
 preyed upon its merchant marine until suppressed by Bain- 
 bridge and Decatur. Greeks control the sponge and pearl 
 fisheries. 
 
 South Africa includes the British possessions of Rho- 
 desia and the Union of South Africa, Portuguese East Africa, 
 through which the bulk of foreign commerce is made up of 
 English goods in transit ; German Southwest Africa, which was 
 subjugated by the British during the World War, and An- 
 gola, a minor province, through which an outlet by rail will 
 soon be completed for the product of the English-owned 
 mines of Katanga. The bulk of the shipping to these ports 
 was carried in British bottoms, although before the War the 
 German Woermann line and the Ost Afrika line were picking 
 up a very large trade. The United States has regular steam- 
 er communication with this section, to which it ships a large 
 quantity of mining and agricultural machinery, and from 
 which it brings a great deal of wool. South Africa, which 
 claimed 65 per cent, of the total trade in 1900, has now fal- 
 len to 45 per cent. 
 
 The West Coast embraces French West Africa, including 
 Dahomey, Guinea, Gaboon and French Congo, the former 
 German colonies Togo and Kamaroon; the English Nigeria 
 Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, Gambia, Liberia, the Negro Repub- 
 lic under a quasi-protectorate of the United States, and Bel- 
 gian Congo. The United States has had no direct line of 
 steamers until after the War. German vessels had car- 
 ried most of the commerce of this region, which consisted 
 mainly of palm products. Several English lines of steamers 
 call at the English ports, and take on bunker coal at Port 
 Harcourt. 
 
 The Indian Ocean region includes the Red Sea ports of 
 Eritrea, the Somalilands, Abyssinia, British and German East 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 15 
 
 Africa, and Madagascar. These colonies are controlled by 
 Italian, French, German, English officials. Trading is chiefly 
 in the hands of Arabs and Jews, and largely carried on with 
 India, Australia and Japan. The Japanese have two lines of 
 steamers touching at these ports, which have taken over a 
 large part of the trade carried by the German Ost Afrika line. 
 French, Portuguese and British steamers sail through the 
 canal, but the German line had the best passenger traffic and 
 carried most of the hunters to this region. The United States 
 has occasional steamship connections with Madagascar and 
 the East Coast but most of the commerce requires trans- 
 shipment at the Cape or at Alexandria. The output of the 
 Congo, Rhodesian and Transvaal mines is at present carried 
 through the East Coast ports. 
 
 Trade With United States 
 
 In 1910, South Africa imported from Germany 16.8 per 
 cent,, from the United States 7.8 per cent., from England 59 
 per cent. The principal exportations from Africa to the 
 United States are wool from South Africa (some hundred 
 thousand bales); cotton from Egypt of a similar amount; 
 palm oils and a rapidly increasing share of the cocoa pro- 
 duct from the West Coast; considerable asbestos from South 
 Africa; wattle bark and mangrove for tanning leather from 
 the East Coast; cloves and vanilla from Zanzibar and Mada- 
 gascar; graphite from Madagascar; chrome iron from Rho- 
 desia; phosphates from Tunis; sisal and rafia from the 
 tropics; ivory and rubber from the equatorial belt; and hides 
 from all quarters, particularly Cape Town, Nigeria, Moroc- 
 co, Soudan, Abyssinia, British East Africa and Madagascar. 
 
 Of the total United States imports in 1913 1.46 per cent, 
 came from Africa and in 1918 2.58 per cent. Of the total U. 
 S. exports in 1913, 1.18 per cent, went to Africa. During the 
 War of course Europe absorbed the vast bulk of U. S. exports 
 and the African percentage fell. 
 
 Since the beginning of the World War the following ex- 
 ports from United States to Africa have greatly increased: 
 Candles, automobiles, anthracite coal, motorcycles, biscuit, 
 rice, blacking, brass manufacture, sodas and salts, baking 
 powder, horses, dyes, clocks and watches, confectionery, 
 dental goods, soap, explosives, canned fish, optical instru- 
 ments, bar iron and iron wares, builders' hardware, engines 
 
16 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 of all kinds, cutlery, shoe and textile machinery, nails, iron 
 pipe, wire fencing, lamps, condensed milk, victrolas, oil 
 cloths, steel and iron plates, newspaper and all other varie- 
 ties of paper, bags, boxes, motion picture films, roofing felt, 
 cigarettes, shocks, glass bottles, jewelry, copper rods and 
 wire, electrical appliances, petroleum, steel rails and agricul- 
 tural implements. 
 
 Africa and the Great War 
 
 Africa did not suffer materially from the World War. 
 Her commercial position in the world was strengthened. The 
 wholesale destruction of ships by submarines threw the 
 colonists upon their own resources largely. Many new man- 
 ufacturing plants sprang up which will continue. Production 
 of staple commodities was stimulated and new fields opened 
 up. The United States and Japan have divided most of the 
 trade which formerly went to Germany. 
 
 Outlook for Next Few Years 
 
 Africa is the largest area in the world awaiting develop- 
 ment. Although Egypt had a flourishing civilization jcen- 
 turies before Europe and 2000 years before America was 
 dreamed of, modern Africa is only about 50 years old, dat- 
 ing from the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and Living- 
 stone's trip across the continent. The European scramble for 
 colonial possessions reached the climax in 1884. 
 
 Gold and slaves were the wealth sought by adventurers 
 during the 18th and 19th centuries. Utilization of the land 
 for commercial purposes has really only commenced in the 
 last few decades. 
 
 Since the World War ended attention has been directed 
 to the Dark Continent more intensively. Victor Hugo, in the 
 middle of the last century, prophesied that Africa would be 
 the cynosure of the world in the 20th century. The new spir- 
 it of internationalism, which holds that each country shares 
 in the prosperity or distress of all other countries, is endeav- 
 oring to erase geographical boundaries and national bar- 
 riers so as to equalize opportunities for advancement of all 
 nations and bring about a more even distribution of those 
 things that make for common human happiness. The mental 
 interval between the average black man and average white 
 man is so wide that this continent offers the greatest field for 
 development. White man's capital will work wonders in black 
 man's Africa. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 17 
 
 ANIMAL PRODUCTS 
 
 Africa has been most widely advertised through its 
 animals. School boys the world over have pictured the Dark 
 Continent as a vast zoological garden. Although the wild 
 animals are gradually dwindling, Africa seems particularly 
 adapted to support a vast quantity of domesticated stock in a 
 practically virgin field. Animal husbandry for the future ap- 
 parently centers in cattle and sheep-raising on the vast 
 stretches of hinterland obtainable at low prices. Cattle in 
 South Africa, like camels in Northern Africa, have been bred 
 largely for draught purposes and may be doomed to reduction 
 in numbers by recent mechanical inventions for transporta- 
 tion, though horses and mules have increased in spite of the 
 motor car. 
 
 The hilly topography and dry, warm climate of the con- 
 tinental extremities are favorable to wool-growing which is 
 advancing in Morocco, Algeria and Cape Colony. Cattle do not 
 require hill country and thrive on the immense, broad, inland 
 plateaux. Canned and frozen meats are constantly increasing 
 for export. Hides and skins come from every corner of the 
 continent. Dongola and Morocco have contributed to the 
 world's styles of leather. Hogs thrive wherever corn wll grow, 
 i. e., throughout Africa, although the climate and religious 
 prejudice restrict their numbers. Introduction of alfalfa will 
 increase domestic livestock. 
 
 Africa leads the world in production of ostrich feathers 
 (90 per cent.), ivory (80 per cent.), big game (60 per cent.), 
 mohair (50 per cent.), and takes high rank in the produc- 
 tion of wool, hides and skins, camel's hair, coral, sponges, 
 tunny, anchovies, civet, guano, egret feathers and bees-wax. 
 
 Along the Mediterannean littoral there is an immense 
 production of eggs for European consumption. Butter and 
 cheese are increasing exports from South Africa ghee from 
 Somaliland and Abyssinia. 
 
 Sea products come from the Northwestern and South- 
 eastern coast especially. Tunny abound off Tunis, anchovies 
 off Algeria, coral off Morocco, sponges off Tripoli, pearls in 
 the Red Sea, turtles at Madagascar. Seals and whales are 
 not so plentiful as formerly. Much guano is gathered from the 
 dry islands near the coast. 
 
 For increased production of fish, fowl and flesh, the latter 
 holds the greatest promise for broad commercial development. 
 
18 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 WOOL 
 
 Sheep-raising is most profitable in dry, elevated regions 
 where there is good pasturage. The best wool is produced in 
 countries where fat is not created for bodily warmth. Damp, 
 cold regions produce the best mutton. Thus the northern and 
 southern extremities of Africa are well-suited to wool pro- 
 duction. The heavy rainfall of the equatorial belt is not fav- 
 orable. 
 
 The total number of sheep in the world 
 Sheep Census. (1918) has been estimated at 600,000,000. 
 
 Australia and Argentina are the largest sheep 
 raising countries. Sheep in Africa for 1918 are estimated at 
 74,000,000, distributed as follows: 
 
 Algeria 8,500,000 
 
 Morocco 5,000,000 
 
 Rio del Oro 100,000 
 
 Senegal and French West Africa 500,000 
 
 Gambia 100,000 
 
 Dahomey 100,000 
 
 Togoland and Kamaroons 250,000 
 
 French Guinea 150,000 
 
 Angola 100,000 
 
 German Southwest Africa 2,000,000 
 
 Union of South Africa 35,000,000 
 
 Rhodesia 400,000 
 
 Mozambique 200,000 
 
 Madagascar 500,000 
 
 German East Africa 5,000,000 
 
 British East Africa 6,000,000 
 
 Abyssinia 3,000,000 
 
 Somaliland (British, Italian, French) 1,000,000 
 
 Egypt and Soudan 1,300,000 
 
 Tripoli 1,500,000 
 
 Tunis 1,100,000 
 
 Islands 50,000 
 
 The Tanner's Council estimates sheep in Africa at 77,000,000. 
 
 According to statistics of the National Woolgrow- 
 Quantity ers' Association of America, the total wool produc- 
 ofWool. tion of the world for 1918 was 2,808,796,243 
 
 pounds, of which Africa produced 207,680,470 
 pounds. The United States produced 299,921,000 pounds 
 Forty-five per cent, of the wool production is within 
 the British Empire, particularly Australia, South Africa and 
 New Zealand, which have almost a monopoly of fine merino 
 wool. Production in Africa was approximately as follows: 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 19 
 
 Union of South Africa 160,000,000 pounds 
 
 Algeria 30,000,000 
 
 Rhodesia 50,000 
 
 Egypt 8,000,000 
 
 British East Africa 500,000 
 
 .Tunis 4,000,000 
 
 Morocco 5,000,000 " 
 
 Madagascar 3,000,000 
 
 German Southwest Africa 2,000,000 
 
 Total world's product (1914) was 2,900,000,000 pounds, 
 of which Africa furnished 150,000,000 pounds. The Philadel- 
 phia Commercial Museum gives 225,000,000 pounds for 1913. 
 The most characteristic African breed is the 
 Breeds of Sheep fat-tailed sheep. The lump of fat in the tail 
 and Qualily. like that on the back of the camel or the 
 
 withers of the zebu is a provision of nature 
 for resisting prolonged drought affecting vegetation. The 
 Merino sheep, which is the main stock of the South African 
 flocks, originated in Northern Africa, and was improved in 
 Spain, from which it spread over the world. 
 
 Karakul sheep, which produce the lambskins valued as 
 astrakan, are numerous in many sections. These sheep came 
 originally from Bokhara, Persia. Living in arid countries 
 for many generations and subsisting on scanty fare, they have 
 acquired great hardihood; consequently they are profitable 
 in large barren regions of the Union of South Africa. Infusion 
 of Karakul blood on the Africander stock makes a profitable 
 sheep both for wool and mutton. Merino is not so good for 
 mutton as crossbreeds. 
 
 In Abyssinia, a race of very small black-headed sheep, 
 the flesh of which is unusually good, is raised for wool. The clip 
 is manufactured locally into coarse cloaks worn in the hill re- 
 gions. The price of this sheep varies from 38 cents to $1.93. 
 
 Wild Barbary sheep (Ovis tragelaphus) are found in the 
 northern outskirts of the Sahara desert, but they are of value 
 chiefly to hunters and as staple exhibits in zoological gardens. 
 
 The ovine herds of the northern French colonies are of 
 two classes: One, permanently stabilized in the oasis; the 
 other ranging over the great open steppes, seeking pasture. 
 The size of the nomad herds varies yearly according to amount 
 of rain and weather conditions. The permanent herds consist 
 of five or ten sheep at each oasis where they have abundant 
 food and produce excellent mutton. The oases of Gabes sup- 
 port 50,000 sheep of the large fat-tailed variety known as 
 
20 RAW P.RO DUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 "Barbarin". The wool, spun by the women, is used for carpet- 
 making, and especially, for burnooses. 
 
 In Egypt the prevailing color of the sheep is brown. They 
 furnish a coarse wool for carpet and rug making. 
 
 The common sheep of Nigeria are wire-haired, long 
 legged, short-horned and carry a mane. Fat-tails are the com- 
 mon sheep of Madagascar. 
 
 The Union of South Africa is the leading coun- 
 South African try of Africa exporting wool, and, within the 
 Clip. British Empire, is second only to Australia. 
 
 The total wool clip for 1918 was 500,000 
 bales against 450,000 bales for 1917. There are in South 
 Africa 35,000,000 sheep, of which about 5,000,000 are bred 
 for mutton rather than for wool. The number in 1913 was 
 30,000,000, mostly of Merino and cross-bred stock. South 
 African stock-raisers occasionally shear their sheep twice a 
 year, a detriment to the trade. The wool is not of the very 
 highest grade, as the sheep do not feed on grass, but on a shrub 
 called "karoo", growing in the red sand, and bearing a burr 
 which catches in the fleece. Tags are common, which de- 
 preciates the wool, as do also the dust storms and blazing sun. 
 
 There has been a growing shortage of wool during the 
 war period, due to drought in Australia, to the use of pastures 
 for other agricultural purposes and to the increase of the mut- 
 ton supply by cross-breeding. Wool is being scoured in South 
 Africa and machinery has recently been shipped for textile in- 
 dustries, which should prosper, as the climate is as favorable 
 as that of Philadelphia. 
 
 Wool production in South Africa for the five-year 
 Quantity, pre-war average, 1909-13, amounted to 145,000,- 
 000 Ibs. The production of Merino wool in South 
 Africa averaged about 130,000,000 Ibs., or 90 per cent. 
 
 The average exports to Great Britain preceding 1913 
 were 115,000,000 Ibs. The amount of clothing wool shipped 
 to the United States was 66,500,000 Ibs. in 1916. 
 
 The Statistical Abstract gives the following wool produc- 
 tion for 1913 and 1915, showing the changes during the first 
 years of the war, when Egypt doubled its output: 
 
 1913 1915 
 
 Union of South Africa 176,971,865 Ibs. 170,009,886 Ibs. 
 
 Southern Rhodesia 34,784 " 36,123 " 
 
 East Africa Protectorate 233,184 " 321,328 " 
 
 Egypt 4,981,183 " 8,148,475 " 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 21 
 
 Wool from Northern Africa, which is not a large clip, 
 goes to Marseilles and Genoa principally. Many live sheep are 
 exported from Northern Africa. 
 
 Export Figures: 
 
 1913 Morocco exported wool to the value of 1,300,000 
 
 1915 Egypt exported 72,734 cwt. wool, valued at $1,227,000 
 
 Algeria exported wool to the value of 3,198,400 
 
 Algeria exported sheep to the value of 8,288,000 
 
 Morocco exported wool to the value of 615,166 
 
 Union So. Africa exported wool to value of.. ..26, 861,775 
 
 1916 Egypt exported wool worth 1,350,000 
 
 Morocco exported woolen goods, value of.... 44,000 
 
 1916 Union So. Africa exported wool to value of.. ..33,000,000 
 
 1917 Union So. Africa exported 117,657,142 pounds. 
 
 Before the war Germany and Austria consumed 30 
 Markets, per cent, of the best African wool. With the elim- 
 ination of Germany from the wool market, Japan 
 increased her purchases from South Africa. During 1917 the 
 British Government took two-fifths of the supply and the keen 
 rivalry between Japan and the United States boosted the price 
 above that paid by the English Government, much to the dis- 
 content of the Cape sheep-raisers. The purchases by the 
 Japanese were mostly of combed wool, while that taken by 
 the United States was scoured wool. 
 
 The bulk of the African wool crop goes to Yorkshire, 
 England. Plants of the American Woolen Company in New 
 England and the large factories in Philadelphia receive a con- 
 siderable amount of South African wool which often comes in 
 square-rigged sailing ships. 
 
 At the English Government auctions, which have 
 Prices, been resumed since the war, the range of values in 
 
 April, 1919, for South Africa, was as follows: 
 Grease, Western District, 30d. to 36 %d. 
 Port Elizabeth, 24i/ 2 d. to 36d. 
 Natal, 19d. to 38i/ 2 d. 
 Scoured, Port Elizabeth, 41i/ 2 d. to 67d. 
 Natal, 48d. to 56d. 
 East London, 48i/ 2 d. to 58i/ 2 d. 
 
 The average price of wool for 1917 was 33 cents per 
 pound. In 1913 the average price was 15 cents per pound. 
 The British Government offered to take the clip of 1917 at a 
 price of 55 per cent, higher than the average before the war 
 (about 27 cents per greased pound) ; 200,000 bales (about 
 two-fifth of the clip) were sold under this arrangement. Many 
 
22 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 of the farmers broke their contracts when they found that the 
 United States or Japan would pay a higher price (reaching 36 
 cents per lb.). 
 
 The cost of feeding sheep in South Africa has been given 
 as $4 per year per head. 
 
 Wool-growing has undergone many vicissitudes 
 Outlook for in Africa during the past half century. Flocks 
 Wool. have been decimated by occasional severe 
 
 drought, and ravages of scab, tick, redwater, 
 and other diseases have periodically discouraged the sheep- 
 raiser. Dipping in tanks of arsenic water or lime and sulphur 
 to destroy disease-breeding flies and insects has become more 
 general in South Africa and is a great protection. There has 
 been an increase in the number of veterinaries to combat the 
 diseases attacking all animals. By experimentation flocks have 
 been improved and breeding stock has been transported free 
 of charge by the Union Castle Line from England. Although 
 there was a slight falling off in production due to the exi- 
 gencies of the war, there has been a steady increase in the 
 wool output of Africa, and the probability is that the indus- 
 try will continue to expand throughout the broad pasture 
 lands. Japan will presumably make regular and increasing 
 purchases of African wool for transportation by her new 
 steamship line. The returning soldiers are likely to take up 
 sheep-raising on the tracts of land granted them in Rhodesia. 
 There has been a marked increase in the flocks of Egypt and 
 in British and former German East Africa, where pasturage 
 is abundant. The new regime in Morocco is likely to encour- 
 age wool-growing in that well-watered country where Van 
 Loo, the Belgian economist, estimates that 40,000,000 sheep 
 could be pastured. Algeria has not so many sheep as formerly. 
 
 MOHAIR 
 
 Goats are found in practically every country of the world. 
 Their present number is estimated as above 200,000,000. In- 
 dia is credited with 24 per cent.; Africa with 15 per cent.; 
 Turkey in Europe with 10 per cent.; Turkey in Asia with 8 
 per cent. Their distribution is much the densest in the Balkan 
 States and Greece. The common native goat is kept for its 
 milk, meat and hide rather than for its hair, and no family in 
 Africa, whether Arab or black native, would be considered of 
 any account if it did not have a dooryard group of goats. The 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 23 
 
 goats around Guinea are dwarf, plump, short-legged, close- 
 haired with short horns. Raising Angora goats for hair is con- 
 fined to the white settlers. The six or eight millions of An- 
 gora goats of South Africa have been the great source of sup- 
 ply of mohair for the European market, the chief rival being 
 the Turkish domains. 
 
 A rough estimate of the caprine population of Africa 
 Goat for 1918 might give in the neighborhood of 40,000,- 
 Census. 000 head, of which about a quarter are Angora 
 
 goats. 
 
 Algeria ........................................................ 4,000,000 
 
 Morocco ...................................................... 2,000,000 
 
 French West Africa ................................... 200,000 
 
 Gambia ........................................................ 300,000 
 
 West Coast ................................................. 200,000 
 
 Upper Nigeria ............................................ 200,000 
 
 Angola ........................................................ 50,000 
 
 German Southwest Africa ........................ 500,000 
 
 Union of South Africa ................................ 11,000,000 
 
 Mozambique ............................................... 100,000 
 
 Madagascar ................................................ 200,000 
 
 Rhodesia ..................................................... 600,000 
 
 .British East Africa .................................... 4,000,000 
 
 German East Africa .................................... 1,000,000 
 
 Abyssinia .................................................... 7,000,000 
 
 Somaliland .................................................... 1,500,000 
 
 Egypt and Soudan ........................................ 1,000,000 
 
 Tripoli ......................................................... 500,000 
 
 Tunis ........................................................... 600,000 
 
 Islands ......................................................... 1,000,000 
 
 The Tanner's Council estimates 49,000,000 goats. 
 
 In the Abyssinian districts and the Eastern Horn of Africa 
 goats are more numerous than sheep or cattle. The na- 
 tive goat yields a larger quantity of milk than the ewes 
 and also provides a better tasting meat. These goats are of 
 the short-haired variety, and usually white, although a black 
 and tan or pied variety is not uncommon. They are herded 
 together with sheep. Aden is the regional market. 
 
 Mohair is obtained from the Angora goat (Capra an- 
 
 gorensis). This valuable hair is used for railway seats and 
 other upholstery, coat linings, women's dress goods, auto tops, 
 carriage furnishings, rugs, braids, imitation furs, false hair, 
 plush, velvet, men's summer suits. Hair of the common goat is 
 used in coarse blankets and carpets. 
 
24 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The Angora goat, which originated in Asia Minor, 
 Where is bred principally in Asiatic Turkey; in South Afri- 
 Found. ca, where it was introduced a hundred years ago; 
 in the semi-arid southwestern States of America, 
 where is was recently introduced to clear up underbrush 
 on the timberlands ; and in Argentina. While the Asia Minor 
 Angora goat produces the finest quality of hair, the South Af- 
 rican goats produce the largest quantity of any section in the 
 world. Although the Turkish supply was wholly cut oif by 
 the war, nevertheless exports from South Africa decreased 
 heavily, partly on account of women curtailing the use of mo- 
 hair as a war luxury. 
 
 Port Elizabeth is the chief shipping port for the 
 Markets. South African mohair clip, which is raised on the 
 
 highlands back from the coast. During the year 
 1918 about a million pounds were sent to the United States. 
 Exports from South Africa to Bradford, England, were 11,- 
 273,995 pounds in 1916, and 3,577,848 pounds in 1917. Ex- 
 ports from South Africa for recent years are as follows: 
 
 1909 19,600,000 pounds 862,000 
 
 1911 21,100,000 " 918,000 
 
 1913 17,400,000 " 876,000 
 
 1917 3,691,000 " 280,661 
 
 1918 3,630,000 
 
 The price of Basuto mohair was 34 cents per pound 
 Prices, in 1918. The South African goats yield a fleece of 
 
 about 3 pounds each. The average receipt per goat 
 in 1913, was $1.02. The war caused a slump in the market for 
 mohair. 
 
 The camel produces a fine wool, especially adapted 
 Camel for making hosiery, underwear, shawls, carpets and 
 Hair. rugs, a valued cloth, fine soft brushes. At certain 
 
 seasons of the year the camel's hair loosens and is 
 plucked out by hand. The camel of Africa, by reason of his 
 drought-resistng qualities flourishes in the arid regions of 
 the Sahara and the Somali deserts, where he feeds on the 
 scant vegetation at small expense to the owner. The north- 
 eastern third of Africa comprises the principal habitat of the 
 camel. During the dry season on the West Coast many are 
 driven down from the Sahara by the Moors. 
 
 Possibly the total number of camels in Africa amounts 
 to 3,500,000, but no authentic figures are available because 
 they are owned mostly by the wandering Arabs and are not 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 25 
 
 listed on tax books. Enumeration is not reliable as the caravans 
 move from one place to another. Estimates, from several 
 sources more or less conjectural, give the number of camels 
 in Africa, as follows: 
 
 Algeria 204,715 
 
 Egypt 100,000 
 
 Eritrea 46,853 
 
 German Southwest Africa 800 
 
 Senegal 12,487 
 
 Soudan 123,705 
 
 Tunis 121,000 
 
 Tripoli 300,000 
 
 Morocco 200,000 
 
 Abyssinia 500.000 
 
 Somaliland 1,000,000 
 
 German East Africa 10,000 
 
 U. of South Africa 3,000 
 
 At the end of the war there was a large surplus 
 Outlook, stock of mohair in storage ; the number of Angora 
 
 goats had greatly diminished. The market is likely 
 to recuperate, particularly on account of the great demand 
 throughout the world for animal fibres suitable for clothing 
 and owing to resumption of former fashions in dress and furni- 
 ture. South Africa is especially adapted by climate, topog- 
 raphy and vegetation to the raising of these goats. Flocks 
 have been introduced into British and former German East 
 Africa where they are steadily increasing. 
 
 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Hides and skins constitute a large part of the commerce 
 of Africa. They are obtained both in the coastal and interior 
 countries. Every caravan includes one or more camel-loads 
 of skins. Countries in which hides and skins are a large per- 
 centage of exports are: Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Nigeria, 
 Union of South Africa, Madagascar, Mozambique, British East 
 Africa, Somaliland, Abyssinia and Tripoli. Rhodesia is grow- 
 ing in importance in this industry. Several of the colonies are 
 not well suited as habitation for domestic animals, e. g., An- 
 gola and the Congo, where the severe climate of the summer, 
 when heat and humidity are intense and water often scarce, 
 together with the tse-tse fly and the epidemic known as rin- 
 derpest, create conditions fatal to stock-raising. In Tripoli 
 lack of vegetation owing to the scanty surface supply of 
 water prevents cattle-raising to any extent. 
 
26 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The world's annual production of hides and 
 World skins is above 2,000,000,000 pounds, of which 
 
 Production. Africa produced in the year 1917, about 170,- 
 
 000,000 pounds. The British possessions in Af- 
 rica (especially South Africa) produced 50 per cent, of this 
 total; the French possessions (chiefly Madagascar, Morocco 
 and Algeria) produced 33 per cent., and Abyssinia about 10 
 per cent. 
 
 In estimating the number of hides and skins from Africa 
 it is important first to enumerate the number of domestic ani- 
 mals. The sheep census has been given as approximately 74,- 
 000,000, and goats roughly as 40,000,000. The total number 
 of cattle in Africa is in the neighborhood of 45,000,000. The 
 estimate for the world total of cattle is 425,000,000, India hav- 
 ing first place in distribution, United States second, Russia 
 third. Africa ranks fourth, having about 10 per cent, of total. 
 
 ESTIMATED NUMBER OF CATTLE IN AFRICA, 1920 
 
 Algeria 1,100,000 
 
 Morocco 3,000,000 
 
 Rio de Oro 100,000 
 
 Senegal and Sahara 2,000,000 
 
 Gambia 100,000 
 
 Liberia 200,000 
 
 Sierre Leone 100,000 
 
 Gold Coast 100,000 
 
 Dahomey 100,000 
 
 French Guinea 500,000 
 
 Nigeria 3,500,000 
 
 Togoland 75,000 
 
 Congo 100,000 
 
 Kameroons 50,000 
 
 Angola 100,000 
 
 German Southwest Africa 300,000 
 
 Union of South Africa 8,500,000 
 
 Rhodesia 1,500,000 
 
 Madagascar 6,750,000 
 
 Mozambique 500,000 
 
 German East Africa 2,000,000 
 
 British East Africa 2,500,000 
 
 Somaliland 1,500,000 
 
 Abyssinia 7,000,000 
 
 Tunis 200,000 
 
 Egypt and Soudan 1,000,000 
 
 Tripoli 200,000 
 
 Islands 100,000 
 
 These estimates are conservative. 
 
 Tanner's Council (1920) estimates 73,000,000 cattle. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 27 
 
 The motor car seems to have doomed the horse the world 
 over and yet there are probably more of the equine family in 
 Africa today than ever before. Many mules have recently been 
 shipped to Africa from America. 
 
 From fragmentary figures a conjectural estimate may be 
 made of 1,500,000 horses in Africa, and 3,000,000 mules and 
 asses. The zebra has been domesticated and has been crossed 
 with the mare, producing the zulebra. Horses do not thrive 
 in tropical Africa on account of the tse-tse fly. 
 
 CENSUS OF HORSES IN AFRICA 
 
 Union of South Africa (1913) 719,500 
 
 French Guinea (1914) 3,000 
 
 Tunis (1916) 31,000 
 
 Basutoland (1911) 86,600 
 
 Swaziland (1917) 600 
 
 Algeria (1917) 250,000 
 
 Egypt (1917) 50,000 
 
 MULES AND ASSES IN AFRICA 
 
 Union of South Africa (1917) 450,000 mules and asses 
 
 Tunis (1917) 225,000 mules and asses 
 
 Algeria (1917) 233,000 asses 
 
 Algeria (1917). .....192,000 mules 
 
 Nigeria (1917) 25,000 mules and asses 
 
 Senegal (1917) 50,000 " 
 
 Egypt (1917) 700,000 " 
 
 Nyassaland had in 1917 only 266 horses, mules and asses. 
 
 In Egypt are many mules bred from Abyssinian mares 
 and sired by donkeys. These mules average 13 hands high 
 and will carry 200 pounds on rough trail. They are worth on 
 an average, $28. 
 
 Africa, in proportion to its immense extent is 
 Cattle-Raising, very sparsely populated ; the chief cattle-rais- 
 ing district lies in the southeastern section, as 
 in the case of New Zealand, Australia, India and South Amer- 
 ica. In Southeast Africa there are about 25 cattle to every ten 
 inhabitants, while in Uruguay there are 75 to every ten in- 
 habitants; in Russia 30. 
 
 The fencing item of expense is an important reason for 
 the want of interest in cattle-raising on the African veldt. Ad- 
 ditional reasons why the cattle regions have not expanded to 
 the saturation point in the African grazing uplands are found 
 in the ravages of the tse-tse fly and other plagues ; in the fact 
 
28 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 that the Mohammedan population eats little beef; the liability 
 to attack by marauding wild beasts. But when man has mas- 
 tered the African continent, overcome insect pests and crossed 
 it with railroads as he has the western prairies of the United 
 States there is no reason why the savannahs, veldts, plateaux 
 and steppes of Africa should not provide grazing land for a 
 quarter of the world's cattle; notwithstanding the claim of 
 Steffanson, the Arctic explorer, that the grasses 'and mosses of 
 boreal regions are destined as the future grazing fields of the 
 beef creatures of the world ; and that the tendency of civiliza- 
 tion is toward the poles. 
 
 The breeds of cattle producing hides in Africa are 
 Breeds of of four principal kinds. Those of Algeria and 
 Cattle. Tunis are largely imported Swiss stock. In Egypt 
 
 and Eastern Africa there is found a cross between 
 the zebu from India and the native buffalo, which has long 
 been domesticated. Madagascar cattle are of the humpbacked 
 Indian species. Buffalo on the West Coast are small and red. 
 Those of Nigeria came originally from India and roamed for 
 centuries the rich grass lands of the inland plateaux, tended 
 by the Haussa and Fulani tribes. *Hides from this region 
 formerly went by caravans across the desert to Mediterranean 
 ports but are now mostly carried by rail to the Gulf of Guinea. 
 Liberia has a breed of cattle no larger than Shetland ponies 
 so small their pelts are classed as skins like sheep and goats. 
 Skins of small or young animals are known in trade as "kips". 
 In South Africa Scotch Shorthorns, Holsteins and Herefords, 
 standard breeds introduced from northern Europe, are abund- 
 ant. During the Boer war cattle were nearly wiped out but 
 had recuperated to 6,000,000 head by 1914. There is a black 
 native buffalo found in South Africa. 
 
 On market days centres like Pretoria and Johannesburg 
 have the appearance of the Chicago stockyards from the mul- 
 titude of horns, for these animals are valuable not only to pro- 
 vide meat for local consumption and hides for export but par- 
 ticularly as motive power for transportation unusually prim- 
 itive in this day of the almost universal automobile. 
 
 Tons of hides are brought by caravan from the in- 
 Quantity. teriors to coast towns in every section, often to be 
 
 prepared for leather but more commonly to be ex- 
 ported in the rude condition. African hides come under the 
 head of "country hides" and are less valuable than "packer 
 hides" from large abattoirs.. The leather trade in all its 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 29 
 
 branches becomes more important every year and Africa's 
 part in supplying the world demand is steadily increasing. 
 Many shoes are manufactured by modern machinery in South 
 Africa. 
 
 Madagascar exported (1917) 6,000 tons of hides and 
 skins, and endeavors to maintain an annual exportation of 
 800,000 skins. v 
 
 The total number of hides and skins, including those of 
 the camel, horse and wild animals, exported each year from 
 Africa, is probably as high as 15,000,000. The Tanners' Coun- 
 cil estimates the average annual shipment from Africa of 
 cattle hides at 60,000,000 Ibs.; of sheepskins at 44,000,000 
 Ibs. ; goatskins, 24,000,000 Ibs. The value is approximately 
 $50,000,000. 
 
 An important skin, tanned and used for many 
 Skins of purposes, is that of the porpoise or white 
 
 Wild Animals, whale, exported from the east, west and 
 southern coasts of Africa. Skins of the sperm 
 and whalebone whales are also tanned and exported for man- 
 ufacturing purposes, especially from Madagascar. The hide 
 of the rhinoceros is used for making stout belting and whip 
 lashes, particularly the sjambok employed by the German of- 
 ficials to stimulate activity of indolent natives. The crocodile 
 skin is used for making travelling bags and fancy articles 
 and elephant's hide for trunk-making and heavy casings. 
 The camel's skin, very thin and strong, is used by the Bed- 
 ouins for tent-making, and is made into watch and spectacle 
 cases. Monkey skins go into jewel cases, linings of bags, and 
 other purposes which call for a soft, pliable leather. Monkey 
 furs are also made into muifs and coat trimmings when fashion 
 dictates. 
 
 Ostrich skins have been tanned since the war began for 
 hand bags, furniture linings and wallets. 
 
 Hides and skins from dryer parts of Africa are con- 
 Relative sidered best because of their toughness and strength 
 Quality, due to the lack of fresh grass. Eating of much green 
 grass seems to lessen this special and much-desired 
 quality of leather. For the same reason hides and skins taken 
 after dry months are preferred to those obtained soon after 
 rains. But hides and skins of the coast lands are generally su- 
 perior to those of the interior, perhaps due to the fact that 
 they are better treated and not so much handled. The best 
 
30 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 hides and the best meat can be produced on the same cattle, 
 whereas the best wool and best mutton are produced on two 
 different kinds of sheep. But the poorer the wool the better 
 the leather is the rule. Hairy fat-tail sheep produce the best 
 leather. The best sheep skins, rarely weighing over three 
 pounds, come from Somaliland, the finest quality from the 
 "blackheads". South African sheepskins average 4% Ibs. 
 Large Abyssinia and other East African cattle hides weigh 
 between 25 and 30 pounds, but the average African hide 
 weighs much less owing to the large number of young animals 
 killed, often by disease or as a result of the locust plague, 
 their skins being prepared for market whether they are killed 
 for that purpose or die of natural causes. 
 
 Hides and skins are bought separately by the traders. 
 Being paid for according to weight, rocks and other heavy ob- 
 jects are occasionally slipped into the folds to increase the 
 weight. Many flaws are often caused by branding marks, dis- 
 ease and scars from injuries. Great want of skill in branding 
 and flaying cause much waste and loss, especially in the Union 
 of South Africa, where the value of hide bulks less largely than 
 it should in the list of exports. 
 
 The roughest raw hides are manufactured into 
 Uses and ropes, whips, lariats, belts, faces for mallets, 
 
 By-Products. rough boots. Calf skin, when tanned, is used 
 chiefly for uppers of boots and shoes, but has 
 many other uses also where a strong leather is needed. Tanned 
 hog and pig skins are used for saddles, harness, straps, saddle- 
 bags. Horse hide is especially used for shoes, saddles, razor- 
 strops and American base-balls, while the long hair of the 
 manes and tails of this animal is a valuable article of commerce 
 used in the making of hair cloth, brushes, bows for musical 
 instruments; and curled, is used for stuffing mattresses* and 
 cushions. Cattle hair is used for mixing plaster and making 
 roofing felt, while hair from the tails goes into upholstery. 
 
 Sheep skins, with the wool left on, are often made into 
 rugs, and in mountain regions into jackets, for which purpose 
 African skins are exported. Goat skins are also used for 
 rugs, both manufactured in Northern Africa and exported as 
 skins. Goat skins that have been peeled down the body, in 
 rounded form, are used by Moors and Arabs for water bottles. 
 Egyptian sheep skins make fine soft leather much used by the 
 natives for their comfortable shoes without heels. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 31 
 
 The material known as Morocco leather is made chiefly 
 from goat skins, tanned and dyed in a particular manner, and 
 often ribbed or rough-grained on the surface. The manu- 
 facture of this leather began in Morocco and the Soudan, but 
 it is now carried on in America and other countries. The col- 
 ors used are chiefly red, brown and yellow, obtained from su- 
 mac, cochineal, the cuttle-fish and now coal tar. Black, green 
 and blue are sometimes used. As goat skin takes dye better 
 than any other and makes a rich color, goats are raised in 
 large herds in Morocco for this leather. 
 
 Parchment, one of the oldest and most valuable of skin 
 productions of Africa, is prepared with a great deal of care. 
 It comes from various animals, that used for writing is mostly 
 from the sheep and she-goat. The finest quality is made from 
 very young calves, kids and lambs ; and the thicker and coarser 
 sort, used for drums and tambourines, comes from old goats 
 and sheep. The ubiquitous drum of Africa requires a large 
 number of skins. 
 
 In 1913 Morocco exported sheep and goat 
 
 Exports from skins to the value of $1,230,981, and hides 
 
 African Colonies, to the value of $732,142, which may be 
 
 estimated as 6,000,000 pounds of goat and 
 
 sheep skins, and 1,400,000 pounds of cow hides. 
 
 Algeria exported in 1913, 1,845,890 pounds of raw hides 
 and skins, valued at $1,304,400; and dressed skins, 2,420 
 pounds, valued at $31,800. Besides these Algeria exported 
 this same year manufactured articles of leather to the amount 
 of 84,920 pounds, valued at $359,200. 
 
 Egypt exported in 1913, 10,754,000 pounds of hides and 
 skins, valued at 235,515, which fell to 7,554,000 pounds in 
 1916, but worth 417,820. 
 
 Two hundred and fifty thousand buffalo calf skins come 
 from Egypt and Soudan annually. 
 
 Abyssinia and the Soudan are fine stock-raising regions 
 on account of their grassy hillsides and fertile valleys. Large 
 quantities of hides and skins from Abyssinia are exported via 
 Messena and smaller lots go through Somaliland. Nearly half 
 the skins shipped through the Aden market come from Abys- 
 sinia, which exported 12,694,000 Ibs. in 1916, or 1,200,000 
 pelts. Another estimate of the goat and sheep skins exported 
 ran as high as 5,000,000 for that year. 
 
 British East Africa exports about 4,000,000 pounds of 
 hides and skins annually, valued at $1,340,000 in 1915. 
 
32 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 German East Africa exported 6,000,000 pounds of hides 
 and skins annually before the war. 
 
 The exports of hides and skins from Nigeria in 1917, were 
 valued at $4,000,000, which would represent approximately 
 10,000,000 pounds, or a million kips. 
 
 In 1914 Senegal exported 594,869 pounds of beef hides 
 and 229,042 pounds of sheep and goat skins. 
 
 In 1915 Tunis exported 12,700 beeves, valued at $638,- 
 300. In Tunis the importation from the desert of raw hides of 
 large sizes quadrupled from 1912 to 1914, and lamb and kid 
 skins increased ten-fold in quantity. Exportation of small skins 
 has increased, but exportation of large hides has decreased. 
 The small skins before the war went to Germany and Austria 
 as well as France. The large hides went to Italy, France and 
 Algeria. 
 
 Somaliland exported hides and skins worth $550,000 
 (1915). 
 
 Live animals and their skins are among the important ex- 
 ports of the Cape Verde Islands that afford good pasturage. 
 
 Sections of the Canary Islands raise many domestic ani- 
 mals, especially goats, which thrive both in the hills and val- 
 leys. These animals furnish most of the milk, which is their 
 chief value, but they also furnish many skins for leather. In 
 1915 these islands produced kid skins to the value of $40,000, 
 and in 1916, to the value of $65,000. Oxen are used for plow- 
 ing and hauling and supply much leather. 
 
 The exports of hides and skins come third in 
 Union of value among the non-mineral exports of the 
 
 South Africa. Union of South Africa. The following figures 
 show the rapid increase for five years : 
 
 1909 1913 
 
 Ox and cow hides $1,500,000 $3,925,000 
 
 Goat skins 1,200,000 1,500,000 
 
 Sheep skins 2,600,000 4,400,000 
 
 Average exports from South Africa before the war were 
 18,000,000 Ibs. of cattle hides: 32,000,000 Ibs. sheep skins: 
 7,000,000 Ibs. goat skins. 
 
 In 1916 the Union of South Africa exported 58,387,000 
 Ibs. of hides and skins worth $11,500,000; in 1917 the Union 
 of South Africa exported hides and skins to the value of $12,- 
 779,497, of which $8,819,164 worth went to the United King- 
 dom ?,nd $3,908,213 worth to the United States. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 33 
 
 In Madagascar since 1901, the preparation of raw hides 
 has been carried on with that of canning and freezing meats. 
 The 3kins are prepared with common salt or arsenic salt. As 
 the quality of the hides improves with more careful and scien- 
 tific preparation, exports of this product will increase. 
 
 An estimate of the total export of hides and skins from 
 the whole of Africa during the disorganized commercial con- 
 ditions of the war may be hazarded from the following incom- 
 plete statistics: 
 
 Export 
 Value of 
 
 1915 Algeria, Hides and Skins $1,660,186 
 
 Prepared Skins 129,888 
 
 " Senegal, Hides and Skins 373,749 
 
 " Gambia, Hides 57,959 
 
 " French Guinea, Hides 811,943 
 
 " Nigeria, Raw Hides and Skins 1,114,567 
 
 Tanned Hides and Skins 357,014 
 
 Katanga, Hides 10,000 
 
 " Union of South Africa, Sheep Skins 4,137,950 
 
 " Madagascar, Raw Hides 2,672,222 
 
 S. Rhodesia, Hides and Skins 191,800 
 
 N. Rhodesia, 
 " Durban, 
 " Mombasa, 
 " Fren. Somali, 
 " Egypt, 
 " Abyssinia, 
 
 
 
 38,776 
 
 1,839,527 
 
 984,477 
 
 461,517 
 
 1,511,007 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 1916 Algeria, Hides and Skins 1,767,494 
 
 Prepared Skins 121,204 
 
 " Tunis, Hides and Skins 3,780,662 
 
 " Egypt, Hides and Skins 2,084,922 
 
 " Nigeria, Raw Hides 1,187,888 
 
 Tanned Hides 1,434,482 
 
 " Union South Africa, Hides and Skins 12,600,000 
 
 " Abyssinia, Hides and Skins 3,500,000 
 
 1917 Union of South Africa, Hides and Skins 12,779,497 
 
 ' Egypt, Hides and Skins 3,800,000 
 
 " Nigeria, Hides and Skins 4,434,930 
 
 Great Britain, France and Germany have taken 
 Markets, hides and skins from Africa principally ; the United 
 States receives goat skins from Morocco and part 
 of the larger hides from the West coast and South Africa. The 
 skins from the East coast are too small to be of commercial 
 value in America. These hides and skins usually make up the 
 cargo of slow-going sailing craft. Casa Blanca in Morocco, 
 Algiers, Port St. Louis at the mouth of the Senegal, Lagos in 
 Nigeria, Cape Town, Tamatava in Madagascar, Beira, Mom- 
 basa and Djibuti on the Red Sea, are important ports for ship- 
 ping hides. 
 
 One of the most important distributing points for hides 
 and skins is Addis Abeba, in Abyssinia, where many bundles 
 
34 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 of these bulky goods come from various directions. From here 
 they are sent by train to Djibuti, there to be soaked in basins 
 prepared in the sea, in order that they may be opened and 
 handled for baling. A full-sized bale of hides ready for ship- 
 ment contains from 25 to 30 pieces and weighs approximately 
 450 pounds. In October, 1917, excellent skins were offered at 
 Addis Abeba at about $9.00 per score. The cost of transport 
 to the coast is about $50.00 per metric ton, or more than the 
 ocean freight rates to America. 
 
 The export of hides and skins from Africa during 
 Outlook, the five years preceding the war doubled in quan- 
 tity. No continent unless Asia offers better pros- 
 pect for increasing the pasturage for various live stock. The 
 present percentage of 8 per cent, of world's output of hides 
 is likely to increase more than on any other continent. Several 
 of the native tribes appear to be particularly given to pastoral 
 pursuits. The newly opened regions of Africa are largely ir 
 the plateau grazing lands where there is an abundance of long 
 grass. With cheaper material for fencing an impetus is given 
 to stock-raisers; and the larger shipping facilities following 
 the war offer inducement to this industry, not to mention the 
 fact that the world demand for leather never was so great. 
 A railway from Dakar to Bab-el-Mandeb on the Red Sea 
 would traverse a great extent of territory which is suited for 
 grazing purposes and beyond the range of tse-tse fly ravages. 
 The United States is rapidly increasing its imports of hides 
 and skins and will require a larger number from Africa, par- 
 ticularly those suited for sole-leather. 
 
 South and East Africa have abundant wattle and man- 
 grove bark for tanning, also chromium for the chrome process. 
 Pasturage is abundant and leather curing seems bound to in- 
 crease. The supply of hides should increase as fast as leather 
 manufacturers can take care of them. 
 
 MEATS 
 
 Meat includes the flesh of various animals eaten in Africa. 
 Many of the aboriginal tribes depended partly upon the nat- 
 ural game of the country for their food supply and occasion- 
 ally varied their menu by devouring their captured enemies. 
 A few tribes were almost wholly vegetarian in their habits ; but 
 when a protracted drought cut off their vegetable supply they 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 35 
 
 appear to have preferred to eat one another than to submit to 
 the exertion of hunting wild animals. In sections the antelope 
 and deer families supply an abundance of food. Elephant meat 
 is eaten by certain tribes and many wild animals hold a minor 
 place in the food supply, even crocodiles and other reptilia. 
 The Kroo tribes enjoy their meats best when on the verge of 
 decay. 
 
 Of the domesticated animals, cattle, sheep and goats are 
 in use in parts of Africa. Among Arabs camel meat is an article 
 of diet. Meat as a food is somewhat limited by the fact that 
 the Koran forbids, except on feast days, the eating of beef 
 amongst the great Mohammedan population of North and East 
 Africa. Cattle in Africa are used more for draft animals in the 
 northern section ; for their hides and skins in the central sec- 
 tion ; for beef in the South African and Senegal regions ; and 
 for milk and dairy purposes in lesser degree in the Union of 
 South Africa. 
 
 In Somaliland a man's wealth is measured by his flocks 
 and herds, just as in the Old Testament the patriarch's riches 
 were expressed in the numbers of his camels, goats or asses. 
 In certain inland regions cattle are bred chiefly as a medium 
 of exchange. The unit of value in purchasing a wife among 
 many of the native tribes is the cow. A man's wife might be a 
 three-cow wife or a twenty-cow wife, according to her charms. 
 
 There is a great demand for preserved meats of all kinds 
 among the European population and "assimilated" natives 
 who consume great quantities in those centers where there 
 is no slaughtering done and while on their journeys. 
 
 In case of preferential or retaliation tariffs East Africa 
 would have a great advantage in regard to trade with Great 
 Britain in dairy produce, and frozen beef, over such countries 
 as Denmark, Holland, Argentine or the United States. South 
 and East Africa are much nearer to congested centers of popu- 
 lation than Australia and New Zealand which export such 
 enormous amounts of cheese, butter and frozen mutton. 
 
 While there is a large export of hides and skins from 
 every part of Africa the carcasses for use as food do not meet 
 the home requirements except in regions like Morocco, Sene- 
 gal, South Africa, Madagascar, or Mozambique, in which beef- 
 packing plants have lately been established, and are now ex- 
 porting canned and frozen meats. Many live animals are ex- 
 
36 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 ported from Northern Africa to Europe for use as meat, and 
 a smaller number from South Africa and Madagascar. 
 
 At the present time the five great regions of Africa de- 
 voted to the raising of beef, mutton, or pork, are South Africa, 
 Abyssinia, Madagascar, French Northwest Africa, the Sene- 
 gal and Niger basins. In the latter region is found the Bornu ox 
 straight backed, with enormous upright horns, apparently 
 descended from the indigenous wild bull of Northeast Africa, 
 while the Fulani ox is humped and has short horns, being 
 closely related to the zebu (Bos indicus) of India. These cattle 
 are inter-bred and thrive in regions beyond the habitat of the 
 tse-tse fly. There is also a stunted, dwarfish variety of cattle 
 which seems to be immune from the fly disease. These cattle 
 are not used for draft animals, as in South Africa, but are of- 
 ten ridden and driven as pack animals. 
 
 The Kaffir tribes have ox races, riding the animals with- 
 out saddles and steering them by a rope attached to a small 
 stick piercing the nose of the ox. These native cattle will not 
 give down their milk except in the presence of the calf, which 
 is brought out at milking time. Occasionally a stuffed calf is 
 used as a decoy. 
 
 In British East Africa for many years to come oxen will 
 be the chief animal for tractive and agricultural purposes. 
 Their size is generally small and they cost about three pounds 
 each. For stock raising, both for meat and for working bul- 
 locks, the Hereford is considered the best animal, being ex- 
 tremely hardy, and maturing more quickly than the Polled An- 
 gus, another favorite breed. 
 
 Sheep and goats thrive on the uncertain forage of 
 Sheep and the upper and lower portions of the continent, 
 Goats. and form a standard article of animal food. On 
 
 the East Coast and Equatorial belt a species of 
 sheep having hair in place of wool is raised for edible uses. 
 Every colony in Africa has its species of goat, but these om- 
 nivorous animals are less numerous in the vicinity of the 
 Equator than on the rocky highlands to the north and south. 
 Goat meat is rank and coarse and little exported at least 
 under its true name but the war has brought about a con- 
 siderable export of so-called "mutton" from the Union of 
 South Africa, British East Africa, Morocco and Algeria. Mer- 
 ino sheep, crossed with the native hairy species, promise a 
 good future. Cross bred sheep yield more mutton than pure 
 Merinos. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 37 
 
 Among the Hindu population, which is numerous in East- 
 ern Africa, the flesh of the goat is more generally eaten than 
 that of cattle, on account of the historical sanctity attached 
 to the latter animal as one of the tenets of the Hindu religion. 
 Goat flesh is eaten in many places, kid being most highly es- 
 teemed. Though highly civilized people are prejudiced against 
 goat meat, the flesh of the Angora is equal to mutton. Mut- 
 ton is not so large an item in world commerce as either beef or 
 pork, although it is the most nourishing and for this reason 
 possibly not so much in demand in warm countries. Mutton 
 tallow is used for many purposes. Tallow from the Angora 
 goat is used largely for candles. Cat-gut, used for the strings 
 of musical instruments and tennis racquets, is made chiefly 
 from the intestines of sheep which are also exported for sau- 
 sage casings in America. 
 
 In Somaliland leopards and jackals prey upon the flocks 
 of goat and sheep, now that the lion has been largely exter- 
 minated. Sheep raised around the desert oases grow very fat 
 and furnish a superior quality of meat. 
 
 Pigs do not prosper under the intense heat of the 
 Pork, tropics where vegetable oils are much more in demand 
 than animal fats. The Christian populations of South 
 Africa are increasing their supply of pork, and bacon factories 
 have recently been established. At Salisbury, Rhodesia, a ba- 
 con factory was opened in 1914; others are in operation in 
 British, and former German, East Africa. The Belgian Congo 
 has produced good bacon, claimed to be the finest in the world. 
 
 Pig breeding is carried on by the Europeans, as the Koran 
 forbids it to those natives of Mohammedan faith. Mussulmans 
 and Buddhists raise goats. 
 
 In Tunis the exportation of pork attained a value of 
 $81,500 in 1912, when France was the principal consumer, the 
 failure of the potato crop having seriously affected the raising 
 of pigs in the mother country. In Tunis pig raising is increas- 
 ing slowly. 
 
 The hogs of Madagascar belong to the primitive Asiatic 
 species having black, stiff hair. Rare in the Mussulman re- 
 gions, they are found in great numbers in the central plateau 
 near Tananarive. Hog raising is facilitated greatly in the re- 
 gions where manioc, yams and sweet potatoes are raised. Lard 
 and salt meat are exported. In 1911 an official decree forbade 
 the killing of sows without authorization. 
 
38 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 The number of pigs in Africa might be estimated at 3,- 
 000,000 of which one-half are in the Union of South Africa, 
 the remainder chiefly distributed among the French element 
 of Northern Africa and Madagascar, the foreigners in Egypt 
 and the Chinese along the East Coast. There are many wild 
 boars in the jungles. 
 
 INCOMPLETE SWINE CENSUS OF AFRICA 
 
 Algeria.. .(Dec. 31, 1912) 114,000 
 
 Union of South Africa (1917) 1,300,000 
 
 Azores and Madeira Islands (1900) 93,000 
 
 East Africa Protectorate (Mar. 31, 1915) 4,000 
 
 Egypt (1916) 9,000 
 
 German East Africa (1913) 6,000 
 
 German South West 'Africa (1913) 8,000 
 
 Madagascar (1917) 600,000 
 
 Mauritius (1913) 17,000 
 
 Morocco (Western) (1916-17) 51,000 
 
 Nyassaland Protectorate (1916) 24,000 
 
 Rhodesia (1911) 2,000 
 
 Swaziland (March 31, 1916) 9,000 
 
 Tunis (April 30, 1916) 10,000 
 
 Uganda Protectorate (1914) 1,000 
 
 Many head of cattle are driven from Rho- 
 Production by desia to the Johannesburg market; in 1917 
 Countries. their value was 136,000. Cattle on the 
 
 ranches in this country have steadily in- 
 creased and exports grow with better breeding. The Rhodesia 
 Meat Packing Company, capitalized at $500,000, was opened 
 in 1918. This ranch, on which there were 66,000 head of 
 cattle, extends over 3,500,000 acres. A herd of pedigreed 
 short-horned cattle to supply the large local demand for breed- 
 ing stock is constantly kept up by importations from Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Morocco has many rivers coming down from the Atlas 
 Mountains, affording an abundant supply of water, a moist 
 climate and rich soil, which furnish good pasturage, so that 
 the country is well adapted to the raising of cattle. Van Loo, 
 a Belgian economist, estimates that the plateau of Morocco 
 would sustain 4,000,000 sheep, 10,000,000 goats, 6,000,- 
 000 cattle. In 1913 Morocco exported oxen to value of $243,- 
 000. 
 
 Conditions for cattle raising on a large scale in upper 
 Egypt are favorable. Although sheep breeding cannot be said 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 39 
 
 to be very important, the wool output doubled during the war. 
 Sheep graze along the canal banks or are fed on Egyptian 
 clover (berseem). The best are raised on the natural pastur- 
 age in the north of the delta and along the Mariut coast region. 
 
 Next to wine the principal exports of Algeria are sheep 
 and oxen, also raised in Tripoli and Tunis. 
 
 On the large plateaux around Ruanda and Urunda there 
 are millions of head of cattle and other live stock, nearly all 
 in the hands of natives ; Germans formerly took the hides, ex- 
 porting about $1,000,000 worth in 1912. The grass in this 
 region is too long for sheep. 
 
 There are several kinds of oxen in Senegal, the 
 Senegal, humped ox, the large ox without a hump and the 
 
 small ox. The Mauretanians devote themselves al- 
 most entirely to stock-raising. The fertile meadows of the Ni- 
 ger and Senegal river basins afford pasturage for large herds 
 controlled by Arabs, who migrate to and fro with their flocks 
 of cattle, oxen, sheep, asses and camels. The two races of 
 shepherds in West Africa are the Moors of the white stock 
 and the Fellatahs of the native stock. Herds are owned in com- 
 mon by the native tribes. 
 
 Paucity of cattle in Angola is due to the problem of feed- 
 ing them in the dry season and to the fact that cattle are not 
 bred for milking. 
 
 Stock raising, including beef, sheep and goats, is the 
 most important industry of Abyssinia. The Ethiopian steer or 
 zebu possesses a fatty hump, and attains a weight ranging 
 from 770 to 880 pounds. Flesh of the goat is preferred to that 
 of the sheep and it is very cheap, being purchased for 38 cents 
 to $1.54 per animal. 
 
 The "bovine" population is one of the principal 
 Madagascar, sources of wealth in Madagascar. Stock-rais- 
 ing is carried on almost entirely by natives who 
 shepherd their flocks out-of-doors the year round. The most 
 important cattle are the humped zebus from India, intro- 
 duced several centuries ago and now perfectly acclimated. 
 Their principal characteristics are a hump on the withers; 
 long horns generally forming a lyre; fawn colored, more or 
 less dark, thick skin with stiff hair. There is also a variety 
 without horns called "bory", often used for hauling loads. 
 
40 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The height of Madagascar cattle is below the average of 
 those of Europe; the average weight is from 600 to 700 pounds. 
 Wild cattle are numerous in Madagascar, generally running 
 in bands of 50 to 100 and taking possession of a valley. They 
 fatten very easily either in the pasture or stable. The yield 
 in meat varies from 55 to 62 per cent. net. Preparation of lards 
 and fats for new cooking substitutes is developing appreci- 
 ably. The local annual consumption of beef is estimated at 
 270,000 head and the export, principally to France and her 
 colonies, at 160,000. Six factories for preserving beef are 
 installed in Madagascar, which turned out over 8,000 tons of 
 frozen beef in 1917, and 5,500 tons of canned beef. The in- 
 dustry is rapidly expanding. 
 
 Sheep raising is not very extensive in Madagascar. The 
 species of the Island belongs to the "big tails" of Asia. The 
 Sakalava are not sheep raisers on account of their religion 
 which forbids eating this meat. 
 
 The frozen meat industry in South Africa took 
 South Africa, rapid strides during the war and had been on 
 a steady increase for 12 years before the war, 
 during which time imports of beef and mutton had been re- 
 duced from $14,239,852 to $2,934. The fresh and frozen meat 
 exported from South Africa increased from 17,749,873 pounds 
 in 1916, to 47,253,956 pounds in 1917. The meat-canning in- 
 dustry was largely stimulated by war demands, and canned 
 meats have become one of the important exports. 
 
 Horses are not conspicuously abundant in Africa. 
 Horses Camels and oxen take their places. Many army 
 
 and Mules, mounts were bred in South Africa. Horses do not 
 
 thrive within the tse-tse fly belt, but are increas- 
 ing in Madagascar where there are few ailments. A cross be- 
 tween mule and zebra produces a zulebra, immune to the 
 tse-tse fly. 
 
 Horse raising is not an industry in Tunis, but each land- 
 owner has a horse or mare. The horses of the north are said 
 to be the finest in quality, resembling the Arabian steed. Mules 
 are numerous and much used for drayage. The ass is one of the 
 household and thrives under pitiless chastisement. He is very 
 useful in cultivating the oases. 
 
 Two thousand head of mules were imported into Tunis 
 during 1913. This item indicates the general situation in Af- 
 rica in regard to the importation of American bred mules, 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 which, especially since the beginning of the war, have been 
 shipped in considerable numbers to Egypt and South Africa. 
 The mule and the donkey are the common beasts of burden 
 for short hauls, while horses are more reserved for pleasure 
 riding, sport and raids against enemy tribes. Horses do not 
 thrive in the tse-tse fly belt but are increasing in Madagascar. 
 The possibilities of Africa from the pastoral point 
 Outlook, of view seem almost unlimited. The increase of pro- 
 duction in food supplies which the world, with an 
 increasing population, so insistently demands, will in the imme- 
 diate future call for utilization of the fine plateaux of Africa 
 awaiting only scientific treatment, to become remarkably 
 adapted for grazing lands. The drawbacks to stock-raising 
 have been the occasional protracted droughts, the prevalence 
 of the tse-tse fly in the equatorial regions, the epidemics of rin- 
 derpest, epizootia, and East Coast fever plagues which orig- 
 inated across the Indian Ocean and have decimated African 
 herds at periodic intervals. Intermittent plagues of locusts, 
 particularly on the borders of the Sahara Desert, have con- 
 sumed vegetation, resulting in a decrease of domestic grazing 
 animals. The various diseases have been more fatal through 
 scarcity of veterinaries. Experiment stations in all parts of 
 Africa are devoting attention to the eradication of prevalent 
 animal diseases, though not yet entirely successful. Stock- 
 raising in many parts is risky and speculative. In the upper 
 grasslands the hyena, in particular, is a serious enemy to all 
 young domesticated animals. 
 
 Meats for export are raised almost exclusively by Euro- 
 pean colonists. The native flocks have been mostly confined to 
 tribal consumption. Native-owned cattle are of both the 
 hump-backed and taurine species, but are often of a poor, in- 
 ferior grade known as "canners," and raised more for hides 
 than meat. This is particularly true of Madagascar. 
 
 The native buffalo of Africa is increasing through the 
 protection of the game laws, a conspicuous exception to the 
 general run of wild animals. 
 
 The demand for oxen, steers and bullocks for transporta- 
 tion for both men and merchandise throughout South Africa is 
 so great as to induce the raising of cattle along the seacoast 
 and in other sections where it is unprofitable to raise sheep 
 and goats. With the great droves of live stock in South Africa 
 and the over-supply of meat, owing to the killing of so many 
 
42 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 cattle for hides, canning factories are much in demand to care 
 for the surplus. As iron and tin are found in the country 
 in abundance, factories for making the cans may readily be 
 started. With this combination in good working order South 
 Africa might become one of the greatest meat-canning coun- 
 tries in the world. Abyssinia combines favorable qualities for 
 stock-raising climate, rainfall, cheap forage crops. Experts 
 foresee a great future for Rhodesia in stock-raising and dairy- 
 ing and predict another Canada there. Another favorable dis- 
 trict for cattle is the plateau west of Lake Nyassa and of the 
 Shire river where, at an elevation of 5,000 feet large herds 
 are owned by natives, as also in upper Nigeria. 
 
 The Oxford Survey of the British Empire (1914) says: 
 "There is no doubt that when railway communication with the 
 seacoast and Lake Nyassa is established, the stock-raising in- 
 dustries, both European and native, will grow rapidly, both 
 as regards the export of live stock and skins and hides." 
 
 This observation is also applicable to many other sec- 
 tions of grassy tablelands where there is equable distribution 
 of rainfall. 
 
 England is chiefly dependent upon Australia for her froz- 
 en beef, but South and East Africa are only half the transport- 
 ation distance from England, which gives them much advant- 
 age in the matter of cold storage food supplies. 
 
 -DAIRY PRODUCTS 
 
 Milk, butter and cheese are minor products of all African 
 countries where milk-yielding animals abound. Dairying is 
 not a great industry in the tropics on account of milk turning 
 sour so quickly and the lack of demand for animal fats. Many 
 cows, particularly in Northern Africa, are not subject to 
 "functional gymnastics of the mammary apparatus," if we 
 may translate a fastidious French authority, but are raised for 
 hides or as a medium of exchange. In these countries vege- 
 table oils are preferred to cow's or goat's milk in providing 
 necessary fats. South Africa is the most important dairying 
 region, though East Africa is progressing steadily. 
 
 Goat's milk is in common use in the Red Sea and Mediter- 
 ranean regions. The goat yields about one litre of milk per 
 day. It is a practice to drive the flocks about the streets and 
 milk the nannies at the customer's door. This thick milk is 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 43 
 
 considered better flavored than cow's milk by the Arabs. Not 
 only the goat and sheep but the buffalo, camel, mare and jenny 
 add milk to their profitableness to man in Africa and Asia. 
 
 Next to milk, butter is the most important dairy product. 
 The Abyssinians usually churn in skins. Methods in most lo- 
 calities are crude and rustic but modern improvements are 
 coming into use to facilitate butter-making. American cream 
 separators are being introduced extensively. In Egypt, mar- 
 garine, made largely of vegetable oils, was substituted for 
 butter four-fold during the war, on account of the decrease in 
 the supply of natural butter. Egypt exported $30,000 worth of 
 natural and artificial butter in 1916, and cheese to value of 
 S3, 350. South Africa is the center of butter-making for export. 
 
 The manufacture of cheese in African countries has re- 
 ceived great impetus by the ever-increasing demand from out- 
 side markets, and cattle countries are contributing an increas- 
 ing part of the world's supply. Goat's milk makes a strong 
 butter and a cheese with a flavor resembling Limburger. A 
 variety of Rocquefort cheese is made from ewe's milk in North- 
 ern Africa. Milk from the camel is made into cheese by 
 Arabs. Of the cheese made from cow's milk the Dutch Gouda 
 is more popular than the English cheddar. 
 
 In Egypt cheese was on the conservation list during the 
 war when cheese production fell off throughout Africa. 
 
 One of the dairy products common to India and ex- 
 Ghee, tending to Africa, is ghee (Hindostani ghi), a sort of 
 clarified butter made both from buffalo milk and 
 cow's milk. To prepare ghee, butter is melted over a slow fire, 
 then set aside to cool. The result is two parts. The thick, 
 opaque, whitish portion known as ghee, representing the great 
 bulk of the butter, is then removed. The less liquid residue 
 mixed with ground-nut oil, is sold as an inferior ghee. The 
 Hindu population of Africa use ghee as their commonest 
 article of diet, as an ointment in their frequent ablutions, 
 specifically as a lotion for the eyes, and also in religious cere- 
 monies. Old ghee is highly esteemed for its medical efficacy 
 in the prevention of many diseases. More than 5,000 tons of 
 ghee were exported from Africa in 1918. Abyssinia and Soma- 
 liland are the chief sources. Jubaland is the center of produc- 
 tion by reason of the fertile valleys. The product is shipped 
 to the Mohammedan population on both sides of the Red Sea. 
 Somaliland exported (1914) 800,000 Ibs. of ghee worth $135,- 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 000. A small quantity comes to the United States from Egypt, 
 Abyssinia. Tripoli and West Africa. 
 
 Tripoli produces butter, as well as butter sub- 
 Production stitutes made from olive or cocoanut oil. All 
 By Countries, the Somalis export dairy products. In 1914 
 
 Somaliland had an increase in exports of butter 
 over the previous year, showing a value of $26,000 as against 
 $16,800 in 1913. Tunis has few cattle, but good milking cows 
 are found in Gabes. In 1914 Tunis exported cheese to the 
 value of $5,700. Abyssinia exports fresh and condensed milk, 
 butter, ghee and cheese. In this country ewes are milked in 
 the sheep-raising district, primarily for home use. 
 
 British East Africa and former German East Africa have 
 a growing trade in dairy products. In 1913 German East Af- 
 rica exported 752,429 pounds of dairy products, valued at 
 $74,000. 
 
 Dairy farming has become important in Rhodesia, where 
 cattle are constantly being improved by breeding with im- 
 ported stock. Local cheese making (chiefly Cheddar process) 
 has greatly reduced importation. Rhodesia is predicted to 
 become one of the great butter and cheese countries of the 
 world. While once nearly all of the dairy products were im- 
 ported, Rhodesian exports in butter and cheese increase year- 
 ly. Cattle owned by Europeans now number 500,000; many 
 are of pure-bred stock. 
 
 The Union of South Africa dairy products have 
 Union of recently become important articles of corn- 
 
 South Africa, merce. Cape Town is a busy market for 
 
 butter and condensed milk. In 1917 exports of 
 butter alone had increased to 2,979,224 pounds, valued at 
 $953,931, as against 45,318 pounds, valued at $14,497 in 1913, 
 and exportation of condensed milk has increased greatly. In 
 1913 the Union imported 3,893,036 pounds of butter, valued at 
 $917,194; in 1917 the imports amounted to 26,891 pounds 
 only, valued at $10,468. 
 
 There are butter plants in the Union of South Africa, with 
 up-to-date machinery. Growth of the butter trade is due 
 largely to the Dairying Division of the Department of Agri- 
 culture and to co-operative methods among farmers. In 1916 
 expert butter testers were surprised at the splendid condi- 
 tion, appearance, flavor and texture of South African butter 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 45 
 
 that reached London. It was declared equal to the best and 
 brought from 192s to 208s per cwt. 
 
 In 1913 the imports of cheese amounted to 5,586,244 
 Ibs. to the value of $814,847, while in 1917 the quantity im- 
 ported was 513,306 Ibs., value $141,941. The exports of South 
 African cheese, on the other hand, increased in the same pe- 
 riod from 451 Ibs. worth $92, to 76,836 Ibs., valued at $26,- 
 956. Union of South Africa (1916) produced 16,000,000 Ibs. 
 of butter and 2,000,000 Ibs. of cheese. 
 
 Before the Great War butter sold in South Africa at 
 Prices. 36 cents a pound, and during the war it rose to from 
 45 cents to 55 cents. Fresh milk sold for 6 cents a 
 pint before, and only rose to 7 cents during the war. Con- 
 densed milk, which was 13 cents a can before, rose to 23 cents 
 and 28 cents after. 
 
 Cheddar cheese sold for 9d to Is per lb., and Gouda 
 cheese sold for Is 5d, in April, 1919. 
 
 The emergency of war threw Africa back on her 
 Outlook, own resources in providing the essentials of living. 
 Butter and cheese production was tremendously in- 
 creased. Formerly great quantities of condensed milk were 
 shipped to all the British colonies in Africa, but home produc- 
 tion has now equalled home consumption in the matter of 
 dairy products in several colonies, and the production promises 
 a continuous increase. A large export may be expected from 
 South and East Africa. 
 
 The best dairy products come from those regions where 
 live-stock receives the best care, which is not always the case 
 in African countries. A better output would result from feed- 
 ing more alfalfa or lucerne. 
 
 POULTRY AND EGGS 
 
 The common hen (Gallus domesticus) is found in every 
 country in Africa where the warm climate is peculiarly favor- 
 able to its development, though in most places it is confined to 
 local uses. Mediterranean countries and South Africa are the 
 exporting regions. A much larger quantity of eggs than of 
 poultry is exported. Fowl are valuable protectors to animal 
 and vegetable life by destroying insects so prevalent in Africa. 
 
 Eggs in Africa are used from hens, guineas, ducks, geese, 
 peafowl, and, during the Great War the yolks of ostrich eggs 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 have been dessicated for use chiefly as a foundation for whole- 
 sale cooking, as in bakeries. 
 
 Hatching eggs by artificial heat in ovens was first prac- 
 ticed in Egypt, and it is recorded that over a century ago 100,- 
 000,000 had been so hatched in this country. Incubators have 
 been the outcome of the Egyptian oven practice and these 
 artificial hatchers have grown in favor throughout the world. 
 
 Eggs are packed to ship in various ways, notably in salt, 
 cork, liquid glass or varnished, while ostrich eggs are dried. On 
 the West Coast the yolks and whites of hens' eggs are mixed 
 with boracic acid and shipped for preservation in this form, 
 known as liquid eggs. 
 
 Of fowl peculiar to Africa the Guinea-fowl 
 Guinea and (Numidia meleagris) is conspicuous. These 
 Pea Fowl. fowl were known to Guinea and surrounding 
 countries in very early times. In their wild state 
 they live chiefly in morasses and are often seen in flocks of 
 several hundred. Guineas have been domesticated and were 
 introduced into England in the 13th century; they have since 
 been adopted by many other countries. Guineas do an amount 
 of good in eating harmful insects and worms, especially by 
 destroying the tse-tse fly, so fatal to domestic animals. 
 
 Peafowl (Pavo cristatus), the cock of which is known for 
 his unusually brilliant plumage, of metallic blues, greens and 
 copper color, are said by Sir Harry H. Johnston to have orig- 
 inated in northern Africa, though they are common in the 
 Orient. This gorgeous bird, emblem of vanity, has been in- 
 troduced into all countries of the world for its beauty and 
 domestic use. 
 
 Penguin eggs, twice the size of hens' eggs, are much in 
 favor among natives in Cape Colony and German Southwest 
 Africa. They are collected from the adjacent islands. More 
 than 400,000 were taken from Bassen Island alone, in 1916. 
 The eggs are palatable, nutritious, and easily digestible after 
 boiling twenty minutes. Shipments to England began in 1908. 
 
 On the East Coast of Africa eggs of the hawksbill turtle 
 are eaten by the natives, and in the interior eggs of various 
 reptiles are relished as delicacies at dusky banquets. 
 
 Poultry raising is being scientifically demon- 
 
 The Union of strated through agricultural experiment sta- 
 
 South Africa, tions in several African colonies. Particularly 
 
 in South Africa, since 1912, immense progress 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 47 
 
 has been noted, and the establishment of many poultry clubs, 
 which are combining fruit growing and poultry raising. Wom- 
 en on the farms are taking charge of this branch of farm work 
 in rapidly-increasing numbers. The warmth, sunshine and 
 dryness of South Africa give this region a special advantage 
 in poultry raising. Farmers are beginning to recognize that 
 pure bred fowl of good laying strains are one of the most 
 profitable kinds of stock. Such breeds as Leghorn, Ancona, 
 Minorca, Andalusian, English Game, give best results. Cape 
 Geese are also raised. 
 
 The progress of the poultry industry is illustrated by 
 recent figures for imports and exports of eggs. The imports 
 gradually fell from a value of $300,000 in 1912 to $50 in 1917, 
 while the exports increased from $35,000 in 1912 to nearly 
 $200,000 in 1917. The export trade is now firmly established, 
 and during the Great War South Africa furnished a large sup- 
 ply of eggs to England. Cape Town is the port of shipment. 
 From October to December there is a large excess of eggs 
 in the South African markets which is the period when there 
 is the greatest demand for eggs in the northern hemisphere, 
 giving a decided stimulus to production. 
 
 Egypt is the largest exporter of eggs in Africa, and 
 Egypt, has long been a contributor to the world's supply. 
 Several million have been sent annually to England 
 during the war, when her exportation was restricted to that 
 country. Domestic poultry have been raised in Egypt for many 
 centuries and the vast number of eggs produced gave rise to 
 a colloquial expression "as cheap as eggs." Many ducks and 
 geese are raised along the water courses of Egypt, where there 
 is plenty of short succulent grass. Quail, caught in nets, con- 
 stitute a large item of export, more than 550,000 being export- 
 ed in 1916. 
 
 Morocco and Algeria produce an immense amount 
 French of eggs which are transported to France and 
 Colonies. Spain. Morocco particularly is a region where the 
 unskilled Mohammedan element find an easy meth- 
 od of ekeing out a meager living by the care of poultry. Tunis 
 in lesser degree than the other colonies has supplied eggs to 
 France, Italy and Tripoli, but this output is diminishing with 
 improved conditions in Tripoli. 
 
 The prolific Malay and Mediterranean breeds of fowl are 
 profitably raised in Madagascar and Mozambique. 
 
48 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Export Figures 
 
 1912 The Union of South Africa exported eggs, valued $ 39,000 
 
 1913 Morocco " " - " 1,010,000 
 
 " Union of South Africa " " " 47,00o 
 
 1914 Tunis exported 2,149,664 Ibs. " " 30,500 
 
 poultry " 45,500 
 
 " Union of South Africa " " 56,000 
 
 1915 Egypt exported eggs to the value of 2,424,796 
 
 Algeria exported eggs to the value of 396,229 
 
 Morocco exported eggs to the value of 974,638 
 
 Union South Africa exported eggs to the value of 103,990 
 
 1916 Egypt exported eggs to the value of 3,259,618 
 
 Egypt exported live quail to the value of 28,000 
 
 Algeria exported eggs to the value of 1,039,691 
 
 Union of South Africa exported eggs to the value of 182,000 
 
 " Morocco exported eggs to the value of 2,200,000 
 
 1917 Egypt exported eggs to the value of 3,400,579 
 
 Union of South Africa exported eggs to the value of 193,000 
 
 Morocco exported eggs to the value of 3,000,000 
 
 The great increase in the production of eggs dur- 
 Outlook. ing the war may be maintained throughout North- 
 ern Africa, but the most notable development of 
 the poultry industry should be looked for in South Africa, 
 where the productive period of the summer months could sup- 
 ply an immense amount of poultry and eggs for the European 
 market, at a time when there is a dearth of poultry products. 
 With the increase of refrigerating compartments in vessels, in- 
 ducement for the exportation of poultry, eggs and other per- 
 ishable foods increases. 
 
 BEESWAX AND HONEY 
 
 The hive bee (Apis mellifica), producing the commodities 
 beeswax and honey, is classed with the insects (Hymenop- 
 tera). As there are many varieties of flowers in nearly all the 
 countries of Africa bees thrive throughout almost the entire 
 continent, especially along the water courses where blossoms 
 are most abundant. The different flowers give different flavors 
 to the honey, which is yellow or amber colored. Honey is gath- 
 ered by natives in the Equatorial belt at all seasons and 
 brought to the coast for shipment. The finest honey comes 
 from the temperate zones where flowers secrete a greater 
 amount of saccharine matter than in the tropics. Africa ranks 
 with the United States, Chili and Central Europe as a great 
 honey-producing region of the world. 
 
 While honey gathering as an African industry is com- 
 paratively new, honey as food has long been known to native 
 tribes, many of whom are keen gatherers of the nectar. In 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 49 
 
 this they are often guided by a bright green bird called the 
 bee-eater, found from Madagascar across the continent to the 
 Atlantic. Natives do a considerable business hunting wild bees 
 where there is no better paying field for labor. Bees have been 
 domesticated for the honey notably in the Congo, British East 
 Africa, Angola, Mozambique, Abyssinia and Madagascar. A 
 favorite hive is made of straw, as straw protects the honey and 
 wax from the sun's heat. A popular liquor made from honey is 
 hydromel, most ancient of fermented liquors and very heady. 
 
 The chief commercial profit comes from the wax 
 Beeswax, in colonies like Guinea, Abyssinia and Madagas- 
 car. The Greek Church requires candles of 100 
 per cent, beeswax, the Catholic Church 40 per cent. Much of 
 the raw material for these candles comes from Africa. 
 
 Beeswax is often adulterated and has numerous substi- 
 tutes, all of which are grouped under "waxes". Sealing-wax, 
 shoemaker's wax, and grafting wax are prepared resinous 
 substances. The chief substitute, paraffin, is separated from 
 lubricating oils in the purifying process, and resembles 
 bleached beeswax. Other substitutes are Japan wax, carnu- 
 ba wax, pela wax, bayberry wax. 
 
 In Abyssinia, bees are extensively kept and 
 Production by that country furnishes much of the beeswax of 
 Countries. commerce. The natives of this country are ex- 
 
 cellent beekeepers, usually making their hives 
 out of the hollow limbs of the baobab tree, which they thatch 
 at one end with grasses to keep out the rain. In Abyssinia 
 honey is largely used for making tej, the native drink, a use 
 of the product common to most native tribes. 
 
 Bees in French Equatorial Africa are so numerous in 
 places as to be considered a nuisance, and from February to 
 June these buzzing insects completely cover the damp borders 
 of wells and so entirely take possession, with their painful 
 stings as weapons against intrusion, that inhabitants can draw 
 water only at night. The natives throughout this region have 
 many basket hives hanging from trees. In 1845 wax was the 
 principal product of Senegal and wax cakes were exported in 
 large quantities. The industry has lost much of its importance. 
 
 Bee-keeping has received little attention in South Africa 
 
 in the past, but is now encouraged wherever orchards are set 
 out. In 1918 a trial shipment of 20 cases of South African 
 
50 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 honey to London was reported of fair quality, but more suit- 
 able for manufacturing purposes than for the table. 
 
 The Portuguese are especially adept in this industry. In 
 their two large colonies of Africa beeswax ranks high in the 
 list of exports. Natives bring the product down from the 
 bush. The Mozambique Company exported 70 tons of bees- 
 wax in 1913. The war interfered with the trade, but the year- 
 ly average should not only keep up to the mark but increase, 
 as wild bees flourish in extraordinary numbers along the 
 Congo-Nile water-shed. 
 
 As beeswax has increased in price, bee-raising has in- 
 creased in importance in Angola. The country exports both 
 wax and honey, but pays special attention to wax, which has 
 become the third highest item in the commercial list. The ex- 
 ports have reached 1,500,000 pounds per annum. The price 
 since the beginning of the war has doubled and now sells for 
 nearly $60 per cwt. 
 
 Export Figures 
 
 1909 British East Africa exported beeswax to the value of $ 550 
 
 1913 Morocco exported beeswax to the value of 138,000 
 
 " Angola exported 1,790,643 pounds beeswax 
 
 1914 Portuguese East Africa exported Beeswax, 
 
 through Chinde, to the value of ,.. 30,400 
 
 Lorenco Marque, to the value of 1,846 
 
 Quelimane, to the value of 3,157 
 
 " Mozambique, to the value of 3,515 
 
 " Angola exported 755 tons beeswax to the value of 430,000 
 
 1915 Gambia exported beeswax to the value of 1,611 
 
 " French Guinea exported beeswax to the value of 82,402 
 
 1916 Union of South Africa exported wax, paraffin and stear- 
 
 ine to the value of 1,579,345 
 
 " Abyssinia exported 1,500,000 Ibs. of beeswax and a con- 
 siderable amount of honey 
 
 1917 Union of South Africa exported wax, paraffin and stear- 
 
 ine to the value of 1,956,93 
 
 " Madagascar exported beeswax to the value of 245,793 
 
 Addis Abeba in Abyssinia is one of the big wax 
 Markets and markets in the world. One of several firms do- 
 Prices* ing extensive business in this commodity, has 
 a contract to supply wax for the Greek churches 
 in Russia, which use many candles in religious services. 
 
 In October, 1917, the price of uncleaned beeswax at Addis 
 Abeba per farasula (37 1/2 pounds) was about $9.75 United 
 States money. Uncleaned wax contains from 20 to 40 per 
 cent, impurities. 
 
 A large amount of the wild honey and wax goes to 
 
 Outlook, waste annually in Africa and the possibilities of 
 
 cultivated honey are very great. As demand and 
 
 prices increase there is a greater quantity brought to the 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 51 
 
 markets by the inland natives. By intelligent conservation 
 the floral regions of Africa could support far greater numbers 
 of apiaries than are now to be found. Scientific and system- 
 atic methods of producing honey and wax will greatly in- 
 crease the product of Africa. 
 
 Btes make more honey than is actually needed by them- 
 selves, and in the warm, flowering African countries the busy 
 insects often accumulate such quantities of stores that if they 
 are not molested hollow trees or other large cavities will be 
 filled, and comb may be gathered three or four times a year 
 with abundant rainfall. 
 
 The manufacture of candles from paraffin within recent 
 years has impaired the demand for beeswax for that purpose, 
 but the demand is said to surpass the supply at the present. 
 The expansion of the fruit-growing industry will tend to in- 
 crease the stock of domesticated bees to facilitate polleniza- 
 tion. 
 
 SILK 
 
 Sericulture concerns itself with the raising of silk worms 
 (Bombyx Mori) under artificial conditions. The first essential 
 is a stock of mulberry trees. In Europe the leaves of the 
 white-fruited mulberry are preferred. The quality of the 
 leaves is important, as the worms cannot be profitably raised 
 unless fed on good leaves. But in Africa these are not abund- 
 ant. 
 
 The world production of silk was 55,000,000 pounds for 
 1918. China is the leading producer, with Italy and Japan 
 contending for second place. In normal times China, Japan 
 and India supply about 66 per cent, of the* raw silk; Italy and 
 France 19 per cent.; Asia Minor and the Levant, 15 per cent. 
 Tripoli, Morocco, Madagascar and South Africa produce a 
 small amount. 
 
 There are various native insects in South, East and 
 Wild Silk West Africa which produce raw silk. But the only 
 in Africa, silkworms of commercial importance found in a 
 
 wild state belong to the genus Anaphe (fam. Eup- 
 terotidae). Wild silk is weak and brittle and cannot be reeled 
 like mulberry silk. It is known as "waste" silk and enters into 
 velvet and plush. The wild silk cocoons are so scattered and 
 the process of cleaning the crude silk so long, there is little 
 propect of commercial development. 
 
52 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 These wild silk worms feed on oak, castor bean and palm 
 leaves and are akin to those of Asia which produce "tussah" 
 silk in China and "Eri" in India. But the native Asiatics are 
 far more skilled in creating silk fabrics than the Africans. 
 
 Since the advent of Italians into Tripoli 
 Experiments in much effort has been made towarck estab- 
 African Colonies, lishing across the Mediterranean the silk 
 
 industry, which is of such large import- 
 ance in Italy. The city of Horns was said to have 8,500 hand 
 looms for making cotton and silk cloth before the war, part of 
 which was destined for Egypt and Constantinople. The silk 
 industry appears to be promising under modern methods 
 and is being actively encouraged by the Italian Government 
 both in the cultivation of mulberry trees and the breeding of 
 the most productive species of the silk worm. Under the 
 former primitive methods the eggs were often hatched by 
 the women in their bosoms. The silk weavers have recently 
 migrated to America in large numbers, and in view of their 
 ready employment and higher wages are inclined to invest 
 their money in America instead of returning to the parent 
 country. This migration has reduced disastrously the sup- 
 ply of skilled labor for this industry in Tripoli. 
 
 Not only in the northern Mediterranean colonies but also 
 at the southern extremity of the continent near Cape Town, 
 systematic attempts to raise domesticated silk worms by plant- 
 ing mulberry trees are being undertaken. 
 
 The silk industry for which the French temperament 
 seems particularly adapted, is being fostered in the African 
 French colonies and proves, after many experiments, to be 
 more promising in Madagascar than in the northern or western 
 regions, although Morocco is listed as a center of production. 
 Silk is very common in Madagascar most of the natives wear 
 rabannas and lambas manufactured of silk and raffia. This 
 weaving is done by hand by women and children and is the 
 oldest silk manufacture in Africa, but often sleasy or loosely 
 woven. A species of silk is also reeled from a giant spider 
 found in Madagascar. 
 
 Sericulture is possible in Uganda and the highlands of 
 Rhodesia, provided serious efforts are made in scientific lines 
 to encourage it. 
 
 In Southern Nigeria, silk is known as "sanyan," and is 
 employed by the natives for making the so-called sanyan 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 53 
 
 cloths. In the markets, the complete nests are offered for 
 sale, though sometimes only the enveloping layers are market- 
 ed, the pupse being previously removed and eaten as a deli- 
 cacy. 
 
 The largest demand for silk comes from the United 
 Markets. States which consumes over $1,000,000,000 worth 
 
 annually. But no silks from Africa are sent to the 
 United States, except specimens of their silk manufactures as 
 curios. France receives a small supply of silk from Madagas- 
 car and her Mediterranean colonies. Italy will soon import 
 silk from Tripoli and there is possibility that England will re- 
 ceive shipments from South and East Africa in the not dis- 
 tant future. But at the present stage the industry is essential- 
 ly local and almost negligible in world commerce. 
 
 An increasing number of substitutes for silk, made from 
 wood pulp and cotton waste, have grown in favor with Ameri- 
 can women for hosiery and gloves. 
 
 During the past dozen years many experimental 
 Outlook, stations of the English, French, Italian and German 
 
 governments have been trying out this silk produc- 
 ing problem along the coastal regions of Africa. The wild 
 silk, which is so abundant in many sections, does not seem able 
 to compete with the artificial and domesticated products of 
 the older civilizations. General conditions are favorable and 
 may in time bring Africa into the large silk-producing conti- 
 nents of the world. 
 
 OSTRICH FEATHERS 
 
 The ostrich (Struthio camelus) was a sacred bird in Egypt 
 kmg before Cleopatra's time; its feather was the symbol of 
 justice and truth and among the nomad tribes it still stands for 
 victory. Many carvings of the bird are found on sepulchral 
 walls at Thebes, and its image appears in the ruins of the 
 Temple of Karnak. Zenophon mentions the ostrich of Assyria, 
 but it flourished and still flourishes in Africa chiefly. The 
 wild bird is disappearing before the persecution of man, but 
 the domesticated fowl is extensively raised for its feathers. 
 
 The ostrich is a desert bird. Ostriches dwell on the 
 steppes near the White Nile and Blue Nile and in the interior 
 regions. In the wild state they generally associate with zebras 
 or larger antelopes and live in groups of four or five. The 
 nest is a shallow pit in the sand scraped out with the feet. 
 
54 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Ostrich feathers obtained from wild ostriches on the bor- 
 der of the Sahara desert have been for centuries one of the 
 chief commodities brought to the Mediterranean coast in the 
 caravan. Pursuit of the ostrich is a dangerous and exciting 
 sport. They run as fast as a horse and when enraged are more 
 skilful with their powerful legs than a Missouri mule. 
 
 Feathers were not much used in Europe for ornamental 
 purposes until the close of the 13th century and were first 
 employed in military costume in the time of Henry V. They 
 were much worn by men at the close of the 15th century, and 
 worn by ladies first in time of Henry VIII, becoming an im- 
 portant part of woman's headdress under Elizabeth's reign, 
 and ever since. They have ceased to be worn by men, unless 
 by Knights Templar. 
 
 Ostriches are fed on lucerne, rape and other succu- 
 How lent vegetation. The eggs are hatched in incubators. 
 Raised. During first two years sexes are indistinguishable. 
 The birds mature at five years when the male feath- 
 ers are a glossy black and the female a soft grey with white 
 wings and tail. There are 24 feathers in each wing. The 
 plucking box is made very solid and just large enough to hold 
 one bird, for the ostrich is a fierce fighter until his head is 
 pinned against the wall, when two operators shear his wings 
 with a few painless clips. 
 
 The principal enemy to the ostrich is the jackal. Al- 
 though the camps are surrounded by wire fences five feet 
 high jackals can leap over the top or burrow beneath. 
 
 Before the Great War the annual production of 
 World ostrich feathers was above 1,000,000 pounds. 
 
 Production. Ninety-five per cent, came from Africa. Os- 
 triches are also raised in Argentina, Australia, 
 Arizona, and California, in small numbers. The center of the 
 industry in South Africa is Oudtshoorn. The taming of birds 
 began in 1865 and for half a century the birds have been con- 
 served by plucking the feathers scientifically and humanely. 
 The wild ostrich was in danger of extermination, as the birds 
 were destroyed to secure one clipping of feathers. 
 
 Feathers are graded according to value which de- 
 Grades of pends on color and length of plumes. The grades 
 Feathers, are: spadonas, or wing quills, of the cock; fem- 
 inas, the wing quills of the hen which are distin- 
 guished by black patches at the crown of the plumes; primes, 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 55 
 
 the pure white plumes of the cock; fancies, or byocks, the 
 mixed black and white feathers of the cock; and the wing 
 coverts. 
 
 Raw feathers are shipped in bunches to markets like 
 Paris, Antwerp, Hamburg, London, Rome, Vienna and New 
 York. The importers scrub them with soap, then curl and 
 gloss them. The poor and short ones are dyed. The long 
 white ones in natural colors are the most valuable. 
 
 The Union of South Africa has always mon- 
 Production by opolized the ostrich industry, and before the 
 Countries. war the value of exported ostrich feathers 
 
 ranked next to that of wool among animal 
 products. The war, however, made more strenuous demands 
 for necessities than for ornaments the ostrich industry in 
 South Africa waned and gave place to the production of food- 
 stuffs for men and beasts of burden. 
 
 The Union of South Africa exported ostrich feathers in : 
 
 1910 741,078 pounds, valued at $11,000,000 
 
 1912 999,704 " " " 13,000,000 
 
 1913 i;023,307 " " " 14,767,935 
 
 1914 775,325 " " " 6,600,000 
 
 1915 948,945 " " " 3,818,860 
 
 1916 452,000 " " " 2,430,000 
 
 1917 219,000 870,000 
 
 Somaliland exported ostrich feathers in: 
 
 1901 3,851 pounds, valued at $28,000 
 
 1911 1,837 " " " 
 
 1913 861 " " " 
 
 1915 453 631 
 
 Egypt exported 49,218 pounds of ostrich feathers in 1911 
 
 23,814 " " " " " 1913 
 
 655 " " " " " 1915 
 
 Soudan exported 36,819 pounds of ostrich feathers in 1911 
 
 12,948 " " " " " 1913 
 
 1,105 " 1915 
 
 Ostriches were introduced into Madagascar by an Eng- 
 lishman who took five couples to the island in 1902. These 
 one-year-old birds were acclimated at Tulear, and by 1916 
 there were 680 ostriches. The export of ostrich feathers to 
 London and Paris began in 1909. 
 
 From 1907 to 1914 production increased nearly 65 
 Prices, per cent, while the prices increased at least 10 per 
 
 cent. At the close of 1913 common sorts and short 
 stuff were more in demand than the expensive feathers, which 
 
56 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 cost $200 per pound. The fall in price began in 1914. No in- 
 dustry suffered more from the effects of the war than this. 
 The bottom fell out of the market completely, and feathers 
 were absolutely unsalable. The number of birds in the Union 
 of South Africa fell from 776,313 in 1913 to 300,000 in 1918. 
 This reduction was accelerated by the increased cost of feed- 
 ing the birds and many of the camps were given over to the 
 raising of Lucerne. Before the war first-class birds for breed- 
 ing purposes brought $2,000 apiece. So many of the ostrich 
 farmers were facing utter ruin during the war that the Gov- 
 ernment appointed a commission in 1917 to recommend meas- 
 ures of alleviation. 
 
 Immediately after the war prices began to advance rapid- 
 ly. In April, 1919, they were $10 per pound, although the 
 grade was very inferior to that before the war. 
 
 The raising of domestic ostriches is only half a 
 Outlook, century old. During the Boer War the industry 
 was completely disorganized, but from 1905 to 
 1913 made rapid progress. The Great War has given the in- 
 dustry a severe setback, but now prices are advancing. Fe- 
 male fashions are approving the use of feathers ; plumes, boas 
 and fans are coming back strong. The industry seems likely 
 to resume its former importance, but ostrich farmers will be 
 more guarded in their zeal and less speculation is probable. 
 Ostrich farms are springing up in several of the British colonies 
 and will presumably prosper. 
 
 The South Africans are jealous of this industry just as 
 the Turks were of the Angora goat. A fine of $500 for ex- 
 porting live birds and $25 for exporting ostrich eggs from 
 South Africa has been imposed by the Government. Under 
 such conditions the industry ought to prosper. The export of 
 wild ostrich feathers from Egypt and Northern Africa has 
 steadily declined and is not one-tenth of what it was in 1875. 
 As wild feathers disappear domesticated birds increase. 
 
 IVORY 
 
 Ivory is the dentine of various animals, principally ob- 
 tained from elephants' tusks, which are composed of three 
 parts the outer crust, the centre or heart of the tusk and the 
 hollow interior. Ivory taken from elephants that have been 
 dead for some time is of a dirty, gray color and inferior to 
 ivory obtained from the freshly killed animal. The tusk is 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 57 
 
 valued according to size and regularity, its fineness of grain 
 and smallness of cavity. 
 
 Commercially the tusks are divided into several classes: 
 
 1. "Heavy tusks", the most beautiful and largest, (some- 
 times six feet long) and weighing more than 55 pounds. 
 
 2. "Average tusks," inferior in size to the preceding. 
 
 3. "Small tusks," below 40 pounds. 
 
 4. "Bangles," which are round and furnish arm rings 
 for the Indians and natives of the East African coast. 
 
 5. "Ball tusks," large enough for billiard balls, and hav- 
 ing the greatest relative market value. 
 
 6. "Scrivelloes" or small pieces of ivory which are used 
 for knick-knacks and curios. 
 
 7. Bagatelles, or very small tusks of trifling value. 
 
 Ivory enters into many ornamental utensils, 
 Uses and mathematical instruments, dice, billiard balls, 
 
 By-Products. combs, toys, chessmen, buttons, buckles, jew- 
 elry ornaments and inlays in furniture. In 
 Japan, China and India ivory is much used for carving, and 
 the Japanese especially make many wonderful ornaments in 
 miniature called netsukes. Lonesome sailors on whaling voy- 
 ages carve scrimshaws from tusks of different animals. 
 
 Ivory always commands full value; for there is little or 
 no material wasted, even the dust being available for polish- 
 ing, for making India ink, or for the making of "ivory jelly". 
 Natives who cut up the tusks do not receive remuneration in 
 money but are allowed to keep the ivory dust for which they 
 find purchasers among cattle raisers, who believe that milch 
 cattle will secrete milk more abundantly if they be given a 
 solution of ivory dust. 
 
 Substitutes in the form of celluloid and vegetable ivory 
 are common but the genuine article is much in demand. 
 
 The annual world consumption of ivory is about 
 Quantity. 1,250,000 pounds, of which Africa supplies 90 
 per cent. Ivory is obtained throughout the entire 
 Equatorial Belt of Africa, and hunting the elephant is a favor- 
 ite sport of natives who capture the beasts by hurling spears, 
 by traps, and by ham-stringing the elephant's legs. In the 
 earlier history a considerable quantity of ivory was brought 
 from India and Ceylon, but the present supply of Europe and 
 the Americas is of African origin. The tusks of African ele- 
 
58 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 phants are both larger and heavier than those of Indian ele- 
 phants, and are obtained from the females as well as from the 
 males. 
 
 During the year before the Great War 60,000 
 Conservation elephants were slaughtered in Africa. This 
 Measures. alarming destruction called for prompt meas- 
 
 ures of conservation. In British East Africa 
 tusks of female and baby elephants are confiscated by the 
 Government, and the capture of tusks of less than 30 pounds 
 is prohibited. Tusks in transit are often confiscated. 
 
 To avoid destruction of the elephants, the Congo Free 
 State does not allow them to be hunted except in certain por- 
 tions of the territory, and after obtaining a permit a European 
 pays a tax of $100 plus $10 for an improved firearm, and $2 
 for a musket. The native gives to the State a part of the ivory 
 which may not exceed half of the total weight gathered. To 
 protect young elephants, the export or detention of tusks 
 weighing less than 4% pounds is forbidden. Throughout the 
 Congo hunting elephants is forbidden from October to May. 
 
 The caravan trade which formerly brought many tusks 
 from Equatorial Africa across the Sahara desert for the Eu- 
 ropean market, is steadily diminishing. The East and West 
 coasts of Africa are the depots for supplying the ivory trade, 
 the largest being Mombassa on the East Coast and Boma 
 at the mouth of the Congo. Marco Polo, the great Venetian 
 traveler in the 13th century, states that there were more ele- 
 phants in Zanzibar and Madagascar than any other countries 
 of the world. "The amount of traffic in elephants' teeth in 
 these two islands is something astonishing/' he wrote. 
 
 Elephants living in the regions of rocks and mountains 
 produce a softer ivory than those living in the plains and 
 marshes, and the softer variety is the more valuable. A con- 
 siderable amount of the ivory yield comes from beds of bones 
 which have lain untouched for hundreds of years. 
 
 Ivory of the same district will often vary greatly. While 
 some Congo ivory is hard, brittle, white, translucent, other 
 material from the same region will be opaque and soft in tex- 
 ture as that from Zanzibar; it may also be greenish tinted at 
 the nerve centres. 
 
 The Governor-General of French Equatorial 
 
 Distribution by Africa reported recently that while at the 
 
 Countries. time the French first occupied this region 
 
 a considerable stock of ivory existed there, 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 59 
 
 this stock has been exhausted and the ivory exports are now 
 comparatively stationary, amounting to about 160 tons an- 
 nually. 
 
 A chief export of the Uganda Protectorate has been ivory, 
 sent mainly to England, but the trade has greatly decreased 
 since the war began. 
 
 The yield of ivory, which was formerly the leading out- 
 put of the Congo, is being reduced and has already become 
 secondary in importance, but the increasing rise in prices will 
 stimulate a further and more active pursuit of the elephant. 
 Exports of Ivory from the Belgian Congo in Tons 
 
 1912 233 
 
 1913 276 
 
 1914 295 
 
 1915 214 
 
 1916 351 
 
 1917 180 
 
 Soon all the ivory from Senegal which is not a product of 
 the chase will have disappeared. Ivory has been exported 
 from this country since 1789. From 1825 to 1837, an average 
 export was about 24,212 pounds yearly; 1888-1889, the aver- 
 age was 6,109 pounds. 
 
 Value of Ivory Exported from West Africa in 1912 
 
 French Guinea $ 30,423 
 
 Togoland 8,555 
 
 Cameroons 127,614 
 
 Gambia 827 
 
 In British East Africa ivory, as well as hippopotamus 
 
 teeth and rhinoceros horns, has for years been counted among 
 
 the staple products. The last of the elephants are being driven 
 
 out of South Africa where they do much damage to agriculture. 
 
 During 1913 Great Britain imported ivory from: 
 
 Egypt 2,456 cwts. 
 
 German West Africa 87 " 
 
 French West Africa 138 " 
 
 Portuguese East Africa 159 " 
 
 Tripoli 3 " 
 
 Congo 263 " 
 
 Imports of Ivory into the United States Average 
 
 Weight value 
 
 in Ibs. Value per Ib. 
 
 1900 353,423 $ 805,386.00 $2.28 
 
 1905 627,819 1,642,958.00 2.62 
 
 1910 592,446 1,597,287.00 2.70 
 
 1911 534,300 1,343,555.00 2.51 
 
60 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 In the calendar year 1914 320,184 pounds of ivory were 
 imported into the United States, valued at $876,086; average 
 value per pound being $2.74. (Figures for 1913 were 706,705 
 pounds, worth $1,796,878.) 
 
 As with other African commodities, the price of ivory 
 
 Prices, has had wide fluctuations. The average figures per 
 
 hundredweight for the quarterly sales of billiard ball 
 
 pieces of all grades at the London salesrooms in Mincing Lane 
 
 during 35 years, were as follows: 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 1870 155 
 
 1880 90 
 
 1890 112 
 
 1900 68 
 
 1905 167 
 
 Commerce in ivory in the interior of Africa is now 
 Markets, carried on by caravans under conduct of Negroes 
 or Arabs, with funds furnished by European or Hin- 
 du merchants. Very rarely the leader of the caravan operates 
 on his own resources. The German product was chiefly shipped 
 from Bagawayo and Pangani; the ports for British ivory are 
 Mombasa and Kismayu. While Bagawayo was formerly the 
 most important of the ports, Mombasa has recently made very 
 rapid headway. 
 
 The striking change in the location of the chief distribut- 
 ing point in Europe for ivory is shown by a comparison of stat- 
 istics for 1908, and for a date 20 years earlier. While in 1888 
 the annual sales of ivory were 373 tons in London and but 6 
 tons in Antwerp, in 1908, sales on the London market had 
 fallen to 214 tons, while in Antwerp 227 tons of ivory were 
 sold. This change in markets is of course due to the large 
 exportation in recent years from the Belgian Congo. 
 
 The supremacy of Antwerp as the ivory market is shown 
 by figures for 1913: 
 
 Ivory Sold in 1913 (Kilograms) 
 
 Antwerp London Liverpool 
 
 3913 454,776 236,250 12,250 
 
 During 1919 Antwerp received 276,500 kilograms. 
 
 The output of ivory in Africa naturally diminished 
 Outlook, on account of war, but the steady reduction in the 
 number of elephants must soon be apparent in a 
 decreased total yield of this product because of the long period 
 required for the reproduction of these pachyderms. In unex- 
 plored regions there are beds of ivory bones yet untouched, 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 61 
 
 but the rapid opening up of the country will disclose all sources 
 of supply, whether from the living animals or their bleached 
 remains. In spite of the conservation efforts a gradual decline 
 in the ivory production of Africa may be expected. The unex- 
 plored regions in the Congo basin and the wilds of Abyssinia 
 are the most lucrative regions to exploit. One hundred years 
 ago, after the British discontinuance of the slave trade, ivory 
 was the best known product which came from Africa to Am- 
 erica. But this, today, has been superseded by ten or a dozen 
 more profitable commodities coming out of the dark continent. 
 It will not be many years before the elephant, like the Ameri- 
 can bison, will require most rigid protective laws to prevent his 
 extinction. 
 
 SPONGES 
 
 Mankind obtains its supply of sponges from two principal 
 areas the Mediterranean and Caribbean seas. The total sponge 
 output has a value of $5,000,000 per year. More than one-half 
 of this supply comes from the Mediterranean sea and nearly 
 one-half of this latter amount comes from the African shores. 
 Sponge fishing is an important industry of all African coun- 
 tries bordering on the Mediterranean and in lesser degree on 
 the Red Sea, where quality is inferior, though quantity is 
 abundant. The Adriatic Gulf, ^Egean Sea and the coast of 
 Tripoli produce the finest sponges. Of the African supply 
 Tunis contributes the largest share, in value upward of $500,- 
 000 per annum. 
 
 The sponge (Myxospongsis) belongs to the protozoa fam- 
 ily. The article of commerce is the fibrous skeleton which has 
 been divested of all enveloping perishable matter. Sponges 
 derive their value from their elasticity, the compressibility of 
 their fibrous framework, and capacity for absorbing fluids. The 
 finest grades are found at the greatest depths. 
 
 Sponges are found on the entire north coast of 
 Production by Africa though the Egyptian output is compar- 
 Countries. atively slight. The Bay of Bomba produces 
 
 a sponge known as the Benghazi sponge, 
 which sells at a higher price than other African grades, but it 
 is slightly darker in color than the sponges of the beds on the 
 European shores, and considered inferior. The most common 
 types found on the Tripoli coast are zimoccas and honeycombs. 
 
62 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The sponge industry plays an important part in the com- 
 merce of Tripoli. From the central port of Benghazi one-half 
 of the sponge exports go to Greece, the remaining half to 
 Tunis, Italy, France, Great Britain and America. The Gulf of 
 Gransiste yields sponges to the value of $150,000 per year. 
 During 1915 there were 100 boats engaged in this industry. 
 The Italian flag flew from the masthead of 63 ships ; the Greek 
 flag from 36 ships; Turkish, 1. Nine hundred and fifty-eight 
 men were engaged, almost wholly Greek. During 1915, 123,- 
 750 pounds of sponges were gathered. The price paid was 
 $2.10 to $2.80 per pound for the highest grade; the poorest 
 quality bringing 30 cents to 60 cents per pound. Sponges ex- 
 ported in 1902 amounted to 80,000 pounds, valued at $120,- 
 000. The production of 1910 was valued at $90,000. In 1908 
 bath sponges sold at $6.20 per pound and cup sponges as high 
 as $13.65 per pound. 
 
 Tunis sponges are inferior to those of the neighboring 
 coast of Tripoli, the average price being from two to twenty 
 per cent, less for corresponding kinds. The natives sell their 
 catches in the uncleaned condition in which they take them 
 from the rocks. In 1904 the output of sponges for Tunis was 
 234,000 pounds valued at $434,900. In 1915 Tunis exported 
 287,951 pounds of sponges, valued at $654,435. 
 
 Algerian coasts yield only small quantities and have not 
 yet revealed beds rich enough to warrant regular fisheries, al- 
 though the elephant-ear has been found at Bona, and at other 
 points a toilet sponge almost equal to those of the Adriatic. 
 
 The Morocco coast has been explored by Spaniards, who 
 have found beds capable of rich commercial development. 
 
 The world demand for this serviceable commodity 
 Outlook, is increasing. Industry is demanding a larger sup- 
 ply of sponges. The drain of centuries on the 
 ^Egean and Adriatic seas has led to extensive explorations of 
 other sources of supply. Along the African coasts an abund- 
 ant reserve supply is found in the Red Sea and off the coast of 
 Morocco, but inferior in grade to the Greek sponge of the 
 Mediterranean. Deep water sponges are far from exhaustion. 
 Production of sponges by artificial culture is being tried. Meas- 
 ures of conservation have been enacted by French and Italian 
 governments to avoid exhaustion of this industry, by limiting 
 the period when sponges may be gathered. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 63 
 
 CORAL AND SHELLS 
 
 Coral (Corallium nobile) is a growth of peculiar beauty 
 found in the sea, composed of the calcareous skeletons of vari- 
 ous protozoa. The structures built up by these minute creat- 
 ures take forms like naked trees or shrubs, spread fans, flow- 
 ers, mushrooms, cups, according to the different laws govern-r 
 ing germination of the polypi of different species. 
 
 The chief corals of commerce are the delicate species 
 suitable for jewelry and ornamental objects, and known as 
 red, blood-red, rose, angel's skin, gray, dead, pique. The 
 most popular of these is the red coral (Corallium rubrum), a 
 twig-like species that grows only about a foot in height and 
 has a stem of delicate proportions. 
 
 Coral is obtained along the coasts of Japan, 
 When and in the Sandwich Islands, in various parts of 
 
 Where Found, the Indian Ocean, and in the Mediterranean 
 
 region, especially along the northwestern 
 coast of Africa, from Tripoli to Rio de Oro and on the Cape 
 Verde Islands, where it is abundantly gathered. The most 
 common coral is a large white species which, by its beauty 
 and variety of form, makes fine specimens for museums, but 
 has low commercial value. In the warm waters around Mada- 
 gascar and Mozambique immense branching-trees of white 
 coral are obtained. The red and pink coral are most import- 
 ant in trade, but the black coral, found near Japan, is more 
 valuable on account of its rarity. Both the red and black coral 
 are hard and susceptible to high polish. 
 
 Diving for coral is not so generally common as diving 
 for sponges and pearls. Nets are often lowered into the beds 
 by skillful coral fishermen, who are able to break off the 
 branches without injury. Coral is bought by the weight. Large 
 beads have sold at $25 per pound, and extra large and fine 
 specimens have brought almost fabulous prices. 
 
 The red corals are the most popular for jewelry 
 Uses and settings, because of their hardness and gloss. 
 
 By-Products. Pink coral has a softer, more delicate appear- 
 ance when finished than red ; it is also used for 
 jewelry and is cut into globular beads for necklaces, much in 
 vogue. Buttons made from coral are mostly from the white 
 varieties. Buckles, brooches, bracelets and other personal 
 
64 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 ornaments are exquisitely carved and are very costly. The 
 Chinese and Hindus, for a thousand years, have been the most 
 skilled artisans in carving coral ornaments. 
 
 Imitation coral, made of artificial compositions, is so clev- 
 erly produced as to require the minutest inspection to detect 
 the substitute. 
 
 Commerce in African coral is localized in a few 
 Markets, markets in Italy, the principal ones being Naples, 
 Genoa, Leghorn and Sciacca in Sicily; a portion 
 also goes to Marseilles. Red and pink coral is exported from 
 the northeastern coast of Africa to India. In 1917 coral beads 
 and ornaments were exported from Morocco to the United 
 States, to the value of $1,961. 
 
 The coral trade of the world was greatest in the 
 Outlook. 18th and 19th centuries. Demand has appreciably 
 
 decreased in recent years. While coral is still ob- 
 tained and exported in considerable quantities, the showy gew- 
 gaws into which it is converted are now mostly treasured by 
 the Hindus and the native tribes of inland Africa. On parts of 
 the African coast there was such danger of annihilation of 
 coral beds that laws for protecting the precious product were 
 enacted. Algeria divided her coast into three sections in order 
 to preserve the beautiful pink coral formerly found there in 
 large quantities. Each division is worked five years and then 
 allowed to recuperate for ten years. So many artificial sub- 
 stitutes are made there seems little likelihood of any great ex- 
 pansion in this industry. Its popularity depends on the un- 
 certain vagaries of fashion. But the finest grade brings a high 
 price today. 
 
 The plates or scales of the hawksbill turtle consti- 
 Tortoise tute the semi-transparent, mottled substance called 
 Shell, tortoise-shell. Tortoise shell is also obtained from 
 
 both the plastron and the carapace of other sea- 
 turtles (Thalassites). The most valued variety is chelone im- 
 bacrita. Another species, chelone midas, sometimes measures 
 six feet across. This is called tortue vert, because of the green 
 reflections on the polished shell. Tortoises abound particularly 
 around the Antilles. They are found intermittently in large 
 numbers off the coast of Senegal. The Mediterranean tortoise 
 is used for food and for oil, as well as for ornamental purposes. 
 Aldabra, off the East Coast of Africa, is the home of large 
 herds of giant tortoises, the shells of which constitute an im- 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 65 
 
 portant product of commerce. The hawksbill turtle is ex- 
 ported from the shores of Madagascar and smaller islands of 
 the Indian ocean, both for the shell, and the flesh and eggs for 
 food, as well as the thick blood which is relished by many of 
 the inhabitants. 
 
 The commercial varieties of tortoise shell are: colored 
 shells, white shells and onglong. The French market absorbs 
 annually $200,000 worth of shells, but London is the greatest 
 market. 
 
 Madagascar in 1905 exported tortoise shell to France to 
 the value of $25,000. In 1917 the tortoise shell export from 
 this island was 2,100 pounds. The average price of tortoise 
 shell at Madagascar in 1896-1897 was $2.50 per pound. Most 
 of the product was sent to India. 
 
 The ancient Greeks and Romans used tortoise shell for 
 Uses, decorating doors, pillars and inner furnishings of their 
 
 houses. When the city of Alexandria was taken by 
 Julius Caesar warehouses were so full of tortoise shell that he 
 proposed to have it made the chief ornament of his triumph. 
 
 Tortoise shell is softened by means of boiling water, 
 which renders it pliable enough to be moulded into any form. 
 The lightness and softness of tortoise shell commends it for 
 rims of spectacles, adding an ogreish look to the modern stud- 
 ent. The shell is also employed in making veneer for boxes 
 and frames, inlay for fancy furniture, and it is moulded or 
 cut into snuff-boxes, knife-handles, combs and other toilet 
 articles. 
 
 An imitation of tortoise shell is made by staining trans- 
 lucent horn, and the rise of the celluloid industry is producing 
 substitutes which decreases the demand for the natural article 
 except among the wealthy who pay high for the best. 
 
 Tortoise shells, like coral and elephants' tusks, are of slow 
 growth and limited supply. 
 
 The cowrie shells, of a pearl-like appearance 
 Cowrie Shells, and about the size of lima beans, are found 
 
 along the East Coast of Africa, particularly in 
 the neighborhood of Zanzibar. They were once extensively 
 used as a medium of exchange for small values, with many 
 African tribes, and are yet circulated in certain localities. Five 
 dollars' worth would make a bushel. 
 
66 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 A minor product of Africa is snails (Helicidae). The 
 Snails, supply of this delicacy varies considerably with the 
 seasons. In Ashanti snail shells were fifth among 
 exports for 1916. The Warn product is much sought after and 
 obtains the highest price. In Coomassie a stick of 100 Warn 
 snails sells at an average of two shillings. 
 
 The tropical species (Helix pomatia) is very large, some- 
 times measuring more than two inches in diameter. These 
 snails are globular, brownish white with large rounded aper- 
 ture, having a thick reflected margin. Many snails are gath- 
 ered in the French colonies of Africa and exported both for 
 food and for the shells which are valued for buttons and orna- 
 mental purposes in museums. 
 
 Although still eaten by bon viveurs as a garnish for spin- 
 ach, chiefly among the French who display them in the mar- 
 kets, the snail is not valued as in former times. Romans, in 
 the days of Lucullus, counted snails among their toothsome 
 delicacies and kept them in moist pens where they were fat- 
 tened with bran and sodden lees of wine. Snails were also for- 
 merly used as cosmetic, to preserve the soft and delicate con- 
 dition of the skin. As both cosmetic and food the cherished 
 portion seems to have been the slime. 
 
 The beautiful mother-of-pearl which lines the 
 Mother of shells of a great number of mollusks, and the 
 Pearl. loose, globular brilliant particles known as pearls, 
 
 belong to the Lamellibranches Gasteropodes and 
 Lephalopodes families. Mollusks are univalve, bivalve, or mul- 
 tivalve. Oysters, which furnish the greatest quantity of pearl, 
 are bivalve, and belong to the genus Ostrea. 
 
 The pearl lining of shells, and the more prized jewels 
 known as "true pearls," are formed by calcareous matter se- 
 creted by mollusks, evidently for the purpose of making for 
 themselves smooth and comfortable beds in which to lie. 
 
 The shells containing this rich interior (melagrina mar- 
 garitifera) abound in the tropical seas, and form one of the 
 products of commerce esteemed for beauty alone. Commerce 
 distinguishes several species of mother-of-pearl : the Blanche 
 Argentee, extremely clear; the batarde blanche, less clear, 
 with green and violet cast; the haliotide irridescent; and the 
 burgandine, having green reflections. The irridescent hues of 
 certain species of mother-of-pearl are caused by the structure 
 of the material, which is formed in very fine ridges or furrows. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 67 
 
 These imperceptible wrinkles reflect the light in such a man- 
 ner as to produce a pleasing effect to the eye. 
 
 The most valuable mother-of-pearl is found in the sea; 
 those found in streams are of less value. The variety most 
 sought is the Ear of the Sea (Heliotis Gigantea) found in 
 greatest quantities near Japan and Korea. The flesh con- 
 tained in these shells is dried for edible use. The pinna is 
 found in the Mediterranean, and the trochus in the Indian 
 Ocean. The most profitable regions for the mother-of-pearl 
 are the coasts of Ceylon, Malay Islands, the Far East, eastern 
 Africa and California. The African industry is carried on along 
 the East Coast and on the islands of Pemba and Socotra, but 
 more particularly in the Red Sea, where the shells are abund- 
 ant. Madagascar and the Gulf of Gabes constitute a consider- 
 able market even though these regions have no organized fish- 
 eries. But the African output is almost negligble compared 
 with other regions around the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Raw mother-of-pearl was exported from French 
 Export Somaliland in 1914 to the value of $5,100. Eritrea, 
 Figures, the Italian colony on the Red Sea, carries on pearl 
 fishing to the annual value of $50,000, and mother- 
 of-pearl, to the value of $160,000. 
 
 Most of the output of mother-of-pearl is sent to France 
 for the manufacture of jewelry, fancy inlaid work and papier- 
 mache, toilet articles, knife-handles and other ornamental pur- 
 poses, but especially for buttons, which are made from the 
 wkite or cream varieties. Another shell found in tropical 
 waters that furnishes mother-of-pearl is the nautilus, usually 
 white, cream or faint gray. 
 
 The same substance that makes mother-of-pearl is 
 Pearls, concentrated in jewel form in the particles which are 
 called pearls. These particles, known as true pearls, 
 are formed by irritating foreign substances thrust accidentally 
 or otherwise into the shells. The fragments are enveloped by a 
 secretion from the animal and formed into things of beauty. 
 
 As pearl beds are often far from the shore, pearl- 
 How diving is a hazardous and skillful trade pursued 
 Obtained, only in calm weather. Pearl-divers, like sponge- 
 divers, are trained young. The fishers go out in 
 boats with two sets of divers, besides the crew. When reach- 
 ing the beds, half the divers, after stopping their nostrils and 
 ears, tying a weight to one foot to assist in sinking, and fasten- 
 
68 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 ing a net to waist and neck, make the plunge. For two or 
 three minutes the diver stays under water, holding his breath, 
 filling as rapidly as possible the net with oysters. Upon jerk- 
 ing the rope he is drawn up and assisted into the boat, usually 
 faint and exhausted. When the first group have been again 
 drawn into the boat, the second makes its descent, to go 
 through the same performance, and they alternate in this way 
 through the day, each group sometimes diving a dozen or more 
 times. The divers frequently descend to a depth of 70 feet in 
 their search for shells. 
 
 (Shells are ready to gather when they are about six or sev- 
 en years old, divers being careful to leave young shells undis- 
 turbed. When the oysters are taken to shore they are piled up 
 and left to putrefy, as the shells can then be easily opened. 
 When considered ready, the lottery of opening and searching 
 begins lottery because sometimes one shell will give up a 
 great prize or even many valuable pearls, while a hundred 
 others might be opened without yielding a single pearl. 
 
 Pearls are gathered in the Persian Gulf, Gulf 
 Uses and of California and the Red Sea, around the So- 
 
 Substitutes. ciety Islands and Isthmus of Panama. Ceylon is 
 
 the market where the pearl has its greatest 
 value. The Grand Mogul possesses the largest and finest 
 round pearl as the insignium of his office. Pearls most highly 
 esteemed are the round ones, and compare favorably with 
 precious stones. Small pearls, known as seed pearls, are used 
 for jewelry and decorative purposes. Very small and irregu- 
 lar ones are ground into powder for sale. 
 
 False pearls are now made for industrial purposes from 
 broken glass, powder, wax and fish glue, the manufactured 
 articles being excellent imitations. 
 
 The pearl, though not essential to human existence, 
 Outlook, is prized by discriminating connoisseurs. The Mas- 
 ter alluded to its select clientage when he ex- 
 claimed: "Cast not your pearls before swine." The King of 
 Italy makes an annual birthday present to his wife of a string 
 of pearls. In these days of taxing luxuries, the demand for 
 pearls is not likely soon to outrun the supply. Although the 
 price is several times higher than before the war, the African 
 supply will not soon run out. It is subject to the fickleness of 
 Fashion. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 69 
 
 The cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) is found most 
 Cuttlefish, abundantly in the Mediterranean Sea, and forms 
 
 one of Africa's articles of trade. This fish has a 
 peculiar white oval-shaped bone in the middle of its body, one 
 surface of which is hard while the opposite side consists of a 
 spongy substance, which, when dried and pulverized, is made 
 into tooth-powder and used as an ingredient for medicines. 
 It is also used by silversmiths for moulds in which to cast 
 spoons, rings, and other articles of their trade. Burnt, or cal- 
 cined, it is used for cleaning and polishing silver and other 
 hard surfaces. A common use of the cuttle-bone is for canaries 
 and other caged birds as a sharpener for their bills. 
 
 Another very different substance obtained from this ani- 
 mal is a black secretion from which is manufactured India 
 ink, made principally in India, China and Japan, where it 
 forms the common writing ink of those countries. A dilution 
 of this substance, treated with caustic potash and red, is 
 manufactured, chiefly by the Italians, into a rich brown pig- 
 ment known in the markets as sepia. This black substance of 
 the cuttlefish is contained in a bag conected with the siphon; 
 when the animal is pursued it throws out the inky fluid which 
 clouds the water around it, thus enabling it to escape. 
 
 The cuttlefish was considered a great table delicacy by 
 the ancients and is still occasionally used for food, by inhabi- 
 tants of the Mediteranean region. 
 
 FISH 
 
 Fishing is an important industry of many African coun- 
 tries, especially along the northwest coast. There is a large 
 export to the nearby Catholic fish-eating nations of Spain, 
 Portugal, Italy and France. Fish are obtained in greatest 
 numbers from Portuguese Africa, Tunis, Morocco, Natal, East 
 Africa, Mozambique, Union of South Africa. Whales come 
 from the neighborhood of Madagascar and the southern wat- 
 ers of the Atlantic. Salt water fisheries are divided into deep 
 sea and coastal. The best known African salt water fish are 
 tunny, or horse mackerel (Scomber) , a large coarse fish some- 
 times nine feet long and 1,000 pounds in weight; sardines, 
 very small fish belonging to the herring family (Clupaea) ; and 
 anchovy (Clupaea encrasiclus), another of the herring family. 
 These small fish, on account of the vast shoals that come to the 
 
70 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 shores to spawn during May, June and July, are caught prin- 
 cipally with nets, by the hundreds of thousands, off the north- 
 west coasts. 
 
 Much of the food fish obtained from African waters 
 Quality, is coarse, but several of the smaller kinds are highly 
 
 esteemed for the quality of their flavor, and even 
 the coarse tunny fish has gained a wide popularity for its food 
 properties and the oil obtained from it. 
 
 The normal tunny catch of Tunis, the main center of the 
 trade, averages 25,000 fish. Tunny roe, salted and dried, is 
 worth $3 per pound. Oil of the tunny fish is used for many 
 purposes, and is obtained by boiling the head and belly, other 
 parts of the body being used for food. 
 
 Sardines are caught by the millions and packed in olive 
 oil in tin cans, making one of the most popular foods known. 
 Anchovies are packed chiefly in small barrels to be used large- 
 ly for sauces. 
 
 Where fish are caught and packed in such abundance as 
 on the north African coasts there is necessarily a great deal 
 of waste; but fish have been found to be an excellent fertilizer, 
 especially the head and entrails, and what was once waste is 
 now utilized. Where there is superabundance, as with her- 
 ring, whole fish are used for this purpose. Fish guano is even 
 better for fertilizing purposes, not being so strong as the oily 
 bodies, and is gathered and packed, either alone or mixed with 
 body parts for the use of agriculturists. Fish fertilizer con- 
 tains a great deal of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash and 
 lime. Fish guano contains the same properties in a lessened 
 degree, which makes it better for soils and vegetation. 
 
 Isinglass is a very pure gelatine, manufactured from the 
 swimming bladders of various kinds of fish and used in con- 
 fectionery; also for clarifying wine and beer. 
 
 Inland fishing is valuable for home re- 
 Fresh Water Fish, quirements and in places is plentiful 
 
 enough for a small export. The lakes and 
 rivers are frequently transformed by droughts into rocky roads 
 for highways. In the interior of the continent the lakes teem 
 with fish, as do such rivers as flow throughout the year, but 
 many rivers contain water during the rainy season only. Often 
 these streams become dry even a few hours after the rains 
 have ceased, which tends to produce an amphibious fish. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 71 
 
 The modes of fishing in Africa are .vari- 
 How Obtained, ous ranging from the most primitive 
 methods of naked tribes to the best meth- 
 ods of civilized man. The natives, who formerly lived largely 
 on fish, catch them with wires or traps, spear them from 
 canoes and from banks, and also use hook and line. In British 
 East Africa the natives have pot-shaped baskets about three 
 feet in diameter. These are sunk into the shallow water of 
 swamps and examined next morning when any fish contained 
 in them are speared. The native fish-spear is an awl-like, 
 polished prong about a foot in length, fixed in a shaft 10 or 
 12 feet long. The fish most often caught in this way are 
 various kinds of catfish, and the perch. The natives also use 
 nets, which are prohibited in some places, or at least limited, 
 because of the great quantities of fish caught in them and wast- 
 ed. This protection is especially for fresh water fish, as many 
 kinds caught from the sea are at times superabundant; fish 
 guano and parts of fish bodies for fertilizer, has become a sep- 
 arate industry at certain seasons. Fish are opened and dried 
 in the sun, by which process they become the dried fish of 
 the markets, constituting an important trade in all the Soudan 
 and inland desert markets. 
 
 The principal genus of fresh water fish is the carp 
 (CyprinicUe), related to the genus Barbus, a sluggish kind of 
 fish having barbules hanging from the jaws. Thirty-six speci- 
 mens of these fish have been classified from various rivers of 
 South Africa and Zambezi. 
 
 The cyprinodon dispar, a small inland fish found in still 
 water, has been discovered to be of inestimable use in pre- 
 venting malaria by eating the larvae of disease-breeding mos- 
 quitoes. Scientists have introduced these fish into many waters 
 where they have proved their value in reducing disease. The 
 Orphiocephalus obscurus is a large fish that also devours mos- 
 quito eggs. 
 
 Another genus of importance is the scaleless catfish fam- 
 ily (Siluridae), containing the Clarias gariepensis, which at- 
 tains large size, often growing to the length of three feet. This 
 fish is one of the curious survivors of drouth conditions. Adapt- 
 ation to circumstances has taught it to hibernate during the 
 dry season in mud-holes. 
 
 One of the distinctive characteristics of the spirobranchus 
 capensis is a remarkable breathing organ and a cavity in 
 
72 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 which it can retain water, which enables it to live for a consid- 
 erable time in the open air or enclosed in dry mud, another 
 provision of nature for preservation of life during the dry 
 season. 
 
 Scarcity of fresh water fish in the interior of Africa in 
 certain seasons is due not only to drying up of the streams 
 after rains, but often to wasteful customs of natives. Certain 
 tribes have a practice of placing dams across a stream and 
 stretching before them nets which catch the fish as they pour 
 over the fall of water. As these dams are fixed across the 
 streams about every two miles, few fish of a stream have a 
 chance to survive. 
 
 A small fish of the genus Galaxias, distantly related to 
 the salmon, is found in South Africa. This fish is an inhabitant 
 of fresh water of all countries of the Southern hemisphere, an 
 argument with scientists that lands of the southern con- 
 tinents were once joined together. 
 
 In Ethiopian Africa there are fourteen families of fresh 
 water fish, all more or less used by the inhabitants, but only 
 the Mormyridae and Gymnarchidae, somewhat allied to the 
 North American pikes, are peculiar to the region. 
 
 The fishing industry is well developed in the large rivers 
 of Africa, being a special industry of Senegal and Niger rivers, 
 where each group of natives has its own fixed fishing region. 
 
 The Lower Dahomey lagoons and lakes teem with fish, 
 caught in great quantities by the natives for their own use 
 and to carry to local markets. 
 
 The plattekop, or catfish, is found in great numbers in 
 deep pools of the Orange and Vaal rivers. 
 
 While Africa does not rank with the Newfound- 
 Exports by land Banks, the North Sea, or coasts of Japan, as 
 Countries. a fishing region, there is a large production for 
 local consumption and a considerable export. 
 
 In 1916, Algeria exported fresh, dried, canned fish, and 
 fertilizer from by-products, to the amount of $1,121,137. 
 
 Tunis exported 1,340,669 kg. salt fish, valued at 2,729,- 
 982 fr. in 1916. 
 
 In 1917, Tunis exported 591,871 kilos of fish, amounting 
 to $1,146,480. 
 
 The Canary Islanders have fished at Arguin beach from 
 early times. A 40-ton schooner catches and prepares 3,000 
 kilograms of fish daily. The varieties are "mugres," a species 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 73 
 
 of cod, soles, sea-crayfish, red mullets, gurnards, sardines. 
 Dried and salt fish are exported to France. 
 
 In 1915, Dahomey exported dried fish to the amount of 
 $45,531, and shrimp to the amount of $27,040. 
 
 The Gold Coast has 5,000 canoes engaged in fisheries. 
 The fishermen never go out on Tuesday, as that day is held 
 sacred to the fetish of the sea. These fisheries are insufficient 
 to supply the local demand. 
 
 Sailors from Portugal a long time ago established them- 
 selves at Angola, where their hard labor has been rewarded 
 by the modern importance of the place as a fishery. 
 
 In 1914, Portuguese East Africa, by way of the port of 
 Lorenco Marques, exported dried fish to the amount of $2,006, 
 and whale oil to the amount of $28,908, and whale by-prod- 
 ucts for fertilizer, $2,144; through Inhambane, dried fish to 
 the amount of $6,168, and whale by-products for fertilizer to 
 the amount of $31,836. In 1918 Mozambique exported whale 
 oil amounting to $218,000, besides whale by-products for fer- 
 tilizing. 
 
 In British East Africa fishing comes next to agriculture 
 as an industry. This country has both salt and fresh water fish, 
 much of which is used for home consumption, but a consider- 
 able quantity is exported as well. Much fish comes from the 
 big lakes of that country and from the rivers, the most produc- 
 tive of these streams being the Tana. The native men and 
 women of this country live so much in the water that they 
 have been called amphibious, and of the little river that yields 
 so much to them they say, "The Tana is our brother." 
 
 In 1917, Union South Africa exported fish amounting to 
 214,702, and 212,659 gallons whale oil, amounting to $79,600. 
 
 In 1917, Madagascar exported 67,309 kilograms of fish. 
 A fishery very different from any other is that of 
 Whaling, procuring those largest of earth's creatures, whales 
 (Cetacea). These ocean mammals are warm-blood- 
 ed and air-breathing, but because of their fish-like form and 
 habitation in water they are classed with fishes and the in- 
 dustry of catching them is known as whale-fishing, though 
 they might appropriately go under Big Game hunting. The 
 largest species, as well as the largest of existing animals, is 
 the group known as the whalebone whale. These whales live 
 chiefly in frigid waters and the greatest fisheries are at Green- 
 
74 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 land and the Falkland Islands, but in the broad southern 
 oceans they go as far north as the southern shores of Africa. 
 
 While the whalebone whale furnishes part of the African 
 whale industry, that most valuable to this continent is the 
 sperm-whale, or Cachelot (Physeter macrocephalus). They 
 are taken on the East Coast. The bulls are larger than the 
 cows and have been known to measure 80 or 84 feet. 
 
 Sperm-whales live mostly in the South Pacific and the 
 Indian Ocean. The greatest African whale fisheries are on 
 the Carrol ground between St. Helena and Africa ; also in the 
 straits of Madagascar and north of that island. 
 
 During 1911 17,500 whales were taken in the southern 
 hemisphere. During recent years a thousand whales have been 
 annually captured by fishermen from Cape ports. The annual 
 average catch of whales off the coast of Mozambique is one 
 for each day in the year. From this latter country the single 
 large item of export to the United States during 1915 was 
 made up of whale oil. In reciprocity the American manu- 
 facturers sent a very increased amount of agricultural ma- 
 chinery, automobiles and cotton goods to this distant Portu- 
 guese colony. 
 
 Ambergris, a much prized substance for perfumery, 
 secreted in the intestines of whales and found floating in Af- 
 rican oceanic waters or on the shore where it has been cast, 
 is a waxy substance, sometimes white, gray, black, or varie- 
 gated like marble. A find of 100 pounds of ambergris often 
 realizes a small fortune. 
 
 The whale furnishes a wealth of useful productions. To 
 the Esquimaux it is a friend indeed, furnishing him with near- 
 ly everything needed in his meager life, but in temperate and 
 tropic climes the most useful products from the whale are 
 oil, whalebone and spermaceti. Whalebone is used for stif- 
 fening clothing, for canes, whips, brushes, and, split very fine, 
 is woven into silk to stiffen it and make it rustle. Spermaceti 
 is used for a high grade of candles, for waxing cartridge cov- 
 ers, jars in which preserved fruits are contained, and by phar- 
 macists for various purposes. The teeth of the sperm-whale 
 are of an ivory whiteness and hardness, and are often used as 
 a substitute for that material. Ambergris is used in scented 
 pastiles, candles, balls, gloves, hair-powder, pomades, and 
 other things in which a strong scent is desired, and it is the 
 foundation of many perfumes. The skin of the whale is tan- 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 75 
 
 ned and used for a number of purposes ; the flesh and bones are 
 used for fertilizer, so that little or none of the whale is lost to 
 commerce. Oil of the whale and of many fishes is used for 
 making 1 soap. 
 
 Whale fishing off the African coasts, as everywhere 
 Outlook, else, has seen better days. Whales have been ruth- 
 lessly killed for many generations and, not being 
 prolific animals, there seems to be a near possibility of their 
 extinction. Laws are now in force for their protection. Owing 
 to the reduction in numbers whale materials have necessarily 
 been reduced, substitutes for them having become a necessity 
 in certain cases. A large whale has been known to yield 1% 
 tons of whalebone, and oil from one whalebone whale is some- 
 times obtained to the value of $3,500 to $7,000. In 1911 oil 
 fetched $120 per ton. 
 
 There is an increasing demand for whale-meat in the 
 restaurants of the world which may shorten the supply. Few 
 American whalemen visit the South African grounds of late 
 years owing to the decreasing fares. 
 
 BIG GAME 
 
 Interest in Africa for many years has centered in its big 
 game. Sportsmen from every part of the world have visited 
 this continent for the royal pastime of lion and elephant hunt- 
 ing. As a natural resource big game has bulked large in Af- 
 rica though gradually diminishing. Every section of Africa 
 provides some sort of game to attract the hunter but the East- 
 ern regions, including Abyssinia, Somaliland, British and Ger- 
 man East Africa, are the most frequented fields. The railroad 
 from Mombassa, port of British East Africa, is the chief point 
 of entry into the hinterland whither game has retreated be- 
 fore the advance of encircling civilization. 
 
 The principal animals sought by hunters include the 
 pachyderms, elephant (Elephas proboscidea africanus) , rhin- 
 oceros (Rhinoceros bicornis) , hippopotamus (Hippopotamus 
 amhibius); lion (Felis !eo) , leopard (Felis pardus), hyena 
 (hyaena striats, h. brunnea, h. crocuta) and other carnivora ; 
 giraffe (Camelopardalis giraffa); buffalo (Bos cafer) ; zebra 
 (Equus zebra); deer (Cervidae); antelope (Damaliscadae) ; 
 crocodile (Crocodilus niloticus) and other reptila; ostrich 
 (Struthio Camelus) ; giant bustard (Otis kori) ; marabou (Let- 
 
76 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 toptilus Crumenifer) ; egret (Egretta candidissima), and many 
 other birds. 
 
 The various sections afford different varieties of quarry. 
 
 In Rhodesia, according to the Oxford Survey of 1914: 
 
 "The advance of civilization has not robbed Rhodesia of a distin- 
 guished place among the big-game-hunting countries of the world. In 
 Southern Rhodesia the advent of an energetic farming population has 
 driven away great numbers of game from those parts of the country which 
 are situated at high altitudes, or in the neighborhood of towns and rail- 
 ways, but farther afield, and in the native district, the sportsman may 
 still encounter the elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, buffalo, zebra and 
 the larger varieties of antelope, all of which are now practically extinct, 
 except where carefully preserved in the southern colonies. The lion and 
 leopard still prowl around the cattle and sheep folds in remoter districts, 
 and occasionally venture within close range of civilization." 
 
 In Nyasaland, according to the same authority: 
 
 "Animal life in Nyasaland is abundant, although big game is dis- 
 appearing from the neighborhood of civilization. Certain species which 
 are common to South and British East Africa are absent from Nyasa- 
 land, e. g. the ard wolf, caracal lynx, long-eared foxes, mountain asses, 
 oryx, antelopes, the gazelles, jerboas, and bear, secretary vulture, and 
 ostrich. Nyasaland also differs from West Africa in not possessing any 
 form of anthropoid ape, several monkeys, some of the smaller antelopes, 
 and the Dorcatherium. The points of resemblance with West Africa are 
 the presence of a peculiar civet cat, one or more genera of bats, a colo- 
 bus monkey, and among birds the black and white vulturine fishing eagle. 
 Nyasaland offers a good field to the sportsman for elephant, buffalo, rhin- 
 oceros, zebra, hippopotamus, antelope, (greater kudu, sable, eland, nyla, 
 etc.), bush pig, wart-hog, etc. Smaller animals of the order Rodentia are 
 abundant also bats, shrews, and in a few districts also the scaly ant-eater. 
 
 "Of the carnivora, the lion, leopard, several species of cat, the chee- 
 tah, hyena, genet, mongoose, jackal, hunting dog, weasel, badger, otter, 
 are all fairly common." 
 
 In Somaliland, according to the Oxford Survey : 
 
 "The wild fauna is naturally more numerous, and also more varied, 
 away from the coast and beyond the British southern frontier; but even 
 in the maritime tracts of Guban the pasture provides food for a large wild 
 ass and for several species of antelope, including the little dik-diks (Mado- 
 qua phillipsi and swayneium, quentheri is confined to the Haud), oryx (O. 
 beisa), and Soemmering's gazelle, both extending throughout the coun- 
 try, as well as the lowland gazelle (G. pelzelni) replaced by Speke's ga- 
 zelle beyond the maritime hills, and, about the rocky hills, the beira 
 (Dorcatragus melanotis). Hares and several species of sand-grouse (Pter- 
 ocles), bustard, and francolins, with occasional ostriches, are also found 
 over the maritime tracts. Farther into the highland occur the harte 
 beeste (Bubalis swaynei), the giraffe-like gerenuk or Waller's gazelle 
 (Lithocranius walleri) the nimble klipspringer (Oreotragus saltator), 
 greater and lesser kudu (Strepsiaeros), together with wart-hogs every- 
 where near water, and troops of baboons along the mountains. 
 
 "Preying on these creatures and on the flocks and herds of the 
 Somalis a varied collection of carnivora exists among which the lion, leop- 
 ard, lynx, serval and civet cats, striped hyenas, jackals and foxes should 
 be mentioned. 
 
 "The elephant seerns to be suffering gradual extinction or expulsion to 
 the less accessible lands." 
 
 Of Sierre Leone, the Oxford Survey says : 
 
 "Sierre Leone is hardly suited to big game hunting in the ordinary 
 acceptation of the term, the larger animals being comparatively scarce. 
 A game license costing 25 is required. Numbers of animals inhabit the 
 forests and bush, but few are seen; they seem to shun the invader. The 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 77 
 
 dense mangroves are the home of countless grey monkeys. There are neith- 
 er lions nor tigers, but the following are to be found : elephants, hippopot- 
 ami, leopards, and tiger cats, fossa,* bush cows, wild boars, chimpanzees, 
 monkeys of different kinds, armadillos, porcupines, etc. Crocodiles of 
 great size infest the rivers. Pythons and snakes of many varieties, poison- 
 ous and non-poisonous are found." 
 
 The fauna of Angola includes: Lion, leopard, cheetah, 
 elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, buffalo, zebra, 
 koodoo, wild pig, ostrich, crocodile and many kinds of an- 
 telope. "Jungle products," obtained chiefly through natives, 
 are among the most important exports of Angola. 
 
 In the Dongola desert region is found the addax, rarest of 
 Soudan antelopes. 
 
 The elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus are still nu- 
 merous in parts of Abyssinia. Lions of moderate size are 
 found in the wooded mountains and of a very much larger 
 size in the warm plains where enormous leopards abound. 
 The guepard, lynx, hyena, wolf, wild dog and jackal may be 
 encountered very generally. Droves of buffalo, almost de- 
 stroyed by the bovine pest in 1897, are now multiplying rapid- 
 ly. In the western part giraffes are occasionally seen. The 
 ostrich is common. The zebra is met with on the plains and 
 the wild ass in the rocky mountains to the north. Antelopes 
 and gazelles appear everywhere. Many species of the chamois 
 are also to be found, among which is the diminutive dik-dik, 
 the weight of which rarely exceeds 10 pounds. Other animals 
 are the boar, the wild dog, badger, marten, hedgehog, gnu. 
 
 The big game of Africa have products of in- 
 Uses and trinsic value which are greatly enhanced by 
 
 By-Products, the pride of the mighty hunter returning with 
 his trophies from the chase. The most hand- 
 some and showy skins for ornamental use are the leopard, gir- 
 affe, zebra, okapi. The skins of African animals are prepared 
 for rugs for the homes of wealthy adventurers and the most 
 sumptuous hotels throughout the world. The most majestic 
 trophies of the chase are the heads of elephants, rhinoceri, 
 lions, buffaloes, and may be seen protruding from the upper 
 walls of the clubs and halls of men in every capital of Christen- 
 dom. The skulls and skeletons are stock exhibits in every great 
 museum. Africa has been more widely advertised through its 
 big game than any other resource, and between the circus 
 menagerie and the pictorial geography young America of the 
 past generation has fondly pictured the Dark Continent as 
 
 * (Cryptoprocta ferox), a fine cat, peculiar to Madagascar. 
 
78 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 one vast zoological garden. Most of the furs of Africa are too 
 costly to be worn commonly, but American shop girls wear 
 monkey skins when fashion dictates. 
 
 Such is the recognized value of these highly prized Af- 
 rican skins that the pelts of the plebian cat and dog are re- 
 christened under the grander names of lion or leopard, after 
 ingenious artificial treatment and imitation skins are fabricat- 
 ed from cheap vegetable fibers which resemble animal hairs. 
 
 The camel is the only domestic animal which has no wild 
 prototype in existence. The wild horse, ox, sheep, goat, boar, 
 cat, are yet found in different corners of the earth, but the 
 camel is completely subjugated by man. Our domestic cat 
 (Felix domestica) is descended from the Egyptian cat (Felix 
 caliata) which was one of the sacred animals. 
 
 The pursuit of seals on the islands along the southern 
 coast of Africa is diminishing but not wholly given up. Black 
 seals visit these islands during November when the pups are 
 born and a few months later put out to sea again. When the 
 yearlings return an overwhelming proportion are found to be 
 males, which are captured for the English market. In 1917 
 the black seal skins sold at $7.50 apiece in London, and the 
 total sales amounted to $6,000. 
 
 The African crocodile (Crocodilus niloticus) belongs to 
 the man-eating species, and has destroyed as many human be- 
 ings as any other wild animal in the dark continent. The 
 crocodile, while not so numerous as formerly, yet abounds 
 in the Congo and other tropical African rivers, and the meat 
 from young animals is said to be palatable to natives. Former- 
 ly it was held sacred by the Egyptians, and many specimens 
 were preserved as mummies. 
 
 Africa is the home of the anthropoid ape ( Anthropopith- 
 cus niger), ancestor, if we agree with the Darwinians, of homo 
 sapiens, biggest game animal of all. Thus Africa might con- 
 tend not only with Assyria as the cradle of historic man in 
 Egypt, but with Java of prehistoric man. 
 
 The popularity of the chase has led to alarming signs of 
 extermination of many animals. Sixty thousand elephants 
 were slaughtered in Africa during 1913. During the war lack 
 of easy transportation and exciting events of the battlefields 
 attracting the adventurous spirits of the world have resulted 
 in a respite in hunting, which has given animals an opportunity 
 to replenish the earth. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 79 
 
 Skin-hunters, if unrestrained, would destroy every hand- 
 some beast in the land. Natives possessing modern fire-arms 
 would bring about ruthless and indiscriminate slaughter, im- 
 possible with their primitive weapons. The camera and not 
 the rifle is the better implement for hunting game in Africa, as 
 Buffalo Jones has notably exemplified. 
 
 Big game is necessarily incompatible with agriculture. 
 As the acreage under cultivation is rapidly increasing through- 
 out the continent game is retreating and disappearing. Real- 
 izing the importance of big game hunting as a source of wealth 
 the several colonies have established almost exorbitant license 
 fees for the privilege of carrying away a few skins and limit- 
 ing the number very rigidly. It was not until 1909 that the 
 German government capitalized the financial value of its col- 
 onial game, when the large revenue to the neighboring British 
 province led Germany to adopt a similar scale of license fees 
 in her East African Colony. 
 
 The famous French millinery establishments 
 Ornithological are largely dependent upon Africa for their 
 Specimens. ornamental plumings. The pursuit of egrets, 
 
 marabouts, herons, cranes and flamingoes, 
 has been so ruthless as to arouse protest from American Au- 
 dubon societies. Among the other birds of which the plumage 
 is sought are the blackbird, parrot, jay and humming birds of 
 extraordinary brilliancy. 
 
 Egrets, marabouts and other birds of valued plumage 
 abounding on the west coast of Africa seem doomed to 
 extermination unless the slaughter of these victims of fash- 
 ion is prohibited. It is estimated that 300,000 fr. worth are ex- 
 ported yearly from the Niger basin representing a million 
 birds. 
 
 Among the birds of Ethiopia are the bustard, guinea-fowl, 
 red partridge, heath-cock, grouse, pigeon, duck, teal, cur- 
 lew and woodcock. Birds of prey include varieties of the eagle 
 family and the vulture. 
 
 In 1914, Senegal exported 214,493 live birds valued at 66,- 
 532 fr., 173,813 kilos, mounted birds, valued at 43,453 fr. 
 
 In the marshes of Madagascar are many aquatic birds 
 duck, teal, hens and numerous waders. Partridges, quail, snipes 
 and allouettes are found in remote places. Guinea fowl are 
 found in the northwest and there are many varieties of birds 
 in the forest. The Madagascar black parrot (Coracopsis vasa), 
 
80 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 an inhabitant of all Madagascan forests, has a more musical 
 whistle than other parrots. 
 
 As with ivory, exports of feathers are doomed to become 
 smaller and smaller unless measures are taken to conserve the 
 supply. 
 
 On May 19, 1900, an agreement 
 
 International Game Law was made between England, Ger- 
 of Africa. many, Spain, Belgium (for the 
 
 Congo Free State), France, Italy 
 
 and Portugal, for the preservation of game in a zone bounded 
 by the 20th parallel north of the Equator on the north, the 
 Atlantic Ocean on the west, the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean 
 on the east, and the northern boundary of German Southwest 
 Africa and the south bank of the Zambezi on the south. * 
 
 The object of the International Agreement of 1900 is the 
 prevention of useful animal destruction, and it specifies, among 
 other provisions, that ostriches, marabouts, and egrets are to 
 be killed in limited numbers only. It provides for the 
 constitution of preserves where hunting, capturing, and killing 
 of animals designated would be prohibited without a permit 
 issued by the governor. 
 
 Owing to past indiscriminate butchery of 
 Laws for game different governments of African 
 
 Protecting Game, colonies have made laws for the purpose 
 of protecting animals. These laws in re- 
 cent years have become stringent and grow more so as wild 
 animals become more scarce. Certain beasts which were al- 
 most exterminated are now wholly protected by law. In con- 
 tradistinction to these laws of protection for certain wild ani- 
 mals, the governments offer rewards for the killing of car- 
 nivora that are destructive to human beings and other animals. 
 In British Africa, however, lions and cheetahs, which are 
 among the most destructive, are partially protected. 
 
 Practically every colony has close seasons for game and 
 requires hunters to obtain a game license ranging from 1 to 
 50 in the various colonies. Non-residents pay more than resi- 
 dents for privileges, but both are limited in numbers of animals 
 killed. Greyhounds and hunting dogs are heavily taxed. Sale 
 of eggs and meat of wild game is strictly supervised. Shoot- 
 ing with lights at night is restricted. 
 
 * Those desiring to ascertain the full context of this agreement should 
 consult Parliamentary Paper. Africa No. 5, 1900. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 81 
 
 In Natal, game reserves, aggregating 454 square miles, are 
 protected by the government. Shooting on Crown lands is not 
 allowed without special permit from the Provincial Secretary. 
 
 In Bechuanaland the elephant, giraffe, eland and the os- 
 trich are wholly protected, and the penalty for killing one of 
 these beasts is 150, or twelve months' imprisonment. Large 
 game of this region includes the wild ostrich, hippopotamus, 
 rhinoceros, buffalo, zebra, quagga and antelopes. Licenses are 
 granted only to those interested in obtaining specimens or 
 shooting for sport, and are not allowed to any persons likely 
 to vary from the conditions of the license. The number of 
 specimens is limited to two of each variety. 
 
 In the Transvaal the close season for most game is from 
 September 1 to April 14. The fees for shooting are fixed by 
 the Administration from time to time, varying with the abund- 
 ance or scarcity of game. Anyone selling or lending arms or 
 ammunition to a native is liable to a fine of 25 or imprison- 
 ment. A permit to sell game costs 3 per annum. Poaching is 
 punishable but is common in some districts. 
 
 Rhodesia, in the northwestern part, has 15,000 square 
 miles set apart as game reserves. There is no close season, 
 but game is protected from October to June by long grass, the 
 longest in the world, which often grows to 10 feet. 
 
 In German East Africa, prior to the war, certain animals 
 were absolutely protected, chief among which were the os- 
 trich and chimpanzee. 
 
 The German colonial governments had awakened to 
 the fact that large reservations should be set apart as sanct- 
 uaries for game. The railroad trip from the coast to the cap- 
 ital of British East Africa is now a most instructive trip 
 through a natural zoological garden. 
 
 British East Africa, in its game law of 1909 has four kinds 
 of licenses for hunting, two for residents. The others are the 
 sportsman's license of 50 a year, and traveler's license, avail- 
 able for one month and costing 1. 
 
 No game may legally be killed in the protectorate of Brit- 
 ish East Africa without license. The sportsman's license cost 
 50 in 1905, which provides a certain limit of game to be 
 killed. A resident farmer is liable to a fine if he kills in ex- 
 cess of this number even to protect his own crops from destruc- 
 tion. 
 
82 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Somaliland has two game reserves in the mountains to the 
 southeast of Berbera. 
 
 In Abyssinia, a country replete with game, a license is 
 required for elephant, giraffe and lion only. Naturalists find 
 a country like Abyssinia a treasure house. The thousands of 
 butterflies and other insects not yet classified oifer fruitful 
 field for pioneer work. 
 
 Wild Barbary sheep may be killed in the countries bor- 
 dering the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 Africa is a country of such magnificent distances 
 Outlook, that much of the hunted game is yet able to flee to 
 shelters which have not yet echoed to the hunter's 
 rifle. As a general proposition the big game of Africa is grad- 
 ually diminishing, some animals much more noticeably than 
 others. The lion, pursued both as a quarry of the trophy hunt- 
 er and as predatory vermin by the African stock-raisers, is on 
 the wane; the elephant, whose tusks have been made an object 
 of value by man, and because of his disregard of the pur- 
 poses for which fences are erected, is doomed to a similar fate ; 
 the jackal and hyena are condemned as outcasts of the animal 
 family by all human kind; the crocodile and alligator from 
 their fondness for luckless humans who chance to enter their 
 aqueous element, and the giraffe, so conspicuous and easily cap- 
 tured, though innocent of crimes against civilization, are pass- 
 ing from the stage. But on the other hand, as the lions and 
 leopards are killed off, their prey, like the zebra, hartebeeste, 
 the Cape buffalo, through protective laws and natural re-pro- 
 duction, are increasing in many places. Roosevelt, after his 
 wandering through the African game trails (1909) said there 
 was no sport in Africa to compare with hunting the moose in 
 Maine, because every time you fired your gun you brought 
 down something and were not obliged warily and patiently to 
 stalk your game in alert expectation. For years to come Africa 
 will be the best hunting ground of the world for big game. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 83 
 
 MINERAL PRODUCTS 
 
 The minerals of Africa have been the strongest attraction 
 to white settlers and the chief source of wealth, amounting to 
 nearly one-half the value of exports. Many minerals in Africa 
 are not mined because the native inhabitants are not sufficient- 
 ly advanced in civilization to give them value, although gold, 
 tin and iron have been smelted in small quantities for cen- 
 turies. 
 
 The vast continent has not been fully prospected but 
 minerals seem to be remarkably well located and with de- 
 velopment of hydro-electric power and transportation facili- 
 ties there should be rapid increase of output as labor is plenti- 
 ful. Probably the richest mineral belt in the world extends 
 from the copper fields of Katanga through the chromium beds 
 of Rhodesia and the gold reefs of the Rand to the diamond 
 pipes of Kimberly. 
 
 The volcanic ranges of Italy and Sicily extend across the 
 Mediterranean Sea to Northern Africa, creating beds of sul- 
 phur and gypsum. A large portion of Northern Africa was 
 once submerged beneath the ocean and submarine precipita- 
 tions of salt and soda were extensively formed. The Moroc- 
 can massif under projected French development, gives prom- 
 ise of a large yield of phosphates, iron, lead and zinc. 
 
 Minerals of which the exportable surplus dominates world 
 markets are : Gold, 44 per cent, of world's output ; diamonds, 
 90 per cent. ; phosphates, 50 per cent. ; chromium, 50 per cent. 
 Important factors in world trade are copper, tin, coal, man- 
 ganese, alabaster, asbestos and, during the war, graphite from 
 Madagascar. Petroleum, so much in demand, has not been 
 discovered, after careful prospecting, in appreciable amount 
 except in Egypt near the Red Sea. Iron, the master metal, is 
 found throughout Africa. Coal in increasing amount is being 
 taken from the Wankie mines in South Africa and a consider- 
 able quantity exported. The Udi coalfields in Nigeria are 
 yielding a fair grade of bunker coal for vessels. 
 
 During the last year of the war Nigeria became the third 
 country in production of tin and Rhodesia led the world in 
 chrome iron. But these countries may not hold these positions 
 upon a normal peace basis. 
 
 De Launay, the French mineralogist, wrote an exhaustive 
 book on the minerals of Africa, 1903. 
 
84 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 GOLD 
 
 From time immemorial gold has been mined in Africa. As 
 early as 3800 B. C., Menes of Egypt fixed the ratio of value of 
 gold to silver at 2% to 1. The famous mines of Ophir in Sol- 
 omon's day are said to have been in Mozambique. 
 
 The gold of Africa is found either in reefs, like the Rand, 
 which is a bed of conglomerate as thick as 20 feet, contain- 
 ing deposits of ore, or in alluvial deposits which are known 
 on the Gold Coast as bankets. The alluvial deposits are 
 worked from above ground, often by hydraulic process; but 
 the deep level mining is carried on by shafts which often ex- 
 tend a thousand feet into the earth. 
 
 The world production of gold is declining. For 1918, the 
 output was $377,300,000; for 1915, $468,725,000. Africa 
 produced 43 per cent. 
 
 The operation of extracting gold in mines 
 How Produced, consists of (1) mining; (2) crushing; (3) 
 extraction of the gold from ores by disso- 
 lution and smelting. Often the mechanical process of ex- 
 traction is sufficient, or requires only a slight mechanical con- 
 centration followed by amalgamation and refining. The plac- 
 er method consists in washing of sand in a wooden tub or pan, 
 and subjecting the auriferous gravel to the motion of a stream, 
 or on a larger scale the demolition of high embankments by 
 powerful jets of water; the gold is then gathered by means of 
 sluices, or by dredging. Metallurgical treatment of gold is 
 constantly playing a more important part in mining low grade 
 ores. 
 
 Gold in America is worth $20 per ounce, but often costs 
 more to obtain it with increased labor wages. As a by-product 
 in silver, copper, lead and zinc mining, it pays. 
 
 The British Government saved many millions by com- 
 mandeering gold for the duration of the war at pre-war prices, 
 since the cost of production has greatly increased. The aver- 
 age cost of working gold per ton in 1914 was 16s 8d, and in 
 December, 1917, it was 20s. The yield per ton averaged 1-7-1. 
 
 A 10 per cent, tax on net profits is paid to the British 
 
 Government by the gold mining companies of the Transvaal. 
 
 The most essential use of gold is for currency. Mixed 
 
 Uses, with copper in the proportion of 9 to 1 it is struck in 
 
 the mints and circulates with a legal stamp upon it as 
 
 the instrument of all international exchanges. Forty per cent. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 85 
 
 of gold is used in the industrial arts, jewelry, gold leaf, watch 
 chains, plate, pens, dentistry. Considerable is exported to the 
 Far East, where it is worn on the body and hoarded. 
 
 Upon gold is based the credit of nations, and an adequate 
 gold reserve must be provided to sustain the financial stabil- 
 ity of the world. Adverse trade balances between countries 
 are usually paid in gold. 
 
 In Africa the principal centre of gold pro- 
 Production by duction and the first in the world is the Wit- 
 Countries, watersrand or Rand, near Johannesburg. The 
 first mines were worked in the Union of 
 South Africa in 1885, and since 1905 this country has supplied 
 about 43 per cent, of the world's annual output. Two hundred 
 and twenty thousand miners are employed in the Rand mines. 
 They receive 50 cents per day, besides food and lodging. Fifty 
 million dollars in wages are paid out annually. Three-fourths 
 of the laborers are native blacks and several thousand 
 Chinese. There are 10,000 stamps at work crushing more 
 than 25,000,000 tons of ore per annum. 
 
 The Rand in a narrow district 28 miles long produces 
 more than 24,000,000 of gold yearly with relatively poor ores, 
 sometimes panning out hardly 24s per ton. In proportion as 
 the expenses decrease, the mean percentage will correspond- 
 ingly fall through the utilization of great masses that are 
 valueless today. The total production of the Rand up to date 
 has amounted to 475,000,000. 
 
 The most profitable gold-producing area is shifting from 
 the old central Rand mines to what is known as the Eastern 
 Rand, where the grade of ore is better and the cost of produc- 
 tion smaller than in the former diggings. 
 
 Working Costs of Operation of Rand Mines 
 
 Supplies 35.5 per cent, of total 
 
 Labor 59 " " " " 
 
 Management, etc 5.5 " " 
 
 Several Transvaal gold mines were worked at a loss 
 during the war, and would have had to close at the end of the 
 year 1918, unless the war had ended. But there are such large 
 properties in this part of South Africa that capitalists are en- 
 deavoring to revive the output. 
 
 In 1917 the grand output of gold for the Union of South 
 Africa was valued at $186,255,000, and in 1918 the value was 
 $174,060,000. 
 
86 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 British East Africa, via Mombassa, exported gold in 1915, 
 to the value of $1,386,995. 
 
 Nigeria, in 1915, exported 1,409 oz. of raw gold, valued at 
 $25,000; and in 1916, 1,897 oz. valued at $37,000. 
 
 French Somali, in 1914, exported gold ingots, valued at 
 $45,800. 
 
 The gold found in Angola is mostly mixed with other sub- 
 stances, but when freed is of good quality. The greatest 
 amount is found high up on the plateau. 
 
 Abyssinia has produced gold since earliest times, but the 
 output has never been extensive. The railroad from Addis to 
 Jibouti will serve to promote the mining operations by reduc- 
 ing the hazard of transportation. 
 
 Madagascar for many centuries has carried on the gold 
 industry to a limited extent. The natives convert their gold 
 into personal adornment; the elite of Madagascar have been 
 known to carry as much as 25 pounds around their necks and 
 arms. In 1912 Madagascar produced 2,119,571.16 gr. gold. 
 
 The highest amount of gold exported from Madagascar 
 was 3,645 kilo, in 1909 ; in 1917 it had fallen to 921 kilo. Dur- 
 ing the past 25 years more than 40 tons of gold have been 
 shipped to France. 
 
 Egypt in ancient times supplied much of the gold of the 
 world, but gold mining is a subordinate industry in this country 
 today, though there is a small annual output, $125,000 worth 
 (1914). In Dongola mines are worked in more or less paying 
 quantities. 
 
 In Mozambique gold fields have been worked intermit- 
 tently for centuries. Singal is a modern mine not known to 
 the ancients. 
 
 During 1913 Mozambique exported gold bars to the value 
 of $113,000 via Beira. 
 
 The output of gold in Manicaland has been : 
 
 1913 47,137 oz. 
 
 1914 48,984 " 
 
 1915 38,002 " 
 
 1916 35,579 " 
 
 1917 37,937 " 
 
 In German East Africa gold is found near Lake Victoria 
 Nyanza. The rich ore is difficult to mine because of lack of 
 water and wood. In 1911 German East Africa exported 992 
 pounds of gold, valued at $243,580, and in 1912, 497 pounds, 
 valued at $126,288. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 87 
 
 Before the war Germans controlled 40 per cent, of Afri- 
 can gold mines. Under control of Messrs. Wernher, Beit, Eck- 
 stein and Co., was 45 per cent, of the Rand output. Nearly all 
 the Rand mines are controlled by eight houses. 
 
 In the Congo gold is now exploited in two mining centers, 
 the Katanga and Kilo groups, where the gold is obtained chief- 
 ly by hydraulic process. Three of the mines are operated by 
 the State, and the largest output of gold comes from the State 
 mines at Kilo. The number of gold mines is increasing in the 
 neighborhood of Bokwana. 
 
 In 1906 Belgian Congo exported 602 pounds of gold, val- 
 ued at $171,000. In^915 the output was 3,720 pounds. 
 
 Rhodesia numbers seventh among the countries of the 
 world in gold output, having surpassed Mexico. 
 
 In 1914 Northern Rhodesia exported raw gold to the 
 value of $5,100, and Southern Rhodesia, to the value of $17,- 
 500,000. In 1915 the Rhodesian output of gold amounted to 
 more than $19,000,000, of which $18,558,500 was exported. 
 
 In 1916, the output of gold amounted to $19,476,000; in 
 1917, to $17,470,000. 
 
 West Africa is rich in gold but the climate is so unhealth- 
 ful that few white laborers go into the mines. Hence the out- 
 put of gold is comparatively small and decreases rather than 
 increases. 
 
 In French West Africa gold is still obtained by primitive 
 methods. Soil is extracted and placed in a gourd full of water. 
 After several washings in a series of gourds graduated on a 
 smaller and smaller scale, nothing remains but a black resi- 
 duum containing the gold dust. This is dried and then by 
 blowing upon it lightly gold is obtained, with a loss of one- 
 third to one-fourth. The powder is melted and worked by 
 smiths into torsade rings. This gold is worth about 75 cents 
 per gram. Nuggets are extremely rare. The multitudinous 
 superstitions connected with this industry are an obstacle to its 
 development. 
 
 In 1917 the output of gold in French West Africa was 
 $7,500,000. 
 
 Senegal. In the 12th century El Edrisi, an Arabian geog- 
 rapher described the Senegal River as the River of Gold. An- 
 drew Brue, director of the Senegal Company from 1697 to 
 1725, wrote : "Compagnon, who has been sent to explore this 
 region believes that if the mines were exploited they would 
 
88 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 yield much more gold than the mines of Peru." But this coun- 
 try never panned out according to expectations. 
 
 The Gold Coast is very rich in minerals, particularly gold. 
 
 The Oxford Survey of the British Empire says : 
 
 "Nature's poundings, rpastings, and washings in the past ages have 
 disintegrated the gold-bearing quartz, accumulated the precious metal 
 thus set free, and deposited it in beds of clay. Gold, therefore, has from 
 time immemorial been one of the principal exports of the country hence 
 the name^ and since the pacification of Ashanti, gold-mining has gone 
 ahead very rapidly." 
 
 In 1915, the Gold Coast produced gold to the value of $8,- 
 500,000, and in 1916, to the value of about $8,000,000. The 
 average number of laborers employed daily by the mining and 
 dredging companies throughout 1916 was 15,296. There was 
 no difficulty in obtaining surface labor, but there was a short- 
 age of underground labor. 
 
 The Ivory Coast once seemed to be the promised land 
 of gold and the natives still decorate themselves with great 
 quantities of this metal. The principal chiefs are very rich, 
 having chairs of solid gold and wearing sandals with gold 
 soles. They are buried with gold breast-plates. On holidays 
 persons of both sexes load themselves with very costly jewelry. 
 Gold dust is the current money and many natives have scales 
 for gold, with gold weights. At Baoule native exploitation of 
 gold is active, but in Sanwi there are hundreds of abandoned 
 shafts. 
 
 . Since the beginning of history Africa has supplied a 
 Outlook, larger share of the world's gold than any other 
 continent and will probably continue as the leader 
 many years. In the absence of discovery of new gold fields on 
 a large scale, the tendency is toward a declining world's out- 
 put. The world's highest production of gold was reached in 
 1915, when the output was valued at approximately $480,000,- 
 000. The Transvaal share of this was 40 per cent, and the share 
 of the British Empire 61 per cent. The percentage of the 
 world's supply contributed by South Africa has steadily in- 
 creased during the past 30 years, and reached its highest 
 point in 1918, 44 per cent. The amount of gold mined was re- 
 duced some 10 per cent, by the war because of the high wages 
 of labor, scarcity of supplies and mining machinery, and most 
 notably from the terrible scourge of influenza which swept 
 through the mining camps, and also to a reduction in the grade 
 of ores. The Transvaal Chamber of Mines appointed an 
 Economic Commission, which reported in 1914 that the tons 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 89 
 
 of payable ore remaining in the mines was 550,000,000. The 
 amount taken out of the mines per annum averaged about 27,- 
 000,000 pounds. The Cape Times reckoned that the produc- 
 tion would continue on the current scale only five years from 
 that date under normal conditions, and that 17 years later the 
 tonnage would be reduced to 14,000,000 tons per annum. Dur- 
 ing the war period many of the low grade mines through ad- 
 verse operating conditions were compelled to suspend and ap- 
 peal to the Government for a subsidy. A Commission was ap- 
 pointed to investigate the merits of the case and reported ear- 
 ly in 1919 against Government subsidy, but a premium is 
 paid in 1920. 
 
 The State has organized mines in which the Union Gov- 
 ernment shares in the profits. These mines have been excep- 
 tionally prosperous. 
 
 Another examination of the gold fields was made, partic- 
 ularly the great unopened district of the East Rand. This latter 
 report brought the total available tonnage to 1,160,000,000, 
 and predicted a gradual increase for 20 years, until a total of 
 65,000,000 tons per annum would be reached; then a pause of 
 ten years at that figure, followed by a slow decline 
 through three generations. Sir Robert Kotze, a South African 
 Government mining engineer estimates the reserves of the 
 Rand at $2,000,000,000. Others, who are possibly promoters 
 or share floaters, set the figure at $3,000,000,000, which is 
 more than the total output of the Rand during 40 years. 
 
 Gold is found in many regions in Africa in payable 
 quantities. The desideratum in most cases is adequate trans- 
 portation facilities to shipping ports. Much of the gold lies in 
 regions unsuited to habitation by white men, but the great de- 
 mand following the war for an increased gold reserve will tend 
 to stimulate exploitation of all these regions. The sections 
 which promise immediate development are the Katanga mines, 
 the deposits of Rhodesia and Mozambique, and the mines of 
 Abyssinia. The ancient goldfields of the Gold Coast show no 
 remarkable fluctuations in annual output. 
 
 DIAMONDS 
 
 The name is derived from a Greek word meaning ada- 
 mant. The diamond is the most highly prized mineral because 
 it combines the purity and transparency of water with the 
 
90 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 vivacity of fire. Diamonds were prized as long ago as 6000 
 and 7000 B. C. though at that time the pearl was the most 
 valuable gem. They were first mined in India where they 
 were believed to be the gift of heaven, crystallized in the 
 earth by thunderbolts. 
 
 The sparkle of the diamond comes from cutting the stone 
 into facets. The famous Cullinan diamond, found in 1905, 
 weighs one and one-fourth pounds or 3,000 carats, size 4"x 
 2i/ 2 "x2". A carat is equivalent to 205.3 milligrams. 
 
 Eighty percent of the supply of diamonds has been placed 
 on the market since 1889. Modern demand is very great. 
 
 The total world production of diamonds up to 1920 is 
 given as 188,000,000 carats of which Africa produced 154,- 
 000,000 carats, Brazil 14,000,000, India 12,000,000, German 
 Southwest Africa 6,500,000. 
 
 African diamonds are divided into the following classes : 
 Bye-waters, capes, fine capes, silver capes, Kimberley crystals, 
 Wesseltons and Jagersf onteins ; they are subdivided into four 
 point, two point or three point stones. In cutting, the stone is 
 first divided with a chisel according to cleavage into two or 
 more small stones and these are faceted by grinding. When 
 cut the diamond is held in a lathe and while it revolves is cut 
 by another diamond. The diamonds of South Africa differ from 
 all others in being brighter and freer from incrustation which 
 allows detection of any defects while in the natural state. 
 
 The annual world's supply of diamonds is 
 World's Supply, about 6,000,000 carats. Only the diamonds 
 from South Africa are of great value as 
 gems. Diamonds from other countries, on account of milky 
 flaws and carbon, are chiefly used for drills and mechanical 
 purposes. Brazil eclipsed India during eighteenth century; 
 South Africa eclipsed Brazil during nineteenth as the diamond 
 center. 
 
 Frank Vincent describes the formation of the diamond 
 pipes as follows: 
 
 Diamonds were first obtained upon the surface in a yellow 
 earth, the result of decomposition of strata. Then going down 
 they were found in a sort of tough blue clay, a hard lavaklike 
 earth which extends to a great depth. 
 
 Hard rock containing shale has been altered by the action 
 of heat produced by penetration of volcanic forces through it, 
 and this heat, causing the liberation of some volatile hydro-car- I 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 91 
 
 bon has produced the diamond. An outburst of heat is forced 
 from below, resulting in the conversion of carbon into the crys- 
 talline form which we call diamonds. At Kimberley, diamonds oc- 
 cur in a great variety of colors, green, blue, pink, brown, yellow, 
 orange and white. 
 
 The blue clay is hoisted by shafts into cars, then pulverized 
 and washed in a rotary drum. The residue is cleaned by boil- 
 ing in a mixture of nitrate and sulphuric acid. 
 
 The blue clay is taken to washing machines where 
 How it is agitated with water and forced through a se- 
 
 Produced. ries of revolving cylinders perforated with holes 
 one inch in diameter. The gravel is then sent to 
 the pulsators steel sieves with holes from 1/16 to % inches 
 in diameter which separate the sizes. The small sizes are con- 
 veyed to a washing pan and the large ones to revolving tables 
 where the large diamonds are taken out. The remaining 
 stones then go to the grease shaking tables, a series of slop- 
 ing corrugated iron tables coated with grease which are shak- 
 en by percussion as the gravel goes over them only the dia- 
 monds adhere to the grease. The crystals are cleaned in a 
 mixture of acids, then assorted, weighed and registered. 
 
 All diamonds must be registered and a severe penalty is 
 imposed for under-valuation. 
 
 It requires little capital in the "wet diggings" as 
 Cost of the alluvial deposits on the rivers and streams 
 
 Production, are called, but the yield is uncertain and irregu- 
 lar. But the dry diggings or shafts are expen- 
 sive to operate. One-half carat to 1600 Ibs. of matrix pays. 
 The mines are going deeper all the time making production 
 more expensive, seldom less than 1,000 feet deep. The De 
 Beers Consolidated Mining Company occupies 200,000 acres, 
 employes about 15,000 natives at five to eight dollars per 
 week, 2,500 white men at $60 to $100 per month, all em- 
 ployees being kept in a compound with no communication 
 with the outside world. Expenses of operation are enormous. 
 The cost of production is estimated at 10 per cent, of gross 
 profits. The Transvaal government exacts 60 per cent, tax on 
 all diamonds mined within its jurisdiction. About $1.10 per 
 ton is the cost of milling. 
 
 The diamond export duty act of 1917 provides for export 
 duty of 5 per cent, on all rough, uncut diamonds from the 
 Union of South Africa. During the past ten years the rate 
 of taxation has risen from 7 per cent, to 22% per cent. 
 
92 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The Kimberley mines are rich in diamonds but are 
 Relative characterized by poor quality and have a larger per- 
 Quality. centage of bort than other mines of that district. 
 The product is in fragments and sometimes smoky 
 and yellow in color. The De Beers has all kinds and colors. 
 The Jagerfontein mine is free from pyrites and has the purest 
 quality of stones with a brilliancy similar to those of India. 
 Blue "Jagers" command the highest price of any South Afri- 
 can diamonds. Like all first water gems they are subject to 
 bad flaws and what are termed carbon spots. 
 
 "Bort", crystallized diamond not sufficiently 
 Uses and transparent to cut as jewels, is used for me- 
 
 By-Products. chanical purposes. One-fourth the yield of the 
 Brazilian diamond fields and about 45 per 
 cent, of the African mines consists of bort. Bort crystals of 
 one-half to one carat are used as teeth in saws for marble and 
 stone and as jewels for meters in electrical machines. Small 
 pieces of bort are crushed to powder for use as an abrasive. 
 
 Small diamonds known as "glazier diamonds" are used 
 for cutting glass ; "flats" are crystals or parts of crystals into 
 which holes are bored so they can be used as dies for wire 
 drawing; "Splints" are sharp pointed splinters of diamond 
 crystal obtained from refuse of cutting and cleaving and are 
 used for small drills, for watch jewels, electrical machinery. 
 Fifty per cent, is lost in cutting. 
 
 Carbonado or carbon is the most important form of dia- 
 mond for mechanical purposes and is used in the larger oper- 
 ations of deep boring. Diamonds have been produced arti- 
 ficially by French and English chemists. They are called 
 paste diamonds. 
 
 Prices 
 
 New York quotations for bort in 1911 were : 
 
 1 to 3 carat for drills $ 8.00 to $ 15.00 per carat 
 
 % to 1 carat for saws 3.00 to 4.00 " " 
 
 Crystals for meters 3.00 to 3.50 " " 
 
 Small and poor for crushing .75 " " 
 
 Glazier diamonds 6.00 to 50.00 " " 
 
 Flats 3.50 to 8.00 " " 
 
 Splints 3.00 to 10.00 " " 
 
 Carbon 85.00 to 2380.00 " " 
 
 " 3 to 6 carats 60.00 to 85.00 " " 
 
 " 1% to 21/2 carats 45.00 to 55.00 " " 
 
 " 1 carat . 35.00 to 40.00 " " 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 93 
 
 " % to % carat 30.00 
 
 " % carat 15.00 
 
 " Small 8.00 
 
 The average price of rough stones before the war was 
 $10 per carat. Since the war price has increased enormously. 
 
 Wages of diamond workers have been raised 20 to 30 
 per cent, so that the gems cost 30 to 40 per cent, more than 
 they did two years ago. 
 
 The South African diamonds are shipped to London, 
 Markets. Amsterdam and New York. In 1898 the value of 
 rough diamonds imported into the U. S. was $2,- 
 513,800 ; in 1908, $2,287,440. The stones come generally from 
 Europe to the United States. The principal center for dia- 
 mond cutting was formerly at Amsterdam, but now much of 
 the expert cutting is done in New York and London. The 
 import trade in New York is done principally by Jewish firms. 
 The United States is the largest buyer of diamonds in the 
 world. 
 
 The African mines are practically under the control of 
 the gigantic trust known as the De Beers Consolidated Mining 
 Corporation, which so regulates the output of diamonds that 
 the supply never exceeds the demand and thus the prices have 
 always maintained a paying level. 
 
 Ninety per cent, of the world production 
 When and comes from South Africa, the leading mines 
 
 Where Found, being the De Beers, Premier, Kimberley and 
 Jagersfontein. Pure stones form only 8 per 
 cent, of the product and of this only a small percentage are 
 blue diamonds, 25 per cent, are second water, 20 per cent, are 
 third water, and the remainder "bort". 
 
 Diamonds were first discovered in Kimberley in 1867 
 and unlike all previously known deposits are found in huge 
 pipes or chimneys filled with blue clay. As the reefs or walls 
 of these chimneys often caved in shafts were sunk when im- 
 proved machinery was introduced, and as the mines became 
 deeper, the clay was found to be harder so that nowadays it 
 is spread out above ground for six months or more to soften 
 before it is crushed. All the diamond chimneys of South Af- 
 rica contain the same kind of rock called kimberlite. Alluvial 
 deposits containing diamonds exist in Orange River Colony, 
 in the Transvaal and in German Southwest Africa; also on 
 the watershed of Limpopo and Zambesi rivers in Matabele- 
 land. 
 
94 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 During the war diamond mining suffered more than most 
 industries. From September, 1914, to January, 1916, work in 
 the mines was almost at a standstill, but a slight increase in 
 demand in the beginning of 1916 caused washing operations 
 to start again on a small scale. Later in that year prosperity 
 in the United States caused greater demand and the business 
 became most remarkable for a time of world war. 
 
 In April, 1917, the State Mining Commission of the Union 
 recommended the State acquisition of all diamond mines within 
 the territory of the Union with a view to effective control of 
 output. 
 
 In the Cape province the De Beers Company practically 
 control all the mines, including the Kimberley, De Beers, Wes- 
 selton, Bultfontein and Dutoitspan. The syndicators claim 
 that combining these interests greatly reduces the cost of pro- 
 duction. 
 
 The Kimberley mines were closed, to avoid over-produc- 
 tion in 1909, and the De Beers mine was closed in 1908. 
 Diamond Production in South Africa 
 
 Average value 
 Carats per carat 
 
 1915 103,386 $18.32 
 
 1916 2,346,330 11.57 
 
 1917 2,902,416 12.93 
 
 5,352,132 $14.30 
 
 In the Zambesi district in Southern Rhodesia are 
 Rhodesia, large diamond pipes, worked by the De Beers 
 Company, which, after heated litigation, was fin- 
 ally chartered to the right of all diamonds found in Rhodesia. 
 The output of diamonds from Southern Rhodesia to De- 
 cember 31, 1908, was 7,019 carats, valued at $155,000, from 
 the Somabula workings. Fluctuations during recent years are 
 shown in the following figures: 
 
 1913 997 carats, valued at $38,000 
 
 1914 1,004 "" " " 19,500 
 
 1915 1 272 " " " 5,100 
 
 1916 1,021 " " " 26,500 
 
 1917 620 " " 14,600 
 
 Indications of diamonds have been found near Zambesi, 
 
 Durban, Delagoa Bay, Bwana, M'Kubwa and Carnarvon. 
 
 Diamonds are found in several districts of the 
 The Congo. Congo and there are good bearing pipes on the 
 
 Kundelungu plateau which have been worked 
 but not to make a paying industry, on account of scarcity of 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 95 
 
 labor. In 1912 machinery was taken to the Kasai district by 
 the Societe Internationale Forestiere et Miniere, a company of 
 Belgians and Americans, who hold the concession. 
 
 In 1915, the Congo produced 49,000 carats of diamonds 
 " 1916, " " " 54,000 " 
 
 " 1917, " 85,000 " 
 
 Diamonds were discovered in German 
 German Southwest Africa in 1908 in the Coastal 
 
 Southwest Africa. Desert during railway construction, and 
 have since been found to extend over a 
 territory 270 miles long, in the vicinity of Luderitz Bay. These 
 deposits are believed by scientists to have been carried by the 
 sea from a submarine diamond pipe off Pomona. These dia- 
 monds are washed from a thin surface deposit of sand gravel 
 in places 15 feet deep. About 75 per cent, of the stones are 
 of gold color but usually small in size, averaging five carats, 
 very brilliant and resembling Brazilian stones. Government 
 claimed all right to ocean floor dredging. 
 
 Up to August, 1914, about 5,400,000 carats had been ex- 
 tracted valuing approximately $46,000,000, being about $8.25 
 a carat. Just prior to the war, the German Government, which 
 controlled the industry and limited the yearly output to 1,038,- 
 000 carats, received $10 per carat, and in the last sale made by 
 that government (1914) Pomona diamonds brought $12.25, 
 while others brought $8.50. 
 
 Before the war the German Government received an an- 
 nual revenue of about $2,000,000 from African diamonds. The 
 estimates for 1914-1915 were $3,350,000, besides the divi- 
 dends from mines directly operated by the Government, in- 
 dicating the rapid expansion of the industry. 
 
 Under British occupation the output has been: 
 
 1915 13,409 carats, valued at $ 170,000 
 
 1916 144,920 " " " 1,600,000 
 
 1917 364,761 " " 4,160,000 
 
 At the time of the African discoveries not more 
 Quantity, than 100 stones of 30 carats existed. The amount 
 
 exported from Africa up to the end of 1908 was 
 about 90,000,000 carats of which 55 per cent, was suitable for 
 cutting into jewels. The addition to the world's stock of dia- 
 mond jewels since the discovery of the African mines is 22,- 
 000,000 carats, a probable net profit to the mines of $750,000,- 
 000. 
 
 Most of the English diamond cutting has been done in 
 
96 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Holland, but the Government is now trying to establish a dia- 
 mond cutting factory for the employment of crippled soldiers. 
 
 Marine insurance for diamonds was almost prohibitive 
 during the war, and a new corporation, South African Marine, 
 Fire & General Insurance Company was formed especially for 
 the diamond trade. 
 
 The supply of the diamond mines seems inexhausti- 
 Outlook. ble. The capacity of the mines is three times the 
 quantity that can be safely thrown on the market. 
 The De Beers Consolidated Company is considered the most 
 successful trust in the world, and has made immense profits. 
 Africa will probably hold a corner in the diamond market 
 for years to come with gradually increasing output. 
 
 The potential annual production is approximately : Union 
 South Africa, 5,000,000 carats; Southwest Africa, 1,000,000 
 carats; all other countries, 400,000 carats. 
 
 COPPER 
 
 Copper (Cuprum), a dull-surfaced mineral having a me- 
 tallic red lustre, is the most universally sought of the non- 
 precious metals. The ore consists of copper bearing minerals 
 and the gangue, or matrix of rock, usually carbonates or sili- 
 cates. Copper combines with oxygen to form cupric oxide and 
 with various metals to form alloys, the more important of these 
 being bronze (copper with tin), brass (copper with zinc), 
 and monel metal (copper with nickel). Its red color dis- 
 tinguishes copper from all other metals. It is malleable and 
 ductile. One hundred and thirty-five pounds constitute a bar, 
 100 pounds a cake, and 20 pounds an ingot. 
 
 Copper is an electrical conductor, second only to silver. 
 
 The greater part of the world's production comes from 
 North America which yields 68 per cent, of the whole output, 
 the United States alone furnishing 60 per cent, of the grand 
 total of 1,413,056 metric tons in 1917. The second largest pro- 
 ducer of copper is Japan, 124,306 tons in 1917, an increase of 
 22 per cent. Copper is produced also in Canada, Mexico, 
 Chile, Peru, Germany and Australia. 
 
 Copper output of Africa in 1917 was 48,000 tons. Pro- 
 duction in the Transvaal, 20,174 long tons of 3.87 per cent, 
 ore, compared with 5.44 per cent, for 1916 and 7.33 per cent, 
 for 1915. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 97 
 
 In 1918 Africa produced 58,000 tons, which was 3.6 per 
 
 cent, of the world's total output. 
 
 The distribution of the 1917 output in Africa was as 
 
 follows: 
 
 Congo 60,000,000 Ibs. 
 
 Transvaal 14,000,000 " 
 
 Rhodesia 7,000,000 " 
 
 Cape Colony 7,000,000 
 
 German S. W. Africa 10,000,000 " 
 
 Kham 2,000,000 " 
 
 Northern Africa 1,000,000 " 
 
 105,000,000 Ibs. 
 
 The most remarkable copper development in Af- 
 Katanga. rica during the past dozen years is that of Katan- 
 ga. Copper in the Congo is divided into three 
 groups, that of the coast, of Katanga and of the Ubangi. The 
 exports of copper from Katanga in 1906 was less than eight 
 tons, which had increased to 50,000 tons in 1918. 
 
 Copper is so abundant in the southeastern part of the Belgian Con- 
 go that thirty of the mines contain copper enough to supply the world 
 for twenty years at the rate of 600,000 tons per year. Extraction of 
 the ore is not difficult. The ore is found in hills from 50 to 80 meters 
 high, which may be penetrated by horizontal galleries; except in favor- 
 able conditions miners never go further than 40 meters under ground. 
 Motive power comes from the powerful water falls of the Lualaba, 
 which is capable of furnishing 25,000 H. P. The Rhodesia Railway 
 now reaching the mining region crosses the coal country at Wankie. 
 In the Etoile du Congo it is estimated that within 100 feet of the surface 
 there are over 200,000 tons with 11.6 per cent, of copper. The Kambove 
 mines are reputed to contain not less than 2,000,000 at 12 per cent, cop- 
 per. The output for 1913 was 7,400 tons of bar copper from 60,000 tons 
 of ore which assays from 12 to 18 per cent, pure copper. There are three 
 blast furnaces in operation and more under construction. Coke is manu- 
 factured at the rate of 3,000 tons per month from low grade coal. The 
 gas produced is used for heating boilers. A number of the skilled furnace 
 men operating the smelters were Germans who were interned during the 
 War and whose places were taken by Welch furnace men. An electric pow- 
 er station is shortly to be established by making use of the Falls on the 
 Lufria river near Coney, providing 20,000 H. P. during the low water 
 period. 
 
 Copper mining has taken rapid strides during the last half 
 dozen years, and this commodity soon will be the leading ex- 
 port from the Belgian Congo. Katanga derives its industrial 
 importance from the great copper deposits. About 40 per cent, 
 of the shares of the big Belgian mining companies are owned 
 by British capitalists. It is estimated that the ore of the Ka- 
 tanga mines above the water level is over 40,000,000 tons, av- 
 eraging 8 per cent, copper. Besides the mines already in op- 
 eration there are at least 150 copper deposits of promising 
 importance not yet exploited. Near Katanga carbonate and 
 
98 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 silicate of copper are found, and lead is frequently extracted 
 with the copper. The cost of copper landed at Antwerp varies 
 from 36 to 40 per ton. 
 
 In the Belgian Congo, the Katanga Mines, L'Union Min- 
 iere du Haut Katanga, were operated continuously during the 
 war, practically all of the output coming from the ores of two 
 mines, the Star of the Kongo and the Kambove. Wood is used 
 for power purposes and coke for smelting. Large quantities 
 of ore have been found to be of low grade and a plant is being 
 constructed for the treatment of these ores by leaching and 
 the electrical deposition of the copper; this plant will have 
 a yearly capacity of 50,000 tons of copper. The program of 
 expansion and development up to 1921 provides for an expen- 
 diture of $15,000,000. The company employs 450 Europeans 
 and 7,000 natives. 
 
 The Union Miniere mine went through the war period 
 without the loss of a single day's work by labor strikes. There 
 are many other copper deposits not yet exploited and British 
 capital is making rapid inroads into this region. 
 
 The Tanganyika Concessions Company produces three- 
 quarters of African copper and is increasing in importance. 
 The Katanga ore contains 15 per cent, copper and yields 96 
 per cent, of blister copper. The mining belt is at an altitude of 
 a mile, in a healthful region, with good labor supply. A new 
 railroad from Katanga to Benguella, soon to be completed, 
 will materially reduce the cost of transportation and increase 
 the output. 
 
 In Katanga mines, only bonanza ores of upper 
 Cost of levels were formerly mined. Now low grades 
 
 Production, are being mined. Cost depends on character 
 of the gangue, whether or not it is self-fluxing. 
 The cost of production has been cheapened by bessemerizing. 
 The cost of production of ore in Australia (1907) was $2.54 
 per ton, and in Arizona $5.00. The cost of production in Ka- 
 tanga is less than in Japan but more than in America. Trans- 
 portation is a large item of cost in mining alluvial deposits on 
 top of the ground. African blister copper can be delivered in 
 London at about the same price as American. 
 
 Katanga Copper was landed in Antwerp: 
 1913 at less than $200 per ton 
 
 1917 " " " 250 " " 
 
 1918 " " " 300 " " 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 99 
 
 Katanga copper, before the war, was shipped to Germany 
 but since the war began it has been sent to the United King- 
 dom. 
 
 Prices for 1917 showed wide variations until a fixed 
 Prices, price of 23^ cents was established by the American 
 Government, September 21, of that year. 
 
 Average Price Realized. 
 
 1905 15.597 cents per Ib. 
 
 1906 19.146 " " " 
 
 1907 18.043 " " " 
 
 1908 13.348 
 
 1909 13,211 " " 
 
 1910 12.960 " " 
 
 1911 12.657 " " " 
 
 1912 15.841 
 
 1913 15.222 " " " 
 
 1914 13.458 " " " 
 
 1915 17.299 " " " 
 
 1916 25,710 
 
 The production of copper by the Union Miniere "? as 
 follows: 
 
 1911 997 tons 
 
 1912 2,492 
 
 1913 7,407 
 
 1914 10,722 
 
 1915 14,054 
 
 1916 22,149 
 
 (with 5 smelting furnaces in operation) 
 
 1917 27,463 
 
 1918 22,000 (estimated) 
 
 The natives use copper to embellish their weapons, and 
 in the making of toilet ornaments, jewelry, and for money. 
 
 Copper is quite generally diffused through- 
 Production in out Africa. In the Union of South Africa 
 Other Countries, this mineral was mined centuries ago by 
 the natives for ornamental use. In 1913 the 
 yield amounted to 4,420 short tons, valued at $2,200,000; and 
 in 1917 the export of copper, copper ore and regulus was val- 
 ued at 5,500,000. In 1915, the Union of South Africa had cop- 
 per output of 28,970 tons, valued at $5,200,000, and 1916, 
 22,842 tons, valued at $5,600,000. Only 5 00 tons in 1918. 
 
 In Angola there is an abundance of copper and copper 
 mines have been worked to small extent since 1879. Copper 
 offers great possibilities in this region. 
 
 Conglomerates holding oxidized copper ores are found in 
 Angola near the railway line 12 miles from the Cuanza River 
 
100 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 and at Senze do Itombe three-fourths of a mile from the rail- 
 way running to Loanda. 
 
 In German South West Africa the mining of copper is con- 
 stantly increasing at Otavi and near Kangrube. For 1913, the 
 Tmesub mine output of copper ore was 54,100 tons, and 665 
 tons of matte. 
 
 A shipment of 100 tons sent to Germany from the Otyi- 
 zongati mine in German S. W. Africa yielded 18 per cent, 
 copper. 
 
 Algeria mines copper to a considerable extent. Owing to 
 the rapid growth of wine making in Algeria the market for 
 copper sulphate has been constantly expanding, and is likely 
 to continue. 
 
 In 1913, Algeria exported to France 1,340,000 pounds of 
 copper, valued at $160,000; 1915, 300 metric tons copper, 
 valued at $80,867 ; 1916, 1,098 metric tons, valued at $116,572. 
 
 In Upper Egypt copper mines are worked in Dongola. 
 
 A so-called "mountain of copper" exists in the upper 
 Nile region of Egypt but the deposits are undeveloped; near 
 Brazzaville in French Congo, at Gabon in French Equatorial 
 Africa, in German S. W. Africa, Morocco, Natal and Tunis, 
 and in various parts of Rhodesia copper appears. 
 
 In Tunis a small amount of ore is smelted into high-grade 
 matte. 
 
 Before the war copper was exported from French Equa- 
 torial Africa, chiefly to Belgium. This export in 1913 amount- 
 ed to $125,000. 
 
 In Rhodesia experiments have been made at the Falcon 
 Mine in producing copper plate for use in the crushers. These 
 plates could be produced considerably cheaper than the im- 
 ported article during the war. 
 
 The African World of September 29, 1918, says copper 
 output is greatly increased in Rhodesia; 2,950 tons in 1918. 
 
 The production of copper in Rhodesia in 1906 was but 17 
 tons though many copper discoveries have been made there. 
 
 In Mozambique the copper output for Manica and Tete 
 for 1917 was 307% tons, valued at $150,000. 
 
 For half a century Namaqualand in Cape Colony has been 
 a notable producer situated 300 miles north of Cape Town. 
 Annual production at Namaqualand, Cape Colony, is about 
 7,000 tons. The Ookiep deposit here is remarkably rich, aver- 
 aging 21 per cent., but is said to be nearly exhausted. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS o? AFRICA '<;/;, 101 
 
 In Madagascar the copper mines were formerly exploited 
 by the Government in the district of Ambositra. Beds of the 
 same metal have been found in the region of Betafo, in the 
 Vonizongo and near the lake of Kinkony in Boeni. Various 
 deposits have been discovered in the northeast, from which 
 much is expected. 
 
 There is an abundance of copper in Africa. An 
 Outlook. American mining engineer who has traversed afoot 
 
 the heart of the continent, reports that there is 
 enough copper in the Katanga region to supply the entire de- 
 mand of the world for 20 years. On account of the distance 
 from the congested manufacturing districts of the world and 
 the cost of transportation, these deposits are not likely to be 
 exhausted until the American and Japanese supplies have been 
 depleted. The ratio of increase that has arisen so rapidly 
 during the past ten years was due to the requirements of 
 the war and is not likely to be so marked in coming years. 
 The Katanga region is pre-eminently the most promising, 
 and with the new railroads coming in from the West Coast 
 will result in the largest increase from this district. Production 
 for all Africa fell off during the war but will soon far surpass 
 previous output. 
 
 TIN 
 
 The world's production of tin has remained practically 
 stationary of late years. Prior to the war the annual output was 
 about 125,000 tons. The figures for 1917 are: 
 
 Malaya 39,833 Tons 
 
 Bolivia 25,754 " 
 
 Banka 13,246 " 
 
 Siam 9,000 " 
 
 Cornwall 4,100 " 
 
 Billiton 5,000 " 
 
 Nigeria 6,510 " 
 
 China 9,133 " 
 
 Spain and Portugal 750 " 
 
 Australia 4,632 " 
 
 South Africa 1,632 " 
 
 India 1,200 " 
 
 Total 120,790 Tons 
 
 Under war pressure Nigeria, in Africa, rose to third place 
 as a producer of tin, surpassed only by the Straits Settlements 
 and Bolivia, in 1918. Nearly all tin produced is consumed in 
 
102 RAW Pao DUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 the manufacture of tin plate. The commonest impurity in tin 
 is iron. 
 
 Nigeria stands first in African countries as the pro- 
 Nigeria, ducer of tin, and the chief mineral wealth of the 
 Colony is tin. The industry, like that of iron, was 
 carried on by the natives from time immemorial, and the pro- 
 cess of smelting the tin was held a secret in the royal family 
 for many generations. 
 
 Tin is mined by the natives, who use sluices in the streams, 
 shifting the ore from one calabash to another. 
 
 The tin was smelted into thin round rods and used as an 
 article of commerce. The English first undertook the working 
 of tin mines in 1902. This tin was found to contain 80 per 
 cent, of tin dioxide equal to 64 per cent, of metallic tin. During 
 the period immediately preceding the war nearly a hundred 
 separate companies were floated to exploit the tin mines. At 
 present there are 43 companies listed on the public exchange. 
 There has been a good deal of the customary swindles of the 
 public where wild-cat mines have been "salted" and imaginary 
 shafts have been sunk by companies in London advertising 
 with metals borrowed from neighboring mines. 
 
 The mines are located in the western part of Bauchi prov- 
 ince, at an elevation of 3,000 feet, in the midst of a mountain 
 range, which is the water-shed for three large rivers. The 
 large rocks of granite, basalt, and gneiss have been eroded by 
 centuries of rain and the tin concentrates washed into the river 
 beds. Alluvial tin is found during the dry season on the bot- 
 tom of the river beds. 
 
 The entire stanniferous area is honeycombed with pits. 
 This Bauchi province is peopled by shy and timid pagan 
 tribes who are very backward in being initiated into the art 
 of scientific mining. The scarcity and distance of the villages 
 and of food supplies for man and beast is one of the many 
 drawbacks. The railroad chiefly used for the transportation 
 of tin is one opened by the Niger company between Loko and 
 the sea coast, a distance of 180 miles. 
 
 In addition to old mines not yet exhausted, new dis- 
 coveries of tin have been made, and the area workable of this 
 metal is known to extend over 9,000 square miles. Fifty tin 
 mines are in operation. 
 
 In the matter of fuel, oil is preferable, but owing to the 
 high railroad rates it is expensive. The newly developed coal 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 103 
 
 fields of Udi supply fuel which is hardly profitable to use in 
 the tin mines. Timber is the most practical fuel and exists in 
 large quantities in the southern territory. 
 
 The regulations for staking a claim are as follows : 
 
 The Government requires a prospector to take out a prospecting li- 
 cense at 5 per annum which entitles the holder to prospect in any part 
 of the Colony not already taken. As an alternative an exclusive license 
 to prospect within a given area of not more than 16 square miles, the fee 
 being 5 per square mile. Mining leases are granted to the holders of 
 these permits. The Government demands that some prospecting opera- 
 tions must have been carried on in some part of. the area applied for, and 
 also that the holder of the right can command sufficient capital to en- 
 sure the effective working of the same. The lease granted is for 21 years 
 with option of renewal. For alluvial mining leases the rent is 5s per 
 acre per annum, over an area of not more than 800 acres. For a lode 
 mining lease a rental of 4 a claim of 80,000 square feet is charged per 
 annum. A lease along a stream is granted at a rental of 1 per 100 yards 
 per annum. The maximum distance granted is one mile. 
 
 Principal Companies Registered for Working in Northern Nigeria 
 
 Capital 
 
 Anglo-Continental Mines Co., Ltd r 200,000 
 
 Benue (Northern Nigeria) Tin Mines, Ltd 60,000 
 
 Bisichi Tin Company (Nigeria) Ltd 200,000 
 
 Champion (Nigeria) Tin Fields, Ltd 50,000 
 
 Corona Tin Fields, Ltd 9,500 
 
 D. S. R. Syndicate 6,000 
 
 Darymusu (West Coast) Development Co 25,000 
 
 Fulani (Nigeria) Tin Mining Co., Ltd 80,000 
 
 Gel Tin, Lode & Alluvial Co., Ltd 100.000 
 
 The Geri Tin Syndicate (Northern Nigeria) Ltd 10,000 
 
 Gurum River (Nigeria) 125,000 
 
 Jauro Syndicate of Nigeria, Ltd 3,500 
 
 Jos Tin Area (Nigeria) Ltd. 110,000 
 
 Juga (Nigeria) Tin & Power Company 275,000 
 
 Kano (Nigeria) Tin Areas, Ltd 200,000 
 
 Kaffin Tin Company, Ltd 10,000 
 
 The Lafon River Areas, Ltd 50,000 
 
 Lucky Chance Mines, Ltd 75,000 
 
 Naraguta (Nigeria) Mines, Ltd 175,000 
 
 Naraguta Extended (Nigeria) Tin Mines, Ltd 160,000 
 
 Nigerian Tin Corporation, Ltd 100,000 
 
 Northern Nigerian (Bauchi) Tin Mines, Ltd 225,000 
 
 Northern Nigerian Trust Co., Ltd 100,000 
 
 Northern Nigerian Mining & Exploration Co., Ltd 10,000 
 
 Rafina (Nigeria) Tin Co., Ltd 100,000 
 
 Rayfield Syndicate, Ltd 20,000 
 
 Rein River (Nigeria) Tin Mining Co 76,000 
 
 Ropp Tin, Ltd * 30,000 
 
 South Bukeru (Nigeria) Tin Co., Ltd 50,000 
 
 Sybus Syndicate 10,000 
 
104 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The Teria Tin Mines, Ltd 40,000 
 
 Tin Areas of Nigeria, Ltd 60,000 
 
 Tin Fields of Northern Nigeria, Ltd 100,000 
 
 West African Mines, Ltd 100,200 
 
 Zuma Tin Areas (Nigeria) Ltd 60,000 
 
 (From Tin Deposits of the World by Sydney Fawns) 
 1913, Nigeria exported tin ore to the value of $2,763,125. 
 1914 " " " " " " " " 3,439 492. 
 
 1915^ " " 6,535 tons of tin ore, valued 'at $3,520,454 
 
 1916, " " 7,054 " " " " " " 4,100,000 
 
 1917, " " 9,966 " " " " 
 
 The Union of South Africa ranks next to Ni- 
 Union of geria in the output of tin, especially in the 
 
 South Africa. Transvaal which, since 1907, has become a 
 considerable factor in the world's tin product. 
 The tin in the Transvaal is mined from veins between red gran- 
 ite and sandstone, and no alluvial deposits have been found. 
 There are four producing mines in operation, with ten stamps, 
 with an average monthly output of about $145,000. The out- 
 put in 1910 was estimated at $3,455,000. According to the 
 Dominions Royal Commission, 1918, "The tin area in the 
 Transvaal has been hardly more than scratched. There is 
 ample room for large and profitable developments." 
 
 Alluvial tin has been found in Cape Colony and Swazi- 
 land. At Kuils River, 16 miles from Cape Town, is the prop- 
 erty of the Alluvial Tin Fields of Africa which has improve- 
 ments in prospect and which estimates that the profit in sight is 
 $.1,000,000. 
 
 A tin mine is located in Stellenbosch district in the Cape 
 of Good Hope, operated by hydraulic plant. 
 
 Union South Africa Exported in 1917: 
 
 Tin ore and concentrates $1,388,437 
 
 To Straits Settlement 1,362,114 
 
 To United Kingdom 13,845 
 
 1913, South Africa had an output of tin amounting to 
 
 3,260 short tons, valued at $1,700,000 ; 1915, 3,441 tons valued 
 
 $2,500,000; 1916, 2,557 tons, valued at $1,162,558; 1917, 
 
 2,690 tons, valued at $1,388,740. 
 
 Much of the tin exported from South Africa is destined 
 
 for the United States. It is first sent to Singapore to be smelted. 
 Tin is found in the Katanga zone, extending 100 
 
 Congo, miles along the right bank of the Lualaba river. It 
 is estimated that the amount of this tin is 20,000 
 
 tons. In 1906 the export of tin from Katanga amounted to 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 105 
 
 5% tons, and in 1915, to 8 tons. The tin veins are composed 
 of quartz and cassiterite. Tin is also found at Kasai and Thim- 
 biri. Alluvial deposits of tin exist also in the Tanganyika 
 Concessions, the most important being the Busanga Tin Mine, 
 but the sleeping sickness has so far prevented the full investi- 
 gation of these discoveries. Tin is also found on Busanga Ridge 
 in lodes and quartz reefs. This mine is well situated as to water 
 privileges. 
 
 The Union Miniere has an alluvial tin area at Bukama, 
 the head of the railway under construction from Kambove. 
 A plant for extracting, condensing and smelting the ore is al- 
 ready on the spot. The tin mine at Muika ceased operation 
 during the war. Tin exists at Kiambi, which gives fair promise 
 of being of considerable value. The proximity of these areas to 
 the river Lualaba offers reasonable means of transport. 
 
 In German Southwest Africa a new tin district has been 
 discovered between Swakopmund and Windhoek, 94 miles 
 from the coast. 
 
 In 1913, German Southwest Africa exported tin to the 
 value of $170,000. 
 
 The cost of production of tin from alluvial de- 
 Cost of posits is much less than from other kinds as no 
 Production, machinery is necessary. Expenses attached to 
 Nigeria tin properties were as follows (1914) : 
 
 Cost of washing tin, six pence per yard by hand sluicing. 
 
 Transport, at most, 25 per ton. Smelting and incidental 
 expenses 9 per ton. Government duty 5 per cent, on output. 
 
 With a hydraulic plant washing expenses will be reduced 
 to less than one penny per yard; completion of the railway 
 will reduce freightage from the mine to England to less than 
 20 per ton. 
 
 By these figures an average property can produce tin in 
 Nigeria and deliver it in London at a maximum cost of 50 
 per ton, which leaves scope for handsome profits. 
 
 The financial success of all alluvial tin fields depends 
 mainly on the values of the tin alluvium, the cost of extraction, 
 and the price of the pure metal. 
 
 In 1916 the working cost in Nigeria was about $50 per 
 ton. Twenty thousand natives were employed in 1916. The 
 average profits in 1918 were 8 per cent. 
 
106 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Average Tin Prices New York 
 
 1910 34 cents per Ib. 
 
 1911 42 " 
 
 1912 46 " 
 
 1913 44 " 
 
 1914 35 " 
 
 1915 38 " 
 
 1916 .43 " 
 
 1917 61 " 
 
 1918 : 65 " " " 
 
 $1,700 per ton for Nigerian tin in June, 1918, was a rec- 
 ord price. 
 
 The statement has been made that Northern Ni- 
 
 Outlook. geria is the "richest tin field in the world," but this 
 is evidently the exaggeration of an exuberant 
 amateur. Alluvial tin mines are usually short-lived, but there 
 appears to be sufficient alluvial ground to employ the energies 
 of eighty companies for the next ten years. Experts contend 
 that lode formations exist in Nigeria. 
 
 The future of the tin industry seems favorable in Nigeria, 
 Congo and South Africa. The water question is of first import- 
 ance in tin mining and has not always been satisfactory. La- 
 borers are abundant though unskilled. Many of them are cat- 
 tle herders and cannot be depended on for permanent employ- 
 ment. But there are 17,000,000 natives to draw from in Ni- 
 geria. 
 
 IRON 
 
 Iron comprises 95 per cent, of the world's production of 
 metal. It is the most useful of all and occurs throughout the 
 world. The total production for 1918 was 80,000,000 tons; 
 for 1916, 72,000,000 tons. In 1890 the production was 27,000,- 
 000 tons. The United States produces as much pig iron as all 
 the rest of the world. 
 
 Countries producing iron ore in order of importance are 
 the United States, Germany, France, Great Britain, Spain, 
 Russia, Sweden, Luxembourg, Austria-Hungary, Cuba, New- 
 foundland, Algeria. 
 
 Africa produces about 2,000,000 tons of iron per year. 
 Algeria is the principal country, yielding marketable iron; 
 850,000 tons in 1918. 
 
 The iron of commerce is obtained from the following ores: 
 hematite, a red oxide, which supplies more than half of the 
 world's supply; limonite, a brown ore; magnetite, the mag- 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 107 
 
 netic ore ; and siderite, the carbonate. Wrought iron is the 
 purest form of the metal. Steel contains a portion of carbon, 
 but not so much as cast iron. Iron pyrites, or "fool's gold," is 
 not useful as a commercial ore, on account of the sulphur 
 which it contains. 
 
 Iron ores found in Africa are principally hematite, Al- 
 geria being the main source. The meteorites, coming from 
 super-terrestrial sources, found in Africa contain a great per- 
 centage of magnetic iron. 
 
 From iron ore are manufactured cast iron, wrought 
 Uses of iron and steel. Silicon, carbon, chromium, nickel, 
 Iron Ore. manganese, tungsten, sulphur and phosphorus are 
 added to iron ore in small quantities, never over 
 5 per cent., to give the iron hardness, elasticity, durability, den- 
 sity, porosity, malleability, fusibility and resistance to corro- 
 sion. 
 
 Prices of Mesabi ore were $2.50 per ton for Bessemer and 
 $1.75 for non-Bessemer at Lake Erie docks in 1894. Prices rose 
 irregularly to $3.50 and $4 per ton up to 1903. 
 
 Bessemer Non-Bessemer 
 
 1910 $4.75 $4.00 
 
 1913 4.15 3.40 
 
 1917 5.70 5.05 
 
 The latter price was fixed by the Government for 1918. 
 
 Iron is found in the four corners of Africa. It 
 Production by is known to have been employed for thous- 
 Countries. ands of years in the arts in the Nile Valley 
 
 and is recorded as used by the natives of West 
 Africa for many centuries. A few years ago natives of the 
 West Coast of Africa made iron crosses for money exchange. 
 These crosses contained iron of more value than their equiva- 
 lent in American coin and were bought up freely for American 
 use. 
 
 The iron deposits of Algeria and Tunis are low phosphor- 
 us ores, valuable for European furnaces. They are high, grade 
 hematite ores, lenticular in shape, associated with schists and 
 limestone, 
 
 1913 Algeria had an output of pig iron amounting to 1,349,- 
 
 000 tons. 
 
 1914 Algeria produced 1,514,099 long tons iron. 
 1918 Algeria produced 850,000 long tons iron. 
 
 1913 Tunis had an output of pig iron amounting to 584,644 
 tons. 
 
 1915 Tunis exported 312,000 tons iron ore, valued at $800,000. 
 
108 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 J. E. Barker, English economist, writing in 1916, says: 
 "The metallic iron resources of Algeria and Tunis amount to 
 75,000,000 tons. The reserves of the rest of Africa are enor- 
 mous." 
 
 Morocco has iron mines that have long been worked but 
 the output is not equal to other northern African countries. 
 The prospect is good for a much larger development in the im- 
 mediate future. In 1915 Morocco produced 186,149 metric 
 tons of high grade hematite ore. 
 
 Angola has deposits of iron that are promising, but not 
 yet extensively worked. 
 
 Togoland is also rich in iron, but little worked. 
 
 In Nigeria the natives have worked iron for centuries in 
 small amounts. 
 
 In the Congo iron is the most abundant of all the ores. It 
 is found in large amounts throughout all portions of the State 
 in the form of magnetite and limonite. Iron has also been dis- 
 covered in the neighborhood of Lake Kivu, and explorers 
 mention it particularly as existing in various forms and often 
 in enormous masses, in Katanga. Ironstone, from which iron 
 is easily extracted, is found on the railway line between Eliza- 
 bethville and the southern border. Seven hundred tons of iron 
 bars, rails, nails and 450 tons of steel bars, came from the 
 smelteries of Belgian Congo during the latter half of 1918. 
 
 In German East Africa iron has been exploited, but the 
 working of the mines has been set back by the war. 
 
 In the Transvaal enormous deposits of iron are available. 
 Magnetic quartzites will aggregate many hundreds of millions 
 of tons. Hematite, in which old workings are found, occur 
 extensively in Swaziland. Professor G. H. Stanley, writing in 
 1917, states that in Natal limonite, hematite and magnetite un- 
 derlie a considerable extent of the coal measures in beds from 
 1 to 4 feet thick. An order for 2,000,000 tons to be sent to 
 England was cancelled on the breaking out of the war. In 
 Cape Colony large deposits occur in West Griqualand and 
 Bechuanaland. In 1915, the Transvaal exported 487 tons iron 
 pyrites, valued at $4,200. 
 
 Large deposits exist in various parts of the Union. That 
 found in Natal is poor in quality. There are numerous de- 
 posits of various qualities in the Cape Province, a few being 
 of the finest hematite with very small percentage of impuri- 
 ties. Much of the ore contains a high percentage of titanium. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 109 
 
 In some cases coal and limestone are to be found in close 
 proximity to the iron ore. 
 
 Deposits of both hematite and magnetite iron ores may 
 amount to millions of tons. One official writes that "iron will 
 be more useful to the country than gold." On the Orange 
 River and Transvaal the iron ore has a low percentage of 
 phosphorus and sulphur. Mr. W. F. Leathan on February 1, 
 1918, writes: "In South Africa there are millions of tons of 
 iron ore equal to the best Spanish ore. A small blast furnace 
 near Maritzburg is the only Blast furnace so far as I know in 
 the whole of South Africa for dealing with native ores." 
 
 Prof. G. H. Stanley of South African School of Mines, 
 says : "Iron ore, fuel and flux of satisfactory quality exist in 
 the Union as do other raw materials required for manufact- 
 ure of iron and steel. The present position of the South Afri- 
 can steel industry is confined to the production of steel from 
 scrap metal." 
 
 The Veereniging Steel and Iron Works employ 250 men 
 who produce bars, fencing standards and light rails, and have 
 an output of 10,000 tons per annum. 
 
 A smeltery has recently been established at Pretoria, and 
 the estimated cost of producing a ton of pig iron in 1917 was 
 $20. 
 
 A polytechnic school of engineering is being erected in 
 Capetown. 
 
 Northern Africa iron mines will produce much iron 
 Outlook, for reconstructing Europe. Africa's percentage of 
 total world production will undoubtedly increase 
 gradually. 
 
 MANGANESE 
 
 Manganese is a metal generally found associated with the 
 carbonates and silicates of iron. It has also been recognized in 
 the atmosphere of the sun, in sea water and in mineral waters. 
 It precipitates many metals from salt solutions. To be saleable 
 the ore must contain 35 per cent, or more manganese and for 
 ferro-manganese 40 per cent. 
 
 Principal sources of supply are Brazil, Russia, Cuba, In- 
 dia and the United States. It is also produced in Central Am- 
 erica, Japan and Philippines. 
 
 Africa offers good prospects for the discovery of deposits 
 of manganese which may contribute largely to the world's 
 supply. The moist tropical climate favors rapid rock decay 
 
110 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 and surface concentration of manganese oxides. New deposits 
 are likely to be uncovered. Tunis has deposits said to contain 
 4,000,000 tons of manganiferous iron ore. The production of 
 Tunis in 1917 was 5,800 tons. 
 
 On the Gold Coast there is a manganese deposit operated 
 by a British company at Dagwin. From one of these deposits 
 28,465 tons, valued at $52,000, were shipped to England in 
 1917. This deposit was first discovered in 1914 ; the ore assays 
 52 per cent, manganese. 
 
 Deposits of manganese occur in South Africa one depos- 
 it is said to be able to furnish fifty thousand tons of ore assay- 
 ing from twenty to fifty per cent, manganese dioxide. 
 
 Thirty miles east and west of Capetown are deposits of 
 manganese, one of which is estimated to contain 15,000 tons; 
 124 tons taken out, 1918. 
 
 In British East Africa manganese is found in the sand- 
 stone near the coast. 
 
 Egypt has large deposits of iron manganese ore, but the 
 per centum of managnese is small, being 30 to 40. It is almost 
 free of silica. 
 
 A deposit of manganese has been uncovered at Lulua on 
 the Congo, 
 
 A small amount has been taken out in the Katanga region. 
 Manganese goes into the manufacture of ferro-man- 
 Uses. ganese which is employed in the steel industry. Steel 
 alloy containing manganese is particularly important 
 in the manufacture of armor plate and munitions. Managnese 
 is also in demand by manufacturers of glass, electric dry bat- 
 teries, paints, pottery, tile and brick, these uses requiring, as a 
 rule, a much higher grade of ore than does the steel industry. 
 Also used as alloy in bronze. Manganese forms several oxides. 
 The price of high grade ore reached $1 per unit in 
 Prices. 1917; in 1916 it was 45 to 65 cents and before the 
 war 23 to 30 cents. The average value of manganese 
 ores up to January, 1916, was approximately from $10 to $20 
 per ton, but curtailment of f erro-manganese imports from Eng- 
 land led to a rapid rise, and in October, 1917, New York quo- 
 tation was $1 per unit for 48-cent grade with the chemical 
 ore at from 5 to 7 cents a pound according to grade. 
 
 IManganese is coming into greater demand and the de- 
 posits, particularly of West Africa, will likely be actively ex- 
 ploited. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 111 
 
 CHROMIUM 
 
 Chromium is a member of the natural family of elements 
 containing molybdenum, tungsten and uranium. The element 
 occurs chiefly as chrome-ironstone. 
 
 Chromic ore is used in the manufacture of ferrochrome 
 Uses, and steel for high-speed tools, armor plate and pro- 
 jectiles, bichromates of soda and potash, chromic acid, 
 chrome alum and refractory brick. The major consumption of 
 chromium is for use as a refractory lining in furnaces for 
 smelting copper and steel. 
 
 The principal supplies of chromium come from New Cale- 
 donia and Rhodesia. The chief producing belts in America are 
 the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges, in California and Oregon. 
 World's Production of Chromic Iron Ore in Long Tons, 1914 
 
 United States 591 
 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina 533 
 
 Canada 123 
 
 Greece 7,059 
 
 India 5,986 
 
 Japan 2,108 
 
 New Caledonia 82,806 
 
 Rhodesia 49,009 
 
 In 1918 Rhodesia led the world. 
 
 The sources of supply of chromium have changed rapidly. 
 Before 1913 Japan and Russia produced considerable amounts. 
 Of the 1916 imports into the United States, Rhodesia supplied 
 61,850 tons. 
 
 Chromic ore is sold on the basis of 40 per cent, chromic 
 acid and 8 per cent, silica, bringing in 1916 from 30 to 50 cents 
 per unit or $12 to $20 per ton. In October, 1917, prices stood 
 at 60 to 75 cents for 40 per cent, ore and over, equal to $24 and 
 $30 per ton. The California output was 13 times greater than 
 in 1915. In 1913 the price for chrome was $11 per ton. 
 
 Rhodesia, according to the Rhodesian Herald, Aug. 31, 
 1918, contains the largest deposit of high grade chrome in the 
 world. This deposit, discovered in 1906, has been systematic- 
 ally developed and 2,000,000 tons of exceptionally fine qual- 
 ity of chrome are now exposed. The average per cent, of 
 chrome assayed from the ore is 53. The area of the deposit 
 covers 4,500 acres. Engineers estimate that the ore can be 
 delivered at Beira at less than $8.50 per ton. Water-falls in 
 the immediate neighborhood supply ample power for working 
 purposes. 
 
112 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 The ore is shipped from Lorenco Marques and Beira to the 
 United States as ballast in ships which carry agricultural ma- 
 chinery to the African colonies. Most of the last two years' 
 exports from Rhodesia went to the United States. France, in 
 which f erro-chrome industry is important, took a large amount, 
 and a small portion went to Holland and England. 
 
 Southern Rhodesia first exported chrome iron in 1906. 
 By 1913 the export was 63,383 tons; in 1914, 48,207 tons; 
 1915, 60,581 tons, valued at $800,000; 1916, 88,871 tons; 
 1917, 72,962 tons, valued at $1,500,000. 
 
 During 1917 Rhodesia supplied half the world's output 
 of chrome. This is likely to increase as other sources of sup- 
 ply are diminishing. The principal deposit is at Selukwe. 
 
 The remarkable output of chrome in Rhodesia dur- 
 Outlook. ing the war will probably continue, as the world 
 calls for an increased amount of chrome for man- 
 ufacturing steel and ships returning from Africa need bulky 
 cargo for ballast. 
 
 SILVER 
 
 Silver is a metallic chemical element of a pure white color 
 with a perfect metallic luster. It is widely diffused in nature, 
 occurring in minute amounts in sea water, in the mineral king- 
 dom as free metal, as an amalgam with mercury and as alloys 
 with gold, platinum, copper and other metals. It is the most 
 malleable and ductile of all metals except gold, harder than 
 gold, but not so hard as copper. 
 
 Silver is found in United States, Mexico, Canada, Peru, 
 Chile, Bolivia, Germany, Spain and Australia. 
 
 The silver production of the world in 1910 was 221,715,- 
 763 ounces; in 1916, 175,933,000, valued at $119,727,000 and 
 $115,763,914, respectively. During 1915 Africa produced 1,- 
 160,000 ounces of silver. The total product is valued less than 
 $1,000,000. There are no direct silver mines in Africa. It is 
 a by-product of the lead, zinc, gold, copper and cobalt mines. 
 The Transvaal produces the largest amount of 
 Where Found, silver in Africa ; it is found in conjunction with 
 lead and cobalt. During 1913, Transvaal pro- 
 duced 952,521 ounces; 1914, 890,562 ounces; 1915, 965,914 
 ounces. 
 
 In the Congo native silver is found with calcite at Min- 
 douli. Also found on the Mayumbe and along Lualaba. Cop- 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 113 
 
 per ore of Kambove has an average tenor of 42 grams of silver 
 per ton. 
 
 In Algeria and Tunis silver is associated with galena de- 
 posits. 
 
 Silver has attracted prospectors in German Southwest 
 Africa but has never been mined in payable quantity. 
 
 Rhodesia is increasing her output of silver from 142,390 
 ounces in 1913 to 200,676 ounces in 1916. The value of the 
 export of silver from Southern Rhodesia (1915) was $926,165, 
 or 4 per cent, of total exports. 
 
 The production of silver in Egypt rose from 23,952 ounces 
 (1911) to 237,074 in 1915. 
 
 Production in 1918: Congo, 10,520 oz.; Egypt, 800 oz.; 
 Rhodesia, 175,700 oz.; Union of South Africa, 938,146 oz.; 
 Madagascar, 20,000 oz.; Mozambique, 1,200 oz. 
 
 Africa produces less than one per cent, of world's 
 Outlook, silver and is not likely to increase that proportion 
 soon. Belgian Congo shows the most growth, but 
 the Transvaal will remain the largest producer. There is a 
 demand for silver coins in British East and West African col- 
 onies, in Egypt and regions recently liberated from Turkish 
 rule. Great Britain has minted a new silver currency for 
 West African trade. 
 
 ZINC 
 
 Zinc, known commercially as spelter, is obtained mainly 
 from blende (natural sulphide) and calamine (natural car- 
 bonate). A less important source is silicate. Calamine was 
 formerly the most important ore of zinc but at present 
 blende is the chief source of the metal, usually containing 30 
 to 35 per cent, zinc, the balance consisting of iron sulphide 
 and other impurities. The complex mixture of lead and zinc 
 carbonates and silicate makes a difficult problem for the metal- 
 lurgist. 
 
 About 60 per cent, of the zinc consumed is used in the 
 Uses, galvanized iron industry; the manufacture of brass 
 
 about 20 to 25 per cent. Rolled zinc sheets are used for 
 roofing, screens, seives and in photographic processes; rolled 
 zinc plates are used in marine boilers to prevent corrosion; 
 zinc rods for electric batteries. The most important zinc alloys 
 in addition to brass and bronze are the various anti-friction 
 metals and aluminum zinc, used for light castings in the motor 
 industry. 
 
114 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Zinc production fell off during the war though much in 
 demand for making brass. 
 
 In the production of zinc the United States is first, sup- 
 plying 35 per cent.; Germany second, 25 per cent.; Belgium 
 third, 15 per cent. The world production for 1913 was 1,200,- 
 000 short tons, of which the United States supplied 350,000 
 tons; Algeria and Tunis 110,000 tons. 
 
 Algeria. Zinc ores, including blende, are worked in the 
 department of Constantine. Ore has been also mined exten- 
 sively near the Atlas Mountains. The ore, which consists of 
 carbonates above water-level and zinc blende below it, occurs 
 in veins in Cretaceous marls, schists, and limestones. Both 
 lead and zinc ores occur in the Oued Mozib Mine in the de- 
 partment of Oran. Deposits of zinc ore and galena occur in the 
 districts of Souk-Ahras and Tebessa. 
 
 Algeria annually mines about 85,000 tons of zinc, and 
 Tunis 30,000 tons. These deposits are operated by Belgian 
 and French companies. The ore is carbonate and silicate, and 
 the mines are not deep enough to reach the sulphide ores. 
 
 In 1913 Algeria produced 82,256 tons of zinc, of which 
 60,000 tons were calamine and 12,000 blende, to the value of 
 $2,534,862. 
 
 In 1914 Algeria exported zinc to the value of $1,399,636. 
 
 In 1915 Algeria exported 16,796 metric tons zinc, valued 
 at $810,407. 
 
 In 1916 Algeria exported 28,973 metric tons zinc, valued 
 at $1,398,092. 
 
 Tunis. Zinc ore has been obtained from a number of 
 localities in Tunis north of the Sidi-Ahmet Mountains, where 
 the annual output amounts to about 4,000 tons of ore. De- 
 posits of considerable size occur at Fedj-el-Adoum, about 12 
 miles southwest of Tebursuk, in the highest part of the Joua- 
 ouda Mountains. 
 
 At Zaghouan, 35 miles south of Tunis, there are deposits 
 of zinc ore, having an annual output of calcined ore of about 
 5,000 tons. Zinc ore also occurs at El-Akhouat, about 20 
 miles southwest of Tebursuk. 
 
 Tunis in 1913 produced 27,120 tons, of which 20,000 tons 
 were calamine and 3,000 tons were blende. These mines are 
 operated by French and Belgian companies who pay 5 per 
 eent. royalty of net proceeds to the Government of Tunis. 
 
 Other Countries, Zinc is used in the cyanide process for 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 115 
 
 extracting gold from the tailings, and will probably be more 
 extensively worked in the Waterberg districts of the Trans- 
 vaal. In 1915 the Union of South Africa produced 352 tons 
 of zinc. The mineral report of 1917 for South Africa states 
 that the zinc output increased in value $75,000. 
 
 An ancient zinc deposit is situated near the Red Sea, at 
 Gebel Rosas in Egypt and continues to yield a small quantity 
 annually. Egypt produced 3,160 tons in 1913. 
 
 In 1915 French Africa exported 2,464 tons of zinc ore to 
 the United States. 
 
 Zinc is found at Ituri in the Congo. 
 
 A considerable deposit of oxidized zinc ore at Broken 
 Hill in Rhodesia consists of two beds. One body of ore is esti- 
 mated at 250,000 long tons, averaging 26 per cent, lead and 
 22% per cent. zinc. The other deposit of 300,000 tons aver- 
 ages 32 per cent, zinc with very little lead. As high as 54 per 
 cent of zinc metal has been taken from this mine. Zinc smelters 
 are being erected in Rhodesia. 
 
 Zinc reached the maximum price of 25c in 1917, and 
 Prices, within a year had fallen to 6c. The current price for 
 July, 1919, is 8c per pound. 
 
 There is plenty of zinc in Africa which will be 
 Outlook, worked when other more profitable mineral de- 
 posits fail. Until the great War there were no smelt- 
 ers for zinc in Africa. The first was established in Algeria. 
 
 LEAD 
 
 Lead (Pb) is one of the earliest known metals, worked by 
 the Egyptians 3000 B. C. It is the heaviest of the base metals, 
 usually found in company with zinc and often with silver. 
 Metal lead is obtained by reduction of lead compounds. 
 
 The world's output of lead is in the vicinity of 1,200,000 
 metric tons annually. 
 
 Lead in payable quantities is taken from all sections oi 
 Africa, though in small amounts. It exists in Kwilu, Mayum- 
 be and Mia in the Lower Congo. In 1918 Belgian Congo ex- 
 ported 35 tons of lead. 
 
 In Nigeria the natives have worked lead for centuries. 
 
 German East Africa has lead mines but not extensively 
 exploited. 
 
 In 1913 German West Africa exported lead to the value 
 of $86,000. 
 
116 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Algeria exported in 1915, 15,046 metric tons, valued at 
 $494,659; 1916, 23,731 metric tons, valued at $801,529. 
 
 During 1918, Egypt exported 2,493 tons of lead. 
 
 In 1915 Tunis exported lead ore, 34,268,300 pounds, val- 
 ued at $512,000. 
 
 In Mozambique, the Anglo-Portuguese East African Con- 
 cession, Ltd., of London, with capital of $250,000, has obtained 
 rights for exploitation of lead. 
 
 The Union of South Africa produced 270 tons in 1917. 
 Galena yielding 80 per cent, pure lead is found near Marico 
 in the Transvaal. 
 
 The Broken Hill mine, Rhodesia, in 1908 produced 1,000 
 tons of lead, which was reduced in 1915 to 28 tons and rose to 
 10,000 tons in 1918. New smelteries installed should increase 
 output to 18,000 tons per annum. 
 
 Northern Rhodesia produced 4,100 tons of lead ore in 
 1917. Large reduction and concentrating plants are operated 
 by the Rhodesian Zinc & Lead Syndicate. 
 
 Lead is found nearer than Africa to the great com- 
 Outlook. mercial centers, and not being a bulky commodity 
 for freight ballast, other mines are more profitably 
 worked. The United States, Spain, Germany, Australasia, are 
 leading sources of lead supply. Africa contributes 3 to 4 per 
 cent, of world's total product. 
 
 COAL 
 
 Coal is the most essential fuel for developing power for 
 industrial purposes and determines centers of humanity. 
 Where coal deposits exist human population is densest. The 
 science of economics demonstrates that it is cheaper to bring 
 industries to the coal mines than coal to the industries. Hence 
 manufacturers of iron, wool and cotton are often found near 
 coal mines. 
 
 The annual world consumption of coal runs into many 
 million tons, the main supply coming from the United States. 
 According to J. E. Barker (1916), coal resources of Africa 
 are: 
 
 Transvaal 36,000,000,000 Tons 
 
 Rest of South Africa 20,200,000,000 " 
 
 Belgian Congo 990,000,000 " 
 
 Rhodesia 569,000,000 " 
 
 Nigeria 80,000,000 " 
 
 Total .... 57,839,000,000 Tons 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 117 
 
 It is estimated that in South Africa there is a reserve of 
 10,000,000 tons of hard coal. Anthracite coal is not very val- 
 uable, owing to the large percentage of ash. 
 
 Including the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the Orange Free 
 State, and the Transvaal, South Africa is estimated to have 
 produced 7,000,000 tons of coal in 1917. 
 
 The Transvaal coal mining industry is characterized by 
 two prominent features the enormous extent of coal bearing 
 ground, and the excessive competition among producers, with 
 a consequent reduction of prices to a level rarely leaving a 
 margin for fair return on capital invested. Extensive coal 
 seams in easy access of the Rand gold field is a conspicuous 
 natural blessing. 
 
 1913, The Union of South Africa exported bunker coal valued 
 at $5,200,000. 
 
 1914, The Union of South Africa exported bunker coal valued 
 at $5,000,000. 
 
 1915, The Union of South Africa exported bunker coal valued 
 
 at $4,550,000. 
 
 1916, The Union of South Africa exported 565,663 short tons 
 of coal, valued at $1,568,687, and bunker coal valued at 
 $9,944,000. 
 
 1917, The Union of South Africa exported 539,626 short tons 
 coal valued at $1,569,054. 
 
 The value of coal in South Africa is enhanced by its prox- 
 imity to the Rand Gold mines, for which it supplies power in 
 the absence of local water falls. The reserves of the Union of 
 South Africa are given as 55,200,000,000 tons, according to 
 the South African Year Book of 1919. 
 
 The exports of coal from South Africa go to Ceylon, In- 
 dia, and the islands of the Indian Ocean; also to South Am- 
 erica, from which cargoes of nitrate of soda are brought back. 
 The ports of shipment are Lorenco Marques and Durban. 
 
 Of the Union of South Africa the great Karoo system con- 
 tains coal deposits in a long vein averaging six feet in width. 
 Twenty per cent, of this is A-l coal. 
 
 From the bluff at Durban a loading plant has just been 
 installed, capable of loading steamers at the rate of 600 tons 
 of coal per hour. In 1915 Durban exported coal and coke to 
 the value of $3,709,397, or 20 per cent. 
 
 The price of bunker coal at Durban rose from 16 
 
 Prices, shillings in 1915 to 31 shillings in 1918. At the pit's 
 
 mouth, in the Transvaal, the price of coal was 4s 
 
118 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 4i/ 2 d in 1913, and 4s 9 l/3d in 1917 for one ton of 2,000 
 pounds. 
 
 British East Africa has no coal deposits important enough 
 to be worked, though fragments of coal are found in the bed 
 of the streams around Mt. Elgon in Uganda. 
 
 In the Congo there are two deposits of coal, with reserves 
 estimated at 1,000,000,000 tons. 
 
 The coal fields of Rhodesia are of large extent, the 
 Rhodesia, producing colliery the Wankie turns out 
 roughly 100,000 tons per annum for use on the 
 railways and mines. It is situated 150 miles north northwest 
 from Bulawayo in the direction of Victoria Falls. The scheme 
 which has been proposed for the utilization of these falls for 
 an electric power generating station for the gold mines may 
 check future expansion of the coal mines. It is considered the 
 boldest engineering project ever conceived; the distance from 
 the mines to the Falls is 600 miles. The undertaking is pro- 
 moted by the African Concession Syndicate. 
 
 In Rhodesia the bituminous coal in the vicinity of Wankie 
 is estimated at 750,000,000 tons. 
 
 The coal output from the Wankie Colliery was, in 19 15, 
 409,763 tons; in 1916, 490,582 tons; in 1917, 548,954 tonsl. 
 Southern Rhodesia exported: 
 
 1914 coal to the value ol $150,000 
 
 1915 " " " " " 130,000 
 
 1916 " " " " " 175,000 
 
 1917 " " " " " 200,000 
 
 An additional plant has lately been installed to meet the 
 increased demands for coal and coke from the copper mines 
 in the Belgian Congo. 
 
 The output of coal in Rhodesia: 
 
 1914 was 349,459 tons 
 1935 " 409,763 " 
 
 1916 " 491,582 " 
 
 1917 " 548,954 " 
 
 The average selling price was 8s 6.38d. In 1917, 78,- 
 501 tons of coke were made from Rhodesian coal and small 
 amounts from other mines. Coke is also manufactured in the 
 Congo. 
 
 Coal is to be found in considerable quantities in the Con- 
 go, but is not as extensively worked as it might be. Large coal 
 fields have been discovered on the shore of Lake Tanganyika 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 119 
 
 near the exit of the Lukuga, close to the line of the Grand 
 Lakes Railway. 
 
 Bitumen has been discovered in the neighborhood of the 
 Stanleyville-Ponthierville Railway and its exploitation is be- 
 ing carried out. 
 
 Much importance is attached to the Udi coal fields 
 Nigeria, of Nigeria, which have opened up 80,000,000 tons 
 of lignite. The product is a dirty looking brown 
 coal capable of generating considerable steam power for en- 
 gines. The potential revenue from these mines is undoubtedly 
 large as soon as adequate transportation is established and 
 modern mining methods installed. Many prospecting licenses 
 have already been granted and the question has risen as to 
 whether the Government should not control all of these coal 
 fields. 
 
 Udi coal, which is used for bunkering vessels, could be 
 purchased for $8.50 per ton at Port Harcourt in the spring of 
 1918. After extended trials the steam value of Udi coal is 
 reported as being from 75 per cent, to 95 per cent, of best 
 Welch coal. The Udi fields are situated 150 miles inland from 
 the Nigerian coast and are capable of 100,000 tons per annum. 
 
 Egypt has no coal of commercial importance. There coal 
 and fuel are large imports. 
 
 There is coal in German East Africa, but it has not yet 
 been scientifically extracted and so the yield has as yet not 
 been very important. 
 
 In Abyssinia coal is found near Addis Ababa and used for 
 fuel. 
 
 Senegal produces a good deal of coal, which has become 
 an important item of commerce. In 1914 Senegal exported 
 157,839 tons of coke, valued at about $1,105,000. 
 
 Angola has valuable bituminous coal fields and its shale 
 produces a large percent of oil. 
 
 A local chemist distilled shale containing 31 per cent, of 
 crude oil and 56 per cent, of coke oil, which is used for ben- 
 zine, paraffine, and for illuminating and lubricating. 
 
 Between Algeria and Morocco a large deposit of coal is 
 reported. 
 
 The amount of coal available here has not met 
 Mozambique, requirements for some time, causing serious 
 complaints in shipping circles. The probabil- 
 ity that many more steamers will desire to take coal in Lor- 
 
120 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 enco Marques than previously has helped to bring about a 
 working arrangement. 
 
 Large deposits of coal on the Zambesi, 20 miles above 
 Tete, and at another point 220 miles from Port Salisbury, are 
 being worked increasingly. Coal is also found near the Shire 
 river, and again to the northwest of Lake Nyassa. 
 
 In Madagascar a deposit of coal similar to that of the 
 Transvaal has been opened up, and the vein measures four or 
 five meters in width. Lignite and peat are abundant in Mada- 
 gascar, and encouraging indications of petroleum have been 
 uncovered. The Service des Mines has discovered a very im- 
 portant deposit of hard coal similar to cannel in the southwest- 
 ern part of Madagascar. 
 
 In the Cape Verde Islands are several deposits of coal, the 
 Isle Santo Vicente having four, all belonging to English com- 
 panies. 
 
 The Canary Islands furnish a great deal of coal to bunk- 
 ers, as well as other coal, and considerable amounts of kero- 
 sene. In 1913 these Islands exported bunker coal to the value 
 of $7,300,000 and kerosene to the value of $182,441 ; and in 
 1914, bunker coal to the value of $5,475,000; and kerosene to 
 the value of $96,120. 
 
 Coal is not needed for warmth in the greater part of 
 Outlook. Africa, but for fuel in operating machinery at the 
 two ends of the continent. South Africa is rapidly 
 developing as a manufacturing center, and has immense coal 
 reserves in the Karoo system. Coal is the dependence for pow- 
 er as oil supply is not reliable. Coal of all grades is found in 
 Africa. Madagascar has much hard coal. The climate is too 
 hot in Nigeria to expect as much development as in South 
 Africa. 
 
 MICA 
 
 Mica is a constituent of granite, gneiss and mica-schist, 
 and distinguished by its perfect cleavage. It is a silicate of 
 alumina, with potash, magnesia and iron and more rarely, 
 soda. The commercial variety is Muscovite, a potash mica, 
 generally known as white mica. 
 
 It is used largely as an insulating material in electrical 
 appliances; other important uses are for glazing windows of 
 stoves and furnaces, and for making lamp chimneys and the 
 diaphragms of phonographs. Ground mica is employed in the 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 121 
 
 manufacture of certain paints, lubricants, piston packing and 
 roofing. 
 
 Mica is a very widely distributed mineral. In- 
 Where Found, dia, the United States and Canada are, in the 
 
 order named, the chief sources of the world's 
 supply. German East Africa ranks fourth for flake mica, sup- 
 plying nearly 5 per cent, of world's output, 1914. 
 
 The mica of former German East Africa is a dark green or 
 brown Muscovite, splitting easily into smooth, flat sheets, and 
 very free from foreign matter. It is often transparent in half- 
 inch thickness. The main source of production is the Ulugaru 
 mountain region. The deposits, first opened in 1902, are of 
 the open quarry type. 
 
 The yield of mica in the Ulugaru mountains has increased 
 for many years; in German East Africa the monthly output 
 before the war had reached 8,000 kgs., valued at from 2.69 
 to 2.89 marks per kilo. One hundred tons were exported an- 
 nually before the war and the output had reached 1,000 tons. 
 
 German East Africa exported in 1911, 216,712 Ibs. mica 
 valued at 62,892 marks; in 1912, 339,084 Ibs., valued at 1,141,- 
 599 marks. 
 
 Flakes of considerable size are found in British East 
 Africa. On the western side of Lake Tanganyika in the Congo 
 there are also deposits. Small quantities are found in the 
 Transvaal in the Pietersburg district. The mica "books" some- 
 times are found as wide as five feet across and and a foot 
 thick. They occur in pegmatite dikes. 
 
 Black mica is found at Fatenga in French West Africa. 
 
 Sheet Muscovite is found in the plateau of Madagascar. 
 Six tons only were mined in 1913. 
 
 Nyassaland produced 119 short tons of mica from 1910 
 to 1912. 
 
 Mica-bearing pegmatites are found in Rhodesia, former 
 German Southwest Africa and the Kamerqons. 
 
 Prices of Transvaal mica in London, 1917, were $1.34 for 
 sheets 2x8 inches; 4x7 and 8x8 inches, $5.00 per ton. 
 
 Former German East Africa holds forth the most 
 Outlook, promising future for mica. Already it ranks third 
 in world production of commercial Muscovite. 
 There is much mica available in Africa, but the supplies of 
 America and India are in the centers of dense population and 
 must be exhausted before Africa is greatly developed. 
 
122 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 ASBESTOS 
 
 Asbestos is a fibrous variety of serpentine (crysolitc). It 
 is chiefly valuable on account of its incombustibility and as a 
 non-conductor of heat. It is used by being spun or woven, gen- 
 erally with a small amount of vegetable fibre in order to add 
 to its strength. Of the world's production of asbestos in 1912 
 88 per cent, came from Canada; 4 per cent, from Russia; 7 
 per cent, from South Africa. The latter source of supply is 
 steadily rising in proportion. 
 
 The bulk of asbestos is used for insulating steam- 
 Uses, and pipes, boilers, and packings for internal corn- 
 Substitutes, bustible engines ; also for firemen's uniforms, for 
 fire-proof purposes and as a non-conductor of 
 heat as well as of cold, and also as an acid-proof material. It 
 is woven into theatre curtains, holders and mats for hot flat- 
 irons and for other fire and heat proof fabrics. It is largely 
 used in building paper, in walls, roofs and floors, and as a cov- 
 ering for steam pipes and boilers. It is also used in paints for 
 its protective qualities. 
 
 "Mineral-wool", which is made by melting slag and lime- 
 stone together and then, by means of a steam blast, converting 
 the molten mass to a fine fibrous state, is a substitute for as- 
 bestos ; but can not be spun into thread. It is used in much the 
 same way and for the same purposes as true asbestos particu- 
 larly for fire-proof packing material in walls and floors, and 
 as non-conducting packing around boilers and steam pipes, 
 also extensively used in ice-boxes and refrigerators. 
 
 The most important African asbestos deposits oc- 
 Rhodesian cur in Southern Rhodesia, in the Victoria and Be- 
 Deposits. lingwe districts, but good deposits in other dis- 
 tricts have been found also. Rhodesian asbestos 
 is blue crocidolite of excellent quality and has greatly replaced 
 the Canadian supply in the English markets. Labor is cheap in 
 these mines and the mining conditions generally good. The 
 fibre is often four inches long and is especially adapted for 
 electric welding and spinning. 
 
 Rhodesia produced asbestos during five years, as follows : 
 
 1913 290 tons, valued at $ 25,000 
 
 1914 487 " " " 43,000 
 
 1915 2,010 " " " 160,500 
 
 1916 6,157 " " " 495,000 
 
 1917 9,562 " " " 949,100 
 
 In the Transvaal important deposits of asbestos have been 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 123 
 
 worked since 1906, in the Carolina district. It is of high grade 
 and has brought as much as $300 per ton in London. Fifty 
 miles north of Lydenburg there is a valuable specimen known 
 as iron-amphibole, a silicate rich in iron. It has been well and 
 profitably worked, but road transportation has been a great 
 drawback. 
 
 In Zululand crysolite asbestos is worked at Middle Drift 
 in the Tugela river, and tremolite asbestos near Pomeroy. 
 
 The first South African field of asbestos to be worked waa 
 in Griqualand West, where blue asbestos is found, a sodium- 
 iron silicate (crocidolite). This product has been mined for 2U 
 years. The supply seems inexhaustible and forms the largest 
 known asbestos area. The fiber of this variety is short, rarely 
 exceeding two inches and brings $125 per ton in London. The 
 very short fiber brings less. Railroads through this district 
 would greatly help the industry. 
 
 The Union of South Africa produced asbestos in 
 
 1913 to the value of $ 80,000 
 
 1914 " " " " 102,800 
 and exported in 
 
 1915 2,083 tons of asbestos, valued at $179,000 
 
 1916 4,228 " " " " " 415,100 
 
 1917 6,220 " " " 436,500 
 
 One-third of the product is consumed by the local textile 
 
 factories. 
 
 The 1916 prices were $200 to $300 per ton for blue 
 Prices, asbestos ; fibers of one-quarter to one-half an inch in 
 
 length in 1916 brought $75 per ton, and for fibers 
 one-half to one inch brought $125, and for over one inch, $175. 
 The average price per ton in England, before the war was 
 $120. 
 
 Prices range according to the length of the fiber from $15 
 to $900 per ton. In the United States the average price dur- 
 ing 1917 was $300 per ton. 
 
 The Cape Asbestos Company, formed in 1893, con- 
 Outlook, trols the bulk of asbestos production in South Af- 
 rica. The asbestos is mostly obtained by surface 
 quarrying. A few underground mines have been opened. The 
 mining is done by natives, paid according to the quantity they 
 return. Before the war the product was shipped in 100-pound 
 bags to Hamburg, London and Turin, Italy. 
 
 Since the outbreak of the war, greater interest has been 
 shown with regard to the mining of asbestos in South Africa. 
 
124 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Both blue and white asbestos are being obtained in varying 
 quantities and supplies are available for many years. 
 
 Previous to the war Germany took most of this asbestos. 
 England and the United States are now taking the output of 
 the old and newly-opened areas. Small shipments are also be- 
 ing made to Japan. 
 
 Shipments of asbestos mined in the Lydenburg (Trans- 
 vaal) district have been made to America to the extent of 
 freight space available. Although reported to be not equal in 
 quality to deposits in some other districts, the Lyndenburg fibre 
 is of great length, occasionally reaching 18 inches, and mining 
 conditions are exceptionally favorable, thus ensuring a large 
 output at small working cost. 
 
 The Union of South Africa holds the world's record for 
 the number of varieties of asbestos fiber produced, including 
 crocidolite, amosite, chrysolite and tremolite. The best 
 known of these is crocidolite, or "Cape blue," which is a spin- 
 ning fiber and available in large quantities. Several asbestos 
 factories are in operation in South Africa and the industry is 
 expanding. A supply is assured to meet any expansion in the 
 market for years to come, particularly near Lydenburg in the 
 Transvaal. The Carolina district is said to have a limited re- 
 serve. 
 
 GRAPHITE 
 
 Graphite, also known as plumbago, is a black, opaque 
 mineral of a bright, metallic luster, consisting of the element 
 carbon crystallized. It is one of the softest minerals, greasy, 
 and soils everything it touches. Chemically it is identical with 
 the mineral diamond, and a good conductor of electricity. 
 
 Graphite occurs naturally in two forms, crystalline and 
 amorphous. Crystalline or flake graphite occurs in veins. 
 Amorphous graphite is usually found near coal mines or other 
 carbonaceous deposits. 
 
 The world consumption of graphite is about 100,000 tons 
 per year. 
 
 The Annual Production for 1913 
 
 Austria 41,000 Tons 
 
 Canada 1,500 " 
 
 Ceylon 30,000 " 
 
 Italy 12,000 " 
 
 Mexico 2,000 " 
 
 U. S. A 4,000 " 
 
 Madagascar 8,000 " 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 125 
 
 The richest deposits in the world are at Sotf- 
 Wh*re Found, ora, Mexico, which supplies the pencil manu- 
 facturers of the United States. It is produced 
 in New York, Canada, Austrian Alps, Ceylon, Russia, India 
 and in considerable quantities in Madagascar. 
 
 The graphite industry has made remarkable progress in 
 Madagascar during recent years. Nearly 200,000 natives were 
 employed in this industry in 1917. The graphite is found in 
 the form of thin flakes not over an eighth of an inch in diame- 
 ter. The ore contains about 60 per cent, of graphite and us- 
 ually occurs with decomposed gneiss and schist. Ore has to be 
 crushed and the graphite floated off in water from heavier 
 impurities. Even the purest forms contain a small percentage 
 of volatile matter and ash. 
 
 In 1917 the production in Madagascar exceeded by about 
 10,000 tons that of any previous year and surpassed the output 
 of Ceylon. 
 
 Production (Tons) 
 
 1917 35,000 Tons 
 
 1916 25,480 " 
 
 The destination of Madagascar output is about evenly di- 
 vided between France and England; 8,000 tons was shipped 
 to United States in 1917, via Marseilles. 
 
 Production was commenced in Madagascar on a commer- 
 cial scale in 1910; by 1913 the output had risen to 8,000 tons. 
 The product is of a very valuable grade ; the price in England 
 in 1913 was 23 per ton while that from Ceylon was 27, the 
 latter always bringing highest prices in the market. 
 
 There is a small output of graphite in the Transvaal near 
 Zoutpansburg. Also found in Sierre Leone and German East 
 Africa. 
 
 Good sized reserves are reported in the Congo and Mo- 
 zambique, awaiting cheaper transportation facilities. 
 
 At the close of 1918 and first of 1919 prices for best 
 Prices, quality at Tananariva averaging 90 per cent, carbon, 
 fell from $145 to $97 per ton. New York prices dur- 
 ing the year were slightly lower than those for domestic flake. 
 Embargoes and lack of ships have seriously hampered the 
 graphite industry ever since the war started. In November, 
 1918, flake graphite was offered at 600 francs per ton. f. o. b. 
 Tamatavi. 
 
126 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Making pencils, dry lubricants, grate polish, paints, 
 Uses, crucibles and for foundry facings. Most of the Mada- 
 gascar graphite is used in crucible manufacture, with a 
 small amount employed as lubricants. Graphite is valued ac- 
 cording to its freedom from grit, its carbon content and above 
 all, its grain. The artificial product is largely used for lubri- 
 cating purposes and for electrodes, but not for crucible mak- 
 ing as it is devoid of grain. 
 
 Graphite is artificially made by the alteration of carbon 
 at high temperatures by two processes: (1) graphitization of 
 moulded carbons and (2) graphitization of anthracite en 
 masse. The artificial product is said to be fully equal to the 
 natural material in electrical conductivity for use as a lubri- 
 cant and in making stove polish and lead pencils. 
 
 Belgian, English and French commercial and in- 
 Outlook* dustrial companies and factories have been con- 
 structed in Madagascar for the treatment of graph- 
 ite, utilizing both wind and water for motive power. This in- 
 dustry is advancing rapidly and is sure of a great future. The 
 present mines have already realized more than a million tons. 
 The estimated capacity of the mines is 4,000 tons per month. 
 Bonneford, a French geologist, writing in 1918, estimates 2,- 
 000,000 tons of merchantable graphite near the surface. Im- 
 portant discoveries of graphite have been located on the high 
 plateaux and on the East Coast of Africa. These have inter- 
 ested various nationalities. 
 
 The over-production during the war has been largely ab- 
 sorbed. 
 
 PETROLEUM 
 
 Within the past few years oil has become the most sought- 
 after mineral commodity. Two thousand years B. C. oil was 
 called "burning water" and worshipped as a miracle by super- 
 stitious Babylonians who burned it as fuel in crude lamps. 
 Scientists are not yet wholly agreed as to whether its origin is 
 of organic or inorganic matter whether it arises from decom- 
 position of animal or vegetable substance. 
 
 Oil comes from the ground, a dark, thick, strong-smelling, 
 sticky fluid and is sent to factories to be refined into gasoline, 
 petrol, petroleum, vaseline. It enters into many industrial pro- 
 ducts such as rubber, paint, cement, resin, dyes, candy. Al? 
 machinery is dependent upon oil to reduce friction. Oil drives 
 automobiles, furnishes light, heats iurnaces, pulls 'freight 
 trains and moves steamboats. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 127 
 
 The world's production of petroleum in 1918 was 514,- 
 724,354 barrels of 42 gallons each. 
 
 The United States produces about three-fifths of the to- 
 tal; Mexico, Russia, Roumania, Galicia, Dutch East Indies, 
 most of the remainder. The amount produced in Africa is one- 
 half of one per cent, of total. Soundings for petroleum have 
 been made in many parts of Africa without great promise of 
 success. 
 
 Egypt is the chief producing country of Af- 
 Production by rica. Two fields near the Red Sea at Hurga- 
 Countries. dar and Gemsah produced during 1917 over 
 
 2,000,000 barrels of petroleum. These fields 
 were opened up in 1911 and have been progressively increas- 
 ing their output. The petroleum is deficient in oils of low 
 specific gravity which do not distill into kerosene suitable for 
 illumination. The oil is chiefly used in marine engines. 
 
 On account of the scarcity of coal during the war, Egypt 
 was using vegetable gas made from cotton stalks and other 
 vegetable matter to operate engines. 
 
 Production in Egypt Barrels of 42 Gallons 
 
 1913 94,635 
 
 1914 777,638 
 
 1915 262,208 
 
 1916 411,000 
 
 1917 500,000 
 
 Fifty thousand barrels of oil per annum come from Al- 
 geria. The Algerian deposits have been worked for years. 
 Now the Algerian-Morocco Boring Co. has five drilling rigs for 
 active exploitation. 
 
 In Morocco at Oued Mellah are found miocene sands 
 thoroughly oil-saturated which hold out hope for valuable de- 
 velopments in this country. 
 
 The use of petroleum is rapidly increasing in the Congo 
 as well as in the other parts of West Africa. All new river 
 craft are of the oil-burning type, on account of the absence of 
 gas and electricity and the high cost of coal. A pipe line for 
 conveying oil has been constructed from the mouth of the 
 Congo river 220 miles inland to Leopoldville. 
 
 A large part of the illuminating and fuel oils come from 
 America and pay the customs duty of 12 per cent, ad valorem. 
 Before the war the amount of fuel oil used in Belgian Congo 
 was estimated at 20,000 tons a year, but this amount is likely 
 
128 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 to increase to 50,000 tons per year. A large quantity of Am- 
 erican oil is shipped to Boma for distribution. 
 
 A small yield of mineral oils is taken out of the Congo 
 fields. During the second half of 1918 the Belgian Congo ex- 
 ported 400 tons of petrol, 15 tons benzine and 170 tons of oth- 
 er mineral oils. 
 
 A report of official investigation for petroleum 
 Union of by E. H. Cunningham Craig, September, 1913, 
 
 South Africa, closes as follows : "I am of the opinion that 
 prospecting of the folding belt of the, Karoo 
 system for crude petroleum and natural gas is of less import- 
 ance than the development of shale mining and refining. All 
 the evidence to hand at present leads to the belief that an oil 
 shale industry has good prospects for proving successful, and I 
 would urge that no effort be spared to insure that a fair test of 
 its possibilities be made." 
 
 The oil shales of South Africa are considered thin in com- 
 parison to the Scotch and not very rich. Up to the present on- 
 ly one small area has been properly examined in the north- 
 western portion of the Utrecht district of Natal. Examination 
 indicates a sufficient tonnage to warrant a plant of 300 tons a 
 day. The yield of ammonia is large. 
 
 In Southeastern Transvaal at Kirkvorschf ontein and near 
 Dordrecht, oil seepages occur. 
 
 In South Africa efforts have from time to 
 Manufacture of time been undertaken to produce an alco- 
 Motor Fuel. hoi motor fuel as a substitute for gasoline. 
 
 Many sources of alcohol have been tried, in- 
 cluding maize, prickly pear, potatoes and cane-sugar molasses. 
 In the molasses of the Natal sugar plantation, the Union ap- 
 parently possesses a large source of supply adapted for the 
 purpose of motor fuel and known as natalite. 
 
 To encourage the establishment of such an industry, 
 Parliament passed legislation enacting that no excise duty 
 should be levied on Union spirits or on ether manufactured 
 from Union spirits, providing such spirits are used as fuel for 
 internal combustion engines. As a result of this legislation a 
 factory for the distilling of motor fuel has been erected near 
 Durban, costing $400,000. The distilling plant has a capacity 
 of 3,000 gallons per day. 
 
 This locally-produced fuel has recently been placed on 
 the Johannesburg market at a price a little below that of gas- 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 129 
 
 oline. According to a Cape Town newspaper, a warning has 
 been given that this motor spirit is not suitable for cars having 
 carburetors with a cork float as it apparently contains a 
 denaturing chemical which quickly destroys a shellac casing. 
 
 Important wells of naphtha exist over a great part of the 
 west coast of the island of Madagascar. 
 
 Petroleum is being taken out in Angola by a Portuguese- 
 American company which has explored the region thoroughly 
 and finds moderate prospects. 
 
 A small quantity is obtained in Mozambique. 
 
 The discovery of important oil fields would mean 
 Outlook, an economic transformation in Africa, so many 
 are the uses of this fluid as fuel lubricant, illumin- 
 ant and for industrial purposes. Much effort and many pros- 
 pecting surveys have been made but as yet no very important 
 discoveries have been announced. Egypt is likely to remain 
 the chief source of African petroleum, though Angola and Al- 
 geria hold out promise. Thorough and determined investiga- 
 tion will be made throughout the continent after the war. 
 
 PHOSPHATES 
 
 Phosphate rock is a sedimentary deposit containing phos- 
 phate of lime and occurring as a hard rock between beds of 
 sandstone or shale. Phosphates are used chiefly for fertilizing 
 ingredients ; also for matches, for making phosphoric acid and 
 for use in metallurgy. 
 
 The world's output of phosphate for 1913 was 6,000,000 
 tons, one-half of which came from the United States. Tunis 
 ranks second to the United States with Algeria third. The re- 
 serves of phosphate rock in Northern Africa have been esti- 
 mated at 300,000,000 tons. 
 
 The subjoined table contains the principal numerical data 
 recently published by the International Institute of Agricul- 
 ture in Rome. 
 
 Production of Natural Phosphates (tons) 
 
 1916 1915 1913 
 
 Spain 14,000 9,000 4,000 
 
 United States 2,014,000 1,865,000 3,161,000 
 Dutch Antilles 14,000 29,000 36,000 
 
 Algeria 380,000 165,000 461,000 
 
 Egypt 125,000 83,000 104,000 
 
 Tunis 1,695,000 1,389,000 2,285,000 
 
 French IsPnds 
 
 in Pacific .. 27,000 72,000 82,000 
 
130 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The principal deposit of phosphate in Tunis is Gaf sa fields 
 in the southern part, where the annual output runs over a mil- 
 lion and a half tons of 60 to 68 per cent, phosphate. These 
 beds have been worked since 1885. The product goes to South- 
 ern Europe. 
 
 The deposits in Algeria are at Setif and Tebessa in the 
 eastern region and produce 500,000 tons annually. The rock 
 contains 65 per cent, of lime phosphate. 
 
 Egypt has phosphate beds at Port Saf algo near Suez 
 canal, and at Sebara on the Nile. These mines are operated by 
 British and Italian firms who ship the product mostly to 
 Japan. 
 
 The growing scarcity of fertilizers has long 
 Fertilizers in been evident to the South African agricultural 
 South Africa, community. Strenuous efforts are being made 
 by those interested to convert the large depos- 
 its of iron-alumina phosphates known to exist in South Africa 
 into a form suitable for agricultural use. Inquiries are also be- 
 ing made as to the extent and nature of alleged phosphatic de- 
 posits in former German Southwest Africa. Deposits of low 
 grade phosphates are found in Natal near Ladysmith and 
 Byrnetown. 
 
 One hundred miles inland from Casablanca in Morocco 
 there is a mountain plateau 40 miles long and 25 miles wide 
 which is a veritable storehouse of phosphate. A railway is to 
 be built to this mountain and a monopoly has been given to 
 the Moroccan government. bhov* r 
 
 At Dielor in Senegal there is a large phosphate bed of 50 
 per cent, of tricalcium phosphate, but not workable. 
 
 Deposits of phosphates occur one hundred miles south of 
 city of Tripoli. 
 
 Phosphates and sulphates of lime are found in Angola. 
 
 Under French development Northern Africa will 
 Outlook, likely continue as the world's leading producer of 
 phosphates. New railroads are being laid and sev- 
 eral million tons for a century may be taken out. The labor 
 situation is rather precarious. The bulk of the miners in the 
 desert regions are wandering tribes of Kabyles, who are un- 
 certain in their movements. Tunis, Algeria and Morocco will 
 produce large quantities of phosphates for the eastern hemi- 
 sphere, 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 131 
 
 POTASH 
 
 Before the war the great bulk of the world's potash (KO) 
 came from Stassfurt in Germany. There are also deposits in 
 Alsace, Spain, Galicia and Chili. Since the outbreak of war 
 considerable has been produced in the United States. 
 
 In Abyssinia there are deposits from which the salts are 
 carried on camel back fifty miles to the coast, about 1000 tons 
 per month. 
 
 The Italian Company developing these deposits estimate 
 a reserve of 850,000 tons. Output steadily increasing. 
 
 New deposits of potash and nitrate have been opened up 
 at Poison Hill in German Southwest Africa since the occu- 
 pancy by the English. 
 
 SALT 
 
 Salt is generously diffused through Africa, both in form of 
 brine salt obtained by evaporation and rock salt by quarrying. 
 
 Salt is found in natron deposits. 
 
 In 1912, salt mines were opened on the French Somali 
 coast, and in 1916, there was exported 8,000 metric tons. 
 
 German East Africa yields quantities of sodium, and chlo- 
 rine salts are found. The Central African Mines Company 
 extracts sea salt at various places along the coast. 
 
 Tunis (1913) produced 94,100 tons. 
 
 Algeria (1913) produced 26,969 tons. 
 
 The output was much reduced by the war. 
 
 In Abyssinia salt bars are used for money. The natives 
 exchange gold, rubber, ivory and commodities not essential 
 to life, for the salt bars which caravans bring across the des- 
 ert from Timbuctu. 
 
 '!Fne r lHiibri of South Africa produced in 1918, 57,984 tons 
 of salt valued at 106,000. 
 
 Algeria is said to have reserves of 250,000 tons of salt 
 in its mines. 
 
 The Congo has salt near the coast but not in the interior. 
 Lake Tchad, although an inland sea without apparent outlet, 
 has no salt deposits, and the imported salt bars are found 
 throughout the Sahara region. 
 
 Salt is one of the principal industries of Mauretania and 
 salt beds exist on the coast also. In French Guinea the year- 
 ly salt output is not more than 100 tons. In Dahomey the na- 
 tives of the littoral villages obtain salt from the lagoon waters. 
 
 The salt sold by the Mauretanians comes from Sebkhael- 
 Khadera where 4,000 tons a year are produced, and from the 
 
132 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Taraze mines which produce 1,000 tons a year. The former 
 is a deep depression in a vast desert region whose center is 
 marked by a trough about 50 kilometers in extent. This 
 trough dries quickly and the salt may be gathered annually. 
 The sand covering the salt is first removed, then the salt is 
 cut into bars weighing about 25 kilograms. There are sev- 
 eral layers of salt. When one portion of the trough or pool 
 is exhausted another is worked ; the rains fill the holes again 
 and salt is formed. In two or three years the pits are filled to 
 overflowing again. One hundred and sixty thousand bars are 
 mined annually. 
 
 It is estimated that the salt thus mined and exported is 
 worth about 1,000,000 francs yearly. 
 
 It is pure white, smooth and sometimes has red streaks. 
 This salt supplies the whole of West Soudan. 
 
 Salt is packed in goat skins and sold in the Soudan mar- 
 kets for from 10 to 20 centimes per kilogram. 
 
 At Goumbou all trading is carried on with salt. Two- 
 thirds of annual imports, valued 200,000 francs, are for salt, 
 the other third for cattle. 
 
 In Mozambique the Zambezi Company operates salt 
 plants in several localities. 
 
 At Indugo the salt pits are situated three feet below the 
 level of the river Macuae. The water is conducted at high tide 
 to the beds, when it is slowly evaporated, leaving the salt to be 
 shoveled into sacks. 
 
 Forty thousand sacks of 60 pounds each is the estimated 
 output of this Indugo station. Considerable salt is exported 
 to foreign countries. 
 
 Madagascar yields much salt, as do the smaller islands 
 of the Indian and Atlantic oceans. In the Cape Verde Islands 
 Sal is the center of salt manufacturing industry. 
 
 Salt pans are found and worked in many parts of South 
 African colonies. The largest are in the Cape Province near 
 Uitenhage, where 100,000 bushels have been procured in a 
 year. 
 
 Export Figures 
 Mozambique exported salt: 
 
 1913 through Chinde to the value of $4,375 
 
 1913 Mozambique to the value of 2,742 
 
 1913 Beira to the value of 7,836 
 
 1914 " Chinde to the value of 5,203 
 
 1915... 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 133 
 
 1916 " Chinde 2,271,141 Ibs. salt. 
 
 1916 Mozambique.... 959,662 ' 
 
 1915.. ..Algeria exported 1,875 tons valued at $14,475 
 1916.... " " 3,910 " " " 30,108 
 
 1915.. ..Egypt exported salt to the value of $144,246 
 1916.... " " " " " " " 112,764 
 
 1914, French Somali exported crude salt to the value of 
 $20,000. 
 
 1915, Katanga exported 5.14 tons of salt. 
 
 In the second half of 1918, Belgian Congo exported 10 
 tons table salt. 
 
 SODA 
 
 Next to lime, soda is the most common alkali. 
 
 Borate and benzoate of soda are used in preserving food. 
 
 German East Africa yields great quantities of sodium 
 and there seems to be unlimited supply of carbonate of soda. 
 
 Two hundred and fifty miles west of Mombassa in Brit- 
 ish East Africa, is a lake of soda 16 miles long and four miles 
 wide. Inflowing waters have brought the soda deposit and the 
 glare of the tropical sun has drawn the water from the lake, 
 filled past the saturation point with the soda, till it is crystal- 
 lized into a solid mass. 
 
 Magadi Soda Lake, of about 30 square miles, and 10 feet 
 deep, is just north of the German boundary. The bottom of the 
 lake is covered with carbonate of soda which re-forms as water 
 flows into spaces from which soda has been taken. The total 
 deposit is estimated at 200,000,000 tons. Prior to the war 
 preparations were being made for an annual output of 160,000 
 tons. This Lake was leased for 99 years in 1911 by an Eng- 
 lish Company. Drying sheds were erected in 1912. 
 
 Considerable soda is found in the hills bordering the 
 Nile, and the Egyptian output of this commodity is an im- 
 portant item in the country's commerce, although it has not 
 been sufficiently worked to give it a leading place. 
 
 Pretoria in Union of South Africa produced soda (1918) 
 valued at $47,000. 
 
 NATRON 
 
 Natron or trona is a hydrous sodium carbonate, crystalliz- 
 ing in the monoclinic system. It occurs in nature only in solution 
 as in Natron or Soda Lakes of Egypt. These lakes are eight 
 in number and located in the Libyan Desert, 60 miles north- 
 west of Cairo. They were the source of soda salts used by the 
 ancient Egyptians in their embalming processes. 
 
134 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Natron is found near the volcanic deposits north of Kili- 
 mandjaro, German East Africa. 
 
 Abyssinia has natron in small quantities. 
 
 Eritrea manufactures bicarbonate of soda from natron 
 sent principally to Australia for canning foods. 
 
 Natron is used in glass and soap making. 
 
 LIMESTONE 
 
 Limestone comprises the carbonates, among the most 
 common of rocks. Limestone varies in hardness from the firm- 
 est and most close-grained marble to chalk, and furnishes ma- 
 terial for many purposes. It is formed of fossil shells, and is 
 used for building stones, in road-making, broken for railroad 
 ballast, as flux in smelting, for making chemicals, glass, con- 
 crete, sulphite pulp and paper. 
 
 Lime is produced by burning or calcining limestone in 
 kilns and is used in making soap and candles, in unhairing 
 skins and hides; slaked lime is used as a fertilizer, and for 
 purifying coal gas. One of its most common uses is for mortar, 
 made by mixing air-slacked lime and sand with water to form 
 a paste; as the moisture dries out the mortar "sets*' arid be- 
 comes hard and strong, as was the limestone in the beginning. 
 Hydraulic limestones make a cement that combines chemically 
 with water and does not depend on drying for the "setting." 
 This cement is made from hydraulic lime, marls, chalk, clay, 
 volcanic tufa and slag. 
 
 Limestone in its various forms is to be found in many 
 countries of Africa and is exported from a few quarries. 
 
 Cretaceous formation of Africa is favorable to limestone. 
 
 In Senegal are rich deposits of lime in the shell beds that 
 are in process of rock formation. These beds have been worked 
 for many years and in 1879 the Saint-Louis beds exported 130 
 hogsheads of lime. This shell material makes good pottery 
 and brought about pottery manufacture which, while it has 
 never become an extensive business, has nevertheless furnished 
 much output for local use and small yearly exports also. 
 
 In French West Africa, on the beach of Popenguine, is 
 found a white calcareous rock which makes good limestone 
 and lime. Shell deposits of ages have produced a calcareous 
 soil in all this region. 
 
 In Madagascar phosphate of lime is found and promises 
 to develop into a large industry. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 135 
 
 In the Union of South Africa a large and increasing 
 amount of cement is being made from limestone. 
 
 MARBLE 
 
 Marble (marmor) is limestone capable of taking polish or 
 being used for sculptural purposes. It differs from common 
 limestone in that it is more or less crystallized by metamorph- 
 ism. 
 
 In German Southwest Africa there are mountains of mar- 
 ble, varied in color and said to be equal to Carrara marble in 
 quality. There are great quantities of white marble suitable 
 for statuary, but as yet comparatively little worked. The col- 
 ored varieties are being more extensively worked. 
 
 In French West Africa a good deal of marble has been 
 discovered, some of which has been worked by the natives for 
 many years. In the Bandiagara district is a valuable quarry 
 of such finely crystallized marble that it is used for small sculp- 
 ture work, fine carving, and for jewelry. 
 
 Algeria produces white and pink marble, also yellow, 
 gray and red onyx. 
 
 Tunis and Morocco quarries furnished marble for the Ro- 
 man Republic. 
 
 In Egypt, near the Red Sea, there are many varieties of 
 marble. The Egyptians, the Romans and the modern Arabs 
 have all quarried building stone from northern Africa. 
 
 DeLaunay, the distinguished authority on minerals, wrote 
 in 1903, that many beautiful marbles would likely be found in 
 the heart of Africa. 
 
 GYPSUM 
 
 Gypsum is known as hydrated calcium sulphate, of tex- 
 ture so soft as to be easily scratched. A variety of this rock is 
 partially transparent. The best known form of gypsum is ala- 
 baster, a beautiful white species popular in making statuettes 
 and other fine ornamental art works. 
 
 Alabaster, named for the Egyptian village Alabastron, 
 was quarried near Memphis as early as the days of the Pha- 
 raoh Cheops. The rich cream and amber tone of thi? 'stone 
 adds much to the attractiveness of the ancient mosques, tombs 
 and citadels of Egypt. 
 
 Heat crumbles gypsum and makes a powder known as 
 plaster of paris, which calcined material can be rendered solid 
 again by the use of water, and is used in plaster casts and 
 other ornamental objects. Wall plaster is made from plaster 
 of paris, mixed with sand and animal or vegetable fiber, and 
 
136 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 does not set so rapidly as pure plaster of pans. Powdered 
 gypsum is also used in making paper and baking powder. 
 
 Gypsum is found in many parts of Africa but has never 
 been made an extensive article of commerce, although in lo- 
 calities its various forms are being worked, and several fine 
 varieties have been discovered in limestone regions. In the 
 Southwest African Protectorate there are enormous deposits. 
 
 TALC 
 
 Talc is a soft mineral, whitish, greenish or gray in color, 
 and found in granular or fibrous masses. Talc in used in mak- 
 ing bath and laundry tubs, hearthstones and fire-brick, grid- 
 dles, pencils for tailors and dress-makers, gas tips. Powdered, 
 it is used for foundry facings, lubricating machinery, dressing 
 skins and leather, and in paints and toilet powder. It is also 
 used for "loading" in making paper, and may have been used 
 in adulterating sugar or flour. 
 
 Talc is mined in Barberton district in sufficient quanti- 
 ties to supply most of the Union of South Africa. The output in 
 1917 was 785 tons, valued at $9,700. Slate pencils, tailors' 
 chalk, bianco, toilet powders, cloth balls for cleaning purposes 
 and billiard chalk are now being manufactured in the Union 
 from the local product. Large quantities of powdered talc are 
 used in motor garages for the inside of tires, for soap and paint 
 manufacture, for dressing of leather and lasting of boots and 
 shoes. Practically the whole of the Union requirements in many 
 of these lines are now being supplied from local sources. With 
 increased shipping facilities a good export trade is likely. 
 
 CHALK 
 
 Chalk, the softest of the limestone formations, resembles 
 white clay, but is more brittle, and can only be used in a sub- 
 stantial way in powdered form. From chalk is made whiting; 
 whitewash, made by mixing whiting with water and a small 
 amount of glue; putty, mixed with linseed oil; adulterant for 
 white pigments in paint. Prepared chalk is used as a toilet pow- 
 der and for polishing metals and other materials. 
 
 There are great chalk beds on the fringe of the Sahara 
 Desert, which have been partially worked for many years. 
 
 OTHER PRECIOUS STONES 
 
 Diamonds are not the only precious stones to be found in 
 Africa, though most important in quantity and value. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 137 
 
 Rhodesia produces topaz, tourmaline, wolframite and oth- 
 ers of less value. 
 
 East Africa produces tcpaz, agate, moonstone, quartz, 
 crystal, garnets and, in lesser amount, rubies and sapphires. 
 
 Madagascar is rich in precious stones. Rubies, sapphires, 
 tourmalines, beryls and garnets are found near Manandona 
 river. The beryl is green, rose and white. The garnet is of a 
 brownish red, and the tourmaline is of red and yeDow tints. 
 Other precious stones known as pierres de fantaisie are abun- 
 dant in Madagascar. The opal has been discovered but is not 
 yet quarried to any appreciable extent. 
 
 Numerous beds of pegmatites exist containing crystals and 
 nuggets of uraniferotis stone. These nodules are rich in uran- 
 ium and contain up to 25 and 26 per cent, of this ore. Their 
 radio-active power has not yet been determined. They are sit- 
 uated between Antsirabe and Betafo. 
 
 In South Africa are many semi-precious stones, much used 
 for jewelry and other ornamental purposes. The Cape ruby, 
 or precious garnet, is obtained from dianiondiferous deposits 
 and cut in Kimberley. These stones bring about $1.00 per carat 
 and part of them are clear, beautiful stones. Agate or onyx 
 of fine quality is obtained from the river wash of the Orange 
 and Vaal rivers. This takes a high polish and is in demand 
 for personal and household adornment. Red crystals are found 
 in corundum deposits; the balas ruby is found in the Zibaic 
 Mine in the Carnarvon district; verdite is worked in the Bar- 
 berton district. The laurel crown on the statue of Victory in 
 London came from this mine. 
 
 Emeralds are found in Egypt, at Djebel Sabara. Some of 
 these stones are very beautiful and bring a high price. In the 
 Sinai peninsula are found turquoise and malachite. Angola 
 and German Southwest Africa also have malachite. 
 
 Onyx, chalcedony and other stones that made up Solo- 
 mon's temple are found in Africa. 
 
 Prase, a green variety of chalcedony, is found in Swazi- 
 land; tiger eye or cat's eye, is crocidolite asbestos hardened 
 by infiltration of silica and of color ranging from yellow to 
 brown, caused by the oxidation of iron. It takes a fine polish 
 and is used in jewelry. 
 
 MINERALS OF MINOR PRODUCTION 
 Basalt, a dark, heavy, fine-grained, igneous rock, is found 
 in the Canaries. 
 
138 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Bismuth, a lustrous, reddish-white metal, used in prepar- 
 ation of pharmaceutical products and cosmetics, is being taken 
 out in small quantities of 60-70 per cent, ore in Rhodesia. 
 
 Corundum is an abrasive of very good quality found in 
 decomposed pegmatites. The price in Europe averages $100 
 or more per ton. 
 
 The principal countries producing corundum are Can- 
 ada, United States, Naxos, Transvaal, Madagascar. Since the 
 war the production in the two last named has been consider- 
 able, the value in 1916 from the Transvaal being 7,762, 
 though previous amounts had been trifling. In Madagascar 
 1,532 tons were exported in 1916, as compared with 334 tons 
 in 1915. 
 
 Corundum has been discovered in payable quantities on 
 a farm in the Zoutpansberg district of the Union of South Af- 
 rica. After-the-war conditions will not likely be favorable to 
 development of African corundum. 
 
 Titanium, a dark gray metal, is found in numerous beds 
 in Madagascar, where the ore sometimes attains 50 per cent. 
 The mines of Betairy contain amounts visible on the surface, 
 exceeding 100,000 tons. 
 
 In Tripoli is found infuscrial earth, valuable in mak- 
 ing explosives. It is known in commerce, under the name 
 'Tripoli". 
 
 Bitumen is being worked near Stanleyville in Belgian 
 Congo. 
 
 Mercury is found in Algeria and Tunis. 
 ANTIMONY 
 
 Antimony, a silver-white, crystalline metal used in chem- 
 istry and medicine, is found in Morocco, in the Transvaal, and 
 at Djebel Taya, in Algeria, 
 
 Asia is the chief source of antimony, supplying 50 per 
 cent, of the world's output. France is second with nearly 25 
 per cent., followed by Mexico and Austria-Hungary. Algeria 
 produces 1 per cent, but is capable of much development. 
 There is a small output in Morocco and also in the Transvaal 
 The Algerian ores are nearly all oxidized, and contain many 
 rare antimony minerals. The number of metric tons of anti- 
 mony mined in Algeria : 
 
 1913 582 Tons 
 
 1914 1,100 " 
 
 1915 , 9 r 022 " 
 
 1916 28,473 " 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 139 
 
 This was smelted at Marseilles. 
 
 British South Africa produced 617 tons in 1917, and is 
 increasing her output. 
 
 Antimony is also found as a by-product of the gold mine* 
 in Southern Rhodesia. 
 
 Output in the Transvaal in 1915 was 90 tons; in 1916, 
 720 tons valued at $73,400 ; the ore varied from 40 to 70 per 
 cent. In 1918, only 99 tons. 
 
 Deposits are found in Rhodesia but not worked. 
 
 Ue. Chiefly as a hardening in white metal alloys, type, 
 shrapnel bullets, Britannia metal, in dyeing and rubber indus- 
 tries, glass making and enameling iron wares. War muni- 
 tions have called for increased output of antimony. 
 
 Monazite, which enters into the fabrication of welsbach 
 burners, is obtained in small quantities in Mozambique. 
 
 Radium, the metal in transition between uranium and 
 lead has been discovered in small quantities in German East 
 Africa and Northern Madagascar. Radium is used for lum- 
 inous paints and for instruments used in airships; also in the- 
 rapeutics and particularly in the recently discovered cure 
 for cancer. 
 
 Platinum to the amount of l J /2 ounces to the ton was tak- 
 en from the Black Reef in South Africa. Traces have been 
 found in Egypt. 
 
 Molybdenum and vanadium are taken from the Otavi 
 mining district in former German Southwest Africa. 
 
 Tungsten occurs with a number of minerals but the only 
 ones dealt with on a commercial scale are wolfram and scheel- 
 ite, the former being the most common. Tungsten ores are 
 treated by water concentration and if associated with tin are 
 passed through a magnetic separator. Between 1897 and 1914 
 the price of tungsten ore varied between 9s. and 51s. a unit, 
 the highest price being recorded in 1907. 
 
 Uses. In the form of tungsten powder (metal) or fer- 
 ro-tungsten (alloy) it is used in the manufacture of special 
 high-speed tool steels ; the best tungsten steel will contain up 
 to 20 per cent, metallic tungsten. It is used also for filaments 
 for electric lamps, in various surgical, dental and other in- 
 struments, and in less important uses. 
 
 The principal countries producing tungsten are United 
 States, Burma, Australia, Portugal, Argentine, Bolivia and 
 Japan; it has been known in Southern Rhodesia since 1906, 
 
HO RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 but the mines had not been worked for years until the war 
 with Germany; production in 1917 was about 29 tons, valued 
 at $25,000. 
 
 The prospecting in Rhodesia has nowhere been more than 
 a few feet below the surface. The tungsten reefs vary from 
 200 yards to about a mile long, situated within a block about 
 10 square miles near Essexvale. Also occurs in German South- 
 west Africa. 
 
 Nickel, used chiefly as alloy in nickel-steel, is found in 
 Africa. A promising deposit of nickel from pyrrhotite occurs 
 in norite at lusigora, Cape Province. 
 
 A bed of gamierite containing millions of tons, has been 
 discovered at Valozoro, Madagascar. The content of nickel 
 oxide runs as high as 25 per cent, for part of the bed, but the 
 average is 5 to 6 per cent. 
 
 There is a small production of magnesite in the Trans- 
 vaal, 780 tons in 1918. This mineral is used in making refrac- 
 tory bricks and furnace linings and cement floors; also as a 
 source of magnesium salts. Large deposits in Angola in vol- 
 canic districts. 
 
 Sulphur is found in various parts of Africa. In South Af- 
 rica there are several deposits, but the only ones of any value 
 are in the northern part. 
 
 Suiphur is obtained in the neighborhood of the volcanic 
 deposits of the Sahara Desert, in the hinterland of Tripoli and 
 Algeria. It is also obtained near Novo Redondo in Angola. 
 
 Rhodesia is capable of giving good outputs of sulphur. 
 Water in certain localities is so sulphurous as to make the 
 places where these springs occur more or leas famous as 
 health resorts. 
 
 In 1915 the Transvaal exported 487 tons of iron pyrites 
 valued at $4,200. 
 
 In Madagascar sulphur is found and gives promise of a 
 large output. 
 
 Aluminous laterites have been discovered in Ashanti, 
 Rhodesia, Nigeria, Congo. Bauxite deposits in French Guinea 
 have resulted from alteration of the gneisses and feldspathie 
 rocks. 
 
 Cinnabar is reported in Transvaal, Abyssinia and Mada- 
 gascar. Deposits are being worked in Algeria, from which 
 vermillion is obtained. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA HI 
 
 VEGETABLE PRODUCTS 
 
 Although Africa is one-third desert, agriculture seems 
 destined to become the main economic resource of this vast, 
 a: most virgin, continent. Jungles and deserts will be reclaimed 
 least in part. With transportation facilities extending in- 
 land from the coast immense plateaux will be opened up for 
 cultivation of grainy, 
 
 Africa leads the world in production of palm oil, cocoa, 
 cloves, cassava, kola, gums, esparto. Other large exports are 
 dates and olives from North Africa, peanuts from West Coast, 
 bananas from Central Africa, sisal from East Coast, developed 
 largely through German initiative. Fruits for European and 
 American winter markets are profitably raised in the South. 
 
 Vegetables originating in Africa include watermelon, 
 Carob-beans, okra, cucumber, Kaffir corn, sorghum, gum Ara- 
 bic, oil-palm, coffee, kola, gourds, Guinea pepper, Lanclolphia 
 rubber, locusts, papyrus, ground nuts, canary grass, carda- 
 mons, narcissus, lotus, castor-bean, several pot-herbs. 
 
 Missions and experiment stations of various nations are 
 teaching the black natives of their colonies the rudiments of 
 modern agriculture. Negroes seem especially adapted for 
 raising cotton, tobacco and coffee. The two latter are increas- 
 ing on the uplands of Rhodesia, Abyssinia, Liberia and East 
 Africa. Through efforts of the British Cotton Growers' Asso- 
 ciation cotton is being introduced in all British colonies. Wild 
 rubber of the Congo basin is being supplanted by plantation 
 rubber. 
 
 Cassava, rice, bananas and maize are the food staples 
 among hordes of interior natives, who universally cook with 
 vegetable oils. Preparation of the different oils gives employ- 
 ment to large numbers of native women. Kaffir corn, wheat, 
 barley, durra, promise larger yield. Immense grass lands for 
 pasturage extend over the veldts. Raffia abounds in Mada- 
 gascar. The fertile Nile valley yields long-staple cotton, sugar 
 cane and onions. Natal has expanding tea plantations. Na- 
 tive woods, such as mahogany, cork, okume (for cigar boxes) , 
 rosewood, yellowwood, wattle and mangrove, are of commer- 
 cial importance. During the world war France utilized her 
 African colonies as a great kitchen garden to supply the com- 
 missary. 
 
RAW PROD UCTSOF AFRICA 
 
 VEGETABLE OILS 
 
 Extracting oils from vegetable matter is an old industry 
 For many centuries oleaginous products have formed import- 
 ant articles of trade, and the commerce in them today is world 
 wide. All kinds of vegetable oils are produced on the conti- 
 nent of Africa, particularly the West Coast, many from native 
 trees and fruits and others from plants introduced into the 
 different sections. Important among these oils are palm, olive v 
 cocoanut, shea, clove, sesame, mafurra, cotton-seed, peanut 
 and kola. 
 
 All kinds of vegetable oils are produced, especially on the 
 West Coast. 
 
 An estimate of exports of vegetable oils, expressed or un- 
 expressed from all Africa, is as follows: 
 
 Tons 
 
 Palm Kernel 200,000 
 
 Cotton Seed 175,000 
 
 Palm , 150,000 . 
 
 Cocoanut 100,000 
 
 Peanut 50,000 
 
 Sesame 25,000 
 
 Kola 20,000 \ 
 
 Olive 20,000 
 
 Shea Butter 5,000 
 
 Mafurra 1,000 
 
 Castor 1,000 
 
 Palm oil stands first in importance and antiquity. The 
 Elais palm tree (Elaeis guineanis), or oil palm, grows 60 to 
 80 feet in height. At the top of the tree is a beautiful spread 
 of leaves, in the midst of which grow the clusters of fruit, re- 
 sembling huge bunches of grapes. These clusters contain from 
 300 to 400 nuts (amund*) composed of a fleshy pulp, and the 
 seeds or nuts. From the pulp is obtained a crude oil which 
 takes the consistency of butter, while from the nut is obtained 
 the well-known edible oil of superior quality. 
 
 The High Congo District abounds also in elais; they 
 are found in the wooded ravines of the district of Stanley- 
 Pool and the Kwango. It is rarer toward Lake Leopold II 
 and the Lower Kasai. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA H3 
 
 The elais has few requirements once planted; it 
 Returns, suffices to prune and smoke it once a year to insure 
 
 regular production. A young plant begins to pro- 
 duce at the end of the fifth year and brings about five francs 
 per year. 
 
 Belgian factories use annually more than 7,000 tons of 
 palm oil derived mostly from the English and German col- 
 onies. The "African World" of July 13, 1918, says: 
 
 The Congo is a land which can be literally said to sweat 
 oil. The natural product is badly handled by the natives. New 
 methods must be introduced, the enormous leases in present pro- 
 duction prevented, and concentration, packing and sale regu- 
 lated. Trade, science and administration must be brought to 
 co-operate in the solution of these problems. 
 
 In 1915, Belgian Congo exported 11,023,913 kilos palm 
 nuts. In 1916, 22,391,000 kilos palm nuts; 3,852,000 palm oil. 
 In 1917 30,000,000 kilos palm nuts. 
 
 Belgian Congo exported, 1920, palm nuts to the value of 
 58,988,605 francs (39,457,261 kilos) and palm oil valued at 
 18,511,341 francs (7,624,111 kilos). 
 
 Congo exported in 1906, 1995 tons of palm oil and 
 Future. 4,895 tons of palm nuts. Production, properly speak- 
 ing, is almost entirely in the hands of the natives., 
 
 The palm tree is found in a region of north Senegal. 
 There are great numbers of oil palms in Casamance. The 
 trees are left to destruction by fire and the elements and 
 no provision is made for their reproduction. The trees are 
 tapped when very young for the wine they produce, and in 
 this way numberless staminate trees are destroyed or spoiled. 
 
 Palm oil is extracted from the shell of the nut. This 
 shell contains from 60 to 70 per cent, oil according to Lanes- 
 san. This oil is edible. In Europe it is used industrially, 
 principally. 
 
 The palm almond was introduced on the French market 
 in 1832. 
 
 Palm almonds are used in Senegal for soap-making. 
 
 In 1914, Senegal exported 1,501,124 kilos palm nuto, 
 valued at $120,400. In 1915, palm kernels to the value of 
 $133,088. 
 
 Palm nut oil figures in the total exports from Freach 
 Equatorial We*t Africa in 1913 with 715 tons; palm nuts 
 were 575,137 kilos, an increase over the preceding year when 
 exports had been only 359,324 kilos valued at 116,785 francs. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The English market absorbed nine-tenths of these exports 
 with a total of 438,138 kilos. Germany follows next with 93,- 
 429 kilos, France with 43,570 kilos. 
 
 The greater portion of these exports of palm oil were also 
 shipped to England. The total export in 1913 was 118,644 
 kilos (with an increase over the preceding year when it was 
 only 49,674 kilos valued at 27,322 fr.). 
 
 In 1913, French West Africa exported 69,052,244 pounds 
 palm kernels, valued at $2,917,817; 31,195,555 pounds palm 
 oil, valued at $1,352,429. Of these Dahomey furnished 47,- 
 017,163 pounds palm nuts, valued at approximately $2,050,- 
 000; 17,536,684 pounds palm oil, valued approximately at 
 $1,950,000. In 1914, Dahomey exported 46,724,433 pounds 
 palm nuts, valued at $1,600,000; 14,568,666 pounds palm oil, 
 valued at $719,000. In 1915, Dahomey exported palm ker- 
 nels to the value of $1,097,827 (45 per cent.) ; palm oil to the 
 value of $933,063 (37 per cent.). 
 
 In 1914, Ivory Coast exported 12,433,429 pounds palm 
 nuts, 9,479,569 pounds palm oil. 
 
 Ivory Coast exported, 1920, palm kernels to value of 11,- 
 239,900 francs and palm oil, 18,023,377 francs. 
 
 In 1915, French Guinea exported palm kernels to the 
 value of $315,018 (10 per cent.). 
 
 The oil palm flourishes in Sierra Leone, from Freetown 
 down the coast as far as San Paul de Loanda. It is the most 
 valuable tree of West Africa and probably the most prolific 
 source of human sustenance in the world. 
 
 The exports of palm kernels during the year 1916 show 
 an increase in volume of 5,692 tons and in value of 176,672, 
 practically the whole of which went to the United Kingdom. 
 In 1916, Sierra Leone exported 45,316 tons palm kernels, 
 valued at $3,400,000; 557,751 gallons palm oil, valued at 
 $260,000. 
 
 Sierra Leone exported, 1920, palm oil valued at 123,207 
 (514,204 gals.) and palm kernals valued at 1,401,676 (50,- 
 425 tons). 
 
 The Gold Coast, in 1913, exported 9,744 tons palm ker- 
 nels and 860,155 gallons palm oil. In 1915 4,064 tons palm 
 kernels, and 330,990 gallons palm oil. In 1916 palm kernels 
 to the value of $429,485. 
 
 Five thousand years ago the Egyptians used the "sap of 
 the oil palm" for embalming the bodies of their dead. The 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA H5 
 
 palm oil of commerce today is not the sap of the tree, but that 
 from the rich kernels of the fruit of the tree, or nuts, which 
 in former times were supposed to contain little oil. 
 
 In "Nigeria, Its People and Problems," by Morel, we 
 read: 
 
 The deltaic region of the Niger is the real home of the 
 oil palm with its numerous and still unclassified varieties, al- 
 though it extends some distance beyond in proportionately less- 
 ening quantities as you push north. No other tree in the world 
 can compare with the oil palm in the manifold benefits it con- 
 fers upon masses of men. Occurring in tens of millions, repro- 
 ducing itself so freely that the natives often find it necessary 
 to thin out the youngest trees, it is a source of inexhaustible 
 wealth to the people, to the country, to commerce. . . . The col- 
 lection, preparation, transport, and sale of its fruits, both oil 
 and kernels for the export trade is the paramount national in- 
 dustry of Southern Nigeria, in which men, women and children 
 play their allotted parts. Beautiful to look upon, hoary with an- 
 tiquity. ... the oil palm is put to endless uses by the snatives. 
 
 During the last twelve years, the planting of more oil 
 palm trees has been receiving attention. Economists prophesy 
 the profitable expansion of the palm oil trade. 
 
 England and Germany have led in experimental stations 
 for developing and domesticating the native species of oil 
 palms and for propagating new varieties. Italy has also ac- 
 complished something in this line. 
 
 The natives climb the tree to the height of 60 or 80 feet, 
 then deal a few vigorous blows with an axe to cut the bunches. 
 The fruit is picked up in wicker baskets. Until it is fully ripe 
 the fruit not only adheres to its stem, but the porcupine thorns 
 make separation difficult. The workers collect the clusters 
 into heaps and cover them with banana leaves, exposing them 
 to the sun from three to six days when the nuts rot away 
 from the stem. The oil from the fibrous pericarp is extracted : 
 (1) by fermentation; (2) by boiling. After steaming or boil- 
 ing, the fibre is placed in an old canoe or large mortar and 
 pounded with wooden pestles. In either process the oily fibre 
 separates itself from the hard inner stone. Sometimes it is 
 thrown into a large canoe half filled with water. As the oil 
 rises to the surface it is skimmed off, boiled and strained for 
 market. 
 
 Besides the oil from the fibre, the inner kernel is also 
 valuable. Palm kernels to the value of 4,000,000 are ship- 
 ped annually to Europe from Africa. 
 
H6 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 From 15 up to 120 years the plantations give an almost 
 continuous supply of fruit, every tree bearing twice a year, 
 most abundantly in the rainy season. All the trees do not 
 bear at the same time, so that in many equatorial areas the 
 supply of nuts is never exhausted. 
 
 Tapping of palms is prohibited. 
 
 Palm oil averages in price twice the value of the palm 
 nuts. 
 
 The term palm kernels is applied to the soft, oily seeds 
 contained in these nuts, and not to the nuts themselves. They 
 contain about 40 per cent, of oil. 
 
 The relative value in England of palm kernel oil and 
 palm oil is 8 and 24 per ton, respectively. 
 
 Up to within recent years, palm kernels were crushed 
 and the oil almost entirely used by the soap trade, but chem- 
 istry has now found a process of refining and making palm- 
 kernel oil edible, as it may, perhaps, do some day for palm oil 
 itself, as a base for margarine, for which copra and ground- 
 nut oil were formerly employed. 
 
 Vegetable oils are made by crushing with powerful ma- 
 chinery the seeds or vegetable matter to be reduced, leaving 
 behind an oil cake, which is used for cattle; or these oils are 
 extracted by dissolving in chemicals. In various localities 
 the backward natives still crush the seeds by pounding in 
 mortars. 
 
 The elais palm tree grows spontaneously in 
 Where Found, the Congo in considerable quantities; its na- 
 tural habitat is practically limited on the 
 north by the fifth parallel and to the south by the 10th. The 
 whole tropical forest region seems favorable to it; only the 
 altitude stops its growth. It prefers sandy soil and it does 
 better in the woods than in savannahs. 
 
 Almost all the palm oil exported now from the Congo is 
 derived from the districts of Banana and Bonia. The natives 
 on account of its market value devote themselves regularly 
 to this product. 
 
 In 1913 Gambia exported 545 tons palm kernels; in 1915 
 326 tons, valued at 26,554, which was .01 per cent, of all 
 exports in this production. In 1916 the export was more than 
 double that of the previous year. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA H7 
 
 In 1913, Nigeria exported 174,718 tons palm kernels; 
 649 tons palm kernel shells; 5,412 tons oil cake; 77,144 cwt. 
 palm kernel oil; and 1,661,780 cwt. all oils. In 1915, 72,- 
 994 tons palm oil; 153,319 tons palm kernels. In 1916, 67,- 
 442 tons palm oil, valued at $7,013,000; 161,439 tons palm 
 kernels valued at $8,698,000. 
 
 Nigeria exported, 1920, palm kernels valued at 5,717,- 
 981, and palm oil valued at 4,677,445. 
 
 Nigerian Regulations, Nov. 21, 1918. Any tree found 
 infected with bud rot must be trimmed, under penalty of the 
 law. 
 
 In 1913, Angola exported 3,759 tons palm nuts, 918 
 tons palm oil. In 1914, 3,989 tons palm nuts, valued at 246,- 
 767; 1,348 tons palm oil, valued at $104,758. 
 
 In 1915, Mozambique exported palm nuts to the value of 
 $454,476. 
 
 Kamerun is rich in oil palms, as is also Togoland. In 
 the southern part of Tunis are about 2,138,598 date palms. 
 
 Exports in 1911 (Tons) 
 
 Oil Kernels 
 
 Ivory Coast 5,800 5,340 
 
 Dahomey 14,400 34,200 
 
 Sierra Leone 2,902 42,893 
 
 Gold Coast , 6,441 13,254 
 
 Nigeria 77,180 176,390 
 
 Kameroon 3,000 13,500 
 
 Togoland 3,050 8,100 
 
 Belgian Congo 700 2,500 
 
 Total Out-put 1911 (Tons) 
 
 Oil 113,652 
 
 Kernels 303,112 
 
 It furnishes food, clothing, drink, shelter, baskets, 
 Uses of cooking utensils, tools, rope, torches, musical in- 
 the Palm, struments, lubricant and cooking oils. It furnishes 
 in exchange 90 per cent, of purchasing power. 
 Americans have invented a portable nut crusher, much facil- 
 itating the work. 
 
 OLIVE OIL 
 
 Asia Minor has the credit of being the original home of 
 the olive (Olea Europaea), which is the oldest of known 
 
148 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 fruits. The tree is evergreen and very hardy, often reaching 
 great age. Certain trees in France and Italy are believed to 
 be 2,000 years old. 
 
 The trees bear fruit every other year and those giving 
 the best oil are from January and February crops. 
 
 All Mediterranean countries are rich in olives of many 
 varieties. The average oil output is from 20 per cent, to 50 
 per cent, of the weight of the fruit. Oil is made from fruij 
 that has ripened on the trees and taken as quickly as possible 
 to the mill. On account of the tendency of the fruit to spoil 
 within a few hours, oil mills are scattered throughout all olive 
 districts. 
 
 Tunis leads other African colonies in the manufacture of 
 olive oil. 
 
 In 1916 there were 11,750,910 olive trees in Tunis, which 
 produced 8,756,000 gallons of oil. In 1918 about half the 
 customary crop of olives was estimated for Tunis. After 
 Italy, the principal buyers of Tunisian olive oils were: Trip- 
 oli, 462,491 kilos; Algeria, 133,944 kilos; and Malta, 125,099 
 kilos. 
 
 As to the oils of olive residuum, their importation was null 
 in 1913 as in 1912, and their exportation about stationary. 
 These oils find their way, for the most part, to France. Hol- 
 land and Egypt bought appreciable quantities in 1913, 285,- 
 818 kilos and 299,361 kilos. 
 
 As was shown in the Chamber of Commerce of Tunis, 
 the production of this oil is increasing and Tunisian manufac- 
 turing must, in consequence, count on the competition of for- 
 eign countries that of Italy, particularly. And so it pro- 
 posed to raise the export duty on this product in the Regency. 
 
 The exportation of residuum has, nevertheless, de- 
 creased; from 915,300 kilos in 1912, it fell to 724,500 kilos 
 in 1913, in other words decreased by 190,800 kilos, which 
 fact more than explains the 47,399 kilos increase constituting 
 the exportation of oil extracted from this residuum; these 
 residuums yield, in effect, from 7 to 10 per cent, when treated 
 with carbon sulphide. 
 
 In 1913, Morocco exported olive oil to the value of 76,-: 
 099 francs. In 1917, Egypt exported 181,434,000 pounds oil 
 cake and oil cake meal, valued at $2,756,287. 
 
 Algeria, Egypt and Morocco export olive oil in fluctuat- 
 ing quantities according to the varying weather conditions. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 149 
 
 The olives are first spread out and slight- 
 How Produced ly heated for about twenty-four hours. 
 Cost of Production. The process requires much skill and ex- 
 perience, as even slight over-heating will 
 
 damage the product. The fruit is then ground or crushed to 
 a paste uncil the oil begins to swim on top. The paste goes 
 into round baskets made of rush or alpha weed, or into sacks 
 of similar materials, or iron hoops covered v/ith crash, and a 
 certain number of the receptacles are piled together and sub- 
 jected to gentle pressure. This first oil is of the finest qual- 
 ity and is called "Virgin Oil." For the second pressing, more 
 force is employed, the oil thus obtained varying in grades 
 and value. The paste is then saturated with boiling water, 
 and subjected to a third and fourth pressing by hydraulic 
 power, but the resultant oil is used only for industrial pur- 
 poses, like the manufacture of soaps. 
 
 The oil as extracted by pressing contains a considerable 
 percentage of water and some vegetable matter. This may 
 be removed by repeated "settling" and "decanting." This 
 product, skimmed off or "decanted,*" is known as "unrefined" 
 or crude Olive Oil. If made by one of the old style firms, it 
 goes next to underground cellars or vaults, where it is allowed 
 to settle for about a fortnight. One hundred pounds of olives 
 will yield an average of fifteen to twenty pounds of edible 
 oil, i. e., oil of the first pressings. 
 
 As olive oil is very -sensitive to foreign odors and flavors, 
 manufacturers are obliged to use the greatest care in hand- 
 ling and storing it. The leading manufacturers stock their 
 finished marketable oils in vaults, with walls of glass tiles 
 to facilitate the most scrupulous cleanliness. 
 
 The best test is its color that of a golden- or straw-yel- 
 low tint is best. If it is of greenish hue, it is either an inferior 
 grade or it has not been well refined. When fresh and of 
 good quality, it is of sweetish, nutty flavor. 
 
 Italian olive oil is more fruity in flavor than the French, 
 and has a more decided olive taste. There is an increasing 
 demand among the best classes of customers for the finer 
 grades of California olive oil, which in flavor and purity alike 
 have attained the front rank. 
 
 Olive oil should not be exposed to extremes of light or 
 temperature. Light will fade its color, heat will make it 
 rancid, and cold will cause it to congeal and separate. Cold 
 does not, however, injure the quality. 
 
150 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 In the average American household olive oil is 
 Uses of used only for salads and salad dressing but it is 
 Olive Oil. also excellent for frying fritters, doughnuts or 
 French fried potatoes it can be heated to higher 
 temperature than either lard or butter and it has no disagree- 
 able odor or flavor. Nor is it expensive, for one gallon of oil 
 is equivalent to seven and a half pounds of butter for cooking. 
 
 North African tribes use this oil for anointing their 
 bodies. 
 
 Olive oil is, perhaps, the most popular of tropical veget- 
 able oils, and holds a high place among these oils in com- 
 merce. 
 
 COCOANUT OIL COPRA 
 
 t 
 
 The cocoanut palm (Cocos Nucifera), in the countries 
 where it grows, is looked upon as one of the most useful 
 plants. These trees, found in the coast regions of all tropical 
 countries, grow very high, often to a height of 100 feet. At 
 the top is a crown of twenty or more feathery leaves, each 
 twelve or fifteen feet in length. In the middle of this cluster 
 of leaves grows the fruit, from 80 to 200 nuts, according to 
 the age and health of the tree. These nuts are enclosed 'in 
 thick fibrous husks. The unripe nut is lined with soft edible 
 albumen-like jelly, within which are one or two pints of clear 
 liquid, a nourishing and refreshing drink. When the albu- 
 men or kernel hardens it forms the white substance with 
 which we are all familiar and which we call cocoanut. Wher. 
 the ripe kernels are dried in the sunshine they are called copra 
 and it is copra that is pressed for the oil. Cocoanut oil is 
 liquid at a temperature of 65 degrees F. Below this it be- 
 comes solidified and looks like lard. 
 
 The bearing period of the cocoanut tree is seventy to 
 eighty years. The first cocoanuts may be expected in about 
 six years after the original planting. The tree comes into 
 full bearing about the twelfth year, and from then on 
 until its life is ended it gives an average annual yield of about 
 fifty nuts. The average yield of copra per acre is about one- 
 third of a ton. It was selling at the beginning of the war 
 for about $150 a ton in the London market. The cost of op- 
 erating a plantation of cocoanuts is exceedingly small. 
 
 Copra and cocoanut oil are produced in tropical countries 
 around the world. The output is increasing in Africa. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 151 
 
 In 1914, this oil was extracted in Nigeria from 74,000,- 
 COO pounds of copra and from 250,000,000 pounds in 1918. 
 A pound of dried cocoanut or "copra" is equal to the meat 
 of three average cocoanuts, hence it is important to export 
 cocoanut meat in this form to save tonnage. 
 
 German East Africa has millions of cocoanut trees. In 
 1911 German East Africa exported 11,950,070 pounds of co- 
 pra, valued at 439,093 marks; and in 1912, 9,351,079 pounds 
 valued at 372,003 m. 
 
 Mozambique has 1,500,000 cocoanut trees, which pro- 
 duce more oil kernels and copra than can be consumed local- 
 ly. In 1915 Mozambique exported copra to the value of $413,- 
 218. This export trade was formerly chiefly with Germany. 
 
 In 1915, the Congo exported 11,024 tons cocoanuts; 1916, 
 27,425 tons; 1917, 35,000 tons. 
 
 Cocoanut products are among the chief of Angola. In 
 1898, cocoanuts were exported to the value of 351,500 francs, 
 since which time the trade has increased. 
 
 At one time traffic in cocoanut products was important 
 in Senegal. Senegal soil and climate favor cocoanut cultiva- 
 tion to such an extent that it could be made a very paying 
 business. The yield of the nuts in this region amounts to 
 over 35 per cent. oil. 
 
 African islands are all rich in oil production. In 1915, 
 Mauritius exported cocoanut oil to the value of $29,435, and 
 in 1916, to the value of $46,000. 
 
 The Literary Digest says: "The uses of the cocoanut 
 Uses, tree and its fruit are many. To the native of these 
 islands it may be said to provide all the necessaries of 
 life food, shelter and clothing. The timber may be used as 
 logs for bridging streams, and for house-building. The plaited 
 leaves are used for thatching the roofs. They are made into 
 beds to sleep on, into mats for the floor, and they serve as 
 plates to eat from. Beautiful baskets and fans are made of 
 the leaves. The flesh of the nut forms an excellent and nour- 
 ishing food; it produces oil for cooking, for mixing native 
 puddings, for lighting the house, and anointing the body. The 
 milk forms a palatable and refreshing drink. An industry 
 of no little importance among the natives of the different isl- 
 ands is the manufacture of twine, known as sennet, from the 
 husk of the nuts. This material is used chiefly to tie the tim- 
 bers together in construction of native houses, no nails being 
 
152 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 used in such work. Twine and rope of any size up to towing 
 line are made from the fibre. The 'cabbage/ as the soft cen- 
 tral part of the head of the cocoanut-palm is called, can be 
 made into a delicious salad. Some of the natives of the South 
 Seas make what is called cocoanut 'toddy' out of the nuts." 
 
 On account of the shortage of fats, the cocoanut and its 
 products are coming into new prominence in the United 
 States. Importation into America of copra grew from 56 
 million pounds in 1914 to 90 million pounds in 1915, 110 mil- 
 lion pounds in 1916, 247 million pounds in 1917, and 550 mil- 
 lion pounds is estimated for 1918. 
 
 "The preparation of the copra for market 
 How Produced, is very simple. The nuts are allowed to fall 
 naturally, and at intervals of once a month, 
 and sometimes not oftener than once every two months, the 
 nuts are collected into piles upon the ground. Each pile con- 
 tains about 100 nuts. The laborers then split the nuts open 
 lengthwise with a blow from an ax. The kernels are removed 
 with*two or three dexterous cuts of a small knife. This is 
 the copra in its raw state. The ordinary daily task of each 
 laborer is to split and clean six hundred cocoanuts. The 
 kernels are exposed to the sun on shallow layers of trays, and 
 protection is provided from showers and from the heavy dews 
 at night. This occupies from three to six days, depending 
 on the climatic conditions. The establishment of a cocoanut 
 plantation, We are told, is an interesting process. The cost 
 varies according to local conditions. Ordinarily, it will run 
 close to $100 per acre, including clearing the land of under- 
 brush and keeping it clear. It also includes the cost price of 
 the wild land, which ranges from $1 to $5 per acre." 
 
 CASTOR OIL 
 
 Castor oil is obtained from the seed of a plant (Ricinus 
 communis). The seeds are more than half oil. 
 
 The castor oil plant has a wide range in latitude, but as 
 an economic plant it is limited by the fact that in the higher 
 latitudes its seeds will not ripen, and the yield of oil is in- 
 ferior to that obtained in warm climates. Generally, the plant) 
 may be said to require similar climatic conditions to maize, 
 but with a greater amount of heat. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 153 
 
 The castor-oil plant is perennial. It is injured by hard 
 frosts and prolonged cold. In North Africa it thrives where- 
 ever the cotton-plant does well. It would do well all along 
 the coast, and in the south in the Sahara district, wherever 
 it is assured of sufficient moisture during the summer growing 
 period. 
 
 In French North Africa, where the plant grows wild, its 
 cultivation was not seriously undertaken until 1916. It is es- 
 timated that the crop for 1917 in Algiers amounted to 3,000 
 tons, and to 5,000 to 10,000 tons in Morocco. In Madagas- 
 car and French West Africa the plant grows freely. Both 
 countries are now beginning to develop plantations. 
 
 Aviation has increased the demand for castor oil, as a 
 very viscous lubricant. It is used in the manufacture of soap, 
 leather, cloth and celluloid, for lighting, combustion, medi- 
 cine, and, in China, for food. 
 
 The plant is a native of Senegal, but has not prospered 
 there, notwithstanding efforts to cultivate it. Export was 
 9,405 kilos in 1891; now abandoned. 
 
 The plant yields 30 to 35 per cent, of oil. 
 
 VEGETABLE OILS SESAME 
 
 Sesame (Sesamum Indicum) is a plant originating in, 
 Tropical Asia and cultivated from time immemorial for its 
 seeds, which produce an edible oil known in commerce as 
 gingli. China, India, Turkey and Persia are the principal 
 sources of production, but a considerable quantity is export- 
 ed from Africa. The colonies raising it are German East Africa 
 Nigeria, French Guinea, Abyssinia and Senegal. The seed 
 yields under cold pressure 55 per cent, of oil, of a clear yeK 
 low color, sometimes aromatic and bitter. The residuum ia 
 subjected to hot pressure and yields a small amount of oil 
 for making scteps and candles. 
 
 In 1913, French West Africa exported 1,833,436 pounds; 
 sesame, valued at $32,369. 
 
 In 1914, Upper Senegal and Niger exported 57,750 
 pounds sesame, valued at $1,100. 
 
 OTHER OILS 
 
 Peanut oil is obtained from the peanut (Arachis hypo- 
 gaea). It is raised extensively in West Africa, India and 
 France. 
 
154 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Peanut oil is used as a substitute for olive oil, for peanut 
 butter and for soap. 
 
 Peanuts are the principal export of Senegal. In 1914, 
 Upper Senegal and Niger exported 6,480,896 pounds ara~ 
 chides, valued at $141,400; and 5,006,656 pounds peanuts, 
 valued at $107,000. 
 
 At present ground nuts and sunflower seeds are the only 
 oil seeds produced commercially in Rhodesia, but experi- 
 ments conducted at the Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia, have indicated that all other 
 oil seeds, including linseed, sesame seed, niger seed, and Mai- 
 da sativa seed (known locally as "Chile oil seed") may be 
 grown successfully. 
 
 Morocco exported, 1920, linseed to the value of 24,944,- 
 227 francs. 
 
 Arachide is a small papilionaceous plant which bears 
 two or three times a year. The fruit is contained in an elong- 
 ated pod which grows under the soil and encloses two or, 
 three seeds the size of a hazel nut. It yields from 28 pei| 
 cent, to 32 per cent, of its weight in an excellent edible oi 1 
 which serves as a substitute for olive oil. The crop varies 
 from 80 to 100 hectoliters per hectare. In 1905 the Congo 
 state exported 49,684 kilograms of arachides. 
 
 Kapok seed, from the Javanese cotton fibre tree, con- 
 tains about 20 per cent, of oil, similar to cotton-seed oil, and 
 is especially used for food for animals. 
 
 According to experiments made at Cantoi, Kapok is a 
 hardy plant and has great resistance against droughts. The 
 wood is soft and of little value. Kapok is produced princi- 
 pally at Giava and from there exported to Olanda. 
 
 The Eastern Asiatic Company, a Danish concern inter- 
 ested in the extraction of oils from vegetable matter, has se- 
 cured a stretch of land 15,000 acres in extent in the Water- 
 berg district of the Transvaal. Cotton, soya beans, linseed, 
 ground nuts, maize and castor oil plants will be grown, while 
 it is intended further to experiment with jute. The entire 
 area will be put under cultivation, and a European expert 
 will direct the principal operations of the concern. 
 
 Cotton seed oil is treated under chapter on Cotton. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 155 
 
 SHEA NUTS 
 
 The shea nut grows on a West African tree (Bassia par- 
 kii), generally known as the karite tree, which has become 
 almost as valuable as the palm for its oil. 
 
 Trees have been known to bear 20,000 nuts. The fresh 
 nut has the size and shape of a walnut, but is covered with 
 a smooth skin resembling that of a Spanish chestnut. Inside 
 this is the soft kernel, yellow when fresh and chocolate col- 
 ored when dry, containing a large proportion of fatty matter, 
 which, when extracted, is called shea butter. The nuts, di- 
 vested of the outer pulp covering, are dried in sunshine or 
 by fire and the skin removed. The percentage of butter ex- 
 tracted is 17 per cent, of the kernel ; by using machinery it 
 could be made 36 per cent. 
 
 One native in one day can collect an average of 100 
 pounds of shea fruit. It appears best commercially, to buy 
 the shelled nuts from the natives and from them to make the 
 butter for shipment as butter takes up less space. The butter 
 is exported in palm oil casks from Northern Nigeria. The 
 principal exporters are at Lagos, Southern Nigeria, West Af- 
 rica. The karite tree is easily cultivated and in its produc- 
 tion lies the possibility of a great trade. Shea butter is es- 
 pecially popular with the Mohammedans and non-meat 
 eaters generally. 
 
 Karite trees flourish in Senegal but do not 
 Where Found, pay as well as they should owing to the crude 
 
 method used by the natives in making the 
 shea butter. It is stated that in Senegal the shea nuts could 
 be made to give 40 per cent, of butter instead of 11 per cent. 
 as is the general average at present and there could be an 
 easy annual export of 10,000 tons. 
 
 In 1915, Nigeria exported 10,085 shea products, valued 
 at $345,000. In 1916, 3,512 shea products, valued at $160,- 
 000. 
 
 Above Zagande is the "Karite" region, extending 
 throughout Soudan and as far as the Nile. 
 
 In 1913, French West Africa exported 1,046,713 pounds 
 of shea nuts, valued at $27,000. Dahomey exported 373,650 
 pounds of shea butter, valued at $15,500. In 1914, Dahomey 
 exported 172,123 pounds of shea butter, valued at $7,100. 
 
156 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Native women gather shea nuts from the 
 How Produced, trees by knocking them off. They are dried 
 
 and crushed in mortars, forming a damp 
 flour, which is again dried and crushed. It is then boiled, 
 when butter appears on the surface. The cake remains at 
 the bottom. The butter is then placed in another vessel and 
 kneaded into conical cakes weighing from 4 to &y% pounds. 
 These are wrapped in n'taba leaves, a specimen of the helio- 
 trope, and sent to market. 
 
 The natives use shea butter for cooking, lighting, 
 Uses, making soap, and for 1 massaging. Purified, it is edible 
 
 alone or suitable for use in making artifical cows' but 
 ter. It is also used extensively in chocolate manufacture and 
 in confections generally, as well as for making various kinds 
 of soap. The cake is used for cattle and for fertilizer. 
 
 MANIOC, CASSAVA, TAPIOCA 
 
 Manioc or Cassava (Manihot utilissima) is a large, woody 
 tropical plant whose roots furnish the Cassava-starch and tap- 
 ioca of commerce. The roots, which may reach eight inches 
 in diameter and four feet in length, grow in clusters often 
 weighing 30 pounds. 
 
 The "sweet" tapioca, containing 82 per cent of starch, 
 is preferred; but the "bitter" is equally valuable for sizing, 
 yeast, glazing twine, etc. 
 
 Prussic acid is found in the roots; it is easily removed 
 by heat and water. 
 
 The plant is indigenous to South America. It is a very 
 important food, the roots being stewed, fried or roasted; the 
 sweet variety in many places takes the place potatoes hold 
 in other localities. Ground into flour, grated,, or dried, this 
 root furnishes bread stuff. The tapioca most commonly known 
 to commerce as food comes in the form of yellowish or brown- 
 ish white flakes. The food most commonly known in civilized 
 countries, made from tapioca, is a delicious pudding. Dex- 
 trine and grape sugar are also produced from the root, which 
 are used as substitutes for true sugar and syrups, and are much 
 used in confectionery. 
 
 Tapioca or manioc is cultivated in many coun- 
 Countries. tries of Africa where it is a great favorite with 
 natives and whites. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 157 
 
 In Senegal, manioc is not exported, but is widely used 
 by the natives as food. The dry climate is not well adapted 
 to ihe cultivation, unless a system of irrigation of pure water 
 can be installed. 
 
 In Congo, manioc is the chief food of the negroes, who 
 raise both the poisonous and non-poisonous varieties. Manioc 
 was introduced into Belgian Congo by traders from America 
 more than two centuries ago. In Kasai the output is 40 tons 
 per hectare, or enough to feed 40 negroes a year. 
 
 In Rhodesia, manioc grows well, and considerable atten- 
 tion is being paid to its cultivation. Both the climate and, the 
 soil are well suited for its growth. Besides its human uses 
 the roots are fed to stock. For removing the poison for local 
 use, the natives dig manioc tubers, which they bury in a 
 stream or pool for a few days until the poison is washed out. 
 
 Starch made from Rhodesian manioc has been pro- 
 nounced good, and the tapioca prepared for food more than 
 fair, so that cultivation of this product has great promise. 
 
 Manioc is one of the most extensively cultivated plants 
 in Madagascar; it is very useful for the farmer as it grows 
 in any soil. The output is from 10 to 20 tons per hectare 
 from good soil. The natives cultivate it to sell to f ecula works 
 or for their own consumption or for their animals. Its culti- 
 vation is increasing, and fecula works are multiplying in the 
 colony. Manioc sells at from 17 to 27 francs per ton. In 1912, 
 184,220 hectares were planted in manioc. 
 
 Madagascar raised 800,700 tons of manioc In 1918. 
 Exports from Madagascar 
 
 Tons Tons 
 
 Years Flour Fecula 
 
 1913 611 1,166 
 
 1914 685 333 
 
 1915 1,255 1,726 
 
 1916 3,067 2,585 
 
 Manioc is grown in all tropical countries. Africa 
 
 Outlook, has no special advantage over any other and has 
 not exported any great quantity. New factories 
 for extracting fecula are steadily being erected, and the in- 
 creasing demand for tapioca should result in a greater output 
 from Africa. The United States' supply comes from South 
 America and the East Indies at present, except a small amount 
 grown in Florida. 
 
158 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 BARLEY 
 
 Barley (Hordeum sativum) is an important genus of the 
 cereal plants belonging chiefly to temperate regions, but its 
 limits extend farther north and south than other cereal grains. 
 
 There are four distinct species of barley cultivated for 
 the grain. These are common, or two-rowed barley (Hordeum 
 distichum), Bere or Bigg (Hordeum vulgare), six-rowed bar- 
 ley (Hordeum hextastichum), and fan, spratt, or battledore 
 barley (Hordeum zeocriton). Barley is said by some author- 
 ities to be the most hardy of all grains. Pliny claimed it as 
 the oldest of grains, and varieties have been found in deposits 
 in Switzerland belonging to the Stone Age. We see it often 
 braided into the hair of Ceres or represented on coins. In 
 Exodus 10:31: "And the flax and the barley was smitten; for 
 the barley was in the ear, and the flax was boiled." 
 
 Barley is cultivated much as wheat and oth- 
 How Produced, er grains. When ripe the stalks are cut, af- 
 ter which the grain is removed while the 
 straw is utilized for other purposes. The grain is further sep- 
 arated from the chaff, when it is called "pot-barley". Still 
 further reduced it becomes the barley of domestic use, known 
 as "pearl barley". 
 
 As human food barley for many years was not in 
 Uses, great favor generally, except for soup and gruel, but 
 
 it has come back to popularity. Manufacturers of 
 breakfast foods and fancy biscuits and crackers now use it a 
 great deal. It is also used in medicines, for febrile and in- 
 inflammatory disorders. 
 
 The straw is used in making baskets, matting, chair- 
 seats, rope, paper and for thatching. It is also used for brew- 
 ing beer, for fodder, mixed with other fodder materials, and 
 as fertilizer. 
 
 Barley is a very important world crop, amounting in 1915 
 to 1,293,916,000 bushels. 
 
 Barley is raised in all the northern countries of Africa, 
 where it is one of the chief food grains for man and beast. 
 It is also an important product of many of the islands, riot- 
 ably the Canaries. Much of the crop is exported to England 
 for making appetizing beverages. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 159 
 
 In 1913, Morocco exported barley to the value of $300,- 
 000; in 1915, to the value of $2,568,791; in 1916, to the value 
 of $3,464,450 one-fourth of entire exports. 
 
 Morocco exported, 1920, barley to the value of 24,192,- 
 485 francs. 
 
 In 1913 Algeria exported barley to the value of $4,104,- 
 917; in 1914, to the value of $2,919,511; in 1915, Algeria 
 produced 36,789 metric tons barley, valued at $1,420,094; in 
 1916, 170,589 metric tons, valued at $6,584,581. In this year 
 Algeria had 3,009,000 acres in barley. In 1918, Algeria had 
 2,794,000 acres in barley, with a production of 58,422,000 
 bushels. 
 
 Algeria, 1921, had 2,513,943 acres in barley yielding 1,- 
 099,300 tons. 
 
 In 1916, Tunis had 1,247,265 acres in barley, producing 
 297,000 tons, or 4,914,000 bushels; in 1917, 165,000 tons bar- 
 ley; in 1918, 1,238,000 acres in barley, producing 9,186,000 
 bushels. 
 
 The production of barley in Tunis was 243,000 tons for 
 1921. 
 
 In Tripolitania barley is the chief food supply and is so 
 extensively used in the country that the exports are negli- 
 gible. 
 
 In Egypt, barley in some of the provinces is the chief 
 grain crop. 
 
 In 1916, Egypt had 438,830 acres in barley, with a crop 
 of 287,037 metric tons, or 13,161,000 bushels. In 1918, Egypt 
 had 336,000 acres in barley, with a crop of 9,871,000 bushels. 
 
 Egypt, 1920, had under cultivation in barley 340,231 
 acres yielding 227,489 tons. 
 
 Barley cultivation is increasing in Abyssinia, where it 
 grows well, and furnishes a chief supply of food. 
 
 Barley has not reached the state of cultivation in South 
 African countries that it has in the north, but has been found 
 adaptable to many localities. In 1916 the Union of South 
 Africa had 64,000 acres in barley. In 1918 it had 58,000 
 acres. 
 
 MILLET 
 
 Millet (Panicum miliaceum) means thousand, so named 
 for its great fertility. Millet is believed to be a native of 
 Egypt and of Arabia, where it has been cultivated from pre- 
 
160 RAW PRODUCT SOF AFRICA 
 
 historic times. Millet is an annual which grows three or four 
 feet high, and requires rich, friable soil. It is principally cul- 
 tivated in India, southern Europe and northern Africa. 
 
 Some of the principal kinds of millet are German, Pol- 
 ish and Indian -millet, European broomcorn millet (Panicurn 
 miliaceum) and Foxtail millet (Setaria italica). 
 
 This grain is important in native commerce, exchanged 
 for other commodities and in some localities is a medium of 
 exchange. 
 
 Millet of Senegal constitutes the princi- 
 
 Where Produced, pal foodstuff of the native population. 
 
 Much is exported to France. In all. the 
 
 colonies, millet is worth from 5 to 15 centimes per kilogram. 
 
 From 1890 to 1899 inclusive, 1,032,448 kilograms, or a 
 yearly average of 103,245 kilograms, were exported. 
 
 The average annual production of later years has been 
 1,594,716 pounds, avoirdupois. 
 
 A local dish called dumboy, made principally of millet, 
 constitutes the chief article of diet in parts of West Africa. 
 
 In French Equatoral Africa millet has an important place, 
 as the following item from a French report indicates : "Mil- 
 let is the mainstay of the majority of our subjects. It grows 
 in the most varied soils. It yields a good crop. At the old 
 experimental farm in Baol, the yield was four tons per hec- 
 tare when the plow was used. One ton suffices for the sub- 
 sistence of three persons for one year. Millet yields from 
 40 to 70 per cent, alcohol. Starch is also made from it. For 
 the needs of a local industry, it could be distilled in the pro- 
 ducing country. The Bambaras make a kind of millet beer 
 (dolo) with which they intoxicate themselves copiously. 
 Sometimes honey is added to it for the purpose of increasing 
 its alcoholic content." 
 
 Millet is raised extensively in the Belgian Congo, chiefly 
 for provender. 
 
 Millet is very nutritious and is largely used in the 
 U*es. form of groats. Mixed with wheat flour it makes an 
 excellent bread. When ground, it yields 60 per cent, 
 flour and 40 per cent, alcohol. It is chiefly exported for poul- 
 try and caged birds. The chief use of millet in most countries 
 where it is raised is for cattle food, both as grain and fodder. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 161 
 
 With ashes from millet stems the negroes make soap; 
 ; 30 make dye from the bark of the stems. From the 
 straw they make hats and mats and use it as thatch. 
 
 DURRA 
 
 Durra, Guinea corn or Turkish millet (Sorghum vulgare) 
 
 is believed to have originated in India. It grows in all the 
 northern and tropical countries of Africa. 
 
 In the Soudan the principal food of the natives is durra, 
 grown in very primitive fashion. The women grind it into a 
 coarse meal which is very nutritious. 
 
 The natives of Somaliland raise durra along the rivers. 
 
 Nigerian natives formerly raised much durra, but Amer- 
 ican maize seems to be supplanting the native product- 
 
 In addition to being so highly prized by African natives 
 as food, durra is also widely used as cattle food and for poul- 
 try. 
 
 OATS 
 
 Oats (Avena sativa) belong to the genus Avenese of the 
 order of grasses. This family contains about fifty species. 
 The cultivated oat is thought to have originated from Avena 
 fatua or "wild-oat," of which several species exist in western 
 Asia and southern Europe, and from which a great variety 
 has been developed, notably the potato-oat, white Tartarian 
 and Scotch oat. 
 
 The cultivated oat seems to have appeared first in Cen- 
 tral Europe. Pliny alludes to bread made of oats by the 
 ancient Germans. This grain was abundant in Asia Minor 
 in very early tihies, where it was made into bread and used 
 for feeding horses. 
 
 The oat is a hardy grain and grows through a wide 
 range of latitude, but gives greatest results in temperate cli- 
 mates. 
 
 The world supply of oats in 1915 was 3,532,470,000 bush- 
 els. In Algeria, especially, the cultivation of oats has been an 
 important industry for many years. 
 
 In 1913, Algeria exported oats to the value of $2,307,- 
 508; in 1914, to the value of $2,593,727; in 1915, 58,216 met- 
 ric tons oats, valued at $2,447,292. In 1916, Algeria had 536,- 
 
162 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 000 acres in oats, which produced 13,140,000 bushels, valued 
 at $4,789,488. In 1917, 682,000 acres in oats, which pro- 
 duced 16,125,000 bushels. In 1918, 558,000 acres in oats, 
 with a production of 26,564,000 bushels. 
 
 Algeria, 1921, had 573,855 acres in oats yielding 170,- 
 650 tons. 
 
 Tunis also raises oats rather extensively. In 1916, 164,000 
 acres were in oats, with a production of 2,067,000 bushels. 
 In 1917, 124,000 acres in oats, with a production of 3,996,000 
 bushels. In 1918 148,000 acres in oats, with a production of 
 3,858,000 bushels. 
 
 In the southern part of Africa oats thrive. 
 
 In 1917, the Union of South Africa had 250,000 acres in 
 oats, with a yield of 6,928,000 bushels. In 1918, 257,000 
 acres. 
 
 The chief use is that of feeding horses ; and the great 
 Uses, demand for this purpose has been so widespread that 
 
 there were more oats raised than either wheat or 
 corn. A horse is said to consume as much oats in three weeks 
 as a man consumes in a year. 
 
 Oat meal, which is not meal, but crushed oats, is made 
 from kiln-dried grain from which the husks have been re- 
 moved. Porridge made from oat-meal is eaten in all coun- 
 tries. Mixed with Indian corn-meal the porridge is then 
 known as "stirabout". Groats are the whole kernels from 
 which the Kusk has been removed. Ground into meal or 
 flour oats make very good flat cakes or biscuit, but cannot 
 easily be made into bread because of the difficulty in ruptur- 
 ing the starch grains. Oats contain a higher percentage of 
 albuminoids than any other grain and less of starch. It has 
 more sugar, fats and salts than wheat. 
 
 WHEAT 
 
 Wheat (Triticum sativuin) is the most nutritious of the 
 cereals. As a world cereal it ranks next to rice in production ; 
 aside from a few regions where nee is almost the exclusive 
 food, wheat takes first rank. It is the chief food of white 
 races in all continents. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 163 
 
 The history of wheat goes back to very ancient times 
 and in old records is often referred to as "corn," as all cer- 
 eals were once designated. The grain now universally known 
 as corn was not then known to countries in the Eastern 
 hemisphere. 
 
 Wheat grows best in temperate climates but is success- 
 fully raised also in semi-tropical latitudes, especially in the 
 high regions of these countries. The United States is the 
 greatest wheat-producing country. Russia standing next and 
 Hungary third. This cereal is grown in all the temperate 
 countries of Africa and thrives particularly in. the plateau 
 regions. 
 
 Wheat is "red" or "white," "winter" or "spring," "hard" 
 or "soft." There are many varieties. 
 
 Of the world's production of wheat for 1915, given as 3,- 
 813,000,000 bushels, the United States and Russia each sup- 
 plied 19 per cent. The total for all Africa was probably not 
 over 2 per cent. It is grown considerably in the French prov- 
 inces of Northern Africa and is increasing in the Union of 
 South Africa. Egypt was an important wheat producer in 
 ancient times. Egyptian wheat is entirely raised by irrigation 
 from the Nile river. 
 
 In Egypt farmers use plows improvised from wooden 
 stumps and drawn by donkeys, camels, bullocks and mules. 
 However, as methods improve crops improve also. The coun- 
 try exports wheat every year. In 1915, Egypt raised 38,667,- 
 666 bushels; in 1916, Egypt had 1,447,163 acres in wheat, 
 with a yield of 36,543,000 bushels; in 1917 the amount of 
 wheat raised was 29,834,000 bushels. The acreage in 1918 
 was 1,286,000 with a production of 32,555,000 bushels. 
 
 Egypt, 1920, had under cultivation in wheat 1,190,200 
 acres yielding 863,022 tons. 
 
 During 1916, Tunis had 1,239,734 acres in wheat, with 
 a production of 375,400 tons; in 1918, 1,413,000 acres pro- 
 ducing 8,451,000 bushels. 
 
 Tunis had 1,334,415 acres in wheat, 1920, yielding 142,- 
 300 tons, which was increased in 1921 to 250,000 tons. 
 
 Algeria raises hard wheat, largely used in making mac- 
 aroni. 
 
164 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 For 1913, Algeria exported 1,000,000 pounds of wheat 
 valued at $6,996,829, and wheat flour to the value of $1,001,- 
 091 ; in 1915, 113,423 metric tons wheat, valued at $6,759,000 ; 
 17,690 metric tons wheat flour, valued, at $1,450,974; 3,882 
 metric tons crushed wheat, valued at $337,171; 9,128 metric 
 tons wheat bran, valued at $229,091. 
 
 Algeria, 1921, had 2,904,811 acres in wheat yielding 1,- 
 028,900 tons. 
 
 The production of wheat in South Africa during the five 
 years 1909-1913 averaged 5 per cent, of the whole produc- 
 tion of the British Empire. During the war a much larger 
 production was forced. 
 
 In 1916 the Union of South Africa had 785,000 acres in 
 wheat, which produced 6,477,000 bushels; in 1917 it pro- 
 duced 4,790,000 bushels of wheat, and exported 16,244,024 
 pounds of flour, valued at $618,002. In 1918, it had 924,567 
 acres in wheat, which produced 8,833,000 bushels. The aver- 
 age yield of wheat to the acre is 7% bushels. 
 
 The Union of South Africa, 1918, produced 21,566,000 
 Ibs. of wheat. 
 
 In former times wheat was ground by hand 
 How Produced, between round stones. Then came mills, 
 
 when the grain was ground by water or 
 animal power, the first ones very crude, but continually im- 
 proved, until today flour mills are among the greatest of mod- 
 ern inventions. Besides flour of different grades of fineness 
 and whiteness, mills crush wheat into coarser materials, pro- 
 ducing wheat grits and breakfast foods of even coarser grain. 
 Starch is ground very fine from the white part of the grain. 
 Old-fashioned stone mills are still in operation among the 
 Arabs of Northern Africa. 
 
 The whole grain of wheat is ground into a dark, very 
 Uses, nutritious flour, said to have every ingredient, in the 
 
 right proportion, that the human system needs for 
 nutrition. By removing the dark part of the grain, white flour 
 is made more popular but less nutritious than whole wheat 
 flour. Starch is made from the white, part of wheat, and 
 from the hard varieties, marcaroni and vermacelli, used for 
 many generations by the Italians. The husk of the grain, or 
 bran, is used for feeding stock, and has recently become pop- 
 
w PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 165 
 
 as food, often mixed with other cereals to add to their 
 nutritive values. Wheat straw furnishes provender for horses 
 and cattle, and is used for thatching huts. It is also plaited 
 into "hat straw", for making" hats; the famous Leghorn braids 
 first made in Italy, are made of wheat straw, which is gath- 
 ered green and bleached in the sunlight. 
 
 RYE 
 
 Rye (Secale cereale) is similar when growing to wheat 
 and barley, but it grows in poorer soil and in colder climates. 
 This grain is next to wheat in nutrition, and flour made from 
 rye is used predominantly in northern Continental Europe. 
 Eye was introduced into Europe from the Island of Crete. 
 
 The world crop of rye for 1915 amounted to 1,432,400,- 
 000 bushels. Of this amount Europe, including all Russia, 
 produces and consumes 95 per cent. Africa produces but little 
 rye, though it is grown in Morocco, Algeria and South Africa. 
 Rye has been called the grain of poverty, but the indigenous 
 and indigent (not to add indolent) Africans seem to have 
 passed over this poor man's cereal. It is being increased 
 gradually in Southern Africa as a forage crop for domestic 
 animals and for the production of alcohol. 
 
 It is used much with wheat, the mixture being known 
 Uses, as "blend-corn", and makes an excellent bread. Rye 
 
 constitutes the chief ingredient of "black-bread", so 
 universally used in Russia. Whiskey and vodka are distilled 
 from this grain. Roasted seeds are a good substitute for cof- 
 fee. The straw is used for hat-braid, floor mats, thatching, 
 in bricks, and largely as fodder for stock. 
 
 MAIZE OR MEALIES 
 
 Indian corn or maize (Zea rnais), is, in some parts of the 
 world, as Southern United States, Mexico, Central America 
 and Egypt, the most important food grain. Corn is not exten- 
 sively used in Europe, except in parts of Italy; but in Great 
 Britain the grain is increasing in popularity. The last reports 
 of British importation of maize came from English colonies 
 in Africa. 
 
 When white men came to the Western continent maize 
 was an important food of the Indians. Soon corn became a 
 very important commodity with the colonists and stood many 
 times as the one food between them and starvation. 
 
166 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 There are many varieties of maize, grains of the differ- 
 ent varieties varying in size, color, form and composition. 
 Some kinds are rich in oil and others in starch. 
 
 Corn yields from 15 to 50 bushels to the acre, according 
 to soil. Growers have experimented much with corn in order 
 to bring it to perfection arid to produce certain predominant 
 qualities, as starch or glucose. Sweet or sugar corn, and a 
 distinct variety known as pop-corn, are the only two kinds 
 used exclusively for human food. Their production as com- 
 pared with the total production of all corn, is relatively small. 
 After the kernels have been shelled from 
 How Produced, the ripe ear they are spread out to dry 
 thoroughly, as they quickly ferment and 
 sprout if left moist and heaped together. Indians formerly 
 parched corn over a fire- Some of it was eaten as parched 
 grains, but most of it was pounded into meal, sifted, and a 
 quantity stored for winter use, when it constituted the prin- 
 cipal food. 
 
 The dried grains are now broken by machinery into 
 coarse pieces known as cracked corn or samp; ground finer 
 into hominy and grits; still finer into meal, and yet finer 
 into flour. 
 
 For making starch the germs are separated from the 
 grains and then pressed between cloths by heavy machinery 
 in order to extract all the oil. 
 
 The young ear of some varieties of corn is eaten as 
 Uses, a vegetable or mixed with other ingredients into foods. 
 From the dried seeds are made cracked corn, grits, 
 corn-meal, starch, glucose, grape sugar, corn-syrup caramel, 
 corn-oil, oil-cake, bran, used variously for human or animal 
 food and for industrial purposes. The stalk of the plant con- 
 tains a pith which is used in cellulose, and the remainder of 
 the stalk is used in paper and for fertilizer. The spear-like 
 leaves are used for fodder and paper stock; the bushes are 
 used for mattresses and door-mats, and the cobs are used for 
 fuel and to make "corn-cob pipes". Many varieties of corn are 
 dried for the exclusive use of stock and poultry. 
 
 Kaffir corn is a native of South Africa and takes its name 
 from the African tribe known as Kaffirs. It belongs to the 
 same group of plants as broom corn and other non-sacchar- 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 167 
 
 3ne sorghums. It was introduced into America in 1888. Those 
 who have tried the kaffir flour say it makes good bread. Kan- 
 sas has mills for grinding it. 
 
 Comparative Yields 
 
 Bushels 
 Grain Fodder 
 
 Red Kaffir Corn 58-25 6.05 
 
 White Kaffir Corn 32.55 5.33 
 
 Indian Corn or black hull 45.00 3.07 
 
 The maize crop of the world for 1915 was 3,875,927,000 
 bushels, of which the United States raised 71 per cent. 
 
 The whole of civilized Africa produces only about one 
 per cent, of the world's supply of maize. 
 
 Egypt is the largest producer in North 
 Where Produced. Africa, having nearly 2,000,000 acres un- 
 der cultivation and producing some 8,500,- 
 000 muids. Its acreage equals that of wheat or cotton, ex- 
 cept in the low rice and sugar lands of the Delta. 
 
 In 1915, Egypt produced 74,318,273 bushels of maize; 
 in 1916, Egypt had 2,098,000 acres in maize and millet; in 
 1917, Egypt had 1,685,000 acres in corn, which yielded 63,- 
 757,000 bushels. 
 
 Egypt, 1920, had under cultivation in maize 1,937,869 
 acres. 
 
 In Algeria owing to lack of summer rains, maize occu- 
 pies but a very limited area, and the annual production is 
 only about 125,000 muids. Export in 1915 was 894,768 
 pounds; in 1916, 730,570 pounds. Production, 1917, was 302,- 
 000 bushels from 20,000 acres. 
 
 Morocco's export in 1915 was valued at $145,000; in 1916 
 at $723,000. 
 
 Maize growing in wild tropical Africa suffers from ele- 
 phants and wart-hogs. A small export (30,000) was started 
 in 1912, from Rhodesia. In 1915, England and Australia took 
 29,668 tons. In 1916, the product of 167,012 acres amounted 
 to 83,175 tons. 
 
 In 1914-'15 Europeans cultivated in Northern Rhodesia 
 16,600 acres of maize, exporting 3,850 tons ($109,500). 
 
 In 1914, Nigeria exported maize to the value of $28,232 ; 
 in 1916, 2,298,122 pounds, valued at $24,700. 
 
168 HAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 In Somali corn is grown in large amounts and is the prin- 
 cipal food of the Indians^ 
 
 In French Equatorial Africa corn is grown in all sections, 
 especially at Lobi. 
 
 At Dahomey, corn and igname are the principal articles 
 of food of the native. It is toasted in the ear or cooked in a 
 meal. Its cultivation is so well developed that exports for 
 starch making amounted to 7,300 tons in 1906. 
 
 In Senegal corn is only a product of local consumption. 
 
 In 1913, French West Africa exported 29,263,285 
 pounds of maize valued at $205,018. 
 
 In 1915, Dahomey exported corn to the value of $63,149. 
 
 In the Belgian Congo corn is one of the chief products 
 cultivated by the natives, and has spread to nearly every part 
 of the state. .Two, and even three crops of corn is the yearly 
 yield in the Lower Congo. 
 
 In 1915, Belgian Congo exported 269,896 pounds of corn. 
 
 A considerable quantity of maize is raised in the Kame- 
 roon. In 1904 this colony exported nearly 2,000,000 pounds 
 of maize. 
 
 The Gold Coast exported in 1917, 1,272 tons of corn. 
 
 Throughout South Africa corn is known as mealies, prob- 
 ably a corruption of the Portuguese word "milho" which 
 means grain. 
 
 The chief produce of Angola (1913) was mealies which 
 is ground into a flour called fuba and is the main food of the 
 natives. 
 
 Corn has been established in the southern colonies of 
 Africa to a sufficient extent to supply more than the local 
 needs. 
 
 In the Transvaal maize is grown on practically every 
 farm. Many farmers grow from 200 to 1,000 acres and sev- 
 eral have 6,000 acres in this staple. The Kaffirs cultivate a 
 great deal for their own use, both on native locations and on 
 rented farms. The farms average about 5,000 acres each. 
 
 The possible planting season lasts two months. Plenteous 
 rains in a favorable climate and properly cultivated soil make 
 great promises for the future. 
 
 Maize in South Africa appears to be less seriously affect- 
 ed by disease than most crops. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 16^ 
 
 Orange Free State is by far the largest producer and ex- 
 porter of maize of any of the four provinces of the South Afri- 
 can Union. 
 
 The Union of South Africa, 1918, produced 585,490,000 
 Ibs. of maize. 
 
 Exports of Maize from South Africa Bags 
 
 1908 664,485 
 
 1909 1,537,784 
 
 1910 1,760,208 
 
 1911 1,018,630 
 
 1912 963,882 
 
 The response of South Africa in meeting the war demand 
 for maize is indicated as follows: 1913, the Union of South 
 Africa exported 11,500 short tons maize; 1914, 110,000 short 
 tons; 1915, 149,000 short tons; 1916, 6,827,296 pounds kaffir 
 corn, valued at $68,929; 1916, 931,110,700 pounds maize, 
 valued at $4,269,712, and 13,512,240 pounds of maize meal., 
 valued at $169,646. In 1917, with 3,150,000 acres in corn 
 and maize, the exports were: 1,059,184 pounds kaffir corn, 
 valued at $16,138; 524,946,464 pounds maize, valued at $7,- 
 396,409; 105,360,864 pounds maize meal, valued at $1.982,- 
 397. 
 
 For 1918 the total harvest was estimated to be not more 
 than 30,000,000 bushels. In 1917 it was 34,999,000 bushels; 
 2,500,000 bags of surplus maize were purchased in 1918 by 
 the British Government. 
 
 Rhodesia exported, 1920, maize to the value of 415,130. 
 
 In 1916, Mozambique exported through Lorenco 
 Marques, 1,944,773 pounds jnaize, valued at $42,460; 23,000 
 pounds maize flour, valued at $900, and 1,114,105 pounds 
 kaffir corn, valued at $54,000; 1914, through Beira, Indian 
 corn to the value of $232,417. The 1918 crop was estimated 
 at 188,450 bags. 
 
 Maize during the 1918 season suffered from adverse 
 weather conditions. It is estimated that under favorable con- 
 ditions the output would have been 500,000 bags. Another 
 cause also responsible for the short crop, was scarcity of la- 
 bor. In Mozambique the corn crop often alternates with a 
 crop of peanuts or Cape beans. 
 
170 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 E. G. Montgomery in the "Corn Crops" (1913) claim? 
 that sorghum is the staple cereal of African natives. In Swazi- 
 land natives store maize in the husk in trees hanging from 
 branches. 
 
 Corn of all varieties is raised throughout the island of 
 Madagascar, over 100,000 acres being under cultivation. 
 
 In the Cape Verde Islands maize has become an import- 
 ant crop, raised chiefly for local use. 
 
 Corn is raised in the Canary Islands and has become an 
 
 important food. The corn production in these islands for 
 
 1915 was valued at $50,000, and that for 1916, at $111,000. 
 
 Maize, corn and sorghum are steadily increasing 
 
 Outlook, in output and seem likely to continue to increase. 
 
 RICE 
 
 Rice (Oryza sativa) is the principal food of one-third of 
 the people of the world. There are several kinds of culti- 
 vated rice, as, common rice, swamp rice, upland rice, glutin- 
 ous rice, besides a hundred minor varieties, all derived from 
 one species. 
 
 The whites have fostered its cultivation in equatorial and 
 semi-tropical Africa. The natives are increasingly inclined to 
 raise, eat and export it, especially on the coast of the Indian 
 Ocean. 
 
 Formerly rice was grown only in marshes 
 How Produced, and other naturally wet lands, but for gen- 
 erations the practice of flooding rice farms 
 where the moisture is not sufficient has been common. Mod- 
 ern irrigation has turned many bush lands, waste and hill 
 lands into productive rice fields. When the crop is reaped 
 the laborers work in the mud and water, often above the 
 knees. Upland rice, cultivated during the rainy season and 
 often helped by means of artificial watering, is generally 
 whiter than rice of the marshes. 
 
 "Paddy" is the term givn to rice before it is decorticat- 
 ed ; after hulling it is known as "cargo rice". It is then milled 
 to remove the outer skin, when it becomes "skinned" or 
 "white" rice. By another milling process the grains are pol- 
 ished and the finished product is that of common domestic 
 use. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Rice is chiefly used in the whole hulled grain as food 
 Uses, but it is cooked in many ways, either alone or mixed 
 
 with other food materials. It is popular made into pud- 
 dings and other desserts, arid a modern process of swelling or 
 "puffing" the grains into dry, light, flakey ovals has made it a 
 popular breakfast food. Rice flour, generally mixed with the 
 flour of other grains, is made into bread and cake. Rice Is 
 a very nutritious cereal, although it is not as complete in food 
 elements as several other grains. 
 
 The following method of culture is taken from the "Cot- 
 ton Growers' Annual", 1918: 
 
 Preparations for the crop begin in February or March. 
 Planting is done in March and April. 
 
 Picking begins in September and is usually finished by 
 December 1. By legislative decree, all cotton plants must be 
 pulled up and removed before December 31st, to prevent the 
 boll worm from hibernating. 
 
 Ginning is usually done at ginning factories in the interior 
 towns. The "ginners" are mostly owned by interior cotton mer- 
 chants, and the large exporting houses. 
 
 Yield averages about 450 pounds Lint Cotton per acre. 
 
 Stajfcle varies in length, being from 1 to 1% inches, the lat- 
 ter being the length of the new "Sakel" or "Sakellaridis" variety. 
 
 Planters sell to the ginners. Small growers sell to middle- 
 men who sell to the ginners. 
 
 Baling and hydraulic pressing is done at the ginnery. The 
 cotton is then rebaled and steam pressed at Alexandria. Bale is 
 750 Ibs. gross. 
 
 Among the by-products of cotton the principal one is cot- 
 ton-seed oil, of which 74,583 metric tons were exported from 
 Egypt in 1914. The residuum after the oil is pressed from 
 the seed is cotton-seed cake, which is a staple food for live- 
 stock, especially cattle. The stalks and leaves (which up to 
 1918 were required to be burned by government order after 
 the crop was harvested in an effort to prevent the spread of 
 the boll weevil pest) were largely used during 1918 for pro- 
 ducing vegetable gas. On account of the scarcity of coal, 
 more than 300 engines burning gas made from refuse vege- 
 table matter, were in operation. 
 
 In 1913, Algeria exported to France 528,440 
 Production by pounds of rice, valued at $23,600. In the 
 Countries. ten years, 1904 to 1913, inclusive, Egyptian 
 
 rice cultivation varied from 234,000 to 298,- 
 000 acres, about 90 per cent, of which were in Lower Egypt. 
 In 1915 there were 331,000 acres in ripe, which yielded 585,- 
 000 tons of paddy and 366,000 tons of cleaned rice. Of this 
 
172 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 \ 
 
 amount 10,422 tons were exported, less than the previous 
 year, when 13,077 tons were exported. In 1916 Egypt had 
 150,310 acres in rice, with an exportation of 22,473 tons, val- 
 ued at $1,406,975. In 1917 the production was 245,000 tons, 
 
 In Uganda several upland varieties of rice can be easily 
 grown, especially in the rainy districts bordering Lake Victoria 
 Nyanza. The Department of Agriculture is teaching cultiva- 
 tion, preparation and use of rice, and the clean, hulled grain 
 meets with much better reception than did paddy. 
 
 In the East Africa Protectorate, in 1916 there was a 
 small export, but the production does not meet the demand 
 of the population, many of whom are Indians who import 
 rice from India. A ten per cent, import duty is causing more 
 attention to be paid to local cultivation. 
 
 In the Co23go two kinds of rice are grown, swamp rice in 
 the abundantly watered soil, and mountain rice, which thrives 
 best in light soil with not too much water; the latter was in- 
 troduced by the Arabs. In 1906 more than a thousand tons 
 of rice were sold in the market of Stanleyville, ince which 
 time this grain had grown very much in favor and quantity. 
 By 1915 production had almost overtaken consumption and 
 during that year 2,508,105 pounds were exported. In 1918 
 the estimated surplus was over 15,000 tons. During the last 
 two years of the war the rice crop was requisitioned by Gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Rice was introduced into Nyasaland by the Arabs and 
 Portuguese and cultivation has since been encouraged under 
 British rule, partly to supply the native troops, who required 
 about 500 tons per annum, and partly that the natives might 
 be enabled to pay the hut tax. The supply just about equals 
 the local need ; a few tons have been exported. The smallest 
 crop of rice in Nyasaland recently was 717 tons in 1914; and 
 the largest 1,317 tons in 1916. In 1915 the exports amounted 
 to 1,606,000 pounds, valued at $8,030. 
 
 In Northern Rhodesia the natives are slowly substituting 
 the red and white rice, introduced by the Arabs, for millet. 
 In the south it is difficult to turn them from mealies, beans 
 and ground-nuts, to rice. 
 
 Union of South Africa. Trial crops of rice in Natal have 
 given good results, but rice has not generally been successful 
 in South Africa. As there is a large market for rice in this 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 173 
 
 part of Africa its cultivation is being encouraged and ex- 
 periments are being tried in various localities. The annual 
 imports amount to something like $2,000,000, with a duty of 
 -.Dout 25c per 100 pounds. 
 
 *n Sierra Leone rice areas are limited to the alluvial flats 
 -uong the banks of rivers and lands that become swampy dur- 
 i-nK the rainy season. These natives care more for rice than 
 most African natives, but they like the large-grained native 
 rice better than the small grained white varieties. The brown- 
 ish color, however, of the native rice is against its sale in 
 European markets. White American rice has been intro- 
 duced into Sierra Leone by American missionaries and gives 
 good results. 
 
 Exports of home-grown rice from Sierra Leone in 1911, 
 were 340 tons; 1913, 323 tons, valued at $19,415; 1915, 435 
 ions. 
 
 The Gold Coast imports rice. There are no exports of 
 home-grown rice, and only very small re-exports. There 
 is an import duty on nearly all rice of one shilling per ton. 
 
 In Nigeria rice is grown to a small extent and of good 
 quality in the southern provinces, but more extensively in the 
 northern provinces. In the north the reddish native grain is 
 more highly favored than the white imported rice, but there 
 is little trade movement in rice in this country. 
 
 Rice is first among foodstuffs in the colonies of French 
 Equatorial Africa. Its nutritive value is much greater than 
 that of millet or igname- It grows in Soudan and Guinea, es- 
 pecially. At Ivory Coast there are few rice fields in the la- 
 goon regions only. There are still fewer at Dahomey. 
 
 At Senegal, though rice grows wild in some places, it is 
 neglected for millet and peanuts. Some is harvested in Cayor. 
 Casamance, 50 years ago exported, whe'reas today it imports 
 rice ; cause, the rubber fever. 
 
 In 1914, Senegal imported 108,515,618 pounds of rice, 
 valued at $2,400,000, and exported 497,184 pounds, valued 
 at $11,000. 
 
 Liberia. During the war it was necessary for the United 
 States to extend a credit of $5,000,000 for the purpose of pur- 
 chasing rice and other cereals for Liberia, which the residents 
 had neglected for coffee, leaving them without necessary food 
 materials. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 The rice country par excellence is the Niger bend. Inun- 
 dated periodically by the Bani and the Niger, irrigated na- 
 turally by the little falling rivers of the winter season, its fer- 
 tility is prodigious. By transplanting in the inundated lands 
 as soon as the month of July, two crops a year could easily be 
 obtained. 
 
 It is dirty looking, reddish, because it is badly shelled. 
 If it were treated properly it would be as fine as Indo-China 
 rice, and is not so easily attacked by weevils. 
 
 Within the last decade Madagascar has changed from an 
 importing rice country to one exporting this cereal in consid- 
 erable quantities. Rice has become a staple crop of this large 
 island, and has spread to every section of it. Both the white 
 and red varieties are cultivated. Plantations are improving 
 with the improvement of methods of cultivation and harvest- 
 ings Exports are made to Mauritius, Reunion and South Af- 
 rica. In 1913, 30 per cent, of the exported rice went to France 
 and over 20 per cent, to British colonies. In 1915 the exports 
 amounted to $767,857 in value. In 1916 there were exported 
 30,000 tons, besides supplying the large local demand. Ex- 
 perts claim that exportations in Madagascar can easily reach 
 100,000 tons within two or three years. 
 
 Madagascar raised 701,005 tons of rice in 1918. 
 
 Rice is cultivated in Zanzibar and Pemba islands by the 
 natives for their own use. 
 
 Mauritius and its neighboring islands cultivate rice in a 
 limited way for local consumption only. 
 
 The rice grown in Mozambique is of excellent quality and 
 can be made a paying crop. In 1914 Mozambique exported 
 through the port of Lorenco Marques rice to the value of $1,- 
 400, and through the port of Mozambique $5,832 worth. In 
 1915 the exports through Mozambique were 2,606,755 
 pounds, and through Quelimane, 1,108,674 pounds. 
 
 COTTON 
 
 The world cotton production is 20 million 500-pound 
 bales, of which the United States has produced 14 millions 
 in a year (1914), exporting about two-thirds. 
 
 The enterprising cupidity of American speculators has be- 
 come a menace to 1,500,000 European workmen. In spite of 
 the cotton from Egypt and the Indies, English spindles (48,- 
 000,000) and looms (650,000) are threatened with idleness. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 175 
 
 France needs 180,000 tons more than her colonies produce. 
 This is why the industrial nations seek to extend the cultiva- 
 tion of cotton in their own colonies. After much experiment- 
 ing, furnishing free seed, instruction and, in some cases, trans- 
 port, the knowledge has been secured as to where and when 
 not to cultivate cotton. 
 
 The French succeed in Algeria, Guadeloupe, Madagas- 
 car, Tahiti; but especially in West Africa. The Niger and 
 Senegal basins furnish an immense well-watered area. For- 
 merly (1865) these coast countries produced cotton, and new 
 activity is now probable. 
 
 While the natives have manufactured cloth from wild 
 cotton for many years, only recently has textile machinery of 
 modern design been shipped to South Africa. Cotton mills 
 will likely be established soon on the shore of Lake Nyanza 
 where the cultivation of the cotton plant has proved success- 
 ful. The war has demonstrated the need of local production 
 of cotton goods, so much in demand throughout Africa, and 
 has awakened the people to the need of factories in various 
 parts of the continent. 
 
 Cotton was sowed on 445 acres in Algeria during 1921. 
 
 Nigeria is the chief field of English exploitation. With 
 an area of suitable soil, one-half that of the cotton states of 
 America, and a population of 18,000,000, in spite of boll wee- 
 vil and other drawbacks, Nigeria alone can make Lancashire 
 independent of American monopolists. 
 
 Pneumatic ginners are operating near Kano- 
 
 Nigeria exported in 1915, 24,061 tons of lint, valued at 
 56,351; in 1916, 66,555 tons, valued at 243,946. In addi- 
 tion, cotton seed, 1,661 tons in 1915, and 864 tons in 1916, 
 was valued at 5,013 and 2,526. 
 
 Nigeria exported, 1920, raw cotton to the value of 716,- 
 733. 
 
 The British government bid 2%d per pound for tfie 1918 
 crop delivered to the railroad. 
 
 The natives have spun and woven cloth for a million 
 people for many years. Scientists, testing samples of cotton, 
 find defects in the Nigeria product, namely, uneven staple, 
 poor seed, and the presence of immature cotton. 
 
176 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Egypt raises a grade of cotton second only to sea island 
 in quality. During the war cotton growing partly gave place 
 to needed cereals. Average reduction amounted to 360,000 
 feddans. In 1919 acreage was further restricted to 1,400,000 
 fefldans (feddan is 1.1 acre). The crop was 640,000,000 
 pounds in 1918. 
 
 The best variety of Egyptian cotton is known as "Sakel- 
 laridis" and has a staple from li/ 2 to 2 inches in length. Other 
 inferior grades having a yellowish and brownish color are 
 known as Nubari, Abassi, Mit AM, Ashmouni, Joamovich. 
 Sakellaridis is used in the manufacture of the finest fabrics, 
 threads, laces, hosiery, corduroy, and has been in much de- 
 mand for balloon casings, aeroplane wings and automobile 
 tires. 
 
 Of the exports for 1917, England took 503,597 bales; 
 United States, 75,865 bales; France, 44,560; Italy, 50,140; 
 Japan, 18,218; Spain, 16,911; Greece, 4,891- The Egyptian 
 crop grows chiefly at the Delta of the Nile, also along its banks 
 in Soudan and Abyssinia. 
 
 In South Africa the best success has been in the Rusten- 
 burg District of the Transvaal, where the rainfall of 50 to 60 
 inches makes conditions eminently favorable to cotton. Na- 
 tive labor is cheap and the blacks soon learn how to gather 
 the harvest. In 1917 there was an export of 75,000 pounds. 
 As much could be produced here, says H. H. Fyfe, writing in 
 1911, as is raised in the whole of the Southern States. 
 
 "It costs to grow cotton, about $10 per acre. Each acre 
 should yield 1,000 pounds of seed cotton and 300 pounds of 
 lint. At 10 cents a pound, which is low, this would fetch $30, 
 leaving a profit of $20 per acre. Planting and growing oc- 
 cur during the rainy season, and picking during the dry sea- 
 son." 
 
 In Rustenburg, Waterburg, Loutpansburg and Natal, the 
 cotton yield for 1917 was 700,000 pounds of seed cotton and 
 235,000 pounds of lint cotton. The American upland varieties 
 are best suited to South Africa and are generally of better 
 grade and bring a cent a pound more in Lancashire than sim- 
 ilar grades from America. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 177 
 
 Union of Sowth Africa, 1920, produced 2,592,200 Ibs. of 
 seed cotton. 
 
 Nyassaland produced, 1919, cotton to*.the amount of 4," 
 968,130 Ibs. 
 
 Such progress as has been made in the development of 
 cotton growing in South Africa is largely due to the British 
 Cotton Growers' Association. While the actual output is yet 
 small and years of sustained effort will be required to rnafee 
 the production an important factor in the world's supply, the 
 difficulties encountered are not so much those of soil, labor, 
 and climate (cotton is a drought resistant) as in adequate 
 means of communication and transportation. 
 
 The Zambesi valley offers good prospect of cotton 
 growing because it can be so easily tainted from the river. 
 
 From Uganda 40,000 bales were shipped in 1914. There 
 is a prospect of 400,000 bales per year, better in grade thais 
 American middling. The price paid to natives for seed cot- 
 ton at the gin was 3% cents per pound, in 1913. During 1912 
 the best grade of Uganda cotton sold at 18 cents per pound 
 in Liverpool. In this upland region of Abyssinia and Ugan- 
 da 700 to 800 pounds per acre of cotton along the alluvial 
 valleys is a very favorable record compared to the average of 
 one bale per acre in America. In the Soudan, which has an 
 area of nearly one million square miles, the possibilities of 
 producing cotton are limited chiefly by the scant population, 
 but the acreage is steadily increasing. The best region is be- 
 tween the Blue and White Niles. Mr. E. A. Stanton, an Eng- 
 lish authority, writes that the future of the Soudan lies in 
 cotton. 
 
 During 1912 approximately 60,000 acres were planted 
 to cotton in Uganda. The government distributed 207 tons 
 of seed among the natives. About 1,000 pounds of seed cot- 
 ton per acre have been grown in good locations. The Agri- 
 cultural Department maintains an experimental farm where 
 natives are taught how to plow and to ascertain the best va- 
 riety suited to the region. Through government control, a 
 mixing of varieties has ceased. From the year 1909 to 1913 
 the production increased seven-fold in quantity and value. 
 Cotton is now the money crop in Uganda. Considerable of 
 the American type known as Allans Sunflower and King, has 
 
178 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 been grown and appears better than the same varieties raised 
 in America. The staple averages from 1 to 1*4 inches. - 
 
 The natives of Mozambique seem especially adapted to 
 cultivation of cotton. First plantations were started in 1908 
 and the crop amounted to 3,564,000 pounds in 1917. Egyp- 
 tian, Sea Island and Upland cottons are being tried out. No 
 cotton mills have yet been erected to utilize the local crop. 
 The plantations lie along the banks of the Zambesi River. 
 The navigable rivers provide good transportation which is 
 lacking in other colonies, but the labor question is unfortun- 
 ate, as the "boys" of Mozambique find more profitable work 
 as indentured laborers in the Transvaal mines. The Portu- 
 guese colony of Angola is beginning to export cotton. 
 
 From Northern Rhodesia 100,000 bales per year seem 
 possible when the railway is extended from Zambesi to Beira: 
 In Northern Rhodesia and Nyassaland the natives are not so 
 advanced as in Nigeria or Uganda which counts against the 
 rapid expansion of the industry. 
 
 An increasing amount of cotton is being grown in Som- 
 aliiand. The Italian government has paid (1911) as high as 
 228 lire per quintal for choice Abassi and Sakellaridis. 
 
 In Algeria the industry is localized in the Orleansville 
 and Oranie Districts where Egyptian cotton only is raised and 
 yields 1,700 pounds per acre, worth $260 per acre in 1917. 
 Considerable seed is grown at the Habea experiment station 
 for Algeria, Tunis and Morocco. 
 
 In French West Africa 20,000 bales were raised in 1916. 
 Cotton growing has not proved so successful on the West 
 Coast under the British experiments on account of excessive 
 moisture. Natives are too lazy to plant cotton every year, 
 when cocoa requires only one planting. Cocoa, peanuts and 
 palm-oil are more profitable crops. 
 
 In British and German East Africa much money has been 
 spent in developing the cotton industry which seems especial- 
 ly suited for this region. Cotton was the largest item of ex- 
 port from British East Africa, in 1913 amounting in value to 
 $1,510,642, most of this being from Uganda. Cotton is the 
 third export in importance from former German East Africa. 
 In British East Africa the Abassi variety of the Egyptian cot- 
 ton gives the best results. Twice a year the Juba River, along 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 179 
 
 which cotton is raised, overflows and brings down a rich de- 
 posit so that it is possible to get two crops a year. With the 
 aid of irrigation, nearly one million acres could be put into 
 cotton. In the upper lake region, both American and mid- 
 dling cotton are successful. 
 
 In German East Africa 54,400 acres were under cotton 
 for the year 1913; 4,150,000 pounds of cotton were exported 
 in 1912. The English troops, in 1917, captured 20,000 bales of 
 cotton at the Rufigi Delta. Only 7,000 bales were raised in 
 1912. The average .yield was 160 pounds of ginned cotton per 
 acre. This was of the American Upland variety. Germany 
 appropriated $50,000 a year to encourage the industry, and 
 the number of colored pupils at the experiment stations was 
 constantly increasing. The chief obstacle with cotton-grow- 
 ing there is the irregularity of rainfall. 
 
 Former German East Africa exported, 1920, cotton to the 
 value of 119,255 (1,147,912 Ibs.). 
 
 Madagascar, Angola, Senegambia and Central Africa 
 
 have long utilized wild cotton or plants improved by cultiva- 
 tion. 
 
 There are many insects that ruin the cotton. One of the 
 most common is a very small insect called oxycarenus which 
 gets into the cotton at the time it is picked and stored. Many 
 experiments have been made to exterminate this insect but 
 so far none have been successful. 
 
 A small red bug often kills the plants by eating the 
 roots. 
 
 The heliothis is found in the cotton buds, also the boll- 
 worm. Paris Green is used successfully in exterminating the 
 latter. The Gelechia Gossypiella is a green fly that lives on 
 the young plants and keeps them from developing. 
 
 North of the Equator, the cotton crop is harvested 
 Harvest, in the fall ; south of the Equator the harvest takes 
 
 place in April or May. The cotton is planted in 
 rows and requires considerable initial cultivation to prevent 
 an over-growth of weeds. The secret of success in cotton 
 growing is to keep the field free from weeds. During the 
 war the shortage of labor resulted in planted areas being so 
 weed-choked that there was a great decrease in the harvest. 
 
130 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The cost of production varies in differ- 
 
 Cost of Production, ent localities, according to soil and labor 
 conditions. Ten to $50 per acre might 
 be considered a moderate average. 
 Outlook. 
 
 The amount of cotton grown in Africa outside of Egypt, 
 now amounting to about 200,000 bales per annum, is likely to 
 increase ten-fold during the next ten years if the boll weevil 
 pest is checked. Climatic and labor conditions are favorable 
 to this expansion. 
 
 Nigeria has a stretch of 336,000 square miles suitable for 
 cotton which would produce several million bales as labor is 
 plentiful and intelligent. 
 
 SISAL 
 
 Sisal (Agave rigida sisalana), a native of Yucatan, is the 
 most important of African vegetable fibres. It is called the 
 orreeii agave from the bright green leaves. It is a member 
 ^f the family to which the century plant belongs and other 
 agaves which produce maguey, pulque and mescal. It thrives 
 In different parts of Africa. On the East Coast it is more 
 prosperous than anywhere else in the world. It is driving 
 *rom export the wild fibres, Sanseviera. ehrenbergiS, of the 
 East Coast, and Sanserviera Guineensis, of the West Coast. 
 
 \ccording to Commerce Report of June 3, 1917: Three 
 or four years from the date of planting, leaves 3% to 5 1/2 
 feet in length are cut with a long curved tool. The cutter is 
 paid 16 cents per day, averaging 1000 leaves. During the 
 cutting period of three years, the operation is repeated 5 or 
 6 times, producing (average) 120 leaves in German East 
 Africa, to 160 in British East Africa. However, the former 
 colony is compensated by a fibre value of 3 per cent, to 2% 
 per cent in the Protectorate. 
 
 Bundles of 40 leaves, weighing about 2% pounds apiece, 
 are railroaded to the factory on light cars, propelled by hand, 
 steam or gasoline. To secure annually from one acre one long 
 ton of dry fibre, requires about 680 plants (17 green leaves 
 making one pound of dry fibre). 
 
 Sisal planted in the rainy season on barren 
 
 How Produced, land will grow. In normal years East Africa 
 
 produces over 70 per cent, of the world's 
 
 sisal 20,000 tons from German, 6,000 tons from British and 
 
 600 tons from Portuguese East Africa. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 181 
 
 The fibre of the agave is used for making matting, 
 Uses, rugs, bags, ropes, harness, hammocks, hats, baskets 
 and brushes. 
 
 In 1893 1,000 sisal plants from Florida were imported 
 to German East Africa. These multiplied to 150,000 healthy 
 plants in 1900, warranting the introduction of fibre extract- 
 ing machinery. The first shipment of clean fibre of 7% tons, 
 valued at $755, increased to 18,000 tons, valued at $1,751,- 
 494, in 1912, displacing rubber, which had been the chief 
 product. 
 
 Former German East Africa exported, 1920, sisal to value 
 of 364,448. 
 
 Stimulated by German success, the English planted at 
 Mombasa in 1902, sisal suckers brought from the German col- 
 ony, resulting in several plantations which exported in 1914- 
 '15 $200,000 worth of sisal. The production of sansevieria 
 was abandoned in 1911, being displaced by the cultivated 
 sisal. Samples of clean fibre were tested by the Imperial In- 
 stitute in London in 1910. The analysis showed that the staple 
 5 feet long, of very good strength, had: Moisture 11.1 per 
 cent.; ash, 0.98 per cent.; a-hydrolysis, loss, 11.2 per cent.; 
 b-hydrolysis, loss, 14.1 per cent.; acid purification, loss 2.3 
 per cent, and cellulose, 78.2 per cent. 
 
 The total acreage in British East Africa devoted 
 Acres and to sisal increased from 7,000 in 1912, to 18,000 
 Exports. acres in 1916. Fibre valued $175,481 (1,681 
 
 long tons) was exported during the year ending 
 March 31, 1915. Italy took 2 per cent.; United States 4 per 
 cent, and the United Kingdom 93 per cent. The war de- 
 creased later shipments. 
 
 The average crop has been three tons per acre; number 
 of leaves per plant, per term, about 160, and amount of fibre 
 6% pounds, per 100 leaves. There is no risk from disease 
 with sisal. It is an assured investment easily first in net re- 
 turn per acre. The heavy outlay for machinery requires large 
 acreage for adequate returns. Labor and water must be 
 plentiful. 
 
 British East Africa (Kenya) exported, 1920, fibres to the 
 value of 205,710. 
 
182 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 An association of planters has been formed to 
 Future of the foster the industry ; in marketing ; collection 
 Industry. of statistics; improvement of working meth- 
 
 ods and machinery; recruiting labor and im- 
 provement of transportatin and rates. 
 
 The industry is spreading to Natal, which has sold fibre 
 as high as $400 per ton; to Rhodesia, where experiments 
 with various fibres are being made; to Nyassaland which ex- 
 ported 233,482 pounds in 1915-1916; to Mozambique which 
 exported in 1916, 4,467,249 pounds, mostly through Quili- 
 mane, valued at $145,452. 
 
 Maurice hemp, since 1906, is cultivated in the Lower 
 Congo. The fibres were valued at $170 per ton in 1914. 
 
 ESPARTO 
 
 Esparto (stipa tenacissima), or Alfa, a tough, wiry, wild 
 grass, thrives best in rocky, arid soil and requires no care ex- 
 cept weeding, to attain a height of 20 to 30 inches. 
 
 When full grown, in midsummer, it is cut, near the roots, 
 with a sickle, dried in the sun, and tied into foot-thick bun- 
 dles, which sell for 1 peseta (1918). 
 
 It keeps indefinitely. Camels and mules eat it when 
 green. When dried, it is worked into matting, shoes, sandals, 
 fruit-panniers, rope (combined with native hemp) and main- 
 ly into paper pulp. This paper is silky and pure and is used 
 in de luxe editions of engravings, as well as for fine cigarette 
 wrappers. 
 
 Algeria, Morocco and Tunis cultivate esparto. The first 
 exports hats, matting and basketry; also the raw material, 
 the value of which was $1,293,486, in 1914. Much of the crop 
 is woven into mats on hand looms at Crevillente, Spain. 
 
 Tripoli exports wild esparto grass to England, as well as 
 manufactured articles, especially baskets. The production 
 of esparto decreases partly by the competition of Norway 
 wood-pulp and also from waste in pulling up of its roots. 
 Irrigation of desert lands would stimulate reproduction. 
 
 There are two sorts of alfa in Algeria, Stipa tenaccis- 
 sima and Lygeum Spartium. The former monopolizes the 
 high table land and the so-called "Alfa-See". The govern- 
 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 183 
 
 ment controls the amount of crop to be cut. In 1890, 105,000 
 tons were harvested, worth 7,500,000 francs. Oran has one- 
 half of the cultivated area, The first export from Algeria was 
 in 1862, when this colony furnished half the world's product; 
 Spain, Tunis and Tripoli dividing the rest. 
 
 Alfalfa or Lucern (Medicago sativa) is a fibre-produc- 
 ing grass, growing luxuriantly on poor soil in northern Africa. 
 
 Alfalfa is the chief native herbaceous crop of Tripoli- It 
 is used as fodder, and in the making of paper, matting, cord- 
 age, hats, chair-bottoms, etc. 
 
 Ramie (Boehemeria Nivea) a nettle grass, native of 
 China, is grown in Northern Africa for the manufacture of 
 grass cloth. The fibre is superior to jute, flax or hemp and 
 more expensive. 
 
 In 1896 ramie (Urtica nives) was imported to the Congo, 
 where it is capable of six harvests per year. Other varieties 
 are less successful. A machine for peeling ramie awaits in- 
 vention. 
 
 Junco or camel grass is used in a cheaper matting. 
 
 Bamboo (Arundinaria dendrocalamus) , a luxuriant 
 growth of tropical or semi-tropical Africa, has many uses. 
 Madagascar produces much of the pulp for paper-making. In 
 Somali the bambo lines the river banks. 
 
 Tambookie or tambuki grass is now used in making a 
 brown wrapping paper of good quality. It brought $18 per 
 ton (before the war) in London. It is grown in South and 
 East Africa. 
 
 The Aloe (Aloe spicata) produces a fiber (pita) which 
 resembles sisal hemp, with which it is sometimes confused. It 
 is cultivated in Madagascar, Mauritius and other parts of 
 Africa, not for the drug, so much as for material for Iace 2 
 shawls, scarfs, fancy table covers, as well as rope and twine- 
 A plant may have 40 leaves 8 to 10 feet long, a foot wide, 
 yielding 10 per cent, of fiber. 
 
 Flax (Linum usitatissimum) is an annual raised in north- 
 ern and eastern Africa and on the island of St. Helena. 
 
 It was the chief fiber product of Egypt from very early 
 times until the close of the 18th century, when cotton took 
 the first place. Belgian Congo and Algeria have increasing 
 acreage. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The Government flax-mill at St. Helena has operated 
 since 1908. Private mills also make thread and cloth, and 
 especially lace. In 1914 St. Helena had a flax tonnage (in- 
 cluding seed) of 396,956 pounds. 
 
 Before the war, Russia produced 1,000,000,000 pounds 
 of flax fiber annually. All other countries less than 500,000,- 
 000 pounds. The Russian fiber is inferior to the Belgian prod- 
 uct, which requires very fertile soil and greater care in culti- 
 vation to produce Brussels lace. Flax has a slender stem, a 
 yard high, with a blue or white flower at end of each branch. 
 The linen made from the bast of the plant is mentioned in the 
 Old Testament and by Herodotus. Egyptian mummy cloths, 
 under the microscope, are proved to be linen. 
 
 The various operations through which the 
 How Produced, crop passes until the flax is ready for the 
 market are (1) pulling, (2) rippling, (3) 
 retting, (4) drying, (5) rolling and (6) scutching. 
 
 As soon as the flax is pulled up by the roots, the "bolls" 
 or capsules are removed by the process of rippling or separat- 
 ing the seeds and the stalk, which is done with a kind of comb. 
 Retting or rotting is done either by the water process or the 
 dew process and consists in soaking the stalks in pure water 
 for 10 days or two weeks until the fiber is separated from the 
 core when the stalks are spread over a grassy meadow to dry. 
 Scutching is the process by which the fiber is freed from its 
 woody core and rendered fit for the market and consists of 
 two operations, breaking and then scutching, generally done 
 by scutching mills. 
 
 The linen made from flax is very strong and lasting, 
 Uses, which has made it popular through the centuries for 
 
 clothing, table "linen", bedding, and other household 
 purposes. 
 
 The finest flax is of a faint yellowish tint, but for most 
 purposes it is bleached white before used for clothing. How- 
 ever, colored linen is often fashionable, when the cloth is col- 
 ored in the shades and hues desired. 
 
 Jute (Corchorus olitorius and C. capsularis) came from 
 India. In West Africa it finds an alluvial soil and rainfall 
 suited to its needs. Algeria has a small but growing indus- 
 try. An experimental plantation in the Lower Congo in 1906 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 185 
 
 has developed into considerable crops for export. This ten- 
 acious, flossy fiber is used in burlap, sacking and cheap wrap- 
 ping paper, twine, etc. It is mixed with wool or silk, or both, 
 in fabrics. 
 
 Hemp (Cannabxs sativa) was introduced from Arabia 
 and India. It is cultivated in Belgian Congo, Mauritius -and 
 Morocco, where it is called "Kief" or "Kip". It is the "dak- 
 kan" of South Africa. It is used for cloth, cordage, medicine 
 and bird seed. Congo exported 200 tons of hemp goods in 
 the first half of 1918. 
 
 Raffia or Raphia ( Pedunculata ) is a native palm of Mad- 
 agascar, now found throughout the equatorial belt in the 
 marshy valleys, especially in Upper Congo, Lualaba and Ka- 
 sai. 
 
 Raffia fiber is stripped by hand from the foot-stalk of the 
 leaf. Mats of this fiber were used by the German army in 
 packing shells. The natives make mats, basketry and a coarse 
 cloth by mixing raffia with silk. Gardeners and nursery men 
 use raffia as a tying material. 
 
 Raffia comes in long, narrow strips % to % inch in width 
 and from 2% to 5 feet in length. It value depends on its 
 color, running from pale yellow to a greenish tint. Dyed strips 
 are now used in teaching children to plait or weave small 
 useful articles. Patients in hospitals recover the use of fingers 
 by such work. 
 
 Raffia first appeared in the European markets in 1875, 
 though cheap matting had been an export of Madagascar as 
 early as 1860. 
 
 The quantities and values of the exports of raffia fiber 
 from Madagascar in 1913 are shown in the following table: 
 
 M. tons 
 
 France 3,564 80,636 
 
 United Kingdom 331 8,491 
 
 Germany 1,824 41,773 
 
 Other countries 242 6,148 
 
 5,961 137,048 
 
 Before the war raffia was quoted in the London market 
 at prices ranging from 25 to 35 per ton. 
 
186 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Madagascar exported raffia fibre to the value of 128,075 
 during 1918. 
 
 Raphia (vine fera) is a species of the numerous Piassava 
 family of palms. It abounds in West Africa. Brazil has the 
 bulk of the industry, but a beginning has been made in Sierra 
 Leone and Gambia. In the former the export value has in- 
 creased from $75,238 in 1912 to 94,500 in 1916 (883 tons). 
 In Gambia a British firm began cultivation in 1915. The big 
 revolving brushes used by night to clean American streets are 
 made from piassava. 
 
 Kapok (ereiodendron anfractuosum) is another of the 
 many fiber trees. It is a beautiful ornamental tree which the 
 German colonies were the first to cultivate for industrial uses. 
 It is called false cotton or vegetable silk. Mature in six years, 
 its annual product is three pounds. Its silky fiber makes good 
 stuffing for pillows and mattresses, also for life belts; com- 
 pressed it can support 36 times its weight in water. It dries 
 quicker than cork. It takes the place of cotton wool in sur- 
 gery. Invention has made it possible to weave its short fibers. 
 Mixed with bombax cotton it is sold as kapok. 
 
 German East Africa exported in 1912 117,004 pounds 
 ($14,899). Senegal in 1914 exported 26,213 pounds of ka- 
 pok, and nearly as much of other fibers. 
 
 Coir (Tamil kayiru) abounds in Mozambique. It is a 
 very tough fiber of the husk of the cocoanut tree- In 1913 
 the export through Lorenco Marques was $7,272; in 1916, 
 ?3,530. 
 
 Chamerops Humilis, a dwarf palm of Algeria, is in use 
 
 as stuffing for furniture and mattresses. Nigeria has a palm 
 for cordage making. There is a fiber of promise in the ban- 
 ana (Musa sapientum). 
 
 Manila (Musa textilis) makes the best rope, also "abaca" 
 cloth, and fine, light yellow paper. Introduced from the 
 Philippines, it is found in several colonies of Africa, espec- 
 ially in Madagascar. 
 
 Palma, a fan-palm, producing a vegetable hair, a sub- 
 stitute for horse hair, is used for paper and many textile pur 
 J>oses. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 187 
 
 Algeria in 1916 exported 24,905 metric tons of vegetable 
 fibers, valued at $600,809. Considerable comes to America. 
 Baobab (Adansonia digitata) is abundant in Lower Senegal, 
 furnishing food, drink, medicine and shelter, as well as cloth- 
 ing and rope. This so-called monkey bread tree, indigenous 
 to Africa, grows 30 feet in diameter. Its use for cordage is 
 reviving. 
 
 The Pineapple (Ananassa sativa) is not yet profitable 
 for fiber uses. 
 
 TOBACCO 
 
 Tobacco (Nfcotina Tobacum) consists of the leaves of 
 several species of this "weed", all prepared as narcotic, for 
 smoking, chewing or inhaling as snuff. Tobacco is the most 
 extensively used of all narcotics. It is a contribution of the 
 American Indian to civilization. Since 1600 its various uses 
 have been learned by the entire world and it is now common- 
 ly smoked not only by civilized people, but "even by the sav- 
 age tribes in the interior of Africa." Thus it has passed from 
 the red American Indian to the black African bushman and 
 the yellow Chinese coolie through the agency of the civilized 
 white man. 
 
 One of the chief exports of the United States to every 
 colony of Africa is leaf tobacco and cigars, but conditions in 
 some of the African colonies are quite as favorable for grow- 
 ing tobacco as they are in the United States. 
 
 Tobacco may be grown on any agricultural soil and 
 through a wide range of latitude, but the commercial value 
 of the product is more influenced by the soil and climatic con- 
 ditions than any other agricultural crop. 
 
 The leaves of tobacco are rolled, twisted or pressed into 
 hard "plugs" for chewing; cut into fine shreds or particles 
 to be used in pipes; rolled into tight or semi-tight cylindrical 
 forms known as cigars, for smoking. Cigars are made in va- 
 rious ways from various kinds of tobacco, strong, mild, or 
 medium, according to the quality of the leaf and mode of 
 manufacture. The leaves are also dried and powdered into 
 snuff, which was formerly popular taken up the nose. An- 
 other use is packing it in woolen clothing of blankets, to keep 
 out moths. 
 
188 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Nicotine, a very poisonous alkaloid, is the active principle 
 of tobacco, and an essential ingredient in the manufacture 
 of certain sheep dips. The high proportion of nicotine in much 
 of the Outshoorn tobacco (due apparently to the lar^e per- 
 centage of chlorine and nitrogen in the soil), seems to render 
 the district particularly adapted for experiments in this di- 
 rection. South African tobacco is especially adapted to the 
 manufacture of this "dip", and oan become a valuable com- 
 modity for local use and for export. 
 
 Algeria uses American machinery and has no laws of re- 
 straint or monopoly in production of tobacco. Cultivation be- 
 gan in 1844. Algeria now leads African production. Half 
 the product is made into cigarettes in France, whose govern- 
 ment bought, in 1914, $811,372 worth. In 1917, from 25,254 
 acres was a yield of 36,155,000 pounds. One-half the crop 
 in 1915 was manufactured near the cataracts. American 
 seeds have been cultivated, with improvement of quality. No 
 exports have yet been made, nor will be until plenty of 
 skilled labor is obtained. 
 
 In Algeria it is made into cigarettes for home use (35,- 
 000,000 packages) and 66,000,000 were exported, especially 
 to Indo-China. Production has increased from 593 to 1,874 
 tons, between 1901 and 1916. 
 
 Canary Islands' tobacco, under high tariff, does not mee*" 
 home demands. The annual product, 50,000 to 80,000 pounds 
 (mostly on La Palma), could be greatly increased. 
 
 Madagascar in 1916 claimed tobacco as next to hides 
 its chief product. 
 
 Transvaal tobacco is unsuitable for cigars, but is held as 
 the best pipe tobacco in the world. It grows best in Pretoria, 
 Potchefstroom, Rustenberg and Zoutpansberg. 
 
 Rhodesia exported, in 1915, $206,980 worth of tobacco, 
 in 1916, $199,585. Cultivation of cotton instead of tobacco, 
 during the war, reduced the output, but in 1918, the crop 
 was estimated at 500,000 pounds. 
 
 Congo has two kinds of tobacco plants, Nicotiana, grow- 
 ing to 12 feet, and rustica, smaller, but producing a preferred, 
 darker tobacco. 
 
 Nyassaland harvested 7,484 acres ot tobacco (chief crop) 
 in 1917. Yield per acre is small, 300 to 500 pounds. Export 
 increased from 56,826 pounds in 1905 to 3,308,948 in 1915. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 189 
 
 South Africa has large acreage but production of tobac- 
 co is less than local demand. 
 
 The Union had a yield of 9,000,000 pounds in 1915, 8,- 
 000,000 in 1916, nearly 7,000,000 in 1917, and over 8,000,- 
 000 in 1918, which was three-fifths of local requirement. 
 
 Egypt is largely dependent upon Turkey and Greece and 
 Macedonia for leaf tobacco, from which the famous Egyptian 
 cigarettes are made. This is really the only manufacturing 
 industry of the Protectorate. These cigarettes are largely 
 made by American machinery. In addition to the immense 
 home consumption, the average export of cigarettes from 
 Egypt IB valued at $2,000,000. 
 
 Egypt prohibited tobacco growing in 1890, but it has 
 since been revived under government control and assistance. 
 Along the Nile in lower Egypt are experimental tobacco 
 farms, and the manufacture of cigarettes has become one of 
 the principal industries of the country. A large part of the 
 export of these cigarettes formerly went to Germany. 
 
 The Italians follow the Turk's state control of the planta- 
 tions in Tripoli. 
 
 Nigeria, in the north, carefully cultivates, but unskil- 
 fully cures the tobacco, which is unfit for export. 
 
 German East Africa, Somaliland, Uganda and Angola 
 grow tobacco on a "small scale." 
 
 Mozambique, Abyssinia and the Islands are greatly in- 
 creasing their output. 
 
 VANILLA AND OTHER ESSENCES 
 
 Vanilla (Vanilla aromatica and V. planifolia) is native 
 of the tropical forests of Mexico and Central America, where 
 it is cultivated in vast quantities. 
 
 In 1819 living plants were taken to Java, and in 1836 to 
 Keunion and then to Mauritius. It adapted itself to the soil 
 of both islands, but was not successfully cultivated until 1850, 
 when the process of pollinating the flowers was learned. Van- 
 illa is now cultivated in nearly all tropical countries where 
 there is plenty of moisture and a temperature that never falls 
 below 65 degrees F. Commercial vanilla is almost wholly 
 produced from cultivated plants. 
 
190 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The product vanilla is obtained from a long, running 
 plant with flexible, succulent stems, which thrive running 
 along the ground, but quickly climb any tree which lends its 
 support. The stem is about as thick as a man's finger and 
 very juicy. The plant bears at from two to four years, when 
 its branches blossom and fruit, which they continue to do for 
 about 10 years. The fruit grows in clusters of three to 12, 
 which look something like diminutive bunches of very slender 
 bananas. When almost mature, nearly four months after the 
 blossoms fall off, they are quickly gathered to prevent open- 
 ing and spilling of the seeds. If gathered too early the flavor 
 is not good, so great skill is needed in knowing just the prop- 
 er time. Straggling fruit missed in the picking, is afterward 
 gathered as an inferior harvest. The original crop is sold to 
 the "curers", who take the product in charge to mature it for 
 commercial use. 
 
 There are various methods of curing but the object in all 
 is to "sweat" the fruit numerous times by steaming or in 
 sweatboxes, in order to drive out the moisture, and still furth- 
 er sweating is obtained under woolen covers, alternated by 
 exposure to sunshine or drying ovens. When sufficiently dry 
 the pods are tied in bundles for market They are assorted 
 for packing, the first quality pods being oily, strongly per- 
 fumed, black and without defects ; after this the pods are as- 
 sorted according to length and then they are made up into 
 bundles, each packet containing 50; the packets are packed 
 into tin boxes containing 85 pounds of vanilla each- The 
 tins are soldered up and put in wooden cases holding three 
 boxes apiece and are ready for shipment. 
 
 In order to obtain the perfume or essence of 
 How Prepared, vanilla one pound of pods is cut up small and 
 put into a gallon of pure alcohol known as 
 60 over-proof, and shaken daily for four weeks when the 
 spirits may be strained off quite clear and bright. It is then 
 suitable for flavoring or when blended with other scents, 
 zakes> fragrant perfumery. 
 
 Extracts are preparations obtained by evaporation of all 
 material but the concentrated substances of the product ex- 
 tracted. These preparations are usually prepared from pow- 
 dered dry leaves, flowers or fruit, by exhaustion with solvents 
 (water, alcohol or ether), by percolation. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 191 
 
 Another method is to obtain juice from fresh plants by 
 bruising them in a stone mortar with a hard-wood pestle until 
 the mass is reduced to a smooth pulp, which is then expressed 
 in canvas bags. 
 
 Vanilla extracts, besides their familiar uses, serve in 
 flavoring tobacco and dyspepsia tonics. The best and largest 
 product is from the islands, Reunion, Mauritius and Mada- 
 gascar. Seychelles has a poorer quality yet, The export was 
 66,000 pounds,' in 1906, and $54,000 worth in 1916. The 
 synthetic vanillas and the tonka bean, for adulteration, have 
 reduced production. 
 
 Comoro Island produces vanilla at an altitude of 2,500 
 feet In 1902 Anjouan gathered 18 tons, from 1,200,000 
 plants. 
 
 Mauritius in 1915 exported to London, vanilla valued at 
 $9,265. 
 
 Reunion's export of vanilla is second in quality and quan- 
 tity to that of Mexico 165,000 pounds in 1905, and 154,000 
 in 1909. 
 
 Madagascar, including its islands of Nossi-Be and Com- 
 oro exported one-fourth of the world production in 1917 
 500 tons. In 1916 the price ran from $1.05 to $2.00 per 
 pound. 
 
 VEGETABLE PERFUMERIES 
 
 Essential oils, used in perfumery, are extracted from 
 flowers, fruit, stems and roots, which Africa grows luxur- 
 iantly, 
 
 Algeria formerly distilled from bigaradier (Acacia for- 
 nesiana) and rose geranium (Geraniceae pelargonium) but 
 
 the industry faltered during the war. 
 
 Neroli, a volatile oil of Algeria, distilled from flowers of 
 the bitter orange, is used both for perfume and flavoring. 
 
 Bergamot (Citrus bergamia rossi) is a specimen of the 
 citrus family partaking of the properties of both the orangp 
 and the lemon. The fruit is lemon color and it has a bitter, 
 acrid taste. It is not known in a wild state and its origin is 
 obscure. Oil of bergamot is obtained from the rind by cold 
 expression and an inferior quality is afterward made from 
 the crushed rinds by the aid of steam. 
 
192 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Tunis exported in 1913, 600,000 pounds of volatile oils 
 and extracts. 
 
 South Africa in 1917 exported 9,876 pounds ($2,400) 
 of dried blossoms. 
 
 Madagascar exports dried flowers, especially ylang- 
 ylang, a native of the Philippines. 
 
 Zanzibar produces nutmeg oil. 
 
 Civet (vcera csvetta) secreted by the civet cat, is ex- 
 ported from Abyssinia and Soudan. 
 
 RUBBER 
 
 Although rubber has been known for 400 years it has 
 been used only for a century. The early explorers of Amer- 
 ica found the Indians of Haiti making balls of rubber for 
 games. The first use of rubber in Africa appears to have 
 been for drum-stick heads. In the United States rubber was 
 manufactured for erasing pencil marks, then for boots 
 (Goodyear) for marines, then for coats (Mackintosh) to keep 
 off the rain, then came a multitude of uses in the arts and 
 industries, and finally automobiles appeared to start a re- 
 markable boom. 
 
 ^' Brazil M has been the chief source of commercial 
 rubber. There is large production in Central America, Vene- 
 zuela, Columbia, the Philippines, British Antilles and Dutch 
 Indies. Africa now stands third. African rubber first became 
 prominent in the market in 1885. About 1890 the wild rub- 
 ber trees of the Congo began to be exploited. 
 
 Wild rubber from Africa comes from the funtumia and 
 landolphia, the former a tree, the latter more like a vine 
 which climbs on other trees. Landolphia produces most of the 
 wild rubber. A rubber tree begins to yield latex at the age 
 of six years. Plantation rubber trees are set out 550 to the 
 acre, with cocoa, cotton or coffee trees between the rows. 
 
 Only since 1907 has the cultivated crop of rubber been 
 on the market, but now throughout Africa it is rapidly super- 
 seding the wild. Of the world's crop of 200,000 tons, one- 
 fourth is the wild product. It is usually of inferior quality, 
 due to neglect in the removal of sticks, dirt, resin, etc. 
 
 The latex, or caoutchouc, is obtained in different ways. 
 Sometimes pieces of trees or vines are macerated. Ordinar- 
 ily incisions in the trunk permit the ooze to fill the attached 
 
 *At present the leading source of plantation rubber is the Malay Peainsula 
 nnd East Indies. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 193 
 
 cups. Clots are sometimes formed by allowing the trickle to 
 coagulate on the trunk. Sprinkling or brushing the incision 
 with acid (lemon, sorrel or salt), quickly forms a lump, which 
 is ready at once for packing for shipment. Rubber is obtained 
 by a physical process of pounding and separating the latex; 
 and a chemical process of coagulation by the use of alum, 
 salt, sulphuric acid, citric and acetic juices. 
 
 The following is an analysis made at the Imperial In- 
 stitute of a fair sample of rubber produced by Landolphia 
 Kirkii in the Mozambique Company's Territories, East Af- 
 rica, i. e., moisture, 5 per cent, caoutchouc, 85. 6 per cent.; 
 resin, 5.5 per cent. ; proteids. 1.3 per cent. ; insoluble, 2.7 per 
 cent.; ash, .46 per cent. 
 
 Protective laws have been made in most districts for- 
 bidding cutting down of plants, over-tapping or cutting out 
 of season. Bush fires, locusts, tornadoes and droughts are 
 common. The laws in the great forests are not easily execut- 
 ed. Schools to educate the natives in economical methods of 
 harvesting rubber are popular. The careful inspection by 
 the customs service prevents export of impure (10 per cent-) 
 and over-moist (15 per cent, water) rubber. 
 
 In the Congo the law requires replacement by 150 new 
 plants to every ton of rubber produced. 
 
 The natives have destroyed almost entirely the wild rub- 
 ber trees in Madagascar, Mozambique, Zanzibar, and there is 
 a shrinkage in the production of wild trees, indicating that 
 the zenith has been reached, and that wild rubber is on the 
 decline. 
 
 British East Africa has several rubber plantations. Ceara 
 (which flourishes on poor, dry soil) and the Para plants are 
 most successful. 
 
 Nyassaland and German East Africa cultivate Ceara. 
 The first exported in 1915-'16, 46,002 pounds. The latter had 
 19,000,000 trees in 1913, 6,000,000 of which were the manihot 
 glaziorii variety. There are other wild rubber plants 
 clitanria, ficus, castilloa, hevea, kickxia, etc. The best wild 
 rubber is from near Tanganyika, Donde and Kilva. 
 
 Kamerun, in 1912, received $2,730,389 for rubber (near- 
 ly one-half of total exports, rubber passing ivory). 
 
 Uganda had in 1916, 3,335 acres under native cultiva- 
 tion, to 5,706 acres (1917) under European. 
 
194 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Portuguese Africa mainly raises wild rubber. The Val- 
 our separator is coming into use in the M'punga forest. 
 
 Mozambique rubber is listed as "black" or "red" Afri- 
 cans. It is impure and cheap. Undeveloped good plants 
 exist in quantity. 
 
 Madagascar forests are full of rubber plants, but the 
 mixing of poor latex with good has lowered values. Re-for- 
 esting and cultivation can develop the great possibilities of 
 the wild and plantation rubber. 
 
 Gambia has an indigenous vine, Landolphia Hendelotii, 
 and many other plants, native or exotic. 
 
 Sierra Leone has the Landolphia and Clitandra vines, 
 also the West African tree, Funtumia elasiici. "Manoh twist" 
 is made by stamping the coagulated latex with the feet, into 
 cakes, which, cut in strips, are wound into balls. 
 
 The Gold Coast has trees and vines in extensive forests. 
 
 Funtumia Elastlca is tapped as high as 50 feet, by the 
 double herring system. The drip, unstrained, coagulates in 
 a pit plastered with clay, producing an inferior rubber. New 
 methods tend toward improvement. 
 
 Nigeria has done good work in educating the natives 
 in rubber production. In the south there are nurseries for 
 rubber seedlings. The northern product is inferior. 
 
 French West Africa made its first export from Guinea 
 in 1888. All the other colonies are producing under strict 
 laws. 
 
 Most of the Senegal rubber comes from Casamance. From 
 1896 to 1899 inclusive the average production of rubber in 
 Casamance amounted to 252,936 kilograms annually, valued 
 at 940,222 francs. For the whole colony the average produc- 
 tion in the period 1896-1899 was 278,005 kilograms, worth 
 1,084,219 francs. 
 
 The rubber is derived from two species of landolphia, 
 the most common known as toll, the vines of which grow in 
 bushes on the plains and clearings. The latex is extracted from 
 the roots. Although rubber has been cultivated in Casamance 
 since 1883 there is no system of protection or propagation, 
 and unless precautions are taken there is danger that the 
 plant will disappear. The next most important variety is 
 dob, which is less elastic, but which is in demand. Attempts 
 to introduce Ceara rubber have been tried without success. 
 
RAW PRO DUCTS OF AFRICA 195 
 
 Congo rubber finds a ready market. It was formerly the 
 chief producer of wealth. In 1907 there were 12,000,000 
 trees (estimated). United States and Liverpool buy the bulk 
 of the production. 
 
 Rubber comes in balls, slabs, strips, rolls, cakes, twists 
 and bags. The best of the African rubber comes from the 
 Congo under such trade names as Wamba, thimbles, Equa- 
 teur, kasai, Assiwimi, Nelle strips, Mongalla. 
 
 In 1907 the Belgian Congo exported 1,600 tons of rub- 
 ber. 
 
 In 1914, the Belgian Congo exported rubber to the value 
 of $2,200,000. 
 
 In 1915, the Belgian Congo exported rubber to the value 
 of $2,300,000. 
 
 In 1915, Belgian Congo exported 1,929,199 pounds root 
 rubber (876,909 kg.). 
 
 In 1915, Belgian Congo exported 2,864,270 pounds vine 
 rubber (1,301,942 kg.). 
 
 Belgian Congo exported, 1920, rubber to the value of 
 5,396,397 francs (1,121,679 kilos). 
 
 French Congo, 1920, exported 2,122 tons of wild rubber. 
 
 In 1918 (first 6 mos.), Belgian Congo exported 12 tons 
 of rubber goods. 
 
 In the forests of Liberia are to be found rubber-bearing 
 vines and trees of 22 species. Liberia exported in 1910, 115,- 
 785 pounds of rubber; 1911, 103,032 pounds of rubber; 1912, 
 93,822 pounds of rubber; 1913, 116,712 pounds of rubber; 
 1914, 8,003 pounds of rubber; 1915, 10,081 pounds of rubber. 
 In 1913, the value of the crop was $30,000; in 1917. it was 
 $17,000. 
 
 In the southern part of Abyssinia are to be found many 
 rubber plants but as yet of little value commercially. 
 
 SPICES 
 
 African countries do not rank in the foreground of trade 
 in spices and herbs, like the East Indies, although there is not 
 a spice known that can not be raised, and profitably so, in 
 Africa. The negroes have long used herbs and have many 
 superstitions concerning their curative, as well as their witch- 
 like powers. 
 
196 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The ability of West Africa to keep the world supplied 
 with pungent spices was the first inducement for the English 
 to settle there, says Sir Henry Johnstone. Islands, like Maur- 
 itius and Reunion, are famous for their spices. 
 
 Mustard (Sinapss nigra and S. alba, from the natural or- 
 der Cruciferse) produces a small seed (proverbial in Scrip- 
 ture). It is beginning to be a paying commodity, especially 
 in the south. Powdered mustard is used as a condiment on 
 the table, for pickles, and medicinally. 
 
 Pepper has been used in India and other Asiatic countries 
 for thousands of years. Peppers are of various kinds, as black 
 old white pepper (Piper mgrum) ; long pepper (Piper long- 
 urn), native of Malabar and Bengal; cayenne pepper (Capsi- 
 cum annum). Black pepper is the dried fruit of the plant 
 which bears it, and white pepper is made from the same ber- 
 ries- 
 Peppers of all kinds flourish in Africa, and form an 
 article of export. 
 
 Melegueta Pepper or Grains of Paradise are the aromatic 
 seeds of one or more species of the genus amomum, of the 
 order Scitamineae, both natives of West Africa. The seeds 
 of both species appear to be used and sold commercially un- 
 der the name of grains of Paradise. Pepper is widely dis- 
 tributed in Sierra Leone and Lower Guinea as far as Angola. 
 It has never been cultivated in any quantity anywhere even 
 in West Africa. In early days the spice was conveyed over- 
 land to Tripoli and shipped from Monti di Barca on the Medi- 
 terranean ; as the Italians did not know whence it came they 
 called it grains of Paradise. 
 
 In the 16th century English voyagers traded to the Gold 
 Coast for gold, ivory, pepper and grains of Paradise. Now 
 grains of Paradise are shipped chiefly from the settlements 
 on the Gold Coast, the most important being Cape Castle and 
 Accra. 
 
 Residents of hot climates crave highly-seasoned food. 
 The natives of Senegal are very fond of pepper and it has 
 been exported from Senegal. 
 
E. AW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 197 
 
 CHILIES, RED PEPPERS 
 
 Red or cayenne peppers, under the name of chilies, are 
 largely grown in the dry and rocky part of Zanzibar and 
 Pemba. In 1906 chilies to the value of 19,000 were export- 
 ed but the next export in 1908 was of the value of 485 only. 
 
 Sierra Leone pepper is yellowish red when dried, that of 
 Zanzibar being dull dark red. Natal red pepper until recent- 
 ly supplied most of the bright red cayenne pepper in com- 
 merce. 
 
 Zanzibar chilies are considered the hottest in the world- 
 This island exports annually nearly $50,000 worth. New 
 York controls the market for the exports. Chilies grow wild 
 in East and Central Africa and are also cultivated in many 
 sections. In 1917 there were 650 acres under chilie cultiva- 
 tion in Nyassaland. The pepper market of Sierra Leone has 
 again been very good. 
 
 Cayenne pepper is the finely ground powder of chilies or 
 capsicum. Japan and Zanzibar pepper is made from "bird's- 
 eye chili". The ripe fruits are dried in the sun, then in an 
 oven. When dry they are ground to a fine powder and mixed 
 with wheat flour packed in jars in a compressed state for ex- 
 portation. 
 
 The chief use of capsicums is as a spice. Cayenne 
 Uses, pepper is used for feeding birds and poultry also. In 
 
 medicnie it is chiefly used in the form of a gargle, oc- 
 casionally as a liniment and internally to promote digestion. 
 
 Chilies and capsicums are cultivated all over the warmer 
 regions of the world. The cultivation might well be taken 
 up as a subsidiary or catch-crop, but should be rotated with 
 other crops- 
 
 CLOVES 
 
 The cloves of commerce are the unopened flower buds of 
 the aromatic clove tree (Jambosa caryophyllus). 
 
 The clove tree appears to be indigenous only to the Mo- 
 lucca islands. It was introduced into Zanzibar and Mauri- 
 tius in the 18th century, and has there become the source of 
 the largest part of the supply of cloves in the world. Penang 
 cloves bring a higher price than those of Zanzibar. 
 
198 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Zanzibar cloves are very dry, larger and redder than 
 Pemba cloves, hence are known as "Zanzibar redheads". Ex- 
 ports from Zanzibar in 1890 were 4,372,515 Ibs. ; from Pem- 
 ba, 13,509,335 Ibs. Zanzibar cloves lose about eight per cent, 
 in weight on the passage to Europe. Besides the cloves, 
 clove-stalks are shipped in immense quantities. 
 
 Cultivation in the Seychelles has been abandoned; also 
 in Reunion. In 1904, 25,304 Ibs. were exported from Re- 
 union to France. 
 
 In Madagascar clove trees grow abundantly in wet sec- 
 tions and bring good returns, but as the tree is of very slow 
 growth no great amount of capital has yet been put into them. 
 In 1906 Madagascar exported over 100,000 pounds to France; 
 in 1917, about 150,000 pounds- 
 
 The primary use of cloves is as a spice. Zanzibar 
 Uses, cloves produce 15 to 17.5 per cent, of oil. The oil of 
 Madagascar cloves is specially favored by French per- 
 fumers as having a particularly agreeable perfume. 
 
 Essence of cloves for flavoring purposes is made by dis- 
 solving four ounces clove oil in one gallon of spirit. 
 
 Cloves are aromatic, carminative and stimulating. Moth- 
 er cloves are the dried fruits of the clove; they contain less 
 oil than the buds but are exported for their oil. 
 
 GINGER 
 
 (linger (Zingiber officinale) is an herbaceous prennial 
 plant having a white, pungent, aromatic root covered with 
 scale leaves which emits at intervals leafy stems usually about 
 two feet tall and rather slender. It was one of the earliest 
 spices known to Europeans. It is cultivated successfully in 
 India, Malay Peninsula, China, Fiji and North Australia, in 
 West Africa and as far south as Natal, in the West Indies 
 and Central America. 
 
 Dried ginger is prepared for the market by scalding the 
 roots in hot water, then spreading them in the sun to dry. 
 Cured ginger is prepared by drying the roots in the sun each 
 day for a week. 
 
 In Africa attempts have been made to cultivate the plant 
 comercially in Sierra Leone. In 1906, 618 tons of dried ginger 
 valued at 11,578 were exported. The cultivation here seems 
 to be increasing. 
 
RAW P K D U C T S OF AFRICA 199 
 
 The average price of ginger in the year 1916 was 36 a 
 cwt., which is nearly double the average price during the pre- 
 ceding four years. As a result, the quantity exported from 
 Sierra Leone rose from 567 tons, valued at 8,091 in 1915 to 
 971 tons, valued at 25,814. Of the quantity exported, 669 
 tons went to the United States and 289 tons to the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 In 1912, Sierra Leone exported ginger to the value .of 
 $218,308; in 1913, to the value of $172,587; in 1914, to the 
 value of $76,099. 
 
 Sierra Leone exported, 1920, ginger valued at 60,292 
 (1,432 tons). 
 
 Ginger is one of the most popular flavoring agents 
 Uses, known, entering into confectionery, ginger beer, gin- 
 ger champagne and other .beverages. Oil of ginger 
 serves as a basis for tinctures or essences of ginger. Ginger 
 contains three valuable constituents, starch, oil and resin. 
 Ginger is known as "coated" and "uncoated" or "peeled". 
 The varieties of commerce are Jamaica, Barbadoes, Malabar, 
 African and East Indian. Jamaica ginger is considered the 
 best, but African is of good quality, some of it excellent. 
 
 The nutmeg (Myristica fragrans, or M. aromatica) is a 
 small 'trees that furnishes two valuable spices nutmeg and 
 mace- When the fruit is nearly ripe the husk opens and shows 
 a bright red network lining which covers a hard thin shell. 
 The red covering is mace, the spice of commerce, and the shell 
 under it covers the kernels or nutmeg, the other popular spice. 
 
 Mace possesses most of the qualities of nutmegs, though 
 not in so marked a degree, and is used much in the same way. 
 In countries where it is grown the entire fruit is boiled and 
 used for food. 
 
 There are yearly exports of both nutmegs and mace from 
 Zanzibar. The industry has been tried from time to time in 
 West Africa with more or less success and possibilities in all 
 that region are good. Mauritius and other islands have 
 exports. 
 
 The Congo has small exports but the industry in this 
 country is capable of rich reward. 
 
 Cinnamon is the inner bark of an evergreen tree (Cinna- 
 momum zeylanicum), a native of Ceylon, where it has been 
 cultivated for thousands of years. 
 
200 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Cinnamon is produced in considerable quantities in Zan- 
 zibar, Mauritius, Reunion and in the Seychelles, "a wanderer 
 from the French gardens of the 18th century." 
 
 Allspice or Pimento (Pimenta omcinalis) is the dried un- 
 ripe fruit of a tree native to West India islands, whence it has 
 spread. 
 
 Calabash (Monedora myristica) seeds are used as spice 
 and are called calabash nutmegs; also used in medicine. In 
 1915, Gambia exported calabashes to the value of $2,300. 
 The dried calabash gourd is used for pipes, cups and many 
 utensils. 
 
 HERBS 
 
 Cumin (Cuminum cyminum), native of Egypt and Syria, 
 is a dwarf apiaceous plant long cultivated for its seeds, which 
 have a bitter bug-like taste and aromatic flavor, good for sea- 
 soning. Cumin seed was well known to the ancients and is 
 mentioned by Isaiah. It has been largely replaced in medi- 
 cinal use by caraway seed, which has a more agreeable flav- 
 or. Cumin is exported to Europe from Morocco ($46,000 
 worth in 1913), Sicily, Bombay and Calcutta. 
 
 Morocco exported, 1920, cumin valued at 2,370,317 
 francs. 
 
 Anise (Pimpinetta anisum) is a small plant indigenous 
 to Egypt and cultivated in Spain, Malta, and many other 
 countries. 
 
 Turmeric (Curcuma longa), is an East Indian plant of 
 the ginger family, raised chiefly for its aromatic root; it is 
 found in northern African countries. 
 
 Caraway (Carum carvi) seeds are used for flavoring 
 bread, cakes and other foods ,and as a carminative. The plant 
 is indigenous to the Himalayas and the Caucasus. It is also 
 found throughout Siberia and Europe, and is extensively cul- 
 tivated in Holland, England, the United States and Morocco. 
 
 Canary Grass (Phalaris "Canariensis) seeds, used chiefly 
 for caged birds, are raised in greatest quantities in Turkey, 
 but also in less degree in California, Portugal and Morocco, 
 which, in 1913, exported canary seeds to the value of $107,- 
 000. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 201 
 
 Chicory is dried fruit of Chichorium intybus. It is native 
 to Europe and Asia, but grows in the waste places of Africa 
 and North America. Chicory is similar to the dandelion ; its 
 chief use is as a substitute for coffee. 
 
 Chicory is being cultivated in South Africa near Port 
 Elizabeth. Modern machinery has been set up for prepar- 
 ing the root. 
 
 Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is native of Asia. The 
 aromatic seeds and dried fruit of this plant are used in medi- 
 cine and for pastry, and other culinary purposes- Russia pro- 
 duces the greatest crop but Morocco furnishes the earliest 
 crop, which is marketed in London in July and August, two 
 months before the Russian importation. In 1913, Morocco 
 exported coriander to the value of $110,000. 
 
 Fenugreek (Trigonella Fcenum-Graecum) is the dried 
 ripe seeds of a small herb which is native to southwestern 
 Asia and extensively cultivated in Asia, Africa, and southern 
 Europe. This aromatic product is chiefly used in medicines, 
 but also by some cooks in certain food mixtures. 
 
 In 1913 Morocco exported fenugreek to the value of 
 $50,000. 
 
 DYES 
 
 Dyes are extracts from vegetation in which color is 
 concentated or from animals, but chiefly from coal tar. 
 
 These substances are used for coloring cloth, paper, 
 leather, wood, hair, pictures. In order to make color perma- 
 nent in the materials in which it is used, a "mordant", is used 
 usually chemicals, as alum; soda, Turkey red oil, tin, iron, 
 tannin. 
 
 The dyes of Africa include indigo, Turkey red, henna, 
 acacia, camwood, barwood, madder, galls, tumeric, safflowejr, 
 saffron, rocou, archil, cochineal, sepia, mineral dyes. 
 
 Indigo (Indigofera tinctoria) is one of 
 
 Production of Dyes the best known colors. The extract of 
 by Countries. indigo is obtained from the plants by 
 
 cutting them just after blooming, laying 
 them in strata in a tank or vat, covering them with water, 
 when they are left to ferment for from 10 to 18 hours. When 
 ready in this state the mass is drawn into another receptacle 
 
202 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 where it is constantly agitated until the blue color is thor- 
 oughly uniform. The water is then drawn off and the indigo 
 is boiled to prevent fermentation, then dried and shaped into 
 molds to be packed for the market. Indigo requires no mor- 
 dant. 
 
 It is sometimes adulterated with earth, ashes or pow- 
 dered slate. 
 
 Pure indigo is very dark almost black and it leaves 
 no sediment in the water. 
 
 Indigo is chiefly produced in Bengal, Java, Philippines, 
 Egypt, Abyssinia, West Indies and Central America. Indigo 
 has been known in Egypt and the East from very early times. 
 
 Ribbons found on Egyptian mummies 5,000 years old 
 preserve the blue color of the indigo with which they were 
 dyed. The natural product is still used locally, blue being 
 a favorite color of the Egyptians. In 1911 the exports of in- 
 digo amounted to $125,900 in value. 
 
 In the Congo indigo has long been raised, but has fallen 
 off in production and exportation. It grows well in all tropi- 
 cal countries of Africa and is raised chiefly by native labor. 
 Much of the coarse cotton cloth made by the natives is dyed a 
 deep blue with indigo. 
 
 In Senegal indigo was raised many years ago for dyeing 
 cotton cloth, but the first cotton experiments in this country 
 failing to produce paying results, indigo cultivation also fell 
 off. 
 
 As a local product of consumption, indigo is especially 
 cultivated in the river regions- A European, Mr. Mohler, a 
 farmer at Kouma (1888), declared that 40 meters cultivated 
 in indigo yielded him 92 breads which sold for fr. 25 per 
 bread at Dagana. 
 
 Indigo bread from Senegal finds favor in Europe, though 
 *aid to contain many impurities. 
 
 In Nigeria indigo grows wild and is cultivated in small 
 patches by the natives. 
 
 In West Africa indigo is grown in several sections and in 
 Gambia is commercially important. 
 
 The Cape Verde Islands produce indigo in less quanti- 
 ties than formerly. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 203 
 
 Madder (Rubia tinctorum) is a perennial herb, native 
 to the Levant, and cultivated in many countries. The roots 
 are long and slender and bright blood red. The fresh roots 
 contain a yellow coloring matter. Alizarin, which constitutes 
 its most important property, crystallises into orange-red nee- 
 dles soluble in boiling water, alcohol and ether. Coal tar has 
 greatly displaced the vegetable product. 
 
 Several other dyes are prepared from other species of 
 the madder family, namely morinda (M. citrifolia). This dye 
 is said to be useful in guarding against insects. It is also 
 used as medicine. Besides yellow, every shade of red, purple 
 and lilac can be obtained from the madder family. 
 
 Madder roots are obtained throughout Central Africa. 
 
 Henna (Lawsonia inermis) is a fragrant white flowering 
 shrub of Southern Asia and adjacent regions, which produces 
 from its leaves a reddish-orange dye. Henna is used by the 
 Buddhists and Mohammedans in their religious ceremonies. 
 It is the ancient gopher-wood of Scripture. 
 
 Both Orientals and some African natives stain their teeth 
 and finger-nails an orange brown with it. Henna is used com- 
 mercially for dyeing wool, horse hair, leather and by modern 
 coiffeurs for coloring hair several shades of yellow, orange 
 and golden-brown. 
 
 In Egypt, henna is grown extensively and has been cul- 
 tivated for centuries. It is also grown in Abyssinia, Soudan 
 and Somaliland. 
 
 In 1914, 1,000,000 pounds of henna were exported from 
 Tripoli. 
 
 Acacia (A. arabica), or babul tree, belongs to a very 
 large family of trees (Leguminosae), 450 species of which 
 are found in the tropics of the earth, mostly in Australia and 
 Africa. The bark of this tree is used for tannin and for dye 
 and the leaves afford a yellow dye. This dye is produced in 
 Senegal. Black dye from the bark is used to make a kind of 
 ink also, and the natives use it in both tanning and dyeing 
 hides. 
 
 Camwood (Baphia nitida) produces a rich red dye, used 
 slightly in commerce, but more particularly by the negroes. 
 Th*e powder is sprinkled over their bodies or, mixed with oil, 
 is smeared on them. 
 
204 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 When camwood is scarce henna is used in its place but 
 is not nearly so favored as the red of the camwood. This tree 
 is indigenous to Nigeria, Angola and West Africa. 
 
 An inferior dye from the same tree, not so rich a red, but 
 much used, is barwood. The red of this dye borders on orange. 
 Another dye, ranging from pink to rose color, is obtained from 
 rosewood. 
 
 Tumeric (Curcuma longa), a plant belonging to the gin- 
 ger family, native to East India, but introduced into several 
 African localities, produces a yellow dye. 
 
 Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) is a thistle, with a large 
 orange-colored flower, native to India, Persia and Egypt, 
 where it has been cultivated for a red dye obtained from its 
 blossoms. 
 
 Saffron (Crocus sativus), a crocus having purple flowers, 
 is widely cultivated in Mediterranean countries. The stigma 
 of this flower yields an orange color which is chiefly used in 
 confections and varnishes. 
 
 Galls are excrescences formed on several trees by insects 
 blonging to the order Hymenoptera, and allied to the wasps. 
 These galls are found abundantly in African countries, as 
 Morocco and Algeria, and are much used for making dyes 
 and ink- 
 
 Argols, or lees, which are deposited as a crystalline coat- 
 ing in casks of new wine, make the commercial source of tar- 
 taric acid and tartrates, which are used as mordants in dyes. 
 
 In 1915, Algeria exported tartar, crude and wine lees, 
 5,218 tons, valued at $945,507; and in 1916, 4,409 tons, val- 
 ued at $1,018,654. 
 
 Rocou or Arnotta (Bixa Orellana) is a shrub or small 
 tree, native of tropical America and extensively cultivated 
 there as well as in tropical African countries, for the red 
 dye produced from its ^<^ds. Rocou has diminished in com- 
 mercial importance but is considerably used in countries where 
 it is grown and extracted, for dyeing silks, feathers, leather 
 (russet) bone and i^ory, and also as coloring matter for 
 cheese and butter. 
 
 Archil or orchil, is a lustrous violet dye obtained from 
 Roscella tinctora, R. fuciformis, and Lecanora tartarea. Archil 
 is used as a coloring agent in pharmaceutical preparations 
 and various pigments. These dyes are obtained particularly 
 in Angola, Mozambique and Madagascar. 
 
RAW PROPUCTS OF AFRICA 205 
 
 Of animal dyes two are of especial importance, cochineal 
 and sepia. 
 
 Cochineal (Coccus cacti) is a tiny insect belonging to the 
 plant lice, which furnishes a widely-used red dye. The cochi- 
 neal is a native of Mexico and Central America, but has been 
 introduced into the East Indies, Algeria and the Canary Isl- 
 ands. 
 
 In 1913, the Canaries exported cochineal to the value of 
 $75,124, but war greatly reduced the export. 
 
 Sepia, which has been described in the chapter on Fish, 
 is a valuable black or very dark brown secretion of the cuttle- 
 fish. 
 
 Coal tar has thousands of compounds to its credit, the col- 
 ors alone numbering several hundred. These dyes are known 
 as anilines, anthracenes, alizarines, cosines, and produce all 
 colors and shades- 
 
 White lead makes the best white paint yet produced. 
 Lead also furnishes an orange pigment and chrome yellow. 
 
 Zinc produces a sulphate which is an important pigment, 
 although it has less value than that of lead. 
 
 From Copper is obtained blue vitriol. 
 
 DRUGS 
 
 Originally drugs meant only dry herbs, but now they in- 
 clude many substances of the vegetable, animal and mineral 
 kingdoms used in medicine. 
 
 Plants afford the greatest amount of medicines, which 
 come from the roots, sap, bark, twigs, leaves, fruit, seeds and 
 blossoms. 
 
 In 1915, Algeria exported 242 metric tons of medical 
 herbs, flowers and leaves, valued at $123,906; in 1916, 391 
 metric tons, valued at $210,000. 
 
 Some of the plants from which drugs are obtained in 
 Africa are as follows: 
 
 The madder family, which furnishes a great variety of 
 drugs, comprises about 350 genera and 5,000 species. Im- 
 portant specimens are Mitchella repens, Gal him, Cephalan- 
 thus, Pseudocinchona Africana, indigenous to Africa, used 
 in the treatment of fever; Krausia coriacea, a poisonous 
 
206 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 species, but used medicinally in small quantities. Sarcocepha- 
 lus esculentus, of West Africa, is used as a refrigerant, and 
 as a tonic. This bark is chewed by the natives. 
 
 Nauclea ineraiis, is used in the Soudan as an anti-emetic 
 and to allay rheumatism. 
 
 Henbane (Hyoscyamus meticus) grows wild in Egypt and 
 the Soudan, and eastwards to India. In 1902 the attention 
 of British alkaloid manufacturers was drawn to Egyptian hen- 
 bane for its excellent quality. 
 
 In 1915 dried henbane brought in London markets about 
 $74 per ton- In 1916, there were considerable exports from 
 both Egypt and Soudan, high in quality, and that of Egypt 
 pronounced even superior to Indian henbane which has long 
 ranked first. 
 
 Aloe (Aloe barbadensis and A. capensis) is a liliaceous 
 plant resembling the century plant, from which a much used 
 drug is obtained. The plant yielding Socotrine aloes is nativ^ 
 to East Africa, and this is the chief source of supply of the 
 United States. That yielding Barbadoes aloes is native of 
 Northwest Africa. Aloes are used in "bitters" and as a bowel 
 medicine, often given in pill form. 
 
 In 14)16, South Africa exported 986,939 pounds aloes, 
 valued at $45,283; in 1917, 752,638 pounds, valued at $33,- 
 749. 
 
 Cinchona (Cinchona succirubra) produces the most im- 
 portant bark used medicinally. The cinchona is native to the 
 Andes of Peru and Bolivia, but eultivated now in India, Java, 
 Japan, Abyssinia, German East Africa and the West Coast 
 of Africa. This bark is valued for three alkaloids quinine, 
 quinidine and cinchonine the three properties considered 
 most effective in counteracting malarial affections and inter- 
 mittent fevers. 
 
 The Cape Verde and Canary Islands produce quantities 
 of cinchona bark, and sell to Equatorial Africa, where white 
 residents take from one to 10 grains of quinine every morn- 
 ing. 
 
 The price before the war was Id. per pound in Africa. 
 It is now 2y%d. per pound, and 8%d. per pound in London. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 207 
 
 The "hard pear" tree (Strychnos henningsii), a tree 
 found in South Africa, furnishes a bark which, extracted 
 with alcohol, is used in the preparation of an "appetizer bit- 
 ter." The natives use it medicinally and in veterinary prac- 
 tice. 
 
 The bark of "Knysna boxwood" (Gonioma kamassi), al- 
 so of South Africa, has a small amount of alkaloid, used to a 
 small extent in tonics. 
 
 Rhizones ( Kaempf eria ethelae), known locally in South 
 Africa as "sherimgulu," possesses fragrant tubers, used by 
 natives of the Rand as medicine. 
 
 Datura (D. stramonium), a species commonly known be- 
 ing the jimson weed, is another source of hyoscyaniine. This 
 is successfully produced in Egypt, Soudan and South Africa. 
 
 The jatropha (Jatropha curcas), or Indian physic-nut, is 
 one of the plants which the Administration attempted to de- 
 velop in the colony of Senegal. This plant and its products 
 make an important commercial output of the Cape Verde 
 islands. 
 
 The Calabar bean (Physostigma renenosum), a native 
 of West Africa, produces a poisonous bean used by ophthal- 
 mologists to contract the eye pupil. 
 
 Nux Vomica (Strychnos nux vomica), is a medicine much 
 used and recognized in all pharmacopoeias. It is obtained 
 from the seeds of a small, straggly tree of India, Ceylon, Co- 
 chin China, North Africa and Australia. 
 
 The oils of several plants are used as medicine, notably 
 that of the castor (Ricinus communis). The castor plant is 
 indigenous to or naturalized in all tropical and semi-tropical 
 countries. It is extensively grown in many African countries 
 for the oil which is used medicinally, but more especially for 
 industrial purposes, and especially for airplane lubrication. 
 
 Opium, the dried juice of the poppy (Papaver somnifer- 
 um), is grown in Asia Minor, Turkey, Egypt, Persia and India. 
 
 Laudanum is made from this plant. 
 
 Egypt once had a large opium trade but it has become 
 greatly lessened, although considerable opium is still pre- 
 pared for the market. 
 
 Cocaine is an alkaloid obtained from leaves of the coca 
 shrub more common in South America than Africa, and is 
 
208 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 used largely as an anesthetic. Taken in large quantities co- 
 caine is an intoxicant and very injurious to the human sys- 
 tem. 
 
 Several animal oils are used as medicines, notably that 
 of certain fishes, but this industry is negligible in Africa. 
 
 From African minerals, are produced salts of several 
 kinds: arsenic; tincture of iron, used largely in tonics with 
 vegetable bitters ; mercury, used in medicine as calomel ; and 
 various preparations made from coal-tar. 
 
 SUGAR 
 
 Sugar is chiefly derived from two sources, the sugar cane 
 (Saccharum ofncinarum), and the root of the beet (Beta vul- 
 garis). The sugar cane is a native product of India, but by 
 cultivation has spread to all tropical and semi-tropical re- 
 gions of the earth. Beet sugar was not produced in Africa 
 (Algeria) until the war. 
 
 The moisture required for sugar-cane growing runs from 
 50 to 65 inches annually and -thus limits the localities in Af- 
 rica suitable for its production. 
 
 The chief centers of cane sugar industry are Natal, Mo- 
 zambique, Madagascar, the lower Nile valley, the Coast of 
 Nigeria, French Guinea, the Congo and Angola- 
 
 Sugar is extensively cultivated in the islands off Africa. 
 The French introduced it into Mauritius and Reunion in the 
 18th century, and it is now one of the chief productions of 
 both the islands. In 1913 Mauritius produced 3,699,749 hun- 
 dredweight of sugar, and in 1915, 4,440,467 hundredweight, 
 valued at $17,551,882. In 1916 Mauritius exported sugar to 
 the value of $22,500,000. 
 
 In Reunion the yield of sugar is 64 per cent, of the cane. 
 
 There are 62,000 acres of sugar in Reunion. 
 
 Madagascar has many thousand acres in sugar-cane. 
 
 The Egyptian delta is a great sugar-cane raising country 
 and has for many years had a large annual output. During 
 the years 1909-1913, the annual average export of sugar was 
 16,171,000 pounds. In 1916, Egypt exported 63,533,000 
 pounds of cane sugar valued at $3,000,000, approximately, 
 and in 1917, 57,296,000 pounds, valued at $4,462,024. 
 
 Sugar cane is found extensively in the moist regions of 
 the upper Congo, where it grows wild and is used by the na- 
 tives for chewing and for making wine. From the molasses 
 
RAW PRODUCTS c F A r r. i c 1 A 209 
 
 rum is produced. But although easily raised here sugar doe 
 not seem to have much promise of future development in the 
 Congo. In the first half of the year 1918, Belgian Congo ex- 
 ported 130 tons of sugar. 
 
 Senegal, in 1914, exported 262,968 pounds of cane sugar 
 valued at $13,000- Sugar, introduced into this country from 
 France, is so commonly grown that it is very cheap and con- 
 sumed in large quantities. 
 
 Mozambique has a sugar factory in Duenu. In 1915 
 Mozambique exporced sugar to the value of $614,754. 
 
 Angola, in 1914, exported 4,554 tons of sugar, valued at 
 $410,111, and in 1914, 2,960 tons, valued at $213,913. 
 
 The confectionery business in the Union of South Africa 
 is rapidly increasing and extending in all directions. Fine 
 chocolates and other candies are now made and boxed at- 
 tractively. 
 
 In 1913, the Union of South Africa produced 1,730,000 
 hundredweight of sugar; in 1915, 2,000,000 hundredweight. 
 In 1916, the Union of South Africa exported 3,550,673 pounds 
 valued at $209,912, and 8,597,165 pounds sugar products, 
 valued at $140,817. In 1917, 4,145,025 pounds sugar, valued 
 at $301,801; and 433,193 pounds sugar products, valued at 
 $13,743. 
 
 The output of sugar for 1920 from Union of South 
 Africa was 189,183 tons. 
 
 Natal has by far the greatest sugar output in the Union 
 of South Africa; in 1918, 130,000 tons. The first crop of sug- 
 ar was raised in Natal in 1861. The yield has steadily in- 
 creased. 
 
 Abyssinia has not until recent years cultivated sugar- 
 cane to any extent; now the annual output of sugar is in- 
 creasing rapidly. 
 
 The world production of sugar in 1915 is given as 16,- 
 806,000 long tons, which is divided about half and half be- 
 tween beet and cane sugar. Cuba and India rank first as 
 cane-sugar producers; Java third; Hawaiian Islands fourth 
 Porto Rico fifth/ 
 
 The cane is generally ripe for harvest at from twelve 
 to sixteen months' growth. It is cut close to the ground jus* 
 before its flowering time, being then heaviest in juice. The 
 stubble develops new cane, the plants thus continuing for sev- 
 eral years. 
 
210 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The tops are sliced off the cane immediately after cut- 
 ting and the leaves are stripped off, only the denuded stalks 
 being transported to the mills. An average analysis of high 
 grade stalks in this condition shows about 72 per cent, water, 
 18 per cent, sugar and 10 per cent, woody and vegetable 
 matter. 
 
 Two different processes are in use for extracting cane 
 juice "milling" and ''diffusion". By the "Milling Process' 5 , 
 the stalks are unloaded from wagons in huge bundles, often 
 weighing five tons or more, into a "hopper", or onto a "car- 
 rier" which transports them to a "shredding" machine or a 
 "crusher". They go next to the roller mills. The first mill ex- 
 tracts probably 60 per cent, of the juice. The "bagasse", as 
 the crushed stalks are called, is then sprayed with water and 
 put through a second, and again, a third mill, after which the 
 stalks are consumed as fuel in furnaces. 
 
 For the diffusion process, the cane-stalks are sliced thin 
 by cutting machines- The "chips" or pulp go to a series of 
 large tanks called "diffusers" or "cells," where steam or wat- 
 er saturation extracts the sucrose. 
 
 The juice obtained by either process is of a sweetish 
 taste and the appearance of sweet cider. It is pumped into 
 tanks called "defecators," to remove impurities. It then com- 
 monly undergoes two or three other purifying processes, by 
 evaporation, or through filters, before it is ready for the mul- 
 tiple vacuum boilers, where it is condensed to syrup. 
 
 Next comes the separation of whatever proportion of un- 
 crystallizable syrup is mixed with the crystals now generally 
 accomplished by centrifugal machines a wide-sided, cylin- 
 der-shaped basket of fine mesh is revolved at high speed in- 
 side an iron casing, and the syrup ejected into the casing, 
 whence it drains into a receiver. The "cured" sugar left is 
 known as Centrifugal, or "Raw" sugar, or locally as "Brown 
 Sugar". 
 
 BEANS 
 
 All pulses, including peas, beans and lentils, belong to the 
 pea family (Leguminosae), and the seeds of all the various 
 species form very important articles of diet the world over. 
 Beans form the most important commercial pulse product. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 211 
 
 Leguminous seeds are essentially nitrogenous and con- 
 tain more proteins than other vegetables, the proportion in 
 the dried seeds ranging from about 20 to 28 per cent., and 
 carbohydrates from 45 to 60 per cent. Amount of oil is low 
 in the different kinds. 
 
 Beans (Fabaceae) are the seeds of certain leguminous 
 plants, the species most commonly known being the broad 
 bean (Vicia faba), including lima, kidney, sieva, string beans. 
 
 The broad or horse bean, known also as the field bean 
 (Faba vulgaris) is a hardy annual belonging to the shores of 
 the Caspian sea, but has been introduced into many coun- 
 tries south of that region. 
 
 The soya bean (Glycine hispida) grows on a dwarf bush 
 covered with fine brownish hairs. This bean is a native of 
 China and Japan, whence it was introduced into India and 
 northern Africa, and has now become popular all over the 
 world. It constitutes the most important pulse of the Far 
 East, where little meat is eaten. These beans contain more 
 oil than other beans. The cultivation of soya beans has been 
 encouraged in South Africa by irrigation schemes. 
 
 The haricot, kidney or French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) 
 is probably of Asiatic origin. It is now grown in all temper- 
 ate climates ; many varieties have been produced, all of which 
 are red or reddish color. This bean is very nutritious, easily 
 raised and is becoming one/ of the most important food prod- 
 ucts of Africa, particularly in Madagascar. In 1913 imports 
 of haricot beans into the United Kingdom from Madagascar 
 were 71,820 hundredweight; in 1916, 138,570 hundred- 
 weight. 
 
 The carob bean (Ceratonio siliqua) or "St. John's 
 Bread", was introduced into Africa from countries across the 
 Mediterranean. The carob is a tree and bears long pods, 
 which contain a very nutritious bean, used more particularly 
 for horses and other animals, but also largely as a human 
 food. This bean is extensively raised in Algeria and Mor- 
 occo. 
 
 The world's supply of beans comes chiefly from 
 Countries. China, India, Turkey, Russia and Egypt. In 1915 
 more than half the total imports of Great Britain 
 were from British India and Egypt. 
 
212 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Egypt grows many varieties and was the chief source 
 of extension of the industry throughout Africa- 
 
 In 1915, Egypt exported to England 377,660 hundred- 
 weight of beans, valued at $1,583,597; in 1916, to England 
 333,460 hundredweight, valued at $572,428 (a war emer- 
 gency crop). 
 
 Morocco produces great quantities of beans, largely for 
 local use, but for export also. In 1913, Morocco exported 
 beans to the value of $61,000; in 1914, 900 hundredweight; 
 in 1915, 53,640 hundredweight, valued at $207,000. 
 
 Morocco exported, 1920, beans valued at 31,140, 780 
 francs. 
 
 Tunis has many acres in beans, where most varieties grow 
 luxuriantly. They are used much in the country for food, 
 and exports sometimes amount to sizable quantities. In 1915, 
 Tunis exported 10,192,393 pounds of beans, valued at $232,- 
 000. 
 
 In Congo, beans are raised everywhere by the natives. 
 
 In Portuguese Africa the bean industry goes far toward 
 feeding the population and domestic animals; beans and 
 bean products are among the exports. 
 
 In 1913, Angola exported 551 tons of beans, and in 1914, 
 833 tons. 
 
 In Mozambique beans grow abundantly and thousands 
 of acres are under cultivation. In 1914, Mozambique export- 
 ed Kaffir beans to the value of $100,000; in 1916, 4,500,000 
 pounds of Kaffir beans. 
 
 In British East Africa many kinds of beans are grown. 
 
 They are largely cultivated by the natives but receive much 
 
 attention from white farmers also, both for local food and 
 
 trade. In 1917 there were 105,612 acres in beans in Uganda- 
 
 Besides furnishing human food in enormous quantities, 
 
 Uses, beans are used in feed for horses, cattle, sheep and 
 
 hogs, while the leaves and stalks are used as fodder. 
 
 Bean stalks make an excellent fertilizer and are often 
 
 plowed in to fertilize the ground for a wheat crop to follow 
 
 their harvesting. The stalks are also used for making paper. 
 
 The Lima or Duffin bean (Phaseolus lunatus) is native to 
 South America, as the name implies, and is now distributed 
 throughout warmer portions of the world. Under cultivation 
 the seed has become much larger and fuller and the color 
 has been changed from purplish red to white. 
 
HAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 213 
 
 Beans have flourished in Madagascar almost since they 
 were introduced in 1864. The lima bean was the first bean 
 introduced and became so abundant and such a good article 
 of trade, as to take the name of Madagascar. 
 
 In 1912, Madagascar exported 6,073 metric tons of lima 
 beans, valued at $561,200; in 1913, 141 metric tons, valued at 
 $689,000; in 1914, 8,561 metric tons, valued at $702,000; in 
 1916, 11,571 metric tons, valued at $1,228,377. In 1917, 
 15,000 tons of beans. The average yield of beans in Mada- 
 gascar in 1917 was 426 pounds to the acre. 
 
 Algeria, in 1915, had 136,000 acres in beans. In this 
 country the locust bean makes a very valuable fodder, for 
 home use as well as for exporting. In the year 1900, 140,- 
 000 hundredweight was produced and the government is try- 
 ing td promote the planting of these trees by offering prizes. 
 
 Beans are grown on the smaller islands, a bean especially 
 favored in Mauritius being the small Indian rice bean, which 
 supplies home demands and leaves a good many tons for ex- 
 port. 
 
 The African Calabar bean is described under the chap- 
 ter on drugs. 
 
 The moth green gram or mung (Phaseolus mungo) beans 
 grow wild all over India, their native home, and have been 
 cultivated over 3,000 years. These beans have been intro- 
 duced into all African tropical and sub-tropical countries. 
 
 The rice bean (Phaseolus calcaratus) is another small 
 bean found wild and cultivated in India, which has been in- 
 troduced into Africa and adjacent islands. 
 
 The vetch (Vecia sativa) is a small wild species of bean 
 which is used principally for feed for horses and cattle, but 
 is used for human food also. It is grown in northern African 
 countries. 
 
 PEAS 
 
 Of the great family of peas two varieties are most im- 
 portant. Piscum sativum, the garden or common pea which 
 grows wild in India and the Far East, is called the parent 
 of all garden peas. This pea has been cultivated from very 
 remote times for food, both green and dried. The other chief 
 species is Piscum arvense, the gray or field pea, which is a 
 
2H RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 dwarf plant having purple or pink blossoms, and possessing 
 leafy, persistent stipules. They grow wild in Greece and the 
 Levant. These peas are more hardy than the garden species 
 and require less care. 
 
 The gram or chic pea (Cicer arietinum) is an annual 
 herb, cultivated from remote times in warm countries. This 
 pea was known to the ancient Egyptians, Hebrews and 
 Greeks. They are now extensively cultivated in many Afri- 
 can countries, particularly in the Mediterranean littoral. 
 
 The pigeon pea (Cajanus indicus) is a sub-shrubby plant, 
 often six feet in height. It was introduced into Africa from 
 India. 
 
 These peas are yellow and veined purple. England im- 
 ports great quantities from her colonies for cattle food. 
 
 Closely allied to the bean is the cow pea (Vigna catiaing) 
 which is popular in tropical countries, furnishing much or the 
 food in those regions. The pods grow from one to two feet 
 in length. 
 
 In all of the tropical and sub-tropical countries 
 Countries, of Africa both peas and beans luxuriate. Light 
 humid soils suits them best. 
 
 In British East Africa peas are widely cultivated and 
 grow in abundance; particularly well in Uganda, whence 
 they are exported largely to England. 
 
 Other East and West African countries have many acres 
 in peas. 
 
 The Mediterranean countries all raise great quantities 
 of peas. 
 
 In 1913 Morocco exported chick peas to the value of 
 $151,000. 
 
 In Madagascar peas thrive but are not so extensively 
 raised in the islands as their cousins, the beans. It is claimed 
 that peas have made the fortune of Southwest Madagascar 
 in the last few years. In 1912 Madagascar exported peas to 
 the value of $538,000. 
 
 LENTILS 
 
 The other important member of the pulse family is the 
 lentil (Lens esculenta). These seeds are also called vetches 
 in some localities. Lentils have whitish or pale blue flowers. 
 The pods are short and broad containing two flattened seeds. 
 There are two kinds of lentils, French and Egyptian. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 215 
 
 Lentils were introduced into Egypt from Western Asia 
 at a very early period, and from this country they have spread 
 to other African countries and beyond to the islands. Egyp- 
 tian lentils are small and brown, with orange-colored interiors. 
 They are usually sold in the "split" form. 
 
 COFFEE 
 
 The coffee-bean of commerce from which is decocted the 
 popular beverage, is the product of Coffea arabica, a rubiace- 
 ous plant indigenous to Kaffa, a province of Abyssinia, from 
 which the name is derived. In the eleventh century Arabs 
 took wild seeds which at Mocha developed a finer grade. 
 Four hundred years later the Arabs returned the improved 
 seed to Abyssinia, which now produces the finest (Harrari) 
 coffee in the world. Wildberries, "Abyssinian coffee", are 
 exported, but the cultivated Harrari or "long-berry Mocha" 
 is distinguished. High land (6,000 feet) produces the best 
 coffee. 
 
 The world's coffee production amounts to nearly 3,000,- 
 000,000 pounds per annum. Brazil is acredited with 73 per 
 cent, of the whole output; other countries producing from 3 
 per cent, to 4 per cent, are Dutch East Indies, Guatamala, Co- 
 lombia, Venezuela, Mexico, Salvador, Porto Rico. The to- 
 tal product from Africa, including wild and cultivated, is not 
 more than 2 per cent. The countries of Africa producing this 
 berry in the order of importance are Abyssinia, Angola, Brit- 
 ish East Africa, Liberia, Somaliland, Belgian Congo, Mozam- 
 bique, Madagascar, German East Africa and colonies on the 
 West Coast. 
 
 Coffee is indigenous to Angola and has long been an arti- 
 cle of commerce of this colony. In 1890, coffee was exported 
 to the value of $760,000. In 1913, there were 5,001 tons ex- 
 ported, valued at. $899,779, while in 1914, the output had 
 diminished to 4,33$.. tons, valued at $487,443. 
 
 Senegal grows coffee, but this country pays more atten- 
 tion to a coffee substitute, bentamare, a product which has 
 long been known in the commercial world as a coffee sub- 
 stitute. It is also used as a therapeutic by the natives. 
 
 Uganda exported coffee in the year 1917 valued at $500,- 
 000. 
 
216 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 In British East Africa, the price of virgin soil suitable for 
 coffee plantations is now $60 per acre. The coffee yield when 
 in full bearing is about half a ton per acre, and it is worth 
 about $300 per ton. 
 
 In 1915, Mombassa exported coffee to the value of $341,- 
 804. 
 
 British East Africa (Kenya) exported, 1920, coffee to 
 value of 574,884. 
 
 Coffee is native to the Congo in Ubangi, the forests of 
 Lusambo, Lomami and certain of the river islands. Many va- 
 rieties of this wild coffee have been observed and two of them 
 have an aroma and taste quite remarkable. 
 
 Coffee may be considered as one of the farming indus- 
 tries with the greatest future in the Congo. 
 
 In 1897, coffee cultivation began to take on importance. 
 
 A million and a half plants were distributed in the dis- 
 tricts of the Equator and Bangala and at Stanley Falls. 
 
 At present the great centers of coffee culture are foun<? 
 in the Mayumbe, in the zone of Stanley Falls and in the dis- 
 tricts of the Equator and Aruwimi. The harvest of 1903 
 yielded only 19 tons on account of the drought. The Congo 
 exported 160,000 pounds in 1906. 
 
 The plantations are composed almost entirely of coffee 
 trees of the species coffea liberica. 
 
 A central plant established at Kinshasa treats the cof- 
 fee by a dry process and prepares it for sale ; a part of it fs 
 roasted and sold in the Congo itself, the rest is exported to 
 Europe. 
 
 In 1902, the plant furnished a total of 149,670 kilos. 
 
 A substitute for coffee, much used in South Africa, either 
 as an adulterant or as mock coffee, Is chicory. 
 Coffee Production in Pounds 
 (From Statistical Abstract) 
 
 1913 " 
 
 Union of South Africa 36,087 
 
 Nyassaand Protectorate ...., 192,076 
 
 Uganda Protectorate 1,372,224 
 
 E. African Protectorate 708,000 
 
 Nigeria 9,828 
 
 Sierra Leone , 17.096 ? 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 217 
 
 Islands off the coast of Africa have for many years raised 
 their own coffee. Madagascar, in 1917, exported 1,300,000 
 pounds of coffee. 
 
 The Canary Islands raise quite a supply of indigenous 
 coffee, and one of the chief products of the Cape Verde isl- 
 ands is coffee. The industry in these islands dates back to 
 1790, and at the present time coffee is the chief resource of 
 ohe people in Santo Antao, Fogo and San Thiago. 
 
 The coffee tree in Liberia, finds in the great equa- 
 Future of torial forest the soil arid climate which suits 
 Coffee. it the best. If over-production in Brazil does not 
 
 allow at present the sale of soffee at remunerative 
 prices, this situation will soon stabilize itself. 
 
 Robusta coffee is native to Congo. A plantation five 
 miles from Stanleyville in the Congo is trying out 15 varie- 
 ties of coffee. 
 
 In 1911, German East Africa exported 2,593,841 pounds 
 coffee, valued at $75,000; in 1912, 3;473,188 pounds coffee, 
 valued at $90,000. 
 
 In 1914, French Somali exported coffee beans to the 
 value of $1,600,000. 
 
 In the year 1914, Nyassaland exported 192,074 pounds 
 coffee; in 1917, 131,390 pounds of coffee. 
 
 In the colony of Ashanti in 1916, a coffee-mill was set up 
 and the first export product was made by the Swanzy Com- 
 pany in competition with tinned coffee, which is a consider- 
 able import. 
 
 Coffee grows well in many parts of the Union of South 
 Africa, but most of the output is used for home consumption. 
 A good deal is exported, however, although other kinds are 
 imported into the colonies. In 1916, the Union of South Af 
 rica exported 1,074,580 pounds, valued at $150,000; and in 
 1917, 839,439 pounds, valued at $136,034. 
 
 TEA 
 
 Tea is the most popular beverage. It is prepared from 
 the leaves of the order Ternstromiaceae. 
 
218 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The world production of tea cannot be accurately esti- 
 mated because such great countries as China and India con- 
 sume immense quantities which are not tabulated. These two 
 countries export about 250,000,000 pounds each per year, 
 followed by Ceylon, Japan, Java, Formosa and Malay islands. 
 
 The tea-producing countries of Africa are Natal, Moz- 
 ambique, Rhodesia, Congo and Madagascar, which are almost 
 negligible in estimating the world's total. 
 
 One advantage of African tea which is likely to grow in 
 popularity as people grow more and more opposed to nar- 
 cotics, is its freedom from tannin, but this very absence 
 causes habitual tea drinkers to pronounce the taste of Afri- 
 can tea peculiar. Tea planters willing to persist in the culture 
 of this plant may yet make the African brands popular. 
 Union of Sowth Africa Produced in Pounds 
 (Statistical Abstract) 
 
 1913 1915 
 
 Natal 1,687,729 1,800,000 
 
 Nyassaland Protectorate.. 215,040 288,341 
 
 In 1916, the Union of South Africa produced 5,501,091 
 pounds. During the first six months of 1918, Belgian Congo 
 exported 10 tons of tea. In 1914, Nyassaland exported 116,074 
 pounds tea; in 1917, 420,685 pounds. 
 
 From 3,740 acres of tea Union of South Africa produced, 
 1920, 5,168,419 Ibs. (green leaf). 
 
 COCOA 
 
 The raw cocoa of commerce is the seed of trees of the 
 genus Theobroma. All are natives of tropical America. The 
 Theobroma cacoa, which means "Cocoa, the food of the gods/* 
 is a small spreading tree which is usually not over 20 feet in 
 height and which is artificially kept lower in plantations. 
 
 A minimum temperature of 80 degrees, and plenty of 
 moisture, both of soil and atmosphere, are required to bring 
 out their full bearing possibilities. The trees begin to bear fruit 
 at three or four years, continuing to the age of about forty 
 years. Some fruit is ripening all the year round, but two main 
 crops are gathered, generally in June and December. 
 
 The cocoa beans or seeds are found in pods of varying 
 shapes from seven to twelve inches long. The ripe pod is 
 dark yellow or yellowish-brown in color with a thick, tough 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 219 
 
 rind enclosing a mass of cellular tissue. The beans, about 
 the size of almonds, are buried in the tissue. Each pod con 
 tains some 60 seeds. When fresh they are bitter in taste, and 
 of a light color, turning reddish-brown or reddish-gray dur- 
 ing the processes of sweating and curing. 
 
 The ripened pods are left on the ground for twenty-four 
 hours to dry. The next operation is the "sweating" or cur- 
 ing. The acid juice which marks the % beans is first drained off 
 and they are then placed in a sweating box, great care be- 
 ing taken to keep the temperature from rising too high. 
 
 The final plantation process is the drying of the mass in 
 the sun. In the cocoa and chocolate manufacturing estab- 
 lishments the beans are cleaned, sorted and roasted the 
 roasting being more important, for upon it depends to a great 
 extent the flavor of the finished cocoa. 
 
 Cocoa contains a percentage of theobromine which 
 Chemical corresponds to the stimulating properties of tea 
 Analysis, and coffee, but itfs high merit lies principally in its 
 very large proportion of nutritive substances 
 roasted cocoa beans contain an average of 49 per cent, pure 
 oil, 18 per cent, protein matter, 10 per cent, starch, and 7 
 per cent, other carbohydrates contained in a form which is 
 very palatable. In Europe and the United States, chocolate 
 is a part of the army ration as a food and of the navy ration 
 as a beverage. 
 
 The United States is today the largest cocoa consuming 
 country in the world. During 1910, more than 115,000,000 
 pounds of cocoa beans were imported into the United States 
 nearly one-third of the entire world production. The source 
 of the United States supply has been chiefly South America, 
 but during the war importations came from West Africa, 
 which now supplies one-third of the world's cocoa, having 
 surpassed Ecuador. 
 
 In 1909, there were 20,312 acres planted to cocoa in 
 Fernando Po, and the production for 1909 was 6,058,840 
 pounds, increasing steadily each year since 1905. 
 
 The island of St. Thomas produced, 1916, 629,450 bags 
 of cocao weighing 135 lb. each. 
 
 Experimental cultivation of cocoa has been in progress 
 in the Congo since 1908. Within the last few years Mayumbe 
 has become an active center of the cocoa industry. The pro- 
 
220 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 duce appears to find a ready market in Antwerp, where it 
 fetches from $272 to $370 a ton. With the northward ad- 
 vance of the Mayumbe Railway, fresh fields for this industry 
 will be opened up in the Lower Congo. At Mayumbe, climate, 
 soil, labor and transportation are favorable. Drought is the 
 great enemy of cocoa. 
 
 The rapid progress realized in cocoa cultivation 
 Future of in the last ten years augurs well for its future. 
 Cocoa. Cocoa is at present the only economic plant large- 
 ly cultivated susceptible of furnishing certain re- 
 sults under normal conditions for production; it may be con- 
 sidered a basic element of Congolese agriculture. 
 
 The cocoa plantations existing now in Mayumbe cover 
 only a part of the available soil of that region. Exploitation 
 will be easy, certain and remunerative. From 1896 to 1906, 
 cocoa exports increased from 92 kilos to 402,429 kilos. 
 
 While in 1906, the average price was 1 fr. 80 per 
 Prices, kilogram, it rose to 2 fr. 84 in 1907; on December 5, 
 
 of the same year it was 2 fr. 05. 
 
 In 1915, Belgian Congo exported 1,363,601 pounds co- 
 coa; 1916, 1,694,000; 1918, 1,505,280 pounds. 
 
 The quantity of cocoa exported from the Gold Coast 
 during 1910 is estimated at 50,692,949 pounds, valued at $4,- 
 217,389, as against 42,277,606 pounds, valued at $3,675,896, 
 in 1909. 
 
 The cocoa returns for Ashanti for 1910 show 1,914 tons, 
 as against 1,790 tons in the preceding year. 
 
 The spread of cocoa disease, which unfortunately is pre- 
 valent in the Central Province, does not seem to have damp- 
 ened the ardor of cocoa growers so far. 
 
 In 1915, Gold Coast exported cocoa to the value of $17,- 
 767,425; in 1916 72,161 tons, valued at approximately $19,- 
 000,000; in 1917, 22,373 tons, valued at $300,000. 
 
 Gold Coast exported, 1920, cocoa to the value of 10,- 
 056,298 (124,773 tons). 
 
 Cocoa constituted 62 per cent, of the exports of Gold 
 Coast in 1915. Lack of transportation during the war cur- 
 tailed the output immensely. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 221 
 
 The price of cocoa has steadily fallen, one important 
 producer stating: "The average price for the last 10 years 
 has been $13.60 per 100 pounds; and for the last five yearis 
 $11.80 per 100 pounds." 
 
 Cocoa lands are sold by area, the price varying accord- 
 ing to their estimated fertility. The very best plantations are 
 valued at $485 an acre. Each 250 acres, well planted, has 
 about 53,000 trees and should produce about 88,000 pounds 
 of cocoa. 
 
 In 1915, Nigeria exported 182,095 hundredweight cocoa, 
 valued at $1,527,663; in 1916, 179,121 hundredweight, val- 
 ued at $1,912,800. 
 
 Experiments in Nigeria resulted in an average of 5.92 
 pounds per tree per annum and an annual profit of $20 per 
 acre. 
 
 Nigeria exported 1920, cocoa to the value of 1,237,538. 
 
 In Kamarun the production of the cocoa palm and kola 
 are largely in the hands of the colored population. 
 
 Seventy-seven thousand eight hundred sixty-seven kilos 
 of cocoa beans from Madagascar were exported in 1917. 
 
 The Cape Verde Islands contain much wild cocoa and 
 considerable is cultivated, but the output could be much 
 larger. 
 
 Liberia cultivates considerable cocoa, most of which 
 comes to the United States. 
 
 The ground cocoa bean, from which part of 
 Use of Cocoa, the oil or fat has been extracted, is sold in 
 powdered form. Because of the smaller quan- 
 tity of oil, cocoa is more acceptable to many digestions than 
 the richer chocolate. 
 
 Chocolate: The ground cocoa bean, generally in cake 
 form, sweetened and unsweetened, flavored and unflavored, 
 for cooking and eating. 
 
 Powdered Chocolate: Sweetened chocolate of varying 
 styles and compositions, sold in a pulverized condition. 
 
 Milk Chocolate: A compound of milk powder and the 
 ground cocoa bean, sweetened and flavored. 
 
 Cocoa Nibs: The cracked cocoa bean, cleared of chaff, 
 shells. 
 
222 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Cocoa Butter: The fat or oil extracted from the cocoa 
 bean. It has high commercial value, and is employed in con- 
 fectionery, especially in covered candies, such as chocolate 
 creams, but a considerable quantity is used in the druggist's 
 trade in the manufacture of toilet preparations and cos- 
 metics. 
 
 Chocolate for a long time has been recognized as pos- 
 sessing high nutritive qualities in concentrated form, and it 
 is a staple part of the contents of the pack of mountain climb- 
 ers and polar explorers. The importance of chocolate and co- 
 coa for army and navy purposes was recognized by the War 
 Trade Board in laying out its policy with respect to the re- 
 striction of imports* 
 
 There is a project for a valorization committee to estab 
 lish a minimum price for cocoa and to stabilize the trade, sim- 
 ilar to the plan adopted for the valorization of coS'ee in Bra- 
 zil. Portugal, Ecuador and Brazil are the chief parties to the 
 agreement and will control over one-half of the world's output. 
 Cocoa producers are realizing a profit of 75 to 100 per cent, 
 net. 
 
 Cocoa has long been regarded as one of the fore- 
 Markets, most staples of international commerce. The 
 United States is buying twice as much as before 
 the war. In Europe, the principal markets are Hamburg, 
 Havre and London. 
 
 When shipping facilities are restored New York is like- 
 ly to be an important cocoa distributing center. 
 World's Production of Cocoa 
 
 1915 
 Countries Metric Tons 
 
 Gold Coast, Accra 76,022 
 
 Brazil 46,260 
 
 Ecuador 32,834 
 
 San Thome 29,598 
 
 Santo Domingo, Samana 23,389 
 
 Trinidad 21,808 
 
 Venezuela 12,250 
 
 Grenada 7,363 
 
 Jamaica ! 3,405 
 
 Haiti 2,028 
 
 All other Countries 28,343 
 
 Total 283,300 
 
RAW PRODUCTS o* AFRICA 223 
 
 The most remarkable shift in the cocoa trade during the 
 war, is the increase in direct importations from British West 
 Africa from 7,895 pounds in 1914 to 40,424,917 pounds in 
 1917. These importations, no doubt, included large quanti- 
 ties from Portuguese West Africa shipped via the British pos- 
 sessions. 
 
 KOLA 
 
 The kola (Cola acuminata) is a large, wide-spreading 
 tree resembling the chestnut, indigenous to several parts of 
 Africa. The fruit or seeds of this tree, known as kola nuts, 
 have only within recent years become important in world 
 commerce, but they have long been used by native African 
 tribes, who chew them for their stimulating effect, and de- 
 clare that they allay both thirst and hunger. 
 
 "To the African", says Monteuil, "the kola nut is as 
 Uses, indispensable as betel to the Hindoo, as opium to the 
 Chinaman, as cigarettes to the Spaniard, or as the dog 
 to the blind man." 
 
 Kola is commonly used as a masticatory to relieve the 
 fatigue of long journeys. A particular advantage in carry- 
 ing it is that it can be transported in very small compass. 
 
 The most important substitute is "false", "male", 
 Substitutes, or "bitter" kola (Garcinia kola), also of Afri- 
 can origin. This product is from the fruit of 
 the plant instead of from the seed. 
 
 The kola tree reaches its full growth about the tenth 
 year, when it yields from 90 to 100 pounds of nuts, and a tree 
 of good size and bearing is estimated to yield about $10 or $12 
 a year. The dark green pods, which grow in clusters, con- 
 tain from five to six to a dozen seeds or nuts. These nuts are 
 heavy, hard and tough, the surface light brown and minutely 
 granular; they have no odor but are bitter and have a slightly 
 astringent taste. 
 
 Fresh kernels are preserved entire. Dried 
 Preparations, kernels are separated in halves or quarters, 
 which are dried and put up for use. The most 
 popular form of commerce is the ground powder, which is 
 freely soluble in water, alcohol and acetone, sparingly soluble 
 in ether, but insoluble in chloroform and benzin. Protocate- 
 chuic acid is made from the powder by boiling it with dilute 
 acids. 
 
224 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 Kola trees exist wild or cultivated through- 
 Production by out tropical Africa, but most of the supply is 
 Countries. obtained from the Congo, Guinea, Nigeria, 
 
 Liberia, Dahomey. It grows in greatest per- 
 fection in the hinterland of Gold Coast and is an article of 
 great commercial importance throughout the Soudan. 
 
 In the Congo it is cultivated chiefly by the natives of the 
 lower river, but the tree is abundant through the whole cen- 
 tral region. 
 
 In all the colonies of French West Africa the kola tree 
 is indigenous, and in all the colonies the negroes consume 
 great quantities of kola nuts. 
 
 The production in Guinea is insufficient for local use, but 
 the Beyla district contains 45,000 kola trees, while Rio Pongo 
 has 90,000 trees. 
 
 In Senegal the negroes are very fond of this nut and con- 
 sume great quantities. It was once used in this colony in the 
 manufacture of tonics, but this industry has dwindled. The 
 exportation from Senegal, though not large, has steadily in- 
 creased for 75 years. 
 
 In 1897 Dakar exported 2,052 pounds. 
 
 In Nigeria, the kola nut has recently grown in importance 
 as an export. In this country kola takes the place of tea in all 
 social affairs. In Southern Nigeria, the trees are cultivated in 
 plantations by the Yorubas, Ibos and Binis, but they are sel- 
 dom seen in Northern Nigeria. 
 
 In Sierra Leone, the kola nut comes second in importance 
 of products, the oil-palm having first place. 
 
 Enormous quantities of these nuts are exported yearly 
 to Gambia and Senegal ports, but they are not largely ex- 
 ported across seas, as natives all along the coast buy most of 
 the supply that comes from Sierra Leone. 
 
 In 1912, Sierra Leone exported kola nuts to the value of 
 $1,345,595; in 1913, to the value of $1,596,063; in 1914, to 
 the value of $1,358,582; in 1915, to the amount of 2,484 tons, 
 valued at $1,500,000. 
 
 Sierra Leone exported, 1920, kola nuts valued at 626,- 
 815 (2,657 tons). 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 225 
 
 The Gold Coast, while not producing such quantities of 
 kola nuts as Sierra Leone, yet has a large area in cultivation 
 of the trees, besides thousands of wild native trees which are 
 visited regularly by the natives for their valued production. 
 There are good prospects of this country being one of the 
 foremost of kola nut producers. 
 
 The Gold Coast exported: In 1915, kola nuts to the value 
 of $677,167; in 1916, to the value of $652,000; in 1917, to 
 the value of $98,200. 
 
 Gold Coast exported, 1920, kola nuts valued at 452,245. 
 The increasing use of Coca-Kola as a refreshing 
 Outlook, beverage throughout the civilized world bids fair 
 to make this a profitable industry in Africa particu- 
 larly on account of general discontinuance of alcoholic drinks. 
 Big orchards would yield a good revenue in all the colonies 
 of West Africa. 
 
 PEANUTS, ARACHIDES, GROUNDNUTS 
 
 The origin of the peanut (Arachis hypogoea) is attrib- 
 uted bo'th to South America and Africa. Peanuts have thrived 
 many years in Africa and have become a favorite with the na- 
 tives, who eat them in great quantities. Of the world's an- 
 nual harvest of a million tons, Africa produces one-eighth. 
 Export is mostly from the French West Coast colonies. Pea- 
 nut oil and butter, in addition to food uses, are substitutes 
 for olive oil, and are used in manufacture of soap and per- 
 fumes. The residue of plants and shells make fertilizers and 
 cattle food. 
 
 By cold expression, as high as 50 per cent, of oil is ob- 
 tained; by heat a larger, but inferior product. 
 
 French colonies usually export in shells. Marseilles lists 
 10 varieties of peanuts from as many countries; exported 
 mainly after shelling, 
 
 French Wc*t Africa's peanut trade amounts to 12 to 15 
 million dollars annually. 
 
 Senegal is chief producer. Of the French export of 533,- 
 698,023 pounds ($11,559,067) in 1915, Senegal received $10,- 
 865,700. 
 
226 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Senegal uses primitive methods, scratching the land with 
 an old sword, "hilaire", and getting two tons to a hectare. A 
 plow would triple the yield. Better railroad facilities are 
 needed everywhere. 
 
 Senegal exported, 1920, peanuts to the value of 236,719,- 
 955 francs. 
 
 Soudan and Cosigo export arachides. The crop in Upper 
 Congo runs from 26 to 53 hundred quarts to the acre, worth in 
 Europe, $60 per ton. Belgium in 1907 imported 1,110,934 
 pounds ($80,800). 
 
 Rhodesia furnishes peanuts for the Salisbury soap manu- 
 factories. 
 
 Some 1500 acres are in peanuts, but the industry is in the 
 experimental stage. 
 
 Nigeria's export in 1913 was valued at $849,993; in 
 1916, $2,304,795. 
 
 Nyassaland, like all East Africa, employs the natives' 
 crude methods, with good results. Export in 1916 had a value 
 of $8,000. 
 
 German East Africa in 1911 exported 5,523,659 pounds 
 of peanuts ($116,558) ; in 1912, 13,400,254 pounds ($302,- 
 990). 
 
 Mozambique in 1912 exported a value of $458,423; in 
 1914, $253,666. 
 
 Madagascar cultivates in interior towns, some 18,000 
 acres. 
 
 Gambia's peanut crop is chief source of prosperity. Ex- 
 port in 1915 was $1,948,517; in 1916, $2,530,000. 
 
 The British on both coasts have promise of larger ex- 
 portation. 
 
 GROUND-NUTS 
 
 Peanuts are often erroneously called ground-nuts, be- 
 cause the matured nuts or seeds are obtained from the ground. 
 There is a real ground-nut, or earth nut (Bunium esculen- 
 tuni), belonging to a genus of tuberous plants with edible? 
 roots (Panax trifolium), and native of Africa. The tubers of 
 this plant resemble miniature potatoes and, being edible, the 
 ground-nut has been extensively Cultivated in tropical Af- 
 rica, where it constitutes a large item of the native diet. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 227 
 
 Specimens of these plants have been examined by the Im- 
 perial Institute, and pronounced worthy of more commercial 
 notice. 
 
 In Nigeria and Zanzibar ground-nuts are grown in abund- 
 ance, and make excellent food for humans and domestic ani- 
 mals, but they have never become important commercially 
 nor been exported to a great extent. 
 
 Gambia exported, 1920, ground nuts to the value of 2,- 
 398,444. 
 
 NUTS 
 
 Nuts are hard-shelled dry fruit or seeds, having separable 
 shells, which inclose an interior kernel or "meat", of ^excellent 
 food value. Nuts are of an infinite variety, growing mostly in 
 tropical and semi-tropical countries. Africa has an abundance 
 of nut-bearing plants. Among these are : 
 
 The almond tree (Prunus amygdalus), a native of Syria, 
 Persia and Algeria, is largely cultivated in all Mediterranean 
 countries, notably Spain, Italy, Morocco, for the kernels of its 
 seeds, which are the popular almonds of commerce. The al- 
 mond tree grows to a height of about 20 feet; has leaves sim- 
 ilar to the peach but its blossoms are much larger than peach 
 blossoms. The fruit is valuable only for its seeds, which may 
 be classed as the most popular of all small nuts, in Africa. 
 
 Morocco's export before the war of $1,523,000 fell to 
 $842,359 in 1915; $337,500 in 1916. The Canaries increased 
 from $21,000 in 1915, to $29,000 in 1916. 
 
 Morocco exported, 1920, almonds to the value of 14,946,- 
 442 francs. 
 
 Hazel nuts (Corylus avellana) grow well in all temperate 
 countries of Africa. 
 
 Brazil nuts ( Bertholletia excelsa) have been introduced 
 into Africa where they have become a favorite of the natives 
 and are raised for trade also. 
 
 Walnuts ( Juglans regia) are native of Persia and China, 
 whence they spread to temperate Europe, where they have 
 been raised since antiquity, and were later introduced into 
 northern African countries. While not so flourishing as some 
 of the other north African nuts, they have a better place 
 in the southern colonies, where they are grown for nuts and 
 timber. The butter nut of North America (JugUn* cinera) 
 has been introduced into South Africa. 
 
228 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Other North American nuts introduced into Africa are 
 the hickory nut (Carya alba and C. nigra) closely allied to the 
 walnut; the peanut (Carya glabra) ; and pecan (Carya olivae- 
 formis). 
 
 The pistachio (Pistacia vera) is a small spreading tree 
 20 to 35 feet. When grown from the seed the tree does not 
 bear fruit for six or eight years, but budded or grafted be- 
 gins to bear in two or three years. It is a native to Syria and 
 Persia, where it is cultivated, as in all Mediterranean coun- 
 tries of Europe and Africa. It succeeds best in Tunis and Sic- 
 ily, which are frost-free, with sandy soil. The fruit of this tree 
 is a drupe, valued chiefly for the kernel of its seed, which has a 
 delicate flavor. The fruit is picked at maturity and spread in 
 the shade to dry, after which the kernels are removed for ex- 
 port. The annual yield per tree is as high as 60 pounds. 
 
 Two other nuts said to have promising value in African 
 tropical countries, perhaps chiefly for their oil, are N'gore 
 nuts (Ongokea Gore), and N'kamka nuts (Heisteria). 
 
 Numerous nuts not yet made commodities of trade, are 
 to be found in tropical Africa. 
 
 Strephonema kernels are found in the Belgian Congo, 
 and contain enough fat to make them of considerable value, 
 if they are raised extensively. 
 
 The cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale) is growing in 
 popularity. This nut is native to Latin America, but is now 
 found in all tropical countries. It grows plentifully and prof- 
 itably in West and East Africa, Madagascar and other islands. 
 
 The wild tree has irregular and spreading branches, but 
 when cultivated its growth is more upright. It attains 16 to 30 
 or 40 feet; grows best in sandy soil and withstands drought, 
 but in dry countries its productions are increased by irriga- 
 tion. It bears when three or four years old but not abundant- 
 ly until eight or 10 years old. It has small rose-colored aro- 
 matic blossoms. The kernel which constitutes about 30 per 
 cent of the nut, is covered with a thin yellowish or greenish 
 grey skin ; the flesh is a clear white. The kernels have a bland 
 taste; they are eaten in the countries where the tree grows 
 and esteemed as a dessert in Europe. They are used after 
 roasting, as a constituent of nut chocolate, and have other ap- 
 plications, similar to those of the almond, in confectionery. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 229 
 
 The cashew "apple" is succulent, and is eaten as a fruit, 
 either raw or cooked, in the countries where it occurs; it can 
 also be made into a preserve. In Brazil, Portuguese East 
 Africa and some other countries, a wine is prepared from the 
 juice by fermentation, and a spirit is obtained from the wine 
 by distillation. Both the wine and the "apple" itself are con- 
 sidered to have antiscorbutic properties. The juice of the 
 rind is serviceable in keeping away ants and destructive in- 
 sects. 
 
 Cashew nuts are shipped in considerable quantities from 
 Portuguese East Africa to Europe. Only the kernels are ship- 
 ped as the oily properties of the shells make them objection- 
 able. In years that almonds are scarce the cashew nuts are 
 in greatest demand and bring the largest prices. They are 
 usually shipped in cases containing two hundredweight. In 
 1916 the prices of kernels were quoted at 55s. to 65s. per 
 hundredweight. 
 
 In 1914, Mozambique exported cashew nuts to the value 
 of $9,285; in 1916 1,148,626 pounds to the value of $6,000. 
 
 FRUITS 
 
 Africa is pre-eminently the land of fruits. Probably every 
 known variety can be found within its limits. Many fruits 
 are indigenous. Portuguese and Spaniards brought several 
 varieties from South America to the West Coast. Chinese and 
 Hindus have introduced fruits native to Asia on the East 
 Coast. Turks and Arabs have brought fruits from the Cau- 
 casus regions into northern Africa. English, French and Ger- 
 mans have introduced favorite fruits into their African col- 
 onies. 
 
 The Dominions Royal Commission, Third Interim Report, 
 London, 1914, says: 
 
 "Many parts of the provinces within the Union of both 
 Africas afford admirable opportunities for the establishment 
 of fruit farming on a considerable scale. Soil and climate alike 
 are suitable, while growers have a great advantage in that 
 their first .shipments of fruit can reach the London market two 
 or three weeks before those of growers in other parts of the 
 southern hemisphere. The industry has already assumed 
 large proportions and is giving good returns. It is being: 
 
230 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 tered by the clauses in the mail contract, which provide for a 
 special rate of freight and facilities for cold storage, with ad- 
 ditional concessions if soft fruit and citrus fruit are passed 
 by the Government inspector before shipment. 
 
 South Africa exports many peaches and other orchard 
 and stone fruits. One of the most thriving fruits is the plum. 
 Oranges, tamarinds and other citrus fruits are extensively 
 raised and have become a considerable article of export." 
 
 "Three hundred tons of South African fruit were landed 
 in Covent Gardens in April, 1919, as an experiment," ac- 
 cording to the South African of April 19, 1919, and this pa- 
 per adds: "The fruit consisted of pears, apples and melons. 
 The pears were in an unsatisfactory condition, having been 
 carried on deck, but the apples and melons were in better 
 condition, being hardier fruit." 
 
 In 1916, South Africa exported 1,406,958 pounds dried 
 and preserved fruit, valued at $133,547, and fresh fruit, val- 
 ued at $325,262. 
 
 In 1917, South Africa exported 2,631,517 pounds dried 
 and preserved fruit, valued at $239,728, and fresh fruit, val- 
 ued at $120,903. 
 
 Madagascar is rich in fruit, both native and adopted. In 
 the southern part fruits of the temperate zone thrive, and on 
 to its northernmost shores range fruits suited to warm lati- 
 tudes. Pineapples have increased in importance as an export, 
 and bananas also do well. Citrus fruits grow in a wild state. 
 Oranges and mandarins are grown in small quantities from 
 planted trees. Semi-tropical fruits, such as mangoes, figs, 
 in small quantities, papayas, pomegranates, also grow in Mad- 
 agascar, but not in a cultivated state, except at the experiment 
 stations. 
 
 Missionaries report that the African natives interpret the 
 Scriptural injunction for man to eat bread by the sweat of his 
 brow, to mean that man should eat until he sweats. 
 
 The Canary Islands supply a large portion of the Euro- 
 pean markets with bananas, 2,500,000 bunches being the av- 
 erage annual export, which go to many markets of the world. 
 Guavas, custard apples, and prickly pears are also grown in 
 great quantities, and pineapples thrive; but in these islands, 
 where drought is so common and agricultural products of all 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 231 
 
 kinds are chiefly raised by irrigation, the banana is the crop 
 most to be depended upon. This industry will probably soon 
 gain its former remunerative pre-war basis. 
 
 In 1913, the Canary Islands exported bananas to the 
 value of $6,628,057; in 1916, to the value of $2,765,000. 
 
 The Cape Verde Islands also raise great quantities of ba- 
 nanas, as well as other fruits. 
 
 In the islands of Reunion and Mauritius, a delicious man- 
 darin orange grows to perfection. 
 
 Of- orchard fruits the apple (Pyrus malus) 
 Fruits That is native to most of the cooler countries 
 
 Grow in Africa, in the northern hemisphere. Most African 
 countries are too warm for apples to flour- 
 ish, but in the southern part of the continent there are very 
 promising orchards. 
 
 The pear (Pyrus communis) is grown successfully in 
 northern Africa and in Cape Colony, where it is a favorite for 
 canning. 
 
 The quince (Pyrus cydonia) is a native of Southern Eu- 
 rope and Algeria. 
 
 Of stone fruits, the plum (Prumis domestica) is a native 
 of Caucasus and Asia Minor. Dried plums produce prunes, 
 which support a considerable industry in the uplands of South 
 Africa. 
 
 The apricot (Prumis armeniaca) is supposed to be na- 
 tive of Armenia, but was naturalized in Egypt in very early 
 times. It has spread to many other African countries, and 
 has become a favorite in Southern Africa. 
 
 The peach (Prumis persica) is believed to be native of 
 China, where it was cultivated from remote time. Peach 
 stones were carried by the old trade route to Persia about 
 300 B. C., and thence to Asia Minor, Europe^ and Africa. All 
 varieties are grown on the Mediterranean littoral and in the 
 Union of South Africa. 
 
 The cherry (Prunjis $vinra and Primus cerasus), native 
 to Europe and parts of Asia, is sparse in Africa. 
 
 The red (Ribes rubrum) an4 black current (Ribes nig- 
 rura) are not yet important fruits pf Africa, ut grow well in 
 the southern extremity. 
 
 The gooseberry (Ribes grossularia) is grown in small 
 quantities by Englishmen in South Africa. 
 
232 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 The raspberry (Rubus idaeus) and the blackberry (Ru- 
 bus fruticosus) have been introduced from Europe in north- 
 ern and southern extremities of Africa. 
 
 The strawberry (Fragaria virginiana) gives promise in 
 African countries. 
 
 The mulberry (Moms Nigra) is of very ancient origin 
 and was formerly more popular than now though it is still 
 used for food in many countries, and has been propagated in 
 Tunis, Tripoli and South Africa for silk worms. 
 
 The great family of citrous fruits thrive in Africa. The 
 most common of these, the orange (Citrus aurantium), is 
 thought to be native of China. There are many varieties, as 
 the blood orange, St. Michael's orange, sweet-skinned orange, 
 called Pomme d'Adam in France; Seville or bitter orange 
 (Citrus aurantium var. Bigaradia), introduced into Asia by 
 Arabs from India in the 9th century, and from Arabia to Eng- 
 land and Northern Africa; bergamot orange (Citrus aurant- 
 ium var. Bergamia), of which the rind is sweet and used for 
 essence and sweetmeats; mandarin, or Maltese orange (C. 
 nobilis), native of China, from which country it has spread to 
 the Azores and Africa. 
 
 The lemon (Citrus medica var. limonum) is native of In- 
 dia or China, and has been cultivated from remote time in 
 both countries, whence it has spread to Europe, Africa and 
 other countries. 
 
 Citron (Citrus medica var. Aurantiacese) is supposed to 
 have originated in Assyria and Media. It was early intro- 
 duced into Greece and other southern parts of Europe, and 
 northern Africa. 
 
 The lime (Citrus medica var. acida) is native of the 
 warm valleys of the Himalaya mountains, and its cultivation 
 is a great industry in many hot countries, notably the West 
 Indies and African islands. 
 
 There is an edible sweet lime (C. medica var. limetta), 
 which is a native of Southern India and grows well in warm 
 African countries. 
 
 The shaddock (Citrus decumana), indigenous to the Ma- 
 lay Archipelago, is the largest species of the citrus fruits, 
 sometimes weighing from 10 to 20 pounds. Grape-fruit has 
 become almost as popular as the orange and is found in va- 
 rious parts of Africa. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 233 
 
 The banana (Musa cavesidishi ) , originally discovered in 
 China, is a main staple among African natives of the tropic 
 belt where nature supplies food in abundance. 
 
 In the Congo, bananas are raised with great rapidity and 
 safety; from 6,000 to 8,000 bunches weighing from 60 to 80 
 tons, may be produced per acre. The principal fruits of the 
 Congo are the banana, pawpaw, mango, orange, lemon, sour- 
 sop, avocado pear, tamarind, pomegranate, guava, pine-apple, 
 bread fruit, and others. 
 
 The Belgian Congo exports great quantities of fresh, 
 canned and preserved fruit. In the first half of 1918 this coun- 
 vry exported 45 tons of preserved fruits. 
 
 The Cameroons can produce bananas abundantly and 
 have sent large exports of both fresh and dried bananas. 
 
 The fig (Ficus farica) is a deciduous tree said to be na- 
 tive to Asia Minor. The tree grows luxuriantly in northern 
 African countries. 
 
 The pineapple (Ananas sativus) is native to Brazil. The 
 principal pineapple producing regions of Africa are the 
 Canary Islands, Sierra Leone, Natal and Mozambique. 
 
 Among other fruits of Africa may be mentioned the man- 
 go (Mangifera indica) said to have originated in India but 
 long cultivated throughout the tropical and semi-tropical 
 world; the avocada pear (Persea gratissima), a native of 
 South America; the guava (Psidium guajava), a seedy tropi- 
 cal fruit of peculiar flavor, but much esteemed for excellent 
 jelly, preserves and a dark rich "paste" much in favor where 
 the fruit is known. 
 
 Besides so many temperate zone fruits Algeria is success- 
 ful in production of citrus fruits also, though exports in this 
 line have not become so important as orchard, stone and small 
 fruits. In 1913 there was a harvest of 250,000 quintals of 
 oranges, and both lemons and limes are grown. 
 
 In 1913, Algeria exported to France 385,613 quintals of 
 table fruits to the value of $3,052,000 ; in 1915, 36,109 metric 
 tons of fresh fruit, valued at $1,830,000 and 11,099 metric 
 tons of dried fruit, valued at $986,600 ; in 1916, 33,712 met- 
 ric tons of fresh fruit, valued at $1,826,938 and 12,712 metric 
 tons of dried fruit, valued at $1,119,000. 
 
234 RA\V PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 Tunis produces many fruits which bulk large in her ex- 
 ports, both temperate and semi-tropical fruits being success- 
 fully raised. 
 
 Morocco exports many grapes and other fruits. 
 
 Egypt produces fruits in all her fertile lands of the Nile, 
 and in the oases of upper Egypt there is a distinctive variety of 
 plum, the musch, with sweet kernels. Both the dried fruit and 
 the kernels form important articles of export. 
 
 German East Africa has nearly all the tropical fruits 
 that grow, and many of them have been cultivated to a con- 
 siderable degree. Promise of this industry is very great. Ger- 
 many has experimented much with tropical fruits, and ha"l 
 perfected a process of drying banana pulp that was palatable 
 and keepable. 
 
 In British West Africa the lime tree is to be found in 
 nearly every part, and in some places has become naturalized. 
 At present they are raised chiefly for the juice used locally, 
 but both fruit and juice are exported to the United Kingdom 
 in limited quantity. In 1913, 200 gallons of lime juice were 
 shipped from Sierra Leone. British West Africa also produces 
 many other tropical fruits. The pineapple export from Bath- 
 urst has grown to large proportions. 
 
 In Nigeria limes do so well that there is great promise of 
 an extensive trade in distilled oil of lime and citrate of lime, 
 and of the juice and fruit itself. 
 
 Many parts of Rhodesia are admirably suited for the 
 production of oranges. The orange is the fruit which is likely 
 to be most profitable, as it is eminently suitable for export in 
 quantity and ripens at a season just in time to get to the Lon- 
 don market when there is a large demand for it. Consider- 
 able success is likely to be achieved with the early apricots, 
 peaches and plums. In 1915, the Cape produced over 500 
 tons of dried apricots, which were quite as good as any pro- 
 duced in California ; the demand is still greater than the sup- 
 ply. 
 
 In Southern Rhodesia, at the close of the year 1917 there 
 were 149,429 citrus trees in orchards of all varieties, of which 
 about 54,083 were bearing. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 235 
 
 Mozambique has become a great fruit market. Oranges 
 are shipped to Europe, but only in small quantities as yet. But 
 many kinds of fruits go through the Mozambique ports and 
 tlie quantity increases yearly. 
 
 In 1916, Mozambique exported 138,788 pounds of fruit 
 through Lourenco Marques, valued at about $9,000. 
 
 In the Union of South Africa, a great part of the exports 
 go to England, but there are shipments to other countries as 
 well. Fruit shipments increased from less than 25,000 boxes 
 in 1905 to more than 200,000 boxes in 1910, and introduction 
 of modern methods has made growth even more noticeable 
 since 1910. 
 
 South Africa can grow as fine apricots, peaches and 
 plums as any country in the world. Three thousand hundred- 
 weight of oranges are shipped to England annually from 
 South Africa. 
 
 Few products give more promise in African coun- 
 Outlook. tries than fruit. Many fruits are indigenous to the 
 different regions, and many others that have been 
 introduced thrive as if in their native soil. 
 
 As fruit is one of the most widely and abundantly con- 
 sumed of all food products, it is possible for Africa to be one 
 of the greatest, if not the greatest fruit continent on earth ; 
 and modern cold-storage facilities of railroads and steamers 
 make it possible for all kinds of fruit to be shipped great 
 distances with more surety of deliverance than ever before. 
 
 DATES 
 
 Dates are from the palm (Phoenix dactylifera), which is 
 indigenous to the dry hot regions of Northern Africa, where 
 it is also abundantly cultivated, and constitutes the chief 
 food of a large proportion of native inhabitants as well as of 
 their domestic animals. 
 
 The best dates come from Algeria and Tunis, but many 
 other African countries produce this fruit in abundance. 
 
 The principal cultivation of dates, olives and figs is in 
 the hands of the natives; in Tuat-Oasen alone there are about 
 eight million date palms, which yield each year about three 
 million hundredweight. The date palm in its eighth year 
 gives half a crop, from 15 to 20 years a whole crop. 
 
236 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 In 1913, Algeria exported dates to the value of $920,- 
 417; in 1914, to the value of $388,316. 
 
 In 1916, Tunis exported 7,533,066 pounds of dates, val- 
 ued at $287,000; in 1917, 4,273,811 pounds of dates, valued 
 at $162,000. 
 
 In 1916, 2,138,598 date palms were counted in Tunis. 
 
 Tunis produced, 1920, dates to the amount of 87,520,- 
 000 .Ibs. 
 
 In the Soudan the local demand for the fruit is very 
 large, but there is still enough for exports, which go chiefly to 
 Egypt. The total annual exports amount to about 3,000 tons, 
 valued at $174,000. Soft dates brought from Algeria have 
 improved the dry date, making it softer and of better flavor. 
 Dates are subject to great fluctuations in price. 
 
 WINES AND LIQUORS 
 
 Growing grapes for wine is an industry that requires large 
 capital and a considerable period of time without profit or 
 dividend, and consequently has not established itself exten- 
 sively in Africa. From a commercial point of view, the in- 
 dustry is important in several African countries, but Algeria 
 is the special wine-producing country of this continent and 
 ranks fourth in world production. 
 
 In 1914 France produced 1,331,000,000 gallons; Italy, 
 840,000,000 gallons; Spain, 418,000,000 gallons; Algeria, 
 267,000,000 gallons; Tunis (1916) 9,914,000 gallons. 
 
 Phylloxera and other plant diseases do considerable 
 damage to the vines, and the late siroccos often reduce the 
 output. Lack of labor and shortage of barrels and bottles 
 seriously affected the output during the war. 
 
 The year 1914 may be taken as a banner year, with the 
 following total output of 267,485,500 gallons, divided as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 Algeria 172,587,141 gallons 
 
 Oran 67,454,265 " 
 
 Constantine 27,423,195 " 
 
 South Territories . 20,949 " 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 237 
 
 The vine-growing in Algeria and Tunis is confined to the 
 strip of land known as the Tell bordering the Mediterranean. 
 About 80,000 quintals of grapes are exported from Algeria 
 each year, and some raisins, though Morocco is a more prom- 
 ising field for the latter, having a better supply of water. 
 
 Tunis, 1920, produced 10,952,276 gallons of wine. 
 
 In 1901, 150,000 hectares were under cultivation by Eu- 
 ropeans in Algeria. In the year 1898, 16,800 Europeans and 
 11,700 natives were engaged in this cultivation. 
 
 Since the Koran forbids the use of wine, only the grapes 
 have been eaten by the Moors. 
 
 Algerian wine is generally heavy, has 10 to 14 per cent, 
 alcohol, but little bouquet, since the grapes ripen and ferment 
 too quickly. It is exported principally to Bordeaux where 
 it is prized as table wine. These vines grow best about 500 
 meters above sea level, and in good localities in fruitful years 
 80 to 100 hi. per hectare are produced. The white wine is 
 generally better than the red. 
 
 During the war one-third of the wine-crop of Algeria 
 was requisitioned for military purposes. 
 
 Mistelles is a product peculiar to Algeria. It is a mixture 
 of must and alcohol. The average export is 15,750,000 quarts. 
 
 Chasselas de Fontainebleau is a particularly favorite 
 wine of the Algerian coast. 
 
 The exportation of table grapes from Algeria is about 
 4,400,000 pounds. 
 
 In 1913, of Algeria's production of wine 142,905,210 gal- 
 lons went to France (including mistelles), to the value of $29,- 
 481,908, and 588,472 gallons of brandy and spirits to the val- 
 ue of $487,200. 
 
 In Algeria the yield of wine, 1920, was 157,136,452 gal- 
 lons. 
 
 Wine was introduced in South Africa by the Dutch Col- 
 onists as early as 1653, and was patronized by the govern- 
 ment. The Hermitage, a claret type, and Drakenstein, a hock 
 type, are two popular wines for export. A good deal of 
 brandy is distilled. The wine industry is almost exclusively 
 confined to the Cape Province, where there are upwards of 
 4,000 wine farmers. The annual value of the output is esti- 
 mated at 250,000 and the value of the wine converted into 
 brandy and spirits at 208,000. The export of Cape wines 
 
238 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 amounts to little more than 13,000 per annum. The census 
 figures of 1904 showed a total production of over 5,000,000 
 gallons. In 1911, the amount had increased to 7,500,000 gal- 
 lons, practically the whole of which, in the form of either 
 wine or spirits, finds a ready sale in the country. 
 
 Vineyards were started by expatriated French Hugue- 
 nots on the tablelands of South Africa, where claret, sau- 
 terne, sherry and burgundy are produced. These vineyards 
 have undergone many vicissitudes through insect pests and 
 the fluctuations of the European markets for wine, but at pres- 
 ent are gradually expanding. 
 
 In 1911, the total grape crop of the Union of South Af- 
 rica was 5,754,000 bushel baskets. From this was made 621,- 
 500 gallons of brandy and 5,468 gallons of wine. 
 
 In 1916, Union of South Africa exported 765,805 gallons 
 potable spirits, valued at $892,740, and 186,242 gallons of 
 wine, valued at $209,693. 
 
 In 1917, Union of South Africa exported 147,305 gallons 
 of potable spirits, valued at $334,722, and 346,676 gallons of 
 wine, valued at $252,664. 
 
 The value of the wine output, 1920, from Union of South 
 Africa was 204,649. 
 
 In 1914, Senegal exported 154,516 liters of wine, valued 
 at $18,500. 
 
 Mozambique exported in 1915, wine to the value of $711,- 
 981. 
 
 Reunion produces 1,100,000 gallons of rum annually. 
 
 In 1915, Mauritius exported rum to the value of $31,331. 
 
 Canary wine, for more than a hundred years a staple for 
 high livers, is rapidly dwindling. Its first set back occurred in 
 1853, when disease attacked the grapes. Now, however, un- 
 der the steady advance of prohibition, the Canaries have re- 
 placed wine, first by cochineal, but of late years more espec- 
 ially by sugar-cane. 
 
 Other fermented and alcoholic liquors have a place in 
 African commerce also, but in this continent as well as others, 
 the detriment to human beings brought about by intoxicating 
 liquors is receiving attention. Liquors are on the downward 
 trend in Africa. 
 
 Scarcity of animal energy and the risk of gasoline have 
 promoted the use of industrial alcohol as a source of power 
 in many regions. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 239 
 
 A new fluid, originating in Natal, and known as Natalite, 
 is being introduced as a substitute for gasoline in operating 
 motor cars. 
 
 GARDEN VEGETABLES 
 
 Human beings can easily subsist without meat; they can 
 not subsist without vegetables, and even the lowest savages 
 are found to cultivate a few plants for food. 
 
 Prominent among vegetables stands the white 
 Genera and or Irish potato (Solaiauni tuberosum). This 
 Specimens, tuberous plant is native to the American con- 
 tinents. Potatoes were originally sub-tropical 
 and will not stand much frost. From the Mediterranean to 
 the Cape the potato has becme a popular and thriving vege- 
 table of Africa. The Shire plateau of East Africa, Rhodesia 
 and Cape Colony produce many potatoes. 
 
 In British East Africa Irish potato growing was started 
 a few years ago and proved so successful that the supply soon 
 exceeded the demand, because the demand was practically 
 limited to the white people. 
 
 The increasing potato crop of Morocco has reduced the 
 acreage of the Canary Islands. 
 
 Potatoes are successfully grown in the northern part of 
 German West Africa. 
 
 In The Union of South Africa potatoes and all other vege- 
 tables halve become important in industry. In 1916, South 
 Africa shipped vegetables to the value of $195,804, and in 
 1917, to the value of $298,040. During 1917, 2,000 tons of 
 potatoes alone went to England. 
 
 Common vegetables of Europe which are cultivated in 
 limited quantities in Africa include, the carrot (daucus car- 
 ota); the parsnip (pastinaca sativa) ; the beet (beta vulgar- 
 is); parsley (petroselinum). Parsley is a native of Sardinia. 
 The artichoke (helianthus tuberosus), a tuber of a sunflower, 
 is quite popular in several African countries for food. 
 
 The cabbage family (brassica oleracea) ; cauliflower 
 (brassica oleracea botrytis cauliflora), and the turnip (bras- 
 sica rapa depressa). 
 
 The onion (A Ilium cepa) is cultivated throughout the 
 length and breadth of Africa, wherever it will grow. 
 
240 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) is cultivated in Afri- 
 can Mediterranean countries, from which it has found its way 
 to the southern countries and islands. 
 
 Chillies (Capsicum frutescens), or small peppers, are 
 widely cultivated in the warm countries of Africa, particular- 
 ly at Zanzibar and Guinea. 
 
 The cucumber (Cucumis sativus) is a native of Egypt, 
 where it has been cultivated for over 3,000 years. It has been 
 introduced into other countries all over the world, growing 
 best in sub-tropical climates. Vegetable marrow (Cucorbita 
 ovifera) is closely allied to the cucumber. Other popular 
 esculents belonging to the cucumber family as well, are wat- 
 ermelon (Citrullus); pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) ; squash 
 (Cucurbita maxima); bottle-gourd (Cucurbita legenaria), all 
 found in Africa. 
 
 The tomato ( Lycopersicum esculentum is native to Am- 
 erica. 
 
 The sweet potato (Ipomoea batatus) and yam (Bios- 
 corea) largely take the place of white potatoes in various 
 countries. Sweet potatoes are thickened roots of the vine, 
 Ipomoea batatus, improved by cultivation. The sweet potato 
 is popular in African countries, where it has been used by the 
 natives so long that they claim it was the first food of man. 
 Sixty thousand hectares of sweet potatoes are planted in 
 Madagascar with an average production of 240,000 tons per 
 year. 
 
 Sweet potatoes, yam and manioc are the most exten- 
 sively cultivated plants in the Congo. 
 
 Algeria, that formerly devoted large acreage to cotton, 
 has of recent years taken to early garden vegetables, so that 
 the country has become the veritable kitchen garden of the 
 mother country. Certain vegetables which are highly es- 
 teemed in France, as artichokes, tomatoes, potatoes, green 
 peas and beans, form a large item of the exports. 
 
 In 1907, Algeria exported garden vegetables to the value 
 of $1,850,000. The product and varying export through the 
 years culminated in 1917 with 27,000 acres in potatoes (2,- 
 756,000 bushels). 
 
 In the first half of 1918, Belgian Congo exported 75 tons 
 of preserved vegetables and 20 tons of potatoes and onions. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 2-11 
 
 The indigenous yam is cultivated in Dahomey and th^ 
 !vory Coast especially. The Baoules of Ivory Coast feed them- 
 selves exclusively on igname, bananas, a little rice, manioc 
 and corn. 
 
 The natives in Southwest Africa cultivate Irish potatoes, 
 tomatoes, sorrel, onions, garlic, pepper. 
 
 In Egypt and other North African countries, garden veg- 
 etables form a very important item in the yearly yield. Ir 
 1915, Egypt exported onions to the value of $1,740,433, and 
 in 1916, to the value of $1,551,206. 
 
 In Senegal, the native is the only farmer, and his methods 
 are very crude; he does not plow the land, on account of 
 superstition. As it takes white settlers a long while to per- 
 suade the blacks to overcome superstitions, agriculture in Sen- 
 egal is growing slowly. 
 
 Mozambique, besides furnishing her own population with 
 potatoes, has been able to export small quantities. In 1916, 
 this country exported through Lourenco Marques, 90,343 Ibs. 
 of potatoes, valued at about $600. 
 
 Vegetables grow well in all of the African islands, the 
 Canaries especially giving attention to this form of agricul- 
 ture. Tomatoes do exceptionally well in these islands, an acre 
 yielding about 20,000 pounds of fruit. 
 
 Bananas, tomatoes and potatoes are grown under irri- 
 gation and the yield varies little from year to year. 
 
 Onion seed is the Canarian product most interesting to 
 the United States, as almost its whole supply is raised in the 
 two islands of Teneriffe and Gomera. There are only six 
 firms engaged in the business. They engage small farmers to 
 grow seed from selected onions. In 1914, the Canaries export- 
 ed onions to the value of $123,644, and onion seeds to the val- 
 ue of $43,000. In 1916, the Canaries' onion crop amounted to 
 to $164,000; tomato crop, $415,000; potato crop, $421,000. 
 
 The tomato crop of the Canaries in 1913 amounted to $2,- 
 477,654, and the potato crop to $276,578; and in 1914, the 
 tomato crop amounted to $2,315,306, while the potato crop 
 amounted to $528,777. 
 
242 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 WOODS OF AFRICA 
 
 The area of forests in Africa is comparatively small. 
 Jungles of giant grasses cover vast stretches of this continent. 
 In the north is the great Desert of Sahara, where sand has 
 accumulated for ages and is still continuing to encroach upon 
 the forests to the southward. How to stop the desert's spread is 
 a challence to man's scientific mastery of nature. 
 
 Woods are soft or hard, those of quick growth 
 Uses and usually constituting the soft woods, and those 
 
 By-Products. of long, slow growth the hard woods. After 
 
 the trees become lumber the wood is classified 
 according to color, hardness, weight, strength, elasticity, 
 grain and durability. 
 
 The important commercial woods of Africa are: Ma- 
 hogany, cork, okume, ebony, rosewood and brier. 
 
 From various waste woods are obtained acetic acid, 
 which is largely used in producing crepes, rubber, creosote, 
 potash, tar, acetate of lime, methyl alcohol and charcoal. 
 
 In Egypt, utilization of the woody cotton-stalks is being 
 experimented with. 
 
 Liverpool, London and Glasgow were markets for Af- 
 rican mahogany before the war. Hamburg was the great mar- 
 ket for heavy mahoganies. From Hamburg the markets of 
 Scandinavia, Russia and Austria were supplied. Shipments 
 were made to the United States from Liverpool, mostly from 
 ftie Gold Coast. 
 
 Prior to the war the United States, out of total importa- 
 tions of mahogany logs of 70,914,000 feet, there were 31,177,- 
 000 feet of African stock. 
 
 Ivory Coast exported, 1920, Mahogany to value of 20,- 
 370,876 francs. 
 
 Of African timber trees, mahogany (Swietenia mahog- 
 ftni) holds an important place, and thrives throughout Equa- 
 torial Africa. 
 
 Homer Hoyt of the War Trade Board makes this com- 
 ment on African mahogany: 
 
 The natural range of African Mahogany (Khaya Senega- 
 lensis) comprises a belt fifteen degrees north of the equator 
 and twenty degrees south extending across the continent of Af- 
 rica, from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean. It grows in very 
 open stands and in desert sections is lacking, but the trees, 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 243 
 
 though scattering, are very large. Logs reaching American ports 
 are often four to five feet, squared. On account of its range 
 and size, the stand of African mahogany is probably greater 
 than the total of all other countries combined. 
 
 African wood is usually more handsomely figured than Cen- 
 tral American wood, but is of a coarser grain, and varies great- 
 ly in quality from the outside to the heart of the log. All of the 
 logs seen by me were defective at the heart and when sawn 
 were usually first split in two by the sawyer on account of their 
 size and also to box out the heartwood to best advantage. A 
 curious defect in African mahogany is a frequent breaking of the 
 wood across the heart and even extending to the outer portions. 
 Although I have not seen reports from the laboratory, the fibre 
 of African mahogany is undoubtedly shorter and the wood con- 
 siderably more brittle than Central American mahogany. 
 
 Although African mahogany is not of the same quality or 
 species as that from Central America and Cuba, it is allowed for 
 airplane stock. 
 
 The actual source of a number of mahoganies from West 
 Africa is unknown except to a few merchants who control the 
 output. 
 
 African mahogany, on account of its figure and ease of 
 working has been popular in the furniture wood market. Its 
 price is equal to that of true mahogany, and is liked by all ex- 
 cept the chair manufacturers. As labor is extremely cheap in 
 Africa the logs do not cost much to produce. The principal 
 item in cost is water freight. 
 
 Today the mahogany conies out largely by floating. This 
 makes the production of mahogany logs dependent upon floods. 
 No one can calculate how many logs will eventually reach the 
 salt water where they can be loaded on vessels. 
 Further up in Nigeria are teak plantations near Odogun 
 
 and beyond in the uninhabited region, the fringing forests, 
 with the real African mahogany, Khaya Senegalensis. 
 
 Turning back to, the railway and southeastward we find 
 the Ona River forests, part of which are reserved where ex- 
 ist mahogany, rubber and satinwood, a most valuable soft 
 wood. 
 
 The evergreen forests near Benin have proved the rich- 
 est in mahogany of any exploited thus far in Nigeria. On 
 one area of eight square miles over 1,000 large trees were got 
 out in the shape of logs in a few years. The largest mahog- 
 anies have been found here, 56 feet in girth; the age of one 
 large tree was found to be 537 years. The variety attaining 
 the largest size here is a "juju" tree. 
 
 In Nigeria the Khaya mahogany is the most prevalent. 
 Near the Ogba are found African walnuts also. 
 
 In the Ibo country, farther east, where the country is 
 much more thickly settled, all but the most inaccessible or 
 water-logged areas have been destroyed. Red ironwood is 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 the most prevalent in the Imo evergreen forest to the east. 
 An almost unbroken forest of oil palms extends from the Kwa 
 Ibo River to Bende. Here we find also the hard pearwood. 
 
 The finest mangrove forests of the whole country are in 
 the lower reaches of the Cross River. Redwood, red ironwood 
 and aligna are found further up. On the right bank of the 
 Cross River beyond the Aiya are in addition to mahogany, 
 the iroko as one of the commnest trees. 
 
 Below the eastward bend of the Cross River are the 
 Forests. Oban Hills which, at a height of 3000 feet are cov- 
 ered with trees and where the ebony is still common. 
 The tala, red ironwoocl, mahogany and aligna are also found 
 here. The natives say it is possible to walk about in this for- 
 est for three months and not come out; one path goes all 
 round it, but none go through it. 
 
 The Khaya mahogany is the most valu- 
 Important Species able. The African walnut belongs to this 
 of Trees. group. There are two varieties which 
 
 yield scented wood very similar to mahog- 
 any for which they can be substituted with the special desig- 
 nation of scented wood. Next in importance is the iroko, or 
 African teak, or rock elm, which takes the place of oak both 
 for European and native use. The ebonies are still found, 
 though most of the best trees have been cut. In spite of the 
 wanton destruction of these trees, considerable amounts exist 
 in the more inaccessible forests, especially near the Camer- 
 oon border. 
 
 Camwood is found but the best trees have been cut down. 
 Barwood and other species have largely taken its place; 
 camwood is used for dyeing purposes. 
 
 Satinwood is another valuable tree. 
 
 The shea butter tree is of the greatest value chiefly for 
 the nuts and butter, but for the timber also. This is used in 
 making mortars used in preparing food for cooking. Next in 
 importance to this is the pearwood, one of the giant trees, the 
 most cylindrical, the tallest and straightest of all. The red 
 ironwood's brilliant red leaves, in the autumn, light up the 
 whole forest; at a distance the tree seems to be in flower. 
 One of the most valuable trees locally is the opepe which is 
 very durable and termite proof; easy to work, it is used for 
 weather boards. 
 
HAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 245 
 
 a exporfced mahogany to the value of 
 
 ; in 1915, to the value of $270,000. 
 Next to mahogany the most important commercial wood 
 of Africa is cork oak (Quercus suber). This material played 
 a large part in the war, being used for life-preservers, buoys, 
 life-rafts, as a protective filler on backing battle-ship hulls. 
 
 Cork is used industrially for stoppers for 
 Uses cf Cork bottles, in making linoleum, insulators, life 
 and Substitutes, preservers, covering refrigeration pipes, 
 lining of refrigerators and ice-boxes, for 
 carburetor floats and gaskets in motors, besides the ordinary 
 uses of domestic life. 
 
 In the process of manufacture the cork bark loses about 
 70 per cent in waste, shavings, refuse, etc. Practically all, 
 however, is redeemed in the manufacture of composition cork> 
 so that no more than 5 per cent, of the crude cork is finally 
 lost. 
 
 Cork is an odorless, tasteless, resilient, buoyant sub- 
 stance, impregnable to gases and liquids, of low specific grav- 
 ity (0.215), and a non-conductor of heat, sound and electric- 
 ity. 
 
 Balsa wood, grown principally in Central and South Am- 
 erica, is largely used as a substitute for cork. 
 
 Military requirements for the United States for cork in 
 1918, were: Navy, 2,100,000 pounds; Shipping Board, 8,100,- 
 000 pounds. 
 
 Besides cork, Tunis, in 1915, exported 10,000 tons of 
 lumber, valued at $95,000. In 1916, Tunis exported 6,016,384 
 pounds' of cork, valued at $192,000; in 1917, 2,244,644 pounds 
 valued at $72,000. 
 
 In 1913, Algeria exported corkwood, valued at $2,218,- 
 535; in 1914, valued at $1,670,608; in 1915, 12,191 metric 
 tons of crude cork, valued at $828,356. 
 
 In 1915, Algeria exported 216 metric tons of worked 
 cork, valued at $135,679; in 1916, 16,226 metric tons cork, 
 valued at $1,085,046; in 1916, 785 metric tons of worked cork 
 valued at $492,536; in 1913, 5,707,900 pounds of exotic wood 
 to France, valued at $219,200. 
 
 It is estimated that Algeria has 1,112,000 acres in cork- 
 oak, with an annual average output of 50,000,000 pounds of 
 cork and an annual average export of 34,000,000 pounds; 
 while Tunis has 850,000 acres, according to later report, with 
 
246 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 an average annual output of 7,000,000 pounds of cork and an 
 export of 5,000,000 pounds. Morocco also produces consider- 
 able cork. The United States is the largest importer of cork 
 nearly 132,000,000 pounds in 1914 and 168,241,829 pounds 
 in 1917. 
 
 In the time of the Komans Tunis had great olive forests. 
 These forests were used principally for their fruit, but olive 
 wood from them, also, was much prized. In the eleventh cen- 
 tury the Arabs destroyed nearly all of the trees. Much of 
 this land has now been reclaimed. 
 
 French Equatorial Africa exported: Okoume wood, 62,- 
 395 tons valued at 2,998,000 francs, against 43,183 tons val- 
 ued at 2,103,842 francs in 1912; mahogany, 4,552 tons val- 
 ued at 601,260 francs, instead of 646 tons valued at 109,820 
 francs in 1912; ebony, 90 tons valued at 18,000 francs; moabi- 
 analogous hard woods, 53 tons, valued at 3,975 francs; coral, 
 32 tons, valued at 3,720 francs; niandji, 30 tons, valued at 
 2,100 francs; fine woods, 12 tons, valued at 1,200 francs; 
 walnut, 9 tons, valued at 675 francs. 
 
 French Equatorial Africa exports okoume wood into 
 Spain, 500 tons in 1892. Likewise to the United States in 1913, 
 3,329 tons of okoume valued at 16,800 francs against 27,720 
 francs in 1912. 
 
 Before the opening of hostilities this trade which rank- 
 ed second in the export movement of the colony and which 
 represented alone a fourth of the general exports, found its 
 most important market in Germany. Eleven thousand tons of 
 mahogany are annually shipped from French Equatorial Af- 
 rica. 
 
 Of all the woods of the French Congo, the most import- 
 ant species is the okoume which may be estimated at present 
 at from 60,000 to 70,000 tons annually. Okoume serves for 
 making cigar boxes, in German trade. The wood used thus 
 is estimated at 50,000 tons. The okoume is used also for 
 making furniture whose inside is made of ordinary okoume 
 upon which is placed valuable wood (walnut or mahogany) . 
 
 Besides okoume wood, the Hamburg trade deals also in 
 the silk cotton tree (fromager) which is used for making 
 packing cases and which appears to have given good results 
 in the making of interiors for furniture. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 247 
 
 Imports of fromager have notably increased; from 25 
 tons in 1909, statistics give 525 tons in 1910 and 2,656 tons 
 in 1911; total imports into Germany decreased in 1913 to 44 
 tons. 
 
 Exports from Gaboon to England in 1912 : Okoume wood, 
 26,923 tons, valued at 1,431,140 fr.; mahogany, 4,552 tons, 
 valued at 601,260 fr. ; oak, 90 tons; moabi and analogous 
 woods, 53 tons; coral, 32 tons; mandji, 30 tons; fine woods, 
 12 tons; walnut, 9 tons; miscellaneous woods, 70 tons. 
 
 Ebony slightly decreased in 1912; coral slightly In- 
 creased; mandji sensibly decreased; fromager which figured 
 slightly in the exports of 1912, has completely disappeared 
 from the market. 
 
 The baobab or monkey bread tree (Adansonia digitata) 
 is an enormous tree of tropical Africa and the East Indies, of- 
 ten growing to a diameter of thirty feet. It bears a gourd- 
 like fruit known as monkey-bread. 
 
 The baobad abounds in certain parts of the Congo. In 
 the lower part of the Senegal the baobab tree is found every- 
 where. The pulp of the fruit is used for food, drink and 
 medicine. Baobab was formerly exported from Senegal. From 
 1890 to 1892 154,699 pounds were exported. 
 
 In Egypt and the Egyptian Soudan, trees are 
 Production by not numerous, as there is so much desert 
 Countries. land, but there are a good many date palms. 
 
 On the plains of the Nile are to be found sy- 
 camore and acacia. Farther south, in Soudan, are acacias of 
 several species, and in the southern part of the Soudan are 
 the baobab, borassus palm, and on the higher land toward 
 the Abyssinian tableland, as well as in the foothills of the 
 equatorial plateau, are mixed forests where very good tinv, 
 ber is found. 
 
 Throughout Equatorial Africa, from the Atlantic to the 
 Indian oceans, are to be found many of the most valuable 
 woods. 
 
 In French Equatorial Africa are many species of wood. 
 Everyone of them has utility as foodstuffs, condiments, fat. 
 drinks, perfumes, aphrodisiacs, pharmacopoeia, arm and ex- 
 perimental poisons, dye, cordage, textile, mats, pirogues, car- 
 penter work, tools, pestles, mortars, various utensils, furni- 
 ture. 
 
248 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 The principal forest riches of the French West African 
 colonies are cabinet woods, gum, palm oils and almonds, co- 
 pra, textile fibers, karite, colas and rubber. Only the expensive 
 woods have so far been exported, principally mahogany. 
 
 In Sanwi the native traders of Assinia serve as agents 
 to the merchants of Liverpool, but the natives refuse to work 
 for the traders. They group themselves into villages and 
 share the forests in common, each chief having his zone of 
 exploitation. When a fine tree is found the road to it is 
 marked and the tree is identified with a charm. Then with 
 the help of his family and friends the finder cuts down the 
 tree and takes it away. It is officially reported that on one 
 occasion the whole population of a village harnessed them- 
 selves. The chief paid each man five francs and each woman 
 and child two francs 50, for dragging the log to the river: 
 he employed 100 men and 50 women--575 francs. Trans- 
 portation had cost about 350 francs. The log brought 210 
 pounds in Liverpool; net gain, therefore, was 4,325 franca 
 which was shared between the chief and the happy finder. 
 
 The Ivory Coast is the only one of these colonies which 
 does not need reforestation. 
 
 In 1912, French West Africa exported 67,217,776 pounds 
 mahogany, valued at 559,030. In 1913, 94,030,222 pounds 
 mahogany, valued at $967,474. 
 
 In both the French and Belgian Congo the palm is the 
 principal tree, but there are also mahogany, rosewood and 
 caja. 
 
 Numerous forest materials of the Belgian Congo are 
 furnished from the elongo, a yellowish wood ; eluku, kabum- 
 ba, kambaki, nombinxo, a good building wood of yellowish 
 white; makutu, of excellent quality; tjuija. 
 
 Nigeria has extensive forests, so dense that the only open 
 spaces are where farms or towns have been cleared. Beyond 
 the mangroves grow lofty forests, including palms of many 
 kinds, hardwoods of various species, mahogany, ebony, teak, 
 redwood, African cedar, plane, silk-cotton, etc. The kuka 
 or baobab stretches over great areas, and giant bamboos, 
 growing 60 and 80 feet high along flood plains of the rivers, 
 resemble forests. Mahogany logs weighing 20 tons were, be- 
 fore the war, hauled to the river beds and floated to ocean 
 steamers. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 249 
 
 Nigerian export of mahogany declined from $512,970 in 
 1913, to $240,191 in 1916. 
 
 In Southern Nigeria there is probaby an area of 40,000 
 square miles of heavy forest including the mangrove and oth- 
 er swamp forests areas; in addition probably 25,000 square 
 miles of dry zone of orchard forest. Vast areas of mangrove 
 awamp forest are on the banks of the various mouths of the 
 Niger. About ten miles from the bank of this river is the 
 Iwoye forest where mahogany is the most prevalent tree. 
 
 Near the coast of Sierra Leone there is the Peninsular 
 forest, about 5,000 acres in extent. Eighty per cent, of the 
 whole "stand" consists of red ironwood. 
 
 Besides this, there is an African violet wood, scented 
 mahogany, cedar, iroko, real African oak, pearwood, red 
 oak. Again, further north in this Protectorate, there are large 
 tracts covered with the fan-palm, which bears large fruits. 
 These contain large nuts which are used for making buttons. 
 The wood of the stem has proved most durable. 
 
 The colony of the Gold Coast includes also the Protec- 
 torate of Ashanti, and the northern territories, comprising in 
 all 120,000 square miles in extent. Thus far, most of the tim- 
 ber extraction has been done nearest the mines, such as Ta- 
 quah and the Ashanti Gold Fields Corporation, both near the 
 railway which runs up from the port of Seccondee. In fact, 
 the railway has been the chief means of exploiting some of 
 the forests. 
 
 Further west the Ankobra river has been the chief means 
 of transport. Up to the present about 5,000 square miles have 
 been set apart for plantation or timber work. There are, 
 however, between 10,000 and 15,000 square miles of forest 
 not yet placed under systematic working. 
 
 Senegal is the ante-chamber of the desert, and every tree, 
 every bush cut brings it nearer to that desert. Yet the Euro- 
 pans have denuded the region without giving thought to the 
 future. 
 
 From 1825 to 1837 inclusive, approximately 258 cubic 
 meters of wood were exported from Senegal. 
 
 In 1840 exportation included cabinet woods: Sandal- 
 Wood, 8,477 kilograms; ebony, 8,002 kilograms; cailcedra, 
 165 cubic meters. From 1865 to 1877 inclusive, 3,674 steres 
 of wood were exported from Saint Louis for fire wood, and 
 13,956 steres of charcoal, besides some building wood. 
 
250 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 From 1897 to 1899 inclusive, only two steres of fire wood 
 were exported from the whole colony. 
 
 St. Louis has no forests anywhere near it all this wood 
 comes from the river; it is brought either by barges or by 
 pirogues and comes from very far since the woods may be 
 considered as denuded from 300 kilometers all around. If 
 one considers the climatic conditions of Senegal, one may un- 
 derstand how fatal to such a region is a denudation carried 
 out without thought and without care for reproduction. The 
 neighborhood of Dakar is denuded, and the neighborhood of 
 Rufisque may be considered so. 
 
 In the Gold Coast are to be found mahogany, teak, ebony, 
 camwood, so popular for inlay in furniture, and valued at 
 $150 per ton, and bombax or silk-cotton, a magnificent tree 
 and one of the most common timber trees of this region. Its 
 soft wood is much used by the natives for their dug-outs. 
 
 In 1913, the Gold Coast exported 37,392,100 sup. feet 
 of lumber. In 1917, 1,003 tons of native timber, valued at 
 $5,000; in 1917, 11,649 tons of fire wood, valued at $14,000. 
 
 Angola has a variety of timber, one of its most conspic- 
 uous varieties being the tacula, which grows to immense size 
 and has blood-red wood, valued for manufacture. Mahogany 
 also grows well. In 1898 Angola exported wood to the value 
 of $11,000. 
 
 In East Africa acacias and giant euphorbias are found. 
 There are also forests of cotton-trees, sycamores, the spread- 
 ing banyan, the conspicuously characteristic doum palm and 
 grotesque baobab. Acacias are found everywhere below the 
 altitude of 6,000 feet; and in the upper highlands are found 
 the jumper, cypress, cocoanut, tamarinds and yews, while 
 all along the coastal marshes mangroves grow. Both Eng- 
 lish and German East Africa, before the war, were wise 
 enough to realize the value of the forests for future use and 
 had laws for protecting and extending them. The use of wood 
 has been chiefly local so far, but the commercial outlook in 
 timber is promising. 
 
 In 1911, German East Africa exported 13,569,470 pounds 
 wood and timber, valued at $122,494; in 1912, 8,464,923 
 pounds, valued at $56,099. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 251 
 
 Somaliland has vast stretches of jungles or low scrub, 
 with woodland on the crests, containing box, cedar and Som- 
 ali pine (Junipems procera). 
 
 In Mozambique the exploitation of timber is an industry 
 which has a great future. Its forests contain numerous hard 
 woods excellent for making furniture, as well as softer tim- 
 bers valued in house and other construction, and mangrove 
 swamps are numerous all along the coast. 
 
 In 1914, Mozambique exported, through Lourenco Mar- 
 ques, mangrove wood to the value of 185; in 1914, through 
 Chinde, firewood to the value of $4,320; in 1914, through 
 Mozambique, ebony to the value of $2,265; in 1914, through 
 Chinde, timber to the value of $981 ; in 1916, through Lour- 
 enco Marques, 234,997 pounds of timber, valued at $523 ; in 
 1916, through Chinde, 1,180,250 kg. of firewood, valued at 
 6,480 escudos; in 1916, through Chinde, 172,669 kg. timber, 
 valued at 1,860 escudos. 
 
 Madagascar has an enormous forest covering 25,000,000 
 acres, and much of the wood found in the large areas is hard 
 and suitable for cabinet and carriage making. In 1917, the 
 island exported 6,424,000 pounds of common timber, and 
 173,800 pounds of ebony for cabinet making. 
 
 The Canary Islands are rich in timber. Walnut trees, 
 osiers, heather trees, laurel, bracken, scrub pine, broom, ma- 
 hogany, hard white wood, cork, elm, oak, eucalyptus, plane, 
 beech, Cyprus, coral tree, stone or umbrella pine, camphor, 
 india rubber tree, wattle, pepper tree, acacia, araucaria and 
 rose apple ; also the fir, the mango and the blackberry. A large 
 part of the forests have been burned or destroyed. 
 
 Woods excellent for making furniture, as well as softer 
 timbers valued in house and other construction, and man- 
 grove swamps are numerous all along the coast. 
 
 In 1914, Mozambique exported, through Lourenco 
 Marques, $185 worth of mangrove wood; $2,265 of ebony; 
 through Chinde, firewood, $4,320; timber, $981. 
 
 In 1916 the export through Lourenco Marques was 234,- 
 997 pounds of timber valued at $523; through Chinde, 1,180,- 
 250 kg. of firewood, valued at 6,480 escudos, and 172,669 kg. 
 timber, valued at 1,860 escudos. 
 
252 RAW PRODUCTS OF A F B i c A 
 
 Mozambique produced in 1913, $78,840 worth of man- 
 grove bark, of which the United States took $30,281 worth, 
 and would yearly import the entire produce with ready trans- 
 portation, as the demands exceed the supply. 
 
 In South Africa there are 474,000 square miles, of which 
 450,000 acres are native woods. About 61,000 acres have 
 been planted with exotic trees, along coasts and mountain 
 sides. 
 
 Stinkwood used in cabinet and wagon making, is the 
 most valuable native wood. Yellowwood, used for sleepers, 
 has the tallest trees (630 feet). Sneezewood is durable. 
 Wattle, valuable for its bark, is of growing importance, as 
 mine props, posts, fuel and for distilling. Black iron wood 
 is common, strong and hard. The local boxwood is equal to 
 the turkish for turning, screwing or engraving. 
 
 The amount of wood cut during the year 1910-11 wag 
 about 14,000,000 cubic feet, and while the export of South 
 African timber does not on the average exceed 5,000 in 
 value each year, the imports of unmanufactured timber dur- 
 ing the years 1913 to 1915 averaged about 520,000, repre- 
 senting about 8,500,000 cubic feet, of which the greater pro- 
 portion was pine, much of it from the United States. 
 
 In 1913 the Union Forest Act was passed to conserve and 
 increase the forestry production. On the Cape Peninsula con- 
 ifers and eucalypti have been planted. 
 
 The furniture business has grown rapidly in the Union 
 of South Africa, and excellent work is turned out, although 
 the industry has been handicapped by scarcity of competent 
 labor. Timber seasons slowly in this country; most of the 
 wood used in furniture making is imported. 
 
 The calabash tree, from which a gourd serves as a com- 
 mon drinking cup, is abundant in Southern Africa. 
 
 In Madagascar the forests contain nearly every variety 
 of wood, and suitable for nearly all the industrial purposes. 
 Madagascar has an enormous forest covering 25,000,000 
 acres. 
 
 In 1917, the island exported 6,424,000 pounds of common 
 timber, and 173,800 pounds of ebony for cabinet making. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS or AFRICA 253 
 
 Much of Africa is in need of re-foresting in order 
 Outlook, to conserve the valuable native woods. The blight- 
 ing sands of the Sahara are encroaching upon forest 
 areas. Reclamation of savannahs by drainage, harnessing of 
 the many rivers for driving saw mills reforesting, are much 
 in need. There is great waste in cutting wood by crude native 
 methods. Everywhere in French Equatorial Africa except on 
 the Ivory Coast there is need of reforestation. 
 
 WATTLE AND OTHER TANNING BARKS 
 
 Chief among the tanning barks of Africa is wattle, with 
 mangrove a fair second, followed by oak, hemlock, willow. 
 Galls of the oak and sumac, formations on the barks of these 
 trees, are also used in this way. 
 
 Procuring, raising and preparing wattle, the bark of va- 
 rious acacia trees (Acacia longifolia) is a large African in- 
 dustry. Wattle bark is a tanning material for producing 
 heavy leathers, to which it gives a reddish tinge. The acacia 
 from which wattle is procured is native of Australia and was 
 introduced into South and West Africa within recent years, 
 but a larger amount is now produced in South Africa than 
 in Australia. Black wattle (Acacia decurrens) is best known 
 and best quality. 
 
 The seed is planted in plowed land, and in 
 Production and seven to nine years the trees are ready for 
 By-Products, cutting, when they have reached a diame- 
 ter of six or eight inches. Each tree should 
 yield 100 pounds of green bark, and average yield to the acre 
 is three to three and one-half tons of dried bark, while thin- 
 ning out of trees in the fourth year gives a further yield of 
 three-fourths ton. Five hundred dollars gross return per 
 acre is considered good. 
 
 The crude bark is crushed between moist bronze rollers, 
 boiled, purified, hardened and shipped in 100 pound bags. 
 
 After the tannin (32 per cent, is the average) is secured, 
 the pulp remaining is made into a coarse paper. Railway 
 ties and mining props, methyl alcohol and 20 kinds of dyes 
 come from wattle- A ton of the wood yields 139 pounds of 
 acetate of lime; 3.7 gallons of wood spirits; 134 pounds tar, 
 605 pounds charcoal. 
 
254 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The bark contains cellulose up to 60 per cent, Iiy 2 per 
 cent, moisture, and 8.7 per cent. ash. 
 
 London is the chief buyer, paying 9 per ton in 1906; 8 
 during the next five years; 7 in 1912, 1913 and 1914. The 
 war increased the price in 1915 to 13; 1916 and 1917 to 17. 
 
 Natal is chief producer, having in 1918, 160,000 acres; 
 Transvaal 20,000, and all South Africa 250,000 acres. 
 
 South Africa shipped in 1911, 111,205,265 pounds of 
 wattle bark, valued at $1,440,000; in 1913, 145,717,738 
 pounds, valued at $1,535,000; in 1915, 89,661,464 pounds, 
 valued at $976,000; in 1917, 100,000,000 pounds, valued at 
 $1,367,000; in 1917, 2,784,188 pounds wattle bark extract, 
 valued at $247,200. 
 
 This was practically all shipped from Durban, but a small 
 quantity went from Delagoa Bay. 
 
 Natal now has a large plant for extracting tannin, is es- 
 tablishing others, and ships it chiefly in that form. 
 
 In 1913, Mozambique produced $78,840 worth of man- 
 grove bark. Of this total, $30,281 worth went direct to the 
 United States, the total American imports from Portuguese 
 East Africa during the year. The demand for mangrove bark 
 in the United States is constantly increasing and far exceeds 
 the supply. 
 
 British East Africa has 12,000,000 acres in wattle and 
 other tanning bark trees, but as yet many of the plantations 
 are young. In 1914 there were 11,000 acres in wattle. The 
 industry is protected by the government. The prospects are 
 very promising. 
 
 German East Africa exported tanning barks in 1911, 
 4,188,998 pounds, valued at $22,816; 1912, 5,500,403 pounds, 
 valued at $23,734. 
 
 Wattle bark to the value of 986,484 was exported, 1920, 
 from Union of South Africa. 
 
 Procuring and preparing wattle is also important in An- 
 gola, Mozambique and Madagascar, although none of these 
 countries have yet had shipments of great commercial im- 
 portance. 
 
 MANGROVE 
 
 Mangrove (Rhizophora) grows on the swampy coasts of 
 all tropical countries and it is especially used in African coun- 
 tries for its bark which is rich in tannin, good bark having 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 255 
 
 over 30 per cent, of tannin. It is also shipped to tanneries 
 abroad, though not so extensively as wattle. The wood of 
 the mangrove is used for building material and posts. 
 
 Portuguese Africa had a very important export trade in 
 mangrove bark in the early part of this century, but about 
 1908 this fell off because of the reckless destruction of trees. 
 The industry is reviving, however, and conservation will pro- 
 vide for a constant yield. 
 
 In Mozambique the industry is of comparatively recent 
 introduction. In 1913 this province collected 4,000 tons of 
 mangrove bark. 
 
 In 1914, Mozambique exported through Quelimane, 
 mangrove bark to the value of $6,922 ; through Mozambique, 
 $22,080. 
 
 The one product which has been exported regularly to 
 the United States from Mozambique is mangrove bark. There 
 were 15,580 tons, valued at $931,483 invoiced at the American 
 consulate at Lorenco Marques, Portuguese East Africa, for 
 the United States during 1916, against 10,836 tons valued at 
 $489,162, for 1915. 
 
 British East Africa has vast mangrove swamps and pro- 
 duces considerable amounts of tanning bark and lumber from 
 them. In 1915-1916, besides quantities of bark, 500,000 bor- 
 ities were exported, chiefly to Arabia. 
 
 In Nigeria, Gambia and Sierra Leone, mangrove is of 
 commercial importance in all the swampy regions, the bark 
 for tanning purposes being utilized. 
 
 Along the whole coast of Rhodesia are mangrove and 
 other trees furnishing tanning bark. They rank in import- 
 ance, rhizophora, racemosa, brugiera gymnorrhiza, and ceri- 
 ops candelleanna. Only the first mangrove species has been 
 exploited. In 1907 this output amounted to 111,735 kilograms 
 of bark, valued at 870,000 reis. 
 
 In Angola, the bark of the musuemba is found in large 
 quantities and used for tanning leather. 
 
 The only tanning material produced in 
 
 Tanning Materials considerable quantity in Madagascar Is 
 
 of Madagascar. red mangrove bark. During the past 
 
 three or four years production has been 
 
256 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 declining, due to the scarcity of mangrove trees and, more re- 
 cently, to transportation difficulties. The two French naviga- 
 tion companies now serving Madagascar always find suffi- 
 cient freight of a higher class than bark, and consequently it 
 is difficult to obtain shipping space for the latter. 
 
 GUMS AND RESINS 
 
 The gums and resins of commerce are formed by the 
 thickening of saps of trees or plants, and are obtained from 
 the excision of plants or are artificially extracted. True gums 
 are soluble in water, in which they form a mucilage. They 
 are used in thickening fabrics, in mucilage, ink, medicines, 
 cordials, confections, stiffening hats, baskets. 
 
 Of African gums Copal and Gum Arabic stand foremost. 
 These products, owing to the ruthless, wasteful methods of 
 obtaining the wild supplies, are rapidly diminishing. 
 
 Resins are harder than gums and are insoluble in water, 
 They are used chiefly in medicines, varnishes and incense. 
 
 Belgian Congo exported, 1920, copal to the value of 40,- 
 305,021 francs (13,249,514 kilos). 
 
 Gum copal (Trachylobium) is a resinous substance that 
 exudes from many tropical trees. There is also a fossil copal 
 of the best quality dug from the ground where great forests 
 once existed. 
 
 When first dug, fossil copal is covered with a sandy crust, 
 usually of a reddish tint, and in order to remove this it must 
 be scraped or dissolved by a solution of soda or potash. It is 
 usually exported in the rough state and cleaned in the for- 
 eign markets. To become soluble in alcohol or turpentine, 
 copal must be melted or distilled. 
 
 Gum copal is found in almost unlimited quantities in 
 many parts of Equatorial Africa. In 1912 it could be bought 
 from natives for 2d. per pound, bringing Is a pound in Brit- 
 ish markets. 
 
 Pitman's "Common Commodities and Industries" states: 
 The principal sources of the copal of commerce are East Af- 
 rica, West Africa, the Dutch East Indies, certain islands in 
 Polynesia, New Zealand, New Caledonia and the north- 
 eastern portions of South America. 
 
KAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 257 
 
 The East African product is collected in British, Portu- 
 guese and (the late) German East Africa, and is usually sent 
 thence to Zanzibar, where it is sorted, cleaned and packed 
 for export. It is known as Zanzibar animi or copal, and va- 
 ries greatly in price, in normal times dust fetching about 30 
 per ton and fine grades over 300. The value of the exports 
 from Zanzibar reaches about 15,000 per annum. The East 
 African copals are fossil resins. They are probably the pro- 
 duct of species of Trachylobium. 
 
 The West African copals are obtained along the coastal 
 regions of West Africa, from Sierra Leone to the Portuguese 
 Congo. The finer varieties are fossil or semi-fossil. The best 
 varieties are obtained from the Congo, Angola and Ben guela ; 
 the medium qualities from Sierra Leone and Accra, and the 
 low grades from the Niger Districts. The trees which yield 
 or have yielded these types are probably Copaifera guibour- 
 tiana, Cyanaothryrsus ogea and Daniella oblonga. They are 
 of far less value than East African copal, the best qualities, 
 in normal times, being worth about 75 per ton. 
 
 Throughout the Congo forests copal trees 
 Production by abound. The gum is used principally for varn- 
 Countries. ish and is of various qualities and varieties. 
 
 Before the war practically all of the Congo's 
 large output of gum copal was marketed through brokers in 
 Antwerp. England has become the only market for this article, 
 which is one of the chief products entering into the export 
 trade of the Belgian colony. In 1906 Belgian Congo ex- 
 ported 1,911,217 pounds of gum copal, valued at $220,000- 
 
 In 1911 Belgian Congo exported 4,800,000 pounds of co- 
 pal; in 1914, 8,910,000 pounds; in 1915, 14,630,000 pounds; 
 in 1916, 15,000,000 pounds. 
 
 In Southern Nigeria a good quality of gum copal is col- 
 lected under the name of ogea gum. 
 
 In Senegal copal trees grow in certain sections, but the 
 gathering of the gum is not a very important industry of the 
 country. 
 
 In 1915 Senegal exported gums to the value of $296,- 
 317, a large proportion of which was gum copal. 
 
 A considerable amount of gum copal goes to foreign mar- 
 kets through Morocco ports. In 1913, $118,000 worth wat 
 brought in by desert caravans. 
 
258 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 In 1913, Angola exported 248 tons of copal, valued at 
 $29,377. 
 
 In Sierra Leone the export of gum copal was prohibited 
 for five years, by local order of the Council passed Septem- 
 ber 30, 1913. The gum produced in this country is so hard 
 that it is called "flint copal". On the Massewe Hills Reserve 
 an area of about 350 acres was cleared of undergrowth and 
 planted with copal producing trees. 
 
 In 1912, Sierra Leone exported gum copal to value of 
 $7,820; in 1913, $13,050; in 1914, $14,963. 
 
 In the Soudan copal is gathered by the natives. Women 
 of fantastic tastes produce wonderful coiffures with the aid 
 Df this gum. 
 
 The copal gum tree is found in Guinea and the Ivory 
 Coast especially. From 1890-1899 average exportation of gum 
 copal was 3,945,376 kilograms; largest figure was 5,909,- 
 542 kg. in 1898. 
 
 In British East Africa the commercial output of this gum 
 or resin has been greatly decreased since the war. There is 
 prospect, however, of the gum trade becoming very extensive 
 in this country. 
 
 German East Africa abounds in copal forests. In .X911, 
 German East Africa exported 210,021 pounds of gum copal, 
 valued at 25,567 marks; in 1912, 237,795 pounds, valued at 
 28,493 marks. 
 
 Zanzibar once abounded in copal-producing trees, but 
 extension of cultivation of other productions has almost anni- 
 hilated them. There is much fossil copal in Zanzibar. 
 
 In Madagascar copal gum is exported to France, where 
 it has brought as high as $80 for 220 pounds. About 300 tons 
 are exported per annum. 
 
 In 1916 Mozambique exported 6,395 pounds of gum co- 
 pal. 
 
 Myrrh (Myrrha commiphora and M. balsamea) is ob- 
 tained from a shrub of Abyssinia and Arabia, and was a char- 
 acteristic plant in the time of Herodotus. The substance so 
 named in Bible times is supposed to have been a mixture of 
 myrrh and labdanum. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 259 
 
 Myrrh is used in perfume, incense, as a tonic internally, 
 and as a cleansing agent externally. Myrrh gum makes ex- 
 cellent mucilage as it keeps unusually well ; and myrrh resin 
 is usod in varnishes. 
 
 In Somaliland the collecting of myrrh is done under of- 
 ficial sanction, by the Somali natives, who obtain the gum 
 partly from natural fissures and partly from artificial incis- 
 ions made by themselves. The crops are sent to the capital 
 of Somaliland, Berbera, and to Aden in Arabia. 
 
 Somaliland produces numerous other gums and resins, 
 which are classed under the name of bdelliums. 
 
 Frankincense or Olibanum (Pinus abies, P. balsamea and 
 Larix) is another fragrant gum obtained from small trees or 
 shrubs. Frankincense is obtained in the same localities as 
 myrrh and is similarly produced. Its uses are chiefly in me- 
 dical plasters, in perfumes, and as incense. 
 
 Camphor (Cinnamomum camphora), is a large, beauti- 
 ful evergreen tree, native of China and Eastern Asia. As a 
 conservative measure, trees are not allowed to be cut in coun- 
 tries where they are^ raised commercially until they are about 
 fifty years old. 
 
 Camphor is used in medicines, as a disinfectant, as a 
 Uses, protection against insects, in the manufacture of 
 smokeless powder, and in the manufacture of celluloid. 
 In 1915, the world's supply of camphor was estimated at 10,- 
 000,000 pounds, 70 per cent of which was used in making 
 celluloid. 
 
 Camphor is not of commercial importance in any part of 
 Africa, but several experiments have given promise of large 
 outcome, especially those in Mauritius. 
 
 Sandarack is the gummy product of several small trees 
 or large shrubs (Thuja articulata), that grow in northwestern 
 Africa. There are similar species of this resin in other parts 
 of the world, but the African product is by far the best. Its 
 chief use is as a dryer in varnishes. 
 
 In 1913, Algeria exported to France, vegetable wax, 
 gums, resins, 5218 tons, valued at $945,507. 
 
 Gum Arabic (Mimosa nilotica) occurs as an exudation 
 on the stems and branches of several species of Acacia found 
 in Africa. It is soluble in both cold and hot water. It occurs 
 in commerce as rounded lumps of a nearly white appearance. 
 
260 RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 
 
 The ash on calcination is about three per cent., consisting of 
 carbonates of calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Indian 
 gum arabic is of a dark color, and insoluble in water. 
 
 Gum Senegal is closely allied to gum arabic, being also 
 obtained from a species of Acacia (Mimosa senega!) growing 
 in Northern Africa. It is much darker in color than gum 
 arabic. 
 
 In the Soudan the best gum is collected from the gray 
 backed acacia tree, acacia Senegal, known locally as hashab, 
 A certain amount of gum is collected in the Blue Nile district, 
 and there is a fair gum trade between the Blue Nile and Abys- 
 sinia; but Kordofan is the principal seat of the gum collect- 
 ing industry. In this province the gum is transported either 
 direct to Khartoum by camels or to Goz Abu Guma and El 
 Dulime, towns on the White Nile. 
 
 The method of collecting this gum is as follows: The 
 gum exudes from the stem and branches spontaneously, and 
 the flow is usually stimulated by making incisions in the bark. 
 The exuded gum hardens on exposure to the air and is then 
 collected, dried and exported. 
 
 Exports of Soudan Gum from Egypt 
 
 Kilos Value 
 
 1885 1,146,879 97,671 
 
 1890 7,052 469 
 
 1895 149,955 5,856 
 
 1900 1,863,072 93,847 
 
 1905 8,838,483 217,132 
 
 Egyptian export of gum in 1915 was $94,441 ; 1916, $118-, 
 712. 
 
 Morocco exports annually about 100 tons. 
 The gum industry of Senegal is of comparatively recent 
 origin. In 1914 Senegal exported 3,936,347 pounds of gum 
 arabic valued at $226,000. 
 
 A fair amount of gum now reaches this market from 
 Northern Nigeria, the average annual value being about 8,- 
 000, and possibilities exist in this direction in the Gold Coast 
 Colony, Orange River Colony and various other parts of Af- 
 rica. 
 
 Gum Senegrl is also produced in Guinea. Before the war 
 German West Africa's most important export was gum ara- 
 bic, which amounted to about $4,000,000 per annum. 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 261 
 
 In 1912 French West Africa exported 7,255,526 pounds 
 of gum arable, valued at $554,162; and in 1913, 7,882,627 
 pounds, valued at $481,091. 
 
 Gum arable is a special product of countries bordering 
 the desert, hot dry winds favoring the exudation of gums and 
 resins. 
 
 Gum tragacanth (Astragalus gummifer), native to Per- 
 sia and Greece, but introduced into many other countries, is 
 largely used as a substitute for gum arabic. 
 
 As gum and resin gathering is such an important 
 Outlook, industry in Africa and the natives are so largely 
 depended upon for obtaining it, they should be 
 trained in economical methods and taught the future want 
 that will result from present waste. They should also be 
 taught to grade the gums, in order to bring about the best fi- 
 nancial returns. There is an abundance of gum in Africa 
 although the sources of petrified copal must gradualy dim- 
 inish. 
 
 Wheat Additional 
 
 In 1918, Algeria had 3,186,000 acres in wheat, which 
 produced 49,199,000 bushels. During the war Algeria was 
 one of the large sources of wheat for the Allied armies. 
 
 Some 70 or 80 modern flour mills are scattered through- 
 out Algeria, Constantine, and Oran, with a total of 6,000 
 horsepower, with 1,300 workmen . 
 
 During the war Morocco increased the acreage of her 
 wheat fields until wheat became 11 per cent, of the total ex- 
 ports in value, exporting in 1915 wheat to the value of $1, 
 143,048; in 1916 to the value of $1,400,000. 
 
 Wheat growing is encouraged in the southern and east- 
 ern parts of Belgian Congo and in other West African coun- 
 tries. Until recent years nearly all the flour used has been 
 imported. 
 
 In 1914, German East Africa exported wheat flour 
 through Lorenco Marques to the value of $1,314. 
 
 In 1915, Mozambique exported wheat to the value of 
 $219,646. 
 
 The wheat output of Rhodesia for 1916 was valued at 
 $4,500,000; the flour output of Rhodesia for 1916 was valued 
 at $2,500,000. 
 
262 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Animal Products 17 
 
 Wool 18 
 
 Mohair 22 
 
 Hides and Skins 25 
 
 Outlook for Hides and Skins 5 
 
 Meats 34 
 
 Horses and Mules , 40 
 
 Dairy Products 42 
 
 Poultry and Eggs 45 
 
 Beeswax and Honey 48 
 
 Silk 51 
 
 Ostrich Feathers 53 
 
 Ivory , 56 
 
 Sponges 61 
 
 Coral and Shells 63 
 
 Fish , 69 
 
 Big Game 75 
 
 Mineral Products 83 
 
 Gold 84 
 
 Diamonds 89 
 
 Copper 96 
 
 Tin 101 
 
 Iron 106 
 
 Manganese 109 
 
 Chromium Ill 
 
 Silver 112 
 
 Zinc 113 
 
 Lead 115 
 
 Coal 116 
 
 Mica 120 
 
 Asbestos 122 
 
 Graphite 124 
 
 Petroleum 126 
 
 Phosphates 129 
 
 Potash 131 
 
 Salt 131 
 
 Soda 133 
 
 Natron 133 
 
 Limestone 134 
 
 Marble 135 
 
 Gypsum , , 135 
 
RAW PRODUCTS OF AFRICA 263 
 
 Talc 136 
 
 Chalk 136 
 
 Other Precious Stones 136 
 
 Minerals of Minor Production 137 
 
 Antimony 138 
 
 Vegetable Products 141 
 
 Vegetable Oils 142 
 
 Outlook for Palm Products 6 
 
 Olive Oil 147 
 
 Cocoanut Oil Copra 150 
 
 Castor Oil 152 
 
 Sesame 153 
 
 Other Oils 153 
 
 Shea Nuts 155 
 
 Manioc, Cassava 156 
 
 Barley 158 
 
 Millet 159 
 
 Durra 161 
 
 Oats 161 
 
 Wheat 162-261 
 
 Wheat Additional 261 
 
 Rye 165 
 
 Maize or Mealies 165 
 
 Rice 170 
 
 Cotton 174 
 
 Outlook for Cotton 6 
 
 Sisal 180 
 
 Esparto 182 
 
 Tobacco 187 
 
 Vanilla and other Essences 189 
 
 Vegetable Perfumes 191 
 
 Rubber 192 
 
 Outlook for Rubber 5 
 
 Spices 195 
 
 Cloves 197 
 
 Ginger 198 
 
 Herbs 200 
 
 Dyes 201 
 
 Drugs 205 
 
 Sugar 208 
 
 Beans 210 
 
 Peas 213 
 
 Coffee . . 215 
 
264 RAW PRODUCTS OP AFRICA 
 
 Tea 217 
 
 Cocoa 218 
 
 Outlook for Cocoa 6 
 
 Kola 223 
 
 Peanuts Arachides 225 
 
 Ground Nuts 226 
 
 Nuts 227 
 
 Fruits 229 
 
 Dates 235 
 
 Wines and Liquors 236 
 
 Garden Vegetables 239 
 
 Woods of Africa 242 
 
 Wattle and other Tanning Barks 253 
 
 Gums and Resins ., .256 
 
TC 3V284 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY